pes: oe 2 ee w Tp A : ead SMA yaa Sy a f id i Mt ri a (HAs "4 fe it i re a ety Ai tel atE a Sate vata Nh se ; PEG SAA Hise RAI No pana te Hay} ‘keh orb! Eta tontar ’ vile Wa Ca nN nit ’ ° i i ie fe rats | nabs! ; pti fe i a ii hy! ne Haat PATE IAI a tf Nite i . ii sant cM RY cual) i i a a ye inet! *) fret Hi ui Maseuened on i ‘a Hy JT an Pan ie ith hae 2) anette f ies te io ts me thls sai f a nei Ave : aie Ht We ut st Me ‘a iM pont i ret ee Mi tee ; Waal i; ii SS aia beat al b are Eas er aia a oe. % Ad nh were ay Uy natn i Sti iN 1e ’ ae bo) Ng 48) fh i ie i tetiay i oe ni 2 an Se ay aaa o Pat tia A) eet fae ca adhe ha 4 Ny Si it wit i ete ee eed he A ae 22 —— = : 2 a ae - ee = ey RO . : pa =e i 7 = <= = Me i He Hi Meh ea yids ane aie nt FOR THE PEGQPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SU Se NS LAWN DD: VOLUME XY. PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY H. POLE & CO., 95 ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE. 1900. TAY a a a = Raoval- Society of Queensland, Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONORABLE LORD LAMINGTON, K.C.M.G. OFFICERS, 1900. President: JOHN THOMSON, M.B. Vice=President : W. J. BYRAM. Hon. Treasurer : Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. Hon. Secretary : J. F. BAILEY. Hon. Librarian: ROWLAND ILLIDGE. Members of Council: F. MANSON BAILEY, F.L.S. Cc. J. POUND, F.R.M.S. A. G. JACKSON J. SHIRLEY. B.Sc. J. W. SUTTON. Trustees: Hon. A. C. GREGORY, M.L.C., C.M.G. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. W. ALCOCK TULLY, B.A. Hon. Auditor : A. J. TURNER. Page. Acidalia coercita .. 46 140 artita te bd 141 vibrata be ate 141 Agriophora curta .. ae 161 “A poliopepla 50 161 Aigeria chrysophanes se 136 Alaus, sp. Bn ye 2 Alphitona excelsa.. 5b 136 Alstonia constricta .. te 134 Anteia canescens .. be 149 ;, Doddsiana .. fe 149 Aphytoceros luealis.. ae 135 Arrhodia fenestrita a 145 Artaxa arrogans As Bic 140 Aspidoptera a5 a6 146 rf ambiens O8 147 ‘3 navigata ote 146 Bancroft, T. L. (M.B.)— On a Method by which a Pure Water Supply Could be Obtained for Brisbane... ve 83 Batocera Boisduvali ae 135 Beginnings of Life, The aye 5 Berce, J. S., Brownies, J. H., and Rinerose, R. C.— List of Minerals of the Walsh and Tinaroo Dis- tricts be 50 47 Browntee, J. H. (vide J. 8. Berge)— Bryophila exquisita. . As 150 Byram, W. J.— - Beginnings of Life, The .. D Calligenialimonis .. axe 139 5 melitaula.. ae 139 Casyapa beata .. oe 136 Catoryctis emarginata a0 154 Caves near Camooweal, Des- eription of oe ae 87 ’ Chaleoptcrus a Ha 2 Charagia .. a6 eis 91 i 5 eximia ad se 1 Chlenias sagittaria .. ae 148 Clenarcha dryinopa.. bo 158 CoLLEeDGE, W R.— Observations on the Life History of the Mosquito (2 plates) =e ote 111 Conogethes jubata .. on 162 5 punctéfe ralis oo 153 Cryptophaga eugeniae ae fumata molaris 7 Pulteneae Darala consuta Duek weed A Entomologica, Miscellanea Entomology of a ‘Tea-tree Swamp, Notes on .. Euarestus id 45 nobilitans cf patrocinatus Euplea corinna Ficus aspera 3 australis 3, macrophylla 5 Benjaminea Filaria Banerofti Filaria Sanguinis Galanageia ee 99 quardrigramma Geebung Glyphodes a of cosmarcha.. my excelsalis .. of luciferalis .. “ tolumnalis : Hepialus? virescens, Fragmen- tary Paper on the larval struc- ture, &e., Of (with plate) Herminia caencalis .. “1 dormiens.. i iridescens Hydrilla Hypsa chloropyga 5, mesophora 5, Dlagiata Be InLineée, R.— Miscellanea Entomologica ; or Odd Notes on the His- tory and Transformation of Some Insects Notes on the Entomology of a Tea-tree Swamp Index to List of Minerals of the Walsh and Tinaroo Districts Ismene lucescens .. te Keys, T. P.-- Description of Some Caves near Camooweal Lemna ae Oa me Lepidoptera, New Species of Queensland Leucania sepulchralis Lichenaula circumsignata fe dirigens F petulens provisa oo tortriciformis & umbrosa A o velitata Lucas, T. P. (M.R.C.S.)— New species of Q. Lepi- doptera Lycaena elaborata .. Margarodes vertumnalis MatTHews, R. H.— Stone Cooking Holes of Australian Aborigines Melanitis leda Method by which a Pure Water - Supply could be Obtained for Brisbane oe sn Minerals of the Walsh and Tinaroo Districts, N. Q. Monoctenia Monoctophora eaprina = stillans F Mosquito, Observations on the Life History of (2 plates) Mosquitoes and Malaria Nature and Origin of Living Matter .. fe A Nuphar lutea ” Numphea gigantea Ochrosia Moorei Oeceticus felinus Oleander re Ophyx ochroptera .. Orthopterous ae Persoonia cornifolia .. Phylomictis aretans decretoria a maligna obliquata ” palemorpha Plasmodium malarize Plusia chillagoes aqgram. wea. ” Pond weed ae INDE X—Continued. Page. 137 149 155 156 157 156 158 157 155 Page. Proceedings of Annual Meeting L Public Abattoirs andthe Pre- vention of Tuberculosis ze 95 Quali, A. (F.E.8.)— Fragmentary Paper on the Larval Structure, &e., of Hepialus? viresceus (with plate) i an 89 Reply to Some Critical Notes on the Q. Vol. of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature .. 75 Report of Council for 1899 a I. Rhynchospermum .. = 135 RinGrosk, R. C. (vide J. S. Berge.) — Saw Fly .. he 4p 2 SHIRLEY, J. (B.Se.)— Mosquitoes and Malaria .. 7L Reply to Some Critical Notes on the Q. Vol. of the International Cata- logue of Scientific Litera- ture me oe 75 Skorpisthes : = 145 a unda-seripta ro 148 Stephanotis 135 Stone Cooking Hake of Naot lian Aborigines (Title only) .. 3 Sutton, J. W.-— Presidential Address re Symphyletes farinosus a 2 TayLor, Hon. W. F., M.D., M.L.C.— Public Abattoirs and the Prevention of Tuber- culosis as we 95 Teara protrahens .. a 2 Telecrates tesselata i 159 Tuberculosis, Public Abattoirs and the Prevention of oi 95 Turner, Dr. A. JEFFERIS.— The Nature and Origin of Living Matter - Br 27 Walking-stick insects = 3 Water Hyacinth ie F 85 Water lilies a8 Se 84 Xyloricta austera .. 5s 159 a lychnobii .. <+—-. 158 Zygocera pruinosa .. a4 2 > PROCEEDINGS OF THE Annual Mecting of Members, HELD ON SATURDAY, 20th JANUARY, 1900. The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Saturday, 20th January. ‘ The President (Mr. J. W. Sutton) occupied the chair. The Minutes of previous Annual Meeting were read and confirmed. The Hon. Secretary (Mr. J. F. Bailey) read the following report of the Council for the 1899 Session. To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland. Your Council have pleasure in submitting their report for the year 1899 :— In February the Society removed from Wakefield’s Buildings to the rooms now occupied in the Technical College, Ann Street, where every accommodation is afforded for lectures and demonstrations, the use of the lecture theatre being granted when required. In obtaining these rooms the Society is greatly indebted to the President, who, as soon as he was elected to that position, endeavoured to secure more commodious rooms for the Society, with the above result. Thirteen Council Meetings have been held during the year. The attendance of officers will be found in Appendix A. Ten Ordinary Meetings of Members have been held, and the attendance has been very satisfactory. A list of the papers read at these meetings is given in Appendix B. In former years one of the most interesting features of these meetings was the exhibition of specimens, models, etc., but the Council regret that during the past two sessions very little has been done in this direction, and would urge members to endeavour to renew this instructive custom. ii. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. In July last, instead of the Ordinary Meeting, a Scientific Conversazione was held, to which one thousand invitations were issued, resulting in an attendance of between 700 and 800 persons. The whole of the rooms of the College were occupied for lectures and displays of scientific apparatus. It proved a complete success, and reflected great credit on all those who assisted and on the Committee of Management. ~ In March last, Vol. XIV. of the Proceedings, containing the papers read during the 1898 session, was published and distributed. A list of the new members (33) will be found in Appendix C. This number has not been reached for many years past. The Council regret that since the last Annual Meeting death has deprived the Society of two members, viz.: Mr. Othman Blakey, who died about a month after his election as a member; and Mr. James Thorpe, a very old member, who did valuable work as Hon. Secretary of the Philosophical Society of Queensland, with which this Society was incorporated in 1884. The Queensland Volume of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature which was in course of preparation when the last report was submitted, has been completed ; and, through the courtesy of the Hon. the Chief Secretary of Queensland (Hon. J. R. Dickson), copies were distributed in July last to those who were members of the Society at that time, as well as to anumber of Institutions with which the Society exchanges publications. The Council wish to record their appreciation of the manner in which the compiler, Mr. J. Shirley, B.Sc., performed this work. The copy of a letter to the Agent General for Queensland, given in appendix D., shows that Professor Armstrong, F.R.S., the Chair- man of the International Catalogue Committee, was pleased with the publication. A large number of donations to the Library have been re- ceived during the year from kindred societies, &¢., in various parts of the world. It is to be hoped that the funds this year will permit the setting apart of a sum for binding the many papers thus received. The Hon. Treasurer’s statement is given in appendix E. It will be seen that the balance in the Bank is £6 19s. 3d., while the outstanding accounts amount to £19 4s. 3d. These, however, will be easily met, as the sum of about £88 in subsidy is due this month. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lil. The Council desire to express their thanks to the Hon. the Chief Secretary (Hon. J. R. Dickson), for his generous action in placing the sum of £50, together with an allowance of £1 for every £1 subscribed up to £100, at the disposal of the Society. In accordance with the rules, all the officers retire, but, with the exception of the President and Vice-President (neither of whom, according to Rule 16, can hold the same office for two years in succession), are eligible for re-election. JW. SU LDEON, President. J. F. BAILEY, Hon. Secretary. Brisbane, 8th January, 1900. APPENDIX A. ATTENDANCE OF OFFICERS AT THE THIRTEEN Counci. MereEtTINGS DURING THE 1899 Session. Office. Name. attanded: President .. | J. W. Sutton he si 12 Vice-President ..| A. Jetferis Turner, M. D. re te 2 Hon. Treasurer ..| Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C. ale be 11 Hon. Secretary ..| J. F. Bailey .. 4 Ste aye 10 Hon. Librarian ..{ Rowland Illidge ac ae ws 10 F. M. Bailey, F.L.S ye ae 11 ; W. J. Byram me oo 7 Membersof Council) C. J. Pound, F.R. M.S Ss. oe OF 7 | John Shirley, IBS Carels ate 30 10 S$. B.J.Skertchly .. sc ai 4 Ty. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. APPENDIX B. List or Papers Reap purinc 1899 Session. Date. Title. Author. February 18 March 18 April 22 May 13 June 17 ” August 19.. Sept. 16 October 30 Noy. 18 The History of Tin Notes on the Entomology of a Tea-tree Swamp .. - tralian Aborigines The Beginnings of Life and Differentiation Some Problems regarding the | | A. Jefferis Turner, M.D- Nature and Origin of Life .. List of Minerals of the Walsh and Tinaroo Districts Mosquitoes and Malaria Life History of the Mosquito . Reply to Some Critical Notes on | the Queensland Volume of | the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature A Method by which a Pure | Water Supply could be ob- tained for Brisbane Account of a Visit to some Caves near Camooweal ... Insects and Flowers .. Tuberculosis The larval Structure of eso virescens - The Transvaal Public Abattoirs and the Pre- vention of Tuberculosis Odd Notes on the History and | Transformation of various | Insects Some New Species of Queens- land Lepidoptera .. - . |S. B. J. Skertehly . | R. Ilidge | Stone Cooking-holes of the Aus- | . | R. H. Mathews W. J. Byram J.S. Berge and J. H. Brownlee John Shirley, B.Sc. W. R. Colledge John Shirley, B.Se. . | T. L. Baneroft, M.B. T. P. Keys John Shirley, B.Se. C. J. Pound, F.R.M.S. Ambrose Quail, F.E.S. John Shirley, B.Sc. Hon. W. F. Taylor, M.D., M.L.C . | R. Illidge | 'T. P. Lucas, M.R.C.S., Eng. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. APPENDIX C. Members ELECTED DURING THE YEAR, 1899. _ Date. Jan. 21 Feb. 18 March 18 April 22 .. May 13 9 June 17 ae ” ie] August 19 Sept. 16 ./ 9 Novy. Dec. 7 6 INS) Soe Name. Nott, F. Lan. Blakey, O. Lees, William Gaden, E. A. Green, L. C. Hall, T. M. Lyons, D. T. 36 Tonks, T. AG Almond, Capt. T. M. Rickburn, G. H.. .- Horsfall, Wm. May, Dr. T. H. Jackson, A. G. Zoeller, Carl Whitton, Miss I. D. Smith, Havelock .. Colledge, J.C... Watson, C. A. H... Ferguson, C.D. .. Pinnock, P. = M‘Queen, Rev. W.S. Carter, H. R. He Allom, 8S. R. F. Wright, A. E. Hesketh, John : Greenfield, A. P. .. Kaye, A. : Owens, T. H. | Davis, Sept. Berge, J. 8. Brownlee, J. H. Trimble, Wm. | Blackboro, E. A. .. | te ee ue | Herberton Address. Proposer. Agric.Col. Gatton Stafford-Kedron Coorparoo Ashgrove ; Geo. Survey Dep. Brisbane Clayfield Brisbane South Brisbane Petrie Ter., Bris. Bundaberg Brisbane ” se ” ” Ipswich Brisbane Clayfield Brisbane South Brisbane F. Bailey S. B. J. Skertchly Hon.A.Norton M.L.C. 8. B. J. Skertchly J. W. Sutton ” J. ” G. Watkins J. Shirley, B.Sc. . | James Keys, F.L.S. J. W. Sutton Mrs. R. Edwards .| 8. B. J. Skertchly J. W. Sutton J. Shirley, B.Sc. . J. W. Sutton . | J. F. Bailey Mrs. R. Edwards G. Warkine : C. J. Pound | J. W. Sutton A. G. Jackson J. Shirley, B.Se. R. Illidge T. Tonks || J. F. Bailey Ji: W. Sutton Vi. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, APPENDIX D. Copy of Letter received by the Agent-General for Queensland from Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., Chairman Royal Society of London International Catalogue Committee- ‘“©55 Granville Park, ‘‘ Lewisham, London, §.E., ‘October 6th, 1899. “Dear Sir, ‘‘During the vacation your letter of August 30th has been received at the Royal Society, advising that Mr. Shirley has prepared a Catalogue of Scientific Literature published in Queensland, and enclosing a copy of the publication. ‘It is a most admirable piece of work, and the Colony is to be congratulated on possessing such a man. ‘Tf you will send 100 of the 200 copies which you say are available to the Royal Society, I shall be obliged. It will be of great value in showing what may and should be done.” (Signed) H. E. ARMSTRONG.” VII. COUNCIL. REPORT OF THE "MIMNSDALT “WORT ‘NOLMON “WY ‘006T ‘havnune pag ‘aungsiig “LOVIPNP “UOFT ‘MANUAT, “f *XATY—"J0a1100 puUNOJ puV poulMUexG “PE Sh GIF “OUNQUIIG + SatgIpIquiry f L 8 SOTF L 8 GOlTF ee ee ES6ho4-."" se “? “+ yueg ul souvleg | G-e 7 ws i) ste ba "+ sompung — || oF HLT "sts yseg fyjog pue oBvysog | ry O19 oe al cae tee Axaquadieg | 9 &L 0 s pe yoog enbayg pur seaq yuvg | i= Sch zt (auorzestaAuog) syueuyseayayy 0 O12 ze os st (ouolz¥s12AU0g) oISNyY 0 916 fe a ee es OIE, UAaVURT | 9 6 T = e es - “* souwinsuy | 0 OLF ea - «s 5G ‘amg | Oe Ga < #8 = a "+ aseqyieg a @ i axe poeunyar Is}9PY SVK) uO 41sodeq 8 9 && 50 56 ai a + Suyutg | 0. OST as ae Ne Sie quay Gemaneinos = 3 a: Bursyeapy =} «C0 FT 86 si oo suondizosqng ea (eg * Bs ss =e Cs | ce ee "+ qtodayy ys¥] wosy aouvpeg aa i ‘SSENUNASHTNASIA (Ss SSne ace ‘SLdI AOU | TD) "668I aAv0K O49 AOZ QUOWOIVIG [TUTOUYVUTZ TE ‘AINVWISNHANO HO ALAIOOS ‘WH XIGNUdd¥ IVAOU WHAL VIIl. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. The adoption of the Report was moved by Mr. A. J. Turner, seconded by Mr. F. Whitteron, and carried. The President then delivered the following address :— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, JANUARY, i? i900. Lapies snp GENTLEMEN,— It has been your good fortune for some years past to listen to Presidential Addresses, delivered by men of ability and learning, to which I make no claim—and it was with the greatest reluctance that I allowed myself to be placed in the Presidential Chair, knowing that there were many members of this Society better fitted for such a responsible position, so that the members have only themselves to blame, for any deficiencies and short-comings on my part during my term of office. However, it is satisfactory to learn by the Council’s report, that our roll of membership has largely increased, but I regret to say that the active members are decreasing gradually, by death and other causes, so I take this opportunity of appealing to the members to throw more interest into the Society, by coming forward and filling those places. Our financial position is good, and last but not least, the Society is comfortably housed in suitable quarters, for which the members are largely indebted to the Council of the Technical College. I also take this opportunity of thanking the members of our Council for the able assistance and advice received from them during the past year. The selection of a subject for my retiring address this evening, I can assure you, was no easy task, because on looking back for some past years, I find that your past Presidents have all given addresses on special subjects, particularly in their own professional line, and which they were well qualified to handle. I, having no special subject, have therefore, to ask your kind indulgence this evening, if I should somewhat weary you. As I have said before, for some years past your Presidential addresses have been on special subjects, diverting from the time-honoured custom of reviewing the progress of science, in its various branches, and as the world has made such marvellous progress and development of late, I felt that I could not but revert again to the old custom, by making some brief allusions to the advancement and progress of science. BY J. W. SUTTON. IX. Workers, in all branches of science, labour under great disadvantages when they are located at great distances from the centres of scivntific research and thought, and out of reach of seeing experiments and hearing discussions of the various learned societies, or of even getting access to what has been published in the various journals. Scientific books on all subjects of course reach us in due time, but books in these times are out of date almost as soon as they leave the publishers’ hands, therefore, for one to be up to date in the march of progress, it is absolutely necessary to have access to all scientific publications which are published, both in our own and all foreign languages. No doubt the question will at once suggest itself to you, why does not this society supply that want? The answer is, we have not sufficient funds ; and unfortunately our Society does not include in its membership workers in all branches. Therefore I think this is a matter well worth the consideration of those entrusted with the management of our Public Library, and let us hope that therein will be found all monthly publications of scientific interest, both of pure and applied science, no matter in what language they appear. A long felt want has lately been put forth, under the joint direction of the Physical Society and the Institution of Electrical Engineers of London, in the form of science abstracts, the abstractors being men of well known scientific ability. It contains short extracts from all recognised scientific journals and publications, with a concise reference and index, which at once points out to the reader where he can see the full detailed article or paper. But as I have already inferred, they are at present entirely beyond our reach. Of course, there are societies here, devoted to special subjects, that no doubt are able to place before their members up to date literature in their own particular branch, but this, for the Royal Society, embracing as it does all sciences, is simply out of the question. In fact there are too many societies for such a small community as Brisbane, and I think much betterand more work would result if a number of these would throw in their lot with us and work with one common end—the general advancement of science. Hach could have its own section, its special meetings if necessary, also, as now, its own presidentand secretary. Such an arrangement would go a long way towards securing a good financial position, better attendance at meetings, and above all, tend to bring about a X. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. closer intercourse of followers of various scientific works and thought, which is the object and aim of this society. Various attempts have been made from time to time to classify the sciences ; but, without success. Herbert Spencer classifies them thus—Abstract Science, Logic and Mathematics, Abstract Concrete Sciences, Mechanics, Chemistry, Physics and Concrete Science, Astronomy, Biology, Geology, Sociology, etc. It was Sir J. Herschell who said in con- nection with this subject, ‘‘Science is a whole, whose source is lost in infinity, and which nothing but the imperfectness of our nature obliges us to divide. We feel our nothingness in our attempts to grasp it, and bow with humility and adoration before the Supreme Intelligence, who alone can comprehend it.” No science rests on a firmer basis than mathematics, which, being founded on demonstrative evidence, may be accepted as absolutely true. The results in logic, which, like mathematics, being a deductive science, are much less certain ; still logic is essentially the science of the art of proof. All other sciences are to alarge extent inductive, these resting on probable evidence, and continually approaching nearer and nearer to it, as scientific methods improve. Thus, sciences vary in the distance they have moved towards perfection ; in mental and physical science, the former can largely be studied by reflection in our own mental operations, the latter requires observation, experiment and comparison of facts obtained, inductive and deductive reasoning, all ending in as wide a generalisation as the obtained facts will admit. No one can be a truly scientific student unless he places truth as a prima importance, and is prepared to sacrifice all preconceived ideas and elaborate opinions, whenever he finds them to be inerror. No expenditure of time, money, or even life, is considered extravagant, if the sacrifice be made for the discovery of new truths. The early stages in the evolution of science go back to remote periods of antiquity. Mora! science, a department of mental science, reached some degree of maturity first in primitive man, in a desire to ascertain what his conduct should be to his fellows and God-or Gods. Mental science or the investigation of the thinking and feeling mind came next, but even up to the present time has made but slow progress. Physical science had really commenced, although in its infancy, when ancient myths of observation were formed, many of which were hypothesis to account for natural BY J. W. SUTTON. XI. phenomena, its progress being slow until the eighteenth century , since which time its progress has been rapidly increasing. Prior to this, the greatest advances were in astronomy and physics, then in chemistry, botany, etc., geology not attracting much attention until the beginning of the present century. The nineteenth century has been so prolific in scientific and mechanical invent- ions that doubts may be expressed as to whether the rate at which discoveries and inventions are now introduced will continue, or whether we are becoming too clever and are likely to come to a full stop. But as science knows no finality, so also will invention know no finality, as circumstances increase, and mankind’s dominion over tho earth, sea, and air, becomes more pronounced, new wants will arise and new means of supplying old ones will be devised. The time was when science was cultivated only by the few, who looked upon its application to the arts and manufactures as almost beneath their consideration. This they were content to leave in the hands of others who, with only commercial ends in view, did not aspire to further the objects of science for its own sake, but thought only of benefitting by its teachings. Progress could not be rapid under these con- ditions, because the investigator into pure science, rarely pursues his investigations beyond the physical and chemical principle, while the simple practitioner is at a loss to know how to harmonise new knowledge with the stock of information which forms his mental capital in trade. The world owes much to those ardent students of nature, who in their devotion to scientific research, do not allow their aims to travel into the region of utilitarianism and self interest: but it is not to them that we can look for present progress in practical or applied science, it is to the man of science who also gives his attention to practical questions, and to the practitioner who devotes part of his time to the prosecution of strictly scientific investigation, that we owe the rapid progress of the day, the advancement of which has rendered theory and practice, or science and art, so interdependent that an intimate union between them is a matter of absolute necessity for future progress. Theory and practice must go hand in hand. Although it may be somewhat heretical to say, in these days of division of labour, I see no reason why a Bachelor of Arts should not be able to make a door, or a B.Sc. work and attend a lathe. Science and art naturally stand to each other, as cause and effect. Professor Abbe of the U.S. XII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, Weather Bureau, gives the following very pretty illustration, of how a simple mechanical act has its relation to physical science :—‘‘ Kverywhere one is confronted with the laws of force. If you strike a smart blow upon the head of a cold chisel, and make a cut into a piece of soft iron, you are doing one of the simplest mechanical operations, and yet you are awakening a long series of reactions that invade nearly every branch of physical science. First, the muscles respond to the eye and the will, the hammer moves with great acceleration, and strikes straight and hard, the energy of the blow comes from the chemical transformation going on within the workman’s body, suggesting problems that belong to the profoundest depths of Biology. Secondly, the stroke of the hammer calls forth a clear and cheerful sound from the head of the chisel, a musical ring, with all its problems in acoustics. Thirdly, the hammer, the steel chisel, the soft iron and the chips, become warm and hot, under repeated blows, suggesting problems in Thermo Dynamies, radiation and conduction of heat. Fourthly, the edge of the hard chisel becomes dull, but a deep gash is cut in the soft iron, eventually the edge of the chisel breaks, all of which results are explained by the study of the science of elasticity, as applied to the flow of solids and the exhaustion of metals. Fifthly, a better chisel is picked out and the hammering goes on all day without harm to the tool, proving that its chemical and physical properties differ from the one that is easily broken. If the anvil be of stone, and both it and hammer be insulated and connected with an electrometer, every stroke would be seen to produce electricity.”” Thus we see in such a simple operation the manifold and intricate connection between the sciences and arts, so we see how all practice has its theory, and the better man is he who takes, as it were, both into his confidence, and runs them harmoniously together. It has been said, and it i. a truth incapable of being gainsaid, that science must be joined tv practice in the advancing competition of the world, in order that a nation may retain the strength and energy of manhood. It is certain that the prosperity of a country de- pends mainly on the extent and variety of its natural products, and the manner in which they are utilised: Such being the case, what a great future awaits this colony of Queensland, a country which contains, one might say, the whole list of elements known to science, awaiting development by enterprise and capital, BY J. W. SUTTON. XIII. where both can be employed in peace and security, while at the same time it is being so lavishly expended in foreign lands where the danger of losing both is a factor always to be reckoned with. Our pastoral, agricultural, and mining capabilities know no bounds, and yet so little has been done to give our rising genera- tions that rightful and necessary amount of scientific education, to enable them to utilize and make the best uses of that which nature has so abundantly bestowed upon them and placed at their disposal. It is true a small beginning has been made in the Agricultural College, where the farming youth can learn the science of his own industry, and it is gratifying to learn that at last we are to have a University and School of Mines, and let us hope that, when these are an established fact, no niggardly hand will guide them in the selection of management, and that we shall be in a position to impart to the students learning at least equal to those of older colonies. While re- marking on this subject, it may not be out of place to state that the thanks of the Queensland public are due to those gentlemen who formed the committee of the Brisbane School of Arts in former years, who undertook and successfully supplied a want of secondary education, by the nursing under very great difticulties to maturity the Brisbane Technical College, which is now rendering such good service in the cause of technical education. But the limited means at their disposal, and want of adequate accommodation and apparatus, is very discouraging to those who give their time and labour in carrying on the work, a work which deserves, and is entitled to, as much sympathy and support, as either the Agricultural College, University, or a School of Mines. The rapid progress ofapplied Chemistry in recent years has so combined itself with every industry that no prosperous, well- regulated manufactory is now without its chemical or physical laboratory, according to the arts or occupation for which it is designed to benefit. Chemistry is concerned with the most common acts of our ordinary life, and it is literally true that there is not a moment in which we do not hold the infinite in our hands. Of chemists themselves, the men who have studied the various forms of matter, and have gradually and surely brought it to the point and perfection it has reached at the present time, belonged to various nations. In our own country we had Professor Black, the most methodical of men ; Priestly, XIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. erratic, but original and full of new discoveries; Dalton, essentially a thinker, rather than experimenter ; Davy, the most brilliant and enthusiastic of English workers; Cavendish, the careful worker and founder of many branches of experimental chemistry ; Graham, the atomist and forerunner of the physical chemist of to-day; and Faraday, the perfect type of scientific student of nature. France produced such men as Lavoisier, the founder of scientific chemistry, one of the greatest names in the history of science, and who, by his own countrymen, was sacrificed to the guillotine; Dumas, also a Frenchman, a most enthusiastic chemist and brilliant writer, who lived at the time when organic chemistry began. Germany, also claims a fair share, Liebig, a monument of honour to his nation; Humboldt, a worker in all science; Wohler, one of the greatest workers in organic chemistry ; and Hoffman, the greatest organic chemist ; not forgetting Professor Bunsen, who has so recently passed away. Sweden also stands in the front rank of chemistry, by the labours of Schele and Berzelius. Italy can justly be proud of Avogadro and Cannizzaro, and their works. Russia can also put forward its claim to representation, and among chemists none more distinguished for accurate imagination than Mendeleeff. Of course there are very great numbers of other distinguished names, but the few will suffice to show that science knows no nationality. Research of late has chiefly been confined to investigations in organic compounds and in high and low temperatures. Six new elements have been discovered and isolated, viz. :—Argon, Helium, Crypton, Neon, Metargon, and Victorium, the former five being gases from the atmosphere and mineral sources, the latter an earthy mineral found associated with the Yttrium Groups. Thus, the list of elements is gradually increasing, notwithstanding the ideas held by most leading scientists a few years back, that as time would enable us to obtain more perfect appliances and analysis, they would most likely disclose that some of the so-called elements would be found to be compounds, and hydrogen was looked upon to play an important part in their composition ; but, up to the present the stablity of the elements has not been shaken, although hydrogen has been liquefied and solidfied, and found to be similar in appearance to frozen water ; and in it we have, owing to the enormously low temperature of solid hydrogen, a new weapon for further investigation. BY J. W. SUTTON, XV. Synthetical Chemistry has made great strides since Berthelot’s discovery of the formation of acetyline with its elements, carbon and hydrogen, in 1862, and it is to this branch of chemica] science, that we are indebted at the present time for about 180 compounds of the hydro-carbon series, which are capable of being formed by direct union of their elements ; also by the great variety of beautiful colours and shades, used in calico and other printing, it is estimated that a saving of between two and three million pounds annually has been effected by the artificia] manufacture from tar waste products, to the calico printers and dyers. This industry which was at one time almost entirely in English manufacturing hands, has practically now become a German industry, for the simple reason that the German manu- facturer is either a trained chemist or has the good sense to understand that the problems at the root of the industry are to be trusted only to those with a sound scientific knowledge. This is one of the many instances in which Germany, if not actually outstripping, are running the English manufacturers very closely, more especially in chemical industries, and the reason is not far to seek, when we learn the amount of money, care and attention that is bestowed on Technical Education in that country—indeed some large employers make it compulsory that all their apprentices shall attend Technica] Classes, at least two evenings per week, to learn the science of their own particular industry. Thus are produced workmen who are ever on the alert to improve and cheapen the cost of his own products, instead of mere automatons. It is gratifying to learn that, after having discovered the primary cause of our neighbour’s prosperity, we have taken the hint, and by similar means are widely establishing universities, technical schools, and national physical laboratories, where sound theoretical, practical and scientific education can be obtained by all seeking it. The deficiency of such knowledge or theory by a large majority of inventors, and the enormous waste of time, energy and money, bestowed upon useless and impossible contrivances, must be glaringly apparent to anyone who studies the patents record of various nations, which might have been saved, had the inventor understood the fundamental principle of Thermo Dynamics, Jules’ Law, that the unit of heat can only do 772 foot pounds of work, and inventors proposing to violate that law must either be deficient in theory, or lending themselves L XVI. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. to fraud. It is now about twenty years past, in 1878, when scientific interest was awakened by the experiments, then being carried out by Cailletet of Paris and Pictet of Geneva, in the liquefaction of the gaseous elements. Very little having been done since the time of Faraday. Up to that date, although a number of the more dense gases were liquefied by him, some five or six resisted all atterupts and ingenuity of the time, and some of these were looked upon as being beyond the pos- sibility of liquefaction, so were thought to be permanent gases, until Pictet demonstrated the fact by liquefying oxygen and so upsetting the theory of permanency. He reasoned that if permanent gases are not capable of liquefying, we must conclude that their atoms do not attract each other, and this does not conform to the law of cohesion. Since the time of these researches and ex- periments, gas compression and liquefaction has become a large industry. It has completely revolutionised the aerated water manufacturing, and a large business is done in compressed ammonia for the frozen meat trade, compressed oxygen and hydrogen, both for lighting and inflating military balloons, and nitrous oxide so familiar to those who have occasion to visit the dentist. Hydrogen, as was to be expected, being the lightest element, was the last of the gases to yield, and it is to Professors Dewar and Ramsay that we owe much for their labors in that direction. Hydrogen has not only been liquefied but frozen solid. Much speculation was indulged in as to what solid hydrogen would be like, it was expected by some to be metallic in appearance, something like mercury, but it turns out to be very much like ordinary ice, its temperature being 247° below zero Centigrade, or 26° above absolute zero, it boils at 238" below zero, or 35° above absolute zero. Air at once liqueties and freezes on the outside of a tube containing boiling hydrogen, the exact temperature not yet being definitely settled; owing to the difficulty of constructing a reliable thermometer, but these figures are very nearly true. Absolute zero being 273° Cent. below zero, the certainty of there being a real zero was deduced from the fact that a regular rise or fall in the temperature of a gas, pro- duces a corresponding increase or decrease in the volume, and when it was noted that a gas could be doubled in volume by raising the temperature from the artificial zero, of the Centigrade scale, to 273° Cent. the converse result was apparent. Hence, it was pointed out that if a rise in temperature of 275° Cent., would BY J. W. SUTTON, XVII. increase the volume of gas by an amount equal to the original bulk, a similar decrease in the original volume would require a reduction of the temperature to 273° Cent. below zero, or equal to 459° below ice temperature, Fahrenheit, which is agreed to be the real absolute zero. This is not a creation of the imagina- tion by any means, a gas exists in that particular state owing to the molecules causing vibrations—more heat more rapid the vibrations, less heat less vibrations, no heat no vibrations, the point to which a gas can be cooled, until it can shrink in volume no further. When Fahrenheit devised the scale of our ordinary thermometer in 1714 he appears to have concluded that a mix- ture of chloride of ammodia and snow, produced the most in- tense cooling effect possible, and so named the temperature thus obtained zero, but observations prove that in Siberia it might fall to 90° below this preconceived lowest point, while the mercury of the original Fahrenheit thermometer would freeze at 39° below zero. Alcohol was afterwards used for low tempera- ture recording, so that recent discoveries clearly point out that the real zaro mast be placed very much lower down the scale- The thermometers used in recording these low temperatures are the platinum resistance, based on the curious effect of intense cold increasing the conductivity of the metal. Liquid air, of which we have heard so much of late, and the revolution it is to play inthe near future as a motive power and powerful explosive, has yet to be brought within the limits of commerzial success and usefulness. A power that may be obtained at next to no cost, must be taken with the proverbial grain of salt, and looked upon in the light of the Keely motor. Still there is no doubt that there is a large and useful sphere oOp2n to it, owing to its great exp nsive power, being 800 times its own volume, and the material to be had for the taking, and at the present time a large amount of machinery is being erected, to supply this article for cold storage and other purposes, for which it is proposel to supply it at 9d. per gallon, with possible reductions to half that amount. ‘Thus we have that which was only a short time back a chemical curiosity of the laboratory produced only by the drops, followed by larger quantities avail- able for experimental purposes, and now we have the announce- ments among the articles of the month, of the completion of commercial plants to supply thousands of gallons per day. The story of liquid air is but a repletion of that of aluminium, and XVIII, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. calcium carbide, once a rarity in the laboratory, then a rare material, at so many shillings per ounce, almost ranging with precious metals, and then, all at once, brought by methods of practical Electro Chemistry, into the market as a commercial product, with innumerable applications in the Arts. Aluminium, a beautiful metal, and one of the most plentiful on the earth, is steadily working its way into the arts and manufactures, just so surely and steadily as its cost of production is lessening, The metal was first isolated by Wobler in 1827, but remained as one of the rare metals until 1855, when Deville and Bunsen reduced small quantities by Electrolysis, but the process was found to be far too costly (£20 per lb.) to be of any commercial value. From this time up to 1884, numerous furnace smelting and reduction by sodium methods, were employed, which gradually reduced the cost to 70s. per lb., still a prohibitive price ; but through the introduction of modern electric machinery driven by water power, such as Niagara, the electrolitic process has again been reverted to, and that which cost, forty years ago, 400s. per lb., is being now made by a similar process by modern appliances at 1s. 4d. per lb., thus making it bulk for bulk, cor- responding in price to brass, and taking its place with the common metals. The tensile strain in relation to weight, pure aluminium is as strong as steel of over 80,0001b. per square inch. The total production of this metal in the year 1882 was only 83 lbs., but since that date to the present time has risen to something like 4,000,000 lbs. per annum. The greatest use is as alloys with other metals, particularly copper. The lightness of aluminium, its non-corrosive properties, and the fact that it is antiseptic, renders it a most suitable metal for surgical and optical instruments. ArtiriciaL Licutme.—Of all that trends to the comfort and well-being of mankind, good artificial light stands pre-eminent. Imagine us to-day being suddenly reverted back to the use of the old tallow and wax candle? why, life would become unendurable. The ruddy lights and picturesque shadows faithfully handed on to us by Rembrandt’s pictures point very clearly to what our poets called the dim glimmer of the taper. The advancement in artificial lighting has played no small part in the advent of science and civilization. A few years before the introduction of coal gas, Argand by his improve- ment in burners for oil lamps, enabled our Fathers to BY J. W. SUTTON, XIX. appreciate for the first time the comforts of a white light; and thus the oil lamps replaced in a great measure the candle. But it was not until 1848, when Dr. Lyon Playfair called attention to the oozing of petroleum from the coal seams, then with the discovery of mineral oils in America and Russia, which brought forth the birth of present kerosene oil lamps, which has steadily improved until it has now about reached the climax of perfection. Prior to the introduction of electric lighting, improvements in gas and gas- burning were few and far between, and it was only by Act of Parliament that gas companies were compelled to supply consumers with an article of standard light and quality, in fact, gas companies the world over did just what they pleased ; but within the past sixteen years a great change has come over the scene, electric light companies having given them a shock that has awakened them into a new life and activity, meaning better quality of gas, new and improved burners, and cheaper rates ; and one of the chief factors in enabling them to hold their own is that beautiful invention now so familiar to us all, the Welsbach incandescent mantle. This has been greatly improved since its introduction about eight years ago, thorium being the metal now used in its construction. Still, for a perfect light both for health and comfort, the electric incandescent light stands alone ; it takes nothing from the air and gives nothing to it, excepting a small quantity of heat—less than any other known illuminant ; it costs less to install, and if properly done is the safest, If the cost could be brought down to that of gas, as burnt in the Welsbach burners, it would be universally used. This brings us now to the last and latest rival in artificial lighting, viz., Acetylene. It is now some seventy years past since Edmond Davey, a relation of the great Sir Humphrey, while ex- perimenting in the process of the manufacture of sodium and potassium, noticed that a black residuum was at times formed in the retort, which, practically had the same power of decomposing water as potassium, only that the gas evolved by the decomposition was, instead of being hydrogen, a compound of that element with carbon. The proportion in which these two elements united differed from the composition of any hydrocarbon then known. The material so formed in the retort being a compound of carbon and potassium, which we know now as potassic carbide, while the new hydrocarbon then given XX, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. to the world, was a compound of 24 parts by weight of carbon, with 2 of hydrogen, which we now call Acetylene. Twenty- years later the French chemist, Berthelot, made a series of researches on this gas and proved that as the electric arc passed between carbon electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen, direct combination took place between small particles of both elements and thus Acetylene was synthetically produced, and so it was Berthelot who gave it its name, and as such it remained until 1862, when the German chemist, Wohler, discovered that on fusing an alloy of zinc and calcium at a high temperature with carbon, a compound of carbon and calcium was formed, now known as calcium carbide, and showed that this body in contact with water, gave rise to Acetylene gas, so it may be said that with this year 1862, through thelabours of Berthelot and Wohbler, it was understood and placed in the list of rar® chemicals, and as such it remained for thirty years until 1892. Then commenced the present era of activity in the history of Acteylene, which brings it forth from a condition of a rare chemical to that of a commercial article, destined to play no small part in the world of commerce. About this period Wilson of Canada, experimenting with the electric furnace, noticed the formation of calcic carbide under certain conditions, and he prepared a large quantity, by direct fusing of lime and carbon. The process being simple when the desired heat can be obtained, and the introduction of the electric furnace gives us a mean to that end, lime being a most refractory substance is mixed with coke in a suitable crucible, and a powerful arc set up therein, metallic calcium is formed which immediately unites with the surplus carbon, and produces carbide of calcium, it being very much like in appearance to greyish crystalline lime stone, 1b. of which should produce five cubic feet of gas, giving a light for five hours equal to 240 candles. Calcium carbide on being brought in contact with water, a change of elemerts takes place, the carbon unites with the hydrogen of the water, and escapes as acetylene, the oxygen of the water uniting with the calcium, remains as oxide of calcium or slacked lime. The simplicity of decomposition has brought forth hundreds of inventions of machinery for generating the gas, of which very few are reliable in their action, chiefly owing to the want of technical knowledge of their designers. As to the ultimate position of acetylene in competing with coal gas as an illuminant, there can be no BY J. W. SUTTON. XXII. question that in large towns, coal gas can and will hold its own, but for places beyond the limit of supply, a large field is open to acetylene, but at present, owing to the prejudice against a new and untried article, high rates of carriage, heavy royalties, insufficient and intermittent supply, mitigate much against its adoption. Still, at the present time there are about fifty odd works running and in course of construction, with a production of about 30,000 tons per annum, yet the demand is far above the supply, and now as I write these notes, I learn that a method has been devised whereby the mixing of the gas with some inert matter, it can be sent out from the gas holder through mains and burnt in the ordinary gas fittings. Evecrro Merratturcy.