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OVER A RY
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
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———$
VOL. XXII.
PART L
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
H. POLE & Co.. PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE. 1909.
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— Ropal Society of Queensland.
Pateon : HIS EXCELLENCY LORD CHELMSFORD.
OFFICERS; (909.
President : J. ©. BAILEY.
Vice-President : Dr. ALFRED SUTTON.
Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary: J. C. BRUNNICH, F.LC. E. H. GURNEY.
Hon. Librarian : Cc. T. WHITE.
Members of Council : COLONEL JOHN THOMSON, M.B., P.M.O.
H. WASTENEYS. W. R. COLLEDGE. ws
J. SHIRLEY. B.Sc. J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.LC. | Trustees :
JOHN CAMERON, M.L.A. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C.
Cot; JOHN THOMSON, M.B.
Hon. Auditor : GEO. WATKINS.
Hon. Lanternist : A. G. JACKSON.
cS S. 694 b At
THE JARDINE EXPEDITION FROM ROCKHAMP- TON TO CAPE YORK, 1864.—Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C., March 26th, 1908 ...
THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA.—Rev. J. Goldie, June 26th, 1908 oe a sala
CHILLAGOE GARNET ROCKS.—F. E. Connah, November 28th, 1908
NOTES ON BRISBANE POND LIFE—W. R. Colledge, November 28th, 1908
THE LAND WE LIVE ON (Presipent’s ApprEss).— J. C. Brimnich, FI.C., January 29th, 1909
PAGE
23
$1
35
37
“THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION FROM ROCKHAMPTON TO CAPE YORK IN 1864.”
By HON. A. NORTON.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, March 26th, ' 1908.
For the use of Jardines’ Journal, and permission to write a paper on the subject for the Royal Society of Queensland, I am indebted to my friend, Alick Jardine. For the tracing of Cape York Peninsula, showing the course of their journey, I have to very heartily thank Mr. Spowers, Surveyor- General of Queensland, who, with his wonted courtesy, unhesitatingly consented when asked to have a tracing prepared in his office.
It was during Leichhardt’s expedition from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, 1844 to 1846, that Gilbert, the naturalist, a collector for Mr. Gould, was killed by the blacks on the western side of Cape York Peninsula. Very little was known of that part of the country at the time (1845), but the aboriginals had shown a decided disposition to dispute any claim on the part of the white settlers to interfere with them, or with the country they occupied. In 1848, when Kennedy tried to reach Port Albany by keeping nearer to the eastern side of the Peninsula, the blacks asserted their rights with equal determination, and their hostility led to the death of Kennedy himself, when, with his blackboy Jackey, he had pushed on until almost within sight of the place at which they had hoped to arrive in Safety.
Warnings such as these murders conveyed were in themselves sufficiently suggestive of what others might expect should they attempt to pass through the country which these hostile tribes claimed as their own. The Peninsula blacks had lived for years under conditions
2 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
which forced them to learn the arts of war. Malays, and other neighbours not less savage than- themselves, had invaded their country and compelled them to fight for their rights continually; and what to them were the white explorers but invaders, who, if they had the opportunity would tamper with their women, and rob them of what they treasured most, if indeed they did not take their lives !
The whites who trusted themselves amongst them soon found this to their cost if they went unprepared. The dangers to which they might be exposed did not, however,’ deter some of Australia’s sons from making their way through the inhospitable and exceptionally difficult country. which lay between the furthest north settlements and Cape York; and in 1864 the brothers Jardine, Frank and Alick, aged respectively 22 and_ 20 years, left Rockhampton with their party, intending to purchase cattle at the back of Bowen and drive them through to the newly-formed settlement which the Imperial authorities, on the recommendation of Sir G. F. Bowen, had decided to establish at Port Albany. A diary of thou trip was afterwards compiled by their friend, Mr. F. J. Byerley, who, however, made some unfortunate errors in his narrative. It was not a Government expedition as he desevibes it, but was undertaken by the brothers as a private speculation, with the view of forming a cattle station near the new settlement from which they would be able to supply beef to the officials and their men, as well as to such trading vessels as might call in for provisions. ‘As a matter of fact; the Government of the day were prepared to place a sum on the Estimates, after the trip had ended, to recoup some of the loss which the Jardines had sustained during their exceptionally difficult journey. This, however, they respectfully declined, giving as the reason that “ inas- much as the expedition was a private enterprise, and not a public undertaking, they did not consider themselves entitled to any indemnity from the public.” At the outset the Government had offered, and the Jardines had gratefully accepted, the services of Mr. A. J. Richardson, District Surveyor at Rockhampton, and four blackboys with horses, saddles, and all equipments, to assist in’ the difficult task they had taken in hand. Mr. Richardson was to act as geographer, and generally to assist them.
