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£564

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PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

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EDINBURGH.

VOL. III.

DECEMBER 1850 tro APRIL 1857.

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY.
MDCCCLVII.

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ij ga Ach as Zi

CONTENTS.

Description and Analysis of Gurolite, a new Mineral Species. By
Dr T. Anderson, - i - F -
On the Constitution of Bebeerine. By Dr A. Von Planta, :
On the Vibrations of Plane-Polarised Light. By W. J. Macquorn
Rankine, Esq., 5 : - j :
On the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Esq. Note as to the Dynamical Equivalent of Temperature in
Liquid Water, and the Specific Heat of Atmospheric Air and
Steam, ‘ . ° ; : : :
Notice of a Roman Practitioner’s Medicine Stamp, found near Tra-
nent. By Professor Simpson, : . . :
Astronomical Notices. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, . .
Farther Observations on Glaciers.—(1.) Observations on the Move-
ment of the Mer de Glace down to 1850. (2.) Observations by
- Balmat, in continuation of those detailed in the Fourteenth Let-
ter. (3.) On the gradual passage of Ice into the Fluid State.
By Professor J. D. Forbes, « : 3 5 3
Notice of a Tertiary Fossiliferous Deposit, underlying Basalt, on
the Island of Mull. By the Duke of Argyll, . F
Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Baden-Baden. By Dr Sheridan
Muspratt, . : : : . 2 :
Traces of an Ethnic Connection between the Basin of the Ganges
and the Indian Archipelago, before the Advance of the Hindus
into India; and a Comparison of the Languages of the Indo-
Pacific Islanders with the Tibeto-Indian, Tibeto-Burmese, Te-
lugu-Tamulian, Tartar-Japanese, and American Languages,
Note on the recent frequent occurrence of the Lunar Rainbow. B
George Buchanan, Esq., ° ; é : .
On some new Marine Animals, discovered during a cruise among
the Hebrides with Robert Macandrew, Esq., of Liverpool, in
_ 1850. By Professors Edward Forbes and J. Goodsir. Commu-
nicated by Professor Goodsir, . : : °
Account of Experiments on the Thermotic Effect of the Compres-
sion of Air, with some practical applications. By Professor C.
Piazzi Smyth, . : ‘ . : ;
Theoretical Investigations into the same by W. Petrie, Esq. Com-
munieated by Professor ©. Piazzi Smyth, : a
Lo

Page 1
2

21
22

lv CONTENTS.

Biographical Notice of the late Robert Stevenson, Esq., Civil Engi-
neer. By his Son, Alan Stevenson, LL.B. Communicated by
Dr T.S. Traill,

Historical Notice of the Progress of the Ordnance Survey i in Scot-
land. By Alexander Keith Johnston, Esq., .

On Iron and its Alloys. Part I. By J.D. Morries Stirling, Esq., "9

On the Weight of Aqueous Vapour, condensed on a Cold Surface,
under given conditions. By James Dalmahoy, Esq., .

On the Poison of the Cobra da Capello. By Dr J. Rutherford Rus-
sell. Communicated by Dr Gregory,

On a New Source of Caprice Acid, with Remarks on some of its
Salts. By Mr T. H. Rowney. Communicated by Dr Anderson,
On Iron and its Alloys. Part II. By J. D. Morries Stirling, Esq. 5
On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with Numerical Results deduced
from Mr Joule’s Equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Reg-
nault’s Observations on Steam, By William Thomson, M.A.,
Fellow of St Peter’s College, Cambridge, and Professor of Na-

tural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow,

On the Geology of the Eildon Hills. By Professor J. D. Forbes,

On certain Salts of Comenic Acid. By Mr Henry How. Com-
municated by Dr Anderson,

On the Crystallization of Bicarbonate of Ammonia in " Spherical
Masses. By Dr G. Wilson, .

On the Compressibility of Water. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Esq., C.E., .

On the Economy of Single-Acting Expansive Steam- Engines, and
Expansive Machines generally; being Supplements to a Paper
on the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W. J. M. Rankine, Esq.,
C.E., ;

On the Products of the Destructive Distillation of Animal Sub-
stances. Part II. By Dr Anderson,

On Carmufellic Acid. By Dr Sheridan Muspratt and Mr Danson,

Farther Remarks on the Intermitting Brine Springs of Kissingen.
By Professor Forbes,

On a Method of Discovering Experimentally the Relation between
the Mechanical Work spent and the Heat produced by the Com-
pression of a Gaseous Fluid. By Professor William Thomson,

On the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851, observed at Gote-
borg; with a description of a new Position Micrometer. By
William Swan, Esq.,

On the Total Solar Eclipse of J uly 28, "1851, as seen on n the west
coast of Norway. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, .

On the Nature of the Red Prominences observed during a Total
Solar Eclipse. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth,

Notice of some of the recent Astronomical Discoveries of Mr Liae-
sell. By Dr Traill, .

On the Centrifugal Theory of Elasticity and its connection with
the Theory of Heat. By W.J. Macquorn Rankine, Esq., C.E.,

On the Computation of the Specific Heat of Liquid Water, at vari-

30

31
43

43
44

45
46

48
53

’ 4

CONTENTS.

ous Temperatures, from the experiments of M, Regnault. By
W. J. Macquorn Rankine, . “ : ; ;
On the Quantities of Mechanical Energy contained in a Fluid Mass,
in different states, as to Temperature and Density. By Profes-
sor William Thomson, - ; “ ;
On a Mechanical Theory of Thermo-Electric Currents. By Pro-
fessor William Thomson; . ; . ‘
On the Absolute Intensity of Interfering Light. By Professor
Stokes. Communicated by Professor Kelland, F ‘
On Meconic Acid, and some of its Derivatives. By Mr Henry
How. Communicated by Dr T. Anderson, F ‘
On the Place of the Poles of the Atmosphere. By Professor C.
Piazzi Smyth, : ; : - A 5
Defence of the Doctrine of Vital Affinity, against the Objections
_stated to it by Humboldt and Dr Daubeny. By Dr Alison,
On the Fatty Acid of the Cocculus indicus. By Mr William
Crowder, Communicated by Dr Anderson, a .
On the Function of the Spleen and other Lymphatic Glands, as
originators of the Corpuscular Constituents of the Blood. By
Dr Bennett, : ; 2 ,
On the Mechanical action of Radiant Heat or Light: On the
Power of Animated Creatures over Matter: On the Sources
available to Man for the production of Mechanical Effect. By
Professor William Thomson, é : B ,
On some Improvements in the Instruments of Nautical Astronomy.
By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, : ; ; :
Notice of an Antique Marble Bust. By Andrew Coventry, Esq.,
Note on a Method of procuring very rapid Photographs. By John
Stewart, Esq., ‘ . A 5 - ‘
On some Salts and Products of Decomposition of Pyromeconic Acid.
By Mr James F. Brown, Communicated by Dr Anderson,
On the Organs in which Lead accumulates in the Horse, in cases
of slow poisoning by that Metal. By Dr George Wilson, -
Notice regarding the occurrence of Pumice in the Island of Tyree.
_ By the Duke of Argyll, < . . : 7
Recent Observations on the direction of the Strie on Rocks and
Boulders. By James Smith, Esq., - : . 3
On the Analysis of some Scottish Minerals. By Dr A. J. Scott,
H.E.LCS., . : ; : 3 «
On a Necessary Correction in the Height of the Barometer depend-
ing on the Forceof the Wind. By Captain Henry James, R.E,
Communicated by Professor Piazzi Smyth, . . .
Some Observations on the Charr (Salmo umbla), relating chiefly to
its Generation and Early Stage of Life. By John Davy, M.D.,
F.R.SS. Lond. & Edinb., Inspector-General of Army Hospitals,
On a Modification of the Process for the determination of Nitrogen
in Organic Compounds. By Alexander Kemp, Esq., .
An Account of some Experiments on the Diet of Prisoners. By
Professor Christison, . , : . t
Researches on some of the Crystalline Constituents of Opium. By
Dr Thomas Anderson, 7 °

101
105

107

107

108

114
115

116
117
119
120
121

122

124

125
126
130

132

vi CONTENTS.

On the Red Prominences seen during Total Eclipses of the Sun.
Part I. By William Swan, F.R.S.E.,

On the Red Prominences seen during Total Eclipses of the Sun.
Part II. By William Swan, F.R.S.E., .

On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechani-
cal Energy. By Professor William Thomson,

On Rifle Cannon. By Captain Davidson, Bombay Army. Com-
municated by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth,

On two New Processes for the detection of Fluorine when accom-
panied by Silica, and on the presence of Fluorine in Granite,
Trap, and other Igneous Rocks, and in the Ashes of Recent and
Fossil Plants. By Dr George Wilson, -

On a supposed Meteoric Stone, alleged to have fallen i in Hamp-
shire in September 1852. By Dr George Wilson, .

On the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland, and parts of England. By
Robert Chambers, Esq., :

On the supposed occurrence of Works of “Art i in the Older Deposits.
By James Smith, Esq. of Jordanhill,

On the Optical Phenomena and Crystallization of tr anemalints Ti
tanium, and Quartz, within Mica, Amethyst, and Topaz, By
Sir David Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Edin.,

On the Absolute Zero of the Perfect Gas Thermometer; being a
Note to a Paper on the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W. J.
Macquorn Rankine, Esq., .

On a Simplification of the Instruments employed in Geographical
Astronomy. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth,

On a Mechanical Action of Heat, Section VI. :—A Review of the
Fundamental Principles of the Mechanical Theory of Heat;
with remarks on the Thermic Phenomena of Currents of Elastic
Fluids, as illustrating those principles. By W. J. Macquorn
Rankine, Esq., : : -

On the Structural Characters of Rocks. “Part I. By Dr Fleming,

Observations on the Speculations of the late Dr Brown, and of
other recent Metaphysicians, regarding the exercise of the Senses.
By Dr Alison, -

On the Summation of a Compound Series, and its application to a
Problem in Probabilities. By the Right Rev. Bishop Terrot,
On the Species of Fossil Diatomacea found in the Infusorial Earth

of Mull. By Professor Gregory,

On the Production of Crystalline Structure in Crystallized Powders
by Compression and Traction. By Sir David Brewster, K.H.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E.,

On the Structure atid Economy of Tethea, pndiik on an undescribed
species from the Spitzbergen Seas. By Professor Goodsir,

On Circular Crystals. By Sir David Brewster, K.H., D.C.L.,
F.RS., V.P.R.S.E., Associate of the Institute of France,

On Nitric Acid as a source of the Nitrogen found in Plants. By
Dr George Wilson,

Observations on the Amount, Increase, and Distribution of Crime i in
Scotland. By George Makgill, Esq. of Kemback,

135
136
139

142

143
147
148

158
158

160

161

162
169
170
178

176

178
181
183
189

190

a

CONTENTS. vii

Notice of recent Measures of the Ring of Saturn. By Profesor C.

Piazzi Smyth, - 192
Chemical Notices. By Professor Gregory, f sv 198
Observations on the Structural Character of Rocks. Part II. By

Dr Fleming, . 197
Some Observations on Fish, in | relation to Diet. By Dr John

Davy, . : - 197
Remarks on the Torbanehill Mineral. ‘By Dr Trail, Pines ti
Notice of the Blind Animals which inhabit the Mammoth Cave of
- Kentucky. By James Wilson, Esq., 200

Additional observations on the Diatomaceous Earth of Mull, with
a notice of several New Species occurring in it, and Remarks on
the value of Generic and Specific Characters in the Classification
of the Diatomacee. By William Gregory, M.D., Professor of

Chemistry, 204
On the Physical appearance of the Comet 3, of 1853. By Professor
C. Piazzi Smyth, . 207

On the supposed Sea-Snake cast on shore in the Orkneys i in 1808,
and the Animal seen from H.M.S. Dedalus in 1848, By Dr

Traill, ‘ 208
Further Researches on “the Crystalline C Constituents of Opium. ‘By

Dr Thomas Anderson, * : eis216
What is Coal? By Dr Fleming, : 216

Observations on the Structure of the Torbanehill Mineral, as com-
pared with various kinds of Coal. By Professor Bennett, sen ory

Account of the Proceedings of the Conference held at Brussels in
August and September 1856, for establishing a uniform system of
Meteorological Observations in the Vessels of all Nations, and of
the arrangements proposed to be made for conducting the results

. of the Observations taken on Land with those taken at Sea. By
Captain H. James, R.E., F.R.S., &c. Communicated by James

Wilson, Esq., 2 218
On certain Vegetable Organisms found i in Coal from Fordel. By
Professor Balfour, 218

On the Impregnation of the Ova of the ‘Salmonides. By J ohn Davy)
M.D., F.R.SS. Lond. & Edin., at 2 Kap St of Army Hos-

pitals, 219
Account of a remarkable Meteor seen on 30th September 1853. ‘By

William Swan, Esq., 220
On the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

C.E., F.R.SS. Lond. & Edin., 223
On the Total Invisibility of Red to certain Colour-Blind Eyes.

By Dr George Wilson, ° . 226
On the Romaic Ballads. By Professor ‘Blackie, » 0927
On a New Hygrometer, or Dew-Point Instrument. By Professor

Connell, . 228
On the Stability of the ‘Tnstruments of the Royal Observatory. By

Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, 229

On a General Method of effecting the substitution of Iodine for Hy-
drogen in Organic Compounds, and on the properties of Iodo-

vili CONTENTS.

Pyromeconic Acid. By Mr James Brown, Assistant to Dr Thomas

Anderson, . 235
On the Products of Bederoctive. Distillation of Animal Substances,

Part III. By Dr Thomas Anderson, 238
Notice of the Completion of the Time-Ball Apparatus. By Pro-

fessor C. Piazzi Smyth, . 238
On a Black Tertiary Deposit, containing the Exuvie of Diatoms,

from Glen Shira. By Dr Gregory, 241
Additional Note to a Paper on the Structure of Coal, and the Tor-

banehill Mineral, By Dr Bennett, 241
On the Mechanical Energies of the Solar System. By Professor

William Thomson, 241
Further Researches on the Crystalline Constituents of Opium. By

Dr Thomas Anderson, : 244

On the Action of the Halogen Compounds of Ethyl and Amyl on
some Vegetable Alkaloids. By Mr Henry How, Assistant to Pro-
fessor Anderson of Glasgow, 244

On the Mechanical Value of a Cubic Mile of Sunlight, ‘and on the
possible density of the Luminiferous Medium. cdi Professor W.
Thomson, . 253

Account of Experimental Investigations to answer questions origi
nating in the Mechanical Theory of Thermo-Electric Currents.

By Professor W. Thomson, 255

Dynamical Theory of Heat, Part VI. “continued. A Mechanical
Theory of Thermo-electric Currents in Crystalline Solids. By
Professor W. Thomson, r ee 5,

On the Structure of Diatomacee. By E. W. Dallas, Heag., ‘pag BOG

Farther Experiments and Remarks on the Measurement of Heights
by the Boiling Point of Water. By Professor J. D. Forbes, 261

On the Chemical Equivalents of Certain Bodies, and the Relations
between Oxygen and Azote. By Professor Low, 5 263

Some Observations on the Salmonide. By John Davy, M. aa
F.R.SS., Lond. and Edin., Inspector-General of Army Hos-
pitals, ‘ : : wy 67

On the Structural Character of Bocks. Part II1., embracing re-
marks on the Stratified Traps of the neighbourhood of Edinburgh.

By Dr Fleming, : 268

Notes on some of the Buddhist Opus and Monuments of Asia,
compared with the Symbols on the Ancient Sculptured ‘‘ Stand-

ing Stones” of Scotland. By Thomas A. Wise, M.D., = prea
Note on the extent of our knowledge respecting the Moon’s Sur-

face. By Professor C, Piazzi Smyth, -) 244
On the Interest strictly Chargeable for Short Periods of ‘Time. By

the Rey. Professor Kelland, 274

Some additional Experiments on the Ethers and Amides of Me-
conic and Comenic Acids. By Henry How, Esq. Communicated
by Dr Anderson, . 277
On a Revision of the Gatalosua of Stars of the Batch ates
By Captain W. 8. Jacob, H.E.I.C., Astronomer at Madras. Com-
municated by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, : : win hee

CONTENTS. ix

Notice of Ancient Moraines in the Parishes of Strachur and Kilmun,
Argyleshire. By Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E., -
On the Properties of the Ordeal Bean of Old Calabar, Western
Africa. By Dr Christison, . ‘ 4 :
Experiments on the Blood, showing the effects of a few Therapeutic

Agents on that Fluid in a state of Health and of Disease. By
James Stark, M.D., F.R.C.P., ‘ ‘ . ‘
Extracts from a Letter from E. Blackwell, Esq., containing Obser-

vations on the movement of Glaciers of Chamouni in Winter.
Communicated by Professor Forbes, . 3 : ‘a
On the Mechanical Action of Heat :—Supplement to the first Six
Sections and Section Seventh. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Esq., C.E., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edin., ; F ,
On an Inaceuracy (having its greatest value about 1”) in the usual
method of computing the Moon’s Parallax. By Edward Sang,

279
280

282
283

287

Esq., ‘ 4 3 F : : .
On Annelid Tracks in the Exploration of the Millstone Grits in
the South-west of the County of Clare. By Robert Hark-
ness, Esq., F.R.S.E., F.G:S., Professor of Geology, Queen’s
College, Cork, ? 3 ‘ , § 4
On Superposition. By Professor Kelland, ‘ : :
On the Colouring Matter of the Rottlera tinctoria. By Thomas
Anderson, M.D., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Glasgow, 3 P : : : :
Experiments on Colour as perceived by the Eye, with Remarks on
Colour-Blindness. By James Clerk Maxwell, Esq., B.A., Tri-
nity College, Cambridge. Communicated by Professor Gre-

296

gory, ; . , . ‘ - 2
Notice of the Occurrence of British newer Pliocene Shells in the
Arctic Seas, and of Tertiary Plants in Greenland. In a letter
from Dr Scoular of Dublin. Communicated by James Smith,
Esq., of Jordanhill, . 7 ; . : :
Account of Experiments to ascertain the amount of Prof. Wm.
Thomson’s “ Solar Refraction.” By Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, 302
On the Extent to which the Theory of Vision requires us to regard
the Eye as a Camera Obscura. By Dr George Wilson, »- 803
Researches on the Amides of the Fatty Acids. By Thomas H.
Rowney, Ph.D., Assistant to Dr Anderson. Communicated by Dr
Anderson, . 2 ; ° P * .
Notice of Some new Forms of British Fresh- Water Diatomacee.
By William Gregory, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry, 306
On Glacial Phenomena in Peebles and Selkirk Shires. By Robert
Chambers, Esq., F.R.S.E., \ : - .
Preliminary Notice on the Decompositions of the Platinum Salts of
the Organic Alkalies, By Thomas Anderson, M.D., Regius
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow, . 309
On the Volatile Bases produced by Destructive Distillation of Cin-
chonine. By C. Greville Williams, Assistant to Professor An-
derson, Glasgow University, : ; .

299

308

314

B- CONTENTS.

Remarks on the Coal plant termed Stigmaria. By the Rev. Dr
Fleming, .

On Errors caused by Imperfect Taversion of the Magnet i in Obser-
vations of Magnetic Declination. By William Swan, Esq.,

On the Accuracy attainable by means of Multiplied Observations.
By Edward Sang, Esq.,

On the Occurrences of the Plague in Scotland during the Sixteenth
and Seventeenth Centuries. By Robert Chambers, Esq.,

On a Problem in Combinations. By Professor Kelland,

Occurrence of Native Iron in Liberia, in Africa. From a Letter of
Dr A. A. Hayes, Chemist, Boston, U.S., to Professor HD
Rogers. Communicated by Dr Gregory,

Geological Notes on Banffshire. By R. Chambers, Esq., PRS. E.,

On the Physical Geography of the Old Red Sandstone Sea of the
Central District of Scotland. By Henry Clifton Sorby, F.G.S.
Communicated by Professor Balfour, .

Remarks by Professor Christison in delivering the Keith Medal to
Dr Anderson of Glasgow,

Geometry a Science purely Experimental. By Edward Sang, Esq: ‘5

Notice respecting recent Discoveries on the Adjustment of the Eye
to Distinct Vision. By Professor Goodsir,

Memoir of Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin. By ‘Sir John
Richardson, C.B. Communicated by Professor Balfour,

On the Geological Relations of the Secondary and Primary Rocks
of the Chain of Mont Blane. By Professor Forbes,

On the Turkish Weights and Measures. By Edward Sang,
Esq., «

Observations on 1 Poly yommatus Artasortes, the Scotch Arena, By
Dr W. H. Lowe, E :
On Solar Light, with a Description of : a Simple Photometer. By
Mungo Ponton, Esq., -
On Certain Cases of Binocular Vision. " By Professor William B.

Rogers, Communicated by Professor Kelland,

Theory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic Bodies.
Part I. By Edward Sang, Esq., :

Observations on the Diatomaceous Sand of Glenshira. Part Il.
Containing an Account of a number of additional Undescribed
Species. By William Gregory, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh,

Theory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic Bodies.
Part Il. By Edward Sang, Esq.,

An Account of some Experiments en certain ‘Sea: Weeds of an
Edible kind. By John Davy, M.D., F.R.SS., Lond. and Edin.,

On the Deflection of the Planilame at otiveate Seat, and on tie
Mean Density of the Earth. By Lieutenant-Colonel James, R.E.
Communicated by Professor Forbes,

On the Possibility of Combining two or more Jndapendeut Proba-
bilities of the same Event, so as to form one Definite Probability.
By Bishop Terrot,

On Atmospheric Manoscopy, or on the direct Determination of the

316
318
319
326
326

327
332
334

337
341

343
347
348
349
349

355

366

——_ soo eee
t

CONTENTS.

Weight of a given bulk of Air with reference to Meteorological
Phenomena in general, and to the Etiology of esha: Diseases.
By Dr Seller,

Researches on Chinoline and its Homologues, By ©. Greville
Williams. Communicated by Dr T. Anderson,

On Fermat’s Theorem. By H. Fox Talbot, Esq., F.R. S.,

On the Transmission of the Actinic Rays of Light through the Eye,
and their relation to the Yellow Spot of the Retina. By George
Wilson, M.D.,

xi

On the Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of Carbon |

and Hydrogen. By William Swan, Esq., .

On the Laws of Structure of the more disturbed Zones of the
Earth’s Crust. By Professor H. D, Rogers, of the United States,

On a Property of Numbers. By Balfour Stewart, Esq. Commu-
nicated by Professor Kelland,

Analysis of Craigleith Sandstone. By Thomas Bloxam, Esq. i As-
sistant-Chemist, Industrial Museum, with a cae Note by
Professor George Wilson, .

Opening Address, Session 1856-57. By Bishop Terrot,

On the Minute Structure of the Involuntary Muscular Tissue. By
Joseph Lister, Esq., F.R.C.S., Eng. and Edin, Communicated
by Dr Christison, ‘ 3

On the Ovum and Young Fish of the Salmonide. By William
Ayrton, Esq. Communicated by Professor Allman,

Notice of the Vendace of Derwentwater, Oninbesland, in a Letter
addressed to Sir William Jardine, Bart., by John Davy, M.D.,
On the Races of the Western Coast of Africa, By Colonel Luke
Smyth O'Conner, ©.B., Governor of the Gambia. Communicated

by Professor Kelland,

Some Remarks on the Literature and Philosophy of the Chinese.
By the Rey. Dr Robert Lee,

Observations on the Crinoidea, showing their connection with other
branches of the Echinodermata. By Fort-Major Thomas Austin,
F.G.S. Communicated by Professor Balfour,

On the application of the Theory of Probabilities to the question of
the Combination of Testimonies. By Professor Boole, Commu-
nicated by Bishop Terrot,

On New Species of Marine Diatomacer from the Firth of Clyde
and Loch Fine. By Professor Gregory. (lustrated by nume-
rous drawings, and by enlarged figures, all drawn by Dr Greville,

Short Verbal Notice of a simple and direct method of Computing
the Logarithm of a Number. By Edward Sang, Esq.,

On the Urinary Secretion of Fishes, with some remarks on this se-
cretion in other classes of animals. By John Davy, M.D.,
F.R.SS., London and Edinburgh, .-

On the Reproductive Economy of Moths and Bees ; ‘being a an
Account of the Results of Von Siebold’s Recent Researches in
Parthenogenesis. By Professor Goodsir, .

On the Principles of the Stereoscope, and on a new mode of exhi-
biting Stereoscopic Pictures, By Dr W. Macdonald,

454 -

455

xil CONTENTS.

On the Crania of the Kaffirs and Hottentots, and the Physical and
Moral Characteristics of these Races. By Dr Black, F.GS.,
On a Roche Moutonnée on the summit of the range of hills sepa-
rating Loch Fine and Loch Awe. In a Letter from the Duke

of Argyll to Professor Forbes,

On M. J. Nicklés’ claim to be the Discoverer ee Fluorine in the
Blood. By George Wilson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor
of Technology in the University of Edinburgh,

On the Functions of the Pad Cord. By Professor Hughes Ben-
nett,

On the Delta of the Irrawaddy. By fae Login, C, E. , Pegu. Com-
municated by William Swan, Esq., . :

Notice of a Collection of Maps. By A. K. Johnston, Esq. =

Notice respecting Father Secchi’s Statical Barometer, and on the
Origin of the Cathetometer. By Professor Forbes,

History of an Anencephalic Child. By Dr Simpson,

On certain Laws observed in the Mutual Action of Sulphuric Acid
and Water. By Balfour Stewart, Esq. Communicated br Dr
G,. Wilson, .

On the Structure of Pedicellina. By Professor Allman, :

On a Case of Lateral Refraction in the Island of Teneriffe. sf
Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, .

On Insect Vision and Blind Insects. By Andrew Murray, Esq.,

On the Mode in which Light acts on the Ultimate Nervous Struc-
tures of the Eye, and on the relations between Simple and Com-
pound Eyes. By Professor Goodsir,

On the recently discovered Glacial Phenomena of Arthur’s Seat and
Salisbury Crags. By Robert Chambers. Esq ,

On a Dynamical Top, for exhibiting the Phenomena of the Motion
of a System of invariable form about a Fixed Point ; with some
suggestions as to the Earth’s Motion. By Professor Clerk Max-
well, ;

On the true Signification of certain Reproductive ‘Phenomena i in the
Polyzoa. By Dr Allman, .

On the Destructive Distillation of Animal Matters. Part TV; By

- Dr Anderson, Glasgow, ’

Analysis of Specimens of Ancient British, of Red Indian, and of
Roman Pottery. By Murray Thomson, :

Theory of Linear Vibrations. Part VI. Alligated Vibrations.
By Edward Sang, Esq., ; ‘ : P

456

505
505

507

IN G.A.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. III. 1850-51. No. 40.

SIXTY-EIGHTH SESSION.
Monday, 2d December 1850.

Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

I. Description and Analysis of Gurolite, a new Mineral
Species. By Dr T. Anderson.

The mineral described and analysed by the author was found at
Stow, in Skye, where it occurs associated with apophyllite, stilbite,
and other zeolitic minerals. It is found principally in a compact
basalt, different from that in which these minerals are most abun-
dant, and which appears to have been produced by a different eruption
of basaltic matter.

Gurolite occurs in the form of radiated crystalline masses with a
fine lustre. It cleaves readily parallel to the plates of which the
concretions are composed, and its hardness is about 3. Before the
blow-pipe alone it swells up, loses water, and finally fuses with some
difficulty into an opaque glass. Its analysis leads to the chemical
formula 2 (Ca O Si O,)+3 HO.

The author referred to the relations which this mineral bears to
the other silicates of lime, of which three are already known, the
names and formule of which are as follows :—

VOL. ITI. A

2

Wollastonite (tabular spar), 2 CaO 3 Si O,.
Kalk-trisilicat of Gjellebiick, CaO SiO,.
Gurolite, 3 : . 2(CaO Si O,)+3 Ho.
Dysclasite, . : . 8Ca04Si 0, +6 Ho.

It thus appears that gurolite is the same silicate of lime as the
kalk-trisilicat, in union with water, and that its relation with
dysclasite is such that two equivalents of gurolite differ from one of
dysclasite by a single equivalent of lime only,

2. On the Constitution of Bebeerine. By Dr A. Von Planta.

The author commenced his paper by referring to the analyses of
Maclagan and Tilley, which gave for the composition of bebeerine a
formula precisely the same as that of morphia, but as that formula
appeared to require confirmation, he had undertaken the careful re-
investigation of bebeerine.

In the commencement of his experiments he had employed the
same process for the purification of bebeerine as that recommended
by Dr Maclagan. Te soon ascertained, however, that in this way
it was impossible to obtain it in a state of absolute purity, as even
when every care had been taken, it always retained a small quantity
of a substance resembling tannine, which caused it slowly to gain
weight in the process of drying the water bath. After several trials
he found the following process to yield pure bebeerine :—The sub-
stance already partially purified by Maclagan’s process was dissolved
in acetic acid, and mixed with a solution of acetate of lead and
caustic potash gradually added: as long as a precipitate of bebeerine
mixed with oxide of lead was obtained. The precipitate was then
washed and dried and extracted with absolute ether, and the filtered
ethereal solution distilled. A syrupy residue was obtained, which
was dissolved in absolute alcohol, and mixed with a large quantity
of water.

Bebeerine so prepared is a perfectly colourless and inodorous
powder persistent in the air and highly electrical. It fuses at 356°
into a colourless glassy mass. The quantity employed for analysis
was from two different preparations, and gave the following
results :—

3

I Il. Ill.

Carbon, " . 73°06 72°85 72°82
Hydrogen, . . 6:80 6:99 6°89
Nitrogen, ; . 4:53 4°53 4:53
Oxygen, f . 1561 15°63 15°76

100:00 100-00 100-00
Results which correspond with the formula C,, H,, NO,

Mean. Calculation.
x 25 id
Carbon, . 72-91 73°31 G 228
Hydrogen, . 6°89 6°75 Be. 21
Nitrogen, . 4°53 4°50 N 14
Oxygen, . 15°67 15°44 O, 48
100-00 100-00 292

The mean of four closely agreeing analyses of this platinum
compound gave the following results, which fully confirm this
formula :—

Mean. Calculation.

ee
Carbon, . 44-09 44-06 ae 228
Hydrogen, 4-46 4°25 H,, 22
Nitrogen, 2°71 2-70 N 14
Oxygen, 9°30 0, 48
Chlorine, 20-59 Cl, 106-5
Platinum, 18-90 19-08 Pt 98-7

100-00 517-2

_ From these analyses the author concludes that there can be no
doubt that the constitution of bebeerine is represented by the
formula C,, H,, NO,.

3. On the Vibrations of Plane-Polarised Light. By W. J.
Macquorn Rankine, Esq.

If the plane of polarisation is normal to the direction of vibration,
according to the conjecture of Fresnel, which seems to be supported
by the phenomena of reflexion, the velocity of propagation of light

in a crystalline medium is a function of the direction of vibration,
a2

4

[f,on the contrary, the plane of polarisation is parallel tothe direction
of vibration, the velocity of propagation is a function of the position
of the plane which ineludes the direction of vibration, and the direc-
tion of transmission.

If the velocity of polarised light in a crystalline substance depends
on the elasticity of the luminiferous medium alone, the latter view
must be adopted, and Fresnel’s supposition rejected ; for a wave of
light is a wave of distortion; and the rigidity, or elasticity which
resists distortion, is, in all conceivable media, a function of the posi-
tion of the plane of distortion, being the same for all directions of
distortion in a given plane.

But the experiments of Mr Stokes on diffracted light (Cambr.
Trans., Vol. ix., Part 1) prove that Fresnel’s conjecture is correct,
the plane of polarisation being normal to the direction of vibration :
therefore the propagation of light in crystalline media does not de-
pend on elasticity alone.

The author of this paper supposes, according to the hypothesis of
molecular vortices (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. xx., Part 1), that
the medium which transmits light and radiant heat consists of the
nuclet of the atoms of matter, of very small mass, but exerting in-
tense mutual forces, vibrating almost independently of the atmo-
spheres which surround them. Each nucleus, however, carries along
with it in its oscillations a small portion of atmosphere, which acts
as a load, retarding the velocity of propagation. In the celestial
space, this load is insensible, and it is, generally speaking, greater,
the more dense the substance. In crystalline media, the atmosphere
of each nucleus is distributed round it symmetrically with respect to
three axes, but not equally in all directions; so that the load upon
the nucleus, and consequently the velocity of propagation, is a func-
tion of the direction of vibration, as conjectured by Fresnel.

The author further shews, that according to this hypothesis, if the
range of variation of the velocity of propagation of luminiferous trans-
verse vibrations is small (as it is in all known media), that velocity
must vary sensibly as the reciprocal of the diameter of an ellipsoid,
drawn parallel to the direction of vibration. It is well known that
this law is the foundation of the whole of Fresnel’s theory of double
refraction.

4. On the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W.J. Macquorn
Rankine, Esq. Note as to the Dynamical Equivalent of
Temperature in Liquid Water, and the Specific Heat of
Atmospheric Air and Steam.

In the author’s paper on the Mechanical Action of Heat (Trans.
Roy. Soc, Edin., Vol. xx., Part 1), the calculations depending on
the dynamical equivalent of temperature in liquid water were founded
on the experiments of De la Roche and Bérard on the ratio of the
apparent specific heat of atmospheric air under constant pressure to
that of water. The equivalent thus obtained was about one-tenth
part less than Mr Joule’s.. Since then, the author, having become
acquainted with the details of Mr Joule’s experiments, has come to
the conclusion that Mr Joule’s equivalent is correct to about $5 of
its amount, and that the discrepancy in question originates chiefly
in the experiments of De la Roche and Bérard. The calculations
requiring correction from this circumstance are contained in the se-
cond and third sections of the above-mentioned paper, articles 14
and 20, equations 28, 34, and 36. * The following is a summary of
the corrected results :—

Dynamical specific heat of liquid water, as determined by Mr
Joule from experiments on friction (Phil. Trans., 1850)—

Métres. Feet.
Per centigrade degree, . 423°54 1389-6
Per degree of Fahrenheit, . . . - - 772

Specific heat of atmospheric air, that of liquid water being taken
as unity—

Bath Kc x iperit ‘osteo dl Zosrent sagtay way es QAM
Apparent, under constant pressure, . . . . 0°2404
(The same, according to De la Roche and Bérard, 0:2669)

Dynamical specific heat of steam—

Métres per Feet per Ft. per deg.
Centig. degree. Centig. degree. of Fahr.
OS Ey CES a eee 269-35 149°64

Apparent, under constant pressure, 129°18 422°83 235°46

Ratio of those two specific heats, 1 : 1:57.

6

Specific heats of steam, that of liquid water being taken as unity—

Real, 0-194 ; apparent, at constant pressure, 0°305.

The calculations and tables relative to the working of the steam-
engine require no correction ; as the discrepancy in question has no
effect on the computation of the action of the steam at full pressure,
and no effect appreciable in practice on that of its expansive action.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected Ordinary
Fellows :—

Dr R. D. THoMson, Glasgow.
Dr MORTIMER GLOVER, Newcastle.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Essai de Phytostatique appliqué a Ja Chaine du Jura et aux Con-
trées Voisines, par M. Thurmann. 2 Tom. 8vo.— By the Author.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Pro-
fessors Silliman and Dana. Vol. TX., No. 26.; Vol. X.,
Nos. 28 & 29. 8vo.— By the Editors.

Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Vol. V.,
No. 1; Vol. IV., No. 12. 8vo.—By the Lyceum.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Edited by the Secretaries.
Nos. 207 & 212. 8vo.— By the Society.

Memorie della R. Academia delle Scienze di Torino. Serie 24,
Tom. X, 4to.— By the Academy.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XIII., Part 2.
8v0.—By the Society.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. V., No.
44. 8vo.—By the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Society. 1849. Nos. 73 & 74. 8v0.—
By the Society.

Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. N. S.
Vol. 1V., Part 1. 4to—By the Academy.

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. X., No. 7.
8vo.— By the Society.

Q. Journal of the Chemical Society. No.10. 8vo.—By the Society.

7

Report of the 19th Meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. 1849. 8vo.—By the Publisher.
Scientific Researches, Experimental and 'T heoretical, in Electricity,
Magnetism, Galvanism, Electro-Magnetism, and Electro-Che-

mistry. By William Sturgeon. 4to.—By the Author.

Journal of Agriculture and Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. Nos. 29 & 30, N. S. 1850.
8v0.— By the Society.

Astronomical, Magnetical, and Meteorological Observations made at
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 1848. 4to.—From the
Observatory.

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, published by the Medico-Chirurgi-
cal Society of London. Vol. XXXIII. 8vo.—By the Society.

An Enquiry into M. Antoine d’ Abadie’s Journey to Kaffa, to discover
the Source of the Nile. By C.T.Beke. 8v0.—By the Author.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen “Reichenstalt.
1850. No.1. Jan. Feb. Marz. 8vo.—By the Institute.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1800.
Part 1. 4to.—By the Society.

- Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Wien. 1848-50. 8vo.—By the Academy.

Case of Catalepsy, with Remarks. By James Stark, M.D. 8vo.

Two Cases of Rupture of the Crucial Ligaments of the Knee-Joint.
By James Stark, M.D. 8vo.—By the Author.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Jreland.
Vol. XIL., Part 2. 8vo.— By the Society.

La Thermacrose, ou Ja Coloration Calorifique, par M. Melloni.
8vo.— By the Author.

On the Pelorosaurus ; an undescribed gigantic terrestrial reptile
whose remains are associated with those of the Iguanodon, &c.
On a Dorsal Dermal Spine of the Hylaeosaurus, recently
discovered in the Strata of Tilgate Forest, Sussex. By G. A.
Mantell, LL.D. 4to—By the Author.

Supplementary Observations on the Structure of the Belemnite and
Belemnostenthis. By G. A. Mantell, LL.D. 4to.—By the
Author.

8

Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. Oct. 1850, No. 11.
8v0.— By the Society.

Collection of French Admiralty Charts.—By the F rench Government.

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 1849-50.
Vol. IIT., No. 2. 8v0.—By the Society.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1847,
No. 8. 1848, Nos. 1&2. 8vo.—By the Society.

Flora Batava. Parts 163 and 164. 4to.—By the King of Holland.

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. XX.,
Part 1. 8vo.— By the Society.

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. 3™° Serie. Tom. XIII. 8vo.
— By the Society.

Gelehrte Anzeigen. herausg. von Mitgliedern der K. Bayerischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Bde. 28 & 29. 4to.— By the
Academy.

Det K. Danske Videnskab. Selskabs Skrifter. Femte Rekke. Na-
turvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling. 1 Bd. 4to.—
By the Society.

Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Edin-
burgh, by the late T. Henderson, Esq. Vol. IX. 1843. 4to.—
From the Observatory.

Results of the Observations made by Rev. F. Fallows, at the R,
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in the years 1829, 1830,
1831. Reduced under the superintendence of G. B. Airy, Esq.
4to.—By the Editor.

Abhandlungen iiber das Wesen der Imponderabilien, von L. Ph.
Wiippermann. 1" Theil, 1¢ Abtheil. 8vo.—By the Author.

Abhandlungen der Philosophisch-Philologischen Classe der K. Bayer-
ischen Akad. der Wissenschaften. Bd. 5. Abtheil. 3. 4to.

Abhandlungen der Mathematish-Physikalischen Classe der K. Bayer-
ischen Akad. der Wissenschaften. Bd. 5. Abtheil. 3. 4to.—
By the Academy.

Ueber den Antheil der Pharmacie an der Entwicklung der Chemie,
von Dr Ludwig A. Buchner jun. 4to.—By the Author,
Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Tom. IV., Livraisons

3&4. 4to.— By the Museum.

Monday, 16th December 1850.
Sir D. BREWSTER, K.H., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Notice of a Roman Practitioner’s Medicine Stamp, found
near Tranent. By Professor Simpson.

At several of the stations throughout Western Europe that were
formerly occupied by the colonists and soldiers of Rome, small
engraved stones have been found, the inscriptions upon which shew
them to have been used as medicine stamps by the Roman doctors
who, many centuries ago, practised in these localities.

These medicine stones or stamps all agree in their general charac-
ters. They commonly consist of small quadrilateral or oblong pieces
of a greenish-coloured steatite, engraved with a legend on one or more
of their edges or borders. The inscriptions or legends are in small
capital Roman letters, cut intagliate and retrograde, and consequently
reading on the stone itself from right to left, but making an im-
pression, when stamped upon wax or any other similarly plastic ma-
terial, which reads from left to right.

The inscriptions themselves generally contain, and have engraved
on each separate side, first the name of the medical practitioner to
whom the stamp pertained, then the name of some special medicine
or medical formula out of Galen, Scribonius Largus, or some of the
more popular medical authorities of those times ; and, lastly, the
name of the disease or diseases for which that medicine was pre-
scribed.

In almost all, if not all, of the Roman medicine stamps bitherto
discovered, the medicines mentioned on them are drugs for affections
of the eye, and the diseases, when specified, are always ophthalmic
diseases.

Above fifty such Roman medicine or oculist stamps have now
been discovered on the continent of Europe, at stations occupied of
old by the colonists and soldiers of Rome, and particularly in France,
Germany, and Holland. Only two have been detected in Italy.
About ten or twelve have been discovered among the old Roman sta-

10

tions in England. One was, some years ago, found amid a quan-
tity of broken tiles, brick, and other debris of an old (and probably
Roman) house near to the church of Tranent, and consequently not
far from the old and extensive Roman town or station of Inveresk.
This Roman medicine stamp, now deposited in the Scottish Anti-
quarian Museum, is remarkable both as being thus found on almost
the very frontier of the ancient Roman Empire, and as being one of
the most perfect yet discovered.

The stone is of the figure of a parallelogram about an inch and
a-half in length, and a quarter of an inch in thickness, and with in-
seriptions cut upon two of its sides. The two inscriptions read as
follows when we separate the individual words composing them from
each other :-—

1. L, VALLATINI EVODES AD CI-
CATRICES ET ASPRITUDIN

2. L. VALLATINI APALOCRO-
CODES AD DIATHESIS

When the elisions and contractions which exist in these (as in
almost all other Roman inscriptions) are supplied, the two legends
may be read as follows :—

1. Lucit VALLATINI EVODES AD CICATRICES ET ASPeRITUDINes.—
The Evodes of Lucius Vallatinus for cicatrices and granulctions.

Several of the collyria described in the works of Galen, Celsus,
Aetius, &c., and inscribed on the oculist-stamps, derived their de-
signation from some special physical character. The present in-
stance is an example in point, the appellation Evodes (éuaide¢) being
derived from the pleasant odour (é£, well, and Zw, I smell) of the
composition. Marcellus, in his work ‘* De Medicamentis,” specially
praises the collyrium known under the name of Evodes; and that
too in the class of eye diseases mentioned on the Tranent seal.
For, in his collection of remedies for removing ulcers, cicatrices, We.,
of the eyes and eyelids, he recommends (to use his own words)
“* preecipue hoc quod quidam Diasmyrnon, nonnulli Evodes, quia boni
odoris est, nominant.’”? And he directs the Evodes to be dissolved
and diluted in water, and introduced into the eyes with a probe, or
after inverting the eyelid, when it was used with the view of ex-
tenuating recent cicatrices of the eyes, and removing granulations of

11

the eyelids,— “‘ ex aqua autem ad cicatrices recentes extenuendas,
et palpebrarum asperitudinem tollendam teri debet, et subjecto spe-
cillo aut inversa palpebra, oculis inseri.” *

Scribonius Largus had previously described, in nearly the same
words, the collyrium,—* quod quidam évddeg vocant,”’ and its uses
in recent cicatrices and granulations, &e. Both these authors give
the same recipe for the composition of the Evodes,—viz., pompholyx,
burnt copper, saffron, myrrh, opium, and other ingredients, rubbed
down in Chian wine. Its agreeable odour was probably owing to a
considerable quantity of spikenard being used in its composition.}
Galen gives two other collyria, of a different composition, and for
other affections, as known at his time- under the same name of
Evodes,—the one termed the ‘* Evodes of Zosimus,” the other the
*‘ diasmyrnon Evodes of Syneros.”’ {

2. L. VALLATINI APALOCROCODES AD DIATHESIS.—The mild Cro-
codes of L. Vallatinus, for affections of the eyes.

The term diathesis in this inscription is used in a different sense
from that in which we now employ the same word in modern medi-
cine. At the present day, we apply the term diathesis to designate
‘the tendency or predisposition to some special disease, or class of
diseases. In the times of the Roman physicians, it was often used
as synonymous with disease itself; and in the Latin translations of
the Greek texts of Galen, Aetius, &c., it is hence rendered usually
by the general word “ affectus,’ “ affectio,’ &c. The first sen-
tence in Paulus Agineta’s chapter on Ophthalmic Diseases, affords
an instance in point: ‘* Quum dolores vehementiores in oculis fiunt,
considera ex quarum affectione (d:aéecer) oculum dolere contingit.” §
Thus, also, the Hvodes of Zosimus (to which I have before alluded)
is entered by Galen as a remedy simply against “ dolores et recentes
affectus,” according to the Latin translation of Kuehn,—* pg megs
duviag xas sgooparous diabeoec,’’ according to the original Greek text.
Galen uses in fact diathesis asa general term for eye diseases. ‘ Scripsi

* Medice Artis Principes, p. 273.

+ Medicw Artis Principes: Scribonii Largi de Compositiong Medicamento-
rum Liber. Comp. xxvi., p. 198.

} Galeni Opera Omnia. (Kuehn’s Edit.) Vol. xii., p. 753 and 774.

§ Cornarius’ Latin Translation in Principes Med. Artis, p. 432.

12

omnia quze necesse est Medicum de oculorum affectibus (d:adecewv)
nosse.”” * In the inscription on the seal,—diathesis stands instead of
the common Roman accusative diathesEs, or the Greek accusative
diathesE1s.

The collyrium mentioned in the prescription (the Crocodes) de-
rives its designation from its containing the crocus, or saffron, as one
of its principal ingredients.

In describing the therapeutic effects of the crocus, Dioscorides
mentions as its first special use—its efficacy in “‘ fluxions of the
eyes.”"+

Pliny, in enumerating the qualities of the crocus, begins by ob-
serving, that it has a discutient effect upon all inflammations, but
chiefly on those of the eyes (discutit inflammationes omnes quidem,
sed oculorum maxime) ; and in speaking of its combinations he tells
us that it has given a name to one collyrium (collyrio uno etiam
nomen dedit).{ But it entered into the composition of very many
of the ancient eye medicines, and more than one of these passed
under the name of Crocodes, as in the inscription on the seal. Galen,
in his list of eye remedies, gives a recipe for the composition of a
Crocades collyrium for epiphoree, pains and affections (é:adeceic) from
wounds of the eye.§ He discusses the composition also of the aro-
matic Crocodes of Heraclides, and the oxydercic Crocodes of Ascle-
pius, &c.|| When describing, in another part, the remedies for ulcers
of the eyes, he mentions a collyrium containing crocus, and adds,
‘‘habet autem plurimum in se crocum, unde etiam croceum (xgoxwde¢)
appellatur.”"|

Celsus, Alexander Trallianus, and Paulus Asgineta, give recipes
for eye collyria, under the name of diacrocus (és xgoxog).**

We have not yet alluded to the expression APALO, standing before
Crocodes. This expression presents the only difficulty in reading

* Kuehn’s Kdit. of Galen, xii., p. 699.

t P. Dioscoridis Opera que extant Omnia. (Edit. Saraceni., 1698.) P. 21,
lib, i., cap. xxv.

} Naturalis Historia. Leyden edit. of 1635. Vol. ii., p. 473.

§ Opera a Kuehn. Tom. xii., p. 770. || Ibid. Pp. 785 and 773.

q Ibid. P. 718.

%** See Milligen’s Celsus, p. 295; Principes Artis Medicz, p. 170 of Part II.
and p. 432 of Part III. Our own Pharmacopeias long retained similar terms.
The London Pharmacopeia, for example, for 1662, contains an electuary termed
Diacrocuma, an emplastrum Oxycrocum, &c.

13

the inscription; and various suggestions might be offered in regard
to its explanation. But it seems most probable that it was used as a
qualifying term to the Crocodes. Several of the collyria have the
Latin adjective *lene,’”’ and ‘leve,’’ placed before them, in order to
certify their mild nature. Scribonius Largus gives a whole division
of collyria, headed “ Collyria composita levia.” Aetius has a chap-
ter, “ De Lenibus Collyriis.” The expression apalo, as a part and
prefix to Crocodes, would seem to indicate the same quality in the
crocodes vended, of old, to the Roman colonists and inhabitants of
the Lothians, by Vallatinus of Tranent, the term being in all likeli-
hood derived from the Greek adjective amados, or the corresponding
Latin adjective apalus (mild, soft). Homer frequently uses the word
as signifying soft, delicate, and especially as applied to different parts
of the body (See Iliad, book iii. 371; xvii. 123, &c.); and, indeed,
both Aetius and Paulus Agineta employ the Greek adjective thera-
peutically in the sense of mild, and as applied to collyria. In the
treatment of acute inflammatory ulcers of the eye, after inculeating
the usual antiphlogistic treatment, Aetius adds, “ collyria vero tenera
(awaAc) ulcerato oculo infundantur.”* When speaking of carbuncles
and carcinoma of the eye, Paulus Agineta observes that the affection
may be alleviated “ by the injection of soothing (tenera, aad) col-
lyria, such as the Spodiacum, Severianum, and the like.”’t

Other Roman medicine stamps with analogous oculist legends and
collyria have, in England, been found at Colchester, Bath, Wroxeter,
Cirencester, Kenchester, Littleborough, St Albans, &c. &c.

2. Astronomical Notices. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

These Notices were chiefly derived from the ordinary correspond-
ence of the Royal Observatory of Edinburgh, from the important
character of some of which Professor P. Smyth hoped that extracts
from the best of the letters might be of interest to the Society.

He alluded first to the astronomers of the United States, a large
and increasing body, of no mean order of excellence already, and of
the richest promise. Professor Loomis’ recent work, which was ex-
hibited, gives sufficient facts to prove the above statements.

* Cornarius’ Latin edit. of Aetius, 1549, p. 371; and Venice Greek edit., p.126.
t Dr Adams’ Sydenham Society edition, Vol. i., p. 419; and the Basle Greek
edition, p. 76.

14

Dr Locke's pamphlet on his electric observing clock was also
shewn ; and mention was made of the discovery of the third ring of
Saturn, a faint ring interior to the older ones, about one-fourth of
their united breadth, but apparently thicker.

The period of the new Bond and Lassel satellite of Saturn,
Hyperion, was given at 21:18 sidereal days.

Attention was called to a map of the solar eclipse of July 28,
1851, sent from the Vienna Observatory, and the great importance
of having the phenomenon extensively observed was pointed out.*

The periods of the new planets, Victoria and Egeria, were given,
as well as their places for the month, together with hats: of Faye’s
comet, expected on its return to perihelion.

The successful manufacture of telescopes in this country, especially
of reflecting ones, was then spoken of, and the attempt that had been
made, but unhappily without success, by some scientific societies and
private individuals to persuade Government to establish one of these
instruments in some more favourable climate than that of the
British Islands.

It appears that we can make at home far better reflectors than
any other nation, but cannot use them on account of clouds ; but we
possess colonies nearer the equator with almost cloudless skies, and
with high mountains, or table lands, on which the telescopes might be
raised above all the grosser part of the atmosphere, and some of
our astronomers are most anxious to go out in charge of such instru-
ments, confident of the rich results which they must yield under such
favourable circumstances,—but yet the Government refuses to do
anything.

3. Farther Observations on Glaciers,—(1.) Observations on the
Movement of the Mer de Glace down to 1850. (2.) Obser-
vations by Balmat, in continuation of those detailed in the
Fourteenth Letter. (3.) On the gradual passage of Ice
into the Fluid State. By Professor J. D. Forbes.

“It will be recollected that a remarkable stone called ‘ La pierre
platte,’ was one of the earliest points on the Mer de Glace at Cha-

* The line of central obscuration passes nearly through the cities of Gotten-
burg and Dantzic, and both are included within the limits of complete eclipse.

15

mouni whose position was ascertained by me in 1842. Its daily
motion was watched by me during that summer, and its annual
motion was ascertained by renewed observations in 1843, 1844,
1846, and again this year. I measured the distance along the ice
from the original position of the ‘ Pierre platte’ on the 27th June
1842 (ascertained by reference to fixed marks on the rocks) to its
position on the 12th July 1850, and found it to be 2520 feet. But,
of this distance, 1212 feet had been travelled at my previous obser-
vation on the 21st July 1846, leaving 1308 feet during the last
four years against 1212 in the first four. When more accurately
stated and compared, the mean annual and daily motions will stand
as follows :—

1842-3. 1843-4. 1834-6. 1846-50.
Daily motion, in INCHEs, 9°47 8-56 10°65 10°81
Annual motion, in FEET, 288°3 260-4 23°38 328°8

We cannot infer, with absolute certainty, that the slight increase of
velocity here noticed since 1844 is due to a change in the conditions
of the glacier (although I believe that the recurrence of several snowy
seasons and the very marked increase of the volume and extent of
the glacier during these years would produce such an effect), because
it has moved nearly half-a-mile from its position when first observed,
and the part of the glacier on which it now lies may be subject to
different accelerating and retarding causes.

“ Tt is mentioned in my Thirteenth Letter on Glaciers in Profes-
sor Jaméson’s Journal, that I marked a fine solitary block towards
the centre of the Mer de Glace opposite ‘ Les Ponts’ with the letter
V in 1846, and that I took angles for fixing its place with reference
to the adjacent rocks. It was then about 760 feet distant from the
west bank. I had little difficulty in recognizing the block in 1850,
although it had travelled a great distance, and was considerably lower
than the Montauvert. It had preserved its parallelism to the shore,
for I found it at almost the same distance from the west bank as at
first; and by measuring carefully along the side of the glacier, I
estimated its progress in four years, from 30th July 1846 to 13th
July 1850, at 3255 feet. This gives, for the mean motion in 365
days, 822-8 feet, or the mean daily motion 27°05 inches, which is
remarkably large. Its position is very near the point of one of the

16

‘ dirt-bands,’ but a little nearer the western bank. It lies, however,
on the band.

“ I shall now give the sequel of my guide Auguste Balmat’s obser-
vations on the motion of the Glacier des Bois (the outlet of the Mer
de Glace), and of the Glacier des Bossons, since the period to which
the table in my Fourteenth Letter extends, which will be found to
embrace continuous observations, by periods of a few weeks from the
2d October 1844 to the 21st November 1845. They were continued
in like manner until the 19th February 1846, when they were in-
terrupted by Balmat’s illness, which was accompanied by inflamma-
tion of the eyes. But in October of the same year they were re-
sumed, and were continued without intermission until the end of
June 1848, embracing altogether a period of nearly four years, with
only eight months’ intermission. It is necessary to observe that the
station on the glacier of Bossons was altogether changed after the
above mentioned interruption, being transferred from the west to the
east side (in the same region of the glacier), and it was 340 feet
from the bank. The station on the Glacier des Bois was almost un-
changed, and was about 280 feet from the north bank, between the
Cote du Piget and the acclivity of the Chapeau. I have added a
column giving the mean of the temperatures of the several periods of
observation, carefully calculated from the published observations at
Geneva and the great St Bernard, on the same principle as I have
fully explained in my Fourteenth Letter above referred to. The
comparisons of the temperature and the rate of motion lead to con-
clusions similar to those which I have drawn in that paper from the
earlier observations, the general observation always holding that the
acceleration in spring is in a greater proportion to the temperature
than at any other season of the year, on account of the great influence
of the melting snows in imparting fluidity to the glacier masses. I
do not mean that the comparison leads always to consistent results.
I do not think that the causes of the comparative acceleration of one
glacier and retardation of another have yet been clearly brought out,
though I conceive that accurate local observations, combined with
such measurements, would gradually but surely unveil them. Nor
do I mean to affirm that measurements made with so much labour
and trouble, and under circumstances even of personal danger at cer-
tain seasons of the year, are irreproachable in point of accuracy. I
think it even probable that oversights have occurred ; but I have

17

very strong reason for confiding in the absolute fidelity with which
the observations have been made and transmitted to me.

TABLE shewing the mean daily motion in inches of the Glaciers of
Chamount deduced from Balmat’s Observations, and continued
from the Fourteenth Letter.

Mean Daily Motion in Eng. inches.

Temp.
Centigrade Remarks.
Bossons,| of Air.*
No. ll.

Tntervals of Observation.

Bois, | Bossons,

Bois,
N No. II. | No. I.

ol,

west side °
1845. Nov. 16 to Dec. 16) 14°0 | 10°9 | 30-2 64 —1:47
Dec. 16 to Jan. 19 | 12°0 57 | 188 | 10:0 —419
1846. Jan. 19 to Feb. 19| 16:1 51 | 16:9 | 13:0 —0°16

(Observations interrupted by Balmat’s illness.)
east side,

Oct. 12 to Nov.19| 21:8 10-8 1-65 | 16th Oct. Snow
Noy. 19 to Dec. 20) 24:0 13-1 ate
Dec. 20 to Jan. 18 | 245 128 —5'88

1847. Jan. 18 to Mar.4 | 31°5 14:5 — 482 | Vast quantity of
Mar. 4 to Apr.12 | 345 13-9 —1-08 | Sow. ;
Apr. 12 to May 14| 37-3 19:7 BdO:| sous tne
May 14 to July 2 342 22-6 9-97 | Snow disappear-
July 2 to July 23 | 30°5 23-1 piel tty
July 23 to Aug. 16| 34-0 25°8 11-89 | Bois, 3d week of
Aug. 16 to Sept. 9 | 44:7 23:5 9 65 | May.
Sept. 9 to Sept. 28 | 37-7 22-6 7:95
Sept. 28 to Oct. 18.| 32-2 21:5 5°34
Oct. 18 to Nov. 6 30°7 14:5 3-41
Nov. 6 to Nov. 27 | 30:2 10°7 0-24
Nov. 27 to Jan. 10} 24-4 10-5 —3-74

1848. Jan. 10 to Feb. 19 | 26°5 145 —5°79
Feb. 19 to Apr. 1 | 23:5 126 —0-64
Apr.1ltoMay3 | 33:8 18°8 4:93
May 3 to June 6 35°3 17°6 8:68

June 6 toJune 30 | 438 17-6 | 1157

** J have formerly taken occasion to mention experiments and ob-
servations which have occurred from time to time of a nature to con-
firm the fundamental hypothesis of the quasi fluidity of the ice of
glaciers on the great scale, and I cannot doubt that these incidental
remarks have tended to diminish the natural incredulity with which
that theory was at first received in some quarters. I have now to
cite a fact of the same kind established by a French experimenter,
M. Person, who appears not to have had even remotely in his mind

* Mean of Geneva and Great St Bernard.
VOL. III. B

18

the theory of glaciers when he announeed the following fact, viz. :—
That ice does not pass abruptly from the solid to the fluid state.
That it begins to soften at a temperature of 2° centigrade below its
thawing point : that, consequently between 28°°4 and 32° of Fahren-
heit, ice is actually passing through various degrees of plasticity,
within narrower limits, but in the same manner that wax, for ex-
ample, softens before it melts. M. Person deduces this from the
examination of the heat requisite to liquify ice at different tempera-
tures. The following sentences contain his conclusions in his own
words :—‘ I] parait d’aprés mes experiences que le ramollissement
“qui précéde la fusion, est circonscrit dans une intervalle d’environ 2
degrés, La glace est donc un des corps dont la fusion est la plus
nette ; mais cépendant le passage de l'état solide 4 l’état liquide s'y
fait encore par degrés, et non par un saut brusque.’’*

‘“‘ Now it appears very clearly from M. Agassiz’ thermometrical
experiments, and from my own observations, that from 28° to 32°
Fahr. is the habitual temperature of the great mass of a glacier ;
that the most rigorous nights propagate an intense cold to but a very
small depth ; and I am perfectly convinced that in the middle and
lower regions of glaciers which are habitually saturated with water
in summer, the interior is little, if at all, reduced below the freezing
point, even by the prolonged cold of winter; it would be contrary to
all just theories of the propagation of heat if it were otherwise, when
we recollect that the enormous mass of snow which such glaciers bear
during the coldest months of the year, is a covering sufficient to pre-
vent any profound congelation in common earth ; and admitting that
ice is probably a better conductor of heat than the ground, it is quite
incredible that a thickness of many hundred feet of ice, saturated with
fluid water, should be reduced much below the freezing point, or
should even be frozen throughout.

** It thus appears quite certain that ice, under the circumstances
in which we find it in the great bulk of glaciers, is in a state more
or less softened even in winter; and that, during nearly the whole
summer, whilst surrounded by air above 32°, and itself at that tem-
perature, it has acquired a still greater degree of plasticity, due to
the latent heat which it has then absorbed.

“ T have mentioned that the observations of this and some previous

* Comptes Rendus, 29th April 1850.

19

summers have enabled me to extend the survey of the valley of Cha-
mouni beyond the limits to which my Map was originally confined.
I have also obtained a great number of approximate altitudes of all
the highest summits of the chain of Mont Blanc, from the extended
base which the distance from the Mont Breven to the Croix de Flé-
gére (above 15,400 feet) has afforded me. But the results are as
yet only partially calculated. I have also made some additions to
our knowledge of the geography of the eastern part of the chain of
Mont Blanc, by examining the Glacier of La Tour in its whole ex-
tent, which proved the configuration of the mountains to be different
from what has been represented on all the maps and models which I~
have seen. The Glaciers of Argentiére and La Tour are separated
throughout by a rocky ridge, but the Glaciers of La Tour and Trient
all but unite at their highest parts, and the main chain is prolonged
with scarcely a break in the north-east direction, sending off only a
spur towards the Col de Balme, which, perhaps from being the poli-
tical boundary of Savoy and Switzerland, has been represented gene-
rally on an exaggerated scale. What surprised me most, was the
great elevation of the axis of the chain at the head of the Glaciers of
La Tour and Trient. I found it barometrically to be 4044 feet above
the chalet of the Col de Balme, which, from five comparisons made
with the observatory at Geneva, is 7291 English feet, or 2220
métres above the sea, a result agreeing closely with the recent mea-
surement by M. Favre, which is 2222 métres. Adding this result
to the former, we obtain 11,335 English feet for the height of the
granitic axis at the lowest point between the Glaciers of La Tour
and Salena on the side of the Swiss Val Ferret. By a single direct
barometrical comparison with Geneva, I obtained 11,284 English
feet above the sea, or 140 feet higher than the Col du Géant. I
was successful in traversing the Glacier of Salena to Orsiéres the
same day, a pass which has not before been described, and which has
this interest, in addition to the singular wildness of the scenery, that
it includes those regions of beautiful crystallized protogine, here in
situ, which have been known to geologists hitherto chiefly from the
numerous moraines which they form in the valleys of Ferret and of
the Rhone, and especially the majority of the blocks of Monthey,
which have been derived, according to M. de Buch, entirely from this
region of the Alps.”
B2

20

Professor Forbes then gave a verbal notice of Dr Faraday’s
recent investigations on the Magnetism of Oxygen Gas and
of the Atmosphere, including his views on the Diurnal Varia-
tion of the Needle.

Dr SprrraL
Was balloted for, and duly re-elected a Fellow of the Society.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected Ordinary
Fellows :—

Beriab BOTFIELD, Esq., F.R.S., Norton Hall, Northamptonshire.
Dr JAMES SCARTH COMBE.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XIII., Pt. 3.
8v0.— By the Society.

Natuurkundige Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen te Haarlem. Diet. 5 & 6. 4to.— By the Society.

Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der K. Universitiaits Sternwarte
in Kénigsberg. Herausg. Von A. L. Busch. Abtheil. 29. fol.—
By the Observatory.

Observations made at the Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tory at Hobarton, in Van Diemen Island, and by the Antarctic
Naval Expedition. Vol. I. 1841. 4to.—By the Observatory.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. V.,
No. 44. 8vo.—By the Society.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Nos. 178-189.
8vo.— By the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Society. Nos. 73 & 74. 8vo.—By the
Society.

Seventeenth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic So-
ciety. 1849. 8vo.—By the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. N.S. No.37. 8v0.—
By the Society.

Letter to the Rt. Hon, Lord Brougham and Vaux, containing pro-
posals for a scientific exploration of Egypt and Ethiopia. By
John James Wild. 8vo.— By the Author.

The Accommodation of the Eye to Distances. By William Clay
Wallace, M.D. 8vo.—By the Author.

21

Oversigt over det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhand-
linger og dets Medlemmers Arbeider i Aarets 1847 og 1848.
8vo.— By the Socicty.

Verhandelingen der Eerste Klasse van het K. Nederlandsche Insti-
tuut, &e. 34 Reeks, II. & IIIe Deel. 4to.

Jaarboek van het K. Nederlandsche Instituut, &¢. Voor 1850. 8vo.

Tijdschrift voor de Wis-En Natuurkundige Wetenschappen, uitge-
geven door de Iste Klasse van het K,. Nederlandsche Instituut.
34 Deel. 4° Aflevering. 8vo.—By the Institute.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar under Sednare Hiilften.
1848. 8vo.

Ofversigt af K. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Foérhandlingar. 1849.
Nres 1-9. 8vo.

Arsberiittelse om Framstegen i Kemi under ar 1848. Afyifen till
K. Vetenskaps-Akademien af L. F. Svanberg. 8vo.

Medallion of Berzelius— By the Academy.

Mémoires de |’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St Pétersbourg.
Sciences Mathématiques, Physiques et Naturelles. Tomes
7me & 8me, 4 to.

Mémoires présentés a l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St Pétersbourg.
Tome 6™e, Livraison 4™°. 4to.

Recueil des Actes des Séances publiques de |’ Acad, Imp. des Sciences
de St Pétersbourg, tenues le 28 Decembre 1847 et le 29 De-
cembre 1848. 4to.—By the Academy.

Explication de la Carte Géologique de la France, rédigée par MM.
Dufrénoy et Elie de Beaumont. Tomes 1&2. 4to—By
the French Government.

Geological Map of France.—By the Same.

Monday, 6th January 1851.
Sir D. BREWSTER, K.H., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Notice of a Tertiary Fossiliferous Deposit, underlying
Basalt, on the Island of Mull. By the Duke of Argyll.

This paper, in its perfect form, appears in the Transactions

22

of the Geological Society. The abstract read by His Grace
on this occasion was illustrated by a number of drawings and
specimens.

The order of beds shewn in the drawings, from above downwards,
was as follows :—

1. A bed of basalt, rudely columnar.

2. A bed containing impressions of leaves of dicotyledonous trees.

3. A bed of tuff, or trap conglomerate, having the aspect of vol-
eanic ashes.

4. A bed of leaves similar to No. 2.

5. A bed of tuff similar to No. 3.

6. A third bed of leaves similar to the two former.

7. A bed of amorphous basalt ending in basalt highly columnar.

2. Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Baden Baden. By
Dr Sheridan Muspratt.

The author, after mentioning that no analysis of this water is to
be found in any English work, and the great multitudes who resort
to it, described briefly the situation of the Ursprung or original
spring, the chief one at Baden, which was known to, and esteemed
by, the. Romans.

It has a temperature of 153-5° F., and contains, in the imperial
gallon, 181-120 grains of solid matter. The predominating ingre-
dient is chloride of sodium or common salt, which amounts to 132°6
grains in the gallon. Next to this comes carbonate of lime, dissolved
no doubt as bicarbonate, which is deposited as carbonate on boiling.
The other ingredients, which are in trifling quantity, are detailed in
the first table given below as obtained in the analysis. In the se-
cond, they are arranged in the order of their probable occurrence in
the water.

23

TABLe I.
Grains per Imperial Gallon.
BONE SGI). 4 sl sw .s 8487 3-496
wma, =< ets Se ss ee O40G4 95991
Silicie acid, ~. . . a Oe,
Carbonic acid in titan with lime, . 6240
Do. in combination with protoxide of iron, -514
I Er ds J | 5 cas ee OS
Potassium, Bh i ea RE eh oats aed Ee
ES Cg ET ors cv fois See at HET s, eR OUU
Hime (insoluble)... . +. «, » «. , .4°948
MN, is rete i erik bw wre an teige | LEAD
DRORIGGIOL SPOTS TT ONE ik ag "842
Alumina,
Phosphate of aieft vo aes. mere traces.
Organic matter, .
181-120
Taste II.

Statement of the constituents as existing in the water :—

Grains per Imp. Gallon.

Chloride of sodium, . . .... =. =. . 182°644
Chloride of potassium, . . . . . =. . . | 13°720
Beeete OF OGIO Og ea se ie os Ae ORO
werponate of lime, 5 Pe Ye ye en DOT
emer eee? = RY mE aren a Fe 2-947
Proto-carbonate of iron, . . . . . . .. 1°556

Alumina, . .

Phosphate of Linsey . mere traces.

Organic matter, 5 yap Sarin
181-127

24

Monday, 20th January 1851.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Some notices were given, by the Rev. J. Hannah, of an
elaborate paper received, through Professor Jameson, from
Mr J.R. Logan of Singapore. The following is the Author’s
own account of its nature and contents :—

1. Traces of an Ethnic Connection between the Basin of
the Ganges and the Indian Archipelago, before the
Advance of the Hindus into India; and a Comparison
of the Languages of the Indo-Pacific Islanders with the
Tibeto-Indian, Tibeto-Burmese, Telugu-Tamulian, Tar-
tar-Japanese, and American Languages.

I.—Preliminary Enquiries.

_

. Principal continental connections of the Archaic ethnology of
Asianesia.
. Physiological and moral evidence of an Indian connection.
. General ethnic principles and tendencies observable in the
ethnology of Eastern Asia and Asianesia.
a. Mutual physiological and moral action of tribes.
b. Linguistic development and mutual action of tribes.
§ 4. Character of primordial phonology. Remnants of it in 8. E,
Asia.
§ 5. Cause of the transition from the monotonic to dissyllabic
glossaries.
§ 6. Comparative value of structural and glossarial comparisons for
ethnology. Superiority of the glossarial. Supreme impor-
tance of Phonology.

amr mm
ew to

II.—Phonetic and structural character of the archaic languages of
India.

§ 7. Prepositional and postpositional languages,

§ 8. Character of the Tibetan and Burmese with relation to each
other and to the Tartarian and 8. E. Asian languages,

§ 9. The N. Gangetic or Himalayan languages.

§ 10. The S. E. Gangetic languages.

§ 11. The S. Gangetic languages.

§ 12. The Telugu-Tamulian languages.

§ 13. Comparison of the Telugu-Tamulian with the African
languages.

25

III.— Phonetic and structural character of the Asianesian
languages.

§ 14. Australian.

§ 15. Polynesian.

§ 15.* Papuanesian.

§ 16. S. and S. E. Indonesian.
§ 17. N. E. Indonesian.

§ 18. W. Indonesian.

IV.—The Asianesian languages compared with the American and
Tartar-Japanese languages.

19.* Asianesian compared with American languages.
§ 20.* The Asianesian compared with the Japanese, Korian, and
Tungusian languages.
Sub sect. 1. Japanese.
— 2. Korian.
— 3. Manchu.
— 4. Results.

V.—Ethnic Glossology.

§ 19. Principles of glossarial comparison.

§ 20. Character of Asianesian glossology.

§ 21. Permutations of sounds.

§ 22. Comparison of Definite, Segregative, and Generic words or
particles.

§ 23. Pronouns.

§ 24. Numerals.

§ 25. Names of parts of the body.

§ 26. Names of domesticated animals.

§ 27. Miscellaneous words.

Conclusion.

Several lengthy extracts were read, to illustrate, first, the relation
which the author’s historical views bear to those of previous inquirers
in the same field ; and, secondly, the theory, on the origin and
progress of language, upon which his arguments are mainly rested.

2. The following Note was read on the recent frequent occur-
rence of the Lunar Rainbow, by George Buchanan, Esq.

The frequent occurrence of this phenomenon lately suggests the
idea, whether it be any way connected with the relation of the at-
mosphere to an electric or other condition.

26

On Thursday evening last, at 7 o’clock, I observed a very beau-
tiful rainbow, from Duke Street, extending in a brilliant and un-
broken arch in a westerly direction; the south end springing from
the west end of Queen Street, and the north end stretching to the
eastern extremity of Abercromby Place, comprising a space in the
horizon of 60° or 70°, and rising 16° or 18° in altitude.

The prevailing colour was whitish, but occasionally the prismatic
colours shone out very distinctly, particularly the red and the blue.

The weather was squally, with showers, and the bow appeared for
at least half an hour.

Last night (Sunday evening) the same appearance was seen with
beautiful effect at 11 p.m., and continued for upwards of half an
hour.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia.
Vol. V., No. 5. 8vo.—From the Academy.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. 2d Ser., No. 30.
8vo.— From the Editors.

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society of London. Vol. II.,
No. 2. 8vo.—From the Society.

Résumé Météorologique de ’ Année 1849, pour Genéve et le Grand
St Bernard, par E. Plantamour. 8vo.—F'rom the Author.

Reasons for returning the Gold Medal of the Geographical Society
of France, and of withdrawing from its membership. Ina
Letter to M. De la Roquette, from Charles T. Beke. 8vo.—
From the Author.

Astronomical and Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1849. to.

Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Results. 1848. 4to.—
From the Observatory.

Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Cambridge.
Vol. XVI, 4to.—From the Observatory.

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Vol. IX.,
Part. 1. 4to.—F rom the Society.

27

Monday, 3d February 1851.

Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On some new Marine Animals, discovered during a
cruise among the Hebrides with Robert Macandrew,
Esq., of Liverpool, in 1850. By Professors Edward
Forbes and J. Goodsir. Communicated by Professor
Goodsir.

The animals either wholly new, or new to Britain, described in
this communication, were taken during a yachting cruise with Mr Mac-
andrew, of Liverpool, among the Hebrides, in the month of August
1850. During this voyage, which lasted three weeks, a series of obser-
vations were conducted by means of the dredge and towing-net. Not
a single new testaceous Mollusk was procured; but several remark-
able Ascidians and Radiata were discovered, some of them so curious
in themselves, and so important in their zoological bearings, that
the authors of this paper thought it desirable to lay an account of
them before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. .

The most remarkable of these is the longest compound Ascidian
yet discovered in the Atlantic. Its nearest described ally is the
genus Diazona of Savigny, between which animal and Clavellina
it forms a link. The authors of this paper propose to designate
this animal Syntethys Hebridia, having found it necessary to esta-
blish a genus for its reception. The authors have also dredged up
the Holothuria intestinalis of Ascanius and Rathke, which is the .
second species of Holothuria proper discovered in the British seas ;
the first having being discovered by Mr Peach under the name of
“ Nigger,” given to it by the Cornish fishermen.

A new species of the curious genus Sarcodictyon, distinguished by
the polype cells being grouped in assemblages of from three to five,
was described under the designation of S. agglomeratum.

The Arachnactis albida of Sars was found in the Minch. Por-
tions of an animal found by Professor Balfour in the same locality
in 1841, have now been recognised as belonging to this curious Ac-
tinea,

28

The other animals described in this communication were, a spe-
cies of naked-eyed Medusa, for the reception of which the authors
found it necessary to establish a new genus, Plancia (Plancia gracilis.)
Seven new species of Medusz, referable to the genera Oceanea, Slab-
beria, Hippocrene, and Thaumantias, were also described.

The communication was illustrated by coloured drawings.

2. Account of Experiments on the Thermotic Effect of the
Compression of Air, with some practical applications. By
Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

3. Theoretical investigations into the same by W. Petrie,
Esq. Communicated by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

Having brought before this Society in April 1849, a plan for
cooling the air of rooms in tropical climates, the author was anxious
to determine by actual experiment on a very large scale the practi-
cability of the principle involved, viz., the thermotic effect of the
compression of air. He had had a small apparatus made in 1844,
which, though not sufficiently large to give exact numerical data, at
least showed that the plan was in the bounds of possibility.

But in December 1849, Mr Wilson, of the Kinniel Ironworks,
having kindly allowed him to experiment on the compressed air in
the reservoir tubes of the furnaces, Professor P. S. proceeded there
in company with Mr Stirling, C.E., and Capt. Gosset, R.E., with
an apparatus which was exhibited on the table.

Thirty-four different experiments were made, in as varied a way
as possible to insure accuracy, and the mean result was, that the
air being at 63° Fahr., and the barometer at 30: inches, and the
pressure guage indicating 7°2 inches of mercury, the rise of tem-
perature of the air on being made to enter the compression-chest,
was 28°-9, and the fall on escaping therefrom was 26°-9.

Professor W. Thomson, from Carnot’s theory of heat, and Mr
Macquorn Rankine from his own, deduced nearly the same quantity,
but with some uncertainty, as the specific heat of air was involved.

Mr Petrie, however, without taking up any theory of heat, but
merely the mechanical nature of a compressible fluid, and the well
known quantity of the expansion of air from heat, deduced a formula
which represented the above observations as well as could be ex-
pected. And pursuing his formula to its ultimate consequences, he

29

arrived at the interesting result, that beginning with air at 60°
Fahr., unlimited ewpansion would only lower it 550°; while by
sufficiently increasing the compression, an infinite degree of heat
could be produced.

The practical result of the experiments. and conclusions from
theory was to make the proposed method of cooling the air of
rooms (viz., by compressing the air, depriving it when compressed
of its extra heat, and then allowing it to escape into the room to be
cooled),—very possible indeed.

While, to get over the difficulty that might be experienced in the
colonies of managing the air pumps and coolers which would be re-
quired according to Professor P. §.’s plan, Mr Petrie proposed some
simple forms of water-pressure machines, and air-compressing
wheels.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—

Sir Davip Dunpas, Bart., of Duneira.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society of London. Vol. I1.,
No. 1. 8v0.—By the Society.

On the Cyclone of November 19 (1850). By the Rev. Humphrey
Lloyd, D.D. 8vo.

On the Induction of Soft Iron, as applied to the determination of
the changes of the Earth’s Magnetic force. By the Rev.
Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 8vo— By the Author.

Instructions for Making Meteorological and Tidal Observations.
Prepared by the Council of the Royal Irish Academy, 8vo.

Second Report of the Council of the Royal Irish Academy, relative
to the establishment of a System of Meteorological and Tidal
Observations in Ireland. 8vo.—By the Academy.

The London University Calendar, 1851. 12mo.—By the
Publishers.

30

Monday, February 17, 1851.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Biographical Notice of the late Robert Stevenson,
Esq., Civil Engineer. By his Son, Alan Stevenson, L.L.B.
Communicated by Dr T. S. Traill.

This memoir commences by stating that Mr Stevenson was born
at Glasgow on the 5th May 1772, and that he died at Edinburgh, in
the seventy-ninth year of his age, on the 12th July 1850. The
writer then notices the disadvantages under which Mr Stevenson
laboured in infancy and youth, owing to the death of his father, who
was a partner in a West India House in Glasgow, and died in the
Island of St Christophers soon after the birth of his only child. In
spite of these, and by the prudence and energy of his mother, Ro-
bert Stevenson had the benefit of a tolerably full course of train-
ing both in science and literature, first at the Andersonian Institu-
tion in Glasgow, and afterwards at the University of Edinburgh ;
and so great was his zeal in the pursuit of knowledge, that, while
acting during the summer as a superintendent of works, under Mr
Smith, the engineer of the Lighthouse Board, his future father-in-
law, he regularly devoted the winter months to the study of mathe-
matics, natural philosophy, chemistry, and architectural drawing.
Some pretty long extracts from some MSS. memoranda, left by Mr
Stevenson himself, and from his “‘ Account of the Bell Rock
Lighthouse,” next follows ; and in them an interesting view is ©
given of his early designs for the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and of the
difficulties with which he had to contend, and the encouragements he
met with in reference to his great enterprise. The writer then goes
on very briefly to notice his father’s long service of about forty
years as engineer to the Commissioners of the Northern Light-
houses, in which office he succeeded his father-in-law, Mr Smith,
in 1806. During that period, he was the architect of no fewer than

31

twenty-three lighthouses, including that of the Bell Rock; and
. through his indefatigable zeal and patient skill, the catoptric system
of lighthouse illumination was in Scotland brought to a state of per-
fection which has not elsewhere been equalled. Many of those im-
provements he was the means of extending to the lighthouses of
Treland and of some of the colonies, He also invented two valuable
additions to the mode of distinguishing lights on a coast, known as
the intermittent and flashing lights, the latter of which, in parti-
eular, has been generally approved by seamen; and so much was
the late King of the Netherlands pleased with the arrangement and
effect of this distinction, of which he had read an account, that he
sent to Mr Stevenson a gold medal as a mark of his approbation.
The memoir next notices Mr Stevenson’s career as a practitioner in
his profession of a civil engineer, in the course of which it is not per-
haps generally known that he designed and executed the eastern
approach to Edinburgh by the Calton Hill; and, after alluding
to several of his works in bridges and harbours, it mentions his
improvements in the construction of timber and suspension bridges,
and notices his connection with the first introduction of the railway
system into Great Britain, and his contributions to various scientific
journals, and to literature of his own profession. In conclusion, the
writer briefly touches upon the private character of his father, and
the esteem in which he was held by all who knew him, and more
especially by the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses, who,
in 1824, ordered his bust to be placed in the Bell Rock Lighthouse,
and, on the occasion of his death, recorded in the Minutes of the
Board their respect for his talents as a public officer and his virtues
as a man.

2. Historical Notice of the Progress of the Ordnance Survey
in Scotland. By Alexander Keith Johnston, Esq.

There are few places on the earth’s surface which, within such a
limited area, combine so many of the requisite elements for charto-
graphic delineation as are met with in Scotland. With mountains
rising almost to the limit of the snow-line, and an extensive sea-

32

board, broken up by firths and lochs into every conceivable form of
promontory, cape, and headland, this portion of Great Britain com-
prises within itself such a variety of physical features as is only
found elsewhere distributed over much more extensive regions. It
cannot be doubted, therefore, that a properly constructed map of
Scotland, on a scale sufficiently distinct, if executed with fidelity,
and with all the improvements of modern art, would present at once
a most pleasing and highly instructive example of this species of
design. That we do not already possess such a map, is not owing
to any want of interest in the subject on the part of our countrymen,
for Scotland has produced more works of this class than perhaps any
other country of similar extent and means. But these efforts, how-
ever creditable in themselves, could not be connected so as to pro-
duce a perfect map, for want of such a basis of union, as a com-
plete system of triangulation alone could supply. Now, this was a
work which, from its vast extent and labour, required the resources
of Government to accomplish, and hence the necessity for the so-called
Ordnance or Government Survey, to trace the progress of which is
the object of this Paper.

The first map of Scotland on record is that attributed to Ptolemy,
the geographer of Alexandria, a. p. 140. In this celebrated work,
it is well known the bearings are altogether wrong, as the upper
part of Britain is represented bending to the east instead of stretch-
ing to the north. Nothing further of this kind worthy of notice
occurs till the 14th century, when Richard of Cirencester compiled
a map, in which, though he generally follows Ptolemy, he gives the
true bearings of the country, and greatly adds to our knowledge of
British geography.

Timothy Pont was the first projector of an atlas of Scotland.
In 1608 he commenced a survey of all the counties and islands,
sketching in the features on the spot. He died before his work was
finished, and in 1646 his drafts and notes were put into the hands
of Sir Robert Gordon of Straloch, who completed his design. All
the sketches and notes thus collected were transmitted to Bleau of
Amsterdam, who published his Atlas Scoti@ in 1654. This atlas,
begun at the charge of Sir John Scott, of Scotstarvet, director of the
Chancery in Scotland, was, probably, carried on and completed at
the national expense. These maps, which are wonderful productions

33

for the time, may, however, be regarded simply as literary curiosi-
ties, interesting chiefly to the antiquary.

- About the year 1688, Adair made a survey, and gave descrip-
tions of the coasts of Scotland, which he published in a small atlas ;
but his sketches, as well as those of Sanson, Elphinstone, and Grier-
son, who succeeded him, are very inaccurate. The Rev. Alexander
Bryce surveyed the northern coasts of Scotland about the year 1740;
his map, published in 1744, made considerable advances in accuracy.
In 1750, John Dorret, land-surveyor, published a map of Scotland,
in five sheets, at the expense of the Duke of Argyll. This map had
more pretension than any that preceded it, being on a much
larger scale, but in construction it is still very inaccurate. Between
1751 and 1771, Mr Murdoch Mackenzie, who was employed by the
Admiralty, surveyed the western coasts of Britain, from the English
Channel to Cape Wrath, including the Hebrides from Lewis to
Islay, and extending to the Orkney Islands. His charts were pub-
lished on a scale of one inch to a mile, and were accompanied by
nautical descriptions. These were considered, at the time, entitled
to credit, but the recent Admiralty Surveys have proved them to be
exceedingly erroneous.

In 1789, John Ainslie, an eminent land-surveyor in Edinburgh,
constructed, engraved, and published a map of Scotland and its
islands in nine sheets. This was the first good map of the country.
The author had made an actual survey of several counties, when he
was employed by the Board of Customs to survey the east coasts of
North Britain; he also made many rapid surveys and sketches in
remote districts. Still, though superior to any that preceded it, his
map is very faulty in construction. In Ainslie’s time the delinea-
tion of the physical features of a country was little understood ; his
mountains and hills are represented as rising insulated from their
bases ; no indications are given of the water-sheds dividing the river
basins, and little attention is paid to the subject of light and shade.
In 1792 Murdo Downie published a chart of the east coast of
Scotland, in which the sea-board is very inaccurate.

The Government felt so greatly the want of a tolerable map of
Scotland, during the rebellion of 1745-6, that, on its suppression, it
was resolved, at the suggestion of the Duke of Cumberland, to com-
mence an actual survey of the whole country. This undertaking

YOR. 1) c

34

was confided to Colonel Watson, who employed in the service
several young officers of engineers, among others, Mr (afterwards
Major-General) Roy. The survey, which was limited to the main-
land, was commenced in 1747, and completed in 1755. It was
conducted with considerable skill, and was the means of illustrating
many of the Roman antiquities of North Britain. The field work
was carried on in summer, and the drawings were prepared in
Edinburgh Castle during the winter months. Of this work, General
Roy himself says that, ‘‘ having been carried on with inferior instru-
ments, and the sum allowed having been very inadequate for its
proper execution, it is rather to be considered as a magnificent mili-
tary sketch than a very accurate map ofa country.’ When the
drafts of this map were finished, they were deposited in the Royal
Library, where they lay totally forgotten till 1804, when being re-
quired for a new map of Scotland, undertaken by Arrowsmith, at
the suggestion of the Commissioners of Highland roads and bridges,
they were discovered after considerable search.

Arrowsmith’s map was founded on Roy’s survey of the mainland,
and many other materials which he deemed authentic. It was com-
menced in 1805 and finished in 1807, on a scale of 4th of an inch to
a mile or 3th of the scale of the military survey. Since Arrowsmith’s
map appeared, many portions of the country have been surveyed and
published, some of these, among which may be specially noted,
Lanarkshire by Forrest, Mid-Lothian by Knox, Sutherlandshire by
Burnett and Scott, and Edinburgh, Fife, and Haddington by Green-
wood, have been deservedly reputed. But, as must ever be the case
in private enterprises, these are confined to the wealthier and more
populous districts, no recent survey having been made of any of the
more remote regions. The latest effort of this kind, which is likely
to prove the last, is the survey of Edinburgh and Leith within the
Parliamentary boundaries, on the scale of 5 feet to a mile, by W.
and A. K. Johnston, a reduction of which has recently appeared.

The principal triangulation for the Ordnance Survey of Britain
commenced by General Roy, on Hounslow Heath, near London, in
1784, was extended to Scotland in 1809, but the operations were
discontinued for the three following years, the persons employed
having been removed to England. In 1813 the Ordnance zenith

35

sector was used on Kellie Law, Fife, and Cowhythe, Banffshire. In
1814-15-16 the triangulation proceeded steadily. In 1817 the
zenith sector was used on Balta Island, Zetland, a new base line
was measured on Belhelvie Links, near Aberdeen, and the
triangulation again proceeded in 1818-19. It was suspended in
1820, but re-commenced in 1821-22, in Zetland, Orkney, and the
Western Islands. In 1823 the large theodolite was removed to
England and afterwards to Ireland, in consequence of which the
operations in Scotland were entirely suspended during a period of
sixteen years. In 1838-39-40 and 41, the triangulation for connect-
ing the islands with each other, and with the mainland, proceeded with-
out interruption. The principal operations are now completed, with
the exception of certain observations that may be required for a few
stations, with a view to its publication as a scientific work.

In 1815 the Ordnance department appointed Dr M‘Culloch to
make a geological examination of Scotland; his researches were
continued till 1821, but for want of an accurate topographical map,
his labours have unfortunately done much less service than they
otherwise would have done to the cause of science.

In 1819 a military detailed survey of part of Wigtonshire and
Ayrshire was commenced on a scale of 2 inches to a mile, by Capt.
Hobbs and two subalterns ; it was carried on, with diminishing num-
bers, till 1827, and extended over a space of about 937 square miles.
But a survey conducted at so slow a rate, and on so small a scale,
afforded no proper ground for commencing a map of Scotland, and
the plans will furnish no aid whatever for the general survey.

In 1834 the Ordnance carried forward a partial secondary
triangulation along the Scottish coast, from the Solway Firth to the
Firth of Clyde for the use of the Admiralty surveyors.

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0} eammbea prnom 4uvs3 yuosead ‘g[wos| OU, ‘SU01J001100 pUBSUOT}BAIOS |‘gOgTF uooq svy 000°FF6‘8T
aq3 Ajuonbesuod pus ‘eo10y qour 9 ey} Jo Kaa|-qo Moy B Jo uoTydeoxe oY} YIM |savak ou0-A4103 voy
quosoad yy ‘savoX uaz ur Lol “ysvoq 4v |-ans oq} oj0[duI00) ‘pezetduroo eae suoensuvtiy| Sump yueas

-ans 043 9}0[du109 0} aepso uy =|savak Qg|oy QO0‘OFLZF |Axepuooes puv Aavurtad oyy, joSvaeav oyy,

38

In 1840 the Board of Ordnance and the Treasury directed that the
survey of Scotland should be laid down on a scale of 6 inches to a
mile to correspond with that of Ireland.

The secondary operations of the survey in Scotland have been
carried on since 1841. In the beginning of 1844 the detailed
survey of the county of Wigton was begun; it was completed in
1850 and is now engraved on the 6 inch scale, with contour lines, or
lines of equal elevation, and published in 38 sheets. The survey of
the county of Kirkcudbright was commenced in 1845, and it is ex-
pected that it will be finished and portions of it published during
the present year.

In July 1846 the survey of the island of Lewis was commenced,
out of due course, in consequence of an arrangement with the pro-
prietor, by which he agreed to pay to the Government the sum of
£1200, and to purchase 100 copies of the published maps. In
January 1851 about three-fifths of this survey were completed, some
of the sheets will be published during the present year, and it is
expected that the whole will be finished during 1852.

In March 1850 the surveying party was removed from Wigton
and Kirkcudbright shires to Mid-Lothian and the city of Edinburgh.
The survey of the city is now considerably advanced, and it is ex-
pected that some of the sheets will be published in 1852. It is
proposed to be engraved in outline, ¢. e., without shading or distinc-
tion of houses from streets, on a scale of 5 feet to a mile.

The survey of the county of Edinburgh is going on, and has also
made considerable progress. Plans of the towns of Wigton and
Stranraer have been surveyed, on the scale of 5 feet to a mile.
The town of Dumfries is surveyed, and the drawing plans are nearly
finished.

This comprises all that has yet been done by the Ordnance Sur-
veyors in North Britain.

From these statements we learn that the survey of Scotland was
begun in 1809, but its progress appears to have been considered of
so little importance in comparison with the surveys of other portions
of the kingdom, that, whenever it was found convenient, the whole of
the men and instruments employed were unceremoniously removed
to England or Ireland ; and that, in order to expedite the work in
the latter country, the operations in Scotland were on one occasion
altogether suspended during a period of sixteen years.

7
:
4

39

It will be seen from the preceding table that the total sum
expended on the survey in Scotland from its commencement to the
present time, has been only £66,000 ; while the sum expended in
England is £702,000; and in Ireland, £820,000; and that, in
June 1849, the number of men employed in Ireland was 1210,
while in Scotland the number employed was only 257.

The average annual expenditure on the survey of Scotland during
the forty-one years of its progress has been only £1609, or, omitting
the sixteen years when the operations were suspended, £2640 ; while
on that of Ireland the average expenditure has been nearly £40,000
per annum. In the Parliamentary reports on this subject, it is stated
that, in 1843, the sum yoted for the survey of the whole kingdom
was £60,000, of which only £9000 was appropriated to Scotland ;
and, since 1843, the sum allotted to the survey of Scotland has ave-
raged little more than £10,000 per annum, the same amount which
is voted annually for revising the maps of the northern counties of
Ireland already surveyed! Besides the sum of £820,000 already
expended in Ireland, it is proposed to expend for the revisal of the
northern counties above alluded to, £80,000; and, for completing
the system of contour lines (now in progress), the further sum of
£120,000, making in all £1,020,000, exclusive of the expense of
engraving plans of ninety-five towns, which are surveyed and
drawn.

From these reports we learn further, that the largest amount
hitherto granted for the purposes of the survey in Scotland in any one
year has been £15,000, and as admitted in evidence although larger
sums have frequently been voted to Scotland, they have often been
expended in England and Ireland. The consequence of this treat-
ment has been, that, after a lingering progress extending over a
period of forty-one years, the survey of Scotland is still little more
than begun, the map of only one county, that of Wigton, forming
about a sixty-fourth part of the area of the country, being published,
while the survey of the whole of Ireland has been completed and
published for several years, having been commenced in 1825 and
finished in 1843, and that of England is now nearly finished.

A very general feeling exists in the public mind that, in this
matter, Scotland has experienced most unmerited neglect, and since
the expectation of immediate progress, occasioned by the fact that
the Ordnance surveyors have occupjed the ground, is doomed to

40

certain disappointment if things are allowed to continue as they
are, it is to be hoped that means may at once be devised for ensuring
a more satisfactory result.

The desired object might probably be best attained by such an
arrangement as would ensure the entry, in the annual Ordnance
estimates, of a specific sum to be devoted to this special purpose.

The amount needed depends of course on the time within which it is
required to finish the work. It is shown in the table that, at the
present rate of progress, fifty years would be necessary for its accom-
plishment. Now, assuming that the efficiency of the force would be
in direct proportion to the numbers employed, and since the numbers
are dependent on the money grants, it is clear that five times the
present force or five times the amount granted would finish the
survey in a fifth part of the time, or in ten years. The sum at
present voted for the survey in all parts of the kingdom is £60,000,
but it is shown in evidence, that if the whole force of surveyors and
others capable of conducting the work are to be taken into pay, the
sum of £100,000 will be required. Now, if the difference between
the amount granted and that required—£40,000 a year—were
voted to Scotland (in addition to the average sum of £10,000), the
survey of this portion of the country would be completed in ten
years from this date, and that without prejudice to the surveys now
carried on in England and Ireland. But if it should be objected
that the sum of £100,000 a year is more than could now be granted
for this purpose, the question remains whether, if it cannot be
otherwise attained, the speedy completion of the survey in Scot-
land should not be secured by suspending for a time the opera-
tions for contouring the map of Ireland, and for revising the
survey of its northern portion.

Should the necessary funds be granted, it is satisfactory to know
that a sufficient number of competent and well-trained surveyors and
others formerly employed in Ireland, but whose services are not
now required there, may at once be engaged on the survey in Scot-
land, and that the engraving of the maps can be carried on simul-
taneously with the surveying, so that no delay in the publication
would be occasioned on this account.

Having recently had an opportunity of inspecting the Ordnance
Survey Office at Southampton, so ably conducted under the direc-
tion of Colonel Hall and Captain Yolland, I have pleasure in bear-

41

ing testimony to the excellence of the methods there employed for
securing accuracy and expediting the work, the latter especially, by
the extensive introduction of mechanical processes of engraving, and
the masterly application of the electrotype for procuring duplicates
of the copperplates.

Intimately connected with the survey of the interior, and of even
greater importance to the commerce of the country, is that of the sea-
coasts, carried on under the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.
It is not many years since attention was drawn by the late Mr Gal-
braith to the very erroneous character of all the published charts and
sailing directions then available for the Firth of Clyde, in which it is
shown “ that the master of a vessel, trusting to the charts then in
ordinary use, would almost certainly be wrecked if his reckonings
were right.”

It is gratifying to find that danger from this cause no longer
exists in that quarter, admirable surveys being now completed of the
River and Firth of Clyde, and of the lochs connected with them, many
of the sheets of which are already published, and the others are in
course of being engraved. The whole of the north, south, and east
coasts of Scotland, with the Shetland and Orkney Islands, have been
surveyed, and most of the sheets are published. The western coast of
Sutherland is also surveyed, so that the portion of this great work
still remaining to be accomplished comprises the coasts of Ross, Inver-
ness, Argyll, and the Hebrides. All these surveys have been con-
ducted by able and experienced officers under the enlightened and
zealous superintendence of the Hydrographer Royal, Admiral Sir
Francis Beaufort, who, in his anxiety to insure the utmost attainable
accuracy, revises and corrects with his own hand every sheet of the
survey before it is sent to press.

Mr Johnston then exhibited a map, shewing by colours the pre-
sent state of the Ordnance and Hydrographical surveys in Scotland,
and a comparative table of the proportionate scales of maps con-
structed from the surveys of different countries in Europe.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—

Sir GrorGE Doveras, Bart., of Springwood Park.
VOL, III. D

42

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Essai Historique sur le Magnétisme et l’Universalité de son influence
dans la Nature. Par M. de Haldat. 8vo.

Optique Oculaire suivie d’un essai sur ]’Achromatisme de l’Oeil.
Par M. de Haldat. 8vo.—From the Author.

On the Remains of Man, and Works of Art imbedded in Rocks and
Strata, as illustrative of the connection between Archeology and
Geology. By G. A. Mantell, LL.D. 8vo.— From the
Author.

American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. Il., No. 31. 8vo.
From the Editors.

Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice. Tom. III. Fasciculus I. 4te.
—From the Society.

Novorum Actorum Academie Czsaree Leopold. Carol. Nature
Curiosarum. Vol. XXII., Pars. II. 4to.— From the
Academy.

Abhandlungen der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.
1848. 4to.

Monatsbericht der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.
Juli 1849 ; Juni 1850. 8vo.—From the Academy,

French Marine Charts, with corresponding Descriptions—From the
French Government.

Ueber eine Kochsalz herriihrende pseudomorphische Bildung im
Muschelkalke der Wifergegend. Von J. F. L. Hausmann.
8vo. :

Die Bleigewinnung in Siidlichen Spanien in Jahre 1829. Von
J.F.L. Hausmann. 68vo.

Ueber die Erscheinung des Anlaufens der Mineralkérper. Von
J. F. L. Hausmann. 8vo.—From the Author.

Nachrichten von der Georg. Augusts. Universitit. und der K. Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. Von Jahre 1849,
Nr. 1-14, 12°: — From the University.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

te ee be ae

VOL. III. 1850-51. No. 41.
Rammer ey shine filets hit! tre Aosta os ie > ee ae

Sixty-E1GHTH SESSION.

Monday, 3d March 1851.

Sir DAVID BREWSTER, K.H., V ice-President, in the
Chair.

_ The following Communications were read :—

1. On Iron and its Alloys. PartI. By J. D. Morries
Stirling, Esq.

2. On the Weight of Aqueous Vapour, condensed on a
Cold Surface, under given conditions. By James
Dalmahoy, Esq.

The paper was accompanied by two tables, containing the results
of sixty-three experiments respecting the rate at which vapour con-
denses on a cold surface.

In planning the experiments, it was assumed that C=m (f”—f”’)s
where C is the weight of moisture condensed on a surface of given
area in a given time ; f” the tension of vapour at the dew-point ;
f™ the tension at the temperature of the condensing surface ; ma
co-efficient varying with the velocity of the current of air.

But, in the course of experiments, it was found that the co-efficient
m was not constant, even when there was no sensible current ; and
that under this state of the air, it was necessary to change m into

VOL. Ll. E

44

M (¢ — ¢”) in which M is constant, ¢ the temperature of the air,
and ¢” the temperature of the condensing surface.

The principal object of the experiments was to determine mean
values of the co-efficients m and M. The data and results necessary
for this purpose were contained in the two tables before alluded to,
and the following small table merely exhibits the mean values.

Mean Values. Velocity of Current per 1”. Number of Experiments.
M = 0°12 Insensible 15

=18°3 412 feet 11
‘2 = 26°5 8:24 8

= 39°7 14°8 8

= 44-6 20°6 11

It is to be remarked, that the value of M, as given above, is only
applicable when the air in contact with the cold surface is free to
descend by its own weight, and that when, from any impediment to
its escape, the air is not changed, there is scarcely any sensible con-
densation of vapour on thé cold surface.

The paper concluded by examining, in connection with the pre-
ceding results, the theory proposed by Professor Phillips in explana-
tion of the increment received by rain in the course of its descent to
the earth. This theory, as is well known, ascribes the increment to
to the continual condensation of vapour on the cold surfaces of the
drops; and the author of this paper attempted to prove, that when
the data assumed were the most favourable to the theory which the
case admitted of, the observed increment of the rain was 635 times
greater than would be accounted for by the rate of the experiments.

3. On the Poison of the Cobra da Capello. By Dr J. Ruther-
ford Russell. Communicated by Dr Gregory.

The poison is of an amber colour, has a faint animal odour and an
acrid taste. When treated with alcohol or ether it separates into two
portions—the one soluble and the other insoluble. From some experi-
ments Dr Russell made he concluded that both were poisonous, but is
inclined to believe the soluble to be the more poisonous of the two.

He gave a detailed account of a series of experiments made upon
some rabbits and a dog. The effect of the insertion of a small
portion of the poison into a wound in a rabbit was in almost every
case to produce death, generally preceded by stupor and sometimes
by convulsions. The lungs were found gorged with blood in several

45

of the cases, and in some there was evidence of a severe inflamma-
tion of the plure having taken place. The poison took from an
hour and a half to twenty-four hours to produce its fatal effect.

It produced little effect upon the dog, probably from the quantity
being small.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected Ordinary

Fellows :—
JouNn STewaRt, Esq., of Nateby Hall, Lancashire.
Dr Joun Kinnis, Deputy-Inspector of Hospitals.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. Published by the Royal Medica
and Chirurgical Society of London. General Index, Vols.
I.-XXXIII. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Journal of Agriculture and Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. New Series. No. 32. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Monday, 17th March 1851.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On a New Source of Capric Acid, with Remarks on some
of its Salts. By Mr T. H. Rowney. Communicated by
Dr Anderson.

The author commences his paper by mentioning the different
sources from which capric acid has been obtained, and then proceeds
_ to point out a new source for obtaining it, namely, the grain oil
s from the Scotch distilleries.

The grain oil, he states, consists of water, alcohol, amylic alcohol,
% and an oily residue, having a much higher boiling point than amylic
aleohol. It is this oily residue that contains the caprie acid. He
_ obtained it by boiling the only residue with caustic potassa, which
- renders it soluble in water, and by adding HO, SO, or HCl to the
alkaline solution, the caprie acid is separated. He then proceeds to
detail the method he followed for obtaining it pure, and its most
characteristic properties, viz.,—it is solid at the ordinary tempera-
ture, and fuses at 81° F.,—it is insoluble in cold water, and slightly
soluble in hot water,—very soluble in cold alcohol and ether,—and
E2

46

when a large quantity of cold water is added to the alcoholic solution,
the capric acid separates in crystals. The numbers obtained by
analysis shewed the formula to be C,, H,, O, HO.

The author then describes the salts of capric acid that he examined,
—these were the silver, baryta, magnesia, lime, copper, and soda, He
also obtained capric ether and capramide. The capric ether is an oily
liquid, lighter than water, its specific gravity being *862, insoluble in
cold water, but readily soluble in alcohol and ether. The capramide
he obtained by acting on the ether with a strong solution of ammonia.
It forms beautiful crystalline scales, insoluble in cold water, soluble

in cold alcohol, and also in dilute spirit, when warmed. Its formula
he found to be C,, H,, O, N.

2. On Iron and its Alloys. Part II. By J. D. Morries
Stirling, Esq.

The following abstract contains a brief notice of this as
well as of the former part of Mr Stirling’s paper, read at last
meeting :—

The author gave a short description of the various kinds of cast-
iron, and a statement respecting their strengths, and of the uses to
which they are more especially adapted, pointing out the discrepan-
cies which exist between chemists as to the quantity of carbon con-
tained in each sort. That the author’s experience led him to
believe that the quantities of carbon were different in the different
Nos.—greater in No. 1, less in Nos. 2, 38, and 4. Slow cooling of
large masses of iron renders them softer. In making the mixtures
of wrought and cast iron, different proportions of wrought-iron are
used ; for soft iron containing much carbon (or No. 1), more mal-
leable-iron, and for harder iron, less. Welsh, Scotch, Staffordshire
iron differing much from each other—the Scotch being the softest,
the Welsh the hardest. By the proper proportioning the addition of
malleable-iron, the strength of cast-iron is nearly doubled, both
transversely and tensilely. By melting this mixture of wrought and
cast iron, and then puddling the mixture, a very superior kind of
wrought-iron is obtained, and the process of refining is avoided. By
the addition of calamine or zinc to common iron, without the admix-
ture of wrought-iron, a very superior malleable-iron is produced,
equal in appearance, when twice rolled, to iron that has been thrice

47

rolled, and very much stronger, or as 28 to 244. The increased
strength in the mixture of wrought and cast iron, called toughened
cast-iron, renders it peculiarly adapted for wheels, pinions, &c., and
for girders, columns, and other architectural uses. Several govern-
ment works so constructed—the Chelsea, the Windsor, and the
Yarmouth Bridges—also, at various iron-works, all rolls, pinions,
and cog-wheels are made of it. The wrought-iron made either
from the toughened cast, or by the admixture of calamine, is par-
ticularly useful for tension rods, chain-cables, &c. The addition of
antimony and some other metals to wrought-iron in the puddling
furnace gives a hard and crystalline iron, nearly allied to steel in
some of its properties, and is adapted, from its hardness and erystal-
line character, to form the upper part of railway rails and the outer
surface of wheels. When thus united to the iron containing zinc,
the best sort of rail results, combining strength, stiffness, and hardness
with anti-laminating properties, and being also cheaper than any
other kind of hardened rail or tire. Compounds of copper, iron,
and zinc are found to be much closer in texture, and stronger than
similar compounds of copper and zine (the proportion of iron not
usually excceding 13 per cent.), and can be advantageously used as
substitutes for gun-metal, under all circumstances, for great guns,
screws, propellers, mill brasses, and railway bearings; small addi-
tions of tin and other metals alter the character of these compounds,
and render them extremely manageable as regards hardness and
stiffness. The advantages which these compounds possess over gun-
metal are cheapness and increased strength, being about one-fourth
cheaper, and one-half stronger, and wearing much longer under fric-
tion. On many railways, the alloys of zinc, iron, copper, tin, &c.,
have superseded gun-metal for carriage bearings. An alloy equal
in tone to bell-metal, cheaper, and at the same time stronger, is
made from the alloy of copper, zine, and iron, a certain proportion
of tin being added. The addition of iron seems, under most, if not
all circumstances, to alter the texture of metallic alloys, rendering
it closer, and the alloys, therefore, more susceptible of a high polish,
and less liable to corrosion. Other alloys of iron were exhibited,
some shewing the extreme closeness of texture, others possessing
very great hardness, and suitable for tools, cutting instruments, &c.,
others possessing @ high degree of sonorousness. A bell was ex-
hibited, of fine tone; its advantages being cheapness (less than half

48

the price of common bell-metal) and superiority of tone. Other
alloys of iron, copper, zinc, manganese, and nickel were exhibited,
some bearing a near resemblance to gold, others to silver; the
latter being now most extensively made in Birmingham, and gra-
dually superseding German silver, or at least being largely used in-
stead of that alloy, which it surpasses in lustre, closeness of texture,
and freedom from tarnish. A malleable bell was also shown, the
tone of which was equal, if not superior, to that of a common bell
of same size: a specimen of this sort of metal was shown crushed
almost flat. The author recommended its use for ship and light-
house bells, &c.

3. On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with Numerical Results
deduced from Mr Joule’s Equivalent of a Thermal
Unit, and M. Regnault’s Observations on Steam. By
William Thomson, M.A., Fellow of St Peter’s College,
Cambridge, and Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow.

Sir Humphrey Davy, by his experiment of melting two pieces of
ice by rubbing them together, established the following proposition :—

“The phenomena of repulsion are not dependent on a peculiar
elastic fluid for their existence, or caloric does not exist ;’’ and he
concludes that heat consists of a motion excited among the particles
of bodies. ‘‘ To distinguish this motion from others, and to sig-
nify the cause of our sensation of heat,” and of the expansion or
expansive pressure produced in matter by heat “the name repulsive
motion has been adopted.”’*

The Dynamical Theory of Heat, thus established by Sir Humphrey
-Davy, is extended to radiant heat, by the discovery of phenomena,
especially those of the polarization of radiant heat, which render it
excessively probable that heat propagated through vacant space, or
through diathermane substances, consists of waves of transverse
vibrations in an all-pervading medium.

* From Davy’s first work, entitled “ An Essay on Heat, Light, and the Com-
binations of Light,” published in 1799 in “ Contributions to Physical and Me-
dical Knowledge, principally from the West of England ; collected by Thomas
Beddoes, M.D. ,’” and republished in Dr Davy’s edition of his brother’s collected
works, vol. ii. London, 1836.

49

The recent discoveries* of the generation of heat through the
friction of fluids in motion, and by the magneto-electric excitation
of galvanic currents would, either of them, be sufficient to demon-
strate the immateriality of heat, and would so afford, if required, a
perfect confirmation of Sir Humphrey Davy’s views.

Although Sir Humphrey Davy had established beyond all doubt
the fact that heat may be created by mechanical work, the converse
proposition, that heat is lost when mechanical work is produced from
thermal agency, appears to have been first enunciated by Mayer in
1841. In 1842 the same proposition was enunciated by Joule, and
a number of most admirable experiments illustrating the mutual
convertibility of heat and mechanical effect, and the constancy of
thermal effects through the most varied means, from given causes,
are described in his paper on Magneto-electricity, and adduced in it
from his former experimental researches by which the laws of the evo-
lution of heat by the galvanic battery had been established. The
same paper contains the first investigation on true principles that has
ever been made of the numerical relations which connect heat and
mechanical effect ; and numerical determinations of *‘ the mechanical
equivalent of a thermal unit” are given as the results of two
classes of experiments, in each of which mechanical work is spent,
and no other final effect than the creation of heat is produced, in
one class by means of magneto-electric currents, and in the other, by
means of the friction of fluids in motion.

In subsequent experimental researches he has made more ac-
eurate determinations, and, from his last set of experiments on the
friction of fluids, he concludes “that the quantity of heat capable
of raising the temperature of a pound of water (weighed in vacuv
and taken at between 55° and 60°) by 1° Fahr., requires for its
evolution the expenditure of a mechanical force represented by the
fall of 772 lb. through the space of one foot.”

* In May 1842, Mayer announced, in the Annalen of Wéhler and Liebig,
that he had raised the temperature of water from 12° to 13° cent., by agitating
it. In 1843, Joule announced in the Philosophical Magazine that “ heat is
evolved by the passage of water through narrow tubes ;” and in the month of
August of that year (1843), he announced to the British Association that heat
is generated when work is spent in turning a magneto-electric machine, or an
electro-magnetic engine. (See his paper ‘‘on the Calorific Effects of Magneto-
Blectricity and on the Mechanical Value of Heat.” Phil. Mag. vol. xxiii. 1843.)

50

The object of the present paper is threefold—
(1.) To show what modifications of the conclusions arrived at by
Carnot, and by others who have followed his peculiar mode of rea-

soning regarding the motive power of heat, must be made when the-

hypothesis of the Dynamical Theory, contrary as it is to Carnot’s
fundamental hypothesis, is adopted.

(2.) To point out the significance in the Dynamical Theory, of the
numerical results deduced from Regnault’s observations on steam,
and communicated about two years ago to the Society with an
Account of Carnot’s Theory, by the author of the present paper ; and
to show that, by taking these numbers (subject to correction when
accurate experimental data regarding the density of saturated steam
shall have been afforded), in connection with Joule’s mechanical equi-
valent of a thermal unit, a complete theory of the motive power of heat,
within the temperature limits of the experimental data, is obtained.

(3.) To point out some remarkable relations connecting the phy-
sical properties of all substances, established by reasoning analogous
to that of Carnot, but founded on the contrary principle of the Dy-
namical Theory.

In the first part of the paper Mr Joule’s principle regarding the
mechanical equivalent of heat is shown to be in reality as certainly
true as Carnot’s would be if the hypothesis that heat is matter were
not false; and it is therefore adopted by the author, not as Carnot’s
principle was adopted by him temporarily ‘as the most probable
basis for an investigation of the motive power of heat’ without a
belief in its rigorous exactness; but, with implicit confidence, as a
true law of nature.

The following axiom is also adopted :—

Li is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to derive
mechanical effect from any portion of mutter by cooling it below the
temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects.

From Joule’s principle, and from this axiom, the two following pro-
positions, which constitute the foundation of the theory, are deduced.

Prop. J.—When equal quantities of mechanical effect are pro-
duced by any means whatever from purely thermal sources, or lost
in purely thermal effects, equal quantities of heat are put out of
existence, or are generated.

Prop. [1.—If an engine be such that when it is worked back.
wards the physical and mechanical agencies in every part of its

51

motions are all reversed, it produces as much mechanical effect as
can be produced by any thermo-dynamie engine with the same tem-
peratures of source and refrigerator, from a given quantity of heat.

The second of these propositions was first enunciated by Car-
not, and demonstrated by him on the assumption of his principle of
the permanence of heat. It was first enunciated and demonstrated,
without making that assumption, upon the true principles of the
dynamical theory, by Clausius, in the second part of his paper*
(published in May 1850), who founds it on an axiom substantially
equivalent to that quoted above. The author of the present paper
gives the demonstration, which is closely analogous to Carnot’s
original demonstration, and the axiom on which it is founded, just as
they oceurred to him at a time when he was only acquainted with
the first part (published in April 1850) of Clausius’ paper, and was
not aware that the proposition had been either enunciated or de-
monstrated except by Carnot.

From the establishment of the second proposition, on the princi-
ples of the dynamical theory, and an axiom that cannot pro-
bably be denied, it is shown that all the conclusions obtained by
Carnot and others who have followed him and adopted his princi-
ples, which depend merely on the fundamental equation expressing
**Carnot’s function,” in terms of certain physical properties of any
substance whatever, require no modification.

But the Theory of the motive power of heat through finite ranges
of temperature requires most important alterations which form the
subject of the second part of the present paper. The following ex-
pressions are given for the amount of work (W) derivable from a
unit of heat introduced into an engine at the temperature S, if
the coldest part of the engine is at the temperature T; in terms
of the portion (1—R) of the unit of heat which is converted into
_ work, and for the remainder, (R,) which is emitted as waste into
the refrigerator.

W=J (1-R);
1/8
R=" F nh et

where J denotes the ‘ mechanical equivalent’ of a unit of heat
determined by Joule.

* Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1850.

52

Tables of the values of these quantities, for different ranges, ob-
tained by using the values of ~ shown in Table I. of the author’s
Account of Carnot’s Theory, are given. An application to the case of
the Fowey-Consols engine which, according to the data quoted in the
Appendix to that paper, appears to have worked at 76 per cent. of
the true duty for its range of temperature (which was assumed to be
from 30° to 140° cent.), instead of only 67 per cent. of the duty
according to Carnot’s Theory; and to have emitted into the con-
denser only 82 per cent. of the heat taken in at the boiler, the re-
maining 18 per cent. having been converted into mechanical effect.

It is shown that the advantage originally pointed out by Carnot
may be still anticipated from the use of air instead of steam, as the
effective range of temperature of the air-engine can be made much
greater than is practicable in the case of the steam-engine. As an
example of the economy attainable by using a large range, it is
shown that, with a range of from 0° to 600° cent., about three-fourths
of the full equivalent is attainable by a perfect engine, while with
the range from 30° to 140°, which is about the greatest that is
practicable with steam-engines, even a perfect engine could not ob-
tain more than 27, or about one-fourth of the full equivalent of the
heat used.

The third part of the paper contains investigations of some for-
mulz with reference to the specific heats of substances of any kind,
derived from the equations which express the two fundamental pro-
positions. It contains also an application of these equations to the
case of a medium consisting of two parts, of the same substance, at
the same temperature, in different states. The results are appli-
cable both to the effects of pressure on the melting points of solids,
and to the conditions of saturated vapours, One of the conclusions
pointed out is, the very remarkable property of saturated steam, that
its “ specific heat is negative,” which was discovered independently
by Rankine and Clausius.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, for the
year 1850. Part 2, 4to.—From the Society.

Observations on Days of unusual Magnetic Disturbance, made at
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories, under the depart-

= =

53

ments of the Ordnance and Admiralty, Vol. I., Part 2.
(1842-4), 4to.—From the British Government.

Annales des Mines. Tom. II. (1847); Tom. IV., Liv. 1, 5, 6,
(1833) ; Table des Matiéres des 1'¢ et 2° Séries, 1816-30 ;
Tom. XIV., Liv. 6 (1848); Tom. XIX., Liv. 1, 2, 3,
(1841); Tom. XX., Liv. 4,5, 6 (1841); 8vo—From the
Ecole des Mines.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XIV., Part 1,
8vo.—From the Society.

The Geological Observer. By Sir Henry T.de la Béche. 8vo.
—From the Author.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. No. 214. 8vo.—From
the Society.

Monday, 7th April 1851.

Sir DAVID BREWSTER, K. H., Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Geology of the Eildon Hills. By Professor
J. D. Forbes.

The author first refers to a paper by Mr Milne, in the 15th
Volume of the Edinburgh Transactions, on the Geology of Rox-
burghshire, in which the general features of this district are accu-
rately described. The present paper contains a notice of some
minuter particulars regarding the formation of the Eildon group and
their boundaries obtained by detailed personal examination in 1849.

The remarkable general parallelism of the strata of greywacké
which forms the basis of the geology of the neighbourhood, is first
particularly insisted upon. The intrusive rocks, chiefly felspathic,
which abound near Melrose, have but little, if at all, disturbed the
general strike and inclination of the greywacké rocks, the former
being in a direction nearly east and west, and the latter nearly ver-
tical, The triple Eildon Hill is composed principally of brownish
red felspar porphyry, sometimes resembling clink-stone, at other
times containing quartz; the south-western hill shews vertical columns
of the same substance. The author was able to trace the strata of
greywacké to a great height on the north-western face of the twe

54

principal Eildons ; to a level in fact within two or three hundred
feet of the col or neck which unites them ; but the principal feature
which he insists upon is, that the highest summit of the group ap-
pears to be composed of a mass of greywacké rock, caught up in the
midst of the surrounding trap, and so metamorphosed by it as to be
with difficulty recognisable ; but the author considers that he bas
obtained a suite of specimens which leave no doubt as to the fact
of the gradation.

The other important trap-rock is the trap-tufa of Melrose, of
which the nature and extent were carefully examined, although the
latter is still subject to doubt. The formation appears to commence
close to the railway station at Melrose, and to extend in a westerly
direction towards Cauldshiels Loch, its breadth being in the Rhy-
mer’s Glen still considerable, but no section which shews it could be
obtained farther west. To the south of the trap-tufa behind Melrose,
there occurs a remarkable patch of red sandstone, horizontally de-
posited, and evidently identical with that of Dryburgh, where trap-
tufa also occurs. There can be little doubt but that the tufa is pos-
terior in date to this sandstone, whilst the Hildon porphyry is older.

A collection of specimens, illustrating the paper, is deposited in
the Museum «if the Royal Society.

2. On cert:.in Salts of Comenie Acid. By Mr Henry How.
Communicated by Dr Anderson.

~ The author commenced his paper with a few observations on the
comparative progress of the different departments of organic chemistry,
and remarked that the subject of the polybasic acids is not so com-
pletely studied as could be wished, and that he had chosen his subject
for investigation in the hope of adding some information on that point.

After giving a short history of comenic acid, he pointed out a
new method for the purification of the crude acid, which consisted in
the use of ammonia as a solvent, in place of potass. In this way
he got a salt readily deprived of colour, and whose impure mother
liquors were of use in subsequent experiments.

He then proceeded to detail the salts he had examined. The
bicomenate of ammonia, just mentioned, was a salt, crystallizing in

beautiful brilliant colourless prisms, whose formula is
NH, O, HO, C,, H, 0, +2 HO.

They lose their water of crystallization at 212°.

55

The corresponding salts of potass and soda crystallize in pris-
matic groups ; they are anhydrous, and their respective formule are

KO, HO, C,, H, 0,,
NaO, HO C,, H, 0,.

He proved the non-existence of neutral alkaline salt,—but shewed
that both neutral and acid salts are formed with all the alkaline
earths.

The acid lime-salt crystallizes from boiling water in transparent
rhombs, whose composition is expressed by the formula

CaO, HO, C,, H, O, +7 aq.

The 7 aq. are expelled at 250° Fahr.; the neutral salt of lime is
insoluble in water, and its constitution is

2 CaO, O,, H, O,, 2 HO +5 aq,, or
2 CaO, C,, H, O,,2 HO+ 11 aq.,

according as the fluids from which it is deposited are more or less
dilute ; the aq. is driven off at 250° Fahr.

The bicomenate of baryta crystallizes from hot water in transpa-
‘rent rhombs ; their composition is

2 (BaO, HO, C,, H, 0,) + 18aq.

The 13 aq. are lost at 212° Fahr.; the neutral barytic salt is in-
soluble in water, and has the formula

2 BaO, C,, H, 0, +2 HO+8 aq.

The 8 aq. are expelled at 250° Fahr.
The bicomenate of magnesia crystallizes from water in crystals
very like ferrocyanide of potassium ; their composition is

MgO, HO, C,, H, O,, 2 HO +6 aq.

The 6 aq. being driven off at 240° Fahr., the neutral magnesia
salt is insoluble in water, and has the constitution

2 MgO, C,, H, O,, 3 HO +8 aq.

The 8 aq. are lost at 212° Fahr.
After making a few remarks on some other salts, the author pro-

56

ceeded to discuss the products of decomposition of comenic acid. He
first shewed that it readily undergoes oxidation by nitric acid, and
by solution of persulphate of iron, with the production of carbonic
and oxalic acids in both cases, and elimination of hydrocyanic acid
in the former.

No change is produced by the action of sulphurous acid, or of
sulphuretted hydrogen.

When chlorine acts upon comenic acid or solution of bicomenate
of ammonia, a new acid is produced, crystallizing in fine brilliant
square prismatic needles: analysis shewed the composition to be

2 HO, C,, { G } 0, +8 HO.
12) Cl 8
The three atoms of water are expelled at 212°; in the formula of
the anhydrous acid, we have that of comenic acid, in which an equiva-
lent of hydrogen is replaced by chlorine,

This is a strong and bibasie acid, forming two series of salts: the
author, after detailing the properties and products of decomposition
of the acid itself, describes the appearance of some of these salts, and
gives the analysis of those of silver, whose composition he shews to be

For the acid, AgO HO, C,, {a } O, and
For the neutral, 2 AgO, C,, {a } Q,.

The action of bromine is precisely similar, and furnishes an acid
of the same character, appearance, and properties: its formula is

2 HO, C,, { if 0, +3 HO.

It loses its water of crystallization at 212°.

Some account is given of the salts of bromocomenic acid ; and the
author then goes on to examine the action of hydrochloric acid gas upon
absolute alcohol holding comenic acid in suspension. He details the
process by which he obtains a substance which is evidently comeno-
vinic acid, analogous to tartrovinic, sulphovinic acid, and such bodies.
It has the composition

HO; CP, 0; C,H, 0,.

It has an acid reaction, coagulates white of egg, &c., fuses and sub-

a7

limes unaltered ; but, though stable per se, is readily decomposed in
presence of fixed bases: for this reason only the ammonia salt
could be obtained, and that in a peculiar way; sufficient evidence
was given, however, of its being a true salt of the constitution

Bar, O, C, H,0, C,,.H,°0,.