—The progress of electrolysis and electro metallurgy, has within the past few years been very rapid and great. Electrolysis and electrolitic methods, being now largely used in chemical analysis, in preference to older chemical practice, it being much quicker and very accurate, and now that we are able to transform the energy stored in coal, into electric energy with a minimum of loss, and also to transmit that power from sources of cheap production, such as water power, the electrolitic production of materials has extended enormously, in fact, it has entirely revolutionised the chemical industry. In metallurgy the most extensive application of electrolysis have been in con- nection with the refining of copper from the impure matte produced by the smelting furnace. There was in operation in 1897 five electrolitic refiners in Germany, four in France, five in England, two in Russia, and eleven in the United States. I have only been able to obtain the output of the American eleven works for 1896, but it will be sufficient to show, and also what the future will be of this comparatively new and rising industry, made possible only by the late developments of modern dynamo machinery. Thus from eleven works out of twenty-seven no less than 124,000 tons of copper, 14,000,0000zs. of silver, and 70,0000zs. of gold was produced. As the process is now em- ployed, the anode consists of the impure copper, and the cathode of pure copper, the bath being an acid solution of sulphate of copper. Electrolysis is also employed for the separation of nickel from copper, and from gold, silver, and platinum. In these cases the anodes are the matte containing the various metals, and the cathodes are sheets of pure copper, the bath being dilute XXII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. sulphuric acid, the copper going to the cathode, the nicxel dis- solving in the bath, while the gold, silver, and platinum, fall in the form of sludge, the nickel being subsequently separated electrolitically, using insoluble anodes of lead or carbon, and cathodes of nickel. A large amount of attention has been given to the electrolitic production of zinc. There are many difticul- ties, however, in connection with the practical commercial ap- plication of electricity to this metal. Its solutions are poor con- ductors, the metal is frequently deposited in a spongy state, and above all, the low market price of zine renders an electrical pro- cess almost too expensive. The process of Seimens and Halske, and Hoepfner, have both met with some success, but the best results so far have been obtained by the Ashcroft method, in which a solution is obtained by treating oxide of zine with ferric chloride, and electrolysed. This process has been used ona large scale at Broken Hill, but it is not yet altogether demonstrated that the commercial economy of any of the processes is satisfac- tory unless the recovery of the more valuable associated metals are included. At the present time the various processes of electro metallurgy may fairly be considered to have passed the experimental stage, and while there are doubtless many improve- ments to be made, there is every possibility that in the near future, the electrolitic tank will in very many instances replace altogether the more primitive furnace. Wiretess TELEGRAPHY.—Professor Oliver Lodge has said, that at the end of the eighteenth century, the wonder was that you should be able to signal with wires ; now at the end of this nineteenth century, the wonder is that you should be able to signal without wires. Telegraphing without wires has been the dream and aim of electricians for the past thirty years or more, and if anyone were to ask me who discovered wireless telegraphy, I should unhesitatingly say Professor Hughes, not that I desire in the slightest degree to detract one iota of merit from Marconi, whose research and ingenuity has made it a practical success, and who deserves all the honour and merit attached thereto; but at the same time one cannot help sympathising with Professor Hughes, after having’ spent years of labour and research, and actually demonstrating the fact, to be deprived of the honour appertaining thereto. Im 1879 Hughes found that electric sparks from an induction coil or frictional machine, acted on the surrounding medium in form of waves, the laws of BY J. W. SUTTON. XXIII. which at that time he could not understand. The following is his own description of experiments in December, 1879: ‘I invited several persons to see the result then obtained, and amongst others who called and saw my results were W. H. Preece, Sir W. Crookes, Sir W. R. Austin, Professor G. Adams, M. W. Grove, M. Spottswoode, Professor Huxley, Sir G. G. Stokes, and Professor Dewar. ‘They all saw the experiments in aerial transmission by means of the extra current produced from a small coil, and received upon a semi-metallic microphone ; the transmitter and receiver were in different rooms, about 60 feet apart. After trying all distances allowed in my residence, my usual method was to put the transmitter in operation and walk up and down Great Portland-street with the receiver in my hands and the telephone to the ear. The sounds seemed to slightly increase for a distance of 60 yards and gradually diminish, until at 500 yards I could hear no longer with a certainty the transmitted signals. The experiments shown were most successful, and at first they seemed astonished at the results, but towards the close of three hours’ experiments Professor Stokes said that all the results could be explained by known electro-magnetic induction effects, and therefore he could not accept my views of actual aerial electric waves, unknown up to that time. Iwas so discouraged at being unable to convince them of the truth of these aerial electric waves, that I actually refused to write a paper on the subject, until I was_ better prepared to demonstrate the existence of these waves, and I con- tinued my experiments for some years, in hopes of arriving at a perfect scientific demonstration of the existence of aerial electric waves produced by a spark, from the extra current in induction coils, or from frictional electricity. ”’ st i the triumphant demonstration of these waves, was reserved to Professor Hertz, who by his masterly researches upon the subject in 1887 and 1889, completely proved not only their existence, but their identity with ordinary light, in having the power of being reflected and refracted, by means of which the length of the waves could be measured. Hertz’s experiments were far more conclusive than Hughes, although he used a much less effective receiver than the microphone or coherer, and now as we all know, Marconi has lately demonstrated that by the use of the Hertzian waves, and Branley’s coherer he has been able to transmit and receive aerial electric waves, to greater distances XXIV. PRESIDENTIAL AEDRESS. than previously ever dreamed of by the numerous discoverors and inventors, who have laboured silently in this field, and his efforts at demonstrating, merit the success he has received, and the world be right in placing his name on the highest pinnacle in relation to Aérial Telegraphy, but there is no doubt that had Professor Hughes, received the encouragement due to him from eminent scientists, the discovery of Aérial Telegraphy would have dated back 20 years ago. Aérial navigation has been the dream of speculative minds ever since Rozier made the first ascent ever attempted, some 200 years ago. Volumes could be written of the various contrivances, mishaps and misfortunes, that have attended aerial experiments, but of late, since the introduction of aluminium owing to its lightness, a fresh impetus has been given to this subject, and there seems to be some hope that at no distant date, aerial navigation will at least meet with some measure of success, not- withstanding all the disasters and failures of the past. Confidence in a successful issue still prevails in the minds of many practical men. The importance of such an innovation must be patent to all. At the present time there is being constructed in Germany such an aérial ship, which is expected to plough its way through the regions of the air, as the Atlantic liner glides over the ocean. This vessel is being built on a floating pontoon, and has the out- ward appearance of an iron-clad war vessel, but as delicate in structure as a gigantic bird-cage. The framing is entirely of aluminium, together with all the fittings and utensils. The pro- pelling machine is of the lightest description, internally she is floated by balloons, her speed is to be 22 miles per hour and a total lifting capacity of 10 tons. Her cost is something over £70,000, and we may hear very soon of the first trial of this novel and expensive venture, as much is expected from this event, since such an amount of money and skill has never before been expended on such an enterprise. All calculations have been so accurately made, every contingency so carefully considered, each possibility of failure so cautiously guarded against, that we can- not but hope that success will follow. So while we have in Germany experiments going on in Aérial Navigation, we have at the same time, both in France and America, submarine navagation receiving a large amount of attention and experiment, especially in France quite a flotilla of these vessels of various designs have been built, from the BY J. W. SUTTON. XXYV. “‘Gustave Zede”’ to the present latest, the ‘‘ Narval.’’ This boat is propelled by oil engines for surface work, and electric accumul- ators for submerged propelling, which are sufficient to propel her, at surface, 250 miles at 8 knots per hour; her displacement being 160 tons. The “ Argonaut’ and ‘ Holland”’ of the Americans are both said to have done marvellous work on their trials, but at the present their scope does not appear to be beyond a usefulness for harbour defence ; however they seem to bid fair to compete with the ‘‘ Nautilus” of extravagant fiction. When Jules Verne wrote his description of this boat, every one was taken with the strangeness of the idea. The author had merely collected together a number of old and new theories and clothed his conception in seemingly practical garb. Swift’s account of the Island of Laputa, was based upon a curiously distorted theory of magnetism, sufficiently possible to make it interesting ; and Buller Lytton’s ‘‘ Coming Race,” in so far as Vril is concerned, turns upon a little more than the successful storage of electricity of high potential. And now in conclusion let me add just a few words of tribute to our parent, the Royal Society of London, which has for the past 250 years, been an eye witness of the birth, rise, and pro- gress of science; one which has at all times embraced within its membership the brightest scientific intellects of all nations, and one which recognises that ‘‘ honour and fame from no condition rise.’’ A society from which all other societies, special in their character have sprung, and it may well say unto itself, in the words of Tennyson, ‘‘ For men may come, and men my go, but I go on for ever.”’ A vote of thanks to the retiring President for his address was moved by the Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C., seconded by the Hon. Dr. Taylor, M.U.C., and carried. The Election of Officers for the year 1900, then took place with the following result :—DPresident, John Thomson. M.B. ; Vice-President, W. J. Byram ; Hon. Treasurer, Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C.; Hon. Secretary, J. F. Bailey; Hon. Librarian, R. Illidge; Members of Council, F. M. Bailey, F.L.8., A. G. Jackson, C. J. Pound, F.R.M.S., J. Shirley, B.Sc., and J. W. Sutton; Hon. Auditor, A. J. Turner. A vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring officers, after which the proceedings terminated. bic, t j | , / ae. F| { " re, Al ie ay 5 t Ss f ; P END OF VOLUME XV. NOTES ON THE ENTOMOLOGY OF A TEA-TREE SWAMP. By R. ILLIDGE. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 18th March, 1899. | SompreE and forbidding as is the appearance of a tea-tree swamp, yet there is much of interest to the lover of nature contained within its limits. Many of the trees are at present in flower, and the leaves themselves have a pleasant aromatic smell. Bird life is usually abundant, parrots alone, of two or three species, living upon the honey contained within the blossoms. Reptiles also are well represented, frogs and snakes being plentiful. However, it is not my intention to say anything further upon the higher animal life of these swamps, but to give a few notes upon the insect life, which, beyond the mosquito, to most people appears almost ni/. Not so, however, is this the case, for but little research reveals a great variety of interesting forms. But few butterflies are found in the swamp, and these merely are attracted by the flowers, not being true denizens of it, though members of the pieridae feed on loranthus parasitic on trees around its margin, as do also several species of skippers and a satyrid, Melanitis leda, upon certain kinds of grass growing within its borders. Tunnelling the stems of melaleuca trees are several species of xylorycts, one very beautiful hepialid, charagia eximia (not, however, confined to the melaleuca, but frequently found therein). Other interesting borers which attack these trees comprise several species of longicorn beetles, of which the most noteworthy is A 2 NOTES ON THE ENTOMOLOGY OF A TEA-TREE SWAMP. Symphyletes farinosus, the life history of which we have lately worked out. Another very pretty species is Zygocera pruinosa, which was found commonly along with the first mentioned. It is not, however, peculiar to the tea-tree, for we have obtained the larvee and reared the perfect insects from various eucalypts. Predatory upon the larve of the above is the grub of a large elaterid beetle, Alaus sp. Another insect observed as emerging from the decayed stems is a tenebrionid, belonging to the beautiful genus Chalcopterus. Upon coming out from the pupa, this insect was bright rosy, with an iridescent sheen, which soon, however, changed to the usual metallic blue green. Its life history we have not yet clearly worked out. Moths of many other families, the larvee of which feed upon these swamp plants, are plentiful enough. Bombyces are represented by Teara protrahens, the caterpillars of which are gregarious, and eat the leaves of melaleuca. The most abun- dantly represented family is, however, that of the pyrales, of which very many species are found in the swamps. One very singular species attached to the tea-tree is gregarious, each insect forming a bottle-shaped nest, or cocoon, in fact, it serves both purposes. They may be often found twenty or thirty together on one little bush. The larva comes out at the lower end, which is prolonged into a tube some inches in length, to feed upon the leaves, and usually retreats backwards immediately it is disturbed. Living in small communities, and arranged in regular order around the twigs, are found strange, repulsive-looking grubs. Posteriorly these larvee are attenuated into tail-like processes, which wriggle about on the slightest disturbance, and probably are of a protective nature, in that they cause birds and animals to avoid them under the impression that they are stings. Asa further protection, they also exude upon being touched a most disagreeable liquid. Neither birds nor animals appear to attack them. During the day-time they remain quiescent in the manner above mentioned, but at night they wander in search of food, the leaves of the twigs in their immediate vicinity. When full fed they burrow through the scaly bark of the tea-tree to the young wood, sometimes into it, and spin their cocoons. Such is a slight account of the saw-fly of the tea-tree. BY R. ILLIDGE. 3 There are many other insects. Some conspicuous for size are orthopterous, and commonly known as walking-stick insects, one species of which, attached to the swamp mahogany, is at least 6 inches long in the 9, but has rather small wings, for they do not expand more than 21 inches, hence are more ornamental than useful; the 3, however, flies well, and is, for these insects, quite an active creature. However, as it would take up considerable time to go further into the entomology of a tea-tree swamp, I draw these very few notes to a conclusion, and would now respectfully draw your attention to the exhibit partly in connection with same, as it unfortunately only represents two orders of imsects, the lepidoptera and coleoptera. STONE COOKING-HOLES OF THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. By R. H. MATHEWS. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 18th March, 1899.]| faa one nw paell = ‘ THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. By W. J. BYRAM. [A Lecture delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 22nd April, 1899.] Of all the inscrutable problems for the solution of which man has vainly groped since his mental powers were so far developed as to enable him to reason the most momentous has been the supreme question ‘‘ What is Life?’’ We see the- manifold manifestations of life around us day by day in animal and plant; we associate with it the phenomena of spontaneous movement, of nutrition, of growth, of reproduction; we feel it in ourselves through the medium of its highest manifestation, our consciousness ; we arein contact with it everywhere, always ; and we are so intimate with it and its correlative, death, that we look upon both with the unquestioning eye of familiarity, and strangely forget that here we are in the presence of the greatest of all marvels, the most profound of all mysteries. We talk as a matter of course in a hundred varied phrases of every day life, of mind, of soul, of spirit; we fill our literature with beautiful conceptions concerning them, and our poetry especially clothes them in lovely images and telling metaphors; but in the silence of our studies—in those critical phases of our thought when the glamour of poetry is withdrawn and the scientific method dominates us we pause in awe and ask ourselves the old-time questions ‘“‘ What ?’’ and ‘‘ Whither?’’ Then we well know that if science cannot approximate to any answer to those questions they must rest for ever ‘‘ behind the veil.’ All the vast speculations, all the grandeur of thought and subtlety of diction of the greatest of the abstract philosophers have been but so much vain beating of the air in all that concerns these momentous problems. Not in the arena of speculative philosophy, not in the tenets of any theological system, but in the cautious method of science lies the possibility of some adumbration of 6 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. the truth. But though we know that in all probability the problem is insoluble to our finite faculties, though we know that we must fail under all existing conditions to reach the life source, — there is a wonderful fascination in even approaching it, and in scrutinizing in its beginnings the mystery which afterwards passes through such infinitely varied phases, and culminates at last in that transcendent marvel conscious intelligence. There is a little poem of Tennyson’s which you will at once re- member :— Flower in the crannied wall I pluck you out of the crannies ; Hold you here, root and all, in my hand Little flower—but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all I should know what God and man is. We have been apt to smile at that, and treat it as so much poetical hyperbole. But it is true notwithstanding. We cannot understand what the little flower is, for it involves the mystery of life; and though modern science is unlocking ‘‘ door by door of mystery,” we are nevertheless convinced that each unlocking will but reveal a vista of vaster mysteries beyond. You will remember that so profound a philosopher as Herbert Spencer has reminded us in his “ First Principles ” that of necessity explanation must eventually bring us down to the inexplicable, the deepest truth we can get at must be unaccountable ; comprehension must be something other than comprehension before the ultimate fact can be comprehended. Yet, even while the recognition of these limitations fills us with humility, we cannot resist the overmastering temptation of getting as near as we may to the threshold of the unknowable. We know that our quest is a struggle against the infinite, but the very attempt is an elevating effort, which leaves him who makes it with broader views and higher thoughts and nobler alms. You sit down to your microscope some evening and place on its stage a drop of water from some favourable locality. You see disclosed to your scrutiny a new world of life and beauty before undreamed of ; but you must be blind for awhile to all the seemingly more striking objects in the field of view and con- centrate your attention upon a certain insignificant jelly-like patch (Ameba), which is attached to the cover-glass; which BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 7 displays a very slow, gradual, diffluent movement, and keeps putting forth parts of its substance in the form of protuberances or processes. There you have the whole life-problem before you, ere you have fairly realised that you are looking at anything at all. That greyish-white, glairy, albuminous-looking patch is an amceba, a term which means ‘formless’’; and, as the name implies, the ameba is a shapeless speck quite invisible to the naked eye. An insignificant speck truly, but a speck of a most marvellous substance, protoplasm, which differs from all other substances in having as one of its attributes life or vitality. Well has protoplasm been designated by the late Professor Huxley ‘the physical basis of life,” for whether in the protozoon, or lowliest animal, in the protophyte or simplest plant, in a mush- room, in a tree, in a worm, or in a man it is the seat of the wonderful vital phenomena, and is the source and fount alike of all the bewildering complexity of the organic world. We now see that the understanding of Tennyson’s little flower involves the understanding of protoplasm ; and you might substitute for the complex flowering plant our amceba and apply the poet’s apostrophe to it equally well. The ameceba, therefore, is of pro- found interest to us as the type of the biological unit—the single cell. Here, on using the term cell for the first time, we must get a clear conception of what we mean. ‘The term was brought into prominence in the first half of the present century by two German biologists (Schleiden and Schwann), and they both defined the cell as a minute vesicle enclosing fluid contents, that is to say, a small chamber or cellula, in the true sense of the word. This conception is a good example of one of those half truths which are often the first fruits of the scientific method. The definition exactly describes the usual form of the plant cell, and certain forms of animal cell ; but we now know many forms of both the plant and animal cell in which the cell wall is entirely wanting. The research of the past fifty years has resulted in the modification of the idea of an enclosed vesicle ; and although we still retain the term ‘cell’’ as a convenient mode of referring to the biological unit, we associate with it the modern definition, which simply declares that the cell is a minute mass of protoplasm endowed with the attribute of life. Looking at our ameba again we see that the idea of a vesicle cannot be applied to it, for it has no investing membrane. All 8 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. we can notice is that the outer portion of its protoplasm is rather denser than the inner, and is free from granules. In the interior the protoplasm is much more fluid and is filled with streaming granules. In this inner portion we observe a small round or oval body called the nucleus, which is of different chemical composition to the surrounding plasm and in which the vital activity seems to be centred, for it has been shown that if the nucleus be removed the cell may still exhibit movement and irritability, but can neither grow nor persist. In the diagram also you will observe a space marked P.Y., which stands for pul- sating vacuole. Kindly remember that space for I shall refer to it again presently. We see, too, that the creature slowly, almost — imperceptibly, puts out finger-like processes, which are techni- cally called pseudopodia, or false feet. They may well be styled false feet, for they are not feet at all; they are simply prolon- gations of the protoplasm, and they are drawn in in one place and put out in another indiscriminately. By means of these pseudopodia the amceba creeps in a sluggish diffluent way across the glass, and it also uses them as tentacles to enable it to capture food particles. This brings us to another interesting phase of amceba life—the way it takes its food. It is a way that I have often wished that I could imitate myself when I have had the toothache. A food particle comes in contact with the surface of the cell, a process is put forth on each side of it, the processes close round it and it is drawn into the centre of the cell, where the nutrient matter is absorbed. You know the Yankee slang phrase which represents a man as ‘ getting outside of’’ his victuals. The amceba realises that to perfection, and I have seen it in its sluggish way ‘‘ get outside of’’ an immense meal of small things. Such aldermanic feeding powers cause the creature to increase in bulk, and when such increase has pro- ceeded far enough it sets to work to reproduce its species. This is an equally simple process. A constriction appears in its nucleus and gradually the cell divides into two cells, each of them the counterpart of the original, though of course smaller in size. It is on this account that Professor Weismann has declared that under favourable conditions the ameba is immortal, that is, that it would go on subdividing in this way indefinitely. But we now know that this is not the case. After a certain number of subdivisions the momentum seems to be lost; and it appears to BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 9 be restored by a remarkable reversal of the process. Occasionally two amceba are seen to approach each other, to meet, and gradually fuse into one. There is an interchange of nuclear material, and the result of the fusion is renovated powers of reproduction by subdivision. If you ask me why this union and interchange should effect this result, 1 can only answer ‘‘ behind the veil.”’ But while you have been looking at your ameba ina spirit of lofty criticism, you have been forgetting one little fact. If the ameba was not a remote ancestor of your own, something very like it was. It isa striking confirmation of this fact that the ova or egg cells from which the higher organisms are developed are in their earlier stages indistinguishable from amoebae. The diagram shows the young stages of the ova or egg-cells. They are minute nucleated masses of protoplasm, from 1/200th to 1/220th of an inch in diameter, which put out processes or pseudopodia, perform the amceboid movements, and correspond very closely with the ordinary form of the amceba. The mature ovum, of which a diagram is now projected, has secreted a thin translucent cell wall, and neither puts out processes nor exhibits amcebiform motions. If you did not remember its earlier phases you might not consider that there was any analogy whatever between it and the ameba. But the correspondence is very strikingly shown by the fact that the amceba itself at certain times assumes what is known as the encysted condition, when it draws in all its processes, develops a cell-wall, and no longer shows the streaming and diftluent movements characteristic of the ordinary form. We thus see that the usual phase of the amceba corresponds to the young stage of the egg-cell, and the encysted amceba to the mature ovum. The ameeba, therefore, begins to assume an interest and importance for us that we had not thought. That in the ontogeny of each one of us there was a time, when we were what it is, isan incontestable fact, and, knowing this, we have no difficulty in realising what the law of evolution declares, that in our phylogeny or race-history the amceba represents one of our earliest ancestors. The ancient Egyptians used to have a skeleton at their feasts, with a memento, ‘‘ Such as he is you soon will be’’; but the memento before me lately has related to the beginning, for I never look at an amceba without thinking, ‘‘ Such as it is so once were you.” If you still think that you have no connection with such a 10 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, diffluent jelly speck as the amceba, just run a penknife blade into the back of your wrist, put a drop of your blood on a slide, dilute it slightly, put a cover glass on it, and examine it with a high power. You will see what is now thrown on the screen. Amongst the red blood globules, or corpuscles, you will notice, if you observe patiently, something which will make you exclaim, ‘That is very like an amceba; are there amcebae in my blood ?” Yes, the leucocytes or white corpuscles of the blood are the analogues of amcebae, they perform the amcboid movements, put out processes, multiply by subdivision, and ingest solid particles, chiefly the bacteria which gain entrance to the system. This is beautifully shown in the two very remarkable and typical preparations made by Mr. Pound, the slides of which he has been so kind as to lend me. In the first you will see that the leucocyte is winning the day; it keeps intact, and is demolishing the invading bacilli. In the next the invaders are victorious, and the leucocyte is undergoing disruption, with the result that the death of the animal would ensue. What then is protoplasm ? That question brings us to the threshold of the unknowable. Protoplasm is not a single chemical substance. It is a vast complex of a large number of chemical substances known as proteids. These proteids are themselves, even looked at singly, the most complex of all known organic substances. To take an instance, certain ambitious chemists have endeavoured to express the molecule of one of them, egg albumen, by the formula C72, H106, N18, S022, meaning that in its composition 72 parts of carbon, 106 parts of hydrogen, 18 parts of nitrogen, 1 part of sulphur, and 22 parts of oxygen are united in chemical combination. Considering that this is an approximation to the composition of one of the proteids, and that protoplasm is a complex of proteids influencing and reacting on each other in ways we cannot at present even dream of, you will realise with what a baffling mystery we are confronted. The scientific writers of a few decades back were accustomed to speak of the homogeneity of protoplasm and of the structureless character of the cell, and the poets still glibly affirm, like Sir Lewis Morris, that science has Thrust life to its utmost home, Aspeck of grey, no more nor higher. BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. iii A speck of grey, truly, but that speck in itself a labyrinth of matter, a laboratory of chemical activities utterly baffling in their bewildering complexity. Bearing in mind then that remarks about the homogeneity of protoplasm and the structureless nature of the cell are defective, let us pass on to scrutinize some further examples of cells. Turning back to our microscope, we shall not unlikely observe a whitish-grey spherical body, rayed like the small diagrams of the sun given in the text books of physical geography. | This is the sun-animaleule, or actinophrys sol, as it is called scientifically, an organism very little higher in the scale of being than the ameba. It consists of but a single cell, a speck of protoplasm, which contains in its interior a number of empty spaces or vacuoles. At one side is a remarkable round space, which opens and closes with a regular rythmic pulsation like a minute colourless heart; this space, known as the pulsating or contractile vacuole, which we also saw in the amoeba, seems to indicate a kind of rudimentary respiration. The water in which the sun-animalcule and amceba live has oxygen gas dissolved in it, and through the contractile vacuole the oxygenated water is distributed through the various spaces of the cell. The ameeba and the sun-animalcule cannot live in water which has been boiled, and from which consequently all the oxygen has been expelled, and if we keep the cover glass of the live cage upon them they become languid, and afterwards break to pieces. ‘There is, therefore, certainly a process of respiration. The sun-animalcule feeds and reproduces by sub- division in the same simple way as the ameeba. And here again the subdividing process cannot go on indefinitely, for occasionally there is a union of two individuals as a prelude to increased powers of subdivision. How wonderful that all the essential vital functions should be present in that minute jelly speck! Having no stomach, it feeds and digests; having no respiratory apparatus, it performs the equivalent of breathing; having no nerves, it feels the slightest touch of any small creature that strikes its rays, for they bend together at the contact ; having no eyes, it is so sensitive to light that it will shift to the side of a glass trough which is illuminated by a sunbeam. Leaving the sun-animalcule, we take a little fresh yeast which we have obtained from our baker and examine it under the microscope. With a high power we find that it consists of a 12 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. vast number of cells of globular elliptical form moving in fluid. These bodies are the yeast plant or Saccharomyces which produces the frothy fermentation of the yeast. They are unicellular plants, minute points of protoplasm surrounded with a very thin delicate cell wall, and by employing special methods of investigation a nucleus can be detected. The mode of repro- duction in the yeast plant is peculiar. A small bud-like pro- tuberance of protoplasm forms at the surface of the cell pushing out the cell wall before it. It enlarges, and at last a partition forms between it and the mother cell. Ultimately it separates, but before doing so may itself develop a bud, so that sometimes chains or groups of cells are formed. Placing the yeast aside we take from one of our collecting flasks a drop of water obtained from a pond after a thunder- shower and which attracted attention by its uniform green tinge. On examination under the microscope we are surprised to find that the green tinge is due to a multitude of ovoid cells filled with bright green colouring matter interspersed with occasional spots of red. Each of these ovoid bodies is a little plant which consists of but a single cell and which has received the alarming name of Protococecus pluvialis—a name, however, which ceases to be a bugbear when we perceive that protococcus is simply a compound of two Greek words meaning primary grain or granule, and that pluvialis is a Latin adjective pointing to the fact that you are likely to find the little plant in your tanks after a heavy shower. Continuing your examination you see that the ovoid cells have a thick colourless cell wall enclosing the protoplasm in which we observe the nucleus and the bright green colouring matter known as Chlorophyll, which we see in the leaves of plants. The little cells are quite motionless, but keep them under examination patiently and notice what happens. The protoplasm of the cell divides into two, and the process is soon afterwards repeated, so that there result from four to as many as sixteen daughter cells contained within the cell wall of the mother cell. The enclosed cells assume a pear-like form, the cell wall bursts and the daughter cells are set free. As soon as this happens we are surprised to see that the free cells begin to swim actively about, and by careful treatment of one of them we are able to discern that the movement is caused by two long delicate filaments or processes, which have developed at the pointed end. BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 13 These filameats are technically called flagella. They act as propellers and their motion is so rapid that it is difficult to see them. After swimming about actively for a time the cells come to rest, draw in their flagella, develop a thick cell wall, and pass into the resting stage, to recommence another life-cycle of the same kind. I have called the protococcus a plant because it is filled with the green colouring matter of plants, chlorophyll, and because it obtains its nutriment as plants do by decomposing carbonic acid gas, appropriating the carbon, which is one of the elements of which that gas is composed, and giving off oxygen, the other constituent. Animals, on the other hand, cannot feed in this way, but derive their nourishment from already formed organic matter, which they submit to a process of digestion. Notwithstanding this distinction, we are now in the borderland between animal and plant, and we find that there is no line of demarcation between them. The protoplasm of the amceba, of the sun-animalcule, of the human leucocytes is the protoplasm of the yeast plant, of the protococcus, and of Tennyson’s ‘‘ flower in the crannied wall.” Itis all very well to compare a wallaby with a gum tree, and ask incredulously whether there is not a very decided line of demarcation between animal and plant. Look into your microscope again. Amongst the protococcus cells you see a spindle-shaped body as brilliantly green as them- selves. One end is blunt, or snout-like, and is furnished with a long translucent filament or flagellum, just lke the flagella of the motile stage of protococcus. It swims rapidly, and performs peculiar contracting, expanding, and twisting movements as if it were elastic. This strange body is a lowly animalcule, the Kuglena. It is a mere point of protoplasm—a single cell—and we notice in its protoplasm the nucleus and the same remarkable pulsating vacuole which interested us in the sun-animalcule. At the snout-like end is a bright red pigment spot, which the discoverer of the creature took for an eye, and from it chose the Greek name Euglena, or bright-eyed. It is not even a rudimentary eye, however, for though the Euglena is sensitive to light, the greatest sensitiveness is in the other end of the cell, away from the pigment spot. The Euglena has, however, really the rudiment of a mouth, though it consists of but a simple depression or groove into the soft interior protoplasm. Through this depression minute nutrient particles are carried into the interior. But the remarkable fact is, that while the Euglena 14 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. feeds in this way—the strictly animal way—it also obtains nutriment like a plant. It is filled with chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of plants, and under the influence of sunlight it can decompose carbonic acid gas, taking to itself the carbon and giving off the oxygen. Like protococcus, too, it passes into the resting condition, in which it loses it flagellum, secretes a cell wall, and undergoes the same phases of subdivision within the envelope, rupture of the envelope, and escape of the daughter cells. We thus see that in the Euglena there is a blending of the essential plant and animal characteristics; it is the one or the other as we list. The same doubtful position is occupied by a remarkable group of organisms known as Myxomycetes, or slime- fungi, which are found on bark, stones, or decaying vegetable matter. They are extended expansions of protoplasm, so ramified and interlaced as to form a network. The illustration shows one of them. Strange fo say, these so-called fungi are constituted by the fusion of a number of organisms indistinguish- able from amcebae, as becomes evident if we keep them under observation for a time. The protoplasm of the network, or plasmodium, as it is called, breaks up after arranging itself into a number of spherical spores, each surrounded by a cell wall of cellulose—a starch-like substance of which the wall of the typical plant cells is composed. These spores burst their enclosing cysts and assume the form of small amcebae, which, after remaining free for a time, coalesce to form the expansion or plasmodium with which we started. As if the more conclusively to show that nature abhors a line of demarcation even more than a vacuum came the discovery of Professor Haeckel, in the Canary Islands, of a minute orange-red marine organism of the lowest type of animal life, which he called protomyxa. It bears a striking resemblance to the slime-fungi just referred to. Like them, it is a network of protoplasm, which interlace and exhibit a constantly flowing and changing movement. In this phase it feeds like an ameeba, by the ingestion of small creatures. But after a time the tree-like extensions are alldrawn in. Then the interior protoplasm divides into a number of bodies, first spherical, but afterwards pear-shaped, and furnished with processes. The sphere bursts, and these bodies being set free swim actively about by means of their flagella. Soon they become transformed into amcebe, which coalesce to form the extended network or plasmodium. Another lowly animal of BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 15 a kindred nature, known as labyrinthula, forms a ramified expansion of protoplasm upon submerged objects, and another form, known as Vampyrella, attaches itself to microscopic plants and sucks out their protoplasm. You see it in the illustration attached to a stalked diatom. These strange organisms with their alternation of generations bring home to us the conviction that we are in the debatable land between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and show us that the distinction between them diminishes until it is finally lost. Turning back to our microscope we observe in the field of view a number of fairy mats of a beautiful light green colour, with indented edges. In these we have an instance of a very large family of microscopic plants, the desmids, a word which means ribbon or chain-like, because they grow in ponds attached to water weeds in chain-like tufts. They are single cells—minute points of protoplasm— surrounded by an investing membrane, and they are remarkable for the beauty and variety of their forms—crosses, triangles, crescents, hour-glasses, spindles, circles, stars, cylinders, purses, hearts, ribbons, bands, necklaces, fairy mats. The photomicro- graph is of the latter form, known as Micrasterias, or little star. If you keep one of these little plants under patient observation you will see that the notch in the centre, or suture, as it is called, gradually widens, a hyaline protuberance is put forth on each side ; each protuberance becomes lobed, and gradually grows into anew half-cell. Two cells thus result from the one, and separate to lead an independent life. But here again we find that the process of subdivision cannot go on indefinitely, but has to be recovered by the reverse process of union. At times two of the little plants meet, and their contents blend together. The result is the formation of a body so different in colour and appearance from either of them that if you had not actually witnessed the process you would not connect it with the desmid. This body is circular, its colour is light red, and it has long pellucid arms, indented at the extremities. It is known technically as a zygospore, that is a spore resulting from the process of conjugation. These zygospores sink into the mud, and will bear being dried up in the worst drought. At the first shower of rain they burst, and the contents develop into the ordinary fairy mats. The formation of zygospores is well seen in another little plant, the spirogyra. You cannot fail to have noticed the green slime which floats in tangled masses on 16 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. standing water. If you examine some of this slime under the microscope you will see that it consists of beautiful green filaments, made up of cells placed end to end. The cells reproduce by subdivision, but here again at times two filaments (as far as we can see, in all respects identical) approach each other. Canals are thrown across to opposite cells, and through these canals the cells on one side pour their contents into the cells on the other. The contents fuse together, and form a reddish brown oval spore in each of the latter cells. Then the membrane bursts and the spores are set free. These spores may be dried up and carried by the wind to vast distances. At the return of favourable conditions they acquire flagella, swim about actively for a time, and then gradually develop into the usual filamentous form. The next illustration shows another form of flagellate animalcule, which is so large as to be just visible to the naked eye. It is remarkable as being the cause of the phosphorescent light which you often notice in the sea; and it is therefore aptly named noctiluea, or the night-light. It is a peach-shaped body, and grooved something like a peach. From the groove proceeds the whip-like filament or flagellum. In the interior of the cell is seen the protoplasm, branching in all directions so as to form a reticulated mass. The light has a beautiful greenish tinge, and appears to originate from the marginal portion of the protoplasm, and to be due to electric action.. When the noctilucae are very numerous they give rise to streams or tracks of light after any object moving through the water, a phenomenon which suggested the fantastic imagery of Coleridge in the ‘“ Ancient Mariner ’’— Beyond the shadow of the ship I watched the water-snakes. They moved in tracks of shining white, And when they reared the elfish light Fell off in hoary flakes. The diagram now shown illustrates the beautiful slipper animalcule, or paramecium, as it is called scientifically, an animalcule common in ponds and standing water. As it darts into the field of view we notice that it is surrounded with minute quivering hair-like processes, known as cilia, which glisten like spun glass. These cilia are the same thing as flagella; they are prolongations of the protoplasm, but they are far more numerous and delicate. We observe, too, in the protoplasm a groove or BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 17/ primitive gullet, and two pulsating vacuoles, one at each end. These vacuoles, shown separately in the diagram, are more complicated than in the amceba or sun-animalcule, for as they pulsate we notice from six to ten delicate spindle-shaped spaces forming star-like vacuoles. The paramcecium reproduces by subdivision, and in it also, as the researches of Hertwig and others have shown, we have the same phenomenon of the union of two individuals as a momentum to renewed powers of feeding and subdividing. Hertwig says that the union brings about a complete reorganisation of the nuclear apparatus and at the same time of the infusorian. The individuals which have thus become rejuvenated have regained the capacity of multiplying enormously by means of division, until again the necessity for a new conjugation arises. During a period of six and a-half days a single individual, when provided with sufficient nourishment, divides thirteen times, that is to say, produces about 8,000 descendants. If we have water weeds under examination, we often see pendent from them a number of _ beautiful little crystal bells on flexile stalks, which expand to a straight line and suddenly contract in corkscrew fashion as the bell darts downwards. These are the vorticellae, or bell flower animalcules, another example of the ciliated infusoria. We notice that each bell is crowned with a circlet of cilia in rapid vibration, and as they vibrate little whirlpools or vortices are produced in the surrounding water. Like all the other lowly forms that we have reviewed, the vorticella reproduces by subdivision, and when a colony gets too large some of the members of it detach them- selves from their stalks and swim away to find fresh pastures elsewhere. This is a mere method of dispersion, but at times, if we watch the bells closely, we observe a cluster of buds at the base of certain of them, which looks something like a minute crystal bunch of grapes. These buds develop cilia, detach