ES ee ee ee ee
BY HON. A. NORTON. 3
Before continuing the narrative, I may explain that Mr. Jardine, the father of the explorers, was in 1864 Police Magistrate at Rockhampton, and when the Northern Settlement was decided upon, it was he who was appointed to take charge of it. ~The selection was an exceptionally good one, for Mr. Jardine had not only an extensive official and military experience, but he was a keen sportsman, and had a thorough knowledge of Australian bush life. Before he came to Rockhampton he had lived in the Wellington district of New South Wales, where he was the owner of a cattle station, the management of which was confided to his sons, Frank and Alick. Here it was they became acquainted with the ways of bush life ; they looked after the stock, and when cattle were sold, they travelled with them to Bathurst and other places where they had to be delivered to the butchers who supplied beef to residents in the country towns. But, apart from the experience they. gained in this way, they possessed in a high degree that instinctive knowledge which enabled them to travel through the trackless forest without deviating from the direct course, a feat which to most persons is impossible. The blacks who lived on the Upper Macquarie River were comparatively civilized when the Jardines lived amongst them, but the brothers were quite aliv2 to the necessity of avoiding everything which would bring them into conflict with the treacherous savages through whose country they must necessarily pass when travelling through the unexplored forests of Cape York Peninsula ; and they had too much discretion to provoke hostility which would greatly add to the difficulties and dangers they had to face in their northern journey. Mr. Byerley was under a misapprehension, therefore, when he spoke of Frank owning to ‘“‘a feeling of savage delight at the prospect of having a shine with these wretched savages, who, without provocation, hung on their footsteps, dogging them lke hawks all through the thickest of their troubles, watching with cowardly patience, for a favourable moment to attack them at a disadvantage.’ Indeed, throughout the journey, when they were at times compelled to act in self-defence, they allowed many of the aggressors to escape, when they might have shot them. down by dozens.
4 THE JARDINES EXPEDITION
The party which it was decided should make a final start from Carpentaria Downs, the then furthest north- west station, and which belonged to Mr. J. G. Macdonald, was composed as follows :—Frank Lascelles Jardine, aged 22 years, leader; Alexander W. Jardine, aged 20 years, second in command; Archibald J. Richardson, Govern- ment Surveyor ; C. Scrutton, R. N. Binney, A. Cowderoy, assistants ; Eulah, Peter, Sambo, and Barney, black- boys.
On 14th May, 1864, Alick started with some of the party and a number of horses from Rockhampton, inten- ding to travel overland by easy stages to Port Denison ; Frank, with Mr. Richardson, went so far by sea. About the middle of July they moved forward ; from Reedy Lake on the Burdekin, Alick, Richardson, Binney, and one of the boys went on with the horses and equipment to Car- pentaria Downs, while Frank, with Scrutton, Cowderoy, and three of the blackboys went to Stenhouse’s Station on the River Clarke, to collect and take care of the cattle which had been purchased. With these, 250 head of both sexes, they arrived at Carpentaria Downs on 6th October, and at once began to prepare for their arduous journey.
Alick, with his companions and the horses, had reached this station on 30th August, and, needless to say, had been cordially welcomed by Macdonald ; but the five weeks’ interval had not been an idle time for Alick, who, after a few days’ rest, went off to explore the country through which they hoped to find a safe route for the stock, taking with him Eulah, their most trusted blackboy. Richardson and Binney were left-at the camp. It had been supposed that the stream on which Macdonald had formed his station was Leichhardt’s Lynd. It turned out to be a tributary of the Gilbert River, and Alick named it the Einasleigh ; following this down, they passed over ex- ceedingly rough country, but in places met with a good supply of water, in which were very fine fish. They sighted the Newcastle Range; and named Pluto Creek; Cana] Creek ; Parallel Creek; and Warroul Creek. In four days they travelled, as nearly as they could reckon, about 69 miles, almost all that distance being very stony, and extremely rough. It was not until they had ridden 180 miles that they concluded the so-called Lynd was not
BY HON. A. NORTON. 5
that stream. During the last few days they had passed through better country, with plenty of water, and they -had obtained game of various kinds, but it was not until 14th September, when they were on their return journey, that they saw any blacks. With these they were able to parley without any display of hostility on either side ; the blacks were armed with reed spears and wommerahs. This day they also saw Leichhardt’s ‘ nonda ” (parinarium) bearing ripe fruit. On 15th September, they passed some natives who were fishing; but the meeting was amicable; these used long heavy four-pronged spears barbed with kangaroo bones. The following day they camped in good feed for their horses, and caught some perch and other fish, and in the evening they hoped to add some ’possums to their larder, but these were very scarce, and their hopes were blighted. They, however, before they reached camp at Carpentaria Downs, were fortunate enough to bag a bus- tard, some native companions, and other game. They found all well, and Alick employed himself in mapping the country which he and Eulah had traversed ; he was unable, however, to persuade Richardson that they were not on the Lynd, he trusting to the incorrect map received from the Surveyor-General’s Office rather than to that which Alick Jardine had correctly plotted. This difference of opinion led to some friction between the brothers and the Surveyor. It is due to Mr. Richardson, however, to state that he afterwards admitted he had been in error.
Now, however, the arduous part of the Journey was about to begin, and the exploration of the Einasleigh watershed gave some idea, though but a faint one, of the difficulties that must be overcome before the brothers could shake their father’s hand ; for Mr. Jardine, senior, and his youngest son, John, had gone to Port Albany by water, and were at this time busily engaged in forming the new settlement, the Imperial Government having sent out a detachment of marines who were to be stationed there, and assist in the work.