The author then gives a description of a curious change which
ensues when an alkaline ammoniacal solution of comenic acid is
boiled, and which results in the production of comenamic acid, which
he shews to be constituted like osamic acid, it being an acid amide.
It is derived from the bicomenate of ammonia by the elimination
of two atoms of water; consequently, its formula, as proved by
analysis, is

HO, C,, H, NO,.
It crystallizes with four equivalents of water in beautiful micaceous
scales: its most distinctive property is the magnificent purple colour
it forms with persalts of iron.

It forms crystallizable salts with a certain proportion of potass,
soda, or ammonia, which have an acid reaction.

The formula of the ammonia salt is

NH, 0, C,, H, NO,.
The corresponding salt of silver is transparent and jelly-like ; that
of baryta crystallizes readily ; its composition appears to be
BaO, C,, H, NO, +2 HO.

A solution of the ammonia salt made alkaline gives with nitrate of
silver a yellow precipitate, which speedily becomes black,—and with
chlorine of barium, an insoluble white precipitate, which may be con-
sidered as having the composition expressed in the formula

BaO, C,, H, NO, +BaO HO.

The author concludes, by saying he believes he has observed in
the behaviour of comenamic acid, under certain circumstances, phe-
nomena which will repay further investigation.

3. On the Crystallization of Bicarbonate of Ammonia in
Spherical Masses. By Dr G. Wilson.

The author exhibited these spherical concretions, which had formed

58

in a subliming chamber, where carbonate of ammonia from gas liquor
was condensed ; apparently in consequence of a local whir] affecting the
condensing particles. They were formed of acicular crystals, confusedly
grouped, without a trace of radiation or of any regular arrangement.

4. On the Compressibility of Water. By W. J. Macquorn
Rankine, Esq., C.E.

The results of the experiments of M. Grassi on the above subject
(Comptes Rendus XIX.) follow sensibly this law.

The compressibility of water is inversely proportional to the
density, multiplied by the temperature as measured from the ab-
solute zero of a perfect-gas thermometer, viz.:—a point 274°6
below the ordinary zero of the centigrade scale, and 462°28 below
that of Fahrenheit’s scale.

Hence the compressibility of water follows sensibly the same law
with that of a gas.

Let D0 be the compressibility of water per atmosphere ; D its
density, the maximum density being unity ; + the absolute tempera-
ture, then

1
hed
where
K = 72 atmospheres per centigrade degree, or
40 atmospheres per degree of Fahrenheit.
D may be computed by the author's formula for the expansion of
liquids.—(Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, October 1849.)

Dr Gregory read a letter from his Grace the Duke of Argyll,
describing the locality of a white muddy deposit sent with the letter,
and exhibited in a dry state to the Society. The deposit occurs in
what appears to be an old channel between Loch Baa, at the foot of
Ben More in Mull, and the sea, passing through a dead flat. ~ The
lake discharges itself now by another channel. Dr Gregory found
the deposit to be silicious, with a trace of organic matter, and to
consist entirely of the silicious cuirasses of infusoria, like the berg-
mehl of Sweden. WNavicula viridis, and some bacillaria had been
observed in it by Dr Gregory, and Dr Douglas Maclagan, who under-
took a microscopical examination, found, besides Navicula viridis,

59

several species of Eunotia, and the beautiful rings of Gallionella
varians. The deposit occurs in the old channel to a very consider-
able depth, a long stick having failed to reach the bottom of the
white mud.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—

ELMSLIE WILLIAM Dattas, Esq.
The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Primo Decennio di Osservazioni Meteorologiche fatto nella Specula
di Bologna, ridotte esposte ed applicate da Alessandro Palagi,
M.D. 4to.—From the Author.

Neue Denkschriften der Allgemeine Schweizerischen Gesellschaft
fiir die gesammten Naturwissenschaften. Bd. 11. 4to.
Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern. Nos.

144-192. 8vo.—From the Society.

Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
bei ihrer 35 Versammlung in Aarau. 1850-1. 8vo.

Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
bei ihrer 34 Versammlung in Frauenfeld. 1849. 8vo.—
From the Society.

Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen gesammelt und durch sub-
scription herausgegeben von W. Haidinger. Bde. 2 and 3.
4to.

Berichte iiber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Wissenschaften in
Wien, herausg. von W. Haidinger. Bde. 3, 4, 5,6. 8vo.—
From the Editor.

Contribution to the Vital Statistics of Scotland. By James Stark,
M.D. 8vo.—From the Author.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nos. 215 and 216. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Mémoires de l'Institut de France. Académie des Sciences. Tom.
20, 21, 22. Ato.

Mémoires présentés par divers Savants a Académie des Sciences
de l'Institut National de France. Tom. 11,12. 4to,—From
the Academy.

Collection of Specimens illustrating the Geology of the Eildon Hills.
—By Professor Forbes.

VOL. Ill. F

60

Monday, 21st April 1851.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Economy of Single-acting Expansive Steam En-
gines, and Expansive Machines generally; being Supple-
ments to a Paper on the Mechanical Action of Heat.
By W. J. M. Rankine, Esq., C.E.

The author, in the first place, states the equations, which, when
used in conjunction with the Tables in the Appendix to the original
paper referred to, serve to compute the action of Cornish pumping
engines. They are similar in form to those of M. de Pambour,
but differ in the expressions for the pressure and volume of steam,
and for its expansive action, which the author in the original paper
deduced from theory.

Let A denote the area of the piston.

1, the length of the stroke,

n, the number of double strokes in unity of time.

c, the fraction of the whole bulk of steam above the piston at
the end of a down stroke, which is employed in filling the
valve-boxes and the clearance of the cylinder.

I’, the length of stroke performed, when the steam is cut off.

s, the ratio of expansion of the steam, so that

|

, ome

1 if ry 8

TaD GeiOE OO! genase

Let W be the weight of steam expended in unity of time.

P,, the pressure at which it enters the cylinder.

V,, the corresponding volume of unity of weight of steam,
which may be found by means of Table I., already re-
ferred to.

F, the resistance per unit of area of piston not depending on
the useful load.

R, the resistance per unit of area of piston arising from the
useful load.

Z, the ratio of the total action of the steam at the expansion s,
to its action at full pressure ; which may be found from
Table II.

E, the useful effect in unity of time.

61

The moment of closing the equilibrium-valve is supposed to be
so adjusted, whether by trial or by calculation, as to prevent any
sensible loss of power from clearance and steam passages. Let 1’
be the portion of up-stroke, remaining to be performed at the proper
moment for closing this valve, then

” _c(s—1)
L~ ‘l—e

This adjustment being made, the two following are the funda-
mental equations of motion of the engine :—
E=RA /n=W V, (P, Z—F)=useful effect in unity of time.

Aln
Va:8

1
The following are deduced from them, Ratio of mean load to

maximum pressure :—

a, = steam expended in unity of time.

R+F Z
a

Py

Duty of unity of weight of steam—

E
= =V, (PZ —F);
Weight of steam expended per stroke—
| WAL.
n Vis

1

The results of the last two formule are compared with the expe-
riments made by Mr Wicksteed on a large Cornish pumping-engine
at Old Ford at five different ratios of expansion ; and the agreement
is found to be so close as to prove that the results of the theory are
practically correct.

The results of experiment generally shew a somewhat less expen-
diture of steam for a given duty than theory indicates. This is con-
ceived to arise from the cylinder being heated by a jacket commu-
nicating with the boiler, in which the temperature is much higher
than the highest temperature in the cylinder.

The theory is next applied to the solution of the problem of the
economy of Cornish engines. The merit of first proposing this pro-
blem is believed to belong to the Artizan Club, who have offered

premiums for its solution, “ with a view,” as they state, “‘ to enable
F 2

62

“ those who, from their position, cannot take part in the discus-
“ sions of the various scientific societies to give the profession the
“ benefit of their studies and experience.’’ As the author’s paper
will not be published until some time after the date fixed by the
Artizan Club for receiving Essays, he expresses a confident belief
that it will not be considered as interfering with their design.

The problem in question is this; given the following—

P,, the initial pressure in the cylinder.

F, the resistance independent of the useful load.

In, the amount of the length of the effective strokes in unity of
time.

h, the annual cost of producing unity of weight of steam per
unit of time, which consists of two parts, cost of fuel and
interest of cost of boilers.

k, the annual interest of the cost of the engine, per unit of area
of piston.

It is required to determine the ratio of expansion s (and thence
the dimensions of the engine), such that the annual expense due to
interest and fuel

hAW+kA
shall be a minimum as compared with the useful effect E.
This condition is fulfilled by making the ratio

F
Z— P, s
hin+S5
EV,
a maximum.

This problem is solved graphically, by drawing two straight lines
on a diagram, a copy of which is annexed to the paper on a scale
large enough for practical purposes.

The following formule serve to compute the dimensions of the
engine.

Mean resistance of the useful load per square foot of piston :—

R=—P,—F

E
Rin

Area of piston = A=

i i il i rs lee

63
Expenditure of steam per unit of time,—

E

ite Vij .

A numerical example is added of the solution of this problem of
economy.

The next portion of this paper relates to the proportion of heat
converted into expansive power by machines.

A machine working by expansive power consists essentially of a
portion of some substance which alternately expands and contracts
under the influence of heat; receiving heat and expanding at a
higher temperature ; emitting heat and contracting at a lower.

The quantity of heat emitted is less than the quantity received,
the difference being transformed into expansive power. To make
the proportion of heat thus transformed a maximum, the tempera-
tures of reception and emission should each be a constant quantity,
so that none of the heat received or emitted may be employed in
producing changes of temperature. The temperature must be raised
and lowered by compression and expansion only.

Carnot was the first to assert the law, that when a machine works
under these conditions, the ratio of the power evolved to the heat
originally received, is a function of the temperatures of reception and
emission only, and independent of the nature of the working substance.
But his investigation not being founded on the principle of the
mutual conversion of heat and power, involves the fallacy that power
can be produced out of nothing.

The merit of combining Carnot’s law with that of the converti-
bility of heat and power, belongs to M. Clausius and Professor
William Thomson.

The author, having applied to this question the principles laid

down in the introduction and first section of his paper on the Mechani-
cal Action of Heat, has arrived at the following conclusions :—
4 First.—Carnot’s law is not an independent principle in the theory
of heat, but is deducible as a consequence from the equations of the
mutual conversion of heat and expansive power given in the first
section.

Secondly.—The maximum value of the ratio of the quantity of

64

heat converted into expansive power to the total quantity received
by the body, is equal to that of the difference between the tempera-
tures of reception and emission, to the absolute temperature of re-
ception diminished by a certain constant denoted by x = Cnmub
in the paper; which constant must be the same for all substances
in nature, in order that molecular equilibrium may be possible. That
is to say, let +, be the absolute temperature at which heat is received,
and ¢ that at which it is emitted ; then

maximum of heat transformed into power 07 ie
total heat received (4 Sones

The value of x is as yet unknown, but as an approximation it
may be treated as small enough to be neglected in comparison
with ¢,.

Although this formula is very different from Professor Thomson’s
in appearance, the numerical results are nearly the same.

The conditions of working to which Carnot’s law is strictly appli-
cable are not attainable in the steam-engine, and are different from
those on which the author’s formule and tables in the fourth section
are based. The proportion of heat converted into power in the
steam-engine is therefore found, both by experiment and by calcula-
tion, to be less than that indicated by Carnot’s law. The author
illustrates this fact by examples, theoretical and experimental,

2. On the Products of the Destructive Distillation of Animal
Substances. Part II. By Dr Anderson.

The author commenced by referring to the first part of his paper,
in which he had determined the existence, among the products of
destructive distillation of animal substances, of picoline, which he had
before obtained from coal-tar, and of a new base to which he had
given the name of Petinine; and had also indicated the existence of
certain other bases. On proceeding to the further investigation
of these substances, he had been much impeded by deficiency in
materials, and had, at length, been compelled to operate on no less
than 250 gallons, or about a ton of bone oil.

By separating the bases in a manner similar to that employed in
his first experiments, but with some modifications detailed in the

6a

paper, the author had succeeded in obtaining a great variety of pro-
ducts which had escaped his notice when operating on a smaller scale.
Among the most volatile products, and accompanying ammonia, he had
detected the presence of a base of the formula C, H; N, and which
had all the properties of methylamine. He had also determined the
presence of propylamine C, H, N, and rendered probable the exist-
ence of ethylamine C, H, N.

In the examination of the bases boiling at higher points great
_ difficulties had been experienced, and even after many rectifications
the indications of fixed boiling points were extremely indistinct,
but, by the examination of the platinum salts, the author ascertained
the existence of a base boiling at about 250°, having the formula
C,, H, N, for which he proposed the name of Pyridine, and of
another boiling about 310°, which has the formula C,, H, N, and
has the constitution of toluidine, but differs entirely from it in proper-
ties. To this base the author gives the name of Lutidine.

At the close of the paper the author also refers shortly to the
existence of an entirely different series of bases, to which he gives
the provisional name of Pyrrol Bases, which are distinguished by
the property of splitting up, under the action of strong acids, into a
red resinous matter, and one or other of the bases of the picoline
series.

3. On Carmufellic Acid. By Dr Sheridan Muspratt and
Mr Danson.

In this paper the authors, after mentioning the various researches
hitherto made on cloves and the substances therein discovered, de-
seribe the preparation of the new acid.

20 Ib. of cloves are extracted by boiling water, and the decoctions,
after being concentrated to six gallons, were acted on by nitric acid,
first in the cold, afterwards with the aid of heat. The action is
brisk, and irritating vapours are given off, which affect the eyes
strongly. Oxalic and carbonic acids are also formed, A white
deposit is separated by filtration, and the filtered liquid, on evapora-
tion, yields yellow micaceous scales of the acid, which are obtained
colourless by combining it with lead and separating it by sulphu-
retted hydrogen.

The acid is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and cold water, but soluble

66

in hot ammonia, potash, and large quantities of boiling water. It
forms gelatinous salts with the solutions of salts of baryta, stron-
tia, or lime, and also with those of lead; green flakes with salts of
copper ; yellow flakes with sesquisalts of iron; white flakes with
salts of protoxide of iron and silver. These precipitates shrink
much in drying, feel like mica, and dissolve in nitric and hydrochlo-
ric acids.

The analyses of the acid yielded results indicating the formula
C,, H,, O,,.. The baryta and lead salts appear to contain the acid
entire, which is unusual, their formula being MO, C,, H,, O,,, in-
stead of the base replacing an equivalent of water.

The authors are occupied with eugenic acid and the neutral oil of
cloves.

4. Farther Remarks on the Intermitting Brine Springs of
Kissingen. By Professor Forbes.

On the 7th of January 1839, I communicated to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh a pretty detailed account of the singular mineral
and gas springs of Kissingen, in Bavaria, then much less known than
at present to English travellers. I refer to this paper, printed in the
Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, April 1839, for the details of
the most curious of these,a saline spring called Kunde-Brunnen, which
was at that time regularly periodic; a copious and turbulent dis-
charge of brine, mixed with torrents of carbonic acid gas, recurring
six or eight times in the twenty-four hours. This phenomenon,
exactly as described in my paper, appears to have continued with
slight variation ever since, that is, for a period of twelve years,
subject, however, to the variation formerly mentioned, that when the
brine is actively withdrawn by pumps, for the manufacture of salt,
the periods lengthen, I have no additional observations of import-
ance to offer on this spring, beyond the remarkable fact of the con-
tinuity of these variations, surely the more remarkable when we
recollect that the spring is entirely artificial, rising through an
Artesian bore 312 Bavarian feet deep.

Much greater changes have taken place in the Schonborn Quelle,
briefly referred to in my former paper as having a depth of 550
Bavarian feet, as overflowing once in seven or eight minutes, and
yielding a feeble supply of weak brine, containing only one and a

67

half per cent, of salt. The boring process has been carried on,
though slowly, nearly ever since, and it is at present one of the
deepest Artesian bores ever made, being, at the time of my visits,
1878 feet. The bore passes first through Bunter Sandstein
(which forms the bed of the valley, the surrounding heights being
capped by muschel kalk and keuper), to a depth of 1240 feet; the
only spring met with in that space being the small salt spring which
existed in 1838, which occurred at a depth of 222 feet, with a tem-
perature of 8° Reaumur; it yielded only 6 cubic feet per minute,
with 1} per cent. of salt. On piercing the sandstone from between it
and the gres vosgien rose a powerful spring, containing 24 per
cent. of salt, of a temperature of 15° Reaumur, or 66° Fahr., and
yielding from 93 to 100 cubic feet of water per minute, and proba-
bly quite as much carbonic acid gas. These fluids were driven up
the shaft with enormous force by subterranean pressure.

Not satisfied with this considerable success, the intelligent in-
spector, Mr Knorr, continued the laborious and expensive work
of boring, in the confident hope of reaching, if not the bed of
salt, at least the spring of stronger brine. At 1590 feet the upper
limit of the zechstein or magnesian limestone was reached, and at
1680 feet a source of carbonic acid gas appeared, which increased
the height to which the water could be driven up. At last, at 1740
feet, the limits of the rock salt formation was attained, the boring
irons bringing up saliferous clay, mixed with gypsum and anhydrite,
which continued down to the depth of 1878 feet, and which is capa-
ble of impregnating the salt water to saturation, coming up charged
with between 27 and 28 per cent. of salt. It is to be observed,
however, that it is only that portion of the spring rising at 1240
feet which can descend to the bottom and then rise up in this state
of saturation. The greater part retains its old per-centage of 24.
It is therefore of urgent consequence to continue the bore until a
spring has been reached at a lower level than the salt, and of sufficient
power to rise through it to the surface, and in that way alone can
this mineral treasure be made available for use ; and as the thickness
of the rock salt formation is supposed to be 700 or 800 feet, it may
be long yet before this object is obtained. At present, if I under-
stand right, the spring is not, properly speaking, intermittent, but it
may easily be rendered so by a singular artifice which I saw put in
practice. When the workmen wish to stop the flow of water, in

68

order to proceed with the boring, they surround the rods with a plug
of clay bandaged with cloth, so that by lowering it into the bore-
hole, which contracts at a certain depth, they stop it as when one
corks a phial. In an instant all is still, the turmoil of water foam-
ing with gas is at an end; and this tranquillity lasts for many days,
and when the spring again rises, it may be stopped out in a similar
way. Inspector Knorr thinks that he has established a kind of law
in these remissions to this effect, that the number of days which
elapse before the spontaneous return of the spring is thrice the
number during which it had before flowed. Thus, if the spring has
been allowed to rise uninterruptedly for five days, and is then
stopped, it will remain fifteen days out.

Under ordinary circumstances, the gas and water exhaust their
projectile force in a cauldron or shaft of considerable depth and
width, in which the Artesian bore terminates; but Mr Knorr gave
us an opportunity of witnessing its ascensional power, by fitting a
tube into the entrance of the bore, thus leading it up to the surface
of the ground; it then spouted from that level to a height of at least
50 feet in the free air, having at its emission a diameter equal to
that of a man’s thigh. When we consider that it has first to rise
1240 feet through the earth, and that it is impelled by a mysterious
and unseen, but apparently exhaustless, power beneath, and with this
astonishing force, the phenomenon is certainly very surprising.

I shall only add the temperatures of some remarkable springs,
taken in 1850 with great care, and which are the very same with
those observed by me twelve years previous, the results of which may

be found in my former paper.

Schénborn Quelle (Saline) 98 cubic feet per minute.

Therm. Corrected.
1850. June 25, 5 p.m. 67:2’ A 3.
S500 265-4Pu. 66:8 Troughton. 66°3
Ragozzi (Medicinal.)
June 26, noon 52:05 Troughton. 51°55
July 2, 5 P.M. 52°25 do. 51°75
Pandur (Medicinal.)
June 26, noon. 51:8 do. 51:3
July 2, 5 p.m. 52-0 do, 51°5

i i

Ee

69

Therm. Corrected.

Mazx-Brunnen (Medicinal.)

1850. July 2, Noon. 49-4 Troughton. 48-9

Bocklet (Four miles from Kissingen, Chalybeate.)
July 1, 4 P.M. 50°7 Troughton. 50°2
Kapelle (Chapel at Kissingen, fine fresh-water spring in front of,
accompanied by much gas.)
June 28, 6 p.m. 51:5 A 3.
The above agree usually within a few tenths of a degree with the
observations made fully a month later in 1838.

5. On a Method of Discovering Experimentally the Relation
between the Mechanical Work spent and the Heat
produced by the Compression of a Gaseous Fluid. By
Professor William Thomson.

The important researches of Joule on the thermal circumstances
connected with the expansion and compression of air, and the ad-
mirable reasoning upon them expressed in his paper,* “ On the
Changes of Temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Conden-
sation of Air ;” especially the way in which he takes into account
any mechanical effect that may be externally produced, or inter-
nally lost in fluid friction, have introduced an entirely new method
of treating questions regarding the physical properties of fluids,
The object of the present paper is to show how, by the use of this
new method, in connection with the principles explained in the
author’s preceding paper on the Dynamical Theory of Heat, a
complete theoretical view may be obtained of the phenomena ex-
perimented on by Joule, and to point out some of the objects to
be attained by a continuation and extension of his experimental
researches.

The formule investigated in this paper are divided into three
classes :—

1. Those which are certainly true for all substances, or for all
fluids.

2. Those which are necessarily true for any fluid subject to
Boyle’s and Dalton’s laws of density.

* Phil. Magazine, 1845. Vol. xxvi., p. 369.

70

3. Those which would be true for every fluid subject to those
laws of density, if ‘‘ Mayer’s hypothesis,” that the heat evolved by
compression, when the temperature is kept constant, is the exact
equivalent of the work spent in the compression, were true for any
one such fluid.

The principal formule of the first class are two which express re-
spectively the quantity of heat evolved by the compression, by uni-
form pressure in all directions, of any substance whatever, kept at
a constant temperature ; and the total quantity of heat evolved by
a given quantity of fiuid forced through a small orifice, before it
attains to precisely its primitive temperature.

The former of these formule reduces itself to

i Seca: W

B (1 +E t)

where W is the mechanical work spent in the compression, and H
the quantity of heat emitted, for any fluid subject to Boyle’s and
Dalton’s laws. This formula was first given in the Appendix to the
author’s Account of Carnot’s Theory,—where it was shown to fol-
low from Regnault’s observations on the pressure and latent heat of

1+Et
saturated steam, that eat sky cannot be nearly constant for all

temperatures, if the density of saturated steam fulfils Boyle’s and
Dalton’s laws; but that the value of this expression is very nearly
J, the mechanical equivalent of a thermal unit, for ordinary atmo-
spheric temperatures. Hence this theory, and the assumed density
of saturated steam, are in full agreement with Joule’s experiments
which establish as approximately true for atmospheric temperatures
the hypothesis which was assumed irrespectively of experimental
verification, by Mayer.

The other formula mentioned above becomes, for a fluid subject to
the “gaseous” laws,—

1 E ig ae
Sameer ie

where p is the uniform pressure in one portion of a long tube ;
p’ the uniform pressure in another portion, separated from the
former by a piece of tube containing a partition with a very small
orifice ; t the temperature of the entering fluid up to the locality

71

where the rushing commences, and the pressure begins to vary,
which is also the temperature to which the fluid is reduced in the
other part of the tube before it reaches the end; and H the quan-
tity of heat which must be taken away to fulfil this condition, during
the passage of a quantity of fluid of volume w’, under a pressure
equal to p’, at the temperature ¢, through the apparatus.

From this it follows, that the test of Mayer’s hypothesis for any
particular temperature is to try whether, when the air enters at
that temperature, it leaves the rapids at precisely the same tempe-
rature. Calorimetrical methods of experimenting upon this appa-
ratus, like those of Joule, but susceptible of being continuously
used for any period of time, are suggested for determining, possibly
with very great accuracy, the value of

1 E

J B(U+ES)
for any temperature, should it not be exactly zero for all tempera-
tures, as it would be if Mayer’s hypothesis were true. The value
of J having been determined by Joule with very remarkable accu-
< racy, it follows that such experimental researches, besides affording
_ the solution of the problem which forms the subject of this paper,
_ would determine the values of Carnot’s function, by an entirely new
method, for the temperatures of the experiments.

»
a — ee

Grom the joinings of the slabs of limestone forming the roof of
Be he highest of the chambers of construction, discovered by Colonel
Vyse above the King’s Chamber in the great pyramid of Ghizeh.
4 No other part is lined with limestone, and there only this salt ap-
‘peared. Dr Gregory found it to be absolutely pure chloride of sodium,
“80 pure, indeed, that it had not undergone the slightest change in
thirteen years, although only wrapped in paper. Had lime or
magnesia been present, it would have deliquesced. Under the
microscope, the fibres exhibited oblique angles and fractures, and
_ they may possibly be regular six-sided prisms, derived from the
_ cube. Dissolved in water, the salt crystallized by evaporation in
_ the usual form. When heated, it gave off a trace of water, but re-

-

72

tained its form and aspect. ‘The origin of this salt is obscure ; but
it is probably derived from the limestone, which is known to be
nummulite, and believed to be marine limestone.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary

Fellow :—
The Rev. Dr JAMES GRANT, Edinburgh.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. XX.,
Part 2. 1851. 8vo.—From the Society.

Supplement to the Catalogue of the Atheneum Library. 8v0—
From the Atheneum.

Abhandlungen der Philosophisch-Philologischen Classe der K, Bay-
erischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Bd. VI., Abtheil 1.
Ato.
Abhandlungen der Historischen Classe der K. Bayerischen Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften Bde. I—VI., Abtheil 1. 4to.
Gelehrte Anzeigen herausgegeben von Mitgliedern der K. Bayeris-
chen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Bde. XXX., XXXI. 4to.

Almanach der K. Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, fiir
1849. 12mo.—From the Academy.

Annalen der Kéniglichen Sternwarte bei Miinchen. Bd. IV. 8yo.
—From the Observatory.

Abhandlung iiber das Schul. und Lehrwesen der Muhamedaner im
Mittelalter. Von Dr D. Haneberg. 4to.—From the Author.

Ueber die Praktische Seite Wissenschaftlicher Thitigkeit. Von
Fr. v. Thiersch. 4to.—From the Author.

Einige Worte iiber Wallensteins Schuld. Von Dr Rudhart. 4to.—
From the Author.

Ueber die Politische Reformbewegung in Deutschland im XY.
Jahrhunderte und den Antheil Bayerns an derselben. Von
Dr Const. Héfler. 4to—From the Author.

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. 3™¢ Série. Tom. XIV.
8vo.—From the Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. II., No, 32.
8vo.— From the Editors.

Experimental Researches on Electricity. By Michael Faraday,
LL.D.—From the Author.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

SESSION 1851-2.

CONTENTS.

Monday, 1st December 1851.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

PAGE

. On the Total Eclipse of the Sun July 28, 1851, observed

at Goteborg ; with a description of a new Position Micro-
meter. By Wirtiam Swan, Esq.,

. On the Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851, as seen on the

west coast of Norway. By Professor C. Prazzr Smyra,

. On the Nattire of the Red Prominences observed during a

Total Solar Eclipse. By Professor C. Piazz1 Smyru,

. Notice of some of the recent Astronomical Discoveries of Mr

Lassell. By Dr Traitt,

. Donations to the Library,

Monday, 15th December 1851.

1. On the Centrifugal Theory of Elasticity, and its connection

with the Theory of Heat. By W. J. M. Ranxinz, Esq.,
C.E.,

2. On the Computation of the Specific Heat of Liquid Water, at

various Temperatures, trom the experiments of M. Regnault.
By W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

3. On the Quantities of Mechanical Energy coktained ina Fluid

Mass, in different states, as to Temperature and Density.
By Professor Witu1am Txomson,

4. On a Mechanical Theory of Thermo- Electric Currents. By

Professor Wiii1amM ‘THomsoN,

[Turn over,

73
78
79

80
81

86

90

90

91

bo

ii

Monday, 5th January 1852.

PAGE

. On the Absolute Intensity of Interfering Light. By Profes-

sor Sroxes. Communicated by Professor KrLtanp,

- On Meconic Acid, and some of its Derivatives. By Mr Henry

How. Communicated by Dr T. Anperson,

. On the Place of the Poles of the sees By Professor

C. Prazzi Smytu,
Donations to the Library,

Monday, 19th January 1852.

. Defence of the Doctrine of Vital Affinity, against the Objec-

tions stated to it by Humboldt and Dr Daubeny. By Dr
ALISON,

. On the Fatty Acid of the Cocenlus Indicns. By Mr Wits

Crowper. Cémmunicated by Dr AnpERson,

Monday, 2d February 1852.

. On the Function of the Spleen and other Lymphatic Glands,

as originators of the Corpuscular Constituents of the Blood.
By Dr Beynert,

- On the Mechanical action of Radiant Heat or Tights On

the Power of Animated Creatures over Matter: On the

98
99

101
104

105

107

107

Sources available to Man for the production of Mechanical —

Effect. By Professor Witttam Tomson,
Donations to the Library,

Monday, 16th February 1852.

. On some Improvements in the Instruments of Nautical Astro-

nomy. By Professor C. Prazzi Smyru,

- Notice of an Antique Marble Bust. By Anprew Coventry,

Esq.

. Note on a Method of procuring very rapid Photographs. By

Joun Sruart, Esq., . :
Donations to the Library,

Monday, 1st March 1852. ’

. On some Salts and Products of Decomposition of Pyromeconic

Acid. By Mr James F. Brown. Communicated by Dr
ANDERSON,

. On the Organs in which Lead peoumlate in the Horse, in

cases of slow eee by that Metal. By Dr Groree
Witson,

. Notice regarding the occurrence of Pumice in the Island of

Tyree. By The Dux of Areytt,

. Recent Observations on the direction of the Strie on oaks

and Boulders. By James Smiru, Beq., 4
Donations to the Library,

108
114

114
115
116
117

rN 7.

119
120

121
121

For continuation of Contents see p. 3 of Cover.

|
4
I

73

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

_ ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. III. 1851-52. No. 42.

Srxty-NinTH SESSION.
Monday, 1st December 1851.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

~

1, On the Total Eclipse of the Sun on 28th July 1851, ob-
_ served at Géteborg ; with a description of a new Position
Micrometer. By William Swan, Esq.

_ T observed the eclipse from a hill about a mile to the north of
; Géteborg, situated in latitude 57° 43’ 5”, longitude 0" 47™ 495, in
company with Mr Edward Lane, Advocate, who kindly rendered me
__ his valuable assistance in making the observations for time. The
_ telescope I used was furnished by Mr Adie of Edinburgh. It has
a good object-glass, with an aperture of 2°1 inches, and about 31-5
inches focal length; and the eye-piece employed in observing the
“eclipse magnified about 28 times. A dark glass, lent me by Professor
¢ evallier, consisting of a coloured prism achromatized by a prism
” of colourless glass, slid in a groove before the eye-piece, so as to
_ admit of being instantly removed. This glass made the sun’s image
appear yellow, slightly tinged with green.
_ As considerable discrepancies occur in the positions assigned by
different observers to the prominences seen at the eclipse of 1842,

@ xq Vou, 111, a

74

I made use of a position micrometer, devised for the purpose of
rapidly determining their places on the sun’s limb. A circular plate
of metal, 8 inches in diameter, was attached, by a collar passing
through its centre, to the sliding tube of the telescope, to which it
was firmly clamped, so as not to turn round. This plate was
covered with a disc of card on the side next the eye-end of the
telescope. Inside the tube carrying the plate, another tube carrying
the eye-piece, slid smoothly, so as to admit of being freely turned
round. The latter tube was furnished with two springy arms, point-
ing in opposite directions, in front of the plate, like the hands of a
clock, and having steel points, by which holes could be pricked in
the card disc. A small level was attached at right angles to one of
these arms, and parallel to the card disc. In the eye-piece were
fixed three equidistant parallel spider lines, the outer two being
placed at an interval equal to the moon’s apparent diameter calcu-
lated for the time of the total phase of the eclipse ; so that when the
outer wires were made to embrace the moon’s disc, the middle wire
would pass through its centre. The instrument was adjusted for
observation, by causing the middle wire to coincide with a plumb-
line, seen at a distance through the telescope; while, at the same
time, the bubble of the level was brought to the middle of its tube
by turning the arms, which were then securely clamped to the tube
carrying the eye-piece. It is evident that if, after this adjustment,
the bubble were again brought to the middle of the tube, while the
outer wires were made to embrace the sun’s disc, the middle wire
would pass through its vertex ; and two holes being pricked in the
card, the line joining them would represent the sun’s vertical diameter
at the time of observation. If next, while the sun was kept between
the outer wires, the middle wire was made to bisect any object at its
limb, and holes were again pricked in the card, the angles between
the lines joining the respective pairs of holes would measure the
angular distance of the object from the sun’s vertex. In this manner
the positions of the red prominences, seen during the total phase of
the eclipse, could be rapidly registered on the card, without ever re-
moving the eye from the telescope.

The observations of time were made by means of a box chrono-
meter by Adams of London, obligingly furnished by Lieutenant C.
A. Pettersson, of the Navigation School of Goteborg. It was com~-
pared with his standard chronometer about 3° 15™ before the com-

75

-mencement of the eclipse, and again, the following day, after an

interval of 24 hours.

The weather, which previously had a very unfavourable aspect,
improved rapidly before the commencement of the eclipse. An ex-
tremely thin cirrous cloud, however, continued to overspread the sky ;
but this did not sensibly impair the definition of the sun, which was
remarkably good until some time after the total phase, when the
sky became more thickly clouded. During the progress of the eclipse
the cusps continued quite sharp, until the sun was reduced to an ex-
tremely narrow crescent of about 90° or less, when they were sensibly
rounded. This appearance became more and more decided, until at
length the moon’s limb was quickly joined to that of the sun by
numerous thick lines, which occupied nearly all the remaining crescent
of the sun. The spaces between the lines were at first rudely rect~
angular, but gradually became rounded so as to resemble a string of

bright beads, after which they finally disappeared. The same phe-

.
;
j
-

nomena were seen in a reverse order after the total phase, but the
beads were not so numerous as before.

The moment Baily’s beads were gone, I looked at the sun with the
naked eye, and saw the corona fully formed. The darkness at first
seemed great, owing to the contrast of the recent sunshine; and Mr
Lane found it necessary to use a candle in reading the chronometer.
The horizon, chiefly towards the north, was filled with light of a mag-
nificent orange-yellow, or amber-colour, by which I had no difficulty
in writing down the time of the commencement of the totality. It
was a ghastly spectacle to behold—a black sun surrounded by a
pallid halo of light, and suspended.in a sky of sombre leaden hue;
and there was so much to observe in the effects of the eclipse on the
appearance of the landscape, that probably about 15s elapsed before
I looked again through the telescope, having previously removed the
dark glass. The first object that attracted my attention was a re-
markable hook-shaped red prominence, situated 110° 30’ to the west
of the sun’s vertex; and immediately afterwards I saw another
prominence with a serrated top, resembling a chain of peaked moun-
tains, which was situated a little below the first, 132° 40’ to the
west of the sun’s vertex. At the risk of offering what may be
deemed a whimsical comparision, I can best describe the form of the
hook-shaped prominence by saying it resembled the Eddystone or
Bell Rock lighthouse, transferred to the sun, with its top beginning

G2

76

to fuse and bend over, like a half-melted rod of glass. The pro-
minences increased very sensibly in height during the progress of
the total phase, until at length the hook-shaped one had attained an
altitude which I estimated at rather more than 2’. Both had re-
markably definite outlines, and their forms were permanent so long
as they remained visible; the only change being, that they increased
in height, and became wider at the base, evidently owing to the
moon’s motion gradually disclosing those parts of them which were
nearest to the sun’s limb. They were of a full rose-tint, and were
distinctly visible to the naked eye by the strong red tinge they
imparted to the corona in their neighbourhood.

The corona cast no sensible shadow. To the naked eye, it appeared
slightly tinged with pale purple or lavender colour, which, perhaps,
was owing to the contrast of the strong yellow light in the horizon ;
for, when viewed through the telescope, it was silvery white. It was
distinctly radiated, and shewed no trace of annular structure. The
most striking feature it presented was the appearance of brilliant
beams of light, which shone out in various directions. They were
sharply defined, and brighter than the rest of the corona; and they
were visible to some distance beyond its general outline. The most
remarkable of these objects was a mass of light of a tolerably regular
conoidal form, with its base towards the sun, and the curvature of its
sides somewhat concave outwards, situated 28° 30’ to the east of the
sun’s vertex.

The first of the following Tables contains the observations, by
means of the position micrometer, of the red prominences, and of the
only spots visible near the sun’s limb on the day of the eclipse, with
the times of observation; the second, the times of the different
phases of the eclipse as observed by me, and also Lieutenant Petters-
son’s observations of time, which he has kindly placed at my dis-
posal; and the third, a series of thermometric observations. The
latter were made by means of two small thermometers by Adie of
Edinburgh, which were suspended in the shade. Their scales, by a
recent comparison with his standard thermometer, were found cor-
rect to the tenth of a degree,

77

: Taste I.

P
Time of Observation.
“se Object Observed. Giteborg ees ‘Time. Angle from Sun’s Vertex.

————————
:

Group of spots 15

7 1» 37m 96° 30’ West.
from sun’s limb,

sun’s limb, .

| Hook-shaped red

prominence,

Single spot ni a 1 40 62 0 East,
| about 3 58 110 30 West.

| Serrated. prominence, about 3 58 132 40 West.

Bright rays in corona, about 3 58 28 30 East.

Taste II.

Observed by Messrs Swan Observed by Lieutenant C.
and Lane in Lat. 57° 42’ | A. Pettersson, in Lat. 57° 42”
57"-3, Long. 0b 47m 458°2. 6-2, Long. 0b 47m 5le0.

Se eS tS Pe ee

| Commencement of 2h 63m 48-4 } gh 53m 38-86
eclipse, . - - (About 28 too late.)

4a ; } 3 55 58-22
Epeginning of totality, 3 55 52°6 { (te ides.)
| End of totality, 3 59 Bl 3 59 8:22

{ 4 57 57:8 4 58 2-59

| End of eclipse, . ;
| (Possibly too late.) (Difficult to observe.)

Tasze IIT.

Got. Mean Time. Dry Thermometer. Wet Thermometer.
Qh 45m 66° 60°
iO 64 59
3 15 62 57°5
3 30 61 56°6
3d 45 60 57
3 860 57°8 55'd
4 10 57 55
4 30 58°5 56
4 45 60 57
4 58 62°3 59°5
5 5 62 58°5
5 30 61 575

2. On the Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851, as seen on
the west coast of Norway. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

The author, who was in the party of Dr Robinson, Mr Alan
Stevenson, and others, mentioned the very kind manner in which
the Hydrographical Department had not only lent its instruments,
but even caused them to be altered and adapted for the occasion, and
also spoke of the liberal conduct of the Board of Northern Lights in
conveying the observers to the station selected. This was on the Bue
island, on the western coast of Norway, in lat. 61° 9’ 42”, and long.
E. 27™ 08,

The arrangements were, however, defeated in a great measure by
the cloudy state of the sky, which prevented any thing being seen of
the sun or moon during or after the totality.

The instant of the commencement of the phenomenon was, however,
observed, as well as an interesting case of an apparent repetition of it ;
and a good idea was obtained of the amount of personal and instru-
mental equation affecting the optical part only of the observations,
and reaching, in this instance, the large quantity of 1™ and 50s,

The darkness which came on at the same moment, was much
more intense than would otherwise have been the case had the sky
been clear. The heavens appeared all cloudy and black, except
a small strip on the north horizon, which became of a lurid-red

79

colour. Except in that quarter, where some very distant mountain
tops were visible out of the range of the moon’s shadow, the land
and sea were of a dark olive-green hue; and the awful aspect of the
whole was felt to be quite capable of producing those effects on
ignorant men which history records; while the Norse peasants about
confirmed such a conclusion by their sudden and terrified flight.

3. On the Nature of the Red Prominences observed during
a Total Solar Eclipse. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

The author remarked, that the various observers who had seen
the eclipse of 1842, gave such generally similar testimony of the
place and the size of the red prominences as satisfactorily established
them to be some celestial phenomenon. Then as to the question,
whether they belong to the sun or the moon, the observers them-
selves were unanimous in the former view, and the red points then
became flaming masses of fire some 40,000 miles in height.

The author, however, was by no means satisfied with the exact-
, ness of the proofs alleged; he had tried experiments, suggested by
Mr Nasmyth, for making the red points appear, if real, but without
success ; and he further alluded to the different shapes given by the
various observers to the same prominence, as rather militating against
the idea of its being a large body at the distance of the sun.

On the other hand, if the red points be merely the light of the
sun diffracted somehow at the moon's edge, the difference amongst
observers at small distances on the earth’s surface would be much
more easily explained ; and he found that by introducing a small
ball into the telescope when directed to the sun, and making it act
similarly to the moon during the total eclipse, that very similar-
looking points and tongues of pink flame could be produced.

He had. not, however, yet been able to make the eclipsing-ball
~ occult the artificial pink prominences, and, therefore, would only
attempt to establish that the solar existence of the points is only pro-
pable; and that those who hold it to be proved, should contrive
some means by which they may shew the said things in real being,
without getting some moon, natural as in the eclipse, or artificial,
as in the experiment, to stand in front of the sun, and act on its light
by diffraction or otherwise.

80

4, Dr Traill then gave the following Notice of some of the
recent Astronomical Discoveries of Mr Lassell, and exhibited
an accurate lithograph by him of Saturn, with the re-
cently-detected Dark Ring, &c. &c.

Mr William Lassell, of Starfield, near Liverpool, who has gained
a high reputation by his admirable method of constructing large re-
flecting telescopes, has largely added to his scientific character within
the present year (1851), by the discovery of an eighth satellite to
Saturn, and determining its period of revolution; and also, by the
detection of two new satellites of Uranus. This last discovery is
thus annouuced by him in a letter in my possession :—

“ T have diséovered two new satellites of Uranus. They are in-
terior to the innermost of the two bright satellites discovered by Sir
William Herschel, and generally known as the second and fourth.
It would appear, that they are also interior to Sir William Her-
schel’s first satellite, to which he assigns a period of revolution of
about five days and twenty-one hours—(but which satellite I have
as yet been unable to recognise. )

“ T first saw these two, of which I now communicate the discovery,
on the 24th of October, and had then little doubt that they would
prove satellites. I obtained further observations of them on the 28th
and 30th of October, and also last night ; and find, that for so short
an interval, the observations are well satisfied by a period of revolu-
tion of almost exactly four days for the outermost, and two and a
half days for the closest. They are very faint objects—certainly
have not the brightness of the two conspicuous ones, but all four
were, last night, steadily visible, in the quieter moments of the air,
with a magnifying power of 778 on my 20 feet reflector.”—Novem-
ber 3, 1851.

It is well known, that the noble instrument here alluded to is the
work of the hands of this eminent astronomer. Its focal distance is
20 feet. The great mirror is 2 feet in diameter, 2585 inches in
thickness, and weighs 420 lb. Mr Lassell’s method of obviating the
flexure of the mirror by its own weight, when resting on its edge,
is exceedingly ingenious. A series of twenty-seven screws, arranged
in triplets in three-armed iron plates, thus .*., press against the back
of the mirror, so as to keep its true figure unchanged by position.
Nothing can exceed the perfection of the metallic composition, and

*

.

81

the beauty of the polish. I may add, that for attaining a true para-
bolic figure in the grinding, Mr Lassell employs a beautiful mechan-
ism of his own invention, which is put in motion by a small one-
horse-power steam-engine. The powers which he uses with this
fine instrument, are,—

For planets, from 300 to 800.

For fixed stars, from 600 to 1200.

For double and triple stars, from 1200 to 1800.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Natuurkundige Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij
der Wetenschapen te Haarlem. Tweede Versameling, 7 Deel,
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An Essay Explanatory of the Tempest Prognosticator, in the build-
ing of the Great Exhibition for the Works of Industry of all
Nations. By George Merryweather, M.D. 8vo.—From the
Author.

Letters to a Candid Inquirer on Animal Magnetism. By W. Gre-
gory, M.D. 12mo.—From the Author.

Flora Batava. 165 Aflevering. 4to.—From the King of Holland.

Astronomical Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford, in the year 1848. By M. J. Johnson. Vol. IX.

- 8vo.— From the Radcliffe Trustees.

Astronomical Observations made at the Radcliffe Observatory,
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Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1835, 1836, 1837,
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_ — Society.

Reduction of the Observations of Planets, made at the Royal
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Reduction of the Observations of the Moon, made at the Royal
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Catalogue of 2156 Stars, formed from the Observations made during
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Greenwich, 4to:

82

Results of the Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Green-
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the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1848 and 1849. 4to.

Description of the Instruments and Process used in the Photographic
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Account of Improvements in Chronometers, made by Mr John J.
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Papers and Proceedings‘of the Royal Society of Van Diemen’s Land.
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Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Konigliche Universitits
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Abhandlungen der Kénigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
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Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts Universitit und der K6nigliche
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Beitrige zur Metallurgischen Krystallkunde. Von J. F. L. Haus-
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Handbuch der Mineralogie. Von J. F. L. Hausmann. ler. Theil.
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Plan and Description of the Original Electro-Magnetic Telegraph.
By W. Alexander, Esq. 8vo.—F rom the Author,

Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, con-
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Catalogue of the Library of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 8vo.
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Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vols. I., I., III.,
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Notice sur les Altitudes du Mont Blane et du Mont Rose, determi-
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The American Journal of Science and Arts. 2d Series. Vol. II.
No. 33. 8vo.—From the Editors.

ve

7
“A

83

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nos. 217 and 218. 8yo.
—From the Society.

Archives du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, publiées par les Profes-
seurs-Administrateurs de cet Etablissement. Tom. V., Liv. 1
& 2 (Paris.) 4to.—From the Museum.

Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, No. 14. 8vo.—From
the Society.

Verzangenheit und Zunkunft der Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Caro-
linischen Akademie der Naturforscher. Von Dr C. G. Nees
vy. Esenbeck. 4to.—From the Author.

Compendium der Popularen Mechanik und Maschinenlehre. Von
Adam Ritter von Burg. 8vo. ;
Compendium der Héheren Mathematik. Von Adam Ritter von

Burg. 8vo.

Ueber die von dem Civil. Ingénieur Herrn Kohn, angestellten Ver-
suche um den Einfluss oft wiedénholter Torsionen auf den
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von Burg. 8vo.

Programm fiir die Ordentlichen und Ausserordtlichen Vorlesungen
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Kuppfertafeln zum Compendium des Populiren Mechanik und
Maschinenlehre. Von A. von Burg. 4to.— From the
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Eighteenth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
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Théorie Mathématique des Oscillations des Barométre, et recherches
de la loi de la variation moyenne de la Température avec la
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Astronomical Observations, made during the year 1846, at the
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_ par A. T. Kupffer. 1847. Nos. land 2. 4to. From the
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le Partie. 4to.— From the Academy.

84

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en alaiio Academico de 1849 & 1850. 8vo.—From the Aca-
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Contributions to Astronomy and Geodesy. By Thomas Maclear,
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Tijdschrift voor de Wis-En Natuurkundige Wetenschappen, uit-
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Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. No. 15. 8vo.—From
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35. 8vo.—From the Editors.
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Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris. Catalogue Méthodique de
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Catalogue de la Collection Entomologique. Classe des In-

—

85

sectes ordre Coléoptéres. re et 2me Liv. 8vo. From the
Museum.

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Proceedings of Do. Do. Nos, 41, 42, 43, 44. 8vo.

List of Fellows of Do. Do. 1850. 4to—From the So-
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Bericht iiber die in Jahren 1848 und 1849 auf den Stationen des
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vations, 1841 to 1846. 4to.—From the British Govern-
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8vo, and a List of Members.—From the Society.

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From the Society.

Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St Pétersbourg.
ViIme Serie. Sciences Mathématiques, Physiques et Natu-
relles. Tom. 6me, lre Partie. Sciences Mathématiques et
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Mémoires présentés 4 |’ Académie Impériale des Sciences de St Pé-
tersbourg, par divers Savants et les dans ses Assemblées.

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___ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. V., Nos.
45 and 46. 8vo.—From the Society.
_ Mémoires sur le Digitaline, par MM. Homolle et Quevenne. 8yo.
(2 copies).—F'rom the Authors,
On the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland. By Sir Roderick
I. Murchison. 8vo.—From the Author.
_ Three Letters to the Inhabitants of Ceylon, on the Advantages of
a Vaccination. By John Kinnis,M.D. 8vo.
Contributions to the Military Medical Statistics of China, By John
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86

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Author.
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to Dec. 1849. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XI., No. 9.
8vo.— From the Society.

Monday, 15th December.

Sir DAVID BREWSTER, K.H., Vice-President, in the
Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Centrifugal Theory of Elasticity, and its con-
nection with the Theory of Heat. By W. J. M. Rankine,
Ksq., C.E.

This paper contains investigations founded on the supposition,
that that part of the elasticity of bodies which depends upon heat,
arises from the centrifugal force of the revolutions of the particles
of elastic atmospheres surrounding nuclei or atomic centres. The
author has laid before this Society and the British Association
several papers founded on this supposition, which he has elsewhere
térmed the hypothesis of molecular vortices.

The author’s previous investigations were confined to atoms in
which the particles of the elastic atmospheres might, without sensible
error, be treated in calculation as being distributed in concentric sphe-
rical layers round their nuclei or centres, each layer being of equal
density throughout, and having its particles throughout in a similar

—

87

_ state of motion. It might be doubted, therefore, whether the con-
clusions arrived at were applicable to any substances except gases,
or very limpid liquids, in which the mutual actions of the atoms are
similar in all directions.

To remedy this defect the present paper has been prepared, in
which no definite supposition is made respecting the arrangement of
the atomic centres, the distribution of their atmospheres, or the
form of the orbits which the particles of those atmospheres describe.
If the hypothesis, therefore, is a sound one, the conclusions are
applicable to all substances. It will be seen that they are all con-
sistent, and for the most part identical with those deduced from the
more limited supposition. The most important are the following :—

Let Q denote the mechanical value of the quantity of heat, that
is to say, the mechanical power corresponding to the vis-viva of the
molecular revolutions, in unity of weight of a substance. Let h be
the specific elasticity of the atomic atmosphere of the substance; &,
a specific constant depending on the nature of the substance; ¢, its
absolute temperature as measured by a perfect-gas thermometer, and
reckoned from a point 274°°6 centigrade —494°:28 Fahrenheit, be-
low the temperature of melting ice; and x, a constant depending on

the thermometric scale, and the same for all substances in nature.
Then

2Q.,
) eG)

be is the real specific heat of the substance.

; The expansive pressure of any body is composed of two parts ;
one depending jointly on density and heat, the other a function of
density alone. Let P be the total expansive pressure, p the part
depending jointly on density and heat, and V the volume of unity

of weight of the substances, so that = is its mean density. Then

P=p + f(V)
Let u be the weight of the atmospheric part of an atom; M, the
total weight; G,, a certain function of the density ; and G’,, G”,,
&c., the successive differential co-efficients of that function with re-
spect to the hyperbolic logarithm of V. Also let
xG 2G, «* G’

ye SL ae ;
=— ape tats &e., ad. inf.

88

Then
_ huG,
P-MVH,

This formula was successfully applied in a previous paper, to the
representation of M. Regnault’s experiments on the expansion of
gases, the co-efficients being determined empirically.

If the substance is in the state of perfect gas,

Let V, be the volume of unity of weight of any substance in the
state of perfect gas, under unity of pressure, at some fixed absolute
temperature r,. Then

The foregoing are the principal conclusions arrived at in the first
section of the paper, which treats of the relations between heat and
expansive pressure.

The second section treats of the relations between heat and ex-
pansive power.

Let the indefinitely small quantity of heat which must be com-
municated to unity of weight of a substance, to produce the variation
of temperature 6 r, simultaneously with the variation of volume 4 V,
be denoted by

6.Q=6Q+4+6 Of

8 Q being the portion which remains in the body as sensible heat,
being directly employed in increasing the velocity of the molecular
revolutions, and 6 Q’, the variation of latent heat, being that which
is transformed into expansive power and molecular action, in alter-
ing the form and sizes of the orbits of the revolving partiéles. Then

* Sud
> 9"
a ad

89

The integral being so taken as to be = 0 for the state of per-
fect gas.

Those two equations comprehend the whole theory of the mecha-
nical action of heat, and agree with those given in the author's pre-
vious paper on that subject. In that paper the assistance of Joule’s
Law was used in investigating the second equation; in the present
paper it is deduced directly from the hypothesis. The following are
some of its consequences.

Let P4V be the expansive power given out by the body while
the variations 6r and 6 V take place. Then

8Q+5Q'—P8V=s¥(V, 5)

is the exact variation of a function of rand V. This is the ma-
thematical expression of Joule’s Law.

Let unity of weight of a substance be brought from the volume
V,, and absolute temperature +,, by the process (a), to the volume
V, and absolute temperature r,, and restored to the original volume
ei temperature by the reverse of the process (b). Let r, and +,
be a pair of temperatures in the two processes, corresponding to the

same value of f <e dV. Theresult of the pair of processes will be

the transformation of a certain quantity of heat into expansive power,
whose value is as follows :—

V, V, Vv, has
PdV(a)— PdV(b)= r,—%) — dV.
2 One m=" ef

This equation comprehends as a particular case, Carnot’s Law
of the effect of machines working by expansion.

The following equation, hitherto known for perfect gases only, is
shewn to be true for all fluids. Let « denote the velocity of sound

in a fluid; K, and K, the specific heats at constant volume and

constant pressure ; then,
%

a= (v Uk x)

% VOL. Ill. H

90

2. On the Computation of the Specific Heat of Liquid Water
at various Temperatures, from the Experiments of
M. Regnault. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine.

The experiments of M. Regnault having been made by intro-
ducing water at a high temperature from a boiler into a calorimeter,
containing water at a low temperature, and power exercised by
the steam in the boiler in expelling the water was converted into
heat by fluid friction, thus producing a rise of temperature in the
calorimeter, for which allowance ought to be made in calculating
the specific heat of liquid water from each experiment. Mr Joule’s
determination of the dynamical value of the specific heat of liquid
water at low temperatures affords the means of calculating the cor-
rection required in each case.

The author of this paper having thus corrected several of the re-
sults computed by M. Regnault, shews that they agree nearly with
this empirical formula :—

ie ( oh ) ;
K, +a({ T—T,

Where K is the specific heat of liquid water at the temperature
T of an air thermometer, K, its specific heat at T,, the temperature
of its maximum density (which is 4:1° centigrade, or 39-4° Fahr.)
and a, a constant coefficient, whose values are—

For the centigrade scale, : : 0-000001
For Fahrenheit’s scale, 4 : 0:000000309

The paper is illustrated by three tables: the first shewing the
correction of M. Regnault’s results ; the second exhibiting a compa-
rison between the experiments and the formula, and the third giving
the results of the formula for every tenth degree of the centigrade
scale, from 0° to 260°.

3. On the Quantities of Mechanical Energy contained in a
Fluid Mass, in different states, as to Temperature
and Density. By Professor William Thomson.

Let p be the pressure of a fluid mass when its volume and tem-
perature are v and ¢ respectively, and let Mdv+N dt be the

_—s 4

a PQ

Oe ae a ~

91

-quantity of heat that must be supplied to it to augment its volume
by d v and its temperature by dt. The mechanical value of the work
done upon it to produce this change is the excess of the mechanical
value of the quantity of heat that has to be added above that of the
work done by the fluid in expanding, and is therefore

J(Mdv+Ndt)—pdv.

It was shewn in the author’s paper on the Dynamical Theory of
Heat, that this expression is the differential of a function of v and ¢,
so that, if this function be denoted by g, we have,—

9 (» )=[M-p) dv+Ndt}

This function would, if the constant of integration were properly as-
signed, express the absolute quantity of mechanical energy contained
in the fluid mass. Failing an absolute determination of the con-
stant, we may regard the function g as expressing the mechanical
value of the whole agency required to bring the fluid mass from a
specified zero state to the state of occupying the volume v and being
at the temperature ¢. In the present paper some formule are given,
by means of which it is shewn that nearly all the physical properties of
a fluid may be deduced from a table of the values of 9 for all values
of v and t; and experimental methods connected with the experi-
mental researches proposed in the author’s last paper, are suggested
for determining values of g for a gaseous fluid mass.

4. On a Mechanical Theory of Thermo-Electric Currents.
By Professor William Thomson.

It was discovered by Peltier that heat is absorbed at a surface of
contact of bismuth and antimony in a compound metallic conductor,
when electricity traverses it from the bismuth to the antimony, and
that heat is generated when electricity traverses it in the contrary
direction. This fact, taken in connection with Joule’s law of the
electrical generation of heat in a homogeneous metallic conductor,

suggests the following assumption, which is the foundation of tho

theory at present laid before the Royal Society.
When electricity passes in a current of uniform strength y through
a heterogencous linear conductor, no part of which is permittéd to
H 2

.

92

vary in temperature, the heat generated in a given time is expressible
by the formula
Ay+ByY
where A, which may be either positive or negative, and B, which is
essentially positive, denote quantities independent of y.
The fundamental equations of the theory are the following :—

F y=J (734 +B 7) Bro cre tn eet (a)
eee
Sa,=3a(I-e hy #4*) oe BG

where F denotes the electromotive force (considered as of the same
sign with y, when it acts in the direction of the current) which must
act to produce or to permit the current y to circulate uniformly
through the conductor ; J the mechanical equivalent of the thermal
unit; «, y the quantity of heat evolved in the unit of time in all
parts of the conductor which are at the temperature ¢ when y is in-
finitely small; w “Carnot’s function”* of the temperature ¢ ; T the
temperature of the coldest part of the circuit; and = a summation
including all parts of the circuit.

The first of these equations is a mere expression of the equi-
valence, according to the principles established by Joule, of the work,
F y,} done in a unit of time by the electromotive force, to the heat
developed, which, in the circumstances, is the sole effect produced.
The second is a consequence of the first and of the following equa-
tion :—

@yausay(@—-T) .- -.-. &
where 9 denotes the electromotive force when y is infinitely small,
and when the temperatures in all parts of the circuit are infinitely
nearly equal. This latter equation is an expression, for the pre-
sent circumstances, of the proposition (first enunciated by Carnot,
and first established in the dynamical theory by Clausius) that

* The values of this function, calculated from Regnault’s observations, and
the hypothesis that the density of saturated steam follows the “ gaseous laws,”’
for every degree of temperature from 0° to 230° cent., are shewn in Table I. of
the author’s “ Account of Carnot’s Theory,” Transactions, vol. xvi., p. 541.

+ See Philosophical Magazine, Dec. 1851, “ On Applications of the Principle
of Mechanical Effect,” &c.

t¢ “ Dynamical Theory of Heat” (Transactions, vol. xx., part ii.) Prop. II., &.

a

93

the obtaining of mechanical effect from heat, by means of a perfectly
reversible arrangement, depends in a definite manner on the trans-
mission of a certain quantity of heat from one body to another at a
lower temperature. There is a degree of uncertainty in the present
application of this principle, on account of the conduction of heat
that must necessarily go on from the hotter to the colder parts of
the circuit; an agency which is not reversed when the direction of
the current is changed. As it cannot be shewn that the thermal
effect of this agency is infinitely small, compared with that of the
electric current, unless y be so large that the term B y, expressing
the thermal effect of another irreversible agency, cannot be neglected,
the conditions required for the application of Carnot and Clausius’s
principle, according to the demonstrations of it which have been
already given, are not completely fulfilled : the author therefore con-
siders that at present this part of the theory requires experimental
verification.

1. A first application of the theory is to the case of antimony and
bismuth; and it is shewn that the fact discovered by Seebeck is,
according to equation (c), a consequence of the more recent discovery
of Peltier referred to above,—a partial verification of the only
doubtful part of the theory being thus afforded.

2. If © y denote the quantity of heat evolved, [or— © y the quantity
absorbed] at the surface of separation of two metals in a compound
circuit, by the passage of a current of electricity of strength y across
it, when the temperature t is kept constant; and if g denote the
electromotive force produced in the same circuit by keeping the two
junctions at temperatures ¢ and ¢’, which differ from one another by
an infinitely small amount, the magnitude of this force is given by
the equation

g=On("—-f >. . 2. se hd)
and its direction is such, that a current produced by it would cause
the absorption of heat at the hotter junction, and the evolution of
heat at the colder. A complete experimental verification of this
conclusion would fully establish the theory.

3. If acurrent of electricity, passing from hot to cold, or from cold
to hot, in the same metal produced the same thermal effects; that
is, if no term of 3 «, depended upon variation of temperature from
point to point of the same metal ; we should have, by equation (a)

94

1

p=s oS ° (¢=1); and therefore, by (d), ss =5 © pu.

From this we ae

thine sfinat

O©=@, € ; and g=(¢—t) 4 0, €
A table of the values of _? for every tenth degree from 0 to
eo, (’—t)

230 is given, according to the values of w,* used in the author’s
previous papers ; shewing, that if the hypothesis just mentioned were
true, the thermal electromotive force corresponding to a given very
small difference of temperatures, would, for the same two metals, in-
crease very slowly, as the mean absolute temperature is raised. Or,

if Mayer’s hypothesis, which leads to the expression 7 = for uw,

+Et
were true, the electromotive force of the same pair of metals would

be the same, for the same difference of temperatures, whatever be
the absolute temperatures. Whether the values of w previously
found were correct or not, it would follow, from the preceding expres-
sion for g, that the electro-motive force of a thermo-electric pair is
subject to the same law of variation, with the temperatures of the two
junctions, whatever be the metals of which it is composed. This
result being at variance with known facts, the hypothesis on which
it is founded must be false; and the author arrives at the remark-
able conclusion, that an electric current produces different thermal
effects, according as it passes from hot to cold, or from cold to hot,
in the same metal.

4. If 3 (¢ —t) be taken to denote the value of the part of = a, which
depends on this circumstance, and which corresponds to all parts of
the circuit of which the temperatures lie within an infinitely small
range ¢ to t’ ; is ighiates to be substituted for the preceding are,

e= — pe) tT9 C=) Sikes eet gong (6)
and therefore, i D

de 1
16) Joy, OT as
Sas Lapeer (f)

5. The following expressions for F, the electromotive force in a

* The unit of force adopted in magnetic and electro-magnetic researches, be-
ing that force which, acting on a unit of matter, generates a unit of velocity in
the unit of time, the values of ~ and J used in this paper are obtained by mul-
tiplying the values used in the author’s former papers, by 32-2.

95

thermo-electric pair, with the two junctions at temperatures S and T
differing by any finite amount, are then established in terms of the
preceding notations, with the addition of suffixes to denote the par-
ticular values of © for the temperatures of the junctions.
8 ; 8
F=/+od=JI { @,— 9,7: Sdt }
Gy dk

(9)
22187 Aa EE wit
=5{ 0, (-e cane cee rhea yar}

6. It has been shewn by Magnus, that no sensible electromotive
force is produced by keeping the different parts of a circuit of one
homogeneous metal at different temperatures, however different their
sections may be. It is concluded that for this case }=0; and
therefore that, for a thermo-electric element of two metals, we must
have,—

3=¥, (4)-—Y¥,
where ¥, and ¥, denote functions depending solely on the qualities
of the two metals, and expressing the thermal effects of a current
passing through a conductor of either metal, kept at different uniform
temperatures in different parts. Thus, with reference to the metal
to which ¥, corresponds, if a current of strength y pass through a
conductor consisting of it, the quantity of heat absorbed in any
infinitely small part PP’ is ¥, (¢) (¢—t) y, if t and ¢ be the tem-
peratures at P and P’ respectively, and if the current be in the
direction from P to P’. An application to the case of copper and
iron is made, in which it is shewn that, if ¥,, and ¥, refer to
these metals respectively, if S be a certain temperature defined below
(which, according to Regnault’s observations, cannot differ much

from 240° cent.), and if T be any lower temperature ; we have

8 .
Six -“(o}atmeo, 457,
y "

since the experiments made by Becquerel lead to the conclusion,
that at a certain high temperature iron and “copper change their
places in the thermo-electric series (a conclusion which the author
has experimentally verified), and if this temperature be denoted

_ by 8, we must consequently have @* = 0.

96

The quantities denoted by e., and F in the preceding equation

being both positive, it is concluded that, when a thermo-electric current
passes through a piece of iron from one end kept at about 240°
cent., to the other end kept cold, in a circuit of which the remainder
is copper, including a long resistance wire of uniform temperature
throughout or an electro-magnetic engine raising weights, there is
heat evolved at the cold junction of the copper and iron, and (no heat
being either absorbed or evolved at the hot junction) there must be a
quantity of heat absorbed on the whole in the rest of the circuit.
When there is no engine raising weights, in the circuit, the sum of
the quantities evolved, at the cold junction, and generated in the
“ resistance wire,” is equal to the quantity absorbed on the whole
in the other parts of the circuit. When there is an engine in the
circuit, the sum of the heat evolved at the cold junction and the
thermal equivalent of the weights raised, is equal to the quantity of
heat absorbed on the whole in all the circuit except the cold junction.

7. An application of the theory to the case of a circuit consisting
of several different metals, shews that if

e (A,B), (B,C), e(C,D), . . . 9(Z, A)
denote the electromotive forces in single elements, consisting respec-
tively of different metals taken in order, with the same absolute
temperatures of the junctions in each element, we have
e(A,B)+—(B,C)+e(,D) . . - +9(4,A)=0,

which expresses a proposition, the truth of which was first pointed
out and experimentally verified by Becquerel. A curious experi-
mental verification of this proposition (so far as regards the signs of
the terms of the preceding equation) was made by the author, with
reference to certain specimens of platinum wire, and iron and copper
wires. He had observed that the platinum wire, with iron wires
bent round its ends, constituted a less powerful thermo-electric ele-
ment than an iron wire with copper wires bent round its ends, for
temperatures within atmospheric limits. He tried, in consequence,
the platinum wire with copper wires bent round its ends, and con-
nected with the ends of a galvanometer coil; and he found that,
with temperatures within atmospheric limits, a current passed from
the copper to the platinum through the hot junction, and concluded
that, in the thermo-electric series

a —
Antimony, Iron, elise } Bismuth,

:
7

cry

97

this platinum wire must, at ordinary temperatures, be between iron
and copper. He found that the platinum wire retained the same
properties after having been heated to redness in a spirit-lamp and
cooled again ; but with temperatures above some limit itself eonsider-
ably below that of boiling water, he found that the iron and platinum
constituted a more powerful thermo-electric element than the iron
and copper; and he verified that for such temperatures, in the pla-
tinum and copper element the current was from the platinum to
the copper through the hot junction, and therefore that the copper
now lay between the iron and the platinum of the series, or in the
position in which other observers have generally found copper to lie
with reference to platinum. A second somewhat thinner platinum
wire was found to lie invariably on the negative side of copper, for
all temperatures above the freezing point; but a third, still thinner,
possessed the same property as the first, although in a less marked
degree, as the superior limit of the range of temperatures for which
it was positive towards copper was lower than in the case of the first
wire. By making an element of the first and third platinum wire,
it was found that the former was positive towards the latter, as was
to be expected.

In conclusion, various objects of experimental research regarding
thermo-electric forces and currents are pointed out, and methods of
experimenting are suggested. It is pointed out that, failing direct
data, the absolute value of the electromotive force in an element of
copper and bismuth, with its two junctions kept at the temperatures
0° and 100° cent., may be estimated indirectly from Pouillet’s com-
parison of the strength of the current it sends through a copper
wire 20 metres long and 1 millimetre in diameter, with the strength
of a current decomposing water at an observed rate; by means of
determinations by Weber, and of others, of the specific resistance of
copper and the electro-chemical equivalent of water, in absolute units.

The specific resistances of different specimens of copper having been

found to differ considerably from one another, it is impossible, with-
out experiments on the individual wire used by M. Pouillet, to deter-
mine with much accuracy the absolute resistance of his circuit, but
the author has estimated it on the hypothesis that the specific resist-
ance of its substance is 2} British units. Taking -02 as the electro-
chemical equivalent of water in British absolute units, the author has
thus found 16300 as the electromotive force of an element of cop-

per and bismuth, with the two junctions at 0° and 100° respectively.

98

About 154 of such elements would be required to produce the same
electromotive force as a single cell of Daniell’s ; if, in Daniell’s bat-
tery, the whole chemical action were electrically efficient. A
battery of 1000 copper and bismuth elements, with the two sets
of junctions at 0° and 100° cent., employed to work a galvanic
engine, if the resistance in the whole circuit be equivalent to that
of a copper wire of about 100 feet long and about one-eighth of
an inch in diameter, and if the engine be allowed to move at such
a rate as by inductive reaction to diminish the strength of the
current to the half of what it is when the engine is at rest,
would produce mechanical effect at the rate of about one-fifth of a
horse-power. The electromotive force of a copper and bismuth ele-
ment, with its two junctions at 0° and 1°, being found by Pouillet to
be about 3, of the electromotive force when the junctions are at
0° and 100°, must be about 163. The value of ©, for copper and
bismuth, according to these results (and to the value 160-16 of wu
at 0°), or the quantity of heat absorbed in a second of time by a cur-
rent of unit strength in passing from bismuth to copper, when the
temperature is kept at 0°, is 2%, or very nearly equal to the
quantity required to raise the temperature of a grain of water from
0° to 1° cent.

Monday, 5th January 1852.

Right REVEREND BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Absolute Intensity of Interfering Light. By
Professor Stokes. Communicated by Professor Kel-
land.

In this communication Professor Stokes described a method which
he had discovered, by which he could express, mathematically, the ab-
solute intensity of interfering light, as in the case of the images
found in the focus of a telescope pointed to a star, and having a
grating over the object-glass. ‘The result was the same as that
previously aimed at by Professor Kelland, but the mode of getting

at it was shorter.

a Se

Cs

99

2. On Meconic Acid, and some of its Derivatives. By Mr
Henry How. Communicated by Dr T. Anderson.

The author commenced his paper by observing that it formed a
sequel to one communicated to the Society last Session on comenic
acid ; his object in the present instance having been partly to ascer-
tain whether some of the substances described in his former paper
could not be derived from meconic acid, which is the parent acid of
comenic acid. This he shewed to be the case ; but before detailing
these experiments, he gave his process for purifying meconic acid,
which is that of Gregory, modified by the use of ammonia instead
of potass. Some grounds for preference of this plan were offered,
and the composition of the salt obtained in the process was shewn
to be

2 NH,O, HO, C,, HO,,.
It is a salt crystallising from hot water in groupes of needles ; is
not decomposed at the heat of boiling water by itself, but when
kept long at this temperature, in presence of ammonia, it produces
the comenamic acid,

HO, C,, H, NO,,

formerly described by the author as a product of the decomposition
of comenate of ammonia in the same manner. »

The action of chlorine on this salt gave rise, in the first place, to
another acid salt of ammonia and meconic acid,

2 HO, NH,O, C,, HO,,,
and, as a further product, chlorocomenic acid was isolated. Bromine
gave with meconic acid bromocomenic acid ; three experiments shew-
ing that meconic acid itself yields no substitution products, its mole-
cule splitting into carbonic acid, and the above-mentioned derivatives
of comenic acid.

The action of hydrochloric acid gas on solution of meconic acid
in alcohol was next gone into; and it appears that three products
are formed, their relative proportions depending on the amount of
gas employed, and the strength of the alcohol. They are all ethers.
The first is the ethylomeconic acid, represented by the formula

2 HO, C, H,O C,, HO,,.
It is a crystalline substance, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ;
fusible at 316° Fahr. to a yellow fluid. It is possessed of acid pro-
perties, and is indeed bibasic, forming two series of salts; this was

100

shewn by the description and analyses of two acid salts, the baryta
and silver salts, whose composition is thus expressed,

BaO, HO, C, H,O C,, HO,,

AgO, HO, C, H,O C,, HO,,,
and a neutral baryta salt, of the constitution,

2 BaO, C, H,0, C,, HO,,.
It was shewn that ethylomeconic acid undergoes a curious decom-
position in contact with ammonia, It appears very complex; and Mr
How gave, as representing the composition of the products he ob-
tained, an ammonia salt of an amide acid, and the acid itself, the
following formule,
Ammonia salt 9 NH,O, C,, H,, N,0,,+3 aq.

Acid of one 9 HO, C,, H,, N,O,,+3 aq.

The acid appears to be formed by the grouping together of six atoms
of normal amidomeconic acid and one of ammonia.

The second product of the action of hydrochloric acid gas upon me-
conic acid in alcohol was shewn to be an uncrystalline body, to which the
formula, C,, 0,, O,
from the coupling together of equivalents of meconic and ethylome-
conic acids,

C5 Hy, 0.,=3 HO, C,, HO,, +2 HO,C, H,O C,, HO,,
Want of substance prevented a complete study of this body ; but it
seems, from a few reactions tried, to be certainly more than a mere

g Was assigned ; and it was considered as formed

mixture of the two acids.

The third ether described was obtained from the mother liquors
of the preceding two. The formula of this substance, biethylome-
conic acid, is

OU, 2 UO, TO Cy, x00),,
it being meconic acid in which two atoms of basic water are replaced
by two equivalents of ether. It is a crystalline substance, fusible in
boiling water, in which it also dissolves on agitation. In the dry
state it fuses at about 230° Fahr.

It is an acid, monobasic ; an analysis was given of its ammonia
and its baryta salt, their respective formule are

NH,0O, 2 C, H,0, C,, HO,,
BaO, 2 C, H,;0, C,, HO,,.

Biethylomeconic acid is not decomposed by ammonia in the cold;

but Mr How believes it undergoes a change when heated with this

—_" a ee ee) ee
ex | 7 J

101

alkali ; want of material, however, prevented him arriving at a satis-
factory conclusion on this point.

8. On the Place of the Poles of the Atmosphere.
By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

This was merely a note on some of the recent discoveries and
generalizations, by Lieut. Maury, U.S.N., on the motions of the at-
mosphere. It had been clearly proved by the extensive researches
of Lieut. M., that the trade-winds when rising at the equator, do
not, as previously held, return to their own poles, but cross over to
the opposite ones; and thus traverse the extent of the whole earth
from pole to pole, in a curvilinear direction, on account of the effect
of the rotation of the earth. The whole atmosphere thus partakes
of a general movement, the upper half moving towards the poles,
and the lower towards the equator, or vice versa, according to the
latitude of the place ; the former occurring between the parallels of
0° and 30°, and the latter between 30° and 90°. At 0° and 30°
two nodes, so to speak, of the upper and lower currents take place ; at
the former ascending, and indicated by a low barometer ; at the latter
descending, and marked by increased barometric pressure. At the
point of 90°, the pole, or thereabouts, the revolution of the currents
and their change of direction for N. and S., and vice versa, with an-
other node, takes place, and marked, Lieut. Maury thought, by a
calm region, as the two nodal zones of 0° and 30° most undoubtedly
are.
As to the place of this calm polar point, which we shall probably
long want observations to determine, Lieut. Maury did not place it
over the poles of rotation of the world, but over the magnetical poles,
without, however, as the present author thought, sufficient reason.
Indeed, he much lamented that after the admirable developments
made by Lieut. Maury of the motions of the atmosphere, he
should have thus brought in merely the name of magnetism to clear
up one obscure point. Meteorology pursued on the system of strict
mechanical and scientific inquiry was now disclosing a most interest-
ing and understandable series of phenomena, and promised a legitimate
harvest of more. But the history of this science in times past, points
to so many occasions when rational trains of observation were impeded
by the gratuitous introduction of a magnetic or electric element, and
thought to be needless thereafter, that the author supposed that it
might be of some service to shew that there was no probability in

102

the present case, either from actual observation or natural consider-
ations, that such a force should be looked to for explanation.

1st, Of actual observation. The poles of any force should bear a
certain known relation to the equator thereof; and if we find the
magnetic equator coincident with that of the atmosphere, which may
be considered as marked out by the line of equatorial calms, we
might reasonably suppose a connection between their poles. But
we do not. The mean positions of these equators are very different
from each other, and are subject to such totally different movements
through the year, that we cannot legitimately expect any nearer
coincidence in their polar points.

2d, Of natural considerations. Mechanical force may always be
taken as the cause, and not as the consequence, of the magnetic or
electric currents by which it is accompanied. Certainly in the case
of an electrical machine, the electric spark may be made to produce
mechanical energy, as shewn in knocking small light pith balls about ;
but how incomparably less is this force to that employed to turn the
machine round in the first instance to produce the electricity.

Now, the atmosphere enveloping and rubbing over the world, may
be taken as a large electrical machine, and does produce electric and
magnetic forces ; but these, although startling enough when wit-
nessed by us, little pigmies of men, are of infinitely small moment
compared to the force required to keep the whole atmosphere in
motion, and to overcome its friction and inertia.

Again, with regard to the intensity of terrestrial magnetism, it is
found with one of Gauss’s large bars for determining the horizontal
force, by being suspended by two wires separated in the direction of
its axis, that the whole magnetic force amounts to less than 100,000th
part of the weight of the bar, that is, the force or attraction of
gravity.

Similar experiments might be adduced, to shew that when a body
is heated, though electrical currents may be produced, and may have
a certain mechanical power, that yet the quantity of this is almost
infinitely small compared to what might be produced by employing
the heat directly.

Hence, there can be no reasonable doubt, that the principal move-
ments of the atmosphere must be owing to mechanical and thermotic
causes, and only the smaller features to electric and magnetic currents.

A parallel case of the proneness of men to run for an explanation

li

103

to magnetism, occurred in the early history of the development of
the law of storms, and has not yet, so far as I am aware, been dis-
tinctly refuted by the public, or withdrawn by its promulgator.

In Colonel Reid’s first work (1838) on the revolving motion of
the hurricanes, after having, in the earlier portion, detailed, in the
most satisfactory manner, the laws of the phenomena, he gives, in
the latter portion, a glimpse of a theory of them, or at least, details
an experiment in which, on the surface of a magnetised ivon shell
representing the earth, a rotation in opposite directions was pro-
duced in helices in either hemisphere of the ball. This was thought
very interesting, as the hurricanes are found to revolve in opposite
directions in either half of the world; and it was further stated
that in St Helena, where the magnetic intensity is small, hurricanes
are unknown ; while in the West Indies, where hurricanes are so
rife, the magnetic intensity is at a maximum.

Here, it will be observed, is no attempt to shew whether the
magnetic power is suficient to cause the observed effect, or has any
power in that way at all, nor even to trace whether this particular
coincidence at two points, in the tropical belt of the earth, prevailed
at all others also; and in the Colonel’s last publication (1848) the_
question and the experiment are withdrawn altogether.

When, however, we examine the subject more extensively, we find a
pretty general rule to prevail all round the world, viz., that hurricanes
are most frequent in the western parts of those seas where the trade-
wind is suddenly stopped by the occurrence of land, and is unknown
in the eastern parts of the seas where it begins. Thus, not only is
the placid climate of St Helena fully accounted for by being in the

eastern position of the South Atlantic, but equally the similar freedom
. from revolving storms of the Cape De Verde Islands, the NW. and
; SW. coast of Africa, with California and Peru on the eastern shores
of the Pacific.

And again, while the West Indies are pointed out as likely places
for hurricanes, so are Rio Janeiro, Canton, the Mauritius, and
Madras, and, in fact, almost every place where hurricanes have
been met with, :

The stoppage, then, and interference of the trade-wind, a purely
mechanical question, is the cause of the hurricanes, and, according
to the greater or less force of the trade-wind, and the greater quan-
tity of air struggling to get over the barrier, as observed in the case
of water when a river is in a flood, or on a sea-coast at spring-tide,

104

so are more numerous and more violent eddies found, and they re-
volve in different directions in either hemisphere, because the direc-
tion of the parent trade-wind is also different in each.*

These mechanical causes, we may be certain, are acting, and must
have the chief share in the effects which we observe, and should
therefore be followed out in all their consequences, before we attempt
to introduce any problematical forces which cannot possibly have
much, if they have indeed any effect.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Flora Batava. Aflevering 166. 4to—From the King of the
Netherlands.

Mémoires de ]’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St Pétersbourg.
Sciences Mathématiques, Physiques et Naturelles. Tome IVme,
Liv. 3&4. 4to.

Mémoires présentés 4 l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St
Pétersbourg, par divers Savants, et lus dans ses Assemblées.
Tome VIme, Liv. 5&6. 4to.—From the Academy.

Memorie della Reale Accademia della Scienze di Torino. Serie
Seconda. Tomo XI. 4to.—From the Academy.

Annales de Observatoire Physique Central de Russie. 1848. 3
tom. 4to.—From the Observatory.

Compte Rendu Annuel, Addressé 4 M. le Comte Wrontchenko,
Ministre des Finances, par le Directeur de l’Observatoire Phy-
sique Central de Russie, A. T. Kupffer. 1850. 4to.—From
the Editor.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. XII., No. 36.
8vo.— From the Editors.
Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. 4me Serie. Tom. I. 8vo.—

From the Society.

* T have just met with an, at first sight, anomalous instance, in the account
of a circular storm experienced by the American exploring expedition under
Captain Wilkes in the neighbourhood of the Cape De Verd Islands, a similar
latitude to the West Indies, but on the “ wrong” side of the Atlantic, and
moreover revolving with the hands of a watch, “ wrong” also. But the parent
winfl in this case is described to have been SH., which explains everything ;
and shews that the whole phenomenon is an affair of mechanical conditions in the
currents of air at the place ; that these being reversed, the hurricane phenomena
are reversed also, and that there is no magnetic or other virtue residing in either
hemisphere, and compelling air to circulate in any particular direction by reason
of its place.

105

Abhandlungen der Kénigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin, 1849. 4to,

Monatsbericht der Kénigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.
1850, Jan. — Dec.; 1851, Jan.—Juni. 8vo.—From the

Academy.

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 1850. Vol.
IIl., No. 3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1850,
Nos. 3 & 4; 1851, No. 1. 8vo0,—From the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1851. No. 5. 8vo0.—
From the Society.

Monday, 19th January 1852.

Rigut REVEREND BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Defence of the Doctrine of Vital Affinity, against the
objections stated to it by Humboldt and Dr Daubeny.
By Dr Alison.

The object of this paper was to fix attention on the great physio-
logical discovery which has been gradually effected during the pre-
sent century, of the mode in which certain of the elements contained
in the earth’s atmosphere, under the influence of light and of a cer-
tain temperature, are continually employed in maintaining that great
vital circulation, of which vegetable structures, animal structures,
_ the air, and the soil, are the successive links ; and to point out that
- the most essential and fundamental of the changes here effected,—
_ particularly the formation of the different organic compounds in the
a cells of vegetables,—are strictly chemical changes, at least as clearly
- distinct from any chemical actions yet known to take place in inor-
a ganic matters, as the vital contractions of muscles are distinct from any

_ merely mechanical causes of motion ; and justifying the statement of
_ Dr Daubeny, that there appears to be “a power, residing in living
matters” and producing chemical effects,—in fact manifesting itself
most unequivocally by the chemical changes which result ie it,—

« distinct, at least in its effects, from ordinary chemical and physical

VOL. III. .

106

But after having made this statement, Dr Daubeny, according to the
author of this paper, has thrown a degree of mystery over the subject
which is quite unnecessary and even unphilosophical, by refusing
to admit—and quoting Humboldt, who has changed his opinion on
the subject, and now likewise declines to admit—that these changes
are to be regarded as vital ; both authors (as well as several other
recent English authors) maintaining, that as we do not know all the
conditions under which ordinary chemical affinities act in living
bodies, we are not entitled to assert that these affinities may not yet
be found adequate to the production of all the chemical changes
which living bodies present ; and that until this negative proposition
is proved, it is unphilosophical and delusive to suppose the existence of
any such power, as that to which the term Vital Affinity has been
applied, by the author of this paper and several other physiologists.

In answer to this, it is here stated, that as we cannot, strictly speak-
ing, define Life or Vitality, we follow the strict rules of philosophy, in
describing what we call living bodies, whether vegetable or animal, and
then applying the term Vital or living, as the general expression for
everything which is observed to take place only in them, and which
is inexplicable by the physical laws, deduced from the observation
of the other phenomena of nature ; that according to this,—the only
definition of which the term vital admits, or by which the objects of
Physiology can be defined,—Dr Daubeny has already admitted, in
the expressions above quoted from him, that chemical as well as me-
chanical changes in living bodies, fall under the denomination vital;
and as the rule of sound logic is “ afirmantibus incumbit pro-
batio,”—and as it is just as probable a priori, that, with a view
to the great objects of the introduction of living beings upon earth,
the laws of chemistry, as those of mechanics, should be modified or
suspended by Almighty Power,—this author maintains that we are
as fully justified in referring all great essential chemical phenomena,
which are peculiar to living bodies, to peculiar affinities, which we
term vital, as Haller was to ascribe the peculiar mechanical move-
ments of living bodies, to the vital property of Irritability ; and to
throw on the mechanical physiologists of his day the burden of prov-
ing, if they could, that the laws of motion, perceived in dead matter,
were adequate to explain them.

In illustration of the importance, both in Physiology and Patho-
logy, of this principle being held to be established, Dr Alison ad-

107

theory of Dr Murray to explain, on ordinary chemical principles,
the simplest and most essential phenomena of healthy Secretion ; and,
secondly, the now generally admitted inadequacy of any theory of
Inflammation, which does not regard a modification of the affinities
peculiar to life, and here termed vital, as the primary and essen-
tial change, in the matter concerned in that process.

7
;
‘
: duced two examples, first, the utter failure of the very ingenious
4
7

2. On the Fatty Acid of the Cocculus Indicus. By Mr
William Crowder. Communicated by Dr Anderson.

* The following Gentlemen were duly elected as Ordinary
Fellows :—

1. Eyre B. Powe Lt, Esq., Madras.
2. THOMAS MILLER, Hsq., Rector, Perth Academy.
3. ALLEN DALZELL, Esq.

Monday, 2d February 1852.

Srr DAVID BREWSTER, K.H., Vice-President, in the
Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Function of the Spleen and other Lymphatic Glands,
as originators of the Corpuscular Constituents of the
Blood. By Dr Bennett.

_ The author had been enabled to study the blood corpuscles under

circumstances capable of extending our information with regard to
their relations, mode of formation, and ultimate destination. In

1845, he had discovered a peculiar condition in human blood, in
E which the colourless cells were greatly increased in number. This
condition he had called leucocythemia, which was always associated
pe with enlargement of the spleen or other lymphatic glands, a circum-
_ stance which had induced him to form the opinion that the corpuscles
__ of the blood originated in these organs. This view he sought to esta-

blish by discussing at considerable length the following questions,
yiz. :—1st, What relation do the colourless and coloured corpuscles
bear to each other? 2d, Where do they originate? 3d, What is
their-ultimate destination ?

From the whole inquiry, which included numerous observations on
12

:]

108

the blood of vertebral animals, careful investigations into the struc-
ture of the ductless glands, and several experiments, he deduced the
following conclusions :—

1. That the blood corpuscles of vertebrate animals are originally
formed in the lymphatic glandular system, and that the great ma-
jority of them on joining the circulation, become coloured in a man-
ner that is as yet unexplained. Hence, the blood may be considered
as a secretion from the lymphatic glands, although in the higher
animals that secretion only becomes fully formed after it has received
colour by exposure to oxygen in the lungs.

2. That in the mammalia, the lymphatic glandular system is coms
posed of the spleen, thymus, thyroid, supra-renal, pituitary, pineal,
and lymphatic glands.

3. That in fishes, reptiles, and birds, the coloured blood corpuscles
are nucleated cells originating in these glands, but that in mammals,
they are free nuclei, sometimes derived as such from the glands, at
others, developed within colourless cells.

4, That in certain hypertrophies of the lymphatic glands, their
cell elements are proportionally increased in number, and under such
circumstances the colourless cells of the blood are also proportionally
increased. This is Leucocythemia.

5. That the solution of the corpuscles of the blood, conjoined with
the effete matter derived from the tissues, which is not converted
into albumen, constitute blood fibrin.

2. On the Mechanical action of Radiant Heat or Light:
On the Power of Animated Creatures over Matter:
On the Sources available to Man for the production
of Mechanical Effect. By Professor William
Thomson.

On the Mechanical Action of Radiant Heat or Light.

It is assumed in this communication that the undulatory theory
of radiant heat and light, according to which light is merely radiant
heat, of which the vibrations are performed in periods between cer-
tain limits of duration, is true. ‘‘ The chemical rays,” beyond the
violet end of the spectrum, consist of undulations of which the full
vibrations are executed in periods shorter than those of the extreme
visible violet light, or than about the eight hundred million millionth

aa
¥
| 109 "

ofasecond. The periods of the vibrations of visible light lie between
this limit and another, about double as great, corresponding to the ex-
treme visible red light. The vibrations of the obscure radiant heat
beyond the red end are executed in longer periods than this; the
longest which has yet been experimentally tested being about the
eighty million millionth of a second.

Theelevation of temperature produced ina body by the incidence of
radiant heat upon it is a mechanical effect of the dynamical kind, since
the communication of heat to a body is merely the excitation or the
augmentation of certain motions among its particles. According to
Pouillet’s estimate of heat radiated from the sun in any time, and
Joule’s mechanical equivalent of a thermal unit, it appears that the
mechanical value of the solar heat incident perpendicularly on a square
foot above the earth’s atmosphere is about eighty-four foot-pounds
per second.

Mechanical effect of the statical kind might be produced from the
solar radiant heat, by using it as the source of heat in a thermo-
dynamic engine. It is estimated that about 556 foot-pounds per

} second of ordinary mechanical effect, or about the work of “ one horse
j power,” might possibly be produced by such an engine exposing 1800
square feet to receive solar heat, during a warm summer day in this
country ; but the dimensions of the moveable parts of the engine
would necessarily be so great as to occasion practical difficulties in the
way of using it with economical advantage that might be insurmount-
able.

The chemical effects of light belong to the class of mechanical
effects of the statical kind; and reasoning analogous to that intro-
duced and experimentally verified in the case of electrolysis by Joule,
leads to the conclusion that when such effects are produced there will
be a loss of heating effect in the radiant heat or light which is
absorbed by the body acted on, to an extent thermally equivalent to
the mechanical value of the work done against forces of chemical
affinity.

The deoxidation of carbon and hydrogen from carbonic acid and
water, effected by the action of solar light on the green parts of plants,
is (as the author recently found was pointed out by Helmholz* in
1847), a mechanical effect of radiant heat. In virtue of this action

SS ee Se

* “ Ueber die Erhaltung der Kraft, von Dr H. Helmholz.” Berlin, 1847.

110

combustible substances are produced by plants; and its mechanical
value is to be estimated by determining the heat evolved by burning
them, and multiplying by the mechanical equivalent of the thermal
unit. Taking, from Liebig’s Agricultural Chemistry, the estimate
2600 pounds of dry fir wood for the annual produce of one Hessian
acre, or 26,910 square feet, of forest land, (which in mechanical
value appears not to differ much from estimates given in the same
treatise for produce of various kinds obtained from cultivated land,)
and asuming, as a very rough estimate, 4000 thermal units centigrade
as the heat of combustion of unity of mass of dry fir wood; the
author finds 550,900 foot-pounds (or the work of a horse-power,
for 1000 seconds), as the mechanical value of the mean annual pro-
duce of a square foot of theland. Taking 50° 34’ (that of Giessen,)
as the latitude of the locality, the author estimates the mechanical
value of the solar heat which, were none of it absorbed by the atmo-
sphere, would fall annually on each square foot of the land, at
530,000,000 foot-pounds ; and infers that probably a good deal
more, y750 of the solar heat, which actually falls on growing plants, is
converted into mechanical effect.

When the vibrations of light thus act during the growth of plants,
to separate, against forces of chemical affinity, combustible materials
from oxygen, they must lose wis viva to an extent equivalent to the
statical mechanical effect thus produced ; and therefore quantities of
solar heat are actually put out of existence by the growth of plants,
but an equivalent of statical mechanical effect is stored up in the or-
ganic products, and may be reproduced as heat, by burning them.
All the heat of fires, obtained by burning wood grown from year to
year, is in fact solar heat reproduced,

The actual convertibility of radiant heat into statical mechanical
effect, by inanimate material agency, is considered in this paper
as subject to Carnot’s principle; and a possible connection of this
principle with the circumstances regarding the quality of the radiant
heat (or the colour of the light), required to produce the growth of
plants, is suggested.

On the Power of Animated Creatures over Matter.
‘The question, ‘‘ Can animated creatures set matter in motion in
virtue of an inherent power of producing mechanical effect ?”’ must
be answered in the negative, according to the well-established theory

ef animal heat and motion, which ascribes them to the chemical
action (principally owidation, or a combustion at low temperatures),
experienced by the food. A principal object of the present com-
munication is to point out the relation of this theory to the dynami-
eal theory of heat. It is remarked, in the first place, that both
animal heat and weights raised or resistance overcome, are me-
chanical effects of the chemical forces which act during the combina-
tion of food with oxygen. The former is a dynamical mechanical
; effect, being thermal motions excited; the latter is a mechanical
effect of the statical kind. The whole mechanical value of these
effects, which are produced by means of the animal mechanism
in any time, must be equal to the mechanical value of the work
done by the chemical forces. Hence, when an animal is going up-
hill or working against resisting force, there is less heat generated
than the amount due to the oxidation of the food, by the thermal
equivalent of the mechanical effect produced. From an estimate
2 made by Mr Joule, it appears that from } to 3 of the mechanical
equivalent of the complete oxidation of all the food consumed by a
horse may be produced, from day to day, as weights raised, The
oxidation of the whole food consumed being, in reality, far from
complete, it follows that a less proportion than §, perhaps even
less than 3, of the heat due to the whole chemical action that
actually goes on in the body of the animal, is given out as heat.
An estimate, according to the same principle, upon very imperfect
data, however, is made by the author, regarding the relation between
the thermal and the nonthermal mechanical effects produced by a man
at work ; by which it appears that probably as much as } of the
whole work of the chemical forces arising from the oxidation of his
food during the 24 hours, may be directed to raising his own weight,
by a man walking up-hill for 8 hours a-day; and perhaps even as
much as } of the work of the chemical forces, may be directed to the
overcoming of external resistances by a man exerting himself for
6 hours a-day in such operations as pumping. In the former case
there would be not more than %,-and in the latter not more than ?
of the thermal equivalent of the chemical action emitted as animal
heat, on the whole, during the 24 hours, and the quantities of heat
_ emitted during the times of working would bear much smaller pro-
portions respectively than these, to the thermal equivalents of the
chemical forces actually operating during those times.

111

112

A curious inference is pointed out, that an animal would be sen-
sibly less warm in going up-hill than in going down-hill, were the
breathing not greater in the former case than in the latter.

The application of Carnot’s principle, and of Joule’s discoveries re-
garding the heat of electrolysis and the calorific effects of magneto-
electricity, is pointed out ; according to which it appears nearly certain
that, when an animal works against resisting force, there is not a con-
version of heat into external mechanical effect, but the full thermal
equivalent of the chemical forces is never produced ; in other words
that the animal body does not act as a thermo-dynamic engine; and
very probable that the chemical forces produce the external mechani-
eal effects through electrical means.

Certainty regarding the means in the animal body by which ex-
ternal mechanical effects are produced from chemical forces acting
internally, cannot be arrived at without more experiment and ob-
servation than has yet been applied; but the relation of mechanical
equivalence, between the work done by the chemical forces, and the
final mechanical effects produced, whether solely heat, or partly
heat and partly resistance overcome, may be asserted with confi-
dence. Whatever be the nature of these means, consciousness
teaches every individual that they are, to some extent, subject to the
direction of his will. It appears, therefore, that animated creatures
have the power of immediately applying, to certain moving particles
of matter within their bodies, forces by which the motiens of these
particles are directed to produce desired mechanical effects.

On the Sources available to Man for the Production of
Mechanical Effect.

Men can obtain mechanical effect for their own purposes either
by working mechanically themselves, and directing other animals to
work for them, or by using natural heat, the gravitation of descend-
ing solid masses, the natural motions of water and air, and the heat,
or galvanic currents, or other mechanical effects produced by chemical
combination, but in no other way at present known. Hence the stores
from which mechanical effect may be drawn by man belong to one or
other of the following classes :—

I. The food of animals. "

II. Natural heat.

Ne ara

nt Cita atiia— aa

113

III. Solid matter found in elevated positions.
IV. The natural motions of water and air.
V. Natural combustibles (as wood, coal, coal-gas, oils, marsh gas,
diamond, native sulphur, native metals, meteoric iron.)
VI. Artificial combustibles (as smelted or electrolytically-deposited
metals, hydrogen, phosphorus.)

In the present communication, known facts in natural history and
physical science, with reference to the sources from which these
stores have derived their mechanical energies, are adduced to establish
the following general conclusions :—

1. Heat radiated from the sun (sunlight being included in this
term) is the principal source of mechanical effect available to man.*
From it is derived the whole mechanical effect obtained by means
of animals working, water-wheels worked by rivers, steam-engines,
and galvanic engines, and part at least of the mechanical effect ob-
tained by means of windmills and the sails of ships not driven by
the trade-winds,

2. The motions of the earth, moon, and sun, and their mutual
attractions, constitute an important source of available mechanical
effect. From them all, but chiefly, no doubt, from the earth's
motion of rotation, is derived the mechanical effect of water-wheels

driven by the tides. The mechanical effect so largely used in the

sailing of ships by the trade-winds is derived partly, perhaps prin-
cipally, from the earth’s motion of rotation, and partly from solar heat,

3. The other known sources of mechanical effect available to man
are either terrestrial—that is, belonging to the earth, and available
without the influence of any external body,—or meteoric,—that is,
belonging to bodies deposited on the earth from external space,
Terrestrial sources, including mountain quarries and mines, the heat
of hot springs, and the combustion of native sulphur, perhaps also
the combustion of all inorganic native combustibles, are actually used,
but the mechanical effect obtained from them is very inconsiderable,
compared with that which is obtained from sources belonging to the
two classes mentioned above. Meteoric sources, including only the
heat of newly-fallen meteoric bodies, and the combustion of meteoric
iron, need not be reckoned among those available to man for practical

purposes.

* A general conclusion equivalent to this was published by Sir John Herschel

_ in 1833.—See his Astronomy, edit. 1849, § (399.)

114

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—

Dr JoHN WYLIE, late Physician-General, Madras.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. II. Collection of
Various Reports. 4to.—From the Smithsonian Society.
Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. Vol. 1V.,Pt.1. 4to.
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, Nos. 201-213. 8vo.
Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of

Science. August 1850. 8vo.—From the Association.
Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. 2d Series.
Vol. II., Pts. 3,4,5,6; Vol. III., Pts. 1,2,3. From the Society.
Novi Commentarii Academiz Scientiarum Instituti Bononensis.
Tom. VI., VII., VIII, IX., X. 4to.— From the Academy.
Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna.
Tomo I, 4to.—From the Academy.

Monday, 16th February 1852.
Mr RUSSEL in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On some improvements in the instruments of Nautical
Astronomy. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

The excessive motion of a ship at sea renders the use of the ordi-
nary instruments employed on land impossible, and restricts the
sailors to the use of one on the principle of the duplication of images
discovered by Hadly.

The favourite form is at present, and has always been, that of a
quadrant or sextant, i.¢., a part of a circle, rather than a whole one,
though this has often been brought forward by scientific men, and
proved to be the most accurate: but the construction of these circles
was generally too complicated, and practically unsuited to the cireum-
stances usually met with at sea.

Taking the best of the sextants, then, as the form generally found
in actual use, the author shewed that it laboured under many disad-

——a—.->- -*

115

vantages, some peculiarly its own, others shared in common with the
circular variety of doubly-reflecting instruments; and that, in a
word, they were all, though convenient enough for day observations
of the sun and moon, extremely inconvenient for, if not altogether
incapable of, observations of the stars at night.

The author then pointed out, in some instruments exhibited, their
various imperfections, explaining the cause, and giving the mode of
removing them ; and finally produced a new description of circle, in
which he had had all the above-mentioned imperfections corrected.

The execution of the idea had been entrusted to Mr John Adie,
and had been performed so efficiently, that the author considered that
his best thanks were due to Mr Adie, who had thus most materially
assisted the carrying out of the original ideas.

2. Notice of an Antique Marble Bust (with Photographs).
By Andrew Coventry, Esq.

Mr Coventry read a short notice of an antique marble bust which
he had had the good fortune to purchase from a gentleman in West-
moreland, last autumn, and had reason to believe had been brought
from Italy.

The bust, of which some very fine photographs were exhibited
(executed by Mr Tunny of Newington, and Captain Scott, R.N.),
Mr Coventry considered to be a portrait, and a work of high Greek
art. On various grounds, but chiefly from its great resemblance to
the busts‘of the young Augustus :—from the hair being treated in the
method in use in his day and soon after abandoned ; and from the
accordance of the features with the known history and character of
Octavia, the sister of Augustus, Mr Coventry was disposed at first
to think it the bust of that celebrated personage. But he deferred
to an opinion which he had received by that day’s post from Mr
Burgon of the British Museum, that it was the bust of Antonia
Augusta, Octavia’s second daughter by Mare Antony, in honour of

whom coins had been struck by her son Claudius. Mr Burgon’s

opinion rested on the authority of those coins, which were inscribed
with h@& name and bore the strongest resemblance to the photo-
graphs Mr Coventry had forwarded to him from his bust.

116

3. Note on a Method of procuring very rapid Photographs
(with Specimens). By John Stuart, Esq.

The following method of taking collodion portraits and views, is
so easy in manipulation, and so rapid in its results, that it is worthy
of the notice of every lover of photography. By means of an ap-
paratus adjusted to the lens of the camera, so as to open and close it
instantaneously, views can be taken with sufficient rapidity to deli-
neate vehicles in motion, assemblies of people, and even the waves
of the sea,

It also produces a picture combining both the positive and nega-
tive on the same plate; the positive being shewn by a reflected,
and the negative by a transmitted light. Copies on paper can be
thrown off from these plates to any extent ; but this is a difficult
operation, as any daylight, unless very carefully subdued, proves too
strong. The process is as follows :—A plate of glass perfectly clean
on the surface, and free from moisture, is coated with collodion, made
as under. It is then plunged into a bath of nitrate of silver in so-
lution (distilled water), 45 grs. to the oz. for sunlight, (100 grs. to
the oz. for portraits to be taken instantaneously in a room), and al-
lowed to remain till an oily appearance on the plate disappears. The
plate is then fit for the camera, and will remain sensitive for twelve
hours, or probably longer. After the view is taken, develop the
picture with a solution of the sulphate of iron (20 grs. to the oz.)
slightly heated, and fix it (after washing) with a saturated solution
of hyposulphate of soda. The plate when dry, must be kept some
days, and then varnished with a very thin solution of Canada varnish
in spirits of turpentine. Previous to varnishing, the picture should

be brushed over with a camel-hair brush, which adds much to its .

beauty and clearness. In a very dull light (but out of doors), the
above proportion, 45 grs. nitrate silver, will take portraits and views,
under ten seconds most distinctly, and unless the opening and shut-
ting of the camera be very quick, better pictures can be produced
thus than those taken instantaneously in strong sunlight. The col-
lodion found best to suit this process is made as under.—By*weight
sixty parts of pounded nitre, forty of rectified sulphuric acid, and two
of sea island cotton. The cotton must remain three minutes in the
mixture, and then be dried and dissolved in ether along with as much

se

117

of the precipitate of nitrate of silver by iodide of potassium as it will
absorb. The collodian should be very thin and as transparent as
water.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow.

JAMES CUNNINGHAM, Esq., W.S.
The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Verhandlungen der Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Aka-
demie der Naturforscher. 4to.—F rom the Academy.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vol. VII., Part 1.
8vo.— From the Society.

Museum of Practical Geology :—On the Science of Geology and its
applications. By Andrew C. Ramsay ;—On the value of ex-
tended knowledge of Mineralogy and the Process of Mining.
By W. W. Smyth ;—On the Importance of Special Scientific
Knowledge. By John Perey,M.D. 8vo.—From the Museum.

Monday, 1st March 1852,

RIGHT REVEREND BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On some Salts and products of Decomposition of Pyro-
meconic Acid. By Mr James F. Brown. Communi-
eated by Dr Anderson.

The pyromeconic acid employed in the following experiments was
obtained by distilling impure meconic acid at a temperature of about
500° or 600° Fahr., when there is obtained a highly crystalline sub-
limate of a dark colour and empyreumatic odour. Its purification
was effected by pressing the crystals so procured between folds of

filtering paper, and finally subliming them at a moderate heat in

cylindrical glass vessels provided with paper diaphragms. As thus

118

obtained, it is in the form of beautiful large transparent plates, of
ready solubility in water and alcohol. It is also soluble in ether,
reddens litmus faintly, and is completely volatile at 212°, a property
which may serve as a test of its purity from paracomenic acid, that
acid requiring a much higher temperature for its sublimation. Se-
veral attempts were made to prepare the ammonia and potash salts of
this acid, but without success.

The acid gave on analysis per-centage results agreeing with the
formula C,, H, O; + H O, which is that hitherto adopted.

Pyromeconate of baryta, Ba O, C,, H, O; + H O, precipitates as
small colourless silky needles, when a warm ammoniacal solution of
pyromeconic acid is mixed with acetate of baryta. By evaporation
im vacuo, it erystallises in four-sided prisms of a yellow colour. It
is the most soluble in water of all the earthy salts of this acid, 100
parts of water at 60° dissolving 2-50 parts of the salt.

Pyromeconate of strontia, Sr O, C,, H, O,+H O. This salt may
be obtained by mixing alcoholic solutions of the acid with ammonia
and nitrate of strontia, when there ensues an immediate precipitate
of the salt in small colourless crystals, of sparing solubility in water
and alcohol, 100 parts of the former at 68° dissolving 1-3 parts.

Pyromeconate of lime, Ca O C,, H, O, +H O. This salt was pre-
pared ina manner similar to that of the two preceding. It is
soluble in water and alcohol to a small extent, 100 parts of the for-
mer at 68°, dissolving 0-31 of the salt.

Pyromeconate of magnesia, Mg O C,, H, O,, falls as an amor-
phous powder, when acetate of magnesia is added to an ammoniacal
solution of pyromeconic acid.

The pyromeconates of lead, copper, and iron, have already been
examined, and I merely repeated their analysis, to confirm the for-
mule which have been given for them.

The products of decomposition of this acid were next examined,
cold nitric acid of sp. gr. 1:4 decomposes it with the evolution of
nitrous acid gas, and production of oxalic and hydrocyanic acids.
Sulphuric in the cold has no action on pyromeconic acid, but when
gently warmed, it dissolves to a colourless fluid, which, upon cool-
ing, deposits the acid again. I failed, however, in procuring an
ether or a chlorine substitution product of this acid. :

Bromopyromeconic acid, C,, H, Br O, + H O, is obtained in
the form of beautiful small colourless prisms, when bromine water

119

.is made to react on excess of pyromeconic acid. These crystals are~

slightly soluble in water, but readily so in boiling alcohol, they red-
den litmus faintly, and impart to persalts.of iron a deep purple co-
lour, quite distinct from the red produced by the original acid. Nitrate
of silver causes no precipitate in solutions of this acid ; neither when ;
boiled does it reduce the oxide to the metallic state. Submitted to
destructive distillation it fuses, and then blackens ; hydrobromic acid
is evolved in large quantity ; and after some time a white crystalline
sublimate makes its appearance, but in quantity too small to admit
of examination.

Bromopyromeconate of lead, Pb O C,, H, Br. 0, +H 0, is pre-
cipitated as small dense crystalline grains, when warm alcoholic solu-
tions of the acid and acetate of lead are mixed together.

2. On the Organs in which Lead accumulates in the Horse,
in cases of slow poisoning by that Metal. By Dr
George Wilson.

The chief object of this paper was to state the result of a careful
analysis of the viscera of a mare, which had died after receiving
daily, for six weeks or more, carbonate of lead in its food and drink.
Portions of the lungs, the heart, the large intestine and its contents,
the stomach and duodenum, the spleen, the kidney, and the liver,
were subjected to analysis by the author, assisted by Mr Stevenson
Macadam.

As the quantity of animal matter was large, it became a question
what preliminary process should be followed, with a view to facili-
tate the final charring to which each organ must be subjected. Sul-
phuric acid was rejected on account of its liability to contain lead,
and the certainty of its forming an insoluble compound with the
lead it might encounter in the tissues. Nitric acid had been found
in previous trials to act too slowly ; and a mixture of chlorate of
potass and hydrochloric acid left too large a residue of saline matter,
to seem applicable. Aqua regia, accordingly, which has been re-
commended in such cases by the French chemists, was tried, and was
found to answer every expectation.

Each of the organs was digested in a mixture of one part of nitric
acid and two of hydrochloric acid, which dissolved everything but
the fat. The resulting solution was evaporated to dryness, the resi-

120

due charred, digested in nitric acid, and the acid solution filtered
and exposed to a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen. A dark precipi-
tate was obtained which was dissolved in dilute nitric acid, evapo-
rated to dryness and redissolved in water, acidulated with hydro-
chloric acid. This solution was tested with sulphuretted hydrogen,
sulphuric acid, iodide of potassium, and bichromate of potass, and
acted characteristically with all the tests. The spleen yielded the
fullest indications of the presence of lead, the liver came next in
shewing indications of the metal, then the lungs, afterwards the kid-
neys, and lowest of all, the intestinal canal.

It would thus appear, that, in the case under notice, the spleen and
not the liver was the organ in which lead occurred most abundantly.
The author, accordingly, suggests that the spleen rather than the liver
should be the organ subjected to analysis in cases of suspected slow
poisoning with lead; at least, where a single organ only is analysed.

3. Notice regarding the occurrence of Pumice in the Island
of Tyree. By The Duke of Argyll.

The Duke of Argyll (in connection with other evidences of a more
conclusive kind, that, during some portion of the tertiary ages, there
had been some subaerial volcanic action in the Hebrides) explained
the mode in which pumice occurred in the Island of Tyree. The
pumice was found to form a bed or layer along the line of an ancient
sea-beach, and was in the shape of balls more or less closely packed
together. These appearances seemed to indicate that they had come
in on the waters of a tide or current in large numbers at a time.
They were manifestly sea-borne; and the only question was as to
the most probable source. The bay and general line of coast on
which they are found is not that which is opposed to the modern
eurrent of the Gulf Stream; but, on the contrary, looks eastward,
that is to say, towards the trap Islands of Mull, Staffa, &c.

The author considered it improbable that the origin of the pumice
could have been very distant, inasmuch as the greater the distance,
the greater would be the dispersion of such light floating bodies by
winds and currents ; and it was difficult to suppose that either from
the West Indies or from Iceland, pumice could have concentrated in
such quantities on such a spot. Its presence, however, and its de-
position, in the manner described, could be easily accounted for, if

—

oe -

121

any portion of the traps of Mull, Staffa, or the adjacent islets, were
poured out by a subaerial volcano; and these the author considered
as placed almost beyond dispute, by the facts brought to light in
connection with the tertiary leaf-beds, overflown by lavas, at the
opposite headland of Ardtan, in Mull.

4. Recent Observations on the direction of the Striz on
Rocks and Boulders. By James Smith, Esq.

Mr Smith of Jordanhill next read a paper on the direction of
the striae on rocks and boulders in the West of Scotland.

It had generally been supposed that the cause, whatever it was,
which lodged the erratic block beds in their present position had
proceeded from the north and west.

This was true with respect to the basin of the Clyde and the east
coast of Scotland ; but on the western coast of Argyllshire, at Loch
Crinan and Appin he had observed that the strike side (stoss seite) of
the rocks pointed to the east, and the lee side (lee seite) to the
west, shewing that, in these cases, the direction of the moving force
was from east to west. Mr Hopkins’ recent observations on the
direction from which boulders near Oban have been derived, shewed
that they also must have come in the same direction.

Mr Smith then observed the occurrence of a large angular granite
block on the shore at Helensburgh, which apparently must have
- been transported over ice. He had also observed at the Island of
Cumbra an angular mass of trap, resting on a scratched rock, and
split vertically into several pieces ; he had observed blocks split in
the same manner, which had fallen from the terminus of the glacier
of Grindelwald.

_____ The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

~ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1851.
a Part 2. 4to.

List of Fellows of Do. 830th Nov.1851. 4to.—From the Society.
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XX. 4to.
Notices of Do. Vol. II. 1850-1. Nos. 1-9. 8vo—From the

Society. .
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. VIII., Part 1.
8v0.— From the Society.
VOL. III. K

122

American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. XIII., No. 37. 8vo.
—From the Editors.

Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. Vol. IIL,
Part 5. 8vo.—F rom the Society.

Transactions of the Architectural Institute of Scotland. Vol. I1.,
Part 2. 8vo.—F rom the Institute.

Journal of Agriculture, and Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. N.S. No. 36. 8vo.—
From the Society.

Astronomical and Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1850. 4to.
—From the Royal Society.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathemat. Natur. Classe. Bd. VII., Stiick 1 & 2. 8v0.—
From the Academy.

Flora Batava. No. 167. 4to.—From the King of Holland.

Guide to Northern Archeology, by the Royal Society of Northern
Antiquaries of Copenhagen. Edited by the Right Hon. the
Earl of Ellesmere. 8vo.—From the Editor.

Papers on Railway and Electric Communications, &c., &c. By
Walter White. 12mo.—From the Author.

Rules and Regulations, and List of Members, of the Athenzeum.
12mo.—From the Atheneum.

Monday, 15th March 1852.

Right REVEREND BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—
1. On the Analysis of some Scottish Minerals.
By Dr A. J. Scott, H.E.I.C.S.

In this paper, the author detailed the analysis of some minerals
which were placed at his disposal through the kindness of Dr Ander-
son, in whose laboratory they were examined by him.

Pectolite.—The first of the series was a mineral found at Storr,
in the Island of Skye. It bears a great resemblance to dysclasite

123

in its external characters, but differs in appearance from that mi-
neral, in possessing a much higher haste. Its quantitative analysis
gave the following results.

Silicic acid, : i 52:007

Alumina, . ; : 1-820

Lime, : ‘ : 32°854

a Magnesia, : : 6:°396
Soda, A : ; 7670

Water, : , Y 5:058

99°805

agreeing with the formula,
Na O, Si O, + (4 Ca O, 3 Si O,)+ 2 HO,

the calculation being,
Silicic acid, 4 atoms, 181:2 — 52:6

Lime, 4. 3.; 112°0 — 32-4
Soda, | Ea 81:3 — 91
Water, Bate 18:

342°5 100

which approximates much more closely to the experimental results,
than the complicated formula proposed by Berzelius,

3 (Na O, Si O,) +4 (3 Ca O, 2 Si O,)+3 HO.

The occurrence of this mineral in Scotland has not been hitherto
noticed.

Natrolite.—A specimen received from Mr Rose of this city, and
found in a railway tunnel at Bishopstown in Renfrewshire, was
found to consist of

Silicie acid, : : 47-626

Alumina, . f r 27-170

Soda, ? ; : 15-124

Water, . ; ; 9-780
99-700 ,

Corresponding with the well-known formula of Natrolite,
Na O, Si 0, +Al, 0,, SiO, +2 HO.

Lawmonite.—Found at Storr in Skye, in a vein traversing trap,
K 2

124

and associated with stilbite. It was supposed by some to be hypo-
stilbite, but a quantitative examination gave the following results,

Silicic acid, ; : 53:°048
Alumina, . : : 22-943
Lime, : : ; 9-676
Water, _ : - 14:639
100-306 4

This analysis corresponds to that of Laumonite, but its formula
given by Gerhardt is not very satisfactory,
3 Ca O, 2 Si O,+3 (Al, O,, 2 Si O,)+ 12 HO,
Scolezite—A mineral found in Mull, consisting of long radiated
needles, the composition of which was found to be,

Silicic acid, ; ; 46:214
Alumina, . ; ’ 27:0
Lime, : ‘ A 13°450
Water, : 3 3 13-780
100°444

corresponding to the formula of scolezite,
Ca O, Si O,+ Al, O,, Si O, + 3 HO.

2. On a necessary Correction in the Height of the Baro-
meter depending on the Force of the Wind. By Cap-
tain Henry James, R.E. Communicated by Professor
Piazzi Smyth.

During the frequent violent gales of last autumn, the author had
remarked the excessive fluctuation of the barometer; and following
up this phenomenon by means of the portable aneroid barometer,
he found that not only was this fluctuation dependent on the wind
and on the barometer being in a screened position ; but that accom-
panying the fluctuation was a constant depression increasing in
amount with the velocity of the air, and that this depression amounted
in strong gales to a larger quantity than all the other usual correc-
tions applied to a barometrical reading; and must be applicable
to all the ordinary positions where barometers are observed, whether
by sea or land.

The reason of this depression was then entered into, and the
amount of numerical correction was given, as depending on the
velocity of the wind, and the peculiarity of the exposure.

oe
rs

125

Some observations on the Charr (Salmo umbla,) relating
chiefly to its Generation and Early Stage of Life.
By John Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. & Edin., Inspector-
General of Army Hospitals.

The observations contained in this paper are given under several
heads: 1st, on the roe and milt of the Charr; 2dly, on the time
required for hatching the ova, and on the young fish in progress
after exclusion; 3dly, on some agencies and circumstances supposed
likely to exert an influence on both.

The principal facts which the author considers as established by
his observations are the following :—

1st, That the time required for hatching the ova is variable, rang-
ing from about forty to ninety days, according to the temperature of
the water.

2d, That after exclusion the young fish can live at least sixty days
without taking food, deriving the material required for its support
and growth from itself, and chiefly from the store contained in its
yolk.

3d, That under favourable circumstances it attains its perfect form
in from about sixty to seventy days, when it becomes dependent
for its subsistence chiefly on food which it has to seek or procure
from without.

4th, That running water is not essential to the hatching of its ova ;
and in consequence of its breeding place being disiinct from that of
the trout, it is exposed to little risk of being lost as a species by re-
peated crossings with the trout.

5th, That salt water, even of greater saltness than sea water, is not
immediately fatal to the embryo ; that a partial development of the
ovum may take place in brackish water; and that young fish can
exist some days in such water, rendering it probable that the adult may
be capable of living in a tidal stream, or even in the sea, where it is
stated that the Welsh Charr has been caught.

6th, That the young charr can endure confinement for several days
in water of small bulk, such as may be used for transporting it from
place to place, especially if oxygen gas be supplied in the place of
common air.

7th, That the young fish can bear without any immediate apparent
injury, a temperature removed only a degree or two from the freezing-

126

point of water; and also a higher temperature, ranging from 60° to
70°; but not above 83°, a temperature which in the single instance
tried was almost immediately fatal to it.

Tn conclusion the author briefly adverts to the application of the
results obtained to the breeding and transporting of the fish, adding
some remarks on the quality of water essential to its healthy condition
and preservation.

Monday, 5th April 1852.

Rigut REVEREND BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in
the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On a modification of the Process for the determination
of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. By Alexander
Kemp, Esq.

Two methods are at present followed by chemists for the analysis
of organic bodies containing nitrogen. In the first of these the
nitrogen is directly separated from the substance, and measured in a
pure state; while in the second method it is converted into ammonia,
collected and weighed, its amount being calculated from the known
composition of this latter substance.

In accordance with the first-named mode of proceeding, the sub-
stance is burned at a high temperature, in contact with oxide of
copper, chromate of lead, or some other body capable of yielding
oxygen, when the carbon of the organic substance becomes converted
into carbonic acid, and its hydrogen into water, while all the nitro-
gen is given off in a free state. Two methods may now be adopted
for ascertaining its quantity. In that recommended by M. Dumas,
the evolved gases are collected in a series of graduated glass tubes,
previously filled with mercury, and containing some potash ley in
the upper part, which serves to absorb the carbonic acid, leaving the
nitrogen, which may then be measured, and its weight calculated
from its known volume and density, due allowance being made for
the temperature, pressure, and the presence of aqueous vapour.

According to Liebig, the same object may be more easily and
rapidly attained, by comparing the volume of the carbonic acid gas
produced with that of the nitrogen given out in the operation. This

127

method, however, is only applicable when the amount of carbon con-
tained in the substance is known, and would not apply to those ana-
lysis in which the nitrogen alone required to be determined. Hav-
~ ing, as in the previously described operation, collected the mixed
gases in graduated tubes, their united volume is read off and noted.
_ After this has been done, caustic potash ley is introduced to absorb
the carbonic acid. The residual gas, which is nitrogen, is then mea-
sured, and the proportion between the volumes of the two gases is at
once ascertained. Now, as each atom of carbon produces one of
carbonic acid, occupying the same space as an atom of nitrogen, the
proportion between the number of atoms and the volumes of the
two gases will be the same ; and as the number of atoms of carbon
7 is known, that of the nitrogen can be very easily calculated. The
principal advantage of Baron Liebeg’s method consists in this, that
it is not requisite to make corrections for temperature, pressure, Or
watery vapour contained in the gases, as they are both subjected to
the same influences in these respects.

Either of these methods will, in careful and experienced hands,
yield very accurate results; but the time required, as well as the
necessity of using a somewhat complicated apparatus, renders their
application to common analyses almost impracticable.

A much more easily and quickly performed mode of operating
was proposed a few years ago by Varrentrapp and Will. These
chemists ascertained, by a series of very carefully-conducted expe-
riments, that all organic bodies containing nitrogen, unless in the
form of nitric acid, when heated in contact with a mixture of the
hydrates of lime and soda, give off that nitrogen in the form of
ammonia; and this being collected in a solution of hydrochloric
acid, is converted into the double chloride of platinum and ammonium
by the addition of bichloride of platinum ; and this latter substance
being carefully washed, dried, and weighed, gives, by a simple calcu-
lation, the amount of nitrogen in the analysed substance.

The method of Varrentrapp and Will, just mentioned, has the
great advantage of being much more easily performed than either of
the two previously referred to, and at the same time a much less
complex form of apparatus may be used in the operation ; neverthe-
less, from the necessity ef performing several operations before
finally weighing the ammonio-chloride of platinum, several hours
must always elapse before the result can be obtained.

a Ne ht hae

128

An improvement on this process was suggested by M. Peligot,
who conveys the evolved ammonia into a quantity of sulphuric acid
of known strength, and then ascertains how much of it has been
neutralised, by saturating it after the operation with an alkali, a solu-
tion of lime and sugar being used for this purpose ; or, as Mr Mitchell
since then proposed, caustic soda solution may be substituted for the
lime with advantage, as it is not apt to change by being kept, either
from spontaneous decomposition, or the absorption of carbonic acid,
which indeed would not alter its neutralising power, nor affect the
delicacy of the operation, unless it took place to a very great extent.
This last-named method has the very great advantage of being quickly
performed, so that as many as six or eight analyses can be easily
made in the time required for one, according to the method of Var-
rentrapp and Will. The cnly difficulty lies in the preparation of the
solution of sulphuric acid, which must be done by guess, and the
proportion then ascertained by a baryta analysis, which is not a
very easy operation, from the finely-divided sulphate of baryta passing
readily through the filter.

From these circumstances I was induced to try if the sulphuric
acid could not be replaced by some substance easily obtainable, of
definite compositions, in the solid form, not hygroscopic, and of which
the quantity could be easily determined by weighing, without being
liable to those sources of error which apply to sulphuric and most
other acids. The substance I have found to fulfil these conditions
is the anhydrous bisulphate of potash, a salt described by Jacquelain
in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique for 1839, but the exist-
ence of which seems to be doubted by many chemists. Into this
point I shall not at present enter particularly, as I have not yet
completed some observations upon this subject with which I have
lately been engaged ; but this has been ascertained, that if more than
two equivalents of sulphuric acid be added to any salt of potash con-
taining a volatile acid, and the mixture be exposed to heat at a certain
temperature, hydrated bisulphate of potash is formed; and if the
temperature be now raised to incipient redness, in the dark, vapours
escape, and the anhydrous bisulphate, of perfectly definite composi-
tion, remains, which suffers no farther alteration, even when the heat
is continued for so long a period as three hours—that is, if it be not
carried beyond incipient redness in the dark.

In order to ascertain this latter point, I have had eight specimens

129

prepared and analysed in several different ways. Ist, 10 grains,
. precipitated by nitrate of baryta, gave 18°31 grains of sulphate of
baryta, theory requires 18°33 grains; while, for the hydrated bisul-
phate, 17:12 grains would be the quantity. 2d, 12°72 grains in a
second experiment gave 23-24 baryta salt, theory 23-32.

2d, 12:72 grains of the salt were carefully introduced into a hard
glass tube, and an excess of freshly-ignited oxide of lead added, but
so as not to come in contact with the salt, the tube with its contents
was then carefully weighed, and heated to redness so as to fuse both
substances, but no loss of weight could be detected; the hydrated
salt would have lost about 0°8 grains.