themselves, and after swimming about for a time approach the bells and gradually fuse into them. This is another phase of conjugation, and after it the vorticella acquires quickened powers of feeding and subdividing. As instances of other infusors we may notice the opalina and gregarina, which are curious as showing how species of infusoria can become parasitic. The opalina is found in the large intestine of the common frog, where it is nourished by the partially digested food of its host. The B 18 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. gregarina is found chiefly in the intestinal canal of the earth- worm. The ordinary adult form is shown in the diagram a. Instead of cilia it has at the distal end a small circlet of hooklets. Diagrams B and c show two individuals uniting. They fuse and pass into the encysted condition as at p; then the protoplasm breaks up into an immense number of spores, as at Fr, the investment bursts, and each spore develops into a new gregarina. Those earth-worms have my profound sympathy. But while you have been considering these infusors, and perhaps feeling some disgust at the parasitic forms, you may not have realised that here again you are in contact with creatures which have an intimate connection with yourself. The human body furnishes examples of a multitude of infusors, which are part and parcel of us, just as the blood globules and leucocytes are part and parcel of us. The whole of the respiratory tract, the lower parts of the nasal passages, the central canal of the spinal cord, and other parts of the body are lined with cells, which are furnished with cilia, and if detached will swim about by means of their cilia and maintain for a time an independent life, like true infusors. These ciliated epithelial cells are shown in the photomicrograph now on the screen. In all the instances which we have considered we have had cells either consisting of naked protoplasm or surrounded by a cell wall of cellulose, the starch-like substance already mentioned ; but in a very large family of microscopic plants, or animals, as some still insist, the diatomaceae, the protoplasm is enclosed in a minute silicious test or shell. These casings consist of double valves of pure silex or flint, and are objects of exquisite beauty, not only from the variety of their forms, but from the mathe- matical accuracy of their shapes and the marvellously minute markings uponthem. In the living state they are filled with a yellow or yellowish green colouring matter, and they are endowed with the power of spontaneous movement, the cause of which is obscure, for they are not furnished with flagella or cilia or any other apparent means of locomotion. The variety and beauty of their forms is shown in the photomicrograph, which is a portion of a strewn slide of 150. [Dk. ground.] That is a smaller portion of the same slide which I have taken with dark ground. [Dk. ground triceratium.] That is a triceratium, or triangular diatom, alsoona darkground. [Group.] This photomicrograph is a grouped slide, from which you will see the mathematical BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 19 precision of the shapes. [Arachnoidiscus.] That is the beautiful arachnoidiscus, or spider-web disc, the reason for the name being obvious. [Pleurosigma.] That photomicrograph is the beautiful pleurosigma under a high power. And I should like to direct your attention to the small portion at the side turned back so as to show the two sets of markings. Itisa pretty feat of mounting that, when we consider that the whole object is a minute point invisible to the naked eye. The diatomaceae occur in every part of the world in countless myriads, and how numerous these minute organisms have been in the geological past you will realise when you learn that they occur fossil to such an extent that whole strata consist of little else, and whole mountains are composed of them. The slide now projected shows some of this diatomaceous earth. The enclosure of the protoplasm in a test or shell occurs in a variety of other forms. In the animalcule called Gromia, the shell or carapace is of chitin, a peculiar horny nitrogenous substance, of which the wing cases of certain insects are also composed. In the shell there is only a single small orifice at one end, and through this the protoplasm streams forth abundantly, completely investing the shell externally, and branching and re-branching and interlacing so as to form a delicately complicated network. The carapace is the home-centre, and in states of quiescence the whole of the protoplasm is withdrawn into it. The creature is like an amceba that has acquired a shell. Another example of the enclosure of the protoplasm in a test or shell is seen in the beautiful little creature, Clathrulina elegans. That name sounds formidable, but the word Clath- rulina simply means little trellis or grating, and you will at once see that the name has been given to it on account of the perforations in its shell. The shellis placed upon a stalk, which, like the shell itself, is composed of silex or flint. The creature is a speck of protoplasm, and through the apertures of the shell it puts forth rays like the sun-animalcule. This comparison with the sun-animalcule is no fancied resemblance, as the method of reproduction shows. At times numerous small oval masses of protoplasm are formed within the shell. They escape, acquire flagella and swim about actively. Then they assume the form of free sun-animalculae, and ultimately gradually acquire the silicious shell and stalk. From these forms the transition is 20 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. obvious to the two extensive and beautiful marine groups of the radiolaria and foraminifera. The radiolaria are so called from the raylike arrangement of their processes or pseudopodia. Like the last form, they are sun-animalcules, enclosed in silicious tests or shells. These shells are of remarkable beauty and variety, as you will see from the photomicrograph of some of them, taken with dark ground illumination. In the next two illustrations the radiolaria are represented in their living state, with the rays protruding from the numerous orifices. No less striking from the variety and graceful sculpture of their forms are the foraminifera. In their case, however, the tests or shells are not composed of flint, but of carbonate of lime. The animal itself is simply a point of protoplasm resembling the ameceba, and, like it, putting out processes or pseudopodia. These are often so numerous that they interlace and form a protoplasmic network, as you will observe from the diagram of a very graceful form, the rotalia, in which the shell is many-chambered, and is covered with minute pores, through which the processes are put forth. Another elegant form is the miliolina, in which the shell is a spiral, whose convolutions are folded over each other. In another form, called by the fantastic Greek name Haliphysema, or bubble of the sea, there is an approximation to the sponges; for the protoplasm is enclosed in a cell built up of a mass of spicules or needle-like rods, which are characteristic of the skeleton of sponges, but also occur upon the integument of the echinodermata, sea eggs, sea slugs, &c. In one of the latter, the synapta, these calcareous spicules assume the form of beautifully symetrical anchors and plates. They are shown in the photo- micrograph arranged in a group. So vast has been the number of the foraminifera in the geological past that whole strata are composed of their fossil tests. The chalk beds are almost entirely made up of them, and one species, the nummulites, occurred in such vast quantities that they form a band of limestone stretching from the Atlantic shores of Europe and Africa through Western Asia to Northern India and China. The photomicrograph represents a section of chalk rock, with partly decomposed tests, and the diagram illustrates the various forms of foraminifera from the chalk. The next diagram shows several forms of foraminifera, but I wish particularly to direct your attention to the section of nummulitic limestone with the organisms in situ. This limestone is of great interest to us as being the material of BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 21 which the pyramids are built. And what a wonderful lesson of life energy those pyramids afford. Think of the countless myriads of exquisite living forms whose fossil tests made up the limestone ; think of the untold ages it took to consolidate those shell masses into rock ; think of the strange semi-civilisation of the Egyptians and of the appalling expenditure of human life and energy by which the Pharoahs raised those vast edifices—monuments not of the superior wisdom of the Egyptians, as the ignorant even yet believe, but of an iron despotism, which could only be the concomitant of semi-barbarism. Nummulities in untold myriads, limestone rock, armies upon armies of human beings under the lash of the task-masters—the pyramids ! It is most interesting, too, to know that processes similar to those which formed the limestone of the pyramids and the chalk strata are still proceeding. This is evident from the microscopic examination of the silt which collects in bays and estuaries, and from the so-called ooze which is brought up by soundings from great ocean depths. Let us hope that these minute organisms are not building up a new limestone for the erection of new pyramids by a Pharoah of the future. When I see how strong are the forces of reaction and obscurantism I often fear it. From the lowly forms of life, which consist but of single cells, we pass by slow gradations to those higher organisms, which are aggregates of cells, and whose structure becomes more and more complex, more and more differentiated; and long before we come to man, the highest, we have amply realised the truth of Darwin’s remark that each living being must be considered as a microcosm, a small universe which is formed from a collection of organisms, which reproduce themselves, which are extremely small, and which are as numerous as the stars in heaven. So great is this complexity in ourselves that language fails to express it. Consider the number of globules in the blood, the vast multitude of nerve cells in the skin, which you see in the diagram, or the intricate differentiation in the human eye. Each of us is an immense army of living beings— the body cells, in their various differentiations, the sum of whose activities makes up our consciousness, for they are governed by and co-operate with a wonderful group of cells in the brain, the thought-cells. The realisation that we ourselves are cell aggregates leads us to observe with absorbing interest the first 22, THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. advances which the biologica) unit makes along the path which leads to such bewildering complexity and to such a marvellous phenomenon as conscious intelligence. With a few illustrations in this direction I must occupy the remainder of my paper. We saw in spirogyra that the cells adhered end to end so as to form a filament; but each cell is the counterpart of every other cell, and if separated is perfectly able to lead an independent life. There is no assumption by different cells of different functions— no division of labour. A step higher we have colonies of cells. You can often obtain a beautiful example of such a cell colony in the ponds round Brisbane. If you obtain a bottle of water from any of these ‘you will not unlikely observe, on holding it up to the light, a number of minute green globes, just visible to the naked eye, rolling slowly and majestically onward, and at the same time rotating on their axes. This is that favourite of microscopists, the volvox globator. When one of these tiny globules is examined with a low power it looks like a light green pellucid net dotted regularly with minute green spots, and generally having within it from two to eight smaller spheres. When each of the spots is examined more carefully, and with a higher power, it is found to be a cell—a speck of protoplasm, furnished with two long processes or flagella, just like the active form of protococcus, of which you saw a diagram earlier this evening. Although the appearance of the volvox is that of a net, there are no interstices or gaps in the surface of the sphere, for each cell is connected with the cells around it by means of its hyaline envelope. The green bodies in the centre of the net are young volvoces, which have been formed from enlargements of the ordinary cells, and when sufficiently developed have detached themselves internally, remaining in the parent sphere until it finally bursts and they swim forth. Before this happens you may often see them revolving by the action of their own flagella in the interior of the mother sphere, and the mother sphere at the same time rotating itself. It is a most beautiful sight, and one of which the crushed and broken forms of the photomicro- graph on the screen can give you no idea. The beginnings of differentiation are further seen in the beautiful little fresh water plant called by the quaint name of Batrachospermum, or frog spawn, to which its whorls of cells were supposed to bear a resemblance. The whorls are made up of beaded filaments, and the main axis consists of elongated cells, but certain of the beaded BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 23 filaments, instead of radiating from the main axis, grow down- wards upon it and form an envelope, closely investing it. Here we have a step towards differentiation, or division of labour, for these investing cells are no longer independent, but constitute a membrane foreshadowing the cuticle or cortex of the higher plants. Another illustration is afforded by the higher forms of sea weeds, where we meet with a faint hint of the distinction between leaf stem and root. The photomicrograph shows the cells of the frond of the beautiful Polysiphonia. These are vegetable types, but differentiation in the animal follows a similar course. From single cells like the sun-animalcule we pass to groups like the vorticella, and thence to colonies of animals. But still each cell lives for itself alone ; there is no division of labour. Go a step forward, however. There is a little creature known as the hydra, often found in ponds amongst duckweed and utricularia, which shows in a most decided manner the early advance in differentiation. I have often met with it in the ponds in Bowen Park. It consists of a cylindrical body, ending in a small orifice, and crowned with from six to eight tentacles, with which it captures minute creatures for itsfood. As we watch the hydra we observe that it assumes so many different shapes that if you did not see it passing from one to the other you would not connect them with the same animal. Sometimes it is an almost: spherical mass, and the tentacles are reduced to small rounded excrescences ; sometimes it is fully expanded and the tentacles are thin, delicate processes. Between these extremes every gradation occurs. The photomicrograph on the screen shows it about half expanded. The diagram presents it in its fully expanded condition. In structure the body of the hydra consists of but two layers of cells, an outer and an inner, but the inner cells have taken upon themselves the function of nutrition, and the outer cells are both irritable and contractile, forming a kind of rudimentary nervous and muscular system. In certain of the outer cells there is a strange and deadly weapon. If we tear a hydra to pieces with very fine needles and examine the pieceg carefully with sufficient magnification, we see that certain of the outer cells possess peculiarities. They exhibit a clear elliptical cavity. Coiled up within this cavity, like a spring, is a delicate thread, furnished at the basal end with three projecting barbs. The cavity is filled with a poisonous fluid, though what its chemical nature may be I have never been able to determine. 24 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. Certain it is that this weapon is of great use to the hydra, as you will realise if you watch one of them feeding. A water flea or other small creature comes in contact with one of these machine guns. The spring uncoils with such force that the cavity and the thread are turned inside out. Then you see that the water flea, before so alert and lively, is completely paralysed, and if the hydra is feeling in need of a meal the captured prey is brought within reach of the tentacles and gradually transferred to the digestive cavity. The interior layer of cells comprises cells of two different varieties. Like the outer cells they are nucleated, but, unlike them, some of them are seen to possess one or more filaments or flagella, and others are constantly varying their free ends by the protrusion and drawing in of pseudopodia or processes ; they are, as it were, a series of amcebae fixed in their places. The inner cells are a rank of flagellate monads and of amcebae marshalled into line and working for a common end— the nutrition of the cell aggregate. Ordinarily the hydra reproduces by budding; a small excresence makes its appearance on the exterior. It is formed by a pushing out of the two layers of cells. It becomes lobed at the outer end, and gradually develops into a young hydra. This capacity for reproducing by budding brings about a curious result in the hydra. You remember in the Greek mythology which you studied at school reading the myth of the hydra or many- headed serpent which Hercules destroyed. It was a nasty customer to deal with, because when Hercules cut off any one of its heads two new ones grew in their place. Our hydra realises something akin to that, for you may make mincemeat of it, and each piece will develop into a perfect hydra. I have referred to the volvox and hydra only so far as to show the advance in differentiation, or division of labour. A lecture of many hours duration might be devoted to the life histories of either of them. The hydra is of the greatest interest to us, for it represents the permanent form of what is known in embryology as the gastrula stage in development—a stage through which the majority of the higher organisms pass early in their prenatal history, a stage in which they consist of a purse-like form composed of but two layers of cells, the inner performing nutritive functions, and the outer the functions of sensation and protection, just as in the hydra. From the hydra we proceed to the hydroid polypes, or BY WILLIAM J. BYRAM. 25. zoophytes. Some representatives of them are to be found on all coasts in rock pools left by the tide or attached to sea weed, and to the unaided eye resemble small pieces of cotton thread. I have photographed a portion of one of them. They are like colonies of hydrae, for the bells, or hydranths, as they are called, are each of them a zooid or living being, though they are attached to a common stalk. I cannot pursue this subject further, it is too extensive, and I must be content with very few concluding remarks. As Ihave said, we cannot answer the question, ‘‘ What is life?” but if we are even to approximate to a solution of the problem we must divest our minds of the idea that it is something apart from other phenomena, something unique and supernatural. It is amystery in the same sense that electricity is a mystery, or that gravitation is a mystery; its causes are so recondite that they elude our limited powers of comprehension. We must hold, provisionally, that it is the attribute of protoplasm, the resultant of the interaction—the intricate chemical change and interchange of the porteids of which that most instable complex consists. We have no knowledge of life apart from protoplasm ; such a thing is inconceivable. Yet we must frankly admit that we do not know what life is or what its origin has been. As far as the precise experiments of the late Professors Tyndall and Huxley, and of the eminent biologist, Dr. Dallinger, extend, spontaneous generation or abiogenesis has been negatived. As far as we can see under existing conditions all life comes from previous life. But it must be remembered that precise as they were, these experiments are essentially imperfect. They oaly prove that at the present time, in a small confined space, and under existing conditions, all life is the derivative of existing life. When we take all the analogies into consideration, there is a strong probability that there is no line of demarcation between the living and the inorganic ; but that, if not now, at anyrate under different conditions in the geological past, protoplasm, with its attribute life, originated from the non-living. This is, indeed, an irresistible corollary from the law of evolution, otherwise we must ascribe the first appearance of life to a special fiat of the Creative Power, a theory which is not only unthinkable, but which has been beaten all along the line. More and more, too, the mechanical theory of life is winning its way, despite old 26 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, school treatises like Dr. Lionel Beale’s book on Protoplasm. We find life constantly standing in relation to the physical forces. It does work, and in doing it uses up the protoplasmic material, which has to be renewed by the assimilation of other protoplasm, as in animals, or the metabolism of inorganic matter, as in plants. It is manifested in conjunction with other forms of energy, heat, light, and electricity, and seems to stand in the same category as they. Indeed, as the suggestive experiments of a German biologist, Professor Biitschli, have shown, the work which the protoplasm does in the movements of the amceba may be imitated mechanically. He prepared frothy mixtures of oil with certain chemical substances, chiefly olive oil and finely powdered potassic carbonate, which makes a soapy foam. Tiny drops of this emulsion introduced into water, and viewed under the microscope, are found to be filled with vacuoles, and to exhibit, for as long a period as six days after their preparation, the streaming, diffluent movements of the amceba, and, like the amoeba, put out and draw in processes, or pseudopodia, and creep across the glass. But remembering the vast complexity of protoplasm, and the comparative simplicity of the oil-foam, we must suspend our judgment as to whether the movements of the amceba are purely mechanical. The striking correspondence shown by Professor Biitschli may be more apparent than real. Still, the whole tendency of scientific thought favours the mechanical theory of life, and if anyone should collate these considerations with the further one that the soul of man is but a name we have given to the sum total of his consciousness, and should feel pain or alarm in consequence, we can only remind him for his comfort that what we know is but an insignificant fraction of the vast unknown and unknowable. In that dark region there is room for boundless possibilities, boundless hope. [The diagrams and photomicrographs with which this lecture was illustrated will be reproduced in a future Volume of the Proceedings. | THE NATURE ANI) ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER (PROTOPLASM). By A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 13th May, 1899.]| Mr. Byram’s exceedingly interesting paper on the ‘‘ Beginnings of Life’’ touched at its close on topics which belong, as he remarked, rather to the realm of philosophy than of science, strictly so called. He described to us the simplest known living beings, illustrated in a very able way their marvellous variety of form and activity, and at the same time pointed out their apparent simplicity of structure; how that they all were but modifications of a single cell, that is, a naked mass of jelly-like protoplasm, containing a central portion of greater density known as the nucleus. We were shown how cells of the closest similarity of form and activity to these existed in the higher animals and plants, how the tissues of all animals and plants were composed of collections of such cells, modified more or less from their primitive simplicity to perform special functions, yet never departing very far from it ; and how, in fact, every animal and plant, every one of us, originated from a cell of very simple form, the ovum, closely comparable to an ameeba, or other unicellular organism. So far our lecturer kept to the firm ground of science. All that he told us is easily demonstrable, and very much of it can be actually seen by anyone who will devote a little pains to the investigation. But anyone so doing, if of a thoughtful disposition, can hardly fail to ask himself certain questions, which, as Mr. Byram remarked, are probably to be regarded as insoluble. What is the nature of this glairy, transparent, mobile substance we call protoplasm, which forms the body of this shifting speck of life ? How does it differ from other substances know to us as lifeless and inorganic, and is this 28 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. difference merely one of degree, or is there a deep and unfathom- able gulf between them? Finally, how did living matter first arise and come to exist ? You will not, I hope, suspect me of thinking I have any new solution to offer of these well-discussed problems. Scientifically they are insoluble. They take us into regions where observation and experiment, the methods of science, are unavailing, and where the human mind is ever in danger of mistaking its self- evolved imaginations as equivalent to demonstrated truths, or worse still, of mistaking merely verbal solutions for real. *For the latter error there is one sufficient remedy, and that is to substitute mentally the meaning of the word, or, in logical terms, the definition, for the word itself, and unless one is continually prepared to do this the discussion of any philosophical problem becomes futile. When, for instance, we are told that all matter is living, that there is no such thing as dead inorganic matter, we are, I submit, in danger of deriving comfort from a mere verbal assertion. or if we apply the term living to all matter, what meaning do we attach to it? That there are great and real differences between living and non-living matter is a fact of science, which we cannot explain by denying it to be. If, how- ever, the assertion be explained to mean, in more accurate language, that the protentiality of life exists in all matter, that the properties of living matter exist in an attenuated degree, or in a dormant condition, in simpler chemical combinations, we have an admissible hypothesis, which deserves discussion. But the facts must be recognised in the first place. Let us for a moment contemplate the amceba, and consider the properties of its living substance. I cannot do better than quote one of the earliest observers, who sixty years ago described this substance, not by the term protoplasm, by which we know it, but by the term sarcode. ‘‘I propose,’’ said Dujardin, “ to name sarcode that which other observers have termed a living jelly, a substance glutinous, diaphanous, homogeneous, refracting light a little more than water, but much less than oil, extensible and ropy like mucus, elastic and contractile, susceptible of spontaneously forming within itself spherical cavities or vacuoles which become occupied by the surrounding liquid. The most simple animals, such as amcebae and monads, are entirely BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 29 composed, at least to all appearances, of this living jelly. Sarcode is without visible organs, and has no appearance of cellularity ; but it is nevertheless organised, for it emits various prolongations along which granules pass, and which are alternately extended and retracted; in one word, it possesses life.’’ In this old description, to which the most recent science has but little to add, you will note the stress laid upon the movements of protoplasm as indicative of life. And, indeed, these movements are sufficiently remarkable. It is true that of recent years Butschli has shown that if oil be rubbed up with certain alkaline salts in a moist condition, and a minute fragment of the paste be examined in water, the latter diffuses into the paste and converts it into a froth, in which streaming movements occur and changes of external form not unlike those shown by living protoplasm. These movements are due to diffusion currents set up by the chemical changes taking place between the water and the soapy oil. How far they can be regarded as explaining the movements of protoplasm is, I think, very doubtful. Similarity may be apparent as well as real, and it is very doubtful whether protoplasm really consists of a vacuolated mass as Biitschli contends, and further, even more doubtful whether these simple diffusion currents, which cease after a time, really explain in any way true amceboid movements. But there are other and more subtle differences between living and non-living matter. A proper mental grasp of these is essential to the understanding of our problem. They consist in chemical changes which are characteristic. All living matter has this in common, that it continually absorbs oxygen and gives off carbonic acid. If you will consider this for a moment, you will see that it involves the recognition of the fact that living protoplasm is always in a state of wasting or decomposition. Its constituent molecules, which consist partly of carbon, are con- tinually becoming oxidised and breaking up into much simpler non-living chemical compounds. As a necessary condition to its existence, it possesses the opposite power of taking up non- living matter and transforming it into protoplasm. Its chemical equilibrium can only be maintained by a continual succession of chemical changes, opposite in character, for its substance is in a continual state of flux. On the one hand is an in-stream of molecules containing carbon, nitrogen, &c.; on the other, an outflow of the same elements in other, usually much simpler, 30 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. combinations. By these chemical changes a continuous formation of energy takes place, which energy is given off as heat, or sometimes also partly as mechanical motion, or in other ways. Living matter is continually in a state of unstable chemical equilibrium. By a preponderance of assimilation over waste the living cell grows in size. A consideration of the statements just enunciated will convince you how fundamentally different such growth is from that, for example, of a crystal. The latter growth is wonderful to contemplate, but it is a growth by accretion ; each increment once formed is stable. The growth of the cell usually ends in division, which, in the case of the amceba, leads to the formation of two individuals each resembling the parent cell. But in the higher animals, the process of cell division leads to more complex developments. A brief glance at these is necessary for our purpose. The human ovum, not very different in structure from an amceba in the encysted stage, consists of a nucleated cell about fifteen of a millimetere in diameter, forming a speck just visible to the naked eye. The first stages of development consist, as in much humbler forms of life, in the division of this cell into two, four, sixteen, and more cells, forming a cluster, somewhat resembling the form of a mulberry. As the cells multiply fluid accumulates between them, and they form a minute vesicle, round which the cells are grouped at first in two, then in three layers. From these three layers of cells are developed by successive steps all the marvellous complexity of the adult human frame. The process by which this change occurs has to a great extent been observed and mapped out. It is a wonderful history, and the process by which each cell assumes its right place, and each group of cells differentiates itself into the right tissue in exactly the right situation, is entirely baffling to the imagination. Let me very briefly glance at the developmental history of one portion of the human frame. It is at first surprising to learn that the whole nervous system is developed from ancestral cells, which formed part of the external surface, or skin, of the embryo. As the development of the individual is but a recapitulation, with some modifications, of the development of the race, this fact seems to take us back into a very remote past, when the cells specially devoted to sense-perception, which would naturally be situated near the surface, were not yet differen- BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 31 tiated into peripheral sense organs and central cells, receiving nervous impressions from these sense organs. However this may be, you will observe in a very early stage of the embryo of a hen’s egg, or of any other vertebrate, the appearance of a superficial groove, bounded by two ridges of thickened cells. These ridges increase in height, meet above, and coalesce, forming a tube lined by cells which originated from those covering the surface of the embryo, but have become distinct from them. The forepart of this primitive nervous tube under- goes very complicated changes, into which I will not enter, to form the brain. The hinder portion retains to the end very much of its primitive form, and constitutes the spinal cord of the adult. The first step towards the connection of the embryonic spinal cord with the other organs and tissues is a budding out of groups of cells along its dorsal surface on each side. The cell-buds become detached as little cell-islands, which develop into the spinal ganglia. In the next place the cells of these embryonic ganglia grow out into processes at each end, the two processes of each cell travelling in opposite directions. The centrally growing processes return to the spinal cord, and so resume connection with the central nervous system. The remaining processes have a peripheral direction, and form the sensory nerve fibres. They are joined by outgrowths from the anterior cells of the spinal cord, which grow out to form the motor nerve fibres. At each vertebral segment a nerve is formed by the union of one of the motor and sensory roots. I wish you to try and picture to yourselves the peripheral growth of these nerve fibres, how they insinuate themselves among the other tissues, as the roots of a plant insinuate themselves between the particles of the earth on which it grows. But the process is not an aimless one; each nerve cord, each branch, each filament takes its determined course, and no part of the body is free from their invasion. The sensory filaments form a network all over the body, but of especial fineness on its surface. The motor filaments seek out the developing muscles, and each one attaches itself to its appropriate muscular fibre. If you try to realise this you will gain a faint conception of the method by which one strand is woven in the wonderful fabric of flesh common to all of us. The purpose of this brief sketch has been to bring home to your minds the real and great difference between the phenomena $2, THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. exhibited by living matter, that is to say, protoplasm, and other varieties of matter. As to this difference there is no dispute, and the more one grasps it mentally the less inclined one is to minimise it in any way. But when we come to the explanation of this difference, we find two possible alternatives. We may regard protoplasm as ordinary matter acted upon by ordinary chemical and physical forces, but of exceedingly complex constitution. Or we may regard it as ordinary matter plus an immaterial something to which is commonly applied the terms “life,” ‘‘ vitality,” ‘‘ vital principle.” On the former alternative the differences between protoplasm and ordinary matter are differences of great extent, itis true, but only of degree. On the latter hypothesis there is a gap between the two which no thought nor reasoning can bridge over. I have lately been reading a quaint old book written some two hundreds years back by one of our old English naturalists, John Ray. It so happens that in this work two opposing views as to the nature of living matter are both stated. In treating of this very development of the animal body, Ray remarks—‘ It seems impossible that Matter, divided into as many minute and subtle Parts as you will, or can imagine, and those moved according to what Catholick Laws soever can be devised, should without the Presidency and Direction of some intelligent Agent, by the meer Agitation of a gentle Heat, run itself into such a curious Machine as the the Body of Man is.” The difficulty, which must have occurred to everyone who has considered the problem, could not be stated with more definiteness. When Ray is treating of another subject, the contractions of the heart, he states his views again. The cardiac contractions were, he supposed, due to an influx of spirits (by which he did not mean anything immaterial, the word meaning simply gases or vapours) into the heart during systole. ‘‘ What,’ he asks, “directs and moderates the Motions of the Spirits? They being but stupid and senseless Matter, cannot of themselves continue any regular and constant Motion without the Guidance and Regulation of some intelligent Being. You will say, What Agent is it which you would have to effect this? The sensitive Soul it cannot be, because that is indivisible, but the Heart when separated wholly from the Body in some Animals continues still to pulse for a considerable time ; nay, when it hath quite ceased it may be brought to beat again by the application of warm BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 33 Spittle, or by pricking it gently with a Pin or Needle. LIanswer, it may be in these Instances, the scattering Spirits remaining in the Heart, may for a time, being agitated by Heat, cause these faint pulsations, tho’ I should rather attribute them to a plastick Nature or Vital Principle.” This ‘plastick Nature” was a great comfort to John Ray, by its means he releases himself from every difficulty. It answers, I apprehend, exactly to the term ** vitality ”’ or ‘‘ vital force,’”’ which, till quite recent years, could always be invoked to cut the knots of physiological puzzles. But on the very next page to the quotation given is an extract from a contemporary work by Mr. Boyle (whether the same as the physicist who enunciated Boyle’s law of the volume of gases I have not ascertained), in which a very different order of ideas is introduced. ‘I think it probable,” writes Boyle, ‘“ that the great and wise Author of Things did, when he first formed the Universe and undistinguished Matter into the World, put its Parts into various Motions, whereby they were necessarily divided into numberless Portions of differing Bulks, Figures and . Situations in Respect of each other; and that by his infinite Wisdom and Power he did so guide and overule the Motions of these Parts at the Beginning of Things, as that (whether in a shorter or longer Time Reason cannot determine) they were finally disposed into that beautiful and orderly Frame that we call the World; among whose Parts some were so curiously contrived as to be fit to become the Seeds or seminal Principles of Plants and Animals. And I further conceive that he settled such Laws or Rules of local Motion among the Parts of the Universal Matter, that by his ordinary and preserving Concourse the several Parts of the Universe thus once completed, should be able to maintain the great Construction or System and Economy of the Mundane Bodies and propagate the Species of living Creatures.”” Ray’s reply to this hypothesis is so curious that I must quote it :—‘‘ This Hypothesis, I say, I cannot fully acquisce in, because an intelligent Being seems to me requisite to execute the Laws of Motion ; for first Motion being a fluent Thing, and one Part of its Duration being absolutely independent upon another, it doth not follow that because anything moves this Moment it must necessarily continue to do so for the next, unless it were actually possessed of its future Motion, which is a contradiction ; but it stands in as much Need of an Efficient to preserve and continue its Motion as it did at first to produce it. ¢ 34 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. Secondly, let Matter be divided into the subtilest Parts imagin- able, and these be moved as swiftly as you will, it is buta senseless and stupid being still, and makes no nearer Approach to Sense, Perception, or vital Energy than it had before. And as for any external Laws or establish’d Rules of Motion, the stupid Matter is not capable of observing or taking any Notice of them, but it would be as sullen as the Mountain was that Mahomet commanded to come down to him; neither can those Laws execute themselves. Therefore there must, besides Matter and Law, be some Efficient, and that either a Quality or Power inherent in the Matter itself, which is hard to conceive, or some external intelligent Agent, either God himself immediately or some Plastic Nature.” It is my opinion that, judged even by the standard of his own day, Ray was a better naturalist than philosopher. My object in reading these extracts isto point out some errors that may not yet be entirely dead. Firstly, we have the highly figurative and wholly false conception of the “laws” of nature as something which poor, stupid matter has to understand and obey. Secondly, we have assertions regarding motion which are purely verbal, and embody no real conception of what actually occcurs. Here, of course, science has advanced greatly since Ray’s time, and we know motion to be both universal and indestructible, and to exist in forms which were then unsuspected. Thirdly, I would ask is there not something purely subjective also in Ray’s ideas of matter? Have we any right to speak of «stupid and senseless matter’’? Are not these question-begging epithets ? . Whatever view we may take of the nature of protoplasm, there is no doubt it is composed of the same elements as the rest of the universe. As long as life continues there is a continual procession of atoms of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements, variously combined, into the living substance, and an equally unbroken procession of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen out of the living substance. It is not only after death that the animal body is resolved into inorganic combinations of these elements. We may compare a living organism to the little columns of dust which are sometimes seen spinning down the streets of our western townships. The sleeping dust is for one instant aroused, whirled round in complex BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 35 and unaccustomed motions, and then returns to rest again, to be ever replaced with fresh particles as long as the air-vortex continues its brief career. So during life dissolution is an unceasing process, and the living organism is but a temporary resting place of migratory atoms from the non-living world. Furthermore, it is also certain that there is no creation or destruction of force in the living organism. Here, as elsewhere, the rule of the conservation of energy holds good. The greater part of the vegetable world derives its energy direct from the sun’s rays, and stores it up in the form of chemical combina- tions. The animal world, destitute of this power, appropriates the energy stored up by plant life by devouring these complex chemical substances, albumen, fat, starch, sugar, &c. Its energy is derived from the chemical changes which result in the combination of the contained carbon, hydrogen, &c., with the oxygen of the air. This energy is given off mostly in the form of heat, a smaller fraction in the form of mechanical work, which for the most part is also soon converted into heat. So that all life derives its energy from the sun, and sooner or later gives it back in the form of heat. In the process there is change, transmutation of force, but neither loss nor gain; one form of vibration is replaced by another, but the chain is never broken. As a late distinguished physicist wrote, in lines which, though half jocular in form, contain serious thought :— ‘‘ When earth and sun are frozen clods, ‘‘ And, all its energy degraded, “‘Matter to Ether shall have faced, ‘We, that is all the work we’ve done, ‘¢ As waves in ether shall for even run “In swift expanding spheres through heavens beyond the sun.” Having grasped this conception of the living organism as a temporary halting place of atoms derived from the inorganic world as a temporary focus of energy derived from without and passing without again, must we add to matter and force a hypothetical something called ‘vitality?’ Admitting to the full the vast difference between the phenomena of living and non-living matter, and the impossibility of picturing to oneself any mechanical arrangement of atoms and molecules, which will explain the former, I ask do we make the problem any clearer by such an assumption? Indeed has the word vitality any meaning that we can figure before our minds. Is it any more than a verbal expression, a word that merely covers 36 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. ignorance, the negation of knowledge ? I cannot see that it is. Even if we call it vital force 1 cannot see that we gain any- thing. For force is some form of movement, of molecular or atomic vibration. It is conceivable that molecular vibrations may occur in protoplasm which have no analogies elsewhere, but if so we know nothing of them. Further, they are derived if present from forms of vibration, chemical or heat vibrations, which exist without the living cell, and are speedily resolved into these again. Once more I think we gain nothing by the assumption. I may be pardoned for using an illustration which has done good service in much abler hands than mine. In this glass you have the familiar substance water, of well known and comparatively simple chemical constitution. You might not suspect it of being the seat of molecular forces of most intricate and mysterious complexity. Yet, if guided by scientific know- ledge, you follow it with the imagination, you will see that it is so endowed. Let this glass stand on the table sufficiently long and its contents will disappear; they have become converted into aqueous vapour diffused in the atmosphere. Let the air containing this vapour be transported by a favourable atmos- pheric disturbance to the Alps of New Zealand. The gaseous particles will become transformed into solid crystals of snow, and on microscopical examination the constituent molecules of our humble fluid will be seen to have arranged themselves in wonderful and intricate patterns of geometrical regularity, which for marvellous beauty cannot be surpassed even by the organic world. Do we render this mysterious power of water to assume intricate geometrical forms any easier to understand by attributing it to a hypothetical something called aquosity. You will reply doubtless that to do so is merely to invent a word, not to explain a phenomenon. And granting that the phenomena of life are much more complex than those of crystallisation, does this invalidate our applying the same reasoning to the word vitality. To this reasoning it may be objected that our protoplasm, a mere speck of structureless jelly, exhibits none of the machinery which might be reasonably expected in a substance capable of such complex evolutions as I have endeavoured to briefly indicate in the early part of this discourse. But this objection can be hardly pressed, unless we are prepared to limit the possibilities of organisation by what we can actually see. BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. oh Protoplasm may well be, and no doubt is of infinite molecular complexity. Recent research has revealed a very complicated structure in one portion of the. cell, the nucleus, which by the extraordinary changes which it undergoes during cell-division, must be regarded as playing an important if not the chief part in this process. It would be interesting to describe these changes at leneth, but would not advance us in our argument. For these nuclear changes explain nothing of the process in which they occur, they merely indicate what we might have otherwise inferred that the process is a very complex one. If we contemplate living matter from the point of view of chemistry, we have sufficient evidence that it must be exceed- ingly complex. At no very distant date it was believed to be a peculiarity of all chemical substances derived from the products of vital activity (always excepting the ultimate products of its oxidation, such as water, carbonic acid, &c.), that they were incapable of formation by artificial synthesis from inorganic materials. The rapid progress of organic chemistry has since then resulted in the synthesis of great numbers of these substances, and has at the same time thrown much light on their molecular constitution. Compared with that of the sub- stances treated of in inorganic chemistry this constitution is much more complex. But chemistry falls very far short of revealing the constitution of even dead protoplasm, far less of living. It has indeed been said that chemical analysis can never give us any idea of the structure of living matter, because in the act of analysis it has become no longer living. If life be regarded as a metaphysical principle resident in protoplasm, of course it cannot be considered susceptible of analysis. But if not so regarded there is nothing in this objection, for all analysis necessarily involves destruction, the resolution of one form of matter into others which do not possess the same properties. We cannot even analyse water without resolving it into oxygen and hydrogen. A more serious if not fatal obstacle to chemical analysis lies in the impossibility of obtaining living matter ina pure condition. Leaving the nucleus out of con- sideration we are in the habit of speaking of protoplasm as something homogeneous. but if we consider, it cannot be so. As living substance is continually undergoing decomposition, it may be inferred that the products of this decomposition are 88 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. constantly to be found in what we call protoplasm. We have reason to believe that the ultimate products formed arise not suddenly, but by.gradual stages of chemical degradation from the living matter. These transitional products will naturally be present to a variable extent in conjunction with the actually living substance itself. Again, the cell-protoplasm contains nutrient material, and probably (though here we haye no clear knowledge) intermediate products between this nutrient material and living matter. How much of this apparent homogeneous protoplasm actually possesses the properties of living matter we do not know, and have no present methods of ascertaining. If, however, we take masses of what is usually termed protoplasm and subject it to chemical examination we can always obtain from it three kinds of matter, fats, carbohydrates, and proteids. Of these the proteids (of which albumin is one) have a mole- cular constitution of peculiar complexity. A chemical formula, which can only be regarded as a rough approximation, C,, H,, SN,, O. has been assigned to them as the result of analysis. Kven if approximately correct, this formula only indicates their minimal complexity. Their real structure might be more correctly indicated by any multiple of this. But the composition of proteids has no relation to that of cell- protoplasm except this, that the latter must be more complex, and may be exceedingly more complex. Furthermore, living protoplasm differs fundamentally from dead proteid in one respect, that it must be regarded as in a peculiar state of unstable chemical equilibrium, while the latter is a comparatively stable substance. To this point I shall return presently. Although we are unable to follow the complex physico- chemical changes which we believe to occur in living cells, we are able in one special instance to obtain indirect evidence that such changes do occur. The association of chemical and electrical changes are very obscurely understood in the inorganic world. But itis well known that such an association is real. We have no means of detecting any electric phenomena in the amceba, but in two highly specialised living tissues, muscle and nerve, of the higher animals we can detect them. If a muscle removed from the body be stimulated by an electric shock (which for present purposes may be regarded as instantaneous) the contraction which follows does not occur instantaneously. There is an appreciable interval, called the latent period, which BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 39 intervenes between the stimulus and the contraction. Accurately measured, this interval occupies about 1/100th of a second. During this brief interval the electrical reaction of different parts of the muscle undergoes a change. This change arises at the point of stimulus, and travels as a wave along the whole length of muscle, which, be it remembered, is still in an apparently quiescent condition. Immediately or very soon after this electrical wave has exhausted itself, the muscular contraction begins. The conclusion can hardly be resisted that muscular contraction is preceded as well as accompanied by physico- chemical changes. The rate at which the electrical wave travels has been measured ; in the frog it is about three metres 10ft.) per second. In warm-blooded animals it is probably somewhat faster. Its wave-length in the frog is about 3 millimetres (one- eighth of an inch). Surely these results point to the existence of some very complex mechanism. But muscular contraction is a vital act, performed by a living tissue. When we find that similar electrical changes have been observed to accompany the contractions of the leaves of the plant called Venus’ Fly-trap, the structure of which is as far removed as possible from muscular tissue, we are, I think, justified in generalising, to the effect that all movements of living matter, including those of the amoeba, are due to physico-chemical changes, and depend on an exceedingly complex mechanism. If we apply our electric shock, not to a muscle, but to a nerve, no obvious result ensues, unless the nerve is attached toa muscle. In that case the muscle contracts, showing that a stimulus has been propagated along the nerve fibres. But whether a muscle be attached to the nerve or not, examination by suitable apparatus will show that this propagation has been accompanied by an electrical change precisely similar to that which occurs in a muscle during the latent period, with the exception that it has a greater wave-length, 18 millimetres (three-quarters of an inch), and a considerably greater velocity. This velocity in the frog is about 28 metres (92 feet) per second, in man about 33 metres (107 feet) per second (compared to the velocity of light, or electricity, or even of sound, this is extremely slow). It can hardly be doubted that these electrical changes in nerve fibres are due to some physico- chemical mechanism, and that their velocity is fixed by this 40 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. mechanism. Yet it will hardly be denied that nerve fibres are living tissue, and that the conduction of impulses is a vital act. Some light seems to be thrown on the unstable chemical equilibrium of living matter by its great susceptibility to the action of a large number of substances, which we call poisons, Many of these are fatal to protoplasm, converting it into dead matter, even when they come into contact with it in infinitesimal dilution. On the physico-chemical theory of living matter this action presents no special difficulty to the understanding. The molecule of strychnine for example can be regarded as a com- plicated piece of mechanism, which when brought into contact with the still more complex mechanism of the cells of the spinal cord at first excites its molecular or other vibrations and disturbances to greater activity, but carrying its action further it deranges this mechanism altogether, in other words the cells are killed. Another poison will diminish the activity of the cells of the spinal cord from the first, and then kill them. On the physico-chemical theory the conflict is not wholly unin- telligible. We can to a certain extent picture to ourselves two mechanisms which interfere with one another. But if we suppose living matter to be inhabited by a metaphysical something, ‘ vitality,’’ how can we imagine the struggle between it and our strychnine molecule? The vitalists may, to borrow an old witticism, conjure up their ‘‘ metaphysical grenadier,”’ but how will they make him fight? To all this reasoning 1 can imagine the objection raised : ‘¢ You may, perhaps, in a few instances, and toa small extent, discover physico-chemical analogies in the behaviour of living matter. All this is beside the point. No mechanism, however complicated, no possible combination of atoms and molecules can be conceived to explain all the activities of protoplasm.” Here, I think, we come upon the ‘‘ stupid, senseless matter” of our old author. If we arbitrarily conceive of our atoms and molecules as so many hard, round particles, like small shot, only much smaller, such an objection is natural. But this conception is a purely arbitrary one. We cannot at present form any clear idea of the structure of non-living matter which will explain all the phenomena which it presents. For instance, who of us has any clear conception of what takes place in and around a metallie wire when a current of electricity is passed through it? Or, to ask another question, how can we explain the attraction that BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 4} every particle of matter throughout the universe has for every other particle, which attraction we know as gravitation? Or, again, why is it that an atom of oxygen will combine with two atoms of hydrogen? We say that the oxygen has an ‘ affinity ”’ for the hydrogen ; but this is merely to re-state the fact in a figurative way. On what mechanism does this “affinity ”’ depend? It would be easy to multiply unanswerable questions of this kmd. We need to remember that the simplest form of matter is something mysterious, as to the nature of which we know very little. To cease the argument here would be easy, but it would be to shirk the real difficulty of the problem of life, a difficulty which is no doubt present in your minds. Life in ourselves is indissolubly connected with consciousness. Furthermore, when we come to the bottom of things, it is the nature of our own consciousness which really interests us most. That this con- sciousness is intimately connected with certain living animal cells, which, with their processes and ramifications, constitute that highly complex organ known as the brain, cannot be disputed. A slight external pressure on this organ, a small clot of blood washed into one of its blood-vessels, cause instantaneous loss of consciousness. A febrile condition, or the presence of a minute proportion of various poisons in the blood profoundly affects our consciousness. A long, lowering illness will some- time reduce a powerful intellect to a condition of utter childish- ness, to be followed after recovery by a complete return to mental power. ‘These facts are familiar, but what explanation can be given of this association of matter and consciousness ? Let me say at once that science has no explanation to offer. I would go further, and say that, to the best of my belief, no conceivable extension of scientific knowledge would bring us any nearer to a solution. By way of illustration, let me remind you of an instance in which science is able to offer explanations. Few things are more complicated than the infinite variety of sounds produced by the human voice. Yet these can to a large extent be analysed and resolved into their component parts, and the method of their production is also susceptible of scientific investigation. By a simple arrangement of mirrors it is possible for a singer to watch the motions of his own larynx, and to observe the movements of the vibrating vocal cords as the various 42 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. notes are sounded. Let us now, by an effort of the imagination suppose that it were possible, by some extension of scientific knowledge, for a man to directly inspect the workings of his own cerebrum. There is nothing inconceivable in such a supposition. Let us imagine further that it were possible for any one of us not only to observe the intricate interweaving of the processes of his own brain cells, but to be cognisant of every molecular tremor which passed down those processes, and to be able even to follow the vibrations of molecules and intricate dance of atoms as one micro-chemical change leads to another in the mysterious laboratory of the protoplasm of the nerve cell. Extend the imagination as far as you please, and then ask yourselves whether the nature of consciousness, of the thoughts that accompany these molecular storms, becomes any clearer. If you will allow me to anticipate your reply, it will be—‘ Not by the least infinitesimal fraction.”’ Granted that direct observation and experiment can here avail us nothing, and that the nature of consciousness is inconceivable, it might still be contended that the intimate connection between matter and consciousness is not confined to the solitary instance of the human cerebrum, that it is in some sort common to all living matter. The argument would run somewhat on these lines: Consciousness is known directly only to the individual. By analogy and inference he naturally, indeed inevitably, attributes a similar consciousness to his fellow men. But the lower animals most nearly allied to ourselves also exhibit, in an inferior degree, phenomena which in our own species we should consider to be indicative of the possession of consciousness, and by irresistible analogy we are led to attribute consciousness to them also. This once granted, we have a series of animal forms of gradually decreasing complexity, in no part of which can we draw a line and say, here conscious- ness ends. A similar line of reasoning may be applied to the development of the individual. By insensible gradations, therefore, we are led to attribute a consciousness of some sort to the ameba. If to the amceba, then also to the white blood- corpuscle, and to every animal or vegetable cell. It seems to me that if this line of argument be admitted we could not stop here. If we attribute consciousness to every speck of protoplasm, it would be equally easy, or equally difficult, to BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 43 attribute it to a drop of water, or a grain of sand, in fact to all matter. What we should mean by the word consciousness used in such connections it is impossible to say. We seem to have come back. to something like the old “ vitality,” but with extensions to inanimate nature, like the “plastic nature”’ of John Ray; execept that we do not invoke this “plastic nature” to explain physical phenomena. Furthermore, these speculations offer no explanation whatever of the nature of consciousness; they merely extend the problem. And it might with great force be urged that the chain of analogy has been strained to breaking-point. Starting with the human conscious- ness, the nature of which is quite inconceivable to us, we have imagined the existence of an infinite series of ‘‘ consciousnesses”’ equally inconceivable, but certainly different to the first. We have landed ourselves into a region where assertion and denial are both little more than verbal, and therefore, to my mind, alike illegitimate. It is no help to the understanding of consciousness, as we know it, to attribute it to the combination of the separate ‘“‘ consciousnesses’”’ of some thousand nerve-cells. To speak of the human mind as built up of such particles, as a wall is composed of bricks, or as water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, is to use materialistic propositions of something which is not matter; to misuse language, not to express mental conceptions, but to conceal their absence. The synthesis is unthinkable. We have no right to forget that all our knowledge of matter depends on sensations represented in consciousness. Our molecules, atoms, ether, vortices, are all only extensions of sensation. They are what, if our inductions are trustworthy, we should see and feel if our sense-organs had their range sufficiently extended. Of what lies behind the sensations we do and can know nothing. The real nature of the external universe is as much beyond the possibility of knowledge as the nature of consciousness itself. There is nothing in science to contradict the familiar lines of the poet :—- ‘‘ The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces, ‘* The solemn temples, the great globe itself, ‘¢ Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve ‘“« And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, ‘‘Teave not a rack behind. We are such stuff ‘“‘ As dreams are made of, and our little life “Ts rounded with a sleep.” 44 THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER. Leaving the nature of consciousness on one side, as a problem altogether outside the range of science, we may, I think, regard all the other properties of protoplasm as susceptible of physical and chemical explanations. I do not see that this is a conclusion which ought to give offence to anyone. It is the natural and inevitable result of the application of scientific method to the study of living matter. So long as in the non- living world motion was regarded as a property of matter, which needed some immaterial agent to keep it from ceasing at any moment, a science of physics was not possible. In the same way the continuance of the supposition of an arbitrary principle of vitality which made the phenomena of protoplasm something quite different in kind from other chemical and physical changes would have deprived the science of biology of any stable founda- tion. It is true that with our present knowledge we have scarcely approached the ultimate problems of physiology. Yet all that has been learnt, and it is no small total, has been acquired on the assumption that living matter is subject to ordinary physical and chemical laws. In this sense science is materialistic. I use the word with some misgivings, as there is, I know, a vague popular horror of a something called ‘‘ Materialism,’’ which is supposed to explain away all mystery from the universe. Why, the very air we breathe is full of mystery! Such fears are irrational, mere chimaeras raised by ignorance and want of thought, and therefore beyond the reach of argument. To fulfil the promise of my title I ought to add a few words regarding the origin of life. This is a problem to be approached with diffidence. In speaking of the nature of living matter we were treating of something that we can actually see and examine, but its origin is far removed. We must recognise that our present state of knowledge shows a great gap between non-living and living matter, and we know nothing of any development of the former into the latter. We no longer believe, as some used to believe, that frogs arise from a mixture of dust and rain- water, that maggots are bred from decaying flesh, that bacteria arise de novo in turnip infusion. At the same time we have very strong reasons for thinking that at a distant epoch this globe was in a molten condition, at a temperature which would render the existence of any living beings impossible. Life must be BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D. 45 concluded to have arisen since this epoch. Sir William Thompson has suggested that living matter in a dormant or spore condition may have been conveyed to the earth by some falling meteorite. If we admit this possibility our difficulty is but pushed further back. There is but one method, that I know of, of meeting the difficulty, and that is by invoking the principle of the ‘‘continuity of nature.’ By an induction, supported by numberless instances, we have come to believe that natural changes come about, not by sudden and violent means, but by the summation of long series of gradual transitions. We can, for instance, trace in thought much of the gradual alteration sustained by our cooling globe as it passed from its primitive molten condition into one suitable for sustain- ing life. Wecan trace the gradual transitions between living beings. Under their infinite diversity we can trace a funda- mental similarity. The nuclear changes during cell-division, for example, to which I have already alluded, appear to be of a similar character (with some variations in detail) in all animal and vegetable cells, from the most highly organised animals and plants to the lowest. Where we meet with gaps in our classifications, we are accustomed to suppose that these imply the former existence of intermediate forms, which have now become extinct. In this way we may become inclined to believe that the present gap between non-living and living may at one time have been filled by steps of which we are at present ignorant. An attitude of scepticism on this point is reasonable, but if forced to choose between the hypotheses of continuity and discontinuity I should incline to the former. This brings me to the end of my task, which has expanded much beyond my original intentions. My object has been not to attempt impossible solutions, but merely to state these problems, as they present themselves to my own mind, as clearly as I could. How far I have succeeded in making myself intelligible is for you to judge. i ef | LIST OF MINERALS, WALSH AND TINAROO MINING DISTRICT, NORTH QUEENSLAND. J. STEWART BERGE By |. J. HARRISON BROWNLEE | R. COLIN RINGROSE. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 13th May, 1899.] A Few particulars of the great Walsh and Tinaroo Mining District of Northern Queensland will not be out of place as a preface to this first attempt at cataloguing its known minerals. Messrs. William Jack and party discovered the first tin mine—‘‘ The Great Northern ’’—in 1879, and from that year up to the present new finds have continually been and are now being made, which demonstrate the extent and variety of its mineral resources. Tin, copper, lead, silver, wolfram and bismuth are the chief mineral productions, and numerous other useful minerals, such as antimony, molybdenite, zinc, &c., are to be found, but do not pay to work under present conditions. It is only during the past year or two that wolfram and bismuth have been obtained in any quantity. Within the boundaries of the district are included several proclaimed goldfields, the gold returns from which show many thousands of ounces. Extending from Mount Spurgeon in the north to Christmas Hill Station in the south, and from Cooroo Peak in the east to Torwood in the west, distances of 230 miles and about 150 miles direct respectively, the Walsh and Tinaroo has a proclaimed area of 12,640,000 acres, or 19,750 square miles, being larger than Switzerland and nearly as large as Tasmania, and of this vast 48 LIST OF MINERALS. area an experienced geologist has written as follows :—‘‘ A more highly mineralized district it would be hard to find on the face of the globe.” NOTES 7ve CLASSIFICATION. Drvision 1.—Includes the native metals. Diviston 2.—The principal ores. Division 3.—The varieties of silica and rock forming minerals. Diviston 4.—The precious stones. Division 5.—The organic products. The following summary will show clearly how the classification has been made :— Division 1.—Native elements. Section 1. Metallic—Gold, silver, platinum, ete. Section 2. Non-metallic—Graphite, etc. Division 2.—Metals in combination with various elements forming ores, etc. Section 1. Metallic minerals (principal ores, i.e., compounds of the following metals: Gold, silver, mercury, bismuth, etc.) Section 2. Earthy minerals (compounds of elements forming earths, clays, etc., excepting silica). Aluminium, potassium, calcium, ete. Division 8.—Silica and the silicates and other rock-ferming minerals. Section 1. Silica in its many varieties :—Quartz, agate, opal, jasper, etc. Section 2. Silicates or ordinary rock-forming minerals, e.g., Felspars, micas, hornblende, zeolites, etc. Section 8. Other rock-forming minerals. Lime, iron, ete. Division 4.—Precious stones. Garnet, topaz, zircon, etc. Division 5.—Organic products. Coal, ete. (N.B.—The popular classification of Campbell has been followed. Notr.—This list has been compiled from reliable records and geological reports on the district. We also acknowledge the valuable assistance given us by Mr. Skertchley, and many experienced miners and others connected with mining who forwarded us information in reply to our inquiries. BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 49 DIVISION 1.—NATIVE ELEMENTS. Section 1.—MErTattic. Reference No. 1. Goup (Alluvial).—Found in the Russell River terraces, the wash being capped with basalt. Tinaroo Creek with the tin. Hodgkinson River. Tate Goldfield, and Deep Lead, Herberton, in small quantities in tin drifts. ( Reefs and Lodes ). Towalla, on Russell Extended. Balcooma, a little over 100 miles 8.S.W. of Herberton. Mt. Luxton, California Creek. Hodgkinson Goldfield in numerous quartz reefs, enumerated in Jack’s Report on that field. On the East Hodgkinson, associated with iron pyrites, copper pyrites, and galena, and at Northcote with antimony. Tate Goldfield, the principal mine being the “Golden Treasure,’’ which occurs in a schistose sandstone country. The Mareeba Goldfield—‘‘ Mareeba Jubilee”’ line of reef in schist country. Gold is also found in many of the outcrops of the copper lodes of the Chillagoe, but especially at Arbouin, where it appears to occur in payable quantities. The total output of gold from the Hodgkinson alone, to the end of 1898, exceeded 240,000 ounces. 2. Smver.—Mount Garnet, associated with the copper ore, in threads and shapeless masses. The ‘‘Combination Copper Mine” at Halpin’s Camp, in the Mt. Albion locality, has pro- duced some very fine specimens. Newellton with lead ores. ‘‘ Nellie ’’ Lease, Chillagoe, with copper ores. ‘- Queenslander,’ Chillagoe, with copper ores. ‘*Mountain Maid,’”’ Mt. Albion, with lead ores. 50 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. 3. Correr.—Mount Garnet, in country rock. ‘‘Paisley ’’ Shaft, Muldiva. ‘‘ Lancelot’’ Lease, Newellton. ‘* Combination Copper Mine ”’ at Holpin’s Camp. ‘¢ Sorata ’’ Lease, Moorefield. ‘«‘ Nellie’ and ‘‘ Queenslander ’’ Leases, Chillagoe. Moss copper is found in some of the mines in the vicinity of Calcifer. 4, Puatinum.—Occasionally found in minute flakes among the fine grains of gold on the Russell Goldfield. 5. BismutH.—Some very good specimens have been found at Lappa Lappa, where wolfram is associated with it. Wolfram Camp, Walsh River, with wolfram and molybdenite. ‘‘ Lancelot ’’ Lease, Newellton, with tin ore. The ‘‘ Bradlaugh,’’ Herberton. 6. Arsenic.—Rare ; at Dargalong. DIVISION 1.—SECTION 2. Non-METALLIC. 7. Grapuite ( Plwnbago).—* Star of the South,’’ Herberton, Watsonville, and in the vicinity of Thornborough. DIVISION 2.—SECTION 1. Meratuic Minerats (Principal Ores). Ores oF SILVER.— 8. Argentite—Silver Glance—Sulphuret of Silver. Dargalong, Chillagoe ; The ‘‘ Comstock,’’ Lappa Lappa. 9. Pyrargyrite—Ruby Silver. Muldiva. 10. Proustite—Light red silver ore. Muldiva. iD Stephanite—Brittle Silver Ore. Muldiva. 12. Cerargyrite—Horn Silver—Silver Chloride. Principally at Mt. Albion, Muldiva, and Lappa Lappa, BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 51 Reference No. Montalbion, Muldiva, and Lappa Lappa have been the three principal silver producing centres of this area. The total yield of this mineral for the district to the end of the year 1898, was 2,200,000 ounces, Ores or Copper.— 13. Chalcopyrite—Copper pyrites— Found principally at Mount Garnet, Mt. Cardwell, Newellton, Coolgarra, Fossilbrook, Mt. Molloy, Mt. Albion, and in most of the Chillagoe copper mines. 14, Chalcocite—Copper glance—Vitreous copper ore.— In the mines in the vicinity of Watsonville, Mungarra, Mt. Albion, and Calcifer. 15. Bornite—Erubescite—Variegated Copper Pyrites.— The Mount Garnet centre. ‘* Ruddygore ” Lease, Chillagoe. ‘* Pirate ’’ Lease, Tate. Montalbion and Watsonville. 16. Ketrahedrite—Gray Copper—Fahlerz.— Found in large quantities in one locality only, viz.—Mt. Albion Hill, in a pipe vein. ie Atacamite—Copper Ovichloride. The ‘‘Ruddygore’’ and ‘ Boomerang’’ Leases, Chillagoe. ‘* Paisley ’’ Lease, Muldiva. 18. Cuprite—Red Copper Ore. Magnificent specimens obtained all over the copper region, principally the ‘“ Dorothy” and Griffith Leases, Chillagoe. ‘*Red Oxide” and ‘North Australian,’’ Watson- ville. ‘ Paisley,’’ Muldiva, in fine needle-like crystals. Mount Garnet and Mt. Cardwell. 19. Tile ore—earthy oxide of copper. The Prospecting Claim, Newellton. 20. Melaconite—Black copper. Occurs as a black powder in most of the copper mines, e.g., North Australian, Watsonville, and Anniversary, Herberton. §2 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. 21. Chalcanthite—Blue vitrol—Sulphate of copper. Occurs as a secondary deposit in nearly all copper mines, and at Montalbion forms magnificent sheets of stalactite. 29. Olivenite—Hydrous copper arsenate. Muldiva up to the present is the only known locality within the district. 23; Malachite—Green carbonate of copper. Found in all the copper localities named, among the principal of which are the ‘‘ Griffith’’ and ‘Boomerang ”’ at Chillagoe, and the ‘ Paisley”’ at Muldiva. 24. Azurite—Blue carbonate of copper. North Australian, Watsonville; Maybell, Newell- ton; Boomerang, Chillagoe; and in most of the copper mines throughout the area. Mr. Skertchley states that the finest specimens known to him were obtained from Muldiva. 25. Dioptase— Copper silicate. Occurs at Mungana and Muldiva. 26. Chrysocolla—H ydrous copper silicate. Muldiva, and generally throughout Chillagoe. 27. Bournonite. Albion Mine, Montalbion. 28. A Copper Phosphate. Found in the Queenslander Lease, Chillogoe, and at Arbouin. N.B.—The total output of copper for the district, to the end of December, 1898, was 2,150 tons. 29. Mercury.—The Sulphide Cinnabar. Found at Dargalong. Mercury is also found in small quantities in the ‘* Lady Jane,” at Mt. Albion. Leap OREs. 30. Galena—Lead Sulphide. Occurs in great quantities in many localities throughout the area, a few of the principal being as follow :— The ‘Silver Streak,’’ Rainbow and White Star BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 53 Reference No- mines, Newellton; ‘‘ Penzance,’’ ‘‘ Queenslander,” and Macrossan Leases, Chillagoe ; Muldiva, Coolgarra, Mt. Albion, and Dargalong. 31. Anglesite—Lead Sulphate. Not uncommon with galena, but particularly fine specimens have been obtained from the ‘‘ Moun- tain Maid,’’ Mt. Albion. 32. Miniwn—Ovide of Lead. Penzance and Macrossan Leases, Chillagoe ; Dargalong, and as a secondary deposit at Muldiva and Mt. Albion. 33. Waulfenite—Lead Molybdate. Mr. Shertchley states that he has seen but one specimen in this district, which he was informed was found here, but he could not determine the locality. 34. Linarite—Sulphide of Lead and Copper. ‘Caledonia ’’ Mine, Newellton. 35. Minetite—Lead Arsenate. Mount Garnet. 36. Pyromorphite—Lead Phosphate. Newellton, Chillagoe, Coolgarra, and Mt. Albion. Some of these specimens were exceedingly beautiful. 37. Cerussite—Lead Carbonate—White Lead Ore. Newellton. Various mines at Lappa Lappa. ‘* Paisley ’’ Lease, Muldiva. ‘‘Queenslander’’ and ‘¢ Girofla’’ Leases, Chillagoe. ‘* Vulcan,” Irvinebank ; and Dargalong. 38. Barysilite—Lead Silicate. Specimens have been obtained at Calcifer, and Mr. Skertchley informs us that this is the cnly known locality, with the exception of. two in Sweden. N.B.—Total lead production of the district to the end of December, 1898, was 8,308 tons. 54 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No, 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44 46. Zinc OrEs.— Sphalerite Zine Sulphide—Black Jack. Newellton, silver field. Penzance and Eclipse Mines, Chillagoe. Paisley Mine, Muldiva; and Woodleigh. Calamine—H ydrous silicate of zine. Rainbow Mine, Newellton; and Mt. Albion. Goslarite—Zine sulphate. Found as a secondary deposit at Mt. Albion. Willemite—Zine silicate. Montalbion. Zine carbonate. Smithsonite Montalbion. . CopaLt.— In small quantities in the ‘‘ Lady Jane,’’ Mont- albion. Staaten River, near the Lynd, and Mt. Garnet. Tin OrEs.— Stannite—Tin sulphide. Lass o’ Gowrie Claim, Eureka Creek; and at Bakerville. Cassiterite—binowvide of tin. In quartz at No. 2 Shaft, Great Northern, Herberton. In chlorite at Great Northern. In porphyry at Watsonville. With fluorspar in the Poor Stroller and Bradlaugh Claims, Herberton; and the Lass o’ Gowrie and Gladstone Claims, at Eureka Creek. Associated with copper ores in greywackes and sandstones, etc., North Australian Mine, Watsonville. With metallic bismuth in Lancelot, at Newellton. With bismuth and chlorite in Vulcan, Irvinebank. With garnets in Dreadnought, Watsonville. With wolfram in Stewart’s T Claim, Watsonville. With galena and pyrites, at Koorboora. With native copper in Lancelot, at Newellton. BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 55 Reference No. With tourmaline at Irvinebank, with zinc ore at Mt. Albion, and with azurite, aluminite, chlorite, fluorspar, goethite, haematite, limonite, mis- quickel, penninite, pyrites, quartz, topaz, and wolfram at Coolgarra. Some of the varieties of this ore of tin found within the area, are ruby, amber, rosin, and wood tin. The principal tin producing centres are as under :-— Lode Tin.— Herberton. Watsonville. Irvinebank. Coolgarra. Newellton. Bakerville. Montalbion. Thompson’s Creek. Glen Linedale. Koorboora, etc. Alluvial Tin.— Herberton and Deep Lead. California Creek. Woolooman Creek. Tate. Tinaroo Creek. Oakey Creek, ete. Particulars of tin production of District to end December, 1898 :—Alluvial, 5,288 tons, value £226,622; Lode, 22,750 tons, value £1,050,850; Total, 28,038 tons, value £1,277,472. Ore or BismutH.— 47. Bismuthite—Carbonate of Bismuth. Associated with tin lode near Fossilbrook. N.B.—Sixteen cwt. of bismuth ore was exported during 1898, of the value of £224 (estimated). ANTIMONY.— 48. Stibnite—Antimony Sulphide. West Albion Mine at Mt. Albion. 56 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. Many claims in the Watsonville locality ; Planted Tree Crossing ; and on the Walsh River, a few miles from Watsonville, rich lodes are to be found, samples taken from the outcrops giving very good returns, but it is stated that the present demand and value do not pay for working. N.B.—Two large leases have recently been taken up for the purpose of mining for antimony. 49. Cervantite—Antimony Oxide. Obtained in a few of the localities with the sulphide, and near Thornborough. 50. NickEL.— Has been found at Coolgarra and Chillagoe. Tron OrnEs.— Found everywhere in the district. There are regular mountains of these ores in some localities, viz.—Woodleigh and Chillagoe. 51. Pyrite—Iron pyrites—Sulphide of iron. Associated with tin, lead, and copper in various lodes throughout the district. Sometimes with arsenical pyrites, at Herberton and Watsonville. Chillagoe, Mt. Albion, Irvinebank, Mt. Garnet, and especially the ‘‘ Chance’ mine, Watsonville. 52. Marcasite—White iron pyrites. Common at Mt. Albion in all its forms, viz., radiated, hepatic, coxcomb, and spear. 55. Pyrrhotite—Magnetic tron pyrites. Herberton, Watsonville, and Mt. Albion. 54. Arsenopyrite—Mispeckel. Plentiful in the Mt. Albion centre. 55. Haematite—Specular iron ore. Very abundant all over the area. At Red Hills, near Mungara, occurs as a glistening specular iron. At Mt. Albion as nodules of clay iron- stone. Hodgkinson. Coolgarra, and Russell River. Reference No. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 57 Magnetite— Magnetic tron ore. The Boomerang, Chillagoe; Mt. Cardwell, and Newellton. Occurs rather sparingly in the ironstone masses, but hitherto has not been recognised in massive form. Menaccanite—I1lmenite—Titanic tron. Found in grains in the wash at the Russell Gold- field. Deep Lead Sands and Lake Kacham. Melanterite—Copperas—Iron vitriol. Occurs as a secondary deposit in many of the copper mines of the district. Limonite—Brown haematite. Abundant where haematite occurs (see haematite). Columbite—N iobite. In the tin leads beyond Fossilbrook. Gotheite Coolgarra. hydrous tron oxide. Scorodite—Phosphate of tron. At Arbouin, West Chillagoe ; and the Silver Star, Mt. Albion. Virianite—H ydrous tron phosphate. The Anniversary, Herberton; and as specks in the decomposed ferruginous matter about Watsonville. Siderite—Spathic tron—Iron carbonate. The Federation at Watsonville, and not uncommon where haematite is found. ARSENIC.— 65. 66. 67. Orpiment— Yellow sulphide. Realyar. Occurs in the St. Kilda and Chance Claims at Watsonville. The Iolanthe, Irvine Bank, The Consolidated, Mt. Albion, and at Herberton. Arsenolite—White Arsenic. In the vicinity of Watsonville and other places. 58 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. 68. MancanEsE.— 69. Pyrolusite—Black Oxide of Manganese. Redcap, Griffith, Queenslander and Macrossan Mines, Chillagoe; and the Hodgkinson Gold- field. 70. Psilomelane—H ydrous Oxide of Manganese. Specimens have been obtained in parts of district. Hf be Wad—Boy Manganese. Occurs in patches in the Herberton series of rocks, and is not uncommon. 72. Motyppenum.— 75. The Sulphide—Molybdenite. Found around Herberton; also found associated with wolfram and bismuth at the Wolfram Camp. On the Tate River, about 25 miles from the Telegraph Station, there are quantities which would pay if there was a demand for large parcels. 74. Tunesten.— (5. _ Wolfram—Tungystate of Iron and Manganese. Principally at the Wolfram Camp and Lappa Lappa ; also occurs in the vicinity of Herberton, Coolgarra, Eureka Creek, and Woodleigh. N.B.—544 tons of this ore were exported during 1898. Some of the Wolfram Camp wolfram yielded as much as 67 per cent tungstic acid. During the present year larger parcels have been sent away, giving good returns. 76. Scheelite—Tungstate of lime. Found at Cattle Creek, Wolfram Camp, and Watsonville. die Uranium. We can learn of one place only in the district where this mineral has been found, and that is Watsonville, at which place Mr. Pyle states specimens have been found. 78. Torbernite—Hydrous phosphate of Uranium and copper. Said to be found in the vicinity of Watsonville. BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 59 Reference No. 79. 80. Selenium. Specimens have been obtained from the Albion Mine at Mt. Albion, some of which were exhibited at the Melbourne Exhibition in 1888. Common at Chillagoe. Titanium—Rutile—Titanic o.vide. Coolgarra and Tate Tin Mines. Also fairly abundant in the gold gravels. DIVISION 2.—SECTION 2. Compounds of elements forming earths, clays, etc., excepting silica. 81. AtumiIntuM.— 82. Aluminite—Hydrous aluminium sulphate. Coolgarra. 83. Alumina. The oxide is a constituent of a large part of the earthy siliceous minerals, as the _ felspars micas, etc., and the characterising ingredient of common clays. (See micas and felspars). 84, Macnestum.— Its compounds occur abundantly as in tale dolo- mite, which, see 85 Hpsomite—Magnestum sulphate.— Lady Catherine Mine on the Hodgkinson. 86. Magnesite—Carb magnesium. Newellton. 87. Caucium.— Widely and abundantly disseminated as in its compounds, limestone, gypsum, fluorspar, all of which are given in this list. 88. Potassium. Occurs combined in the minerals muscovite, ) orthoclase, ete. 89. Boron.— Occurs combined as in tourmaline. 90. Soprum.— Always occurs combined, as in albite. 60 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No, 90a. Sodium chloride in the mineral waters at the Innot Hot Springs. 91. Litarum.— A trace of lithia is found in the Springs’ Waters. 92. Barrum.— See Barytes. 93. SrrontIumM.— Occurs combined as in arragonite. DIVISION 3.—SECTION 1. Smica anpD Irs Many Varreties.— 93a. Silica and the Silicatesand other rock forming minerals. 94. Quartz.—/ O.vide of silicia ). Found throughout the whole area. Commanly the gangue of tin ore in porphyry country; also the gangue of the auriferous reefs of the Hodgkinson and Mareeba Goldfields. Quartz, VARIETIES OF.— 95. Rock crystals. Plentiful in all tin country. They have a tendency to become smoky or cairngarm colored at the apex. 96. Smoky quartz. At the Wolfram Camp, Walsh River; also in the tin grounds throughout the district. OT. Amethyst. Rather fine crystals in the granite at Mt. Borunda, Tate ; and at Coolgarra. 98. False topaz. Abundant in the tin grounds of the area. 99. Rose Quartz. Mt. Borunda, Tate. 100. Milky Quartz. The common variety found everywhere. 101. Prase. : One or two specimens have been obtained from the gravel in a creek at Dargalong. 102. Chalcedony. Chillagoe. (Sub-divisions) BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 61 Reference No. 103. Carnelian. In Wild River. 104. Sard. In Tate River. 105. Agate. Good specimens obtained near Bellevue Station, Mitchell River. 106. Chert. Occurs occasionally in the Chillagoe limestones as nodules. 107. Jasper. Common all over the sandstone district, Chillagoe, and in the conglomerate of Herberton series. 108. Petrified Wood. Common in the Deep Lead, Herberton locality. 109. Opan.— 110. Common Opal. Found in Deep Lead. F111. Noble Opal. In the vicinity of Elizabeth Creek, a tributary of the Walsh River. #12, Wood Opal. Many of the fossil trees of the Deep Lead are converted into wood opal. DIVISION 3.—SECTION 2. Silicates, or ordinary rock forming minerals. 113. Frispars.— 114. Sanidine. In the Elvan at Watsonville. 115. Albite. In Trap Rock at the Gorge, Flaggy Creek. 216. Oligoclase. In the syenitic granite at Dargalong. 117. Apophyllite. In the basalt, Evelyn Run, and the Jump Up, Herberton Road. 118. Plagioclase. The old Lottery Claim, Herberton. Coolgarra and Calcifer. 62 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. 119. Orthoclase. In the porphyry, near Oakey Creek. Pink crystals in the granite of the Great Northern Mine, and the Old Welcome Claim, Herberton. In the porphyritic granite near Muldiva. It is common in the granites and porphyries of district. 120. Micas.— 121. Muscovite—White mica. Plates have been obtained at Brookland’s Station, seven inches square. Wandoo Creek, West Chillagoe, Tate Tin Mines. Coolgarra. Watsonville, and generally throughout Chillagoe. 122. Biotite—Black mica. In the granite of the Great Northern, Herberton. In pegmatite at the Tate, and between Bismarck and Granite Creeks, Chillagoe, and at Baker’s Camp. 123. Lepidolite. In Greisen rock at Mt. Borunda, Tate. 124. HornsLENDE—AMPHIBOLE.— 125. Common. The Great Northern, St: Patrick and Monarch, Herberton ; Oakey Creek, Bakerville, and many places throughout the district. 126. Tremolite. Coolgarra. Some beautiful specimens of the gray and white varieties have been obtained from the Paisley Mine, Muldiva. 127. Actinolite. Good specimens at Calcifer; Macrossan Lease, Chillagoe ; and “‘ Eclipse ’’ Claim, Muldiva. 128. AveiTE.— 129. Common. ‘Big Ben,’’ Herberton. Wild River Valley. BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 63 Reference No. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 148. Bronzite. Between Tate and Lynd Rivers. Diallage. Macrossan and Boomerang Leases, Chillagoe. Calcifer and Herberton. Hypersthene. Between Tate and Lynd Rivers. ABESTOS.— At Dargalong. OLIvINE.— In the basalt of the Deep Lead, near Herberton, occasionally in fine crystals, and at Lake Kacham. Chrysolite. Fair crystals in the basalt at the Russell Goldfield. TouRMALINE.— Found in radiated crystals in the porphyry at the ‘‘ Baal Gammon,” Watsonville. Around Calcifer, forming tourmaline rock asso- ciated with eclogyte. Bakerville and Irvinebank, with tin. SpHENE—TIrTaniITE.— Occurs in the granite rock in the locality of the Tate. STAUROLITE.— Occurs in the mica schist throughout Chillagoe. ZEOLITES.— Several varities are found among which are :— Natrolite which occurs in the centres of the Basalt, at the Deep Lead, Herberton ; and another variety found at Muldiva. CHLORITE.— Common among the serpentinous rocks, which are plentiful around Herberton as an altered form of diorite. Newellton, Watsonville, Irvinebank, etc. Penninite (chlorite in part). Coolgarra. Viridite (undeterminable chlorite ). Common especially in the tin lodes of district. 64 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. 144. Kaouinirre.—Silicate of Alumina. Watsonville. ‘St. Patrick,’’ Herberton, Paisley, Muldiva, Mount Garnet, and in the granite and porphyry regions throughout area. 145. Tatc.—Silicate of Magnesia. Orient and Wheal Vohr Claims, Herberton, Wat- sonville, and Dargalong. 146. Steatite. Good Friday and North Australian at Watsonville. It occurs as a constituent of the copper and tin lodes, and is not uncommon. 147. Serpentine—AHydrous Magnesium Silicate-— In the decomposed gangue, “ Iolanthe,”’ Irvine- bank. Watsonville. Chillagoe. Plentiful around Herberton as an altered form of diorite. 148. Fibrous Serpentine. Is found in the ‘‘ Great Northern,’’ Herberton. DIVISION 3.—SECTION 3. Other rock forming minerals. . 149. Limestone.— Occurs in large deposits in many parts of the district, principally in the vicinity of Mount Garnet and throughout Chillagoe. 150. Calcite—Carbonate of Lime. Plentiful all over the limestone region, some of the localities being Muldiva, Newellton, Mun- garra, Koorboora. In the two last mentioned places the whole mass of limestone where in contact with the granite is converted into magnificent rhombs of this mineral, often showing a remarkable crypto — cleavage structure. BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 73 some types of malaria from the so called ‘‘ Crescent Body,” in others from large extra-corpuscular plasmodia. They are only seen after blood has been drawn and oxygenated. CRESCENT BODIES. These are shaped something like caraway seeds, are trans- parent, with melanin bodies about their central zone, and are partly clothed with the remains of the blood corpuscles in which they developed. The crescents are usually uniform in appear- ance, twin crescents rarely occur. Mannaberg’s suggestion that the crescents are formed bythe conjugation of two ordinary plasmodia is the most likely one. The crescent body is the parent of the flagellated body, and the gradual change from one to the other may be readily followed. The crescent becomes an oval, then a sphere, the pigment bodies form a sphere within a sphere, then they begin to dance about, finally the flagella shoot out from the periphery and the flagellated body is complete. Ross has shown that when blood drawn from the human subject is kept from the air no flagellated bodies are formed. On the other hand exposure to the air, or the addition of water to the slide favours flagellation. FUNCTION OF FLAGELLATED BODY. From the fact that the flagellated body does not enter into existence until the blood has left the vessels, it is evident that the function of the flagellum must lie outside the human body— in fact, that the ftagellated body constitutes the first phase of the extra-corporeal life of the plasmodium. THE MOSQUITO. As the plasmodium while in the circulation is always enclosed in a blood corpuscle, and is therefore incapable of leaving the body by its own efforts, it must be removed by some suctorial insect common in the haunts of malaria. Surgeon-Major Ross has shown that the crescents ingested by mosquitoes, fed on malarial blood, become transformed into spheres, and then into flagellated bodies. It is now known that these flagella detach themselves and coalesce with other non- flagellated bodies, which then become endowed with locomotive powers, and penetrate through the wall of the stomach of the mosquito, embedding themselves among the muscular fibres 74 MOSQUITOES AND MALARIA. lining it outwardly. They may be seen like minute pustules from the inner surface. When one of these fertilised bodies is pressed on a glass slide, myriads of so called germinal rods are seen. These are seldom found free in the stomach of the mosquito, but may be found in countless numbers in the peculiar veneno-salivary glands connected with the proboscis. These glands, two in number, consist of a number of plump, clearly-defined cells, arranged along a branching duct; in these cells the germinal rods may be found in countless numbers, and when the mosquito is feeding on human blood these rods, which are really spores, are passed into the circulation and give rise to the plasmodia. A REPLY TO “SOME CRITICAL NOTES ON THE QUEENSLAND VOLUME OF THE INTER: NATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.” BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, August 19th, 1899. Eacu member of this Society has received a copy of the Queens- land Volume of the International Science Catalogue, compiled by the Royal Society of Queensland at the request of the late Hon. T. J. Byrnes, and of his successor, the Hon. J. R. Dickson. Copies were also sent to the chief scientific societies of Austra- lasia. On receipt of a copy by the Queensland Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, the Hon. Secretary, Mr. J. P. Thomson, read a criticism on the Catalogue, since printed without date or signature, to which your Council has re- quested me to reply. This is not Mr. Thomson’s first attack on matters pertain- ing to our Society ; in Volume XII, pp. 59 to 71 of our Pro- ceedings may be found Mr. (now Dr.) R. L. Jack’s crushing reply to Mr. Thomson’s remarks on the Government Geologist’s paper entitled ‘‘ Artesian Water in the Western Interior of Queensland.” 