As already shown, the party consisted of six whites and four blacks (troopers). It had been calculated that four months’ provisions would be required, and in addition to this loading, they had to take with them tools, ammu- nition, and camp necessaries. The boys were armed with
6 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
double-barrziled police carbines,.the whites with. Terry’s breech-loaders and Tranter’s revolvers. To carry so much dunnage they had eighteen pack-saddles, and for all pur-. poses they took with them forty-one horses and one mule, all of which must be shod before they could start. Then it was found that only Frank and Alick Jardine knew how to shoe a horse, and a number of these had not previously been -shod. However, with the thermometer marking 100 degrees in the shade during most of the day, they set about the work, and at the close of the third day the last was finished. On llth October, Cowderoy, with Eulah (who had been over the country with Alick Jardine) and Barney were sent off with the cattle; their instructions were to camp at the swamp at the junction of Pluto Creek, 17: miles from Macdonald station. The rest of the party were fully occupied in fixing up the packs and getting away with the horses, a number of which stoutly objected to carry the burdens which they were required to bear. It was past noon when they got off, and night had set in when ‘they arrived at the swamp. Alas, however, neither Cowderoy and the boys nor the cattle were there! It afterwards transpired that Eulah, smart as he. generally was, had led them some miles away from the course they were to have taken, and, becoming completely “‘ bushed,” they bad to camp for the night a long distance from the swamp. By the time the brothers had found them next morning, and brought them to the camp, it was too late to make a fresh start. The distance travelled on each of the ‘two following days was 11 miles, for grass was very scarce, Jarge patches of it having been burnt by the natives. Besides this, they had to take the stock over miles of rough, stony country in which good water was by no means abundant. They were glad, therefore, on 15th October, after 9 miles travelling over comparatively good and well-grassed country, to fix their camp at Cawana Swamp. which is described as: being about € miles in circumference, and very shallow. Some natives, who moved away when the cattle approached, left their camp fires burning. -An observation taken at’ night gave the Jatitude 18 degrees 1 minute 50 seconds. After they left Cawana Swamp the travellers were compelled to cross very stony basalt country, which lamed their cattle and wrenched the heads off the horse-shoe
BY HON. A. NORTON. 7
nails, Alick Jardine shot and brought a welcome addition to their larder—a rock wallaby, a native companion, and a young red kangaroo. For a time it seemed probable that they would have trouble with the blacks, of whom about 50 men, painted and fully armed, followed on their track ; when turned upon, however, they hastily retreated. Next morning al] the horses were missing, having made back, after the previous day’s weary travelling and_star- vation, towards the last luxuriantly-grassed camp. Bad, however, as the country had proved up to this time, it now became more and more difficult. On 17th October, one of their best horses had injured a hoof very severely, and two cows fell from the rocks and were killed. What grass there was was dry and very poor, even in the bed of Parallel Creek, where they camped for the night, and on the western side a basaltic wall 80 feet in height barred all progress in that direction. Nor was there any improve- ment next day; perpendicular cliffs on either side com- pelled them to travel down the bed of the creek, where there was almost no grass, and in which great blocks of stone impeded the passage of the stock, the backs and feet of which were “in a woful plight.”” One horse was lost, and a bull and s3veral of the cattle completely knocked ‘up. This day they saw a large number of natives, some of whom were cooking fish, which they left in alarm, and also therr arms. ‘“‘ These blacks were puny, wretched- looking creatures, and very thin. They had a great number of wild dogs with them—over thirty being counted by the party.”
'On 19th October, they came to the junction of Parallel Creek and the Einasleigh; and, happily, there was a slight improvement in the country. The river at the point where they camped is described as being ‘ about 700 yards wide, with fine waterholes in it, containing plenty of fish.”? At a blacks’ fire here they made a startling and gruesome discovery— ‘the fresh remains of a negro were found roasted, the head and thigh bones were alone com- plete, all the rest of the body and limbs had been broken up, and the skull was full of blood.’? One day more, and for a'time they had done with the stones, and grass and water were abundant. They now came to the finest country the cattle had been on since delivery was taken of them,
8 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
230 miles back; they. therefore decided before the good country was left, to camp for some days. ‘‘ Many of the cattle were lame, two of the hacks were knocked up, and several of the pack-horses had very sore backs.” - They were 120 miles from Macdonald’s, and had averaged 10 mules a day since the start.
While the stock rested, the brothers explored the country through which they hoped to find an easier route than they had so far followed. Richardson still adhered to ns theory about the Lynd, which he placed about 10 miles north-east of their camp. They were even more satisfied, however, after their 25 miles ride on 24th October, that he was mistaken. They returned to camp after four days’ hard riding, having blazed on the last afternoon a line 18 or 20 miles for the cattle to follow. Again they started with Eulah to explore, leaving instructions that the cattle were to go forward on 3lst October, following the line they had blazed for their guidance. They took no meat with them, trusting to find game and fish by the way. One delicacy which provided them with ‘‘a good supper and breakfast ’? was an iguana. After six days’ absence they rejoined their party at the place appointed, but on neither of their expeditions had they found even a_ moderately good route for the stock ; they therefore decided to take the course which seemed the least unpromising. From this time their troubles seemed greater than ever. When they left the camp, as they now had to do daily to blaze a line for the cattle to follow, 16 horses were missing ; on2
other had died from what appeared to be snakebite. When
night closed in there was no word of the horses, but one of the boys who brought them rations reported that some were still missing when he left the camp. Three. more days passed, and yet no news, but more than 20 of the cattle were missing, and as matters were getting serious Alick decided to go back and ascertain what caused the delay.