3d, 12°72 grains of the salt were dissolved in hot water, and
slightly coloured with litmus; to this was added a solution of 5°32
grains of recently-ignited carbonate of soda in a measured quantity
of water; the whole of this, being the calculated quantity, was re-
quired to restore the blue colour to the hot solution coloured by the
litmus.

4th, The whole of the eight specimens were tested as to their
neutralising powers by means of the same solution of caustic soda,
and found to agree; there can therefore be little doubt that the an-
hydrous bisulphate of potash can be easily got, and of definite com-
position.

Having thus endeavoured to shew that the anhydrous bisulphate
of potash can be obtained of definite neutralising power, little need
be said with regard to its application, as it is intended merely as a
substitute for the sulphuric acid used in Peligot’s process, and that
entirely on account of the ease with which its quantity may be deter-
mined by weighing alone, without the necessity of having recourse
to any mode of analysis, as is indispensable when any acid solution
is made use of. One other advantage may be mentioned—the salt
is neither deliquescent nor hygroscopic, for when 10 grains in fine
powder were exposed in the laboratory during the night in an open
watch-glass, they had not gained ‘001 grain by the morning.

In employing the salt in an analysis, any convenient quantity is
weighed out and dissolved in warm water in a beaker-glass, and
slightly coloured with litmus; a part of this solution is then intro-
duced into the bulb-tube, and made use of in the analysis; after-
wards it is returned to the beaker-glass, and neutralised with solution
of caustic soda ; the difference between the quantity of soda required,

130

and what would have been required before the combustion, gives us
one of the elements for calculating the analysis.

In order to neutralise the acid reaction of one equivalent of the
bisulphate, one equivalent of ammonia will be required; therefore
127-2 grains of the salt will correspond to 17 grains of ammonia,
or to 14 grains of nitrogen.

I may add, that the high atomic weight of the bisulphate (127-2)
tends to diminish any errors from inaccurate weighing, or the pre-
sence of impurities.

5th, Two comparative analyses of pure uric acid were made at the
same time; 6 grains gave, by Varrentrapp and Will’s method,
31:90 of the platinum salt, = 33-4 per cent. of nitrogen; theory
gives 33°33; 5 grains uric acid gave, by the bisulphate process,
33°376 per cent. of nitrogen ; theory, 53°333.

Many other analyses have been made by this process in the Uni-
versity laboratory, and with the most satisfactory results, approach-
ing in general more closely to the calculated quantities than by the
method with bichloride of platinum.

It is obvious that the bisulphate of potash may be employed with
advantage as a substitute for sulphuric acid in common alkalimetry,
since it is easier to prepare a solution of the anhydrous bisulphate of
any given strength than to obtain a standard dilute sulphuric acid.

2. An account of some Experiments on the Diet of Prisoners.
By Professor Christison.

From careful experiments made, under direction of the Board of
Directors of Prisons in Scotland, on 1624 prisoners confined in eight
of the principal prisons, for periods not exceeding sixty days; and
from an analysis of numerous observations on their weight and gene-
ral health, the author arrives at the following conclusions :—

1. For the average of people whose occupation involves moderate
muscular effort and no great exercise, a simple, well-selected sort of
food, supplying seventeen ounces of daily real nutriment, of which
four ounces are nitrogenous principles, constitutes a sufficient diet
for maintaining health, strength, weight, and general condition; but
less is not sufficient.

2. The proportion of nitrogenous nutriment in such a diet cannot

131

be very sensibly reduced below four ounces a-day without risk of
injury.

3. This amount of nutriment, though in general adequate for the
average in the supposed circumstances, is not always so.

4, Itis probably inadequate for those who have been accustomed
to a vigorous occupation in the open air, and a liberal dietary, even
when their employment is changed for one involving no great mus-
cular effort or exercise.

5. It is inadequate for a fair proportion of persons considerably
exceeding the average in bulk.

6. It is inadequate for a considerable proportion of growing lads
between sixteen and twenty.

7. It is more generally adequate for females than for males.

8. It is rendered oocasionally inadequate by other causes not dis-
tinctly indicated by the observations in the Scottish prisons, but
certainly independent of any increase in habitual muscular exertion.

9. Hence the economical regulation of the diet of bodies of men
must always be a matter of great difficulty ; and if deviations from
the standard dietary be not allowed with a liberal discretion, injury
' will be apt to ensue. And here it should be added from other
observations, that suspicion may be lulled by no very perceptible
injury except loss of weight occurring in ordinary seasons; while,
nevertheless, manifest injury will arise in periods of epidemic dis-
ease.

10. The prison dietary in Scotland has been very successfully
adjusted by long experience in most of the prisons, so far as regards
the class of prisoners who formed the subject of the preceding ob-
servations and experiments,—viz., those imprisoned for terms not
exceeding two months. But in that dietary treacle-water cannot be
substituted for milk without a reduction of flesh, the forerunner of
probable ill health, unless some compensation be made in other arti-
cles of food, It has, in fact, been disallowed by the Board since

these experiments were made.

Pit, In adjusting dietaries, and in all practical inquiries into the
subject, reliance ought never to be put on practical observation alone ;
but scientific analysis should be likewise brought into requisition.
Numberless errors committed by merely practical men might easily
be quoted, which could scarcely have escaped notice had they united
scientific knowledge to practical skill.

132

3. Researches on some of the Crystalline Constituents of
Opium. By Dr Thomas Anderson.

The author commenced his paper by referring to the numerous
researches on opium which had already appeared, and stated that not-
withstanding their number and extent, our information on the pro-
perties and composition of its various bases and indifferent con-
stituents was still extremely imperfect. | He had therefore submitted
some of them to a renewed examination, employing as the source
from which they were obtained the mother liquor of the manufacturers
of muriate of morphia. By treatment of this liquor in a manner
detailed in full in the paper, he obtained from it a large quantity of
narcotine, and a certain proportion of thebaine and narceine.

Narceine was obtained in the form of extremely delicate needles,
which mat together into a silky mass. It is soluble in water and
alcohol, but not in ether. Potash and ammonia in moderately dilute
solutions dissolve it more readily than water, but the addition of a
large quantity of caustic potash causes its precipitation in shining
scales. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves it in the cold, with an
intense red colour, passing into green on the application of heat.
Hydrochloric acid dissolves it entirely, but without producing the
blue colour which, according to Pelletier, is characteristic of nar-
ceine. Narceine, though incapable of restoring the colour of red-
dened litmus, possesses feebly basic properties, and forms salts with
the strong acids. Its analysis gave results corresponding with the
formula C,, H,, NO,,, which was confirmed by the analysis of
its platinum salt. The hydrochlorate, platinochloride, sulphate, and
nitrate, are also described.

Thebaine crystallises in fine silvery plates. It is insoluble in
water, but very soluble in alcohol and ether. It forms salts which
cannot be obtained in crystals from their aqueous solution. It is

insoluble in potash and ammonia. Strong sulphuric acid reacts _

upon it, and produces an intense blood-red colour even when entirely
free from nitric acid. Sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1:300
dissolves it in the cold, but on heating a resinous semisolid mass is
thrown down, which slowly dissolves in boiling water, and deposits
on cooling a rather sparingly soluble salt in microscopic needles,
which appears to be a product of decomposition.

133

Analysis shewed the composition of thebaine to be represented
by the formula C,, H,, NO,.

The Hydrochlorate of Thebaine is obtained by adding to thebaine
an alcoholic solution of hydrochloric acid until the base is dissolved,
excess being carefully avoided. On standing, the salt is deposited
in fine rhomboidal crystals, often of considerable size. Their for-
mula, when dried at 212°, is C,, H,, NO, HCl+2HO.

Platinochloride of Thebaine is obtained as a yellow powder,
slightly soluble in boiling water. The formula is C,, H,, NO,
HCl PtCl, + 2HO.

The author then proceeds to detail the phenomena attendant on
the action of nitric acid on narcotine. When concentrated nitric
acid is added to narcotine, very violent action takes place, and a
fluid is obtained which, on evaporation, yields an amorphous orange
residue. When the acid is employed in a dilute state, and at a
temperature not exceeding 120°, the narcotine slowly dissolves, and
when the solution is complete, the fluid deposits a small quantity of
a substance to which the author gives the name of teropiammon,
and which is represented by the formula C,, H,, NO,,, and is de-
rived from three equivalents of opianic acid and one of ammonia,

“minus the elements of four equivalents of water. The fluid which
has deposited this substance contains cotarnine, which is precipitated
by potash ; and the potash solution contains, according to the extent
to which the oxidation has gone, either opianic or hemipinic acid, or
a third substance, to which the author gives the name of opianyl,
and which is represented by the formula C,, H,, O,. The author
describes the properties of this substance and its hydrate. He then
details the properties of certain compounds of opianic and hemipinic
aicds, from which he comes to the conclusion that the latter is a
bibasic acid, and is correctly represented by the formula C,, H,, 0,,.
An acid potash salt, and an acid ether, hemipinovinic acid, are de-
scribed.

The cotarnine, which is formed by the action of dilute nitric acid
on narcotine, when treated with stronger acid, undergoes a further
decomposition, and yields a variety of products, which are obviously
the result of several different decompositions occurring simulta-
neously. The most abundant product of this action is a erystallis-
able acid possessing all the characters of Wéhler’s apophyllic acid.

It is best obtained by treating cotarnine with moderately strong

134

nitric acid, and then adding alcohol and ether, which throws down
the new acid in small crystals. It is soluble in water, and by eva-
poration yields fine crystals. In alcohol and ether it is quite in-
soluble. It fuses at 401°, and dissolves readily in potash and soda.
The composition was found to be represented by the formula C,, H,
NO,, differing from that of anthranilic acid by the elements of two
equivalents of carbonic acid,

Its salts are all highly soluble in water, and are with difficulty
obtained in the crystalline form. Its silver salt can only be pre-
pared by digesting the acid with oxide of silver, as when a neutral
apophyllate is added to nitrate of silver a precipitate of a double
nitrate and apophyllate of silver is obtained, which explodes when
heated.

When the solution containing alcohol and ether, from which the
apophyllic acid has been thrown down, is evaporated, and then dis-
tilled with potash, a volatile base is obtained, which possesses the
composition and properties of methylamine, and under certain cir-

cumstances ethylamine also appears to be formed.
The following is a tabular statement of the substances examined

in the paper.

Narceine, .

Hydrochlorate of narceine, .

Platinochloride of narceine,
Ropiquet’s narceine,
Thebaine,

Hydrochloride of Hichaine’

Platinochloride of thebaine,
Teropiammon,

Opianyl,

Hydrate of opianyl,
Opianic acid,

Opianic ether,

Hemipinic acid,

Acid hemipinate of potass, .

Hemipinate of silver,
Hemipinoyinie acid,
Apophyllic acid,
Apophyllate of silver,
Methylamine,
Ethylamine,

Cy Hs, NOjs

Cy, Hy NO,, HCl

C,; H., NO,, HCl Pt Cl,

Csp Hig NOx, (2)

C:3 H2, NOs

C,, H,, NO, HCl + 2 HO

C,; H., NO, HCl Pt Cl, + 2 HO
C5) Hop NOog :
Cx Hyo O10

Coo Hy Os a HO

Cx Hy Or

C, H; O, Cy Hy Oz

Co Hy O12

KO HO C,, H, Oy

2 Ag O C,, Hy O1

HO C, H;, 0 C,H 0,

C,, H, NO,

Ag 00, H,NO,

C, H, N

C,H, N

— :
+ ;

f

Leas

hl tat

135

4. On the Red Prominences seen during Total Eclipses of
the Sun. Part I. By William Swan, F.R.S.E.

The object of this communication is to discuss the evidence
afforded by various observations of the eclipse which occurred on the
28th July 1851, as to the nature of the rose-coloured prominences
which are seen round the moon during the total phase of solar
eclipses.

In order to render the inquiry into the nature of the red promi-
nences as complete as possible, the author has not confined himself
to the consideration of such hypotheses only as have been formally
stated regarding them; but has also included in his examination
such other views as he thought might probably be entertained re-
garding those remarkable objects.

The observations of the eclipse discussed by the author are chiefly
contained in the Royal Astronomical Society’s Notice for January
1852, and the following are the conclusions to which he has been
led by the examination of those observations :—

1, The red prominences were not caused by the telescopes used
in viewing the eclipse ; for they were seen by the naked eye.

2. The red prominences cannot be regarded as optical phenomena,
produced either by unequally heated air, as supposed by M. Faye,
or by the action of the moon’s limb on the sun’s light; for these
hypotheses are inconsistent both with the permanency of form dis-
played by the prominences, and with the general similarity of their
appearance, as seen from stations differently situated with reference
to the line of central eclipse.

3. While the optical hypotheses thus labour under difficulties
peculiar to themselves, the objections to the opinion that the red
prominences are material objects existing in the sun, founded on the
discrepancies in the observations, as to their number, forms, and
positions, are found to apply with equal force to the optical hypo-

theses.

4. Little care seems, in some instances, to have been taken in
ascertaining the positions of the red prominences, and accordingly
great discrepancies occur among the observations ; while in certain
cases they agreed remarkably well. Mr Dawes and the author, who
both used means for obtaining an accurate estimation of angles of

136

position, differ by less than a degree in the place they assign to the
most conspicuous prominence seen at the late eclipse, and they also
assign to it almost exactly the same form. This, and other coinci-
dences between observations made at distant stations, are strongly
in favour of the idea that the prominences are material objects.

5. The observed differences in the numbers and positions of the
red prominences, as seen from stations differently situated in the
moon’s shadow, are, upon the whole, accordant with the effects
which parallax would produce, if the prominences actually existed
in the sun,

6. The hypothesis that the prominences exist in the sun seems
to afford the only explanation of the fact, that the moon gradually
occulted them on the side towards which it moved, and exposed
them on the other, while at the same time the outlines of those
portions of the prominences which continued visible, as well as their
relative positions, remained unaltered.

7. On these grounds it is inferred that the red prominences are
material objects existing on the sun.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary

Fellow :—
JAMES WILLIAM GRANT, Esq. of Elchies.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

The Assurance Magazine. No. 5. 8vo.—From the Institute of
Actuaries.

Nouveaux Mémoires de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de
Moscou. Tome IX. 4to.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1851.
No. 2. 8vo.—From the Society.

Monday, 19th April 1852.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Red Prominences seen during Total Eclipses of
the Sun. Part II. By William Swan, F.R.S.E.

In the first part of this paper, the author endeavoured to shew,

7. eS a a

13

from a comparison of various observations of the red prominences
seen at the eclipse of the 28th July 1851, that those objects were
not mere optical phenomena, but that they actually existed in the sun.

The object of the present communication is to offer some conjec-
tures regarding the nature of the red prominences, and their pos-'
sible connection with other solar phenomena.

The comparatively faint light reflected by the prominences, their
overhanging forms, and the appearance at the late eclipse, of a
prominence completely detached from the moon’s limb, all conspire
to prove that they are cloudy masses floating in the sun’s atmo-
sphere ; while the existence of a long range of red prominences,
which, at certain stations, was seen extending over nearly a third part
of the moon’s limb, together with their tolerably uniform distribution
all round the rest of the moon’s edge, prove that the matter com-
posing them is very copiously diffused through the sun’s atmosphere.

To account for the existence of the red prominences, the author
supposes that the sun’s luminous atmosphere is surrounded by an
envelope of cloudy matter, capable of absorbing part of his light,
and reflecting chiefly the red rays of the spectrum—a conjecture
which is founded both on the observed general distribution of the
red prominences, and on the appearance of a band of red light
just before the end of the total phase of the eclipse, which was
seen extending round the moon’s limb, about the point where the
sun emerged. The serrated outline of the long range of prominences
indicates that the surface of the stratum of cloud is exceedingly un-
even, and its higher portions seen beyond the edge of the moon,
may constitute red prominences. It is also however supposed, that
just as the spots on the sun have been conceived to arise from upward
currents in the solar atmosphere, removing portions of its luminous
stratum ; the same, or similar currents, may penetrate the superin-
cumbent stratum of cloud, carry upwards the edges of the aperture it
has formed, and detach masses of cloud, so as to form higher and
more remarkable prominences, like the more striking objects of that
kind which were seen at the late eclipse.

The author conceives that this view regarding the nature of the
red prominences, may also serve to explain other solar phenomena,

1. The darkness of the sun’s edge, compared with his centre, is
generally attributed to the absorbent action of the solar atmosphere

on light ; but unless the thickness of the absorbent atmosphere be

VOL. III, L

138

small, when compared with the sun’s diameter, the difference of its
action on the central and lateral rays would be insensible. On the
other hand, the wide extension of the corona indicates that the sun’s
atmosphere is of great thickness compared with his diameter; and
there is, therefore, difficulty in supposing the darkness of the sun’s
edges to arise from the general absorption of light by his atmosphere.
That phenomenon, however, is easily explained by supposing it to
arise from the absorbent action of a comparatively thin stratum of
cloud surrounding the sun.

2. The facule are generally understood to be ridges in the sun’s
luminous atmosphere ; but the author supposes them to be apertures
in the envelope of cloud, through which his rays pass more freely
than elsewhere. The greater distinctness of the facule when seen
near the sun’s limb, is explained by the light shining through the
apertures being there contrasted with light which has suffered
absorption by passing obliquely through the envelope of cloud ; while
towards the centre the contrast is not so great, as the light passes
nearly perpendicularly through the envelope, and is therefore less
absorbed.

3. The supposition that the larger prominences are situated on
the edges of apertures in the envelope of cloud is consistent with the
increased brightness of the corona in their neighbourhood, which was
observed at the late eclipse.

4. The existence of an envelope of cloud surrounding the sun,
capable of absorbing light, but penetrated by apertures, and there-
fore transmitting light more freely at certain places than at others,
may serve to explain the great want of uniformity in the brightness
of the corona, and the brilliant beams of light which occur in it at
certain points.

The hypothesis that an envelope of cloud surrounds the sun, thus
refers to one physical cause, a variety of solar phenomena, namely,
the darkness of the sun’s limb compared with his centre, the exist-
ence of facule on his disc, the discontinuous illumination of the
corona, the existence of the red prominences, and the occasional
increased brightness of the corona in their neighbourhood.

The idea that a cloudy envelope surrounds the sun, occurred to
the author immediately after witnessing the eclipse of 28th July
1851, when he reflected on the striking want of uniformity he had
observed in the illumination of the corona.

ae

139

That phenomenon strongly impressed on him the conviction, that
something existed at the surface of the sun which intercepted his
light, more at certain points than at others; and he conceived that
the matter composing the red prominences, might be the absorbent
medium which produced that effect.

2. On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation
of Mechanical Energy. By Professor William Thomson. '

The object of the present communication is to call attention to
the remarkable consequences which follow from Carnot’s proposition,
established as it is on a new foundation, in the dynamical theory of
heat ; that there is an absolute waste of mechanical energy available tu
man, when heat is allowed to pass from one body to another at a lower
temperature, by any means not fulfilling his criterion of a ‘“ per-—
fect thermo-dynamic engine.” As it is most certain that Creative
Power alone can either call into existence or annihilate mechanical
energy, the ‘‘ waste’ referred to cannot be annihilation, but must be
some transformation of energy.* To explain the nature of this
F transformation, it is convenient, in the first place, to divide stores
of mechanical energy into two classes—statical and dynamical. A
quantity of weights at a height, ready to descend and do work when
wanted, an electrified body, a quantity of fuel, contain stores of
mechanical energy of the statical kind. Masses of matter in motion,
a volume of space through which undulations of light or radiant heat
are passing, a body having thermal motions among its particles
(that is, not infinitely cold), contain stores of mechanical energy of
the dynamical kind.

The following propositions are laid down regarding the dissipation
of mechanieal energy from a given store, and the restoration of it to
its primitive condition. They are necessary consequences of the
axiom, “ It is impossible, by means of inanimate material agency,
to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling
it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects.”
(Dynam. Th. of Heat, § 12.)

TI. When heat is created by a reversible process, (so that the
mechanical energy thus spent may be restored to its primitive con-

* See the Author’s previous paper on the Dynamieal Theory of Heat, § 22.
L2

wars _

140

dition,) there is also a transference from a cold body to a hot body
of a quantity of heat bearing to the quantity created a definite pro-
portion depending on the temperatures of the two bodies.

II. When heat is created by any unreversible process (such as
friction,) there is a dissipation of mechanical energy, and a full
restoration of it to its primitive condition is impossible.

IIT. When heat is diffused by conduction, there is a dissipation
of mechanical energy, and perfect restoration is impossible.

IV. When radiant heat or light is absorbed, otherwise than in
vegetation, or in chemical action, there is a dissipation of mechanical
energy, and perfect restoration is impossible.

In connection with the second proposition, the question, How far
is the loss of power experienced by steam in rushing through narrow
steam-pipes compensated, as regards the economy of the engine, by
the heat (containing an exact equivalent of mechanical energy)
created by the friction ?—is considered ; and the following conclu-
sion is arrived at :—

Let S denote the temperature of the steam, (which is nearly the
same in the boiler and steam-pipe, and in the cylinder till the ex-
pansion within it commences); T the temperature of the condenser ;
# the value of Carnot’s function for any temperature, ¢; and R the
value of

S

: dt
ah. u dt.
€ Jp

Then (1—R)w expresses the greatest amount of mechanical effect

that can be economised, in the circumstances, from a quantity tw

of heat produced by the expenditure of a quantity, w, of work in
friction, whether of the steam in the pipes and entrance-ports, or of
any solids or fluids in motion in any part of the engine; and the
remainder, Rw, is absolutely and irrecoverably wasted, unless some
use is made of the heat discharged from the condenser. The value
of 1—R has been shewn to be not more than about one-fourth for
the best steam-engines, and we may infer that in them at least three-
fourths of the work spent in any kind of friction is utterly wasted.
In connection with the third proposition, the quantity of work
that could be got by equalising the temperature of all parts of a solid
body possessing initially a given non-uniform distribution of heat, if
this could be done by means of perfect thermo-dynamic engines

141

without any conduction of heat, is investigated. If ¢ be the initial
temperature (estimated according to any arbitrary system) at any
point wy ¢ of the solid, T the final uniform temperature, and ¢ the
thermal capacity of unity of volume of the solid, the required mecha-
nical effect is of course equal to

Sf (t—T) de dy dz,

being simply the mechanical equivalent of the amount of heat put
out of existence. Hence the problem becomes reduced to that of
the determination of T. The following solution is obtained,—

~ Ifthe system of thermometry adopted* be such that w=

J
that is, if we agree to call Paty the temperature of a body, for which

# is the value of Carnot’s function, (a and J being constants,) the
preceding expression becomes

The following general conclusions are drawn from the propositions
stated above, and known facts with reference to the mechanics of
animal and vegetable bodies :—

1. There is at present in the material world a universal tendency
to the dissipation of mechanical energy.

2. Any restoration of mechanical energy, without more than an
equivalent of dissipation, is impossible in inanimate material pro-
cesses, and is probably never effected by means of organised matter,

* According to “‘ Mayer’s hypothesis,’ this system coincides with that in
g y ypo y

_ which equal differences of temperature are defined as those with which the same

mass of air under constant pressure has equal differences of volume, provided
J be the mechanical equivalent of the thermal unit and d the coefficient of
a

expansion of air.—See the author’s previous paper “ On the Heat produced by
the Compression of a Gas,” &c., § 5.

142

either endowed with vegetable life, or subjected to the will of an ani-
mated creature.

3. Within a finite period of time past the earth must have been,
and within a finite period of time to come the earth must again be,
unfit for the habitation of man as at present constituted, unless
operations have been, or are to be performed, which are impossible
under the laws to which the known operations going on at present
in the material world are subject.

3. On Rifle Cannon. By Captain Davidson, Bombay Army.
Communicated by Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

This paper was written in India as far back as 1839, but many
of its suggestions were still untried, and present circumstances seem
to urge their importance.

The recent improvements in the hand-rifle have so greatly in-
creased the practical range of that instrument, as to have passed and
left far behind, in point of range and precision, the heavy field pieces
which heretofore have done accurate execution at distances imprac-
ticable to small arms. The large guns therefore imperatively require
to undergo the same alteration which, by converting the musket into
a rifle, has so greatly increased the directness-and accuracy of the
flight of its ball.

Rifling has already been tried on cannon, but not with success ;
and Captain Davidson’s paper merely professed to give an im-
proved method of applying the principle. This he effected by in-
serting into the sides of the shot or shell, ribs of wood, to fit into the
rifle grooves of the bore. In this way he considered that the neces-
sary rotation would be given to the ball, without the usual error of
tearing and destroying the figure of the interior of the gun; the
soft wooden ribs, and not the hard cast-iron of the Captain’s projec-
tiles, alone coming into contact with the bore,

To this method of rifles he proposed also to join the conical form
for the projectile, fired with the small end first, and to make the
shells self-exploding, by a percussion cap on the extremity.

Having entered somewhat into the principle and history of rifle
pieces, the Captain gives the concluding portion of the pamphlet on
the same subject by Mr Robins, the Newton of gunnery, as valu-
able in itself, and strangely unattended to through more than half a
century. .

143

“ I shall therefore close this paper (Mr Robins’ words) with pre-
dicting, that whatever state shall thoroughly comprehend the nature
and advantages of rifled barrel pieces, and, having facilitated and
completed their construction, shall introduce into their armies their
general use, with a dexterity in the management of them; they will
by this means acquire a superiority which will almost equal any-
thing that has been done at any time by the particular excellence
of any one kind of arms, and will perhaps fall little short of the
wonderful effects which histories relate to have been formerly pro-
duced by the first inventors of fire-arms.”

4. On two New Processes for the detection of Fluorine when
accompanied by Silica, and on the presence of Fluorine
in Granite, Trap, and other Igneous Rocks, and in the
Ashes of Recent and Fossil Plants. By Dr George
Wilson.

The author, after alluding to his previous communications to the
Society in reference to fluorine, stated that he had always attri-
buted the slight indications of the presence of this element in plants,
which his own investigations and those of others had yielded, to the
amount of silica which was contained in vegetable ashes. The pre-
sence of silica, which throws special difficulties in the way of de-
tecting fluorine, had also prevented him from seeking for it in trap
rocks and other mineral masses. Recently, however, he had put in
practice two processes, which were applicable to all bodies containing
silica and a metallic fluoride, which are decomposed by boiling oil of
vitriol. When this acid is heated along with a silicated fluoride, it occa-
sions an evolution of the fluorine in combination with silicon, as the
well-known gaseous fluoride of silicon (Si F,). In the first process,
this gas is conducted into a solution of caustic potash, in which it
occasions a precipitate of the fluoride of silicon and potassium (2 Si
F,+3KF). This precipitate is heated ina metallic crucible with
potassium, so as to separate the silicon, and convert the double fluo-
ride into fluoride of potassium. When moistened with oil of vitriol, it
evolves hydrofluoric acid, the escape of which is easily recognised by
its etching glass. This process gave good results, but was tedious,
and sometimes unsuccessful. It was accordingly abandoned for the,

lit

second process, in which ammonia is substituted for potass, and the
use of potassium is dispensed with.

The following are the steps of the ammonia process. The si-
licated fluoride, such as trap-rock or the ashes of straw, is heated
with oil of vitriol, and the fluoride of silicon which is given off is
conducted by a bent tube into an aqueous solution of ammonia, with
which it forms the fluoride of silicon and ammonium (2 Si F, +
3 NH, F). When this is evaporated to perfect dryness, the silicon
becomes insoluble silica, from which water dissolves out the pure
fluoride of ammonium. This ammonio-fluoride is dried up in a pla-
tina crucible, and after moistening the residue with sulphuric acid,
a piece of waxed glass, with lines traced through the wax down to
the glass, is laid as a cover on the crucible, so as to permit the hy-
drofluoric acid evolved to etch the lines.

This process has been tried with Peterhead and Aberdeen gra-
nite, with basalt from Arthur’s Seat, greenstone from Corstorphine
Hill, and clinkstone from Blackford Hill, all in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh. It has also been tried with the ashes of barley-straw,
of hay, of coal, and of charcoal; and in addition, with a fossil bone
containing much carbonate of lime; and with the deposit from the
boiler of an ocean steamer. To the bone, and to the boiler deposit,
pounded glass was added. Most of the specimens obtained in this
way were shewn to the Society. These, the author stated, were not
selected successful ones, but represented the earliest trials. Where
the rocks under examination had been weathered, or the substances,
such as plant-ashes, contained salts of volatile acids, as chlorides and
carbonates, they were treated, first, with oil of vitriol, in the cold, so
as to evolve hydrochloric acid and carbonic acid. On afterwards rais-
ing the liquid to the boiling point, in a flask with a bent tube, a gas
was given off, if fluorine were present, which deposited gelatinous si-
lica when passed through water, and produced with it a solution
which gave a gelatinous precipitate with potash. The whole of the
fluoride of silicon is given off as soon as the oil of vitriol has reached
its boiling point. The author is at present engaged in applying this
process to a variety of substances, and in ascertaining its applica-
bility to the quantitative determination of fluorine.

In conclusion, it was noticed that the discovery of fluorine in trap
and granite, threw much light on the production of minerals, such as
fluor spar and erystallised silica, which are found in these rocks ;

145

and that the detection of the element under notice in marked quanti-
tity in plants, prepares us for the recognition of fluorine as a con-
stant ingredient of the tissues of animals, who receive it both in their
solid food, and in the water which they drank. The author, how-
ever, forbore to enlarge, upon the application of his discovery of the
wide distribution of fluorine, till he analysed an additional number
of substances for it.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

The Nature and Treatment of Diseases of the Heart. By James
Wardrop, M.D. 8vo.—From the Author.

Twentieth Report of the Scarborough Philosophical Society.—
8v0.—From the Society.

Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
1849-50+-1850-51. 8vo.

List of Members of Ditto.— From the Institution.

Assurance Magazine. No.7. 8vo.

Constitution and Laws of the Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain
and Ireland. 8vo.—F rom the Institute.

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Vol. IX.
Part 2. 8vo.—From the Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Second Series.
No. 38. 8vo.—From the Editors.

Flora Batava. Aflevering 168. 4to.— From the King of
Holland.

VOL. IIT. M

. _ Monday, 15th March 1852.
; PAGE
l. On the dasigads of some Scottish Minerals. By Dr A. J.
4h Precept H.EIGS., 122
On a Necessary Correction in the Height of the Barometer
a A tate on the Force of the Wind. By Captain Henry
_ James, R.E. Communicated by Professor P1azzt Smytu, 124
Some Observations on the Charr (Salmo umbla), relating
chiefly to its Generation and Early Stage of Life. By
_ Joun Dayy, M.D., F.R.S, London and eee pee
: tor-General of Army Hospitals, é ; 125

_ Montiay, 5th April 1852.

= ieee th ot Sraibientdd By Aressensh Kus, Tor 126
An Account of some Experiments on the Diet of Prisoners.

By Professor Curistison, : 130
earches on some of the Crystalline Constituents of Opium.

, Dr Tuomas ANDERSON, 7 132
a, 1 the Red Prominences seen during Total Eclipses of the |

5 Sun, Part i; _By ‘Wittram Swan, F.R.S. E., %p
Donaion to the Library, ‘A a . 136°

“Monday, 19th April 1852.

i the Red Prominences seen during Total Eclipses of the
Sun, Part Il. By Wii Swan, F.R.S.E., 136
On a Universal Tendency in Nature ‘to the Dissipation of

__ Mechanical Energy, 139
2 Rifle Cannon. By Captain Davinson, Bombay Army.
Communicated by Professor ©. Prazzi Smyru, 142
On two Ni ew Processes for the detection of Fluorine when ac-
companied by Silica, and on the presence of Fluorine in
_ Granite, Trap, and other Igneous Rocks, and in the Ashes ;
of Recent and Fossil Plants. By Dr te Wuson, 143
| Donations to the Library, Petree: Yt

“_,
re

aa .

z ath ¢ trv,

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

SESSION 1852-3.

CONTENTS. |
Monday, 6th December 1852.
. PAGE
1. On a supposed Meteoric Stone, alleged to have, fallen in Hamp-
shire in September 1852. By Dr Grorce Witson, . . 147
2. On the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland, and parts of England.
By Rosert Cuampers, Esq., Sf s : . 148
Donations to the Library, , ; . ; - 158
Monday, 20th December 1852.
On the supposed occurrence of Works of Art in the Older Deposits.
By James Surru, Esq. of Jordanhill, . : ; . 158

Tuesday, 4th January 1853.
1. On the Optical Phenomena and Crystallization of Tourmaline,
Titanium, and Quartz, within Mica, Amethyst, and Topaz.
By Sir Davin Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., and V.P.R.S.
Edin., ‘ : : ; : Raitt
2. On the Absolute Zero of the Perfect Gas Thermometer ; being
a Note to a Paper on the Mechanical Action of Heat. By
W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Esq., : ‘ : - 160
Donations to the Library, : . . - 161

[Turn over.

il

Monday, 17th January 1853.

PAGE

1. On a simplification of the Instruments employed in ee
Astronomy. By Professor C. Prazz1 Smytu, ; . 161

2. On the Mechanical Action of Heat, Section VI. :—A review of

the Fundamental Principles of the Mechanical Theory of

Heat; with-remarks on the Thermic Phenomena of Currents

of Elastic Fluids, as illustrating those Principles. By W. J.
Macaqvorn Rangine, Esq., . P > - 162
Donations to the Library, : ‘ p ; . 168

Monday, 7th February 1853.

1. On the Structural Characters of Rocks. By Dr Fiemine, . 169
2. Observations on the Speculations of the late Dr Brown, and of
other recent Metaphysicians, regarding the exercise of the

Senses. By Dr Atison, > . : : . 170

Donations to the Library, ; ; : ‘ . 172

Monday, 21st February 1853.

On the Summation of a Compound Series, and its application to a
Problem in Probabilities. By the Right Rev. Bishop Terror, 173

Monday, 7th March 1853.

1. On the Species of Fossil Diatomacee found in the Infusorial
Earth of Mull. By Professor Grecory, : . 176

2. On the Production of Crystalline Structure in Crystallised

Powders, by Compression and Traction. By Sir Davin Brew-
sttr, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Edin., . ies

5. On the Structure and Economy of Tethea, and on an andasatba
species from the Spitzbergen Seas. By Professor Goopstr, 181
Donations to the Library, ‘ : : : - 182

Monday, 21st March 1853.

On Circular Crystals. By Sir Davip Brewster, K.H., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E., Associate of the Institute of France, 183
Donations to the Library, 4 ¢ : . . 188

For continuation of Contents sce p. 3 of Cover,

147

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.
VOL. III. 1852-53. No. 43.

SEVENTIETH SESSION.

Monday, 6th December 1852.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On a supposed Meteoric Stone, alleged to have fallen in
Hampshire in September 1852. By Dr George Wil-
son.

The object of this communication was to exhibit to the Society a
mineral which had been publicly described as a meteoric stone, picked
up by a witness of its fall. The author had been induced, by the
published aceount of the alleged fall of the stone, to make inquiry
- concerning it, and had ascertained that no one had witnessed. its de-
scent ; and that the only evidence in favour of its being a meteorite
was the fact of its having been noticed for the first time in a gar-
den-path, the morning after a thunder-storm.

The mineral had not the characters of any known meteorite, being
simply a large nodule of iron pyrites or bisulphuret of iron, oxidised
at the surface into brown hematite.

The author drew attention to the fact that such nodules were po-
pularly known, in the chalk districts of England, as “ thunderbolts,”
VOL, Ill. N

148

a-title which seemed to him a recognition of the fall of aerolites, and
especially of meteoric iron, which, after oxidation, would closely re-
semble the oxidised pyrites.

In Scotland and the north .of Europe, the term “ thunderbolt”
had long been applied to ancient flint arrow-heads and stone celts ;
and throughout the island a well-known fossil, the belemnite, had re-
ceived the same appellation. The author did not regard those bodies
as named primarily in reference to meteorites, but rather as repre-
senting the popular idea of lightning as something shot like an arrow
from a thunder-cloud.

The paper concluded with the suggestion that the art of working
iron had been learned by primitive nations from the manipulation of
metallic meteorites, the rusting of which further taught them that
brown and red hematite contain iron.

2. On the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland, and parts of
England. By Robert Chambers, Esq.

This paper commenced with an account of Ancient Moraines con-
nected with Corries or Small Valleys. Sir Charles Lyell had de-
scribed one as forming the retaining dam of Loch Brandy, on the
eastern skirts of the Grampians, and Mr Charles Maclaren had dis-
covered another in Glenmessan, near the Firth of Clyde. The au-
thor of the paper described a few others which he had discovered.
At Corryhashtel, on the side of Ben-Blaven, in the Isle of Skye,
there are three distinct parallel lines of blocks along the right side of
the valley, which are presumed to mark the right skirt of a local gla-
cier at three points in the history of its shrinking. In a deep rough
valley at the opposite side of the mountain, there are several mounds
of rough stones mingled with smaller detritus, which are presumed to
have been the terminal moraines of a glacier once filling that valley.
The author has likewise found detrital heaps and ridges, fully answer-
ing the character of moraines, in connection with various corries or
short valleys in the alpine districts of Applecross in Ross-shire, and
Assynt in Sutherlandshire, and in some of these instances he has
found the rocks in the valleys presenting smoothed and scratched
surfaces.

The next section of the paper related to Proofs of Ancient Gla-
eiers in limited Mountain Districts. The author. had. recently as-

—_—

ile oe

tags

it i ee Ne, ee ee
e ‘

149
certained that the Lake District of Cumberland and Westmoreland

bears incontestable traces of the former existence of glaciers origi-

nating in its high grounds, and passing down the valleys. In Bor-
rowdale, in Ulleswater, in Thirlmere, in Grasmere, and Windermere,
and in the vale of the Kent, rounded hummocks of rock, presenting
an exposed side up the valley, and a rough side in the contrary di-
rection, are abundantly seen. Flat surfaces of rock, finely smoothed
and striated in the line of the valley, are presented at. Grange in
_ Borrowdale, at Patterdale in Ulleswater, and. at Staveley in Kent-
~ dale. In many places, detrital accumulations of precisely the cha-
racter of the moraines of the Alps, and of a brown colour, are found;
but they have not been seen in any definite arrangement suggesting
the idea of terminal or lateral moraines, excepting in one instance
near the head of the Thirlmere valley, where a long mound of blocks
rests on the hill-face, in the angle between the principal and a side
valley,—a form exactly resembling the ancient moraine of the
extended Glacier des Bois, at Tines in Chamouni. At Dunmail-
raise, which is a col or summit out of the range of any possible gla-
cier of the district, there is a deep accumulation of clayey matter
and blocks, which the author thinks probably of greater antiquity
than the glaciers of the district, and referable to earlier phenomena
of a kindred character.

Tlie author adverted to Snowdonia, in North Wales, as an an-

cient glacier district, of precisely the same character as that of the

Cumbrian Lakes ; there being here seven radiating valleys, all con-
taining the usual proofs of the passage of ancient glaciers. These
have been described several years ago, and now Professor Ramsay
discovers the remarkable fact that the northern drift, which abounds
in neighbouring districts, is here only found in out-of-the-way cor-
ners, and in elevated situations.

Mountain regions so limited and definite as those of North Wales
and Cumbria do not exist in Scotland; but the author has never-

theless found proofs of local systems of glaciers almost equally well

defined, He points to one instance in Assynt, Sutherlandshire,
where there is proof of one glacier passing along through the vale in.
which Loch Assynt lies, and out to sea at- Storr; while another,,.
descending from the same elevated ground at Ben-Uie and Ben-
More, moved along the valley which contains the estuary of Kyle
Skow.

N2

150

The paper next proceeds to bring forward Proofs of a more Ge-
neral Glaciation in Scotland.

Traces of glacial action in the smoothing and furrowing of rocks,
and in the deposit of the appropriate detrital accumulations and
blocks, have heretofore been detected in various parts of Scotland.
In the southern and eastern skirts of the Highlands, the direction
indicated for the agent is southerly and easterly. In the valley of
the Firth of Forth, both in the low grounds, and high up the hills
on both sides, are phenomena of this kind, with an indication of di-
rection from about WSW. Having found a few instances in the
north of Argyllshire and parts of Inverness-shire, where the agent
appeared to have had a direction from the east, Mr Maclaren and
M. Charles Martins had become satisfied that there had been ordi-
nary glaciers in*the group of mountains between the Clyde and
Lochaber, and that they had, as usual, radiated outwards. Thus it
was held as possible to account for the whole phenomena which had
been observed.

The author of the present paper has extended his observations to
the large Highland district to the northward of the great glen, and
particularly to the old red sandstone district of western Ross and
Sutherland. He has there found glacially-smoothed rocks, even
more abundantly than in the southern region. They occur in many
valleys, generally in the line of the valleys, and also on many elevated
situations, even to 2000 feet above the level of the sea. In all elevated
positions, and in all open regions free of valleys, the line of the stria-
tion shews a marked tendency to observe one direction, and that be-
tween north-west and south-east.. This is alike the case in Mull and in
Skye, on Ben-Eay beside Loch Maree in Ross-shire, and on the moun-
tains of Cuineag and Canisp in Sutherlandshire, in the wide-spread
rocky plains of Lord Reay’s country, and on the geutle undulations of
€aithness. The white quartz rocks of the Assynt mountains retain the
striation over wide areas and with great clearness. It is also remark-
able that some of these mountains are of a narrow lengthy form, with
the longitudinal axis in the same direction as the striation, while the
intermediate hollows, containing the long lakes for which the district
is remarkable, observe the same direction. The whole series of the
old red sandstone mountains of Ross and Sutherland, extending for
fifty miles, observe a horizontal stratification, so that each separate
hill looks like a pile of masonry resting on a gneissic platform. Find-

“4
a

wr Pt ee ee ee eee

151

ing the hills themselves, and the intermediate spaces, marked glacially,
and the glacial striz, and the lengths of the hills and intermediate
hollows, all conformable in direction, the author of the paper thinks
it probable that ice, not water, will yet be. concluded to have been the
cause of this notable example of the phenomenon of Denudation; and,
consequently, of many others where its operations have not as yet
been suspected.

It is in the midst of this district of old red sandstone mountains,
that the author discovered the traces of local glaciers passing through
the vale of Loch Assynt, and that containing the estuary of Kyle
Skew. These consisted of moraines damming up, lakes in the high
grounds,—smoothed hummocks and ridges .of rock in the valleys,
with the exposed side towards the supposed sources of the glaciers,
and trains of brown debris in the opposite direction,—and blocks of
the gneissic platform of the country carried in the latter direction
over the crust of old red sandstone on the coast. The direction of

_the striation in these instances, is different from that above described,

and at one place, on the skirts of Canisp mountain, above a valley
containing many moraines, the normal striation from the north-west
is crossed, like the chequers of cloth, by another system traceable to
an agent which has passed right down hill.

The author considers these facts as indicating that there has
been, first, a general sweeping of the surface in that district by some
icy agent, which has come from the north-west, and been all but
wholly indifferent. to the inequalities of the ground; and, second,
systems of local glaciers, which have passed over certain portions of
the ground, substituting their. own peculiar set of tracings and me-
morials for those of the previous movement, And thus he considers
himself as having obtained a key to much that was perplexing in
the glacial phenomena of the southern portions of the Highlands.
Having in Lochaber,—where Mr Maclaren had found in the valleys
tracesof a westerly movement,—seen on the higher grounds the clearest
memorials of one to the south-eastward and eastward, he believes that
the former instances are merely results.of later and more local gla-
ciation, the direction of which was of course determined by the de-
scent of the valleys; while it remains true of this, as of the more
northern districts, that a general sweeping of the surface, irrespective
of hill and valley, had taken place at an earlier period, ~The author

conceives that the smoothings of valleys still more to the southward,

152

as those of the Gareloch, discovered by Mr Maclaren, and those of
Loch Lomond and Loch Katrine, discovered by himself, as well as
those of the valley of the Forth, may all be classed under the earlier
and more general glaciation, though not perhaps in any place free
from some interferences of the later and more local movements. He
asserts that every part of the Highlands, and much of the Lowlands,
bear traces of this general glaciation, in the rounding and smoothing
of rocks, though in many instances, the effects are comparatively ob-
scure, in consequence of weathering, and the washing of the rock-
surface by superficial accumulations. The author indicated a new
kind of memorial of these glacial operations, in what he described as
Mouldings, seen on the sides of many hills in Scotland, generally
nearly horizontal, resembling the mouldings produced in wood by the
use of a curve-edged plane, and which he considers as connecting them-
selves on the one hand, with such longitudinal ridges as the Garleton
Hills, all lying in the direction of the striation of the district ; and, on
the other, with the rounded and flowing outlines of such larger hills as
the Pentlands, on which they are themselves marked. The whole phe-
nomena, in the opinion of the author, demand the passage, over large
areas of unequal country, of some agent at once plastic and fitted
to apply with keen abrading force to the surface ; at the same time
in such volume as to fill valleys several miles in breadth, and from
one to two thousand feet in depth. He contended that, as respects
all these glacial phenomena, Scotland is in precisely the same condi-
tion as Scandinavia, where there are proofs of a general movement
from the north-west, though turning easterly in the southern district ;
the valleys on the shores of the Northern Ocean, and White Sea, which
shewed proofs of glaciation in the seaward direction, being seats of
comparatively modern and local glaciers. The same doctrine applied
to North America.

In speculating on the nature of the agent,-the author could not
profess to speak with much confidence ; but he thought that, in dis-
missing the disproved Dilatation Theory of Charpentier and Agassiz,
it would be well to keep in view, that there was no theoretical objec--
tion to a flow of glacier ice over wide areas of small inclination, if the
latter circumstance were compensated by the volume of the mass;
and it even appeared that, on the hydrostatic principle, an accumu-
lation of the materials in one quarter, would cause a movement to-
wards any other quarter offering sufficiently small resistance. The

153

agent, however, appeared to have been applied in different conditions
___. from a subaerial glacier, at least as far as Scotland was concerned,
for the boulder clay of many districts of our country must be con-
. sidered as the detritus of this general glaciation ; and that shewed, in
the author’s opinion, proofs of the presence of water, both in the com-
pactness of the clay, and in the roundedness of the boulders, Glacier
ice moving on a flat surface, even supposing no sea present, would
obviously be different from a glacier ina sloping valley, because it
would not undergo the same drainage of the included water, It would
be in a comparatively slushy condition; and, by the way, so much
the more mobile.

The latter part of the paper was devoted to a summary of ascer-
tained facts regarding the superficial accumulations of different coun-
tries. The Drift of the Silurian region, described by Sir Roderick
Murchison, answered to the Scottish Boulder Clay, in the local cha-
racter of the included blocks, and the direction in which it had moved.
Over and posterior to it, was the Northern Drift, so widely spread in
England. This probably corresponded with a second boulder clay
or Till, known to Scottish geologists, and which, differing in some re-
_ spects fromthe first, might be presumed to be owing to somewhat
_ different causes, or to similar agents operating under different cir-
cumstances, the sea being here undoubtedly. concerned. The local
___ glaciers of Wales have already been shewn to be later than this drift.
6In clays and sands below and above the second boulder clay, are found,
in Scotland, deposits of shells of living species, but betraying an Arctic
character.

_ The following Gentlemen were duly. elected as Ordinary
Fellows :—

1, ALEX. JAMES RUSSELL, Esq., 0.8.

2. Dr ANDREW FLEMING, H.E.I.C.S., Bengal.

¢ _ The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XV., Parts 1,
2,3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vol. VII., Parts

2&3. 8vo.—From the Society.

154

Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. N.S. Nos. 37 & 38. 8yo.,
—From the Society.

Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. Vol. V., Nos. 2 & 3.
8vo.—F rom the Society.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. VIIL, Parts 2,
3,4. 8yvo.

Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Geological
Society of London, on the 20th of February 1852. By Wil-
liam Hopkins, Esq. -8vo.—F'rom the Society.

Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin. Vol. V., Part 2. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. N.S. Nos. 46, 50, 51,
52,53, 54. 8vo.— From the Society.

Transactions of the Achitectural Institute of Scotland. Vol. II.,
Parts 3, 4, 5. 8vo.—From the Institute.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
Nos. 6, 8,9. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Scientific Memoirs, selected from the Transactions of Foreign Aca-
demies of Science and learned Societies. Edited by Richard
Taylor, F.S.A. Vol. V., Part 20. 8vo.—F rom the Editor.

Address at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Geographical
Society, 24th May 1852. By Sir R.I. Murehison. 8vo.

Catalogue of the Library of the Royal Geographical Society. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Vol. IV., Parts 2 & 3.
Vol. V., Part 1. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Vol. V.,
Nos. 3-14. 8vo.—From the Lyceum.

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. Published by the Royal Medical
and Chirurgical Society of London. ‘Vols. XXIV. & XXYV.
8vo.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 1851-2.
Vol. III., No.4. 8vo.—From the Society.

Nineteenth Report of the Scarborough Philosophical Society. 1850.
8vo.—From the Society.

Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland. 1852. 8vo.—From the Society.

155

Nineteenth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic So-

‘, ciety. 1851. 8vo.—F'rom the Society.

Annual Reports of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society.

1832-52. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
| Science. 1848, 1850, 1851. 8vo.—From the Association.
A Notice of the Origin, Progress, and Present Condition of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. By W. 8. W.

Ruschenberger, M.D. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Collection of Reports from the Secretary of the Treasury of the
American Government on scientific subjects. 8vo.—From the
American Government. —

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural: Sciences of Philadelphia,
Vol. V., Nos. 10 & 12. Vol. VI, Nos..1 & 2. 8vo.—
From the Academy.

Exploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of
Utah, including a reconnoissance of a new route through the

Rocky Mountains. By Howard Stansbury, Capt.“L.E,, US.

o Army. With Plates. 8vo.—From the Author.

The Mastodon Giganteus of North America. By John C. Warren,
M.D. » 4to.—From the Author.

Regi Magyar Nyelvemlékek. Kétet. 1, 2, 3. 4to.

A’ Magyar Tudés Tarsisag’ Evkényvei. Kétet. 3, 4, 6,7. 4to.

Hunyadiak Kora Magyarorszigou. irta Gréf Teleki Jozsef. 1 Kétet.

_ 8vo.— From the Literary Society of Hungary.

Fifth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1850. 8vo,

On Recent Improvements in the Chemical Arts. By Prof. James C.

Booth and Campbell Morfit. 8vo.—From the Institution.

_ Catalogue of Stars near the Ecliptic, observed at Markree during

the years 1848, 1849, & 1850, and whose places are supposed

to be hitherto unpublished. Vol. I. 8vo.—From H. M. Go-

: vernment.

_ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. V., No.

47. 8vo.—From the Society.

3 Catalogue of the Library, and Constitution and Laws of the Insti-

4 tute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ireland. 8vo.—From

the Institute.

5 _ Mémoires présentés pars divers Savants a l’Académie des Sciences

, a ie ae

156

de l'Institut National de France. Sciences Mathématiques et
Physiques. Tome XIIIme, 4to.—From the Academy.

Recherches sur la Conductibilité des Minéraux pour |’Electricité
Voltaique. Par M, Elie Wartmann. 4to.—/rom the Author.

Flora Batava. 16 Aflev. 4to.—From the King of the Nether-
lands.

Historische en Letterkundige Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche
Maatschappij der Wettenschappen te Haarlem. Ite Deel. 4to.
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Nieuwe Verhandelingen van het Bataafsch Genootschap der Proefon-
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Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter. Femte
Rekke. Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling, An-
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Abhandlungen der Mathematisch-Physischen Classe der Kéniglich
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Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, gesammelt und durch sub-
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Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, publiées par les Profes-
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Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
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& 3te Lieferungs. Fol.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenchaften,
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VIL., 3, 4,&5 Hefte: & 1852; Band VIII., 1, 2, 3 Hefte.
8vo.—F rom the Academy.

Almanach der Konigliche Akademie der Wissenchaften. 1852.
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Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
1851; Nos. 1, 2,3, &4. 1852; No.1. 8vo.—From the
Association.

Mémoires de la Société Nationale des Sciences d’Agriculture et des
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Die Fortschritte der Physik im Jahre 1848. Dargestellt von der

a ee ek bia ee

157

Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 8vo.—From the So-
ciety.

Bulletin dela Société de Géographie, 4me Série. Tomes II. &
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Manuel de la Navigation 4 la Cote Occidentale d’Afrique. Par M.
Charles Philippe de Kerhallet. 2 Tomes. 8vo.

Annales Hydrographiques, Recueil d’ Avis, Instructions, Documents
et Mémoires relatifs 4 ! Hydrographie et 4 la Navigation, pub-
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8vo.— From the Dépét-Général de la Marine, Paris.

Tafeln zur Reduction der in millemetern abgelesenen Barometer-
stinde auf die Normaltemperatur von 00° Celsus. Berechent
von J. J. Pohl & J. Schabus. 8vo.

Tafeln zur Vergleichung und Reduction der in verschiedenen Liing-
enmassen Abgelesenen Barometerstinde. Von J. J. Pohl &
J. Schabus. 8vo.—From the Authors.

Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. Vol. XXII., Parts

1&2. 4to.—From the Academy.

American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. XIV., No. 42. 8vo.
—From the Editors.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vols. III, & IV. 4to.
—From the Smithsonian Institution.

Schooleraft’s History of the Indian Tribes. Part II, 4to—From
the American Government.

Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory, Edin-
burgh, by the late Thomas Henderson, Esq. Reduced and
edited by Charles Piazzi Smyth, Esq. Vol. X. 1844-5-6-7.
-4to.— From the Observatory.

158

Monday, 20th December 1852.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communication was read :—

On the supposed occurrence of Works of Arts in the Older
Deposits. By James Smith, Esq. of Jordanhill.

The author, after mentioning various cases of this nature, in all
of which the evidence was very defective, exhibited a tool of wrought-
iron, said to have been found in the coal, but which was only proved
to have come out of a coal-pit.

He then shewed an Indian arrow-head in a calcareous deposit in
situ from Canada, which, at first sight, might be supposed to be
coeval with the formation of the deposit ; but on examination, the
calcareous mass. proved to be quite superficial, so that nothing could
be easier than for the arrow-head, which is of the usual Indian form,
to have fallen on the wet.surface, and to have-been thus apparently im-
bedded, The author concluded that no evidence had yet been adduced
to prove the occurrence of works of art in any of the older deposits.

Tuesday, 4th January 1853.
Dr MACLAGAN in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Optical Phenomena and Crystallization of Tour-
maline, Titanium, and Quartz, within Mica, Amethyst,
and Topaz. By Sir David Brewster, K.H., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., and V.P.R.S. Edin.

1. The first part was on the distribution of Tourmaline in Mica.—
When liquids or gases have been confined in mica, they have often
easily escaped and spread between the plates. Crystals, both of
tourmaline and quartz, are found in mica,.contemporaneous with it,
and of considerable size. Such crystals generally have the faces of
the hexagonal prism parallel to the laminz of the mica.

But other crystals of tourmaline formed subsequently, and between
the lamine, are very different. They are hexagonal plates, with
faces perpendicular to the axis of the prism. Some of the fluid
which deposited them has penetrated between the laminz, and there

=

159

deposited hexagonal plates, often in cireular groups round the cavity.
The centre of the cavity is occupied by a granular opaque group of
crystals. The hexagonal plates are commonly of a brownish yellow,
and, if thicker, green ; but they are of extreme thinness. Some of
them exhibit dichroism by polarized light.

The effects of pressure are detected on the mica near the cavities,
proving the force exerted.

The plates of mica exhibit Newton’s rings on certain circular
spaces, indicating the presenee of air or gas between the lamina ;
and it is curious that wherever a cavity has projected liquid or gas,
it is situated on the circumference of one of these round spots. This
indicates that a gas has been projected between the lamine.

The author then described a remarkable specimen, given him by
Dr Fleming, in which very thin hexagonal crystals of tourmaline,
in mica, were almost opaque. There are rectilineal cracks in them,
however ; and these, on looking at the sun through the crystals, ex-
hibit very beautiful optical phenomena. These fissures prove that
the crystals were soft after they had their present. form. No cavity
appears in this specimen.

This specimen, as well as others, contained the filaments and
sporules of: Penicillium glaucum between the lamine.

2. On Titanium in Mica.—Titanium.occurs in mica, and often in
beautiful dendritic forms, mostly opaque, but when x25 9th of an inch
thick, transparent. When only a very thin film of mica is left over
them, the most beautiful colours are seen, due to the thin plate of
mica, and not to a vacuity.

8. On the occurrence of Quartz in Mica.—The quartz occurs with
its axis of double refraction parallel to the lamine, but it never
occurred in regular crystals.

4. On Titanium in Amethyst.—The titanium was found’ in fine
pyramidal crystals, coating the faces as with a powder, but covered
again with amethyst faces parallel to those within. The dust was
formed of spicular crystals crossing each other at angles of 60° and:'30°.

It would appear that the crystals of amethyst must have grown
in a solution which at times contained titanium, and at other times
did not. Hence the successive layers as the crystals grew. In one
case, the titanium formed the external surface in part of the faces
of the pyramid, as if the other part had lain in a liquid protected from
the deposit, and no more amethyst had afterwards been deposited.

5. On Titanium in Topaz.—A number of imperfect crystals of

“
wis.
ee a te

160

topaz contained titanium ofa scarlet colour and transparent. These had
seven different forms, some of them very curious, which are figured.

6. On Crystals and Cavities in Garnet.—These are very fre-
quent, and exhibit very singular phenomena by polarized light. The
cavities are sometimes surrounded by spaces or sectors of polarized
light, indicating that the garnets had been soft after assuming their
present forms.

In one case, a liquid or gas had escaped from a cavity, and had
left circular crystals of singular beauty.

2. On the Absolute Zero of the Perfect Gas Thermometer ;
being a Note to a Paper on the Mechanical Action of
Heat. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Esq.

Temperature being measured by the pressure of a perfect gas at
constant density, the absolute zero of temperature is that point on
the thermometric scale at which, if it were possible to maintain a
perfect gas at so low a temperature, the pressure would be null.

As no gas is entirely devoid of cohesion, the immediate results of
experiment give only approximations to the- position of this absolute
zero. These approximate positions approach nearer to the true
position as the gas is rarefied.

The author having deduced the true position of the absolute zero
from M. Regnault’s experiments on atmospheric air and carbonic
acid, soon after their publication, announced the result in the Edin-
burgh New Philosophical Journal for July 1849, and in the Trans- _
actions-of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xx.

The present paper gives the details of the method of determina-
tion which he adopted, and a copy of the diagram which he used.

The following were the results arrived at :—

The absolute zero of the perfect gas thermometer is

274°°6 centigrade, or
494°-28 Fahrenheit,

The coefficient of expansion of a perfect gas, in fractions of its

} below the temperature of melting ice,

volume at the temperature of melting ice, is consequently, —

Per degree of the centigrade scale, — = 0:00364166.

‘ 1
d Fi SS = ® .
Per degree of Fahrenheit’s scale, 494-98 0:00202314

_
sa

161

The following Gentlemen were duly elected as Ordinary
Fellows:—

1. Major EpwarpD MApDEN, H.B.I1.C.8.
2. Dr JAMES WATSON, of Bath.
3. Lieutenant RoBERT MACLAGAN, Bengal Engineers.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

~Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. Serie 2da.

Tomo XII. 4to.—From the Academy.

Acta Academiz Ceesareze Leopoldino-Carolinze Nature Curiosarum.
Vol. XXIII, Pars II. 4to.— From the Academy.

Transactions of the Linnzean Society of London. Vol. XXI., Part 1.
Ato.

Proceedings of the Linnzan Society of London. Feb. 4, 1851, to
March 16, 1852. 8vo.—F rom the Society.

Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1860.
4to.—From the Academy.

Monday, 17th January 1853.
Rieut Rev. Bisoor TERROT, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On a simplification of the Instruments employed in Geo-
graphical Astronomy. By Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth.

These instruments include all. of that smaller class employed by

- travellers and navigators in determining latitudes and longitudes, and

in making surveys.

At sea, the only instrument which can be employed, is some form
of the double-reflection instrument, as the sextant, or rather the re-
flecting circle ; and as this is able to compass all the requirements
which may be-made of it there, great advantage will result in economy,
portability, and despatch, if it can be made also to serve the purposes
of a traveller by land.

Hitherto, however, this has been accomplished but very ineffi-
ciently ;. for with all the assistance of artificial reflecting horizons

162°

and stands, —generally of a singularly unpractical character,—the re-
flecting circle is only enabled to measure inclined angles and alti-
tudes within very circumscribed limits.

Any traveller, therefore, who wishes to be prepared for every op-
portunity for observation, has further to load himself with a theodo-
lite for horizontal angles, with a vertical circle for altitudes between
0° and 10°, and between 60° and 90°; with a transit instrument
for transit observations ; and with an independent telescope for ob-
servations of eclipses, occultations, &c.

The author, however, by employing his particular form of the marine ~

reflecting circle, viz., the Edinburgh reflecting circle,—which is even
more efficient and convenient at sea than the ordinary form,—and by
placing it on a stand of peculiar construction, converts it at once
into an altitude and azimuth instrument of a most simple effective
character ; capable of being employed as any of the above instru-
ments, and with some practical advantages in facility of observing
and reading off.

To this combination, therefore, of the naval circle with a stand
for land use, he proposed to give the name of the Edinburgh Uni-
versal Instrument, and hoped that it might facilitate and promote
the observations of geographical astronomy amongst the explorers in
distant lands.

*

2. On the Mechanical Action of Heat, Section VI. :—A re-
view of the Fundamental Principles of the Mechanical
Theory of Heat; with remarks on the Thermie Pheno-
mena of Currents of Elastic Fluids, as illustrating those
Principles. By W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Esq.

This section contains four sub-sections, the first three of which
constitute a review of the fundamental principles of the Mechanical
Theory of Heat, which are investigated by a method different from
any that has been hitherto employed; while the fourth contains
the application of those principles to the determination of the infer-
ences to be drawn from the recent experiments of Mr Joule and
Prof, William Thomson on the thermic phenomena exhibited by
currents of air rushing through small openings.

In the First Sub- Section, the author abstains not only from assum-
ing any hypothesis respecting the nature of heat, or the constitution

163

of matter, but also from taking into consideration the nature, or even
the existence, of any such function as temperature. The theorems
and formule obtained are simply the necessary consequences of the

following

DEFINITION OF ExpanstvE Heat :—

Let the term Expansive Heat be used to denote a kind of Physi-
cal Energy convertible with, and measurable by, equivalent quan-

- tities of Mechanical Power, and augmenting the Expansive Elasti-

city of matter in which it is present.

The conclusions arrived at are applicable to the mutual transfor-
mation, not merely of heat and expansive power, but, mutatis mu-
tandis, of any two forms of physical energy, known or unknown, one
of which is actual, and the other potential.

Let a body whose volume is V, possess the quantity of heat Q,
and let its expansive pressure be P. Let it expand from V to V+ dV,
so that the total expansive power developed is Pd V. Then the
latent heat of expansion during this operation, or the heat which
disappears by being converted into expansive power, is

Qa vat Vv
The excess of this above the cal power developed, viz.—

(e53-2) dv

is expended in overcoming cohesive force.
- When the total quantity of heat in the body increases by d Q, and
its volume by d V, the amount of heat which it must receive is made

_up of the following parts :—

Heat which remains in the body in its original form, increasing the
total heat, F . ‘ dQ
Heat expended in seduitit teenie

changes, independent of weak of Pdv
volume, . : (7/.0+ Q- wt Q? )ae

Latent heat of expansion, as before, ‘ a? zo Eas V

The entire amount being
a.a=(1+7'.0+ gee) aa+e oan
VOL, Ill. oO

164

If from this be-subtracted the power developed, P d V, there re-
mains the expression of the energy received by the body on the whole ;
that is, the difference between the energy received and the energy
given out, viz.—

d¥=d nO bd Vi
(1 +f’. a+9 ee) dQ+ (e33-") av
This quantity is a complete differential, its integral being

a.vaa.(@+7-0+ (035-1) fray)

When the expansive power P d V is wholly expended in moving
the particles of the expanding body itself, that motion being ulti-
mately extinguished and converted into heat by friction, the above
quantity, 2 ¥, represents the entire quantity of heat which the body
has consumed at the end of the process.

In amachine producing power by the alternate expansion and con-
traction of a body under the influence of heat, let Q, and Q, repre-
sent the greatest and least quantities of heat possessed by the body.
Then, to work to the best advantage, the body must receive heat and
convert it into expansive power at the constant heat Q,, and give
out heat by compression at the heat Q,, when the ratio of the heat
converted into power to the total heat expended will be

Q, —
1

In the Second Sub-Section, the author, still abstaining from the

use of any hypothesis, investigates such properties of temperature

as are deducible from the following

DEFINITION OF EQuaL TEMPERATURES :—

Two portions of matter are said to have Equal Temperatures,
when neither tends to communicate heat to the other.
Hence immediately follows a

COROLLARY.

All bodies absolutely destitute of heat have equal temperatures.

The ratio of the real specific heats of two substances being de-
fined to be the ratio of the quantities of heat which equal weights of
them possess at equal temperatures, the following Theorem is
proved :—

165

The ratio of the Real Specific Heats of any pair of substances is
the same at all temperatures.

Symbolically, let r denote the temperature of a body ; x the tem-
perature of absolute privation of heat; 4, a function of the nature,
and possibly of the density of the body. Then the quantity of heat
in unity of weight may be expressed thus—

Q=k(y.7T —-k)

If this notation be introduced into the expression for the greatest
proportion of heat convertible into mechanical power by an expansive
engine, it becomes

Q, — Q, a V-7, — 7,
Q, y.7, — v-K
that is to say, this ratio is a function merely of the temperatures of
receiving heat, r,, and of emitting heat, r,, and independent of the
nature of the body. This is Carnot’s Theorem, as modified by Messrs
Clausius and Thomson. The expression for the latent heat of ex-
pansion becomes

So aie OP oy

dQ V.t “at
eth a d V, in Prof. Thomson’s notation.
Mat.

Hence, in Professor Thomson’s notation,

1
; qanel**

which, being introduced into the formule of the first sub-section, re-
produces all his formule.

In the Third Sub-Section, the author points out the consequences
peculiar to the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices (that is to say, of
whirling eddies in elastic atmospheres surrounding atomic nuclei) ;

_ an hypothesis, the first outline of which was given by Sir Humphry

Davy, and which the author adopted, with modifications and additions,

as the basis of his investigations in the first five sections of this
_ paper, in two papers on the Centrifugal Theory of Elasticity, and in
_ other papers, with a view to the deduction of the laws of heat and
_ elasticity from the principles of mechanics. After pointing out the
_ resemblances and differences between this hypothesis and that of
Molecular Collisions proposed by Messrs Herapath and Waterston,
and remarking that the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices, besides re-

02

166

presenting successfully the theory of expansive heat, is consistent
with that of radiant heat and light, and well adapted to form a basis
for that of the elasticity of solids, the author shews, by a method
more simple than those formerly employed by him, that, according
to this hypothesis, the pressure of a perfect gas is represented by

P=(NQ+A)=

N and h being specific coefficients. Let V, be the volume of unity of
weight of a perfect gas at.a standard pressure P,, and temperature r, ;
then absolute temperature, as measured by a perfect gas thermome-
ter, has this value—

gt Alm ath.
CRS REN he:

The absolute temperature of total privation of heat is

rest) rh
BOY,
The quantity of heat in unity of weight of a body is
Q=k (7 — x)
where
Be W.

ay as 80

ins Nr,

is the coefficient of real specific heat.*

The introduction of this value of heat in terms of temperature
into the equations of the first sub-section, reproduces all the formule
which were deduced directly from the hypothesis in the author’s pre-
vious researches. In particular, the greatest proportion of heat con-
vertible into mechanical power in an expansive engine working be-
tween the temperatures +, and ¢,, is

pe Sy
vy — 2%

The value of f (Q) is
KNx (hyp. log r + 2)
ee
In the Fourth Sub-Section, the author investigates the inferences

to be drawn from the experiments of Messrs Joule and Thomson.

* These conclusions have since been confirmed by M. Regnault’s experiments
on the Specific Heat of Gases. (See Comptes Rendus, 1853, and Philos. Mag.,
June 1853.)

167

If a gas in a compressed state be allowed to expand by rushing
through small apertures, so that the expansive power developed shall
all be converted, first, into tangible motion, and then by friction into
heat, while the gas gives out no mechanical power to other bodies,
and neither receives nor gives out heat, its condition is expressed by
the following equation :—

Beast { @+7(@) + (235-1) fav}

-x{a ar av-kN (s.2 +. hyp. bg ) }

The cooling effect of a given expansion in atmospheric air,— Ar,
has been the subject of experiment. The term

dP

which represents the heat expended in overcoming molecular attrac-
tion, is calculated by means of formule deduced by the author from
M. Regnault’s experiments, with the aid of the hypothesis, as well
as the function by which x is multiplied. Thus each series of ex-
periments supplies data for computing an approximate value of x,
the ahsolute temperature of total privation of heat. The values of x
thus calculated from ten series of experiments, range from 1°08 to
2°-345 centigrade. The greatest discrepancy is therefore 1°-265
centigrade, which would cause a maximum error of only one three-
hundredth part in calculating the power of any expansive engine.
The values of x are both largest, and agree best together, for
those experiments in which the quantity of air used was greatest,
and therefore the risk of error least. The author considers that the
_ experiments prove the formule deduced from the Hypothesis of Mo-
lecular Vortices to be at least sufficiently correct for practical pur-
poses ; that they afford a strong probability of the theoretical sound-

ness of the hypothesis ; and that the position of the absolute zero of

heat is nearly as follows :—
. Centigrade. Fahren.
Above absolute zero of a perfect gas thermometer, . 21 3°-78
Below the temperature of meltingice, . . . 27275 490°5

The paper concludes with formule for future use in reducing ex-

periments on Carbonic Acid Gas,

168

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Flora Batava. Part 171. 4to.—From the King of Holland.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
No. 10. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vol. VII., Part 4;
Vol. VIIIL., Part 1. 8vo—From the. Society.

Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des
Beaux Arts de Belgique. Tom. XXVI. 4to.

Mémoires Couronnés et Mémoires des Savants Etrangers, publiés
par l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux
Arts de Belgique. Tome XXIV. 4to.

Bulletins de Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des
Beaux Arts de Belgique. Tomes XVII.—XIX. (1850-1852.)
8vo.

Annuaire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux
Arts de Belgique. Tomes XVII—XIX. (1851 and 1852.)
12°. .

Mémoires Couronnés et Memoires des Savants Etrangers, publiés
par l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux
Arts de Belgique. Collection in 8°. Tome V.—From the
Academy.

Annales de l’Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles, publiées aux frais
de lEtablissement, par le Directeur, A. Quételet. Tomes VIII.
et 1X. 4to.

Annuaire de l’Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles, par A. Quételet.
1851 & 1852. 12°.—From the Editor.

Résumé des Observations sur la Météorologie et sur le Magnetisme
Terrestre faites 4 l’Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles en 1850,
et communiquées par le Directeur, A. Quételet. 4to.—From
the Author.

The Canadian Journal ; a Repertory of Industry, Science, and Art,
and a Record of the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute.
October and December 1852. 4to.—From the Institute. .

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. XXII.
1852. 8yvo.—From the Society.

Catalogue Méthodique de la Collection des Reptiles. Muséum d’His-
toire Naturelle de Paris. 8vo. Catalogue Méthodique de la
Collection des Mammiféres de la Collection des Oiseaux.

169

Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris. 8vo.—From the
Museum.

Berichte iiber die Verhandlungen der Kéniglich Sachsischen Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. (1848.) 8vo. Bande
I., I1., 111. —F rom the Society.

Catalogue des Manuscrits et Hylographes Orientaux de la Biblio-
théque Impériale Publique de St Pétersbourg. 8vo.—From

ee the Russian Government.

; Monday, 7th February 1853.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Structural Characters of Rocks. By Dr Fleming.

While the condition of the mineral masses in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh furnish interesting illustrations of the structural cha-
racters of rocks, such as the columnar, the concretionary, and the

_ fragmentary, &c., the author proposed to confine his remarks at
present to what he denominated the Frawep Srructure.

In the ordinary language of quarriers, the flaws are termed backs,
while they are known to masons as dries, and to geologists, when re-
ferred to, as slicken-sides. This last term, independent of its provincial
character, refers to one peculiar form of the flaw only, and, although
explicable according to the same views entertained respecting the
origin of the others, is far from being a typical form. The flaw of

_ the lapidary, in reference to crystals or gems, comes sufficiently near

_ in character to justify its adoption.

The Faw is a crack which is confined to the stratum or bed in
_ which it occurs, and is thus distinguished from fault or dislocation,
since these extend through several beds. It occupies all posi-
_ tions in the bed, without an approach to parallelism, the flaws being
} variously inclined to one another, and not extending continuously
_ throughout the thickness of the bed ; thus differing from the columnar
structure.

These flaws are sometimes isolated; in other cases two unite at

er ee Te ee ee eee

a2
ee

= « et ka Ed Me,

170

angles more or less acute, and the junction edges are either sharp or
rounded. The surface of the sides of the flaw is frequently crumpled
or waved, and in the granularly-constituted beds, such as granite,
porphyry, or sandstone, is rough, while in slate-clay, bituminous
shale, and steatite, it often exhibits a specular polish.

The circumstance of the flaws exhibiting no approach to paral-
lelism, joined to the fact that they are not prolonged into the inferior
or superior beds, nay, frequently not extending throughout the bed
containing them, furnish a demonstration that they were not pro-
duced by an external force. The notion, too, is untenable, that the
polishing was produced by the faces of the flaw sliding backwards
and forwards on one another, because their limited extent, mode of
junction, and waved surfaces clearly indicate the absence of any such
alternate shifting.

The author then stated his opinion that the flaws had been pro-
duced by shrinkage, owing to the escape of volatile matter, aided by
molecular aggregation, and that the polished surfaces were produced
in comparatively soft plastic matter, like bituminous shale, by the
presence of water or gas in the cavity, so that the specular charac-
ter was the casting or impression of a liquid surface. The empty
vesicles of amygdaloid are occasionally found glossy on the walls,
or exhibiting an apparently vitrified film, while the rock itself is dull
and earthy in fracture. The smoothness in this instance is probably
produced as the casting or impress of included vapour or gas. Some-
times the flaws in coarse materials, such as porphyry, have a specular
aspect, owing to a film of anhydrous peroxide of iron. Illustrative
examples were exhibited, and references to various localities around
Edinburgh, where the whole phenomena of flawed structure were
well displayed.

2. Observations on the Speculations of the late Dr Brown,
and of other recent Metaphysicians, regarding the exer-
cise of the Senses. By Dr Alison.

The object of this paper was to recal attention to the celebrated
controversies on this subject, carried on during the last eentury ;
chiefly because some expressions used by Dr Brown, by Lord Jeffrey,
Sir James Mackintosh, and M. Morell, convey the impression that
the doctrines of Reid and Stewart on this essential part of their
system of Metaphysics, are now generally neglected or abandoned.

:
‘m
3
*
&
b

171

The author endeavoured to shew, on the contrary, that the existence
and authority of what Reid called Principles of Common Sense, and
Stewart called Fundamental Laws of Belief, and Brown called Prin-
ciples acquired by Intuition, as ultimate facts in the constitution of the
human Mind; and farther, the necessity of reference to such prin-
ciples, in any account that can be given of the information acquired
by the Senses,—is admitted by all those authors, and must be re-
garded as an established first principle in this science. He stated
that the only real addition made to our knowledge of this subject
by Dr Brown, consisted in his pointing out the province of the
muscular sensations, as distinguished from those produced by im-
pressions on the cutaneous nerves, in suggesting to us the notions
of the Primary qualities of Matter; and that his doctrine as to the
manner in which the idea of external independent existence is sug-
gested to the mind, is substantially the same as that previously pro-
posed by Turgot, and adopted by Stewart, and strictly consistent
with the statements of Reid.

He maintained farther, that when Dr Brown and other more re-
cent authors, supposed that they had detected an error in the rea-
sonings of Reid and Stewart against the scepticism of Berkeley and
Hume, they had deceived themselves; jirst, Because they stated
the object of Reid to be, to prove, by argument, the independent ex-
istence of the material world, which he had expressly disclaimed ;
secondly, Because they stated the substance of the sceptical argu-
ment to be merely the negative proposition, that that independent
existence cannot be proved by reasoning ; whereas it was the positive
proposition, that the idea of such independent existence involves an
absurdity, or contradiction in terms; and, thirdly, Because they en-

_ tirely overlooked the fact, on which Reid and Stewart relied, as evi-

dence that the Perceptions, or notions which the mind forms of the
qualities of external objects, can be referred only to those funda-
mental Laws of Belief, which all admit as ultimate facts in this de-
partment of science ;—viz.,the utter dissimilarity of these Perceptions

4 to the Sensations which introduce them into the mind; from which
_ they argued, not that the objects of Perception have been proved to

exist by reasoning, but that there is no more absurdity, or contradic-
tion in terms, in believing that they exist, than in believing in our
own identity, or in the suggestions of Memory.

Lastly, the author maintained, that when Reid’s doctrine of Per-

172

ceptions, as distinct from Sensations, is duly reflected on, it will be
found to involve all the theological inferences, which Morell and
others have supposed to be suggested only by the view of this sub-
ject which has been taken by some German metaphysicians ; and to
be remarkably in accordance with all that has been recently ascer-
tained in regard to the connection of the different Mental acts with
the living action of different parts of the Nervous System ; and far-
ther, to be quite compatible with the supposition (the evidence of
which he considered as still sub judice) of Perception taking place,
even in this state of human existence, otherwise than by the ordi-

nary exercise of the Senses.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected as Ordinary
Fellows :—
1, The Rev. Dr RopEert LEE, Professor of Biblical Criticism.
2. J. 8. Buackie, Esq., Professor of Greek.
3. The Right Rev. Dr Trower, Bishop of Glasgow, and late Fellow of
Oriel College.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Craigie’s Practice of Physic. 2 vols. 8vo.—F'rom the Author.

Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 1850
& 1851. Ato.

Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Juli—Oct.
8vo.—From the Academy.

Acta Academize Czesareze Leopoldino-Caroline Nature Curiosarum,
Vol. XXII., Suppl., and XXIII. 4to.—From the Academy.

Memorias della Real Accademia de Ciencias de Madrid. Tome I.,
Parti2.» aE Ole

Resumen de las Actas della Accademia Real de Ciencias de Madrid.
1850 and 1851. 8vo.—From the Academy.

173

Monday, 21st February 1853.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communication was read :—

“1 On the Summation of a Compound Series, and its applica-
in tion to a Problem in Probabilities. By the Right Rev.

Bishop Terrot.

The series proposed for summation is

m—q- m—q—l...m—q+pt+l KL Di Barred

+m—q—1.m—q—2...+ m—q+p x2.3.4...g41
+p pl. prQeereeres 1 xm—p.m—p+l...m—p+qtl

In which series each line or term is the product of two factorials, the
first consisting of p, the last of q factors of successive numbers. And
in each successive term the factors of the first factorial are dimi-
nished each by unity, and the factors of the last increased.

The method employed to.sum. this series is to multiply the sum
of all the left-hand factors into the first right-hand factor ; the sum
of all except the first, into the difference between the first and se-
cond of the right-hand factors, and so on; thus reducing the series

to the form

epee at) Oy $60 duels m—p+q+1)x1.2.3...q—1
Se geek deceives’ m—ptq) XZ. B.cceeeeees q
&e, &e, &e.

If this integration on the one side and differentiation on the other
be continued for q times, the series is reduced to the single term

q-q—-1-q—2 a atiin's 1 a Sh ee m—qtptl.

olution of the problem, Sup-
herent probability of success
and has succeeded

This summation is applicable to the s
pose an experiment concerning whose in
we know nothing, has been made p+q times,

*

ae

174

p times and failed qg times; what is the probability of success at the
p+qt Lit trial?

This problem gives four varieties, according as m, the possible
number of experiments, is finite or infinite, and according as results
effected can or cannot be repeated. If we take the common exam-
ple of drawing balls, which must be either black or white, from a
bag, then results effected may be repeated if the balls are replaced
after being drawn; if the balls drawn are not replaced, then the
same result cannot be repeated. The only case of the problem which
the author of this paper has been able to find solved in any treatise
on probabilities, though he must confess that his range of inquiry
has not been very large, is that where m is infinite, and the balls
drawn are replaced. His object in his paper was to solve the case
where m is finite, and the balls are not replaced.

In this case it is manifest that the number of white balls con-
tained in the bag may be any number from m—g to p, and the cor-
responding number of black, any number from g to m—p. Then,
omitting the common constants, the several hypotheses which can be
formed as to the proportion of black and white balls in the bag at
first, H,, H,, H,, &c., give, for the probability of the event ob-
served, that is, for the drawing of p white and qg black balls, the fol-
lowing probabilities :—

H,, m—q .m—q-l...... m—q—pt1l x1. 2. Be. q (a)
H,, m—q—1 »M—J—QArveemM—Y—PXW~B . Aeeveee q+1 (8)
and so on for all the other hypotheses. Hence the probability of H,,

which is ‘i wes 7 &c. = (by the preceding summation)
pt+l pt+2 coe cee ces pt+qtl 7
M+ . Meee eer eee m—p g+1xl Dr Te eacieee q
M—Q -M—JI— Lewes m—q—p+1xl Dead q

Therefore the probability of a white ball at p + q+ 1't® drawing, de-
rived from H,, is

pt+l1 p+2 Sherwin see ptqt+l >
(m+1 Wimacicuelece m—p—gt 1) Wile Tita q
m—q.m—q—1 M—G—PR1L. 2. Beer reeeee qe

175

In same way the probability derived from H, is the same frac-

tion into
(m-q-1 maga 2am —q—p—1) x2. 8-gth
and so for all the other hypotheses. And summing again this series,

we have the whole probability equal—

nptdi pd Spr ebh ae .' ' Lv Qerstregis BUY
(m+1. m-m—p—gq) xX 1. 2g pt+2 pt+aptqt2
pti

m+l1 2 SO OS Ig eo

As this expression does not involve m, it follows that when the
balls drawn are not replaced, the probability of drawing a white
ball at the p+q+ 1't trial, depends entirely upon p and q, and is
unaffected by the magnitude of m, whether finite or infinite.

The last portion of the paper considers the case where m is given,

and the balls drawn are replaced.

It is evident that in this case the main point must be to sum the

z series

> eA ediele ell
* mol? x 11+ m—QlP , QWeeee 1 .m—1"

4 This was effected by a process similar to that used in the last case,
_ and the sum found to be

4

ie z,m—1'? +d, 3, m—2'? see ceeeee dy,,4m—q"

Where =, m— 1!” means the gt integration of the series

1 4 DP eee eee m+ 1!'?,

and d,, d,, ds, &c., mean the Ist, 2d, 3d terms of the gth row of

differences of the series 1,. 2%, &c.
Applying this as was done with thea+8+7;
the probability of a white at the p+ q+ 1 drawing is

&c., of the last case,

3141 — lpg ty Byer Mr BPM ery Basi oe
m (xim—1" +d, 3, M—QWPeve ere dy 3,41m—Q"*)

ByypmP th pti
msitimp p+qt+2

If m be infinite, this becomes

The following Gentlemen were duly elected as Ordinary

Fellows :—
1. James M. Hoa, Esq. of Newliston.
2, The Rev, Joun Cummine, D.D.

176

Monday, 7th March 1853.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Species of Fossil Diatomacex found in the Infu-
sorial Earth of Mull. By Professor Gregory.

The author, after some general remarks on the Infusoria gene-
rally, and especially on their occurrence in the fossil state, mentioned
that the earth in question had been discovered by the Duke of Ar-
gyll at Knock, near Aros in Mull, and its geological position briefly
described by him to the Society, two years ago. The author had
undertaken an examinution of it, and had found it to contain, be-
sides Phytolitharia, silicified pollen of grasses and conifer, and
spicules and gemmules of fresh-water sponges, the unprecedented
number of about 60 species of Diatomacese. He had consulted the
Rev. W. Smith, who had observed in it the following 59 species, all
belonging to fresh water, which he named, the names being those of
his forthcoming Synopsis, and one species which he cannot at pre-
sent refer to any known form.

1. Pinnularia ......major. 23. Gomphonema Vibrio.

2: San fines viridis. 24, a .. .capitatum.

3. or cere acndted oblonga. 25. Amphora ......ovalis.

4, rien 0 beac divergens, 26. Stauroneis.....Phenicenteron.
5. = «+s. .radiosa. VA fe $y NS daeas gracilis.

6. o, le, ee. interrupta. 28. oe tet anceps.

Ue FS Ee ab Se 5 gibba. 29. Bae ee eeeee linearis.

8. sole) Sah. oe Tabellaria. 30. Cocconeis...... Thwaitesii.
9. a5 rbelanessisen es gracilis. 31. Prat toh Placentula,
10. mn Sees acuta. 32. Surirella ...... biseriata.

11. nian SAE ce mzsolepta. 33. 6 ..... Brightwellii.
12. ter hace gracilis. 34. Cymbella...... Helvetica.
13. a Peco lata. 35. jg, Maieka are Scotica.

14. sen RMaes alpina. 36. = beac maculata.

15. Navicula.........rhomboides. 37. scoters affinis.

16. b>) mivasecbns serians. 38. Wit seo ace cuspidata.

17. (ge its AD ct dicephala. 39. Cymatopleuraelliptica.

18. Fin autos sahents firma. 40. > apiculata.

19. Ben caster! angusta. 41, Himantidium gracile, Kitz,
20. Picea? week 42, of Arcus, Kiitz.
21. Gomphonema...acuminatum. 43. a majus, W. Sm.
22. 5 ...d. var. 8 coronatum,| 44. ae pectinale, Kiitz.

TT

ae

eee

177

45. Himantidium undulatum, Ral/s, 53. Eunotia.........Diadema.

46. re bidens, W. Sm. 54. Synedra........ capitata.

47. Tabellaria ...... fenestrata, Kiitz. Os etna? Sea cee thee biceps.

48. ¥ ..+..-Ventricosa, Kutz. 56. Fragillaria....capucina, Kiitz.
49. Epithemia...... turgida. 57. Orthoseira.....orichalcea, W. Sm.
| a re gibba. BB: od ...Divalis, W. Sm.
51. Eunotia......... gracilis. 59. Nitzschia...... sigmoidea, W. Sm.
TS EC tetraodon.

The 60th is the unknown or doubtful species, which is from 545
to z}y of an inch long, and has 44 cross striz in y4455 of an inch.
In has generally the form nearly of a narrow plano-convex lens, with
two notches near the ends of the plane side. It seems to approach
Eunotia arcus (Kiitzing), but requires further investigation. In the
mean time, Mr Smith proposes to call it Eunotia incisa.

The Mull earth is characterised by the great abundance of Pin-
nularie, Navicule, and Stauroneides ; by that of Gomphonema co-
ronatum, of the Cymbelle, of the Himantidia, Eunotie, and Epi-
themiz, of Tabellariz, and of Eunotia incisa.

Its chemical analysis yielded

Silica, . ; ‘ ! P ; P 70-75

Protoxide of iron, with traces of manganese, and
an appreciable amount of phosphoric acid, 15:04
Organic matter, A : : , : 12°36
Water and loss, F ; . ; : 1°85
100-00

Its composition renders it probable that it may be useful as a ma-
nure. It may also be made to yield an excellent polishing powder.

This earth oceurs in a hollow, formerly a small loch in winter
and a pool in summer, now drained, lying in a rough piece of ground,
a mile or a mile-and-a-half in extent, between Loch Baa and the sea,
and about 30 or 40 feet above the sea-level. It rests on gravel, and
the gravel rests immediately on the granite of the district. It is im-
possible to fix precisely the age of the deposit, but, from the species

it contains, it is probable that it is not of very recent origin; while

yet its epoch must be supposed subsequent to that of the deposition
of the gravel in which it is found.

Specimens of the earth, and drawings of a number of the species
were exhibited ; also specimens of polishing powder made from the

178

2. On the Production of Crystalline Structure in Crystallised
Powders, by Compression and Traction. By Sir David
Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.R.S. Edin.

The author, after alluding to the influence of compression and di-
latation in producing the doubly refracting structure in solids of all
kinds devoid of it, and in modifying it where it exists, mentioned that
the phenomena to be described have no relation to those alluded to.

In experimenting on the double reflexion and polarization of light
discovered by him in the chrysammates of potash, and magnesia,
murexide, and other crystals, he found that they could be spread out on
glass by hard pressure, like grease or soft wax ; and that in the case
of dark powders, he could thus obtain a transparent film, exhibiting
double reflexion and polarization from its surface, as well as if it had
been a large crystal.

In studying these phenomena under polarized light, he found that
the streaks and lines had axes of double refraction, as well as the film
composed of them, just as if they were regular crystals. When the
substance possessed the new property in perfection, these lines, though
very minute, were not formed of insulated particles dragged into a
line, but the lines of polarized light were continuous, and the crystallo-
graphic as well as the optical axis of the particles, were.placed in that
line. In other cases, the insulation of the particles was easily seen.

The substance may be subjected to pressure and traction, either on
smooth or on ground glass, the latter being preferable for hard sub-
stances. A polished and elastic knife is used to give the pressure.
The lines thus formed, examined in the polariscope, exhibit regular
neutral and depolarizing axes, With the chrysammate of magnesia,
the appearances are peculiarly splendid; its natural colours, which
vary with the thickness, being combined with the tints depolarized by
the streaks. As these crystals are dichroitic, and possess unusual
reflexion, so also the streaks exhibit the same; the two pencils be-
ing carmine red and pale yellow.

This property the author has found more or less in the follow-
ing crystals :—

Chrysammate of magnesia. Murexide.
potash. Aloetinate of potash.
Hydro-chrysammide. Aloetinic acid.

Oxamide, Cinchonine, sulphate of.

Palmine. Meconic acid.
Palmic acid. Brucine, sulphate of.
Amygdaline. Morphia, acetate of.
oe Tannin, pure. Tin, iodide of.
Quinine, pure. Cerium, oxide of.
acetate of, Parmeline.
sulphate of. Lecanorine.
++ muriate of. Indigo, red.
. phosphate of. Ammonia, oxalate of.
-.. citrate of. ... sulphate of.
Cacao butter. Soda, chromate of.
po Veratric acid. Lead, iodide of.
1% _ Esculine. Strychnine, sulphate of.
“ Theine. waa acetate of.
Silver, cyanide of. Soda, nitrate of, native.
acetate of. Berberine.
ie Platinum & magnesium, cyanide of. Mucic acid.
i .. and barium, cyanide of. Solanine.
i and potassium,cyanide of. Asparagine.
ae +.» ammonia, chloride of. Mercury, bichloride of.
Potash, chlorate of. Isatine.
; chromate of. Alizarine.
j Urea, nitrate of. Manganese, sesquioxide of.
. Sulphur. Lead, protoxide of,
: Camphor. Tungstic acid.
Cinchonine. Oxalate of chromium and potash.

In many substances, when subjected to pressure and traction, the
particles exhibit no such arrangement into transparent streaks, as
in the above, but are merely dragged into lines, and exhibit a qua-

_ quaversus polarization. But there is another class, which yields
transparent streaks, without any trace of prismatic arrangement.
Such are the bodies in the following list :—

Hydrate of potash, pure. Soda, acetate of.
Indigotic acid. Mercury, cyanide of.
= Urea. -.. chloride of.
4) Citric acid. ... sulphuret of.
Silver, nitrate of. Baryta, acetate of.
- Meconine. Zinc, chromate of.
Napthaline. ... sulphate, of.
Soda, nitrate of, pure. Cobalt, sulphate of.
Potash and copper, sulphate of. Magnesia and soda, sulphate of.
Soda, phosphate of. Borax.

Compression is, no doubt, the agent which forces the particles into
optical contact, and traction draws them into a line, tending to sepa-
VOL. III. Me

SCTE, \ ng © oo

ra. >

180

rate them in that direction. These forces may possibly modify the
doubly-refracting structure, but the author has not examined this
question.

On trying certain soft solids which possess double refraction, such
as bees’ wax, oil of mace, almond soap, and tallow, remarkable results
were obtained. Almond soap, the particles of which are not in op-
tical contact, may be drawn out into strings, and these strings possess
neutral and depolarizing axes like the streaks above described. This
is done by traction alone. Similar results are obtained in vil of mace
and tallow, by compression and traction. In bees’ wax, the depo-
larizing lines are even better displayed, especially if a little common
resin be added.

It is not easy to explain why, in these experiments, the optical
and crystallographic axes of the particles are placed in the same line.
Mechanical force is the primary agent, but it is possible that elec-
tricity may also contribute, even in the case of almond soap, to the
result. In that case, however, by drawing it out into a thread, we
diminish all the lateral obstacles to a crystalline arrangement. Ele-
mentary prisms, or crystals whose length much exceeds their breadth,
will then tend to place their long axes in the line of traction, and as
the lateral obstructions are removed, the particles may follow their
natural tendency.

We have reason to suppose, that in hard substances the same
principle acts, and that the particles, when drawn into narrow lines
and freed from lateral attractions, may more readily assume the crys-
talline arrangement which is natural to them, and is the result of
certain inherent polarities.

In some cases, where the crystalline arrangement was imperfectly
produced, the author observed a tendency in the particles to quit their
position, as if they were in a state of unnatural tension or restraint,
This probably depends on the non-homologous sides of the elementary
particles having been brought into contact, a condition quite com-
patible with the existence of neutral and depolarizing axes, provided
the non-homologous sides deviate from their proper position either
90° or 180°. In that case, polarized light, directly transmitted,
will exhibit the same colours as if the sides were in the normal po-
sition. But if transmitted obliquely, the hemitropism of the com-
bination, as we may call it, will be at once detected by the difference
in colour of the two plates.

181

3. On the Structure and Economy of Tethea, and on an
undescribed species from the Spitzbergen Seas. By
Professor Goodsir.

The author, after a brief summary of the observations of Donati,
M. Edwards, Forbes, Johnston, and Huxley, on various species of
Tethea, described the structure, and deduced the probable economy
of a large species apparently undescribed, some specimens of which
he had procured from the Spitzbergen Seas,

The following peculiarities of form and structure were minutely
detailed and illustrated :— c

1. The turbinated form of the sponge.

2. The partial distribution of the rind.

3. The minute pores of the rind, arranged in threes; a pore in
each of the angles, formed by the primary branches of the six-
radiate spicula,

4, The water, instead of passing out by oscula, drains through a
perforated or net-work membrane which lines a number of irregu-
larly tortuous grooves on the surface of the attached hemisphere of the
sponge,—the grooves being continuous with deep fissures, which ex-
tend into the rind, and are apparently the result of distension from
internal growth.

5. The silicious spicula are arranged according to the type of the
skeleton in the other Tethee. Elongated, slightly bent or twisted rod-
like spicula, are combined in bundles by means of fibrous substance,
’ and a few boomerang-shaped spicula, laid erossways. These bundles

are arranged irregularly in the centre of the sponge, so as to form a

nucleus from which radiating masses extend outwards to the rind, or
beyond the surface, where the rind is deficient. The spicula of the
rind are large and six-radiate. Their shafts are deeply and firmly in-
serted into the radiating bundles. Their three primary branches are
set at angles of 120° to the shaft, and to one another. The two
_ secondary branches at the extremity of each primary branch are long-
pointed, slightly concave towards the centre of the sponge, and set
at an angle of 90° to one another.

4 6. The fleshy mass which envelopes the spicular bundles in the
interior of the sponge, consists of —1. Ordinary sponge particles ; 2.
Caudate particles, probably similar to the spermatozoa described and
figured by Mr Huxley in an Australian Tethea; 3. Ova-like masses,
P2

182

the largest of which envelope a radiating arrangement of anchor-like
spicula; 4. Towards, and in the rind, elongated cellules, apparently
fibrous and muscular, the fibrous connecting the spicula, and with
the nucleated muscular cellules arranged transversely as figured by
Donati.

7. From the structure of Tethea, as well as from the observations
of Donati and M. Edwards, this group of sponges would appear to
possess considerable contractility.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of “Agriculture, and Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. N.S. No. 40, 8vo.—From
the Society.

Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Van Diemen’s
Land. Vol. II., Part 1. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Canadian Journal ; a Repertory of Industry, Science and Art,
and a Record of the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute.
January 1853. 4to.—From the Institute.

Flora Batava. 172 Aflevering. 4to.—F rom the King of Holland.

Acta Regie Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis. 3d Series. Vol. I.
Fascic. 1. 4to.—From the Society.

Berichte iiber die Verhandlungen der Kéniglich Siichsischen Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Mathematisch-Phy-
sische Classe I. 8vo.—F rom the Society.

Ueber Musikalische Tonbestimmung und Temperatur. Von M. W.
Drobisch. 8vo.—F rom the Author.

Beitriige zur Kenntnis der Gefiiss-kryptogamen. Von Wilhelm Hof-
meister. 8vo.—From the Author.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
1852. No.2. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. N.S.
Vol. IV., Part 2. 4to.—From the Academy.

183

Monday, 21st March 1853.

Rigut Rey. Bisporp TERROT, Vice-President, in the Chair.
Fi The following Communication was read :—

x On Circular Crystals. By Sir David Brewster K.H.,D.C.L.,
* F.R.S., V.P.R.S.E, Associate of the Institute of France.

The author, after mentioning Mr Fox Talbot’s observation, in
1836, of circular crystals from a solution of borax in phosphoric acid,
stated, that about twenty years before Mr Talbot’s paper was pub-
lished, he had obtained circular crystals from oil of mace, and from
a mixture of that oil with tallow or rosin. These circular crystals
are groups of radiating prisms, in optical contact, so as to appear like
individual crystals. Viewed by polarized light, they exhibit four
luminous sectors, separated by a rectangular black cross, which
often has its arms so divergent, as to form four dark sectors. The
arms of the cross are parallel and perpendicular to the plane of pri-
mitive polarization. When a bright disc of ordinary light was looked
5 at through these circular spots, there was seen a halo, or two halos,
3 produced by the crystals of the oil of mace. In the case of two halos,
polarized light shewed two sets of four luminous sectors, as far apart
as the halos. The halos were, in fact, double, being the two images
produced by the double refraction of the elementary crystals. In
____ pursuing the inquiry, the author found that the phenomena were caused
3 by circular crystals or groups, varying from invisibility to the 3} 5th
or x}5th of an inch in diameter, and when of this size, exhibiting
beautiful luminous sectors in polarized light. Circular crystals are
_ easily distinguished from those which exhibit true quaquaversus polari-
_ gation, by using a plate of selenite, which, with the circular crystals,
_ produces spots or sectors of two different colours, one a little lower,
P. the other a little higher than the tint of the selenite.

He next examined a number of substances which yield circular
crystals, particularly the lithoxanthate of ammonia (a salt formed by
_____ the action of ammonia on xanthic oxide), which yields them with more
q facility and certainty than borax. Out of more than 300 substances,

he found upwards of 70 which yielded circular crystals, about thirty

184

‘being positive, like zircon, and forty negative, like calcareous spar.
The phenomena observed are most splendid, and open up a wide field
of research.

The author next detailed, and illustrated with minute and carefully
coloured drawings, these phenomena, as observed in the following
substances, the most remarkable of the whole number.

1. Lithoxanthate of Ammonia.—Here, in the usual specimens,
the light polarized by the sectors is the blue of the first order,
often the white and the yellow of the same order. In separate cir-
cular crystals, other appearances occur. In one, the three first
orders of colours appeared exactly as in the coloured rings of uni-
axial crystals, proving that the elementary prisms or radii must have
increased in thickness from the centre outwards, according to New-
ton’s law of periodical colours. In others, the second and third
bands were of different but uniform colours throughout, proving
uniform thickness all round in each band. These colours were
generally red and green, not at all related to the central tint, or
to one another. In some cases, the order of colours is inverted.
In the most perfect crystals, the central tints are the blue and white
of the first order, in consequence of the great minuteness of the ele-
mentary crystals, which form a more uniform disc, with an exceedingly
sharp black cross. This central part is surrounded by a narrow black
ring, beyond which is an annulus of sectors, sometimes white, like
the inner ones. This is terminated by a black circle, beyond which
is a third series of sectors, either white or blue of the first order. The
black cross starts into greater breadth as it passes from one annulus
to the other, from the inferior degree of optical contact in the outer
rings. Various other singular modifications occur in this salt, which
cannot be detailed here. In some cases, there are large radiant
prisms, all polarizing a golden yellow, and the black cross becomes
hardly visible. In others, its divergence is so great, that the yellow
sectors assume the appearance of a cross.

In some still more complex crystals, there is seen one or more
narrow black rings, which arise from the absence of matter where
they appear.

2. Salicine—This substance yields splendid discs. When of the
diameter of jth to 3th of an inch, these tints are of the first and
second orders, and they form objects of singular splendour. Here
also, the smaller crystals polarize a bluish white. The dises of salicine

ae 185

ere composed of prisms: varying in thickness, and, of course, in tint,
and have often rims, formed of one or two concentric bands, made up
of radiant bunches, proceeding from the inner margin of the bands,
and not from the centre of the dises. The large dises exhibit ten,
twelve, or more fine concentric lines, which are lines of cleavage.
Sometimes the rim is as wide as the inclosed part, and these polarize
a bluish white.

3. Asparagine,—This substance yields discs resembling those of
salicine, but are still more brilliant and beautiful. There are some
dises which exhibit no circular polarization, and others which exhibit
a succession of black and white narrow rings, like those seen round
the star Capella, with annular apertures.

4, Manna.—This gives fine negative crystals, both by fusion and
solution, There is great brilliancy and uniformity of the tints, and
the black cross is so sharp that its intersection is not easily seen.
The discs form a united hexagonal mosaic, and have no rims.

5. Disulphate.of Mercury.—tThe solution of this salt in nitric acid,
gives, by slow cooling, square crystals with circular polarization, which
undergo singular modifications, for which we must refer to the paper.

6. Parmeline, from alcohol, gives fine circular crystals.

7. Palmic Acid, by fusion, gives fine negative circular crystals,
like the mosaic of manna.

8. Nitrate of Uranium gives fine negative circular crystals, from
water, alcohol, ether, and oil.

9. Palmine gives very minute circular crystals.

10. Chromic Acid gives very peculiar circular crystals, composed
of concentric rippled bands, generally of the blue of the first order.
4 11. Berberine gives negative circular discs, resembling those of

oil of mace.
12. Sulphuret of Cadmium, dissolved in nitric acid, that is, nitrate
of cadmium, gives beautiful negative circular crystals.
13. Sulphate of Ammonia and Magnesia.—This salt yields fine
_ positive circular crystals.
_ 14. Hatchetine, Cacao Butter, White Wax, Tallow, Adipocire,
_ and all Soaps, and different kinds of Fat, give circular crystals like
oil of mace.
b/ 15. Borax in Phosphoric Acid.—This salt yielded the circular
__ erystals described by Mr Talbot. This salt, as well as nitrate of
uranium, yields hemispherical bells, under certain circumstances, which

as ae ee i No oes) ieee

he Sit al =

186

polarize light by refraction, and exhibit the black cross, with rings of
green and red alternately. The author observed these bells to be
formed of minute crystals, radiating from the apex of the bell.

16. Mannite.—This substance the author has found, since the
paper was read, to give circular crystals more easily and certainly
than any other. Those from the solution in acetic acid are the
finest. The black concentric circles, indicating absence of matter,
are peculiarly marked ; and the sectors shade off so perfectly into the
arms of the cross, as to give the dises the appearance of being formed
of four solid cones. The discs are sometimes elongated into conical
forms, with the black cross at the summit. A crust of opaque crys-
talline matter, that is, not in optical contact, often covers them, and
often breaks off, shewing the circular crystal below. The cones have
frequently two, three, or four black arches crossing them. In some
of the larger dises, each successive ring is formed of radiating branches,
radiating from the margin of the ring within.

17. Oxalurate of Ammonia (pure).—This salt, to which the author’s
attention was called by Professor Gregory, gives beautiful negative
circular crystals, and rarely fails to yield them. With weak solutions
the discs are small and exactly resemble those of the lithoxanthate
of ammonia. Professor Gregory thinks that the two salts are iden-
tical, but that the lithoxanthate contains a little colouring matter.
With strong solutions, the salt yields discs often nearly opaque, but
surrounded by concentric rings of marginal radiations, of different
tints. In some large erystals, the central circle consists of green of
the second order, with a faint black cross, descending to the white of
the first order ; the next ring, which is separated by a narrow black
band from the first, exhibits the white, which rises to the yellow of
the second order, and again descends to the white of the first, com-
pleting the second ring. Three similar rings follow in succession,
and each of the five has a uniform tint throughout its circumference,
proving a uniform thickness in each band. These crystals, when a
number are seen in the dark field, are singularly beautiful. This salt
yields cones like those of mannite, and these have, in the centre of
the black cross, a second cross bisecting the luminous sectors.

18. Hippuric Acid gives fine circular crystals with aleohol. In
these, the radial lines are often divided by black spaces as broad as
the luminous lines; and the whole disc is covered with numerous
minute concentric circles, at equal distances from one another. In

f
; _ erystals.

187

some eases, the discs consist of eight or ten sectors of uniform thick-
ness, which become black in the plane of primitive polarization.
The following is the author’s list of substances giving circular

: 1. Positive Circular Crystals.

Sulphate of ammonia and magnesia.
ammonia and cobalt.
ammonia and iron.
ammoniaand manganese.
potash and zinc.

... red oxide of manganese.

Disulphate of mercury.

Hydrate of potash.

Citrate of potash.

Muriate of morphia.

moe Aes magnesia.

Borax in phosphoric acid.
Lithoxanthate of ammonia.
Oxalurate of ammonia, pure.
Kreatine.

Salicine.

Asparagine.

Manna.

Parmeline.

Palmine.

Palmic acid.

Esculine.

Berberine.

Cinchonine.

Theine.

Thionurate of ammonia.
Carbazotate of potash.

Hippuric acid.

Sulphate of copper and iron.

np and zinc.
magnesia and potash.
copper and ammonia.
zine and ammonia.
ive zine.
_ Substance in garnet.
Stearine. ~°
Stearic acid.
_ Palmitic acid.

Muriate of strontia.
Almond soap.

Starch.

Substance in garnet.
mica.

Mannite.

Citrate of ammonia.
Myristic acid.
Cupreo-sulphate of potash.
Kreatinine.

2. Negative Circular Crystals.

Animal fat.
Cacao butter.
Hatchetine.
White wax.
Chrysoleptinic acid.
Succinate of zinc.
Chromic acid.
Citric acid.
Nitrate of uranium.
urea.
... brucine.
strychnine.
* Gallic acid.
Sulphuret (nitrate) of cadmium.
Suiphuret of potassium.
Santonine.
Acetate of strontia.
quinine.
Chloride of zine.
Oxide of uranium.
Protoxide of nickel.
Phosphate of nickel.
Carbonate of nickel.
Substance in mica.
Adipocere.
Margaric acid.
Ethal.

188

The following substances also exhibit circular polarization, and the
structure is, in all cases but one, negative.

Hoof of the horse, vertical and trans- Hoof of rhinoceros.

verse sections. Horn of rhinoceros, transverse and
Hoof of an ass, transverse. section. vertieal sections.
Transparent aperture in the wing of | Horn of antelope.

Sections of hairs of animals.

a beetle.

In conclusion, the author offered some observations on the forma-
tion and destruction of these discs. He regarded them as abnormal
crystallizations, in which the particles are in unstable equilibrium, and
have a constant tendency to arrange themselves according to theirnatu-
ral polarities. Hence, circular crystallizations are apt, after a longer or
shorter time, to disappear, the particles either dissolving, or assuming
the form of ordinary crystals, lying in all directions, or accumulated
in radial or circular lines. In oil of mace, the decomposition is
effected in a night; in mannite, not for several years,

The observations recorded in this paper, have occupied the author
during the last ten years, and must have an important bearing on
many unsettled questions in molecular philosophy.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Ordnance Survey. Astronomical Observations made with Airy’s
Zenith Sector, from 1842 to 1850, for the determination of
the Latitudes of various Trigonometrical Stations used in the
Ordnance Survey of the British Isles. By Captain W. Yol-
land. 4to.—From the Hon. Board of Ordnance.

Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, publiées par les Pro-
fesseurs-Administrateurs de cet Etablissement. Tome VL.,
Liv. 3&4. 4to.—From the Editors.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. 2d Series. No. 43.
8vo.— From the Editors.

189

Monday, 4th April 1853.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On Nitric Acid as a source of the Nitrogen found in Plants.
By Dr George Wilson.

The author, after referring to the opinions of those who contend
that plants derive their nitrogen only from ammonia, shewed, in
justification of the belief, that they also derive that element from
nitric acid :—

Firstly, That nitrates are largely offered to plants, both as they
grow wild, and as they are artificially cultivated.

Secondly, That plants do not refuse the nitrates thus offered to

them.
Be Thirdly, That the nitrates which enter plants do not, if properly
: diluted, do injury to any class of them.
Fourthly, That nitrates largely promote the growth of the most
: important plants.
4 Fifthly, That as chemists are at one in regarding the chief function
’ of a plant, considered as a piece of chemical apparatus, to be the de-
Ry oxidation of those oxides, such as water, carbonic acid, and sulphuric
acid, which enter it, they cannot with any consistency deny that nitric
acid, which is one of the most easily deoxidised of all oxides, must,
. more easily than the oxides referred to, part with its oxygen, and
___ give up nitrogen to the plant.
7 Sixthly, That although it would be unwise to be dogmatic on the
a phenomena which occur within the recesses of a plant, or to affirm
that it cannot derive nitrogen from many sources; yet, according

__ to the present conclusions of science, it may be reasonably urged,
a that the simplest chemical expression which we can give to our

belief regarding the source of the nitrogen which is so important
' oe to plants, must be, that the inorganic or mineral representative and
parent of all the nitrogenous constituents of plants, and through them
of animals, is neither ammonia alone, nor nitric acid alone, but the
compound of both, i. ¢., nitrate of ammonia.

190

2. Observations on the Amount, Increase, and Distribution
of Crime in Scotland. By George Makgill, Esq. of Kem-
back.

The author read some “ Observations on the Amount, Increase,
and Distribution of Crime in Scotland,’’ being the results of an ana-
lysis of the Official Tables of criminal offenders for the ten years
ending 1850, and of the Prison Board Returns, compared with va-
rious statistical data.

The criminal tables of Scotland confirm, in many important
particulars, the observations of M. Guerry, M. Quetelet, and Mr
Joseph Fletcher, as to the causes of the occasional fluctuations in the
amount of crime, the chief of which appear to be—1st, Scarcity of
the chief articles of subsistence; 2d, Disturbances of commercial
credit, and of the labour market; 3d, Political excitement.

Among the other results of the author’s inquiry are the follow-
ing :—

1. The ratio of crime to population is apparently one-tenth higher
in England than in Scotland; but,—

2. In England this ratio has for many years been gradually di-
minishing, while in Scotland it is rapidly and steadily increasing.

3. This increase shews itself chiefly in crimes accompanied by
violence, which in Scotland constitute 40 per cent. of the total of-
fences recorded, while in England they are only 14 per cent.

4, This excess and increase are chiefly remarkable in the agri-
cultural, pastoral, and thinly-peopled districts of the Border, where
aggravated crimes against the person are greatly more common in
proportion to population, than in the densely-crowded manufacturing
counties of the west. In Berwick and Roxburgh, crime of all kinds
has increased more rapidly in the last ten years, than in any other
part of the country; while in Lanarkshire the augmentation has
been trifling, and in Renfrew the number has actually diminished.
An analogous fact has been observed in regard to England.

5. Looking, however, not to the ratio of éncrease, but to the ab-
solute amount of crime in proportion to population, the highest
counties are still those in which mining industry is found in conjune-
tion with factory labour, with the exception of Ayr and Fifeshire.

6. There does not appear to be any marked coincidence between
the excess of crime and that of pauperism.

191

7. The counties in which the number of licensed spirit-shops is
greatest in proportion to population, are all distinguished for the fre-
quency of crime; while those in which they are fewest are, with a
single exception, greatly below the average of crime.

8. Excess in the proportion of real property to population is, in
general, accompanied by excess of crime.

9. Eight out of the ten counties which stand highest in the list
of serious crime, exhibit a proportion of school attendance consider-
ably above the average of the country ; while of the counties in which
crime is rarest, all but two are greatly below the general educational
standard.

10. The per-centage of female criminals is much larger in Scot-
land than in any European country of which the records are pub-
lished. In France, the number of females in each 100 culprits is
15; in England, 19; and in Scotland, 28.

11. A marked decrease in the number of juvenile offenders in
the large towns has been going on for the last six or seven years.

12. There is a remarkable uniformity from year to year in the
results of criminal proceedings ; the proportion of convictions to trials
never having varied in the last four years more than one per cent.

13, The number of sentences under the aggravation of previous
conviction has been steadily and rapidly increasing for the last
fifteen years; indicating either greater efficiency of the police, or
insufficiency in the character of punishment.

14, In the last half of the ten years under review, the number of
eases in which insanity has been successfully pleaded in bar of trial,
is more than double what it was in the first half; and the number
of accused who have been found insane on trial, has multiplied nearly
to the same extent.’ .

The author concluded by regretting that the deficiency of statis-
tical materials in Scotland, and in particular the total want of a sys-

tem of registration, prevented the extension of the inquiry to many
_ subjects of great public interest.

192

Monday, 18th April 1853.
JOHN CAY, Esq., Advocate, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Notice of recent Measures of the Ring of Saturn. By
Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

This communication chiefly described the observations made by
W. 8S. Jacob, Esq., of the Madras Observatory, during the last appa-
rition of the planet, with a telescope having a six-inch object-glass,
lately completed by Lerebours and Secretan.

Previous to its being sent to India, the object-glass had been tested
at the Edinburgh Observatory ; and its quality, which was then ap-
proved, had been more conspicuously brought out in the subsequent
trial in a clearer climate.

Immediately after the receipt of the object-glass, in September
1852, Mr Jacob directed it to Saturn, then in the zenith, and im-
mediately perceived the “‘ transparency” of the dark ring which has
since been discovered independently by Mr Lassel and others; and
on very accurately adjusting the focus, he saw a fine division in the
outer dark ring. This appears to have escaped all other observers
at the same time, except perhaps Mr Dawes, who had some suspi-
cions of such a phenomenon. But Mr Jacob saw it clearly for all the
rest of the apparition of the planet, could trace it through more than
half the circumference of the ring, and was enabled to get good
measures of it with the wire micrometer.

Such a fine division of the outer ring has not unfrequently been
suspected before, and even seen, but only on one or two special nights,
by each observer, and then merely through a very small part of the
circumference at the anse,

Mr Jacob’s observations, therefore, establish the fact permanently
among the phenomena of the planet’s appearance, and lead us to ex-
pect more still from him, when, as will be the case in a few years,
the ring of Saturn is presented to our view at its maximum angle
of inclination.

The author then concluded with an account of the most probable
theory with regard to the material and economy of the rings,
which he conceived to be fluid and vaporous, and indicating, with

A ~ aa
Bee

193

a certain variation, due, perhaps, to a magnetic or diamagnetic con-
dition, the appearance of the earth in what Mr Nasmyth calls its
“ pre-oceanic’’ state; when, still incandescent, the ocean could find no
resting-place on its surface, but would have been compelled to form
a dense vapour envelope in the atmosphere ; of frozen particles out-
side, by reason of the coldness of space, and of watery vapour inside,
from the radiation of heat from the hot internal globe.

2. Chemical Notices. By Professor Gregory.

1. On the new compounds of Cobalt described by Frémy and others.

Claudet in London, and Genth in Germany,. about the same time
observed a new compound of cobalt, with the elements of ammonia
and chlorine. Frémy, about the same time, announced a far more
extended investigation, the result of which was the discovery of no
less than five series of salts, in some of which the base, with oxygen
acids, was formed of oxides of cobalt along with more or less ammo-
nia, and, with hydrogen acids, was formed of cobalt with more or
less ammonia. In other series, salts of oxides of cobalt, for the most
part previously unknown oxides of this metal, seem to have combined
with more or less ammonia. I shall not enter farther into any
details of the views of Frémy, in regard to many of these salts,
which are very complicated, and confessedly provisional. But I have
made some experiments on the formation and analysis of two of the
most remarkable of the salts described by him, one of which belongs
to the series of Roseocobaltiak, the other to that of Luteocobaltiak.
Both are chlorides or hydrochlorates, and the former, or the pink

a salt, is the same as was described by Claudet and Genth. I find

that both this and the other—which is yellow, a very unexpected fact
in compounds of cobalt—may easily be obtained by dissolving proto-

chloride of cobalt in water, adding sal-ammoniac and an excess of

‘ammonia, and passing chlorine through the solution,.till the chlorine

is in excess. It then deposits a mixed mass of pink and yellow salt,
_ which may be separated by the greater solubility of the yellow salt
_ in water very slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, in which the

pink salt is almost insoluble. The yellow salt may be obtained in

_ large and fine crystals by spontaneous evaporation. When large,

the crystals areof a deep orange-red, but the powder and the small
crystals are bright orange-yellow. The red salt is sparingly so-
Juble in hot water, which, on cooling, deposits it in dark red ecrys-

3 . : ‘
<_

,

ww. *

~~ wR ~ * a! ~~

194

tals of small size. It is generally obtained, however, as a crystalline
powder of a fine pink colour, as it is usually rapidly formed, and
deposited too quickly to form regular crystals.

The chemists who have analysed the red or pink salt are not agreed
as to its composition, for while Claudet found it to contain no oxy-
gen and no water, Frémy admits 1 eq. of water, and Genth con-
siders it as a compound of sesquioxide of cobalt, ammonia, and chlo-
rine. I have made a number of analyses of this salt, prepared in
different ways, and when it has been slowly ignited in a current of
hydrogen, to determine the cobalt which is left in the metallic state,
I have not in any case obtained a trace of water. Consequently the
salt cannot have the formula given to it by either Genth or Frémy.
As that of Genth is absolutely erroneous, I shall give here the em-
pirical formule of Frémy and Claudet, with my own results.

Claudet, . : : : Co, Cl, N, an.

Frémy, . . : - Co, Cl, N; Hy, 9

Gregory, : : 2 Co, Cl, N, Hy;

QOLAUDET. FREMY. GREGORY.

Theory. Experiment. Theory. Experiment. Theory. Experiment.

Co 23:16 23°50 22°38 22:6 23°55 23°79
Cl 42°34 42°38 41:0 40°9 42°51 42°86
N 27:83 27°79 27°0 + 26:2 27:94 28:00
H 6:36 6°34 6-1 6°4 5°98 6:00
O wes a 3°1 371

It is very difficult to form any distinct idea of the rational for-
mula, whichever empirical one we adopt. The most interesting point
is this, that from this compound analogous ones with oxygen acids
may be formed, and that from these, by the action of alkalies, a base
may be separated, although it has not yet been isolated in a state of
purity, which appears to consist of ammonia plus some oxide of cobalt.
If such bases exist, they will probably, like other oxidised bases,
yield, with hydrochloric acid, water and chlorides, and thus our red
salt would be the chloride of the radical, which, with oxygen, forms
the base in the oxidised salts. But we must not dwell on possibili-
ties ; and my object is to shew, first, that the red compound does not, _
as Frémy states, contain oxygen (at least that which I have examined),
and that before we can speak with confidence as to its true formula,
we must have more certainty as to the empirical one.

With regard to the yellow salt, this, according to Frémy, contains

195

no oxygen, and 1 eq. of ammonia more than the red salt. My
results lead to the same conclusion, so that its empirical formula
appears to be Co, Cl, N, H,,, or Co, Clh+6NH,. It also forms
salts with oxygen acids, and from these an oxidised base may be se-
parated, but has not been fully studied.

All the three authors who have preceded me describe the crystals of
the red salt as regular octohedrons, and they must be very nearly so; but
Sir D. Brewster informs me that they do act to a small extent on po-
larized light, in which case they cannot belong to the regular system.

Frémy, differing from Genth, also describes the yellow salt as
forming regular octohedrons. But this is, I think, a mistake; for,
as far as I have examined them, they appear to be prismatic. Genth
describes the crystals as rhombic or klino-rhombic.

2. On the Acid formed when Potash acts on Oil of Bitter Almonds.

When commercial oil of bitter almonds is mixed with an excess of
an alcoholic solution of potash, there is formed, instead of benzoine,
a salt, crystallising in scales, which are very soluble in alcohol. This
salt is said in books to be benzoate of potash. And when decomposed
by acids, it yields an acid which, to all appearance, is benzoic acid.
But it is worthy of notice, that if we form benzoate of potash with
common benzoic acid, the salt is hardly at all soluble in hot alcohol,
and does not crystallise in the same way as the salt above mentioned ;
indeed can hardly be got to crystallise at all. Ihave made many
experiments to ascertain the cause of this strange difference, but I
have as yet been unable to detect it. The salt I exhibit has been
three times recrystallised from alcohol, and is as soluble as ever; while
yet the acid extracted from it appears identical with benzoic acid.
Its analysis, indeed, does not perfectly agree with that of benzoic acid,
but the difference is so slight, as not to affect the formula.

Is it possible that the presence of some foreign matter communi-
cates to the potash salt the property of solubility in alcohol, and that
of erystallising readily ? But if so, the more it is purified, the less
soluble it should become. This I have not found to be the case, I
rather suspect that the acid is not truly benzoic acid, and that a more
minute investigation will detect its true nature. Its resemblance to
benzoic acid is certainly very striking, but we know that homologous
compounds, although different in composition, often resemble each
other in as great a degree.

VOL. Il. Q

196

3. On a spontaneous Metamorphosis of Alloxan.

I have found that alloxan forms two kinds of hydrated crystals.
Those, with six eqs. of water, are large, regular, transparent, and
do not readily effloresce in the air, nor undergo any change when kept.
But there is another form much more frequent, which, according to
my analysis, contains seven or possibly eight eqs. of water. It forms
large but irregular masses, with their sides graduated like steps, and
effloresces on exposure to the air very readily. I rather think this
kind forms in solutions which are slightly acid from free nitric acid,
which is likely to be the case in preparing alloxan. When placed in
stoppered bottles, and exposed to the natural changes of temperature
in summer, these crystals became partially liquified, and after a year
or two I found the contents of several bottles entirely changed. A
very large part had become nearly insoluble in cold water, and the
solution filtered from this part deposited, on evaporation, jirst, small
colourless crystals ; secondly,a erystalline and yellowish mass; and, last
of all, the little remaining liquid dried up into a tough semi-crystalline
mass, which became pink on exposure to the air of the laboratory.

T find the insoluble, or sparingly soluble matter, to be pure allox-
antine. The next crystals are quite distinct, both in form and pro-
perties, and the following portions exhibit also characters of their own.
No alloxan has appeared. But since the difference between alloxan
and alloxantine is simply that the latter contains one eq. of hydro-
gen more than the former, then the other substances must either
contain less hydrogen than alloxan, or, if the hydrogen has been de-
rived from water, they must contain more oxygen. I regard the latter
as the probable case, and I rather think that the new product or pro-
ducts are of an acid nature. But I have not yet been able to obtain
them pure; and if I had, the difference in composition is so small,
that analysis will hardly suffice to make sure of it. We must there-
fore have recourse to the difference of properties, and here all that
I have as yet been able to do +s to ascertain that besides alloxantine,
at least one, but probably two substances have been formed, different
both from alloxan and from alloxantine, as well as from all the allied
compounds with which Iam acquainted ; and that one if not both of
these are acid compounds. The investigation is one of very great
difficulty, from the tendency of all these compounds to be altered by
contact with other substances, or by heat, and from the great simi-
larity in the properties of many of them.

em

be a

—

197

One useful hint which the chemist may derive from these observa-
tions is, that if he wishes to preserve alloxan, it ought to be got in
the anhydrous form, which is done by evaporating its solution at
140° or 150°, when anhydrous crystals alone are deposited in the
warm solution, which is poured off and further evaporated, as long as
it yields crystals. It is apt to be decomposed at higher temperatures.

3. Observations on the Structural Character of Rocks.
Part II. By Dr Fleming.

In proceeding to consider still farther the physiology of rocks, the
author proposed in this communication to confine himself to the
illustration of

1. The Columnar Structure.—After enumerating examples of this
structure, as occurring in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, in cannel
coal, sandstone, clay, ironstone, clinkstone, claystone, greenstone,
and basalt, he exhibited examples of similar appearances in oven soles
and fragments of the walls of vitrified forts. The ordinary explana-
tion of this structure as the result of cooling from a state of fusion
he pointed out as unsatisfactory, even in the case of basaltic pillars,
and inapplicable to similar appearances as occurring in sedimentary
rocks, He considered the whole phenomena explicable as connected
with one cause, viz., shrinkage, arising from the escape of aqueous
or volatile matter.