76 A REPLY TO ‘SOME CRITICAL NOTES, ETC.”’ In his criticism of the Catalogue Mr. Thomson’s statements prove: 1. That he failed to ascertain beforehand what reasons led to the compilation of the Catalogue ; and 2. That he is wholly unacquainted with the printed direc- tions issued by the International Conference, by which the arrangement and classification of the work criti- cised were determined. Mr. Thomson’s principal charges are printed in italics, and following each will be found my reply. I. P. 2, lines 9-15 and 27. ‘© T had to collect, arrange, and classify the material without a colleague.” This not altogether unambitious statement is, however, scarcely consistent with a subsequent remark, in which our bibliographer acknowledges the services of three well known authorities, who revised, arranged and classified the chemistry sections, the vertebrates, and the Lepidoptera. The preface discloses an error. As a matter of fact the whole of the subject matter of the Catalogue was collected, arranged, and classified before any por- tion was submitted to the three gentlemen, whose assistance is gratefully acknowledged in the preface. Professor Liversidge read and corrected the final proof of the Chemistry section form- ing pp. 48-51. Mr. De Vis supplied the class names given in brackets after each new species named by Mr. Saville Kent or by himself. Mr. Tryon read the two last proofs in pages of Section 2435, Lepidoptera, and suggested several valuable ‘improvements affecting the classification of species adopted by the authors themselves. There is therefore no error to disclose. L.. Ps 2), mes ea 7-29: The second entry on the first page of the Catalogue of Authors reveals a stupid omission of the title of a work. It may be some satisfaction to Mr. Thomson to know that, notwithstanding his evident animus, this is the only error in the Catalogue which he is able to substantiate in his criticism of twelve printed pages. BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 77 TIT. P. 8, lines 13-14. The preface of the work is in itself tnadequate. The catalogue was compiled for the use of the International Conference at London, for whom no explanation was necessary ; from this body came the first application, through the Agent- General, to the Premier for assistance in the matter ; but a short preface was written to advise members of the Royal Society and others of the causes which led to its production. IV. P. 3, lines 33-35. Only two (of the resolutions ) have been published in full in the Queensland volume, by Mr. Shirley, and these, strange to say, have really no material bearing on the character of the cataloque. As the material for the Queensland Catalogue was collected by request of the International Conference, and for their use, it was hardly necessary to quote to them their rules in full, but those rules were quoted which showed that there was a discre- tionary power to be exercised in the selection of material. V. P. 3, lines 35-37 ; p. 4, lines 1-16, 25-28. Three of the most important ones of all have not been yiven. They are as follows :— “That the Catalogue shall comprise all published original contributions to the branches of science hereafter mentioned, whether appearing in periodicals, or in publications of Societies, or as independent pamphlets, memoirs, or books.” “* That in judging whether a publication is to be considered as a contribution to science suitable for entry in the catalogue, regard shall be had as to its contents, trrespective of the channel through which it is published.” “* That a contribution to science for the purpose of the catalogue be considered to mean a contribution to the Mathematical, Physical or Natural Sciences, just as, for evample, Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany, Mathematical and Physical Geography, Zoology, Anatomy, Psychology and Anthropology, to the exclusion of what are sometimes called the applied sciences—the limits of the several sciences to be determined hereafter.” 78 A REPLY TO ‘‘ SOME CRITICAL NOTES, ETC.” As ua matter of fact, there is not a word about ** research work” in this resolution at all, the words being simply UNNECES- sarily used by Mr. Shirley jor reasons best known to himself. In the rule first quoted by Mr. Thomson, the words ‘original contribution ’’ form a term well understood in scientific societies as meaning a distinct discovery, adding some item or items to the sum total of scientific knowledge ; and the words ‘‘ research work ’’ merely paraphrase this term. Mr. Thomson has wholly misunderstood this first rule, which plainly debars all extracts, summaries, and popular lectures from a place in the catalogue. The second rule quoted by him clearly proves that a selec- tion as to quality must be made. VI. PD. 4, lines 37-39. “ All productions that do not contain original or research work” have not been ruled out by a long way. (a.) ‘ Contributions to the Bibliography of Gold.” This was written by Professor Liversidge as an appendix to the ‘‘ Bibliography of Gold,’’ published in Locke’s Gold (London, 1882), a standard work ; it had been accepted and printed by the Australasian Association. . (b.) Narrative of an Ewploration of the Coen. T am still of opinion that Captain Pennefather’s notes as supplied by him to Major Boyd are worthy of an entry. (c./ In the Barly Days. This is really a history of the colony as rescued from con- temporary records, and the valuable information supplied was judged to deserve mention. (d.) Life among the Afghans. Mr. Thomson conceals the facts that on p. 22 there is printed in brackets (Communicated by), and on p. 62 it is dis- tinctly shown to be Dr. Gray’s. fe.) Queensland Past and Present. _ A statistical record of the material position and progress of the colony, with the‘Government impress, stands on a different level to a private production. As the work is published annually, the last volume is the only one that needs mention. On receipt of a copy of this work from Mr. Weedon, Mr. Thomson wrote BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 79 as follows:——‘‘I must thank you very cordially for your thoughtfulness in sending me a copy of your splendid work on ‘Queensland, Past and Present,’ a gift which I value most highly. It is a book for which you deserve the greatest praise.” (f.) Geographic History of Queensland. There is original matter in Mr. Meston’s ‘‘ Geographic History,” and the work deserves mention on that account, as also for its interesting historical information concerning geo- graphical nomenclature in Queensland. (y.) Synopsis of the Flora of Queensland. Mr. Bailey, in his preface, and in the introductions to various classes of plants, acknowledges his indebtedness to other authors, especially to the late Baron F. v. Mueller; but there are slight additions of original matter on pp. 686, 694, 708, 714, 809, and 811; and the ‘“‘ Synopsis”’ is the foundation stone of all subsequent work of our worthy Colonial Botanist. (h.) Supplements to the Flora of Queensland. Following these entries in the catalogue, in each case, there will be found lists of new plants named and described by Mr. Bailey, which form his “original contribution.” See pp. 133-4. (ei PB. 7, lines 5-8. On the first four pages there occur about a dozen entries of mere meteoroloyical maps, whilst similar cartoyraphical con- tributions crop up on pages 10, 12, and 13, in the shape of geological maps. Had Mr. Thomson referred to these maps he would have found that the notes accompanying them form a valuable addition to our scientific literature ; and a study of the specimen catalogue supplied by the International Conference would have shown that charts and daily weather reports are asked for under Meteorology, and maps under Geology. VIII. and LX. P. 7, lines 36 and 37, and pp. § and 9. Tt would indeed be-safe to say that not more than a half of the scientific literature of the colony has been included, In proof of this statement, Mr. Thomson quotes 23 works, which would at most add two pages to.a catalogue of 154 pp. These works were weighed and found wanting. They may have been excellent as extracts, or summaries, or popular lectures, but they merely traversed well trodden. ground. To show that papers by members of the Royal Society of Queensland 80 A REPLY TO ‘‘ SOME CRITICAL NOTES, ETC.” have been no less freely excluded, the following papers, from the first five of the fourteen volumes published by the Society, will be found omitted from the Catalogue : 23. . Inaugural Address, Vol. I., pp. 3-7. . Mesoplodon Layardi, Vol. I., pp. 58-59. . Sesbania—a native fibre-producer, Vol. I., p. 101. . Fasciation in Sicyos angulata, Linn., Vol. L., p. 102. . Summer Heat v. Health, Vol. L., p. 173. . Presidental Address, Vol., II., pp. 67-76. . Practical Hybridization, Vol. II., p. 141. . The Establishment of a Geological Survey in Queens- land, Vol. II., pp. 198-207. . Artesian Wells v. Water Supply, Vol. II., pp. 208-209. . On the Curative Properties of the Cunjevoi, Vol. IL., pp. 211-213. . Notes on a Living Tree Stump, Vol. III., pp. 38-39. . Presidental Address, Vol. III., pp. 116-119. . Indelible Writing Inks, Vol. IIL., pp. 144-150. . Fasciation of Bouvardia triphylla, Vol. III., pp. 158-154. . On Native Zinc in Queensland, Vol. III., pp. 154-155. . Report of a Meeting called to Promote the Formation of an Australasian Association, Vol. III., pp. 159-165. . A Bee Parasite, Vol. IV., pp. 17-19. . President’s Address, Vol. IV., pp. 94-96. . The First Discovery of Gold in Queensland, Vol. IV., pp. 114-118. . Gold Occurrence in Queensland, Vol. IV., pp. 124-128 . An account of the chief objects of Botanical Interest in an excursion to Peechey’s Scrub, Vol. IV., pp. 185-136. . Report of the Field Naturalists’ Section &c., Vol. V., pp. 70-72. Field Naturalists’ Excursion to Caboolture, Vol. LV., pp. 187-142. XY. P. 10 lines 26-29. We In find, for example, some of Mr. Shirley’s own contributions entered say on p. 24, Paleontology, to reappear in other sections, for instance, botany. p 36. the explanatory notes accompanying the specimen schedules of the botanical section, it is expressly directed that BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 65 Reference No. 150a. In the Chillagoe Caves every possible variety can be found, except Iceland Spar, and in some places, as at Red Hills, the calcite is almost pure enough to be called Iceland Spar. Varieties of calcite found at Chillagoe, are :— 151. Dog tooth spar. 152. Satin spar. 158. Granular limestone. 154. Compact limestone. 155. Stalactite. 156. Stalaynuite. 157. Frvorire. Occurs at Girofla. Newellton, Herberton, Baker- ville, Eureka Creek, and Dargalong. It is not as conimon as might be expected. 158. AraGoniTE.— Common through the alteration of calcite rhombs, Chillagoe, Newellton, ete. 159. Dotomrte.— California Creek. Some of the Chillagoe limestone seems to be sufficiently impregnated with magnesia to become dolormite. 160. Gypsum—Lime sulphate. Not uncommon in the Chillagoe district, the more frequent crystals being twin forms of selenite, due to secondary decomposition. Varieties of gypsum found are :— Fluorspar—Fluoride of calcium. 161. Alabaster, 162. Selenite, 163. Plumose, and 164. Fibrous. ScHEELITE (see Tungsten). 165. ANHYDRITE Found with gypsum. 166. Apatite—Calcium Phosphate. Occurs in the granite rocks of the district in microscopic quantities. Another variety occasionally occurs as eftlores- cences at Wandoo Creek, Chillagoe. Lydrous lime sulphate. 66 LIST OF MINERALS. Reference No. 167. Baryres.-— 168. Barite—Heary Spar—Barium Sulphate. Tate, Dargalong and near Girofla. It is very scarce. 169. SutpHur.— Occurs as a secondary product in many of the silver ores found around Chillagoe, &c. N.B.—There are other rock forming minerals, such as garnet, spinel, &c., the former being a constituent of the garnet rock found around Chillagoe, but for these, see Division 4 following. DIVISION 4. 170. Precious Stones.— 7h. Sapphire (Blue). Jordon Creek. 172: Sapphire (Green). The Oriental emerald—Jordon Creek. 173. Spinel. Jordon Creek, Nigger Creek, Californian Creek, and Tate River. 174. Fleonaste (Black Variety). Jordon Creek and Tate River. 176. ZUVCON. Jordon Creek and Tate River. 176. Jargon (Colorless). Jordon Creek. Lie Topaz (Yellow) in short prisms. California Creek. 178. Topaz (White) Nigger Creek and Coolgaera. Tourmaline (see No. 186). 179. (rarnet (Red), 180. Garnet Pyrope, 181. Garnet Andradite. Present in nearly all tin gravels at Calcifer, some- times a constituent of Garnet rock. The . pale-greenish white garnet, the essential garnet of eclogyte, which is the ore bearing rock of Chillagoe. Amethyst (see No. 97). BY J. STEWART BERGE, ETC. 67 Reference No. Opal (see No. 109). Sphene (see No. 137). DIVISION 5. 182. Orcanic Propucts.— 183. Graphite or Plumbago.—In the vicinity of Watson- ville and Thornborough. More or less common throughout the district as slickensides on the sides of lodes. 184. Lignite or Brown Coal. Good specimens have been obtained from the Russell Goldfield. 185. Bitumen.—Hodgkinson Goldfield. Index to List of Minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo Mining District. Name. Reference No. Name. Reference No. Actinolite 0 a6 eur Barysilite AG eo. als! Agate .. 06 ee LOS Biotite .. ob oy l22 Alabaster or ao All Bismuth (Native) .. a0 5 Albite .. ae Siren E13) Bismuthite aie Ro eure st Alumina St Bg (eB) Bitumen.. oo Se alist) Aluminite Bc SZ Bornite .. Bc oo lis Aluminium ate ao telll Boron ae sa ett) Amethyst oie on | ei Bournonite ais do 2h Amphibole 56 -. 124 Bronzite. . Te -. 130 Andradite 50 en alten Calamine su a aun Anglesite (Lead Sulp.) S50) Lal Calcite. .. ee ao Alsi) Anhydrite fe Me VhG6S Calcium... xe So.) Bi Antimony Ores .. .. 48-9 Carnelian ae aelOs Apatite, -.. Oe =e 166 Cassiterite (Tin Ore) heer 4G Apophyllite iGe eta tn Ey Cerargyrite (Horn Silver) .. 12 Argentite 5D ays 8 Cerussite (Lead Carb.) Thee scstl Arsenic (Native) ... oye 6 Cervantite (Antimony Oxide) 49 =, Ores oS .. 65-7 Chaleanthite ... a Pal - Arsenolite Thy ost ne 67 Chalcedony 5 ta an OZ Arseno-pyrite of se. Mod Chalcocite oe onl EA Atacamite 50 Lede Chalcopyrite ac an neds Augite .. = See Seel28 Chert -... oars va 106 Azurite .. ios Re 24 Chlorite... ae sa il25l Barite .. ab no Altos) Chrysolite He cal) des: Barium .. Pilea so | Oil Chrysocolla ain ee §6.26 Barytes .. sete an) AST) Cinnabar pears hal, 29 68 INDEX—Continued. Name. Reference No. Cobalt 44 Columbite 60 Copper, Native 3 » Pyrites 13 » Glance 3 14 » Pyrites (oarerated) 15 yy ©6(Gray 16 , Oxichloride 17 ,, Red Oxide 2 8 ,, Black Oxide ai ee » Sulphate .. Sy! » Arsenate .. 22 ,, Green Carbonate 23 » Blue Fs 24 » silicate 25 ,, Hydrous Silicate 26 ,, Phosphate 28 Cuprite .. - 18 Diallage .. 131 Dioptase.. 25 Dolomite 159 Epsomite 85 Erubescite 15 Fahlerz . 16 Gatepare. - 113 Flourite—Flourspar 157 Galena .. 30 Garnet 179 Gold 1 Goslarite 41 Gotheite 61 Graphite (7) 183 Gypsum .. a0 160 5, Plumose 163 » . Fibrous «. wa, L64 Heavy Spar 168 Haematite 5 - aie) ‘hele Hornblende ae ee 124 a Common 125 Horn Silver ss jeer ley Hypersthene -- 182 Iceland Spar a5 -- 1504 Ilmenite.. ac 57 Iron Pyrites s- Se etl ar » (White) Ste Gy 3 », Magnetic 53 s Specular 55 » Magnetic .. 56 Name. Iron Titanic ,, Vitriol ,, Phosphate ,, Carbonate Jargon Jasper Kaolinite Lead Sulphide », Sulphate », Oxide », Molybdate . 5, Sulphide ee) Cupid 34 ;, Arsenate s, Phosphate .. 5, Carbonate Silicate Lepidolite Lignite Limestone Limonite Lithium .. Linarite .. Magnesite Magnesium Magnetite Malachite Manganese Marcasite Melaconite Melanterite Menaccanite Mercury .. Mica Milky Quartz Minetite.. Minium .. Mispickel Molybdenum Molybdenite Muscovite Natrolite.. Nickel Niobite .. Oligoclase Olivine .. Olivenite Opal ee » Noble Reference No. 57 58 62 64 176 107 144 -. iff Name. Opal Common ,, Wood Organic Products.. Orthoclase Orpiment Sic Penninite Petrified Wood Plagioclase Platinum Pleonaste Be Plumbago Potassium Prase Precious Stones Proustite Psilomelane Pyrargyrite Pyrite Pyrolusite Pyromorphite Pyrope Pyrrhotite Quartz .. oe » Varieties Realgar .. Redruthite Rock Crystals Rose Quartz 52 Rutile Ruby Silver Sanidine Sapphire, Blue re Green . Sard Scheelite Scorodite Selenite .. Selenium Serpentine Be Fibrous Siderite .. Silicas Silver, Native » Glance INDE X— Continued. Reference No. 110 112 182 119 65 ae ROE 95, etc. 66 See Copper 95 sn, oy) as oO See Silver 114 aya 172 104 76 62 162 79 Name. Silver Ruby Horn Smithsonite Smoky Quartz Sodium .. 5 Chlorite Sphalerite Sphene .. Spinel Stannite Stalactite Stalagmite Staurolite Steatite .. Stephanite Stibnite .. Strontium Sulphur Tale Tetrahedrite Tile Ore.. Titanite .. Titanium Tin Ore .. Torbernite Topaz » False Tourmaline Tremolite Tungsten Uranium Viridite . Vivianite Wad Willemite Wolfram Wulfenite Zeolite Zine, Sulphide », Hy. Silicate.. » Sulphate », Silicate ,, Carbonate Zircon 69 Reference No. 9 12 Be) ae: MOSQUITOES AND MALARIA. By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 17, 1899. CAUSE OF FEVER. In the blood of malarial fever patients is always found an organism, discovered by Laveran in 1810, and consequently known as the plasmodium malaria. THREE STAGES. This organism is found to exhibit three phases, one adapted for life with man as its host, a second adapted for life outside the human body, and probably a third or latent stage. HUMAN CYCLE. Every variety or species of the plasmodium inhabiting man has its special and more or less definite life span of 24 hours, of 48 hours, or of 72 hours. On examining malarial blood towards the end of one of these cycles, before one of the paroxysms of the characteristic periodic fever is induced, the parasite may be recognised as a pale ill-defined disc of proto- plasm, occupying a larger or a smaller area, within a proportion of the red blood corpuscles. Scattered through this pale body are a number of particles of intensely black, or reddish black pigment—melanin. On repeated examination at short serial intervals the observer notes a systematic series of changes in the discs of pigmented protoplasm. 1. The scattered pigment particles collect into little groups, or into radiating lines ; 2. The pigment groups concentrate further into one or two larger, more or less, central blocks ; 8. Around these central masses the protoplasm groups itself as globular masses, i.e. spores'; 72 MOSQUITOES AND MALARIA, 4. The blood corpuscle breaks up and the spores enter the liquor sanguinis ; 5. Such spores as escape the phagocytes attach themselves to red corpuscles and enter them ; 6. In the interior of the corpuscle the plasmodium exhibits ‘mceboid movements, and grows at the expense of the hemoglobin ; 7. By assimilation they convert the hemoglobin into the pale substance of: the plasmodium and into melanin ; 8. Finally, just before sporulation all motion ceases. STRUCTURE. On staining, the plasmodial spore is found to consist of a minute, deeply tinted nucleolus, surrounded by an unstained vesicular nucleus, and this again by a covering of protoplasm. As the parasite grows and approaches maturity the nucleolus disperses, and the vesicular nucleus becomes less distinct, finally just before sporulation both nucleus and nucleolus cease to be distinguishable. MELANIN. The melanin particles occur either in dust-like specks, in coarse grains, in short rods, or aggregated into dense clumps. LATENT PHASE. Concurrently with the subsidence of acute clinical symptoms, the plasmodium may disappear from the general circulation and pass into a latent stage. This it does either spontaneously or as the result of the action of quinine. The exact conditions which cause latency are not known. EXTRA CORPOREAL CYCLE——-FLAGELLATED BODIES. When fresh malarial blood is examined under the micro- scope, strange octopus-like creatures, the flagellated bodies appear; like the ordinary parasite they are of colourless proto- plasm, with melanin granules, but they are furnished with one to six whip-like arms, termed flagella. These arms, three or four times as long as a blood corpuscle is broad, move with the greatest rapidity, and they double up and distort the blood corpuscles by their blows. Occasionally the flagella break away and swim about freely. Careful observation shows that the flagellated bodies are developed from two forms of the extra-corpuscular parasite—in BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 81 all references to fossil plants must be catalogued under both Botany and Palzontology; similarly, all references to fossil animals must be given under both Zoology and Paleontology. Mr. Thomson would have been wiser had he studied the printed directions by which the auther was guided, before he so hastily formulated his ill-based charges. AT. P. It lines 2-7. Some of the entries in the second section show all too plainly the leaning sympathy of the compiler, especially in the Paleontological and Botanical divisions, being overloaded with details, recounting numerous species, sub-species and types familiar to the author. In this instance Mr. Thomson again proves that he has not taken the trouble to refer to the specimen catalogues supplied from London, which formed the model for the construction of the Queensland volume. Any unbiased critic who compares the two will see that the copy has been rigidly and faithfully followed. ATT. P. 11, lines 10-14. The second part of the catalogue shows haste and inexperience in bibliographic compilation. Here the entries, supposed to be arranged according to the subjects, reappear in the order of authors up to p. 76, where the proper arrange- ments only begins, and ts carried to the end of p. 132. Mr. Thomson is again wrong in his contention. The rule followed in the specimen subject-catalogues for Physics, Mathematics, Anthropology, &c., is to arrange each sub-section alphabetically under authors ; but in Botany and Zoology, with their scientific names, the titles and not the authors’ names are in alphabetical sequence. XITT, P. 11, lines 28-38. Many valuable and original literary contributions to science have been published from time to time in most of our local periodicals. According to the resolutions of the conference these should have been listed. Mr. Thomson is wrong in supposing that a newspaper is a periodical in terms of the second rule given by him on p. 4 of his ‘‘ Critical Notes.’’ Newspaper articles such as he mentions are never acknowledged as authorities or quoted as such by scientific journals. F '\ a ON A METHOD BY WHICH A PURE WATER- SUPPLY COULD BE OBTAINED FOR BRISABNE., By THOS. L. BANCROFT, M.B., Edin. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 19th August, 1899.] Ir the Enoggera water be analysed, it will be found to be free from inorganic matter with the exception of a very small amount of common salt, [In March last, after a considerable spell of dry weather, there was only 1.2 grains Chlorine to the gallon.] but to contain an enormous amount of organic impurity. In March, I made an analysis to ascertain the amount of organic matter, with the following result :— Free Ammonia ‘00 ) Albuminoid Ammonia -24_ } A water containing ‘10 parts per million is generally con- sidered too impure for consumption until subjected to filtration and the amount of Albuminoid Ammonia reduced to -05 parts per million. Consumption of water containing -20 parts per million of Albuminoid Ammonia by a community has been found to bring about various conditions of ill health. In England, such a water would be condemned as unfit for use, but here in Brisbane, we are compelled to consume water of that discription. Parts per million. How can water be freed from organic impurity ? It has been found that this is possible in many instances by filtration, but it must be remembered that efficient filtration, on a large scale, entails a very serious expense and one that Brisbane could scarcely afford at the present time. 84 METHOD BY WHICH A PURE WATER SUPPLY, ETC. I understand that some experiments have been made by the Board of Water-works to filter the Enoggera water, but without satisfactory results, owing to the excessive amount of organic matter quickly choking the filters. How does the Enoggera water become contaminated by organic matter? It is from the decomposition of Water-lilies (Nymphaea gigantea, Hook), Pond-weed (Hydrilla), microscopic algv, protozoa, excrement of birds, and from leaves washed by rains into the reservoir. The Enoggera water is rich in microscopic life, it is this that gives the water a bad odour on reaching Brisbane; at the reservior it is free from bad smell; whilst in the pipes, in darkness and under pressure, the living bodies die, and by the time they reach town are in a state of decomposition. Water-plants and fish have unfortunately been introduced into the Enoggera reservoir ; the plants serve as food for various insects ¢.y., the lave of dragon-flies, and also for snails, and these again serve as food for ducks and other aquatic birds, also for fish; the fish entice cormorants and water-rats, so that the reservoir terms with life. Considerable areas are very shallow and in these parts, not only do the water-weeds grow luxuri- antly, but the water being comparatively still, and much warmer than in the deeper portions, microscopic alge grow to profusion. The excrement of birds is not to be ignored as a factor in contamination although, in the case of Enoggera, owing to the great bulk of water, it is a minor one. Recently in this district [Deception Bay} after a drought, a fresh-water lagoon of about twenty acres in extent, two-thirds of which is covered with the large Blue Water-lily, became the resort of thousands of water-birds, the excrement of which, together with the decomposition of water-lilies, increased the impurity from Chlorine 6-0 grains per gallon. Free Ammonia ‘00 ) weal Albuminoid Ammonia °30 ) Parts por to Chlorine 148-0 grains per gallon. Free Ammonia *08 ) Albuminoid Ammonia 1:00 ) The water in this lagoon generally is drinkable, although it possesses a very distinct weedy taste ; recently it has become so foul as to be little better than sewage. Parts per million. BY THOS. L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 85 In another lagoon, near by, of great depth of water (8 to 30 feet), no water-weeds grew and no birds congregated, the impurity was :— Chlorine 2:0 grains per gallon. Free Ammonia ‘00 Albuminoid Ammonia ‘24 This water gets its organic impurity from the leaves of over- hanging trees. | Parts per million. Now I have observed over and over again, not in Queens- land alone, but in various other countries, that water-weeds, rooting at the bottom, will not grow in fresh water rivers and lakes provided there be no shallow parts, no parts less than six feet deep, and I have observed that where there are no water- weeds there are no free alge, neither will Duck-weed (Lemna) and Azolla grow; the waves soon cast on shore these floating plants ; whether the same would apply to the Water Hyacinth is doubtful. On Stradbrook Island there are several large fresh-water lakes with deep water (20 feet) free from water-weeds, fish and birds ; the water is practically pure; by preventing the leaves from over-hanging trees entering the lakes, the water would remain aS pure as rain water in an ordinary galvanised iron tank. It is true that the large Water-lilies, particularly the yellow one (Nuphar lutea H.K.), can grow in water up to ten feet, but in order for them to do so, they must be well established in shallow water and gradually creep into the deep water ; ten feet seems to be about the limit at which they will grow. When growing in water ten feet deep the slightest increase in depth by rain causes them to die. If well rooted specimens be sunk into water over six feet deep they will die, at any rate, that is my experience. It is manifest then that were a water reservoir constructed so that no parts would be less than six feet deep, water-weeds would not grow in it. The Enoggera reservoir could be made to contain twice the quantity of water it now does and the water would be pure. Sooner or later the water-supply for Brisbane will have to be augmented ; I believe the cheapest and best way to do this would be by deepening the Hnoggera reservoir. I suggest that the 86 METHOD BY WHICH A PURE WATER SUPPLY, ETC. Board of Water-works temporarily increase the water-supply from other sources than Enoggera so as to be independent of the latter and then proceed to reconstruct. The method suggested is to cut gradually a trench into the by-wash to drain off all the water; to make a wall of rough stone and concrete, at least six feet high, round the water’s edge and back this with earth dug from the shallow parts of the lake so as to make a gradual ascending slope from the top of the wall to the hill sides ; otherwise, water would lodge between the wall and the hill; plant the bank with Buffalo-grass ; clean out logs, stumps, vegetation, and fish; finally, strengthen and raise the dam and build up the by-wash. The lake would then hold sufficient water for the requirements of Brisbane for some time to come ; the water would be pure and every drop available if at any time pumping had to be restored to. The other reservoirs could then be abandoned until the growth of the city necessitated a further increase of water. There should be a space cleared at least fifty yards wide, all round the lake, fenced in and planted with Buffalo-grass ; the grass should never be cut nor grazed by cattle; it would serve to prevent leaves from the adjacent land being washed by rain or blown in the reservoir. Deception Bay, July 1899. DESCRIPTION OF SOME CAVES NEAR CAMOOWEKAL. By T. P. KEYS. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, August 19, 1899.) Asout twelve miles to the eastward of the township of Camooweal the monotonous level of the country is interrupted by the presence of a number of irregular chasms, varying in depth from 50 to 120 feet, and in width from 80 to 100 feet. Leading into most of these chasms are water-courses, which in flood-time pour in an enormous quantity of water, which disappears as rapidly as it enters. Being anxious to solve the problem of the dissappear- ance of all this water, I set out one morning in company with a few companions, and, having reached our destination, selected a cave which seemed suitable for exploration. We had taken care to come provided with a supply of ropes and candles, also a quantity of kerosene for the purpose of making fire-balls. Fastening our rope to a large boulder, we clambered, or rather slid, to the bottom at a depth of 105 feet. At this level we found a cave opening into the rock, the entrance being about 30 feet high, but increasing to a height of nearly 50 feet as we advanced. After walking some distance our )rogress was barred by an enormous rent or hole in the floor. Having suc- ceeded in getting round this, we found the cave opened out into numerous passages, the largest bearing some resemblance to a great cathedral, with pillars of limestone supporting the roof, which appears as if chiselled by the hand of man into a sort of mosaic work. Some of the side passages contained beautiful stalactites, which on being struck, gave out a clear, musical note. Retracing our steps to the opening in the floor, we fastened on our second rope, and again descended, having first 88 DESCRIPTION OF SOME CAVES NEAR CAMOOWEAL. thrown down a large ball of cotton soaked in kerosene, to test the atmosphere and to light us on our way. On reaching the second floor, we found several caves which we explored till our progress was again stopped by a second hole. After dropping fire-balls into this, we made fast another rope and decended, reaching a third floor, or rather platform, of considerable size. Looking over the edge of this platform, we could discern below at the distance of about 40 feet a considerable body of water. Determining to examine this, I had a rope fastened round my waist and was let down by the others—I found the water beautifully clear, cool, and pure; but had no means of testing its depth, or its exact temperature. Further progress being impossible we retraced our steps, and having reached the surface and the light of day, we found, by measurement of our ropes, that the surface of this subterranean lake is about 800 feet below the level of the plain. We also estimated that the distance which we had penetrated horizontally into the bowels of the earth could not have been far short of a quarter of a mile. The floors of the caves were free from rubbish of any kind, and the atmosphere was tolerably pure throughout. In connection with this subject, it is, 1 think, worthy of note that the Rocklands’ Pastoral Company have put down several bores in the neighbourhood of Camooweal which have struck water—an inexhaustible supply of sub-artesian water— at depths varying from 250 to 300 feet, proving conclusively (in connection with the above) that below the surface of this arid region there exists a vast reservoir of pure, fresh water of many square miles in extent, and at a nearly uniform depth below the surface. vr oe tier ees PROG. ROY. SOC: OL; VOL..XV. PLATE 1. eS F ioc as . i fe ~ ‘7 y a TE r ; 2 oh) | * ti j ‘ | sy V ger 0 EXPLANATION OF Piate HEPIALUS VIRESCENS. Figure 1.—Third abdominal segment showing position of tubercles, spiracle and hairs; enlarged; 4x 4 diameters. 2,.—Ventral aspect of proleg, showing terminal hooks, position of four outer hairs and one on inner sides ; much enlarged. 3.— 6 Genitalia; enlarged; 4 x 4 diameters. 4.—-Ventral aspect of caput showing antennal base and palpi; enlarged; 2 x 2 diameters. 5.—Neuration of fore and hind wing; natural size. A FRAGMENTARY PAPER ON THE LARVAL STRUCTURE ETC., OF HEPIALUS? VIRESCENS (D'BLD.) OF NEW ZKALAND. (Pxrate I.) By AMBROSE QUAIL, F E.S. (London.) (CommunicateD By R. Iniines.) { Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 18, 1899.| PropaBty it is well known to you that the Hepialide are a very interesting group of the Lepidoptera—from a scientific point of view—possessing as they do certain affinities with the Trichoptera ; the Hepialide are not without interest from the economic point of view also. I shall however, deal with the former. A note of the distribution, so far as is known to me, may be of interest. In Europe there are eight representatives all of the genus Hepialus, five of these are British. I have no list from America, nor any means of reference, but am acquainted with several species. I do not believe them numerous, as recently, Professor Dyar stated that not sufficient material has yet been studied for the modifications of larval structure to be known (Ento Record IX-137). This would hardly be so if the group had numerous representatives in America. From Africa I have no lists, but there is a fair number of species, and in that country the same development of antennal appendages takes place—as in Australia—in the imagines. From Asia I have no lists, and have no reason to believe the group numerous. I have received one species from Ceylon, but there are more. It is in 90 A FRAGMENTARY PAPER ON THE LARVAL, ETC. the Australian region that the group is most numerous. Mr. R. Illidge of Brisbane, and other entomologists have kindly furnished me with lists. From these I find thirty-one representa- tives of the grou: are described. In New Zealand nine representatives are described. Of the Australian species, twelve, and three doubtful are of the genus Hepialus. In New Zealand Hepialus virescens is the only one, the remaining eight being of the genus Porina. The Hepialus of Europe are root feeders, the ova are black, spherical, and laid loosely amongst the herbage. The Porinas of New Zealand are also root feeders, ova black, spherical, and laid loosely. I am not acquainted with the ova of Hepialus virescens. Hudson states they are ‘‘ very small yellowish, round’ (N. Z. Macro Lepi- doptera.) Illidge states the ova of the Australian Hepialus (Charayia) ‘are a‘pale yellow colour’? when extruded ‘turn slaty gray hue”’ afterwards, the larve are internal wood feeders. Between the European black ova, root feeding larve, and the Australasian yellow-gray ova, wood-feeding larve, there seems sufficient distinction to provisionally adopt the name Charagia (Walk) for those species associated under the name Hepialus (F.) leaving the latter name to the European representatives. This is done by Illidge in his paper (‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland,” volume XIV). Dr. S. A. Chapman some years since, in a letter to the writer expressed the opinion that the true position of the Hepialidie and Cosside among the Lepidoptera could be best worked out in Australia, but the subterranean and internal feed- ing habits of the larve render observation and collection of material difficult and uninviting to the general worker. Of the N. Z. Porinas I have obtained ova, etc., of four species. The larve of H. virescens I have often watched when they replaced the damaged cover of their burrow at night, but was unable until recently, to procure any of the wood into which they burrow. In August the insect is in pupa, but I succeeded in obtaining half-grown larve, proving the species occupies at least two years in its transformations. Hudson gives no hint as to the time so occupied. Lllidge mentions from ‘one to three years’’ for the Australian species, and that the larve burrow into the tree then, downwards. A specimen of the virescens which I examined burrowed into the wood, the burrow being at BY AMBROSE QUAIL, F.E.S. (LONDON). aL a slightly upward inclination. About half an inch from the entrance was another bore, downwards, and again at the end of the entrance burrow was another bore, downwards. These two bores were 2+ inches long, and from the entrance to extremity of the upward burrow 14 inches, altogether 6 inches of boring + inch in diameter. The larva was situated in the second bore at the extremity of the entrance burrow, and fitted tightly into the cavity. Turning now to the subject matter of this paper, the larval structure. Larva half-grown length 14 inches, shape, tolerably uniform, slightly tapering at anus, and two preceeding segments. Colour, very like a strip of raw meat; head very dark brown, roughly striated; pro-thorax dark red; meso-thorax, red; seg- mental swollen areas pale flesh colour; segmental incisions deeply incised, composed of several small sub-segments, pinkish red in colour; tubercles pale brown, scarcely distinguishable from the fleshy swellings apon which they are situated ; spiracles, black rimmed; hairs, dark brown; legs, brown; prolegs, pinkish. The head is flatter in front than the Porinas, more striated, and has several fine hairs, the segments much more swollen areas, especially dorsally. The positions of the spiracles, of the tubercles, and the number of hairs upon them are the important features in the larval structure for the purpose of classification. Number of segments, 14, including the head. Lateral aspect under 1 inch objective. Pro-thorax, dorsal plate (scutellum) scarcely distinguishable from the fleshy segment. It has three single hairs on the anterior edge, and in the middle of the lateral area of the plate is a black concavity from within which rises a single hair. Below this concavity is a single hair. The lateral edge curves upwards at the posterior corner, and the spiracle is situate on the posterior area of the segment within the curve of the dorsal plate. A large anterior swelling above the leg has two hairs. The legs have five hairs at, or above, the joints. Meso-thorax consists mainly of two large sub-segments (and several small situate in the incision), each bearing one hair on the dorso-anterior edge. On the posterior sub-segment is another hair below, the middle of the ventral area is swollen and has two remote hairs. Below is a large fleshy swelling, 92 A FRAGMENTARY PAPER ON THE LARVAL, ETC, bearing 1 hair, below which is a large tubercle, slightly posterior, with one hair. Post thorax corresponds with meso-thorax, and the legs on each with pro-thorax, no spiracles. Abdominal segments: Ist situate on the large dorsal swollen areas of the principal sub-segment are the two dorsal tubercles (anterior trapezoidals) one on each side, separated by a thin median line along the back. These have one hair. The posterior trapezoidals are remote, smaller (more lateral) with one hair on the posterior edge of the next sub-segment. Spiracle large, situate about # down the anterior sub-segment (from the median line) on the anterior edge if not actually on the intersegmental membrane ; above the spiracle slightly posterior is a swollen area with a tubercle bearing, one long, one short, hairs (supra spiracular tubercle); immediately posterior to the spiracle is a large swelling bearing two remote hairs; below the spiracle is a large swelling bearing one hair, and below this a sub-ventral swelling bearing two hairs; 2nd abdominal segment, corresponds with Ist except that on the large sub-spiracular swelling are two scarcely distinguishable remote tubercles, each with one hair (posterior and anterior sub-spiracular tubercles) ; 3rd abdominal segments, corresponds with 2nd except there is no sub-yentral swelling, the pro-legs having instead four single hairs at the base, the 8rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, abdominal segments having pro-legs, and correspond in other respects. 7th corresponds with 2nd; 8th correspond with 7th; 9th has the anterior trapezoidals small and more remote than are the posterior trapezoidals, the supra- spiracular tubercle is small and has only one hair, the latter and three other tubercles (one hair each) are situate one below the other on the posterior edge of the segment. 10th has three single hairs above the anal fold and the leg has two single hairs at base. Ventral aspect under one inch objective. Immediately at the base of each leg of the thoracic segments on the posterior ridge is a single hair; 1st and 2nd abdominal segments have four tubercles each, with one hair each, arranged transversely (from side to side of segment) 3rd, Ath, 5th, 6th, have one hair at the base of each pro-leg on inner side. 7th has two tubercles at either side with one hair each, arranged longitudinally. 8th has only the outer most tubercles, and an inner hair marking the transverse position (as on 2nd) of the tubercles. 9th has two single hairs only. 10th has several hairs on inner side of claspers. BY AMBROSE QUAIL, F.E.S. (LONDON.) 93 Pro-legs have a complete encircling row of hooks turned outwards, at the extremity. Under a + inch objective the larval skin is comparatively smooth, having the very slightest rough- ness, and the hairs are smooth. In conclusion, I would point out the scientific importance of accurate descriptions of the Australian Hepialide. From the foregoing I draw special attention to the curious black concavity on the scutellum which remains until the pupa stage. Its significance is an interesting problem. The hair within is evidently articulated, or at any rate is movable at will of the larva. Probably all the hairs are so, but I specially noticed it with this particular hair. The position of the spiracles, and the arrangement of the tubercles on the abdominal segments are matters of importance. I append a note of the more important imaginal structures. The genitalia of g figured for comparison with Australian Hepialus, Antenne are simple base figured, palpi are terminated by small lobes connected by a narrow neck with main joint. These are covered densely with light and dark hair (scales ?) Neuration of the wings, one of the most important imaginal structural characters for the purpose of classification—note the series of transverse nervures at base of wings and the jugum, a small projection near base of fore wing on inner margin, this only occurs in the Hepialide and Micropterygide among the Lepidoptera, but also in the Trichoptera. Can I enlist the assistance of Australian entomologists in my researches into the structural characters of the Hepialide ? I am desirous of obtaining ova and newly hatched larve (accurately labled in spirits) for observation and comparison, and should be most happy to publish results through the Australian societies. wre PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. By HON. W. F. TAYLOR, M.D., M.L.C., D.P.H. Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, December 16, 1899. I propose to show this evening, as briefly as possible, what effect public abattoirs should have in checking the spread of disease caused by the tubercle bacillus. Tuberculosis, in its different manifestations is all too common among us, and it becomes the duty of everyone in a position to do so, to point out, if not from his own particular experience, from that of others, by what means the disease may be arrested, and its ravages mitigated. We have had the subject of tuberculosis prominently brought before us at a recent public meeting held for the purpose of forming a society to cope with the disease in the human being, and a few days ago many of us were privileged to hear a lecture, with lantern-slide illustrations, on the tubercle bacillus, by Mr. Pond, so that the subject has of late been tolerably well ventilated. As you are doubtless aware an Act was passed last session—‘‘ The Slaughtering Act of 1898,’ giving the Government power to construct public abattoirs where it was found to be necessary. Section 7 provides that—‘‘The Minister may, out of any moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose, establish, maintain, and manage such, and so many public abattoirs as are, in his opinion, necessary for slaughtering stock, and may permit the use of the same by all persons upon payment of the fees and observing the conditions prescribed by the regulations.”’ It is not sought by this Section to compel all those engaged in 96 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. slaughtering to give up their private slaughter-houses, but it is proposed to give proper facilities to those who are unable to meet the necessary requirements of the Act as to water supply, drainage, and other sanitary measures, to carry on their business under suitable conditions ; so that should the owner of a private slaughter-house be unable to comply with the provisions of the Act from the want of a sufficient supply of pure water, inadequate drainage, or other causes, he may slaughter his stock at the public abattoir for a moderate cost. The Act also makes provision for the efficient inspection of slaughter-houses by a duly qualified inspector who ‘‘ may at all reasonable times, enter, inspect, and examine any slaughter-house or butchers’ shop, and may inspect and examine all stock and all utensils, machinery, apparatus, works, and things at a slaughter-house or butchers’ shop, or used in connection with stock or meat, and all places, things and vehicles kept or used for storage, sale, carriage or delivery of meat or stock.’’ Section 9 gives the inspector power to take action when he finds a slaughter-house or butchers’ shop in an unclean state, and when any stock at a slaughter- house or elsewhere are diseased, and when any person employed in or about the premises is found to be suffering from disease likely to contaminate the meat. He may also order a sufficient supply of pure and wholesome water in the case of an inadequate supply, or when the water is not pure, and he may order any vehicle or utensil used for the purpose of carrying meat to be cleansed, disinfected, and otherwise rendered wholesome. The inspector may order the removal or isolation of any person found to be affected with disease after he has satisfied himself by ‘‘ reference to the Health Office of the district in which the slaughter-house or butchers’ shop is situated, or to some duly qualified medical practitioner, that the disease with which any person is affected is one or other of the diseases mentioned in the second schedule.’’ The inspector therefore cannot, of his own authority, order the removal or isolation of any person whom he supposes to be suffering from disease, but only on the authority of a medical practitioner. It is competent for any person who may feel aggrieved by an order or decision of an inspector, other than an order to cleanse, to appeal therefrom to any two justices sitting in Petty Sessions on giving to such inspector the prescribed notice in writing of his intention so to do. BY HON. W. F. TAYLOR, M.D., M.L.C., D.P.H. 97 This Act is a most useful one, and while giving power on the one hand for full inspection of meat and slaughter houses, prevents on the other hand any harsh or arbitrary action on the part of the inspector, and provides the means whereby butchers and others may carry on slaughtering in premises peculiarly adapted for the purpose. So far as I am aware, however, the provisions of this Act have not yet come into operation ; at all events no public abattoirs have been erected, so that we are, so far as the slaughtering and inspection of meat for home con- sumption are concerned, very much in the same position as before the passing of this Act. There is one obstacle which no doubt has influenced or prevented the Minister charged with the administration of this Act from putting its provisions into operation, and that is the difficulty in obtaining the services of a staff of qualified inspectors. When this Bill was before the Legislative Council it was insisted on by some Honourable Members that the inspectors, having such extensive powers conferred upon them, should be Veterinary Surgeons. This no doubt would be very desirable if a sufficient number of duly qualified Veterinary Surgeons could be obtained at a reasonable salary ; but here was an obvious difficulty which could not be very easily overcome—for granting that a sufficient number of duly qualified Veterinary Surgeons could be obtained—the salary required by each would render their employment prohibitive. However, the assurance was given that a number of intelligent fairly qualified inspectors were being educated locally, and that in process of time a sufficient number of individuals would be available as inspectors at a reasonable salary, and the difliculty foreshadowed at the discussion on the Bill in the Legislative Council would rapidly be removed and a staff of qualified inspectors soon be obtainable. I have thought it advisable to go into this matter of the ‘‘ Slaughtering Act of 1898’ to show that ample power exists in this colony to carry out the erection of public abattoirs, and to insure the efficient inspection of meat; it now remains to show in what way, if any, the erection of public abattoirs would prevent the spread of tubercular diseases. The effects of the tubercle bacillus may become manifest in different parts of the human body, the lungs, glands, brain, serous membranes, and bones being all liable to its ravages, the part affected depending to a great extent on the mode of entrance of the bacillus. The larynx G 98 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. and lungs will be infected by inhalation of the bacillus, and tuberculous material being swallowed will infect the intestines, causing ulceration, and affecting subsequently the mesenteric and other abdominal glands, and possibly the entire organism. Of infection by food, such as milk, ample evidence is forthcoming, and there can be no doubt from experiments carried out on the lower animals that meat may be also a fertile source of danger. In the report of the Royal Commission on Tuberculous of 1895 the following appears:—‘‘ We have obtained ample evidence that food derived from tuberculous animals can produce tuber- culosis in healthy animals. The proportion of animals con- tracting tuberculosis after experimental use of such food is different in one and another class of animals; both carnivora and herbivora are susceptible, and the proportion is high in pigs- In the absence of direct experiments on human subjects, we infer that man also can acquire tuberculosis by feeding upon materials derived from tuberculous animals.” 78. The actual amount of tuberculous disease among certain classes of food-animals is so large as to afford to man frequent occasions for contracting tuberculous disease through his food. As to the proportion of tuberculosis acquired by man through his food, or through other means, we can form no definite opinion ; but we think it probable that a considerable part of the tuberculosis that effects man is obtained through his food. 79. The circumstances and conditions with regard to the tuberculosis in the food-animal which lead to the production of tuberculosis in man are ultimately the presence of active tuber- culous matter in the food taken from the animal and consumed by man in a raw or insutticiently cooked state. 80. ‘Tuberculous disease is observed most frequently in cattle and swine. . . . Tuberculous matter is but seldom found in the meat substance of the carcase, it is principally found in the organs, membranes, and glands. There is reason to believe that tuberculous matter, when present in meat sold to the public, is more commonly due to contamination of the surface of the meat with material derived from other diseased parts, than to disease of the meat itself. The same matter is found in the milk of cows when the udder has become invaded by tuberculous disease, and seldom or never when the udder is not diseased. Tuberculous matter in milk is exceptionally active BY HON. W. F. TAYLOR, M.D., M.L.C., D.P.H. 99 in its operation upon animals fed either with the milk or with dairy produce derived from it. No doubt the largest part of the tuberculosis which man obtains through his food is by means of milk containing tuberculous matter.’ 82. ‘Provided every part that is the seat of tuberculous matter be avoided and destroyed, and, provided care be taken to save from contamination by such matters the actual meat sub- stance of a tuberculous animal, a great deal of meat from animals affected by tuberculosis may be eaten without risk by the consumer.” 83. ‘Ordinary processes of cooking applied to meat which has got contaminated on its surface are probably sufficient to destroy the harmful quality. They would not avail to render wholesome any piece of meat that contained tuberculous matter in its deeper parts. The boiling of milk, even for a moment, would probably be sufficient to remove the very dangerous quality of tuberculous milk.” 39. ‘There is always a difficulty in making sure of tho absence of tuberculous matter from any part of the carcase that shows evidence of tubercle elsewhere.” Dr. Sims Woodhead is reported to have stated that a man might eat a sufficiently large quantity of tubercular meat con- taining tubercle at one meal to induce tuberculosis. Bovine tubercular matter is much more virulent to animals generally than human tubercular matter. Dr. Sydney Martin in a contribution to the ‘Journal of State Medicine’’ says:—The parts of the body which are affected by the disease after infection are very varied in indi- vidual cases, and this variability, which in former times led to great misconception as to the nature of the disease (which was described as arising in the body, for example), led undoubtedly to a delay to the acceptance of tuberculosis as an infective disease. There are cases, for example, which are readily explained, such as primary pulmonary tuberculosis, and primary intestinal tuberculosis, in the former of which the infective material is evidently inhaled, in the latter of which the material is swallowed, and produces ulceration of the small intestine, affecting secondarily the mesenteric glands. There are other cases of tuberculosis which are not so easily explained, These 100 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. are the cases of scrofulous glands in the neck, of tubercular peritonitis without intestinal ulceration, and cases of so-called remote tuberculosis, ‘ primary’’ tubercular meningitis, or tubercular disease of the joints and bones. The experimental study of the disease explains in great part the anomalies in the distribution of the lesions in the human subject. A single dose of tuberculous material given with the food of a healthy pig will, if large enough, produce intestinal ulceration, subsequent infection of the mesenteric glands and of other glands in the abdominal cavity, followed by a general infection of the body. A smaller dose will produce no ulceration or sign of infection of the mucous membrane of the intestine, but will produce enlarge- ment of the mesenteric glands, and perhaps affect no other part of the body.’’ This important fact, namely, that a small dose of tuberculous virus may infect the internal organs of the body without producing a lesion in the mucous membrane by which it is absorbed was well illustrated by many experiments of the Royal Commission. From a practical point of view, the repro- duction of scrofulous glands in the neck was as important as any of the results. Thus with a large dose of tubercular virus given to the pig ulceration of the tonsil might result, with infection of the glands below the jaw, and then a general infection of the body. With a smaller dose there was no ulceration of the tonsil, but the glands below the jaw were infected, and subsequently the glands of the neck, and then the lungs. Witha smaller dose in one case, and also in a calf, the glands below the jaw were alone affected, there being no affection of the tonsil or of the body generally. The second and third classes of experiment reproduced cases which are continually occurring in human beings, namely, scrofulous glands of the neck, occurring either by themselves or associated with tuberculosis of the lungs. After the administration of a large dose of the poison the disease progressed gradually, but with certainty. It is not unfrequently seen with smaller doses, that the disease, after infecting one or the other parts, appears to remain stationary for a long time; but even when remaining stationary for months the lesions produced are still infective, as is frequently seen in the human subject. These lesions may lead to a generalization of the disease. Too much stress cannot be laid on this point as an explanation of the cases of so-called remote tuberculosis. In some of these cases in man—such as cases of tubercular BY HON. W. F. TAYLOR, M.D., M.L.C., D.P.H. 101 meningitis, bone and joint disease—there is found an old lesion, may be not larger than a pea, at the apex of one lung, ina mesenteric gland—the glands below the jaw, or in the bronchial glands—and there may be no lesion, old or recent, in the mucous membrane of the alimentary tract to show the point of absorption. ‘These are cases in which the primary local lesion has retrograded, but still remained infective, the infective material being absorbed into the circulation, and conveyed to the meninges, or to the joints and bones. In the other cases careful research has not revealed any local lesion in the body, and these must be cases in which the tubercle bacillus is absorbed accidentally directly into the circulation.”’ Tuberculosis is very common among cattle, and swine, in this and other countries, are very liable toit. Sheep and calves, however, do not appear to be easily affected by it. The udders of tuberculous cows are liable to become infected, and the milk from these is a fertile source of infection to those who consume it. Boiling the milk is the only safeguard; but so many persons, both children and adults, object to drinking boiled milk, that the practice of boiling all milk before using it is by no means an universal one. Neglect of this practice in the case of the milk consumed by infants and young children is a common cause of intestinal tuberculosis, usually called tabes mesenterica, or abdominal phthisis. Cattle and swine being so liable to con- tract tuberculosis, it is very necessary that all such killed forhuman consumption should be properly inspected, and the only efficient way to do this is to carefully examine the thoracix and abdominal organs of the animals when killed—-for although it may be, and probably is true, that the flesh of tuberculous animals is in most cases free from contamination, and may be safely eaten when properly cooked, still cases do occur where the flesh becomes contaminated by contact with diseased lungs or other organs, and would therefore be a source of danger unless properly cooked. In any case it is highly desirable that the purchaser should know that he is buying the flesh of an animal who may have had tuberculosis of the lungs or udder, so that he may take such precautions respecting efficient cooking as will minimise any risk of infection to those eating it. The carcase, therefore, of an animal that has given evidence of tubercular infection of any of the organs or glands should be duly labelled and only sold as that of a tuberculous animal. I am decidedly 102 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. of opinion, however, that in no case should the flesh of a tuberculous animal be used for human food. We have seen from the Report of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis that ‘‘There is always a difficulty in making sure of the absence of tuberculous matter from any part of the carcase that shows evidence of tuberculosis,’’ and we know that the system may become generally infected from a tuberculous deposit, however minute, which may have existed for months in a quiescent state in any of the organs of the body. Is it right, therefore, to assume that the flesh of such an animal is safe to use for human food, no matter bow well cooked? Again, the deeper parts of meat are not, as a rule, thoroughly cooked—many people like their meat underdone, and such underdone meat can hardly be said to be quite safe and free from the risk of infection. One argument in favour of the use of the flesh of tuberculous animals is that it could be sold cheaper to the poorer classes than the flesh of healthy animals. I am of opinion, however, that if the flesh of tuberculous animals is to be used at all for human food, it should only be used by those who are in a position to have it well and thoroughly cooked, and who are not living in crowded, ill-ventilated, and insanitary tenements, as the poorer classes generally are, especially in our cities. In other words, it is less risky, personally, for the better well-to-do classes to consume meat of doubtful character than it is for the poorer classes, and the danger to the community as a whole trom one of the well-to-do classes becoming infected would be less than it would be from one of the poorer classes, by reason of the evironments of the one being so much better than that of the other, the risk of contagion from an infected individual being less in proportion to the degree of isolation, purity of air, and sanitary condition of his surroundings, ani his intelligent understanding of the various means by which the infection may be propagated. Every individual infected with tuberculosis is a source of contagion, and many become a centre for the spread of the disease. It is necessary, therefore, if the disease is to be controlled, if not stamped out, that every probable or possible source of infection should be eliminated. As the flesh of tuberculous animals may, and sometimes admittedly does, become infected, it appears to me to be obvious, that if tuberculosis is to be combatted suceessfully no loophole of escape should be permitted it ; therefore, as the use of the flesh BY HON. ‘Wy F. TAYLOR, M.D., ‘M.3i/¢., D.P.H. 103 of tuberculous animals is attended with some danger of infection it should not be admitted as an article of human food. A rigid inspection of every animal killed for human consumption should be instituted, and on the discovery of tuberculous deposit in any of the organs the carcase should be condemned. To permit the whole or portions of the carcase to be used for human food is, in my opinion, playing with the question of prevention of tuberculosis, and the statement of the Royal Commission, which I have quoted, goes far to prove this contention. If, therefore, the flesh of tuberculous animals should under no circumstances be used for human food, it follows that the inspection of the animal to be thorough must be made under suitable conditions, and every facility offered to the inspector for performing his work properly and efficiently. It will be necessary, therefore, to have the slaughtering done in as few places as possible, and at certain fixed times, so that an inspector may be always present, and have every facility for examining the internal organs for any obvious disease, and when doubt may arise, the opportunity for a microscopical examination of the tissues should be afforded. The slaughter-house should be well lighted and ventilated, there should be a plentiful supply of pure water, and the drainage should be perfect. The addition of a ccoling chamber is not only very desirable, but a necessity, in order to preserve the carcases during hot weather, pending a thorough microscopical examination in suspected cases. The slaughter-house should be divided into compartments, in order that each butchers’ stock may be kept separated, and there should be suitable conveyances for the removal of the carcases to the different butchers’ shops. The modern abattoir fulfils all the necessary requirements recommended, and is replete with conveniences which cannot possibly exist in every small slaughter-house. The following is a description of an abattoir which may be regarded as tolerably up-to-date :—A square piece of ground, open on one side to the public road and on the other side to a railway siding, so that animals coming by road or rail could be readily admitted. The chief entrance on the street would be for persons coming on business. Cattle arriving by rail would be received into a number of pens in the first instance, and be examined by a veterinary inspector. If any were found to be diseased, they would be taken to a place set apart for diseased animals. Pigs, if possible, should have a bath, being made to walk through a cement tank 104 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. containing water, so that they arrived clean at the lairs in which they were to be kept. There should be separate lairs for the sheep, swine, horned cattle, and calves, there being a little space between the lairs and the abattoirs. The animals should be kept in the lairs for a few days until wanted, and all properly marked, so that each butcher would know his own cattle. In the abattoirs every part should be kept perfectly clean, as well as everything in the vicinity. The buildings could be made as ornamental as desired, so that they would be an improvement to a locality, and there should be nothing objectionable in or about them. The cattle should be taken into the slaughter-hall with a mask over their faces (blindfolded), and a spike fixed in the mask ready to be driven with a mallet into their skulls. The slaughter-hall should be a spacious building, open from end to end, a passage running down the centre. On one side all animals could be slaughtered, and the carcases hung up on the other side. When slaughtering was in process the inspectors could walk up and down the central passage, and special hooks should be provided on which to hang the different viscera directly the animal was killed. If the inspector was not satisfied, specimens of the meat would be taken and examined microscopically; if satisfied, however, the meat would be stamped in every part. If the butcher did not want the meat at once it could be run into the cooling chamber and kept at a temperature of two or three degrees above freezing point. There would be every convenience of dealing with the meat without handling it. The adminis- tration of the abattoir should be under a Veterinary Surgeon or medical man. Abattoirs, leading as they would to a more efficient inspection of anmials than could possible be made in the case of a number of private slaughter-houses, would benefit the stock-owner by inducing him to try to eliminate tuberculosis and other diseases from his stock, and thus improve the value of his herd. There would be an increased demand for meat from abattoirs on account of the guarantee afforded of its freedom from disease. This would benefit the butcher by increasing the sale of his meat. The losses of the butcher in close, hot weather would be very much reduced, owing to his being able to keep his meat BY HON. F. W. TAYLOR, M.D., M.L.C., D.P.H. 105 stored in the cool chamber at the abattoir until required, and the meat would be much more tender and palatable from being kept a day or two, instead of being consumed a few hours after killing, as must be done under the system of private imperfectly equipped slaughter-houses. On hygienic reason abattoirs are to be commended, for their erection would remove nuisances from the neighbourhood of dwellings. I have not visited any of the slaughter-yards about Brisbane for some years, but on one occasion, when a member of the Central Board of Health, I was induced to inspect and report on two yards about five miles each from here. One 1 found tolerably clean, the owner having done all that was possible in the absence of efficient drainage and a sufficient supply of pure water to prevent his place becoming a nuisance to the dwellers in the vicinity, but the fact that a slaughter-yard being in existence was amply demonstrated nasally for a mile or more to leeward of it. The condition I found the other yard in defied any powers of description, but I have no hesitation in saying that it could not possibly have been filthier, and more loathsome than it was in all its details, and the smell was some- thing to be remembered. It was situated on the bank of a creek, which at the time of my visit was not running, conse- quently all the drainage collected in a stagnant water-hole a few yards away from the killing shed, the floor of which was of round logs, defying all attempts at efficient flushing or scouring, had any ever been made. The people tiving in the neighbour- hood tried year after year to stop the issuing of a slaughtering license to the owner of this yard, but without success. I do not know whether it is still in existence, but if so sincerely hope that it is in a decidedly better condition now than it was formerly. Abattoirs would protect meat from exposure to the foul emanations, which are so often an accompaniment of the private slaughter-yard, would ensure the thorough examination of all meat for disease, and would materially tend to limit the traffic in diseased meat. On economic grounds abattoirs are desirable, for the meat would be less liable to spoil, being slaughtered under better conditions. Much blood and offal now lost would be saved and utilised, and there would be a saving from order, the proper division of labour, avoidance of driving animals along the roads, 106 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. and the doing of business on a large scale. Abattoirs properly managed yield a profit. On humanitarian grounds abattoirs are to be preferred, because they would entail less cruelty to animals, owing to the use of improved appliances for slaughtering, and the cattle, being brought by rail to the abattoirs, would avoid becoming weary and exhausted from being driven along hot, dusty roads. Sir Richard Thorne, in one of his Harben lectures, says :— ‘‘ How is the very proper demand of the butchers for uniformity in the condition regulating the seizure of carcases on account of tuberculosis to be met? How is such skilful handling of slightly tuberculous carcases to be attained as will secure the removal of the diseased portions in such a way that no risk will attach to the remainder? I know only one answer, namely, by the abolition, as far as practicable, of private slaughter-houses, by the provision in all large centres of population, whether technically styled urban or rural, of public slaughter-houses, under the direct control of the sanitary authorities and their officers, and by the adoption of measures which will, as soon as practicable, provide a class of skilled meat inspectors. ‘‘The properly administered public slaughter-house is demanded as an act of justice to those trading in meat; it is demanded in the interests of public health and decency ; it is demanded for the prevention of cruelty to the lower animals; and it is demanded to bring England, if not the United Kingdom, somewhat nearer to the level of other civilised nations in this matter. Public slaughter-houses, ofticered by skilled inspectors, and supervised by medical officers of health, are urgently required, amongst other reasons, for the prevention of tuber- culosis in man.”’ The main difficulty in dealing with the erection of publie abattoirs in this colony would no doubt be the ery of injury to vested interests ; but no man has a right to injure his fellowman by the sale to him, for purposes of food, of diseased meat, or meat which has been exposed to foul emanations; and unless private slaughter-houses are managed according to prescribed sanitary methods, and every facility given for the efficient inspection of the animals killed therein, they should be abolished. The health of the community as a whole, and of every individual member of it, is of paramount importance, and no cry of this BY HON. W. F. TAYLOR, M-D., M.L.C., D.P.H. 107 sort should be allowed to stay for one moment the enforcement of strict sanitary regulations respecting private slaughter-houses, or their prompt abolition on failure to comply with such regulations. It is admitted that in sanitary matters generally, Great Britain is far ahead of any Continental nation, but in the matter of public abattoirs the reverse holds good. Germany appears to have led the van in this particular, and the number of public slaughter-houses is constantly on the increase, and there is a perfect army of meat inspectors, something like 35,000, I believe. But Germany is a populous country, and due regard is paid to the health of its inhabitants by the governing powers, and no doubt this large army of inspectors give good value for the money they cost, and many valuable lives are saved through their watchfulness and skill. However, where public abattoirs have been erected in Great Britain they have, to a greater or less extent, superseded the private slaughter - house. In Glasgow private slaughter-houses have been abolished, and the butchers now express a strong preference for the public slaughter-houses over the old system. And no doubt if we had public slaughter-houses here conducted on the same system as the one in Manchester where the butcher can enter and use the public slaughter-house as his own private slaughter- house, paying rent for it, our butchers would soon become alive to the advantages of an abattoir, and _ willingly give up their private slaughter-houses with all the trouble and annoyance connected with them. Let us hope that the Minister charged with the administration of the Slaughtering Act of 1898, will see his way to construct a public slaughter-house for this community in the near future. In looking through the Journal of the ‘‘ Sanitary Institute” for 1898, I came across a plan and description of the Munich slaughter-house which I cannot do better than read to you. The communication was made by C. Childs, M.D., (Oxon), D.P.H., and is as follows :— The buildings of the Munich Slaughter-house and Cattle Market, &c., &c. The plan I have had copied and enlarged. 108 PUBLIC ABATTOIRS AND THE PREVENTION, ETC. The buildings of the Munich Slaughter-house and Cattle Market commenced in March, 1876, were formally opened in August, 1878. The site occupied by these buildings is practically well out- side the city, at its south-western angle, in direct communication with the Southern Railway, and, through that railway, with the chief central station. The buildings, with their enclosing wall (a little over 8 feet high), cover about 25 acres; provision being made for future extension. The Cattle Market is in direct contact with the Southern Railway Station, and is separated from the Slaughter-house by a road of about 32 yards width. (A)—TuHeE SLAvGHTER-HOUSE. For the slaughtering of different animals, six halls (y, y, gy, h, h, and j) were provided in parallel lines, separated from one another by roadways about 50 feet wide. Three of these halls (y, y, y) are for the slaughter of large cattle. Each consists of two parts about 46 yards long and 16 yards broad, separated from one another by gangways about 20 feet wide. Each hall contains 80 slaughter places, and is fitted with appliances convenient for slaughtering, dressing, cleansing, flushing, &c. Air is freely admitted by numerous openings. Direct sunlight is excluded by jalousies made of upright iron plates, fixed outside the windows in such a way that they can be adjusted for this purpose according to the position of the sun. The two halls (/, 4) for slaughter of small cattle are similar in size and construction. That for swine (/) differs by being about 20 feet wider, and has special appliances, on a large scale, for scalding and scraping the carcases. Smaller buildings are provided— (k) For the slaughter and examination of diseased animals, also for the slaughter of horses (in a separate hall). (?) For the collection and removal of dung. (m) For quarantine stalls. (x) For skin and suet chambers. (o & p) For the collection of blood. BY HON. F. W. TAYLOR, M.D., M.L.C., D.P.H. 109 (7) For the cleansing and scalding of stomachs, intestines, &e. (s, s) For the stalling and preparation of animals which are about to be slaughtered. (t, u, & v) For management and finance offices, with dwelling-rooms for some of the officials. (b)—Tue Carrte Marker. The Cattle Market occupies about eleven and a half acres, and provides for the stalling, feeding, and watering of the animals. It consists of — (a, a) Two large market halls for large animals. (@, @) Two smaller halls, containing stalls for those large animals which are ready for slaughter. (4) A large market hall for living swine and sheep. (c) A large. market hall for living calves, and for slaughtered calves and swine. (d) A central weighing house. (e) A restaurant. (7) Stabling and carriage houses. The population of Munich in 1878, when the Slaughter house and Cattle Market were opened, was a little over 200,000 ; at present 1897 it is (like that of Leeds) about 400,000. —- ) we OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON MOSQUITO. ISAO Nanos) ace ea aeacans By W. R. COLLEDGE. (Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 17th, 1899. ) I wave pleasure in bringing before your notice some facts regarding that much-abused insect—the Mosquito. It is difficult to find in Australian literature, or society, anyone who has anything good to say on his behalf. Our Scottish poet sings, ‘¢ Man’s inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn.” . But what shall we say of his treatment of this little insect from its point of view? If learned mosquitoes meet to discuss ethical questions in their own royal societies, they probably have grave doubts as to the wisdom of the Creator in forming a creature like man so viciously disposed to themselves. But, notwithstanding all the ill-treatment received from mankind, he manifests a most Christian spirit of friendliness, and loses no opportunity of forming the most intimate acquaintance with his most deadly enemy. As my papec is mainly intended to diffuse information to non-scientific hearers, I have sought to divest it of all technical terms using, where possible, only such language as the ordinary hearer can clearly understand. The word mosquito comes from the Spanish, and simply means “ little fly.”” Its first visible starting point is the egg, for the insect does not bring forth her young alive, but she lays eggs. The egg is in shape not unlike a miniature sailor’s marline-spike, one end rounded and tapering gradually down to the other, so that it assumes a conical form. In fig. 1 two separate eggs are seen on the left side. At the centre of the thick round end is a little point slightly projecting. This is really a neat little cap of beautiful structure, to which I shall-refer presently. 112 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. When the female is about to increase her family she goes about the business in a very methodical way, displaying skill and forethought that would do no discrelit to any Australian couples about to marry. It is essential that she should have water whereon to lay her eggs. Running water is avoided; it would carry her eggs she does not know where. So she searches out for a still and quiet pool, as dark and as much hidden from observation as possible. I1f dirty and filled with rotten leaves and branches, so much the better. The youngsters will then have cover from their enemies, and find food for nourishment. Having satisfied herself as to the best place, she alights on the water, the dirty scum or air film adhering to the water surface being quite sufficieat to support her slender form. Resting on the front and middle pair of legs, the hinder pair (which are often seen projecting upwards into the air) are then crossed in the shape of the letter X, and in the angle thus formed she places an egg, holding it upright with the capped end down; another is then glued to it by some cement, of which she is the original manufacturer, and so she goes on laying one row of eggs against ‘another. She still keeps the mass between her hind legs, pushing it further out as it grows bigger to make room for another row of eggs, and so she industriously pursues the work until it is finished. Occasionally she is disturbed, and I have seen many of these little rafts half completed. This work occupies a considerable time. Recently I had one in captivity, and as I went to bed at 10 o’clock I noticed her standing on the water; so suspecting that she was growing broody, I carefully examined the place; she, not liking my appearance at such a time, flew away, and there was certainly no trace of eggs then. About 12 I awoke, and, lighting my lamp, I examined the place and there, in exactly the spot from which I had disturbed her, lay the egg-raft complete. So that the work was done in less than two hours; and it is always done during the night. When complete, the raft is exactly the shape of a boat, three or four times as long as itis broad. At the bottom of fig. 1 you have aside view just as it appears when floating on the water. It forms a complete segment of a circle, and might have been plotted out by a Government surveyor with a pair of compasses. Looking closely at the upper edge, you see it has a saw-like aspect. What looks like the teeth of a saw is really the small ends of the eggs set together in regular rows, all pointing upward. A Proc, ROY. SOC: QL., VOL. XV. PLATE 2. ho bk OpsERVATIONS oN THE Lirk History or THE Common Mosquito. BY W. R. COLLEDGE, 113 mistake is never made in putting an egg wrong end downwards. All are placed with the thick end on the water. The consequence is that, being conical, when they are all massed closely together, each eg slopes to the centre, producing that curbed boat-like shape you see in the lower part of the picture. The upper figure represents an egg-boat turned up on end. * You are looking at it inside. The eggs are placed so closely together that it looks like one dark mass. Counting the rows in the first boat they will be found to be about twenty-five. And if you take an average of ten eggs in the breadth, these numbers if multiplied will give you 250 in the boat. That is a fair average. Some contain 300, others less. It forms a thoroughly good and perfectly unsinkable life raft. Push it down into the water ; it springs up again lighter than cork. The mosquito- boat is so perfectly built that it is impossible for it not to right itself when it has been submerged. If you try the experiment of pouring water from a jug down on it from a height you will find, though it may be driven down into the water and whirled about in all directions, you cannot break it up, and as soon as it is free it will rise to the surface and right itself perfectly. I have seen a dozen of these little vessels lying side by side just like a little fleet of boats. The mother has now done her work and she leaves it, like Moses in the ark of bulrushes, to the tender mercies of the elements. The warm, moist air assumes the functions of the mother, and in from 14 to 3 days the young are hatched. In the first picture I mentioned that there was a little projection in the centre of the large round end of the egg. This is a detachable cap which, apparently, has not been hitherto remarked by observers, so that our society has the honour of adding this interesting fact to the world’s book of science. It is very minute, almost transparent, and in that state difficult to photograph. Some little time ago, however, I managed to fix these caps on a slide and strain them. One specimen I sent to Dr. John Thompson, and he gave me a surprise by returning in a couple of days a most admirable lantern slide enlargement of it. It is one of the most perfect micro-photographs that I have ever seen. A copy of it is seen in figure 2. It bears a resemblance to one of those pretty little table mats, with a deep fringe with which young housewives so often decorate their H 114 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. tables. It seems large here but it is only the three- thousandth part of an inch in diameter, and this is magnified 460 times. It reveals very strikingly the beauty and complexity of some of the things that are ordinarily hidden from our eyes. What a task a young mother would have if she had to crochet 250 of these little caps to put on the heads of as many babies. But Mrs. Mosquito never troubles her head about it. She simply does her work gracefully, easily, and perfectly. I cannot say what is the use of these pretty caps. The baby mosquito does not emerge from the egg through them. They are much too small for that process. One thing I notice that if you remove them from the egg-boat and return the boat to the water it cannot maintain its upright position. It will fall on its side or turn bottom up in the water. It hopelessly loses its balance if the caps are removed, probably by reason of the admission of air. My impression is that there is a slight circulation of water through it to aid in developing the contents of the egg. The circular fringe is attached to a thick cushion, and in the centre of the cushion is a hole; a corresponding aperture is found in the end of the egg, whereon the cap lies, and as circulating movements are easily discernible in the living insect in the inside of the shell, it seems probable that this little cap with the apertures is a provision necessary for the development of the creature within. When the little babies inside of the eggs are hatched, which takes place in favourable weather in from 36 to 72 hours, they find the small world within the shell too confined for their aspirations. They get too big for their clothes. So they stir, kick and struggle inside, and in consequence the shell splits at the thickest part of the round end, so that it either falls off entirely, or else it opens like a lid to allow the baby to craw] out. Now you see the utility of the eggs being placed with the capped end down on the water. The head of the youngster is always at that end. These little caps are kept moist as well as the round part, and when it splits, the baby has nothing to do but to crawl out into the water. And he does not get drowned. Put a mature mosquito into the water and it may be drowned, but when it comes from the egg at first it is much more like a fish. It takes to the water and swims about just as naturally as a child breathes air. BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 115 You have in fig. 3 one of these young gentlemen, so that you may admire his person and the peculiarities of his structure. Not much of the mosquito about him yet, but a good deal like a caterpillar. He has a round head, two rudimentary eyes like little dots of ink, and from each cheek projects a fleshy arm jointed at the base. and ending in a fan of long hairs. These two fans he holds out in front of his face as though he were too modest to show himself without some covering. His body is built up of thirteen segments or flat rings. The engagement ring a young man gives to his intended bride is a good type of the sort with which the body of the larva is built. Nine form the abdomen, attached by a flexible skin, permitting movement in any direction. Three are fused together in the chest, and one, more modified, forms the head. Tufts of long hairs spring from the body segments, and many of these are tactile or endowed with the sense of touch. The short thick section near the head contains the circulatory organs, and their movements may be very clearly seen under the microscope. That long black tube in the centre of the body is not his backbone, for you know insects have no vertebrie, but it. is really his stomach. It is of extraordinary length, for it stretches from his neck right down to his tail. And I can assure you that his appetite is quite on a par with the length of his stomach. He is always eating and never seems to be satisfied. And I am sorry to give him a bad character too, for I caught one actually eating his brother. The unfortunate brother was nearly as long as himself, but of slenderer build. His head was within the other’s jaws, but, notwithstanding that he kicked and struggled with all his might, he gradually disappeared down the bigger cannibal’s throat, being swallowed whole. They generally swim tail first, a peculiar mode of progres- sion, but one which seems to suit their larval dignity best. If you notice the tail, you will see that it is divided into two branches. The lower fork is bluntly rounded, and the other seems like the four fingers of a hand. This is his swimming apparatus. Really a splendid four-bladed propeller. He movcs as a canoe is propelled, by its occupant thrusting the paddle on one side and then on the other. Even so, this four-bladed propeller is thrust on either side and pulled; and as his body is 116 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. flexible at the end of the pull, he is bent like a bow; then the propeller is thrust on the opposite side, and so he advances by a series of zigzag movements. He can move head first, and in a straight line when he likes, but he prefers the jerky method of progression. Another proof of the peculiarity of his lordship is that he breathes through his tail. Notwithstanding that he possesses a head, and a large mouth, he actually breathes through his latter end. If you examine his tail, you will find that the lower conical-shaped fork is the end of his breathing tubes. They run one on each side of his body to the head. When he requires to breath, which is every few minutes, he twitches himself up to the top of the water, and shoves the conical end of his tail above the surface. Its end is closed by five triangular flaps which seal it from the water. These neat little valves open out like a star, and the bubble of air enclosed in, or attached to them, keeps the little fellow suspended. His specific gravity is greater than the liquid, and he would sink were it not for the pull of the air bubble. So effectual is it, that occasionally I have seen them revolving with great rapidity, the air bubble acting as a pivot, and maintaining them while they spun round and round. Their usual position, however, is hanging head down from the surface while they suck in the air by the tracheal end of the tail. They remain so for several minutes at a time, twirling their head brushes in evident enjoyment. When satisfied, the little flaps fold themselves together, releasing the pull of the air bubble, and he slowly sinks to go off on another marine excursion. A tooth brush is said to be a sign of civilization. If so, then the larva is highly civilized, for he possesses several of these signs, and uses them well too. You cannot see them in the last picture for they lie there in the inside of his mouth. These tooth brushes are thrust in and out of the mouth with such rapidity that they resemble the action of those circular brushes used by hairdressers, which make your hair fly as though a ghost had appeared before you. One eftect is to cause a current of water to rush into the mouth, and food borne along with it is entangled in the hairs of these brushes and swallowed. I have now to show you one of the most interesting slides of the series, that is, the larva in a living state. I have been breeding some of them lately for your special benefit, so that you can be assured of the fact that they BY W. R. COLLEDGE. Waly are native-born Australians. They are enclosed in a glass cell with water, so that the light of the lantern may shine through and project them on to the screen. I daresay they will be much alarmed at the brilliant circle to which they are so suddenly introduced. All the peculiarities of which I have been speaking, their zigzag movements, breathing at the top of the water, through the tail, moving in straight lines, &c., you will see now on the screen. This fish-like life continues for a variable period, depend- ing mainly upon temperature, and the condition of the atmos- phere. During hot, close, sultry days, they may reach the end of this stage in a week, or ten days, but in cold wintry weather it may be prolonged to two months, or more. They usually moult three times during this period, casting off the old and getting a new skin, but, like prudent folks, they always get the new clothes before they throw the old ones away. They grow from one-sixteenth to about half-an-inch in length. They become yellower and less transparent, so that you cannot trace their internal organs so clearly as you could before, and perhaps the next time you visit them a complete transformation has taken place. They have altered so that their own mother would not know them. It does seem a wonderful thing in nature that one creature should grow up in the inside of another. The two beings co- existing for a time, but each possessing different shapes and habits of life, and then at a certain stage, the inner absorbs the life of the outer creature, whose head, skin, and tail, are dis- carded. When it reaches this second stage, the skin of the larva splits at the neck, the old head falls off, and a new being with a different head and body wriggles out of the old skin, and the lett-off garment goes sailing away. In the water where it breeds, you will find lots of these cast-off garments, all in one piece. He doesn’t first throw off the hat, then the coat, and lastly the pants, but he wriggles out of the slit between the shoulders leaving the old suit entire. This is now the third stage of the mosquito’s existence. First the egg, next the larve, now the pupa. He is dressed in a light-fitting cream coloured suit, like a young cricketer. Notice in his extraordinarily big head in fig. 4; that is, the large, round, 118 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. upper part of the body. His shape suggests the stop used in punctuating words, called the comma. Head and shoulders are fused together in one mass, and he has no neck. In his former state the round head was moveable in any direction. Now that has disappeared, and the head is stiffly attached to the body, so that it can only be moved up and down, enabling him to give a solemn nod, like Lord Burleigh. Two lovely black eyes gleam out from the sides of his head, and above them rise two trumpet- shaped horns thoracic spiracles. Their use is seen when we remember that, though still living in the water, he is an air-breathing insect. Formerly he breathed through his tail ; that aperture is now gone. Having no mouth, his only means of communication with the air is through these curious horns on the sides of his head. He bobs up and down in the water in a very amusing way, and every few minutes, rising to the surface he thrusts up these horns, and the air drawn through them is distributed by tubes through his body. The segments of his frame are united after the pattern of a lobster. A series of fiat rings being hinged to each other by a flexible membrane, so that the tail can be bent so as to come beneath the head. During this stage he eats nothing. All that work is done before while he is in the larval state. Probably some of our boarding-house keepers would not object to their lodgers following the example of the pupa. The mosquito larva manifests a very healthy appetite. He grows fat and plump, but after stripping off his combination garment, and rising up into a pupa he eats no more food. But though he does not eat, yet he is very active. Most insects, while in the pupa stage, lie perfectly still, but he is an exception. Always swimming, dodging, and diving, and varying these occupations by resting on the surface of the water, and sucking air though these trumpet tubes on his head. During this time, lasting 2 or 3 days, his cream-coloured garments grow into a darken hue, and inside a wonderful transformation is going on. The mosquito is being built up by unseen hands in that tiny workshop, legs, wings, antenne, proboscis, and body, gradually appear, all packed neatly together on the case, as if by