The ninth day of November brought disastrous news. Alick started back in the early morning, and the men with the horses, which had strayed, met him half-way. On the afternoon of the day when the brothers moved on with the cattle (5th November), through want of reason- able precaution, the grass around the camp had taken fire.
——————
BY HON. A. NORTON. 9
The result was more than serious—420lbs. flour, all the tea except 10lbs., the mule’s pack which comprised 100lbs. rice, and jam, apples, and currants, 5lbs. gunpowder, 12lbs shot, cartridges and caps, two tents, one pack-saddle, 22 pack-bags, 14 surcingles, 12 girths, 6 breechings, 30 ring pack-straps, 2 bridles, 2 pairs blankets, 2 pairs boots | most of the blackboys’ and many of the brothers’ clothes, and 2 bags containing awls, needles, twine, etc., were burnt. Then, too, a valuable horse died, apparently from poison. Such was the news which was brought to the camp on Cockburn Creek, 16 degrees 55 minutes 6 seconds latitude, on 9th November, 1864! Half their food and the greater part of their equipment had been burnt, but the hearts of the brothers never fauled, and they at once began to make their preparations for a forward move on the morrow. 7
On the morning of 10th November, the brothers, taking Eulah with them, started as usual to blaze a line which the men with the cattle were to follow. The country was sandy, scrubby, and barren, and at 25 miles they marked a place for the party to await their return. Some miles further down Cockburn Creek they struck away N.N.W., and camped on the head of Maramie Creek, so- called because of the number of cray-fish caught there. Hence they ran Maramie Creek down, but without finding any improvement, nothing but a waste of tea-tree and spinifex on both sides; the blacks had used the bark of a small acacia for poisoning the fish in all the waterholes. They continued to explore until 15th November, during which time they had travelled through most worthless country, but discovered that the Staaten of Dutch explorers was the lower part of Cockburn and Maramie Creeks. The blacks had threatened, but did not attack them.
The following day the cattle were moved down Cock- burn Creek on which there was poor grass, whereas else- where there was no grass. Deaths of cattle and horses from poisoning were now becoming frequent, and although water was plentiful the country was execrable, most of it being flat and thickly covered with tea-tree and other timber denoting poor country. On 20th November, the blacks fot the first time attacked the party; they approached from the west just before the sun set, so that the attack
10 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
could not be easily seen ; none of the party were wounded. After this they were continually harassed, the most serious outcome of the interference being the scattering of horses during the night. This caused a detention of six days at one camp, and from it eight head of cattle were lost, and had to be abandoned. For several days they continued to travel down the river, where the grass was somewhat better, until they reached saltwater. Here they killed and jerked a beast, and a shovel-nose shark was similarly treated. Frank lost his only dog a. few days before this.
By reason of absence of feed for the stock, they were compelled to keep away from the course they wished to follow, but necessarily they must now keep the coast.on their left. And time was very precious, for the wet season might set in at any time, and after even one storm the ground became dreadfully boggy. They knew they might be shut in amongst the anabranches, and for miles the flat country, showed high flood marks. On 5th December, they moved forward, this time steering northward across flat tea-tree country with fairly good grass, but almost without water. Half the horses were missing next morn- ing, and the whole day was spent in trying to find them. Some of them the brothers tracked to their last camp, but they had to stay there for the night as darkness set in before the whole of them were found. Without food or blankets they spent the night battling with myriads of mosquitoes. When next evening they reached the camp with the nine horses they had found, only two others had been brought in, and the mule with his pack had been allowed to stray. He was never secured, although one of the boys once caught sight of him. Two of the best horses were lost from the same camp, one of them, like the mule, having gone mad, apparently from drinking so much salt water in the absence of fresh ; the other had died it was thought from the same cause. At this wretched camp eight days had been lost, and on 13th December the party had to move on, but, with the mule’s pack they had lost all that remained of their tea, currants and raisins, their spade, tomahawks, _AXes, shoeing tools, etc., and two pairs boots, the only ones the brothers at this time possessed. This day their route took them ‘across large marine plains on which were numbers of birds, of which they shot a few. They camped at night
-
BY HON. A. NORTON. 11
on good fresh water with good grass in the bed of the creek. Latitude 16 degrees 3 minutes 38 seconds. Next day the character of the country was still the same, but hot winds had dried up the grass. Then after a stage of 23 miles, with country somewhat ridgy and a better class of timber, they camped on Eulah Creek with abundance of good water and grass. On 16th December, the country became more difficult; wide stretches of flood-marked levels and a creek which was so thickly lined with scrub that the brothers had to clear a track through for the cattle: While here they were attacked by blacks, who ' made a circle round them and forced a fight, but they were driven off. When exploring the country ahead in the afternoon, the brothers came upon the long-sought Mitchell River. ) ) 4 For some days they travelled down the river, crossing flood-marked flats and numbers of anabranches; but 18th December was a memorable day, the party having been