2. The Cone in Cone Structure.—Examples of this structure occur
in impure ferruginous limestone at Joppa, the Water of Leith, and
other places, in connection with the coal measures. The author re-
ferred the origin of this structure to shrinkage, conjoined with a cer-
tain amount of molecular aggregation, or crystallising influence.

4, Some Observations on Fish, in relation to Diet.
By Dr John Davy.

In this communication the attention of the author is chiefly di-
rected to two subjects of inquiry :—

1st, The comparative nutritive power of fish, taking the specific
gravity of their substance, and the proportion of solid matter left on
thorough drying, as a measure of the same. In illustration, two
tables are given, containing the results of trials on several kinds of
fish and other articles of animal food; from which he deduces that

198

the difference of nutritive power of these several articles, has com-
monly been overrated.

2dly, The peculiar qualities of fish, if any, as articles of diet. On
this head, excusing himself from entering into details from want of
sufficient data, he expresses the opinion that fish, as diet, are not
without specific power, conducive to health, and the prevention of
certain diseases, especially scrofula, pulmonary consumption, and
goitre. He founds this opinion partly on experience,—the absence
or comparative rarenesss of these diseases amongst people using
such a diet; and partly on the circumstance, that iodine in minute
quantity enters into the composition of sea-fish, having found traces
of it in every instance of these fish in which he has specially sought
for it ; an opinion, moreover, he thinks strengthened by the fact, that
the same element, iodine, exists in cod-liver oil, which has proved so
serviceable, if not in curing, at least in mitigating pulmonary con-
sumption.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—

HuGu Scort, Esq. of Gala.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Académie des
Sciences, 1852-3. 4to.—From the French Government.
Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Instituto di Bologna.

Tom. II. 4to.—From the Academy.

Rendendrionto delle Aduvanze e de’ Lavori della Reale Accademia
delle Scienze sezione della Societa Reale Borbonica. N.S.
Nos. 1-5. 4to.

Relazione Lalla Malattia della Vite apparsa nei contorni di Napoli
ed altri luoghi della Provincia fatta da una commissione della
Reale Accademia delle Scienze. 4to.—From the Academy.

Opuscula Matematici di Tito gonella. 4to.—From C. Babbage, Esq.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
No. 11. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Catalogue of a Collection of Ancient and Medieval Rings and
Personal Ornaments formed for Lady Londesborough. 4to.—
From Lord Londesborough.

: . PAGE
“Acid as a source of the Nitrogen found in | Plants.

oa We

ORGE ILSON, Uk F . 189
vat Be Amount, Tuorease, and Distribution of ¢

* ry

- Sila 18th ‘Aprit 3 1853.
r t Measures of the a of Saturn. By Professor

on Fish, in relation A Diet. By Dr JouN

. 198

. 1 197,

RAE I ORT arty hone ik tN

PROCEEDINGS

. a" SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

‘SESSION 1853-4.

- CONTENTS.

<9

. ee ies ere a ; Spies PAGE

Aes Mikieral:; ay Dr Taacity an 29D

nimals which inhabit the Mammoth Cave

By James Wiusor, Esq ; - -. 200
P + SU2OTe a

ey on the value of Generic and Specific Characters in
the Classification of the Diatomacer, — ‘By Wrrnrase Gae-
“gory, M.D. , Professor of Chemistry, a ¥ 204
Physical. Appearance of the Comet 3, of 1853. By .
or ©. Pazar Suvrn, 5 : 6 a

onacngeasae i |

the Anima on fom H.368. Des in 18, MEE.
ee ; : . 216
oy ee [Turn over

Monday, 16th January 1854.

PAGE

What is Coal? By Dr Fremine, ; : up SEG

Monday, 6th February 1854.
Observations on the Structure of the Torbanehill Mineral, as

compared with various kinds of Coal. By Prof. Bennerr, 217
Monday, 20th February 1854.

On certain Vegetable Organisms found in Coal from Fordel.

By Professor Batrour, - : . coe SS
Monday, 6th March 1854.

On the Impregnation of the Ova of the Salmonide. By Joun
Davy, M.D., F.R.SS. Lond. & Edin., Inspector-General of
Army Hospitals, : 219

Account of a remarkable Meteor seen on 30th Sahib 1853.

By Wut1am Swan, Esq., ; 3 : . 220

On the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W. J. Macavorn
Ranxing, C.E., F.R.SS. Lond. & Edin., &c. .. . 223

Donations to the Library, : : : Pease

Monday, 20th March 1854.

On the Total Invisibility of Red to certain Colour-Blind Eyes.

By Dr Greorce Wixtson, ¢ : : . 226

Donations to the Library, “ : ; ~ 239

Monday, 3d April 1854.

On a New Hygrometer, or Dew-Point Instrument. By Pro-
fessor ConNELL, 228

On the Stability of the Tapituande, of the Royal Observainy.

By Professor Piazzi Smyru, . 229

Ona General Method of effecting the substitution of Todine for
Hydrogen in Organic Compounds, and on the properties of
lodo-Pyromeconic Acid. By Mr James Brown, Assistant »
to Tuomas ANDERSON, 2 : . : j aie i

Donations to the Library, : - - : : - 236

Lor continuation of Contents, sve page 3 of Cover.

199

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. IIL. 1853-54. No. 44.

SEVENTY-FIRsT SESSION. 2

Monday, 5th December 1853.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—
1. Remarks on the Torbanehill Mineral. By Dr Traill.
s

The Torbanehill mineral is so very peculiar that I cannot call it
either a bituminous shale or a coal, to both of which it has a con-
siderable resemblance.

After comparing it carefully with a great variety of English and
Scottish coals, and with many varieties of bituminous shale, I con-
clude that it is a mineral hitherto undescribed by systematic miner-
alogists, and propose for it the name of BrrumenirE.

It appears to me to have been formed by the impregnation or
injection of shale with liquid bitumen, Its colour is blackish-
brown. Its specific gravity = 1-284.

Lcompared it carefully with several specimens of English cannel
and common coal, and with thirteen varieties of Scottish parrot or
eannel coal, and other coals of this kingdom, from all of which it
differed much in mineralogical characters. —

VOL, II. R

200

1. When its thin edges are examined by a strong light, or when
very thin slices are inspected in the usual way, it is translucent,
transmitting a reddish-brown light, whereas coal is opaque on the
thinnest edges.

2. Its fracture, though conchoidal, is perfectly dull in every
direction.

3. Its streak is not shining, but quite dull.

4. It changes colour strongly in the streak, which exhibits a dis-
tinct pale ochre yellow.

5. It breaks with some difficulty, especially in the cross fracture,
and exhibits some degree of elasticity. It is, therefore, not brittle.

6. It ignites very readily, and gives out much light; but when
this expires, as it soon does, the remaining mass with great difficulty
affords the redness of ignition, as observed in coal under similar cir-
cumstances; and it retains its form, though it becomes white by in-
cineration.

It consists of volatile matter from 72°5 to 84:1 per cent.
White solid residue, 27°5 to 15:9

It affords a large quantity of fine combustible gas, and also, on dis-
tillation, yields much parafine.

It occurs in a bed in the coal formation, associated with shale and
ironstone, in the county of Linlithgow, near Bathgate.

The Central Board of Customs of the German Zollverein, assisted
by the principal mineralogists of Berlin, have, since this paper was
written, decided that the Linlithgowshire mineral is not a coal, and
may be imported duty-free, which coal is not.

2. Notice of the Blind Animals which inhabit the Mammoth
Cave of Kentucky. By James Wilson, Esq.

The author commenced with a general sketch of the natural
character and condition of the great cave, as it is the peculiarities of
their local position which constitute the most remarkable feature in
the history of the animals by which it is inhabited. The cave
descends through the uppermost rocks of the ‘‘ Barrens” to those
which are nearly or quite upon a level with the Ohio. Though
called a cave, it is in fact a series of underground galleries, branch-
ing from and inosculating with each other in various directions, the

ce tl

201

‘total length of windings being almost incalculable, and even the

direct distance from the entrance to the termination extending many
miles. The temperature of these inland galleries is uniformly 59°
of Fahrenheit all the year round ; and a current of air is very per-
ceptible near the mouth, proceeding outwards or inwards according
as the temperature of the external air is greater or less than that of
the subterranean region. The air within is uniformly pure, even exhi-
larating ; and this is attributed in a large measure to the great beds
of nitre which disengage oxygen during the formation of nitrate of
lime, The general boundaries of the caverns are of limestone.

Of the mammiferous animals described as inhabitants of these
caverns, there are two species of bat and one species of rat, the
latter being confined to, and characteristic of, the locality. If not
blind, its organs of vision are very defective.

Two species of fish were noticed, of one of which, Amblyopsis
speleus of Dekay, specimens were exhibited. It is totally blind,
possessing not even rudimentary organs of sight, dissection having
shewn that the optic nerve, and other essential parts, are wanting.

Of the crustaceous tribes a blind cray-fish, Astacus pellucidus of
Tellkampf, was exhibited, The peduncle of the eye exists, but the
actual organ of sight is absent. The observance of this eyeless
peduncle had misled some observers into the belief that the creature
was not blind.

Various kinds of arachnides, of true insects, and of animalcular
species, the majority of them quite blind, were then noticed in the
order of their position in systematic arrangements.

The author concluded by referring to the difficulties which beset
the theoretic question, as to whether these creatures were blind from
their creation, or whether certain species, originally endowed with -
sight, had wandered by some mischance into those darksome depths,
and in the course of ages had lost the organs of a sense, the func-
tions of which they could no longer exercise.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—
Graeme Reip Mercer, Esq., Ceylon Civil Service.

The following Donations to the Library were announced:—
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XXI., Parts

& 2. 4to.—From the Society.
R2

202

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Sixth Meeting, held at Albany (N. Y.) August
1851. 8vo.—From the Association.

Abhandlungen der Kéniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Gottingen. V. Band, fiir 1851 & 1852. 4to—From the
Society.

Mémoires de |’Academie des Sciences de l'Institut de France.
Tome XXIII. 4to.—From the Institute.

Abhandlungen der Philosoph.-Philologischen Classe der Kéniglich
Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Band XVILI.,
Iste Abtheil. 4to—From the Academy.

Nouveaux Mémoires de la Société Helvétique des Sciences Natu-
relles. Tome XII. 4to.

Mittheilungen der Naturforschen Gesellschaft in Bern, 1851. Nr
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Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
bei ihrer 36sten versammlung in Glarus. 1851. 8vo.—
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Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bte 4 & 5,
4to.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. B4e 9&10. 8vo0.
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Abhandlungen der Kaiserlich Geologischen Reichsanstalt. Band.
I. 1852. Fol—From the Institute.

Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1851. 4to.—From the
Royal Society.

The Assurance Magazine and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
Nos. 12 & 13. 8vo.—F rom the Institute.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Edited by the Secre-
taries. Nos. 230-234. 8vo.— From the Society.

Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin. Vol. V., Part 3. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol. VIII., Parts
2&3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. VI., Parts 1, 2,
& 3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Fy

203

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. IX., Parts
2&3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Vol. XV., Part 1. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland, No, 41(N.S.) 8vo.
—From the Society.

The Twentieth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
Society. 1852. 8vo.—From the Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Nos. 44, 45, & 46.
8v0.—From the Editors.

Transactions of the Pathological Society of London. Vol. [V. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.
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Catalogue of the Birds in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal. By Edward Blyth. 8vo.—From the Society.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Phila-
delphia, for promoting Useful Knowledge. (N.S.) Vol. X.,

Part 2. 4to.—From the Society.

Observations made at the Magnetical and Meteorological Observa-
tory at Hobart Town, in Van Diemen Island. Printed by order
of Her Majesty's Government, under the superintendence of
Colonel Edward Sabine. Vol. III. 4to.

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Edward Sabine. Vol. II. 4to—From Her Majesty’s Go-
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India Company, under the superintendence of Arthur Bedford
Orlebar, M.A. 1845, 1846, 1847, & 1848. 4to.—From
the Hon. East India Company.

Abhandlungen der Kéniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin. 1852. 4to.

Monatsbericht der Kénigl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin. November 1852—Juli 1853. 8vo.—F'rom the
Society.

204

Monday, 19th December 1853.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Additional observations on the Diatomaceous Earth of
Mull, with a notice of several new species occurring in
it, and Remarks on the value of Generic and Specific
Characters in the Classification of the Diatomacee. By
William Gregory, M.D., Professor of Chemistry.

The author, after mentioning his previous communications on this
subject, stated, that continued investigations of the deposit had
yielded the extraordinary number of about 150 species of Diatoma-
ceze, and that as several of these had been only recently observed, it
was nearly certain that more yet remained.

Of these species, from 12 to 15 appear to be undescribed, and
there are also 7 or 8 new to Britain, or not hitherto admitted as
British species.

The following list contains the names of 118 known and described
species occurring in the Mull deposit :—

List of admitted British Species of Diatomacee found in the Mull
Deposit up to 30th November 1853.

1. Epithemia turgida. 22. Cyclotella Kutzingiana.

2 ) Zebra. 23. = antiqua.

3. Ls argus. 24, ay Rotula.

4, 5 ocellata. 25. Surirella biseriata.

6 5 alpestris. 26. = linearis.

6 ventricosa. aie a splendida.

7. gibba. 28. x nobilis.

8. Eunotia gracilis. 29. ie Craticula.

9. » triodon. 30. oF Brightwellii.
10. 5 tetraodon. 31. 3 minuta.

DLL “3 Diadena. 32. ovata.

12. Cymbella Ehrenbergii. 33. Tryblionella marginata.
13. 5 cuspidata. 34. fs augusta.
14. a affinis. 85. Cymatopleura spiculata,
15 i maculata. 36. A Solea.

16: 5, Helvetica. 37. nc elliptica.
ibis Scotica. 38. Nitzschia sigmoidea.
18. Amphora ovalis. 39. . linearis.
19. Cocconeis Placentula. 40. » sigma,
20. Be flexella (Thwaitesii). 41. » amphioxys.

21. Coscinodiscus excentricus.

42, - minutissima,

ee

-

205

43, Navicula rhomboides. 81. Pleurosigma attenuatum.
44, ¥ serians. 82. Synedra biceps.

45. - affinis. 83. 9 radians.

46. » dicephala. 84. a fasciculata.

47. i firma. 85. re ulna,

48. = ovalis. 86. . capitata.

49. ‘a obtusa. 87. = delicatissima.
50. ‘i Semen. 88. on Vancherie ?

61. P gibberula. 89. Cocconema lanceolatum-
52. 2 angustata. 90. F cymbiforme.
63. bd pusilla. 91. fs Cistula.

54. ° tumida. 92. a parvum.

55. a inflata. - 92, Gomphenema coronatum.
56. Bs crassinervia, 94, oF constrictum.
57. Pinnularia major. 95. = capitatum.
58. 7 viridis. 96. = dichotomum.
59. 5 acuminata. 97. iF acuminatum.
60. Mi nobilis. 98. P Vibrio.

61. “n cardinalis 99. = tenellum.
62. ay oblonga. 100. Himantidium majus.

63. a divergens. 101. 7 Arcus.

64. - acuta. 102. 3 bidens.

65. é gibba. 103, fe gracile.

66. = Tabellaria. 104, is pectinale.
67. as lata. 105. * undulatum.
68. . alpina. 106. Fragillaria capucina.

69. a mesolepta. 107. Odontidium Tabellaria.
70. is interrupta. 108. Denticula tenuis.

71. F radiosa. | 109. Tetracyclus lacustris.

72. a gracilis. 110. Tabellaria fenestrata.
73. - viridula. 111. = Ventricosa.
74, i stauroneiformis. 112. ee flocculosa.

75. Stauroneis Phenicenteron. 113. Melosira varians.

76. ES gracilis, 114, = arenaria,

(| en anceps. 115. Orthosira nivalis.

78. ts linearis. 116. 53 aurichalcea.
79. is dilatata. 117, Collatonema vulgare.
80. » acuta. 118. Diatoma vulgare.

The following are new to Britain, or now first distinguished from
others :—

1. Epithemia gibberula. 5. Navicula levissima.

2. Eunotia bigibba, Kitz. 6. » ‘Trochus,

3. » Camelus, Kitz. 7. Cocconema gibbum.

4. »» depressa, Kitz. 8. Himantidium exiguum, Bréb.

Of these 8 species, figures were exhibited ; and in the case of.
Eunotia bigibba a number of striking varieties were figured, and.
compared with several varieties of Himantidium bidens, with which
it had hitherto been confounded.

The author then proceeded to describe and illustrate by figures
the following species, most of which are new to science :—

206

1, Hunotia incisa, n. sp. 11. TryblioneHa augustata ?

with 2 varieties. 3 varieties of this known species, if
2. Pinnularia latestriata, n. sp. not of a new one.

2 varieties, 12. Navicula spiculata, x. sp.
3. Cymbella > 2. Sp. Discovered by the Rev. W. Smith, in
4, Gomphonema Brebissonii, n. sp. ? the living state at Grasmere, but
5. ay hebridense, n. sp. not yet described. The author also
6. Stauroneis rectangularis, n. sp. found it in the Mull deposit.
7. Pinnularia exigua, n. sp. ? 13. Pinnularia divergens ?
8. 2 undulata, n. sp. Several very remarkable varieties
a 59 parva, n. sp. ? which the author referred, with

10, os tenuis, ». sp. some doubt, to this species, lately

established by Mr Smith.

Having thus described about 140 species in the above three
categories, the author stated, that some additional forms, not yet
precisely determined, would have to be added to each; and he next
proceeded to make some general remarks on the value of generic
and specific characters in the Diatomacez.

He showed that some genera had been established on apparently
insufficient grounds ; thus, Eunotia is separated from Himantidium,
because the latter occurs in chains, the former solitary. But Eunotia
tetraodon is found in chains, both alive and in this deposit; and if
we transfer it to Himantidium, we separate it from Eunotia Dia-
dema, to which it is so closely allied. The author concluded that
these two genera should be united.

Again, Cocconema is separated from Cymbella by the former
having a stipes, the latter not. But this seems a very slight
foundation for a genus where the frustules cannot otherwise be dis-
tinguished, as in this case; and here also the author would unite
the two genera.

In regard to specific characters, the author showed that those
usually resorted to, such as form, size, number, and arrangement
of striz, &c., are subject, in certain species, to almost unlimited
variation, of which he gave a striking example in Eunotia triodon,
and others in Pinnularia divergens, Eunotia bigibba, and Himanti-
dium bidens. In other cases, again, the species never varies except
to a small degree in size. This was shown in Eunotia tetraodon
and E. Diadema, and mentioned as occurring in Epithemia gibba,
Navicula serians, Amphora ovalis, Pinnularia alpina, P. lata, and
many others. It therefore appears that the tendency in a species
to vary may be regarded as itself a specific character, as may also
the absence of this tendency.

With regard to the actually admitted genera and species, the

a

Py

207

author expressed the opinion, that so long as new forms are daily
discovered (and that this is the case he proved by many recent ex-
amples), we are liable to err in establishing both genera and species.
He therefore recommended the collection and figuring of all such
forms as appear distinct, to which, of course, provisional names must
be given, with a view to the future employment of these materials,
when new forms shall have become rare, in ascertaining the true
natural groups, whether generic or specific.

The author took occasion, from the occurrence of the permanence
of characters above alluded to in many species, to combat the view
of Professor Kiitzing, according to whom, species, as natural groups,
do not exist.

Finally, he stated, that the remaining forms would be described
in a future communication.

2. On the Physical Appearance of the Comet 3, of 1853.
By Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth.

~ Referring to the general descriptions which had been published
in scientific journals and elsewhere of the appearance of this comet,
the author pointed out,—I1s¢, That the colour which had been attri-
buted to it was merely the adventitious tint due to the twilight at-
mosphere through which it was seen, 2dly, That what had been
described as the nucleus of the comet, and of so many thousand miles
in diameter, nine days before the perihelion passage, was merely the
head, composed of the same light, vaporous transparent matter as the
tail; and subject to the same remarkable compression and conden-
sation on approaching the sun,

This condensation had not been sufficiently attended to by comet-
ary observers ; but, nevertheless, rendered it absolutely necessary, in
giving the size of any comet, to state at what part of its orbit the
body might be at the time. The now well recognized fact of such
condensation, combined, of course, with the stronger illumination
of the sun at a less distance, also gave the best, if not the only, suf-
ficient explanation of the remarkable increase in brightness of some
comets about the time of their perihelia.

Moreover, the accurate observation of the amount of such con-
densation, depending as it does mainly on the proportion between
the aphelion and perihelion distances, might lead in many cases to

208

an approximate knowledge of the former important element, which
is generally indeterminable from ordinary observations at a single
apparition.

No very careful measures appear to have been made of the com-
pression experienced by the present comet ; but contrasting such as
have been procured during a month before the perihelion passage,
with Mr Hartnup’s important daylight observation on that occasion,
a period may be anticipated of certainly more than 180 years,

Tuesday, 3d January 1854.

Riegut Rev. BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in the
Chair.

The following Communication was read :—

On the supposed Sea-Snake, cast on shore in the Orkneys in
1808, and the animal seen from H.M.S. Dedalus, in 1848.
By Dr Traill.

The discussions which arose about four years ago on the animal
reported to have been seen on 6th August 1848, by Captain
M‘Quhae, the officers and crew of H.M.S. Deedalus, in the South-
ern Atlantic, between the Cape of Good Hope and St Helena, about
300 miles off the African shore, recalled my attention to the ma-
terials I had collected respecting the vast animal cast ashore on
Stronsey, one of the Orkneys, in 1808.

I was not there at the time, but copies of the depositions made
by those who had seen and measured it were transmittted to me by
order of Malcolm Laing, Esq., the historian of Scotland, on whose
property it was stranded; and I obtained other notes from several
individuals resident in Orkney.

The evidence of the most intelligent persons who had seen and
measured the animal was carefully collected, and copies of it were
transmitted by Mr Laing to Sir Joseph Bankes, and other natural-
ists. Soon afterwards Mr Laing sent, through his brother, the late
Gilbert Laing Meason, to the museum of our university the skull
and several vertebre. The cartilaginous omoplates, to which a por-
tion of the pectoral fin, or wing, as it was termed by the natives,
were afterwards sent to Edinburgh, where I saw and examined them.

Se

209

Two of the vertebre were transmitted to me, with portions of
what was termed the mane of the animal ; which I now exhibit.

The dead animal was first observed by some fishermen lying on
a sunken rock, about a quarter of a mile from Rothiesholm-head ; but
in a few days a violent gale from the S.E. cast it on shore in a creek
near the headland, where it remained for some time tolerably entire ;
and it was subsequently broken up by the fury of the waves. Before
it was thus broken into several pieces it was examined, and mea-
sured by several intelligent inhabitants of the island; and their tes-
timony, collected as above stated, was forwarded to London, Edin-
burgh, &c. Their declarations were, however, accompanied by a
very absurd suppositious drawing of the animal, which was thus pro-
duced. Many days elapsed ere the tempestuous weather allowed
any communication with other islands ; and when the storm abated,
a young man was sent from Kirkwall by Mr Laing, to collect what
information he could on the subject. But by this time the body of
the animal was completely broken up. This lad, who was no
draughtsman, and ignorant of Natural History, endeavoured, from the
descriptions of those who had seen the animal most entire, to delineate
with chalk on a table a figure of the animal. The rude figure so
produced was transferred by pencil to paper, and copies of it were
handed about as real representations of the animal.

That it had a general resemblance to the animal was admitted by
those who had seen it ; but from the accounts I afterwards obtained,
it would appear that the jointed legs, which the lad had attached to
it, are creations of his own imagination.

The appendages, which gave rise to this strange representation,
were never called legs by those who saw the animal, but were de-
nominated by them wings, or jins, or swimming paws. “That
nearest the head was broader than the rest, about four-and-a-half
feet in length, and was edged all round with bristles or fibres, about
ten inches long.” The “lower jaw was wanting when it was cast
ashore, but there remained cartilaginous teeth in portions of the
jaws.” Before it was discovered putrefaction had commenced, es-
pecially in the jins. The animal had a long and slender neck, on
which there were two spiracles on each side.

The wings would seem to have been the remains of fins, altered
by incipient decomposition. The six may perhaps be remains of
pectoral, abdominal, and anal fins, and perhaps they may haye been

210

placed, like those of some of the shark family, farther from the
centre of the abdomen than in ordinary fishes. Indeed one of the
witnesses states that “the wings of the animal were jointed to the
body nearer the ridge of the back than they appear in the drawing.”

The portion of the anterior fin or wing, which was attached to the
omoplates, consisted of cartilaginous rays; and when such a struc-
ture of fin is partially separated by commencing decomposition, the
rays might easily, to the eyes of the uninitiated in natural science,
seem like toes or fingers.

Even the great Cuvier admits this resemblance, when describing
the fins of fishes :—

** Des rayons plus ou moins nombreux soutenant de nageoires
membraneuses, representent grossiérement les doigts, des mains, et
des pieds.”

As much of the value of the descriptions of the Orkney animal
rests on the character and credibility of the individuals who saw it
most entire, I may be permitted to state that I personally knew
the three principal witnesses, Thomas Fotheringhame, George
Sherar, and William Folsetter, to be men of excellent character,
and of remarkable intelligence. They were not ignorant fishermen,
as the witnesses were represented to be; but two of them were of
the better sort of farmers in that part of Orkney ; and the first and
the last of them were also very ingenious mechanics, much accus-
tomed to the use of the foot-rule, the instrument employed in
measuring the animal.

They were men of such honour, intelligence, and probity, that I
can have no doubt of the correctness of any statement they made of
their impressions of what they had so carefully observed.

It was, therefore, not without surprise, that some months after
these accounts were sent to London, I read a paper by Mr Home
(afterwards Sir Everard), in which he recklessly sets aside the
evidence of the persons who saw and measured the animal in its
most entire condition, as to its dimensions of length and thickness ;
and maintains that it was nothing but a Basking shark (Selache
macimum !), which he supposes the love of the marvellous had mag-
nified so enormously in the eyes of those whom he is pleased to call
“ignorant fishermen.’’ Unfortunately for Home’s hypothesis, the
Basking shark was probably far more familiar to those men than to
himself; for it is often captured among the Orkney islands ; and its

'.~ —_

211

length and proportional thickness are so totally different from the
animal in question, that the two could scarcely be confounded, by
the most “ ignorant fishermen ” who had ever seen them.

These witnesses assert that the Stronsey animal (though a portion
towards the tail was broken off when they took its dimensions)
measured no less than fifty-five feet in length ; whereas that of the
largest Basking shark of which we possess any accurate account,
scarcely exceeds thirty-six feet.

The circumference of the two animals is no less widely different.
My notes state the circumference at the thickest part of the body of the
Orkney animal to be about ten feet; while it tapered much towards
the head and the tail; whereas the circumference of a large Bask-
ing shark, where thickest, is not less than twenty feet. Besides, the
shark-like figure of the latter could scarcely be confounded with the
eel-like form of the Stronsey animal.*

The mane, as it is termed, may perhaps be the remains of a
decomposed dorsal fin ; but the fibres do not seem to be the rays of
a fin; and the animal seen from the Dedalus is stated to have had
a mane, floating about like sea-weed; and a similar appendage has
generally been noticed in some less distinct accounts of a supposed
Sea-serpent.

Supposing this to be a dorsal fin, it extended from the anterior
wings, or pectoral fins, towards the tail for thirty-seven feet, and
differs from the dorsal fin of any species of shark. If the mane con-
sisted of detached fibres extending for thirty-seven feet on the back,
it is analogous to no appendage of any known marine animal. That
its rays or fibres are very peculiar, will appear from the specimen
now exhibited. These round fibres are fourteen inches in length ;
and in the dried state, have a yellow colour and transparency, equal
to that of isinglass,

The vertebr, which have been preserved in spirit in our Museum,
have been exceedingly well described by Dr Barclay, in the Wer-
_ * The diameter of the animal is a little differently stated by different wit-
nesses. But as we are told that its contour was more oval than round, we can
easily explain the discrepancy. One witness, who had not measured it, speaks
of it as equalling a middle-sized horse in thickness. On measuring four horses
of from thirteen to fourteen hands in height, I found their greatest circumfer-
ence to be from seventy-one to seventy-three inches, (or from five feet eleven

inches to six feet one inch), or an average of six feet; that is less than the
thickest part of our animal, but seemingly near that of its average dimensions

212

nerian Transactions, vol. i. ; and undoubtedly, in their want of pro-
cesses and cartilaginous structure, have much resemblance to those
of chondropterygious fishes. One of the vertebre adherent to the
cranium, measured only two inches across ; while that of the Bask-
ing shark, in the same situation, is about seven inches in diameter.
Dr Barclay’s paper is accompanied by an engraving of the omoplates,
and upper portion of the pectoral fin, which are accurately given,
from a drawing made from the recent remains, by the late Mr John
T, Urquhart, an accomplished draughtsman, and able naturalist. L.
know the representation to be correct, for I saw and handled the
specimen. The substance of this part was a firm, but flexible carti-
lage, and seemed to have been placed in the muscles ; just as Cuvier
describes the omoplates of sharks to be: ‘‘ Leur omoplates sout sus-
pendues dans le chair, en arriére des Branchies, sans articuler ni au
crane ni a l’espine.”

The Orkney animal seems to have had two circular spiracles on
each side of its neck, about 1} inch in diameter ; whereas the
Basking shark has jive linear spiracles on each side, a foot or more
in length.

The cranium, which I also very carefully examined, was far too
small for that of a Basking shark of even one-fourth the usual
length of that species. It measured in its dried state no more than .
twelve inches in length, and its greatest diameter was only seven
inches. A Basking shark of thirty-six feet long would have had a
head of at least five feet in length ; and the diameter of the cranium,
at the angles of the mouth, would have measured probably five feet.
These proportions positively shew, that the Orkney animal could
not possibly be confounded by intelligent men, accustomed to see the
Basking shark, with that fish. There was a hole on the top of the
cranium, something similar to the blow-hole of the cetaceans; but
its lateral spiracles and cartilaginous bones forbid us to refer it to
the order of cetacea.

Everything proves the Orkney animal to have been a chondropte-
rygious jish, different from any described by naturalists; but it
has no pretensions to the denomination of Sea-serpent or Sea-snake,
although its general form, and probably its mode of progression in
the ocean, may give it some resemblance to the order of Serpentes.
Certainly, it cannot be confounded with any known shark ; nor does
it belong to the family of Squalide.

213

The belief in the existence of a huge marine animal, of an enor-
mous length, which has obtained the name of Sea-serpent, is still
very general among the Norwegian fishermen, and is said to have
been seen lately in some of their fords. A singular notice of it was
long ago published by Bishop Pontoppidan, in his History of Nor-
way; but, unfortunately, in his pages, it was introduced in the sus-
picious company of the Kraken and the Mermaid ; and therefore
has been rejected by later naturalists.

I am satisfied, however, that the extravagant descriptions which
northern authors have given of the Sea-serpent, have been founded
on the rare appearance of some such animal as that driven on shore in
Orkney ; which may also have been the prototype of the dark sublimity
of the wondrous sea-snake of the Scandinavian Edda. That in the
ecean such animals do exist, has been affirmed by persons worthy of
eredit. I shall notice an unpublished instance, related to me many
years ago by my intelligent friend, the late Mr Andrew Strang, a
gentleman of unblemished honour. ‘* Once, when on a deep-sea fish-
ing, he saw pass below his boat, at the depth of eight or ten feet, an
enormously long fish, of an eel-shape. It was swimming slowly, with
a vermicular motion, and appeared to be at least sixty feet in length.”
It appeared to take no notice of them; but they hastily removed
from what they considered a dangerous neighbourhood. He stated
that he was shy of mentioning this circumstance, “lest the sceptical
public should class him with the fable-loving Bishop of Bergen.”
There is considerable reason to believe that a similar fish has ap-
peared more than once on the western coasts of Scotland.

I shall not here diseuss the notices we have, from time to time,
received of late years of a great Sea-serpent seen by mariners in
erossing the Atlantic to America. Their accounts are generally
confused, sometimes evidently fabulous ; and, in some instances, it
would seem that the narrators have mistaken a shoal of porpesses
or other delphinoid animals, for a huge sea monster,

The bones exhibited by Koch, at New York and Boston, as those
of a fossil Sea-serpent, which were afterwards brought to Berlin,
have been proved to bea most disingenuous fraud of the finder, who
united the bones of different individuals of an extinct species of
whale ; bones now proved by Professor Muller to belong to animals
of very different ages, and by M. Agassiz ‘“‘ to have been dug up at

different localities?’ Several diminutive snake-like animals have

214

been killed on the shores of America; as that taken at Cape Anne
in 1817, which is figured in the Illustrated London News of 28th
October 1848, from the original American memoir. Neither the
Saccopharyne of Mitchell, nor the Ophignathus of Harwood, can
be considered as the animal we have described. The Saccopharynx
is said to be 43 feet long ; the Ophignathus was six feet. Neither
of them in size or form will, in the language of Mr Owen, “ satisfy
the conditions of the problem.’’

I must except from this category, however, the animal seen from
H.M.8. Dedalus ; and the account of it given by Captain M‘Quhae
and his officers. In their statements there are no suspicious affecta-
tions of minute detail. Their simple narrative appears to deserve
more attention than it has yet received from naturalists ; and I
strongly incline to the belief, that the animal seen by the crew of
the Dedalus was an analogue of, if not the very same species, as
the animal cast ashore in Orkney in 1808.

Considering the derision with which, in this country, the subject of
the Sea-serpent has been treated, and the ridicule attempted to be
thrown on all who were bold enough to assert that they had seen
such an animal, nothing but a consciousness of his unimpeachable
veracity could have tempted the gallant Captain M‘Quhae to en-
counter the sneers of his incredulous countrymen. From all I have
heard of his character for sagacity and veracity, from those who inti-
mately knew him, I have not the smallest doubt that he has faith-
fully described what he and his crew saw distinctly, and at a short
distance from the ship.

The animal seen fron H.M.S, Daedalus on 6th August 1848,
in lat. 24° 44’ S., long. 9° 22’ E.—** It was seen rapidly approach-
ing before the beam.’ Captain M‘Quhae says: ‘‘ On our attention
being called to the object, it was discovered to be an enormous ser~
pent, with head and shoulders kept about four feet constantly above
the surface of the sea. The diameter of the serpent was about
fifteen or sixteen inches behind the head ; its colour of a dark brown,
with yellowish-white about the throat.”

The Captain could discover no fins, but “something like the
mane of a horse, or rather a bunch of sea-weed, washed about its
back.” He thought that its head did certainly resemble that of a
snake ; but the drawing which he transmitted to the Admiralty has
not, to the eye of a naturalist, the form of that of any snake. The

Di
a?

215

figure published in The Illustrated London News for October 28,
1848, is said to be’an accurate copy of that drawing.

Captain M‘Quhae estimates the length of its body at the surface
of the water, “a fleur d’eau, at the very least equal to sixty feet,
no part of which was to our perception used in propelling it through
the water, either by vertical or horizontal undulations. It passed
rapidly, but so close under our quarter, that had it been a man of
my acquaintance, I should easily have recognized his features with
the naked eye; and it did not, either in approaching the ship, or
after it had passed our wake, deviate in the slightest degree from its
course to the S.W., which it held on at the pace of twelve or fifteen
miles an hour, apparently on some determined purpose.”

If we may judge from the engraving, the cranium is very convex,
of moderate size, with a short obtuse muzzle, a mouth reaching
beyond the eye; which last organ is round, and of a moderate size.
The surface of the body is represented as smooth, and destitute of
scales—of which they were enabled to judge, because it passed close
under the quarter of the ship. It was in sight for twenty minutes,

The description certainly does not belong to any Ophidian ; and
as certainly militates against an opinion thrown out by Mr Owen,
that it might be a specimen of the Leonine seal, which has, it is
alleged, occasionally reached those latitudes, The Leonine seal
never exceeds twenty-five feet in length, and such would have a
circumference at its shoulders of twenty feet, while this appears to
be eel-shaped, with a diameter of not more than fifteen or sixteen
inches behind the head. The mane, too, of the male of the Leonine
seal extends only over the head and neck; but in the other, it ex-
tended down the back.

With all deference to so eminent a naturalist as Mr Owen, I
humbly conceive that his conjecture respecting the identity of
Captain M‘Quhae’s animal with the Leonine seal, is not more pro-
bable than Home’s identification of the Basking shark with the
Orkney animal.

Both M‘Quhae’s and the Orkney animal would appear to be
cartilaginous fish, totally different from any genus known to natu-
ralists.

2. Further Researches on the Crystalline Constituents of
Opium. By Dr Thomas Anderson. —
VOL. III. s

216

Tne following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-
low :—
Sir JoHN MAXWELL of Poloc, Bart.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of Agriculture, and Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. No. 43. N.S. 8vo.—
From the Society.

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, Published by the Royal Medical
and Chirurgical Society of London. Vol. XXXVI. 8yvo.—
From the Society.

Mémoires de Académie Impériale des Sciences de St Pétersbourg.
Sciences. Mathématiques et Physiques. Tome V., 5 & 6
Liv. 4to—From the Academy,

Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Kéniglichen Universitits
Sternwarte in Konigsberg. Angestellt und herausgegeben
von Dr A. L. Busche. 25te Abtheilung. Fol.—From the
Observatory.

Monday, 16th January 1854.

Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.
The following Communication was read :—
What is Coal? By Dr Fleming.

Dr Fleming, after stating the circumstances which led him to
bring before the Royal Society the consideration of this question,
pointed out the distinction between a mineral species and a rock, a
circumstance which had been greatly overlooked in recent discus-
sions on the subject. He considered coal as a rock, and capable of
being traced, in its origin and history, from peat at the beginning
of the series, to blind coal or anthracite at the termination.

He illustrated the character of peat in reference to the vegetables
from which it was derived—the changes of a mineralizing nature
which it had undergone—and the strata of sand, clay, and marl
with which it is usually associated. He likewise pointed out the
character of the lustrous streak and conchoidal fracture in speci-
mens exhibited,

217

The author next proceeded to the consideration of wood coal, or
lignite, and exhibited specimens of this rock with and without the
woody texture—with a brown and black streak—with a lustrous and
dull streak—and with the ligneous structure, and as cherry coal, un-
distinguishable from the same rock in the older measures, He
closed his remarks on the brown coals by adverting to the coal-money
of the Kimmeridge coal, and to the condition of amber as belonging
to this epoch.

In the third and concluding part of his paper, he pointed out the
characteristic features of the four kinds of coals found in the coal
measures. ‘The lustre, fracture, and streak, from exhibited speci-
mens, he demonstrated to be variable and unsatisfactory as charac-
ters; while chemical test indicated the absence of bitumen. He ad-
verted to the different kinds of matter occurring in coal as indicated
by the microscope, and exhibited specimens of seeds dispersed
through splint and cherry coal. He concluded his remarks by ad-
verting to cannel coal, as exhibiting, in its varieties, the conchoidal
and slaty fracture, the lustrous and dull surface and streak ; and in
reference to the Boghead cannel or gas coal, adverted to in this
Society as the “ Torbanehill mineral,” and denominated “ bitumen-
ite’ by Dr Traill, he considered all the characters employed to
remove it from its position as a cannel coal, as variable, differing in
degree not in kind, and not generally recognised.

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-
low :-—
WiLu1AM Murray, Esq. of Monkland, F.G.S.
Monday, 6th February 1854.

Rieut Rev. BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in the
Chair.

The following Communication was read :—

_ Observations on the Structure of the Torbanehill Mineral,

as compared with various kinds of Coal. By Professor
Bennett.

8 2

218

Monday, 20th February 1854.
JOHN RUSSELL, Esq., P.C.S., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. Account of the Proceedings of the Conference held at
Brussels in August and September last, for establishing
a uniform system of Meteorological Observations in the
Vessels of all Nations, and of the arrangements proposed
to be made for conducting the results of the Observations
taken on Land with those taken at Sea. By Captain H.
James, R.E., F.R.S, &c. Communicated by James Wil-
son, Esq.

2. On certain Vegetable Organisms found in Coal from
Fordel. By Professor Balfour.

_ The author stated that the coal to which he called attention was
found at Fordel collieries, near Inverkeithing, Fife, and that he was
indebted for specimens of it to Mr Robert Daw, comptroller of cus-
toms at Leith. It is a splint coal, and exhibits numerous vegetable
impressions, particularly of Sigillaria and Stigmaria. These plants
appear, indeed, the author thought, to have formed the main sub-
stance of the coal, as shown not only by its external appearance, but
also by its microscopical structure. Cellular and woody tissue have
long been recognised in coal; but from what is now seen in the
Fordel and other varieties, it would appear that scalariform and dotted
tissue are often present, and, moreover, that in some instances peculiar
dotted vessels have been mistaken for true punctated woody tissue.
Elongated cavities, containing yellow and orange-coloured matter,
also occur in Fordel coal. These cavities did not appear to be woody
tubes, from which they differed in their form and arrangement, as well
as in occasionally branching. They seemed in this, as in many other
coals, to be more of the character of intercellular spaces or canals.
The coal from Fordel also contains numerous specimens of seed-like
bodies, which appear to be sporangia, allied to those of Lycopodiacez.
These bodies have a rounded form; their colour is dark-brown, and
they seem to be formed by two valves, which are occasionally sepa-
rated. When one of the valves is removed, there is frequently ob-

219

served a black carbonaceous mass below it; and when a transverse
section is made of an entire sporangium in situ, the cavity between
the valves is often evidently seen. At one part of the sporangium a
stalk-like process is sometimes observed. These sporangia seem to
resemble much those organs of fructification in Lycopodiacee which
contain the small spores, commonly known as vegetable sulphur or
Lycopode powder, and it seems probable that the dark contents of
the Fordel sporangia may be the altered spores.

Large spore-like bodies are also met with in coal, which may
perhaps be similar to the larger spores of Lycopods. It is by no
means improbable, the author thought, that the sporangia in the
Fordel and other coals may be the fructification of Sigillaria,—a
genus which occupies an intermediate position between Cycadacess
and Lycopodiaceee. The Fordel coal also contains abundance of the
inflammable resinous organic matter called Middletonite, which, ac-
cording to the author, may perhaps be in some way connected with
the sporangia just noticed.

Specimens were shown of Fordel coal formed by Sigillarie and
Stigmariz, and of the same coal containing sporangia and Middle-
tonite, while the communication was illustrated by magnified drawings
of structure.

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-

low :—
Dr JoHN ADDINGTON SyMoNDS, of Clifton, Bristol.

Monday, 6th March 1854.
Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Impregnation of the Ova of the Salmonide. By
John Davy, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. & Edin., Inspector-
General of Army Hospitals.

The author has been induced, he states, to make inquiry on this
subject, in consequence of a recent averment, founded on a reported
experiment, that the ova of the trout taken from the abdomen of
the parent fish, and not afterwards mixed with the milt, have proved
prolific. hig

He first gives an account of many trials made to test the accuracy

220

of the conclusion that the ova of the Salmonide may be impregnated
ab externo, the results of all which have been negative, and remark-
ably contrasted with those in which, after exclusion, the milt and
roe have been mixed,—impregnation having been effected and the
eggs rendered prolific.

Secondly, he notices the generative organs of these fishes, and
points out how, anatomically, they are clearly unfit for performing
the reproductive function according to the hypothesis of impregna~
tion ab externo, though perfectly adapted for it in accordance with
the received doctrine.

Thirdly, he adverts to the manner in which, during the spawning
season, the male and female fish approach each other, as being also
in accordance with the same doctrine, and opposed to the inference
of internal impregnation.

In conclusion, he observes, that even admitting the accuracy of
the detail of the experiment adduced to prove such a mode of im-
pregnation, the conclusion drawn is not a necessary one,—inasmuch
as the ova included in a perforated box and placed in a stream, may
have been impregnated by milt shed in the adjoining water, and
by it in its flow conveyed to them.

2. Account of a remarkable Meteor seen on 30th September
1853. By William Swan, Esq.

On the 30th September 1853, I was with my friend Mr David
Wallace, in a field near his house, Balgrummo, in the neighbour-
hood of Leven, in Fifeshire. The atmosphere was very clear, and
the sun was shining brightly. The sky was covered in some quar-
ters with thin cirrous clouds, and we had been watching the changes
in the appearance of the clouds nearly overhead, when Mr Wallace,
who was still observing the sky, pointed suddenly upwards, and called
on me tolook. I did so, and instantly saw a round body, apparently
as large as a star of the first magnitude, moving rapidly upwards,
—roughly speaking, towards the zenith, or more accurately, towards
the sun. This, as I immediately afterwards ascertained, was about
11" 15™ Greenwich mean time.

The region of the sky which the meteor traversed was cloudless
and serene, so that I had an extremely favourable opportunity of
observing it, and I continued to see it for about a second of time.

221

As it moved upwards through the sky, its apparent magnitude
diminished with such perfect regularity until it finally disappeared,
that at the time I had the impression that it had vanished, not by
dissolution of its parts, or extinction of its light, but only optically,
from the effect of increased distance. I do not wish, however, to
attach much importance to this nearly momentary feeling, for the
observation was of too transitory a nature to make it deserving of
much confidence.

The meteor appeared to me not like a self-luminous body ; al-
though, in the presence of so bright an object as the sun, negative
evidence on such a point cannot be regarded as decisive. Its colour
was perfectly white, and its apparent brightness was probably not
greater than that of the moon seen under similar circumstanees,—
certainly it did not exceed that of an ordinary cloud illuminated by
the sun.

Mr Wallace, as soon as he had time to recover from the surprise
excited by so unusual a spectacle described what he had seen as one
of the most beautiful phenomena he had ever beheld. It will be re-
collected that it was he who first pointed out the meteor to me ; and
having been the first to notice it, he had thus also been able to ob-
serve some interesting changes in its form which I was too late to
witness. By his kindness I am enabled to state what he saw in
his own words.

- Qn the forenoon of the 30th September last,” he says, ‘‘ I was
in a field distant about five hundred yards from Balgrummo house,
and about a mile and three quarters from Leven. The sky was rather
free from clouds, and the sun was shining brightly. I happened to

- Jook in the direction of Lethem farm-house, when I was startled by

observing a remarkable object, apparently traversing the atmosphere
with a steady motion resembling that of a balloon, but much quicker. _
It appeared to me to be not perfectly round, but somewhat pear-shaped ;
and it had a lustre like quicksilver, but seemed more transparent.
Its movement was upwards like a rising balloon, and not downwards
like a ‘falling star.’ I only saw it for two, certainly not for more
than three seconds; and its direction, as nearly as I could judge,
was from N.E. to S.W. It appeared to preserve its original shape
for about half the time during which it remained visible; but it
then seemed to burst at the lower part into a number of fragments,
which one by one disappeared, until it finally vanished altogether.

222

Its size at first seemed to be about one-third less than the apparent
diameter of the moon; and I could have supposed it to be in our
own atmosphere.”

From the apparent size of the meteor, and its perfectly round
form as seen by me, contrasted with its much greater magnitude as
estimated at first by Mr Wallace,—its train,—its separation into
fragments,—and its final round form as described by him, coupled
with the fact that he saw it for some time before me,—I conclude that
I had only seen the meteor in the last of the phases which he de-
scribes. It seemed to me to have a very striking resemblance to the
shooting stars so frequently visible by night. It was not, indeed,
so luminous as such objects usually appear to be, but that was not
to be expected in the presence of the sun; and, I have no doubt, had
it been seen by night, it would have proved a very brilliant object
indeed.

I may add, that the meteor was not accompanied by any sound,
and that its path was sensibly rectilinear.

As I hoped to obtain accounts of the meteor as seen from other
stations, I deemed it desirable to ascertain, as far as was practicable,
the positions of the points in the heavens where its most remarkable
phases occurred. In the absence of stars, which by night afford
such convenient points of reference, I endeavoured, with Mr Wal-
lace’s assistance, to estimate the altitudes and azimuths of the prin-
cipal points in the path of the meteor; and as soon as I could com-
mand time I returned to the spot, in company with Mr Wallace ;
and by means of a prismatic compass determined the azimuths of
these points, while their zenith distances were measured by means
of a quadrant, which, although rude, was sufficiently accurate for
my purpose. The true azimuths were deduced from those which
were observed, by subtracting the variation of the compass, which
was found to be 25° 20’ W. The variation was determined from
the azimuth of the sun, observed by the compass; the latitude and
longitude of the station deduced from data kindly furnished by Cap-
tain Henry James, R.E.; and the time given by a pocket chrono-
meter, carried in its box, and compared with the Edinburgh time-
ball.

The following are the positions of the most remarkable points in

the meteor’s path :—

223

Apparent P
Zenith distance. Azimuth.

Meteor appeared, . 70° 37’ North 2° 59’ East.
Meteor burst, . . 57 40 dy Bia ee
Meteor disappeared, 47 30 gO Ore,

The station where the meteor was seen is situated very nearly in
latitude 56° 13’ 5” N., longitude 12™ 256 W.

It is worthy of remark, that as the meteor was seen at 11» 15™,
Greenwich mean time, if allowance is made for the longitude of the
station and the equation of time, it follows that it appeared about 48™
before apparent noon, or about that time of day when the sun shines
most brightly. Now, while many accounts are extant of meteors which
have appeared during the day, and have attracted attention by explod-
ing audibly, or have been accompanied by the descent of meteoric stones,
I was not aware that any object like the meteor of the 30th September,
resembling so closely the more tranquil phenomena of shooting stars,
had been described as being seen within an hour of noon, and in
bright sunshine. I was, therefore, desirous of obtaining other observa-
tions of the meteor, and for that purpose I sent a short account of it to
one of the Edinburgh newspapers, requesting the favour that any ob-
servations of it made elsewhere might be communicated to me, in
order that they might be incorporated with this narrative. I have
not, however, had a single communication on the subject,—a result
which, although it is to be regretted, yet does not surprise me; for,
from the faint illumination of the meteor, it was an object which
would scarcely attract observation, although it was easily perceptible
‘to an eye which, like my friend’s, was already directed to the region
of the sky where it appeared.

3. On the Mechanical Action of Heat. By W.J.Macquorn
Rankine, C.E., F.R.SS. Lond. & Edin., &c.

Section VI. Subsection 4.—On the Thermic Phenomenon of Cur-
rents of Elastic Fluids.
‘Supplement.—Of a Correction applicable to the results of the
previous reduction of the experiments of Messrs Thomson and
Joule.

In investigating the phenomena of the free expansion of gases in.
the previous part of this paper, they had been considered as expand-

224

ing, without receiving or giving out energy in any form; so that the
equation taken to represent their condition was

Aste 0.

This condition was realized in the early experiments of Mr Joule,
where, by the sudden opening of a stopcock, air previously confined
in one vessel was allowed to fill another also; but it is not exactly
realized in the experiments now in progress by Messrs Joule and
Thomson, for which the correct equation is

A(¥ + PV)=0.

Hence the approximate positions of the point of absolute cold cal-
culated by means of the former equation, require a small correction.
The author computes the values of this correction for two series of
experiments, made at a high and a low temperature respectively ;
and finds them to be—

+ 0°05 Centigrade for the high temperature,
— 0°:002 Centigrade for the low temperature ;

so that for the experiments now in question, the correction is prac-
tically inapplicable. As it may, however, have a sensible amount
for greater ranges of temperature and pressure than those which
occur in the particular experiments referred to, and for gases denser
than atmospheric air, the author explains how it is to be calculated.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Lectures on Quaternions. By Sir William R. Hamilton. 8vo.—
From the Author.

Fourth Report of the Council of Management of the Architectural
Institute of Scotland. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, (N. S.)
Vol. V., Part 1. With Map of Toronto. 4to.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. IT.
From May 1848 to May 1852. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. No. 44. (N.S.) 8vo.—From
the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVI., Part 4.
8vo.— From the Society.

225

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Pro-
fessors Silliman and Dana. Second Series. No. 49. 8vo,—
From the Editors.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vol. IX., Part 1.
8vo.— From the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bind Edited by the Secretaries.
No. 5. 1853. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
No. 14. 8vo.— From the Institute.

Thirty-third Report of the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and
Literary Society. 1852-3. 8vo.—From the Society.

_ Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der reinen, Pharmaceutischen

und Technischen Chemie, Physik, Mineralogie und Geologie,
&c. Herausgegeben von Justus Liebig et Hermann Kopp.
1847-50. 8vo.—From the Editor.

Bulletins de l’ Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux
Arts de Belgique. Tome XX. -8vo.—From the Academy,

Flora Batava. 174 Aflevering. 4to.— From the King of Holland.

Mémoires Couronnées et Mémoires des Savants Etrangers, publiés
par l’Académie Royale des Sciences de Belgique. Tome V.
Qde Partie. 8vo. Two copies.—From the Academy.

Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna.
Tomo III. 4to.—From the Academy.

Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennice. Tom. III., Fasciculus 2. 4to,
—From the Society.

Notiser ur Sillskapets pro Fauna et Flora Fennica Forhandlingar.
Pt. 2. 4to.—From the Society.

Della Instituzione de’ Pompieri, dal Francesco del Giudice. 4to.

Rendiconto delle Sessioni dell’ Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto
di Bologna. 1851-2. 8vo.— From the Academy.

Mémoires de |’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des
Beaux Arts de Belgique. Tome XXVII. 4to.—From the
Academy.

Mémoires sur les Variations Périodiques et non Périodique de la
Témpérature. Par A. Quételet. 4to.

Observations des Phénoménes Periodiques. Par A. Quételet. 4to.
—From the Author.

Mémoires de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Serer il ler.
Vol. 2e Liv. 8vo.—From the Society.

226

A History of the Fishes of Massachusetts. By David Humphreys
Storer, M.D., A.A.S. 4to.—From the Author.

Maritime Conference, held at Brussels, for devising an uniform System
of Meteorological Observations at Sea, August and September
1853. 4to— From the Belgian Academy.

Monday, 20th March 1854.

Sir T. M. BRISBANE, Bart., President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Total Invisibility of Red to certain Colour-Blind
Eyes. By Dr George Wilson.

After some remarks on the peculiar difficulties which attend in-
vestigations into the functions of the eye, the author observed, that
by far the most remarkable variety of colour-blindness, in a scientific
point of view, is that which shows itself in the identification of red
with black. This appeared to have been overlooked by previous
observers, or at least only cursorily described. The probable causes
of this neglect were noticed ; and the author then proceeded to detail
the experience of some twelve parties by whom various objects of a
red, crimson, or scarlet colour were mistaken for black, and appeared,
from the testimony of those who committed the mistakes in question,
to have made neither a colorific nor a luminous impression on the re-
tina. It was further shown, that though the fact had not attracted
attention, the published cases of colour-blindness supplied examples
of the same blindness to red ; and that Dalton, although he had ap-
parently ascertained his own freedom from the blindness in question,
had incidentally supplied proof that the red alike of the solar spec-
trum and of coloured objects frequently appeared to him as dark or
nearly black.

Experiments were also recorded, which had been made by the
author, with the assistance of Professor Kelland, on the visibility of
prismatic spectra to persons affected by colour-blindness, one of
whom was found unable to perceive from 3th to }th of the red end
of the solar spectrum, whilst the other could not discern 3d of the

227

red. These parties showed a similar degree of blindness to the red of
the lime-ball-light spectrum, and neither of them saw any other colour
in place of the missing one, or received a luminous impression from
the less refrangible rays of solar or artificial light.

From his entire observations, the author drew the conclusion, that
the confusion of scarlet with green, and of pink, crimson, and pur-
ple with blue, which characterises the colour-blind, is a phenomenon
of the same kind as the confusion of red with black—scarlet appear-
ing as green, because it is seen as yellow mixed with black—and
crimson as blue, because it is seen as red mixed with black.

The author referred, in conclusion, to the observations of Brewster
and Dove on the visibility of red to normal eyes, as proving that they
became blind to this colour in dim or unfavourable light, much sooner
than to blue, not to mention yellow ; so that, in the colour-blind, we
only see an exaggerated manifestation of a limitation of vision which
belongs to all eyes.

2. On the Romaic Ballads. By Professor Blackie.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. X., Part 1.
8vo.— From the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVII., Part 1.
8v0.—From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. Vol. XXIV. 8vo.

General Index to the Second Ten Volumes of the Journal of the
Royal Geographical Society. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool.
1851-3. No.7. 8vo.—From the Society.

A Collection of Tables, Astronomical, Meteorological, and Magnetical.
By Lieut.-Colonel J. T. Boileau. 4to. 5 Copies.—From the
Directors of the Honourable East India Company.

Mémoires de l|’Academie Nationale des Sciences, Belles Lettres, et
Arts de Lyon. Classe des Lettres. Tome ler. 8vo.—From
the Academy.

_ Mémoires de ]’Académie Nationale des Sciences, Belles Lettres, et

Arts de Lyon. Classe des Sciences. Tome ler. 8vo.—F rom
the Academy.

228

Monday, 3d April 1854.
Dr CHRISTISON, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On a New Hygrometer, or Dew Point Instrument.
By Professor Connell.

This instrument consists essentially of a little spherical bottle of
thin brass, polished externally ; a small exhausting syringe; a ther-
mometer with ground brass stopper ; and a brass clamp. The bottle
has a diameter of 1,2, inch, and is capable of holding half an ounce.
Its neck is attached to the syringe by means of a lateral screw, and
is three-fourths of an inch high, and about three-tenths of an inch
wide. The syringe is about five inches long, and has a diameter of
eight-tenths of an inch. The stopper attached to the thermometer
fits air-tight into the upper part of the neck of the bottle. The
clamp is intended for securing the instrument to the sill of an open
window, or to a table or other fixture in a room. Three drams of
ether are then slowly introduced into the little bottle, and the ther-
mometer inserted. The syringe is worked slowly at first, and the
speed gradually increased, when the thermometer will immediately
begin to fall from the cold produced by the evaporation ; and the
exhausting process is continued until dew is seen to be deposited on
the external surface of the little bottle. The temperature indicated
by the thermometer is then noted, the process of exhaustion stopped,
and the temperature again noted when the dew disappears from the
brass surface. The mean of these two observations may be taken as
the dew point. To prevent the spreading of the heat produced by
the friction of the piston, to the little bottle, the termination of the
syringe which screws into the neck of the bottle is constructed of
ivory ; and as it is found that the vapour of the ether acts on valves
of the usual oiled silk, they are constructed of goldbeater’s leaf, four
plies of it being used for each valve. A reduction of temperature,
varying under different circumstances of temperature from 20° to
40°, has been produced by the instrument; and should it ever be
found that extreme cases of united cold and dryness of atmosphere
shall occur, which are not within the power of the present size of
the instrument, there is little doubt that a sufficient increase of re-

229

ducing energy may be attained by a moderate increase of the size of
the syringe.

The amount of ether consumed in an observation rarely exceeds
half a dram, and frequently falls a good deal short of this, the cost
thus being from a halfpenny to a farthing. The residual ether may
be repeatedly employed, making up its amount each time to three
drams from fresh ether. It ought to be kept for use in a separate
little bottle. The leather of the piston ought to be occasionally
rubbed with olive oil, and the washers of the connecting screws ought
not to be allowed to become too dry. The syringe must be of the
most approved construction, and all the apertures of the neck of the
bottle and of the valve-piece sufficiently wide. Comparative obser-
vations have been made regarding the indications of this instrument,
of Daniell’s hygrometer, and of Dalton’s mode of transference of a
cold liquid from one vessel to another, which last is usually admitted
as a kind of standard of compression. Those of Daniell are usually
a very little in excess, and those of this instrument a very little in
deficiency ; but the deviation of both is on an average within 1°
Fahrenheit.

The instrument is constructed by Messrs Kemp of Edinburgh,
with the proper accompaniments of measure, bottles for ether, &c.,
all packed in a little box. It is thought that it will be found to
offer advantages in point of considerable security from accidental
fracture in travelling.

2. On the Stability of the Instruments of the Royal Observa-
tory. By Professor Piazzi Smyth.

In an observatory where, as in that of the Calton Hill, the prin-
cipal object of pursuit is the determination of the exact places of the
fixed stars, and the investigation of those exceedingly slow secular
variations, which require many thousands of years to run their cycle,—
the stability of the instruments, as a necessary element to the accu-
racy of the observations, becomes of the extremest importance.

To secure this quality much invention and no little ingenuity have
been employed, but not yet with perfect success ; for invariably the
more accuracy we demand, the more insuperable difficulties appear
to arise. Even nature at last appears to be taxed beyond her powers,
for we find when we have passed beyond a certain degree of magni-
fying power, that there are no bodies absolutely stiff and rigid—none
constantly of the same dimensions ; but all are expanding and con-

230

tracting, and giving and limiting with every change of temperature
or application of small accidental pressures. All this takes place, it
is true, within limits which are perfectly inapplicable to ordinary
observation, but are of the utmost importance to be attended to in
astronomical inquiries. And so certain is it that changes and dis-
tances must exist in some shape and some form in every case, that
if any one observer was hardily to declare that his telescopes kept
their adjustments perfectly, or had no error, the statement would
only be looked on by astronomers as proving that his observations
were very rough and inaccurate.

The most prejudicial form in which the effects of instability can
manifest themselves, is in any irregular motion of the stands whereon
the instruments rests.

This is usually guarded against by constructing these stands in
the shape of large and heavy blocks of masonry, the heavier the
better. But even when the greatest practicable size has been
reached, perfect immunity from disturbing influences is not obtained.
This was signally experienced at Greenwich some years ago, when a
telescope was firmly built into a large stone pier, with the view of
making such very exact observations of a certain star, as to be able
to ascertain its annual parallax. But long before the year was
elapsed, it was found that the measures were absolutely vitiated, by
the irresistible swelling of the hill from rain, and the consequent
heaving up of one end of the pier.

Experience therefore drew the rule, that in addition to the ut-
most security which a large mass can give to the pier, it is proper to
introduce some principle of reversal in the instrument placed upon
it. For with such a method, the exact state of adjustment of the
whole can be ascertained for any instant. Then it will probably
be found that the structure, the permanence of whose position could
not be depended on for a year, may be relied on from day to day, if
not implicitly, at least to within far less than the limits of the pro-
bable error of observation.

In the Edinburgh Observatory both these principles have been
long since introduced, and have lately been carried further towards
perfection.

The stone piers, for instance, which were erected by our respected
member Mr Jardine, are models of excellent masonry, composed of
peculiarly dense material, in the largest available blocks ; and what.
is more important, they are founded on the hard porphyry rocks of

231

the hill. Had they been bedded on gravel or clay, or the softer
rocks that the English Observatories are generally confined to, they
might have been subject to dangerously irregular movements, owing
to the infiltration of water in the soil. But twenty years of careful
observation here have not detected any effect of this sort, though they
have shown, in the piers of the transit instrument, the existence of
a small annual displacement of their tops, caused apparently by a
difference in the expansion from temperature of the two shafts,
though they were purposely cut out of the same bed in the quarry.
But as this displacement, even at its maximum, reaches only to
0-001 inch, and proceeds very regularly, its effects on the observa-
tions may easily be guarded against.

The second principle above alluded to, viz., that of reversal, was
not introduced into the Edinburgh transit in a perfectly unexcep-
tionable manner. At the time of its construction it was certainly
thought well of. But, with the usual unhappy tendency to run to
extremes, men had no sooner discovered that mere weight in the
piers, and the telescopes resting on them, was not a guarantee for
their perfect stability,and that the reversing was a necessary adjunet—
than they began immediately to attend almost solely to this latter fea-
ture, and to make the instruments so slight and delicate, as to require
constant reversing. Especially vicious, too, was the then plan of
making the metal bearings, through the intervention of which the
instrument rested on the pier; for they were made so small, and so
weak, and of such a complicated construction, that the good qualities
of the masonry, such as they were, became neutralized, and very
much larger and more uncertain errors were introduced.

From this source arose those various fluctuations in the position
of the transit instrument which I had the honour of describing to
the Society in 1847. They had been first detected by my predeces-
sor, and were finally traced up theoretically by myself, to the un-
equal expansion of certain adjusting screws in the Y block. Now
these adjustments should never have been there; and was precisely a
reason why the Y block could not be firm. They were introduced
with the vain idea of enabling the astronomer each day to screw up
the instrument to perfect truth before he began his observations.
But Professor Henderson knew very well, that after a screw is once
touched, it does not attain its true bearing for days, and sometimes
for weeks ; and he knew also that the quantity of any error can be
measured numerically much more easily than it can be corrected

VOL, Il. T

232

‘mechanically. He therefore adopted the very proper plan of leaving
the adjusting screws untouched, but of measuring the amount of error
each day, and calculating the effect thereof on the observations.

Still the adjustable Y could not be so firm as a plain block; and
being at last pretty plainly convicted of producing the bad effects al-
ready described, a necessity came for introducing new and firmer
bearings. I can now describe the mode in which this was effected,
and the astronomical results which have followed. I applied first to
‘the German maker of the instrument, but found him far too fearful
of leaving the old beaten paths of instrament-making to attempt any
improvement. Next, therefore, I applied to Mr John Adie of this
city, and am happy to say that he carried out my designs in a per-
fectly satisfactory manner, and so caused the Edinburgh transit to
be the first in which this signal improvement has been made ; for its
advantage is now recognised, and has been adopted elsewhere.

The new Ys are now large blocks of cast-iron, of the whole area
of the top of the pier, and weighing as many hundredweights as the
old Ys did single pounds. They have, moreover, no adjustments ;
‘ but the notches in which the pivots of the instrument rest were
filed, by repeated trials, to within a certain small quantity of the
truth, and have since only been subjected to examinations for the
quantity of error. The result, now tested by many years, has been
highly satisfactory. For, firstly, they have never been so far out as
to require a second filing, or to be out of the limits of convenient
calculation ; and, secondly, what small amount of variation of posi-
tion they have been found liable to, has been almost entirely the
slow and regular expansion of the piers already alluded to. There
has been certainly a difference in the amount of wear of either Y ;
but this has been exceedingly small, and has very regularly increased
with the time, while the large anomalous and irregular fluctuations,
which were the dangerous features of former years, seem to be
effectually removed. Even when labouring under this drawback,
the Edinburgh observations, though not all that they might have
been, were at least equal in accuracy to those of any other observa-
tory ; so that I trust that they will still, through this alteration, be
enabled to keep up their comparative character, whatever improve-
ments may have been made elsewhere.

As a specimen of the increased regularity now of the march of the
instrument in its annual temperature movement, I subjoin the ob-
served errors of similar periods of the years 1841 and 1851 :—

233

1841. 1851.

April 21 + 0°46 sec, April 21 — 0-04 see,
» 23 + 0°53 ,, » 23 — 014 ,,
ww» 2t +028 .,, » 26 — 0-00 ,,
» 29 + O16 ,, May 15 — 0°12 ,,

May 3 + 0°36 ,, ere "Ory 5;

oO 1. ,; June 10 — 0-10 ,,
fo 2D 37) ,, » 2-018 ,,
» 28 + 0:02 ,, » 24 - 019.»
June 1 + 0°05 ,,
” 4 “f- 0:27 ”
» 10+ 0-46 ,,

But in addition to the stability of the instruments of an observa-
tory being affected by the slow movements detailed above, it may
be injured by quick vibratory motions, not producing permanent
change of place. This is, moreover, precisely the sort of inconve-
nience generally expected on a rocky foundation. Under such a
prejudice too was it, that at the first meeting of the British Asso-
ciation in Edinburgh, several of the members, somewhat too hastily,
assumed, from their previous prejudices against rock, that the Cal-
ton Hill was by no means suitable for an observatory, and declared
that good observations could never be made there. But though
this unfounded opinion was refuted publicly almost as soon as pub-
lished, by Professor Wallace and others, good men of the day, and
has since been more formally put to the rout by Professor Hender-
son’s long and excellent series of published observations ; yet the cry
haying once been raised, a lingering echo seems still to exist in
some persons’ minds, that the Calton Hill, because it is rock, is
always in such a state of tremor as to preclude the efficient perform-
ance of the instruments. And, worse still, only last summer, on a cer-
tain public occasion, one of the very gentlemen who in 1834 showed
such want of discretion and judgment, again made a similar exhi-
bition of himself. For putting out of sight the facts of all the

___ thousands of Edinburgh Observations, since printed and published, he

stated in a public place, that the British Association had declared that
the site of the Edinburgh Observatory was not a proper one for an as-
tronomical establishment, and that no good observations could ever be
made there, leaving it of course to be inferred that no proof to the con-
trary had ever been since advanced, and that the dictum held still ;
and was that of the Association as a body ; which it never was.

tT2

234

With gentlemen who will adhere to a favourite theory of their
youth, in spite of all the myriads of facts contained in the volumes
since published by the Observatory, I fear that the few additional ones
which could be condensed into this paper would make but small im-
pression. Some very peculiar instances, however, can now be brought
forward; for there are at present in the neighbourhood far more power-
ful shaking influences than in those former days, and the existing in-
strumental means are more sensitive than ever to detect vibrations.

These increased means of shaking are the introduction of railways
into the vicinity of the Observatory, and the running along them
at high velocities of long and heavy trains, creating a far greater
disturbance in the soil than the rumbling of any number of carriages
along Waterloo Place.

The improved method of detecting the effect of this disturbance
is the recent adaptation of the collimating eyepiece, with modifica-
tions allowing of unusually high magnifying power and with good
definition, and its employment in combination with a trough of fluid
mercury.

Tested in this way, a vibration is undoubtedly perceived at times,
and nowhere could we expect to be entirely free; for such a univer-
sal cause as the wind striking on the outside of a building would
produce some degree of tremor in the subjacent soil. But the ques-
tion here is, Does the vibration take place to such an extent as to
vitiate the observations ?

In answer to this I say, Certainly not; for during the last five
years, the collimating apparatus has been in weekly, if not in daily,
use with the transit instrument, and on no single occasion was there
ever any impediment to accuracy of measure caused by vibration
transmitted through the ground from any of the neighbouring roads
or railroads ;—though from the remarkable sensibility of the appa-
ratus employed, the effects of the wind shaking the building, or per-
sons walking about, in, and even immediately around it—circum-
stances not peculiar to the Calton Hill—have sometimes impeded the
observations.

But inasmuch as on each day that the observations were made, they
lasted only about twenty minutes, the theoretical shakers may possibly
suggest, that chance had always hit on the times of no railway trains
being on the move. Recently, therefore, I made a more crucial
experiment, and in this manner :—

I stationed myself one day for three hours at the mural circle, to

as ba

y

235

which a very powerful collimating eyepiece has been applied, and,
having the telescope pointed to the mercury trough, and the reflect-
ed wires in view, I noted carefully the times and the characters of
any defalcations from good definition. Meanwhile the assistant
astronomer had gone to the part of the railroad nearest to the Ob-
servatory with a chronometer, and noted the times of any trains

‘passing, their speed, and the number of carriages. On his return,

the lists of times being compared, it was found that no result had
attended long trains moving slowly or short ones moving quickly,
but that the long trains moving quickly had produced a barely sen-
sible effect in spoiling somewhat of the definition of the reflected wires.
Never had this disturbance, however, amounted to a quantity that
need have prevented an observation being taken. In a word, the
disturbance was practically quite unimportant, and this, with an
apparatus so sensitive that a slight tapping with the hand on the
great stone-pier, containing about 120 cubic feet, produced so great
an effect as to render the wires for a time altogether invisible.

Moreover, by comparing the amount of railway vibration observed
here, with that found at Greenwich and other observatories on loose
and soft soils, we find it to be less than a third of what is experienced
there. . This result, so contrary to the usual belief of the facility
with which rock conducts vibration, is perhaps attributable to the
circumstance, that whatever vibration is produced in the hard, un-
yielding material, is very small, while that in the softer, looser soil,
is very great and violent at the place. In the rock, the wave, such
as it is, may travel quicker and farther, and with the characteristics
of a high musical note, than one of the same initial size in gravel ;
but the wave produced in the gravel by the same disturbing cause
appears to be so much larger at the place, as to be able to travel to a
very great distance, though with a slower motion and a lower note
(if any be audible) than in rock, and to be felt to a greater extent
within a certain range.

The whole result is thus highly satisfactory for the stability of
the Edinburgh instruments; since we have not only, by reason of
this rock foundation, an immunity from the prejudicial action of
water penetrating the ground and heaving up the piers, but there is
also such a decided lessening in the amount of vibration, and the

disturbance of any optical image seen in the mercury.

3. On a General Method of effecting the substitution of

236 _

Iodine for Hydrogen in Organic Compounds, and on the
properties of Iodo-Pyromeconic Acid. By Mr James
Brown, assistant to Dr Thomas Anderson.

Following up his researches on pyromeconic acid, read before
this Society in 1852, the author described a method which he had re-
cently discovered, through his experiments on iodo-pyromeconic acid, «
of generally obtaining iodine substitution for hydrogen-compounds.

The mere digesting pyromeconic acid with tincture of iodine was
not successful ; because, as the author considered, there was no body
present, capable of drawing all the hydrogen in the compound to it-
self, and so leaving, as it were, an open space which the iodine might
step into and occupy.

This requisition, however, he found to be perfectly complied with,
by introducing with the iodine a certain quantity of either bromine
or chlorine ; and the mode which he preferred of producing the iodo-
pyromeconic acid was, by mixing a freshly-prepared solution of
chloride of iodine with a cold saturated solution of pyromeconic acid,

The resulting acid is monobasic, and forms salts, of which those _
of baryta of lead were described by the author at length.

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-

low :—
Henry Dunlop, Esq. of Craigton.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. V. 4to.

Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year 1851. 8vo.

Smithsonian Institution Meteorological Tables. Prepared by Arnold
Guyot. 8vo.

Portraits of North American Indians. With Sketches of Scenery,
&c. Painted by J. M. Stanley. Deposited with the Smith-
sonian Institution. 8vo,

Catalogue of North American Reptiles in the Museum of the
Smithsonian Institution. 8vo.—From the Institution.

Owen’s Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota.
With Illustrations. 4to.

Schooleraft’s History of the Indian Tribes of the United States.
Part 3. 4to.

~ Memoirs and Maps of California. By Ringgold. 8vo,

237

Stansbury’s Expedition to the Great Salt Lake. 8vo. With Maps.
Report on the Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. By
J.W. Foster and J. D, Whitney. Part 2. 8vo. With Maps.
Official Report of the United States Expedition to explore the Dead
Sea and the River Jordan. By Lieut. W. F. Lynch, U.S.N.
4to.—F'rom the American Government.
* Boston Journal of Natural History, containing Papers and Commu-
nications read before the Boston Society of Natural History.
Vol. VI., Nos. 1&2. 8vo.—From the Editors.
Bulletin de la Société Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1851,
Nos.3 & 4, 1852, No.1. 8vo.—F rom the Society.
Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 4ieme Série. Tomes IV. &
V. 8vo.—From the Society.
Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
1852, iii. Jahrgang. 1853, iv. Jahrgang. 8vo.—From the
Institute.
Flora Batava. 173 Aflevering. 4to.—From the King of Holland.
| Stellarum Fixarum imprimis duplicium et multiplicium positiones
| __ medie pro epocha 1830,0, Auctore F, G. W. Struve. Fol.
; —From the Russian Government.

a

Mémoire sur les Ouragans de la Mer des Indes, au sud del’ Equateur,
Par M. A. Lefebre. 8vo.

: Considérations générales sur l’Océan Pacifique pour faire suite a
celles sur l’Océan Atlantique et sur Océan Indien, Par M,
: Charles P. de Kerhallet. 8vo.

,

| Tableau général des Phares et Fanaux des Cotes de la Méditerranée,
de la Mer Noire, et de la Mer d’Azof. 8y0,—From the Depét
Général de la Marine. ’

Abhandlungen der Mathemat. Physikalischen Classe der Koeniglich
Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bd, VII., 1th Abth.
4to.—F rom the Academy.

Annalen der Kéniglichen Sternwarte bei Miinchen. V.Bd. 8vo.

Jahres Bericht der Miinchener Sternwarte fiir 1852. 8vo,.—From
the Observatory.

Afrika vor den Entdeekungen der Portugiesen. Von Dr Friedrick
Kuntsmann, 4to.—F rom the Author.

Studien des Géttingischen Vereins Bergmiinnischer Freunde. Im
namen desselben herausgegeben von J. F. L. Hausmann.
Bd. XVI. Heft. 1 & 2. 8yvo,

238

Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts Universitit und der Konig].
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. 1852. 12mo.
—From the Society.

Monday, 17th April 1854.

Ricut Rev. BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in the
Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Products of Destructive Distillation of Animal
Substances. Part. III. By Dr Thomas Anderson.

2. Notice of the Completion of the Time-Ball Apparatus.
By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

The electric time-ball, erected on the Calton Hill last October by
the Government, and placed under the author’s charge, has now been
at work for five months. But the work has necessarily been of an
experimental or tentative character ; for before the accuracy of the
signals could be guaranteed, it was necessary to have experience of
the machinery in all weathers ; and, moreover, the present strength
of the Observatory establishment, and the nature of pre-existing
occupations, prevented the experiments being made every day.

There have, however, been now upwards of 100 daily signals
made, four only of which have proved defective, and from causes
which have since been remedied, so that there is now strong warrant
against future accidents.

In the course of the trial, the following questions presented them-
selves, and, if not answered satisfactorily by the experiments, suit-
able alterations were made in the machinery.

1st, Is the fall of the ball equally quick in windy as in calm
weather ?

The answer is, that it is so, owing to the great weight of the ball,
something near a ton, overpowering any side pressure of the wind,
while all other friction is carefully relieved.

——

239

2d, Is it sufficiently quick to make the commencement of the
fall an accurate observation 4

It is; for it falls through the first 4 feet in less than 0°3 of a
second ; and as a separation of the descending ball from the fixed
cross staffs to the extent of 6 inches would be abundantly visible to
observers all over the city, they should not err to more than one
second.

3d, Is the impetus of this falling body sufficiently broken and
quieted in fall, so as not to endanger the permanence of itself or
the building ?

The concussion is so completely broken by the cylinder of air
which receives and bears up the piston connected with the ball, that
the ball invariably comes to rest on its bed block without any sen-
sible shock or sound.

4th, Is the dropping of so huge and cumbrous a weight as the ton-
heavy ball managed by a trigger sufficiently delicate to insure ex-
actness of manipulation, and sufficiently certain, as not to be thrown
out by accidental causes ?

This is the case to an eminent degree, through the introduction of
a small auxiliary ball to do the labour of dropping the big one, so
that it is only the trigger of the small one that has to be pulled by
hand or by the electric force, and it has to be pulled with a force of
but a few grains, and through about goth of an inch.

Excepting the variations of strength of a certain spring, depend-
ing apparently on temperature, and now compensated by adding
weights each morning, no other inconvenience has been experienced.
And the trigger has held its place firmly, even when during some
of the violent gales in the winter, the top of the monument was
rocking about to such an extent as to make the duty of attending
to the ball somewhat unenviable.

5th, Is there any loss of time or accuracy by the ball being on
Nelson's Monument, and not in the Observatory t

Practically, none ; for the trigger is pulled, and the ball dropped
by electro-magnets, which are instantaneously animated by the gal-
yanic circuit being completed in the Observatory.

6th, Is there any guarantee or permanent record of the time at
which the signal was, and must have been made ?

There was not, as the ball was placed in my hands, for all the
exactness depended on the skill of the person making the signal ;

240

and, after it was made, nothing was left behind to shew when it was
made. This has, however, lately been altered, and the circuit is
now completed by a mean-time clock, which is compared every day
with the transit clock, and adjusted to the true time; their com-
parisons being duly entered in a ledger on every occasion, shew in-
contestibly the limit of error of the clock, and thereby of the fall of
the ball each day.

Referring to these entries, I find that, during the last fortnight,
the correction of the clock at a quarter before one, were, on

April 3, — 0-0 April 11, + 0-1

ee eee 195,12, Oe

5, — 0-0 . 13, + 0-2

- 6 +01 de

ey ates 3. 15, — O1

ee 17,204
--- 10, — 0-0

And as the greatest daily rate of the clock during this period was never
more than 0:3 seconds, the above must have been sensibly the errors of
the clock at one hour, and, therefore, of the drop of the ball, subject
only to a constant correction for the time necessary for the electricity
to pull the various triggers. I have not been able yet to observe this
quantity in any but an indirect manner, but suspect that it is under
0:1 second.

7th, What is the accuracy of the approximate signals afforded
by the half rise and the full rise of the ball at 5 minutes and at
2 minutes respectively before 1 ?

As the clock is also made to give a species of electric signal to
the raiser of the ball, he may and should have the windlass in mo-
tion within 0°5 of a second of the even minute. But, inasmuch as
the movement of the ball on the mast is very slow, by reason of the
number of intervening wheels and pinions necessary to get up the
requisite power, the ball will not be seen to move visibly to persons
outside, until the crank has made several revolutions.

From a series of four months’ excellent observations of the time
ball by Sir T. Brisbane, it appears that, to him in St Andrew
Square, the rises were seen on an average 2°5 seconds too late, with
a probable error of about 3 seconds. While, from another series of
two months’ observations by Mr Swan, at a greater distance from
the hill, as in Duke Street, the retardation, as might be expected,

241

was greater, or about 3:5, while the probable error was about the
same. By using a telescope with a cross view, as he appears to
have done lately, he has considerably reduced both quantities. But
each person should determine the amount of retardation for himself,
as depending upon his distance from the hill, peculiarity of ob-
servation, and other such causes. This done, and the quantity
applied to one of the rises as a correction, will give a very near
approximation to the error of the observer’s watch, so that he will
be fully prepared to observe the instant of the drop to the utmost
exactness.

8. Has the accuracy of the drop of the ball been independently
tested ?

As to absolute time, not that I am aware of; but as to relative
time, it has by the two very careful series of observations already
mentioned, by Sir T. M. Brisbane and Mr Swan. The results of these
are given below in the rates of their chronometers, for similar days.
And it will be observed, that although one of them did alter its rate
somewhat irregularly backwards and forwards, still as the other was
going on ina uniform march at the selfsame time, the anomalous
effect was all owing to the one chronometer, and nothing sensible
was due to any error of the time-ball.

In conclusion, the author observed that the arrangements which
were in the course of being made, would give uninterrupted facility
to the public for ascending to the top of the monument.

8. Ona Black Tertiary Deposit, containing the Exuvie of
Diatomes, from Glen Shira. By Dr Gregory.

‘4. Additional Note to a Paper on the Structure of Coal, and
the Torbanehil] Mineral. By Dr Bennett.

5. On the Mechanical Energies of the Solar System. By
Professor William Thomson. ;

In this paper it is shown, that by the sun’s heat there is an emis-
sion of mechanical energy from the solar system, amounting in
about 100 years to as much as the whole energy of the motions of
all the planets. The principal object of the paper is to investigate
the source from which this vast development of energy is drawn. It
is argued, that either a store of primitive heat must be drawn upon,

242

or heat must be generated by chemical action (combustion), or heat
must be generated by other forces than those of chemical action,
that is, by forces of moving masses. Any store of primitive heat
that can be drawn upon in solar radiation, must be entirely within the
sun. It is shown that such a store would almost certainly be in-
sufficient for the supply of the heat which has certainly been emitted
during 6000 years, and it is also shown with about equally strong
probability, that chemical action among elements of the sun’s mass,
would be insufficient to supply the actual emission for any such
period of time. It is concluded that the source drawn upon in solar
radiation cannot be primitive heat, nor heat of intrinsic combustion.
If not heat of combustion at all, it must clearly be heat derived from
the motion of bodies coming to the sun (the utter insufficiency, in
point of duration, of ordinary motions of matter within the sun,
being quite obvious); or if it be heat of combustion, fuel must be
supplied from without. But no matter can come to the sun from
external space, without generating, from its motion alone, thousands
of times as much heat as it could possibly give rise to either by
combustion among elements of its own, or by combination with sub-
stances primitively in the sun, unless it were possessed of incompa-
rably greater chemical affinities than any known terrestrial or me-
teoric substance. It is inferred that the source of solar heat must
be meteoric, and is the motion of meteors coming to the sun. The
idea that solar heat is so produced, appears to have been first pub-
lished by Mr Waterston, who brought it forward at the late meeting
of the British Association at Hull.

But if (as was assumed by Mr Waterston) enough of meteors to
generate heat at the actual rate of solar radiation, were falling in
from extra-planetary space, the earth in crossing their path, would
be struck much more copiously by meteors than: there is any pro-
bability it is; and the increase of matter round the centre of the
system, would within the last two or three thousand years, have
caused an acceleration of the earth’s motion, which history disproves.
Hence the meteors which supply the sun with heat must, at least
during historical periods, have been within the earth’s orbit. We
see them there in the sunshine (when the sun himself is below our
horizon) a tornado of dust, called “the Zodiacal Light” whirling
round the sun and carrying the inter-planetary atmosphere with
them, probably to such an extent, as to cause centrifugal force

243

enough very nearly to balance solar gravitation upon it everywhere,
except close to the sun’s surface. The meteors themselves probably
evaporate somewhere near the sun, merely on account of the high
temperature of that part of space, but ultimately losing their rotatory
motion by intense resistance in entering the sun’s atmosphere, be-
come condensed into a liquid state by solar gravitation, and come to
rest in the sun. The quantity of heat thus generated in the region
of intense resistance, by any quantity of matter falling in, will
exceed half the equivalent of the work done by solar gravitation on
an equal mass moving from an infinite distance by (what must
probably be quite insensible in comparison) the latent heat evolved
in condensation, together with the heat of any chemical combination
that may take place. The other half of the work done by solar gra-
yitation on every meteor which has come from an infinite distance
(or from many times the sun’s radius off), goes to generate heat in
inter-planetary air by friction.

The meteoric matter thus added to the sun, to generate heat at
the present rate of emission as determined by Pouillet, if settling
at the surface with the same as his mean density, would cover it
about sixty feet thick in a year, and would not increase his apparent
dimensions by more than about 1” in 40,000 years; or in 2,600,000
years, by as much as he appears to grow from July to December.
It must, therefore (whatever be the actual density of the deposit),
be insensible from the earliest historical period of observation till
the present time; and for thousands of years to come, if continued
only at the same rate, it must remain neither demonstrated nor
disproved by the most accurate measurements of the sun’s apparent
magnitude.

The approximate equality of solar heat in all regions of his sur-
face is probably due to the distillation of the meteors, which if solid
when entering the region of intense resistance, would probably give
an immensely more copious supply in the equatorial than in the
polar regions. The dark spots are probably whirlwinds, analogous

to the hurricanes in the tropical regions of the earth’s atmosphere,
(although produced by a different cause,*) which by centrifugal

%* he friction of the vortices of meteoric vapour close round the sun, upon
the atmosphere between them, and his surface revolving at the comparatively
slow rate of once in twenty-five days, probably gives rise to eddies sometimes

244

force diminish very much for a time the deposit of meteoric matter
on limited portions of the sun’s surface, and allow them to cool by
radiation so much, as to become comparatively black.

The following Gentlemen were elected as Ordinary Fel-

lows :—
1. Dr WiLL1AM Birp HERAPATH.
2, Ropert HarKNEss, Esq., Professor of Mineralogy and Geology,
Queen’s College, Cork.
38. Dr THomas A, WISE, H.E.LC.S.

Monday, 1st May 1854.
Ricut Rey. BISHOP TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Further Researches on the Crystalline Constituents of
Opium. By Dr Thomas Anderson.

2. On the Action of the Halogen Compounds of Ethyl and
Amyl on some Vegetable Alkaloids. By Mr Henry How,
Assistant to Professor Anderson of Glasgow.

This paper contains some details of a continued investigation, of
which the first results were communicated to the Chemical Society
of London last year.* It was then shown that new bases are pro-
duced by the action of iodide of methyl and of ethyl upon morphia
and codeine, which are closely analogous with the ammonium bases
of Hofmann, so that these alkaloids should rank among nitryle bases.
The fact was also pointed out, that although one of the new salts
produced had precisely the centesimal composition of the correspond-
ing compound of codeine, the base of the artificial product was widely
different from this alkaloid; and the conclusion was drawn that the
primary molecules of these natural formations are of so peculiar a
constitution, that chemists are not yet in the possession of means of
imitating the process of their construction ; for even the attempt

reaching down to the sun’s surface, and constituting hurricanes, which would
probably have a progressive motion northwards on one side, and southwards
on the other side of his equator.

* Quart. Jour. Chem. Soc., vol. vi.

= —— ee
4 7 -

245

to convert morphia into codeine fails, though the addition of the re-
quisite amount of carbon and hydrogen to the former is readily
effected. It was further remarked that the circumstance of both
these alkaloids furnishing the same results, under the given cireum-
stances, possibly arose from their similar origin ; and that it was in-
tended to examine other alkaloids of opium, and some from other
sources, in the same way. In the present memoir it is shown that
attempts to produce ammonium bases from other alkaloids of opium
have not been successful ; but this result has been obtained from
strychnine, and the new products have admitted of more detailed ex-
amination, from their possessing a more stable nature than the
analogous derivatives from morphia and codeine.

Behaviour of Papaverine with Iodide of Ethyl.

Hydriodate of Papaverine.—The next base from opium sub-
mitted to trial was papaverine, an alkaloid of well-marked characters,
and the subject of some recent researches of Dr T. Anderson.* It was
found that, by heating some of this substance in a sealed tube with
spirit of wine and iodide of ethyl, it is converted into an hydriodate
with great ease. The salt proved to be that of the unchanged alka-
loid, of the formula,

C,, H,, NO,, HI.
It is extremely soluble in water, and the moment the heat is with-
drawn from a strong solution, the fluid becomes milky, and an oil is
deposited, which assumes a crystalline solid form in the course of a
few hours. It is unaltered in the air, but decomposed, at least
partially, at 212° Fahr.

All doubt as to the nature of the base in this salt was removed by
its analysis when set free, by the action of ammonia on the hydriodate.
The white crystalline deposit so obtained, gave, after one crystalli-
zation from dilute spirit, analytical results perfectly in accordance

with the formula,
C,, H,, NO,;

which is that of papaverine. Its reactions were also identical with

those characteristic of the alkaloid.

Narcotine and Iodide of Ethyl.
Hydriodate of Narcotine—This opium base behaved exactly like
* Trans, Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxi., part i.

246

the preceding ; the hydriodate of narcotine resulting from the action
was an oily substance of a brownish colour, which could not be made
to crystallize ; it was soluble in hot water, and ammonia threw down
from this solution a precipitate easily recognised as nareotines its
nature was fully substantiated by the quantitative analysis of its pla-
tinum compound, which gave results agreeing with the salt of nar-
cotine, whose formula is this,

C,, H,, NO,, H Cl, Pt Cl,.

The result of this experiment calls to mind a preliminary notice
of Wertheim,* in which he announced his detection in opium of two
new species of ‘ narcotine,” which he terms methylo and propylo-
narcotine, while the ordinary alkaloid he regards as ethylo-narcotine.
The proof of the existence of this series is desirable, because the
ordinary alkaloid, the material of the above experiment, would then
seem to be a compound ammonium, and stand a solitary instance of
such a substance, unless papaverine be of the same nature. The
details of Wertheim’s researches have not appeared, but the subject
is worthy of being made clear, as there is nothing in the characters
of papaverine and narcotine to distinguish them from other alkaloids
as a class of bodies.

Cotarnine and Iodide of Ethyl.

Hydriodate of Cotarnine.—This base, a derivative from narcotine
by oxidation, behaved quite like its parent under the same cireum-
stances. The hydriodate of cotarnine is a red-brown oil, very
soluble in hot, insoluble in cold, water ; the nature of its base was
ascertained by the formation of its platinum salt, which was a pale
yellow substance, and gave numbers on analysis in accordance with
the true salt of cotarnine,

C,,H,, NO, HCl, Pt Cl,.

The formation of these hydriodates in the presence of water is
possibly brought about by the change of iodide of ethyl and water
into hydriodic acid and ether, observed by Frankland} to take place
at 300° Fahr.; the presence of bases may determine the change at
a much lower temperature.

Where water is absent, it is not easy to see how they are formed,

* Chem. Gazette, 1852, p. 36. ft Gerhardt. Suite de Berzelius, ii., 323.

247

unless ether be produced at the same time from the alcohol used asa
solvent ; for instance with papaverine, thus—

C,, H,, NO, +C,H,0,+C,H,I=C,, H,, NO,,H1+2C,H,0.

On Strychnine.

This alkaloid, as being one of those which contain two atoms
of nitrogen, was considered an interesting object for examination.
Numerous speculations have been gone into as to the mode in which
this element exists in such substances, before the experiments of
Hofmann gave a point of comparison between ammonia and other
basic bodies. These are now regarded, viewed from the volatile
type upwards, as nitrogen attached to basic hydrogen alone, or to it
with hydrocarbons, or finally to hydrocarbons alone, occupying all its
place. In the fixed vegetable alkaloids oxygen is included in the
system, and here oxygenized hydrocarbons must act as hydrogen, if,
as has been attempted to be shown in a former paper on this sub-
ject, these bodies are comparable with nitryle bases. In the case of
one of these containing two atoms of nitrogen, it is possible that
this element performs, as it were, two parts; one being referable to
its function in any simple nitrogenous base, while the other may be
more analogous to its property when combined with oxygen as NO,,
of replacing hydrogenin the carbohydrogen of the molecule—a specu-
lative suggestion thrown out some few years ago by Fresenius,

This question it is attempted to decide by means of two classes of
reagents ; the amount of basic hydrogen in strychnine should be

_ ascertained by the action of iodide of ethyl, &c., while any oxidized

compound of nitrogen, as NO,, should be reduced by sulphuretted
hydrogen, and hydrogen added while oxygen is removed.

The former part of the subject is gone into in some detail in this
paper, while mention is made that strychnine undergoes a curious
change with sulphide of ammonium, resulting in the production of
hyposulphite of the base, a stable and beautiful salt, and some other
product as yet imperfectly studied ; from what is at present known,
however, it is thought that the change is not of the nature above
spoken of,

Action of Iodide of Ethyl on Strychnine.
Hydriodate of Ethylostrychnine——Strychnine in fine powder is
readily attacked by iodide of ethyl, even partially in boiling water ;
VOL. III. U

248

the insolubility of the base in this menstruum renders spirit a better
medium, and the best method of bringing about the reaction was
found to be by operations in sealed tubes. At the temperature of
212° Fahr. the change is effected in twenty minutes, and this is
announced by the complete solubility of the crystalline contents of
the tube in boiling water. The new salt proved to have the for-
mula of hydriodate of strychnine, in which an atom of hydrogen of
the base is replaced by ethyl, or in which an atom of ethyl is attached
to it considered as an iodide, formed thus :—

C,H, N, 0, + C,H, I = Cy {ca} N, 0, HI = C,, Hy N, 0, Ie

—____—_——
Strychnine. New Salt.

It is soluble in about 50 or 60 parts boiling water, and in about
170 parts at 60°; and is deposited from tolerably dilute fluids
in fine, white, four-sided prisms; it is unaltered in the air, and
at 212°.

It yields no base to potass or ammonia, but is precipitated
unchanged from its aqueous solution in the cold by the former,
more immediately in the heat by the latter. Oxide of silver readily
eliminates its iodine, and leaves the base in solution, from which it
may be obtained in the crystalline state as a hydrate. These re-
actions assimilate the salt to an iodide, and the salts of the base are
accordingly named in accordance, but the conventional nomenelature
of the base is not altered. Some of these salts are described and
their analysis is given in some cases; they are spoken of as being
beautiful substances, and easily obtained pure.

Nitrate of Ethylostrychnine—This is a compound of such sparing
solubility in cold water, that it has served as a test for the base.
From dilute hot aqueous solutions it is deposited in colourless re-
fractive prisms of great beauty, which are anhydrous, and have the
formula,

C,, H., N, 0,, HO, NO, = C,, H,, N, 0,, NO,.

Chromates of Ethylostrychnine—A neutral and an acid salt exist,
both of difficult solubility in cold water, and of a yellow colour ;
the former is deposited even from dilute fluids in short prismatic
erystals, and the latter as tufts of silky needles,

Bichromate of Ethylostrychnine.—From strong solutions this salt

249

is deposited in splendid transparent plates, of a golden yellow
colour ; it has the composition, when dried at 212° F.,

7

,, Hy, N,O, 10Cr O,, HO Cr 0, = C,,H,, N, 0, Cr Op Hr 0,

- and is thus seen to differ from the peculiar combinations of potass

and ammonia, by containing an atom of water more than these salts
have. Thisanomaly may be explained away by the assumption that
this atom is retained from the water of crystallization, of which the
new salt contains in addition two atoms ; its formula being, air dry,

C,, Hy, N, 0, Or %, H Cr O, + 2 aq.

Platinum Salt of Ethylostrychnine.—This compound falls at first
as a curdy yellow precipitate, which becomes crystalline on standing;
from dilute fluids it crystallizes at once in a very beautiful form, viz.,

“in stellate groups of fern-frond-like crystals: it is anhydrous, and

has the formula,
vg Hoz N. 0, Cl, Pt Cl,.

The corresponding gold salt crystallizes from water in colourless
brilliant prisms, of splendid appearance.

The chloride is a very soluble salt, crystallizing in needles ; the
sulphate and oxalate crystallize from acid solutions in pearly
needles ; the acetate is an amorphous gum in the dry state. The
chloride gives a crystalline double salt with mercuric chloride.

Carbonates of Ethylostrychnine.—The tendency of the base in
aqueous solution to absorb carbonic acid being observed, the attempt
to procure carbonates was made, and there exist two ; but the mono-
carbonate cannot be obtained dry, as in the process of evaporation
it decomposes into some basic product and impure bicarbonate—a
salt which may be produced not only of constant composition, but as
a beautiful crystalline substance.

The monocarbonate is readily produced by double decomposition
between the iodide of ethylostrychnine and moist carbonate of silver.
A few minutes contact suffices to effect the change, the solution of
the carbonate is found to decompose on simple evaporation either im
vacuo or at 212°, into impure bicarbonate, and a substance, in-
soluble in water, which has the characters of a base, quite distinct
from strychnine or ethylostrychnine ; but material was wanting to
establish its nature thoroughly.

Bicarbonate of Ethylostrychnine.—This salt is formed by passing
a stream of carbonic acid gas into a freshly prepared solution of the

250

simple carbonate: it admits of preparation in the dry state, either
at 212°, or in vacuo ; its solution undergoing in a very slight de-
gree the decomposition just mentioned. Prepared by these means
it is a crystalline mass, which is completely soluble in alcohol, and
is thrown down in very fine prismatic crystals, by ether added in
small quantity to this solution. It is not deliquescent, but is very
soluble in cold water; its reaction is strongly alkaline. Its compo-
sition is shown by analysis to be, as expressed in the formula,

C,, H,, N, 0, HO CO,, HO.CO, = C,,H,, N, 0, CO,, H CO,

quite analogous to the corresponding salt of potass.

In repeating some experiments mentioned in Liebig’s Traité,* it
was found that the statement there made as to the existence of a
solid carbonate of strychnine is erroneous; nor could carbonates of
morphia, codeine, papaverine, or narcotine be obtained.

The notice of Langlois} having succeeded in forming carbonate of
quinine arrested the intended extension of these trials with other
alkaloids.

Hydrate of Ethylostrychnine—-When moist oxide of silver is
added to the solid iodide, a strongly alkaline fluid of a rich purple
colour is obtained which yields on evaporation in vacuo a erys-
talline residue, containing some little carbonic acid. This is com-
pletely soluble in absolute alcohol, and ether added to the fluid with
certain precautions, occasions the deposition of a substance in beau-
tiful small colourless needles, which prove on analysis to be the
hydrated ethylostrychnine, or oxide of ethylostrychnium, of the for-
mula,

C,, H,, N, 0, 0, HO. + Saq.;
it differs from its assumed analogue, the crystallized hydrate of
potass, in containing an atom less of water.

The substance cannot be freed of its water by heat, as its aqueous
solution is found, by evaporation at 212°, to undergo the same change
as the monocarbonate, and also to absorb carbonic acid to some ex-
tent. It is not deliquescent, its aqueous solution has a red purple
colour, and an extremely bitter taste; it precipitates barium and
calcium solutions partially in the heat, and the heavy metallic oxides
at ounce from their salts. It yields products by the action of chlorine,

* Liebig. Traité de Chimie Organique, par Gerhardt, ii. p. 630.
+ Chem. Gazette, 1853, p. 470.

251

‘iddine, and bromine. By treatment with sulphide of hydrogen it
and its carbonate are converted into hyposulphite of some sort,
which may be erystallized from alcohol. It gives the same reaction
with bichromate of potass and sulphuric acid as strychnine.

When iodide of ethylostrychnine is distilled with soda-lime, a non-
basic oil, and a base insoluble in water, are obtained, but material
was wanting to prove whether the latter is leucoline or ethyloleuco-
line. The solution of the hydrate itself evolves the odour of a vola-
tile base on ebullition.

Action of Iodide of Ethyl on Ethylostrychnine,

When a solution of the hydrate in absolute alcohol is heated with
iodide of ethyl in a sealed tube, iodide of ethylostrychnine is repro-
duced, accompanied by some secondary product, which appears to
modify its characters to some degree.

Action of Chloride of Amyl on Strychnine.

Chloride of Amylostrychnine-—By protracted boiling of the al-
kaloid with absolute alcohol and chloride of amyl in a sealed tube
it was completely changed. The new salt was obtained by distilling
off the excess of spirit and reagent as a crystalline mass, which was
completely and readily soluble in warm water. In the crystals from
water, the salt was found to have the composition expressed in the
formula,—

C,;. H,, N, 0, Cl, HO + 7 aq.
At a temperature of 212° Fahr, the 7 aq. are expelled, and the
dried compound is—
C,, H;, N, 0, Cl, HO.

Its characters are generally analogous to the corresponding salt of
theethyl base. It is of greater solubility in water and in spirit. Its
decomposition by heat is attended by the final production of fumes
of a most disgusting odour.

In contact with ammonia, it appears to undergo some decomposi-
tion ; in the cold, long contact produces a crystalline substance, hay-
ing the qualitative characters of strychnine ; the reproduction of this
alkaloid, and the formation of amylamine, appears possible under
the circumstances, as in the equation,

C,. Hy, N, 0, Cl + NH, = C,, H,,N, 0, + C,,H,,N, HCl;

252

but the proof of this decomposition was not attained, as much of the
original salt remained unchanged.

With strong ammonia in a heated sealed tube, a more complex
change appears to take place ; but its nature was also not made out.

Chloride of ethylostryehnine also yields a small erystalline deposit
when left in contact with ammonia for some days.

Nitrate of Amylostrychnine.—This is a beautiful salt, erystal-
lizing from water in groups of colourless prisms, which have the
composition,

C,, H,, N, 0, NO,, HO, + 10 aq. ;
the salt is not obtained anhydrous at 212°, but when so dried, is
Ci Bsa G0, Ne BO;
it furnishes a crystalline double salt with mercurous nitrate.

Bichromate of Amylostrychnine—This is a yellow crystalline
salt, difficultly soluble in cold water ; when dried at 212", it is found
to have the composition,.

G,, HH, 0; CrO,, HCr O,,
analogous to the corresponding compound of the ethyl base.

Chloride of amylostrychnine, when treated with oxide of silver,
yields an alkaline purple solution, which agrees in properties with
solution of ethylostrychnine, and leaves, on evaporation in vacuo, a
crystalline residue, whose characters are so like that left by the other
that there can be little doubt the crystals obtained by use of alcohol
and ether are the hydrate of amylostrychnine, having a composition.
closely corresponding with the ethyl product.

It is hoped to clear up, in a future paper, some of the points
touched upon in the present, and the following inferences are drawn:
from the facts brought forward :—

That the new basic compounds, ethylo and amylo strychnine, are
analogous to Hofmann’s ammonium bases, and quite distinct from the
natural alkaloids.

That the already complex molecule of the vegetable alkaloid is
rendered more susceptible of change by association with additional
hydrocarbons.

That strychnine appears to be made up of a complicated molecule
in which the one atom of nitrogen, as in ammonia, is associated with
a nitrogenous aggregate of elements, whose function is that of three
atoms of hydrogen, and whose nitrogen is in some distinct form of

253

combination, as yet undetermined, from that of the first, generis
atom,—a composition attempted to be expressed thus :—

H
C,, H,,N,0, = / C,, H,, NO, = 3 N

And the appropriation of an alcohol hydrocarbon by this molecule
causes the production of an ammonium congener, which, in combina-
tion with some electro-negative element, may be thus written :—

H
C,, H,, NO, = H
~| H

C, Ha+y

N+X.

In conclusion, a tabular statement is made of the products analysed
in course of the investigation, with the termination tum for the bases;
in analogy with ammonium :—

Hydriodate of papaverine C,, H,, NO, HI
Iodide of ethylo-strychnium C,, H,, N, 0,1
Hydrated oxideof do. > sane Ck, NN, 0, 0, HO, + 3 aq.
Nitrate of do. peg seo 0, NO,

‘Bichromate do. Baad at 219° Pgs, Neo, Cr0,, HCrO,

B. Do. do. crystallized C,.H,,N,0, Cr, HCr0, + 2aq.
Platinum salt do. ose O74 0, Ch Pt Cl,
Bicarbonate do. do. dry UL N, 0, , ©O,, HCO,

egy * } dried at 212° C,, H,, N, 0, Cl, HO

Do. do, crystallized C,, H,,N, 0, Cl, HO +7 aq.
Nitrate of oxide do. dried at 212° C,, H,, N, 0, NO,, HO

Do. do. crystallized C,, H,, N, 0, NO,,HO + 10aq.
Bichromate do. dried at 212° C,, H,, N, 0, CrO,, HCrO,.

8. On the Mechanical Value of a Cubic Mile of Sunlight,
and on the possible density of the Luminiferous Medium.
By Professor William Thomson.

The velocity of light being 192,000 miles per second, and the
mechanical value of sunlight incident perpendicularly on a square

254

mile at the earth’s distance being 83 x 5280 x 5280 foot pounds ;
the mechanical value of all the energy potential and actual, kept up in”
83 x 5280 x 5280

192,000
=1200 ft. Ibs. at the earth’s distance. Similarly the mechani-
cal value of a cubic mile of sunlight near the sun is found to be
1200 x 46,000= 55,000,000 foot pounds,

If A be the excursion on each side of its position of equilibrium,
which any particle would have if the mean effect of the solar radia-
tion at the earth’s distance were produced by plane polarised vibra-
tions of wave length a, the mass of a cubic foot of the luminiferous

the space of a cubic mile by sunlight crossing it, is

medium, in pounds, is shown to be

2
g x 83 eel
Qa? x VP F7 x 1025.
where g is the number 32-2, measuring the force of gravity, and V
the velocity of light in feet per second. Similarly, if A and d relate

to sunlight near the sun, the mass of a cubic foot of the vibrating
medium in that locality is found to be

166 x 1018

The possibility of great variation in density of the luminiferous medium
at different distances from the sun, depending on solar gravitation, and
heat, and centrifugal force of the vortices kept up in it by planetary
and meteoric motions, is indicated ; and it is suggested that a re-
fraction of this inter-planetary atmosphere may produce annual ap-
parent motions in the stars, which may be sensible, although not yet
discovered.—As to the preceding expressions for the density of the

vibrating medium, all that is known of the values of + is that they

must in all probability be large. If nothing less than 100 be ad-
missible, the mass of a cubic foot of the vibrating medium at the
earth’s distance could not be less than

1 |b.
hae 10"?

255

and near the sun it eould be no less than
1 lb,
i710."

If the earth’s velocity (being about yo3a0 of the velocity of light)
be admitted as not too great for the maximum velocity of vibration
of plane polarized light, the mass of the luminiferous medinm within
a sphere concentric with the sun, with radius equal to that of the
earth’s orbit, might be not more than yz'50 of the earth’s mass,
‘since the mechanical value of light within that space is about re00
of that of the earth’s motion.

‘4. Account of Experimental Investigations to answer ques-
tions originating in the Mechanical Theory of Thermo-
Electric Currents. By Professor W. Thomson.

In this communication the mode of experimenting was described
by which the experimental results quoted in the theoretical paper
were obtained; and the principal parts of the special apparatus
which had been constructed and used in the investigation, were laid
before the Royal Society.

5. Dynamical Theory of Heat, Part VI. continued. A Me-
chanical Theory of Thermo-electric Currents in Crystal-
line Solids. By Professor W. Thomson.

In this paper the Mechanical Theory of Thermo-electric Currents
in linear conductors of non-crystalline substance, first communicated
to the Royal Society December 15, 1851, is extended to solids of
any form and of erystalilne substance.- ;

It is first proved, that if a solid be such that bars cut from it in
different directions have different thermo-electric powers relatively to
one another, or to other linear conductors, forming part of a circuit,
there must, for every bar cut from it, except in certain particular
directions (principal thermo-electric axes), be a new thermo-electric
quality, of a kind quite distinct from any hitherto known; giving
rise to a reciprocal thermo-dynamic action, which consists of a difer-
ence in temperature at the sides of the bar causing a current to flow
longitudinally, when the two ends, being at the same temperature,
are connected by a uniformly heated conductor ; and @ current
through the bar causing an absorption and evolution of heat at its
two sides, when these are kept at the same temperature.

VOL. II. x

256

The most general conceivable thermo-electric relations of a erys-
talline solid, or body possessing, inductively or structurally, different
physical properties in different directions, are next examined. It
is shown how a metallic structure may be actually made up of pieces
of different non-crystalline metals, which, taken on a large scale
compared with the dimensions of the heterogeneous elements of
which it is composed, will be found to exhibit the most general type
of thermo-electric directional relations indicated by the abstract in-
vestigation ; and it is inferred that it would be wrong to limit the
general expressions by any particular assumption, even if we only
discover simpler types of thermo-electric relations in natural crystals.

The general equations determining the thermo-electric currents
in any naturally, inductively, or structurally crystalline solid ; result-
ing either from a completely specified distribution of temperature
through it; or from given external appliances of heat, on which, and
on the thermo-electric currents themselves, the distribution of heat
through the interior will depend ; are investigated.

Certain particular applications of the general equations are also
made ; and the thermo-electric properties of metallic structures (laid
before the Society as solids actually possessing the properties refer-
red to), are investigated.

The paper in which this extension of the theory is described,
includes a more developed account of the theory of thermo-electric
currents in non-crystalline conductors, formerly communicated, than
has been hitherto printed; with a simplification in the fundamental
equations introduced without hypothesis, by the adoption of a ther-
mometric assumption proposed as the foundation of an absolute scale
of temperature, in consequence of thermo-dynamic experiments on
air recently made by Mr Joule and the author. It also includes a
brief outline of some experimental investigations undertaken to an-
swer questions proposed in the former theoretical communication,
and suggested by various considerations which occurred in the
course of the research, and by the new part of the theory now com-
municated to the Royal Society.

7. On the Structure of Diatomacea. By E. W. Dallas, Esq.

The author directed attention to the following list of species,
which, although imperfect, exhibits great variety in the forms,
shewing the Medway to be very fertile in these organisms:

257

Epithemia Musculus. Nitzschia sigmoidea.
Campylodiscus cribrosus. a dubia.
Surirella striatula, = reversa,

” linearis. And an undetermined species.
Tryblionella marginata. Navicula elliptica,
Tryblionella Scutellum. Navicula convexa.

* punctata, a Westii (?)
a gracilis. ) didyma,
ni acuminata, » pusilla.
Cymatopleura elliptica. 9 punctulata.
Triceratium Favus, ” palpebralis.
A striolatum. Pinnularia divergens.
“ undulatum. Stauroneis pulchella.
Cyclotella Kutzingiana. Cocconema parvum.
= operculata. Pleurosigma balticum.
And three species undetermined. Af Hippocampus.
Actinocydus undulatus. a angulatum.
Actinoptychus senarius. Po acuminatum.
» septenarius. Pr distortum.
is octonarius, Doryphora.Amphiceros, vars.
“- nonarius. Fi Boeckii.
Eupodiseus Argus, 2 vars. Achnanthes brevipes.

a radiatus, Grammatophora marina (?)

A maculatus. Biddulphia aurita.
Coscinodiscus radiatus. Zy goceros rhombus.

cf = minor. Denticella sp.
fe eccentricus, Orthoseira sp.
* Thwaitesii. Dictyocha.
And an undetermined species. Bacteriastrum furcatum (?)
Cocconeis Pediculus. Ps curvatum (?)
* Scutellum.

Some of the species in this list have been described as new to
Britain by Mr Roper, in a late paper published in the Microscopi-
cal Journal. The Coscinodiscus, not named, seems from the de-
scription to be the same with that found at the mouth of the Thames,
and is an exceedingly beautiful disc. The four species of Actinop-
tychus are those described by Ehrenberg, and are new British species.
They exhibit the strong siliceous cellular tissue underneath the
moniliform structure of the surface, as in Actinocyclus. The exam-
ples of Triceratium striolatum, and also Zygocerus rhombus, dif-
fered somewhat from the figures and descriptions given of them,
being provided with spines along the side, and with two spines placed
close to the projecting terminations or angles of the valve, and which
were always present in the examples that had come under observa-
tion. The surfaces of the valves were also seen to be dotted over
with small nodules, giving them a very remarkable appearance, and
which might be seen to project from the surface when the valve was
suitably placed; these appearances might be attributable to a more
mature developing of the siliceous structure. —

258

Among the remarkable forms found, although not considered to
belong to the Diatomaceze, are the two varieties of Bacteriastrum,
the discs of which, it may be observed, were three or four times the
diameter of those described by Mr Shadbolt, from Port Natal, and
the radiations more numerous.

Attention was directed to the structure of the Diatomacez as af-
fording some of the most beautiful examples of geometric arrange-
ment with which we are acquainted. It was pointed out that there
are only three of the regular polygons that can be employed alone
to fill up the space about a point ina plane surface, namely, the equi-
lateral triangle, the square, and the hexagon; these forms and their
angles are accordingly found to prevail in the structure of the tis-
sues. By constructing the polygons, it was shewn that they ar-
ranged themselves in straight lines, determined by the shorter axis
of the figures, the quadrilaterals having two directions in which the
lines run, and the hexagons three. With the hexagonal structure,
when one set of the lines passing through the axis is referred to a
centre, the cells then appear to radiate in straight lines from the
centre, while the other two directions in which they appear to run will
be spiral lines, having a definite character according to the size of the
cells. Much of the character of the tissue depends on the position
of the axis of the polygon with respect to an axis of the valve,—
that is, whether the longer or shorter axis is parallel to it. Mr
Smith in his Synopsis has noticed this peculiarity, and in accord-
ance with it has divided his genus Pleurosigma into two sections.

The above arrangements will be found to prevail in the structures
of the tissues of the valves, and the influence of the living principle
might generally be seen in the repetition of like spaces about a
centre in each species, and always in the same numerical relations
in each individual of the species, multiples of the numbers 2, 3, and
5, and also 7, seeming to prevail.

These divisions are seen very conspicuously in Actinocyclus and
Actinoptychus. In the large species of Coscinodiscus, the number of
sectors appeared to be twelve, from the groups of rows at the centre,
and in it was shewn the very beautiful arrangement of the cells in
radiating and intersecting spiral lines. | Eupodiscus Ralfsii was re-
ferred to as affording an example of the division of the circle into
sectors, within which the lines of cells are arranged symmetri-
cally on each side of a single radiating row, to which the rest are

259

all parallel. In Eupodiscus maculatus, the disc is divided into
ten, but the rows of cells do not converge towards the centre, ex-
cept one at the side of each sector, to which the others are parallel.
From this may be derived the very beautiful and peculiar con-
struction of the Coscinodiscus eccentricus, in which the disc is
divided into seven sectors, the rows of cells extending across the
valve from each sector to meet similar rows from the second sector
beyond.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Publiées par les Pro-
fesseurs de cet établissement. Tome VII., Liv. 1&2. 4to.
—From the Museum.

Actuarial Tables ; Carlisle Three-per-Cent. Single Lives and Single
Deaths. With Auxiliary Tables, By William Thomas Thom-
son, F.R.S.E., F.I.A. 4to.—From the Author.

On the application of Cast and Wrought Iron for Building Pur-
poses. By William Fairbairn, C.E. 8vo.—From the Author.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.

1853. IV.Jahrgang. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Ma-
thematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Band VI. 4to.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Band XI. 8vo.
—From the Academy.

Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences de 1’Institut de France.
Tome XXIV. 4to.—From the Academy.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. British
Organic Remains. Parts1, 2, 38, 4,6, 7. 4to.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and of the Mu-
seum of Practical Geology in London, Vol. II. Pts. 1&2. 8vo.

Museum of Practical Geology and Geological Survey. Records
of the School of Mines and of Science applied to the Arts.
Parts 1, 2, 3,4. 8vo. (With various Maps and Pamphlets.)
—From H. M. Government.

Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin. Vol. VI., Part 1.
8vo.—From the Society.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
Vol. IV., Part 3. 8vo.—From the Institute,

260

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. XVII., No. 50.
8vo.— From the Editors.

Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de ]’Académie des
Sciences. Mai 1853—Mai 1854. 4to.—From the Academy.

Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. Tom.
XIII. 4to.—From the Academy.

Bulletins de la Société de Géographie. Tome V. 8v0.—F rom the
Society.

Annales de l’Agriculture et de l’Industrie de Lyon, Tome III.
8v0.—From the Society.

Annales de l’Observatoire Physique Central de Russie. 1851. 2
Tomes, 4to.—From the Observatory.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vol. VIII., Part
4. 8vo.—From the Society.

i

.

Monday, 17th April 1854.

Notice of the Completion of the Time-Ball sesamiae By
Professor C. Prazzt Smuytu,

On the Mechanical Energies of the Solar System. By Profes-
sor Wiit1am THomson, - A E

Monday, 1st May 1854.

On the Action of the Halogen Compounds of Ethyl and Amy}

.
‘a
.
“vs

ey?
ATO
a,

on some Vegetable Alkaloids. By Henry How, Assistant
to Professor AnpEeRson of Glasgow,

On the Mechanical Value of a Cubic Mile of Sunlight, a on
the possible density of the Luminiferous Medium. By
Professor W. Tomson. : : :

Account of Experimental Investigations to answer questions ori-
ginating in the Mechanical Theory of Thermo-Electric
Currents. By Professor W. Tuomson,

_ Dynamical Theory of Heat, Part VI. continued. A pcctniel

‘Theory of Thermo-electric Currents in Crystalline Solids.
> By Professor W. Tuomson, -

On the Structure of Diatomacea. By E. W. Daizas, His

~ Donations to the Library, ; . . :

PAGE

238

241

244

- beac!
Snowe

r.y
cee.
ie

a a

yh = 1854-5. *-

=== ‘“

_ CONTENTS.
aa ; ae 4h December 1854.

PAGE

261
eataid: Bolles, sat the Re-

and Azote. By Professor Low, 263
Pe seo ei enmnvas

Gace the = palhoaidas. age oe Davy,
RS. Lond. and ey aera of
; 267
ere ee, “Pat m1, ee

ma

Tuesday, 2d January 1855.
PAGE
Notes on some of the Buddhist Opinions and Monuments of

Asia, compared with the Symbols on the Ancient Sculp-

tured “ Standing Stones” of Scotland. By Tuomas A.

Wise, M.D., ‘ ; , : : 272
Notes on the extent of our knowledge respecting the Moon’s

Surface. By Professor C. P1azzi Smyru, 274
On the Interest strictly Chargeable for Short Periods of

Time. By the Rev. Professor KELLAND, . . 274
Donations to the Library, : ; : pe aris:

Monday, 15th January 1855.

Some additional Experiments on the Ethers and Amides of
Meconic and Comenic Acids. By Henry How, Esq.
Communicated by Dr ANDERSON, _ 277

On a Revision of the Catalogue of Stars of the British cae
ciation. By Captain W. S. Jacoz, H.E.I.C., Astro-
nomer at Madras. Communicated by Professor C.
PiazzI SMYTH, . ; = S29

Notice of Ancient Moraines in fhe Parishes of Bima and
Kilmun, Argyleshire. By Cuartes Macraren, Esq., 279

Monday, dth February 1855.

On the Properties of the Ordeal Bean of Old Calabar, West-

ern Africa. By Dr Curistison, . - aU
Experiments on the Blood, showing the effects of a few

Therapeutic Agents on that Fluid in a state of Health

and of Disease. By James Stark, M.D., F.R.C.P., 282
Extracts from a Letter from E, BLackwELL, Esq., containing

Observations on the Movement of Glaciers of Chamouni

in Winter. Communicated by Professor Forpes, . 283

Monday, 19th February 1855.

On the Mechanical Action of Heat:—Supplement to the
first Six Sections and Section Seventh. By W. J. Mac-_
avorn Rankine, Esq., C.E., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edinb., 287

(For continuation of Contents, see page 3 of Cover.

261

PROCEEDINGS.

OF THE

_ ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

VoL. Il. 1854-5. No. 45.

SEVENTY-SECOND SESSION.
Monday, 4th December 1854.
P Rieut Rev. BisHor TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.

__ The following Communications were read :—

Be ad. Farther Experiments and Remarks on the Measurement
et of Heights by the Boiling Point of Water. By Professor
J. D. Forbes.

This paper is in continuation of one printed in vol. xv. of the
Royal Society’s Transactions. The object of it is to test the cor-
rectness of the method of observation, and of calculating the re-
sults, there proposed ; and to compare both with those of more recent
authors, particularly of M. Regnault of Paris, and of Dr Joseph
- Hooker.

__ The author finds the results of his subsequent observations in 1846
in the Alps, up to heights considerably above 10,000 feet, to agree
y _ well with those previously published, made in 1842. They combine
in showing a sensibly uniform fall of the boiling point at the rate of
1° for 543 feet of ascent,* which differs only 6 feet (in defect)
from his previous determination. The average deviation of the in-

* In a standard atmosphere at 32° of temperature.
VOL. Ill. Y

262

dividual results from the formula is only j,th of a degree (without
regard to sign).

Difference from

Barometer. Boiling Point. serena ———

Inches. Fahr.

20°77 194-28 40°22 40°32
20°79 194°33 —0:08 +0°01
22°40 197-94 — 0°04 +012
22:67 198°51 — 0-08 +0-06
23°15 199°52 — 0:07 +0:06
23°35 199-94 +001 +0:15
23:89 201:04 —0-11 +0:03
23:99 201°24 —0:09 +0-08
24:02 201°31 +0°04 —0-°20
24-105 201°47 —017 +0:03
25°14 203°51 + 0°04 +019
28°49 209°54 —0:07 — 0:06

The agreement with M. Regnault’s table is also extremely close ;
and considering the ordinary limits of error of such observations, the
writer considers it nearly indifferent for elevations under 13,000 feet
which method of calculation be used.

The consistency of the results shows that the method of observa-
tion (which differs in some respects from that commonly used) and
the graduation of the thermometers were satisfactory.

On carefully examining Dr Joseph Hooker's detailed results
(obligingly communicated by him), which that naturalist considered
to be incompatible with Professor Forbes’s formula, it is shown that
the inconsistencies of observation are so considerable, that it is diffi-
cult to give a decided preference to one formula rather than another,
for the purpose of representing them ; but that up to heights of at
least 13,000 feet, a linear formula, or one which assumes the lower-
ing of the boiling point to be exactly proportional to the height,
seems to express the observations as well as any other ; and the rate
of diminution is almost the same as that deduced from Professor
Forbes’s observation, or a lowering of 1° for 538 feet of ascent.

The author has little doubt that M. Regnault’s table (which was
not published when he last wrote) does really represent the law ac-
cording to which water boils more accurately than the simpler linear
formula, though the difference is in most cases insensible. For all
ordinary heights (or up to 12,000 feet) Regnault’s table may be
more accurately represented by the formula

h= 535 T.

Where h is the height in English feet, T the lowering of the boil-
ing point in Fahrenheit’s degrees, reckoning from 212°. But he

ae
ie .
art
a

finds that Regnault’s table may be represented in every ease which
ean oceur in practice, and with almost perfect accuracy, by the foi-
lowing formula, which it is nearly as easy to use :—

263

h=517 T + T*

2. On the Chemical Equivalents of Certain Bodies, and the
Relations between Oxygen and Azote. By Professor Low.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary

Fellow :—
JAMES Coxe, M.D.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Vol. XVI., Part 1. 8vo.

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Historical Manuscripts in the Arabic
and Persian Languages, preserved in the Library of the Royal
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. By William H.
Morley, M.R.A.S. 8vo.