fairy hands. In that pupa frame (fig. 4) was a perpectly-formed mosquito. Through the cover can be traced different portions of the body. The notch on the top of the head is where the neck of the insect lies; it marks the division of the head and shoulders. The dark tapering line below is BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 119 where the proboscis and attennie lie, and the lighter curvature behind indicates the outline of the end of the wings, also of the legs, which pass into the lower part of the case. Before dismissing his lordship, I must point out his swimming ap- paratus. Instead of the four-bladed propeller, formerly possessed, he has a new one on his latter end. In fact, by taking a couple of palm-leaf fans and laying them side by side, one overlapping a little the edge of the other, then you would get an accurate representation of the double paddle of the pupa of the mosquito. In swimming, these flippers are contracted towards the head and thrust violently backwards, the force of the stroke driving the body forward a considerable distance. Sometimes, if alarmed, he gets into such a dreadful. hurry, and lets out so suddenly, that he turns a series of somersaults, going over and over, head over heels, until he reaches a safe place. I have now another slide of living things to show on the screen (which, unfortun- ately, cannot be reproduced to the readers of this paper). Here is a family of pup. disporting themselves in the water. Their motions ainply prove all that [ have been speaking to you of them. From their sudden outshoots you might imagine they were intercolonial footballers, and that those chaps sucking air at the top through their breathing horns were just taking a spell after a supreme kick. Now comes the final change. I watched, often and long, before I found one in the actual process of emerging into mosquito life. One morning I had this pleasure. On the top of some water lay a dark-coloured pupa, looking big about the shoulders. Suspecting what was going on, I lifted him out on to a glass side. Then I saw he had burst his coat vetween the shoulders, and in another minute he was clear out. The old pupa-skin lay empty on the slide, and he stood beside it a fully-fledged mosquito, perfect in every part. The whole process did not take more than two minutes. I daresay I helped him to get free by lifting him out and setting him on solid ground. Since then I have often watched the process, and have noticed that, when a little way out, he frees himself by bending forwards ; this releases a little of the back and wings; then bending backwards a little, more of the legs are freed, and so he indulges in a slow rocking motion. When the front pair of legs get out, his progress is accelerated ; for these are set down, and the leverage they give soon clears the rest of his body. Sometimes 120 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. you will find him standing on the empty skin, using it as a float, until his wings are dry and unfolded and capable of flight. Often, at this critical moment, a puff of wind may come and upset him, and, in his helpless, entangled state, he drowns. I have a view in fig. 5 that shows the process almost completed. I say almost, for this one had the misfortune for himself to get the end of his long legs entangled in the upper part of the pupa case; you see them as two rings through the clear cast-off case. It was a bad job for him, but a proof of the old saying that “ it’s an ill-wind that blows nobody any good.” It was the means of adding him to my collection, and of demonstrating to you this interesting change in insect life. The succeeding picture, not reproduced here, shows one of the completed forms a little larger than life, but quite as natural. This lady had the audacity to pay me— a batchelor—a midnight visit. Managing to creep through a hole in the curtains, she succeeded in her desire to have a private interview. She may have been of an ambitious nature, desiring fame. At all event , she got one thing she wanted—a good draught of my blood. You see how fat and buxom she has grown in consequence. I am sure she had to let out her waistband a good bit before her meal was finished. However, she got more than she expected. She was captured, imprisoned, and then, as is the custom with notorious criminals, she was photographed, and there is her portrait for your inspection. The wings lie folded along the back. There are only two in the mosquito, as it belongs to the Diptera or class of insects possessing two wings, but behind, and hidden by them, are two little club-hke organs called Haltervs, or balancers. They are jointed at the base, and special muscles raise and lower them. They are plentifully supplied with nerves, and believed, by some scientists, to be organs of hearing. If one is cut off, the insect is unable to fly straight. So that they are called balancers, in that they aid them to fly steadily, just as the pole helps a tight-rope dancer to maintain his balance. The insect has six legs of extraordinary length and so elastic that you often cannot feel them touching your skin. Each leg terminates in two hooks like grappling irons. By this means they can cling to anything they please; climb up a perpendicular wall, or hold on to a ceiling. mmoG. ROY. SOC. QL., VOL. XV. PEATE SG: q eo Hi 4K OBSERVATIONS ON THE Lire History or tHE Common Mosauito. BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 141) The wing is a clear strong transparent organ traversed by hollow ribs, which render it very light and strong. These ribs too, serve a double purpose, they not only strengthen the wing, but carry air, so that they are really an extension of the tracheal system. They are in the ordinary species even down to their minute branches covered with beautiful scales. The edge is fringed with various-sized scales, the deepest being found on the lower parts. We have (in fig. 6) a little morsel of the edge ; of course it is very highly magnified. | You see the terminal rib at the top, like a beam of wood. The stems of the scales are inserted at regular intervals, and hang down like a deep fringe. They are not unlike the short broadsword used by some eastern nations in warfare. [or purposes of strength, the scales are also ribbed longitudinally from base to point. The whole of the body, legs, and proboscis are likewise covered with scales, and these are of various shapes. Some are curved like a canoe, others like battledores, some like cricket bats; all have the pecularity of being strengthened by ribs, just as the plumber ribs sheets of iron to make them more rigid for the walls of tanks, or roofs of houses. Likewise they are arranged in regular order, just as tiles or shingles are placed on the roof of a house, the base of one overlapping the top of the next, and so on in regular succession. An exception to this order is found in the head. At the back of the head are scales, in shape like an American broom, and composed of a long slender shank, and a fan-like head. ‘These are set upright, the fan pointing into the air. So they resemble a Red Indian dressed in his war-paint and feathers. The mosquitoe’s chest is remarkably deep and broad, being bailt to accomodate the powerful muscles connected with the wings and legs. So powerful are these that the wings have been calculated to move 50 times a second, or 3000 times in a minute. Any athlete or footballer might be proud if he possessed muscles built on a corresponding scale. Hach single muscle would probably be as thick as a person’s arm, and the combination so irresistable that he might almost kick the football into the adjoining colony. Now I suppose you are wishfal for me to say something about the apparatus used by this insect when sucking the blood of his victims. I must tell you that it is believed, in scientific 122 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. circles, that the male mosquito does not stoop to do such blood- thirsty work.. He is too much of a gentleman, using that word in its original sense, to do such crimson deeds. Therefore all that deadly work is done by the females. With velvet wings, neatly-boddiced figure, a soothing song in her mouth, but an armoury of swords in her nose, she penetrates everywhere in search of blood. Of course, men have not always been correct in their opinions, and in the future, when we may have female biologists and microscopists as eminent as Lubbock and Dallinger are now, their more piercing vision may find some flaw in this opinion and roll away from the female mosquito the stigma now attached to her name. However, that is the verdict at present, and I must say it is confirmed by my own experience. [very time I have killed the insect that has bitten me, on examination the culprit has always been a female. But you may ask how I can tell the sex. Well, by simply examining their heads, nature has made a difference between male and female heads. In the human race the new woman has of late years been trying to abolish the distinction. They have succeeded to a large extent, in fashion and costume. To see only the busts of a lot of fashionably-dressed men and women it is not always an easy matter to tell their sex. This was not the case in my boyish days, but now the ladies have adopted so many articles of attire formerly used only by gentlemen, that it puzzles one sometimes to know which is which. The hair is often cut and parted in the same way. Hats, caps, fronts, collars, and jackets are often precisely the same. The sexes of the mosquito have not so distinguished themselves. They wear the same kind of garments, and trim their heads in the same way as did their grandfathers and grandmothers. I have here in fig. 7 a representation of a female head. It isincomplete, for to take in the full length of the organs I had to leave out part of the head. You only see the upper rounded part, from which the various organs spring. The straight, thick, central projection is the proboscis. This isa flexible tube enclosing the sharp lancets. At the base lie two little organs, one on each side, these are the palpi. Usually very short in the female, but long in the male. Two slender organs, called the antennx, stretch out to each side. These possess 14 joints, and from each of these joints a little circlet of hair springs. These whorls of hair are almost of equal length in any joint from base to tip. _Remembering these points BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 125: youi will be able to distinguish the difference between the head of a gentleman and that of a lady. Here you have a male head in fig. 8; the central organ, the proboscis, is all there, but quite as long as the females; but look at the palpi how they wise alongside and curve out even further than the proboscis. That alone isa marked difference. In the female they were short not more than one fifth of the length of the organ depicted, although there are exceptions to this rule in some varieties, and then the antenne of this gent has quite a fringe of long hairs which may very fitly be called whiskers. So that there is a decided dlfference between the sexes. When once you catch these points, by merely glancing at one on the window or resting anywhere, you can say whether it is male or female. I have in fig. 9 one of these antenn from a gentleman’s head, which shows the difference more strikingly ; it looks like a plume. The hairs are longest at the base, gradually shortening as they approach the tip. The root of these organs is rounded like a ball, and it rests in a cup on the side of the head close to the base of the proboscis. It forms a ball and socket joint and is freely movable. It has been discovered that these hairs are musical chords, and the antenna is really the male mosquito’s harp. When a tuning-fork giving 512 vibratious per second is sounded, these long hairs are thrown into vigorous motion. The shorter ones respond to other tones. The range of sensitiveness to sounds extends from the middle through to the next higher octave of a pianoforte. That note of 512 vibrations per second is the dom- inant note of the female mosquito when shesings. The harp on the male head is built to respond to the female voice. Whatever other purposes it serves, it is at the same time a delicate musical instrument. In the darkness, when the female sings, supposing the male is flying across her position, the sound will be most felt on the branch of the harp nearest to her, for the off-side harp will be partially shielded by his head. Therefore, two series of notes will be conveyed to his brain, stronger on one side, weaker on the other. If he wishes to meet her he has only to wheel round and adjust his position until the sound vibrates on the both harps with equal force. Then, no matter how dense the dark- ness, flying straight forward he will reach her side. Thus her 124 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. song is not intended to annoy you when she lifts her voice around your head and bed. It is the mosquitoes love song. It may be a serenade to her lover, or a prolonged cooey to her husband, to come, after her drinking bont, and help her to fly steadily home, or it may be an invitation to her daughter’s and neighbour’s wives to join her in the picnic, and they are not long in coming to her side. The eye is a wonderful organ, occupying the largest part of the head. I have never been able to secure a good photograph, but here in fig. 10 is a little bit as a sample of the whole. That isabout the 50th part of his lordship’seye. Each of these round dots is a perfect eye in itself, and is furnished with a crystalline lens and a slender branch of the optic nerve. They are planted as close together as they can be, and are set all over his cheeks, forehead, and right round the back of his head. I have at- tempted to count them, and the nearest estimate is that the mosquito has a thousand eyes. The eye forms a very beautiful object under the microscope, especially when seen by reflected light on a dark ground. The antennw and palpi appear not only to be organs of touch, but of hearing too. Now about the piercing apparatus. On the upper side of the proboscis lies a deep groove, or channel, and in the female there are packed into it, no less than six sharp-pointed lancets. They are named after similar parts on other insects’ heads. A pair are called mandibles or upper jaws. Another pair maxillee or lower jaws. One is called the labrum or upper lip. The thickest lancet is the lingua, and represents the tongue, while the thick sheath covering the whole, is the labium, or lower lip. On account of their extreme fineness and transparency, and their resistance to most’ stains, I have not yet been able to get a slide that will show them satisfactory, although—like the King of Dahomey—I have sacrificed hundreds of heads in the attempt. If a hundred of these lancets were tied into a bundle, it would not then be so thick as the smallest sewing-needle used by a lady. The other lancets are very much finer; in fact, it takes some practice with the microscope to be able to discern the whole six, and it is most readily effected by dark-ground illumi- nation. In many illustrations, the mistake is made of BY W. R. COLLEDGE, 125 representing all the lancets of one thickness. The photographic lens, if rightly used, give a truthful rendering of their dimensions. The male has no mandibles, and the maxille are not barbed at the tips like those of the female. Their mode of using their weapons is after this fashion :—After alighting in so fairy-like a manner on the skin that one is scarcely conscious of the touch, she tries various places with the soft tip of the proboscis before finally fixing on a spot wherein to bore. We speak of a mosquito bite, but it is not really a bite; it is a thrust or stab. Having decided where to bore, she plants her proboscis firmly down. The lancets, firmly held together, in one group, are pushed steadily into the skin. The sheath, elbowing itself, is drawn back, allowing them to sink nearly in to their full length. After being satisfied, the lancets are slowly withdrawn, and the bent sheath straighten out to receive them. It is quite easy to trap the mosquite that operates on the back of your hand. Before she has quite done sucking, gently close your fingers until the hand is clenched tightly, and the skin on the back, being thus drawn tight, it will grip the lancet points, and the insect, unable to free itself, will be held tightly by the nose. The withdrawal of the blood is effected by the largest lancet, the one most visible on the picture. It is a hollow tube. While working on it under the microscope I have, by gentle pressures here and there, forced liquid that has been in it up and down, clearly proving its tubularity. It is curved, and the end slopes to a point. The old saying that there is nothing new under the sun is exemplified here, for the sloping point and barrel of the hypodermic needle used by doctors to inject medicines under the skin is a mere imitation of the mosquitoes’ principal lancet. Long before the hypodermic system was invented by medical men, she practised it successfully every day, but no monument has yet been erected in her honour. It has been a disputed question, whether the irritation arising from the puncture is caused by the simple injury of boring, or by the injection of a poisonous fluid ; but that point is now decided. For, lately, the mosquito has been receiving a large amount of attention from scientific men and its anatomy has become more perfectly understood. The poison and salivary glands unknown before, have been found. They are exceedingly 126 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. small and so delicate that they break up easily when disturbed. I have spent much time and labour in trying to detach them in a perfect condition from the surrounding parts. J have some specimens, but not snfficiently complete and well displayed to form a good picture. Taking the finest sewing needles for dissecting instruments, the parts upon which they are used are so minute, that I can fitly compare the work to that of a surgeon who would use a couple of crow-bars to dissect out the glands of a man’s neck. Our fingers are so clumsy, that in 99 cases out of an 100, so much mischief is done to the parts, that the operation is useless. They resemble three irregularly shaped sausages connected at the upper parts. The middle gland in each set differs slightly from the others, and it is supposed to be the chemical laboratory where the poison is made. Its two neigh- bours are thought to be salivary glands. But the secretions from the three mingle in the tube from which they all hang. This tube ascends to the lower part of the mosquitoe’s neck, where it joins the one leading from the other set of glands. The two thence unite and become a larger tube, traversing the neck and head to empty their contents into the largest lancets at the base of the probos-is. Thence the mixed poison and salivary secretions are injected into the punctured skin of the victim. I have here in fig. 11 a dissection of the pumping apparatus, so that you may see this interesting bit of the insects economy. This is a complete one, and resembles the bulb of an india-rubber enema. It is connected there to the base of the lancets, the brain and other portions of the head being cut away. The tube leading to the stomach is connected to the end that is now free. Iam not quite satisfied about its mode of working. My first conjecture was that it worked like an elastic enema. The alternate com- pression and relaxation of its walls pumping up the blood into the stomach. But one night, when racking up the condenser to get a better illumination on the focussing glass of the camera, I accidently forced the slide against the nose of a high-power object glass. The result was just what happened when Mary Jane drops the milk jug on the cement kitchen floor—the pump was broken into fragments, and the pieces lay on the slide. My newly-forn: ( theory that this bulb might be a muscular bag, like the heart, was shattered too by this accident, for its walls were as hard and brittle as china. I find it is separable into four longitudinal sections. There is traceable on the edges of the BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 127 sections a fibrous structure, transversely striated, uniting them together ; I have also found muscle attached to the walls. This gives some colour to the notion that the sections of the pump, united by elastic ligament, may be pulled apart by these side muscles, and contract by the connective elastic tissue, and so set the pump in operation. But this is only conjecture. This shows that though many of these fields have been trodden by microscopic walkers, there are still numerous by-paths where research can be pleasureably and profitably pursued. The mosquito has actually been used in Havana by Drs. Finlay and Delgado as the means of inoculating new-chums with a mild form of yellow fever. The insects were kept in a ward in which lay a yellow fever patient, and afterwards introduced to the person they were intended to inoculate. A number of these patients took the fever in a mild form, the deaths only reaching two per cent. A very decided contrast to the number of deaths usually resulting from ‘‘ yellow Jack.’’ These experiments almost decide the question as to whether the mosquito is capable of carrying infectious diseases. Some time ago the Indian Government deputed Surgeon-Major Ross to investigate the action of mos- quitoes in conveying malaria. He showed a series of slides re- cently, before the Royal Society in London, which exhibited successive stages in the process of infection, and he claims to have proved that the malarial parasite is absorbed trom a diseased subject and itself becomes attacked. The parasites fertilise an] multiply in its body, finding their way ultimately into the salivary and poison glands, and thence are injected into the next subject they sting. He believes that only one species of mos- quito, ‘‘the anopheles,”” are concerned in this business, and it may be possible to stamp them out. There is a curious disease named ‘ Filaria Sanguinis”? in which small worms are found in the blood during the night. Every year a few cases are treated in the Brisbane Hospital. The late Dr. Joseph Bancroft, of Brisbane, was the first to dis- cover the parent worms in this disease, and in recognition of his valuable work, one of the names of this disease has been christ- ened after him Ilaria Bancrojti. Dr. Manson caused a China- man, suffering from this disease, to sleep in an outhouse infested by a certain kind of mosquito. Afterwards he killed some of them, which had been feeding on the man, and found 128 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. numbers of filaria embryo in the stomachs of the mosquitoes, and by a series of observations showed that, though many of them were digested, others pierced the stomach and lodged in the muscles of the mosquitoes. The embryo go through the changes that fit them for an independent existence, and the mosquito dying, the filaria escapes into the water, which may be drunk by human beings and so propagate the disease. Dr. Thos. Bancroft, who has recently devoted a good deal of at- tention to this subject, has, apparently, shown that the disease is not propagated in this way, as the young filaria are killed by a few hours immersion in water. One peculiarity of the mosquito is its music, if we are dis- posed to dignify such a sound by that name. These sounds are caused by the rapid vibration of parts of the body. The wings help to make it by their rapid motion. But the main cause is the breathing apparatus. You remember the breathing tubes of the larve. A similar arrangement of tubes exists in the adult mosquito. These tubes terminate in round holes on the sides of the body. Air is admitted and expelled through these openings or stiymata. Just below their margins are two folded leaflets which vibrate beneath two external valves by the movement of the air. They resemble two reeds ina pipe. The air passing rapidly through these openings during flight, they, being capable of contraction or expansion at the will of the insect, is the main cause of the sound. The next time you entertain a mosquito listen to the song. As she slows her movement over your head the note will grow deeper on account of the slow moyement she is executing. The male mosquito has a voice, and sings too. But his voice is just the opposite of that which exists in the human family. The female has the deep booming voice, while the gentleman’s is pitched on a much higher key. It is weaker and much more shrill than that of the female, and the tones likewise differ in different species of mosquito. Now the question arises—What is the use of the mosquito ? Does it exist only for torment? Well, I do not think we understand all the uses of the insect world sufficient to give a decided answer to that question. Our knowledge must be much more extensive and complete before we conclude that they are merely nuisances. BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 129 One useful work they fulfil in their larval stage is that of scavengers. I kept a numerous family in a large glass jar. To keep them from drowning after they assumed the flying stage, I put the branch of a tree in so that they might have something to rest upon. By-and-bye, some of the leaves decayed and dropped into the water. Very soon the pulp of the leaves disappeared, and there were only left the ribs looking like a network of lace. The fact was that the young skeeters, skirmishing around, found them to be good eating. And I often saw them engaged in sucking the decaying leaves. They are not strict vegetarians either. One night, a big black beetle, who was out on a marauding expedition, had the misfortune to tumble into my mosquito-tank and was drowned. I allowed him to remain, te see if they would tackle him too, and I found they did. As he decayed, and smelt high, they gathered round him with gusto. He served large families with tit-bits for days, and they left him when only the shell and hard wing cases were to be seen. By thus disposing of a large portion of decomposing animal and vegetable matter in swamps and pools, they help to purify the water, and do the world service in that way. Likewise they serve as food for fish. I put both larru and pupa into a tank beside a small fish. As soon as they were perceived, he went for them at once, and whenever the fancy took him he bolted a few more, so that soon there was not one left in the tank. Serving as food for fish, we in our turn catch them, and find that mosquitoes, transformed into the flesh of fish, are not bad for humankind. It has been asserted that mosquitoes only live one day. That is not correct, for I have kept them much longer. The full-grown female that you saw was confined in a cell not much larger than sixpence. And she lived there for a week. And on one occasion, when I awoke in the morning, I saw a lady in the curtains of my bed. She was very stout, having filled herself with as much of my blood as she could stow away during the night. I put her into a good-sized vase, with a iittle water to slake her thirst. It was quite a week before she digested the good meal she had had, and resumed her natural shape. To test this point of age I kept her in prison for 21 days. How much longer she might have remained alive I I 130 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY, ETC. cannot say, for in trying to move her from the vessel into a larger one, she managed to escape. Thus she was my guest for three weeks, and that disposes of the idea that they only live one day. I have often kept them for a month, and I under- stand that Dr. J. Bancroft has succeeded in keeping some species alive for 80 and even 90 days. My impression is that their natural term of life is about three months. A good many born in the autumn live right through the winter until the next spring. They remain in a dormant state under houses, and the rafters of houses, in dark places, and, as a proof that they are not all dead, if an unusually warm and close day comes in winter, they soon come out to give you very practical evidence of their vitality. In conclusion, [ may say a word as to the best means of getting rid of them. They cannot be propagated unless water is to be had whereon to deposit their eggs and breed their young. You ought not to allow any water to lie around your houses. Unused tubs and buckets should be turned upside down. Two inches of water is all that Mrs. Mosquito requires for family purposes. Then your tanks should be well covered and the outlet-pipes covered with caps of perforated zinc. If this is not done, and the lady can find no other place, she will pass up the outlet-pipes, and deposit her eggs in the tank, and as she lays from two to three hundred, in a short time you will be surrounded with a respectable family. In a pond where they breed a few minnows will annihilate them, or the application of a little kerosene will also work wonders. Finding a pool containing large quantities of both Jarra and pupa, I poured a little oil on the surface and it spread in a thin film all over. When the young gents arose to breathe, a dose of oil went down both breathing tubes and trumpets, and in an hour, when I visited it, not a living one was to be seen. As a last injunction: avoid living on low ground, and in the neighbourhood of swamps. If possible, pitch your house on high ground, facing the prevailing winds of the colony. Mosquitoes are so light, that they cannot face a strong breeze. They must go with the current and will be born past you to find shelter in the bush, or on lower ground. BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 131 I have another picture here, in fig. 12, in order to impress upon your memories the distinction between the sex. In the couple before you, the gentleman is on the left and the lady is on the right. He is thin and slender, but she is quite a buxom lady. His proboscis gently touches her shoulder, while the long palpi curl above. Very modestly she droops her head while he pops the momentous question, and if we follow the interview, we should probably find that she had accepted him as her lover, and had gone off for a waltz together. I have often seen them flying in couples, especially near sunset. Their flight is slow, and they are more easily caught when locked in each oéhers’ arms. MISCELLANEA ENTOMOLOGICA: OR ODD NOTES ON THE HISTORY AND TRANSFORMA- TIONS OF VARIOUS INSECTS. By R. ILLIDGE. [Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, December 16.] es A Frew years ago I wrote a short paper for the Natural History Society of Queensland (now defunct), on ‘Insects, whose food plant is the Native Fig;’’ but, as this paper was lost, I now propose to reproduce some of the matter, together with facts concerning other insects under the above title. The figs, Ficus Australis, macrophylla, etc., appear to be subject to the attacks of quite a number of insects, chief amongst which are certain species of moths of the genus Hypsa, and some pretty pyrale moths of the genus Glyphodes; also, a noctuid Ophyx ochroptera, together with others whose depre- dations are not, however, confined to these trees. Of Hypsa, there are three species found on the fig ; they are H. chloropyga, H. nesophora(?),and H. plagiata. The first-named has a rather pretty caterpillar, brownish, marked with brick red and ochreous yellow; the other two have larve which bear considerable resemble to birds’ droppings. None of these insects, however, are sufficiently common to do any appreciable damage to the trees, in fact, chloropyga is a rare moth round Brisbane, nesophora is never common, and plagiata, though usually readily obtained, does not occur in numbers. The noctuid moth, Ophyx ochroptera, in the larval form, is brilliant green with a broad lateral band of bright yellow; it also is a rare species. 134 MISCELLANEA ENTOMOLOGICA, ETC. The species of pyrale moths of the genus Glyphodes, which have been noted as attached to these trees, are four in number, each having somewhat different habits. The largest of them is Glyphodes cosmarcha, and its caterpillar attacks the young terminal shoots, binding them firmly together with silken threads ; feeding under cover of the external leaves, it devours the interior developing leaves and does not even take the trouble to cast out its own droppings. When about to pupate it deserts its fouled nest, selects a couple of suitable leaves and binds them together, leaving an opening for the escape of the moth, it securely fixes itself with head towards this opening amongst a skilful network of silken suspending threads. Glyphodes luciferalis differs from the above, in that it selects two leaves for its habitat and binds them together, feeding on the parenchyma within ; this accounts for the ugly brownish patches so frequently seen on the leaves of these trees. In pupating it differs somewhat from G. cosmarcha, as it joins the leaves along the margins, but also suspends itself in the same manner. Glyphodes excelsalis is more frequently to be found on the *black fig of the creek sides, though it also occasionally attacks Ficus Australis; it usually lives in a web spun on the surface of the leaves, but in pupating generally spins up between them for greater safety and secures itself much as do the others. Both this species and the following will largely attack the introduced edible fig. Finally, Glyphodes tolumnialis attacks the ends of young leaves, curls them over and binds them down with its silk threads and lives within the shelter so formed ; it is a common, but very beautiful species, and I have only found it on Ficus Australis and the introduced edible fig; curiously, however, when attacking the latter, it has much the same habits as G. excelsalis. As these pyrale larve are all of solitary habits, no particular damage is done to the trees, whereas the caterpillar of another pyrale of gregarious habits, Margarodes vertumnalis, attacks Alstonia constricta and Ochroscia moorei, and sometimes completely denudes them of leaves, to such an extent also have I seen them upon the Alstonia that the grubs could not get enough food to attain their full size, and the imagines have emerged not much more than half the normal dimensions. In April last, my attention was drawn to certain wood- boring larve in the stems of Ficus Australis. The webs covering up the openings were to be seen generally at the axils of * Ficus aspera BY R. ILLIDGE. ee all the smaller branches, and for some time I was under the impression that a new xyloryct awaited investigation. It was not, however, until the month of October following, upon inspecting a chrysalis cut out of its chamber, that it was found to be that of a pyrale moth. Upon this several of the bores were opened out and the larve examined, which still further confirmed the previous determination. Full confirmation shortly followed upon the emergence of the moths of a not uncommon pyrale, familiar to us under the name of Aphytoceros lucalis. The grubs of this insect are of a pale yellowish white colour, when full grown about an inch long, cylindrical, naked, and 16-legged ; head rather small, and quite unlike that of a xyloryct caterpillar. The food consists of the bark and young wood of the tree, which they eat under a cover composed of frass loosely massed together with silken threads. Besides their tunnel in the stem, they also form a covered way partly round it; in this tunnel they live through the winter, pupating towards the end of September, or during October. Before pupating, the opening into the bore is neatly closed by an operculum, similar to that of a trap-door spider, and as a further protection the larva spins a strong web in front of itself, leaving just room for the change to the chrysalis. Emergence takes place in about a fortnight or three weeks after pupation. The larve are tolerably numerous upon the fig trees, and the perfect insects are not uncommon, so that it is rather surprising that the changes of this large and fine pyrale should have hitherto escaped observation. In addition to those above mentioned there are other lepidopterous insects which feed upon the foliave of the figs, but as they are not singular to it, a passing notice of one, the butterfly Euploea corinna, will complete my remarks upon the lepidoptera attached to these trees. The larvae of this insect are not uncommon on Ficus Australis and the introduced F. benjamina, but it also attacks Stephanotis, the Oleander and rarely Rhynchospermum, likewise several other plants of the Apocynaceous order. ‘The silvery chrysalides may frequently be seen suspended from the under sides of leaves. Amongst other orders of insects which attack these trees, that of the beetles stands first, and some of our very largest prey upon its decaying timber. Notable amongst these is the giant longicorn Batocera Boisduvalii, whose metamorphoses, now familiar to me, I hope to make the subject of a special 136 MISCELLANEA ENTOMOLOGICA, ETC, memoir, together with a large elater Alaus sp., the grub of which devours its larve. TRANSFORMATIONS OF ASGERIA CHRYSOPHANES, Meyr. The few notes given upon Aphytoceros lucalis recall to mind some observations made upon the changes of the above rare insect. Early in September, some few years ago, we noticed a sore looking spot upon a red ash, Alphitonia excelsa, growing in the Wickham Terrace Gardens. A branch sprouted obliquely up- ward from near the base of the tree (the branch itself was dead) and at its intersection considerable decay had taken place. Desirous of finding out the cause, we, with a pocket-knife, removed the decaying bark and found a nest of larve. Carefully transferring the bark and grubs to a box they were taken home, and in a very few days out came one of the lovely little wasp- like moths, probably from a pupa we had not noticed. However, within a month they had all changed and become imagines, so that the patch had just been struck at the right moment. The moths now adorn my own and several friends cabinets. From notes kept I find these larvie were sixteen-legged creatures, very similar to Aphytoceros. Only once since then have I seen this insect and that was at Gympie; it was captured flying about some flowers overhanging a small creek, and its wasp-like appearance was very noticeable. CASYAPA BEATA. Some notes on this insect appeared in the Trans. of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Qld., but, as I have since succeeded in follow- ing it through all its stages, it may be as well to record these. Immediately on emergence from the ovum, which is placed against the margin, and sometimes the point of the leaf, the grub cuts out a portion of leaf, taking care however to leave a narrow connection with the main leaf, the piece so cut it then bends upward and backward over itself until it has succeeded in forming a curious shelter. As these pieces thus cut out shortly turn brown they are readily seen and thus lead to the detection of the caterpillar. Under these singular dwellings it lives until big enough to enter upon another phase in its larval existence, for when about half grown it deserts these, and forms a shelter between two leaves, the upper of which it succeeds in curving up in a somewhat inverted spoon-like shape. Herein it now completes its larval state and changes to a chrysalis. NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. By THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S., England, L.§.A., Lonp., L.R.C.P., Epi. (fiead before the Royal Society of Queensland, 16th Dec., 1899.) GROUP PAPILIONINA—FAMILY LYCCGNIDA. LYCAENA ELABORATA. NOY. SP. 42 25—28 m m. Head fuscous with white orbicular rings round eye. Antennae black and white annulated, club black with red tip. Thorax and abdomen fuscous, the former densely clothed with bright lavender-blue scales. Forewings broadly dilate, costa rounded, hindmargin gently rounded. In $ bright lavender-blue, with veins black, shewing conspicuously beneath the blue; in 2 bright Adonis blue in cell and along inner margin, with a deep patch of black border along costa to 4, then obliquely to vein 4, and at a sharp angle to form a broad hindmarginal band; the central piece of the wing which it encloses is moon-light white. Cilia in both sexes, white with fuscous dots opposite the veins. Hindwings in & as forewings ; in 2 white, with central third diffused with bright Adonis blue ; this is bounded on hindmargin with a diffused fuscous black band enclosing a row of six white rings with a smoky-black centre ; wings in both sexes finely tailed, tails fuscous tipped with white. Cilia white irrorated with fuscous, more so in 9. Under surface of wings, in § light fuscous with bands of chocolate colour and diffusions of reddish fuscous; the basal third of both _ wings is chocolate with an undulating waved white line through centre transversely dividing it into two bands, and a like white line on posterior border; a patch of like colour, bordered by 138 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. white, just beyond, reaching half-way across wing, and a broad band at 3, are both bordered on both sides with white ; a sub- terminal row of lunulated spots, diffused in white to hind- margin; hindmarginal line chocolate. In the hindwings the middle band is broken into rhomboidal columns, arranged promiscuously, to enclose a blotch of ground colour; the hindmarginal white suffusion borders an undulating continuous subterminal chocolate line and marginal line with dots on veins; two peacock eyes of blue and silver at and just before anal angle. In the ? the white patch is conspicuous in middle third ; the basal chocolate is divided into three bands and the posterior again into two by white lines; there are two rows of lunulated spots in the white bordering; the marks on the hindwings are more spread out and regular than in the $. Brisbane, one pair. FAMILY HESPERIDA. ISMENE LUCESCENS. NOV. SP. $f 40—45 mm. Head green, interspersed with fuscous, face ochreous. Palpi black, tinged with ochreous. Antennae deep chocolate fuscous. Thorax and abdomen deep chocolate fuscous, interspersed with long green hairs; anal third of abdomen devoid of hairs, but tinged with irridescent violet. Forewings broadly triangular, costa gently rounded, hindmargin almost straight, deep chocolate, fuscous, clouded with diffusion of black, and with long greenish hairs over base. Forewings in 2 with two prominent white dots near together in the disc. Cilia deep chocolate fuscous, finely edged with ochreous. Hindwings as forewings, but inner margin, and basal half densely covered with glaucous or glaucous-ochreous hairs. Cilia as forewings. Undersurface of forewings fuscous with effusion of black in middle towards base ; white discal dots in ? conspicuous. Hindwings, colour as forewings, but with lilac effusion, a lilac white line, broadly diffused, extends from near apex of costa to a rich velvety black blotch, filling anal angle, resembling a silvery brook falling into a dark lake or reservoir; a lunular ochreous line from base, parallel to and cutting off a portion of ground colour of hindmargin, is more or less diffused with white ; these two lines form a large W, in @ view of the two wings; a hindmarginal ochreous line extends from the anal black blotch or reservoir to near apex. Cairns. BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 139 GROUP ARCTIADHZ—FAMILY LITHOSIAD4. CALLIGENIA LIMONIS. NOV. SP. 4 2 22-25 mm. Head and face lemon colour. Palpi fuscous. Antenne light lemon, shaded with fuscous. Thorax lemon, with a line of four smoky grey dots anteriorly, and a row of three posteriorly. Abdomen pale lemon, diffused with smoky grey, two anterior segments with a fine black lineat base. Legs lemon colour. Forewings elongate, strongly dilated, light lemon with smoky grey markings, costa rounded, apex obtuse, hind- margin obliquely rounded. The markings imitate scribbling, and are evenly distributed. The first is subtended from, but does not touch a broad dash along base of costa, it commences in a black speck, and diffuses into a running band to ineet the second nearer to inner margin than to costa; the second and third span the wing as the letter X, the fourth is roughly parallel with hind-margin, it is very wavy and freely denticulate, and touches the third on inner margin at ?; the fifth is deeply dentate and communicates with the fourth by dentations, less freely in 4, and the costal and inner thirds are prolonged to hindermargin. Cilia lemon, tinted with fuscous. Hindwings pale ochreous grey. Cilia as forewings. A pair taken in the Lucas-Rye Expedition, near Bellender Kerr. Allied to C. melitaula, Meyr, but a smaller insect and with the markings differently distributed, and a lemon rather than a reddish colour. CALLIGENIA MELITAULA. MEYR. Musgrave River, Lucas Rye Expedition. GROUP BOMBYCINA—FAMILY LIPARID. DARALA CONSUTA. NOV. SP. @ 72 mm. Head, face, thorax, and abdomen densely hairy, deep ochreous fuscous. Antennae ochreous fuscous. Legs black with ochreous fuscous hairs on under surface. Forewings broadly triangular, costa gently rounded, hindmargin rounded, reddish fuscous, with veins and marginal lines ochreous fuscous, and creamy white markings ; a conspicuous round discal spot at 4 nearer to costa than to inner margin; a continuous, deeply dentate hindmarginal line. Cilia rufous fuscous. Hindwings as forewings, with no discal dot, but a widely toothed hind- marginal line. Cilia as forewings. One specimen, Aloomba. Lucas-Rye Expedition. 140 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. ARTAXA ARROGANS. NOY. SP. & 9 45—60 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax deep ochreous yellow. Abdomen lighter ochreous yellow. Forewings broadly dilate, costa rounded, hindmargin rounded, light ochreous yellow, veins marked and whole surface freely irrorated with deep reddish ochreous. Cilia light ochreous yellow. Hindwings as ground colour of forewings, without the darker ochreous. Cilia as forewings. Base of Bellender Kerr, Cairns, Lucas-Rye Expedition. FAMILY PSYCHID. OECETICUS FELINUS. NOY. SP. é 28 mm. Head fuscous, face wool white. Palpi and antenne fuscous. Thorax creamy grey, with anterior band, dorsal and lateral bands rich velvety fuscous, inclining to blaok. Abdomen ferrous red, freely covered with rich velvety black hairs, caudal segment ferrous red. Forewings elongate, gently dilate, costa gently rounded, hindmargin obliquely rounded, hialine, with veins rich velvety fuscous. Cilia blackish fuscous. Hindwings and Cilia as forewings. 2 Apterous. Builds its domicile of Casuarina needles. A female in its domicile was visited by two males and so taken. May Orchard, Brisbane. GROUP GEOMETRINA.—FAMILY GEOMETRIDA. ACIDALIA COERCITA, NOY. SP. é 2 16—19 nm. Head, face, and palpi ferrous red. Antennae pinky drab. Thorax and abdomen silvery drab. Forewings triangular, costa gently rounded, hindmargin oblique, sparsely wavy, silvery drab, with finely pencilled ferrous red marking. Forewings with a conspicuous ferrous red band bordering costa and hindmargin ; three transverse wavy sinuate finely pencilled ferrous red lines, here and there faintly dupli- cated, or split into dots, the first, before 4 costa to 4+ inner margin, the second from 2 costa to 2 inner margin, and the third from 7 costa to = inner margin; several faint lines, portions of lines, or dots, indefinitely scattered over wing generally. Cilia ferrous red. Hindwings as forewings, first line wanting, second from 4 costa to 4 inner margin, nearly parallel to hind- margin; third line from + costa to + inner margin, in part doubled, but in part dotted ; hindmargin bordered by ferrous red band as forewings. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane, rare. BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 141 ACIDALIA VIBRATA. NOV. SP. & 2 20—22 mm. Head, face, and palpi ferrous fuscous. Antennae ochreous fuscous. Thorax and abdomen ochreous fuscous. Forewings costa straight, hindmargin gently rounded, ochreous fuscous, with smoky fuscous fascize and dots, and irrorated with black and fuscous scales. Forewings with diffused pale fuscous drab fascia from centre of base, through wing, gradually nearing costa towards apex: a number of lines and bands obliquely across wing; a faint line from 4 inner margin to apical end of longitudinal fascia ; a distinct but small discal spot; faint wavy lines parallel to first transverse line; a broad fascia obliquely from 2 inner margin to +4 _ hind- margin ; a row of darker fuscous sub-marginal dots parallel to hindmargin, a hindmarginal row of similar dots. Cilia ochreous fuscous. Hindwings as forewings, discal spot plain, median band continuous with that of forewings; three wavy lines or dots beyond run parallel, and a sub-marginal row of dots, a hindmarginal row of dots, in some specimens diffused into a line. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane, rare. ACIDALIA PARTITA. NOV. SP. $21 mm. Head, ochreous drab, with a posterior frontal fuscous spot, face fuscous. Palpi fuscous. Antennae ochreous drab. Thorax and abdomen ochreous drab. Forewings costa nearly straight, hindmargin’ rounded, with markings smoky fuscous, and black dots, freely irrorated with minute fuscous and black scales. Forewings with black discal dot on fold ; a broad, smoky, diffused fascia from beyond 4 inner margin toward, but stopping short, at + before apex; this is crossed by several indistinct lines parallel to hindmargin ; these lines continue on inner half of wing to hindmargin, but the costal half lines run in a crescentic curve from costa to costal half of hindmargin; a row of black dots from opposite 2 of costa obliquely toward inner margin at +, this row stops short of both margins but sends two or three small irregular placed dots near hindmargin ; hindmarginal fuscous line with black dots. Cilia ochreous. Hindwings as forewings, with oblique fascia continued as a median band, containing black discal dot; a succession of wavy lines to hindmargin, black dotted line as forewings. Cilia as forewings. One specimen, Brisbane. 142 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. EUARESTUS. NOY. GEN. Face smooth. Antenne in male bipectinated. Palpi moder- ate, slender, adpressed scales, porrected, terminal joint short. Posterior tibie, with all spurs present. Thorax with woolly hairs beneath. Forewings with veins 3 and 4 separate, 7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings with veins 3 and 4 from a point, 6 and 7 from a point, 8 from cell at half. EUARESTUS NOBILITANS. NOY. SP. 437 mm. Head and face bright to pea green. Palpi moderate, deep red, first joint with long whitish hairs, on under side. Antenne bipectinate, stalk deep red, pectinations grey, shortening at either end. Legs reddish fuscous, to ochreous on under surface, spurs long. Thorax bright pea green, white woolly hairs underneath. Abdomen pea green, laterally and in last segments ochreous, with a black spot on centre of dorsum, and hind margin of posterior segments edged with purple rose. Forewings costa rounded, apex acute, hindmargin gently rounded, bright pea green. Costa white grey, finely annulated with ferrous fuscous, and suffused with cherry red ; four or five spots or blotches of ferrous red on fore part of cell and on veins ; a line of minute black dots on veins along a narrow line of indistinct darker green, from 2 costa to 2 inner margin; a few minute black dots scattered irregularly and sparingly. Cilia green, gradually shading to creamy grey. Hindwings same as forewings, with very indistinct darker green line, and a very few scattered minute black spots. Cilia as forewings. Under surface of all wings greenish ochreous, suffused with red towards base, and becoming lighter ochreous toward hindmargin; an irregular broad band of purple, shaded into violet, from middle of wings to 2, shaded towards margins, and interrupted in hind- wings in centre by groundcolour to form two diffused blotches. One specimen taken in scrub near Brisbane in October. EUARESTUS PATROCINATUS. NOY. SP. 2 45 mm. Head and face bright green. Palpi with pro- fusion of adpressed hairs on first joint, terminal joint short, creamy pink. Antenne serrate, light fuscous, with creamy annulations, white underneath. Legs ochreous, spurs long. Thorax bright pea green, white woolly hairs underneath. Abdomen bright pea green, becoming ochreous laterally and over under surface ; a conspicuous arched violet red blotch on BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 143 centre of dorsum, bordered narrowly and freely dotted with black. Forewings costa rounded, apex acuminate, hindermargin gently rounded, bright pea green. Costa creamy grey diffused with cerise, and annulated in basal half with deep ferrous fuscous, more sparingly towards apex ; an ochreous discal spot at 2, edged with ferrous fuscous ; a darker green indistinct wavy line, from costa 2, enclosing discal spot, to 2 inner margin; a few scattered black specks on veins near costa. Cilia green, edged with ochreous. Hindwings as forewings, with wavy line indistinct. Cilia as forewings. Undersurface of all wings light fuscous ochreous, with a broad deep purple band at 2 over costal two thirds of wing, and separated by a band of ground colour; a shading of same anterioriy to inner margin; a broader ir- regular band across hindwings. In hindwings veins 5 and 6 are concurrent at either end—the middle third enclosing a space. One specimen base of Bellender Ker Mt., Lucas-Rye Expedition. There is a remote possibility that the above may be sexes of one species—but so many characters differ, I have placed them apart. SKORPISTHES. NOY. GEN. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint densely rough haired beneath, terminal joint short. Antenne in male pectinated for three-fourths, thence finely ciliated. Thorax densely hairy underneath. Abdomen with strong dorsal crests. Posterior tibiz with all spurs present. Forewings with viens 3 and 4 from a point, 5 parallel with 4, 6 from point with 9. Hindwings with viens 3 and 4 from a point, 6 and 7 from a point and united with 5 by a short crossbar, 8 anastomosing with upper margin of cell at base. SKORPISTHES UNDA-SCRIPTA NOY. SP. 6 25 m m. Head grey. Palpi fuscous, terminal joint grey. Antennz fuscous, pectinations fuscous grey. Forewings broadly dilate, costa straight, rounded at base and apex, hind- margin obliquely rounded, white grey, densely dusted with iron grey, and with transvese black undulating lines. Forewings with costal edge finely irrorated with iron grey dashes; a three wave line from + costa to + inner margin ; a short wavy line in disc just before $: a waved line with eight undulations, five straight, from ? costa, the three last obliquely to beyond 4 inner margin ; a hindmarginal wave line ; diffused blotches of ferrous 144 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. fuscous posterior to second line. Cilia grey. Hindwings as forewings with first line wanting; space between second and marginal line freely dusted and diffused with ferrous fuscous. Wynnum Swamps, Brisbane. One specimen taken by Mr. Benson Hall. The forewings are thrown forward until their costal edges almost meet when at rest. As the creature sits on the tee-tie bark it is almost impossible to detect it, so perfect is the deception. FAMILY MONOCTENIADSA. MONOCTOPHORA. NOV. GEN. Face with dense hairs. Tongue developed. Antenne in % unipectinated, apical third simple. Papi rather stout, short, sub-ascending, densely scaled, terminal joint thick. Thorax stout, densely hairy, long woolly hairs beneath. Anterior tibia in 4 with apical hook, all tarsi spinulose. Forewings with vein 6 out of 9,10 connected with 9 by bar. Hindwings with veins 6 and 7 stalked. Allied to Monoctenia, but the stalking of veins 6 and 7 is very distinctive. MONOCTOPHORA STILLANS. NOV. SP. 4 36—38 m m. Head, thorax, and palpi pale brownish ochreous. Antenne reddish ochreous, pectinations pale ochreous. Abdomen whitish ochreous, under surface of thorax and abdomen, thickly covered with long white woolly hairs. Forewings broadly triangular, apex acute, subfalcate, hind- margin gently rounded, slightly contracted or puckered opposite vein 2; pale brownish ochreous, with two transverse lines of purplish red dots, in some specimens enlarging to blotches; first line consists of two dots equi-distant between 4 inner margin to 2 costa; second line consists of dots on all the veins, in some suffused into a blotched bar, from 3 inner margin to + costa; a deep red brown hindmarginal band to just before anal ang!e, fringed anteriorly with ochreous red, which continues to anal angle. Cilia deep brown to before anal angle, thence and along inner margin pale ochreous. Hindwings as forewings, with two transverse lines of purplish red dots parallel to hind margin, first line of some four dots, from 4 inner margin to half across the wing; second line of dots and splashes from 2 inner margin to just before apex of costa; dark BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 145 red-brown hindmarginal band from vein 4 to anal angle, with a brownish ochreous fringe anteriorly, extending along all hind- margin. Cilia as forewings. Under surface of wings marked as upper surface. Bred from caterpillars feeding on Geebung, Persooma cornifolii, Brisbane. MONOCTOPHORA CAPRINA. NOY. SP. & 2 383—85 Tl Tl. Head, palpi, and thorax ashy grey. Antenne brownish ochreous, pectinations lighter ochreous. Abdomen whitish grey, with a shading of darker grey in the centre of the dorsum, and a few scattered dark hairs. Fore- wings triangular, costa straight, apex acute, slightly falcate, hind margin strongly bowed ; ashy grey with small fuscous dots or specks on veins, and with whole surface dusted with minute specks, as pepper; a series of minute dots along costa, two transverse lines of dark grey dots, first line of three dots from 4+ inner margin to 4 costa, parallel to hind margin, one dot just before inner margin, one just before costa, and middle one equidistant; second line, dots on all veins, from % inner margin to just before apex costa; dots in veins are incorporated in a dark brown hindmarginal line ending abruptly before anal angle. Cilia to just before anal angle dark red furcous, thence and along inner margin ashy grey. Hindwings as forewings with first line indefinite, second line chocolate red, developed before costa into two or three lunar blotches, transfused into one general blotch; in @ dark shading but not blotched. Brisbane, bred from caterpillars feeding on Geebung, Persooma cornifolii. ARRHODIA FENESTRATA. NOV. SP. & 34 m m. Head cream colour, face with dense fuscous scales. Palpi light fuscous, antennae ochreous fuscous. Thorax light grey with a semilunar band, anteriorly fuscous, darkened with black on dorsum. Abdomen fuscous, densely irrorated with black dots, posterior margin of segments white grey shading into dark fuscous. Forewings elongate triangular, costa straight, apex rounded, hindmargin rounded, ashy grey, with veins ochreous grey, densely irrorated with light fuscous and minute specks of ochreous. Costal margin ochreous, banded and blotched with rich velvety fuscous ; an irregular translucent figure bounded by median vein, and veins 3 and 4, bounded posteriorly with rich, velvety, fuscous black band, and extending J 146 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. to costa and inner margin in errant patches; three or four lines of same colour along hind margin; five lunar marks ; black marks along hind margin, diffused into thin lines toward anal angle. Cilia fuscous with a basal ochreous line. Costal half of hindmargin wavy. Hindwings as forewings, with translucent figure elongated, crossed by veins 2, 8, and 4, bordered anteriorly on inner portion with rich fuscous, breaking into dots outwardly, bordered on posterior border with rich fuscous black band, extending to inner margin, but interrupted as dots to costa; numerous dots of black over basal half of wings, one or more blotches of fuscous before apex of costa; irregular subterminal black line on costal half of hindmargin. Cilia as forewings. One specimen, Brisbane, at light. ASPIDOPTERA,. NOV. GEN. Head and face with adpressed hairs. Antennae bipectinate, to near apex, pectinations short. Palpi slender, with rough scales, terminal joint short. Thorax hairy beneath. Forewings 9 and 10 stalked. Hindwings with 6 and 7 from a point, 8 coincident at base. Closely allied to Aspilates. ASPIDOPTERA NAVIGATA. NOV. SP. ¢ 40 mm. Head and face, antenne and palpi orange ochreous streaked with fuscous. Thorax and abdomen light fuscous ochreous. Forewings elongate triangular, costa gently rounded, apex acutely prolonged, hindmargin nearly straight in costal half, obliquely bowed to anal angle, ochreous fuscous, diffused with orange fuscous, and freely dusted with black scales. Costa freely irrorated with short black lines; a series of five black and fuscous equidistant transverse sinuous lines, more or less parallel with hindmargin, the posterior ones somewhat indistinct; a broad deep waved fuscous band runs obliquely through the wing from } inner margin to apex ; a light ochreous discal spot at angle of third line and oblique central band; the space between first and second transverse bands is suffused with grey, beyond the orange deepens, but the grey is again conspicuous on hind border of oblique line and towards inner margin ; there are a number of irregularly scattered black spots near the hind- margin, and a pair of star rayed black dots opposite anal angle. Cilia deep ferrous fuscous. Hindwings as forewings, hindmargin straight for costal half, then doubled at right angles, anal part crenate ; the oblique band of forewings is continued from } costa BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 147 to + inner margin; the first transverse line is only a light diffusion, the second and third are suffused with grey, which is shaded into the space they enclose ; the fourth is very conspicuous is parallel with the hindmargin, the space it encloses with the third contains a black discal spot, and is freely suffused with ochreous orange: the broad band between lines four and five is freely dusted with grey. Cilia as forewings. Under surface of all wings light ochreous, freely speckled and dusted with grey fuscous. Brisbane. ASPIDOPTERA AMBIENS. NOV. SP. 6 2 28-33 mm. Head deep cherry red, with a line of four ochreous dots across face, and an interrupted ochreous line between antennae. Palpi cherry red, with second and third joints finely tipped with ochreous. Antennae ochreous fuscous, finely irrorated on basal third with cherry red. Legs cherry red, with grey banded lines. Thorax light fuscous grey, with a faint: tinge of lilac. Abdomen fuscous grey, diffused with light lilac red. Forewings gently dilate, costa rounded at apex, hind- margin strongly bowed, crenulate, fuscous grey, freely diffused with lilac red, and transversely crossed by circular, interrupted, dotted lines of ferrous fuscous; an ochreous costal line with short bars of ferrous fuscous edged with cherry red; a faint reddish discal spot; a wavy ferrous fuscous dotted line from + costa to 3 inner margin, darker as it approaches costa and inner margin; a ferrous fuscous hindmarginal line of crenulations and dots, with a suffused, narrow, reddish-brown band anteriorly. Cilia reddish-brown, with white lunations in crenulations. Hindwings as forewings, with dotted line continued to inner margin, darker and bowed outward along costa; hindmargin reddish fuscous, without ferrous dots. Cilia creamy white. Under surface of all wings grey, tinted with lilac red, with the lines of upper surface intensified and tinged with purple; in forewings a violet suffusion along costal half of hindmargin, narrowing toward costa; a like suffusion on hindmargin before costa. Brisbane, one pair, at light. GALANAGEIA. NOV. GEN. Head and face smooth. Antennae unipectinated, abruptly becoming ciliated in apical fourth. Tongue developed. Palpi. moderate, with closely adpressed hairs, terminal joint very short 148 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. Under surface of thorax densely hairy. Hindwings, 6 and 7 from a point, 8 closely approaches cell before middle, thence diverges. GALANAGEIA QUARDRIGRAMMA. NOY. SP. ¢ 43 mm. Head white, with fuscous lines on crown, and a fuscous bar before collar ; face ochreous fuscous. Palpi reddish ochreous, terminal joint blackish fuscous. Antenne, stalk black and white annulated, pectinations light ochreous. Thorax and abdomen’ reddish ochreous. Forewings costa slightly but distinctly bowed, apex rounded, hindmargin crenulate, gently rounded to one half, thence obliquely rounded, ochreous fuscous, suffused with light lilac. Along the costa are a number of short strigulations, black intermixed with light bluish grey, and suffused with ferruginous; a light ochreous band darker on anterior border from 4 inner- margin to * costa; a large discal spot, light bluish grey, bordered with ferruginous and contains anteriorly a hyaline dot and a lunar figure, bordered with ferruginous; crenulations of hind- margin bordered with a ferrous line edged with conspicuous ochreous. Cilia at angles deep ferrous, elsewhere ochreous. Hindwings as forewings, discal figure almost square, with the median band cutting, but not bisecting; apical and anal crenulations bordered as in forewings. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane. FAMILY SELIDOSEMID 4. CHLENIAS SAGITTARIA. NOY. SP. & 38 mm. Head creamy white, with a fuscous band between eyes. Palpi light grey. Antenne fuscous, pectinations drab. Thorax grey with fuscous anteriorly on dorsum, epaulettes and crest bordered with fuscous line. Abdomen creamy grey. Forewings triangular, gradually dilate, costa gently rounded, hindmargin obliquely rounded, creamy white, freely splashed with iron grey, and with lines and marks of black. Forewings with basal third of costa finely edged with fuscous, thence the line does not touch costa, but at 2 finely scatters into dots and specks ; a broad, black line from centre of wing at base, turns obliquely toward costa to opposite 3, thence inwards as diftused dots to a second black line, which lies parallel to a white line edged with fuscous, which runs from base of wing to apex of hindmargin; this median black line is interrupted at $, and EY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 149 indented in apical fourth ; a black line near base of inner margin obliquely to centre of wing at }; a suffusion of fuscous more or less beyond to hindmargin ; a zig-zag transverse line in middle third of wing at a little distance from hindmargin. Cilia grey, specked with black. Hindwings pale grey, becoming fuscous toward border, veins darker grey. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane, three specimens at light, two on trunks of scrub trees. ANTEIA CANESCENS LUC. Base of Bellender Kerr, Lucas-Rye Expedition. ANTEIA DODDSIANA. NOV. SP. 4 2 28—30 mm. Head, antennae, thorax and abdomen white. Forewings broadly dilate, triangular, costa rounded, apex obtusely rounded, hindmargin straight, snow-white, with light leaden or water mark lines and dots. Forewings with numerous lines along costa to just before apex; an elongated discal spot not conspicuous, a row of 8 dots along inner margin; seven or eight interrupted lines of dots or short lines irregularly across wings ; a narrow hindmarginal black line. Cilia white shaded with grey or fuscous towards base. Hindwings as forewings, squarely angled and acutely produced at vein four; a definite discal dot, sometimes divided into two spots; inner and hind margins freely lined with rows of short lines ; basal half of wings without markings ; hindmarginal line darker than in forewings, thickened and interrupted on either side of anal angle. Cilia as forewings. Reared by Mr. Dodds from larve taken at Brisbane. GROUP NOCTUA—FAMILY ORTHOSID AS. LEUCANIA SEPULCHRALIS NOV. SP. & 2 30-32 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax metallic leaden colour, with minute specks of grey. Antennae fuscous drab. Abdomen ashy grey, with dorsal ridge smoky grey, and caudal black. Legs smoky grey, middle and posterior tibiae segment with lighter grey. Forewings elongate, gently dilate, costal basal half straight thence sensibly arched, hindmargin straight, rounded just before anal angle, metallic lead, lined with ochreous and black lines along veins, and ochreous lines between and dusted with lines of bluish white hairs. Forewings with costal edge ashy grey fining toward apex, a median suffused black band passing obliquely from base to + and then deflected at an obtuse angle to apex of hind margin; this band contains a white small 150 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. spot of minute rings just beyond centre, and is opposite to a smaller dot nearer costa; obliquely from this to apex there is a light tinting of ochreous fuscous; on inner side of oblique black band the ground becomes decidedly fuscous ochreous, becoming darker towards inner margin; a fine line of blue white specks parallel with, but not touching inner margin, hind marginal line black. Cilia ashy grey based with ochreous fuscous. Hind wings translucent white with veins grey and a suffusion of grey on hind margin. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane at light. FAMILY CARADRINID AS. BRYOPHILA EXQUISITA. NOY. SP. 4 ¢ 80-34 TL Tl.—Head and palpi light grey, diffused with green, and speckled with black scales. Antenne fuscous> annulated with white near base. Thorax greenish grey, freely dusted with black, with wavy arching black lines forming a band across dorsum anteriorly. Abdomen grey, freely dusted with black, and with a whiter band bordering segments poster- iorly. Legs white, anterior tarsi annulated with black. Fore- wings, costa gently rounded, hindmargin rounded, white diffused with grey, and freely irrorated with green and black, with black markings ; a waved line at base encircling the thorax, a waved undulating line from | costa gradually approaching and enclosing first line in costal two thirds of wing, and then deflecting to inner margin; three other lines more or less definite and mostly symmetrical with this second line, at from }, }, and % costa, the last is the most strongly marked, and is angled towards apex by a dark shading, this breaks up into a sub- marginal band of black grey dust; the ends of the definite and partial lines on costa and inner margin are strongly marked with black dots or short bars. Cilia grey with bands of black. Hindwings fuscous, lighter toward base, darker to hindmargin. Cilia grey with short stripes of fuscous. At light, Brisbane. FAMILY PLUSIAD. PLUSIA CHILLAGOES. NOY. SP. 3 30 mn. Head ochreous fuscous. Palpi fuscous, with och- reous hairs on under side of second segment. Antenne fuscous, Thorax creamy grey. Abdomen light fuscous. Forewings triangular, gently dilate, costa sparingly wavy, apex obtuse, hindmargin straight in apical half, thence obliquely rounded, BY THUS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 151 ochreous fuscous, variegated with drab and with darker fuscous lines and diffusions and metallic bronze. Forewings with costa strongly metallic to just before apex ; a curved bronze line from 1 costa to } of inner margin; a second bronze line from 3 of inner margin to 2 of costa, becoming less distinct towards costa ; this is bounded by a dark fuscous line posteriorly, denticulate toward costa ; a curve bronze line from costal origin of first line obliquely outward, rounds close to submedian, becoming indistinct to middle of second line ; this connecting line bounds a patch of dark fuscous which borders all the bronze lines, and gradually shades off toward inner margin ; there are lighter fuscous patches in costal half, the most conspicious before second line; a bronze suffusion from anal angle of inner margin to middle of wing, thence obliquely to middle of a sub-marginal bronze line extending from apex to middle of wing ; these lines are bounded by dark fuscous suffusion which becomes more pronounced toward apex ; a hindmarginal row of same colour spots more or less diffused into a continuous line. Cilia ochreous fuscous, with ferrous fuscous, darker median fuscous band. Hindwings fuscous with veins darker fuscous. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane. Allied to P. agramma, Gn. FAMILY DELTOID. HERMINIA IRIDESCENS NOV. SP. é ? 85-38 TI ML. Head black fuscous, with a prominent frontal tuft. Palpi, basal joint black fuscous, second and third ochreous fuscous. Antenne, stalk dark fuscous, pectinations ochreous fuscous. Legs black fuscous, with bases of tarsi ochreous fuscous. Thorax and abdomen deep black fuscous. Forewings gently dilate, costa gently rounded, hindmar-si.a obliquely rounded, blackish fuscous with black markings und ochreous lines, dusted with scattered whitish and purplish minute scales, and suffused chiefly in median band with purple iridescence. Forewings with a black crenulate line from } of costa to } of inner margin, suffused anteriorly with ochreous; a blackish or purple or white minute dot on or just outside this line, close to median ; a second undulated multidentate line from % costa to inner margin, shaded with ochreous posteriorly, and ending in an ochreous costal blotch ; between these two lines is a conspicuous discal spot, black, in some with two or three white dots, and in one variety the whole discal spot is white; a third line { costa 152 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. to { inner margin, thrice arched, in some more or less dentate, subtending a deep, black effusion anteriorly, and bordered by a faint ochreous line posteriorly ; a fuscous ochreous submarginal line, subtending rich black dots on veins. Cilia blackish fuscous. Hindwings as forewings, but with first line absent, or only faintly indicated. Cilia as forewings. Base of Bellender-Kerr, Queenland. Lucas-Rye Expedition. HERMINIA DORMIENS. NOY. SP. 4 9 386—40 mm. Head and palpi ochreous fuscous. Thorax and abdomen ochreous fuscous, speckled in some speci- mens with grey and black. Forewings costa unevenly rounded, hindmargin rounded, ochreous fuscous, shaded with shades of fuscous, and freely speckled with black, markings ochreous; an ’ indistinct darker, transverse line at |; a prominent ochreous bar from 2 costa to } inner margin shaded on either side with blackish fuscous; a curved line of interrupted black dots from } costa to } inner margin ; a banded group of scattered black dots } costa to % inner margin; an ochreous line at base of cilia, with black dots on veins. Cilia ochreous fuscous. Hindwings as forewings, a dark transverse band of blackish shading just before half; an ochreous bar at } shaded on inner side with fuscous to black. An ochreous line at base of Cilia with fuscous dots on veins. Cilia as forewings. Allied to H caenealis Walk, but a larger insect. and the transverse bars are differently placed. Foot of Bellender- Kerr, Lucas-Rye Expedition. GROUP PYRALIDA.—FAMILY BOTYDIDE. CONOGETHES JUBATA. NOV. SP. 6? 20 m m. Head, face and antennae golden yellow. Palpi ferrous black. Thorax yellow. Abdomen yellow, with three or four ferrous dots on base of anterior segments, caudal appendix fringed with ferrous. Forewings gently dilate, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, hindmargin obliquely rounded, golden yellow, with ferrous red dots, and suffusion of same in middle third of wing, shading off in dots to costa and inner margin. Forewings with spot near base of costa, a second just beyond subtends a curved line of three dots, an elongated dot on either side of suffusion, the posterior one subtends a rounded line of dots bordering the suffusion to inner margin; this line of dots gives off a row obliquely to { costa, and a second row from nearer inner margin to opposite } hindmargin. Cilia yellow. BY THOS. P, LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 153 Hindwings golden yellow, with ferrous red dots, three along costa, each subtending a line of dots, first from } costa to + of inner margin consists of three dots, the last two diffused into a line; the second from just beyond holds four or five dots in a circle to half across wing, nearly parallel with hindmargin ; and the third from before apex of costa forms a submarginal line of dots to anal angle. Cilia as forewings, In Mr, Meyrick’s advice I tabled this as a variety of C punctiferalis. Dr. Turner has taken a series which show no variation. The whole build and habits of the insect are quite different from our common peach devouring moth, the C punctiferalis, Brisbane, at light. GROUP TINEINA.—FAMILY XYLORICTIDA. CRYPTOPHAGA EUGENIAE. NOY. SP. & 32—34 mm, 2 388—42 mm. Head and palpi snow white. Antenne basal joint snow white, in 4 _ stalk fuscous, pectinations rich ochreous fuscous, in 9 black, gradually shading to white at base. Thorax snow white with prominent lateral crests and petagia, with a ferrous band posteriorly narrow on dorsum, but broadening on each side laterally. Abdomen in é black, each segment bordered and fringed with white or grey hairs, second segment with a dorsal semi-lunar patch of orange red, in ? the abdomen is snow white with orange red on second segment. Legs white, with base of all tarsi black. Forewings obovate oblong, costa gently rounded, hindmargin rounded, snow white, with minute black dots. Forewings with a black in dise at one third, and two others obliquely beyond at two thirds, in ¢ a fourth spot is indicated or faintly marked in a line with and near first dot ; nine or ten black dots on apical fourth of costa and along hind margin. Cilia snow white. Hindwings in $ black, with grey and white scales toward inner margin, costa edged with black line, with a wide costal space white. Hindwings in 9; snow white, apex of costa and costal half of hind- margin with seven triangular black dots, indicated in &. Cilia in 6 white with smoky black marks opposite veins, becoming grey to black in anal third. Ciliain ? white. Brisbane, feeding in Hugenia.—This species differs considerably from C. Pultenee, Lw., with which it has been confounded. Many white species run very closely and only present fine differences to detection, This insect is larger, the males are smaller uniformly than the females ; the antenne in Pultenez are stated to be white, in this 154 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. species they are rich ochreous fuscous; the thorax has in this species a ferrous band and special prominent white crests, and the abdomen of the & is black, not white; all legs are white. CRYPTOPHAGA MOLARIS. NOY. SP. & ? 29—36 TIL NL. Head and face whitish grey. Palpi fuscous, second and terminal joints light grey. Antennae white, pectinations ochreous fuscous. Thorax white, with a light grey fringe behind collar, and dusted laterally and posteriorly with fuscous and grey. Abdomen fuscous drab, fringed anteriorly with ochreous hairs from thorax, with a light ferrous band on second segment. Legs fuscous drab. Forewings elongate, costa nearly straight, hind margin straight, rounded at anal angle, fuscous drab, freely marked with black and grey. Forewings with inter- rupted fine lines of white along half to three-fourths of costa ; the costal half of wing is irregularly diffused with rich black, the inner half and base of wing is freely irrorated with white, this white arches toward costa at base, and extends as a line to near costa just before apex ; a subterminal band of ground colour, bordered by a terminal line of light black dots. Cilia grey white, with a brown border. Hindwings fuscous drab. Cilia fuscous grey with a light brown line through base. Allied to L, fumata, Turner, but easily distinguished by the whole costal half of fore- wings being blotched more or less irregularly with black, and the inner half being freely irrorated with white. May Orchard, Brisbane, at light. CATORYCTIS EMARGINATA. NOV. SP. é 14 1M. Headwhite. Palpi white. Antenne fuscous. Thorax white, collar narrowly fuscous. Abdomen ochreous fuscous. Forewings elongate, costa gently rounded, hind- margin obliquely rounded, whitish ochreous with markings white and ochreous fuscous. Forewings with broad white band on costal border, from base, to and attenuating towards 2 of costa; a second white band commencing just below, opposite apical end of first runs to apex ; a broad fuscous band separates, and encloses these two white bands on inner border ; a small triangular fuscous blotch in disc, two linear spots opposite ends of white bands; a pale suffusion along dise, and a conspicuous fuscous blotch before anal angle; a suffusion of fuscous along inner margin; and an oblique hindmarginal line BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 155 of same colour bordered on either side with white lines. Cilia fuscous, with white basal line. Hindwings pale fuscous drab. Cilia pale fuscious drab. May Orchard, Brisbane. LICHENAULA VELITATA. NOV. SP. @ 22 mm Head, palpi, and antennae chalky grey. Thorax chalky grey, faintly tinged with smoky grey. Abdomen ochreous grey, bordered anteriorly with ochreous ferrous; a dark ferrous fuscous spot on dorsum of first segment. Forewings elongate ovoid, costa rounded, hindmargin rounded, chalky white, sparsely dusted with light grey, and sparingly but generally dotted with black and diftused smoky grey dots. Forewings with fine black line along basal fourth of costa; a black dot in centre of base, with a linear one almost touching, anda third beyond in centre of wing; a line on costa at + forming basement of an oblique line of fine dots; a dagger-like line, in middle of wing nearer inner than costal margin, and extended in diffused specks and dots to anal angle of hind margin ; a dot at } costa, with a dot, and, after an interruption, a line of dots, a comma dot, and a line of diffused spaces and dots to anal angle of hindmargin ; the apical third of costa is irregularly studded with diffused lines and dots more or less faintly marked; scattered diffused dots near hindmargin. Cilia whitish grey. Hindwings light smoky grey. Cilia lighter grey. One specimen. May Orchard, Brisbane- The dots are scattered, but arranged in irregular lines, as in light skirmishing order. LICHENAULA CIRCUMSIGNATA NOV. SP. & 2 22-24 m m. Head and face white. Palpi and antennae grey. Thorax iron grey, dotted with black ; a band of white anteriorly ; epaulettes lighter grey. Abdomen light drab, with bands of darker drab; a spot of ferruginous fuscous on first segment, Forewings elongate, costa gently rounded, hindmargin obliquely rounded, white, freely dusted with iron grey, and black linear markings, and diffused slaty grey patches. Forewings with two black dots separate or indistinctly united at base of cesta and base of wing, opposite centre; a straight line from before | costa, to within } hindmargin, where it becomes a slaty diffusion ; a third concave line in disc, extending over middle third of wing; a short bracket line 3 spans } of wing, but rather nearer costa than inner margin ; four slaty grey lines from costa, 156 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. the first beyond } reaching } across wing, the remaining three nearer costa short; a wavy slaty grey line or effusion beyond second costal line to inner margin at }; a subterminal diffused band of same colour, and a row of terminal spots forming a more or less interrupted line, Cilia white, bordered with grey. Hind- wings fuscous drab, with veins darker, Cilia drab, with a dark line at base on a fine light grey line. May Orchard, Brisbane, 4 or 5 taken at light, LICHENAULA DIRIGENS NOY, SP, $ 20 mm. Head, palpi, antenne whitish grey. Thorax smoky grey, with a white dorsal patch posteriorly, bordered laterally with ferrous fuscous, Abdomen light fuscous drab, with a fine black line along either side of dorsum through pos- terior * to anal segment, Forewings elongate obovate, costa rounded, hindmargin obliquely rounded, white, freely dusted with iron grey, and thickly dotted with black and iron grey dots. Forewings with a fine iron grey line bordering basal fourth of of costa ; a black spot at base of costa, subtending a second and smaller one and a grey diffusion to } costa; a black spot diffused with grey at } costa, forming the edge of a semicircle of dots circling basal third of wing, parallel with hindmargin, and with a central dot nearer costa; a row of eight costal dots ir- regularly from base to apex; an irregular zig-zag figure ochreous grey, bordered and dentated with black or dark grey lines, from opposite } costa to beyond } inner margin, bordered posteriorly by a circular line of dots from sixth costal dot; a few scattered dots near inner margin; inner margin more or less diffused with grey; a conspicuous hindmarginal row of square black dots centred or barred with white. Cilia white. Hindwings whitish grey with darker toward hindmargin, Cilia whitish grey, with a central band of darker grey. May orchard, Brisbane. LICHENAULA PROVISA, NOV. SP. $ 18 mm. Head, palpi, and antennae greyish white. Thorax grey white with a shading of fuscous dorsally anteriorly. Abdomen ochreous fuscous, with a band of ferrous on each of the anterior segments. Forewings elongate, bowed at base and obtusely rounded at apex of costa, hindmargin nearly straight, greyish white with fuscous specks, and markings black and fuscous. Forewings with a white blotch on base having a black spot on costa, and a black dash toward hind inner margin, BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 157 bordered by a transverse row of black dots; a white diffused patch covers two-fifths of wing with an arched diffusion of dots and splashes longitudinally through centre to inner margin at 1; a line of six spots from costa at 3? to apex, becoming diffused into a fascia over posterior # of wing, ir- regularly marked with fuscous black spots, and splashed with metallic copper; a white spur runs into this dark fascia half way across wing, immediately before anal angle; a subterminal grey white line. Cilia white with a central grey fuscous band. Hind- wings ochreous white, with veins grey, shaded with fuscous along hindmargin. Cilia as forewings. May Orchard, Bris- bane, at light. LICHENAULA PETULANS, NOV. SP. é 2 18—18 mm. Head, antennae, and palpi slaty grey. Thorax slaty grey, fuscous grey posteriorly. Abdomen light silvery grey. Forewings with costa rounded, hindmargin gently rounded, inner margin bowed before anal angle, slaty grey with silver specks and black dots, only discernible in special lights; subhindmarginal and hindmarginal black lines faintly defined. Cilia slaty grey barred with black. Hindwings silvery grey, darker diffused toward hindmargin. Cilia grey, with lighter line at base. May Orchard, Brisbane. Three specimens; at light. LICHENAULA UMBROSA NOY. SP. & 9 26—28 mm. Head black, face grey. Palpi and antenne black, inclining in strong light, to iron grey. Thorax black or iron grey. Abdomen fuscous drab, with faint ferrous lines across base of anterior segments. Forewings elongate, costa rounded, hindmargin gently rounded, iron grey, with diffusion of whitish grey toward costa, and diffusion of black and iron grey toward inner margin, freely dusted all over with minute black scales. Forewings with costal edge bordered with fine black line from base to 1, thence with white changing to grey towards apex. Cilia fuscous drab. Hindwings light fuscous drab. Cilia as forewings. One pair May Orchard, Brisbane. Allied to L, haplochroa, Turner, but a much darker insect, and the black head, &c., readily distinguish it. The shading from grey to whitish grey and white toward costa and to black and iron grey toward inner margin is most perfect. 158 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. LICHENAULA TORTRICIFORMIS, NOV, SP. ¢ 17 nm. Head fuscous drab. Palpi and antennae fuscous, Thorax grey, Abdomen fuscous with grey band at base of seg- ments. Forewings costa arched, apex acute, hindmargin rounded, silvery grey, freely irrorated with fuscous and marked with red fuscous and black. Forewings with a costal row of blackish fuscous spots, or breaking into scattered dots from base to } costa, but not touching costal edge; a transverse ferrous fuscous fascia from } costa diffused across wing, and shaded with scattered black dots and fuscous scales; this fascia is diffused broadly and irregularly to apex, and more or less continuously over costal half of hindmargin ; numerous black dots and short fuscous lines on veins toward hindmargin. Cilia fuscous, pale grey at base. Hindwings light fuscous grey. Cilia as fore- wings. May Orchard, Brisbane. CLENARCHA DRYINOPA. MEYR. May Orchard, Brisbane. XYLORICTA LYCHNOBII. SP. NOV. 4 21 mm. Head, palpi, and antennae white. Legs white, tarsi annulated with fuscous bands, posterior tibiae densely hairy, Thorax white, suffused with very light lilac posteriorly. Abdomen metallic grey with a chandeliered design of ferrous dots and spots posteriorly across the middle segments. Forewings moderately dilate, costa rounded, apex obtusely rounded, hind- margin obliquely rounded, white, suffused with a beautiful light lilac, and freely speckled with grey, the grey ceasing towards base, markings metallic drab. Forewings with a narrow costal line, creamy white, thinning out to apex, and finely bounded towards base by a black margin ; a curved circular metallic drab line of dots, interrupted in fold, from beyond 2 costa to just before 2 inner margin. thence anteriorly along inner margin, where it joins the angle of a triangular blotch and suffusion of the same colour, this triangle reaches to within } of base, separating from . the inner margin towards centre of wing, where it forms a darker apex to before middle of wing, posteriorly the base of the triangle becomes lighter tinted with ochreous. Cilia metallic drab with a whitish band through the middle. Hindwings ashy grey, tinted with ochreous, with the veins outlined with fuscous. Cilia ashy grey. The transverse circular line which runs to join the broken triangle of same colour on inner margin specially characterises this species. Brisbane, bred. BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 159 XYLORICTA AUSTERA. LUCAS. (Tr. Roy. Soc. Dee. 11, 1898.) & 2 24-35 mm. As I have this year obtained better specimens of this moth, I here append a fuller description. The thorax is creamy white, with three arrow triangles of ochreous fuscous ; the dorsal one is narrow, the lateral ones broader at base and bordered outwardly with fine blackish chocolate line. The segments of abdomen are creamy, shaded with ochreous along base, and a broad blotch of coppery ochreous on second segment. The forewings are cream colour, with chocolate fuscous longitudinal bifurcating bands, 1st along costa, 2nd from centre of base of wing, bifurcating at +, the inner branch to anal angle of hindmargin, the other toward costa; this again bifurcates beyond middle of wing, the one branch to costa before and along apex, the other to hindmargin before middle; 3rd, a border band from near base along inner margin, thinning out to anal angle; a discoidal spot at 3 and touching band to hind- margin; a row of fine lines beyond and below this to hind- margin. May Orchard, Brisbane, at light, and bred. TELECRATES TESSELATA, NOV. SP. 20 mm. Head black, forehead and face creamy white. Palpi ochreous fuscous. Antenne fuscous. Thorax deep black, with a round white dot on either side and a larger one poster- iorly. Abdomen ochreous yellow, faintly dusted with fuscous. Forewings elongate, costa gently rounded, hindmargin almost straight, black, with creamy white markings. Forewings with a large pear shape blotch of white from costa at base widening to inner margin ; a second cream white blotch from 1 to | costa obliquely outward to middle of wing ; a third blotch from before middle to } costa as a band across wing, widening out beyond middle, and filling inner margin from } to }, inner margin, edge rounded and finely dentate; a fourth blotch to # costa reaches half across the wing, posterior border twice dentate; a hindmarginal narrow band drawn to a line to anal angle. Cilia cream colour, base shaded with fuscous. Hindwings ochreous yellow diffused with fuscous along hindmargin chiefly over apex. Cilia ochreous diffused with fuscous. Brisbane, one specimen at light. PHYLOMICTIS ARCTANS NOV. SP, $ 2 14-16 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne blackish fuscous. Abdomen grey, with fuscous bands at base of segments. Fore- 160 NEW SPECIES OF QUEENSLAND LEPIDOPTERA. wings ovate oblong, costa rounded, hindmargin straight, grey freely sprinkled with iron grey, and dark black lines along veins. Forewings with a black spot at base, thence a diffused black band of lines more or less welded longitudinally through centre of wing, diverting and spreading beyond cell to margin, also a large dark suffusion along costa, and a third along innermargin ; a black spot in disc, which is the centre, whence radiate black lines and dashes toward margins; a sub-hindmarginal band of short black lines in interneural spaces. Cilia grey shaded with fuscous. Hindwings uniform light grey, Cilia as forewings, The suffused black forewings readily distinguish this species, May Orchard, Brisbane. PHYLOMICTIS DECRETORIA. NOY, SP. 2 16 mm. Head pinky cream colour. Palpi pinky cream bordered with fuscous, terminal joint fuscous. Antenne reddish fuscous. Forewings elongate obvate, costa rounded at base and apex, hindmargin rounded, creamy ochreous with reddish fuscous markings, and white between veins. Forewings with pink border along middle third of costa; a median longitudinal band of deep red fuscous along wing to end of cell, where it bifurcates, and along its whole course gives off linear branches to costa and hindmargin, and is thickened toward inner margin by two longi- tudinal short bands which give off branches to inner margin ; the branches are given off as fine lines, and thicken proportion- ately as they approach either border ; between the radiated lines, the spaces are white; the inner border is suffused with fuscous, and the whole wing more or less tinted with pink. Cilia grey fuscous, Hindwings light ochreous grey, Cilia same colour with a dark line at base. Brisbane. Allied to P. maligna, Meyr, but very distinct in median longitudinal band. PHYLOMICTIS OBLIQUATA. NOY. SP. 42 18—22 mm. Head, palpi, and antennae grey. Thorax grey, sparingly and finely dusted with black, and with a dorsal black line and a shorter lateral black line, with a light ferrous spot posteriorly, on either side. Abdomen grey with ferrous fuscous patch on segments, but diffused in anterior segments. Forewings ovoid oblong, costa gently rounded at base and apex, hindmargin gently rounded, light grey, densely irrorated with fine black, and with longitudinal velvety black lines along veins, and outlining cell. Forewings with decided BY THOS. P. LUCAS, M.R.C.S. 161 vlack line on both borders of cell, median branching into two, and giving off short lines, which are again united by a row of short dots and lines obliquely from opposite 4 costa ; from centre of this short line a row of short or welded lines obliquely goes to apex, and a similar row from end of cell to apex of hindmargin ; a continuous black line along inner margin breaking up into dots along hind- margin ; along submedian vein a black line, a line parallel to and before inner margin, and a number of short lines form a line obliquely to apex. Cilia grey spotted with fuscous. Hindwings light drab with veins fuscous. Cilia light drab, with a darker and a lighter line at base. Allied to P. palemorpha, Turn. Five specimens at light, May Orchard, Brisbane. AGRIOPHORA CURTA, NOY. SP. 6 15 MTL. Head grey. Palpi and antenne fuscous. Thorax fuscous black, with epaulettes white grey. Abdomen fuscous grey. Forewings elongate, costa rounded at base, hind- margin rounded, white, diffused with grey, with fuscous shading and fine black lines and dots. Forewings with costal line fuscous, a black line of dots from base of costa for a short distance along median; a longitudinal fuscous suffusion with black lines irregularly scattered, nearer inner margin than to costa ; an outward semicircle of black dots at } inner margin to median, this is continued along inner and parallel with hindmargin to } costa, a curved diffused fuscous line with black dots from one third costa to middle of longitudinal median band; __hind- marginal line fuscous. Cilia grey with fuscous dots. Hind- wings witish grey, with veins darker grey. Cilia as forewings. Brisbane, at light. Near A. poliopepla, Turn., but much more marbled and has several black scales, My et AL 1? / 4 vit hi ue q ‘ + | ha a Awe vi ‘3 tf a Ata ‘ ——. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF 0 EIN S.A IN dD. VOLUME XYI. [The Authors alone are responsible for the opinions expressed in their papers. | PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE. 1901. GO ae Apel => ey) =I Roval Society of Queensland. Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD LAMINGTON, K.G.C.M.G. OFrPHLOCH ERS, 1908- President : W. J. BYRAM. Vice-President: Fr. WHITTERON. Hon. Treasurer: Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. Hon. Secretary: J. F. BAILEY. Hon. Librarian: ROWLAND ILLIDGE. Members of Council: A. G. JACKSON. C. J. POUND, F.R.M.S. J. SHIRLEY, B.Sc. J. W. SUTTON. JOHN THOMSON, M.B. Trustees: JOHN CAMERON. Hon. A. C. GREGORY, C.M.G., M.L.C. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C. Hon. Auditor: A. J. TURNER. Alethopteris on