attacked by a large body of natives, who at first showed signs of great courage ; after some trouble and no small danger they were driven off. Three days later another mob appeared ; these carried green bushes behind which they attempted to approach the whites without being observed. This time they turned and fled, the whites chasing them without firing a shot, and then carrying off the spears which in their flight the blacks had dropped. When the travellers left the Mitchell on 22nd December. they had decided to begin the straight running for Cape York. ‘In such country at this particular time of year, however, those who travel must take such course as is possible. Their first day did not turn out well; there had been more rain than they wanted, and their camp at night is described as ‘‘a puddle without a blade of grass,” for the verdure which from a ‘distance looked so promising was nothing but:a dense mass of small green tea-trees about six inches in height. They had had no meat for three days, so they killed a steer and feasted ! They jerked the meat as best they could, for the rain came down heavily, and they watched the cattle and horses. Notwithstanding the rain, they had no water at the next camp, for the sand being exceptionally dry, no water lay on the surface. Nor was there any grass. Next day there was very little
12 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
improvement, but it rained all night, and on Christmas Day Frank wished his companions the “ compliments of the season,’ and pushed on through the downpour. Christmas Creek was named this day; the country was somewhat better and they found a place to camp where there was good water and abundance of blue grass; green tree-ants were also plentiful, and caused them great dis- comfort. Up to the end of the month, although the country was on the whole better, the deluging rain was most trying, and one thunderstorm was especially violent. The blacks on 29th December rushed and scattered the cattle and horses, and chased one of the boys. They were driven off, but 10 of the cattle were lost on this occasion. They dare not delay on country the whole of which might be flooded several feet at any time. On the last day of the month the stock. and packs were safely conveyed across Macleod Creek, and they camped on shghtly rising ground on the bank of Kendall Creek.
The New Year brought little relief to the wayworn travellers. The cattle and horses had to struggle through scrubby country, and over the large trees which had been jaid low by the recent terrific storni; but storms with heavy thunder and pouring rain were of almost daily occurrence. The ground was boggy, and the creeks and watercourses were running strong, but on 2nd January they had what they describe as the best camp of the journey on a high plateau. On 5th January, they sighted a range about 10 miles distant, and between them and it was a fine valley intersected by a large sandy river which they named after their friends, the Archers, of Gracemere. Why the Survey Department should in later maps. call it the Archer or Peach is to me a mystery. Surely they might pay the intrepid young explorers the poor compliment of retaining the name they gave it, and refusing to recognise it by any other. Mr. Spowers, our present intelligent Surveyor-General, I hope will correct this. The valley is described as one of great richness and beauty, the best country seen since passing Broadsound. They seem to have crossed the Archer without any exceptional difficulty, notwithstanding its width and the scrub which lined both banks. The flowers which grow in abundance in this valley are referred to as being very beautiful and comprising
BY HON. A. NORTON. 18
a number not previously known to the explorers. Leichhardt and other handsome trees were numerous.
Unhappily, this pleasant condition did not long con- tinue, for the country they passed through after getting clear of the Archer and its anabranches, was comparatively poor and waterless but for the showers of rain. Its sandy, porous character is suggested by an extract from the Journal :—‘“‘ It was strange to see the horses bogging leg-deep during a thunderstorm, and in five minutes after unable to get a drink of water.” They had seen many anthills in this northern land, but here they were in some instances as high as 18 or 20 feet. As they passed on, . keeping as nearly as possible a northerly direction, the country was on the whole better, but at night on 8th January, after, for three miles, passing through “ wretchedly bad country like that on the Staaten, they camped on a ‘gilgai,’ and had another night of heavy rain with high wind.’? No wonder two more of their horses knocked up ! But the difficulties they had so far experienced became more and more aggravated. They struck the Coen River, running W.N.W., and had to cut a road for the cattle through the thick scrub on either bank. This river is described as being 60 yards wide, sandy, and the home of crocodiles, the country on the north bank being very bad ; but worse troubles were ahead of them.
On 10th January the country was comparatively sound for two miles, at which point a narrow boggy creek running strongly through a tea-tree flat intercepted their course. I will here quote the Journal :—‘‘ Athough care and time were taken in the selection of a proper spot, when the herd began to cross, the leading cattle, breaking through the crust, sank to their hips in the boggy spew below, and in a short time between 30 and 40 were stuck fast, the remainder ploughing through with great difficulty. Four beasts refused to face it altogether, and it was found necessary, after wasting considerable time, and a deal of horseflesh, to let them go. The greater part of the day was consumed in dragging out the bogged cattle with ropes.”? Five head had to be abandoned, their heads and backs only being visible above the mud. “ The horses were more easily crossed, but their saddles, packs, and loads had to be carried over by the party.” They at once
B—Royat Society.