Essay on the Architecture of the Hindfs, By Ram Raz. Pub-
lished for the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ire-
land. 4to.—F rom the Society.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
1853, IV. Jahrgang. N' 4. October, November, Decem-
ber. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, Belles Lettres et
Arts de Lyon. Classe des Lettres. Tome II. 8vo.

Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, Belles Lettres et
Arts de Lyon. Classe des Sciences. Tome II. 8yo.—From
the Society.

Annales des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles d’Agriculture et
d’Industrie publiées par la Société Impériale d’ Agriculture,
&c. de Lyon. 2™¢ Série. Tome IV. 1852. 8vo.—From
the Society.

_ Mémoires présentés par divers savants 4 |’ Académie des Sciences de

V'Institut Impérial de France, et imprimés par son ordre.

Sciences Mathématiques et Physiques, Tome XII. 4to.—

From the Institute.

Tao! &. 2. ee

Y2

264

Natuurkundige Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij der
Wetenschappen te Haarlem. Tweede Verzameling. 4°, 94,
10%, & 114¢ Deel, 1ste Stuk. 4to.—From the Society.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1852,
Parts 1 and 2; 1853, Parts 1, 2,3; 1854, Part 1. 4to.
—From the Society.

Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te
Amsterdam. 15t¢ Deel. 4to.—From the Academy.

Det Kongelike Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter. Femfte
Reeke. Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling. B® 3.
4to.—From the Society.

Abhandlungen, herausgegeben von der Senckenbergischen Naturfors-
chenden Gesellschaft. 1¢ B4 le Lieferung. 4to.—From the
Society.

Astronomical and Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1852. 4to.
—From the Royal Society.

Natural History of New York. Paleontology of New York. By
James Hall. Vols. I. and II. 4to.

Agriculture of New York. By Ebenezer Emmons, M.D.
Vols, I, II. and III. 4to.—From the State of New York.

Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Honourable
East India Company’s Observatory, Bombay, in the year 1850.
4to.—From the Hon. East India Company.

Astronomical Observations made at the Observatory of Cambridge.
Vol. XVIL., for 1846, 1847, and 1848.—From the Observa-
tory.

Mémoires Couronnés et Mémoires des Savants étrangers publiées par
l Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux Arts
de Belgique. Tome XXV. 1851-53. 4to.—From the
Academy.

Annales de Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles. Tome X. 4to.—
From the Observatory.

Compte rendu des Travaux du Congrés Général de Statistique, réuni
i Bruxelles, les 19, 20, 21 et 22 Septembre 1853, Par A.
Quételet. 4to.—Firom the Author.

Mémoires de la Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de
Genéve. Tome XIII., 2™e Partie. 4to.—From the Society.

265

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Ma-

: thematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. B4. 7. 4to.—

4 From the Academy.

Tables du Soleil exécutées d’aprés les ordres de la Société Royale
des Sciences de Copenhague, par MM. P. A. Hansen et C.
F. BR. Olufsen. 4to.—From the Society.

Rendiconto della Societa Reale Borbonica. Accademia delle Scienze.

N.S. Nrs 4&5. 4to—From the Society.
Atti della Reale Accademia delle Scienze, sezione della Societa Reale

Borbonica. Vol. VI. 4to.—F'rom the Society.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Phila-
delphia. (N.S.) Vol. X., Part 3. 4to.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. V-, No.
; 50. 8vo.—From the Society. _
E Researches upon Newerteans and Planarians. By Charles Girard.
1. Embryonic development of Planocera elliptica. 4to.—
a From the Author.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. VI. to.
Notes on new species and localities of Microscopical Organisms. By
J. W. Bailey, M.D. 4to.
Catalogue of the described Coleoptera of the United States. By
d Frederick Ernest Melsheimer, M.D. 8vo. 2 copies.
Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
, Institution. 1853. 8yo.

The Annular Eclipse of May 26, 1854. Published under the au-
thority of Hon. James C. Dobbin, Secretary of the Navy, by
the Smithsonian Institution and Nautical Almanac. 8vo.—
From the Institution.

Astronomical Observations made during the year 1847 at the Na-
tional Observatory, Washington. Vol. III. 4to,—From the

ls ial

ss Observatory.

Patent Office Reports, published by the State of Washington.
1851-3. 3 vols. 8vo.—From the Government of Washington.
“Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. 1851
. and 1852. 8vo.—From the Society.
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. Published by the Royal Medica
. and Chirurgical Society of London. Vol. XXXVII. 8v0.—
From the Society.

266

The Philosophy of Physics, or Process of Creative Development.
By Andrew Brown. 8yo.—From the Author.

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1852,
Nrs 2,3, & 4; 1853, Nros 1 & 2. 8v0.—F rom the Society.

Novorum Actorum Academiz Ceesareze Leopoldino-Carolinee Nature
Curiosorum. Vol. XXIV. Pars1. 4to.—From the Academy.

Abhandlungen der Kéniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin. 1853. 4to.

Monatsbericht der Kénig]. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin. August 1853—Juli 1854. 8vo.— From the Academy.

Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universitat und der Konig].
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. 1853. 12mo.
—From the Society.

Studien des Gottingischen Vereins Bergmannischer Freunde. In
namen desselben herausgegeben von J. F. L. Hausmann. - Bd
1, heft 3. 8vo.—From the Editor.

Siluria. The History of the oldest known Rocks containing Organic
Remains, with a brief sketch of the distribution of Gold over the
Earth. By Sir R. I. Murchison. 8vo.—From the Author.

Museum of Practical Geology and Geological Survey. Records of
the School of Mines and of Science applied to the Arts. Vol.
I., Part 4. 8vo—From the Museum.

The Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland. (N.S.) Nos. 45 and
46. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Architectural Institute of Scotland. Session
1853-54. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Twenty-first Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
Society. 1853. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVII., Part 2.
8vo.—From the Society.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries,
Vol. V., Part 4, and Vol. V., Part 1. 8vo.

List of Members of the Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and
Ireland. 1854-5. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Atheneum. Rules and Regulations, Lists of Members, and Dona-
tions to the Library, 1852, with Supplement for 1853, 12mo.
—From the Atheneum.

267

Monday, 18th December 1854.
Ricut Rev. Bishop TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Some Observations on the Salmonide. By John Davy,
M.D., F.R.S., Lond. and Edin., Inspector-General of
Army Hospitals.

These observations are given in seven sections :-—

In the 1st, the author treats of the air-bladder of these fish, and
the contained air, which he found, in every instance that he exa-
mined it, to he chiefly azote.

In the 2d, he points out a mistake he had fallen into in the in-
stance of the female fish, as regards its abdominal aperture, which,
in a former paper he had described as open only for the passage of
the ova; on further examination made on the larger species, he has
ascertained, that though virtually closed, except during the spawning
time, it is not absolutely, either by a membrane or adhesion.

In the 3d, on the breeding localities of the Salmonide, he states
his opinion, that running water is not essential to the hatching of

the ova, and he adduces instances in proof and illustration,

In the 4th, which is on the variable time of the hatching of the
ova, he describes examples of difference as to time of the production
of the young fish under circumstances apparently identical, or cir-
cumstances only very slightly different, tending to show the influence
of a vis insita in the several ova.

In the 5th, on circumstances and agencies likely to take effect on
the young fish, he notices two trials,—one on keeping the young
fish in darkness after quitting the egg, which had no marked in-
fluence ; the other, on keeping them in the smallest portion of
water capable of covering them, in relation to the position of young
fish during a time of drought ; in one experiment life was pro-
tracted 52 hours, in another 74.

In the 6th, on the food of the young fish, he endeavours to prove
that the food most suitable for them, and for which they are best

268

fitted, is the infusoria, Young charr, under his observation, at-
tained their perfect form and became fit to be set at large, to which
no food had been given, and were, it is presumed, after the absorp-
tion of the yolk, fed and nourished by these microscopic animal-
cules,

Tn the last section, he submits some remarks on the vexed ques-
tion of the Parr, viewed as a species, and comes to the conclusion that
till a parr is found propagating its kind, proof must be held to be
wanting of the existence of such a fish, a true species distinct from
the salmon or sea-trout fry.

2. On the Structural Character of Rocks. Part III., em-
bracing Remarks on the Stratified Traps of the neigh-
bourhood of Edinburgh. By Dr Fleming.

The author referred, in the first instance, to the character of stra-
tification, illustrating the subject by specimens displaying the inter-
mittent character of the carrying agent and of the supply of mate-
rial, pointing out the Hailes Quarry as furnishing the best example
in the neighbourhood of the repetitions of strata. He then stated
the views of Townson, Whitehurst, and Jameson, as to the relation
of the trap rocks to the sandstones with which they are interstrati-
fied. He then took notice of a statement in vol, xiii. of the Trans-
actions of the Society, recorded by Lord Greenock, that Edinburgh
may be considered as a valley of elevation, the trap rocks-in the
neighbourhood dipping outwards as from a common centre. This
opinion, he stated, was true in reference to the rocks on the east
and west sides of the city, but not true as to those on the south and
north, or at Blackford and Burntisland.

Dr Fleming then stated that there were nine masses of trap in
the neighbourhood, included in the sandstones, all of them having
some peculiar structural characters—viz. Calton Hall, Salisbury
Crags, Arthur’s Seat, Lochend, Hawkhill, Blackford, Craiglockhart,
Corstorphin, and Granton. At this part of the paper he made some
remarks on the so-called “‘ outburst of trap” of Inchkeith, stating
that the island consisted of at least a dozen of beds of trap alter-
nating regularly with acknowledged sedimentary beds of sandstone,
shale, and limestone, containing organic remains.

The author then commenced his survey of the stratified traps of

a
q
i
|
-

“"

269

the neighbourhood, by considering particularly the structural cha-
racter of the Calton, or, as it was termed at an earlier period,
the Caldton. This trappean mass he regarded as extending from
Greenside to Samson’s Ribs, including Heriot Mount, St Leonard’s,
and the Echoing Rock. The Calton-hill had been described by
Townson, Faunas St Fond, Jameson, Webster, Boué, Saussure,
Cunningham, Milne, and Maclaren.

Dr Fleming then illustrated his views of the sedimentary charac-
ter of the whole hill, by tracing on the Ordinance map the coloured
spaces occupied by the twelve beds of which the hill consists, assisted
by a coloured section. The peculiarities of each bed in regard to
its structure and mineral contents were pointed out; and he con-
cluding by noticing the four concretionary masses of columnar ba-
salt distributed in the deposit, and the more interesting of the
simple minerals of the hill, especially the Sarcite of Townson, first
characterized from Calton specimens and afterwards known as Cu-
bizite and Analcime, exhibiting a specimen which he had procured
from the hill when a student at the University.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—
Ernest Bonar, Esq., Castle Dobel, Styria.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Archeologia ; or, Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity, pub-
lished by the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vols. XXXII.,
XXXIII., XXXIV., XXXV. 4to.

Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vols. I., II. ;
Vol. III., Nos. 37-40. 8vo.

Catalogue of Roman Coins collected by the late Rev. Thomas Ker-
rich, M.A., F.S.A., Prebendary of Wells and Lincoln; and
presented by his Son, the Rev. Richard Edward Kerrich, M.A.,
F.S.A., to the Society of Antiquaries of London. 8vo.

List of the Society of Antiquaries of London, on 23d April 1854.
8vo.— From the Society.

Memorie della Academia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna.
Tomo lV. 4to—From the Academy.

Neue Denkschriften der Allgemeinen Schweizerischen Gesellschaft
fiir die gesammten Naturwissenschaften. Band XIII. 4to,

270

Actes de la Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles. Réunie a
Sion, les 17, 18, et 19 Adut 1852. 8vo.

Actes de la Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles. Réunie a
Porrentray, les 2, 3, et 4 Adut 1853. 8vo.

Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern. Ns
258-313. 8vo.

Ueber die Symmetrische Verzweigungsweise dichotomer Inflores-
cenzen. Von H. Wydler. 8vo.—/ rom the Society.

Abhandlungen der Historischen Classe der Koeniglich Bayerischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Bde 7, 1ste Abtheil. 4to.

Gelehrte Anzeigen herausgegeben von Mitgliedern der K. Bayer-
ischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. B4 36, 37. 4to.
—From the Academy.

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. 4™° Serie. Tome VII., 8vo.
—From the Society.

Bulletins de Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des
Beaux Arts de Belgique. Tome XX. 3° Partie. Tome XXI.
1te Partie. Annexe aux Bulletins, 1853-4. 8vo.—From the
Academy.

Transactions of the Pathological Society of London. Vol. V. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool,
during the 43d Session, 1853-54. No. 8. 8vo.—From the
Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Pro-
fessors Silliman and Dana. Vol. XVIII. Nos. 52, 53, 54.
8v0.—F rom the Editors.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. [X., Part 1.
Vol. X., Parts 2 and 3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
1854. No. 1, Jan. Feb. Marz. (2 copies.) 8vo.—/rom
the Institute.

Rendiconto della Societa Reale Borbonica. Accademia delle Scienze.
N.S. (Jan.June, 1853.) 4to.—From the Society.

Repertorio Italiano per la Storia Naturale. Repertorium Italicum
complectens Zoologiam, Mineralogiam, Geologiam, et Palaeon-
tologiam. Cura J. Josephi Bianconi. Vol. I. 8vo—From
the Author.

-—-—

—=— twee ———

;

271

Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der reinen, Pharmaceutischen
und Technischen Chemie, Physik, Mineralogie und Geologie,
herausgegeben von Justus Liebig & Hermann Kopp. 1853.
8vo.—F rom the Editors.

Universalita dei mezzi di previdenzi, difesa, e salvezza per le cala-
mita degl’ incendi opera premiata in concorso dalla Accademia
delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna. Seritta da Francisco
del Guidice. 8vo.—From the Author.

Bulletins de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Tome III.
Nos, 25-28, 30, 31, 32. 8vo.—F'rom the Society.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia.
Vol. III. Nos. 3-6. 8vo.—From the Society.

Notices of the Meetings of the Members of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain. Part 4. Nov. 1853—July 1854. 8vo.— From
the Society.

Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1853. Part I.
Manufactures.—F'rom the Government of Washington, U.S.

The Annular Eclipse of May 26, 1854. Published under the au-
thority of Hon, James C. Dobbin, by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and Nautical Almanac. 8vo.

Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year 1852, 8vo.—From the Institution.

Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, made under the direction
of the Navy Department. By William Lewis Herndon and Lard-
ner Gibbon. Partl. By Lieut. Herndon.—F rom the Author.

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Vol. I. Part
3. 4to.—From the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVI. Part 3. 8vo.

General Index to the first fifteen volumes of the Journal of the
Statistical Society of London. 8vo.

List of Fellows of the Statistical Society of London, Session 1854-
1855. 8vo.—From the Society.

Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Wol. XXII. 4to.—
From the Society.

Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Vol. IX. Parts
2and 3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Edited by the Secretaries,
Nos. 237-242. 8vo.—From the Society.

272

Mémoires de la Société Impériale des Sciences de ’ Agriculture et
des Arts de Lille. 1853. 8vo.—From the Society.

Die Fortschritte der Physik in den Jahren 1850 und 1851. Dar-
gestellt von den Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 6 &
7 Jahrgang. 1? Abtheil. 8vo.—From the Society.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bde. XI. &
XII. 8vo.—From the Society.

Address to the Boston Society of Natural History. By John C.
Warren, M.D. 8vo.—From the Author.

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XIII.,
1852-3. 8vo.—From the Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Pro-
fessors Silliman and Dana. Vol. XVII., No. 51. 8vo.
—From the Editors.

Tuesday, 2d January 1855.

Rieut Rev. Bishop TERROT, V-P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Notes on some of the Buddhist Opinions and Monuments
of Asia, compared with the Symbols on the Ancient
Sculptured ‘* Standing Stones” of Scotland. By Thomas
A. Wise, M.D.

The general identity, in idea and design, of the ancient monuments
of southern and western Europe with those of Hindostan, was shown
and illustrated by drawings of cairns, barrows, kist-vaens, crom-
lechs, circles of stones, and obelisks, or, as they are frequently called,
standing stones, as found in both regions. The connection between
the inhabitants of these regions was further shown by the physical
conformation of the races, by the similarity of many of their manners,
customs, and observances, and by the decided and extensive affinity
of the Celtic, and other languages of western Europe, with the San-
serit. The early connection which thus appears to have existed

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273

was shown to indicate a line of inquiry, by following which much of
the obscurity, resting over the earliest monuments and history of
western Europe, may be cleared away. In particular, reasons were
adduced for believing that the widely different doctrines of Buddhism,
originating in Asia, at a period when some intercourse was still
maintained between the cognate but widely separated races, were
carried westward by missionaries, who, finding the people unpro-
vided with a written language, had recourse to symbols, already used
in the East, to express their fundamental doctrines. The deity or
spirit (Buddha) was designated, as in India, by a wheel or circle ;
inorganic matter (Dharma) by another circle, or by a monogram,
formed of the initial letters of the elements ; and organic matter
(Sangha) by some embryotic form of animal or vegetable life,
or by a circle, or an imperfect crescent. The symbol of three
single circles is found in both regions: This triad is found in
India in the temple of Ellora, and other Buddhist temples, and in
Scotland on the Kineller stone. In the progress of advancement
of the arts these simple forms of symbols were changed for tem-
ples, and idols were added by the rich and powerful Buddhists of
Asia.

Among the ruder and more ignorant inhabitants of Scotland, the
arrangement of the symbols required to be altered, to suit the people
for whom they were intended: Spirit and Matter continued to be
represented by two circles, but connected by a belt, and crossed
by a bar uniting the extremities of two sceptres, to indicate the
supreme power of these (according to the Buddhist creed) co-ordi-
nate and all-originating principles; while organised matter was re-
presented by a crescent, flower, a dog-like embryo, or some other
rude representation of life,

The modifications of the serpent figure, and the Buddhist cross or
sacred labyrinth, as symbols of the spiritual deity ; and the occur-
rence of lions, camels, centaurs, with the honour paid to trees, &c.,
on the ancient sculptured obelisks of Scotland, were also adduced as
proofs of an oriental origin, or connection.

Reasons were given for the number of these stones in that part of
Scotland forming the ancient Pictish kingdom; of which the inha-
bitants, after a temporary profession of Christianity, seemed to have
declined from the faith.

274

2. Note on the extent of our knowledge respecting the Moon’s
Surface. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

Taking advantage of the special attention paid at present to
certain astronomical disquisitions, the author called attention to a
particular point connected with the moon, which was first stated by
the author of “‘ The Plurality of Worlds,’ and then made by him
to prove that the moon must be uninhabited, and thence to lead to
the conclusion that all the other planets were uninhabited also.
This point was, that ‘ observations having been made on the moon
abundantly sufficient to detect the change caused by the growth of
such cities as Manchester and Birmingham, no such changes hav-
ing been perceived, the theory of non-habitation may be in-
dulged in.”

But after having indicated the sort of appearance that those col-
lections of human habitations would make when transferred to the
moon, Professor Smyth proceeded to show that the registered and
published observations of the moon are by no means sufficiently ac-
curate to be used to test this question: and that they do show
changes, and often to a far greater amount than the mere building
of a lunar Manchester would occasion: but such changes bear the
impress of error of observation. More powerfully still was this
brought out, on comparing even the best of the published documents
with some manuscript drawings of the Mare Crisium in the moon,
recently made at the Edinburgh Observatory ; and the author hoped
that this statement of the imperfection of existing maps would lead
to observers generally applying themselves to improve this important
and interesting field of astronomy.

3. On the Interest strictly Chargeable for Short Periods of
Time. By the Rev. Professor Kelland.

Considerable attention has of late been bestowed on the equitable
mode of computing the interest which ought to be charged for frac-
tional portions of a year. Various opinions have been offered rela-
tive to the solution of the problem, The basis on which they mutu-
ally rest, and on which it appears to me that every solution of the
problem must rest, is this—<‘‘ That the interest chargeable for any
fractional part of a year shall at the end of the year amount to a

oe

¢
:
f'
q
)

275

sum which bears the same proportion to the whole annual interest
that the period bears to the whole year.’’ But there are considera-
tions affecting, not the interest, but the principal, which enter largely
into the solution of the problem. The date at which both interest
and principal are due is the end of the year ; it is evident, therefore,
that not only ought a less half-year’s interest to be paid at the end
of the first six months than at the end of the second, but also that
the principal itself, if repaid at the end of the first six months, is

- less valuable for the next period than it would have been if suffered

to complete its year. The solution of the problem has accordingly
been made to depend on the following assumption—* That both
principal and interest recommence a new year at the date of the
payment of the latter.’ I believe I am correct in saying that this
is the form in which the problem is usually solved, and I have no
objections to make to it; but I can conceive circumstances, in con-
nection with life assurance payments, to which it is not strictly ap-
plicable; and I have thought that it would not be unacceptable to
those who take an interest in the subject, if I presented the solution
of the problem in a new form, obtained by viewing it in another
light. With the practical bearing of any solution, I have no con-
cern ; it is the province of the actuary to ascertain, in any case pre-
sented to him, whether the one or the other hypothesis is applicable.
But I do not think it would be difficult to point out examples of the
operations of banks and life assurance companies where the interest
must be regarded as simply the payment of a sum before it has be-
come due, the capital out of which that sum has accrued being con-
tinued in its steady progress to the end of the year. However this
may be, whether the problem have a practical bearing or not, it is
easy to see the propriety of the following hypothesis as the basis
of a theoretical solution of the question—* That the interest charge-
able for short periods of time may be deduced from considerations
which affect the interest alone.” This hypothesis obviously presents
us with the following problem, which we have solved :—
ProsieM.—To find the interest which must be paid at the end
of a fractional portion of a year, so that, being presumed to accu-
mulate at the same rate and in the same way in which it has itself
been produced, it shall, at the end of the year, amount to the exact
portion of the whole annual interest which would then have been
payable. For example, to find the interest of L.160 for a quarter

276

of a year at 4 per cent., so that, at the end of the year, it shall, by
accumulating in the same way, amount to L.1.

Let the interest of L.1 for a year, payable at the end of the
year, be i; and let the interest for the first 2th portion of a year,
payable at the end of the period, be I,, then, we ought to have—

or, L+Li.z=st : ; : cl?)

To solve this equation, substitute 1—a for x, and there results
whence, by subtraction,

2i—I,=(1—a)i—I,_, . ° 5 (2.)
This equation shows that the excess of the proportional part of the
year’s interest above the sum payable is the same for complementary

portions of a year.
Substituting the value of I,_, from equation (2), we get

12+, {1 + (1—a)i—ci} =2i

ee {2ei-a +i) +3 (43? — Faia

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—
JAMES B. FRASER, Esq., Glasgow.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :

Flora Batava. 176 Aflevering, 4to.—From the King of Holland.

Transactions of the Architectural Institute of Scotland. Vol. III,
Part 1. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Magnetische Ortshestimmungen ausgefiihrt an verschiedenen Puncten
des Konigreichs Bayern und an einigen auswartigen Stationen.
Von Dr J. Lamont. 1 Theil. 8vo.

Annalen der Kéniglichen Sternwarte bei Miinchen. VI. Band.
8vo.—From the Observatory.

A Monograph of the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca ; with figures
of all the species. By Joshua Alder and Albany Hancock.
Part 6. 4to.—From the Ray Society.

277

Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland and

Agricultural Society of Scotland. N.S., No. XLVII. 8vo.
From the Society.

Almanaque Nautico para el aiio 1855, (San Fernando.) 8vo.—

From the Marine Observatory of San Fernando.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt

1853. No. 3, (Juli, August, September.) 8v0.— From
the Institute.

Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. WU, WEY.,

Part 2. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Society. Vol. VI., Nos. 91-101. 8v0.—

From the Society.

Boston Journal of Natural History, containing Papers and Commu-
nications read before the Boston Society of Natural History,
and published by their direction. Vol. VI., No. 3. 8vo.

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Jan. 1,
1851—Nov. 16, 1853. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol.
III., pp. 1-104. 8vo.—F'rom the Academy.

Monday, 15th January 1855.
Dr TRAILL, Curator of the Library, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Some additional Experiments on the Ethers and Amides
of Meconic and Comenic Acids. By Henry How, Esq.
Communicated by Dr Anderson.

The author commenced by alluding to his analysis of amidome-
conic acid in a previous paper, and to the objections urged against the
formula he had assigned to it.

By referring to his former analyses, and to a later one, he showed
that the empirical formula of the acid could not be that suggested
by Messrs Wurtz and Gerhardt, but that his results could only lead
to that which he had formerly given, namely —

Cy4 Hag O78 Nz-
you, Ul, z

278

The discovery of a new ammonia salt of this acid, differing from
the yellow one formerly described, has led him to modify the rational
formula of the acid ; and he now gives for the acid and its two am-
monia salts the formule,

Meconamidic acid, 6 HOC,, H,, N, Q,, +9 HO.
Yellow ammonia salt, 6 NH, OC,, H,, N, O,, +3 NH, +6 HO.
White ~, do. do. 6NH,O, C,,H.,N, O,,.

He added, however, that these formule deviated much from what
analogy would lead us to expect ; and that this want of analogy with
other compounds could only be cleared up by farther investigation.

He then described an amide, biamidomeconiec acid, obtained by
the action of ammonia on biethylated meconic acid. Its formula is—

HOC,, H, N, 0, + Aq.

He mentioned also the formation of a black oily substance, pos-
sibly the triethylated meconic acid.

The next section of the paper treated of the action of iodide of
ethyle in comenic acid, which yields the substance formerly described
as comenamic or ethylocomenic acid,—

HOC, H, OC,, H,Q,.
This the author considers to be the true comenic ether. On trying
to obtain an analogous amyle compound, he obtained what seemed
to be the same ethyle compound.

He next stated that comenic acid, heated to 300° F. with water
for some days, undergoes entire decomposition, the products being
carbonic acid, and a shining black solid, not yet examined.

He then described the action of hydrochloric acid on comenie acid
and alcohol, which yield a curious compound, which crystallizes in
long silky needles, and the formula of which is—

C, H, OC,, H, NO,, 2HO+HCL

It is readily decomposed, yielding comenamic ether. It is therefore
a compound of that ether with hydrochloric acid.

Comenamic ether is readily obtained from it by the action of am-
monia on its hot aqueous solution. The ether forms colourless
prisms, the formula of which is—

C,H, 0C,, H, NO,.

7
-
‘i
‘
>

279

By nitric acid it is converted into binoxalate of ammonia. When
heated, it melts at above 400° F., and on cooling, concretes to a
crystalline mass, or sometimes takes the form of a pillared solid
mass.

The paper concludes with a tabular list of the compounds described
in it, with their formule.

2. On a Revision of the Catalogue of Stars of the British
Association. By Captain W. S. Jacob, H.E.1.C., Astro-
nomer at Madras. Communicated by Professor C. Piazzi
Smyth.

After a brief allusion to the importance of catalogues of stars in
general, as the foundation of exact astronomy, the circumstances
connected with the publication of the important Catalogue of Stars
by the British Association were mentioned,

Many of the materials were well known to be imperfect at the
time of printing, but that step, it was thought, would strongly induce
all astronomers to improve the defective portions.

This has since been found to be the case extensively, and the pre-
sent paper is an important contribution to that end.

After mentioning his practical methods of ensuring the greatest
possible accuracy, Captain Jacob describes the result of an examina-
tion of 1503 out of the 8377 stars of which the Catalogue of the Asso-
ciation consists, and states that the large number 55 are altogether
missing in the sky, that 71 differ from their computed places by
more than 2 sec. of time, or 10” of N.P.D.; but that the rest
are all very exact, seldom differing by more than 0-2 of a second
of time.

Some of the above cases of large difference, he thinks caused by
proper motion, and recommends further observations at a future
period, to settle the question.

3. Notice of Ancient Moraines in the arishes of Strachur
and Kilmun, Argyleshire. By Charles Maclaren, F.R.S.E.

The first of the moraines referred to is in Glensluan, a valley
near Strachur, about two miles and a half in length, and two-thirds

of a mile in breadth. It is bounded on the east, west, and south
z2

280

sides by mountains from 800 to 2000 feet in height. At the north
or lower end, where it opens into Glen Eck, there is a series of
mounds of clay and gravel, crossing the valley like embankments,
and spread over a space of about 1800 feet in length, and from 350 to
600 in breadth. They are from 20 to 100 feet in depth. These
mounds have turned the river Sluan from its direct course down the
middle of the valley, and forced it to cut a passage towards the east
side. They consist of piles of incoherent clay and gravel, mixed with
blocks, all derived from the rock (mica slate) which bounds the valley.
In form, materials, and position, they exactly resemble the terminal
moraines found at the foot of valleys occupied by glaciers; and if
found in a similar situation in the Alps, would be at once recognised
as terminal moraines.

The other moraines are in Glenmessan, about 10 miles southward
from Glensluan. They consist, first, of two mounds of clay and
gravel, mingled with blocks, stretching across the foot of Glenmessan
like embankments, and of the height of 40 and 77 feet respectively ;
secondly, of four other detached mounds, from 25 to 30 feet in
height, scattered over a small plain or meadow, half a mile farther
south. In the valley of Glenmessan, grooved rocks, and other marks
of glacial action, are also found, and strengthen the conclusion, that
a glacier once occupied the valley, and produced the mounds of clay
and gravel.

Monday, 5th February 1855.
The Rieut Rey. Bishop TERROT in the Chair.
The following communications were read :—

1. On the Properties of the Ordeal Bean of Old Calabar,
Western Africa. By Dr Christison.

In various parts of Western Africa it appears to be the practice
to subject to the ordeal by poison persons who come under suspicion
of having committed heinous crimes. On the banks of the Gambia
river the poison used for the purpose is the bark of a leguminous tree,
the Fillea suaveolens of MM. Guillemin and Perottet. In the neigh-
bourhood of Sierra Leone it is the bark of Erythrophleum guinéense,

-

7

281

which some botanists have considered identical with the former spe-
cies. On the Congo river, Captain Tuckey found that either this
species, or an allied species of the same genus, was in constant use
for the same purpose. These barks, when their active constituents
are swallowed in the form of infusion, sometimes cause vomiting ;
and then the accused recovers, and in that case is pronounced inno-
cent. More generally the poison is retained ; and then the evidence

‘of guilt is at the same time condemnation and punishment ; for

death speedily ensues.

In the district of Old Calabar, the poison used for the trial by
ordeal is a bean, called Eséré, which seems to possess extraordinary
energy and very peculiar properties. It has been lately made
known to the missionaries sent by the United Presbyterian Church
in Scotland to the native tribes of Calabar; and to the Rev. Mr
Waddell, one of these gentlemen, the author was chiefly indebted for
the materials for his experiments, as well as for information as to

‘its effects on man. According to what the missionaries often saw,

this poison is one of great energy, as it sometimes proves fatal in
half an hour, and a single bean has proved sufficient to occasion
death. None recover who do not vomit it. The greater number
perish. On one occasion forty individuals were subjected to trial,
when a chief died in suspicious circumstances, and only two re-
covered. .

The author found the bean to present generally the characters of
a Dolichos. It has been grown at his request both by Professor Syme
and at the Botanic Gardens by Mr M‘Nab; and it proves to be a
perennial leguminous creeper, resembling a dolichos, but it has not
yet flowered. The seed weighs about forty or fifty grains. It is
neither bitter, nor aromatic, nor hot, and differs little im taste from a
haricot bean. Alcohol removes its active constituent, in the former of
an extractiform matter, amounting to 2-7 per cent. of the seed. The
author could not obtain an alkaloid from it by any of the simpler
processes for detaching vegetable alkaloids.

By experiment on animals, and from observation of its effects
on himself, the ordeal bean has a double action on the animal
body: it paralyses the heart’s action, and it suspends the power of
the will over the muscles, causing paralysis. It is a potent poison, for
twelve grains caused severe symptoms in his own person, although
the poison was promptly evacuated by vomiting, excited by hot

282

water. The alcoholic extract has the same effect and action with
the seed itself.

2. Experiments on the Blood, showing the effect of a few
Therapeutic Agents on that Fluid in a state of Health
and of Disease. By James Stark, M.D., F.R.C.P.

The author stated that when he commenced these experiments, in
1832, his object was to ascertain, first, what effect different diseases
had on the constitution of the blood; and, secondly, what effect va-
rious therapeutic agents had on that fluid in a state of health and
of disease. As the experiments of Andral and others, published
since these experiments were commenced, had done much to eluci-
date many points of the first subject of inquiry, the author limited
this communication to a small portion of the latter inquiry.

The effect of bloodletting on the constitution of the blood in pneu-
monia was first described. It was shown that each successive blood-
letting increased the proportion of fibrin in the blood, which fibrin
was already in excess in consequence of the existence of the inflam-
matory disease. Finding that bloodletting had always this effect in
inflammation, the author made experiments on the healthy subject,
to ascertain whether bloodletting had any effect on the constitution
of the blood, and found that it produced an increase in the propor-
tion of fibrin as compared with the other solids of the blood. On
bleeding sheep rapidly to death, the suddenness of the death pre-
vented the increase being very marked; but when the same animals
were bled slowly to death, the fibrin in the last drawn blood was
found to be nearly a third greater relatively to the other solids of
the blood than in the first drawn blood.

To illustrate this part of the subject, the author pointed out the
bearing of these experiments in the treatment of a few diseases, as
inflammations, apoplexy, hazemoptysis, purpura, and hemorrhage
from a divided blood-vessel; and also their bearing on the pheno-
mena of inflammation.

The effects of alkalies and alkaline carbonates on the blood, and in
the treatment of inflammatory affections, was next noticed; after
which the author passed to the consideration of another important
therapeutic agent—mercury.

He showed that when mercury was administered internally, it

. —
>

283

caused a reduction in the proportion of the fibrin of the blood; pro-
duced a state exactly the opposite of that caused by inflammation—in
fact, caused a state of the blood exactly analagous to that existing in
scurvy. He therefore inferred that mercury would prove the most
valuable remedy in the treatment of inflammatory diseases ; and ac-
cordingly, in trying its effects, first in pneumonia, and afterwards
in other inflammatory diseases, he found, that just in proportion as
the mercury was absorbed, the excess of fibrin in the blood, which
had been produced by the inflammation, diminished, and with this
diminution all the inflammatory symptoms subsided, and the cure
went on satisfactorily. As the object in these cases was to produce a
rapid absorption of the mercury, the calomel was given in such
small doses as not to act on the bowels (generally the fourth or the
sixth of a grain every hour), and in no case was it conjoined with
opium.

The paper was concluded by pointing out that these experiments
gave no countenance whatever to the doctrines of Hahneman, but
confirmed the truth of the adage of Hippocrates, “ that contraries
are the cure of contraries.”

3. Extracts from a Letter from E. Blackwell, Esq., con-
taining Observations on the Movement of Glaciers of Cha-
mouni in Winter. Communicated by Professor Forbes.

“ The accessibility of the glaciers, even up to a considerable height,
is at this season a question of mere physical force. I have made
within the last few days two excursions into the region of perpetual
snow. The first of these was on the 6th of January, and was to the
summit of the glacier of Blaitiére, several hundred feet above the point
where I had noted the line of the névé in September and October ;
the second was on the 13th, when I succeeded in reaching the junc-
tion of the glaciers of Bossons and Taceonaz, near the Grands Mu-
lets. This junction is exactly at the commencement of the névé, as I
remarked between the months of August and October, on six different
occasions, when I passed there on my way to and from Mont Blane,
the Déme de Gouté, &c. In both these expeditions I was struck by
the excessive power of the sun; the greater apparent warmth, even
in the shade, as compared to the valley of Chamouni; and the sud-
den chill which followed sunset. There was also much less snow at

284

these heights than in the valley, and I have no hesitation in saying
that in winter very little snow falls upon the higher summits. The
snow-falls in the valley are invariably brought by a low creeping
fog, which comes up from Sallanches. It seldom overtops the Col
de Voza, and the Aiguilles appear bright and sunny in the gaps of
the cloud. It is in spring and autumn that these higher peaks are
powdered by every storm; now the dispersing clouds leave them
as dark as before they gathered. I fancy this winter is unusually
cold ; every one is crying out, and complaining that the potatoes
are frozen in deep cellars. I have seen Reaumur’s thermometer at
— 25° at 5} in the afternoon, and I think it may reasonably be
supposed that it may have fallen to — 30° during the night; wine
has frozen on my table before a fire. In the woods the trees crack
with the intense frost, and there is from 2} to 3 feet of snow in the
valley without drifts; on the glacier of Blaitiére there is only from
1 to 2 feet.

** In spite of all this cold the glaciers advance steadily. The gla-
cier de Blaitiére, terminating above the line of trees, pushes its
moraine in front of it, and seems to be on the increase. Now this
is a very shallow glacier, and, as I have said, covered with but
little snow. Is it possible that infiltrated water can have any action
whatever under such circumstances ?

** T will here state a few results of careful observation, and I hope
that, even should they appear strange, you will yet consider them
worthy of confidence. I have no theodolite, but I have a pris-
matic compass, and will take the bearings of various points from my
stations should you deem it advisable.

** The torrent of Bossons has been quite dry ever since the begin-
ning of November, and I have profited by this circumstance to en-
deavour to determine the motion of the ice within the vault, nearly
in contact with the ground. I believe it is usually supposed that
the reason why the termination of a glacier seems stationary in
summer, is that there the waste predominates over the supply. It
seemed to me, therefore, that in winter, when there is actually
no waste—the torrent being perfectly dry, and its subglacial bed
even dusty—the end of the glacier ought to be thrust forward into
the valley by the pressure behind. I accordingly, with some little
difficulty, fixed a station on the ridge or back of the glacier, near
the lower extremity; the result is, that the ice there is nearly sta-

a

285

tionary. This is doubtless a clue to the assertions of some authors,
* that the glacier is stationary in winter ;’—they only looked at the
end. What becomes, then, of the ice continually descending from
above ? Does it not go to thicken the whole mass, accumulating
behind the more rigid portion below, as water behind a dam? [
have no space to add more at present, but will write again if I have
your approval of my proceedings. Meanwhile I have fixed (yester-
day) an intermediate station, for the purpose of determining where
this comparative immobility begins. I have noted my observations,
and kept a register of weather, &c. I give one observation to show
the difference between the middle and lower glaciers :—

From December 28 to January 11—14 days.

Middle glacier (somewhat above where it is usually crossed).
Centre, 14 ft. 7 in. (fourteen feet, seven inches).
Side, 11 ft. 6 in. (eleven feet, six inches).

Lower glacier during the same period.
Ridge, 1 ft. 7 in. (one foot seven inches).
Interior of vault, 0 ft. 2 in. (two inches).”

Observations on Mr Blackwell's Letter by Professor Forbes.

The cold described (—25° to — 30° of Reaumur—24}° to —35}°
of Fahrenheit)—appears so excessive as to be unlikely; I have there-
fore written to enquire if the thermometer could be depended on.
It is highly satisfactory that the superficial velocity of the glacier
of Bossons—about a foot in twenty-four hours—coincides closely
with the measurements of my guide, Auguste Balmat, some years
since, on the same glacier, at the same season.

With respect to the ice of the glacier of Blaitiére, which is above
‘the level of trees—probably at least 7000 feet above the sea—being
still in motion, it merely confirms the deductions long ago made by
me as to the continuity of glacier motion even in winter. And as
to the apparent paradox of water remaining uncongealed in the
fissures of the ice at this season, though I have nowhere affirmed
the presence of liquid water to bea sine qua non to the plastic
motion of glaciers, it would be difficult to assert positively that it is
everywhere frozen in the heart of a glacier even in the depth of win-
ter. Heat, we know, penetrates a glacier (up to 32° and no fur-
ther), not only by conduction, but much more rapidly by the perco-
lation of water; but cold penetrates solely by conduction, and that
according to the same law as in solid earth, though it may be more

286

rapidly. Now, it is known that at a depth of 24 or 25 feet in the
ground, the greatest summer heat has only arrived at Christmas. A
similar retardation in the effects of cold must occur in glaciers. Not
a particle of water detained in the capillary fissures can be solidi-
fied until its latent heat has been withdrawn.

The contrast the writer draws between the glaciers of Blaitiére
and Bossons, the latter of which is some thousand feet lower in point
of level, is curious and instructive. The former, he says, appears
the more active, and is pushing forwards its moraine ; whilst the
latter, at its lower extremity, and in contact with the ground, is
scarcely moving at all.

There is nothing of which we know less than the cause of the
seemingly capricious advance and retreat of the extremities of
glaciers at the same time and under, seemingly, the same circum-
stances.

In the present case, I will only mention as a possible explana-
tion, that the glacier of Blaitiére probably possesses a continuous
slope, from its middle and higher region down to its lower extre-
mity. But the Bossons, after its steep descent from Mont Blane,
proceeds a long way on a comparatively level embankment, which
at an early period it cast up of its own debris, and in which it has
dug itself a hollow bed in which it nestles. The angular slope of
the bottom in contact with the soil is very probably much less than
in the case of the glacier of Blaitiére. Now, when winter has
dried up the percolating water, the viscosity of the mass may be
insufficient to drag it over the less slope although it carries it over
the greater. That the motion of the ice close to the ground should
be nearly nothing, whilst the more superficial part of the glacier
over-rides it by its plasticity, is as a separate fact quite in accordance
both with theory and previous observation.

But as the snout, or lower end of the glacier of Bossons, is almost
stationary, whilst the middle region is moving at the rate of a foot
a day, Mr Blackwell very pertinently asks, ‘‘ What becomes, then,
of the ice continually descending from above? Does it not go to
thicken the whole mass, accumulating behind the more rigid por-
tion below, as water behind a dam?’ I answer, undoubtedly ; and
he will find this explanation given ten years ago in my Travels in
the Alps (2d edit., p. 386.) Speaking of the superficial waste of
the glaciers in summer and autumn, and the manner in which it is re-

ee

a
i:

eg a ws a

287

paired before the ensuing spring, I there observed, ‘* The main cause
of the restoration of the surface is the diminished fluidity of the
glacier in cold weather, which retards (as we know) the motion of all
its parts, but especially of those parts which move most rapidly in
summer, The disproportion of velocity throughout the length and
breadth of the glacier is therefore less, the ice more pressed together,
and less drawn asunder; the crevasses are consolidated, while the
increased friction and viscosity causes the whole to swell, and espe-
cially the inferior parts, which are the most wasted.”’—(See also
Seventh Letter on Glaciers, p. 435 of Appendix to the same
work.)

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-
low :—

Dr STEVENSON MACADAM,

Monday, 19th February 1855.
JAMES TOD, Esgq., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Mechanical Action of Heat :—Supplement to the
first Six Sections, and Section Seventh. By W. J. Mac-
queen Rankine, Esq., C.E., F.R.SS. Lond. and Edinb.

This paper is written in continuation of a series of papers, of which
six sections have already been published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

It commences with some articles supplementary to the first six

sections, and intended to apply to the theoretical principles contained

in them to the extensive and precise experimental data which have
been obtained in the course of the last two years.

Article 65 relates to the Absolute Thermometric Scale and to
Thermodynamic Functions, The Absolute Thermometric Scale is
a scale, the temperatures on which, according to one definition, are
proportional to the actual quantity of energy possessed by any given
substance in the form of heat, divided by the real specific heat of the

288

substance, a constant co-efficient, and, according to another definition,
are proportional to the tendencies of heat to disappear in producing
mechanical effects. These definitions are substantially equivalent.
The recent experiments of Messrs Joule and Thomson have confirmed
the anticipation, that absolute temperatures, as thus defined, agree
with those measured by the variation of pressure of a perfect gas ;
they have also proved, what could only be conjectured before, that
the absolute zeros of heat and of gaseous pressure sensibly coincide.
The author, from a revision of M. Regnault’s experiments on the
elasticity of gases, concludes the most probable value of the absolute
temperature of melting ice to be—

274° Centigrade = 493°:2 Fahrenheit.

Messrs Joule and Thomson, from their experiments on the cooling
of gases by free expansion, deduce the value—

273°°7 Centigrade = 492°-66 Fahrenheit.

The difference between those values is practically inappreciable.

A Thermodynamic Function is a function of the condition of a
substance, such that the heat absorbed by the substance during any
small variation of condition represented, in units of work, by the
product of the corresponding variation of the thermodynamic fune-
tion into the absolute temperature. A thermodynamic function con-
sists of two parts- The first is connected with the heat stored up as
actual heat in the substance, and is simply the product of the real
specific heat by the hyperbolic logarithm of the absolute temperature.
The second is what has been employed in the previous sections of the
paper, and in a paper on the centrifugal theory of elasticity, under
the name of Heat-potential, being a function the product of whose
variation into the absolute temperature represents heat converted
into mechanical work.

The complete value of the thermodynamic function for a given
substance is,

dP
= k hyp. log. r as dV,

where & is the real specific heat, r the absolute temperature, P the
pressure, and V the volume; and the fundamental equation of the
mechanical action of heat, previously given in various forms, may be
expressed as follows :—

a

289

dH=rdo®

where d-H is the quantity of energy required, in the form of heat,
to produce the variation d.®.

In article 65:a, a new form of the thermodynamic function is
pointed out, in which the pressure and absolute temperature are
taken as independent variables instead of the volume and absolute
temperature. It is as follows :—

eave dV
o=(k + % ) hyp. log. r ~\% dP,

and is useful in solving a particular class of questions, P, and V,

are respectively the pressure and volume of the given substance at
the absolute temperature +, in the state of perfect gas.

In article 66, the constants in the formule deduced from the
hypothesis of molecular vortices for the elasticity of carbonic acid
gas are revised, and adapted to the corrected position of the abso-
lute zero; the result being expressed by the following very simple
law :—

The diminution of the elasticity of carbonic acid gas, produced
by the mutual attraction of its particles, varies directly as the square
of its density, and inversely as its absolute temperature.

These constants are determined solely from the experiments of
M. Regnault on the increase of pressure between 0° and 100° Centi-
grade of carbonic acid gas of constant density, and in the specific
gravity and specific heat of the gas. The results of the formule
are then compared, and found to agree most closely with those of the
| following sets of experiments :-—

; 1. Those of M. Regnault, on the expansion of carbonic acid gas
at constant pressure.

2. Those of M. Regnault, on the compressibility of carbonic acid

3. Those of Messrs Joule and Thomson, on the cooling of car-
bonic acid gas by free expansion. The results of the last set of ex-
periments were anticipated by means of the formula.

General Formula and Constants for Carbonic Acid Gas.
1 RO Gi Ne
or
P pressure in lb. per square foot, } at the absolute
V yolume of one lb. in cubic feet, J temperature 7

290

P, = one atmosphere = 21164 lb. per square foot.
V, = 815725 cubic feet.

P,V, = 17,264 foot-pounds,

a = 1-9 for the Centigrade scale.

Specific Heats of One Pound of Carbonie Acid Gas, at the atmos-
pheric pressure, in units of work per Centigrade degree,

At constant pressure, 300-7 foot-pounds.
At constant volume, 235:9_,, «
Real specific heat, 235-0 foot-pounds.

In article 67, the constants, as determined by Messrs Joule and
Thomson, of a formula of the same class for atmospheric air, but
involving a more complicated function of the reciprocal of the tem-
perature, are adapted to the position of the absolute zero adopted in
this paper, as follows ;—

et rata a, =} Vv,
Evie te alae
P,V, = 26,248 in latitude 45°,
26,238 in Britain.

a, = 0:0012811
a, = 1:3932 :
a, WE ero} for the Centigrade scale.

The SzventH Section of the paper follows, being on the THErR-
MIC PROPERTIES OF VAPOURS.

Article 68 relates to a principle, the first idea of which was im-
perfectly suggested by Carnot, and more fully developed by M.
Clausius. By the aid of improved knowledge of the laws of the
mechanical action of heat, it is now stated as follows :—

The latent heat of evaporation, in units of mechanical work, of
so much of a substance as fills, in the state of vapour, unity of
space more than it fills in the liquid state, is the differential co-
efficient of the pressure with respect to the hyperbolic logarithm of
the absolute temperature.

In article 69 the new form of the thermodynamic function, given
in article 65 a, is employed to determine the precise law of variation,
with the boiling-point, of the total heat of evaporation from a fixed
temperature ; a law of which the approximate form, applicable to a
substance whose vapour is a perfect gas, and very bulky as compared

Se as es ee Cl

291

with its liquid, was first investigated by the author in the third sec-
tion of the paper.

In article 70 there is deduced from the new form of the thermody-
namic function, a law called that of the “ Total Heat of Gazejica-
tion,’ which includes, as a consequence, the law of the total heat of
evaporation. The total heat of gazefication of a given substance,
under constant pressure, between two given temperatures, is the
heat which must be communicated to the substance in. order to con-
vert it from the liquid or solid state at the lower temperature, to
the state of perfect gas at the higher temperature,—evaporation
taking place at the boiling point corresponding to the constant
pressure under which the whole operation is performed. When the
bulk of the substance (as is the case for all known substances) is very
small in the liquid or solid state, as compared with its bulk in the
state of perfect gas, the total heat of gazefication, under constant
pressure, between two given temperatures, does not sensibly vary
with the pressure.

This law is of great importance in connection with the employ-
ment of super-heated vapours to drive machinery.

In article 71 are given formule, founded on the experiments of
M. Regnault, for computing the pressures of the vapours of ether,
bi-sulphuret of carbon, alcohol above 0° c., water, essence of turpen-
tine above 40° c., chloroform above 70°c., and mercury up to 358° c.
The table of constants for these fluids is extracted from a paper read
before the British Association in September 1854, and published
in the Philosophical Magazine for December 1854.

In article 72, it is shown how these formule are applied to
calculate the latent heat of evaporation for unity of space.

In article 73, it is stated, that if the latent heat of evaporation of
unity of weight of a fluid be known by experiment for a given tem-
perature of ebullition, and the latent heat of evaporation for unity
of space be computed theoretically, the volume of unity of weight of
the vapour at the given temperature of ebullition may be calculated
from these data. This principle is applied to the latent heats of
evaporation, under atmospheric pressure, of zether, sulphuret of car-
bon, and alcohol, as determined experimentally by Dr Andrews, and
of water, as determined by M. Regnault. The results of these
calculations are compared with those of computations founded on the
chemical composition of the fluids, and the supposition that their

292

vapours are perfectly gaseous. The following is a summary of the

results :—
WIGEs sec eveceptseac eel 4ither. _Bi-sulp. of Carbon. Alcohel. Water.
Boiling points......... 35° cent. 46° 78° 100°

Volume of one Ib. of
vapour as compu-

ted— cubic feet. cubic feet. cubic feet. cubic feet.
From latent heat...... 5:3968 5°4689 9-366 26°36
From composition..... 5°3874 54643 9-900 27°18

In article 74, the close coincidence of the results of the above
computations for ether and bisulphuret of carbon is stated to be a
confirmation of the principles deduced from the mechanical theory
of heat, and also a proof that the vapours of «ther and bi-sulphuret of
carbon may be treated in practical calculations, without sensible
error, as perfectly gaseous, when at pressures not greatly exceeding
one atmosphere. The following are the values of some of the con-
stants for these fluids :—

Bther. Bi-sulp. of carbon.
P,V, 10,110 ft. 1b. 9902 ft. Ib.
Specific heat of liquid for centigrade 2 :
Beate’ 718-4 =, 4433,
Specific heat of vapour at constant 668-4 218-9
pressure for centigrade scale, # fe

In article 75, the differences between the results of the two
methods of computation for alcohol and water are considered as the
effects of deviations of the vapours of these fluids from the perfectly
gaseous condition,—deviations which in the case of steam have long
been anticipated.

On an Inaccuracy (having its greatest value about 1”) in the
usual method of computing the Moon’s Parallax. By
EDWARD SANG.

When, as in the usual operation, the moon’s observed zenith dis-
tance is corrected for the effects of atmospheric refraction, the zenith
distance so obtained is that of the rectilineal part of the ray of light
between the planet and the upper surface of the air; and on apply-
ing that correction, as at the Observatory, we do not obtain the direc-
tion of the moon as it would have been seen if there had been no
atmosphere, but that of a line drawn parallel to the first part of the
ray, and therefore passing below the moon, The true direction of
a straight line drawn from the observer to the planet, must differ

a a

293

from this direction by the angle which the curved part of the ray
subtends at the moon’s centre; and the neglect of this angle may
cause a sensible error in estimating the parallax.

It is a well-known property of refraction by concentric strata,
that the perpendiculars let fall from the centre of curvature upon
the tangent to the path of light are inversely proportional to the
indices of refraction of the medium at the two points of contact.

From this property it very easily follows that the sine of the
true parallax is obtained by multiplying the sine of the horizontal
parallax by the sine of the observed zenith distance, and by the in-
dex of refraction of the air at the Observatory.

And if the horizontal parallax given in the almanac, instead of
being the half angle under which the earth would have been seen
from the moon if there had been no atmosphere, had been the true
horizontal parallax, or half the angle which, in the actual state of
things, the earth does subtend at the moon,—the true method of
computing the parallax would only differ from the common one in
the use of the uncorrected instead of the corrected zenith distance.

In the common formula, the multiplier is the sine of the zenith
distance corrected for refraction ; in the true formula, it is the sine
of the uncorrected zenith distance, multiplied by the index of re-
fraction of the air.

For the purpose of obtaining the maximum error of the common
formula, it is observed that when the moon is in the horizon, the
zenith distances being nearly 90°, have their sines sensibly equal to
each other, and that then the true multiplier must exceed the usual
one in the ratio of 3405 to 3404,—+this ratio being the index of
refraction of air in its mean state; wherefore, at the horizon, the

parallax, as usually computed, must fall short of the true parallax
by one 3404th part of itself.

This ratio holds good for all planets; and it is only in the case
of the moon that the error becomes sensible, being then almost ex-
actly one second of an are.

The following Gentlemen were elected as Ordinary Fel-
lows :—

1. RoBerT ErueRines, Esq., Clifton, Bristol.

2. JOHN INGLIs, Esq., Dean of Faculty.

3. Rev. James 8S. Hopson, Rector of the Edinburgh Academy.
VOL. I. 2a

294

Monday, 5th March 1855.
Rieut Rey. BisHorp TERROT, V-P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On Annelid Tracks in the Exploration of the Millstone
Grits in the South-west of the County of Clare. By
Robert Harkness, Esq., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology, Queen’s College, Cork.

The author remarks that the existence of Annelida during the
Paleozoic formations is manifested in two conditions. In the one, -
we have the shelly envelope which invests the order Tubicola, in the
form of Seapolites; and in the other, the tracks of the orders Abran-
chia and Dorsi-branchiata are found impressed on deposits which
were, at one time, in a sufficiently soft state to receive the impres-
sions of the wanderings of these animals.

Among the strata which have hitherto afforded annelid tracks,
those which, in the county of Clare, represent a portion of the equi-
valents of the Millstone Grit, contain such tracks, in their most per-
fect state of preservation in great abundance ; and these strata also _
furnish evidence concerning the circumstances which prevailed during
their deposition.

The locality of these strata is the neighbourhood of Kilrush, on
the banks of the Shannon, in the southern portion of the county.
Here the deposits consist of strata which have a flaggy character ;
and these have been extensively wrought at Money Point, about four
miles east from Kilrush, and they supply the flags which are com-
monly used in the towns of the south of Ireland. The beds vary
somewhat in their nature, and with this circumstance they present
different phenomena.

The annelid tracks occur in three conditions. When they are in
their most perfect state, in the faces of the higher flags, which are
of a greenish gray colour, they have the form of meandering tracks,
about half an inch across, and their margins crenated. A distinct
raised line traverses the centre of these tracks, and the interval be-
tween this line and the crenations is marked by a succession of other

—-

295

lines at right angles to the centre one; and these seem to have had
their origin in the rings of the body of the annelid.

The nature of the tracks as they occur in the lower flags, which
are dark-coloured, is somewhat different. On the upper surfaces of
these they appear also in the form of sinuous furrows, about the
same width as the more perfect tracks of the higher flags. Here,
however, they rarely present crenations, being regular on their
margin, and having, in many instances, the impression of the ventral
arch distinct.

The various appearances of the tracks, and the nature of the strata
with which these are associated, furnish some important information
concerning the conditions which obtained when this portion of the
Millstone Grit series was being deposited. The tracks, from their
various states of perfection, indicate that, in some instances, the mud
which now constitutes these flags had been in different states, as
concerns consolidation, at the time when it was traversed by these
animals. It sometimes appears to have been in a state so saturated
with water that it assumed a pasty condition, partly flowing in upon
the tracks after these had impressed its surface, and obliterating the
markings of the cirri. At other times it seems to have been suffi-
ciently consolidated to afford the requisite conditions for more perfect
tracks, as in the case of the higher greenish-gray flags.

The animals which impressed these Irish flags appear to have
been widely different from those which have burrowed in the deposits
which now form the flags of the lower portion of the Lancashire coal-
field, since, in these latter, neither the entrance into the burrows nor
the burrows themselves, equal the annelid burrows of the flagstone of
Clare ; the former having only a diameter of one-fifth of an inch, and
being apparently round, while the latter are half an inch in breadth,
and have their form flattened longitudinally, which gives to them, on
transverse section, the lenticular shape already referred to. From
their crenulated margins, which would indicate that the cirri were
more perfectly developed in the annelids to which we owe these
tracks, it would seem that they are more nearly allied to those which
have impressed the strata of the older formations, than to such as
have left their markings on the English carboniferous deposits ; and
if we adopt the general appellation of Sir Roderick Murchison, they
might be considered as the carboniferous type of the ancient Verites,

and be designated Nerites carbonarius.
2a '2

296

2. On Superposition. By Professor Kelland.

The object of this paper was to defend the method of demonstra-
tion employed by Euclid from some of the charges which have been
at various times brought against it. In particular, it was shown
that the method is not deficient in variety of demonstration of the
same fact. This position was illustrated by the exhibition of twelve
totally different demonstrations of the problem, ‘* To cut three-
fourths of a square into four pieces which shall form a square.”

3. On the Colouring Matter of the Rottlera tinctoria. By
Professor Anderson, M.D., Regius Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Glasgow.

The Rottlera tinctoria is a large tree which is found distributed
over the whole Indian peninsula, and is particularly abundant in the
hill jungles of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. The fruit, which is
about the size of a pea, is covered with curious stellate hairs and
red glands, which are easily separated by rubbing, and form without
further preparation the colouring matter which is sold in the bazaars.
It is a perfectly uniform brick-dust coloured powder, which repels
water, and is scarcely soluble in that fluid. Alcohol and ether ex-
tract a red colouring matter, as do also the alkalies and their carbo-
nates. A proximate analysis showed it to contain—

Water, ‘ . 5 ‘ 3°49
Resinous colouring matters, . : 78:19
Albuminous matters, . : : 7°34
Cellulose, &c., , : : 7-14
Ash, . : ¢ ; ‘ 3°84

100-00

The colouring matters consist of at least three different substances.

1. A crystallizable matter extracted by ether, to which the author
gives the name of Rottlerine. It forms a mass of yellow crystalline
scales, having a fine satiny lustre. Insoluble in water, sparingly
soluble in alcohol, and readily in ether. It dissolves in alkaline solu-
tions with a deep red colour, but does not form definite compounds
with the metallic oxides. It is decolorized by bromine with the pro-

a

297

duction of a substitutive product which does not crystallize, and can-
not be obtained pure. Its analysis gave as the mean of four closely
concordant experiments—

Mean. Calculation.
— nn Oe
Carbon, f 69-112 6947 C,, 182
Hydrogen, é 5°550 526 H,, 10
Oxygen, - 25°333 25:27 O, 48
100-000 100-00

corresponding with the formula C,, H,, O,; but the impossibility
of forming compounds renders it impossible to ascertain whether this
correctly represents its constitution.

2. When the colouring matter is boiled with alcohol the pheno-
mena are materially different; for the filtered solution deposits, on
cooling, a pale flocky amorphous substance, which is obtained pure
by repeated crystallization. It is insoluble in water, readily soluble
in hot, sparingly in cold alcohol, and scarcely at allin ether. Its
analysis gave results which agree with the formula C,, H,, O5-

3. The red alcoholic solution from which the flocky matter has
been separated leaves an evaporation or dark red amorphous resin,
melting at 212°. It gives a red precipitate with acetate of lead,
but the compound could not be obtained of definite composition, and
it seems not improbable that the resin may be a mixture of several
different substances. The author found the proportion of oxide
of lead to vary between 18-67 and 34 per cent., according to the
conditions under which the precipitation was effected. The resin,
on analysis, gave results which agree pretty well with the formula
Oyo Heo Ory which is in accordance with the lowest proportion of
oxide of lead obtained from its compound, but none of the other re-
sults can be brought into relation with it.

The colouring matter of the Rottlera belongs to the class of sub-
stantive dyes, and does not require the intervention of a mordant.
It gives a very fine flame colour on silk, but to calico, with or with-
out mordants, it gives only a pale fawn colour, entirely devoid of
beauty. The author considers it worth the attention of silk dyers
in this country.

298

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. No, V., 1854. 8vo.
—From the Society.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. X., Part 4.
8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVII., Part 4.
8vo.—From the Society.

The Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland. No. 48. (N.S.). 8vo.
—F rom the Society.

Catalogue of Stars near the Ecliptic, observed at Markree, during
the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, and whose places are sup-
posed to be hitherto unpublished. Vol. III. 8vo.—From the
Royal Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Pro-
fessors Sillimanand Dana. Vol. XIX., No. 55. 8vo.—From
the Editors.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Ma-
thematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bd. XII., Heft 5 ;
Bd. XII., Heft 1 und 2, 8vo.

Register zu den ersten X, Banden der Sitzungsberichte der Mathe-
matisch- Naturwissenschaftlichen Classe. 8vo.

Jahrbiicher der K, K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erd-
magnetismus. Von Karl Kreil. (Herausgegeben durch die
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften). II. Bd. 4to.—
From the Academy.

Annalen der Kéniglichen Sternwarte bei Miinchen. VI. Bd, 8yo.

Magnetische Ortsbestimmungen an verschiedenen Puncten des Konig-
reichs Bayern und an einigen auswirtigen Stationen. 1. Theil.
8vo.— From the Observatory.

Magnetische Karten von Deutschland und Bayern. Von Dr J.
Lamont. Fol.—From the Author.

Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Vol. XXI., Parts
2and 3. 4to.

299

Monday, 19th March 1855.
CoLoxEL MADDEN, Councillor, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Experiments on Colour as perceived by the Eye, with Re-
marks on Colour-Blindness. By James Clerk Maxwell:
Esq., B.A., Trinity College, Cambridge. Communicated
by Professor Gregory.

These experiments were made with the view of ascertaining and
registering the judgments of the eye with respect to colours, and
then, by a comparison of the results with each other, by means of a
graphical construction, testing the accuracy of that theory of the
vision of colour which analyses the colour-sensation into three ele-
ments, while it recognises no such triple division in the nature of
light, before it reaches the eye.

The method of experimenting consisted in placing before the eye
of the observer two tints, produced by the rapid rotation of a system
of dises of coloured paper, arranged so that the proportions of each
of the component colours could be changed at pleasure. The ap-
paratus used was a simple top, consisting of a circular plate on
which the coloured dises were placed, and a vertical axis. The
discs consisted of paper painted with the unmixed colours used in
the arts, Each dise was slit along a radius from centre to circum-
ference, so that several could be interlaced, so as to leave exposed-a
sector of each. The larger dises, about 3 inches diameter, were
first combined and placed on the disc, and the smaller, about 14
inches diameter above them, so as to leave a broad ring of the
larger discs visible.

When the top was spun the observer could compare the resulting
tint of the outer and inner circles, and by repeated adjustment, per-
fect identity of colour could be obtained. The proportions of each
colour were then ascertained, by reading off on the circumference of
the top, which was divided into 100 parts. As an example, it was
found on one occasion, that,—

300

‘37 Vermilion, : Vhi
4:97 Cina, | = As ae

+°36 Emerald green,

By experiments on various individuals, it was found (1.) that a
good eye could be depended upon within two of these divisions, or
hundredths, at most; and that by repetition of experiments the
average result might be made much more accurate.

(2.) That the difference of the resulis of experiments on different
individuals was insensible, provided the light used remained the
same,

(3.) That when different kinds of light were used, or when the
resultant tints were examined with coloured glasses, the results were
totally changed.

It follows from this that the cause of the equality of the result-
ing tints is not a true optical identity of the light received by the
eye, but must be sought for in the constitution of the sense of sight.
The materials for this inquiry are to be found in the equations of
colour of which the above is an example, and these are to be viewed
in the light of Young’s theory of a threefold sensation of colour.

The first consequence of this theory is, that between any four
colours an equation can be found, and this is confirmed by experi-
meant,

The second is, that from two equations containing different colours
a third may be obtained by the ordinary rules, and that this also
will agree with experiment. This also was found to be true by ex-
periments at Cambridge which include every combination of five
colours.

A graphical method was then described, by which, after fixing
arbitrarily the positions of three standard colours, that of any
other colour could be obtained by experiments in which it was made
to form a neutral gray along with two of the standard colours. In
the diagram so formed, the position of any compound tint is the
centre of gravity of the colours of which it is composed, their masses
being determined from the equation, and the resultant mass of
colour being the sum of the component masses. The colour-equa-
tions represent the fact that the same tint may be produced by two
different combinations. This diagram is similar to those which
have been given by Meyer, Hay, and Professor J. D. Forbes, as the
results of mixing colours. It is identical with that proposed by

301

Young, and figured in his Lectures on Natural Philosophy. The
original conception, however, seems to be due to Newton, who gives
the complete theory, with an indication of a construction in his
Optics.

The success of this method depends entirely on the truth of the
supposition that there are three elements of colour as seen by the
eye, every ray of the spectrum being capable of exciting all three
sensations, though in different proportions. It is at present impos-
sible to define the colours appropriate to these sensations, as they
cannot be excited separately. But it appears probable that the
: phenomena of colour-blindness are due to the absence of one of

these elementary sensations, and, if so, a comparison of colour-blind

with ordinary vision will show the relation of the absent sensation to
4 those with which we are familiar.
A method was then described, by which one observation by a
colour-blind eye was made to determine a certain point representing
the absent sensation, which thus appears to be a red approaching to
crimson. The results of this hypothesis were calculated in the form
of “ equations of colour-blindness” between colours which seem to
defective eyes identical. These equations were compared with those
previously determined from the testimony of two colour-blind but
accurate observers, and found to agree with remarkable precision,
rarely differing by more than 0°02 in any colour. The effect of red
and green glasses on the colour-blind was then described, and a pair
of spectacles having one eye red and the other green was proposed
as an assistance to them in detecting doubtful colours.

2. Notice of the Occurrence of British newer Pliocene Shells
in the Arctic Seas, and of Tertiary Plants in Greenland.
In a letter from Dr Scoular of Dublin. Communicated by
James Smith, Esq., of Jordanhill.

Dr Scoular writes :—

**T have lately had the opportunity of examining a series of fossils
from high arctic latitudes, brought home by Captain M‘Lintock,
R.N. The series in one sense is extensive, as there are Silurian
and oolitic shells, and also other fossils of the tertiary times. Among
these last there are some things which, I am sure, will be of interest
to you. Among the specimens are some recent and living shells

302

from Baring’s Island, of which I will send you a list when I
determine the species. In the meantime, I may state with full
confidence that the variety called Mya udevallensis, so common a
fossil with us and in Sweden, is still a living species at Baring’s Island.
The truncated form of the shell, and the palliar impressions, are
those of the M. udevallensis, and not those of the modern M. trun-
cata. On the truth of this you may fully rely, and also that the
shells were taken with the animal in them. |

“« Inthe collection there are also some fossil plants from Greenland.
They are not, however, carboniferous ; but to my surprise tertiary,
and of the same character as those of the Mull formation. I could
not find any difference between them and the fossil leaves from Mull,
but I cannot at present command the paper by the Duke of Argyll;
however, I have not the smallest doubt of the identity of the forma-
tion and species,”’

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fellow :—

Dr WyvittE THomson, Professor of Geology, Belfast.

Monday, 2d April 1855.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1.—Account of Experiments to ascertain the amount of
Prof. Wm. Thomson’s “Solar Refraction.” By Prof.
C. Piazzi Smyth.

After alluding to the excessive difficulty of ascertaining the pre-
sence and nature of a resisting medium in space, by planetary or
cometary perturbations, the author reminded the meeting of the
statements made in those rooms last year, that one of the conse-
quences to which the dynamical theory of heat had led him, was
the necessity of the existence of a medium filling space ; that such
medium was but an extension of our own atmosphere, and must ex-
perience a condensation in the neighbourhood of the sun; and that
there must consequently arise a certain refraction of any heavenly
body seen through such medium.

Impressed, therefore, with the importance of endeavouring to get
by these means some further light in regard to the long vexed ques-

303

tion of the resisting medium, Professor Smyth had _ instituted,
during the last summer, a series of observations on stars in the

neighbourhood of the sun. Atmospheric difficulties had, however,
prevented much being done ; and in the whole history of the ob-
servatory, but one group of observations available for the purpose
in view had been found. This, on being subjected to special cal-
| culation, has given two results, both confirmatory, and indicating an
amount of solar refraction of 0°:04 in right ascension, at a distance of
12 minutes of time from the sun.

a

vw a aa

2. On the Extent to which the Theory of Vision requires us
7 to regard the Eye as a Camera Obscura. By Dr George
Wilson.

ERRATUM IN PROCEEDINGS OF ROYAU SOCIETY, EDINBURGH,
Session 1854-55.

Sal Page 302, line nine from bottom, after the words “ last year,” insert by
Prof. W. Thomson,

chamber of the eye, so as to repeat, on different points of the retina,
the image of a solitary object.

_ 4, The painful and imperfect vision known to characterize the
human albino.

The author then proceeded to state that a mass of evidence, daily
accumulating, had established, beyond question, the certainty that
light is reflected from the anterior layers of the retina and from the
choroid, and so abundantly, that oculists take daily advantage of the
fact, to examine, by means of this light, the deeper internal struc-
tures of the eye.

This organ, accordingly, cannot be regarded otherwise than in a
limited sense as a camera obscura, and the arguments in favour of

Pa

302

from Baring’s Island, of which I will send you a list when I
determine the species. In the meantime, I may state with full
confidence that the variety called Mya udevallensis, so common a
fossil with us and in Sweden, is still a living species at Baring’s Island.
The truncated form of the shell, and the palliar impressions, are
those of the M. udevallensis, and not those of the modern M. trun-
cata. On the truth of this you may fully rely, and also that the
shells were taken with the animal in them.

“¢ In the collection there are also some fossil plants from Greenland.
They are not, however, carboniferous ; but to my surprise tertiary,
and of the same character as those of the Mull formation. I could
not find any difference between them and the fossil leaves from Mull,
but I cannot at present command the paper by the Duke of Argyll;
however, I have not the smallest doubt of the identity of the forma-
tion and species,”’

pe
sence and nature of a resisting medium in space, by planetary or
cometary perturbations, the author reminded the meeting of the
statements made in those rooms last year, that one of the conse-
quences to which the dynamical theory of heat had led him, was
the necessity of the existence of a medium filling space ; that such
medium was but an extension of our own atmosphere, and must ex-
perience a condensation in the neighbourhood of the sun; and that
there must consequently arise a certain refraction of any heavenly
body seen through such medium.

Impressed, therefore, with the importance of endeavouring to get
by these means some further light in regard to the long vexed ques-

303

tion of the resisting medium, Professor Smyth had instituted,
during the last summer, a series of observations on stars in the
neighbourhood of the sun. Atmospheric difficulties had, however,
prevented much being done ; and in the whole history of the ob-
servatory, but one group of observations available for the purpose
in view had been found. This, on being subjected to special cal-
culation, has given two results, both confirmatory, and indicating an
amount of solar refraction of 0°-04 in right ascension, at a distance of
12 minutes of time from the sun.

2. On the Extent to which the Theory of Vision requires us

to regard the Eye as a Camera Obscura. By Dr George
Wilson.

The object of this communication was to combat the current
theory of vision, as exercised by vertebrate animals, in so far as it
teaches that the light which reaches the retina from without, there-
after passes through that membrane, and is absorbed by the pigment
of the choroid behind it.

The author first enumerated the arguments adduced in favour of
this view, such as,

1. The difficulty in assigning any other use for the choroid than
that of absorbing the light which falls upon it.

2. The advantages known to result in artificial camer obscure
from the internal darkening of their walls.

3. The confusion which must attend visual perception, if the
rays by which objects are seen are reflected several times across the
chamber of the eye, so as to repeat, on different points of the retina,
the image of a solitary object.

_ 4, The painful and imperfect vision known to characterize the
human albino.

The author then proceeded to state that a mass of evidence, daily
accumulating, had established, beyond question, the certainty that
light is reflected from the anterior layers of the retina and from the
choroid, and so abundantly, that oculists take daily advantage of the
fact, to examine, by means of this light, the deeper internal struc-
tures of the eye.

This organ, accordingly, cannot be regarded otherwise than in a
limited sense as a camera obscura, and the arguments in favour of

—

304

the opposite belief were shown to furnish no substantial support of
the current opinion. Thus, the eyes of albino animals were found
to exercise vision perfectly, although destitute of pigmentum ni-
grum ; and the presence of the tapetum lucidum, which acts like
a concave metallic reflector in the eyes of many creatures, was
shown to furnish no obstacle to sight, which, on the other hand,
it rendered more acute when light was feeble. The supposed cross
reflection of light within the eye was also shown to be a phenomenon
which could rarely occur so as to disturb vision, since the majority
of the reflected rays would simply retrace the course which they
took on entering the eye, and pass out through the pupil as they
passed in through it ; and the few which diverged so much as to
fall on the back of the iris, the ciliary processes and the anterior
lateral surface of the choroid, would be caught upon the darkest and
least reflecting portion of the interior of the eye, and undergo in
greater part absorption, whilst such as were not thus stopped, and
those which underwent lateral reflection from the bottom of the eye,
would be irregularly dispersed over the entire retina, and only lessen
its general sensitiveness without repeating the images of objects on
single points of its surface.

The author finally urged that the reflection of light from the
bottom of the eye served important ends, especially in the lower
animals. Those ends he held to be ;—

1. The return from the choroid of light through the retina, so as
to double the impression on the latter.

2. The reflection of light on external objects, which was best
seen in creatures whose eyes are provided with tapeta lucida, and
acted alike as an assistance to them in finding their food, and in the
case of carnivorous nocturnal and marine animals, to their prey in
escaping from them.

In the human subject, it was contended that, in very faint light,
reflection from the bottom of the eye would assist vision, and that
the known delicacy of visual perception, which characterised those
who had been long imprisoned in dark chambers or dungeons,
afforded an example of such assistance. The author also insisted
on the fact, that, as the reflected light is always coloured, so as in
the human eye to be bright red, yellowish-red, or brownish-red, and
in different eyes to a different degree; and as we add from our eyes
coloured light to every object we gaze at, no two persons see the same
colour alike, or will exactly agree in matching tints. The existence

s

305

and importance of such a chromatic personal equation was dwelt
on at some length.

3. Researches on the Amides of the Fatty Acids. By
Thomas H. Rowney, Ph.D., Assistant to Dr Anderson.
Communicated by Dr Anderson.

The author in this paper gives the details of an examination of
the compounds obtained by the action of ammonia on some of the
oils and fats,

The method employed was to mix one volume of the oil, two vo-
lumes alcohol, and four volumes of strong aqua ammoniz in a stopper-
ed bottle, and placing it in a moderately warm situation, the stopper
being tied down. Occasional agitation is required. After a time, vary-
ing with the oil employed, there is formed a whitish solid matter, which
increases in amount as the oil diminishes. Finally, the whole be-
comes nearly solid.

The mass is collected on a cloth filter, washed with a little water,
and squeezed, and the residue dissolved in warm alcohol ; the crys-
tals deposited on cooling are washed first with dilute spirit, then
water, and again expressed, and this was repeated till a resinous
matter was removed, which adheres obstinately to the product.

The amides thus formed, when pure, are white, and permanent
in the air, but if any of the resin be present, they soon become
yellow and resinous.

The quantity obtained from different oils varied much. The
drying oils yield less of the amides and more resin than the fat oils.

The oils hitherto examined are almond oil, linseed oil, poppy oil,
cod-liver oil, seal oil, and croton oil, besides almond oil and castor
oil after solidification by nitrous acid.

_ The author describes the properties and gives the analytical de-
tails of the amides thus produced, and the results are summed up as
follows :—

Linseed oil,

Poppy oil, and | view margaramide ;

Croton oil

Longe = oil and \ yiela oleamide ;

Castor oil yields ricinolamide ; and

Almond oil and } after solidification by nitrous { elaidamide and
Castor oil acid, yield palmamide ;

d

306

Which two latter compounds are isomeric with oleamide and ricino-
lamide.
The melting points of these amides were found as follows :—

Margaramide, , . . . 103°C. (60°C. Boullay)
Palmamide and Elaidamide, 94° C.
Oleamide ame. ee bs a, ee. CG.
The author considers the melting points ascribed to ricinolamide
(66° C.) and isocetamide (67° C.), by Boullay, are below the truth.
The researches of the author are not yet completed, and the re-
sults of experiments now in progress will be given on a future occa-

sion.
Monday, 16th April 1855.
Rigut Rev. BisHor TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. Notice of some new Forms of British Fresh-Water
Diatomacee. By William Gregory, M.D., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry.

The author stated that he had examined, more or less minutely,
nearly 300 fresh-water gatherings, and that he had found in these
very nearly all the known British species, besides a number not yet
described. He mentioned that, from the want of figures, it was often
difficult to know whether a form were new or not. Thus, Pinnularia
latestriata, found by the author two years since in the Mull earth,
had been considered as a new species by all British naturalists, as
well as several foreign ones ; yet in Ehrenberg’s last work, “ Mikro-
geologie”’ it is figured as P. borealis, and as having been described
by Ehrenberg ten or twelve years ago. The papers of that author,
in the Berlin Reports and Transactions, are not generally accessible.
Ehrenberg describes this species as being one of two found scattered
in every part of the world, and in almost every locality, more uni-
formly than any others ; which is confirmed by the author’s observa-
tions in this country. Yet, although a remarkable and conspicuous
form, it had escaped notice in Britain till 1852. This shows the
necessity of minute search, without which the scattered forms are
sure to be overlooked.

The new forms were described in three sections.

307

I. Species figured by foreign authors, but new to Britain.

_ 1, Bunotia tridentula. 10. Stauroneis ventricosa, Ehr.
2. Navicula follis (Trochus ?) Ehr. 11. Cocconema cornutum, Ehr.
, 3 a dubia, Kiitz. 12. Gomphonema subtile, Ehr.
4. <3 Bacillum, Ehr. 13. Melosira distans, Ehr.
5. Pinnularia megaloptera, Ehr. 14, Navicula amphigomphus, Ehr., and
6. % dactylus, Ehr. 15. i dilatatay Ehr., possibly
7 a nodosa, Kiitz. varieties of Navicula dubia, not
8. yy pygmea, Ehr. figured by the author.
9. Stauroneis Legumen, Kiitz.

II. New Species, observed by others, nearly about the same time as
by the author, and named by the Rev. Professor Smith, but
still MS. species.

16. Navicula apiculata, Sm. 20. Pinnularia hemiptera, Sm. (not

17. + rostrata, Sm. figured.)

18. 4 scutelloides, Sm. 21. Navicula sufflata, Sm. (Auvergne.
19. Mastogloia Grevillii, Grev. Found in Britain by the author,

Not figured.)
III. Species now first described and figured.

22, Cymbella (?) sinuata. W. G. 34. Pinnularia linearis, W. G.

23. cs turgida, W. G. 35. 3 biceps, W. G.

24, » obtusa, W. G. 36. e. digitoradiata, W. G.

25. 7 Pisciculus, W. G. 37. 34 Elginensis, W. G.

26. 53 Arcus, W. G. 38. . globiceps, W. G.

27. Navicula cocconeiformis, W. G. 39. Stauroneis obliqua, W. G.

28. 5 lacustris, W.G., do. 6. | 40. = dubia, W. G.

29. sa lepida, W. G., do. A. 41. » ¢ ovalis, W. G.

30. os bacillaris, W.G. 42. Surirella tenera, W. G.

31. i incurva, W. G. 43. Gomphonema insigne, W. G.

32. longiceps, W. G. 44, Ps ventricosum, W. G

33. Pinnularia gracillima, W. G. ~ 45. 3 Sarcophagus, W. G.
civa, Sm.) 46, ce squale, W.G.

The following numbers refer to figures of the varieties of Navicula
elliptica, Kiitz :—

47. Navicula elliptica, Kiitz. 49. Navicula elliptica, var. y
48. e rt var. B 50. pe i. var. 3

The whole of the above species, with the few exceptions above
noted, were illustrated by highly finished drawings, made from nature
by Dr Greville, and enlarged to a scale of 10,000 times the natural
linear dimensions.

The author concluded by making some observations on the distri-
_ bution of fresh-water Diatoms, and showed by various examples that
it is often quite easy to determine the characters of a species, if these
be well marked, even when it occurs sparingly or scattered, and that
when a form is once noticed, we are pretty sure to find it soon after
in greater abundance. Toshow the value of minute search, he stated
that although most of the above new species occurred in several
gatherings, yet in point of fact, nearly the whole of them had been

308

observed in a detailed exploration of only four gatherings, those, name-
ly, from Elgin, Elchies, Lochleven, and Duddingston Loch. Nay,
he had found them all, except only one or two, by degrees, in the
Lochleven gathering alone, and a very large proportion of them in
each of the three others. So that, if his observations had been confined
to these four gatherings, or even to that of Lochleven, it would have
been possible to recognise and distinguish nearly all the species here
mentioned.

The above list of forms is entirely exclusive of those very nume-
rous and varied ones, occurring, however, in many of the gatherings
examined by the author, as above described, which he has elsewhere
united together, described, and figured, under the name of Navicula
varians.

The figures of Navicula elliptica, Kutz., and its very striking
varieties, as the author had observed them in the study of these
gatherings, were referred to, in order to prove that certain species
vary not only in form or outline, as in the case of Navicula varians,
Pinnularia divergens, and many others, but also in general aspect, in
the number of strize in ;7'5 5th of an inch, comparing two frustules
of equal size, in the structure of the median line, and in that of the
central or terminal nodules,

2. On Glacial Phenomena in Peebles and Selkirk Shires. By
Robert Chambers, Esq., F.R.S.E., &e.

In this short paper, the author presented facts, from which he
thought himself entitled to infer that the Silurian mountain tract of
southern Scotland falls entirely into his views regarding ancient
glacial operations in the country generally, as expounded in a paper
read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in December 1852, and
published in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for April
1853. He showed that the compact boulder clay, which he regards
as the detritus of the early and general glaciation of the country,
exists in the valleys of this district, and in passes amongst the hills,
up to those of Glenlude and Tweedshaws, which are respectively 1152
and 1352 feet above the mean level of the sea. Striated boulders
from Glenlude and Tweedshaws were brought before the Society.
The rounded form of the hills, and the horizontal mouldings or
Jlutings which are seen along the faces of many of them, he con-

309

siders as other memorials of the operation in question. The nature
of the rocks is unfavourable for the preservation of smoothed and
: striated surfaces; but Mr Chambers had found one such on the
border of St Mary’s Loch in Selkirkshire, 800 feet above the sea.
: On the assumption that the hills had been shorn and rounded by
moving ice, it appeared from the high inclination of the strata, as
exhibited in a copy of Professor Nicol’s section of the district, that
_ the amount of denudation fully equalled the remarkable examples
3 adduced by Professor Ramsay in regard to South Wales and the
Mendip hills. Finally, Mr Chambers described an example of the
later and limited operations of ordinary glaciers, in the elevated
moor of Loch Skene, a tarn formed and retained by a moraine.

3. Preliminary Notice on the Decompositions of the Platinum
Salts of the Organic Alkalies. By Thomas Anderson,
M.D., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Glasgow.

The following pages are intended merely as a preliminary notice
of an investigation, which has occupied me for some time past, and
which, though still too incomplete for publication in full, is suffi-
ciently advanced to render obvious the general character of the
results, although, from the extensive and elaborate nature of the
inquiry, a very considerable time must elapse before it is complete
in all the requisite details.

It has been known for some years that the platinum salts of the
organic alkalies are decomposed when boiled with excess of bichloride
of platinum ; and with narcotine, the only one as yet examined, the
action is a true process of oxidation, yielding results similar to those
obtained by treating the base with peroxide of manganese or nitric acid.
The present investigation refers to the pure platinum salts, which

undergo an entirely different decomposition, the nature of which is
materially dependent on the stability of the base. Having observed
_ that the decomposition was more precise and definite when the less
_ decomposable bases were employed, and apparently calculated to af-
ford the key to the more complex changes, which occur in other
cases, I have hitherto directed my attention more particularly to
pyridine and picoline, which are so remarkable for their stability ,
VOL, Ill. 2B

310

and especially for the obstinacy with which they resist the action of
oxidizing agents.

When the platinum salt of pyridine, carefully freed from excess of
bichloride of platinum is dissolved in hot water, and the solution kept
steadily boiling for some hours, a fine sulphur yellow crystalline
powder begins to appear. After five or six days’ continuous boiling
the whole of the platinum salt is converted into this substance, but
if the powder be filtered off before the change is complete, the
mother liquid on cooling gives a deposit of fine golden-yellow scales
resembling iodide of lead.

The yellow powder is insoluble in water and acids, and is decom-
posed by potash slowly in the cold, more rapidly on boiling, with the
evolution of pyridine, It is the salt of a platinum base, analogous
to platinamine, to which I give the name of platinopyridine. Its
analysis gave—

Expt. Calculation.
—V————=S« >> —_

Garhon, ) a) sustad W2eea0 7 2419.70.48 Jee
Hydrogen, . : - 2°14 VALU) Wal I 5
Nitrogen, ; : tee §65 "Ne aes
Chlorine, . : : 28°56 2854 Cl, 71:
Platinum , : ! 39°60 3968 Pt 987

100-00 248°7

It is therefore a bihydrochlorate of platinopyridine, with the for-
mula C,, H, Pt N+2H Cl, and the decomposition which yields it
consists simply in the expulsion of an equivalent of hydrochloric acid,
as represented by the equation

C,, H,N, HOlPt C=C, H,PtN+2HCl4+H CL.

The equivalent of hydrochloric acid escapes with extreme slowness,
but the change may be much facilitated by the addition of a sufficient
quantity of pyridine to combine with it, although an excess must be
carefully avoided, as it produces a different decomposition, to be after-
wards described,

Platinopyridine cannot be separated from the bihydrochlorate
by alkalies, but when boiled with salts of silver, the corresponding
salts of the base are obtained, The decomposition, however, is very
slowly effected, and certain changes occur which I am not yet in a
condition satisfactorily to explain. When the hydrochlorate is boiled
with two equivalents of sulphate of silver, it gradually loses its

les

dll

| colour, and the yellow solution produced contains the sulphate of
platinopyridine, which is extremely soluble in water, and dries up
into a gummy mass on evaporation. Considerable difficulties have
been encountered in obtaining the salts of platinopyridine in a
state fitted for analysis, and the only one which has given satisfac-
tory results is the chromate, which is obtained on adding bichromate
of potass to the sulphate, in the form of a fine orange-red precipi-
tate, having the formula C,, H, Pt N HO CrQ,.

When the bihydrochlorate of platinopyridine is boiled with two
equivalents of sulphate or nitrate of silver for a shorter time than is

.— .

requisite for its complete decomposition, and the chloride of silver

collected on a filter, washed and treated with ammonia, it leaves be-
hind a yellow crystalline matter, generally in small quantity. This
: substance is insoluble, or nearly so, in water, but dissolves in boiling
nitric acid, from which it is deposited, on cooling, in beautiful shin-
ing plates. It contains chlorine, but I have not yet succeeded in
explaining its constitution.
The golden yellow scales produced when the ebullition of the pla-
tinum salt of pyridine is stopped before the change into platino-
pyridine is complete, have a very singular constitution, the analysis

giving—

Expt. Calculation.
Carbon, . . : 2270 23:47 C,, 120°
Hydrogen, ‘ : 2°30 2°06 ..cHi nc, «pe
Nitrogen, . é ; avs 526 N, 28
Chlorine, . . ; 82-75 33°24 Cl, 1775
Platinum, . ; ; 3661 36°97 Pt, 197-4
100:00 533°9

and its formula is—
C,, H, N HCl Pt Cl, + C,, H, Pt N 2H Cl,

representing it as a double compound of the original platinum salt
and the bihydrochlorate of platinopyridine. I refrain at present
from discussing its nature.

When the platinum salt of pyridine is boiled with an excess of
pyridine, the fluid becomes extremely dark-coloured, and on evapo-
ration to dryness in the water-bath and addition of water, a dark
solution is obtained, and a crystalline residue left, which is very spa-
tingly soluble in water, more so in boiling alcohol, and is deposited

312

on cooling in small needle-shaped crystals. Its composition was
found to be—

Expt. Calculation.
ee
Carbon, d : 28°31 28:14 ‘Ci 60:
Hydrogen, . ; 2°48 2:34 H, 5°
Nitrogen, : ons 6:58) Ni 14°
Chlorine, ; : 16°69 1665 Cl 355
Platinum, . : 45°83 46°29" PI 98°F
100:00 213-2

This corresponds with the formula C,, H, Pt N + HCl, which is
that of a hydrochlorate of platosopyridine corresponding to the hy-
drochlorate of platosamine. By treatment with nitrate and sulphate
of silver the salts of these acids are produced.

The picoline platinum salt decomposes very slowly, but after eight
or ten days’ boiling a platinopicoline is produced. If a little pico-
line be added to the solution, the change is complete in a few hours.
The bihydrochlorate is insoluble in water, and the double compound
containing that substance in combination with the original salt, and
of which the formula is

C,, H, NHCIPtCl+C,, H, Pt N 2H Cl,

crystallizes in grains, and is much less soluble than the correspond-
ing pyridine compound. The properties of these substances will be
afterwards fully described.

The platinochloride of ethylopyridine is very slowly decomposed
by boiling, but eventually a substance is deposited which as yet has
given only discordant results. A small quantity of pyridine appears
to promote the decomposition, but the most remarkable effect is pro-
duced by the addition of ammonia. The solution in this case is
completely decolorized by a few minutes’ boiling, and it then gives
a white precipitate on the addition of carbonate of ammonia. The
substance so obtained is very sparingly soluble in water, and almost
insoluble in alcohol. Analysis showed it to be Raewski’s carbonate,
the sesquihydrochlorocarbonate of diplatinamine. The action of
ammonia is readily explained by the equation

C,, H, NHCl+Pt Cl, +2HN,=N, H, Pt HCl+C,, H, NHC.

TE —— ell

313

The salt, N, H, Pt HCl, was separated from the fluid and exa-
mined ; it appears to be identical with the substance obtained by
Gerhardt by the action of ammonia on the platinochloride of am-
monium.*

The details of these, and other decompositions, I reserve to a
future time; meanwhile I shall content myself with stating that
most of the platinum salts examined are decomposed by sufficiently
protracted ebullition, although some are extremely stable.

The platinum salt of ethylamine is scarcely changed when boiled
alone, but in presence of excess of base, a substance is produced,
sometimes in yellow, and at other times in purple crystals, which
become yellow at 212°. It appears to be the hydrochlorate of
platosethylamine.

The aniline compound is very easily decomposed, but the products
do not appear to be definite.

The narcotine compound dissolves in a considerable quantity of
hot water, and on boiling the solution at first remains unchanged ;
after some hours, however, it acquires a brown colour, and, a few
minutes’ longer boiling, a black precipitate, containing the whole of
the platinum, but combined with some organic matter, is deposited.
The filtered fluid, on addition of ammonia, gives a precipitate re-
sembling narcotine, but whether it is that base, or a product of de-
composition, I have not determined.

The brucine compound is very sparingly soluble, but if boiled with
water is at length decomposed, with the production of a black
powder ; on filtering a red solution is obtained, which deposits a yel-
low platinum salt on cooling. It is possible, however, that this may
be merely a portion of the original salt, for as soon as the undis-
solved portion had become black I filtered the solution.

I shall not at present enter on the consideration of the inferences
to be drawn from this investigation, further than to observe that it
is likely to modify to some extent certain of the views now enter-

_ tained regarding the constitution of the bases. In the third part of

my investigation of the products of the destructive distillation of ani-
mal substances, I have shown that pyridine and picoline, by taking .
up a single atom of the alcohol radicals, are converted into fixed
bases, so that according to the ordinarily received opinion, they are
nitryl bases in which the whole of the hydrogen is replaced by these

* Comptes Rendus des Travaux Chimiques, 1849, p. 113.

514

different radicals. The production of the platinum bases, however,
shows that they do still contain replaceable hydrogen, so that either
the formation of a fixed base by the addition of one equivalent of a
radical does not prove that they are nitryl bases, or the received
opinion regarding the constitution of the platinum bases must
undergo some modification.

It is clear that at present we cannot attempt any explanation of
these apparently anomalous results ; but Iam now engaged examin-
ing the decompositions of the platinum salts of amide and nitryl
bases containing known radicals, which will probably lead to their
correct explanation.

4, On the Volatile Bases produced by Destructive Distilla-
tion of Cinchonine. By C. Greville Williams, Assistant
to Professor Anderson, Glasgow University.

In this paper the author shows that Cinchonine by distillation
with potash, undergoes a very complex decomposition, and that in-
stead of yielding one base, as has hitherto been supposed, gives at
least seven.

The mode of research at first adopted was to convert the basic
liquid into platinum salt, and separate the bases by fractional erys-
tallization in the manner described in his paper ‘‘ On the Presence
of Pyridine in the Naphtha produced by destructive distillation of
the Bituminous shale of Dorsetshire.”’*

The experiments made in this manner, indicated that several sub-
stances were present, but it was evident that to decide the question, a
very large amount of material would be required; the author there-
fore subjected 100 ounces of cinchonine to distillation with potash,
and thus obtained sufficient of the basic oil to enable him to effect
twelve complete fractionations, involving at least 240 distillations.

Runge’s Pyrrol was present in the crude bases, and was removed
by protracted boiling of the acid solution.

The bases were procured free from water by digestion with potash.
The following fractions were then analysed.

Fraction boiling at 310° F. The basic liquid on analysis gave
numbers exactly agreeing with the formula,

oa Ee IN.

* Philosophical Magazine, Sept. 1854.

315

which is that of Lutidine, a base which has, as yet, only been twice
observed before, it having been discovered in Dippel’s animal oil by
Dr Anderson, and found soon after in Shale Naphtha by the author
of the present paper. Pyridine and picoline were also found by
fractionally crystallizing the platinum salts obtained about this point
in the earlier distillations, but the quantity present was extremely
small.

Fraction boiling between 350° and 360° F. ‘This fraction was
found to consist of collidine, a platinum salt giving on combustion
numbers agreeing closely with the theoretical values. Collidine was
also found in fractions boiling as high as 380° to 390°.

Fraction boiling between 410° and 420° F. Five analyses of
platinum salts obtained at this point indicated the base present to
possess the formula,

OCH R,
being the chinoline of Gerhardt. The author proposes in a future

paper to compare Chinoline with the Leukoline of Hofmann, with a
view of determining the question of their being identical, or merely

isomeric. Chinoline forms by far the greater portion of the basic
~ liquid.

_ Fraction boiling between 510° and 520° F. This was found to
consist of a new base, which the author terms Lepidine, the formula
of which, derived from analyses of the double salt with bichloride of
platinum, the hydrochlorate, nitrate, bichromate, and also the hy-
driodate of the amyl compound, is

oP Hi? WN,

the experimental numbers in each case agreeing closely with those
required by theory.

The author states his belief that several bases said to be the sole
products of certain reactions, as well as some natural ones, will be
found to be mixtures, and he is now examining nicotine with a
view to ascertain whether it is a homogeneous body ; he also gives
the results of some experiments proving pyrrol to be produced by de-
structive distillation of many nitrogenous bodies, and concludes with

316

the following table of the substances analysed by him in the course
of the investigation,—

Platinum salt of Pyridine, 4 ,. CRN. CeCe
», Picoline, ; .) OC! AN Ce rae

hans, ; : ies Ciel 5 ty’)

Platinum, Salt of Padi: : . CGC APN, HCl, Pt C?
2 » Methyllutidine, ., Ci HUN, F Cl Poe
a ;, Collidine, : . » Gls AN, Ch. eae
= ze Sees : » CH TN, FC) Paw

Lepidine, 3 j ee 1C2e HN:

Platinum salt of Lepidine, . . (Co Fe NS 8 CL Pe ee

Hydrochlorate of Lepidine, ° & "ON HEL

Nitrate of Lepidine, ‘ ; . 4° HAN NOt ney

Bichromate of Lepidine, . ; . C?° HN, 2Cr 03, HO

Hydriodate of Amyllepidine, - oe a

Monday, 30th April.

The Very Rev. Principal LEE, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Remarks on the Coal Plant termed Stigmaria. By the
Rev. Dr Fleming.

The author, after noticing the proofs of Stigmaria being the root
of Sigillaria, called attention to the external organs, known formerly
as the leaves, and more recently as the rootlets of the former. He
stated that in the many examples of stigmaria which he had exa-
mined, he had never observed these rootlets articulated to the stem
by anything resembling a ball-and-socket joint, considering the
appearance which had led to this notion as due to shrinkage and
state of preservation.

The views of Dr Hooker, as given in his valuable paper on Stig-
maria in the ‘* Memoirs of the Geological Survey,” vol. ii., p. 437,
were next considered. This acute observer, from an examination
of a particular specimen, concluded that these rootlets, within the
body of the stem, form obconical or flaggon-shaped bases, the sum-

317

mits of which are on a level with the mouths of the cavities in which
they are contained.

In the two specimens which Dr Fleming exhibited from the
Boghead parrot coal,* it clearly appeared that the rootlets commu-
nicated directly with the body or trunk, which in this case had been
filled from within, with the pulpy matter of the coal, and had thus
entered the tubular rootlets which extended for some distance into
the argillaceous matter on the outside. Hence he inferred that the
flaggon-shaped bodies noticed by Dr Hooker were the lower por-
tions of the rootlets, not in the inside, but on the outside of the
stigmaria.

The author next called the attention of the Society to a state-
ment in Dr Traill’s paper on Bitumenite published in the last part
of the ‘Transactions, vol. xxi., p. 10, by which it appeared that “ A
very magnificent specimen of stigmaria in bitumenite (the name
given to the Boghead Parrot), as thick as the human body, had
been deposited by Dr Christison in the University Museum.” The
unusual dimensions here assigned to stigmaria led the author to in-
spect the specimen, when it was found to be a sigillaria similar to
the one which he exhibited from the same coal.

Dr Fleming next exhibited examples of the different quantities
of coal produced by stigmaria, sigillaria, favularia, calamite, stern-
bergia, and lepidodendron, observing that as these plants can fur-
nish coal-making materials separately, and as their remains exist
in coal, it cannot be denied that, in the aggregate, they would be
equally productive ; nor, with these facts in view, could it be main-
tained that coal can only be formed from fir or allied woods,

The author then proceeded to observe that in ordinary house-
hold coals, such as caking, cherry, or splint, each bed is stratified,
and the strata are separated at their partings by patches of fibrous
anthracite, as if formed from broken portions of woody matter. These
partings indicate a recurring intermittency of action, probably arising
from season changes during the accumulation of vegetable matter in
a form analogous to peat, The parrot coals, on the other hand, by the
absence of stratification (being merely laminated or slaty parallel with

* This valuable coal was dug and sold from the lands of Boghead, and known
as the Boghead Parrot or Gas Coal, years before its existence in the lands of
Torbanehill was ascertained, and, therefore, as a designation, has the undoubted
claim of priority.

VOL. 111, 2c

318

the plane of stratification of the neighbouring sedimentary rocks), in-
dicate a more decidedly simultaneous origin, and appear to have been
in the state of disintegrated vegetable matter, mixed more or less
with earthy mud, and distributed like the beds of sandstone and
clays. That these coals were originally clays into which bitumin-
ous matter was injected will not be countenanced by any one ac-
quainted with their structural character, contents and relative posi-
tion. There is no bitumen in the Boghead parrot, nor any sub-
stance analogous to what has been termed ozokerite from Binny
Quarry, to which Dr Bennett has referred. The last substance,
indeed, melts at a heat considerably below that of boiling water.

The pulpy condition of the original material of the parrot coals,
must have been favourable for molecular changes usually termed
metamorphic, which may have so farmodified the forms and structures
of the vegetable tissues as to give them a segregated or concretionary
character.

The author concluded by expressing his regret that Dr Traill, after
the discussions which have taken place in the Society should have
carried his opinion, that the Boghead parrot was a new mineral
species, to which he has given the name of Bitumenite, so very far
as to have published it towards the beginning of the last part of the
Transactions already referred to; for the material in question is
neither chemically, optically, nor mechanically homogeneous, as de-
monstrated in the papers of Professors Bennett and Balfour at the
close of the same part of the Transactions.

2. On Errors caused by Imperfect Inversion of the Magnet
in Observations of Magnetic Declination. By William
Swan, Esq.

The direction of the Magnetic Meridian, as indicated by that of a
freely suspended magnetized needle will generally be erroneous, unless
the magnetic axis of the needle is parallel to its axis of figure; and
hence, in order to obtain an accurate value of the magnetic declina-
tion, it becomes necessary to take the mean of two observations of the
needle, first suspended in its usual position and next inverted. If,
however, the inversion of the needle is not accomplished with perfect
accuracy, the correction, for want of parallelism between the
magnetic axis of the needle, and its axis of figure, will not be com-
plete; and the value of the magnetic declination obtained from the

ot

319

mean of two observations of the needle, first in its usual position,
and then inverted, will be affected with a residual error due to im-
perfect inversion of the needle. The present investigation refers
chiefly to that form of declinometer magnet, in which the magnet is
converted into a collimator by attaching to it a lens and cross fibres
or a divided glass scale, in the principal focus of the lens.

It is shown that the errors due to imperfect inversion may be
computed, provided the magnet is observed, not only in its usual
position, and then inverted,—that is turned 180° round its axis,—
but also, when turned round 90° and 270°.

Putting 6 for the correct reading, for the magnetic meridian on the
limb of the theodolite, used in observing the magnet ; 4,, 6,, 6,, 6,, for
the readings, when the magnet is turned through 0°, 90°, 270°,
360° respectively ; and for the correction to be applied to the value
of the magnetic declination got from the mean of the readings in
the erect and inverted positions of the magnet,

d=} (6,—4,)—«.
The value of ¢ in seconds of arc may then be computed with suf-
ficient accuracy by the following formulee—
ga & (3,95)
~ sin $ (8,—4,)
sin } (8,—8,) sin 3 (8, —3,)
sin hee. T ~ cos B
sin a cos $ (8, +8) sin } (8, — Bs) B,)

a sin 1” sin ) cos 4 (8,—3,)

r sin a cos $ hit bbs) sin (— 5)
2~~sin 1” sin y, sin Y, cos $ (3, —3,)

€= & + £5
Where 8, =8+ 7,3 8;=8 +755
%p Ys Yi Ys and ¥, being angles found by actual observation.

Sn 6 =e

3. On the Accuracy attainable by means of Multiplied
Observations. By Edward Sang, Esq.

On opening any astronomical work of the present day, we are at
first startled by, and then familiarized with, the excessive precision
of the numbers set down. In our Nautical Almanage, for example,

.

320

although referring to a period three or four years subsequent to the
date of publication, the declinations of the stars and planets are set
down to tenths of a second of are, and their right ascensions to
hundredths of a second of time.

Similarly in tables of the geographical positions of observatories,
we find the latitude and longitude often given to the same degrees of
precision ; an accuracy which would affect to discriminate between
the latitudes of the two ends, or the longitudes of the two sides of a
dining table.

Yet it is very much to be doubted if any astronomical instrument
exist, which, by a single observation, is capable of giving the altitude
of a star, or the latitude of a place, true to the nearest second; and
it is also very much to be questioned, whether any ear, however
practised, has acquired such delicacy of perception as to note the
instant of an expected occurrence true to the nearest tenth of a second.

Now, astronomers draw the most important conclusions from the
measurements of minute quantities. Thus, the absolute distances of
the sun and planets are determined from the measurement of an
angle of 8 or 9 seconds, and which is set down as being accurately
8”5776, the unimaginable precision of the last figure being ob-
tained by Professor Encke from observations made in 1761, 1769.

The linear velocity of light, again, is computed from observations
on an angle of some 40”; our knowledge of the relative masses of
the planets is founded on the measurement of minute disturbances,
and our wide guess at the distance of the fixed stars relies on the
perception of a single second of annual parallax amid a heap of un-
certainties of precession, nutation, and proper motion.

It is then of some importance to inquire into the degree of con-
fidence which ought to be placed in such excessively minute deter-
minations, and to distinguish between that degree of precision to
which we have actually attained, and that imaginary exactitude
which is the result of arithmetical operations.

The common method of determining any quantity to an extreme
degree of precision, is to measure that quantity very often, and then
to take the arithmetical mean of the multitude of discordant results,
it being understood that some principle of compensation exists which
renders the mean more trustworthy than any of the actual observa-
tions from which it has been obtained.

It has been plausibly argued against this proceeding that as the

821

mean rarely coincides with any of its constituents, all the evidence
goes to show that it is not the true result. Without, however,
stopping to examine the logical, I proceed to weigh the logistic,
argument which bears upon the matter.

In order to have a case before me, I shall take, as a fair example
of this method, the determination of the latitude of Padua by the
celebrated astronomer, Giovani Santini, in 1811. His process was
to observe the instants when several stars of various declinations
reached a fixed altitude; by which means he depended only on the
going of his clock and the verticality of the axis of his instrument.
From sixteen sets of such observations he obtained the following re-
sults with their mean.

I. 45° 23/ 56-" , X. 45° 23' 59-4”
me te: age XL. 45 23 59°
7 Ill. 45 24 46 Mi. de ae ay
IV. 45 23 560 XII. 45 24 44
{ Vo 4B 980 ‘yg XIV. 45 24 30
: VI. 45 24 62 XV. 45 23 585
VIL. 45 24 31 XVI. 45 24 0-7
VIII. 45 24 3-2
ee 4b Da aS Medio ditutti 45 24 2:16

Now, on glancing at these numbers, we observe that two of them
are no less than 6:16 below, and one 5” above the mean; and
these variations would seem to show, not that we have obtained a
latitude which can be depended upon to the nearest second, but that
the observations are not to be trusted to nearer than ten seconds;
and amid these disagreements, Signor Santini’s concluding remark
sounds strangely,

‘Si pud pertanto stabilire la latudine dell’ osservatorio di Padova
— in numeri rotondi 45° 24’ 2”,”

It would seem that, unless these results have been connected to-
gether by some law that would insure the compensation of errors,
the only conclusion that we are entitled to come to is, that the lati-
tude of the Observatory of Padua is between 45° 23' 56” and
45° 24’ 0-7".

Taking, then, this example as a general type of such proceedings ;
q I observe that there are two distinct sets of cases; viz., those where

322

a known law of compensation exists; and those in which the sepa-
rate observations and their errors are independent of each other.

Thus, when we repeat the measurements of an angle upon
different parts of a circle, we are certain that, however erroneous
the division may be, the entire circumference is 360, and that,
therefore, an error of defect in one part, implies one of excess in
another part of the limb. Again, if we read at three or five places
equidistant from each other, we know that that part of the inaccu-
racy which arises from the eccentricity of the fittings, is eliminated.
Or if we take an altitude face East and then face West, we know
that the two errors arising from a misplacement of the zero com-
pensate for each other. But in all those cases where the compen-
sating principle exists, a result from which any of the compensating
quantities is excluded, cannot be considered as that of a complete
observation ; thus an altitude face East, without its complementary
altitude face West, could not be used to found upon; and those only
in which the compensating principle has had full scope, can be ad-
mitted to be observations.

Thus it seems that our attention need only be given to those
cases in which no law of compensation is known to exist: of which
our example is one.

As there existed no particular reason why one set of stars should
have been taken rather than another, Signor Santini might have
chanced to make only observations I. and IV., and he would have
had strong reason to believe the latitude to be 45° 23’ 56”; or
if the weather had permitted him to make only observations ITI.,
TX., XII., and XIII., he would have concluded that the true lati-
tude is 45° 24’ 04”. Within the limits of the errors to which the
particular class of observations is liable, it is difficult to adduce any
argument in favour of one rather than another, in fact, it is a matter
of accident, what result is arrived at.

That we may have a clear view of the subject, suppose that, in
order to measure a given angle, a circle is used of, say, 30 inches
diameter, divided to 10”, and carrying a telescope powerful enough
to render an angle of 10” quite appreciable ; suppose also, that the
graduation is perfect, and that by the first observation the angle
comes out so many degrees, minutes, and say 40”. If we measure
the angle again we shall obtain the same result 40”, and if again
and again, and again, still the same 40”; and it is quite clear, that

323

however often we may repeat the observation, the mean will still
remain 40’, Yet all the while the true angle may be 41, 42, 43,
or even 44”; and it would appear that with such an instrument, an
infinity of observations could give us no better a result than a single
one.

But if I apply to the same purpose a ten-inch circle carrying a
twelve-inch telescope with which 10” can only be estimated, and
having its graduation pushed somewhat beyond the limits of work-
manship, I find my measurements to fluctuate from 20” to 60’.
Then the advantage of multiplied observations becomes apparent,
and twenty operations give us a result different from that given by
ten; and if we admit this system of averaging, we are carried to
the absurd conclusion that a small instrument gives more exact
results than a large instrument does.

In truth, this averaging of multiplied observations is a fallacy ;
if the results agree, the averaging is useless ; if they do not agree,
their discordance affords evidence that the means employed are in-
sufficient to procure the accuracy aimed at.

The same remarks apply to time-observations. To observe the
meridian passage of a star we note the instant of its appulse to
each of the vertical wires, add the results and take the mean, so
that if there be a considerable number of wires, great precision is
expected. Now, at each wire we can only, and with hesitation,
note the time to the nearest tenth of a second. Suppose that we
can do so absolutely, and imagine the wires so placed, that the time
of passing from the one to the other is exactly a number of tenths.
Then, if the true time of appulse to the first wire were, -04”, the
observed would differ from the true by .04” at each one of the wires,
and the mean would err also by that quantity. Now, there are
many declinations which give the interval of passage from wire to
wire an exact number of tenths, so that, even supposing the ear

perfect to the nearest tenth of a second, there must be many cases
in which the average may be -04” wrong.

Taking into account the various sources of error in the gradua-
tion and adjustment of instruments, we can scarcely assume that the
declination of any star is known certainly to half a second of are, or
its right ascension to the twentieth second of time ; and it appears
that the true use of multiplied observation is to guard against blun-
ders in reading off, and to indicate the degree of confidence which is

324

to be placed in our results. A quantitative statement in any branch
of physical science should give, along with the numerical result, the
limit or probability of error, and conclusions drawn from such num-
bers ought to be made with the probabilities of error full in view.
Increased exactitude is only to be obtained by improvements in the
means of observing.

The subject may be presented in another light. Assuming that
there is some unknown influence tending to derange our otherwise
perfect observations, we may try to obtain some estimate of its
amount. If we were to take the errors as indicating the intensity
of the influence, the sum of these errors being zero when the
mean is assumed as true, would give zero for the entire influence,
hence we must take, with Legendre, the square of the error as
the measure of intensity. In this way, the sum of the squares
of the deviations from the mean may represent the entire force
of the deranging influence, and thence the deranging influence on
one observation may be estimated. Following this mode with
Santini’s latitudes, we find 8’°34 as the probable error; but
whether this is to be regarded as the probable error of all, or of one
of the observations, is not very clear: indeed the whole doctrine is
hypothetical. If we grant the soundness of the method of minimum
squares, it is easy to show that the probable or possible error of the
result is about three-tenths of the ultimate division of the apparatus.

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-
low :—
Dr Wrigut, F.G.S8., of Cheltenham.

iii

| | PAGE
i . On an Inaccuracy (having its greatest value about 1") in the

er _ usual method of computing the Moon’s Parallax. By
ss Epwarp Sane, Esq., : , . > See

pois ae Monday, 5th March 1855.
; ve On Annelid Tracks i in the Exploration of the Millstone Grits

ee in the South-west of the County of Clare. By Roser

eS : a _ Harxyezss, Esq. ., F.G.S., Professor of ees Queen’s —
College, Cork, . 294

po On Superposition. By Professor Kenzanp, . 296

i On the Colonring Matter of the Rottlera tinctoria. By

ra Tuomas Anperson, M.D., Regius Professor of i hetnis

3 try in the University of Glasgow, . ae ie 296

. Donations to the Library, 4 jas 7 oS ae

a Ne af

oS si Monday, 19th March 1855.

_ Experiments on Colour as perceived by the Eye, with Re-
eo marks on Colour-Blindness. By James Curnk Max-
‘oa WELL, Esq., B.A., Trinity College, Cambridge. Com-
- munieated by Professor Grecory, . 299
Notice of the Occurrence of British newer Plicomie Shells
4 in the Arctic Seas, and of Tertiary Plants in Greenland.
In a letter from Dr Scouxar of Dublin, Communicated

. by James Smurn, Esq., of Jordanhill, §. . 301
- Monday, 2d April 1855.

— Wn. Thomson's “ Solar Refraction.” x Ere, C.
Prazzi Smyru, . 302
the Extent to which the Theory of Vision requires us to

| eae
Sh on the Mints of the Fatty Acids. By Ruched
H. Rowney, Ph.D., Assistant to Dr Anderson. Com-
ae. municated by Dr Anerson, ; : . 805 -

lv

Monday, 16th April 1855.

PAGE
Notice of Some new Forms of British Fresh-Water Diato-

macee. By Witt1am Grecory, M.D., Professor of

Chemistry, ; . * 306
On Glacial Phenomena in Peebles and Selkirk Shires. By

Rosert CuamBeErs, Esq., Xc., ; . 3808
Preliminary Notice on the Decompositions of the Platinum

Salts of the Organic Alkalies. By THomas ANDERSON,

M.D., Regius Professor of Chemistry in the Valea

of Glasgow, : 309
On the Volatile Bases saeeca by Testoietie Distillation

of Cinchonine. By C, Grevitte Witiiams, Assistant

to Professor Anderson, Glasgow University, -. >See

Monday, 30th April 1855.

Remarks on the Coal Plant termed it By the Rey.
Dr FLEMING, ; 316
On Errors caused by sath Inversion of the Mapes in
Observations of Magnetic Declination. By Witiiam
Swan, Esq., : 318
On the Accuracy attainable by means of Multiplied Obevies’
vations, By Epwarp Sane, Esq., : - ge iele

PROCEEDINGS

“ oe ‘OF THE

is goes ee ;

( Bee

PAGE
Wis i Plague i in Scotland during the
jeventéenth Oe ase By Roserr
326
tions. By Professor Kicks 826
Tron in Liberia, in Africa. From a Pa
A. A. A. ‘Hayes, Chemist, Boston, U.S., to
Communicated gba Gre-
bah ~ he ene erent

2 ‘yg SNS - PONS

332

coi [Turn over.

ii

Monday, 7th January 1856.

Remarks by Professor Christison in delivering the Keith
Medal to Dr Anderson of Glasgow, :

Geometry a Science purely Experimental. By Epwarp
SANG,

Notice respecting feat Tinctvencs on iis Aafasitnent of
the Eye to Distinct Vision. By Professor Goonsir,

Monday, 21st January 1856,

Memoir of Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin. By Sir Jonw
Ricuarpson, C.B. Communicated by Professor Bat-
FOUR,

On the Geological Ralstionis of the Reeders and Piaigeh
Rocks of the Chain of Mont Blanc. By Professor
Forses,

Monday, 4th February 1856.

On the Turkish Weights and Measures. By Epwarp-

Sane, Esq.,

Observations on Pulpicinats Artaxerxes, the Scotch Rene,
By Dr W. H. Lowe,

On Solar Light, with a Description of a Simple Bhotamees:
By Muneo Ponroy, Esq.,

Monday, 18th February 1856.

On certain Cases of Binocular Vision, By Professor Wit-
t1AM B. Rocers. Communicated by Professor Ket-
LAND,

PAGE
337
341

343

347

348

349

385

356 ©

'Pheory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic -

Bodies. Part I. By Evwarp Sane, Esq.,

358.

[For continuation of Contents see page 3 of Cover.

325

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. III. 1855-56. No. 46.

SEVENTY-THIRD SESSION.
Monday, 26th November 1855.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Council were elected :—

President.
Sm T. MAKDOUGALL BRISBANE, Br., G.C.B., G.C.H.

Vice-Presidents.

Sir D. Brewster, K.H. Dr Curistison,
Very Rev. Principal Ler. Dr Atison.
Right Rev. Bishop Trrror. Hon. Lord Murray.

General Secretary,—Professor Forses.
Secretaries to the Ordinary Mectings,—Dr Grecory, Dr Batrour.
Treasurer,—Joun Russet, Esq.
Curator of Library and Instruments, —Dr Trattt.
Curator of Museum,—James Wixson, Esq.

Counsellors.

_ Dr Groner Witson. Colonel Mappen.
Cuartes Macraren, Esq. James Cunnincuam, Esq.
Rev. Dr Rozert =x. Dr GRevILLF,

Prof. C. Prazzi Smyrtu. A. Kerra Jounston, Esq.
Hon. B, F. Primrose. Dr Mactaaan.

Sir Wiit1am Ginson-Caarc, Bart. Wiaiti1am Sway, Esq.
VOL. Ill. 2D

326

Monday, 3d December 1855.
Riegut Rev. BisHop TERROT in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Occurrences of the Plague in Scotland during the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. By Robert Cham-
bers, Esq.

In this paper the author adduced, from contemporary chroniclers
and diarists, all the visits of the Pest or Plague which occurred in
Scotland after 1560; namely, in the years 1568, 1574, 1585,
1587, 1597, 1607, 1622, and 1645. He cited, from the same
sources of information, the notable instances of scarcity and famine;
namely, 1563, 1568, 1574, 1578, 1587, 1596, 1598, 1612, 1622,
1642-3. It thus appeared, that while there were several instances
of famine not followed by the Pest, there was scarcely one instance
of the Pest which was not immediately preceded by a famine. So
far the opinion of modern medical writers, that deficient nutrition in
the community is one of the predisposing causes of pestilential fevers,
may be considered as borne out by facts.

2. On a Problem in Combinations. By Professor Kelland.

This was a problem proposed some years ago by Professor Forbes,
when discussing the question of the distribution of the stars. Simple
as it is, no prior notice seems to have been taken of it, nor is the
author aware that the full solution has yet been given. The prob-
lem is this :—‘“ There are n dice, each of which has p faces, p being
not less than x ; it is required to find the number of arrangements
which can be formed with them; Is¢, ‘‘ that no two shall show the
same face; 2d, that no three shall show the same face, and so on.”
The only part of this problem of which the solution has yet ap-
peared is the first, and the result is p(p—1) .... (p—n+]1).
The author supplies the solution of the remaining portions.

OE

327

3. Occurrence of Native Iron in Liberia, in Africa. From
a Letter of Dr A. A. Hayes, Chemist, Boston, U. S., to
Professor H. D. Rogers. Communicated by Dr Gregory.

Dr Hayes states that there is evidence establishing the fact that
pure native iron exists abundantly in the country back from the
central part of the colony of Liberia. arly travellers state that
the natives of Africa find iron ore so pure, that they heat and ham-
mer it into form. Explorations by the Liberians show that the
inhabitants of towns are engaged in manufacturing iron, and an in-
telligent native has recently shown how it is done. Last year a
mass was sent home by a working blacksmith, who cut it with a
chisel from a mass of larger size connected with rock. This proved
to be native iron, malleable and ductile, yet unequal in its molecular
structure. The general arrangement of the particles is unlike that
of any artificial iron known, and there are among the iron particles
of crystalline and transparent quartz, octahedral crystals of magnetic
oxide of iron, and one of the silicates of soda and lime. No traces
of carbon exist in connection with it, and no piece of artificial iron
has yet reached-Dr Hayes which does not contain carbon. When
analysed by Dr Hayes’ mode of electrolysis, it rapidly shows points
which are positive to the surrounding portions, and, the action pro-
ceeding, the mass becomes honeycombed in texture, while the final
chemical result is—.

Pure iron, F , : 98-40
Quartz, magnetic oxide iron, and silicate lime, 1:60
100-

The positive points are the crystalline aggregates of the simple
minerals, the iron in immediate contact being more open in texture,
and always positive in relation to the crystals which are negative.

Professor Rogers supported the view taken by Dr Hayes of the
genuineness of the alleged native iron from Africa, by testifying to
the experience of that chemist in the technical examination of ma-
nufactured iron, and by the statement of his belief, derived from a
comparison of many analyses, that the presence of carbon in an iron
is the best test of its having been artificially brought to the metallic

state. The reputed telluric iron of Canaan in Connecticut, is almost
2n2

328

the only instance in which an alleged native iron has been reported
to have been met with, not in loose masses, but in the form of a
mineral lode, that of Canaan being stated to be a true vein two
inches thick in mica slate. The detection of carbon in this iron
proves the specimens to be spurious, and confirms an impression long
prevalent among American mineralogists, that the original state-
ment about this vein was founded either in mistake or fraud. An
examination of the best authenticated records of native telluric iron
tends certainly to reduce the number of the genuine instances, if we
accept the carbon test ; yet the authorities for the existence of such
are too many and too respectable to justify the general incredulity
in regard to the presence of native iron on our globe. The state-
ment that this African iron is manufactured in seven villages, is an
intimation that it exists in considerable quantity, more than would
be compatible with the supposition that it is merely a large mass of
meteoric iron. But the fact, particularly significant, against its
being native meteoric iron, is the total absence of nickel from its
composition, as shown in the full analysis given by Dr Hayes. The
absence of carbon indicates it not to be of human fabrication ; that
of nickel proves it not to be meteoric. Should it really be shown,
by further exploration, to exist in quantity, its occurrence on the
frontier of a Liberian colony, by presenting another incentive to the
settlement of that region by civilized men pursuing the arts of
peace, cannot but be regarded as full of good omen for the cause of
humanity in Africa.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected Ordinary
Fellows :—

James Hay, Esq., Leith, | BR. M. Smiru, Esq.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :-—

Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Vol. IV., Part3.
8vo.— From the Society.

The Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland. (N.S.) Nos. XLIX, L.
8vo.—From the Society.

Transactions of the Architectural Institute of Scotland. Session,
1854-5. 8vo.—From the Institute.

—————— ee

——

a al

329

Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. VII., No. 14. 8vo.—
From the Society.

Results of Astronomical Observations, made at the Observatory of
the University, Durham, from October 1849 to April 1852,
under the general direction of the Rev. Temple Chevallier,
B.D., F.R.A.S. By R. C. Carrington, Esq., B.A., F.R.A.S.
8vo,— From the Observatory.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries.
Vol. V., Part 4; Vol. V. Part 1. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVIII., Parts
1, 2, 3. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. II., Parts
1, 2,3. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London, Vol. IX.
Part 4. 8vo.—From the Society.—

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.. Vol. XIV.
8vo. From the Society.

The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. Vol. XXIV. 8vo.
—From the Society.

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ire-
land. Vol. XV., Part 2. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin. Vol. VI. Part 2. 8vo.
—From the Society.

The Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. Vol. VIII,
Part 2. 8vo.—F rom the Society.

Notices of the Meetings of the Members of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain. Part V.—From the Institution.

Proceedings of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society.
Session 1854-5, 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nos. 70,71, 72. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society. Vols. I.
II. III., Part 1. 8vo.—F rom the Society.

Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.
2d Series, Vol. XI., XII. 8vo.—From the Society.

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Prof.
Silliman and Dana. Nos. 57,58, 59. | 8vo—From the
Editors,

330

Collection of Charts published at the Hydrographic Office, London.
8vo.—From the Admiralty.

Ornithological Synonyms, by the late Hugh Edwin Strickland, M.A.
Edited by Mrs H. E. Strickland and Sir W. Jardine, Bart.
Vol. I. 8vo.—From the Editors.

Astronomical Observations, made at the Radcliffe Observatory, By
Manuel J. Johnstone, M.A., 1850, 1851, 1852. 8vo.—
From the Observatory.

Archeologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity, pub-
lished by the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. XXXI.
4to.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Vol. II,
No. 52. 8vo.—From the Society.

Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Histological Series con-
tained in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of
England. Prepared for the Microscope. Vol. II. 4to,—
From the College.