14 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
camped and spent the rest of the day in drying their arms, saddles, etc., and in jerking the beef of one of the beasts which they had been unable to rescue from the bog. At night they again had heavy rain. On the following day the brothers slushed ahead of the cattle for two miles to the Batavia River, which was “a banker,” 25 yards across. By the time the cattle overtook them, they had cut a track through the scrub on either bank and had also felled a tall melaleuca acrcss the stream; by means of this impromptu bridge, above which a guiding rope was fastened, they were able to carry over the saddles, stores, etc., on their heads. The cattle they got safely across with the exception of one cow which was drowned, but in spite of all their efforts, two horses were also drowned. They were obliged to abandon their intention to push forward, because of the bogginess of the country and the continual rain, and they camped rather higher up the river.. They went on the following morning after some of the horses which had been left in the bog. These they brought to the camp where furth>or misfortunes awaited them. To their dismay they found that a number of horses had been poisoned ; five of these died the same evening, and another, supposed also to have been poisoned, was missing. One effect of the poison was complete blindness, and the fattest were the first affected.
Having now oniy 21 horses, and these the poorest and worst, they buried a number of horseshoes, nails, and heavy material and redistributed their loading ; the rain continued aJl day. In spite of all their difficulties they camped next night 10 miles away from Poison Creek. The journey was not easily got through, for the horses had to be driven with the cattle, while the explorers, trouserless and bootless, had to walk. Some of the horses were unable to reach the camp, but these were brought on next morning. They had to exercise the greatest vigilence, for the blacks were hanging on their tracks. This day was a repetition of the last, horses having to be dragged out of bogs, packs removed and carried over the running streams, and at its close two more horses dying from poison! It poured with rain as they pitched their camp, and while doing so the blacks attacked them ; they were easily driven off, however, only two shots being fired, and they were not further
/
BY HON. A. NORTON. 15
troublesome. Sunday, 15th January, was observed as a day of rest, and the explorers feasted upon doughboys, jam, and ‘‘ stodge,’’ made of flour and water in which some small pieces of raw meat were boiled. Another horse was poisoned, and a cow lost in the bog; they had more rain at night. Their spare time while it was light was occupied in picking pandanus thorns from their feet and legs. Willingly would the brothers have rested but for the urgent necessity for getting to the end of their journey. They had to refuse all appeals to remain longer, and through a dense undergrowth of vines, zamias, and pandanus they pressed forward. They had no meat, and it was useless to kill a beast, because they could carry nothing more. One more horse died, and two others could scarcely drag themselves along; they had to unpack only twice this day, and travelled 16 miles. On 17th January, they pressed forward through country somewhat better than they had lately seen; distance 154 miles to their camp on Skardon Creek. The two weak horses died. At this point, by their reckoning, they were near Kennedy’s track on the eastern watershed. The improvement they hoped for did not last, next day’s march being through loose white sandy ridges, covered with low bushes thickly matted together with prickly vines, without trees and without grass. The creeks crossed, which ran W. and N.W., were full of water ; they were very boggy, and could only be crossed at their heads. A foal, whose mother had previously died, knocked up, so they killed him, and part of his flesh which was carried on, “‘ was a grateful addition to their food ”’ ; the distance travelled was 12 miles. The horses were short- hobbled at night and watched ; still they got away, and a late start next morning was the consequence. The country was again execrable in every respect.
On 20th January, the way was blocked by a dense and extensive scrub through which it was impossible to cut a track for the cattle ; these had to be driven 2 miles back and then taken in an easterly direction. This took them on to the eastern slope from which the sea was dis- tinctly visible ; after a very arduous day’s work they struck a patch of better country, well grassed and lightly timbered. Here they pitched their camp, having travelled 9 miles to reach a spot 14 miles from their last camp. Plenty
16 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION n
turkeys’ nests were found, but, although they welcomed foal’s flesh as a delicacy, few of them were equal to turkeys’ eggs in which the young were well advanced! The next five days were but a repetition of the preceding ones. bad scrubby country without grass, intersected by deep water- courses which were then full of rushing streams; dense vine scrubs through which a track had to be cleared for the stock; miserable camping places, and pouring showers of rain day and night. On 26th January, they came upon a river which they took for the Escape; it was in flood at the time, and 50 yards wide ; following it down 7 or 8 miles they cams upon an equaily large branch which joims it from the south-east, and named it the McHenry. This, too, was in flood, and they camped about a mile above the junction. This day their sugar was exhausted, buc they hoped they were not more than 30 miles from the new settlement, Somerset, and did not mind very much.
On the morning of 27th January, they swam the cattle over the McHenry without trouble; the saddles, packs, etc., had to be carried on the heads of the best swimmers, and the day’s march was exceptionally tedious. Following the stream down to its junction with what they mistook for the Escape, they had to swim most of the creeks for the tain continued without cessation. Below the junction was a large vine scrub so dense that they had to skirt it, the combined streams being now 100 yards in width, and all the creeks and gullies which fell into it were fringed with scrub; 5 miles was the extent of their day’s march. Following on down the course of the river, the flooded creeks and their scrubby lining made traveling most difficult ; they therefore struck westwards hoping to find an easier route; but they were again disappointed, and turning towards the river they struck it in about 7 miles. Further down by about 4 miles, making 12 miles for the day, they camped on the river bank. It had rained all day and here the stream was 150 yards wide. They killed a lame heifer, and cut up the flesh for jerking. Two horses were left utterly knocked up, but these were brought in on the next day, which was observed as “a rest day.” The stores were overhauled, and it was found that the greater part had rotted from constant exposure to the damp. Mr. Richardson here plotted up the route, and
\
BY HON. A. NORTON. brs
reported that their camp was on the Escape River, eight miles in a direct line from where it joins the sea, and sixteen miles from Somerset. In this case, as in that of the Lynd, he was altogether mistaken.
| Leaving the rest of the party at this point, the brothers with Eulah started down the river on 30th January in search of the settlement. They took with them 25\bs. flour and 12lbs. meat as rations for a week. The country for travelling was execrable, and before noon the rain once more began to pour. Then the river turned sharply to the west, and they were forced to the unwelcome con- clusion that it was not the Escape ; for protection from the incessant rain they ran up a gunyah of tea-tree bark and decided, in deference to Mr. Richardson, to follow the course of the river still further on the morrow. When they started next morning they found no improvement in the country ; the continual rain had increased the flood waters ; the ground was more boggy; the swamps, anabranches, and lagoons were more numerous. After travelling 10 miles, another large stream from the south-east, which they named the Eliot, blocked the way. This they waded safely with the water up to their necks; their saddles and packs they carried on their heads; 7 miles further on they camped for the night on the river bank. Next morning they tried the river for another 7 miles ; then, as it kept turning more and more towards the west, they felt even more certain that 1t was not the Escape River, and turned back on the track by which they had come, camping at night in their tea-tree bark gunyah; rain, accompanied by cold winds, had fallen all day. When they reached the camp they found all well; but the flour was 30lbs. short, and, as always happens on such occasions, nobody could imagine what had become of it! Being almost without flour, and having to depend upon such game as they could secure to supple- ment the jerked beef, they were most anxious to push forward, but one day was spent in searching for a practic- able crossing of the river which was now wide and deep and rapid. The continual rain flooded it still more and detained them another day; they therefore killed another beast for rations. Richardson, after making further observations, decided that they were 33 miles south of Cape York. During the day they constructed a small raft,
18 THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
the frame being dead Nonda wood, which is light, and across this they stretched and bound a hide. Although the water fell considerably in the night, the stream was still 130 yards wide, the current ran swiftly, and the banks were lined with scrub ; however, they swam 4 horses safely over and then floated the saddles and rations across on the raft. The brothers and Eulah, who were to go in search of the settlement, camped on the north side, Scrutton and the others remaining with the cattle.
On 6th February the little exploring party pushed on in a N.N.E. direction, and, after many difficulties, at 20 miles, they looked down on the sea about half-a-mile distant. This was Newcastle Bay. They went three miles further on and camped on a palm creek, with very steep banks. Following along the coast next morning at 7 or 8 miles, their course was blocked by what proved to be the Escape River. This they followed up through country that was indescribably difficult, the saddles at each of the numerous creeks having to be carried on their heads and a passage cleared with their tomahawks through the scrub. At last three of the horses completely knocked up. and they camped in the open. The brothers walked on until they came near the river; only near it though, for on either side there was a dense mass of mangroves nearly 3 miles in width. Their rations now consisted almost wholly of jerked beef, and they rejoiced that evening at finding 13 scrub-turkey’s eggs. ‘“‘ Eating what yolk or white they contained, they plucked and roasted the chicks as a bonne-bouche.”” They and their horses were tormented by March flies and sandflies by day, and by mosquitoes by mght. This day they travelled 22 miles. Wearisome as their journey had so far been, it was not less so on the two following days ; for although they could now see their destination, there was no hope of getting through the mud and mangroves which shut them off from the river banks. It was decided, therefore, to return to the cattle, and take them by a course which they hoped would lead to a practic- able crossing higher up the stream. So bad was the country they now traversed that they made only 12 miles, having to drive their knocked-up horses before them, and several times to drag them out of bogs. On the following evening they got back to camp after another most fatiguing day ;
_
BY HON. A. NORTON. 19
they left their jaded horses and their saddles near the river, and themselves swam across to their companions. Another horse had died during their absence.