Assault of Sevastopol. Two Topographical and Panoramic Sketches,
representing the advanced lines of attack, and the Russian de-
fences, in front of Sevastopol, with a description and remarks.
The sketches by Capt. M. A. Biddulph, R.A. Fol. 2 copies.
From Capt. Younghusband.

Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. Vol. 4, Parts
2,3. 4to.—From the Society.

The Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of James
Waitt, illustrated by his correspondence with his friends, and
specification of his patents. By James Patrick Muirhead, Esq.,
M.A., 3 vols. 4to.—From the Author.

Researches on Colour Blindness, by George Wilson, M.D., 8vo.—
From the Author.

Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Hon. East
India Company’s Observatory, Bombay, in the year 1851. 4to.
—From the Hon. East India Company.

Astronomical and Magnetical, and Meteorological Observations made
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1853, 4to.
—From the Observatory.

Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XXIII., 4to.—
From the Society.

331

Abstracts from the Meteorological Observations taken at the Stations
of the Royal Engineers in the year 1853-4. Edited by Lieut.
Col. H. James, R.E. 4to.—From the Editor.

Papers read at the Royal Institute of British Architects. Session
1854-5. 4to.—From the Institute.

Memoir of Robert Troup Paine. By his Parents. 4to.

Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By Martyn Paine,M.D. 12mo.

The Institutes of Medicine. By Martyn Paine, M.D. 8vo.

Medical and Physiological Commentaries. By Martyn Paine, M.D.

3 Vols. 8vo.
A Discourse on the Soul and Instinct. By Martyn Paine, M.D.
18mo.

Reports and State Documents published by the Senate of Washing-
ton.— From the Senate of Washington.

Documents relating to the Colonial History of the Staté of New York.
Vols. III. and IV. 4to.—F rom the State of New York.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. VII. 4to.

Smithsonian Report. On the Construction of Catalogues of Libraries,
and a General Catalogue. 8vo.

Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution.—From the Institution.

Bulletins de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des
Beaux Arts de Belgique. Tome XXI., 2™° Partie. Tome
XXII. 1'e Partie. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Essai d’ une Géographie Physique de la Belgique. Par J.C. Houzeaa,
8v0.—From the Author.

Mémoires Couronnés et mémoires des savants étrangers, publiées par
l’Académie Royale de Belgique. Tome VI., 2™¢ Partie. 8vo.
—From the Academy.

Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universitiit und der Konigl.
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. 1854. Nos.
1-17. 12mo0.—From the Society.

Annalen der Kéniglichen Sternwarte bei Miinchen. VII. Band.
8yo.

Jahresbericht der Miinchener Sternwarte fiir. 1854. 8vo.—From
the Observatory.

Monatsbericht der Kénigl. Preus, Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin, August, December. 1854. 8vo.—F'rom the Academy.

Abhandlungen der Mathematisch-physikalischen Classe der Koeni-

332

glich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. VII. Bd., 2
Abtheil. 4to.

Abhandlungen der Historischen Classe der Koeniglich Bayerischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften. VI. Bd., 2 Abtheil. 4to.—
From the Academy.

Preisschriften gekrént und herausgegeben von der Fiirstlich Jablon-
owskischen Gesellschaft zu Leipzig. No.5. 8vo.—F rom the
Society.

Nova Acta Academic Cesare: Leopoldino-Carolinee Nature Curio-
sorum. Vol. 24, Pars2. 4to.—From the Academy.

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bd. VIII.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bd. XIV. and
Bd. XV. Heft land 2. 8yo.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Philosophische historische Classe. Bd. XIV. and Bd. XV.
Heft 1. 8vo.

Almanach der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 1855.
12mo.— From the Academy.

Monday, 17th December 1855.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Geological Notes on Banffshire. By R. Chambers, Esq.,
F.R.S.E., &e.

The author described the succession of pleistocene beds at Gamrie,
on the coast of Banffshire, as follows (ascending order) :—1, boulder
clay ; 2, a thick bed of sand; 3, a thin bed of brick clay ; 4, a thick
bed of sand; 5, a thick bed of brick clay ; 6, a bed of sand, contain-
ing shells of arctic character entire ; 7, a moderately thick bed of
pure clay; 8, a thick bed of sand; 9, a thin bed of ferruginous
gravel (which Mr Chambers regards as the equivalent of the upper
till, or coarse gravel, of other geologists) ; 10, a thick bed of soft
blue clay ; 11, a thick mass of sand rising to the top of an eminence
on which is a vitrified fort. Owing to the great scale on which the
formation is presented,and the clearness of the section exposed towards
the sea, this is an unusually favourable situation for studying the

_—-. °° °° ™

le a itn old

333

Scottish pleistocenes. The shells are the well known Astarte arctica,
Natica clausa, Tellina proxima, §c.

At Stracheres, on Kineddart Water, six miles inland, the same
shells are found in the boulder clay, in a broken state ; and opposite
Kineddart Castle near by, they are found entire in a sand-bed about
thirty feet above the rock, and overlaid with the same ferruginous
gravel.

The noted clay bed, containing boulders with lias fossils, at Black-
pots, near Banff, Mr Chambers considers as one of the brick clay
beds.

At this latter situation the author found a large terrace or ancient
sea margin at 64 or 65 feet above the present sea level, and corre-
sponding in elevation to one seen in various other parts of the island.
He traced an alluvial terrace of very conspicuous appearance, at
about 167 feet above the sea, along both sides of the Deveran River
and the minor vale of Turreff, the town of Turreff being seated on it.
Another, somewhat higher, is equally prominent in the Kineddart
valley.

In the Deveran valley, opposite to Eden Castle, Mr Chambers
discovered what he regards as a fine example of an ancient moraine,
It commences at the border of a tributary rivulet at Auchinbeddie,
and curves for a mile upwards along the hill side, forming an irre-
gular ridge of detrital matter about thirty feet high: the other wing
of the same moraine is traceable on the other side of the rill. The
little valley of the tributary stream has been the bed of the glacier
by which this moraine was formed. On the surface, at short inter-
vals, are flat indentations, surfaced with alluvial matter, and corre-
sponding in level with the two terraces ; so that they may be assumed
as having been formed by the sea, when it was at the corresponding
relative levels.

The author connected this fact of a submergence posterior to the
period of local glaciers, with the fact, which he had ascertained in
Arran, that that period again was subsequent to a former submer-
gence, during which the noted terrace of erosion round the west coast
of Scotland (twenty-five feet above the present sea level) was formed ;
and, seeing it thus proved that the period of local glaciers was one
of elevation, inferred that the cause of the lower temperature of that
era was simply our mountain valleys being raised within the region
of the snow line.

334

2. On the Physical Geography of the Old Red Sandstone
Sea of the Central District of Scotland. By Henry
Clifton Sorby, F.G.S. Communicated by Professor
Balfour.

The author endeavours to show that in the Old Red Sandstone
period there extended across Scotland a branch of the sea or strait,
whose northern shore was somewhere in the line of the mica schist
rocks which extend from Aberdeen to the mouth of the Clyde, and its
southern in the direction of the Greywacke rocks that run across from
St Abb’s Head to Wigtonshire. In this, at the earlier part of the
period, there were considerable tidal currents ; but when the upper
beds were deposited, they were more or less completely absent, and
there were present such as were chiefly due to the action of the wind.

He shows that there is a most intimate connection between the
physical geography of a sea and the currents present in it, and that
even their directions and characters can be ascertained from the
structures produced in the deposits formed under their influence ;
therefore, the physical geography of our ancient seas may be in-
ferred within certain limits.

He applies these general principles to the facts seen in the Old
Red Sandstone of Scotland, and endeayours to show that the ap-
pearances presented indicate the effects of tidal oscillations.

The Council announced that it had awarded the Keith Prize
for the Biennial Period ending April 1855, to Dr Thomas
Anderson for his Papers on the Crystalline Constituents of
Opium, and on the Products of the Destructive Distillation
of Animal Substances, both printed in the Transactions.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der reinen, pharmaceutischen

und technischen Chemie, &c. Herausg. von Liebig und
Kopp. 1854. 8vo.—From the Editors.

Die Fortschritte der Physik in den Jahren, 1850, 1851, 1882.
Dargestellt von der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Bd. XV., Heft. 2&3; Bd. XVI Heft. 1. Philosophisch-Histo-
rische Classe. 8vo.

ee

-

i itt i el ee

335

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bd. XV. Heft. 3;
Bd. XVI. Heft. 1. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Abhandlungen der Philosoph.—Philologischen Classe der Koeniglich
Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Bd. XVII., 2
Abtheil. 4to.

Denkrede auf die Akademiker Dr Thaddius Liber und Dr Georg
Simon Ohm, von Dr Lamont. 4to.

Almanach der Kéniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
fiir das Jahr 1855. 12mo.—From the Acddemy.

Archives du Muséum d’ Historie Naturelle-publiées par les professeurs-
administrateurs de cet établissement. Tome VII. Liv., 3&4;
Tome VIIL., Liv. 1 & 2. 4to.—From the Museum.

Aanteekeningen van het verhandelete in de Sectie Vergaderingen
van het Provinciaal Utretsch Genootschop van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen. 1845-54. 8vo.

Verhandeling over de verdiensten van Gijsberet Karel van Hogen-
dorp, als Stautshuishoudkundige ten aanzien van Nederlands,
door M. O. Van Rees. 8vo.

Description de l’ Observatoire météorologique et magnétique 4 Utrecht.
Par P. W. C. Krecke, 8vo,—From the Academy.

Astronomical and Meteorological. Observations made at the Radcliffe
Observatory in the year 1853, under the superintendence of
Manuel J. Johnson. M.A. Vol. XIV. 8v0.—By the Trustees.

Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna.
Tomo V. 4to.—From the Academy.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nos. 3& 4. 1855. 8vo.

_ —From the Society.

Almanaque Nautico para el ano 1856, calculado de orden de J. M.
en el Observatoro de Marina dela Ciudad de San Fernando.
8vo.—From the Observatory.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-KGniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
1854. Nos. 2,3, and 4. 8vo.—From the Institute,

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. 4i™* Serie. Tom. 8 and
9. 8vo.— From the Society.

Berichte iiber die Verhandlungen der Koéniglich Sichsischen Ge-
sellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. 1854-5. 8vo.—
From the Society.

336

Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou. 1853,
Nos. 3 and 4. 1854. No.1. 8vo.—From the Society.

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. Published by the Royal Medical
and Chirurgical Society of London. Second Series, Vol. XX.
8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. Vols. I. II. III.
8v0.—F rom the Society.

Transactions of the Pathological Society of London. Vol. VI.
8vo.—F rom the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XVIII. Part 4.
8v0.—F rom the Society.

Observations Météorologiques faites & Nijné Tagulsk (Monts Oural).
Governement de Perm. 1850-51-52-53. 8vo.

Collection of Naval Charts from the Depét General de la Marine.
8v0o.—F rom the French Government.

Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.
2de Deel. to.

Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetens-
chappen. 24 Deel. 3°° Stuk. 34 Deel. 1ste & 24e Stuk. 8vo.

Catalogus der Boekeri van de Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-
schappen, gevestigd te Amsterdam, 1ste Afler. 8vo.—From
the Academy.

Analytisch-geometrische Untersuchungen iiber Allgemeine Ver-
wandtschafts- Verhiltnisse von Coordinaten-Systemen. Von
J. G. H. Swellengoebel. 4to.—From the Author.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar. 1853. 8vo.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Ofversigt. 1854. 8vo.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Arsberattelser af Wikstrom 8 vo.

Kongl. Vetenskaps Akademiens Arsberattelser af Boheman. 8vo.
—From the Academy.

Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. Tome
XIV. 4to.—From the Academy.

Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des
Beaux Arts de Belgique. Tomes XXVIII. XXIX. 4to.—
From the Academy.

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Ma-
thematisch Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. B49. 4to.

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Phi-
losophisch Historische Classe. B* 6. to.

337

Jahrbiichr der K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erd-
magnetismus, Von Karl Kreil. III. Bd. 1851. 4to.—
From the Academy,

Bulletin der Kénigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Miinchen).
Nos. 1-52. 4to.—From the Academy.

Compte rendu Annuel, par le Directeur de l’Observatoire Physique
Central, A. T. Kupffer, 1858. 4to—From the Editor.

Della vita e delle opere di Guido Bonatti, Astrologo ed Astronomo
del secolo decimoterzo notizie raccolte da B. Boncompagni.
8v0o.— From the Author.

Annuaire de I’Académie Royale des Sciences, &c. de Belgique.
1854-55. 12mo.

Académie Royale de Belgique, Bibliographie Académique. 1854.
12mo,

Annuaire de l’Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles. 1854-55, 12mo,

Almanach Seculaire de l’Observatoire R. de Bruxelles, 1854.
12mo.—From the Academy.

Monday, 7th January 1856.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Professor Christison, in delivering the Keith Medal to Dr
Anderson of Glasgow, made the following remarks :—

Dr Anderson—It is a peculiar pleasure to me to be the organ of
the Society this evening for presenting to you this token of the ap-
probation of this Society and its Council.

As there must be many now present who are unacquainted
with the origin, conditions, and mode of adjudication of the Keith
Prize, I hope that others will bear with me for a moment till
I state these very briefly. The prize was founded by the late
Sir Alexander Keith of Dunottar and Ravelston, to be given
to the author of the best paper read in this Society during each
successive biennial period. The Council were appointed to ad-
minister the fund, and to adjudicate the prize. The adjudica-
tion is determined by advice of a committce of the Council spe-
cially nominated for the purpose. Having been a member of
the Council almost since the foundation of the prize, and re-
peatedly a member of the Prize Committee, I can testify to the
exceeding care, and anxiety, and impartial disposition of the Com-

338

mittee and Council on all occasions. The best proof, perhaps, to
this effect is that their award, so far as I am aware, has never been
subjected to challenge in the public prints; nor have I ever heard
it criticised even in private society. A still more satisfactory proof,
as some may think, is the eminence of the men to whom the prize
has hitherto been awarded. The first was awarded in 1828 to Sir
David Brewster; the next to Mr Graham, now Master of the
Mint; Sir David Brewster then received it a second time; our
much esteemed secretary, Professor Forbes, has been twice simi-
larly honoured; another was awarded to Mr Scott Russell for his
researches on the “* Wave-theory ;” another to Mr Shaw for his
experiments on the development and growth of the salmon, which
have yielded since most important practical results; another to
our revered president—whose duty I am now, in his unavoidable
absence, inadequately discharging—for his laborious and munificent
*¢Magnetical Observations ;’’ and the last awards were to Profes-
sor Kelland and Mr Macquorn Rankine for elaborate and import-
ant mathematical investigations. I do not state these facts for the
sake of taking any credit to the Council for the discharge of a duty,
but in order that Dr Anderson himself, as well as his fellow-mem-
bers of this Society, may duly appreciate that gentleman’s honour-
able exertions, which have yielded results entitling him to be simi-
larly rewarded on the present occasion, and to be associated with
such predecessors.

Among the previous awards I may be permitted, I hope, to
advert to certain circumstances connected with the last adjudica-
tion of the Keith Prize for a chemical paper—namely, to Mr
Graham in 18384, for his admirable researches on the ‘‘ Law
of the Diffusion of Gases.” For it was this paper, and in some
measure the reading of it in this Society, which laid the foundation of
his fortunes. The paper excited intense interest at the time in the
Society, both among scientific members and others; and his name in
consequence became well known to many. It may not perhaps
be known to Mr Graham himself, but when he was a candidate for
the chair of chemistry in University College, London, reference
was made by the College authorities to several Fellows of this So-
ciety; and I have reason to know that the unanimous opinion,
greatly deduced from his paper, and expressed in reply to these
inquiries, had much to do with his appointment to succeed the late

fe aS Ore

339

Dr Turner. The present is only the second occasion, and after an
interval of twenty-one years, that the prize has been assigned for a
chemical paper. I do not know what the chemists have been about
in the interval, but it is to be hoped that they may now be stimulated
by Dr Anderson’s successful example.

It is usual for one in my present position to give some account of
the researches for which the prize has been adjudicated by the Council.
This, however, I will, I daresay, be excused for not attempting. The
papers—for they are two in number—are on “ the Products of the De-
structive Distillation of Organic Substances,”’ and on “ the Crystalline
Bodies obtained from Opium.” I find it impossible to give an ade-
quate analysis of these papers which would not be too tedious for
delivery now. In fact, they are scarcely capable of abbreviation, and
must be perused in their entire state, in order to be followed. In
the course of his experiments on both subjects, Dr Anderson has
examined a great many bodies previously known, and discovered
others of great scientific interest, and ascertained the composition of
all, notwithstanding that they are all of great complexity. I must
be satisfied with merely informing that great proportion of his fel-
low-members who may find it difficult to follow his elaborate re-
searches, that they belong to the most recondite and difficult de-
partment of chemical analysis. It has happened that, with only
one or two exceptions, the Keith Prize has been assigned to
authors who have not only written each a paper of high merit,
but have likewise contributed many others of value to our pro-
ceedings. So it is in the present instance. Dr Anderson, when
a very young chemist, communicated to the Royal Society his first
paper in 1842, only one year after his graduation, on the analysis of
two zeolitic minerals; and we have been favoured by him with
many other excellent researches since. But his last are the most
elaborate and productive.

I have said that both topics of these papers belong to the
most recondite branch of chemical analysis. There are not want-
ing people who regard such difficult inquiries slightingly, because
they do not lead to any apparent practical results of importance.
You will hear such recondite researches characterized as difici-
les nuge, and very lightly esteemed accordingly. But in these
days no one who respects himself will fall into so gross an
error. Dr Anderson’s researches are all concerned with great che-

340

mical laws, and bodies developed in consequence of the existence
of them. These laws exist, because they were established by Pro-
vidence ; and we may depend upon it that they were not established
without a purpose, and that a beneficent one. Permit me to give a
proof of this. The great discovery of the existence of the vegetable
alkaloids, commenced nearly forty years ago, belonged in its day to
one of the most abstruse departments of chemical analysis. There
are others besides myself in this room who may remember that for
some years afterwards the successive discovery of these bodies was
lightly spoken of as. dificiles nuge—or laborious trifling. But a
different view came to be taken of such inquiries, when it appeared
that all the vegetable alkaloids concentrate in themselves the poison-
ous and medicinal properties of the vegetables which yield them.
Among the truly practical and beneficent results that have ensued,
let me mention one great fact—namely, that with one of these alka-
loids, intermittent fever, one of the most common diseases of hot and
even of some temperate climates, may be cured with almost as great
certainty as we can appease hunger with bread or with meat. I shall
detain you by mentioning only one other illustration—the newest of
all. In the course of a very elaborate inquiry in a far-removed
corner of organic chemistry, a body was discovered which is known
to chemists by the scientific name of terchloride of formyl. This
was in 1832. For many years it belonged to the dificiles nuge ;
no one even saw it, except occasionally some chemist more curious
than his fellows in general. I venture to say that many here pre-—
sent do not know the name, and may think it requires the alchemy
of Dr Anderson, and such as he, to understand it. At last, after
the lapse of fifteen years, this was discovered to be the powerful
agent which has since been more familiarly known by its oldest
name chloroform, one of the kindest gifts of Providence to man. Let
all beware, then, of speaking lightly of the elaborate and apparently
unproductive chemical researches of the present day. Who knows but
that among the curious new bodies discovered by Dr Anderson, there
may yet be found another gift not inferior to that of chloroform, or that
of quina ?

I set out with observing, Dr Anderson, that it was a peculiar
pleasure to me to be honoured with the duty of presenting this
prize. It would be a great pleasure in any circumstances, but it
is peculiarly so when I have to convey this impartial mark of our

341

Society’s respect to one who, once my pupil, and afterwards. my
friend, is now also. my professorial brother. It is well known to
your early friends that it would have been easy for you, under the
auspices of your late father, to have soon attained a competence and
independence as a medical practitioner ; but you preferred.the more
thorny path of science. I happen to know that your choice gave
some uneasiness and anxiety to your parent, when he reflected how,
few,—alas! for the scientific welfare of this country,—how very few.
prizes in chemical science are held: out to its votaries in Britain.
But he was reassured by the assurance of his friends that, the spark
so clearly visible would soon be blown into a flame; and, accord-
ingly, he lived long enough to see you received by universal consent
among the chemists of Europe, and rewarded by the second—if, in-
deed, it be only the second—chemical office, in point of honour in
Scotland, —

I must not conclude without mentioning that the value of the
Keith Prize is not be measured by this medal merely. Apart from
the honour, the prize varies in value from £50 to £65, and the
latter sum is its amount on the present occasion. It is, therefore,
in all respects, an’ object well worthy of competition among scien-
tific men.

The following Communications were then read :—

1. Geometry, a science purely experimental. By Edward
Sang.

After remarking that the perfect strictness of the demonstrations
in Geometry is generally admitted, the author of the paper cited the
almost universal belief in the soundness of Euclid’s reasoning as a
notable example of wide-spread credulity. He then enunciated the
proposition that our knowledge of the truths of geometry is alto-
gether derived from experience.

Taking the first of Euclid’s problems, ‘To construct an equilateral
trigon,”’ he showed that the facts that the circles intersect at all,
and that they have only one intersection on each side of the base, are
taken for granted, and he contrasted the looseness of this procedure
with the hypereritical precision of the following problem “to cut
from the greater of two lines a part equal to the less.”

VOL. III. 25

342

Proceeding from the propositions to the axioms, he denied that
the human mind possesses the innate power of perceiving a general
truth: and asserted that, without a knowledge of all the cases to
which a statement may be made to apply, we are not safe in enun-
ciating it; thus, adopting the definition of equality as implied in
Euclid’s eighth axiom, the proposition “ if equals be added to equals
the sums are equal,” is not true; the sums may be equal or they
may be equivalent. And, as an instance of the ease with which we
may be led to admit the truth of a specially worded proposition, he
cited this one :—‘ perfect equality implies equality in size, in shape,
in weight, in colour, and in every respect in which we can compare
them, so that of two perfectly equal bodies, the one could not be
distinguished from the other; perfect equality, then, must include
every inferior degree of resemblance.”” Such is an axiom to which
most people would assent as self-evident—yet it is not true,

Even the axiom ‘things equal to the same thing are equal to
each other,” is not to be admitted without examining the particular
kind of equality implied; for though bodies similar to the same
body be similar to each other, and those equivalent to the same equi-
valent to each other, solids symmetric to the same solid are not
symmetric to each other.

Passing from the axioms to the definitions, he pointed out the
necessity of establishing the possibility of the thing defined: thus
if we form such a nomenclature as this; a solid with four trigonal
faces is called atetrahedron, a solid with five trigonal faces is called
a pentahedron, one with six trigonal faces a hexahedron, and so on,
our definitions would be essentially vicious, since no such pentahe-
dron can exist ; and thus we sce that our definitions of the tetrale-
dron and hexahedron are only admissible after examination.

Again it is necessary to take care that the definition of one ob-
ject be consistent with that of another. Thus, having defined a
straight line, we are not at liberty to use the straight line in defin-
ing a plane surface until we have made sure that this use is consis-
tent with what has already been predicated. Now the ordinary de-
finition of a plane surface is, that the straight line joining any two
points in it lies wholly on the surface. This definition, however,
implies a very abstruse property of straight lines; namely, that if
two straight lines be drawn from one point, and if two points be as-
sumed in each of them, the two straight lines joining alternately the

343

p

remote point on the one line with the near point on the other cross
each other. Until the truth of this proposition shall have been de-
monstrated we are not at liberty to define a flat surface. This de-
monstration can only be obtained by experiment, and, therefore, it
was concluded, all our knowledge of geometry being founded on this
proposition, is experimental.

2. Notice respecting recent Discoveries on the Adjustment
of the Eye to Distinct Vision. By Professor Goodsir.

The question as to the arrangement by means of which the eye is
adapted for distinct vision at different distances has for two centuries
strongly attracted the attention of physiologists. The numerous
hypotheses, and untenable theories which have been advanced. on
this subject are all, however, more or less unsatisfactory. They are
severally based on

1. The mere structure or form of the refractive humours of the
eye ;

2. A presumed process connected with change in the direction of
the axis of vision ;

3. The movements of the iris ;

4, Change in the position of the retina;

5. Change in the position of the lens;

6. Change of form of the cornea ;

7. Change of form of the lens,

This important question has now been definitively determined by
the researches of Dr Cramer of Groningen, detailed in a prize treatise
submitted to the Dutch Association for the advancement of medical
science in 1851; but, which, except in the form of a short abstract
at the time, was only published at a later period. In 1853, Helm-
holtz also announced to the Berlin Academy the same discovery, |
reached independently, and by a method more complex than that
employed by Cramer.

The entire question had been previously simplified by the conclusion
to which Volkmann had come, that the eye, when in a passive con-
dition, is adapted for the vision of distant objects, the foci of con-
vergent pencils being then situated in the retina ; that when it re-
quires to be adjusted for a near object, an active process of accom-
modation is set up, which brings the foci forward to the nervous

344

membrane ; and that the return to the passive condition, which again
adapts the eye to distant objects, is a passive process, following on
the previous effort.

Cramer had therefore only to determine the nature of the active
change, by means of which the foci, for a near object, are brought
forward to the retina. Now, as Helmholtz had shown, that the ad-
aptation of the eye to distance must depend upon a change of some
kind in the refractive condition of the humours of the organ ; and as
Senff had previously proved that no change takes place in the curva-
ture of the cornea ; and as the ingenious theories of Ludwig and Stell-
wag had in no way removed the difficulties involved in explaining
how the lens can be moved forward ; there remained only, as a basis
for investigation, the hypothesis of a.change of form of the lens.
This hypothesis, as Volkmann had stated, could only be objected to
as insufficient ; but not as involving any contradiction of fact ; and
might be verified by more careful and extended observation. :

The question, therefore, which Cramer had to determine, was this—
is the form of the lens changed in the adaptation of the eye to near
objects ?

Cramer was indebted to Donders for the fundamental idea on
which he proceeded in the solution of this question. Donders
had previously entered on the investigation, but had failed in his ob-
servations. He is entitled, however, to the credit of having suggested
the employment of the experiment of Purkinje in this inquiry ; and
of having subsequently elucidated its successful results.

Cramer has discovered that in the adjustment of the eye for a near
object, there takes place a change in the form of the lens, consisting
of an increase in the curvature of its anterior surface, produced by
the iris and ciliary muscle, but without alteration in the position of
the lens itself ; while the return to its original form for the vision of
a distant object is the effect of its own elasticity, which in proportion
to the pressure applied, had co-operated in producing the increase of
its anterior convexity. He ascertained the occurrence of this altera-
tion of form by watching, through an arrangement of his own contri-
vance magnifying from 10 to 20 diameters, the change which takes
place in the image of the flame of a candle reflected from the anterior
surface of the lens during the adjustment of the eye to a near object.
The eye having been adjusted to a distant object, and the erect image
from the surface of the cornea having been brought nearly to the

EE

845

margin of the iris in the pupil, the erect image from the front of
the lens will be observed deeper and less distinct, a little beyond the
centre of the pupil, and the small distinct inverted image from the
back of the lens will be:close to the opposite margin of the iris.
The eye being now adjusted to a near object, the deep erect image ad-
vances, diminishes, becomes more distinct, and moves across the centre
of the pupil to the immediate neighbourhood of the corneal image.

This change in the relative position of the three images was cor-
rectly considered by Cramer as a distinct evidence of an increase in
the curvature of the anterior surface of the lens. It would appear,
however, that he was not entitled to conclude, as he did, from the
immobility of the inverted image, that no change occurs in the pos-
terior curvature of the lens. Donders, in reference to this has as-
serted, that the immobility of the inverted image affords satisfactory
evidence that a change does actually occur in the curvature of the
posterior surface of the lens; and Stellwag has demonstrated that a
change of this kind must necessarily take place. That there is a
contemporaneous increase in the curvature of both surfaces of the
lens must be admitted.from the consideration that if such a change
did not occur in the posterior surface, ‘the increased curvature of the
anterior would necessarily produce a change in the position of the
inverted images ; which is not the case. The optical effect of the
increase of anterior curvature masks the slight movement of the in-
verted image.

The alteration in the curvature of the posterior surface is, how-
ever, so slight, that we may safely assume that the essential altera-
tion takes place in the anterior surface.

Helmholtz has proved that the anterior curvature of the lens is
increased during adjustment of the eye to near objects, by measur-
ing accurately the distance between the images of the flames of two
eandles reflected from that surface, in the active and passive condi-
tions of accommodation. According to his calculations the radius of
eurvature of the anterior surface is, for distant vision, from 10:to 11
millimetres ; for near vision about 5 millimetres.

A change in the form of the lens having thus been ascertained to
be the mode of adjustment of ‘the eye to distances; the next point
to be determined is the mechanism by which the change of form is
effected.

It may be stated generally, that although the structures which act

346

upon the lens have been ascertained, the details and arrangements of
the process itself still require elucidation.

Cramer removed the eye of a seal immediately after the death of
the animal, and exposed a portion of the surface of the vitreous
body at the back of the organ. He then introduced the electrodes
of an electro-magnetic rotation apparatus into the opposite attached
margins of the iris. The flame of a candle at the distance of 35
centimeters from the cornea was distinctly observed on the vitreous
surface, with a microscope magnifying 80 diameters. At each
passage of the electrical current through the organ, the pupil con-
tracted, the image of the flame became broader, less distinct, and
less definitely outlined. This effect was visible to the naked eye,
and indicated the probability of the form of the lens being altered
by the contraction of the muscular structures in the interior of the
eye. Cramer ascertained that the iris is at least the principal agent
in producing the change ; for when a cataract needle was introduced
so as to divide the iris, and produce a complete coloboma, the focus
was no longer affected by the electrical current. Cramer also re-
moved the cornea, annular ligament, and iris, after which the elec-
trical current produced no change in the adjustment ; although the
ciliary processes were observed to be put upon the stretch. The
lens was also shown by numerous experiments to be incapable of
changing its own form. It is not muscular; for when the recent
lens was removed from the eye, and the flame of a candle brought
to a focus through it, on a piece of oiled paper, the electrical current
produced no change in the adjustment.

Cramer concludes, in this department of his subject, that the iris
and ciliary muscle alter the form of the lens. The ciliary muscle
contracting pulls the ciliary processes forward, and so prevents the
lens from receding under the pressure of the iris. The latter pro-
duces the change in the anterior curvature, by a primary contraction
of its circular fibres; followed up by contraction of its radiating
fibres, which, from being curved forwards, become straight, and
thus pressing on the marginal portion of the anterior surface of the
lens, force the central portion forwards. Cramer’s explanation of
the action of the iris on the lens is based on Stellwag’s recent asser-
tion, that the posterior chamber has no existence, but that the iris
rests immediately on the front of the lens, the ciliary processes, and
the zonule of Zinn, so that it projects like a dome into the ante-

347

rior chamber. The pressure is thus communicated by the iris to the
lens through the medium of the ciliary processes, zonule of Zinn,
and contents of the canal of Petit, the lens being supported and
kept forward by cotemporaneous contraction of the ciliary muscle.
Donders is inclined to believe that a very thin layer of fluid is inter-
posed between the iris and the structures behind it; but practically
Cramer’s opinion appears to be correct.

Hueck, in attempting to explain ocular adjustment by the move-
ment of the lens by the iris, had stated that when viewed in profile,
the iris is seen to project into the anterior chamber during vision of
a near object. Volkmann denied this; but the fact is undoubted ;
and Helmholtz has ascertained that the protrusion is about 4 milli-

“ metre.

Ruete has objected to Cramer's conclusion as to the agency of the
iris in altering the form of the lens, on the ground that in cases of
congenital deficiency of the iris the power of adjustment is not de-
ficient. In such instances some compensating arrangement must
exist,

Senile Presbyopia mainly depends, according to Cramer, on the
diminished muscular contractility of the iris and ciliary muscle.
Myopia, again, on diminution of the elasticity of the capsule of the
lens, which disables the lens from regaining its normal form after
each act of adjustment. He denies that the curvature of the cornea
is increased in myopia, and states that the apparent increase is due
to the continued increased protrusion of the iris into the anterior
chamber.

The following Gentleman was duly elected an Ordinary

Fellow :—
Davin Bryce, Esq., Architect.

Monday, 21st January 1856.

CoLONEL MADDEN, Councillor, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Memoir of Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin. By Sir
John Richardson, C.B. Communicated by Professor Bal-
four.

348

2. On the Geological Relations of the Secondary and Pri-
mary Rocks of the Chain of Mont Blane. By Professor
Forbes.

This paper* is intended to meet the objections taken by Mr D.
Sharpe, in a paper published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Society for February 1855, to the views of the present
writer, and those of several eminent geologists, on the structure of
the chain of Mont Blanc.

De Saussure first described the singular superposition of gneiss to
limestone which occurs on the south-east side of the valley of Cha-
mouni, a testimony the more clear from its obvious opposition to
the Wernerian views of the period.

M. Necker, grandson of De Saussure, in a remarkable paper on
the granite of Valorsine, published in 1828, presents a section of
the south-east slopes of the valley of Chamouni, which exhibits the
limestone dipping under the gneiss, the beds of which gradually be-
come steeper as we approach the centre of the chain. The facts
were still more emphatically stated by the same author in a work on
the Geology of the Alps, published thirteen years later.

In 1842, Professor Forbes paid particular attention to the struc-
ture of both sides of the chain of Mont Blanc; and pointed out the
precise analogy of the superposition of gneiss to limestone on the
Italian, to that on the Swiss side of the mountain. He indicated
very distinctly two localities, one on each side of the Alps, where
the superposition might be distinctly seen and traced for some dis-
tance,

Mr Sharpe, in the paper referred to, having treated the deserip-
tions of De Saussure and of M. Necker as vague or contradictory,
the present writer defends them. And he repels Mr Sharpe’s
objection to his own conclusions as not based on sufficiently definite
indications of the localities, by citing the passages from his Travels
in the Alps, where he has specified them, and by showing that other
geologists have satisfactorily verified his observations.

He next quotes the testimony of M. Favre of Geneva, and of M.
Studer of Berne, as having from personal observation of the closest
kind, been led to conclusions identical with his own,

* It will be printed at length in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal
for April 1856.

349

Finally, he gives examples from the writings of M. Elie de Beau-
mont of similar anomalous superpositions in the Alps of Dauphiné,
and in the writings of M. Hugi and M. Studer, of others in the
Canton of Berne, which would leave the fact in question still to be
accounted for, even if all geologists from the time of De Saussure
had been in error as to the particular constitution of the chain of
Mont Blane.

The paper was illustrated by sections showing the views of suc-
cessive geologists.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected Ordinary
Fellows :—

W. Mircuet Extuis, Esq.
Dr G. J. Avuman, Prof. Nat. History, Edinburgh.

Monday, 4th February 1856.
Ricut Rev. Bishor TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Turkish Weights and Measures. By Edward
Sang, Esq.

In this paper a short account was given of the comparison of the
oka with the imperial grain weight, and of the arsheen with the
inch.

The oka was stated to be 19,807 grains, so that 18 cantar of 44
oka each make one ton one pound.

The length of the arsheen was determined by comparison with the
ebony standard of Sultan Selim.

The extreme length, as obtained by contact, was 29-890 inches,
but the ends had evidently been tampered with; on that account
the divisions of the rod were referred to; these gave results varying
from 29:944 to 29-949, and therefore the mean, 29,946 inches,
may be taken as the true length of the Turkish arsheen.

2. Observations on Polyommatus Artaxerxes, the Scotch
Argus. By Dr W. H. Lowe.

Polyommatus Artaxerzes, or the Scotch Argus, is an insect
not only of great local interest, but has attracted, and continues to
VOL, Ill. 2F

3590

attract, the notice of entomologists all over the world. Among the
English, and still more among the foreign students, who annually
throng our University, there are always a considerable number who
arrive in Edinburgh anxious to see “‘ the rare butterfly from Arthur’s
Seat,” or who are commissioned by entomological friends to obtain it.
Besides, there are the still more destructive emissaries from the
London and provincial dealers in insects, who infest the hill during
the season in which it is found. But although the situation in which
this insect is principally taken is extremely circumscribed, I am not
aware that its numbers are materially diminished by this continuous
drain upon them. The new road now in contemplation beneath
“‘Samson’s Ribs,” and through the village of Duddingston, will, I
fear, go far to exterminate it, as it will pass, I believe, through the
exact spot upon which it is found, and to which it is in a singular
degree limited.

The first published account we have of this insect is by Fabricius,
in his “ Systema Entomologice,’’ 1793, under the name * Lycena
Artaxerxes,” in which he states its habitat to be ‘* Anglia,” but
without any special reference to Scotland. He does this on the
authority of Mr Jones of Chelsea, in whose cabinet a specimen then
existed; but it would appear that Fabricius himself never saw the
insect, as it was at that time a frequent custom to insert in entomo-
logical cabinets a painted piece of card, to supply the place of an
insect then believed to be too rare to afford much probability of its
being obtained. I may here mention, that naturally feeling some
interest to know who this Mr Jones of Chelsea (so often quoted by
authors) was, I applied to Mr James Wilson of Woodville, who most
obligingly wrote to Mr Adam White, of the British Museum, and
through whom we find that Mr Jones had an excellent collection of
native insects, and also a number of illustrations, coloured by him-
self, which are still in existence; but from the higher degree of
excellence now attained in such delineations, of course greatly dimi-
nished in pecuniary value, however interesting they may have been
at the time alluded to. It was no doubt one of these illustrations
which Fabricius availed himself of in his Systema Entomologia.
We find this insect next mentioned as Papilio Artawerwes by Lewen
(1795), a fellow of the Linnean Society, who, like Fabricius, refers
to Mr Jones’ specimen, but adds, that it was taken in Scotland. In
the Natural History of Insects, by Donovan, in 1818, we have

a il

351

the first full account of this insect; and his description is so ani-
mated and enthusiastic, that the naturalists of the Society, if not the
other fellows, will excuse my making one quotation from him :—
“To the great astonishment of our English collectors of natural
history,” he says, “ Papilio Artawerwes, an insect heretofore of the
highest possible rarity, has been lately found in no very inconsiderable
plenty in Britain, For this interesting discovery we are indebted to
the fortunate researches of our young and very worthy friend, W.
E, Leach, Esq., who met with it common on Arthur’s Seat, near
Edinburgh, and also on the Pentland Hills.” It will not be unin-
teresting to the fellows of this Society to know that Mr James Wilson
was with Dr Leach on this occasion, and joined him in his entomologi-
cal researches at that time. As I have entered so far into the history
of this insect, I must now in fairness state, that the same authority
(Donovan) mentions the existence of a specimen in the ‘* exten-
sive and valuable” cabinet of Mr Macleay, taken in Scotland, pre-
vious to Dr Leach’s discovery. It is the same Mr Macleay whose
name is associated with another interesting, but much more widely
distributed insect, the Erebus Blandina, or Arran Argus. Dono-
van concludes with the remark—* As these insects fly in the day-
time, there can be little doubt they may be sought for by the collec-
tors with success on the hilly spot called Arthur's Seat, near Edin-
burgh.”

Polyommatus Artazeraes, thus established as a well-known British
insect, appears successively in the works of Mr Stephens, 1828 ; Ren-
nie (Conspectus), 1831; Duncan, 1837; Wood (illustrated catalogue),
1839; Westwood, 1841; and Captain Brown, 1843; but I do not
think there is in these works any important addition to the infor-
mation I have thus thrown together.

Having endeavoured to trace rapidly, and in a manner as little te-
dious as possible, the history of P. Artawerzes, I may remark, that
great as is the interest this insect has excited among naturalists, its
habits, and especially its transformations, were until recently entirely
unknown. Mr R. Logan, who resides almost on the spot on which it
abounds, endeavoured some years ago, I believe, to obtain its larve by
inclosing a number of the perfect butterflies bencath a glass frame
in his garden, in the hopes that the eggs might be deposited ; but as
at that time it was generally believed to feed on the Ulex europeus,
amidst which it may be seen to flit, the eggs, if deposited at all,

352

naturally perished for want of their proper nidus; and this laud-
able experiment of course failed. The same accurate and patient
observer, however, subsequently arrived at the belief that the insect
preferred the Helianthemum vulgare, which grows luxuriantly on the
south side of the hill, remarking, that while the Ule« europeus
abounded all over the hill, the butterfly did not, but was confined to
the south, and only where the Helianthemum grew, frequently indeed
in conjunction with the Ulez, This inference has since proved cor-
rect. So lately as 1851, Mr Logan, in an article in the Naturalist
for March in that year, after describing the P. Artawerzes as they
may be seen gaily flitting over the banks of Arthur’s Seat in the
sunshine, or resting on the tall culms of grass and other plants while
quiescent, remarks: ‘“ Strange to tell, no one knows anything of
their history; where they lay their eggs, or what the larva feeds
on, and where the inactive chrysalid passes the long, cold months of
winter, are all in mystery;” and adds, “ the discovery of the cater-
pillar and chrysalis is a point much to be desired.” Struck with
these remarks, published too just before the insect might be expected
to make its accustomed annual appearance, I determined to go to Ar-
thur’s Seat for the express object of finding this long looked-for ehry-
salis. I spent several hours diligently examining the stems of different
plants, particularly the Ulex europeus and the Helianthemum vul-
gare ; the latter of which I frequently tore up bodily, and examined
piecemeal. I did this in the belief that all the Polyommati attached
their chrysalids to the stems of plants, as is indeed the usual habit of
this genus, and was ignorant that any of them burrowed in the ground.
My time and patience being nearly exhausted, I now began to dig in
the loose earth which lies beneath the bushes of furze, the shade of
which precludes anything from growing beneath them. Here I was
also unsuccessful, but seeing some tufts of Helianthen.um overhang-
ing some barren patches of earth, I continued my examination there
also, and almost immediately found several chrysalids, the appearance
of which left me no doubt that they were those of P. Artawerxes. The
day was now declining, and I was anxious to show my acquisitions to
Mr Logan, to whose house I immediately repaired. That gentleman
showed the greatest interest in the discovery, and, like myself, ex-
pressed his surprise that one of the genus Polyommatus should bury
its chrysalis in the ground instead of attaching it to the stem of a
plant. He further requested me to place the chrysalids in his keep-

353

ing, that he might figure them for a work upon which he has long
been engaged, and to which this society has become a subscriber.
A few days after, I received the said chrysalids from Mr Logan,
and he at the same time mentioned that, acting on the information
I had given him, he had pursued the search for the chrysalids, and
had found them in considerable numbers. Those I had in my own pos-
session emerged from the chrysalis, either that day or the following ;
and since that time it has, of course, become easy to note the habits
of P. Artaxerxes, and a beautiful delineation of it in all its stages
of development will appear in Mr Logan’s book, whenever its appear-
ance shall realize the expectations of his numerous subscribers,

To go further into the description of its transformations at this
point would be to trespass on the subsequent but as yet unpublished
observations of Mr Logan, and I shall therefore leave it now, to say a
few words in conclusion on Polyommatus Agestis and P. Salmacis,
two insects so nearly allied to the one before us that they have been
at different times considered to be one species. On locking at the
drawings of these three closely allied insects, for which very faithful
and beautiful illustrations Iam indebted to my friend Mr Dallas, we
perceive that P. Artawerzes is readily enough distinguished by
the conspicuous white spot in the angle of the upper wing, while
P. Agestis has a black one in nearly the same position. These mark-
ings, though affording in themselves but slight grounds for specific
distinction, are nevertheless permanent in their character, and even
before we were acquainted with the caterpillars of the respective
insects, gave great probability to the opinion that the two were dis-
tinct, especially when taken in conjunction with the fact that P.
Artawerzes is confined to Scotland and the north of England, and
P. Agestis as exclusively to the southern counties of England. Still
this was matter of opinion, and it is only now that we are enabled
by our own observations in Scotland upon P. Artaxerves, and almost
at the same time by similar observations by Mr Harding and Mr
Stainton in London upon P. Agestis, to determine, as I think, finally
upon the specific difference of the two insects. The gentlemen I
have just named have bred P. Agestis from the caterpillar, and find
that it feeds upon Erodium cicutarium, a plant in natural affinity
and every other respect widely removed from Helianthemum vulgare.
When, therefore, to the slight but permanent differences of its exter-
~ nal markings and habitat is added the fact that the caterpillar of the

354

one feeds upon a plant so different from the food upon which the
other is found, that probably the food of the one would poison the
other, it appears to me that the specific distinctions between the two
insects may be regarded as established.

We have, however, P. Salmacis still remaining undetermined, its
caterpillar and chrysalis not having as yet been found. The chief
distinction to be remarked in its external character is the slight but
peculiar areola of white scales which surround the black spot occu-
pying an exactly similar position in the upper wing as in Agestis.
Although Mr Doubleday regards this insect as a variety of P. Ar-
taxerxes, I have always felt and still believe it to be much more
closely allied to P. Agestis. During last year (1855) I visited Castle-
Eden-Dene, the habitat of P. Salmacis,and bearing in mind my obser-
vations on Arthur’s Seat, felt sure I should by digging in similar
places under the tufts of Helianthemum find the chrysalids. In
this I was unsuccessful, although the Helianthemum was most abun-
dant. The spot on which P. Salmacis is found faces the sea (the Ger-
man Ocean), and the ground is a stiff wet clay, with dense, coarse
herbage, both ill suited for burying its chrysalid, if that be its habit ;
nor is the Helianthemum the prevailing plant there. Mr Wailes ob-
serves, that he has never found it more inland than a quarter of a
mile from the sea ; and although the Helianthemum is most abundant
in the upper part of the Dene, Mr Tristram, the clergyman of the
district, and other residents, assured me it was never seen except on
the spot I have named, by a high cliff of clay overhanging the sea.
This certainly suggests the idea of its being dependent on some lit-
toral plant growing only within a certain range of the salt water.
TY observed the Anthrocera filipendula and Procris statices flying
in great numbers together with P. Salmacis, and their chrysalids at-
tached to the stems of plants were abundant. I did not at the time
know of Mr Harding’s observations, and that P. Agestis fed upon
Evrodium cicutarium, and, consequently, did not particularly note
whether that plant grew there ; but having been accustomed to bota-
nical observations all my life, I think I should certainly have noticed
it if it had been the prevailing plant,—a thing, moreover, which the
stiff clay soil renders improbable. What I did notice was the Gera-
nium sanguinewn in great quantity (the flowers filled with Ceutorhyn-
chus geranii), a plant not far removed in natural affinity from the one
I have just named. Altogether, I feel inclined to predict that P.

355

Salmacis may be found to feed on Geranium sanguineum, and to at-
tach its chrysalids to the stems; but this is mere surmise, and
until its transformations have been observed, it must still remain, as
it now is, an undetermined species.

3. On Solar Light, with a Description of a simple Photome-
ter. By Mungo Ponton, Esq.

The first part of this communication was occupied with a detail
of some observations, made in the course of last summer, on the
quantity and intensity of Solar light, as compared with familiar
sources of artificial flame. The instrument employed for these ob-
servations was a simple monochromatic photometer, whose construc-
tion was minutely described.

The results obtained were stated to be, that a small surface, illu-
minated by mean solar light, is 444 times brighter than when it is
illuminated by a moderator lamp, and 1560 times brighter than when
it is illuminated by a wax candle (short six in the lb.),——the artificial
light being in both instances placed at two inches distance from the
Uluminated surface. It was then pointed out, that as the electric
light may be easily obtained of a brilliancy equal to 520 wax candles,
three such electric lights, placed at two inches from a given small
surface, would render it as bright as when it is illuminated by mean
sunshine.

It was thence inferred, that a stratum occupying the entire sur-
face of the sphere of which the earth’s distance from the sun is the
radius, and consisting of three layers of flame, each ;¢'55th of an ineh
in thickness, each possessing a brightness equal to that of such an
electric light, and all three embraced within a thickness of 5th of
an inch, would give an amount of illumination equal in quantity and
intensity to that of the sun at the distance of 95 millions of miles
from his centre.

It was then shown, that were such a stratum transferred to the
surface of the sun, where it would occupy 46,275 times less area,
its thickness would be increased to 94 feet, and it would embrace
138,825 layers of flame, equal in brightness to the electric light;
but that the same effect might be produced by a stratum about nine
miles in thickness, embracing 72 millions of layers, each having
only a brightness equal to that of a wax candle.

The various possible causes of the light proceeding from the lu-

356

minous envelope of the sun were then considered; and an attempt
was made to show that the shining particles in that envelope may
possibly be minute luminiferous organisms, floating in an elastic
atmosphere, each emitting only a small amount of phosphorescence,—
the enormous flood of splendour emanating from the surface of the
medium being due to the combined action of these individually feeble
agents.

The following Gentlemen were duly elected Ordinary
Fellows :—

Hon. Lorp NEAveEs.
Dr Penny, Glasgow.

Monday, 18th February 1856.
Riegut Rey. BrsHop TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On certain cases of Binocular Vision. By Professor Wil-
liam B. Rogers. Communicated by Professor Kélland.

The object of this paper was to ascertain, by a geometrical con-
struction, the optical appearance presented by the binocular vision of
a straight line and a circle, or of two straight lines. The problem
discussed was, accordingly, the geometric one of the intersection of a
cone with a plane, or of two cones with each other: and the conclu-
sion arrived at was that the apparent image is always a conic section.
The author took no account of the perspective of the presented com-
bination of images, nor of the union or disunion of the extremities
of the respective images when their lengths are different. Nor did
he allude to the mode by which the mind arrives at connected con-
clusions, from separate examination by the eye, whether by retention
of images on the retina, or by the action of the memory, or other-
wise. In anticipation of the introduction of such subjects, which the
author has discussed in three papers, printed in Silliman’s Journal of
last year, Sir D. Brewster addressed the following letter to Prof.
Kelland, which puts some of these questions in a striking point of
view, and is of considerable interest :—

“My pear Mr Kexranp,—I observe that Professor Rogers is to

357

read a paper on Binocular Vision at the Royal Society on Monday.
As he has published his experiments and views on this subject in
three articles in Silliman’s Journal for July, October, and November,
1855, I presume that the paper he is about to read will contain the
same views, I regret that I cannot be at the meeting on Monday
to defend ray theory of the Stereoscope against his objections to it ;
which are founded on an inaccurate perception of the phenomena,
and stand in direct opposition to the Law of Visible Direction,
which I have placed beyond a doubt, and which, I believe, is univer-
7 sally admitted.
, “Mr Rogers maintains that two lines of unequal length, AB, ab,
for example, ab being the shortest, can be made to coalesce perfectly,
i.¢., that when the points A a are united by distinct vision, B and b
are also united. Now, when the optical axes are converged, on Aa
| united and seen distinctly, B and b, the other ends of the lines, are
_ seen indistinctly, and, therefore, the observer cannot see them united,
unless by running the point of distinct vision from A to B, when he
will see them united. But when he is thus seeing these points B
and 6 united, A and a have separated till the eye returns and unites
them as before. This is the true process which goes on, and the ap-
parent union of the lines thus effected is aided by two causes which
Mr Rogers does not seem to have noticed. The eye runs from A to
B and back again in less than one-third of a second (the duration of
the impression of light upon the retina), so that the impression of
A and a united remains when the eye is actually seeing B and 6
united. The other cause is merely an auxiliary one, and is not neces-
sary to the apparent union of the line. It is the mental recollection of
the union of A and a when the eye has passed in an instant to join
Bb, I lay no stress, however, upon this fact, as it is only a phy-
sical one, on the supposition that a recollected impression is the re-
sult of a visual sensation.
“If two unequal lines can be united and perfectly coalesce, then
_ two separate visible points would have their pictures on the retina
_ coincident ; or, what is the same thing, a line joining two points, a
and 6b, would have a single point for its image on the retina; and,
_ what is still more absurd, two diferent points of the retina would
have the same line of visible direction !
“When the difference between the two lines AB and ab exceeds
- & certain quantity, the apparent coalescence, produced by the causes
VOL. III, 26

358

I have mentioned, entirely disappears, and it is then easy to con-
vince one’s self that the ends B and bare not only extremely indistinct,
but completely separated when the optic axes are converged upon A
and @ united and seen distinctly.

«‘ You will oblige me by reading these few and hurried observa-
tions to the Society. I differ with Mr Rogers on many other points
to which I shall have occasion to refer in a treatise on the Stereo-
scope which will soon be published. I am, &c.

“‘D. BREWSTER.
; “Sr Leonarp’s CoLLEGE, St ANDREWS,
February 16, 1856.”

2. Theory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic
Bodies. Part I. By Edward Sang, Esq.

Some remarkable Specimens of Photography were exhibited.

The following Gentleman was elected an Ordinary Fel-

low :—
Dr Laycock, Professor of the Practice of Medicine.

The following Gentleman was elected an Honorary Fel-
low :—
Henry D. Rocers, Esq., State Geologist of Pennsylvania, U.S.

Monday, 3d March 1856.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. Observations on the Diatomaceous Sand of Glenshira.
Part II. Containing an Account of a number of ad-
ditional undescribed Species. By William Gregory,
M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh.

The author, after referring to his former paper on this subject,
stated that he had continued the investigation, and that the number
of undescribed forms besides those formerly figured had proved so
large, that the present paper does not conclude the subject, but that

i

ba

359

a good many forms remain for a future communication. He added,
that even now, after he had explored 600 slides of it, new forms
were still occasionally found.

He then gave a list of about thirty additional known species,
which had been noticed since the former paper was read, many of
them having been last year described by himself as new fresh-water
species, and others not having been yet described, but to be described
and figured in vol. ii. of Smith’s Synopsis. These are :—

Amphora membranacea. Navicula Westii.

‘s hyalina. ~~ Hennedii.

a salina. i Pandura, Brib.
Cymbella sinuata. os rostrata.
Amphiprora paludosa, Pinnularia megaloptera.

“Campylodiscus Ralfsii. » biceps.
Actinocyclus radiatus. ee linearis.
Actinocyclus (sp.?) This isa species a subcapitata.

to be figured in Vol. IT. of the Sy- gracillima.
nopsis, but I do not know how it is Pleurosigma distortum.
named. ” intermedium.
Actinoptychus duodenarius (new to Gomphonema subtile.
Britain ?) Diatomella Balfouriana.
Nitzschia bilobata. Orthosira spinosa.
Eupodiscus tenellus, Brib. (new to 3» mirabilis.
Britain ?)

He stated that he had actually found and sketched the last two

_ forms in this deposit three years ago, but had not been able to study

them fully, till after they had been found and named, the former by
‘Drs Greville and Balfour, and Professor Smith, the latter by Mr
Okeden. He had also found both these forms in soils from South

_ America, and gave his reasons for suspecting 0. mirabilis to be an
_ abnormal state of O. spinosa.

He then proceeded to describe the following new species, of which

_yery exact drawings by Dr Greville were exhibited :-—

_ 1. Navicula rhombica, n. sp. 2. Navicula maxima, n. sp.
n

Both of these had been figured in the former paper, but were

_ now better understood. NV. rhombica occurs in packs, like packs of

cards,
_ 3. Navicula formosa, n. sp. 9, Navicula Hennedii, Sm., of which
Ra pulchra, n. sp. hea yields very fine speci-

5.» ~~ Macula, n. sp. 10. Navicula angulosa, Pe sp.
s latissi . sp. , 19 Pandura, Brib. ?
Bier oe 12. 3, _ nitida, Sm.?

i solaris, n. sp. i Spe incurvata, n. sp.

5
6
| quadrata, n. sp. Lt Ses splendida, n, sp.
8
°

360

Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14, form a very remarkable panduriform
group, the first two having entire coste, like Pinnularia alpina,
the last two moniliform striz. The author, on this account, names
the first, No. 11, Navicula, after De Briberson, and the second
doubtfully, as no description of WV. nitida, Sm., has yet appeared.
The two others are quite new. The author here stated that he had
found in this deposit WV. didyma with costee, so that he considers it
possible that all these forms may belong to only one species ; but the
point requires investigation.

15. Navicula clavata, n. sp. 24. Cocconeis radiata, n. sp.

16. Pinnularia longa, n. sp. 25. oH lamprosticta, n. sp.

We 33 fortis, n. sp. 26. Amphora elegans, n. sp. ‘

18. = Ergadensis, n. sp. 27. es rectangularis., n. sp.

lie) sy inflexa, n. sp. 28. si obtusa, n. sp.

20. Ee acutiuscula, n. sp. 29; a lineata, n. sp.

21. Stauroneis amphioxys, n. sp. 30. = plicata, n. sp.

22. Cocconeis distans, n. sp., inaccu- | 31. a biseriata, n. sp.
rately figured in Part I. 32. - crassa, Nl. sp.

23. Cocconeis costata, n. sp., a more | 33. a Grevilliana, n. sp.
characteristic specimen than that
figured in Part I.

The three last form a very remarkable group, either a subgenus
or.a new genus. To this group belongs also Amphora Arcus, of
which a part is figured in Part I.

34. Campylodiscus simulans, n. sp.

The author showed that this form so much resembles, in its mark-
ings, Surirella fastuosa, as figured in Part I., that these two genera
probably form but one.

35. Campylodiscus bicruciatus, n. sp. | 38. Nitzschia socialis, n. sp.
36. Nitzschia distans, n. sp. 39. Amphiprora minor, n. sp.
37. “ insignis, n. sp. 40. ae recta, n. sp.

The remaining forms will be described on a future occasion.

2. Theory of the Free Vibration of a Linear Series of Elastic
Bodies. Part II. By Edward Sang, Esq.

I. The first part of this paper was occupied with the discussion
of the validity of Newton’s Theory of the Propagation of Sound.
In order to discover the velocity of sound, Newton supposes a series
of particles ranged in a straight line to be set to vibrate all equally
and isochronously, but the epoch of vibration to vary gradually along
the line; and he then investigates the circumstances under which
such a vibration is possible. The true result of the investigation is
this,—that if the two extreme particles be kept vibrating by some

a

361

external influence, and if all the intermediate particles be fairly
started with the velocities appropriate to their positions in the
series, the constrained vibrations of the two extreme particles, aided
by the elasticities of the intermediate parts, are sufficient to main-
tain the vibrations of those parts.

Neither the premises of this investigation nor the conclusion have
the slightest reference to the problem “ to discover the velocity of
sound.” In order to represent the conditions of this problem, we
must suppose that, the row of particles being at rest, the particle at
one end receives a sudden impulse, and we must seek to trace the
manner in which this impulse is propagated along the chain; and it
is evident that there is not one point of connection between Newton’s
theory and such premises.

Having failed in many attempts to separate the variables which
enter into the analysis, the author of the paper was again led to
consider the question by the construction of the Manchester and
Liverpool railway; for the question in hand is identical in its charac-
ter with this one, “ to investigate the effect of a concussion on a
train of waggons connected by elastic buffers ;’? but although the
practical importance of the subject induced him to make more
strenuous efforts, the difficulties of the integrations again baffled him.
In the month of November last, however, being again led to recon-
sider the problem, he was so fortunate as to discover an easy method
of separating the variations so as to render them integrable, and
thus to bring the matter within the scope of strict analysis.

The same method is applicable to problems of a higher class.
Thus if we suppose a number of planets, of which the attractions
are proportional to the distances, although these attractions be not
proportional to the masses of the attracting bodies, the integrations
can be effected. The result of the investigation shows that such a pla-
netary system would have as many nuclei as planets,—one of these
nuclei being the centre of gravity; each of the other nuclei would
describe an ellipse around the centre of gravity in its own periodic
time ; and thus the motion of any one planet would be the com-
pound of as many elliptic motions, less one, as there are planets,
superadded to the rectilineal motion of the centre of gravity.

It was mentioned that this is the first instance in which the pro-
BLEM of THREE BoptEs has been resolved when the resultants of the
attractions do not all pass through one point.

362

II. The motions of a linear elastic series form but a case of the
preceding problem. It was shown that the vibration of a series of
m equal bodies are compounded of n—1 distinct vibrations, per-
formed in times which are proportional to the secants of the mul-
tiples of the nth part of a quadrant. These times, then, are all
incommensurable, so that a perfectly elastic series of n bodies could
never again return to its original state ; nay, not even two of the
bodies could ever again be simultaneously at the corresponding parts
of their orbit.

This incommensurability of the periodic times presents a great
obstacle to a theoretic estimate of the velocity with which an im-
pulse is transmitted, since it is difficult to decide what phenomenon
should be defined as constituting the transmission; and since the
equations to be evolved contain the sines of angles of which the
ratios are incommensurable. Thus, although the equations enable
us to compute the state of the system at any prescribed time, we are
unable to resolve generally the converse question—At what time is
any one body in a given state ?

One very important deduction is, that a blow on one end of an
elastic series evokes every oscillation of which the series is suscep-
tible, and that, therefore, no pure or musical sound can ever be pro-
duced by a perfectly elastic body. A simple oscillation can only be
produced by the concurrence of twice as many initiatory conditions
as there are particles. Now there is no doubt that the vibrations
of elastic bodies do resolve themselves into simple or very slightly
complicated vibrations, so that the viscidity, imperfect elasticity of
the parts, or some analogous quality of the material, must ope-
rate.

The time needed for the transition from an infinitely confused to
a simple vibration, and the manner in which that transition is ac-
complished, may lead to the explanation of consonant sounds ; and
the existence of some of the higher classes of vibrations with that
vibration which gives the musical pitch, may occasion the peculiar
phenomena of vowel sound.

363

Monday, March 17, 1856.
Rigut Rev. BISHOP TERROT, V.-P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. An Account of some Experiments on certain Sea-Weeds
of an Edible kind. By John Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Lond.
and Edin., &e.

The sea-weeds examined by the author, reported on in this paper,
were the following :—Carrigeen Moss (Chondrus crispus), Dulse or
Dylisk (Rhodymenia palmata), Sloke or Laver (Porphyra laci-
niata), Tangle (Laminaria digitata), Doughlaghman (Fucus vesi-
culosus).

The results, imperfect as they are, it is stated, are offered as a
contribution, with the hope of inducing others more favourably
situated to turn their attention to a subject hitherto, in a chemical
point of view, singularly neglected.

Chondrus crispus was found to be composed of about 28-5 parts
by weight soluble in cold water, of 49 soluble in boiling water, and
of about 22-5 per cent. resisting both infusion and decoction. The
part dissolved by boiling water had the properties of gelatine ; that
by cold water of mucilage.

In Dulse no gelatine was detected. Acted on by cold, followed
by boiling water, it lost about 52 per cent. Its colouring matter has
the property of combining with alumina, and is precipitated by this
earth from its infusion.

Sloke or Laver was found to be very similar to the preceding.
Acted on by cold and by boiling water it lost about 50 per cent.

Tangle also bore a considerable resemblance to the preceding,
judging from the properties of its infusion and decoction. The stalk
yielded less soluble matter to water than the fronds, only about 13-5
per cent. ;

Fucus vesiculosus lost by infusion about 16 per cent., and by sub-
sequent decoction about 39 per cent.

In all these Alge iodine was detected in the matter extracted by
infusion and decoction, and in the residual matter : it was found also
in the water used to wash the weeds, for the purpose of removing

364

the salt adhering, derived from the sea, in which they grew. The
proportion of iodine, as indicated by testing the saline matter ob-
tained from the ash, varied in each. It was found very abundant in
tangle, with a trace of bromine, and especially in the stem. In the
ash of each also a notable proportion of phosphate of lime was found,
with more or less of carbonate of lime and magnesia.

In conclusion, the author offers some general remarks—Ist, On
the absence in these algz of starch, fatty or oily matter, and sac-
charine matter. 2d, On the necessity of minute research to deter-
mine the exact nature of their several proximate principles. 3d,
On the loss sustained by washing the weeds preparatory to their
being used as food, thereby diminishing their value. 4th, On their
value as articles of food, if the nitrogen they afford may be consi-
dered as a criterion of their nutritive power: a table is given showing
the proportion of this substance in each, as determined by Professor
Apjohn, exhibiting the unexpected result, that these esculent alge
are actually richer in nitrogen than flour of the first quality. 5th,
On the advantage likely to be derived, especially by persons of the
labouring class, in regard to health, from their more general use.
6th, On their efficacy as manures, on account of the nitrogen which
they yield in the act of decomposition, and the inorganic compounds
they supply to the soil. Lastly, On the part they perform in the
economy of nature—in purifying sea-water by removing excess of
carbonic acid, and probably azote—and in separating and storing up,
not only most of the inorganic elements which exist in terrestrial
plants, but others, especially those powerful medicinal agents, iodine
and bromine, as if specially for the use of man.

2. On the Deflection of the Plumb-Line at Arthur’s Seat, and
on the Mean Density of the Earth. By Lieutenant-Colonel
James, R.H. Communicated by Professor Forbes.

The author states that the results of the Trigonometrical Survey
of Great Britain are now nearly ready for publication, and that he
has deduced from them the most probable measures which they
afford of the length of a meridian, and the figure of the earth.

After determining the most probable spheroid from all the astro-
nomical and geodetical operations in Great Britain, it has been found
that the plumb-line is sensibly deflected at several of the trigono-

’

365

metrical stations ; but in almost every case the physical cause of such
irregularity may be with probability inferred.

In the case of the station at the Edinburgh Observatory, and on
the summit of Arthur’s Seat, where the latitudes inferred geodeti-
cally in consistency with the entire survey are compared with the
direct astronomical determinations, a deviation of the plumb-line
towards the south, to the extent of between 5” and 6” is manifested.
The exact latitudes are as follow :-—

Observed. Calculated. Difference.

Observatory, Calton Hill, 55° 57’ 23-20 55° 57/1757 563

Arthur’s Seat, summit, . 55° 56’ 4371 55° 56’ 38”-44 5/27

From this it is evident that the discrepancy occurring at the Ob-
servatory cannot be ascribed to the deflecting attraction of Arthur’s
Seat, where it exists almost equally. Colonel James attributes it in
both cases to the effect of the hollow of the Firth of Forth to the
north, together with the mass of high ground to the south, includ-
ing the Pentland and Lammermoor ranges. On actually caleulat-
ing the effeet of the configuration of the ground within a radius of
15 miles, about 2”-6 of the deviation is accounted for; and the

‘writer believes that the mountainous country beyond may farther

sensibly increase the effect.

With a view to determine the strictly local attraction of Arthur’s
Seat, three stations were fixed nearly on a common meridian line,
passing through the summit of the hill. These are marked N, A,
and §. The station N (most northerly) is in the vicinity of St
Anthony’s Chapel, A is almost on the highest point of the hill, $
is situated on the knoll above Sampson’s Ribs. 220 double obser-
vations of stars were made at each station in September and October
1855 with Airy’s Zenith Sector.

The difference of astronomical latitude of the stations N and § is
42”-56.

The difference of the geodetical latitudes is 3846,

The difference of these numbers, or 4’-10, measures the double
deflection of the plumb-line at the two stations due to the attraction
of the interposed hill.

The accurate system of contours which have been carried round
the hill allows the calculation of the attraction of all its parts at
the two stations N and S, to be performed with the utmost nicety,
on the supposition of its being of homogeneous material. By in-

VOL. Il. 24

366

cluding the effect of all the inequalities of the ground within a radius
of 6000 feet (or rather more than a mile) around each of the stations,
and denoting by « the unknown ratio of the density of the hill to
that of the entire globe, these equations are obtained :

Deflection at South station, . : - = 4:197 x North.
= Arthur’s Seat, . - = = 0°607 « South.
= North station, . A e = 3-710 z South.

by the solution of which the ratio of the density of the hill to that
of the whole earth is as 5245 to 1.*

By extending the radius of sensible attraction considerably beyond
6000 feet, and calculating the effect of the surrounding country in
the same manner on the plumb-line at the three stations, this value
of the relative density of the globe is somewhat modified. The ratio
is then *5348 to 1.

From direct experiments on the specific gravity of the rocks of
Arthur’s Seat, Colonel James infers the mean density of the hill to
be 2°75 times that of water ; whence the earth’s density comes out

5-14,
with a probable error of 0:07.

3. On the Possibility of combining two or more independent
Probabilities of the same Event, so as to form one definite
Probability. By Bishop Terrot.

In this paper the author showed that, a and e being independent
probabilities of the same event, the expression a+e—ae, given in
the article Probability in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana as the
value of their combined force, was erroneous. For if a+e—ae
be the probability of the occurrence of the event, then l—w4tSs
—1—a~- 1—¢ or 1—ae, is the probability of its non-occurrence.
Whereas the probability of non-occurrence derived directly from the
expression a+e—aeisl+a e—ate.

It was then shown, that if the ratio only of equally probable cases
in two or more probabilities were given, no definite probability could
be derived from their composition ; but that if the two given pro-

babilities 7 and 4 indicate not merely the ratios, but the actual

* The outstanding abnormal deflection of the plumb-line (assumed to be
equal at the three stations) amounts to 4”"72.

—

367

numbers of favourable and unfavourable cases or hypotheses, their

Pt?
r+s

compound force is properly expressed by

Under both of these conditions, the second given probability in-
creases or diminishes the force of the first, according as the fraction
expressing the second is greater or less than that expressing the first.
When the ratios only are given, then the increase or diminution is
indefinite. When the actual numbers are given it is de/inite.

pus : 1
In conclusion, it was questioned whether 3 Was a proper expres-

sion for the probability derived from total ignorance, and whether
this would not be more properly expressed by the indefinite fraction

. It was shown that such @ priori probability had no effect upon

the force of a subsequently admitted probability.

The following Gentleman wus duly elected an Ordinary
Fellow :—
Tomas CiecHorn, Esq., Advocate.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, 1851. Reports
by the Juries on the Subjects in the Thirty Classes into which
the Exhibition was divided. 4 vols. fol— From H. F. Talbot,
Esq.

Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnzan Society. Vol. i., No.
1. 8vo.—From the Society.

American Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. xxi., No. 61. 8vo.
—From the Editors.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. xix., Part 1.
8v0,.— From the Society.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. xii., Part 1. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Die Fortschritte der Physik im Jahre 1852. Dargestellt von der
Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 2¢ Abtheil, 8vo.—
From the Society.

Annalen der Kéniglichen Sternwarte bei Miinchen. B’8. 8v0.—
From the Observatory. —

368

Tables showing the number of Criminal Offenders in England and
Wales, in the year 1854. Fol.—From the Home Office.

A Collection of Charts published at the Hydrographic Office, Lon-
don.— From H. M. Admiralty.

Monday, 7th April 1856.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On Atmospheric Manoscopy, or on the direct Determina-
tion of the Weight of a given bulk of Air with reference to
Meteorological Phenomena in general, and to the Etiology
of Epidemic Diseases. By Dr Seller.

The intention of the author in this communication is to recom-
mend the daily determination of the weight, by direct means, of some
considerable bulk of atmospheric air. This subject has become of
interest to medical observers, owing to the belief which has arisen, on
hardly sufficient grounds, that during the prevalence of epidemics
the air is of greater weight than usual. The late Dr Prout, whose
researches on the specific gravity of air give authority to his opinion,
was led to conclude, from the greater weight observed to belong toa
given bulk of air at the first outbreak of Asiatic cholera in London
during the year 1832, that a malarious principle, heavier than the
atmosphere itself, was at that time slowly diffusing itself through
the atmosphere. Other observers in the succeeding cholera-epidemics
have contented themselves with determining the daily weight of a
cubic foot of air by calculation from the recorded barometric pressure,
temperature, and humidity. The author endeavours to show that
this last method does not meet the case. He says that, in order to
detect foreign elastic matter in the atmosphere, it is necessary to
weigh a certain bulk of air; for if the foreign matter be lighter than
the atmosphere itself, it increases the general pressure, while it ren-
ders a given bulk of air lighter than usual ; and though, when heavier
than the atmosphere itself, it both increases the general pressure and
the weight of a given bulk of air, yet that the former effect may es-
cape detection, while the latter is distinct.

| *
;
j

:
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369

Dr Seller further insists that, even when no foreign elastic matter
exists in the atmosphere, there is reason to doubt if the specific gra-
vity of the air near the earth’s surface is uniformly dependent on the
general pressure, the temperature, and the humidity. Among the
grounds for this doubt, he refers to the vast extent of the atmo-
sphere, the infinity of circumstances constantly tending to disturb its
equilibrium, the considerable periods of time required on many ocea~
sions to restore that equilibrium, if it can be said to have an ordinary
equilibrium, and, in particular, to the peculiar laws, in some de-
gree antagonistic of gravity and therefore of pressure, observed to
affect the distribution of gaseous bodies, whether placed simply con-
tiguous to each other, or already in a state of mixture. He concludes,
therefore, that the only mode in which any useful result in this sub-
ject, either as respects the etiology of epidemic diseases or meteoro-
logical phenomena in general, can be obtained, is by following the
example of Prout, and determining daily, by a direct process, the
weight of some certain volume of air. Neither does he regard the
efforts at present making by chemists to detect foreign bodies in the
atmosphere by means of chemical tests as necessarily superseding the
proposal to determine its daily variations of density by direct means.

Dr Seller considers the usual method of weighing air by compar-
ing the weight of an exhausted vessel with that of the same vessel
filled with air, as involving too much trouble for daily use. He sug-
gests that a near approximation to an exact result may be made by
observing the difference between the weight of a light body in vacuo
and its weight in air; the former being a constant quantity for every
place, while the latter varies in exact conformity with every change
which occurs in the density of the air. The larger such a light body
is, and the greater the difference of bulk between it and its counter-
poise, the nearer is the approximation to an exact result, while there
is the less need for extreme nicety in the process. The counterpoise,
with the exception of the mere grain weights, should be capable of
easy admeasurement ; for example, cubic inches of a heavy metal.
The sum of the weights of the body and its counterpoise in vacuo, di-
minished by the sum of their weights in air, is to be divided in the
ratio of their bulks for the weight of air which each displaces. The
weight of a body in vacuo, independently of its weight in air, can be
ascertained with precision in proportion as the following data, at a
certain temperature, are exactly known, viz., the weight in vacuo of

370

a given measure of distilled water, the volume of distilled water equal
to the bulk of the body, the weight of the body when immersed in
distilled water, allowance being made for the difference between the
weight of the counterpoise in vacuo and in air.

The chief difficulty is to procure a body of sufficient size not too
heavy for a delicate balance. It seems not improbable that a mate-
rial may be found which, when formed into a globe or a drum, and
filled with air merely for the sake of lightness, shall not exceed a
pound in weight, and yet may be of such a size as, with a balance
turning with the tenth of a grain, may, under the occasional correc-
tion of exact methods, enable those who engage in meteorology merely
for the sake of occupation, to add to their register a near approxima-
tion to the daily density of air. If such a body, equal to or exceed-
ing a cubic foot in volume, cannot be provided with the requisite qua-
lities, namely, lightness, permanence in figure, impermeability to air
and moisture, and the being susceptible of having its expansions and
contractions, under changes of temperature, reduced to rule, a glass
globe capable of displacing 600 cubic inches of air, with a little more
pains and attention, can be made to serve the purpose recommended
in this communication.

2. Researches on Chinoline and its Homologues. By C.
Greville Williams. Communicated by Dr T. Anderson.

In this inquiry, which is an extension of an investigation pub-
lished in the Transactions for last year, the author examines the
connection which has been said to exist between chinoline and qui-
nine, and shows that they bear no simple relation to each other.
He states, also, that the supposed analogy between the action of
heat on quinine and the hydrated oxide of tetramethyl-ammonium
does not exist, and that the assertions which have been made re-
garding the possibility of the formation of quinine from the leukol
of coal-tar are founded on error. He then, after showing that chino-
line from cinchonine had not previously been obtained in a state of
purity, gives the history and composition of the platinum, gold, and
palladium salts ; also the nitrate, bichromate, and binoxalate.

He describes two new classes of salts formed by the chlorides of
cadmium and uranyl with organic bases, and gives the analysis of

_-—

7

371

their compounds with chinoline. Then follows a determination of
the vapour density of chinoline, and an examination of the action of
the iodides of the alcohol radicals on the base, and some of the pro-
ducts of the decomposition of the hydriodates of the ammonium
bases so formed.

He also examines the chinoline series as it is obtained from coal-
tar, and proves the presence, in addition to chinoline, of lepidine,
and a new base, “ cryptidine.”

In the course of the investigation, the following compounds were
analysed :—

Platinum salt, chinoline, - 4 C18 H’ N, HO), + Pt Cl?
Gold, : : : - C8 H’? N, HCl, + Au Cl’
Palladium, . “a - : C8 H? N, HCl, + Pd Cl
Cadmium, . ‘ : Z C8 H’ N, HCl, + 2 Cd Cl
Uranium, . , : C!s H? N, HCl, + (U? 0%) Cl
Nitrate of aicapiiiey:. : : cs H? N, + NO® HO
Bichromate, . : ; - C8 H7 N, + 2 (Cr O°) HO
Binoxalate, . : C8 H’? N, + 2 (C? 0° HO)
Platinum salt, iethylchinoline, . C20 H® N, HCl, + Pt Cl?
Hydriodate ethyl-chinoline, . - C2 HN, + HI
Platinum salt, ethyl-chinoline, ; C2 H'! N, HCl + Pt Cl?
Hydriodate amyl-chinoline, . . . C*H"N, HI

Platinum salt, amyl-chinoline, é C28 H!” N, HCl + Pt CP
Platinum salt, lepidine, from coal-tar, ©? H®? N, HCl + Pt C?
Hydriodate ethyl-lepidine, . . 0" HN, HI

Platinum salt, ethyl-lepidine, : co HN, HCl + Pt CP
Platinum salt, cryptidine, . ‘ Cc? H" N, HCl + Pt C?

3. On Fermat’s Theorem. By H. Fox Talbot, Esq., F.R.S.

The author gave a simple demonstration of the proposition, that
a" = b+ c” is impossible, when n>2, and either of the numbers,
a, b, c, a prime number.

4. On the Transmission of the Actinic Rays of Light through
the Eye, and their relation to the Yellow Spot of the
Retina. By George Wilson, M.D.

In 1849 the learned Swiss philosopher Wartmann stated, in his
“ Deuxiéme Mémoire sur le Daltonisme,” p. 40, that “ the eye

372

arrests the chemical radiations which accompany the more refran-
gible rays.” He founded this conclusion on experiments made
with guaiac resin; but as this substance is by no means very sensi-
tive to actinic influence, it seemed desirable to test the question
whether the eye can transmit the chemical rays of light, by an
appeal to those highly impressible actinolytes (as they may be
called) which the recent progress of photography has revealed
to us.

The necessary trials were kindly made for me by Messrs Dick and
Spiller of London, and their results, which are opposed to those of
Wartmann, were published last autumn in the Appendix (p. 166)
to my Researches on Colour-Blindness.

I now lay upon the Society’s table photographs of small objects,
on glass and paper, produced by rays which, before reaching the
sensitive surfaces, had traversed the transparent humours of an ox’s
eye. These photographs were obtained by the gentlemen I have
named in the following way :—

‘* An ox-eye was prepared by cutting away the sclerotic until the
choroid came into view ; a circular aperture of one-eighth of an inch
in diameter was then made through this membrane and the retina,
which laid bare the vitreous humour at a point opposite to that
where the light enters. The eye was then supported in the brass
mounting of a photographic lens (i.¢., a brass tube adapted to the
front of a camera), resting at the posterior end on a ring of cork
which fitted tightly into the tube, and retained in front by a dia-
phragm, so as to permit the cornea to protrude. From the arrange-
ment of the fittings, we are quite satisfied that no light excepting
that which passed through the eye could enter the camera.

** Within the dark box, a strip of black paper, with a diamond-
shaped or rhombic aperture occupying the greater part of its breadth,
was extended across in front of the prepared collodion glass plate, so
as to throw its image on the latter, in the event of any chemical rays
finding their way to it. The camera was then pointed to the sky
(the morning being bright and the sun shining), and the plate ex-
posed for fifteen seconds. On developing with solution of sul-
phate of iron, a very decided picture appeared. The glass plate
which accompanies this paper was the result of twenty seconds’
exposure.

* The conelusion derived from this experiment, although perfectly

:
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373

satisfactory to those who arranged the apparatus, is open to the ob-
jection, on the part of others, that the picture does not present any
prima facie evidence of its being the result of rays which passed
through the eye. We therefore endeavoured to copy photographi-
cally the actual image which is depicted on the retina, To do so,
another bullock’s eye was carefully dissected, so as to open a circular
space of about three-eighths of an inch in diameter at the back of
the eye, the retina was removed, and a very thin film of glass, in
shape like a watch-glass, substituted for it; this supported the vi-
treous humour in its original position, and served also to prevent its
contact with the photographic paper placed behind to receive the im-
pression. In another trial, the retina was left untouched, without
altering the ultimate result.

« Todide of silver paper was then made sensitive to light by a wash
of gallo-nitrate of silver, and used as in the Talbotype process, small
squares of the wet paper being successively applied to the back of
the thin glass film, and exposed for varying periods (one minute on
an ayerage) to the different objects to which the bullock’s eye was
presented. On developing the latent images with strong gallo-
nitrate of silver, very distinct pictures were obtained of a key and
of a spotted window curtain, These negative pictures are inclosed.
It is thus beyond a doubt that the chemical rays penetrate the hu-
mours of the eye, and impinge upon the retina.

« Axuan B. Dick.
“ Joun SpmLier.”

It thus appears that the actinic or chemical rays are not arrested
in their passage across the chamber of the eye; and it becomes an
important question how they will affect the general surface of the
retina on which they impinge, and what share they have in pro-
ducing vision. Into this problem, as a whole, however, I do not
purpose to enter: the question I alone consider is the change which
the actinic rays will undergo when they fall upon that peculiarly or-
ganized portion of the human retina which anatomists distinguish as
the “ yellow spot.” This “ spot,” almost peculiar to man, presents
a diameter of about ysth inch, and occupies the bottom of the eye,
in the exact axis of its transparent humours. It is more transparent
than the rest of the retina, and has long been recognized as the seat
of inost perfect vision in the eye of man. I have elsewhere drawn

VOL. II, 21

374

attention to the effect which it must have as a coloured medium on
the light which reaches it,* and on the actinic rays which traverse it.
I wish now to carry these views a step further, in connection with the
reflection of light from the choroid through the retina, which was dis-
cussed before the Society last session, in a paper ‘‘ On the Eye as a
Camera Obscura,” and which, before and since, has been largely made
the subject of independent inquiry by foreign and British observers. In
particular, Professor Goodsir has shown, in a lecture delivered in the
University of Edinburgh last June, and since published,} that it
is not merely the case that light traverses the retina to the clio-
roid, and is then reflected so as to return through the retina, but
that it is only the rays thus returned which produce a luminous
sensation. The light, therefore, which traverses the yellow spot,
and is then reflected forwards on the choroidal extremities of the
optically sensific constituents of the retina, must have been deprived,
to a greater or less extent, of its actinic rays, before it determines a
luminous sensation, unless the portion of the retina under notice
differ from all other yellow transparent media known to us, in not
arresting the chemical rays. If it be not in this respect excep-
tional, then the theory of perfeet human vision may be simplified
by the exclusion from consideration of the actinic rays; and one use
of the yellow spot, for which it has hitherto baffled physiologists to
find a use, may be to extinguish these radiations. I offer this only
as a suggestion, the value of which must be determined by testing
the chemical power of light after it has traversed the yellow spot,—
an experiment which only those few anatomists can try who have
the opportunity of examining the human eye soon after death.

I will only, therefore, remark further, in reference to the absorp-
tion of the actinic rays by the yellow spot (with which this paper is
chiefly concerned), that the views of those who have described visual
impressions on the retina, as phenomena of the same kind as pho-
tographic impressions on surfaees charged with salts of silver, or
other actinolytes, must fall to the ground if the actinic rays of light
are stopped before reaching the optically sensific constituents of the
retina. The similar opinion, also, that ‘“ spectral vision,” and other
abnormal peculiarities of sight, are phenomena of the same kind as

* Researches on Colour Blindness, p. 83.
+ Edinburgh Medical Journal, October 1855.

375

_

the development (as it is technically called) of latent photographic
images, must, for the reason mentioned, be abandoned. It will still,
of course, be competent to compare normal and abnormal vision with
photographie effects, as phenomena displaying analogy, though not
affinity.

To one other relation of the retina to light, I make the briefest
reference. If only those rays which are reflected from the choroid
produce, by their impact on the retina, the objective perception of
light, and if the depth of tint of the yellow spot be considerable, and
its colour at all homogeneous, then perfect vision must be exercised
by yellow, not white light. But if this be the case, we should be
unconscious of red and blue when seeing best, or at least should re-
ceive from them an impression very different from that which they
occasion when they affect the general surface of the retina. I for-
bear, however, to speculate on this, seeking rather to direct the
attention of the few anatomists who have the opportunity of inves-
tigating the subject to an examination of the chromatic as well as
the actinic relations of the yellow spot, than desiring to dogmatize
on either.*

_P.S.—I take this opportunity of expressing my regret, that in a
postscript, added after it was read, to the paper in the Transactions
of the Society for last session, ** On the Eye as a Camera Obscura,”
I inadvertently misstated the views of Professor Goodsir on the re-
tina referred to in this communication, and had not an opportunity
of amending the statement before the Transactions were published.
I have, therefore, to request those who wish to do justice to Mr
Goodsir, to consult his lecture on the Retina, published in the
« Edinburgh Medical Journal,” for October 1855.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries,
Vol. vi., Part 3. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Proceedings of the Ashmolean Society, 1855. 8vo.—From the
Society.

* According to some eminent authorities, there is an aperture in the centre
of the yellow spot. If such be the case, light may pass and repass by it with-
out being coloured ; but as such light will in both journeys fail to impress the
retina, it cannot contribute to the production of a luminous sensation.

212

376

The Journal of Agriculture, and the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland. N. S., No. 52. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. N.S., Nos. 5 & 6.
1855. 8vo.—From the Society.

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. 4™e Série. Tome x. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Verhandlungen der Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Aka-
demie der Naturforscher. B4 xxiv., Supp. Bg xxv., Heft 1.
4to.—From the Academy.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. vii. 4to.— From
the Smithsonian Institution.

Abhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsan-
stalt. Band 2, 1855. Fol.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt,
1855. No.1. 8vo.—From the Institute.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. B4 xvii., Heft
3. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Coup d’ceil Géologique sur les Mines de la Monarchie Autrichienne,
Par Fr. de Hauer & Fr. de Feetterle. 8vo.—From the
Authors.

Monday, 21st April 1856.
Sir DAVID BREWSTER, K.H., V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of Compounds of
Carbon and Hydrogen. By William Swan, Esq.

While the prismatic spectra of the blue portions of an oil-lamp or
coal-gas flame, exhibit a number of bright lines, separated by dark
intervals, the spectra derived from the bright light of these flames
are perfectly continuous. Apparently inconsistent results are in like
manner obtained when the flames of different compounds of carbon
and hydrogen are compared. Thus, lines are easily seen in the

=e. -

377

spectrum of the flame of alcohol, which are invisible in that of the
flame of oil of turpentine.

These discrepancies are shown, in the present paper, to arise from
the predominance of the light of incandescent solid carbon in some
flames, and its comparative absence in others: and it is also proved
that in order to obtain uniform results from the flames of the various
compounds of carbon and hydrogen, it is sufficient, in cases where
the body contains much carbon, to convert the carbon into carbonic
acid, withovt its previous separation in a solid form, by means of
an artificial supply of air. This is conveniently effected for coal-gas
by means of the Bunsen gas-lamp, which burns a mixture of gas
and air; and, for other bodies, by directing a stream of air from a
table blow-pipe through the flame.

When thus treated, all the compounds of carbon and hydrogen
which have been submitted to experiment, were found to produce
identical spectra; that of the Bunsen lamp serving as a standard of
comparison.

In these spectra five principal bright lines were observed, accom-
panied by several smaller ones, and separated by dark intervals.
One of the lines, the well known R of Fraunhofer, has been long
known to coincide with the line D of the solar spectrum. Two
other extremely close coincidences were discovered. One between
a brilliant green line of the lamp spectrum, and the remarkable triple
line 6 of Fraunhofer; and another, between a bright purple line,
and the conspicuous line G of the solar spectrum.

It follows, from these experiments, that all bodies whose composi-
tion is expressed by the general formule

C, H, , or C, H, O,,
produce, in burning, perfectly identical spectra; the nature of the
light being always the same, notwithstanding variations in the rela-
tive proportions of carbon and hydrogen, and the occasional presence
of oxygen in the body.

378

2. On the Laws of Structure of the more disturbed Zones
of the Earth’s Crust. By Professor H. D. Rogers, of the
United States.

After adverting to previous publications on the subject by himself
and Professor W. B. Rogers, the author of the paper began the
enunciation of the laws of structure of disturbed tracts of strata, by
stating the general proposition that in all districts where the strata
have been displaced from the original positions or levels in which
they were deposited, they invariably have the form of one or many
waves, even where, from a flatness of the undulations, they seemed
to retain their original horizontality. In large areas of undulating
strata, where the dips are gentle, the main or primary crust waves
are very broad; but where the dips are steep, the crests of the adja-
cent undulations are more closely approximated, and generally the
amplitude of the waves is in proportion to their flatness.

It is another prevailing feature of districts of displaced strata, that
the undulations into which they have been lifted are approximately
parallel, and exhibit a remarkable resemblance to those great conti-
nuous billows, which are called waves of translation. This wave-
like structure was first distinctly recognised by the author and his
brother in the Appalachian chain of the United States, and has been
subsequently shown by them to characterize other mountain systems,
such as the Jura, the Alps, and the mountainous districts of Wales
and Belgium, and other countries.

Parallelism.

1. Expressing, in systematic form, the general relations of the
flexures of the earth’s crust to each other, the first law is that of
the mutual parallelism of the waves. This prevails not only be-
tween adjacent individual flexures, but between these and the chief
igneous axes of the disturbed zones, including them. The parallel-
ism extends to the different groups of waves into which the breadth
of the undulated district is divided, and subsists as well between
those which are curved in their crest lines as between those which
are straight. The persistency of this law of parallelism throughout
the Appalachian chain, was fully exemplified in the paper. The
geological maps of the United States and of Pennsylvania, soon to
be published, make it obvious upon mere inspection.

379

2. The flexures, when the undulated belt is broad, exist in groups
of waves, and the parallelism is generally more perfect between the
members of a given group than between one group and another.

3. Usually where the zone of undulated strata is extensive, there
are several orders of waves, as regards their dimensions, the se-
condary or lesser classes constituting as it were ripples on the slopes
and summits of the primary or larger. These minor flexures, or
subordinate rolls, are themselves parallel, but not always necessarily
parallel with the principal waves upon which they lie.

Form and Gradation of the Waves.

Three essential varieties of form prevail among the great flexures
of the earth’s crust. 1. The most simple is that of a symmetrical
wave, or one where the convex (anticlinal) or concave (synclinal)
curve is of equal flexure upon both slopes. This form belongs
chiefly to the Hatter and broader waves, and when met with
among those of steeply-inclined sides, is apt to be accompanied by
an angular bending or even partial dislocation at the anticlinal or
synclina] axis. 2. A second prevailing form is where one side of the
wave is visibly steeper than the other. This is the normal type of
flexure in the Appalachian chain, in the Jura mountains of Switzer-
land, and in the undulated zone of Belgium and the Rhenish Pro-
vinces. 3, The third class of flexures embraces those which exhibit
an inversion or folding under of the most bent slopes of the several
waves. This doubling under frequently amounts to an almost per-
fect parallelism of the two sides of the flexures. In such cases
where the alternate convex and concave bendings are numerous, and
the whole belt is closely plicated, a transverse section presents the
puzzling phenomenon of strata of different ages dipping in one direc-
tion, in parallel, seemingly conformable superposition, the newer rocks
underlying the older ones as frequently as they overlie them.

Conceiving a series of imaginary geometric planes to bisect the
successive anticlinal and synclinal bends in a belt of undulated strata,
these axis planes, as they may be called, are, in the case of the sym-
metrical class of waves, necessarily perpendicular ; but, in the other
two classes, they are inclined to the horizon, and their dip or incli-
nation is flatter as the waves approach the form of most extreme
folding with inversion. In many districts, as along the south-eastern

380

side of the Appalachians, and on both flanks of the Alps, these axis
planes, or what is the same thing, the foldings of the rocks, incline at
a very low angle, implying an excessive amount of horizontal move-
ment at the time the strata were thus plicated and packed together.

This parallel reduplication of strata is usually attended by more or
less metamorphism, amounting to that change of internal structure
which is denominated cleavage ; and the cleavage planes, frequently
more conspicuous than the original planes of sedimentation, serve
still further to conceal the flexures, and disguise the true order of
superposition of the rocks.

Waves of the Crust both Straight and Curvilinear.

In the much corrugated belts, the crust waves are both straight
and curvilinear. In the Appalachians there are groups of both
these classes, retaining their special features throughout their entire
length, which, in some instances, exceeds 100 miles. Some of the
crescent-shaped waves present their convex curvature towards the
region of maximum dislocation and metamorphism, while other
groups are concave toward the same quarter. hese different sys-
tems of waves seem to have been generated some of them from
straight, others from curvilinear fractures in the earth’s crust.

The Appalachian chain, regarded in the light of a long zone, or
chain of groups of parallel straight and curving waves, consists of
eleven sections, six of which are straight and five curvilinear, three
of the latter form being convex towards the N.W., and two convex
towards the S.E., the whole zone having a length of 1500, and a
maximum breadth of 150 miles. Certain of the straight divisions
have their anticlinal axes, or the crest lines of the undulations trend-
ing N. 15° E.; other divisions, theirs trending N. 70° E., while
some of the curving sections of the chain show a deflection in the di-
rection of their individual axes of as much as 40°. Indeed, in par-
ticular instances, the change of trend amounts to as much as 60°.
So remarkable a bending without disruption, of groups of parallel
anticlinals seems incompatible with the inferences of some eminent
geologists, who conceive that there prevails a general relation
throughout the globe between the directions of the lines and the
epochs, of crust elevation ; for we here find that the self-same axis,
generated throughout its whole length, not merely in one geolo-

__” =

381

gical period, but’in one brief interval of time, alters its direction to
coincide successively with sundry of the different assumed systems of
crust elevation.

GRADATIONS IN FLEXURES.

Every broad belt of undulated strata exhibits certain gradations
in the form of its flexures starting from the side of maximum
igneous action, as this is displayed in plutonic eruptions, or in dislo-
cations and metamorphism. Crossing the zone, the flexures first
met with are invariably of the closely plicated class, their axis planes
dipping often at a low angle towards the igneous border. To these
succeed more and more open waves, until, from being perpendicular,
the steep far sides of the undulations become flatter and flatter in
their dips, till at last they assume a slope equal and symmetrical with
those of the gentler flanks. Parallel with this gradation is a
progressive widening of the waves themselves, and a corresponding
sinking or flattening down of the summits, until they finally disappear
in imperceptible undulations. All these phenomena of gradation
may be clearly discerned in every section across the Appalachian
chain, traced from the S.E. towards the N.W., and a perfectly iden-
tical structure will be found to exist in the great plicated belt ranging
through the Rhenish Provinces and Belgium. In truth, there is no
great corrugated zone that does not display a similar law of grada-
tion in its flexures, when these are properly traced and generalized.

FRACTURES IN UNDULATED ZONES.

Two classes of dislocations abound in all belts of the crust where
the strata are greatly undulated. The least conspicuous, but most
numerous are comparatively short faults, transverse more or less
perpendicularly to the strike of the anticlinal and synclinal axes.
These abound in the Appalachians and other corrugated mountain
chains, and are a principal cause of the deep transvere ravines and
mountain notches which intersect their ridges, and give passage to
their streams. The more obvious dislocations are the great longi-
tudinal ones coincident either with the anticlinal and synclinal
axis planes, or with the steep or inverted sides of the anticlinals.
A distinctive character of these great fractures is their parallelism to

382

the axis planes, whether they are coincident with them or not.
Many of the more extensive longitudinal dislocations of the Appa-
lachians are traceable to the rupturing of the anticlinals along their
most wrenched inverted slopes. These waves are entire at their
extremities, but so broken along all their intervening portions as to
present only one-half of the wave form, the other half being pro-
foundly buried with inversion under the unbroken part. Gene-
rally, in these great dislocations, the gently-dipping uninverted slope
of the waves has been shoved—in the inclined plane of the fault—
forward and upward upon the other inverted and crushed half, and
in some instances through a great distance.

The up-driven parts having been extensively removed by erosive
action, the upper strata of the overturned buried half of the wave
are seen to be immediately overlapped in nearly conformable altitude
of dip by the denuded lower strata of the uninverted side. Similar
phenomena of the plunging of newer formations under older ones,
with approximately conformable dips, meet us continually in the Alps,
and other much plicated districts, and can be demonstrated to have
arisen from the same cause, the upward and forward propulsion of
the uninverted halves upon the inverted sides of the anticlinal waves
along the great sloping planes of dislocation, into which the flex-
ures have snapped at the time of their sudden bending.

These several laws of crust undulations, consisting of those which
relate to the parallelism, form, gradation in distance, shape, and
dislocation of the waves, are exemplified in detail in the paper, and by
appeals to the phenomena of some of the more conspicuously corru-
gated tracts of Europe. Viewing, as one such zone, the undulated
districts of southern Belgium, the Rhenish Provinces, the West-
phalian coal-field, the chain of the Ardennes, and the Hundsruck,
Taurus, and Hartz ranges, and referring for proofs to the descrip-
tions and maps of M. Dumont and other geologists, who have described
these provinces in more or less detail, the author shows that this
-belt displays all the phenomena of structure and gradation described
by him as so conspicuous in the Appalachians of America. Sections
transverse to this region from S.E. to N.W, will be found to exhibit
precisely the same succession, from closely folded flexures with
metamorphism through steep normal waves, to broad, open, and
approximately symmetrical ones.

383

The structure of the Jura chain of Switzerland likewise exhibits
proofs of the same laws. There the crust waves closely resemble
those of the Appalachians—the whole chain is composed of several
groups of flexures, differing in their direction or strike; but the
waves of each group display a remarkable parallelism among them-
selves. Very few of the flexures exhibit actual inversion of their
steeper sides. It is remarkable that the steep slopes of the great
waves of the Jura face the Alps; and those nearest the Alps, or on
the borders of the valley of Switzerland, are more compressed than
those on the far side of the chain,-—their more inclined flanks, for
example in the Weissenstein, dipping even perpendicularly, or a
little past this, into partial inversion. This southward thrust of the
erests of the Jura anticlinals would seem to imply a movement
from the north, and not from the igneous axis of the Alps, or probably
from both quarters, at the period of the production of the flexures.

The Alps themselves show the same general structural phenomena
as the other plicated zones described, but under more complex condi-
tions. This much convulsed mountain system contains but few
waves of the open or normal type, consisting, except on its outer
flanks, of many very close plications of the strata. When these
foldings are carefully studied and structurally connected with each
other, the whole chain appears to be composed of two or more central
parallel igneous crests, and each flank of these mountain ranges
of a belt of closely compressed waves. [Each of these plicated
zones or Alpine slopes displays the axis planes of its flexures dipping
in towards the centre of its own chain, the flexures nearest the
igneous axis plunging at a lower or flatter inclination than those
more remote. High in the slopes of the chain, where denudation has
removed the largest part of the originally present upper formations,
only the synclinal folds of these remain preserved. These are the
so-called V’s of the tertiary and jurassic beds, pinched in between
the closely folded anticlinals of the gneissic, and other older rocks.
The inward dip of nearly all the beds of both slopes of the Alps,
thus occasioned by the completeness of the folding and the outward
thrusting of the anticlinal parts of the flexures, is the obvious cause
of that fan-like feature of dip of the entire chain, which has recently
excited so much discussion among geologists. Cleavage of the
rocks, and a superinduced crystallization parallel to the cleavage

384

planes, contribute not a little, the author conceives, to the illusive
appearance of a general inward dip of all the strata, even the newest,
under the older formations of the high igneous crests of the chain ;
for both the cleavage planes and the crystalline foliation observe a
very constant parallelism in the direction of their dip to the dip of
the axis planes of the flexures.

Slaty Cleavage.

It is now a good many years since Professor Sedgwick and other
geologists announced the important general fact, that the structure
called slaty cleavage pervades the altered strata affected by it in di-
rections independent of their bedding or laminze of deposition; that
these planes of cleavage are approximately parallel to each other
over large spaces of country, however contorted the dip of the rocks ;
and that where the cleavage is well developed in a thick mass of
slate rock, the strike of this cleavage is nearly coincident with the
strike of the beds. Professor Phillips, in 1843, added to this rule
a still more comprehensive and exact expression—that the cleavage
. planes of the slate rocks of North Wales were always parallel to the
main direction of the great anticlinal axes. Since 1837, these phe-
nomena of the close parallelism of the cleavage planes with each
other, and with the main axes of elevation, have been observed and
recorded by Professor W. B. Rogers and the author of this commu-
nication ; and in 1849 the author submitted to the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science a communication on the
analogy of the ribbon structure of glaciers to the slaty cleavage of
rocks, in which he stated what he deems the true law of cleay- _
age of a district of undulated and plicated strata,—namely, that
the cleavage dip is parallel to the average dip of the anticlinal
and synclinal axis planes, or those planes which bisect the flexures.
The generality of this rule was shown by sections exhibiting the
flexures and cleavage in the Appalachians, in the Alps, and in the
Rhenish Provinces. Subsequent observations in other localities
have confirmed the universality of this law, and the recent descrip-
tion of the Devonian strata in the south-west of Ireland by Profes-
sors Harkness and Blyth still farther tend to illustrate and establish
it. In their paper in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal
(October 1855), they not only recognise an agreement between the

5
.

385

strike of the cleavage planes and that of the several rolls (or anti-
clinals) which affect the island of Valentia, but they show, that
while the cleavage dip is southerly, the anticlinal “ curves have been
pushed over in a more or less northerly direction,” inverting the
carboniferous limestones and coal measures. Their general state-
ment is, that the cleavage structure of rocks does not result from
the simple rolling of the strata, but from this cause, combined with
a considerable amount of pressure, and this latter force acting from
the south, has pushed over the strata in a sories of oblique curves
to the north, and given to the inclined cleavage more or less of its
southern dip. They further support the deductions of Mr Sharp,
“that there has been a compression in the mass in a direction
everywhere perpendicular to the planes of cleavage, and an expan-
sion of the mass along these planes in the direction of a line at right
angles to the line of incidence of the planes of bedding and clea-
vage.”” But from this view of the mechanical nature and the direction
of the force engendering cleavage the author of this communication
begs leave to dissent.

A second general law is, that where the cleavage is fully deve-
loped, and the anticlinal and synclinal flexures are also conspicuous
and very sharp, the cleavage planes immediately adjoining these
bendings are not parallel to the axis planes, but radiate partially
from them, in a fan-like arrangement, upward in the anticlinals, and
downward in the synelinals. This aberration from the normal direc-
tion is, furthermore, not symmetrical upon the opposite sides of the
geometric axis planes, but is usually greatest upon the inverted or
steep sides of the waves.

A third prevailing relation of the cleavage planes is—their ten-
dency to deviate from the normal direction of parallelism to the axis
planes, in order to conform partially to the direction or dip of the
strata ; and as in every belt of uniform flexures closely plicated with
inversions, the uninverted, or normal dips, greatly exceed the in-
verted ones in breadtl, there prevails a lower inclination in the
planes of cleavage than belongs to the planes bisecting the flexures.

There is yet another law modifying cleavage, dependent upon the
mechanical texture, and possibly the chemical composition, of the
strata. In formations composed of alternations of the coarser mecha-
nical rocks, such as siliceous grits and conglomerates, with the finer-

386

grained argillaceous beds, such as slates, shales, or marls, the coarser
beds are unaffected by cleavage, while the finer-grained ones are
often pervaded by it. Indeed, there appears a strict proportion be-
tween the degree of intimate fissuring of the rocks by cleavage and
the degree of comminution of the particles. Connected probably
with this interruption in the propagation of the cleavage, the author
has observed another modification of the cleavage planes,—namely,
that they tend to curve a little from the normal direction, in the fine-
grained argillaceous beds, approximating to parallelism with the sur-
faces of bedding of the adjoining coarser mechanical deposits, as they
approach them, showing in a transverse section, a kind of gentle sig-
moid flexure. This fact is well illustrated in the cleavage-traversed
rocks at the base of the anthracite coal-formation of Pennsylvania,
where the red shales alternate with the lower beds of the coal-sus-
taining conglomerates and coarse sandstones, These remarkable
facts seem sufficient of themselves to refute the hypothesis, some-
what in favour at present, of the purely mechanical origin of the
cleavage-producing force ; for we cannot conceive how a mechanical
force either of compression, or of tension, transmitted, as necessarily
it must have been, very equally, through parallel layers of coarse and
fine material, should have exerted no fissuring action the moment it
reached the surface of the coarser beds, and yet have been able to
cleave into thin parallel slaty laminz the whole body of the finer-
grained argillaceous strata, One would more naturally suppose that
the less finely-aggregated softer mud rocks or shales would have
been even less easily fissured into sharp cleavage joints than the
more massive and better cemented grits.
Foliation.

The relations of the foliation or crystalline lamination of meta-
morphic strata to the cleavage planes and the planes of stratification,
are next dwelt on. Two facts may be stated of foliation, which
possess perhaps the constancy of general laws. One of them is,
that this structure, as it is seen in gneiss and mica schist, observes,
when the strata are not traversed by cleavage, an approximate
parallelism with the original bedding. The author of this paper has
beheld apparent exceptions to this rule in several localities near
Philadelphia and elsewhere in the United States; and others have
been noticed in Europe by Mr D. Sharpe and other good observers,

387

but all of them can be reconciled to the general fact, and reduced, it
is conceived, to the one comprehensive law,—that the planes of
foliation, or the laminz formed by the crystalline constituents of the
foliated rocks are parallel to the planes or waves of heat which have
been transmitted through the strata. Whenever large tracts of the
gneissic rocks retain a nearly horizontal undisturbed position, the
foliation is almost invariably coincident with the stratification; and
in this case the wave of heat producing the crystalline structure
ean only have flowed upwards through the crust, invading stra-
tum after stratum in parallel horizontal planes, Again,-when in-
jections of granite have lifted the gneissic strata, the crystalline
lamination is generally seen to be parallel to the plane of outflowing
temperature.

The other general rule is, that the foliation is parallel, or approxi-
mately so, to the cleavage, wherever these two structures occur in the
same mass of rocks. This fact, recorded by Darwin, of the gneissic
rocks and clay slates of South America, has been noticed likewise by
Mr D. Sharpe, Mr David Forbes, Mr Sorby, and other geologists
in Great Britain, and by the author in many localities in Southern
Pennsylvania. An interesting instance of such parallelism of the
foliation to the cleavage, in the last-named region, tending to show
convincingly that both phenomena are the consequences of one species
of force, or but different degrees of development of the same molecu-
lar or crystallizing agency, is presented in the great synclinal trough of
the lower Appalachian limestone, north of Philadelphia. On the north
side of this trough, the primal and auroral rocks, Cambrian or Lower
Silurian, dip S., over a wide outcrop, at a very regular angle of about
45°. On the south side, they have been lifted into, and even a little
beyond, the perpendicular position, so that the synclinal axis plane of
the belt dips at an angle of 65° or 70° to the south. Neither for-
mation shows cleavage structure on the northern side of the valley,
the limestone being there of an earthy texture, and in thick massive
beds; but on the south, or upturned side, this limestone is altered
into a mottled blue and white crystalline marble, and is pervaded
with cleavage planes, dipping at angles of 70° and 80° southward.
Many parts of the rock are like a foliated calcareous gneiss, thin la-
mine of mica and tale dividing the slate-like plates of the marble.
What is especially worthy of notice is, that the foliation of the mica
and talc, composing some of the thin partings between the original

388

beds of the limestone, is itself very generally parallel to the cleay-
age in the adjoining calcareous rock. Indeed, wherever the cleay-
age is excessive, the mass throughout becomes, by introduction of
fully developed tale and mica between its lamine, a true foliated
stratum. An especial interest attaches itself to cases of this kind,
from their showing, in the two contrasted conditions of the absence
and presence of metamorphism in the two opposite outcrops of the
self-same synclinal stratum, that both effects, cleavage and foliation,
have originated at the same time, and from one and the same cause,
and are in truth but different stages of the same crystalline condition,
superinduced on the mass by high temperature, at the period of its
elevation.

The above enunciated general facts of the prevailing parallelism of
the foliation to the cleavage, is but a corollary of the still more ge-
neral relationship already expressed of the parallelism of the resul-
tant planes of crystallization to the waves of heat, which have
produced the metamorphism.

THEORETICAL VIEWs.

Theory of the Flexion and Elevation of Undulated Strata.

The wave-like structure of the Appalachian and other undulated
zones has been attributed by the author and his brother W. B.
Rogers, in their communications to the American Association in
1842, and to the British Association in the same year, to an actual
undulation of the supposed flexible crust of the earth exerted in
parallel lines, and propagated in the manner of a horizontal pulsation,
from the liquid interior of the globe. They have supposed the strata of ©
such a region “ to have been subjected to excessive upward tension,
arising from the expansion of molten matter and gaseous vapour, and
this tension relieved by parallel fissures formed in successive lines
through which such elastic vapour escaped, the sudden removal of the
pressure adjacent to the lines of fracture, producing violent pulsations
on the surface of the liquid below. This oscillating movement would
communicate a series of temporary flexures to the overlying crust, and
these flexures would be rendered permanent (or keyed into the forms
they present) by the intrusion of molten matter. If, during this oscil-
lation, we conceive the whole heaving tract to have been shoved (or

— tte. -—«
,

389

floated) bodily forward in the direction of the advancing waves, the
union of this tangential with the vertical movements may explain the
peculiar steepening of the front side of each flexure, while a succession
of similar operations will accomplish the folding under or inversion
seen in the more compressed districts.” They think that no purely
vertical force, exerted either simultaneously or successively along paral-
lel lines, could produce a series of symmetrical flexures, while a tan-
gential pressure, unaccompanied by a vertical force, would result only
in an imperceptible bulging of the whole region or in irregular plica-
tions, dependent on local inequalities in the amount of the resis-
tance. The alternate upward and downward movement necessary to
enable a tangential force to bend the strata into a series of regular
parallel subsiding flexures was, they conceive, of the nature of a pul-
sation such as would arise from a succession of actual waves roll-
ing in a given direction beneath the earth’s crust. Successive
feeble tangential movements could not agree either in direction or
amplitude, nor is it easy to imagine how they could shift their posi-
tions through a series of parallel axis lines, nor how, when renewed,
they could return always to the same lines to build up the conspicuous
flexures. These oscillations of the crust, to which the undulated
strata are attributed, have been, they conceive, of the nature of the
earthquakes of the present day ;—earthquakes being, as they have
demonstrated, a true pulsation of the flexible crust of the globe,
propagated in parallel low waves of great length and amplitude, with
prodigious velocity, from lines of fracture, either conspicuous volcanic
axes, or half-concealed deep-seated fissures in the outer envelope of
the planet.

THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF CLEAVAGE STRUCTURE.

Concerning the cause of slaty cleavage, the author of the paper
has adopted the explanation originally proposed by Professor Sedg-
wick, that it is due * to erystalline or polar forces acting simultane-
ously and somewhat uniformly, in given directions, on large masses
having a homogeneous composition.” And following up the further
suggestion in extension of this idea, ingeniously proposed by Sir
John Herschel, that this molecular force was of the nature of an
incipient crystallization, and has been developed in the particles by
their being heated to a point at which they could begin to move among

VOL, Il. 2k

390

themselves, or upon their own axes, he has endeavoured to show
that, whether the cleavage-cut strata have been much disturbed or
not, the cleavage planes invariably approximate to parallelism with
those great planes in the crust, which give indications of having been
the planes of maximum temperature. It has been already stated, in
the present paper, that the cleavage dip is parallel to the average
dip of the anticlinal and synclinal axis planes bisecting the flexures.
Now it is easy to prove that these axis planes, and the inverted parts
of the flexures, are just those portions where the greatest crushing,
fissuring, and displacement of the strata must have occurred, and
where the highly heated pent-up volcanic steam, gases, and liquid
mineral matter would find their chief channels obliquely upward to-
wards the surface. Not to attempt the application of this view in
detail, it will suffice at present to state, that every plicated belt of
strata may be regarded as having, at the time of its folding and
metamorphism, contained from this cause a series of alternate hotter
and colder planes or belts, arranged in parallel oblique dip. These
planes of temperature are supposed to have acted to polarize the
particles of the strata in corresponding parallel planes, by transmit-
ting through the half-softened mass parallel waves of heat, stimu-
lating the molecular crystalline forces ever resident in mineral mat-
ter in planes parallel to the generating surfaces.

3. On a Property of Numbers. By Balfour Stewart, Esq.
Communicated by Professor Kelland.

4. Analysis of Craigleith Sandstone. By Thomas Bloxam,
Esq., Assistant-Chemist, Industrial Museum, with a Pre-
liminary Note by Professor George Wilson.

One object of the Laboratory of the Industrial Museum is the pro-
secution of investigations likely to throw light on the economic value
of materials employed in the useful arts. It has been impossible
this winter to do more than make a small beginning by instituting
an examination into the properties of certain of our building stones ;
and as the results obtained in the case of the sandstone of Craigleith
Quarry have an interest for geologists as well as for architects and
builders, they are laid before the Society, as all similar results of any

391

scientific value will be in future. The entire investigation will be
published in the course of the summer.

It is necessary to remark here that the following experiments
were made solely upon the coarser variety of the stone, known as
Common or Bed Rock; the finer portions, not yet submitted to che-
mical investigation, being called Liver Rock, most probably from the
closeness of its grain.

The objects which I had chiefly in view in the course of the follow-
ing inquiry were, the exact chemical composition of the stone ; the
extent to which it contains other insoluble substances than silica ; the
amount of substances soluble in pure water, in water saturated with
carbonic acid, and in water containing the mineral acids. The ex-
tent to which the stone absorbs and retains water, was also object of
investigation, and the coaly matter which occurs at intervals in it
was analysed.

The whole of the analyses were made by Mr Thomas Bloxam, the
assistant-chemist in the Laboratory of the Industrial Museum, who
spent much pains on the inquiry. From what follows it will be seen
that the Craigleith sandstone, as taken in cubes for building, is nearly
all silica, but that it contains in addition small portions of alumina,
lime, magnesia, iron, and, occasionally, a hitherto unsuspected ingre-
dient, oxide of cobalt, which Mr Bloxam has distinctly indicated.
In addition to those substances, black particles occur disseminated

’ even through the whitest and most solid portions of the stone, which

in the majority of cases appear to be coaly matter, but are some-
times in greater part carbonate of the protoxide of iron, coloured by
an admixture of coal.

The condition in which those bodies occur in the stone is as im-
portant as their relative amount ; but it is not so easily ascertained.
Much of the silica is present in more or less perfect grains of quartz ;
a small portion occurs as the chief ingredient of scales of mica, and
also probably as felspar ; and according to Mr J. Napier of Partick,
Glasgow, a certain amount of the silica is in combination with alu-
mina as clay. Mr Napier experimented by reducing the stone to fine
powder, and washing it on a flannel filter, which retained the silica,
and allowed the clay to pass through. Proceeding in this manner,
and receiving on a weighed filter paper the muddy water which
passed through the flannel, Mr Bloxam found that 9-33 per cent. of
substance remained on the paper after drying at 212°. This may pro-

392

visionally be called clay, of which it consists in small part; but till it
is analysed, it would be premature to discuss its nature. Mr Napier’s
observation, however, that sandstones contain clay, is an important
one, especially in reference to their power to retain moisture, and
continue long damp in the walls of buildings.

The iron which occurs so generally in sandstones, and is so im-
portant an ingredient, from its tendency to stain the stone after it is
quarried and exposed to the air, is certainly present in different
chemical conditions. It has been generally assumed, | think, to occur
in carboniferous sandstones as bisulphuret; but it appears to be
chiefly present in the Craigleith rock as carbonate of the protoxide,
the form in which it has always been recognised as prevailing in the
shales accompanying such sandstones. As already mentioned, the
protocarbonate of iron occurs in detached portions, coating and di-
viding certain strata of the stone from each other; but it is not on
this circumstance that I found the conclusion stated above, but on the
following results: 1000 grains of the stone, finely powdered, were
suspended in cold distilled water, and a stream of washed carbonic
acid gas sent through the liquid for an hour. The water passed
through a filter quite transparent ; but upon boiling became troubled,
and deposited carbonates of lime and magnesia, peroxide of iron,
and a little silica. Of these substances the peroxide of iron was the
most abundant, and it had plainly been dissolved as protocarbonate.
The probability, accordingly, is that the metal existed as carbonate
in the sandstone ; but it may have been present as metal or as black
oxide, though scarcely as bisulphuret, and certainly not as peroxide.
The point of most practical interest, however, is, that rain-water,
containing, as it always does, carbonic acid, is able to dissolve iron
as well as lime and magnesia from exposed sandstones ; so that we
may always expect to find them colour more or less from the solution
and subsequent peroxidation of the iron which they contain.

It was not found possible to remove the whole of the iron from the
powdered sandstone by the action of carbonic acid water, for after it
had exerted its full effect, hydrochloric acid, if boiled on the powder,
extracted iron as peroxide, unaccompanied by protoxide.

The action of other solvents on the stone is as follows :—Distilled
water boiled upon it in fine powder acquired a notable quantity of
lime, a small quantity of sulphuric acid, and a trace of iron. Mi-
nute quantities of the alkalies, of magnesia, and of silica were doubt-

,

—

393

less also present, but were not sought for. Hydrochloric acid boiled
upon the powdered stone yielded a solution in which protoxide and
peroxide of iron, alumina, lime, and magnesia, were found in marked
quantity ; and traces of manganese and cobalt, along with potassa,
soda, and silica, in small quantities.

From those results it will be seen that the purest water can dissolve
a certain amount of substance from Craigleith sandstone ; that if
charged with carbonic acid it will disintegrate it further ; and that
if containing free mineral acids, as the rain-water of towns occasion-
ally does, it will decompose it still further.

In connection with those results, it is important to notice the ex-
tent to which the stone absorbs and retains water, points on which
Mr Napier has already made valuable observations. The specimens
selected for the following trials had an average sp. gr. of 2°443.

A piece weighing 3506-1 grains, which had been received from
the quarry in the month of November 1855, and remained for about
a month in a room without a fire, was kept at 212°, till it ceased to
lose weight ; the loss was equivalent to 5-7 fluid ounces per cubic

_ foot.

A similar piece, weighing 4597-95 grains, was immersed in dis-
tilled water at 58°, till it ceased to gain weight. The surface-
moisture was then allowed to evaporate, and the stone weighed. The
gain was equivalent to 3-8 imperial pints per cubic foot.

According to Mr Napier, a sandstone acquires much more moisture
if allowed to absorb it by capillary attraction from one part of its
surface, than if entirely immersed in water, but upon making the ex-
periment in the way he describes, the difference, by capillary attrac-
tion, was comparatively small; the whole gain being 4:2 imperial
pints on the cubic foot. On the other hand, when the stone was im-
mersed in water under the bell jar of the air-pump plate, and the
air withdrawn, the ultimate gain in weight amounted to 6-2 imperial
pints per cubic foot. The error of those who hope to render build-
ings dry by constructing their walls of solid sandstone, will be suffi-
ciently apparent from these facts. The numerical results obtained
by Mr Bloxam are added in full.

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395

The following Gentleman was duly admitted an Ordinary
Fellow :—

James Crerk Maxwett, Esq., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Report of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of British Guiana. By Daniel
Blair, M.D. 8vo.—From the Author.

Physical and Geographical Map of India. By G. B. Greenough.
8vo.— From the Executors of the late G. B. Greenough.
Théorie de lAntagonisme et de la Pondération. Par M. Alexandre

Gérard. 8vo.—From the Author.

London University Calendar, 1856. 12mo.—From the University.

Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, 1855. 8vo.—
From the Society.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. ii., part 4.
8vo.—From the Society.

Flora Batava. Afleverings 177 & 178. 4to.—From the King
of Holland.

Abhandlungen, herausgegeben von der Senckenbergischen Naturfor-
schenden Gesellschaft. ster Band, 2te, Lieferung. 4to.—
From the Society.

Memorias de la Real Academia de de Ciencias de Madrid. Tome 1
and 2. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Positions moyennes pour |’époque de 1790,0 des étoiles circompo-
laires, dont les observations ont été publiées par Jérome La-
lande dans les Mémoires de l’Académie de Paris de 1789 et
1790. Par Ivan Frederenko. 4to.—From the Editor.

Ueber Dr Wichmann’s Bestimmung der Parallaxe des Argelander-
schen Sterns. Von W. Dillen. 4to—From the Author.

Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de |’Académie des
Sciences. Nov. 1855—Avril 1856. 4to—From the Aca-
demy.

Ed

* _

ee )

a Monday, 3d March 1856.

te PAGE

_ Observations on the Diatomaceous Sand of Glenshira. Part

a II. Containing an Account of a number of additional

eg undescribed Species. By Witt1am Grecory, M.D.,

__F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of

z . Edinburgh, 358
_ Theory of the Free Vibration of a Sone Saitaa of Elastic

Bodies. Part II. By Epwarp Sane, Esq.,_ .. 360
Te Monday, 17th March 1856.

4 An Account of some Experiments on certain Sea-Weeds of
____ an Edible kind. By Joun Davy, M.D., F.R.S., Lond.
and Edin., &c., 363
On the Deflection of the Plurabidas at Arthur’ s Seat, and
ae on the Mean Density of the Earth. By Lieutenant-
Colonel James, R.E. Communicated ae Professor
d - Fornes, : 364
Po the Possibility of orbits Se or more depen
Probabilities of the same Event, so as to form. one de-*
finite Probability. By Bishop Tzrror, Tree 366

7

git Donations to the Library, . . : . 367

et - Monday, 7th April 1856.

_ On Atmospheric Manoscopy, or on the direct Determi-
nation of the Weight of a given bulk of Air with
‘ae _ reference to Meteorological Phenomena in general,
th ~ and to the Etiology of Epidemic Diseases. By Dr
% Re ‘Sexer, 368
Researches on Chinaline and its petloieg. By C. Gre-
VILLE WILLIAMS. sy ata by Dr T. Anprr-
aa. SON,” . ; 370
" On Fermat's iawn: By i. Fox iibow: Esq. Pap a: oy |

iv
PAGE
On the Transmission of the Actinic Rays of Light through
the Eye, and their relation to the Yellow Spot of the
Retina. By Gzorcz Witson, M.D.,_ . : 371
Donations to the Library, . : : ; 375

Monday, 21st April 1856.

On the Prismatic Spectra of the Flames of Compounds
of Carbon and Hydrogen. By Witi1am Swan, Esq., 376
On the Laws of Structure of the more disturbed Zones of the
‘Earth’s Crust. By Professor H. D. Roczrs, of the

United States, : é ; 378
On a Property of Symone By Barrour Stewart, Esq.
Communicated by Professor KeLzanp, . 390

Analysis of Craigleith Sandstone. By THomas Broan;
Esq., Assistant-Chemist, Industrial Museum, with a
Preliminary Note by Professor Gzorce WILSON, - 390

Donations to the Library, . 5 : : 395

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

SESSION 1856-57.

CONTENTS.

Monday, 1st December 1856.
PAGE
Opening Address, Session 1856-57. By Bishop Terror, 398
On the Minute Structure of the Involuntary Muscular Tissue.
By Joszru Lister, Esq., F.R.C.S. Eng. and Edinb.
Communicated by Dr Cunistison, p - 413
Donations to the Library, . : : ; 416

Monday, 15th December 1856.

On the Ovum and Young Fish of the Salmonide. By Wi1-
tim Ayrton, Esq. Communicated by Professor AtL-
MAN, . : : : R F 428.

Notice of the Vendace of Derwentwater, Cumberland, in a let-
ter addressed to Sir William Jardine, Bart., by Jour
Davy, M.D., . 429

On the Races of the Western Coast of ‘Afton. By Colonel

Luxe Smytu O’Connor, C.B., Governor of the Gambia.
Communicated by Professor KELLAND, : : 429
Donations to the Library, . : : 433
[Turn over.

il

Monday, 5th January 1857.
PAGE
Some Remarks on the Literature and Philosophy of the
Chinese. By the Rev. Dr Roper Lez, 433
Observations on the Crinoidea, showing their connection with
other branches of the Echinodermata. By Fort-Major
Tuomas Austin, F.G.8. Communicated by Professor
Batrovr, - 5 4 : ; 433
Donations to the Library, - : , Meee so

Monday, 19th January 1857.

On the application of the Theory of Probabilities to the ques-
tion of the Combination of Testimonies, By Professor
Boortz. Communicated by Bishop TgRror, : 435
On New Species of Marine Diatomacee from the Firth of
Clyde and Loch Fine. By Professor Gregory. Illus- —
trated by numerous drawings, and by enlarged figures, all
drawn by Dr GREVILLE, 442
Short Verbal Notice of a simple and direct method of Comput-
ing the Logarithm of a Number. By Epwarp ict Esq., 451
Donations to the Library, . : 451

Monday, 2d February 1857.

On the Urinary Secretion of Fishes, with some remarks on this
secretion in other classes of Animals. By Joun Davy,
M.D., F.R.SS. London and Edinburgh, 452

On the Reproductive Economy of Moths and Bees ; being an
Account of the Results of Von Siebold’s Recent Re~
searches in Parthenogenesis. By ProfessorGoopstr, , 454

On the Principles of the Stereoscope ; and on a new mode of
exhibiting Stereoscopic Pictures. By Dr W. Macpvonatp, 455

Donations to the Library, . F s : 455

Monday, 16th February 1857.

On the Crania of the Kaffirs and Hottentots, and the Physical
and Moral Characteristics of these Races. By Dr Brack,
F.G.S8., oe 456.
On a Roche Moutonnée on the summit, of the range of hills
separating Loch Fine and. Loch Awe. In a letter from
the Duke of Argyll to Professor Forbes, ; 459

[For continuation of Contents see page 3 of Cover.

a Ss
lr :

397

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. III. 1856-57. No. 47.

SEVENTY-FouURTH SESSION.
Monday, 24th November 1856.
Very Rev. Principat LEE, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Council were elected :—

President.
Sie T. MAKDOUGALL BRISBANE, Br., G.C.B., G.C.H.

Vice-Presidents.
Sir D. Brewster, K.H. Dr Curistison.
Very Rev. Principal Lex. Dr Attson.
Right Rev. Bishop Terror. Hon. Lord Murray.

General Secretary,—Professor Fores.
Secretaries to the Ordinary Meetings,— Dr Greaory, Dr Batrour.
Treaswrer,—Joun Russet, Esq.

Curator of Library and Musewm,—Dr Dovetas Mactaaan.

Counsellors.
Hon. B. F. Primrose. Dr Trartt.
James Cunnincnam, Esq. Hon. Lord Neaves.
Dr Grevitur. Dr Tuos. Anprerson, Glasgow.
A. Kerra Jounston, Esq. Rey. Dr. Hopson.
Dr Maciaaan, Rosert Cuampers, Esq.
Wm. Swan, Esq. J. T. Gisson-Craia, Esq.
VOL, Ll, 21

398

Monday, 1st December 1856.

THE RicuTt Rey. Bishop TERROT, Vice-President,
in the Chair.

Opening Address. By Bishop Terrot.

The Council of the Royal Society have, in the course of the last
year, taken into serious consideration the state and prospects of the
Society, and have deliberated upon many propositions having for
their object to render our ordinary meetings more interesting, and
generally to increase the efficiency and usefulness of the Society.
Among other schemes of this nature, they have adopted one, in con-
formity with which I have now the hovour of addressing you. They
have resolved that henceforth the winter session shall commence
with an Address from the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents,
leaving it, of course, to the judgment of the individual selected to
choose such topics as he may think most likely to excite, among the
Fellows, a deeper interest in the welfare of the Society, a more
earnest determination to render their scientific attainments, whatever
they may be, serviceable, not merely to the world at large, and to
the advancement of their own scientific reputation, but also to the
efficiency and reputation of our common object of interest—the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Possessing, as we do, a President equally distinguished for his
science and for his love of science, for that which he has done him-
self, and for that which, by his open-handed liberality, he has invited
and enabled others to do, it would have been most natural and de-
sirable that he should have been requested to address you on this
occasion. You are aware, however, that the state of his health is
such as to render it very unadvisable that he should attend our
evening meetings, and the Council were consequently under the ne-
cessity of laying this duty upon one of the Vice-Presidents. There
also, you must be aware, the Council had but a small range of
choice. Your senior Vice-President, to whom every one would
have listened with interest and attention, and from whom even the
most advanced in science might have learned something new, is, I
regret to hear, obliged to retire to the Continent on account of the

399

health of a member of his family, Others on the list are prevented
by various causes from attending our meetings; and the result has
been that the Council felt itself under the necessity of imposing
upon me the duty, which I now attempt to perform.

I think you will agree with me, that a Society like ours, insti-
tuted for a definite purpose—the advancement of Science and Litera-
ture—has, in relation to that purpose, a duty to perform; and that
each member, according to the extent of his ability, is bound in
duty to contribute to the energy and action whereby alone the
Society, as a whole, can satisfactorily perform its obligations. Now,
in relation to the purpose of the Society, the clear understanding of
which must go far to determine the character of its duties, it can-
not, I think, fail to strike you that for many years our attention has
been exclusively directed to what is commonly called Science,—to the
abstract, the physical, and the experimental sciences; while every
thing coming under the designation of Literature is altogether ab-
sent from our proceedings. Literature, indeed, in its ordinary ac-
ceptation, is unsuited to our purpose. It is not desirable that, like
the old French Academy, we should invite poets to recite fragments
of some forthcoming epic, or historians to put us in advance of the
external world, by communicating the purpuret panni, the heroic
portraits, or battle-pieces, of a projected narrative. But I cannot
see why the word Science should be restricted to the knowledge of
material objects ; why it should not be extended to all knowledge
difficult to acquire, and relating to matters which are interesting to
any considerable number of thinking, cultivated minds. It would
surely be unjust to refuse the name of science to that philosophy
which, in the hands of Smith, Reid, Stewart, and Brown, has done
more to raise the character of Scotland as an intellectual nation, than
all that she has done, and that is not little, in all the mathematical
and physical sciences, And besides this science of mind, there
exists a science of the great exponent of mind, of spoken or written
language. This, in combination with anatomy, constitutes the
science which the British Association have admitted into their eycle
under the name of Ethnology. Even those among us who are most
absorbed in abstract or physical science may feel some interest in
learning to what extent, and how and why it is that a basis of same-
ness exists between the languages of a long line of nations extending
from the Ganges to the Atlantic ; how varieties of this one species

242

400

have branched off in different directions ; how in some countries in-
vading hordes have speedily obliterated the language of the conquered,
while in others they have abandoned their own, and have adopted
that of the conquered majority.

Now, I beg you to understand that I have no wish that either
mental philosophy or philology should, in this Society, supersede
those abstract and physical sciences with which we are generally
occupied. All I would ask for is, that those who are engaged in
the former should not be led to consider the Royal Society as an
Institution in which they are not wanted, and in whose labours they
can take no share. It may be replied, that there exists among us
no exclusion of such students, and that our door is as open to them
as to the Chemist or the Mathematician. ‘There is no exclusion, but
there is an obstruction. Such students, the speculators upon mind
and language, when hesitating whether they shall propose themselves
as candidates for admission into the Royal Society, will naturally
look into some recent volume of our Transactions. There they will
find little that can interest them—little that they can understand, or
even read. For the notations employed by the analyst and the
chemist are to them an unknown tongue; and though they be fami-
liar with common arithmetic, they would not find a volume of the
Makerstoun Observations very inviting. In short, the impression
would be that our trade was not their trade, or that for their ware
there was no demand in our market,

And yet this last conclusion would be a false one. There exists
in the Society a very general wish for some infusion of literature into
our proceedings, and it exists among those who are themselves most
exclusively devoted to scientific pursuits. But it does not lie with
the Anatomist, the Botanist, or the Astronomer, to supply the defi-
ciency. All that they can do is to express not merely their willing-
ness, but their wish, that men of letters would come forward and
contribute something of a more general interest, and a more graceful
character, to the severe simplicity of our usual evening engagements.
About this time last year the Council issued a report to the Fellows,
in which the subject to which I am now referring was urged very
strongly. They then said, “ It has long been a matter of regret
that literary papers are so seldom offered ; insomuch that it is often
forgotten that the Royal Society was originally instituted for the
interchange of literary as well as of scientific communications; in-

401

deed, that the Society long divided itself into two classes, having re-
ference to those subjects. Essays on criticism, philology, and
wstheties, are to be found in the earlier volumes of the Transactions,
but for many years such papers have rarely been communicated.
The Council believe that such contributions would be very acceptable
to the Society, even should the authors not in every case deem their
observations sufficiently original and important to demand publica-
tion in extenso in the Transactions.” Such was the urgent call made
by the Council upon the literary members of the Society ; but as
yet the call has been made in vain.

I venture, in the next place, to offer a few words of counsel to
those who are so far engaged in science as to be conscious that, by
the withdrawal of a little time from their professional engagements,
they might contribute either to the interest of our evening meetings,
or to the contents of our annual publications. I distinguish between
these two purposes, because I consider them widely separate. The
‘ideal of a paper for the Transactions is, that it contains some new
important truth; and since, by its publication, it is presented to the
whole scientific world, it is clear that the author should have such
Knowledge not only of his branch of science, but also of its history,
as may secure him from wasting his time upon the discovery of that
which is already familiar to the masters of the craft. Such, I re-
peat, is the ideal of a paper for the Transactions. In many cases
snch a paper can give no gratification to the audience, and, indeed,
in the very best cases such papers are not read throughout. A brief
abstract of the purpose, method, and conclusion is all that is given;
because the author is aware that, to a large portion of his hearers,
the details would be uninteresting, because unintelligible ; and that
even those who are on a level with himself, require time fully and
clearly to apprehend the accuracy of his arguments and of his cal-
culations.

But no such requirements and limitations apply to communications
made at our ordinary meetings, without any view to their being
afterwards published in the Transactions. Those among us who are
employed upon sciences of observation, and those who are watching
the progress of science both at home or abroad, might add much to
the interest of our meetings by communicating information which is
not positively, but only relatively new; which might be found else-
where, but which would probably not be found by many who would

402

gladly receive it, when presented to them by an intelligent in-
formant. Nay, I do not see why the proposing of well-considered
questions might not be considered relevant to the purpose of our
evening meetings. Those who, from heavy professional occupa-
tions, cannot advance beyond the outskirts of any science, would be
very troublesome members of society were they perpetually invading
the studies of the learned, and applying for the solution of their
doubts and difficulties. Yet such sciolists, among whom I must
honestly class myself, have, in virtue of their fellowship, some claim
upon the assistance of their more learned brethren; and that assist-
ance might be easily afforded, if the proposing of a reasonable ques-
tion, not pointedly addressed to any individual, were to be considered
as an allowable and ordinary proceeding in our evening meetings.
These suggestions may appear trifling or impracticable. My pur-
pose will be served if only the attention of the more earnest working
members of the Society be turned to the fact that the proceedings at
our meetings possess little attraction for a great portion of the
Fellows; and if they are led to devise some better plan for popu-
larizing, without degrading, the public business of the Society.

I suppose, that if any of us were asked, What is the purpose of the
Royal Society ? he would answer generally, the promotion of science.
But this formula, the promotion of science, may be taken in various
senses, In one sense, and that the highest, a philosopher promotes
science when he observes and publishes facts unknown before, or when
he reduces known facts under the conditions of a new law. Ineither
case he promotes science by increasing the number of things which
may be known by study alone without invention. But the school-
master, in another sense, promotes science when he excites to the
pursuit of science minds which, without such excitement, would have
remained trifling or inert; when he smooths difficulties which would
have discouraged, or altogether stopped, the progress of the young
student ; and in some, though certainly in a much lower degree,
when he merely communicates to his pupils his own knowledge of
the facts and laws of nature. The philosopher, in the successful
exercise of his vocation, makes things knowable ; the schoolmaster,
in his vocation, makes them to be actually known. So far as I can
see, these are the only two methods in which science can be directly
promoted; and the question is, in which of these ways is it that our
Society ought to labour for the promotion of science. Individual

403

members then, contribute to the advancement of science, when they
communicate to the Society either the unrecorded facts which they
have observed, or the results of their scientific experiments, or the
general laws which they have established by processes of inductive
reasoning, or improvements which they have effected in the instruments
of observation, or in the calculus by which their reasonings are effected.
The Society again, as a body, co-operates to this direct advancement
of science, when, after winnowing the important from the unimpor-
tant, it gives to the world in its Transactions, such communications
as, in its judgment, are fitted either to extend the field or to facili-
tate the acquirement of useful knowledge. But perhaps the indirect
action of this and similar societies is more important than these
its formal and visible products; nay, I know not whether the best
answer to the question, What is the use of the Royal Society ? would
not be, that it is useful by bringing together, into familiar inter-
course, men of science and men of letters—men of similar and of
different views. Solitary study is requisite even for the most mode-
rate attainment of knowledge ; but a solitude unbroken by intercourse
with other minds, is apt to generate, in scientific men, an overesti-
mate of their own powers and performances, and a doting fondness
for notions which are commonly described by the term crotchets.
Now every man of vigorous and inquiring intelligence, and so far
constitutionally qualified to become a man of science, who, by being
brought into competition with his equals, and under the influence of
his superiors, is induced to moderate his self estimation, and to
abandon his crotchets, is thereby rendered a better, wiser, and more
useful man than he was before. I need not again refer to the more
obvious use of familiar intercourse among the professors and the
lovers of science, of the labour and time that may be saved by the
friendly communication of difficulties, or of the overcoming of diffi-
culties, and by everything which tends in science to that generous,
unselfish co-operation, which is the source of strength and pro-
gress in all artistic, commercial, and social life. Every great sub-
ject has some dark side; and, next to the unholy contests of intolerant
religionists, I know nothing more melancholy than the disputes of
men of science respecting priority of invention and discovery ; to see
them too evidently acknowledging, that not the discovery of truth,
but the credit of having discovered it, is the stimulus and the reward
to which they are looking.

404

The affording facilities for such intellectual intercourse between
those who are engaged either upon the same or upon different
branches of science, and the promotion of this generous, brotherly
co-operation, is, I believe, in the present state of society, the most
important purpose, and the most beneficial result of scientific insti-
tutions such as that which I have the honour of addressing.

The Council have, in the last year, acted as if they felt the
force of some of these considerations. They have made the next
apartment complete in everything that can conduce to the comfort
of the Fellows who visit it, either for reading, writing, or consulta-
tion ; and, situated as we are, at the very centre of our principal
thoroughfare, they may, I think, be disappointed that so few of our
members appear as yet to avail themselves of the accommodation
afforded them. But they have taken a much more important step
than this; they have devoted three hundred pounds, not from the
capital, but from the savings of the Society, to the increase of the
Library. Every department of science has been fairly represented in
the sub-committee appointed to expend this sum; and if the Natu-
ralists have carried off the lion’s share in the distribution, this has
arisen from no unfair preference, but from the great expensiveness
of their necessary apparatus. A tolerably extensive library of
mathematics or philology may be purchased at the price of a single
publication on shells or ferns. In the geographical department our
collection is eminently rich. We possess, and have mounted in a
new and very serviceable manner, maps to the amount of 625 sheets.
Of these 439 relate to Europe, and 78 to Asia; and many are
from elaborate surveys, and on a large scale. The Council
has also been busily employed during a great portion of the
year in preparing a Catalogue of the Library. The completion of
this has unavoidably been impeded by the gradual accession of
additional books ; but it is hoped that in the course of the present
session, or of the succeeding summer, a complete and well-arranged
Catalogue will be accessible to the Members of the Society ; and that
from it the students of every branch of science will learn that valu-
able contributions to their favourite branch, whatever it may be,
have been recently made, with an especial view to the supply of
works of reference, which were not to be found in the great public
libraries of this city. It may not be uninteresting to the literary
members to know that a considerable number of Dictionaries, Gram-

405

mars, and works on general Philology, are among the recent addi-
tions to the library.

Another important subject to which the attention of the Council
has been directed, is the finance of the Society. Several circum-
stances have shown it to be desirable that the amount both of ad-
mission and annual payments should be diminished ; and the state-
ments drawn out by our very intelligent and zealous Treasurer, show
that such diminution may be made without incapacitating the
Society from carrying out any of its legitimate purposes. As the
rate of fees is fixed by a law of the Society, the sanction of a general
meeting will be necessary to the alteration ; and a motion to that
purpose will, I believe, be made this evening.

In recounting the duties of the Society, I ought to remind you that
we are trustees of three funds devoted to the promotion of science ;
and are the judges appointed to select among competing candidates
those most deserving of the prizes afforded from the interest of these
funds. The first of these prizes is the Keith Gold Medal and
Prize, given biennially to the author of that paper read before the
Society which the Council considers as the most valuable contribution
to science, made through the Society, during the two preceding ses-
sions. The second is the Brisbane Prize, the special application of
which was left by the learned and liberal donor entirely to the judg-
ment of the Council. They have decided that this prize shall be
awarded, at biennial periods alternating with the Keith Prize, and
that for the first biennium it shall be awarded to the author of the
best Biographical Memoir of some deceased Scotchman, distinguished
by his scientific attainments. Thirdly, we have the Neill Bequest,
which, in conformity with the well-known pursuits of the founder,
will be devoted to the encouragement of natural history in its various
branches. We are thus empowered to invite and stimulate and re-
ward exertion—lst, In the great field of physical and experimental
science ; 2d, In mathematics and astronomy ; 3d, In the investiga-
tion of the forms, properties, and relations of the various families of
the organized creation. The destination of the Brisbane Prize ap-
pears to have this peculiar merit, that it gives scope for the exhibi-
tion of literary as well as of scientific merit; and I hope that those
who may be induced to compete for it will remember that each of
the heroes of science was not an abstract intellect, but a man, with
human affections and passions acting for good or for evil—with moral

406

and religious tendencies, influencing, it may be, his scientific pursuits,
and colouring his enunciation of his discoveries. Good biography,
the accurate life-like portraiture of a great mind, is one of the highest
achievements of literary skill.

Having thus directed your attention to some of the secondary
offices and purposes of the Royal Society, I feel it right to revert to
that which the external world will always consider as its primary
duty, and by the adequate performance of which, without reference
to anything else, the Society must rise or fall in the estimation of
men of science at home and abroad; I mean, of course, the annual
publication of a valuable fasciculus of Transactions. To this point
the efforts of the leading members of the Society ought to be espe-
cially directed. Individually they may have scientific reputations
to make : but they have not to create, but to maintain, the reputation
of the Society. The papers contributed to our Transactions by
Robison, Ivory, Hutton, Playfair, Hope, and Hall, will bear compa-
rison with any on like subjects, and of the same date; while, to
mention only one of our living members, the optical papers of Sir
David Brewster have carried the name of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, in conjunction with his own, through the whole of the scien-
tific world,

But though we may be obliged to confess that our more recent
publications are inferior to those of an earlier date, this is not to
be attributed entirely, if at all, to a falling off in industry or talent
among our members. In the first place, there are ebbings and
flowings in all intellectual pursuits; and I am told by those who
know more of the matter than I do, that at present the tide of
science is not flowing either here or elsewhere. Such turns of the
tide in an advancing direction are, I think, generally attributable to
the rise of some man of genius who gathers round him, and stimu-
lates and directs the minds of those whose talents are of kin to his
own genius. In this leading class we may place such men as Lin-
neus, Laplace, and our own Sir Humphry Davy ; and I feel sure
that Cambridge has lived and acted for a century and a half, not
upon the reputation, but under the abiding influence of Newton and
Bentley. If, then, science be at present but slowly progressive, it is,
I suppose, because the men of talent, of whom there is no lack, are in
want of a man of genius to lead them on.

Whatever may be thought of this, there exist causes which ren-

407

der the preparation of a good volume of Transactions more difficult
in the present day than at any former period; and these difficulties
are not peculiar to our Society, but are felt, I believe, by all similar
institutions. The first of these is the multiplication of scientific
societies, each devoted to some particular branch—Chemical, Astro-
nomical, Geological, and Botanical. Whether science is more effec-
tively promoted by such specific associations, or by those which,
like our own, give a general admission to contributions in every
branch of science, I do not take upon me to say. The practice of all
the civilized nations in maintaining, under some designation or other,
an academy of science, and giving to it a pre-eminence above socie-
ties working in a limited field, shows I think a general feeling that
the necessity for the former is not superseded by the multiplication of
the latter. And there are reasonable grounds for this feeling. The
dictum of the orator in accounting for his interest in the poet is so
universally admitted as almost to have passed into a proverb :
** Etenim omnes artes qua ad humanitatem pertinent, habent quod-
dam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione quadam inter se con-
tinentur.” To strengthen this vinculum and relationship is not the
least important office of the Royal Society: and therefore whatever
attraction our members may find in societies instituted for the ex-
clusive promotion of their own favourite pursuits, they will, I trust,
never abandon their allegiance to science in the largest acceptation
of the term, nor their co-operation with that society which gives a
cordial reception to every art, ue ad humanitatem pertinet.

Still I fear that such specific societies, whether publishing their
own transactions, or sending them to the various specific journals,
must draw away many valuable papers, which at an earlier period
would have found no convenient channel of publication but in the
pages of our Transactions. This turning of our supplies into other
channels it is impossible for us to prevent; and so that science is
promoted, we ought not to care very deeply whether this is done
through us or through others. But a generous emulation is some-
thing very different from an envious rivalry ; and the activity and
success of other scientific societies ought to stimulate those of our
brethren who have already proved their competence, to continued
and increased exertions to promote the usefulness and the reputa-
tion of the Society.

And now I must refer to a subject, which, indeed, if we be a So-

408

ciety actuated by a really social spirit, must be more or less in the
minds of the Fellows, when we meet for the first time after the in-
terval of the summer vacation. The interval is not loug, and yet it
has been sufficient to produce great changes in the managing por-
tion of the Society, by the removal from this world of several of those
who un.ted high scientific attainments with a deep interest and
careful attention to the ordinary business of the Society. The mem-
bers removed by death during the last year are Sir George Ballin-
gall, Professor Gray, Colonel Madden, Mr John Clerk Maxwell,
General Martin White, and Mr James Wilson.

It might be thought invidious for the Society acting in its corpo-
rate capacity to single out among these some whose memory de-
served commemoration above that of others. But an individual can
speak of that only which he himself knows, and must be allowed to
speak in preference of those whom he knew, not merely by the re-
putation of their talents, but more closely in the intercourse of pro-
fessional or of social life.

I mention then, in the first place, Sir George Ballingall, who
closed a life of much useful activity at the advanced age of seventy.
His scientific labours, so far as I am informed, were very much
limited to his profession; his more important works, such as
his Lectures on ‘‘ Military Surgery,” “On the Construction of Hos-
pitals,” “ On the Diseases of India,” were all intended to commu-
nicate to the younger members of the medical profession the results
of his own long and careful experience as an army surgeon and as a
medical officer in India ; and his more numerous occasional papers,
having all the same professional character and purpose, appeared,
not in our Transactions, but in the journals of Medical Science.
Throughout his long career in the army, in the University of Edin-
burgh, and in private practice, Sir George possessed the confidence
and esteem of all with whom he was connected, and this was due not
only to his professional knowledge and skill, but also to his upright
and gentlemanly deportment in private life.

I have next to speak of one whose name and person at least have
been more under the notice of the younger Fellows of the Society,
from the circumstance of his having very kindly and very effectively
undertaken the duties of General Secretary, when for a time we
were under great difliculty from the severe and protracted illness of
Professor Forbes. I should not have ventured upon any attempt to

409

delineate, even in outline, the moral and scientific character of Mr
James Wilson, had I not felt that whatever might be thought
or said of him elsewhere, something was due to his memory in this
place and at this time. I should not have attempted it, because
the branches of science which he cultivated have never occupied my
attention, and because the whole of his character, both in its moral
and intellectual aspects, has already been depicted by our brother
Professor George Wilson, who knew his honoured namesake more
intimately than I did, and who is far better qualified than I am to
speak of his scientific labours. Indeed, I must confess that, what-
ever, in the execution of the office assigned me, I feel bound to say
respecting our excellent and lamented brother, James Wilson, is
either borrowed from or confirmed by the beautiful Memoir of him
which has appeared in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,
from the pen of Dr George Wilson—not a kinsman, I believe, but
certainly a man of kindred spirit with the subject of his Memoir.

A weakness of constitution, which manifested itself in his early
manhood, withdrew Mr Wilson from the labours of a profession ; and
as his leisure permitted, so his inclination prompted him to devote
himself to the study of animated nature. His retiring modesty
could not prevent his becoming known as an accomplished natural-
ist; “and after the death of the late Professor Edward Forbes, the
Chair of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh was offered
to, but declined by, Mr Wilson. He was an acknowledged authority
on Entomology, and scarcely less distinguished as an Ornithologist
and Ichthyologist.” His published contributions to science, generally
anonymous, were extensive and important. To the seventh edition
of The Encyclopedia Britannica alone he furnished a whole volume
of articles, amounting to 649 pages, all on subjects of Natural
History. He contributed largely to the various scientific journals,
and to the transactions of scientific societies, while at the same time
his literary talent and genial humour were shown by many inter-
esting papers which appeared in the more popular Magaz'nes and
Reviews of his time.

But Mr Wilson has a higher claim on our affectionate remem-
brance than could be founded upon his scientific labours alone. He
was a good man of a high type of goodness. The gentleness of his
temper must have been apparent to all who had any intercourse with

410

him in the business of this Society ; but those who knew him most
intimately concur in testifying that his naturally amiable mind was
indebted for much of its charm to the pervading influence of a deep
religious principle; that he sought after God, not in his works only,
but in his word also; and that he closed his blameless and useful
life by a death robbed of its sting, and left this world with a humble
reliance upon the promise of better things to come.

We have lost another and very kindred spirit by the death of
Colonel Edward Madden. Him I knew intimately, and though his
favourite track of science was very remote from my pursuits, I soon
learned that his mind had many sides and could not fail to interest
any one who had a respect for talent or a love for goodness. Colonel
Madden joined our Society in 1853, and not having, as far as I
know, read any papers at our meetings, he was probably little
known to a large portion of the Fellows. But his character and
attainments were well known to botanists, and they gave a sufficient
proof of the estimation in which they held him by electing him to the
Presidency of the Botanical Society. He was, soon after his ad-
mission as a Fellow, elected into the Council of this Society, and
rendered valuable assistance as a member of the Library Commit-
tee, from his extensive knowledge, not of his own science only, but
also of the apparatus required by the student of geography and
of philology.

I have to express my gratitude to Dr Falconer of London for
having supplied me with notices respecting Colonel Madden’s pur-
suit of Science in India, much beyond what I can use on the pre-
sent occasion, and which I shall return to him, in the hope that he
may employ them in raising a worthy memorial of our departed
friend.

From these notices it appears that before Colonel Madden’s at-
tention had been directed to the vegetable kingdom, and when he
was a lieutenant of artillery in the Company’s service, he employed
a leave of absence in search of health among the lower ridges of
the Himalaya. Health he found ; but he found something more,—
his own proper vocation as a lover and a student of nature. In no
other region, probably, could his natural powers and tendencies have
been so strongly called into action. No region presents the leading
phenomena of physical geography in greater contrast, both as regards

411

the varieties of human races, difference of vegetable and animal
life, meteorological and other climatic conditions, than the north-
western plains of India, and the stupendous chain of mountains by
which they are bounded on the north. Here, in comparative prox-
imity, are found the vegetable productions of the Torrid and the Tem-
perate Zones, while the traveller, as he ascends through a belt of
Alpine character, reaches at length the region of perpetual snow.

When Lieutenant Madden first visited these interesting regions,
he appears to have been totally unacquainted with systematic botany.
But he brought with him a vivid recollection of the vegetable forms
which he had noticed at home, and a tendency and capacity for ob-
serving every affinity or contrast to these in the objects which sur-
rounded him in India. These observations were regularly noted
down ; and though necessarily very imperfect, they were of material
service to him when afterwards he prepared and published his me-
moirs ‘* On the Plants of the Turaee,” and “‘ On the Coniferze of the
Himalaya.”

A few years after this tour, Colonel Madden revisited the Hima-
laya, and was there fortunate in making the acquaintance of Dr
Falconer, at that time Superintendent of the Botanic Garden at Sa-
harunpore, a station very near the foot of the Himalaya. It was here
that his mind was formed to the systematic study of his favourite
science. Here he had access to a rich collection of plants, to a well-
stored herbarium, to a good botanical library, and to the society of
experienced and friendly instructors. Of these advantages he
made the most ; and the fruits of his studies were shown in his first
publication of any importance, entitled, “ Brief Observations on
Himalayan Conifere.” This was first published in an obscure local
journal, but reprinted in the “Journal of the Agricultural Society
of Calcutta,” and through that channel found its way into general
notice among the botanists of Europe. A supplement to this paper,
more extensive than it, was printed in the latter journal in 1850,
after the author had left India. These memoirs are of such striking
merit that they were transferred in extenso by Dr Lindley into the
Journal of the Horticultural Society of London.

Soon after leaving Saharunpore, Colonel Madden was removed to
a station in the hill province of Kumaoon. He was there fortu-
nately brought into co-operation with the two brothers, Captains

412

Henry and Richard Strachey, at that time employed upon an inquiry
into the physical geography of that and the adjoining Hill Pro-
vinces. The results of the labours of the Stracheys are well known,
through memoirs communicated to the Royal Geographical and Geo-
logical Societies. Colonel Madden was an active colleague to Cap-
tain Richard Strachey in the botanical branch of this survey ; and in
1848 he published the results of his observations in a very valuable
memoir on “ The Turaee and cuter mountains of Kumaoon,” which
appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. These
are spoken of by Dr Falconer as models of careful observation on the
geographical distribution of plants, and at the same time as rich in
illustrations, drawn from every department of a well-stored mind,
and a wide and varied range of literature.

Hitherto, I have been speaking of Colonel Madden from the notes of
his attached friend Dr Falconer, and in reference to scientific attain-
ments and labours on which, you are all aware, that I am incompe-
tent to form, and @ fortiori, to express an opinion. All of you who
knew him in social life, or in the Council meetings of the Royal So-
ciety, must remember with affectionate regret the gentleness of his
manner, and the unobtrusive modesty with which he gave his assist-
ance only when it was needed, and where he was sure of the preci-
sion of his knowledge. In respect to the highest wisdom, it appears
that from his youth he was actuated by that love of the true and
the good which constitutes the character of those who, if not actually
in, are at any rate not far from the kingdom of Heaven. Careful
and conscientious inquiry led him from doubt to conviction; and his
latter years were spent under the influence of an assured faith and
a steady resolution to do the will of God.

Such were some of those who have been taken from among us
in the course of the last year, and whose virtues and useful labours
will not be forgotten by those with whom they co-operated for the
advancement of science.

I must now conclude my very imperfect performance of the task
imposed upon me by the Council, with the expression of a hope that,
on future occasions of the same kind, they may be more fortunate in
their choice, and obtain addresses more worthy of occupying the time

and attention of the Society.
C.. wee

413

The following statement as to the Members of the Society was
read by the Chairman :—

Ordinary Fellows at November 1855, oo Nes eee a ete een
Add one name omitted by mistake, eis spe. SH : 1
268

Deduct deceased—Sir G. Ballingall, Professor Gray, Colonel Madden, Mr John
Clerk Maxwell, Dr Wilson Philip,* General Martin White, Mr James

Wilson, . Z : » ; 4 é ‘s 3 : . : 7
261
Resigned—Mr Forbes of Culloden, Mr Grant of Elchies, 2
Struck off for non-payment of Admission Fees—Mr E. Bonar, 1 :
258
But add new Fellows—Dr Allman, Mr Bryce, Mr Cleghorn, Mr Mitchell Ellis,
Mr James Hay, Dr Laycock, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Lord Neaves, Dr
Penny, Mr R. M. Smith, - : . F _ : a ‘ ; 10
268

The following Communication was read :—

On the Minute Structure of the Involuntary Muscular Tissue.
By Joseph Lister, Esq., F.R.C.S. Eng. and Edin. Com-
municated by Dr Christison.

In this paper the author, after a short general account of the
different forms in which contractile tissue occurs in the human body,
describes at greater length the discovery made in 1847 by Professor
Kolliker, that involuntary muscular fibre is capable of being resolved
into nucleated elements, supposed to be of the nature of elongated
cells, and hence termed “contractile” or “ muscular fibre-cells.”
He then alludes to some authorities who object to this view of the
structure of involuntary muscle, and notices, especially, a paper by
Professor Ellis of University College, London, read before the Royal
Society of London in June of the present year (1856), in which
that distinguished anatomist expresses his belief that ‘the fibres are
long, slender, rounded cords of uniform width,’’ and that the nuclei
‘“‘ appear to belong to the sheath of the fibre ;” whence it is to be
inferred that Kolliker’s fibre-cells are, in the opinion of Mr Ellis,
created by the tearing of the tissue in the preparation of the objects.

* Dr Philip has been for scme years dead.
VOL. ITI. 2M

414

The author then proceeds to describe the involuntary muscular
tissue as it presents itself in two situations where he has recently
examined it, namely, the minute arteries of the frog’s foot and the
small intestine of the pig. He finds that, by suitable manipula-
tion, exceedingly delicate arteries may be dissected out from the
web of the frog, some of them being of smaller calibre than average
capillaries; and that in such vessels the middle coat consists of
neither more nor less than a single layer of Kélliker’s muscular
fibre-cells wrapped spirally round the internal membrane, and of
sufficient length to encircle it from about one and a half to two and
a half times. The tubular form of the vessels enables the observer,
by proper adjustment of the focus, to see the fibre-cells in section;
and where the nucleus is so placed in the artery as to appear in
section also, the section of the nucleus is invariably found surrounded
on all sides by that of the fibre-cell, whence it is inferred that the
nucleus is not merely connected with the external part of the mus-
cular element, but is embedded in its substance. Considering that
no tearing of the tissue is practised in the preparation of the objects,
but that the parts are seen undisturbed in their natural relations,
this simple observation appears to prove conclusively, that, in the
arteries of the frog’s foot, the involuntary muscular tissue is con-
stituted as Kolliker has described it.

The pig’s intestine proved to be a very favourable situation for
the investigation of unstriped muscle, the fibre-cells being larger
than in the human subject in the same situation, and very readily
isolated by simply teasing out a small portion of the tissue with
needles in a drop of water. Under these circumstances, they
corresponded exactly with Kélliker’s descriptions, and the deli-
eate and perfect form of their tapering extremities was sometimes
seen to be such as could not possibly have been produced by the
tearing of a continuous fibre. In one fibre-cell that happened to be
coiled up, the position of the nucleus embedded in its substance was
seen in the same way as in the arteries of the frog. In examining
the circular coat of a contracted piece of intestine from a freshly
killed pig, the author observed some short, substantial-looking bodies
of high refractive power, each of a somewhat oval shape, with more
or less pointed extremities, and presenting several strongly-marked,
thick, transverse ridges upon its surface; and each, without excep-

415

tion, possessing a roundish nucleus, whose longer diameter lay across
that of the containing mass. Between these bodies and the long
and delicate fibre-cells every possible gradation could be traced,
and it was therefore pretty clear that the former were but the ex-
tremely contracted form of the latter. That the appearances in
question were due to contraction of the fibre-cells, was proved by
their disappearance when a portion of the tissue was strongly
stretched. —

The bearings of these observations on the main question, respect-
ing the structure of involuntary muscular fibre, are obvious and im-
portant. In the first place, if the short substantial bodies were mere
contracted fragments of rounded fibres of uniform width, we should
expect them to be as thick at their extremities as at the middle;
instead of which they are always more or less tapering, and often
present a very regular appearance of two cones applied to each other
by their bases.

Secondly, the uniform central position of the nuclei in the con-
tracted fibres, proves clearly that the former are no accidental ap-
pendages of the latter, to which it seems difficult to refuse Kélliker’s
appellation of cells.

In conclusion, the author makes the following remarks :—

To sum up the general results to which we are led by the facts
above mentioned, it appears that in the arteries of the frog, and in
the intestine of the pig, the involuntary muscular tissue is composed
of slightly flattened, elongated elements, with tapering extremities,
each provided at its central and thickest part with a single cylindri-
cal nucleus imbedded in its substance.

Professor Kolliker’s account of the tissue being thus completely
confirmed in these two instances, and the description here given of
its appearance in the arteries of the frog’s foot being an independent
confirmation of the general doctrine, there seems no reason any longer
to doubt its truth.

It further appears, from what has been seen in the pig’s intestine,
that the muscular elements are, on the one hand, capable of an ex-
traordinary degree of extension, and, on the other hand, are endowed
with a marvellous faculty of contraction, by which they may be re-
duced from the condition of very long fibres to that of almost globu-
lar masses. In the extended state they have a soft, delicate, and,

2mM2

416

usually, homogeneous aspect, which becomes altered during contrac-
tion by the supervention of highly refracting transverse ribs, which
grow thicker and more approximated as the process advances.
Meanwhile the “ rod-shaped” nucleus appears to be pinched up by
the contracting fibre, till it assumes a slightly oval form, with the
longer diameter transversely placed.

The author further remarks, that these properties of the constituent
elements of involuntary muscular fibre explain in a very beautiful
manner the extraordinary range of contractility which characterises
the hollow viscera.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Collection of Charts, published at the Hydrographic Office, London,
with relative Descriptions—F rom the Admiralty.

Results of Meteorological Observations, made at Sundry Academies
in the State of New York, from 1826 to 1850 inclusive. Com-
piled by F. B. Hough, M.D. 4to—From the State of New
York. :

List of Members and Report of Council, &c., of the Royal Institute
of British Architects, 1856. 4to.—From the Institute.

Annual Report of the Trustees of the New York State Library,
1856. 8vo. From the State of New York.

List of Foreign Correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution,
1856, 8vo.— From the Institution.

Map of Boundary between the United States and Mexico. By W.

_ H. Emory, U.S. Commissioner.—From the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. VIII. 4to—
From the Institution.

Nova Acta Academiz C,sareee Leopoldino-Carolinze Nature
Curiosorum. Vol. XXV., Pars 2. 4to.—From the Academy.

Mean Zenith Distances. Collection of all the Results of Observa-
tion of each star at Heerelogements-Berg, and Deduction of
Mean Zenith Distance, 1843. January 0.— From the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope.

Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XXIV. 4to.
—From the Society.

Astronomical and Magnetical, and Meteorological Observations made

417

at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in the year 1854, 4to.
—From the Royal Society.

Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, made at the Hon.
East India Company’s Observatory, Bombay, in the years
1852-53. 2 Vols. 4to.—From the Hon. E, I, Company.

Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. New
Series. Vol. V., Part 2.—From the Academy.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Sessions 1853, 1854, and 1855.—From the Asso-
ciation.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Vol. VII., Nos. 8-12; and Vol. VIII., Nos. 1 and 2.—
From the Academy,

Annales de l’Observatoire Physique Central de Russie. Ann.
1851, 1852, 1853. 3 Tom. 4to.—From the Observatory.

Comte-Rendu Anhuel, Supplement aux Annales de l’Observatoire
Physique Central, pour l’année 1853. (2 copies.) —From the
Observatory.

Correspondance Météorologique. Publication trimestrielle de ?Ad-
ministration des Mines de Russie, pour ann. 1853, 1854. 2
Tom. 4to.—From the same.

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Ma-
thematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe. Bande X., XI.
4to. (2 copies.)\—From the Academy.

Beschreibung und Lage der Universitits-Sternwarte in Christiania,
von Christopher Hansteen. 4to.—From the Observatory.
Ofversigt af Finska Vetenskaps-Societetens Forhandlingar, 1838-53.

4to.—From the Society.

Observations faites 4 |’Observatoire Magnétique et Météorologique
de Helsingfors, sous la direction de Jean Jacques Nervander.
Vol. L., IL, I11., et IV. 4to.— From the Observatory.

Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen.
Deel. III. 4to.—From the Academy.

Oversigt over det danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhandlinger i
Aaret, 1855.—From the Society.

Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter. 5te Reaekke. Naturvidens-
kabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling. 4de Binds, lste Hefte.
—From the same.

418

Obseryationes Meteorologicee per annos 1832-54 in Gronland facte.
—From the same.

Flora Batava. Part 179. 4to.—From the King of Holland.

Memoire della Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Instituto di Bologna.
Tom. VI. 4to.—From the Academy.

Rendiconto delle Sessioni 1854-55, dell’ Accademia delle Scienze
dell’ Instituto di Bologna. 8vo.—F rom the same.

Indices Generales in Novos Commentarios Academiz Scientiarum
instituti Bononiensis. 4to.—Hvrom the Academy.

Mémoires de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de
Genéve. Tom. XIV., Part 1. 4to.—From the Society.
Rapport sur les Travaux de la Société Impériale Zoologique, Paris.

Par Aug. Duméril. 8vo.— From the Author.

Ichthyologie Analytique ou Essai d’une Classification Naturelle des
Poissons. Par A. M. C. Duméril. 4to.— From the Author.

Abhandlungen der Koeniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissen-
schaften. Historischen Classe, Vol. VII., Part 3, Vol.
VIII., Part 1. Philosoph.-Philologischen Classe, Vol. VII.
Part 3. Mathemat.-Physikalischen Classe, Vol. VII., Part
3. 4to.—From the Academy.

Gelehrte Anzeigen, herausgegeben von Mitgliedern der K. bayer
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vols. XL., XLI. 4to.—
From the Academy,

Archives du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Tom. VIII., livrai-
sons 3, 4. 4to.—From the Museum.

Monatsbericht der Koniglichen Preuss, Akademie der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, January—June 1855, 8vo.—From the Aca-
demy.

Observations Météorologiques faites a Nijne-Taguilsk (Monts Oural),
Gouvernement de Perm. Année 1854. 8vo.—From the
Russian Observatory.

Bulletin de la Société Vandoise des Sciences Naturelles. Nos. 34-
37. 8vo.—From the Society.

Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Kéniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt.
Vol. VI., Nos. 2-4; Vol. VIL, No. 1. 8v0o.—From the
Institute.

Abhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geologischen Reichsan-
stalt. Vol. III., 4to.—From the same.

419

Memoire della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino. 2d Ser.
Vol. XV. 4to.—From the Academy.

Jahrbiicher der K. K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erd-
magnetismus, Von Karl Kreil. Vol. IV. 4to. (2 copies.)
—From the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna.

Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1854.
4to.—From the Academy.

Portrait of Carl Haidinger—F rom his son, W. Haidinger.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Vol. XVI., Part 2. 8vo.—From the Society.

Publications of the Dépét Général de la Marine :—

Collection of Charts.

Pilote de la Mer Baltique. 8vo.

Portulan des Cotes de la Manche. 8vo.

Le Pilote Danois. 8vo.

Renseignements Hydrographiques sur la Mer d’Azof. 8vo.

Description du Golfe de Finlande et de l'entrée du Golfe de
Bothnie. 8vo.

Observations Chronometriques faites pendant la Campagne de
Circumnavigation de la Corvette La Capricieuse. 8vo.

Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer Adriatique, 8vo.

Exposé du Régime des Courants Observés dans la Manche
et la Mer d’Allemagne. 8vo.

Description des Cotes de l’Esthonie, de la Livonie, de la
Courland (Russie), de la Prusse, et de la Pomeraine,
jusqu’au Cap Darserort. 8vo.

Routier de l’Australie Traduit de PAnglais, &. 8vo.

Annales Hydrographiques, Recueil d’Avis, Instructions,
Documents, et Mémoires relatifs a l’Hydrographie et a
la Navigation. 8vo.

Catalogue Chronologique des Cartes, Plans, Vues de Cétes
Mémoires, Instructions Natiques, &c., qui composent
lHydrographie Frangaise. 8vo.

Annuaire des Marées des Cétes de France, pour l’an 1855.
16mo.—From the Dépét Général de la Marine,

Vierzehn Kupfertafeln zu H. B. Geinitz Darstellung der Flora des
Hainichen—Ebersdorfer und des Fléhaer Kohlenbassins.—
From the Author.

Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Histological Series

420

contained in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of
England. Vol. I., Elementary Tissues of Vegetables and
Animals. 4to.— From the Council of the College.

A Monograph on Recent and Fossil Crinoidca, with Figures and
Descriptions of some Recent and Fossil allied Genera. By
Thomas Austin, F.G.S. Nos. 1-8. 4to.—From the Author.

Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, published by the Royal Medical
and Chirurgical Society of London. Vol. XXXIX.—From
the Society.

Report of the U.S. Commissioner of Patents for the year 1854.
Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures. Vol. II. 8vo.—From
the Commissioner.

Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.
Second Series, Vol. XIII. 8vo.—F'rom the Society.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Part XX., Nos.
258, 259; Parts XXI.; XXII.; and Part XXIII., Nos.
301-319. 8vo.—F'rom the Society.

The Assurance Magazine and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries,
Nos. 25 and 26. 8vo.— From the Editor.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1855. Nos.
58 and 54. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, May—Decem-
ber 1855, and January——April 1856. 8vo.—F’rom the Society.

Annals of the Minnesota Historical Society, 1856; containing
Materials for the History of Minnesota, prepared by E, D.
Neill, Secretary. 8vo—From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Dublin Society. No, 1. 8vo.—From the
Society.

Transactions of the Pathological Society of London. Vol. VII.
8v0o.— From the Society. .

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nos. 77-81 (New Series).
8vo.— From the Society.

Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Rad-
cliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the year 1854. Vol. XV. 8vyo.
—From the Radcliffe Trustees.

Medical Topography of Brazil and Uruguay, with Incidental Re-
marks. By G.R.B. Horner, M.D. 8vo0.—F'rom the Author.

Description of a New Mollusk, from the Red Sandstone near Potts-
ville, Pa. By Isaac Lea.—Froin the Author.

<r

421

Meteorology and Climate of Shanghae ; deduced from Observations
made during the years 1848-53, By John Ivor Murray,
M.D., F.R.C.S.E.— From the Author.

The Canadian Journal of Industry, Science, and Art. New Series,
Nos. 3 and 5, 8vo.— From the Canadian Institute.

Om Dodeligheden i Norge. Af Gilert Sundt. 12mo.—F'rom the
Author.

The Natural History of Deeside and Braemar. By the late William
Macgillivray, LL.D. Edited by Edwin Lankester, M.D. 8yo,
—From H.R.H. Prince Albert,

The American Journal of Science and Arts. Conducted by Pro-
fessors Silliman and Dana. Second Series. Nos. 62-64.
&vo.—From the Editors.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Vol. VI., Nos. 7-12. Vol. VII., No. 1. 8vo.—From the
Academy.

Report on the Geology of Northern and Southern California. By
Dr John B. Trask. 8vo.—From the State of California.

The Journal of Agriculture, and Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland. New Series, Nos. 50-53.
8vo.— From the Society.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. IX., Parts 2 and
3. 8vo.—From the Society.

The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. Vol. XII.
Parts 2, 3,and 4. 8vo.— From the Society.

Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire.
Vol. VIII. 8yvo.—F rom the Society.

Laws of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire—From
the Society.

Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin. Vol. VIL, Parts 1,
2,and 3. 8vo.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Nos. 1,
2, 3,4, and 5. 8vo.—From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. Vol. XXV. 8yv0.—
From the Society.

An Account of the Construction of the Britannia and Conway Tubu-
lar Bridges. By William Fairbairn, C.E. 8vo.—From the
Author.

422

On the Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Pur-
poses. By William Fairbairn, C.E. 8vo.—F rom the Author.

Useful Information for Engineers ; being a Series of Lectures de-
livered to the Working Engineers of Yorkshire and Lancashire.
By William Fairbairn, F.R.S. 8vo.—F rom the Author.

Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. Vol. IV. 8vo.
—From the Society.

Regulations of the Ethnological Society of London. 8vo.—From
the Society.

A Treatise on Electricity in Theory and Practice. By Aug. de la
Rive. Translated for the Author by Charles V. Walker,
F.R.S. Vol. Il. 8vo.—From the Author.

Report of the Proceedings of the Geological and Polytechnic Society
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, 1855. 8vo.—From the
Society. f

The Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytech-
nic Society, 1855. 8v0,—F rom the Society.

Notices of the Meetings of the Members of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain. Part VI. 8vo.—From the Institution.
Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Vol. I. 8vo.—

From the Society.

Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool,
during the Forty-fifth Session, 1855-56. No. X.—From the
Society.

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, containing
Papers, Abstracts of Papers, and Reports of Proceedings of
the Society. Vols. XV. and XVI. Nos. 6—9. 8v0.—From
the Society.

The Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society. Nos. 33—385.

8v0.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Society. Vol. WVIII., Nos. 21, 22.
8vo.— From the Society.

List of Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society, February 1856.
8v0.—Lrom the Society.

On the Tree Producing Red Cinchona Bark, By John Eliot
Howard, 8vo.—rom the Author.

Papers read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1856. 4to.
—From the Society.

423

Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Vol. I., Nos.
2 and 3. 8vo,.—From the Society.

Narrative of the Origin and Formation of the International Associa-
tion for obtaining a uniform Decimal System of Measures,
Weights and Coins, By James Yates,M.A. 8vo.—J rom
the Author.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Wien. Philosophisch-Historische Classe, Band XVI. Heft,
2; XVII, XVIII, XIX.; XX. Heft 1. Mathematish-
Naturwissenschaftliche Classe, Band XVI., Heft 2, XVILI.,
XVIII., XIX., and XX, Heft 1. 8vo.—From the Academy.

Almanach der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Jahr,
1856.—From the Academy.

Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der reinen, pharmaceutischen
und technischen Chemie, Physik, Mineralogie und Geologie.
Herausgegeben von Justus Liebig und Hermann Kopp. Fiir
1855. 8vo.—From the Editors.

Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Gottingen. Band VI. 4to.—From the Society.

Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-
schappen, Amsterdam, Afdeeling Natuurkunde, Deel III.
No. 3; IV. Nos. 1-3. Afdeeling Letterkunde, Deel I.,
Il. No. 1.—From the Academy.

Berichte uber die Verhandlungen der Koniglich Siichsischen Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Philologiseh-Historische
Glasse, 1855, Nos, 3,4; 1856, Nos, 1, 2. Mathematisch-
Physische Classe, 1854, No. 3; 1855, Nos. 1, 2; 1856,
No. 1. 8v0.—From the Society.

Nachtrag zu Stadtrechte der Latinischen-Gemeinden Salpensa und
Malaca in der Provinz Betica. Von Theodor Mommsen. 8vo.
—F rom the same Society.

Nachtrage zur Theorie der Musikalischen Tonverhiiltnisse. Von
M. W. Drobisch. 8vo—From the same.

Elecktrodynamische Maassbestimmungen insbesondere zuriickfiih-
rung der Stromintensitiits-Messungen auf Mechanisches Maas,
Von R. Kohlrausch und Wilhelm Weber. 8v0o.—From the
same.

Resultate aus Beobachtungen der Nebelfleeken und Sternhaufen.
Von H. D’Arrest. 8v0.—From the same.

424

Berechnung der Absoluten Stdérungen der Kleinen Planeten. Von
P. A. Hansen. 8vo.—From the same.

Extrait du Programme de la Société Hollandaise des Sciences a
Haarlem, pour l’année 1856. 4to—F rom the Society.
Natuurkundige Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij
der Wetenschappen te Haarlem, 2 Verzameling. Deel XI.

Stuk 2. 4to.—From the Society.

Forhandlingar vid de Skandinaviske Naturforskarnes sjette mote i
Stockholm, den 14-19 Juli, 1851. 8vo—F rom the Society.

Kong]. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, for ar, 1853, 1854.
8v0o.— From the Royal Academy of Sciences, Stockholm.

Ars-Beriittelse om Botaniska Arbeten och upptickter for ar. 1851.
Af Joh, Em. Wilkstrém. 8v0.—F rom the same Academy.

Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlingar. Tolfte
argangen, 1855. 8vo.—F rom the same Academy.

Ofversigt af FinskaVetenskaps, Societetens Forhandlingar.—IL.,
III. (1853-56.) 4to.—From the Society.

Acta Societatis Socientiarum Fennicee. Tom. IV, and V., fase, 1.—
From the Society.

Recherches Experimentales sur la Végétation. Par Georges Ville.
8v0o.—L'rom the Author.

Medimalcollegiets Skjzebne. 8vo.—F'rom the Editor.

Syphilisationen Studeret ved Syngesengen, af Wilhelm Boeck, 8vo.
—FH rom the Author.

De Prisca re Monetaria Norvegize et de Numis Aliquot et Orna-
mentis, in Norvegia Repertis. Scripsit C. A. J. Holmboe! 8vo,
—F rom the Author.

Kong Christian dens Fejerdes Norske Lovbog, af 1604. Af Fr.
Hallager, og Fr. Brandt. 8vo,—F’rom the Author,

Om Mundtlig Rettergang og Edsvorne. Af C. Aubert. 8yvo,.—
From the Author.

An Historical Summary of the Post-Office in Scotland, compiled
from authentic Records and Documents, By T. B. Lang,
8v0.— From the Author.

On the Swedish Tabulating Machine of Mr George Schentz. By
C, Babbage, F.R.S. 8vo.—From the Author.

Annual Report of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society,
1855-6. 8vo.—F'rom the Society.

425

Universitatis Regize Fredericiance Nove des Descripsit Ch,
Holst, Sec. 8vo.— rom the Author.

Histology of the Cholera Evacuations in Man and the Lower Ani-
mals, By W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D. 8vo.—From the
Author.

Almanique Nantico para 1857, Calculado de Orden de 8.M., en el
Observatorio de Marina de la Ciudad de San Fernando.—Frem
the Observatory.

Commercium Epistolicum J. Collins et aliorum de Analysi promota,
&c., ou Correspondance de J. Collins, et @autres Savants
célebres, du XVII. Siecle relative 4 l’analyse supérieure. Pub-
liée par J. B. Biot et F. Lefort. 4to.—From the Ministre
VInstruction Publique et des Ciltes.

Det Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitets Aarsberetning for
1853. 8vo.—From the University.

Phenomena of the Material World. By D. Vaughan. 8vo.—F rom
the Author.

On the Practicability of Constructing Cannon of Great Calibre,
capable of enduring long-continued use under full Charges.
By Daniel Treadwell. 8vo.—F rom the Author.

On the Mechanical Properties of Metals as Derived from Repeated
Meltings, Exhibiting the Maximum point of Strength, and the
Causes of Deterioration. By W. Fairbairn, F.R.S. 8vo.
—From the Author.

On Axes of Elasticity and Crystalline Forms. By W.J. M. Rankine,
C.E. 4to—From the Author.

Universal Writing and Printing with Ordinary Letters. By Alex-
ander J. Ellis, B.A. 4to.— From the Author.

Experimental Researches in Electricity. Thirteenth Series. By
Michael Faraday, D.C.L. 4to.— From the Author.

On the Action of Non-Conducting Bodies in Electric Induction. By
M. Faraday, D.C.L., and P. Riess. 8vo.—F rom the
Authors.

Expériences sur la Direction des Courants de |’Océan Atlantique
Septentrional. Lettre de S. A. I. le Prince Napoléon a M.
Elie de Beaumont, Secrétaire perpétual de l’Académie des
Sciences. 4to.—F rom the Author.

Lois Générales de divers ordres de Phénoménes dont l’analyse

426

dépend d’Equations Linéaires aux Différences Partielles tels
que ceux des Vibrations et de la Propagation de la Chaleur.
Par L. F. Ménabréa. 4to.—From the Author.

Bemerkninger Angaaende Graptolitherne af Christian Boeck. 4to.
—From the Author.

Report of Committee upon the Experiments conducted at Stormont-
field, near Perth, for the Artificial Propagation of Salmon.
Read before the British Association by Sir William Jardine,
Bart. 8vo.—From Sir William Jardine, Bart.

Recherches Cliniques sur la Syphilisation. Par D. Wilhelm Boeck.
8vo.—From the Author.

Du Mouvement imprimé a |’ Aiguille Aimantée par l’influence subite
de la Lumiére du Soleil, avee une Théorie nouvelle fondée sur
des Recherches faites par H. W. Jacobus. 8vo.—From
the Author.

Schiidel abnormer Form in Geometrischen Abbildungen, nebst Dar-
stellung einiger Entwickelungs-Zustiinde der Deckknochen.
Von J. Christ. Gustay. Lucae, M.D. Folio. From the
Author.

Reports of the Surveyor-General, Charles D. Bell, on the Copper
Fields of Little Namaqualand, and of Commander M. 8.
Nolloth, of H.M.S. ‘ Frolic,” on the Bays and Harbours
of that Coast. Folio— From the Governor, Cape of Good
Hope.

Uber die durch Molekularbenegungen in starren leblosen Korpern
bewirkten Formveriinderungen. Von Joh, Friedr. Ludw,
Hausmann. 4to.—/From the Author.

Das Chemische Laboratorium der Universitit Christiania und die
darin Ansgefiihrten Chemischen Untersuchungen, Herausgege-
hen von Adolph Strecker. 4to.—F rom the University.

Das Christiania-Silurbecken, Chemisch-Geognostisch Untersucht von
Theodor Kjerulf. Herausgegeben von Adolph Strecker. 4to.
—F rom the University.

Akademiske Love for de Studerende ved det Kongelige Norske
Frederiks Universtet. 8vo.—From the University of Chris-
tiania.

Uber den Syrisch-Ephraimitischen Krieg unter Jotham und Ahas.
Von Dr. C. P. Caspari—From the same University.

427

Das Normalverhaltniss der Chemischen und Morphologischen Pro-
portionen. Von Adolf Zeising, 8vo.—From the Author.

Das Verhaltnisk des goldnen Schnitts in seiner Bedeutung fiir
bildende Kiinstler und Techniker. Von A. Zeising. 8vo.
—From the Author.

Fagrskinna. Kortfattet Norsk Konge-Saga fra slutningen af det
tolfte eller begyndelsen af det trettende aarhundrede. Af P,
A. Munch og C. R. Unger. 8vo.—F'rom the University of
Christiania, .

Om Sygepleien i Straffeanstalterne i Norge. Ved Frederik Holst,
M.D. 8vo.—From the Author.

Michael Skjelderup, 8vo.—From the Author.

Beskrivelse over Skotlands Almueskoleveesen tilligemed forslag til
forskjellige foramstalt-ninger til en videre Udvikling of det
norske Almueskoleveesen. Af Hartvig Nissen, 8vo.—From
the Author,

Beretning om fante-eller Landstrygerfolket i Norge. Af Cilert
Sundt, 8vo—From the Author.

Beretninger om Sygdomsforholdene i 1842 og 1843 i Danmark,
Sverige og Norge, opleste ved de Skandinaviske Naturforskeres
Méde i Christiania 1844, 8vo.—From the University of
Christiania.

Konge—Speilet et Philosophisk-Didactisk Skrift, forfattet i Norge
mod Slutningen af det tolfte aarhundrede. 8vo.—From the
same University,

Aslak Bolts Jordebog. Fortegnelse over Jordegods og Andre Her-
ligheder tilhGrende erkebiskopsstolen i nidaros, affattet ved
erkebiskop aslak bolts Foranstaltning mellem aarene 1432 og
1449, Af P. A. Munch—From the same University.

Kong Olaf Tryggveséns Saga forfattet paa latin henimod slutningen
af det tolfte aarhundrede af Odd Snorreson. Af P. A. Munch,
8yo,— From the same University,

Lycidas ecloga et Muse Invocatio, carmina quorum auctori Johanni
van Leeuwen, e vico zegwaart certaminis poetici praemium
secundum e legato Jacobi Henrici Hooufft adiudicatum est in
concessu publico Academie Regie Scientiarum, die 13 Maiji,
anni 1856, 8vo.—From the Author.

Diem Natalem Augustissimi Regis Caroli Joannis ab Universitate

428

Regia Fredericiana, die 26 Januarii 1838 celebrandum indicit
Collegium Academicum. 4to.—From the University.

Dr Lorenz Hiibner’s Biographische Charakteristik. Von Joseph
Wiskmayr. 4to.—From the Royal Academy, Munich.
Ueber die Gliederung der Bevolkerung des Kénigreichs Bayern.
Von Fr. B. W. Von Hermann, 4to.—From the same.

Maps of the Geological Survey of India.—From the Hon. East

India Company.

Monday, 15th December 1856.
Proressor CHRISTISON, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Ovum and Young Fish of the Salmonide. By
William Ayrton, Esq. Communicated by Professor All-
man.

The paper contained a series of observations on the development
of the embryo in the salmon, made on ova procured from an esta-
blishment for the artificial propagation of this fish, at Overton,
on the river Dee. The author’s observations commenced about the
87th day after impregnation, and were continued from that period to
the time when the vitellus becomes finally absorbed. The progressive
development of the various organs was described, and the principal
steps illustrated by carefully drawn and expressive figures. With
regard to the proper time for transit, the author arrived at some
practical conclusions. He maintained that the ova, after impregna-
tion, should be as little disturbed as possible for the first thirty or
thirty-five days, but he proved that at the end of that period they
may be exposed to great changes of temperature, and of other
external conditions, with comparative impunity ; and he was of opi-
nion that they would then endure atransit of some days if only sup-
plied with moisture by means of moss, wool, or similar material.
He further concluded, as the result of various observations and ex-
periments, that if the transit be not made when the ovum is from
thirty to forty days old, it will be made with most safety after the
young fish has attained an age at which the yelk is wholly or nearly
absorbed.

ett ia

429

2. Notice of the Vendace of Derwentwater, Cumberland,
in a letter addressed to Sir William Jardine, Bart., by

John Davy, M.D.

In this communication the author first gives an account of the
occurrence of the Vendace (a fish hitherto supposed to be confined to
the lochs of Lochmaben in Dumfries-shire) in two of the lakes
of Cumberland, viz., Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite Lake, in
each of which it seems to be pretty abundant, and to have been long
known to the boatmen; secondly, he offers some speculative sugges-
tions as to the diffusion of species in the instance of this fish, giving
the preference to that presuming that its transfer might have been
accidentally effected by the impregnated ova being conveyed by
aquatic animals: adducing in favour of this conjecture facts ascer-
tained by him respecting the ova of the Salmonide, such as their
bearing exposure in a moist atmosphere for days without losing
their vitality, and also, with equal impunity, the reduction of their
temperature to the freezing point of water, and their entanglement

in and adhesion to ice.

3. On the Races of the Western Coast of Africa. By Colonel
Luke Smyth O’Connor, C.B., Governor of the Gambia.
Communicated by Professor Kelland.

The British possess three colonies on the western coast of Africa:
Gambia, 2490 miles from England, in latitude 13° 30’ N., longitude
14° 40’ W.; 500 miles south, Sierra Leone, in latitude 8° 30’
N., longitude 13° 10’ W.; and, 1500 miles down in the Bight
of Benin, Gold or Cape Coast Castle, in latitude 5° 5’ 25” N.,
longitude 1° 12’ 45”, W.

Gambia is selected for this paper, as not only the first, but the
most singular and interesting of our African colonies.

Nearly two centuries lave glided away siuce the British, by per-
mission of the kings and chiefs of Combo, established a settlement
on the island of St Mary’s,—a mere bank of sand, swamp, mud,
and mangroves, pregnant with miasma, and well stocked with alli-
gators,—situated near the mouth of the river Gambia, along whose
banks we by degrees established small trading ports or factories,
until at last we reached Pisania, nearly 300 miles up the river,

VOL, III. 2N

430

where Dr Laidley superintended an extensive trading depét in
1786, and for years continued the able head and manager of it. But
singular enough, with all our wealth, enterprise, desire to extend
commerce, and procure channels for the circulation of our home
manufactures, we are to the present moment ignorant of the
source and course of the Gambia; having but hazy, legendary
records of the wild tribes adjacent to its banks, or of the chil-
dren of the desert, the “‘ Foutah Foulahs” and “ Foutah Toros,”
who, rushing down periodically from the interior, devastate districts,
plunder whole villages, and bear off into slavery men, women, and
children. Our settlements in the Gambia are surrounded by war-
like and powerful nations, the kings of Barra, Combo, Badaboo, Kat-
tabar, Woollie being the chief.

The kings of Barra long ruled with despotic sway all the minor
sovereigns, and, as their dominions lay adjacent to ours, and ex-
tended for several miles along the right bank of the river, we had to
conciliate their favour, and submit to their unjust, tyrannical, and
insatiable exactions, to preserve intact our struggling settlements
of Bathurst, and secure the lives and properties of our merchants
trading in the river to Pisania.

The head man of the kings of Barra was, and indeed still is, the
“¢ Alkadee of Jillifree,” from time immemorial the most powerful chief
in the Gambia among the adjacent nations and with the distant tribes.
These kings are mentioned by several travellers in Western Africa,—
by Johnson in 1621, Stibbs in 1723, Moore in 1787, Dr Laid-
ley, the special friend of the gallant Houghton, in 1791, the enter-
prising Mungo Park in 1795, and again, when he left Pisania, upon
his last fatal expedition to the Niger, in May 1805, by Snelgrove,
Winterbottom, Meredith, Houghton, Murray, and many other writ-
ers,—as great chiefs, who held the principal sway in the kingdom of
Barra. They collected the king’s dues (for in former times the kings
of Barra levied a duty of £18 on all vessels proceeding up the river
Gambia beyond Jillifree), and monopolized the salt trade as far as
the kingdom of Woollie; in consideration of which, the kings en-
gaged to redress the wrongs of all traders, factors, agents, or ca-
boceers, who held commerce with them; and did so effectually, by
sending a war-man and canoe to any bey, chief, or “sooma,” who
dared to molest friends belonging to them, that is, under their im-
mediate care.

431

_ Two hundred miles up the river Gambia is our most distant mili-
tary station, M‘Carthy’s Island, which we purchased from the king of
Kattabar. It is about nine miles in length, and one to one and a half
in breadth, and forms the principal depét for the merchants’ goods, con-
sisting of blue and white bafts, cotton prints, sugar, guns, gunpowder,
tobacco, salt, and rum—the white man’s fire water, which has been and
is the burning curse—the poisonous draught—the fatal fountain from
whence flows the long list of crimes which stain the wild Indian’s
and the savage African’s career for centuries. To it may be traced
the bloodiest records in the history of the Old and New World; and
the moral, religious, civilized Europeans have a fearful account to
answer for.

Beyond M‘Carthy’s Island the river becomes wilder, more ro-
mantic, the banks loftier and more thinly inhabited. Alligators, hippo-
potami, baboons and monkeys, of great size, and uncommon strength
. and ferocity, crowd the banks, and follow the steamer or boats with
barking and howling, little intimidated by the discharge of fire-arms.
The natives entertain a respect, mingled with fear, for the large ba-
boons, and class them with the devil. Indeed, when passing a hill,
said to be the especial resort of the devil, the natives salute, not
by profound bows, genuflexions, retreating backwards, or flinging
dust upon their heads, but by turning’ their backs, and dancing
an antic bolero for some minutes; and they are so firmly per-
suaded of the necessity of this ceremony, that no promise or
reward will induce one of them to pass the Devil’s Hill sans
salutation.

The far-famed Falls of Barraconda, beyond which few white men
have advanced, are nothing more or less than shoals, formed by the
river rushing over a ledge of sunken rocks, extending diagonally
across the channel. In the rains, a vessel can pass over the Falls,
and the whole country is inundated for miles.

A few hunters for ivory, or wandering traders, occasionally fre-
quent the Falls, but no factories or settlements extend to this dis-
tance, Captain Stibbs, who was despatched by the Duke of Chandos,
Director of the Royal African Company, in 1723, proceeded beyond
the Falls of Barraconda, until the river became too shallow to float
the boats, even when the channel was 160 yards broad. He de-
scribes the few natives he met with as a harmless people, who sup-
plied him abundantly with fowls and provisions; but he found him-

2n2

432

self in the region of elephants, river-horses, and baboons. Nearly
a century and a half have passed since Stibbs explored the river,
and we are not better acquainted with the region of “ river-horses”
nor of the nature, customs, manners, and habitsof the harmless dealers
in “ fowls and provisions.”

The nations not only adjacent to our settlements on the river
Gambia, but as far as we carry on commerce, may be classed under
the heads of Mandingoes and Jollif’s, although divided and subdivided
into several tribes bearing different names, sueh as Warasoonkos,
Labous, Surruwoollies, Syreras, Teboos, Tuarics, Jolahs; the last
having hardly the features and semblance of human beings. The
Mandingo language is soft, musical, poetical, and might be styled
the Italian of Western Africa. The Jolliff is harsh, guttural, and
confined. Upwards of one hundred dialects are to be met with.

The Arabic character is used for the Koran, general despatches,
public or private communications; and the Marabouts instruct the
children in the different villages by means of large oval pieces of
board, on which letters and sentences from the Koran, or the “ Pro-
phet’s Laws,” are written with a pen made from the common reed.
Frequently in my ramblings I have come at night-fall to a Moham-
medan town, and after being introduced to my “ lodging-man,” or
landlord, who is bound to~ protect both my person and my purse,
strolling through the narrow closely-fenced paths—for streets they
were not—I have reached a small but open space in front of a cir-
cular hut, at the door of which was seated a venerable, white-bearded
Marabout, surrounded by a crowd of children of all ages, each holding
his wooden book, and repeating in full chorus, an extract from the
Koran, given forth in a clear sonorous voice by the aged instructor.

Polygamy and slavery are the great banes of Western, if not of
all Africa. The former checks population, shatters all domestic
ties, all kind and friendly feeling; reduces woman to the lowest,
most degraded position, so that she becomes the beast of burden,
the servant of servants of one tyrannical master.

Slow and uncertain has been our progress in the river Gambia.
Since the days of Johnson, in 1621, or Dr Laidley, 160 years after-
wards, or Mungo Park, in 1805, to my two trivial expeditions in
1854 and 1856, we are still ignorant of the source of the Gambia ;
whether (as is vaguely surmised) it connects itself with the Senegal,
or flowing southward into the Viger, and joining its volume of waters

—

433

to those of that singularly obscure and interesting river, empties
them, thousands of miles from our settlement at Bathurst, into the

Bight of Benin.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

The Canadian Journal. New Series. No. 6. 8vo.—From the
Canadian Institute.

Silliman’s American Journal. No. 66, 8yvo.—F rom the Editors.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XIX., Part 4.
8vo.— From the Society.

Schriften der Universitat zu Kiel, 1854, 1855. 4to.—From the
University.

Bulletin de la Société de Geographie, 4°"° Serie, Tom. XI.— From
the Society.

Abhandlungen herausgegeben von der Senckenbergischen Natur-
forschenden Gesellschaft, Band II., 1*° lieferung. 4to.—
From the Society.

Monday, 5th January 1857.
Proressor CHRISTISON, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

2. Some Remarks on the Literature and Philosophy of the
Chinese. By the Rev. Dr Robert Lee.

2. Observations on the Crinoidea, showing their connection
with other branches of the Echinodermata. By Fort-
Major Thomas Austin, F.G.S. Communicated by Pro-
fessor Balfour.

_ The author remarks, that although there are upwards of 280
writers on the Crinoidea, yet there is no class of ancient animals so
much misunderstood. These animals have not merely played an
important part in the system of creation as regards animal life, but
they have also modified the physical condition of the globe, They
are found abundantly in limestones, both of the Silurian and of the
Carboniferous epochs, attaining their maximum in the latter. The

454

author traces the Crinoids, or Encrinites, through various strata,
showing the gradual disappearance of ancient forms, and their re-
placement by new forms of Radiata. The chief characteristics of the
Crinoidea, up to the Carboniferous epoch, are, that the articulations
which connect the indurated pieces of which the column is composed
radiate by simple strie diverging from the central axis; and that
the dorsal portion of the body, that is, the part below the rays, ge-
nerally preponderates over, or at least is fully equal to, the ventral
or upper portion. From this period these older types gradually
became extinct, and we find them succeeded by forms in which the
ventral portion is generally superior in size to the dorsal, which
seems now to serve only as a base for the support of the wide-spread-
ing rays; while, with two exceptions (the Apiocrinus and Gnatho-
crinus), the articulations in the columns are secured by crenulated
floriform ridges on the facets of the joints. This peculiar form at-
tained its maximum in the Lias; since which it has dwindled down
to a solitary Pentacrinus, and a few other Crinoids, having little re-
semblance to the ancient forms.

The author then gives a historical sketch of the various opinions en-
tertained regarding these animals, and notices the superstitious ideas
regarding them, whence had originated the names given to them of
fairy-stones, giants’ tears, St Cuthbert’s beads, star-stones, wheel-
stones, screw-stones, &c. After alluding to the views of early au-
thors, he proceeds to show the advances which have been made of
late in our knowledge of the structure and affinities of Crinoids.
He traces the analogies between them and the Echinodermatous tribe.
From the Comatula we pass through a succession of forms onwards
to the most perfect Echinoderm (the sea-urchin), and backwards to
the Marsupite, the Pentacrinus, and the Crinoidea. General affini-
ties exist between the free swimming Euryale and the Marsupite,
as well as the fixed Euryalicrinus of the Silurian and Carboniferous
rocks.

The analogy between fossil Crinoids and the recent forms of Echi-
noidea is noticed. The author traces the gradual and uninterrupted
transition from the Asteriade to the Crinoidea, from the Crinoidea

to the Blastoidea, from the latter to Echinida, and finally to the
star-fishes. —

435

The following Gentlemen were admitted as Ordinary Fel-
lows :—

Horatio Ross, Esq.
James Brack, M.D., Lic. R, Coll. Phys. Lond. F.G.S.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

An Analysis of the Statistics of the Clearing House during the year
1839; with an Appendix on the London and New York Clear-
ing Houses, and on the London Railway Clearing House. By
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. 8v0.—From the Author.

Sanatory Remarks in connection with Nuisances. By Thomas Wil-
liamson, M.D, 8vo.—From the Author.

Monday, 19th January 1857.

Ricut REVEREND BISHOP TERROT in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the application of the Theory of Probabilities to the
question of the Combination of Testimonies. By Pro-
fessor Boole, Communicated by Bishop Terrot.

The method for the solution of questions in the theory of proba-
bilities which is applied in this paper, is that which was developed
by the author in a treatise entitled “‘ An Investigation of the Laws
of Thought, on which are founded the Mathematical Theories of
Logic and of Probabilities.”

The special problems with relation to the combination of testi-
monies to which the method is applied are the following, viz.:—1s¢,
That in which the testimonies to be combined are merely different
numerical measures of a physical magnitude, as of the elevation of a
star, furnished by different observations taken simultaneously. 2d,
That in which the testimonies to be combined relate, not to a nume-
rical measure, but to some fact or hypothesis of which it is required
to determine the probability; the probabilities furnished by the
separate testimonies being given.

436

Before proceeding to the solution of these problems, the author
notices a distinction between problems (relating to probabilities) of
which the elements are logical, and problems of which the elements
cannot, without being subjected to some previous mental transfor-
mation, be regarded as logical. He describes as logical those pro-
blems in which the data are the probabilities of certain simple events,
and the quesitum the probability of some compound event, whereof
the simple events are the elements combined in any way as happen-
ing or not happening. If, for example, the probabilities that the
individuals A, B, C, will continue in life for ten years, be p, q, 7;
given fractions, and the queesitum be the probability of all the lives
continuing, or of their all failing, or of any two falling and one
continuing ; these he calls logical problems, In like manner, if the
data be the probabilities of such compound events, and the quzesitum
be the probability of some other compound, or of the simple events
compounded, these also are logical. This the author expresses
generally.

Given prob. ¢, (2, y, z), prob. ?, (a, y, z), &c.; find prob. y («, y, 2).

It may be observed, that as an event must either happen or not
happen, these functions can consist only of factors of the form # and
1—z. He observes,—* I regard the elements of a problem relating
to probability as logical when the numerical data are the probabi-
lities, in the mathematical sense, 7.¢., measures of probability of
certain events, and when the object sought is the probability of some
other event whose connection with the former is either,—1st, That it
is a compound event of which they are the simple components; or,
2d, That both it and they may be resolved into the same compo-
nents. He employs the term ‘ compound event’ to denote, not
merely the conjunction of certain simple events, but any kind of
combination of them in the way of happening or not happening,
happening together, or in alternation; or in any way which is ca-
pable of being expressed by the grammatical forms of language,
and especially by the adverb not and the conjunctions and, either,
or, &e.

According to this definition, the problem of the reduction or com-
bination of different simultaneously-observed altitudes of a star is
not in its direct presentation a logical one. The immediate data are
not probabilities of events, but measures of a physical magnitude.
The author, however, remarks that this problem is capable of being

437

reduced to a form in which its elements are logical. If a quadrant
of the celestial are be taken as the unit of magnitude, then any
observed elevation of a star, regarded as a physical point, in a parti-
cular quadrant of elevation, will be the probability furnished by that
observation, that a pointer directed at random to the given quadrant
will point somewhere below the star.

This is clear from the ordinary definition of the measure of proba-
bility. For, supposing the observed altitude to be 10°, then the
number of different directions that may be given to the pointer,
is to the number of such directions falling below the star, as 90: 10,
oras 9:1. Hence the probability of the direction of the pointer
being below the star at }=the altitude of the star, considering the
quadrant as unity.

In considering this problem, the author first makes some observa-
tions on the different principles which have been employed in its
discussion, viz.: the principle of the arithmetical mean regarded as
axiomatic in its nature, the principles of mechanical analogy, of geo-
metrical consistency, &c. And he suggests that the agreement of
results deduced in such various ways is to be taken as an evidence
of a certain harmony between the intellectual powers and the exter-
nal universe considered as their actual sphere of exercise.

Reducing the problem, as above intimated, to logical elements, he
then applies to it the method developed in the “ Laws of Thought.”
The following, though not the most general, is the most interesting
result to which the application leads :—

If n observations of the altitude of a star are to be combined, and
if ¢,, cy, - . en are the several probabilities that these respective ob-
servations are absolutely correct, and if p,, p,, .. pn are the altitudes
which they furnish, then the most probable altitude will be

% pL _on_
TO) 1G ao ulacdgee

oe ge oe PT PP ie
; 1-0, 1-0, : 1—Cn

This result is in accordance with the familiar form

W, Pi + We Po +++ + Wn pn
where W, W, . . . Wn represent what are termed the weights of the
observations. But it is free from any admixture of mechanical ana-
logy, and it expresses the so-called weights as functions of certain
initial probabilities, viz.: the several probabilities of absolute cor-
rectness in the observations. Even if these probabilities are, as in

438

theory they must be, infinitesimal, the values of W, W, ... Wn,
which depend upon ratios will be finite. If any one of the quan-
tities C,, C, ... Cn, is equal to unity, the formula verifies itself;
for if it is certain that if an observation be correct, the result which
it furnishes must be adopted.

Cc 1 : ° cf
If C, =1, then ine, = = infinity. Therefore, the expression

C, »
1-C, i

C, —= iP
1-C,

becomes

If C, C,...C, are equal, the formula degenerates into
Pi +Pot+- +. pn ( 2.)

n
and expresses the principle of the arithmetical mean.

The author conceives this investigation to be of value, not on ac-
count of the result to which it conducts us, but on account of the con-
nexion which it establishes between the doctrine of the arithmetical
mean and the logical theory of probabilities.

In the second special problem, viz., the problem of the combina-
tion of testimonies to a fact or hypothesis, results are obtained
which may thus be described :—

1st, The complete solution involves arbitrary constants, and is
therefore indefinite. It admits, however, in various cases of a de-
finite value, and leads to many general conclusions of considerable
interest.

2dly, The arbitrary constants relate, not to the probability of the
fact or hypothesis as dependent upon the testimonies or evidences, but
to the probabilities of the testimonies themselves. Thus, if two
symptoms are observed, each of which gives a certain probability of
the existence of a disease, the strength of the joint presumption does
not altogether depend upon that of the separate presumption, but is
affected, for instance, by the @ priori likelihood of concurrence of
the symptoms.

3dly, In general, combined presumptions would be strengthened
by the @ priori unlikelihood of their combination.

4thly, In many cases the arbitrary elements disappear. Thus,
if one of the presumptions amount to certainty, the combination
will always indicate certainty, however unfavourable the opposite
presumption may be.

439

5thly, Where testimonies are in a high degree cumulative, ¢.g.
where their concurrence was @ priori very improbable, the formula
for the strength of the united testimonies p,, p.,... Pn, tends to
assume the following expression as its limits, viz. :—

Pi Pores pn
P, Po + ++ prt+(l—p,) (l—p,)--- (l—pa)

This is commonly assumed to be the general solution, The au-
thor shows that the proof of it, as usually given, involves the neglect
of a real and important consideration,—viz., that it is to the same
fact that the testimonies relate. To the true general solution it
stands in the position of a limiting value, applicable only on the
hypothesis of the testimonies being of a very unexpected kind, or
of their concurrence being very unexpected.

6thly, When the probabilities are not cumulative, but some of
them are felt to be too great, others too small, and a kind of mean
between them is required, a definite result is again obtained, which
may be thus stated,

Let p,, Pos - - Pny represent the separate probabilities, then is the
mean probability represented by the formula

1

(P; Po, .-. pny ui
1

i Thutaheqai
{ Pi P2++ Pn } eiralk ees (1—p.) - - ey} si
This formula is the counterpart of (2). It expresses the average

of the probabilities furnished by differing judgments, even as the
formula of the arithmetical mean expresses the average among dif-
fering measures of a numerical magnitude. But it differs in cha-
racter and in the consequences which it involves from the latter
formula,

Thus if the testimonies are two in number, and the probabilities

which they furnish in favour of an event are p and q, the formula be-
JP a

Veq+ Vp) 0-0
lie half-way between the values p and qg, but which, as may easily
be shown, lies nearer to the one of those values which is the nearer
either to 1 or to 0. This indicates, that if we have to take an
average between two judgments, one of which partakes more of the
character of certainty than the other, the former will have greater
weight in determining the final state of expectation, This, the author
observes, is accordant with our instinctive feelings,

The formula, it is to be observed, is not applicable to cases in

comes ,and furnishes a value which does not

440

which evidence is of a cumulative character, as where different posi-
tive assertions are made of the absolute truth of a fact,—but to cases
in which different modes of considering a subject lead us to assign
different probabilities to a fact or hypothesis, and it is our object to
take between these probabilities an average.

For example if A and B, whose veracity, that is the probability
of their speaking truth, has a given value, both affirm that the
event E has occurred, the formula does not apply. The proper,

Pq
7a
But if the question be the probability that Sir Philip Francis was
the author of Junius’ Letters, and p and gq be the probabilities
derived from external and internal evidence, then the formula

ta oe applies.
J pagtn l-p.1-q

In that portion of the memoir, which is introductory to the de-
monstration of the above results, the author explains the grounds of
his method for the solution of questions in the theory of probabilities
whose elements are logical. They are briefly the following :—

lst, He defines the mathematical probability of an event, as the
ratio which the number of cases or hypotheses favourable to that
event bears to the whole number of cases conceivable, supposing
that to none of those cases the mind is entitled to attach any pre-
ference over any other. ‘

2dly, He remarks, that when the probabilities of simple events con-
stitute our only data, no knowledge whatever being given of their
connection, we can thence, by virtue of the definition, determine the
probability of any logical combination of them, either absolutely or

at any rate the received, formula for such a problem is

conditionally.

3dly, He postulates that when the data are not the probabilities of
simple events, we can only grasp them and apply them to the caleu-
lation of probability by regarding them, not as primary, but as de-
rived from some hypothesis in which the data are the probabilities of
simple events, and to which, accordingly, we may apply the princi-
ples already referred to, as flowing from the very definition of pro-
bability. The probabilities of the simple events in the hypothesis
must, of course, be determined in accordance with the original data,

At this stage the question arises, How shall such an hypothesis
be lawfully framed? To this question the following answer is given,—

——

441

4thly, When, as in the case supposed, the data are not the proba-
bilities of simple events, the numerical measures of probability p, 9,
r, &c,, which they involve, will be subject to certain conditions
(beside that of their being positive fractions), in order that these data
may be mutually consistent,—may, if considered as furnished by ex-
perience, represent an experience which is possible, These condi-
tions the author terms the “ conditions of possible experience,” and
he gives a general method for their determination. Thus, for ex-
ample, if p is the probability of the conjunction of the events 7 and
y, ¢ of the conjunction of y and z, and r of the conjunction of z and
«, the quantities p, g and 7, besides the condition of not transgress-
ing the limits 0 and 1, must satisfy the conditions

paaqtr—-lagsartp-lrxsptaq-l;

similar conditions deducible from the data, will in general, limit @
priori, the value of the probability sought.

5thly, The author then lays down the principle, that the hypothe-
tical construction (already referred to) of the problem from simple
events with unknown probabilities, must be such, that the determi-
nation of these unknown probabilities from the data will be possible
and definite, when the above conditions of possible experience are
satisfied. In other words, the hypothesis should involve the exist-
ence of no other conditions among the data, than the condition of
their being possible, and mutually consistent.

This principle, he observes, completely limits and determines the
nature of the solution, restricting it to the particular method deve-
loped in the chapters on probability in the Laws of Thought. He
remarks, that the method in question was not, however, as it first
presented itself to his own mind, associated with such considerations
as these, nor are such considerations even hinted at in the work re-
ferred to. The method was there exhibited as resting upon an axio-
matic basis. The fact, that the conditions which it involves as con-
ditions of mathematical validity and consistency, are identical with
the conditions of possible experience, was subsequently discovered.

The proof of this identity, is not, however, in its present state, to
be considered as complete ; neither can it be considered as established
that no other method can satisfy the so-called conditions of possible
experience. The proof of the former proposition has, however, been
carried sufficiently far to leave no doubt of its truth, and the. latter

442

one has in its favour the negative evidence furnished by the failure
of solutions attempted by competent analysts upon other grounds.

2. On New Species of Marine Diatomacez from the Firth
of Clyde and Loch Fine. By Professor Gregory. Il-
lustrated by numerous drawings, and by enlarged figures,
all drawn by Dr Greville.

In two papers, read before this Society, and subsequently pub-
lished in the Microscopical Journal, I described and figured a large
number of new species of Diatoms, chiefly marine, which I had found
in the Glenshira sand.

This sand was deposited by the Dhu Loch of Glenshira, at a pe-
riod geologically recent, when that lake occupied a higher level than
it now does, and extended about two miles farther up the valley.
That the Dhu Loch at that period, as well as now, communicated
with Loch Fine, so that at high tide the salt water flowed into the
lakes, while at low water the current, as in a tidal estuary, flowed
outwards, is proved by the fact, that the sand then deposited con-
tains more marine than fresh-water species. In the deposit now
forming in the Dhu Loch marine forms are also abundant.

But while it was cbvious that all the marine forms of the Glen-
shira sand had come from Loch Fine, itself a branch of the Firth of
Clyde, it was remarkable that the new forms I had described should
not have been found in the Clyde by those who had examined its de-
posits. There was indeed one form which I had figured, namely
Navicula Hennedyi, which Mr Hennedy had shortly before observed
in the Clyde, but which had not yet been described. Many known
forms were also common to the Glenshira sand and to the Clyde.

Being firmly convinced that the new forms had also, so far at
least as they were of marine origin, come from the Clyde, I resolved
to explore such Clyde deposits as I could obtain; and having pro-
cured several, the result has entirely confirmed my anticipations,
and has, besides, brought to light a large number of additional un-
described forms.

The materials I have examined are 11 in number, of which, 3
were from Lamlash Bay, one from Corallina officinalis, taken from
pools on the shore of Arran at Corriegills, and 7 from Loch Fine,
four of these having been dredged by the Duke of Argyll and myself

443

off Inveraray, and 3 having been dredged off Strachur by the
Rev. Dr Barclay.

For one of the dredgings from Lamlash Bay I am indebted to
Professor Allman; the others from that quarter were sent to me by
the Rev. C. P. Miles, M.D.

All were more or less interesting. The richest was that of Pro-
fessor Allman, which was simply the dirt washed from some nests
of Lima hians, dredged in 4 fathoms. One of Dr Miles’s was also
from these nests in 7 fathoms, and was not so rich, though still full
of new forms. Those from Loch Fine were from depths varying
from 14 to 60 fathoms.

No two were alike, except that the two just mentioned, from the
nests of Lima, in nearly the same locality, were more like each other
than any of the others, This variety is very curious, when we reflect
that over a large extent of the bottom of the Atlantic the recent sound-
ings have exhibited an astonishing similarity, being, however, en-
tirely different from our estuarial deposits of the Clyde, and very
poor in Diatoms,

The variety just alluded to shows that the deposits of as many lo-
calities as possible, even in the same estuary, should be examined,
and that we cannot beforehand know what they are likely to yield.
Tt is not at all likely that 11 dredgings, from three localities, and
all different, should have exhausted the undescribed forms of the
Firth of Clyde.

I. These materials yielded a very large number of known species,
among which were a good many which have hitherto been extremely
rare. Such are, for example,

Navicula Hennedyi, Sm. Eupodiscus sculptus, Sm.
» granulata, Bréb. Campylodiscus Horologium, Sm.
»”., Lyra, Ebr. Podosira Montagnei, Sm.
Pleurosigma transyersale, Sm. » maculata, Sm.

rs obscurum, Sm. Orthosira marina, Sin,

sg delicatulum, Sm. Surirella lata, Sm.

4 rigidum, Sm. » fastuosa, Sm.
Stauroneis pulchella, 6 Sm. Biddulphia Baileyi, Sm.
Coscinodiscus concinnus, Sm. . = turgida, Sm,
Eupodiscus crassus, Sm. Grammatophora macilenta, Sm.

os Ralfsii, Sm, Syndendrium Diadema, Ehr.

Perhaps the most interesting among these forms, is Campylodis-
cus Horologium, which very few observers had seen, as it had only
occurred very sparingly in a dredging made on the Coast of Skye by
Mr G. Barlee, and examined by Professor Williamson. I have now
a tolerably abundant supply of it, chiefly from Loch Fine, but it

444

occurs also in Lamlash Bay. Eupodiscus sculptus occurs twice or
three times the size of Professor Smith’s figure, and Eupodiscus
Ralfsii occurs, in the Corallina material, of remarkable size and beauty,
and in great abundance. Discs of this fine species, from 0-005” to
0-007” in diameter, are frequent, and some even reach the diameter
of 0-008.” Orthosira marina (olim Melosira sulcata) is very abun-
dant in Lamlash Bay. Syndendrium Diadema, figured by Mr
Brightwell in his paper on Chetoceros, is not rare in Lamlash
Bay. It has not, I believe, been yet described as a British species.

II. As I anticipated, these materials have yielded almost every
one of the new forms of the Glenshira sand.
I have recognised the following :—

Nayicula maxima, a and @ Cocconeis costata.
” angulosa, ¢ and g Amphiprora recta.
+ latissima. ~ lepidoptera.
a humerosa. minor.
- clavata. Amphora Areus
i incurvata. = Grevilliana.
= splendida. a5 obtusa.
didyma y, costata. ” crassa.
= didyma $ » Plicata.
” formosa, } ” Rare
rhombica. ” ineata ;
Pinnularia Pandura, Bréb. rectangularis.
inflexs. Tryblionella constricta,
”
e longa. ” apiculata.

Campylodiseus simulans.

forti |
“a ortis. Synedra undulata.

Coceoneis distans.
It is impossible to doubt, that the few remaining Glenshira ma-

rine forms will yet be found in the Clyde, perhaps even in these
dredgings ; if not, in others.

III. Besides the above forms, all of which I had figured, there
had occurred in the Glenshira sand 7 or 8 forms, the study of which
I had postponed, either from want of good specimens, or from their
extreme scarcity in that deposit. By the help of the new ma-
terials, I have been enabled to clear up, and to establish as distinct
species, every one of these forms, most of which are very curious and
interesting.

IV. Lastly, I have detected, in these materials, a very large num-
ber of new species. These I have arranged in the following groups,

Group I.

Naviculoid Forms.
Navicula Claviculus, n. sp.

=

1. Navicula minor, n. sp. | 5.

eh or Cluthensis, n. sp. 6. 5 Musca, n. sp.

3. bs inconspicua, n. sp. Links. = rectangulata, n. sp.
4. * brevis, 2. sp. 8; 3 nebulosa, n. sp.

i
ise
on

9. Navicula Barclayana, n. sp. 16. Navicula Sirithii, var, y, nitescens,
10. po spectabilis, n. sp. 17. % Smithii,var.9 suborbicularis-
a, 3 preetexta, Ehr. 18. i maxima Greg.

12. » Bombus, Ehr. | 19. Pinnularia subtilsi, n. sp.

13. » Lyra, Ehr. | 20. zo rostellata, n. sp-

14, » Lyra, var. A, abrupta. ) 21. Es Allmaniana, n. sp.
15, ¥ Smithii, var. 6, fusca. ook Pandura, Breb, var.

I have given a figure of the typical NV. Lyra, Ehr., not yet
figured as a British form. The figure referred to by Professor Smith
in his second vol. (vol. i. fig. 152g) is that of the variety (.

I exhibit drawings of all the most remarkable of these forms, and
an enlarged figure of NV. preeteata, Ehr., which is not only remarkable
and beautiful in itself, but interesting from the circumstances in
which it occurs.

Ehrenberg found it only fossil, in the Clay Marl of Zgina, where
it seems to be very scarce, as he has figured an imperfect specimen.
I have found it recently, both in Lamlash Bay and Loch Fine, and
though not abundant, yet sufficiently frequent to have enabled me
to distribute a good many specimens. No doubt, if we persevere in
examining the estuarial deposits, we shall some day find it in greater
abundance in the vicinity of its proper habitat.

Here, then, is a form which, till now, has been regarded as fossil
only, which is found to be still existing in the Clyde. The Clay
Marl of ASgina is stated by Ehrenberg to belong either to the
chalk formation, or to the oldest tertiary or eocene beds. I have
selected this form, because the bed in which it occurs fossil is the
oldest in which Ehrenberg has found any Diatoms. He has, indeed,
found microscopic organisms in the chalk, and even in older rocks,
among which he mentions the Mountain Limestone and the Silurian
Green Sand. But the forms in the two latter rocks are not nume-
rous, and, as well as those which abound in the chalk, belong to the
Foraminifera or to the Polycystineze, not to the Diatomacez.

We find, then, that this very remarkable form, which occurs fossil
in the Clay Mar] of gina, exists in the Clyde at the present day ;
and there is no difference whatever between the fossil and the recent
specimens.

But this is not all. In the same Clay Marl Ehrenberg has
figured many more species of Diatoms, and of these, upwards of three-
fourths are absolutely identical with forms which abound in the
Clyde. Such are Navicula Bombus, N. incurvata, Pinnularia
Pandura, Orthosira marina, Amphitetras antediluviana, Tricer-

VOL. Ill, 20

446

atium Favus, Actinocyclus undulatus, Coscinodiscus radiatus, se-
veral Grammatophore, and various others.

In short, I have no hesitation in saying, that I believe all the
forms in the gina Clay Marl, which is the oldest Diatomaceous
deposit yet described, will be found living on our coasts.

It may also be observed, that of all the forms figured by Ehren-
berg from more recent strata, whether miocene, like the bed on which
the town of Richmond, Virginia, is built, and several kinds of Berg-
mehl, or pleiocene, like other Bergmehls and polishing slates, &c., or
still more recent, the great majority are perfectly identical with
existing Diatoms.

Indeed, although many forms are stated in Ehrenberg’s earliest
writings to be fossil only, and have been supposed to be extinct,
the progress of observation is continually adding to the number of
species which are found also in the recent state. Thus, for ex-
ample, the whole group of dentate Eunotiz, which abound in the
Lapland and Finland Bergmehls, were long thought to be only fos-
sil. But they have been nearly all found living in America, and I
have myself seen several of them recent in this country. Eunotia
triodon, long supposed to be extinct, occurred scattered in many of
the Scottish fresh-water gatherings I described in this place three
years ago, and I found it this last summer the predominant form in
a gathering brought from Arran by Dr Balfour.

Taking these facts into consideration, I am led to believe that
we have no evidence that any species of Diatom has become extinct,
as so many species, and even genera and tribes, of more highly or-
ganized beings have done. I observe that Mr Brightwell expresses
a similar opinion in his valuable paper on Chaetoceros, (See Mier.
Jour. 1V. 105.) His anticipation that Syndendrium would be found
recent has been fulfilled. (See List, p. 450.) Our knowledge of the
existing species is yet very imperfect, as is obvious from the facts
adduced in this paper, in which so many undescribed forms are
shown to exist in a few localities of one estuary. And among these
are such forms as the present one, NV. pretexta, which has hitherto
been supposed only to exist as a fossil.

It is well known, that in certain animal tribes, Molluscs, for ex-
ample, many species are common to the present and to earlier geo-
logical periods. I need only allude to the circumstances that the
eocene, miocene, and pleiocene strata are named from their propor-

447

tions of existing to extinct molluscs, and that the Terebratula of the
Silurian epoch is found to exist at the present day.

But in the case of Diatoms, there is reason to think that the
whole of the species which occur fossil will, ere long, be detected in
the recent state, just as has occurred in the case before us, NV. pre-
texta, which, it must be remembered, occurs in the oldest Diatoma-
ceous deposit yet described, and along with forms, nearly all of
which I have actually found in the Clyde.

It is at all events certain, that a very large proportion of the
Diatoms found in the fossil state also occur in the living state, and
that every day adds to their number.

There is at present no good evidence of the existence of Diatoms
earlier than the Chalk, if so early. But we must not forget that
the shells of Diatoms appear to be altered by long contact with car-
bonate of lime, so that they may have existed at one time in the Chalk.
We find them, however, in spite of the action of calcareous matter,
in the Chalk Marls of Meudon and of Caltanisetta, which are rather
more recent than the Chalk, and probably about the age of the Clay
Marlof gina. If, as I believe, no Diatoms have become extinct,
this may, perhaps, depend on their minute size and extreme sim pli-
city of structure, which probably render them more indifferent to
climatic changes than more highly organized and larger beings.

We have evidence, to a certain extent, that this is the case; for
by Ehrenberg’s figures it appears, that in gatherings of recent Dia-
toms, from all parts of the world, in every possible variety of cli-
mate, the majority of the species are identical with our own.

Diatoms, therefore, are not materially affected by existing dif-
ferences of climate, and have probably been as little affected by the
geological changes which have occurred, at all events since the pe-
riod of the eocene deposits.

To return to the new forms.

Grovr II.

Cocconeides,

The number of new forms in this group is not large, but they are
all interesting. They are as follows :—

23. Cocconeis distans, W.G. 27. Cocconeis pseudomarginata, n. s
24. ss dirupla, n. sp. 28. ‘s major, n. A Pk:
» ornata, n. sp. 29, P splendida, n. sp.

26. E nitida, n. sp. '
202

448

The first I have figured a second time, because I have detected
in it a character which effectually distinguishes it from C'. Scutellum.
The second is one of those Glenshira forms, which I have been en-
abled by thenew materials to study and distinguish. I exhibit drawings
of them, and enlarged ones of C. nitida, C. splendida, and C. pseudo-
marginata, which are very striking forms. CC. major is equally re-
markable.

Group III.
Filamentous Forms.
Of these, there are a good many, and most of them are curious.
30. Diadesmis? Williamsoni—Himanti- Denticula? levis, n. sp.

dium Williamsoni, Sin. 8. - ? capitata, n. sp.
31. Denticula marina, n. sp. 39, i. ? interrupta, n. sp.
a $5 distans, n. sp. 40. ? ornata, n. sp.
minor, 0. sp. 41. Meridion ? marinum, n. sp.
a Denticula ? nana, 0. sp. 42, Pyxidicula eruciata, Ebr.
35. Bs ? fulva, n. sp. 43. Orthosira angulata, n. sp.
36. = ? staurophora, n. sp.

The first species was described by Professor Smith, but doubtfully,
as a Himantidium, the F.V. only being then known. The 8.V.,
which abounds in some of the dredgings, proves that it is not a Hi-
mantidium ; but it is not so easy to say to what genus it belongs.
Diadesmis is not admitted by Professor Smith, but comes nearer to
it than any of his genera. It has also some analogy with Achnan-
thes, as well as with Odontidium and Denticula. I give the genus,
therefore, with a mark of doubt. The four next agree pretty well
with Denticula ; but the six which follow them are all very doubt-
ful as to genus, although, perhaps, nearer to Denticula than to any
other genus admitted by Smith. The next form has strong ana-
logies with Meridion, and even with Gomphonema. I do not venture
here to decide on the genera of these forms, but content myself with
indicating the existence of the species. Pyzidicula cruciata is a
form, long described by Ehrenberg as fossil; indeed it occurs in the
ZEgina Clay Marl, already mentioned; and in the miocene deposit
of Richmond, Virginia. I do not know that it has ever been found
recent, till now. Orthosira angulata is very abundant in Lamlash
Bay, and its disc has probably been described as Coscinodiscus minor,
by Kiitzing and others. But it is a true Orthosira.

Group IV.
Dises and Campylodisci.
These, though not very numerous, are very interesting—

449

44, Coscinodiscus centralis, Ehr, 50, Eupodiscus subtilis, Ralfs,

45. » nitidus, n. sp. 51. Campylodiseus Ralfsii, Sm.

46. ” umbonatus, n. sp. 52. ms centralis, n. sp.
47. 3 punctulatus, n. sp. t - angularis, n. sp.
48. - concavus, Ehr. 54. « eximius, n. sp
49. Melosira ? n. Sp. 55. 2 limbatus, Bréb.

It will be seen, that two of these forms have been described by
Ehrenberg, who figures them in the fossil deposits above alluded to,
and one by De Brébison, who found it near Cherbourg. The form
to which Mr Ralfs’s name is attached was supposed by him to be
Coscinodiscus concinnus, Sm., but proves to be a very remarkable Eu-
podiscus. I had not seen it when Mr Ralfs first observed it ; but
since then, Dr Greville observed it on one of my slides, and I have
myself repeatedly noticed it since. I give a figure of it, as it has
not yet been figured. Campylodiscus Ralfsii I figure, because it
occurs in these dredgings, twice or thrice the size of Professor
Smith’s figure, from which, moreover, it differs in several points ;
but I believe it to be the same species. The remaining forms are
new and remarkable. That which I suppose to be a Melosira is
doubtful as to genus.

Group V.
Amphiprore.

There are not many new species of this genus, but all of them are
remarkable.

s. Amphiprora lepidoptera, n. sp. 60. Amphiprora plicata, n. sp.
MS obtusa, n. sp. 61, o maxima, nD. sp.
a ra pusilla, n, sp. 62. ” ? complexa, 0. Spe

59. = elegans, Sm.

The first was described, and the F.V. figured in my last paper on
the Glenshira sand; while the S.V. had been figured in my first
paper as Amphiprora vitrea 3. But as both figures were imperfect,
and the form not quite understood, I have now figured it again.
The remaining species, except No. 59, are all new and distinct,
and Amphiprora mawima is a splendid form.

The last is a very remarkable form, which I doubtfully refer to
the same genus. Segments of it had occurred in the Glenshira sand,
but it was only in the Corallina gathering that I found the entire
form. I exhibit enlarged figures of Amphiprora maxima, and of
Amphiprora ? complexa, both the segments and the entire form,

Group VI.
Amphore.
This group is by far the largest, containing upwards of thirty

450

new species, in addition to the new Amphorz of the Glenshira sand,
which, as already stated, also occur in these materials, I have
found it necessary to divide them into two series, the simple and the

complex.
—Simple Amphore.

63. Amphora turgida, n. sp. 72. Amphora oblonga, n. sp.
64. , augusta, D. sp. 73. “5 spectabilis, n. sp.
65. 5 nana, n. sp. 74. 5 robusta, n. sp.
66. f macilenta, n. sp. Toe if truncata, n. sp.
67. Es lineata, Greg. 76. “3 leevis, 0. sp.
68. rf) ventricosa, 0. sp. 77. y leevissima, 0. sp.
69. 5 binodis, n. sp. 78. * dubia, n. sp.
70. i monilifera, n. sp. | 79. 2 Proteus, n. sp.
aXe . Ergadensis, n. sp. 80. pellucida, n. sp.

B.—Complea Amphore.
81. Amphora Arcus, Greg. 90. Amphora lyrata, n. sp.
82. 4 erassa, Greg. 91. *f proboscidea, n. sp.
83. FF Grevilliana, Greg. 92. ra cymbifera, n. sp.
84, y complexa, n. sp. 93. 5 quadrata, n. sp.
85. a fasciata, n. sp. 94, oy elongata, n. sp.
86. - suleata, Bréb. 95. es acuta, n. sp.
87. 2 excisa, 1. Sp. 96. = pusilla, n. sp.
88. s nobilis, n. sp. 97. e bacillarus, n. sp.
$9. 5 Milesiana, n. sp. 98. 3 granulata, n. sp.

I exhibit enlarged figures of one or two from each division,

The first three species in the list of complex Amphorz have been
already figured from the Glenshira sand, but imperfectly, and in one
case erroneously ; I therefore figure them again, as they are now
better understood, This complex group, of which a short time since
only one was known, namely,—A. costata, Sm., has now become a
very large one, and the remarkable structure of the forms included
in it, which had hardly been attended to in A. costata, is found to be
of very frequent occurrence. It is probable that these complex forms
will require the establishment of a new genus; but in the meantime
I regard them as forming a well-marked sub-genus,

There are still several species of Amphorz to be added to the long
list already Sheath ; but they have not yet been fully studied, for want

of time.

Group VII.
Miscellaneous.

A few forms are here added, which do not enter into the groups
already named, or were observed too late.

99. Navicula ? Libellus, n. sp. 104. Sceptroneis Caduceus, Ehr.
100. Nitzschia ? panduriformis, n. sp. 105, Synedra undulata, Greg.

101. Nitzschia distans, n. sp. =Toxarium undulatum, Bail.
102. 5 hyalnia, n. sp. 106. Synedra Hennedyana, n. sp.

103. Pleurosigma reversum, n. sp, |

451

The first of these forms resembles NV. rhombica, figured as oc-
curring in the Glenshira Sand. Both forms are doubtful as to
genus, and may possibly prove to be Schizonemata. The second is
allied to Tryblionella as well as to Nitzschia. The fifth, Plewro-
sigma reversum, is a very singular form, the genus of which is not
quite certain. The sixth is of a genus new to Britain, and is one
of the forms hitherto believed to be fossil only. The next, Synedra
undulata, has not yet been figured entire as a British form. The
form which follows closely resembles it except that it has no undu-
lations in the margin.

In an appendix, I have added a full description and a figure of a
very fine new species, detected by Professor Arnott in a gathering
from Teignmouth, and subsequently found, by the same observer, in
one from the Clyde, which justifies its introduction here. The
figure and description are by Dr Greville.

The new form, Creswellia Turris, Arnott, belongs to an entirely
new genus, which is allied to Pyxidicula, but differs from that genus
as described by Ehrenberg, in forming filaments or chains. Tt will
be remembered, that I have also detected a Pyxidicula in the Clyde,
so that both these allied genera occur in that estuary.

3. Short Verbal Notice of a simple and direct method of
Computing the Logarithm of a Number. By EDWARD
Sane, Esq.

Mr Sang briefly explained an application of the method of con-
tinued fractions to the resolution of the exponential equation, and
illustrated it by exhibiting the computation of the logarithm of the
prime number 27073 directly.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Publications of the Zlfric Society, viz.—

1. The Homilies of Zlfric, with an English Translation. By
Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 2 vols. 8vo.—London, 1843—
1846.

2, The Poetry of the Codex Vercellensis, with an English trans-
lation. By J. M. Kemble, M.A. 8vo.—1844-1856.

452

3. Anglo-Saxon Dialogues of Salomon and Saturn. By John
M. Kemble, M.A. 8vo.—1845-1848.
From William Ivory, Esq., W.S.

Catalogue of the Law Books in the Library of the Society of Writers
to Her Majesty’s Signet in Scotland. By William Ivory, W.S.
8vo.—Edinburgh, 1856. From the Author.

Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der reinen, pharmaceutischen
und technischen Chemie, Physik, Mineralogie und Geologie.
Herausgegeben von Justus Liebig und Hermann Kopp, 1855,
Zweites Heft. 8vo. From the Editors.

Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid, Tom. III. and
IV. 4to.—Madrid, 1856. From the Academy.

Programa para la adjudicacion de premios en el ano 1857. From
the same.

Anuncio del Eclipse anular y Central que tendra lugar el 15 de
Marzo de 1858. Por Don Antonio Aguilar. 8vo.—From
the Author.

Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, No.
XXVIL., January 1857.—F rom the Institute.

Percement de l’Isthme de Suez. Rapport et Projet de la Commis-
sion Internationale. 8vo.—Paris, 1856. From the Inter-
national Suez Canal Company.

Flora Batava. 180 Aflevering. 4to.—From the King of Holland.

Monday, 2d February 1857.
TueE Ricut Rev. Bispor TERROT, V.P., in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—
1. On the Urinary Secretion of Fishes, with some remarks
on this secretion in other classes of animals. By John

Davy, M.D., F.R.S., London and Edinburgh.

The urinary secretion of fishes, the author believes, has hitherto
received so little attention owing to certain difficulties attending its
investigation. He brings forward the few and imperfect observa-
tions he has made, with the hope of inducing others more favour-
ably situated to prosecute the inquiry.

The fishes he has examined in quest of their urinary secretion

453

have been fifteen ; of those with a urinary bladder he found a fluid
only in three, the Perch, Ling, and Ray ; and in those without
this organ, only in two, in their ureters—those of the Pike and
Turbot.

His experiments to ascertain the composition of the secretion were
attended mostly with negative results. In one instance, that of the
Pike, he detected lithic acid; in some others there were indications
of the presence of urea in the fluid urine.

The conclusions he ventures to draw are, that the secretion is
small in quantity, mostly liquid, and that urea or some other analo-
gous nitrogenous compound is its principal ingredient.

For the sake of comparison and further inferences, he notices the
secretion in other classes of animals, laying emphasis on the propo-
sition, that the quality of the secretion in each is more regulated
by the structure of the urinary organs than by any other circum-
stance, and that the quality of the food, whether animal or vege-
table, neither exercises an influence on the quantity of the nitroge-
nous excretion nor on its kind. He points out how, irrespective of
the nature of the food, urea is the chief ingredient of the urine of
the Mammalia, and of other animals provided with a urinary blad-
der ; how the alkaline lithates and uric acid take the place of urea
in those destitute of this organ, such as birds, serpents, lizards, in-
sects, mollusca, and some lower in the scale of organization, as the
myriopoda; and further, how in the instance of scorpions and
spiders another compound is substituted for the soluble urea, viz.,
guanine, which, like the lithates, is excreted in the state of a soft
solid.

He concludes with adverting to the harmonious relation of func-
tions in the animal economy, and the close alliance in action between
the lungs and the kidneys; adding, that as their activity seems
generally to be in accordance, and as in fishes the temperature is
low, and little carbonic acid evolved, it may be presumed, as his ex-
periments seem to show, that their urinary secretion is proportion-
ally inconsiderable. And hence, as their digestive powers are great,
it may further be inferred that most of their food is assimilated, and
is used in administering to their growth. This view he thinks is in
agreement with, and helps to explain some of their peculiarities,
such as we witness in the salmon, the history of which, of late years,
has been so carefully and successfully studied.

454

2. On the Reproductive Economy of Moths and Bees; being
an Account of the Results of Von Siebold’s Recent Re-
searches in Parthenogenesis. By Professor Goodsir.

In a recent work, entitled “‘Wahre Parthenogenesis bei Schmetter-
lingen und Bienen”—Real Parthenogenesis in Butterflies and Bees,
Von Siebold, after reviewing the present condition of the subject,
distinguishes the so-called alternate generation from partheno-
genesis, and limits Professor Owen’s term to reproduction by un-
impregnated females.

He has ascertained that this real parthenogenetic mode of re-
production occurs in certain moths—Solenobia lichenella and tri-
quetrella, the larve of which are sac-bearers; and in Psyche
helix, the larva of which constructs one of those remarkable spiral
sacs which have been mistaken for the shells of molluses.

It would appear that the apterous females of these moths re-
produce for many generations without the access of the male, and
that the progeny of these virgin females is female.

Von Siebold’s observations on the bee larve resulted in the
verification of the hypothesis recently propounded by Dzierzon, a
clergyman and distinguished bee-master in Southern Germany,
that all the eggs which come to maturity in both ovaries of the queen
bee are of one kind, which, if deposited without having come in con-
tact with spermatic fluid, are developed into drone or male bees ;
but if impregnated by spermatic contact, are developed into female,
—that is, into working or queen bees, according to their subsequent
treatment. The verification of this remarkable and important
physiological doctrine has apparently been effected by, 1, The ad-
mitted fact, that working bees occasionally deposit drone eggs; 2,
By the determination of the voluntary muscular structure of the
spermatheca; 3, By the detection of spermatozoa in the interior of
eggs recently deposited in working comb-cells, and the non-detec-
tion of spermatozoa in eggs deposited in drone comb-cells ; and,
4, By a careful analysis of the entire reproductive economy of the
bee.

Von Siebold, therefore, considers himself entitled to conclude
that the females of certain lepidoptera, and the males of the bee,
are developed from unimpregnated ova.

455

3. On the Principles of the Stereoscope; and on a new
mode of exhibiting Stereoscopic Pictures. By Dr W.
Macdonald.

The following Gentleman was admitted an Ordinary Fel-
low :—
Dr Joun Ivor Murray, F. R. Coll. Surg. Edin.

| The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. V. 8vo.—From
- the Society.

Catalogue of Stars near the Ecliptic, observed at Markree during
the years 1854-56, and whose places are supposed to be
hitherto unpublished. 8vo. Vol. IV. (containing 14,951
stars.)—From H. M. Government.

Supplément aux Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires de Seances de
Académie des Sciences. Tom. I. 4to—From the Aca-
demy.

Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences de ]’Institut Imperial de
France. Tom. XXVII. lve partie. 4to.—From the Aca-
demy.

Mémoires présentés par divers Savants 4 l’ Académie des Sciences
de l’Institut Imperial de France, et imprimes par son
ordre. Sciences Mathematiques et Physiques. Tom. XIV.
4to.—From the Academy.

Proceedings of the Zoological soiree 8vo. Nos. 310-313.
—From the Society.

Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, No. 36, January
1857. 8vo.—From the Society.

Nouveaux Mémoires de la Société Helvetique des Sciences Natu-
relles. Band XIV. 4to.—From the Society.

Mittheilungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern, fiir
1855, 1856. 8vo.—From the Society.

Actes de la Société Helvetique des Sciences Naturelles, 1855.
8vo.—From the Society.

Verhandlungen der allgemeinen schweizerischen Gesellschaft fiir
die gesammten Naturwissenschaften bei ihrer versammlung

456

in St Gallen am 24, 25, und 26 Juli 1854. 8vo.—From
the Society.

Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Académie des
Sciences, May 1856—December 1856.—From the Academy.

Monday, 16th February 1857.
Dr CHRISTISON, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Crania of the Kaffirs and Hottentots, and the Phy-
sical and Moral Characteristics of these Races. By Dr
Black, F.G.S.

After exhibiting Crania of these races recently received from
South Africa, along with two British crania of normal size and
form, and stating their respective measurements, facial angles,
and principal diameters, the author reviewed the observations
of Natural Historians and Anatomists on the skulls and phy-
sical characteristics of the races above mentioned. Camper’s
facial angle was compared with that of Blumenbach, show-
ing the differenees, and how far the adult Negro and the orang-
outang receded from the higher cranial types; and also how,
according to Mr Owen, the facial angle depends upon whether
it is taken in the young or adult state. The little difference
which exists between the capacities of the skulls of most of the
human races was alluded to, and also Mr Owen’s opinion of
the superiority of the basal examination of the skull over that
of the facial angle or vertical aspect. A peculiarity of several
Negro skulls was also mentioned, viz., the juncture of the tem-
poral and frontal bones, and consequently the separation of the
sphenoid from the parietal. It is observed, that the people of the
high countries of Africa are greatly superior to those of the low
plains; the former receding further from the physiognomy and
colour of the Negro. Colour of skin greatly varies amongst the
South African natives, from black to a light brown, even amongst
the same nation. The superiority of strength of intellect possessed
by the Kaflir over the Hottentot is sufliciently marked; and, on
the other hand, is counterbalanced by the greater pliability of dis-

457

position in the latter, the one being remarkable for reasoning abili-
ties, and the other for aptitude for music, &c.

M. Virey’s description of the distinguishing traits of the
Kaffirs and Hottentots was noticed, and the mental superiority
of the former over the latter. The Kaffirs are held by him,
Prichard, and Knox, to be of one ethnic origin with the Negroes,
only they are improved, and may be called the Negroes of the
mountains, a change being caused by inhabiting an extra-tropical
climate.

Dr Morton and the Editors of the “Types of Mankind” were
noticed as observing the affinities between the Kaffirs and the
Foolahs and Felatahs,—an affinity upon which others have thrown
a doubt; while the Editors agree with other observers that the
Kaflirs resemble the true Negro much more than the Hottentot,
and that the latter is supposed to belong to the same race as the
Bosjesman. The great question of the primitive origin of man-
kind was next adverted to, and it was stated that, in opposition to
Dr Prichard, the Editors of the “ Types” contend for distinct
zoological creations, grounding their opinions partly on Egyptian
monuments.

Richard Lander has made personal observations on the Kaffirs,
and has shown the resemblance between them and the Felatahs ;
and Lichtenstein concludes, that the same race of people and
the same family of languages were spread into the interior, and
also toward the north, far beyond the limits of the Kaffirs proper.
Dr Kraff and Peters were quoted, as showing that all the eastern
nations, from the equator to the Cape colony, belong to one great
family.

The opinion that the Kaffirs ought to be classed with the Euro-
peans or Arabs was shown to be unsound, and also that they con-
siderably recede in features and shape of the skull from the
prognathous races. There is one trait that directs us to a foreign
source, namely, the rite of circumcision, which they universally
practise. It is known that the ancient Africans and Egyptians
"practised the same rite. After noticing the belief of the Kaflirs in
a Supreme Being, though they have no idea of future rewards and
punishments, the author noticed the Bechuana Kaffirs as su-
perior to the Amakosa:, and as having made some advance in
arts and civilization, and the Kosah Kaffirs of the pure breed as

458

approaching in colour and physiognomy to the ordinary Negro,
but some of them are of a lighter hue, and redder. Colonel
Smith’s observations on the Kaffir race are favourable to their
intelligence and bravery, and some of them display the pecu-
liar accumulation of fat over the glutei muscles which is more
common among the Hottentots and Bushmen. He also men-
tions that the northern tribes try to mitigate the small-pox by
inoculating between the eyes. Further testimony seems to es-
tablish a near and kindred relation between the languages of
South Africa, the idioms of which constitute a particular family of
languages, and a singular development of human speech. In one
respect these languages are shown to agree with the Coptic—in the
law by which they both prefix all modifying particles, while other
languages sufix them.

The author then entered briefly into a description of the Fingoes
and Bosjesmen, as given by travellers and natural historians,
showing that the latter exhibit the features of the lowest humanity,
and are almost allied to the ourang and troglodytes; though Dr
Smith’s more accurate observations have convinced Dr Prichard
that the Bosjesmen are of the same race as the Hottentots, and
originally spoke the same language. The oblique foramen at the
lower end of the humerus was also noticed as occurring in some of
them, as it does in the humeri of the simia, dogs, and wild boar.
Observations were made on the physical form and features of the
Hottentots, including the form of their noses, cheek-bones, chin,
eyes, and teeth, their hair and colour, their nipples and mamme
at different ages, and also the stcatopygea of the females. While
some consider them a tribe of Mongolians, and allied to the Kal-
mucks, others are inclined to think them quite as primitive in their
origin as these Asiatics.

The author concludes: “ Notwithstanding the difficulties which
ethnographists must meet with in assigning a probable origin
and descent to the Kaffir, and especially to the Hottentot tribes,
sufficient to induce them to resort to the theory of distinct centres
of human, as well as of animal and vegetable creation; and, not-
withstanding all that has been lately advanced on the subject of
the unity of the human species, we may safely say with the emi-
nent Natural Historian, that no differences, such as those observed
among mammiferous animals, are to be found among human

459

families, and that whatever varieties exist in these respects are the
effects of external agencies, and the tendency to variation which
such agencies call into activity.”

2. On a Roche Moutonneé on the summit of the range of hills
separating Loch Fyne and Loch Awe. In a letter from
the Duke of Argyll to Professor Forbes.

Polished and rounded surfaces of rock are, under their more
ordinary conditions, of very frequent occurrence in Argyllshire.
By “their more ordinary conditions,” I mean principally two—
viz., Where they occur on the existing coast-line, either at, or not
far above the present level of the sea; secondly, Where they
occur in valleys, or the lower flanks of the hills,—whether under the
boulder clay, or on surfaces naturally exposed.

From the occurrence on Loch Fyne of some beds of a chloritic
schist, which is both very soft and very tough, receiving easily
mechanical impressions, and resisting as easily the chemical agencies
which tend to wear them off, there are on its shores some very fine
examples of rocks rounded and deeply grooved. So far as my
observation goes, however, they all indicate not only a configuration
of the surface identical with that which now exists, but also a com-
paratively small change in the level of the sea. The prominent
points upon the shore are those which are principally marked—the
direction indicated is from the head of the loch towards its mouth ;
that is to say, the direction which ice breaking up from the high
mountains at the head of the lake would naturally take in its
passage to the open sea. There is nothing to imply a change of
level beyond some fifteen or twenty feet.

In the glens leading into Loch Fyne, in the neighbourhood of
Inverary, the stones and boulders in the clay are abundantly marked
by abrading action. But I have not observed upon the walls of
those glens any appearances which would indicate direct glacier
action. When smoothed surfaces of rock appear at all, they seem
rather connected with the general phenomena of the Boulder Clay.
There is one observation, however, which applies generally, if not
universally, to smoothed surfaces of rock in all these situations—
viz., that the direction of the striw is that of the glen or valley in
which the rock is situated, that is to say, they are in the direction

.

460

which currents of water, whether bearing ice or stony matter, or
both, would naturally take, if guided in any degree by the existing
configuration of the surface.

What appears to me to be the peculiarity of the “ Roche
Moutonnée” I am now about to describe, is its position, forcing us
to seek for its explanation in causes with which the physical geo-
graphy of the country can have had comparatively little to do.

In a communication to the Geological Society of London which I
made about three years ago, with reference to another subject, I
gave a general description of the structure of the ridges which
separate the valley of Loch Fyne from that of Loch Awe. This
line of hills, taken from the point where it is traversed by Glenaray,
runs in a south-westerly direction about twenty miles, till it falls
into the transverse valley behind Lochgilphead, along which the
Crinan Canal is carried from Loch Fyne to the Western Sea. It
is of moderate elevation as compared with the great group of
mountains which lies to the N.E. But these mountains, closing
round the upper end of Loch Awe, terminate in Ben Cruachan,
opposite to the point which I have taken as the commencement of
the ridge referred to; and beyond that point the remainder of the
northern shores of Loch Awe, and the whole district of country ex-
tending from it towards Oban, is of much lower elevation, so that,
standing on the higher points of the range of hills to which I refer,
there is an uninterrupted view to the channels which wind among the
larger Hebrides to the mountains of Jura, Colonsay, Mull, and up
the Linnhe Loch to the entrance of the great valley of the Caledonian
Canal.

It was on going to one of these points—the highest on the ridge
for some miles, and probably about 1800 feet above the level of
the sea—during last autumn, that I was surprised to observe
close to the summit so remarkable an example of a well-rounded
surface of rock as to attract my attention from a considerable
distance. It is the more remarkable, from the contrast it presents
with the generally sharp and broken edges of the strata, which are
there composed of hard quartzose beds, at a high inclination, and
with steep escarpments. The direction from which the abrading
force has acted is about N.N.E. It has passed over a lower
shoulder in its way—lower by about 100 feet ; but the effect is
strongest upon the rocks of the main peak itself, and especially

461

upon one or two prominent faces within twenty or thirty feet of
the summit. Above this it may be observed sloping off, as it
were, with diminished force, over successive ledges towards the top,
until it passes close behind the very highest point, leaving that
point itself apparently untouched.

I need hardly say, that in this case glacier action is impossible.
Even if this hill had itself been the seat of the glacier, it could
only have been snow so near the summit.

There is one explanation which immediately suggests itself to
the mind, and, however difficult it may be to realize the conditions
which it involves, it is the only one which it seems to me to be
possible to suggest. It is that this peak, when subject to that
grinding force, was a rocky islet just appearing above the surface
of a glacial sea, and that floating icebergs, drifting from the north-
eastward, were constantly grounding upon its sides. I may
observe, that this explanation would accord with the fact that the
surfaces displaying most strongly the effects of the abrading
action are considerably below the summit; because, as ice floats
deep in the water—not more than one-twelfth of its bulk being
above the line of flotation—the heaviest masses would always
ground upon such a rock at a distance from the top proportioned
to the steepness of its declivity, and none but the lighter pieces
would ever be drifted over the higher points.

If this peak was ever, as I have supposed, a mere rock just
appearing above the level of the sea, it becomes of course neces-
sary to suppose that its altitude above the present level of the
ocean is due to subsequent elevation. But as the geological
strueture of the range—the dip and inclination of its rocks—were
clearly the same when it was subject to these forces of a glacial
sea, it becomes necessary further to suppose that the required
elevation has been a general one, affecting the whole country of
which this range forms a part. But if this were so, and whether
the elevation was slow and continuous, or more rapid and effected
by (as it were) successive heaves, we should expect to find at
corresponding points evidences of the same action at lower and
lower stages. There is certainly one such evidence, viz., that on
some of the lower ridges which fall in successive steps to the
shores of Loch Fyne there are some very remarkable examples of
large blocks of granite perched upon the very summits, in posi-

VOL. Ul. 2e

462

tions which it is impossible to suppose them to have attained by
any other means than transportation upon ice. Such blocks, if
they had fallen or rolled from above, must have crossed deep
hollows, and again bounded up steep slopes with such a nice
adjustment of impetus as to exhaust itself exactly at the very top,
leaving them perched, where perhaps a single step in advance
would have precipitated them on another journey into the glen
next below. But this position so far from being a difficulty, is
but the natural position in which we should expect to find them,
if ice had been the transporting agent; because, what are now
summits must have been then shoals, upon which ice would
ground, and upon which, also, ice melting, they would drop their
burdens,

I send with this very short notice, a copy of the paper to which
I have referred,* upon the geological structure of the line of hills
on which this Roche Moutonnée occurs. In it there is an eye
sketch, tolerably correct, taken from Loch Fyne, of the range of
hills between its waters and Loch Awe, and I have marked in red
ink the point where the smoothed surface occurs. On the succeed-
ing page of the same paper there is an ideal section of the same
range of hills, and on this I have likewise marked both the posi-
tion of the rock and of the massive blocks of stone alluded to in
this letter.

Since I came to London, my attention has been drawn by Sir
Charles Lyell to a paper, in which he has described a similar
phenomena in the United States, and in which he accounts for it by
the same explanation. In that case, however, the fact of a Roche
Moutonnée on the summit of a range of hills is accompanied by
other very peculiar phenomena of transported boulders, which
corroborate in a manner not to be mistaken the conclusion thus
arrived at. The continuity and uniformity of direction taken by
the floating ice in that case, as evidenced by the lines of its deposit,
is a peculiarity which must have been due to local causes. But
if the facts of submergence and elevation to such an extent be
established anywhere, there is no difficulty in applying the same
explanation to other cases, which, however different in detail,
involve the same essential facts.

* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for November 1853.

463

I need not allude to the questions which crowd upon us in
contemplating the explanation thus suggested. What is the
connection between the glacial period indicated by the Roches
Moutonnées found close to the present level of the sea, and those
—in all respects so similar—found on the tops of mountains of
such considerable elevation. Was it one long glacial epoch
during which the required elevation was aceomplished? or was it
a recurrence of similar conditions after a gale of intermediate
changes ?

3. On M. J. Nicklés’ claim to be the Discoverer of Fluorine
in the Blood. By George Wilson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Regius
Professor of Technology in the University of Edinburgh.

I am very reluctant to occupy the time of this meeting with a
personal matter, but as I am necessitated to defend my priority in
reference to certain researches which, in greater part, were first
communicated to this Society, and first made public through its
** Transactions,” it seems the proper tribunal, at least in this country,
to adjudicate on a question liable to dispute.

A communication was made to the French Academy, at its meet-
ing on the 3d of November 1856, by M. J. Nicklés, entitled
“Presence du Fluor dans le Sang.” From the tenor of M. Nicklés’
remarks, it would seem that he is not aware that the existence of
fluorine in the blood was announced by me in 1846, and specially
demonstrated in 1850; nor is he acquainted with the researches
which others besides myself haye made in this country and in Ame-
rica, into the distribution of fluorine throughout the different king-
doms of nature. In justice, accordingly, to all parties, I seek to
recal the following faets, which may save M. Nicklés needless
labour, and prevent future disputes. His announcemcnt is as fol-
lows: It is reported in the Comptes Rendus for November 6, 1856,
and in the Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, December 1856,
p- 406, from which I take it :—

“ Présence du Fluor dans le Sang. Par M. J. Nicxues. (Com-
muniqué & l’Académie des Sciences, dans la séance du 3 Novembre
1856.)

‘* Par suite de considérations que j’aurai prochainement l’honneur de

2P2

464

soumettre 4 l’Académie j’ai été conduit 4 vérifier cette assertion tant
contestée, de la présence de fluor dans les os. Mes expériences ayant
été afftirmatives j’ai recherché le fluor dans le sang, seule voie par ou il
ait pu arriver jusqu’au tissu osseux. J’y en ai trouvé de notables pro-
portions, non pas seulement dans le sang humain, mais encore dans celui
de plusieurs mammiféres (porc, mouton, beuf, chien), et de plusieurs
oiseaux (dindon, oie, canard, poulet).

‘Des résultats si concordants me semblent donner au fluor une im-
portance qu’il n’a pas eue jusqu’a ce jour en médecine ou en physiologie ;
ils infirment évidemment cette opinion de Berzélius, suivant laquelle la
présence du fluor dans les os est purement accidentelle, et qu’en tout cas
elle n’est pas nécessaire.

‘¢ S'il fallait d’autres preuves en faveur de la nécessité de reviser le
jugement de J'illustre chimiste, on le trouverait dans les faits suivants :
il y a du fluor dans le bile, il y en a dans l’albumine de l’ceuf, il y a dans
la gélatine, il y en a dans la salive, dans l’urine, dans les cheveux ; il y
en a dans les poils d’animaux (beeuf, vache, et veau) ; en un mot, l’or-
ganisme est pénétré de fluor ; on peut s’attendre 4 en trouver dans tous
les liquides qui l’imprégnent.

«* Dans un prochain travail je ferai connaitre les procédés trés simples
a l'aide desquels j’ai pu reconnaitre la présence du fluor dans toutes ces
matiéres. Pour le moment, je dois me borner a prendre date et 4 prier
l’ Académie de me donner acte de cette communication.”

I subjoim, for convenience of reference, an English transla-
tion :—

“‘ From considerations which I shall shortly have the honour to submit
to the Academy, I have been led to verify the much disputed assertion of
the presence of fluorine in the bones. My experiments having been
affirmative, I sought for fluorine in the blood, the only channel by which
it could have reached the osseous tissue ; and I found notable quantities
of it, not only in human blood, but also in that of several of the Mam-
malia (pig, sheep, ox, dog) ; of several birds (turkey, goose, duck, fowl).

‘Results so uniform appear to me to give to fluorine an importance
which it has not yet obtained in medicine or physiology ; they manifestly
contradict the opinion of Berzelius, that the presence of fluorine in the
bones is purely accidental, and that it is at any rate non-essential.

‘: If other proofs were needed to show the necessity of revising the
judgment of the illustrious chemist, they would be found in the following
facts : there is fluorine in the bile, in the albumen of eggs, in the saliva,
in the urine, in the hair; in the hairs of animals (ox, cow, calf); ina
word, the organism is penetrated by fluorine, and we may expect to find
some in all the liquids with which it is impregnated.

In an early work I shall make known the very simple processes by
means of which I have recognised the presence of fluorine in all those

465

substances. For the present I limit myself to noting the date, and asking
the Academy to give me formal acknowledgment of this communication.”’

From the statement of Nicklés, which I have quoted in full, it
will be seen that its author was led by his verification of the con-
clusion, first announced at Rome by Morichini and Gay-Lussac in
1802, that fluorine occurs in the bones of animals, to infer that it
must be conveyed to these organs by the blood, and to seek for it in
that fluid.

The majority of analysts, however, have long ago justified the
early Roman observations. In particular the question of the pre-
sence of fluorine in bones was keenly contested in London in 1843,
and analyses confirmatory of its occurrence in them were published
by Professor Daubeny and Mr Middleton; to which in 1846 I
added, in a communication made to this Society, the accordant re-
sults obtained by Professor Gregory and myself, and drew attention
to the suggestion of Professor Graham of London, and of Dana, the
American geologist, that animals possibly derived the fluorine found
in their tissues from fluoride of calcium held in solution by water
containing carbonic acid. In the same paper I adverted to the con-
clusion of Mr Middleton, founded on his detection of fluorine in a
multitude of aqueous deposits, that “ beyond a doubt it is present in
water, though perhaps in very minute quantity. ... . The simple
tact that the blood conveys it to the bones would, I apprehend, suffi-
ciently confute any scepticism on the subject.”

At this point I took up the inquiry in January 1846, and on
April 6 of that year communicated a paper to this Society, in the
** Transactions” of which it was published. It will be sufficient here
to give an epitome of its contents. The paper was entitled “On
the Solubility of Fluoride of Calcium in Water, and its relation to
the occurrence of Fluorine in Minerals, and in Recent and Fossil
Plants and Animals.” It is divided into seven sections. ‘The first,
entitled “ Introductory Remarks,” details the researches of my pre-
decessors, including those to which I have just referred. The second,
entitled ‘* Of the Solubility of Fluoride of Calcium in Water,” points
out, that, contrary to previous belief, this salt is dissolved by pure
water, yielding a solution answering to all the tests of lime and of
_ hydrofluoric acid. The third, entitled “ Of the presence of Fluorine
in Well, River, and Sea Water,” confirms and extends the observa-

466

tions of previous analysts on the occurrence of a dissolved fluoride in
fresh water, and for the first time announces its direct discovery in
sea-water, where Middleton and Dana had independently anticipated
its presence, after finding it invariably in the shells of marine mol-
lusea and in corals. The fourth section, entitled “ Of the presence
of Fluorine in Minerals,”’ does not call for special notice. The fifth
entitled “Of the presence of Fluorine in Plants,” confirms the re-
sults of Will of Giessen as to the existence of this element in the
ashes of vegetables, and draws attention to plants and to water as
the media by which fluorides may be transferred from the soil to
animals, The sixth section, entitled “ Of the presence of Fluorine
in Animals,” commences with the statement, ‘ As there exists, then,
a twofold source of fluorine for animals, we may anticipate its oceur-

’ and thereafter announces,

rence in various parts of their structure ;’
in opposition to the negative results of Dr Rees, my confirma-
tion of the observation of Berzelius, that a fluoride is present in hu-
man urine,—a result which the great Swedish chemist hailed with sa-
tisfaction before his death*, although M. Nicklés seems to think that
he has been the first to confirm the original assertion. The paper
then proceeds to state,— It could not be doubted, after the facts I
have detailed, that fluorine would be found in the two great for-
mative liquids of the animal body, blood and milk; I have found it
in both. So far as I am aware, it has hitherto been overlooked in
all the analyses that have been made of these liquids; probably it
has not been sought for. I employed the blood of the ox, and in
two cases obtained markings on glass which only became visible
when breathed upon, but are then quite manifest. In the third, the
glass was distinctly, though faintly, corroded.”

The concluding part of this section is occupied with a criticism of
the declaration of Treviranus, that the gastric juice of birds contains
hydrofluoric acid ; the final sentence being, ‘“‘ We may now look for
fluorine in all the animal fluids.”

I merely name the title of the seventh section, which is headed
‘‘ Of the presence of Fluorine in Fossil Bones, and its relation to
Animal Life.”

In the summer of the same year, 1846, I ascertained the ex--
tent to which pure water dissolves fluor-spar, namely, 0-26 grains

* Jahres-Bericht, von Jacob Berzelius, 1848, p. 164, which contains a general
comment on my researches of 1846.

467

in 7000 grains of the liquid at 60° F. This result was announced
to the British Association at its meeting for that year, and to this
Society in November. In 1849 these observations were repeated
with certain variations, to meet objections which had been raised to
my conclusions, but with the same result. In 1849 I communi-
cated to the British Association the results of a series of analyses,
demonstrating by a new method of inquiry the presence of fluorine
in the waters of the Frith of Forth, the Frith of Clyde, and the
German Ocean; and in March 1850 I communicated to this So-
ciety an additional series of observations made in the same way, but
extended to the waters of the Irish Sea, of the Atlantic, and the
Mediterranean. This paper was accompanied by a letter from Pro-
fessor Forchammer of Copenhagen, testifying to the presence of
fluorine in the waters of the Baltic. In the summer of the same
year (1850) I returned to the analysis of blood and milk for fluorine,
feeling assured that still more decisive proofs of its presence in
both could be obtained by using a larger amount of material, and
subjecting it to a simpler process. Accordingly, employing in the
ease of blood (which was that of the ox) 26 imperial pints, in the
case of milk 9 imperial pints, and in that of cheese 12 lbs., I was
able to etch glasses with the hydrofluoric acid evolved from them so
deeply that they might have been printed from, like copper plates.
The etched glasses were shown to the members of the Chemical and
Physiological Sections of the British Association, at its meeting in
Edinburgh in 1850, and the details of the process published in its
“ Transactions,” as well as in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for
October of that year.* In the spring of 1852, I again brought the
subject before this Society in a paper entitled ‘* On two new Processes
for the Detection of Fluorine when accompanied by Silica; and on
the presence of Fluorine in Granite, Trap, and other Igneous Rocks,
and in the Ashes of Recent and Fossil Plants.”’ (Read April 19, 1852.)
In the summer also of the same year, a communication, founded on
an application of these processes, was made to the Botanical Society
of Edinburgh,—‘“ On the presence of Fluorine in the stems of Gra-
mine, Equisetacee, and other Plants, with observations on the
sources from which vegetables derive this element.” In this com-

* They are specially referred to in the English translation of Lehmann’s

. “ Physiological Chemistry,” by Prof. G. E. Day, vol. i., p.425. Cav. Soc. Publ.
1851.

468

munication, read July 8, 1852, I reported the results of an exami-
nation of twenty-four plants or vegetable products, in twelve of
which fluorine was found. It will suffice to state in reference to both
papers, that their object is to point out, and illustrate by examples,
methods of readily discovering fluorine in circumstances which pre-
viously rendered its detection difficult.

The more perfect of the two processes has been applied with suc-
cess by Professor Hoffmann to the detection of fluorine in the mine-
ral waters of Harrogate; and Fresenius has introduced it into the
last edition of his ‘¢ Qualitative Analysis.’’”*

The researches thus referred to have been chiefly published in
the “Transactions” of this Society, and of the British Association,
but have been brought in part before the Chemical Society of Lon-
don, They are known in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Ame-
rica, and have been referred to by many authors in this country.
It is reasonable, accordingly, to infer that some knowledge of them
has reached Paris; and it might have been supposed that they had
not altogether escaped the notice of M. Nicklés, whose name ap-
pears on the title-page of the Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,
as editing the department of that work entitled “ Une revue des
Travaux Chimiques publiés a l’Etranger.”

I bring no charge, however, against M. Nicklés. In these days
of multiplied monographs it would be unjust to blame any man for
ignorance of a single series of special researches. Nevertheless,
seeing that this author’s name appears on the title-page of the
Journal de Pharmacie side by side with those of our Vice-President
Dr Christison, as its Edinburgh Correspondent, and of Dr Redwood,
the Secretary of the Cavendish Society, as its London Correspondent,
the countrymen of M. Nicklés, may think themselves entitled to quote
the legal maxim, ‘de non apparentibus et de non existentibus eadem

* Fourth edition of the English translation, 1855, p. 134, stated by its edi-
tor, Mr J. L. Bullock, to correspond with the eighth German edition, The
process essentially consists in heating the silicated fluoride with oil of vitriol,
and condensing the gaseous fluoride of silicon in aqueous ammonia, which after
evaporation, re-solution in water, and desiccation, yields fluoride of ammonium.
Fresenius recommends the addition of “‘ some coarse pieces of marble to insure
a continuous slight evolution of gas ;” but I cann“t approve of this recommen-
dation, since the constant occurence of fluorine in shells and corals implies its
presence in limestunes ; and the employment of marble for the purpose indica-
ted risks the introduction of the very element for which we are seeking.

469

ratio,” and to infer that what of reputed English science is not known to
him, does not exist to be known. Whilst, therefore, I wish M. Nicklés
all success in extending our knowledge of the organismal distribution
of fluorine, I ask from him, now that he is made aware of the fact,
acknowledgment of my priority in reference to the discovery which
he specially claims, and of the other -discoveries which the papers
referred to announce.

The following Gentlemen were admitted Ordinary Fellows :—

Right Hon. Jonn Metvixte, Lord Provost.
Joun Buackwoop, Esq., 3 Randolph Crescent.
Brinstey DE Courcy Nixon, Esq., London.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Monograph of the genus Abrothallus. By W. Lauder Lindsay,
M.D., 8vo.— From the Author.

Reports of the Meetings of the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects.—From the Institute.

Meteorological Observations taken during the years 1829 to 1852,
at the Ordnance Survey Office, Phoenix Park, Dublin; to
which is added a series of similar observations made at the
principal trigonometrical stations, &c., in Ireland. Edited by
Capt. Cameron, R.E.; Lieut.-Col. H. James, R.E., Superin-
tendent of Survey, 4to—From the Right Hon, The Secretary
of State for War.

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society, XVII., No. 23,
8vo.—From the Society.

Memoires de la Société Impériale des Sciences Naturelles de Cher-
bourg. Vol. IIT. (1855) 8vo,.—From the Society.

British Interests in the Canalization of the Isthmus of Suez. 8vo.
—From the Author.

Papers read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, January
1857. 4to.—From the Institute.

Tables showing the number of Criminal Offenders in England and
Wales in the year 1855. Folio.— rom the Right Hon. the
Secretary of State.

Instructions for making Meteorological Observations—J’rom the
Scottish Meteorological Society.

470

Monthly Returns of the Births, Deaths, and Marriages, registered
in the eight principal towns of Scotland; with the causes of
death at four periods of life-—From the Registrar-General.

Quarterly Returns of the Births, Deaths, and Marriages, registered
in the Divisions, Counties, and Districts of Scotland.—From
the Registrar-General. -

Monday, March 2, 1857.

The Right Rev. BISHOP TERROT, Vice-President, in the
Chair.

The following Communications were read :—

1. On the Functions of the Spinal Cord. By Professor Hughes
Bennett.

The object of Dr Bennett’s communication was to unite two se-
parate kinds of research, which of late had been directed towards
advancing our knowledge of the structure and functions of the spinal
cord. From these it would, he thought, appear, that the views con-
sidered to be so firmly established by the genius and labours of
Charles Bell, required great modification. Dr Bennett then gave a
sketch of these views, and of the present opinions of physiologists re-
garding the functions of the spinal cord. He indicated certain facts
which had long been recognised as difficult of explanation in accord-
ance with them, He then described the results of several experiments
by M. Brown-Séquard on the columns of the cord in living ani-
mals, which he himself (Dr B.) had witnessed, and which satisfied
him that, on the posterior columns being cut across, increase of sen-
sibility in the inferior extremities was the consequence, instead of
paralysis. He also described the discoveries recently made in the
structure of the spinal cord, by Budge, Kolliker, Lockhart Clarke,
Stilling, Remack, Wagner, Van der Kolk, Schiling, Kupffner, and
especially by Owsjannikow. He pointed out how the structural dis-
coveries threw light on the experimental ones, and from the whole
inquiry drew the following conclusions :—

1. Although the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves
may still be considered motor and sensitive, we can no longer
apply these terms to the anterior and posterior columns of the
cord,

471

2. The fibres in these columns do not convey impressions directly
and continuously to the brain as hitherto supposed, but enter the
grey matter, and operate through the ganglionic cells of that
matter.

3. That all so-called reflex movements are carried on by a
definite system of conducting fibres and ganglionic cells, passing
through the grey matter; in other words, they are diastaltic and
not reflex.

4, That the particular fibres and cells which are necessary to
spinal diastaltic acts have yet to be discovered ; so that a new
field of inquiry is opened up to the physiological histologist,

2. On the Delta of the Irrawaddy. By T. Login, C.E., Pegu.
Communicated by William Swan, Esq.

Little is known of the course of the Irrawaddy River above Ava,
and as it is joined by no large tributary near its mouth, its sec-
tional area differs very little for hundreds of miles, At Prome,
a distance of 190 miles in a direct line from the sea, the river is
confined between two ranges of hills. The eastern range passes
through the Tharawaddy district, separates the Irrawaddy from the
Sittang Valley, and is lost in low undulating hills at Rangoon. The
western or Aracan range is more mountainous, and terminates in a
bluff headland forming the right bank of the Bassein River at its
mouth. The plain bounded by these two ranges is inundated when
the river is in flood—so much so, that it can be traversed in almost
any direction in small canoes.

The Irrawaddy, like all other large rivers in India, begins to rise
in March, and attains its highest elevation in August, after which it
gradually subsides, until it is again swollen by the melting of the
snows among the hills, when it rises from 10 to 12 feet before the
setting in of the rains.

My observations were made at Than-ba-ya-doing in March 1855,
with as great care as circumstances would permit, to determine the
discharge, velocity, slope, and the proportions of earthy matter
suspended in the water. It was found that, when the river was at
its lowest, it discharged 75,000 cubic feet per second. The mean
surface velocity was 1} miles in the hour, the slope 13 inches in
the mile, and the proportion of earthy matter was 57's by weight.

472

When the river is in flood its surface rises 37 feet higher than in
the dry season ; the discharge was estimated at 750,000 cubic feet in
the second, with a surface velocity of 5 miles in the hour, a slope of
34 inches in the mile, and the proportion of silt about ;7>5 by
weight.

Although, however, I had thus obtained the extreme cases approxi-
mately, I had no means of determining the average discharge for the
12 months ; but for my present purpose, I have supposed it to be
350,000 cubic feet per second, containing 5,455 part by weight of
earthy matter; and as the clay of the delta is nearly twice the
specific gravity of water, there would be 60 cubic feet of silt
passing Than-ba-ya-doing every second, to form the delta; or say
2,000,000,000 cubic feet annually.

The apex of the delta, and the mouths of the Rangoon and Bas-
sein Rivers, are each about 140 miles apart, which would give an
area of 8500 square miles ; but as the delta is intersected by creeks,
the dry land may be 7500 square miles. For the sake of calculation,
I have supposed the silt to be evenly deposited to a distance of 25
miles out at sea off the mouths of the river, and that each annual
stratum is five times the thickness of the deposits on the dry land of
the delta. By the above approximate data, which I trust will be
found hereafter to differ not very widely from the truth, the follow-
ing is obtained :—

(140 x 254 7*°°) x (5280) ?=139,392,000,000 square feet ;

or say an area of 140,000,000,000 square feet to be covered by
2,000,000,000 cubic feet of silt: thus, each cubic foot would have to
cover 70 square feet at sea, and 350 square fect on the delta, or the
sea would become 3th of an inch shallower every year, and the land
would be raised ,);th of anineh, The delta, however, must be 6 feet
higher at the Rangoon mouth of the river than at the Bassein mouth,
as the tide rises 21 feet at the former point and only 9 feet at the lat-
ter. Again, as correctly as I could learn, the tidal wave is not sensibly
felt higher up than 35 miles below Than-ba-ya-doing in the dry
season ; and, in the rains, it only reaches a point 95 miles lower down,
as measured along the course of the stream. I could thus approxi-
mately find the level of Than-ba-ya-doing to be 40 feet above high
tide, and the slope of the river 34 inches.

473

Supposing, therefore, my calculations to be correct, and not
taking into account the effects of vegetation, it must have taken
14,400 years to raise the head of the delta above high tide to its
present level. If to this be added the probable time it took to
raise the beds of the ocean above high water, even with such a
powerful agent at work as the Irrawaddy, ages on ages must have
elapsed since this silting up process began. From the great depths
of the river, and its liability to change its course, relics of man, and
bones of existing animals, may hereafter be found even more than
100 feet below the sea, at different points throughout the delta.
Caution should therefore be observed in ascribing antiquity to such
relics, nor should they be considered a proof of the subsidence of the
land.

Before commencing this survey, Lieutenant Walker of the Bengal
Engineers pointed out to me the inaccuracy of M. Du Buat’s rule
for calculating the discharge of rivers. I also, while engaged on the
survey, discovered that the fundamental rule for finding the mean
and bottom velocities, by the known surface velocity, was also inaccu-
rate. The rule is, where the surface velocity v is expressed in inches,
the bottom velocity equals (,/v — 1)

But even when the river was at its lowest, the bed, which consisted
of sand, could only have withstood half the velocity calculated by
this rule ; and when the river was in flood, even large boulders would
have been swept along by the current. To this fact I beg to draw
particular attention, for at no point did I find the bed to consist of
such materials as could withstand the calculated velocity ; but the
nature of the bed always varied according to the depth and surface
velocity. I therefore estimated the bottom velocity by the nature
of the bed, instead of abiding by the above rule, and found the
mean velocity, by halving the sum of the estimated bottom and known
surface velocities. Mr Ellet, however, found on the Mississippi,
that where the river was deep, the velocity was always greater at
some depth below the surface than at the surface itself.

Another source of error,—the one of all others most difficult for
the engineer to contend against,—is the power rivers have of abrad-
ing their beds to considerable depths, and again silting them up to
their former level while the flood is subsiding.

I have had many opportunities of observing this process of scoop-
ing out the bed and again silting it up, and I have known it to

474

extend to a depth of ten and a-half feet in rear of one of the works
on the Ganges Canal that was under my orders.

In the accompanying table I have compared the Irrawaddy with
a few of the largest rivers. (P. 476.)

The discharge of the Ganges appears to me much too small; for
I have seen both the Nile and the Ganges in flood, and should say
that the Ganges at Gazepoor is nearly three times the size of the
Nile. The proportions of earthy matter vary to a great extent in
all the above-mentioned rivers. The Ganges appears to convey the
largest proportion of silt and the Rhine the least.

The power of a river in transporting earthy matter, however,
chiefly depends on the shape of the particles: sand, which is only
one-seventh the specific gravity of gold, will sink much faster in
water than gold leaf. By investigating this branch of the subject,
the power of water in motion to transport solid bodies may be dis-
covered, as the rate of sinking of any solid body must bear some pro-
portion to the velocity of the water required to transport that body.
It may here be also remarked, that where there is a strong current in
the ocean, rivers cannot push out deltas into the sea; and rivers
which fall into tideless seas have no trumpet-shaped mouths, nor are
they easily navigated, for even the Mississippi has only fourteen feet
water at its mouth, though it is 170 feet deep higher up the river,
and the bar consists of soft mud.

As anavigable stream the Irrawaddy is second to few rivers in
the world ; for not only are its mouths easily approached, but for
hundreds of miles up its course it has been found much more navi-
gable than the Ganges. The valley through which this noble river
flows equals, if it does not surpass Bengal in the richness of its soil ;
can it be doubted, therefore, but that ere long Anglo-Saxon enter-
prise, and civilization, will force its way into the interior of this rich
country ?

P.S.—On this paper being read, Professor Forbes drew the atten-
tion of the Society to that part which related to the abrading power
of water at different velocities; he stated that the experiments re-
ferred to were made fifty years ago by Professor Robison, his prede-
cessor ; and as the subject was of considerable interest, he hoped
some one would verify these experiments.

Through his kindness in giving me the use of some of his instru-

475

ments and class-room, along with the assistance of one of his
establishment, I am enabled to give the few following results of ex-
periments tried on brick-clay from Portobello, sea and fresh-water
sand, rounded pebbles about the size of peas, and common vegetable
soil. :

1. The brick clay, in its natural moist state, had a specific gravity
of 2:05; and water passing over it for half an hour at a rate of
128 feet in the minute, which was the greatest velocity I could con-
veniently obtain, made no visible impression on the clay. When
this clay was mixed with water, and allowed to settle for half an
hour, it required a velocity of fifteen feet in the minute to disturb it.
This mud sank in water at a rate of 0°566 feet in one minute, but
the very fine particles were very much longer in subsiding.

2. The fresh-water sand, which sank in water at an average rate
of 10 feet in the minute, required a velocity of 40 feet in the
minute over the bed to disturb it.

3. The sea-sand sank 11-707 feet in one minute, and was moved
over the bed by a velocity of 66°22 feet per minute.

4. The rounded pebbles, about the size of peas, which sank at the
rate of 60 feet in one minute, were rolled over each other by a ve-
locity of 120 feet in one minute.

5. The vegetable soil, being a mixture of different kinds of par-
ticles, it was difficult to determine the rate of sinking. The very
fine particles were swept away by a velocity of 2°45 feet in the
minute, and those that were disturbed by a velocity of 334 feet in
the minute, sank at a rate of 0°98 feet per minute only. All the
vegetable soil was swept away when the velocity of the water over
the bed was increased to 50 feet in the minute, and the particles of
sand left, of which nearly one-half of this soil consisted, were set in
motion by this velocity. This sand, however, only sank at a rate of
5°62 feet in one minute,

From the above it is evident that the velocity of water over the
beds of canals, and water-courses for irrigation, unless protected by
a pebbly bed, should never exceed half-a-mile an hour, otherwise
the fields irrigated will be covered with a stratum of sand.

These experiments were made with water seldom exceeding half
an inch in depth, and the float was within } or } of an inch of the
bottom. The time was measured by an instrument which indicated
tenths of seconds,

476

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477

3. Notice of a Collection of Maps. By A. K. Johnston, Esq.

In this paper the author reported the progress made by the commit-
tee appointed to select and purchase a series of chartagraphic works for
the library of the Royal Society, and the means adopted for their
arrangement and classification. The collection already comprises
534 separate sheets of the best existing maps, chiefly of the several
countries of Europe, but embracing the survey of India, in so far as
published. The maps are placed in cases resembling volumes, so
indexed as to admit of being indefinitely extended, and easily con-
sulted. Specimens of the different works were exhibited, and the
author presented a rapid sketch of the progress of surveying and
mapping, from the sixteenth century to the present time. He
showed that modern improvement in this important branch of science
dates from the middle of the 18th century, when, in 1750, Cassini
de Thury, under the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences,
constructed a map of France on astronomical principles. In 1784
the French triangulation was extended to London, and formed the
basis of the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain. . The surveys
of Belgium, the Netherlands, Prussia, and Sardinia, have also been
based on that of France. The different methods adopted to repre-
sent relief of the surface by contour lines and hill shading, were
then referred to, and examples of the effects produced by vertical and
oblique lights were exhibited. It was shown that the method which
supposes the light to fall vertically on the model, casting the
shadow in all directions, gives the most exact idea of the ine-
qualities of the ground, and that it is adopted in nearly all the
great survey maps now in progress, As an example of the time and
labour necessary to produce a good map, it was explained that in the
great survey of France, now nearly completed, a single sheet re-
quires, for reduction and drawing, at least two years, and for en-
graving, five to eight years. Thus, between the termination of the
field-work of the surveyor and the publication, seven to ten years
must necessarily elapse. Mr Keith Johnston concluded his remarks
by referring to the economical advantages of the electrotype process
in reproducing copies of original plates, thus reducing the price of
the publication ; and to an ingenious application of this process,
recently adopted at the Depét de la Guerre, Paris, by which
erasures made in the work, for correction, are filled up by a fresh
deposit of copper, leaving a surface ready for being re-engraved.

VOL, Ill. 2e

478

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

COLLECTION OF MAPS IN CASES.

EUROPE.

TITLE. AUTHOR. SHEETS.
Europe (Geological), Murchison, 4
British Isles (Geological), Knipe, : 4
England and Wales (Geological), | Government Survey,| 104*
Ireland, . Ordnance Office, . 6
England and Wales, wipe Grins Barece \ 65%

phical, ‘ : Ait |
Scandinavia, Forsell, 9
N. Deutschland, . Englehardt, 24
Deutschland, Belg,, Schweiz, Stieler, 25
Kénigreich Sachsen, : ; State Survey, 15*
Kurhessen (Geological), - Schwarzenberg, 1
Thiiringer Waldes (Geotogieal, Credner, 4
Salzburg, ; General Staab, 1
Wiirtemberg, . . Bach, 5
Belgique (La) (Geological), . : Dumont, 10
France (Topographical), . Etat-Major, 14*
France (Geological), E. de Beaumont, 6
Schweiz, he oe Dufour, Lye
Suisse (Geological), Studer, 4
Russie d’Europe, . Dep. de la Gueme, 29*
Oesterreichische Kaiserthum, Fallon, 9
Lombardo-Veneto (Regno), Austr. Survey, +
Stati di 8. M. Sarda, : Survey, . 6
Environs de Rome, Dep. de la Guerre, 1%
Alpes, Piemont, ae &e. = Raymond, . 13
Stato Pontificio e G. D, Toscana, | Austr. Survey, 52
Mont Blanc, : Raymond, . 1
Kaukasischen Isthmus, ; Koch, . 4
Tiirkischen Reiches in Eur., Kiepert, 4
Thrace, . Viquesnel, 1
Gréce, Dep. de la Guerre, 20
Islande, ; Olsen,-<) '. wr. 4
ASIA.

India, (Geological), Greenough, ight
fadia, By Loy | Gayernnent Survey, «lie
Klein Asien, Kiepert, 16

Those marked with an asterisk thus, * are incomplete, the works being only
in progress.

479

Collection of Maps and Charts——Continued.

Pilote Frangaise. Dépét Général de la Marine. 12 tomes.

Third part of the General Survey of England and Wales, containing
Cornwall. By Colonel Mudge. (Ordnance.)

The National Atlas of Historical, Commercial, and Political Geo-
graphy. By A. Keith Johnston, F.R.S.E., F.B.G.S., &c.

The Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena. By A. Keith Johnston,
F.R.S.E., F.R.G.8., &c.

A Geological Map of Scotland. (On roller.) By Dr M‘Culloch,
F.R.S.

Ordnance Survey of Ireland; scale, six inches to a mile. Twenty-
four volumes,

Geological Map of England and Wales. (On roller) By G. B.
Greenough,
Atlas, containing Maps of Poland, exhibiting the political changes
from 1772 to 1837. By J. M. Bansemer and P. F, Zaleski.
Charts, &c., published by the Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty,
London. These are arranged in trays, in the Museum.

The Counties of Perth and Clackmannan, (On roller.) By James
Stobie. 1805.

Various Sailing Charts, &c., of the United States.

The following Gentlemen were elected Ordinary Fellows: —

Anprew Murray, Esq. of Conland, W.S.
Rev. Dr Macrartanez, Duddingston.
Dr W. M. Bucnanan, E.I.C.8.

480

Monday, March 16, 1857.

Dr CHRISTISON, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :-—

1. Notice respecting Father Secchi’s Statical Barometer, and
on the Origin of the Cathetometer. By Professor Forbes.

A friend, who returned lately from Rome, has sent me some
copies of a pamphlet by Father Secchi of the Collegio Romano, one
of which I lay on the table of the Society.

It describes a barometer stated to be on a new construction.
The barometric tube is suspended from one arm of a balance, and
counterpoised. It is filled with mercury in the usual way; but the
cistern into which it opens is fixed apart, and does not move with
the beam of the balance. It is evident, therefore, that the varying
pressure of the air on the exterior of the tube will require a chang-
ing counterpoise, and that the magnitude of the change may be
increased by enlarging the section of the tube, so that the alteration
of pressure may be indicated with any required delicacy,

It is also obvious that, to use this barometer, the tube does not
require to be transparent, but may, for instance, be made of iron;
only the internal section must be uniform throughout the range of
pressure.

The idea of thus measuring barometric pressures appears so obvi-
ous that it is not likely to be really new. But I had also, when I
read the paper, a distinct recollection of having seen it described
many years ago.

After a slight search I found it, accordingly, under the name of
the Steelyard Barometer (the tube being suspended from the shorter
arm of a steelyard, while the other points to the angular deviation
on a scale), in Rees, and others of the older Encyclopedias (as in
the earlier editions of the Britannica), in Hutton’s Mathematical
Dictionary, and in Gehler’s Worterbuch. But, what is singular,
no inventor is assigned to the contrivance, except in the last-named
work, where it is described generally as Morland’s ; though Hutton,
who is there cited as the authority, says nothing of it.

481

In Desagulier’s Natural Philosophy (1763), an experiment with
a balance, similar to Father Secchi’s arrangement, is described and
figured, but it is not referred to as a construction available for prac-
tical purposes. This might lead one to believe that the contrivance
was more recent than Desagulier’s time. But, after considerable
search, I found, in the nineteenth volume of Rozier’s Observations de
Physique (1782), page 346, a curious historical statement by
Magellan, which refers the contrivance to Sir Samuel Morland, who,
it is there stated, presented it to Charles II, Magellan does not,
however, give his authority for this, stating, on the contrary, that he
found no mention of the contrivance in any of the authors who had
treated of the subject, but that he had seen two of these instruments.
One of them, made by Adams in 1760, belonged to George III.;
and I think it possible that it may still be found amongst the in-
struments of the Kew Observatory. The other was made by the
celebrated Sisson, and came into M. Magellan’s possession ; a care-
ful figure of it is given in the work just cited. It is perhaps likely
that the ascription of it to Morland, and the story of its presenta-
tion to Charles II., was a tradition among the London instrument-
makers. It may, however, be recorded in some of Sir Samuel Mor-
land’s writings, which I have not found either in the College or the
Advocates’ Library, and in which it does not appear that Magellan
had himself seen it.

I have as yet been unable to trace the steelyard modification of
the statical barometer to its origin. I think it likely to be an in-
dependent invention.

Of course these remarks are not intended to infer the smallest
doubt on Father Secchi being the inventor of the instrument which
he describes. Of that there can be no question ; and the application
of it, which Father Secchi proposes, to the purposes of self-registra-
tion, makes it a well-timed resuscitation of an almost forgotten con~
trivance, which yet appears to date from the same century with the
invention of the barometer.

2d March 1857.

Postscript—16th March 1857.—I have not succeeded in throwing
any further light on the true origin of the statical barometer. On
writing to Mr Welsh of the Kew Observatory, I find that King
George III.’s curious collection of apparatus has been long dispersed,

482

T ought perhaps to add, with reference to Father Secchi’s contriv-
ance, that he recommends in some cases the cistern of the barometer to
be made moveable, instead of the tube. The balance is then disturbed
by the efflux of mercury from the tube of the barometer when the
pressure diminishes, and by its influx when the pressure increases.
Though less elegant, as an application of a principle, it has the ad-
vantage of making the suspended mass lighter. It will be seen, by a
reference to Magellan’s account of Sisson’s instrument, that the
weight was such as to require support on friction-rollers, instead
of knife edges.*

Invention of the Cathetometer.—I take this opportunity of adding
a historical notice, which has occurred to me whilst making the pre-
ceding inquiry. In the twentieth volume of the Philosophical
Transactions for 1698, Mr Stephen Gray described a microscope
moving on a vertical pillar by means of a micrometer screw, to be
used for determining the exact variations of level of a liquid, such as
mercury in a barometer or thermometer, and not necessarily con-
nected with the apparatus. This instrument accurately corresponds
in most respects with that known to French physicists and instru-
ment-makers under the name of the Cathetométre, which I have
never heard ascribed to any inventor in particular, and which, till
very lately, has hardly been recognised in this country.

2. History of an Anencephalic Child. By Dr Simpson.

3. On certain Laws observed in the Mutual Action of Sul-
phuric Acid and Water. By Balfour Stewart, Esq. Com-
municated by Dr G. Wilson.

The object of this paper was to show that where sulphuric acid
combines with water, distinct reference is made to certain definite
compounds or hydrates of sulphuric acid.

* Since this paper was read, I have been enabled to carry back the history
of the Balance Barometer, or at least of the experiment described by Desagu-
liers, considerably farther. In Cotes’s Lectures on Hydrostatics, &c., published
by Smith in 1747 (but which were delivered more than forty years previously),
the experiment is fully detailed and explained. It is also ascribed to Wallis,
as well as an ingenious modification of it well adapted for the lecture table.

April 1857, J, D. FE

483

The combination of these two liquids is attended with contraction
of volume; that is, the volume occupied by the compound is less
than the sum of the volumes occupied by its ingredients when un-
combined. By means of a simple formula (assuming 1°8485 to
be the specific gravity of strong liquid sulphuric acid), we may find
what ought to be the specific gravities of the different strengths in
Dr Ure’s table, were no contraction to take place. By this table we
may find the actual specific gravities of such mixtures ; and dividing
the actual or observed specific gravity by the calculated specific gra-
vity, and deducting unity from the quotient, we have the propor-
tional condensation.

The proportional condensation is greatest for strength 73 of Dr
Ure’s table, which is the strength of a hydrate composed of one
atom of liquid acid and two atoms of water. :

But it is not necessary to suppose all the strengths of Dr Ure’s
table to be formed by mixing together strong liquid acid and water ;
for, taking a certain strength as our standard, we may suppose all mix-
tures stronger than it to be formed by mixing it with strong acid,
and all mixtures weaker than it to be formed by mixing it with
water in certain proportions.

On this hypothesis we shall have different calculated specific gra-
vities, and consequently, different proportional condensations from
those obtained when all strengths were viewed as composed of strong
acid and water.

It was shown that a great range of standard strengths gives a
maximum at 73, as before, while others indicate a maximum between
84 and 85, denoting a hydrate composed of one atom of liquid acid and
one of water. These results were made visible by a curve, of which
the abcissee represented strengths, and the ordinates proportional con-
densations, and it was shown that points of greatest elevation or de-
pression, or more generally peculiarities in the curve, denoted de-
finite compounds of acid and water. By means of such a curve the
following hydrates may be indicated, in addition to those already men-
tioned :—SO,HO+5HO, SO,HO+7HO, SO,HO+8HO, SO,
HO +11H0, SO,HO + 12HO, and SO,HO + 15HO.

Independent experiments were made in order to see how far Dr
Ure’s observations were reliable ; and a remarkable agreement was
found for the weaker strengths tried ; but in the higher strengths the
observations seemed to show a constant error in Dr Ure’s results,

484

which make the specific gravities too low. The following is a list of
the strengths tried, and of the corresponding specific gravities ob-
served :—

Strength. Observed Specific Gravity.
88°6 : : : 18041
48-0 : : : 13737
47°5 . : - 1°3688
47-0 : B : 15643
45°8 . . : 1°3537
28°0 ; . . 1/2033
27°0 . a : 11954
26°6 : : ° 1:1925
26°0 . : : 11874
25°0 : : . 1:1795
210 : 2 ‘ 11481
20°0 . . . 11405
19:0 . . : 1:1329

The constant error supposed to pervade Dr Ure’s determinations
of specific gravities for the higher strengths, was accounted for by
supposing that Dr Ure must have operated with two or more differ-
ent specimens of acid; the error arising in his determination by
chemical analysis of the strength of each, and different acids being
used for high and low strengths. As an instance of this, taking
strength 90 as our standard, the proportional condensations for
strengths 68, 67, 65, 65, are respectively "0426, 0429, -0410,
-0411; that for strength 66 being very much less than that for
strength 67, This is indicated by an abrupt fall in the curve at that
point, after which it goes on slowly rising, just as before its fall,

These experiments confirmed a maximum point corresponding to
the hydrate HO, SO, + 16 HO, and showed a minimum point corre-
sponding to the hydrate HO, SO, + 6 HO.

Allusion was made to Professor Langberg, who, in a report to
the British Association for 1847, has described a method of research
somewhat similar, but giving negative results. Professor Langberg
expresses the specific gravity of an acid, in terms of its strength, by
means of an empirical formula, the constants of which he derives
from Dr Ure’s experiments, and, by means of this formula, he is
enabled to exhibit the proportional condensation of any strength (for
a given standard) as a function of that strength, so that, equating
the first differential coefficient of this function to zero, the resulting
equation gives the position of maximum condensation. The points

485

so determined do not correspond to definite compounds, probably
because an empirical formula is used instead of the immediate re-
sults of experiment. In conclusion, the author's results were briefly
stated thus :—

1. The points of elevation, depression, or peculiarity in the curve
of condensation, denote definite compounds, whatever be the stand-
ard strength used.

2. The use of varying the standard is simply to render such
points more prominent, or, in other words, to convert a point of
peculiarity into one of elevation or depression, as the case may be.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

First Report of the Committee on Beneficent Institutions (Medical
Charities of the Metropolis). 8vo.—From the Statistical Society
of London.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol, XX., part 1.
8vo.—F rom the Society.

The Canadian Journal, January 1857.—From the Canadian Insti-
tute.

Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Classe, Band XX. heft 2
und 8; Band XXI. heft 1 und 2. Philosophisch-Historische
Classe, Band XX. heft 2 und 3; Band XXI. heft 1 und2. Re-
gister zu den zweiten 10 Banden. 8vo.—From the Imperial
Academy of Vienna.

Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien.
Philosophisch-Historische Classe, Siebenter Band. 4to,—From
the Imperial Academy of Vienna.

Tageblatt der 32 versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Arzte
in Wien im Jahre 1856. Nos. 1-8. 4to. From the Imperial
Academy of Vienna.

Publications of the Kéniglisch Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, Leipzig, viz. :—

Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Gefisskryptogamen, von Wilhelm
Hofmeister. 8vo.

Die Urkundlichen quellen zur Geschichte der Universitat Leip-
zig in den ersten 150 jahren ihres bestehens, von Friedrich
Zarncke. 8vo.,

VOL. Il. 2B

486

Elektrische Untersuchungen von W. G. Hankel. Erste Ab-
handlung, Uber die Messung der Atmosphirischen Elektricitit
nach absolutem maasse. 8vo,

—From the Society.

A General Index to the Philosophical Transactions, from the first
to the end of the seventeenth volume. By Paul Henry Maty,
M.A., F.R.S. 4to. London, 1787.—From the University
Library, Edinburgh.

Supplement to the Quarterly Returns of the Births, Deaths, and
Marriages registered in the Divisions and Counties of Scotland.
Year 1856.—F rom the Registrar-General.

Monday, 6th April 1857.
Dr CHRISTISON, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1. On the Structure of Pedicellina. By Prof Allman.

The author maintained that the genus Pedicellina, notwithstand-
ing the circular arrangement of its tentacula, does not properly belong
to the infundibulate Polyzoa at all, but is in reality hippocrepian,
of which type, however, it presents a remarkable modification. The
intestine at first sight appears to terminate within the margin of a
orbicular lophophore, and, consequently, within the circle of ten-
tacula, and thus to present a striking exception to the admitted
plan of the Polyzoa. It was shown, however, that the anomaly
which thus seems to exist was only apparent, for the lophophore,
when carefully examined, is found to be constructed on the hippo-
erepian type, with the tentacula confined to the outer or convex
margin, and the arms of the crescent united at their extremities
so as to enclose a space, around which the tentacula will then be
arranged in an uninterrupted circle, and within which the intestine
opens, its termination being thus quite normal, and properly external
to the lophophore.

As in the ordinary hippocrepian Polyzoa, so also here the mouth
is furnished with an epistome, which, however, is less complete than
in the others, and not provided with special muscles ; and it is more-

487

over highly probable that the calyx, which constitutes a universal
feature in the ordinary hippocrepian genera, enters here into the
composition of the peculiar cup which surrounds the base of the
tentacula, and which the author believes has its homology in a per-
manently inverted portion of the endocyst, united externally to the
uninverted endocyst, and internally to the calyx and tentacula.

2. On a Case of Lateral Refraction in the Island of Teneriffe.
By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth.

In his astronomical visit to Teneriffe last summer, the author was
instructed to inquire into the lateral oscillation of stars, as seen by
Baron Von Humboldt in his ascent of the mountain. During a
month’s residence on the place of the alleged observation no ap-
proach to anything of the sort was ever noticed, although a powerful
equatorial, with a twelve-foot telescope and high magnifying powers,
was employed to detect any irregularity in the motions of the stars.
The author concluded, therefore, that the anomalous movements de-
scribed by Humboldt could not have been produced by any general
or cosmical action of the atmosphere, or of light or heat, which as-
tronomers were bound to consider.

3. On Insect Vision and Blind Insects. By Andrew '
Murray, Esq.

Mr Murray commences with a resumé of what is known regard-
ing the growth of eyes in insects, from the first stage in the larva,
when many are without eyes, till their exclusion from the chrysalis,
when they usually appear well provided with compound eyes. He re-
views the nervous system in different species, and gives some details
as to those species which live in dark places, and which have small
eyes and a less-developed optic nerve, contrary to what one would at
first suppose. ‘The next portion of his paper is devoted to explain-
ing his views of the structure of the eye in insects, and its re-
lation to the eye in vertebrate animals. Instead of seeking the
homologies of the parts of the eye in the vertebrata in each separate
eye tubule, or individual part of the compound eye in insects, as has
hitherto been done, he compares it with the entire compound
eye. Resting on the microscopic researches of Kélliker, H. Miiller

488

Brucke, Hannover, Helmholtz, Goodsir, and others, into the intimate
structure of the retina, he compares its structure with the structure
of the compound eye in insects, making the filamentary layer equi-
valent to what is called by Leydig the retina in insects, the rods and
cones in the bacillary layer to the conical bodies in the eye tubules
of insects, &c. And he explains the discrepancy between the rela-
tive position of this structure in insects and in the vertebrata, on
the principle suggested by Brucke and Hannover, and worked out by
Goodsir, that the light is reflected back from the choroid or back of
the eye in the vertebrate animal, so that the animal is, as it were,
looking backwards, and sees objects as reflected in a mirror; while
in insects, he assumes that objects impinge directly on their visual
sensorium.

The rest of the paper is occupied with an examination of those
insects which are destitute of eyes in their perfect state, with par-
ticulars relating to their habits and structure, and concludes with the
results of his examination of the interior structure of the integument
in the Anophthalmus Bilimekii, Schm., from which it appears that
the interior texture of the thorax is a series of transverse elongate
cells, similar to the cells in plants, and which is known to be the
usual, if not the universal, structure of the chitonous integument in
insects; the same cells are to be seen in the head ; but on the ocular
spaces where the eyes should have been, and which (in Anophthal-
mus) occupy a large portion of the head, these cells become enlarged,
and gradually less transverse, until, towards the middle of the ocular
space, some of them have assumed the hexagonal form usually seen
in the facets of the compound eye in insects; whence, Mr Murray
concluded, that this is possibly an atrophied or abortive eye, and
draws conclusions as te the manner of the development of the eye in
insects.

Mr Murray also considers the question, whether these insects are
sensible of light, and if so, whether it is through this atrophied eye
or not? He supposes they are, to a certain extent, sensible of light ;
but only in the same way as plants or zoophytes, and not through any
optical apparatus.

489

4. On the mode in which Light acts on the Ultimate Nervous
Structures of the Eye, and on the relations between Simple
and Compound Eyes. By Professor Goodsir.

Since the publication in 1826, of Joh. Miiller’s Vergleichende Phy-
siologie des Gesichtssinnes, Physiologists have admitted three fun-
damental forms of the organ of vision. 1st, The eye-spot, organized
for the mere perception of light. 2d, The compound eye, in which
the picture on the nervous surface is a mosaic. 3d, The simple eye,
in which the retinal picture is continuous. The difference between
the simple and compound eye, as explained by Miiller, and since
generally admitted, consists in this, that the formation of the pic-
ture in the simple eye is the result of the convergence of all the
pencils diverging from the visible points of the object on correspond-
ing points of the retina, by means of the crystalline lenticular struc-
ture of the organ; while, in the compound eye, the picture is
formed by the stopping off, by means of the constituent crystalline
columns of| the eye, all rays except those which pass in or near the
axes of the columns. The extent of surface of any object, and the
number of separate parts of such surface, represented on the ner-
vous structure of a compound eye, will vary, therefore, in terms of
the distance of the object, the curvature of the superficial ocular
surface, the corresponding inclination of the crystalline columns to
one another, the size of their individual transverse sections, and
their lengths, The continuous retinal picture in the simple eye is
psychically interpreted as a continuous image. If, therefore, the
possessor of a compound eye perceives a continuous image of an ob-
Ject, it must be the result of a more complex psychical operation, in
virtue of which, the separate portions of the ocular mosaic picture
are psychically combined, and interpreted as a continuous whole.

The successive researches of Treviranus, Gottsche, Hannover,
Pacini, H. Miiller, and Kélliker, have determined the existence and
general structure of close-set rods or columns, which extend be-
tween the inner and outer surfaces of the retina, in the midst of the
nervous and vascular textures of that membrane. The outer ex-
tremities of these rods present a crystalline columnar aspect, and
constitute, collectively, the external layer of the retina, usually

490

termed Jacob’s membrane. The ultimate filaments of the optic
nerve, after being connected in a plexiform arrangement in the gan-
glionic layer of the retina, terminate each independently, in the
more perfect portion of the retinal field, by passing into, or becoming
continuous with, the inner end or side of a rod. Kolliker considers
these nodes as nervous structures, that is, as terminal portions of
the nerve-filaments themselves, and holds that they constitute the
parts of the nervous structure of the eye on which objective light
primarily acts.

Having myself carefully examined the structures to which I have
now alluded, I have been able to verify the more important anato-
mical details, as described by their discoverers, and agree with Kél-
liker in considering the rods as the primary optic apparatus. I
cannot, however, coincide with this distinguished observer in holding
these rods as modified nerve filaments. I hold them to be special
structures appended to the extremities of the ultimate nerve fila-
ments, and referable to the same category as the Pacinian bodies,
touch-corpuscles, rods of Corti, &c.; and moreover, so far am I
from coinciding with Kolliker in his speculations as to the part of the
rod on which the objective light acts, that I have found myself com-
pelled, not only from the consideration of the structures themselves,
but also from the development of the eye itself, and the arrange-
ments of the compound eye, to conceive the rays of light as acting
upon the retina, not as they impinge upon it, or pass through it from
before, but as they pass backward again out of the eye after re-
flection from the choroid.

The general aspect of the rods, and more especially of those por-
tions termed Miillerian filaments, where they collectively amalgamate
in the limitary membrane of the retina, indicate, as I believe will be
generally admitted, that they consist of a modification of connective
tissue, enveloping and supporting the extremities of the ultimate
nerve filaments in such a manner as to form special structures, which,
from their functions, may be termed photcesthetic bodies,

That special structures are required for the initiation of action in
the filaments of the optic nerve by objective light, appears to be es-
tablished by the facts, that the nervous filaments of the retina, and
the cut extremities of these filaments on the stump of the optic
nerve, are not affected by it, although irritation of the same fila-
ments by electrical or other means produces subjective luminous phe-

491

nomena. Subjective sounds may be produced by various modes of
irritation; but actual sonant vibrations can only excite the acoustic
filaments through the medium of the rods of Corti, or the correspond-
ing terminal structures in the vestibule. Corresponding terminal
structures are in like manner appended to the tactile, olfactory, and
gustatory nerves, apparently for a similar purpose, to provide the
necessary conditions of the initial excitement of the nervous current
by those secondary properties of external bodies to which the organs
of touch, taste, and smell, are related.

When the attention of anatomists was directed, a few years ago,
to the structure and physiological signification of the columns of the
retina by the observations of H. Miiller and Kolliker, I became
satisfied that those structures are not, as the latter asserted, ner-
vous structures, properly so called, but special structures, of the
same nature as the Pacinian bodies and the tactile corpuscles. I
stated and explained my opinion of the nature of these bodies
in a lecture on the retina delivered and reported in 1854. But I
had generalized these relations of nervous filaments to special ter-
minal exciting structures, still further, in the zoological lectures
which I delivered in 1853, for my late distinguished colleague and
preceptor Professor Jameson. I also expounded it at considerable
length in my course of lectures last winter (1855-6). I shall now
state the doctrine in general terms, not only because it is necessary
for the elucidation of the distinctive characters of the simple and
compound forms of eye; but also because I am anxious to put on
record, by submitting it to this Society, a generalization which ap-
pears to me of primary importance in the general physiology of the
nervous system. I assume, as established, the doctrine of Du Bois
Raymond, that a nerve filament is capable of propagating the ner-
vous current equally well in both directions ; and that the physical
and physiological characters of this current differ in no respect, are
in fact identical in the so-called motor and in the so-called sensory
filaments, whether special or common, I also assume as established,
that the specific manner in which a centripetal nerve current is con-
verted at the central extremity of the filament, that is to say, is
physiologically reflected into motor filaments, or, psychically inter-
preted as sensation, depends upon the physiological or psychical en-
dowments of the different portions of the nervous centre with which
the filaments are connected. These two positions being assumed,

492

then, I hold that, although the ultimate nervous filament may have
its functional current (that is the common nervous current), excited
or initiated by electrical or other physical or chemical agencies, yet
this current can only be initiated or excited, for the special functional
purposes for which each nervous filament is provided in the economy,
by the structure or tissue with which such filament is connected
peripherally, If so, then, not only are the individual filaments of
the nerves of special sense provided with current-exciting structures
at their peripheral extremities, by means of which alone the objects
to which they are related can initiate the nerve current ; but also cen-
tripetal nerve filaments of whatever kind, are provided, in their con-
nection with the} textures from which they proceed, with arrange-
ments, by means of which alone their functional currents can be
initiated.

From this point of view, every particular structure in the or-
ganism from which nervous filaments proceed to the nervous centre,
may be considered with reference to the nervous system, as a peri-
pheral nervous organ,—that is, an organ capable of exciting or ini-
tiating centripetal nerve current ; which is physiologically converted,
or psychically interpreted at the corresponding central organ, accord-
ing to the special endowments of that central organ.

After this preliminary statement, I am in a position from which
I can explain the mode in which I understand the structure and
actions of the rods of the retina in the simple, and the columns in
the compound eye.

1. In the simple eye.—A ray of light can only impress an ulti-
mate retinal nervous filament under certain conditions. These con-
ditions are, that it should impinge upon the distal extremity of the
filament in, or parallel to, the axis of that filament, or within a
certain angle to that axis.

All rays impinging on the distal extremity of an ultimate retinal
nervous filament under the conditions stated I term photogenic rays.
Rays impinging upon, or passing through, the filament in any other
direction, may be termed aphotogenic. The distal portion of the
ultimate retinal nervous filament, I distinguish as the photesthetic
surface.

In order that the ultimate retinal nervous filament may be sub-
jected to the rays of light under the required conditions of vision, its
distal extremity or photesthetic surface is inclosed in a peculiar

493

structure, consisting of a so-called rod or cone (which I distinguish
as the crystalline column), and its appended Miillerian filament, with
its nuclear enlargements. This structure constitutes a specific kind
of peripheral nervous organ, which, from its function, 1 term a
photesthetic body.

A photzsthetic body consists of a distal segment, or dioptric por-
tion, elongated, cylindrical, or club-shaped, homogeneous, transparent,
and highly refractive, usually termed the rod or cone ; and a proxi-
mal segment or peduncle, with its nuclear enlargements, into which
the ultimate nervous filament passes, and within which it apparently
terminates, probably at its outer end.

The entire aspect and arrangement of these photesthetic bodies,
their predominance over the other parts of the retina at the axial
spot of the eye, and the direct continuity of their stems with the
nerve filaments at that spot, appear to me to indicate not only the
nature of their functions, but also the general features of the mode
in which it is effected. It appears to me that the rays which act
upon the nervous filaments, must be such rays as the arrangement
permits to pass from behind, forwards in the axis of the photzesthe-
tic bodies. It has now been ascertained, that the quantity of light
reflected, and consequently irregularly dispersed within the eye-
ball from the choroid, and bacillary layer, &c. is very considerable ;
and it consequently becomes a very important question, to determine
in what manner this reflected and irregularly dispersed light is pre-
vented from affecting the retina. The view which I have already
given of the structure and probable mode of action of the photes-
thetic bodies, affords the basis of a hypothesis which meets all the
conditions of the question, and is in full accordance with the com-
parative anatomy and development of the organ of vision. I can-
not interpret the functions of the structure of the retina as now de-
termined, except by assuming that the photeesthetic columns are im-
pressed not by the light as it enters the eye, or as it is more or less
irregularly reflected and dispersed in its interior, but only by those
rays which, in their passage backwards to the pupil pass along, or
nearly in the axes of the crystalline rods or columns of the photes-
thetic bodies, so as to reach the photesthetic spots under the re-
quired conditions. No confusion, therefore, can result from the mul-
titude of convergent and divergent rays which pass through the
chamber of the eye, and through the retina. By this means, the

VOL, III. 2s

494

numerous rays not necessary for vision, are as it were eliminated
from the operation, the eye being blind to them, and affected only
by such as are reflected backwards to the pupil along the axes of the
crystalline columns.

2. The Crystalline Columns of the Compound Eye.—As stated
in my lecture on the retina formerly alluded to, I conceive the erys-
talline columns in the eye of the insect or crab, to act in the same
manner as the retinal rods in the spheroidal or simple eye. That
they do so, may be held as established by the researches of J. Miiller
on the laws of vision in the compound eye. Miiller even refers to
the columnar structure of the retina, as presenting a certain simi-
larity to the structure or arrangement of the compound eye. F.
Leydig, in an elaborate memoir published in Miiller’s Archiv in
1855, on the structure generally of the Arthropoda, examines mi-
nutely the structure of the simple and compound eyes, and ar-
rives at the conclusion that the crystalline columns of their com-
pound eyes, as well as the corresponding structures in their so-
called simple eyes or ocelli, are of the same nature as the so-
called rods and cones, that is, the photesthetic bodies which I
have already described in the retina of the proper simple or ver-
tebrate eye. But Leydig entirely loses sight of a fact, which if
unexplained, vitiates his conclusion as to the physiological iden-
tity of the bodies in question. In the annulose or molluscous eye,
whether in its so-called simple or compound form, the crystalline
columns are directed like the tubes of so many telescopes towards
‘the object, the corresponding nervous filaments passing to them from
behind; whereas the crystalline rods of the vertebrate retina are
directed away from the object, that is, towards the back of the eye
—are in contact in fact with the choroid, while their nervous fila-
ments are connected to them in front, that is, between them and the
object.

On the other hand, if I am correct in holding that the vertebrate
eye is acted upon by those rays only which are reflected from its
choroidal surface, I have not only explained physiologically why its
retinal columns are reversed ; but I am legitimately entitled, as
Leydig is not, to consider them as the homologues of the crystalline
columns of the annulose and molluscous eye.

But the teleological explanation of the opposite arrangement of
the corresponding structures in the vertebrate and invertebrate eye,

495

is, in the present phase of the science, insufficient. The difference
must be explained morphologically. This explanation is afforded by
the different modes in which the vertebrate and invertebrate, that is,
the simple and compound eyes are developed.

In the compound eye the primordial ocular papilla or convexity,
which is only slightly protuberant, has its cutaneous or superficial
surface immediately converted into the erystalline columnar struc-
ture, the individual columns of which are connected with the fila-
ments of the subjacent optic nerve. The columns are all therefore
directed to the object.

The primordial cerebro-cutaneous spheroidal protuberance or pa-
pilla of the simple refracting or vertebrate eye, is speedily hollowed
out in front by the development in or upon it of the lens and vi-
treous humour, so that from a spheroidal conyex surface the pri-
mordial protuberance assumes the form of a cup, with its mouth di-
rected forwards, and its cavity occupied by the refracting media of
the organ. This cup-shaped mass is the retina ; the crystalline rods
are not developed on its concave surface, but on its outer or convex
surface, as they exist on the convexity of the compound eye, that is,
in the direction of the radii of the sphere, but directed backwards,
on account of the nearly spheroidal surface.

In conclusion, I may state, what appears to be the physiological
superiority of the simple over the compound eye. As the simple eye
is acted on by reflected light only, it cannot be disturbed by rays
not required for the definition of the image. It is also arranged so
as to admit of a much more delicate or minute mosaie representa-
tion of the object, from its microscopic and reversed photesthetic
bodies being in contact with the reflecting choroidal surface on which
that image is formed. It moreover combines the advantages of the
continuous image, formed by the lenticular structures and the mosaic
image, which results from its crystalline rods.

The following Gentleman was admitted an Ordinary Fel-
low :—
Tuomas LoGIn, Esq., Civil Engineer, India.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Monthly Return of the Births, Deaths, and Marriages, registered
in the eight principal towns of Scotland, with the causes of

496

Death at four periods of life, for February 1857; and Supple-
ment to Monthly Returns for year 1856. 8vo.—From the
Registrar- General.

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 7, 1856.—From
the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. XVII., No. 4.
8v0.—From the Society.

Memoirs, &c., of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom,

viz. :—

1. Figures and Descriptions Illustrative of British Organic
Remains, 4to. Decades 5 and 8.

2. The Iron Ores of Great Britain. Part I.—The Iron Ores
of the North and North-Midland Counties of Eng-
land. 8vo.

3. Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland, for 1853-55. By R. Hunt, F.R.S. 8vo.

4. Geology of the Country around Cheltenham. By Edward
Hull, A.B. 8vo.

5. On the Tertiary Fluvio-Marine Formation of the Isle of
Wight. By Edward Forbes, F.R.S. 8vo,

6. Prospectus of the Metropolitan School of Science applied to
Mining and the Arts. 6th Session, 1856-57.

7. Collection of Maps and Sections.

8. Annual Report of the Director-General of the Geological
Survey.— From Sir Roderick Murchison.

Almanaque Nautico para 1858, calculado de Orden de 8S. M. en
el observatorio de Marina de la Ciudad de San Fernando.
8vo.—From the Observatory.

The Assurance Magazine, and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries,
April 1857. 8vo.— From the Institute.

Memoir on the Roman Garrison at Mancunium; and its probable in-
fluence on the Population and Language of South Lancashire.
By James Black, M.D., F.G.S. 8vo.—F vom the Author.

Monatsbericht der Koniglichen Preuss. Akademie der Wissen-
schaften zu Berlin. Juli 1855—August 1856. 8vo.—From
the Academy.

Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu
Berlin. 1855, 4to. Erster Supplement,—Band. 1854. Folio.
—From the Academy.

497

A General Catalogue of the Principal Fixed Stars, from Observa-
tions made at the Hon. East India Company’s Observatory at
Madras in the years 1830-43. By T. Glanville Taylor, F.R.S.
4to.—From the Hon. E. I. Company.

Astronomical Observations made at the Hon. East India Company’s
Observatory at Madras, in the years 1843-47 ; together with
the Recomputation of the Sun and Moon, and Planetary Obser-
vations, since 1831. By T. Glanville Taylor, F.R.S. 4to.—
From the Hon. East India Company.

Astronomical Observations made at the Hon, East India Company’s
Observatory at Madras. By Capt. W. K. Worster and W. 8.
Jacob, 1848-52. 4to.—From the Hon. E. I. Company.

Revenue Meteorological Statements of the North-Western Provinces,
for the several Official years from 1844-45 to 1849-50, 4to.
—From the Hon. E. I. Company.

Meteorological Register kept at the Hon. East India Company’s
Observatory at Madras. By J. Goldingham, F.R.S., and T.
Glanville Taylor, F.R.S., for the years 1822-43. Folio.—
From the Hon. E, I. Company.

Monday, 20th April 1857.
Dr CHRISTISON, V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—

1. On the recently discovered Glacial Phenomena of Arthur’s
Seat and Salisbury Crags. By Robert Chambers, Esq.

It will be remembered that, when the cutting was made, early in
1846, athwart the shoulder of Arthur’s Seat above Samson’s Ribs,
for the formation of the Queen’s Drive, the rock was found hollowed
in a trough-form for a space of about eighty yards, and smoothed
and striated in the manner of a glacier-bed of the Alps. The striz
were in the direction of the hollow, pointing to east 20° south.
The whole was covered over with a brown tenacious clay, containing
fragments of rocks of the district, along with some supposed to have

498

come from a distance. The phenomena were carefully observed at
the time, and reported on to this Society by our associate Mr David
Milne (now Mr Milne-Home),

The formation of a road to Duddingston along the south side of
Arthur’s Seat has, during the first three months of this year,
revealed a set of phenomena precisely similar in character, at the
well-known pass of Windygowl, through which it was necessary to
make a deep cutting. This pass, it may be remarked, was simply
a low point or breach in the crest of an upturned bed of porphyritic
greenstone which comes prominently out to the south in the form
of what is called the Girnel Crag, and on the other side loses itself
in the mass of the hill, the dip being to the north-east. When the
surface matter was taken off at this place, a tenacious brown clay
was disclosed, very much like that which had formed the covering
of the smoothed rocks above Samson’s Ribs. When this was
removed, the upturned edges of the greenstone bed were laid bare ;
basseting of course towards the south-west ; and all were found to
be rounded, smoothed, and striated, the striz lying in nearly an
east and west direction. The rocky outline formed an irregular
hollow, of which about six feet was thus worn, being the portion
heretofore covered with clay, while about thirty feet more was com-
posed of the rough weather-worn cliffs of the Girnel Crag on the
one hand and the hill-side on the other, The only difference
between the hollow here laid bare and that formerly exposed at
Samson’s Ribs, was that the rocks were less worn down. There
was not here, as in the other case, a complete trough with smooth
sides or walls, and every longitudinal chink worn, as I remember to
have observed, down to the bottom, as if by some searching —I might
say insinuating—agent. We only saw a rude hollow, whose irre-
gularities had been partially ground down—the same work, as it
were, half done. There was not, however, a single prominent face
of rock within the hollow which did not show more or less of round-
ing, smoothing, and streaking. It is worthy of remark that these
appearances were not confined to the immediate gorge cut in the
Girnel Crag, which was not more “than ten yards in extent, but
were partially observed on prominent surfaces of the hill-side for
fully fitty yards to the westward.

Immediately to the east of the gorge, the cutting, though descend-
ing at a rapid angle towards the lake, did not reach the rock, It

499

presented, however, a deep section of superficial matters. First was
the compact blue or boulder clay containing small stones. Next
was a rough brown clay drift, containing large boulders, all rounded,
and many of them smoothed and scratched. Over this lay a bed of
tolerably pure sand, and over all was a thick deposit of debris from
the hill-side, including many large angular masses. The boulders
in the clay beds have been reported on as from the rocks of the dis-
trict. One which lay in the brown drift just beyond the gorge, to
the eastward, was a square mass of arenaceous limestone, probably
from a bed in the hill-side little more than a hundred yards to the
westward. It was three feet long by twenty inches broad, and was
split up by the workmen into six slabs, exposing a multitude of the
characteristic conchifers of the formation to which the bed belongs,
besides a few vegetable remains, apparently calamites. What was
very remarkable, this block bore the glacial dressing with striz on
two sides crossing the planes of stratification, and further seemed
partially water-worn on one of its ends.

It is important to remark that the boulders were all of eastward
transport, and in perfect accordance with this fact was that of the
deep section of superficial matters being presented to the eastward
of the gorge. A precisely similar deposit being found to the east
of the Loch Crag, between Windygowl and Duddingston, we may
fairly conclude that the westward side of these prominent masses
was the stoss seite or ewposed side, and the eastward the lee side,
with regard to the movement of the agent by which the attrition
was produced.

The operations for the new road within the garden to the north
of Duddingston Church have since laid bare a sloping face of ex-
ceedingly hard greenstone, which had been only covered with a thin
bed of vegetable soil. I am assured that this face, though not
smoothed or marked with strise, was dressed and channeled in much
the same manner as the well-known surfaces on the west slope
of the Costorphine Hill, which were first described by Sir James
Hall.

It is worthy of notice that the smoothed hollow above Samson’s
Ribs was 385 feet above the level of the sea, The ice-worn pass
at Windygowl] is about 180 feet above the sea.

Glacially-marked surfaces have within the last few years been
laid bare at three other places in this group of hills.

500

The most remarkable was at the north foot of Arthur’s Seat,
close beneath the line of the North British Railway, and within the
precincts of the St Margaret’s Station. It was a swelling piece of
surface, fully thirty feet each way, and all beautifully polished and
scratched, the strie pointing to E.15° N. Many greenstone boulders
of large size, generally with flattened and polished soles, marked
with striz in the line of greatest length, were taken out of the clay-
drift which overlay this surface.

About two years ago, the officers of H. M. Office of Works were

good enough, at my request, to lay bare a few yards of the surface
of the trap-bed near the summit of Salisbury Crags. The exposed
space was found to be worn down into a smooth slope, with shallow
channelings and deeply cut striz in the line of the inclination, E.
15° N. Many of these strize could be traced for one or two yards ;
and throughout a space of fifty feet along the summit of the hill,
they were all of uniform character. The cliff has here been quarried
away, so as to form a deep sinus, and, as the lines go up to the pre-
sent verge, it is of course to be presumed that they had originally
gone much farther.

What is, however, most remarkable in this instance, is the clear
presence of a system of cross scratching, of posterior date, and quite
as evidently the result of natural causes. These scratches are gene-
rally less than one foot long, and only impressed on the swelling
interspaces between the channelings already described. They point
to E. 20° S., being a difference of 35° from the direction of the
earlier and more general striation. It is worthy of remark, that the
summit of Arthur's Seat lies pretty nearly in the centre of the sepa-
rating lines.

Professor Fleming having some years ago observed some glacial
markings on the verge of a projecting piece of rock, at a spot called
the Egg Pond, about 150 feet above St Anthony’s Chapel, I had
an exposure made there, by favour of the Government Officers, to the
extent of two or three yards. This surface is flattened, polished, and
marked with striz pointing to E. 15° N.

The Egg Pond, it may be further remarked, beside which this
smoothed surface is presented, is a now dry hollow, forming part of
a little narrow valley which here indents for 150 yards the haunch
of the hill, It is a circumstance not without its significance, that
this little valley or trough lies in precisely the same direction

ae

501

as the stria of the smoothed rock, There is a hollow precisely simi-
lar immediately under the summit of Arthur’s Seat, to the north,
with a ridge of equal length forming its boundary in that direction.
This valley and this ridge lie in the same line, namely, pointing
to E. 15° N.

Onthe north haunch of Arthur’s Seat there are many exposed
trap surfaces of a rounded form, but much weathered, and sometimes
greatly shattered. These may be considered as roches moutonnées in
a state of extreme decay.

I have only to remind the Society of what Mr Maclaren pointed
out many years ago, that fragments of the trap of Salisbury Crags
are scattered over the back of that hill, and in some instances have
been transported across the valley, and placed higher on Arthur’s
Seat than any part of the parent hill now is. One has settled a little
above the hollow just described as existing under the summit of
Arthur’s Seat. From the very hard greenstone, again, which con-
stitutes the south haunch of the, Lion, large blocks are carried east~
ward along the slope of the hil! to the extremity of the park in that
direction.

Tt will be observed, that amongst the whole phenomena, old and
new, there are some remarkable harmonies. All the drifted matters
have been carried eastward. The prominences are all abrupt towards
the west, while to the eastward they are tailed away, affording on
that side shelter to accumulations of loose matter. The striz in four
exposed surfaces of the two hills, and two remarkable troughs or
hollows on Arthur’s Seat, are coincident in direction, namely, between
W. 15°S. and E. 15° N., being precisely the direction in which the
striz in numberless other places throughout this district, and all the
longitudinally-shaped hills and hollows also, are disposed. Over-
looking the somewhat discrepant direction of the hollow over Samson’s
Ribs,—for which some accidental cause may be speculated on,—this
uniformity in the phenomena may be said to speak strongly for the
deep ice-current, which I have long upheld as necessarily to be
assumed, to account for a large class of appearances in Scotland, as
I believe also in Scandinavia and in North America.

I have already pointed out, however, that ice has operated in more
ways than one in our country.* The traces of a later glacial system

* Reference is made toa paper which I had the honour to read to the Society
in December 1852, and which is published in Jameson’s Journal for April 1853.
VOL, lI. of

502

—a system of local subaerial glaciers—are abundant throughout all
the alpine grounds of Scotland, as well as those of Cumberland and
Wales. By these the boulder clay—the result of the original and
general ice-work—has been swept out of many valleys, and ordinary
moraine detritus left in its stead in more partial situations. One of
the most notable memorials of local glaciers in our island is the
curving ridge of detritus forming the dam which retains a mountain
lake. Examples are to be seen at Lochs Whorral and Brandy on
the eastern skirts of the Grampians, at Loch Skene in Dumfries-
shire, and Llyn Idwal in Wales. In many places, a north-looking
sinus in a mountain has such a curving ridge of detritus girdling it
in front, without any lake. Keeping in view these objects, of which
I have now seen a considerable number, I am inclined to think that
the valley between Arthur’s Seat and Salisbury Crags has been the
seat of a glacier, and that its moraine is still to be seen at the lower
end, near the bleaching-green, There is certainly at that spot a
broad agger of detrital matter, including many rough blocks, and
which has all the appearance of having once confined a lake, the breach
by which the water was discharged being still visible. That this
lake existed so lately as the reign of Mary is tolerably well evidenced
by a passage in Marjoribanks’ Annals, where it is stated that, at
the marriage of Lord Fleming to the daughter of Lord Ross, in May
1564, ‘“‘ the banquet was made in the park of Holyrood House,
under Arthur's Seat, at the end of the loch, the Queen’s grace
being present,”—this description being scarcely applicable to any
other place. It may be considered as favourable to this view of the
former condition of the Hunter’s Bog, that very few blocks lie there,
in comparison with the multitudes which are scattered over the moun-
tain sides, In other papers I have proved that the system of local
and subaerial glaciers was preceded as well as followed by a submer-
sion; from which it may be inferred that it was a period of eleva-
tion,—perhaps of such elevation as to bring the higher grounds of
our island within the snow-line,—being all that was required to pro-
duce the phenomena to be accounted for.

503

2. On a Dynamical Top, for exhibiting the Phenomena of
the Motion of a System of invariable form about a Fixed
Point; with some suggestions as to the Earth’s Motion.
By Professor Clerk Maxwell.

The top is an instrument similar to that exhibited by the author
at the meeting of the British Association in 1856, It differs from
it in being of smaller size and entirely of brass, except the ends of
the axle; and in having six horizontal adjusting screws and three
vertical ones, instead of four of each kind.

It consists of a hollow cone, with a heavy ring round the base, and
an axle, terminating in a steel point, screwing through the vertex.
In the ring are the nine adjusting screws, and on the axle is a heavy
bob, which may be fixed at any height.

By means of these adjustments the centre of gravity of the whole
is made to coincide with the steel point, and the axle of the top is
made one of the principal axes of the central ellipsoid.

The whole theory of the spinning of such a system about its cen-
tre of gravity depends on the form of Poinsot’s ellipsoid correspond-
ing to the particular arrangement of the screws. The top is intended
to exhibit those cases in which the three axes of this ellipsoid are
nearly equal. In these cases the instantaneous axis is never far
from the normal to the invariable plane, which we may call the in-
variable axis. This axis is fixed in space, but not in the body ; for
it describes, with respect to the body, a cone of the second order,
whose axis is either the greatest or the least of the principal axes of
inertia.

To observe the path of the invariable axis in the rapidly revolving
body, we must have the means of recognizing the part of the body
through which it passes at any time, For this purpose a dise of
card is placed near the upper end of the axle. The four quadrants
of this disc are painted red, yellow, green, and blue, and various other
marks are added ; so that by observing the colour of the spot which
appears the centre of motion, and the diameter of the coloured spot,
the position of the invariable axis in the body at any instant may be
known, and its path traced out.

This path is a conic section, whose centre is in the principal axis.
If that axis be the greatest or least, it is an ellipse with its major

504

axis parallel te the mean axis. If the axle of the top be the mean
axis, the path is an hyperbola as projected on the dise.

When the axle is the axis of greatest inertia, the direction of mo-
tion in the ellipse is the same as the direction of rotation. When
it is the axis of least inertia these directions are opposite. All these
results may be deduced from Poinsot’s theory, and verified by means
of the coloured dise.

The theory of precession may be illustrated by this top in the
way pointed out by Mr Elliot, by bringing the centre of gravity to
a point a little below or above the point of support.

The theory and experiments with the top suggest the question—
Does the earth revolve accurately about a principal axis? If not,
then a change of the position of the axis will take place, not in space,
but with respect to the earth, so that the apparent positions of stars
with respect to the pole will remain the same, but the latitude of
every place will undergo a periodic variation, whose period is about

325 days. To detect this variation, the observations of Polaris with

the Greenwich transit circle for four years have been examined.
There appeared some doubtful indications of a variation not exceed-
ing half a second. A more extensive investigation would be re-
quired to determine accurately the period, and the epoch of maxi-
mum latitude at a given observatory, which must depend on the
longitude of the station, as the pole of the “invariable” axis travels
round the mean axis from west to east.

3. On the true Signification of certain Reproductive Pheno-
mena in the Polyzoa. By Dr Allman.

When the reproductive phenomena of Alcyonella, as manifested
both in gemmation and true generation, are viewed in their proper
sequence, they will be found to present a series of acts which admit
of an obvious comparison with the class of phenomena commonly
known as the “alternation of generations.”

From the fecundated ovum an embryo is produced in the ordinary
way after the segmentation of the vitellus. In this embryo, which
presents at first the form of a locomotive ciliated sac, sexual organs
are never directly developed, but there are produced within it by a
process of gemmation the following series of zooids. 1. A poly-
pide, which, like the containing sac, is essentially nonsexual, and
which is eminently organized for the functions of digestion. 2. A

505

peculiar bud, at first undistinguishable from the polypide-bud, but
which never develops digestive organs, and is soon seen to be filled
with proper ova, each with its germinal vesicle and germinal spot.
This body, may, in accordance with common usage, be called the
ovary of the zooid from which it is developed, but since it is pro-
duced from this zooid in the manner of a bud, exactly as the poly-
pide is, it may itself be fairly viewed as a unisexual zooid, in which
the whole organization becomes subservient to the reproductive func-
tion, while all the other functions and their special organs become
masked and suppressed by the dominant development of the or-
ganization destined for generation. 3, Another unisexual bud de-
veloped upon the polypide, endowed with a male function and com-
monly called the testis, but truly a distinct zooid, with its whole or-
ganization rendered subservient, as in the ovary bud, to generation.
4. A nonsexual bud of peculiar form (the statoblast) also developed
from the polypide.

The esential features in the reproductive phenomena just enu-
merated, present themselves in an indefinitely repeated series, where
the first and last terms of each cycle consist in a fecundated ovum,
and the intermediate terms in a succession of gemme.

4. On the Destructive Distillation of Animal Matters. Part IV.
By Dr Anderson, Glasgow.

5. Analysis of Specimens of Ancient British, of Red Indian,
and of Roman Pottery. By Murray Thomson.

Ancient British Pottery.

The specimen of this pottery was found last spring (1856) on the
property of William Stirling, Esq. of Keir, along with the remains
of a human skeleton, and so broken into fragments as to be of no
archeological value

The clay, or rather loam, from which this pottery had been made
had evidently undergone little or no previous preparation ; the frag-
ments were brittle, and had not been highly fired ;—in this respect
being inferior to the pottery of the Ojibbeway Indians about to be
described. The fractured edges of the pieces presented two layers,
the outside one of a dun hue, the inner black ; but neither of the
surfaces was glazed. Its brittleness rendered this pottery easily
reduced to powder, which had a uniform olive-brown colour.

506

No.1. No.2. Mean.

Silica, : : 4 52°49 51:24 51°86
Alumina, 3 ; 13°29 12:46 12°87
Peroxide of iron, containing phosphates
corresponding to 1:01 Phosph. Acid, } 18:19 18:94 18:56
and also a trace of Manganese, i
Lime, “ 3 : : 485 513 499
Magnesia, : : 5 060 164 1°12
Soda, ; : : : 306 2:97 3-01
Potass, % 4 : 3 055 O78 0-66
Organic matter, : 2 : 214 2°33 2:23
Water, s , ‘ . 4:70... 476 4:93.

—_-C CO SO

99°87 100°25 100°23

Ojibbeway Pottery. .

The specimen of this ware which I examined, in general appear-
ance very much resembled the Ancient British Pottery, being like it
made of unprepared clay, marked on one of its surfaces by lines
forming part of some simple design. In colour, the surfaces of this
ware were whity-brown. The section of the fragments presented a
black appearance, almost as if the clay previous to firing had
been mixed with some carbonaceous substance. It was, however,
better fired than the British ware, and rung to some extent when
two pieces were struck together.

No. 1. No. 2. Mean.

Silica, : ; 42°70 43°60 43°15
Alumina, . , 22°71 22°12 22°41
Peroxide of iron, . 10°58 10°03 10°30
Lime, : : 1°33 1°46 1°39
Magnesia, 2°60 2°88 2°74
Organic matter, : 10°28 10°10 10°01
Water, ‘ , 9-79 9°99 9°89
100-19 100718 100°185

Lustrous Red Roman or Samian Ware.

This pottery has already been analysed more than once, and my
analysis was only confirmatory of those already published. It would
appear that in many of those pottery clays peroxide of iron can to
a very great extent replace alumina, for, in the specimen I ana-

507

lysed, the oxide of iron is in greater quantity than the alumina; while
in all the analyses of this pottery I have seen, the alumina is the
greater.

_ The specimen of this ware which I analysed was procured from
the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries, Edinburgh.

After the analysis of the mass of this pottery was finished, I
scraped several of the pieces at my disposal, so as to ascertain the
composition of the glaze of this beautiful ware. I could only procure
enough for a qualitative analysis; but this was sufficient to show a
circumstance already noticed about this pottery, namely, that its
glaze contains no tin, lead, or antimony, or any of the heavy
metals.

Silica, : } 54°78
Peroxide of iron, soni lta } f 21-43
corresponding to 0°42 ani: Acid,

Alumina, . - F 8°74
Lime, S f ; : : 12°67
Magnesia, : é : : 1:33
Water, : . ‘ : Z 1:26

100°21

6. Theory of Linear Vibrations. Part VI. Alligated
Vibrations. By Edward Sang.

This part of the paper contains an inquiry into the action of a
vibrating body upon a linear elastic series, as representative of the
action of a sound-emitting substance upon the air.

It results that when one end of a linear elastic series is attached
to an oscillating substance, all the internal oscillations of which the
system is capable when one end of it is fixed, are called into exist-
ence; the number of these being equal to the number of the ele-
ments in the system, and their periodic times being mutually incom-
mensurable; and that to these is added another, isochronous and
synchronous with that of the oscillating substance.

The investigation shows that the whole of these oscillations are
instantaneously communicated to the system, and that the state of
repose in which it was at first is merely that phase of the general
motion in which all the parts but one have their velocities simul-
taneously zero.

508

On account of the incommensurability of the times, no periodic
return of this or of any other phase can take place, and thus the for-
mation of waves or pulsations in a perfectly elastic uniform linear
series is impossible ; so that this line of inquiry also fails to give any
indications of the velocity with which a vibratory impulse is con-
veyed from one end of such a series to the other end.

When the periodic time of the oscillating body is exactly equal to
that of any of the internal oscillations of the system, the extent aug-
ments indefinitely with the time during which the action is con-
tinued ; a result which would imply that the loudness of a sound
should increase with its duration.

The attempt to pass from a discrete to a concrete system by the
method of infinitesimals fails, because by augmenting the number of
the parts, we also augment the number of the equations of condi-
tion, not one of which can be omitted without vitiating the result.

The general conclusions are these :—That the observed pheno-
mena of sound are inconsistent with the supposition of a perfectly
elastic vibratory medium, and that either the viscidity, or some as
yet unknown quality of the air, has to do essentially with the pro-
duction of those phenomena, so that any analysis in the present state
of our preparatory knowledge must be futile. And that the un-
dulatory theory of light is altogether conjectural, since far from
knowing how one supposed wave would influence another, we do not
yet know anything of the manner in which such waves can be formed
at all.

The following Donations to the Library were announced :—

Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature. Second Series,
Vol. V. Part 3.—From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XVII. No. 5.
8vo.—From the Society.

Monatsbericht der Kéniglichen Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaf-
ten zu Berlin, 8vo. November—December, 1856.—From
the Academy.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. 8vo. February
1857.—From the Society.

Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnzan Society. 8vo, Vol. I.
No. 4.

509

Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts, 8vo. March
1857.—From the Editors.

Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club. 8vo. Vol. ILI.
No. 7.—From the Club.

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 4to. Vol’
IX. Part 4.—From the Society,

Essays and Heads of Lectures on Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology,
and Surgery. By the late Alexander Monro, Secundus, M.D.,
F.R.S.E. With a Memoir of his Life, and Copious Notes,
explanatory of Modern Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, and
Practice. By his Son and Successor. 8vo.—From Dr Monro.

Army Meteorological Register from 1853 to 1854 inclusive, from
Observations made by Officers of the Medical Department of
the Army, at Military Posts of the United States. Prepared
under direction of Brevet-Brigadier General Thomas Lawson,
4to.—From Professor Henry D. Rogers.

Statistical Report of the Sickness and Mortality in the Army of
the United States, from 1839 to 1855. By Richard H. Coo-
lidge, M.D. 4to.—From Professor Henry D. Rogers.

Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practi-
cable and economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi
River to the Pacific Ocean, made in 1853-4. 4to. Vol, I.
—From Professor Henry D. Rogers.

Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China
Seas and Japan, in the years 1852-54, under command of
Commodore M. C. Perry, U.S. Navy. By Francis L. Haw-
kins, D.D., LL.D. 4to. Vol. I. Also Vol. III. of the same
work, being Observations on the Zodiacal Light from April 2,
1853, to April 22, 1855. By Rev. George Jones, A.M.
4to,—From Professor Henry D. Rogers.

VoL. i 2u

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INDEX.

Africa, races of the Western Coast of,
429.

Alison (Dr). Observations on the spe-
culations of the late Dr Brown, and
of other recent Metaphysicians, re-
garding the exercise of the Senses,
170.

Defence of the doctrine of Vi-
tal Affinity against the objections
stated to it by Humboldt and Dr
Daubney, 105.

Alkaloids, vegetable, on the action of
compounds of Ethyl and Amyl on,
244.

Alligated vibrations, 507.

Allman (Prof.) on the structure of
Pedicellina, 486.

on the true signification of
certain reproductive phenomena in
the Polyzoa, 504.

Alloxan, on a spontaneous metamor-
phosis of, 196.

Amides of the fatty acids, 305.

Amy], on, 251.

Ancient British Pottery, analysis of,
505.

Ancient Chinese literature and philo-
sophy, 433.

Anderson (Thomas), M.D. Descrip-
tion and analysis of Gurolite, a new
mineral species, 1.

on the products of the de-

structive distillation of animal sub-

stances, 64, 238, 505.

Researches on some of the

crystalline constituents of Opium,

132, 215, 244.

on the colouring matter of

Rottlera tinctoria, 296.

Preliminary notice on the de-
compositions of the Platinum salts
of the organic alkalies, 309.

Anencephalic Child, history of an,
482.

Animal matters, destructive distilla-
tion of, 64, 238, 505.

Animated creatures, their power over
matter, 110.

Annelid tracks in millstone grits in
Clare, 294.

Antique marble bust, 115.

Aqueous vapour, weight of, condensed
on a cold surface, 43.

Archaic languages of India, Phonetic
and Structural character of, 24.

Argus, Scotch, 349.

Argyll (Duke of). Notice of a Ter-
tiary Fossiliferous deposit, underly-
ing basalt, on the Island of Mull, 21.

on a Diatomaceous deposit in

Mull, 58.

Notice regarding the occur-

rence of Pumice in the Island of

Tyree, 120.

on a Roche Moutonneé on the
summit of the range of hills sepa-
rating Loch Fine and Loch Awe,
459.

Arthur’s Seat, deflection of plumb-line
at, 364.

Glacial phenomena of, 497.

Asianesian languages, Phonetic and
Structural character of, 25.

compared with the American
and Tartar-Japanese languages, 15.

Atmosphere, on the place of the Poles
of, 101.

Atmospheric Manoscopy, 368.

Austin (Fort-Major Thomas). Obser-
vations on the Crinoidea, showing
their connection with other branches
of the Echinodermata, 433.

Ayrton (William) on the ovum and
young fish of the Salmonide, 428.
Azote and Oxygen, relations between,

263.

Baden-Baden, analysis of mineral wa-
ters, 22.

Balfour (Prof.) on certain vegetable
organisms found in coal from For-
del, 218,

512

Banffshire, geological notes on, 332.
Barometer, on a necessary correction
in the height of, depending on the
force of the wind, 124.
Bebeerine, on the constitution of, 2.
Bennett (Prof.) on the function of
the Spleen and other Lymphatic
’ Glands as originators of the Corpus-
cular constituents of the blood, 107.
Observations on the structure
of the Torbanehill mineral, as com-
pared with various kinds of coal,
217.

Additional note to a paper on
the structure of eoal and the Tor-
banehill mineral, 241.

— on the functions of the Spinal
Cord, 470.

Bicarbonate of Ammonia, on the crys-
tallization of, in spherical masses,
57.

Binocular vision, cases of, 356.

Black (Dr) on the Crania of the
Kaffirs and Hottentots, and the phy-
sical and moral characteristics of
these races, 456.

Blackie (Prof. J. 3.) on the Romaic
Ballads, 227.

Blackwell (E.) Observations on the
movement of Glaciers of Chamouni
in winter, 283.

Blind Animals which inhabit the Mam-
moth Cave of Kentucky, 200.

Blind Insects, 487.

Blood, experiments on, 282.

Bloxam (Thomas), Analysis of Craig-
leith Sandstone, with a preliminary
note by Professor George Wilson,
390.

Boole (Prof.) on the application of
the Theory of Probabilities to the
question of the Combination of Tes-
timonies, 435,

Brewster (Sir David), K.H., D.C.L., on
the optical phenomena and crystal-
lization of Tourmaline, Titanium,
and Quartz, within Mica, Amethyst,
and Topaz, 158.

on the production of Crystal-

line Structure in Crystallized Pow-

ders by compression and traction,

178.

on circular Crystals, 183.

Brine springs of Kissingen, 66.

British Association Catalogue of Stars,
on a revision of, 279.

Brown, (J. F.) on some salts and pro-
ducts of decomposition of Pyrome-
conic Acid, 117.

on a general method of effect-

ing the substitution of Iodine for
Hydrogen in organie compounds,
and on the properties of Iodo-Pyro-
meconic Acid, 235.

Buchanan (George) on the recent fre-
quent occurrence of the Lunar Rain-
bow, 25.

Buddhist opinions and monuments of
Asia, 276,

Caffirs and Hottentots, physical and
moral characteristics of, 456.
Capric Acid, on a new source of, with
remarks on some of its salts, 45.
Carmufellic Acid, 65.
Catalogue of Stars of British Associa~
tion, revision of, 279.
Cathetometer, origin of, 480.
Centrifugal Theory of Elasticity, 86.
Chambers (Robert) on the Glacial Phe-
nomena of Scotland, and parts of
England, 148.
on the Glacial Phenomena in
Peebles and Selkirk Shires, 303.
on the occurrences of the
Plague in Scotland during the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries,
326.

Geological notes on Banffshire,
332.

on the recently discovered
Glacial Phenomena of Arthur’s Seat
and Salisbury Crags, 497.

Charr, observations on, 125.

Chemical equivalents of certain bo-
dies, 263.

Chemical notices, 193.

Chinese (Ancient), their literature and
philosophy, 433.

Chinoline and its Homologues, 370.

Chloride of Sodium, 71.

Christison (Professor). An account of
some Experiments on the Diet of
Prisoners, 130.

on the properties of the Ordeal

Bean of Old Calabar, Western

Africa, 280.

Remarks on delivering the
Keith Medal to Dr Anderson, 337.

Circular Crystals, 183.

Coal, what is, 216.

Coal, structure of, 241.

Coal plant termed Stigmaria, remarks
on, 316.

Cobalt, on the new compounds of, de-
scribed by Frémy and others, 193.

Cobra da Capello, on the poison of, 44.

Cocculus indicus, on the Fatty Acid of,
107.

Colour, as perceived by the eye, 299.

a

518

—

Colour-blindness, 226, 299,

Combinations, on a problem of, 326.

Comenic Acid, on certain salts of, 54.

Comenic and Meconic Acids, Ethers
and Amides of, 277.

Comet 3 of 1853, on the physical
appearance of, 207.

Compressibility of water, 58.

Connell (Prof.) on a new Hygrometer
or Dew-Point Instrument, 228.

Cotarnine, behaviour of, with Iodide
of Ethyl, 245.

Coventry (Andrew). Notice of an
Antique Marble Bust, 115.

Craigleith Sandstone, analysis of, 390.

Crania of the Caflirs and Hottentots,
456.

Crinoidea, observations on, 433.

Crowder (William) on the Fatty Acid
of the Cocculus indicus, 107.

Crystalline Structure, on the produc-
tion of, in crystallized powders, by
Compression and Traction, 178.

Dallas (E. W.) on the Structure of
Diatomacez, 256,

Dalmahoy (James) on the weight of
Aqueous Vapour, condensed on a
cold surface, under given conditions,
43.

Danson (Mr and Dr Muspratt) on Car-
mufellic Acid, 65.

Davidson (Captain) on Rifle Cannon,
142

Davy (Dr John). Some observations
on the Charr (Salmo umila), rela-
ting chiefly to its generation and
early stage of life, 125,

Some observations on Fish in

relation to Diet, 197.

on the impregnation of the

Ova of the Salmonide, 219.

Some observations on the Sal-

monide, 267.

An account of some experi-

ments on certain Sea-weeds of an

edible kind, 363.

Notice of the Vendace of the

Derwentwater, Cumberland, 428.

on the Urinary Secretion of
Fishes, with some remarks on this
secretion in other classes of animais,
452.

Delta of the Irrawaddy, 471.

Destructive distillation of Animal
Substances, on the products of, 64,
238, 505.

Diatomacex found in the Infusorial
earth of Mull, 58, 176, 204.

Diatomacee from Glen Shira, 241, 358.

Diatomacex from Firth of Clyde and
Loch Fine, 442,
Diatomacee, new British species, 306.
Diatomacew, structure of, 256.
Diatomacez, on the value of their ge-
neric and specific characters, 204.
Diurnal Variation of the Needle, 20.
Dynamical theory of Heat, 48.
Dynamical Top, for exhibiting the
phenomena of the motion of a sys-
tem of invariable form about a
fixed point, 503.

Earth’s mean density, 364.

Earth’s Crust, laws of structure of its
more disturbed zones, 387.

Karth’s motion, 503.

Eclipse of the Sun on 28th July 1851,
observed at Goteborg, 73.

Eclipse of the Sun on 28th July 1851,
as seen on the west coast of N orway,
78.

Eclipse, on the red prominences seen
during total Hclipses of the Sun,
79, 135, 136.

Eildon Hills, on the geology of, 53.

Elasticity, centrifugal theory of, 86,

Ethers and Amides of Meconic and
Comenic Acids, 277.

Ethnic Glossology, 25.

Ethnology and languages of India, 24.

Ethyl and Amy], on the action of com-
pounds of, on some Vegetable Alka-
loids, 244.

Ethylostrychnine, action of Iodine of
Ethyl on, 251.

Bye. Relations between simple and
compound Eyes, 487. ‘

Fatty Acids, Amides of, 305.

Fermat’s Theorem, 371.

Fleming (Prof.) on the Structural
characters of Rocks, 169, 197, 268.

What is Coal ? 216.

Remarks on the Coal-Plant
termed Stigmaria, 316.

Fluorine, on two new processes for the
detection of, when accompanied by
Silica, and on its presence in Gra-
nite, Trap, and other igneous rocks,
and in the ashes of recent and fos-
sil plants, 143.

Forbes (Prof. E. & J. Goodsir) on new
Marine Animals discovered during
a cruise among the Hebrides, 27.

Forbes (J. D.). Farther observations
on Glaciers,—(1.) on the movement
of the Mer de Glace down to 1850.
(2.) Observations by Balmat, in con-
tinuation of those detailed in the

514

Fourteenth Letter. (3.) On the gra-
dual passage of ice into the fluid
state, 14.
Forbes (J. D.) on the Geology of the
Eildon Hills, 53.
Farther remarks on the inter-
mitting Brine Springs of Kissingen,
66.

Farther experiments and re-
marks on the Measurement of
Heights by the Boiling Point of
Water, 261.

Observations on the movement
of Glaciers of Chamouni in winter,
285.

on the Geological relations of

the Secondary and Primary Rocks

of the chain of Mont Blanc, 348.

Notice respecting Father Sec-
chi’s Statical Barometer, and on the
origin of the Cathetometer, 480.

Fordel Coal, vegetable organisms
found in, 218.

Fish in relation to diet, 197.

Fishes, urinary secretion of, 452.

Franklin (Sir John) Memoir of, 347.

Garnet, on Crystals and Cavities in,
160.

Gas Thermometer, on the absolute
zero of, 160.

Geographical Astronomy, on the sim-
plification of the instruments em-
ployed in, 161.

Geological notes on Banffshire, 332,

Geometry, a science purely experimen-
tal, 341.

Glacial Phenomena of Scotland and
parts of England, 148.

in Peebles and Selkirk Shires,

303.

of Arthur’s Seat and Salis-
bury Crags, 497.

Glaciers, observations on, 14.

of Chamouni, on the movement
of, in winter, 283.

Glenshira, Diatomaceous Sand of, 358.

Goodsir (Professor John) on the struc-
ture and economy of Tethea, and
on an undescribed species from the
Spitzbergen Seas, 181.

Notice respecting recent dis-

coveries on the Adjustment of the

Eye to Distinct Vision, 343.

on the reproductive economy

of Moths and Bees; being an ac-

count of the results of Von Siebold’s

recent researches in Parthenogene-

sis, 454.

on the mode in which light

acts on the Ultimate Nervous Struc-
tures of the Eye, and on the rela-
tions between Simple and Compound
Eyes, 487.

Goodsir (Prof. J., and E. Forbes) on
new Marine Animals discovered
during a cruise among the Hebrides,
27

Gregory (Prof.) on a Diatomaceous
Deposit in Mull, 58.

Notice of a specimen of Chlo-

ride of Sodium from the great py-

ramid of Ghizeh, 71.

on the species of Fossil Diato-

macez found in the infusorial earth

of Mull, 176.

Chemical notices on the new

compounds of Cobalt described by

Frémy and others, 193 ; on the Acid

formed when Potash acts on Oil of

Bitter Almonds, 195; on a sponta-

neous Metamorphosis of Alloxan,

196.

Additional observations on the
Diatomaceous earth of Mull, with a
notice of several new species occur-
ring in it, and remarks on the value
of generic and specific characters in
the classification of the Diatomacee,
204.

ona black Tertiary Deposit,
containing the Exuvie of Diatoms
from Glen Shira, 241.

— — Notice of some new forms of
British Fresh-water Diatomacee,
306.

Observations on the Diatoma-

ceous Sand of Glen Shira, Part. II.,

containing an account of a number

of additional undescribed species,

358.

on new species of Marine Dia-
tomacee from the Forth of Clyde
and Loch Fine, 442.

Gurolite, description and analysis of,

Harkness (Prof.) on Annelid Tracks
in the Exploration of the Millstone
Grits in the south-west of the county
of Clare, 294.

Hayes (D. A. A.) Occurrence of na-
tive Iron in Liberia, in Africa, 327.

Heat, Dynamical theory of, 255.

Heat, mechanical action of, 5, 223,
287.

Heat, mechanical theory of, 162.

Height. Experiments and remarks on
the Measurement of Heights by the
Boiling Point of Water, 261.

515

Hottentots, physical and moral cha-
racteristics of, 456.

How (Henry) on certain Salts of Co-
menic Acid, 54,

on Meconic Acid, and some of

its derivatives, 99,

on the action of the Halogen

Compounds of Ethyl and Amyl on

some vegetable alkaloids, 244,

Some additional experiments
on the Ethers and Amides of Me-
conic and Comenic Acids, 277.

Horse, poisoning of, by lead, 119.

Hygrometer, new, 228,

Tee, on the gradual passage of, into
the fluid state, 14,

India, Ethnology and Languagesof, 24.

Insect-Vision, 487.

Instruments employed in Geographi-
cal Astronomy, simplification of,
161.

Interest strictly chargeable for short
periods of time, 274.

Interfering Light, on the absolute
intensity of, 98.

Involuntary Muscular Tissue, minute
structure of, 413.

Todine. On a general method of ef-
fecting the substitution of Iodine
for Hydrogen in organic compounds,
235,

Iodo-Pyromeconic Acid, properties of,
235.

Irrawaddy, Delta of, 471.

Tron and its Alloys, 43, 46.

Tron, native, in Liberia, 327,

Jacob (Captain W. S.), H.E.I.C.8. On
a revision of the Catalogue of Stars
of the British Association, 279.

James (Captain H.) Account of the
proceedings of the Conference, held
at Brussels in August and Septem-
ber 1853, for establishing a uniform
system of Meteorological Observa-
tions in the vessels of all nations,
and of the arrangements proposed
to be made for conducting the re-
sults of the observations taken on
land with those taken at sea, 218,

on the Deflection of the

Plumb-line at Arthur’s Seat, and

on the Mean Density of the Earth,

364.

on a necessary correction in
the Height of the Barometer de-
pending on the force of the wind,
124,

Johnston (A. K.) Historical notice of

the progress of the Ordnance Sur-
vey in Scotland, 31.

Johnston (A. K.) Notice of a collec-
tion of Maps, 477,

Keith Medal, delivery of, to Dr An-
derson, 337,

Kelland (Rev. Prof.) on the Interest
strictly chargeable for short periods
of time; 274.

on Superposition, 296.

> on a problem of Combina-
tions, 326,

Kemp (Alexander) on a modification
of the process for the determination
of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds,
126.

Kilmun, Moraines in, 279,

Lateral Refraction, case of, in Tene-
riffe, 487. ;

Lassell (Mr). Notice of some of his
recent Astronomical discoveries, 80.

Laumonite, 123,

Lead. On the organs in which lead
accumulates in the horse, in cases
of slow poisoning by that metal,
119.

Lee (Rev. Dr Robert). Some remarks
on the Literature and Philosophy of
the Ancient Chinese, 434.

Liberia, occurrence of native iron in,
327.

Light. On the Variations of Plane-
Polarised Light, 3.

Light, Solar, 335.

Action on the ultimate ner-
vous structures of the Eye, 487.

Linear Vibrations, theory of, 507.

Lister (Joseph), F.R.C.S. On the mi-
nute structure of the Involuntary
Muscular Tissue, 413.

Logan (J. R.) on the Ethnology and
Languages of India, 24.

Login (T.), C.E., Pegu, on the Delta
of the Irrawaddy, 471.

Low (Professor) on the Chemical
Equivalents of certain bodies, and
the relations between Oxygen and
Azote, 263.

Lowe (Dr W. I1.). Observations on
Polyommatus Artaxerxes, the Scotch
Argus, 349.

Luminiferous Medium, on the possible
density of the, 253.

Lunar Rainbow, on the recent fre-
quent occurrence of, 25,

M‘Donald (Dr W.) on the principles
of the Stereoscope ; and on a new

516

mode of exhibiting Stereoscopic
Pictures, 455.

Maclaren (Charles). Notice of ancient
Moraines in the parishes of Strachur
and Kilmun, Argyleshire, 279.

Magnetic declination, 318.

Magnetism of oxygen gas and of the
atmosphere, 20.

Maps, collection of, 477.

Maxwell (J. C.). Experiments on Co-
lour as perceived by the Eye, with
remarks on Colour-Blindness, 299.

on a Dynamical Top, for ex-
hibiting the phenomena of the mo-
tion of a system of invariable form
about a fixed point ; with some sug-
gestions as to the earth’s motion,
503.

Mechanical action of heat, 223, 287.

Mechanical action of radiant heat or
light, 108.

Mechanical effect, sources available to
man for the production of, 112.

Mechanical energy, on the quantities
of, contained in a fluid mass, in dif-
ferent states, as to temperature and
density, 90.

Mechanical energy, on a universal
tendency in nature to the dissipa-
tion of, 131.

Mechanical theory of heat, 162.

Meconic Acid, 99.

Meconic and Comenic Acids, Ethers
and Amides of, 277.

Medicine Stamp, notice of a Roman
practitioner’s, found near Tranent, 9.

Mer de Glace, on the movement of,
down to 1850, 14.

Meteor, account of one seen on 30th
Sept. 1853, 220.

Meteoric Stone alleged to have fallen
in Hampshire in September 1852,
147.

Meteorological observations, Confer-
ence for establishing a uniform sys-
tem of, 218.

Mont Blanc, geological relations of the
Secondary and Primary Rocks of,
348.

Moon’s parallax, 292.

Moon’s surface;on the extent of our
knowledge respecting, 274.

Moraines, ancient, in Strachur and
Kilmun, 279.

Mull, Tertiary Fossiliferous Deposit
in, underlying Basalt, 21.

Murray (Andrew) on Insect-Vision
and Blind Insects, 487.

Muscular Tissue (involuntary), on the
minute structure of, 413.

Muspratt (Dr Sheridan). Analysis of
the Mineral Waters of Baden-Ba-
den, 22.

Muspratt (Dr Sheridan and Mr Dan-
son) on Carmufellic Acid, 65.

Narcotine, behaviour of, with Iodide
of Ethyl, 245.

Natrolite, 123.

Nautical Astronomy,onsome improve-
ments in-the instruments of, 114.

Needle, Diurnal Variation of, 20.

Nitric Acid, a source of the Nitrogen
found in plants, 189.

Nitrogen in organic compounds, on
a modification of the process for the
determination of, 126.

Numbers, on a property of, 390.

Observatory, Royal, on the stability
of instruments of, 229.

O’Connor (Colonel Luke Smyth), C.B.,
on the Races of the Western Coast
of Africa, 429,

Ojibbeway Pottery, analysis of, 506.

Old Red Sandstone Sea of the Central
District of Scotland, 334.

Opium, crystalline constituents of,
132, 215, 244.

Ordeal Bean of Old Calabar, 280.
Ordnance Survey in Scotland, histori-
cal notice of the progress of, 31,
Oxygen and Azote, relations between,

263.

Papaverine, behaviour of, with Iodide
of Ethyl, 245.

Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees,
454,

Pectolite, 122.

Pedicellina, structure of 486.

Petrie (W.) Theoretical investiga-
tions into the thermotic effect of the
compression of air, 28.

Photographs, Note on the method of
obtaining very rapid, 116.

Photometer, description of, 355.

Plague. On the occurrences of the
Plague in Scotland during the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries,
326.

Planta (Dr A. Von) on the constitu-
tion of Bebeerine, 2.

Platinum Salts of the organic Alka-
lies, decompositions of, 309.

Pliocene Shells in the Arctic Seas,
201.

Poisoning by Lead in the Horse, 119.

Poles of the Atmosphere, on the place
of, 101,

517

Polyommatus Artaxerxes, 349.

Polyzoa, on the true signification of
certain reproductive phenomena in,
504.

Ponton (Mungo), on Solar Light, with
a description of a simple Photo-
meter, 355.

Pottery, analyses of, 505.

Power of animated Creatures over
Matter, 110. m

Prisoners, experiments on the diet of,
130.

Probabilities, on the summation of a
compound series, and its applica-
tion toa problem in Probabilities,
173.

application of the theory of

Probabilities to the question of the

combination of testimonies, 435.

on combining two or more, so
as to form one definite probability,
366.

Property of Numbers, 390.

Pumice, occurrence of, in Tyree,
120.

Pyromeconic Acid, on some salts and
products of decomposition of, 117.

Quartz in Mica, 159.

Races of the Western Coast of Africa,
429.

Radiant Heat or Light, mechanical
action of, 108.

Rankine, (W. J. Macquorn, C.B.), on
the Vibrations of plane-polarised
light, 3.

on the mechanical action of

Heat, 5, 162, 223, 287.

on the Compressibility of

Water, 58.

on the economy of Single Act-

ting Expansive Steam Engines,

and Expansive Machines generally,

60.

on the contrifugal theory of

Elasticity, and its connection with

the theory of Heat, 86.

on the computation of ‘the

specific heat of Liquid Water at

various temperatures, from the ex-

periments of M. Regnault, 90.

on the absolute zero of the
Perfect Gas Thermometer, 160.

Red, invisibility of, to colour-blind
eyes, 226.

Red Prominences observed during a
total solar Hclipse, 79, 135, 136.
Reproductive economy of Moths and

Bees, 454.

Reproductive phenomena in the Poly-
zoa, 504,

Richardson (Sir John), C.B. Memoir
of Rear-Admiral Sir John Frank-
lin, 347.

Ring of Saturn, 80.

Roche Moutonneé, on the summit of
the range of hills separating Loch
Fine and Loch Awe, 459,

Rocks, structural character of, 197.

Rogers (Prof. H. D.) on the Laws of
Structure of the more disturbed
zones of the Earth’s Crust, 387.

Rogers (Prof. William B.), on certain
cases of Binocular Vision, 356.

Romaic Ballads, on, 227.

Rottlera tinctoria, colouring matter
of, 296.

Rowney (Dr T. H.) on a new source
of Capric Acid, with remarks on
some of its salts, 45.

Researches on the Amides of
the Fatty Acids, 305.

Russell (Dr J. Rutherford) on the
poison of the Cobra da Capello, 44.

Salisbury Crags, Glacial phenomena
of, 497,

Salmo umbla, observations on, 125.

Salmonide, observations on, 267.

— on impregnation of the ova

of, 219.

Ovum and young fish of, 428.

Samian Ware, analysis of, 506.

Sang (Edward). On an Inaccuracy
(having its greatest value about 1”)
in the usual method of computing
the Moon’s Parallax, 292,

on the Accuracy attainable

by means of multiplied observa-

tions, 319.

Geometry, a science purely ex-

perimental, 341.

on the Turkish Weights and

Measures, 349.

Short verbal notice of a simple

and direct method of computing the

Logarithm of a Number, 451.

Theory of the Free Vibration
of a Linear Series of Elastic Bodies,
358, 360, 507.

Saturn, on lithograph of, 80,

Saturn’s Ring, notice of recent mea-
surements of, 192.

Scolezite, 124.

Scott (Dr A. J.) on the analysis of
some Scottish Minerals, 122,

Scottish Minerals, analysis of, 122.

Seoular (Dr). Notice of the occur-
rence of British Newer Pliocene

518

Shells in the Arctic Seas, and of
Tertiary Plants in Greenland, 301.

Sea Snake (supposed), 208.

Sea Weeds (edible), experiments on,
363.

Secchi’s Statical Barometer, 480.

Seller (Dr). On Atmospheric Man-
oscopy, or on the direct determina-
tion of the height of a given bulk
of air with reference to Meteorolo-
gical Phenomena in general, and
to the Etiology of Epidemic Dis-
eases, 368.

Simpson (Professor J. Y.) Notice of
a Roman Practitioner’s Medicine
Stamp, found near Tranent, 9.

— History of an Anencephalic
Child, 482.

Smith (James). Recent observations
on the direction of the Striz on
Rocks and Boulders, 121.

——— on the supposed occurrence of
Works of Art in the older Deposits,
158.

Smyth (C. Piazzi).
Notices, 13.

Account of Experiments on

the Thermotic Effect of the Com-

pression of Air, with some practi-

cal applications, 28.

on the Total Solar Eclipse of

28th July 1851, as seen on the west

coast of Norway, 78.

on the nature of the Red

Prominences observed during a

Total Solar Eclipse, 79.

— on the place of the Poles of

the Atmosphere, 101.

on some improvements in the

instruments of Nautical Astronomy,

114.

Astronomical

on a simplification of the in-

struments employed in Geographi-

cal Astronomy, 161.

— Notice of recent measurements

of the Ring of Saturn, 192.

— on the Physical Appearance

of the Comet 3 of 1853, 207.

on the Stability of the Instru-
ments of the Royal Observatory,
229,

—— Notice of the completion of
the Time-Ball Apparatus, 238.

— Note on the extent of our

knowledge respecting the Moon’s

Surface, 274.

— Account of experiments to as-

certain the amount of Professor W.

Thomson’s “ Solar Refraction,” 302.

ona case of Lateral Refrac-

tion

487,
Solar Light, 355.
Solar Refraction, 302.

in the Island of Teneriffe,

- Solar System, mechanical energies of,

241.

Sorby (Henry Clifton), F.G.S. On
the Physical Geography of the Old
Red Sandstone Sea of the Central
District of Scotland, 334.

Sources available to Man for the pro-
duction of Mechanical Effect, 112.
Spinal Cord, on the functions of, 470.
Spleen and other Lymphatic Glands,
on the function of, as originators of
the Corpuscular Constituents of the

Blood, 107.

“Standing Stones,” 272.

Stark (Dr James). Experiments on
the Blood, showing the effect of a
few therapeutic agents on that fluid
in a state of health and of disease,
282.

Stars, revision of the British Associa-
tion Catalogue of, 279.

Steam Engines, single-acting expan-
sive, 60.

Stereoscope, principles of, 455.

Stevenson (Alan), LL.B. Biographi-
cal Notice of the late Robert Ste-
venson, 30.

Stewart (Balfour) on a Property of
Numbers, 390.

— on certain laws observed in
the mutual action of Sulphuric Acid
and Water, 482.

Stigmaria, remarks on, 316,

Stirling (J. D. Morries), on iron and
its Alloys, 43, 46.

Stokes (Prof.) on the Absolute In-
tensity of Interfering Light, 98.

Strachur, Moraines in, 279.

Stratified Traps of the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh, 268.

Striz on Rocks and Boulders, direc-
tion of, 121.

Structure of the more disturbed
zones of the Earth’s Crust, 387.

Strychnine, 247.

Stuart, (John). Note on a method of
obtaining very rapid Photographs,
116.

Sunlight, on the mechanical value of
a cubic mile of, 253.

Superposition, 296.

Swan (William) on the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on 28th July 1851, ob-
served at Géteborg ; with a descrip-
tion of a new Position Micrometer,
73.

5

Swan (William) on the Red Promi-
nences seen during Total Eclipses of
the Sun, 135, 136.

Account of a remarkable Me-

teor seen on 30th September 1853,

220.

on Errors caused by imperfect
inversion of the Magnet in obser-
vations of Magnetic Declinations,
318.

on the Prismatic Spectra of
the Flames of compounds of Carbon
and Hydrogen, 376.

Talbot (H. Fox), F.R.S. On Fermat’s
Theorem, 371.

Teneriffe, case of lateral refraction in,
487.

Terrot (Bishop). On the summation
of a compound series, and its appli-
— to a problem in Probabilities,

on the Possibility of combin-
ing two or more independent Pro-
babilities of the same event, so as
to form one definite Probability,
366,

——— Opening Address, 398,

Tertiary Fossiliferous Deposit, under-
lying Basalt in Mull, 21.

Tertiary Deposit from Glen Shira, con-
taining Exuvie of Diatoms, 241.

Tertiary Plants in Greenland, 301.

Tethea, Structure and Economy of,
and description of a new species,
181.

Therapeutic Agents, effects of, on the
Blood, 282.

Thermic Phenomena of Currents of
Elastic Fluids, 162.

Thermo-Electric Currents, on a me-
chanical theory of, 91, 255,

Thermotic Effect of the Compression
of Air, 28.

Thomson (Murray). Analysis of Spe-
cimens of ancient British, of Red
Indian, and of Roman Pottery,
505.

Thomson (William) M.A. On the Dy-
namical Theory of Heat, with Nu-
merical Results deduced from Mr
Joule’s Equivalent of a Thermal
Unit, and M. Regnault’s Observa-
tions on Steam, 48,

— on a method of discovering

experimentally the relation between

the Mechanical Work spent, and the
heat produced by the Compression

of a Gaseous Fluid, 69.

on the Quantities of Mechani-

19

cal Energy contained in a fluid
mass, in different states, as to Tem-
perature and Density, 90.

Thomson (William) on a mechanical
theory of Thermo-electric Currents,
91,

on the mechanical action of
Radiant Heat or Light; on thelpower
of animated creatures over matter ;
on the sources available to man for
the production of mechanical effect,
108.

——— on a universal tendency in
nature to the dissipation of me-
chanical energy, 131.

on the mechanical energies

of the solar system, 241,

on the mechanical value of a

cubic mile of sunlight, and on the

possible density of the Luminifer-

ous medium, 253.

— Account of Experimental in-

vestigations to answer questions

originating in the mechanical theory

of Thermo-electric Currents, 255,

A mechanical theory of
Thermo-electric Currents in Crys-
talline Solids, 255.

Time-Ball Apparatus, 238.

Titanium in Amethyst, 159,

Titanium in Mica, 159.

Titanium in Topaz, 159.

Torbanehill Mineral, 199, 241.

Torbanehill Mineral, observations on
the structure of, as compared with
various kinds of coal, 217,

Tourmaline in Mica, 158, A

Traill (Professor). Notice of some of
the recent astronomical discoveries
of Mr Lassell, 80.

—w— Remarks on the Torbanehill
Mineral, 199.

on the supposed Sea Snake,
east on shore in the Orkneys in
1808, and the animal seen from
H.M.S. Dedalus in 1848, 208.

Traps, stratified, of the neighbour-
hood of Edinburgh, 268.

Turkish Weights and Measures, 349.

Tyree, occurrence of Pumice in, 120,

Urinary Seeretion of Fishes, 452.

Vibrations, theory of linear, 507.

Vibrations, alligated, 507.

Vision, on the extent to which the
theory of vision requires us to re-
gard the eye as a Camera Obscura,
303.

Vision, recent discoveries in the ad-

520 ‘

justment of the eye to distinct
vision, 343.

Vision, binocular, 356.

Vital Affinity, defence of the doctrine
of, 105.

Volatile Bases produced by destruc-
tive distillation of Cinchonine, 314,

Water, compressibility of, 58.

Water, on the computation of the spe-
cific heat of, 90.

Weights and Measures, Turkish, 349.

Western Coast of Africa, races of, 429.

Williams (C. Greville), on the volatile
bases produced by destructive dis-
tillation of Cinchonine, 314.

Researches on Chinoline and
its Homologues, 370.

Wilson (Dr G.), on the crystallization
of bicarbonate of ammonia in sphe-
rical masses, 57.

on the organs in which lead

accumulates in the Horse, in cases

of slow poisoning by that metal, 119.

on two new processes for the

detection of Fluorine when accom-
panied by Silica, and on the pre-
sence of Fluorine in Granite, Trap,
and other Igneous Rocks, and in the
Ashes of recent and fossil plants,
143.

Wilson (Dr G.) on a supposed me-
teoric stone alleged to have fallen
in Hampshire in September 1852,
147.

on Nitric Acid as a source of

the nitrogen found in plants, 189.

— on the total invisibility of

Red to certain colour-blind Eyes.

226.

on the extent to which the
theory of vision requires us to re-
gard the eye as a Camera Obscura,
303.

on the transmission of the

actinic rays of light through the

eye, and their relation to the yellow

spot of the retina, 371.

on Mr J. Nicklés’ claim to be
the discoverer of Fluorine in the
Blood, 463.

Wilson (James). Notice of the blind
animals which inhabit the Mammoth
Cave of Kentucky, 200.

Wise (Dr Thos. A.) Notes on some
of the Buddhist opinions and monu-
ments of Asia, compared with the
symbols on the ancient sculptured
“Standing Stones” of Scotland,
272.

Works of Art, occurrence of, in the
older deposits, 158. :

END OF VOLUME THIRD.

NEILL AND CO., PRINTERS, EDINBURGH,

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a On St Sen one to be the Discoverer of Fluorine in
ger the Blood. By Gzoncz Wizson, M.D., F.B.S.E., Re-
- gius Professor of peohaclogh in pape University of Edin-
sip Oy burgh, Ata ae . AE edhe s - 463
Donations to the Library, ; SF Fie ae Able OS

4 ape : ae i itty + : ; - hs
NSEEY ? Sate | Monday, 2a Mare 1857.

‘the Fonction of the Spinal Cord. thy Professor Hucnss +, a
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‘the Delta of the Irrawaddy. By Be Loew, CE, Pega. oye! cy) a
Communicated by Witt1am Swan, Esq., 7 A ae

of a Collection of wg By A. K. Jonnszox, Faq, 407 rie

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ecting Fat ae Secchi? s Statical adie: and on on Pare
drigin of th Cathetometer. By Professor Forses, 480

an Anencephalic Child. By Dr Simpson, . » ES Pin a
Laws observed in the Mutual Action of Sulphu- Sor ae fot,
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iv

, PAGE
On a Dynamical Top, for exhibiting the Phenomena of the
Motion of a system of invariable form about a Fixed.
Point ; with some suggestions as to the Earth’s Motion.

By Professor Cuerk Maxwett, . 503
On the true Signification of certain Reproductive Phenomena
in the Polyzoa. By Dr Artman, : 504

On the Destructive Distillation of Animal Matters. Part IV.

By Dr Anverson, Glasgow, : “ 505
Analysis of Specimens of Ancient British, of Red’ Indian, and

of Roman Pottery. By Murray THomson, : 505
Theory of Linear Vibrations. Part VI. Alligated Vibra-

tions. By Epwarp Sang, s : : 507.
Donations to the Library, : : : _ 508
Index, . . ‘ ; ; : 511

Title and Contents, a iii.

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