Two days they now spent in camp and a beast was killed and the meat jerked; only 10lbs. flour remained, and this was kept in case of an emergency. The 4 horses, saddles, and swags were brought across the river, and the cattle mustered for their next start, which took place on the morning of 14th February, a weary journey of 11 miles. Another horse had to be left after he was dragged out of a bog. On the following day they crossed the Eliot, and altogether made 10 miles, having had to carry their saddles over on their heads as usual. From this point they continued with much difficulty from. flooded streams, bogs, etc., to follow down the river, uncertain whether or not it would bend round into the Escape ; but on 21st February, from a high tree Alick was able to trace it to the sea on the Gulf side of the Peninsula. By Sir George Bowen’s request, later on, this stream was named the Jardine River. This geographical discovery, however, necessitated a retracing of their steps, and at night they camped 6 miles up the river. They rested on the following day, and killed and jerked a beast ; again, on account of the heavy rain, they had to construct a raft. On 24th February, the horses and packs were put across the river, and leaving the cattle with the rest of the party, the brothers with Eulah camped on the northern side preparatory to starting once more in search of the settlement. More trouble awaited them, for at 2 miles from their camping place an immense sheet of water, the overflow from a heavily flooded creek, blocked their way, and it was not until after two days that it had run down enough to enable them to cross, even by swimming. The horses they swam with the saddles on their backs, but the rations they slid along a rope which was fixed some feet above the ground to a tree on one side of the creek and to the butt of another on the opposite side. In the evening while Alick was cooking some jerked beef for supper (they usually eat it raw), Frank and Eulah climbed a high tree on a small hill, and from this they were able to pick out Newcastle Bay, and were moreover satisfied that they had headed the Escape River. At last they were
20 © THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
within a short distance from the goal they had so long looked forward to reaching.
On Ist March, they started early, the morning being wet as usual. At 3 o’clock they met with a number of
blacks, who spoke some words of English, and greeted -
them with friendliness. These were made to understand that they wanted to be guided to the settlement, “ Kaieeby,.”’ they called it, and they led the way for about 7 miles, when they joined a larger number of natives, all unarmed. \ With these they camped for the night. Whether the corroboree that was then held was intended as a welcome, or meant a rejoicing in anticipation of a repast on human flesh, they did not then know, but about midnight the din ceased and thew dusky friends went to rest. About noon their guides brought them safely to the settlement, and surrend- ered them to their father who had long expected them, their younger brother John being with him. With skin tanned by the sun, coverings of emu feathers on their heads, greenhide mocassins on their feet, and such remnants of clothing as would hold together on their bodies—with such outward but grotesque adornments—they were received with joy and gladness. Since their father had seen them they had travelled over 1,600 miles through country the greater part of which was practically unknown, and they had brought with them, and in good health, all the men who were in their care. But their losses of stock had been great, and the difficulties, hardships, and dangers which they had encountered and overcome, have scarcely if ever been surpassed by those of any Australian explorer.
The rest of my story may soon be told. After enjoy- ing, in the companionship of their father and brother John. the first decent meal they had had for months, the brothers manned the Government whaleboat and pulled across the Straits to Albany Island to get fresh horses. The Straits are # mile wide, and the current was strong, but they brought two horses over that evening, and three more on the following day. They also chose a spot at Bullock Point, about 3 miles from Somerset, for the head station of their future run. Then they rested two days, more on account of their jaded horses than on their own. Taking these as well as the fresh animals with them, they started back under the guidance of two of their newly-found dusky
BY HON. A. NORTON. 21
- friends, their brother John also accompanying them. They were taken by a course which was generally better than
that they had come by, but the last two miles of their day’s journey were so boggy that even the fresh horses stuck occasionally. On 6th March, just before dark, they pulled up on the river opposite the camp, but as soon as they got out of their own country the new boys were useless as guides, and the brothers had to pilot themselves. They crossed to the camp next morning; one horse had died during their absence, and some of the cattle were missing. This necessitated further loss of time, and three of the cattle could not be found. However, they built a raft similar to that made before, but larger, and they killed a beast for rations. The river was still 200 yards wide when they commenced the business of crossing on 9th March; the cattle with one exception, they got safely over, and also the horses. The raft answered admirably, but on the last trip, Cowderoy, who could not swim, was put on board. Unfortunately, he overturned it, and although he got ashore safely, the raft and all it carried, went to the bottom, and was recovered only with difficulty. The Cape York blacks
-decamped during the night. In crossing the creek, which
had blocked the brothers when they started in search of the settlement, and which they again had to swim, they > lost yet another horse. Still their iJl-luck followed them, for it took them two hours on the following day to drive the cattle through the scrub on Wommerah Creek, and when they were counted, 30 of them were missing ; of these, five were not recovered. At last, on 14th March, they arrived at Bullock Point, where they pitched camp, and made a home for those of the cattle which were left to them. When the necessary work of forming the station had been completed, John was left in charge of it, and Frank and Alick returned with their father to Brisbane in H.M.S. Salamander. Mr. Richardson returned by. the same opportunity, and in the Surveyor-General’s office occupied himself in compiling a map showing the route they had followed ; in this the error in connection with the River Lynd was rectified.
My tale is told, and in conclusion I desire only to add that when I read of the splendid and fearless achievements
> iy THE JARDINES’ EXPEDITION
of such young Australians as Frank and Alick Jardine, I feel inclined to thank God that I too was born in this “ fifth quarter ” of the globe, and entered upon the business of life while the ‘“eight-hours-a-day ’ man was but a figment of the human brain.
a) dec
THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA, THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, AND RELIGIOUS BELIEBS.
By the REV. J. GOLDIE.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 3rd, 1908.
In these days everybody is more or less acquainted with the islands of the Eastern Pacific, and with the manners and customs of the people inhabiting those islands. With the islands of the Western Pacific, however, travellers are not so familiar, and, perhaps, one- of the least known of all the groups in that part of the world is the great group of islands known as the Solomons. This fine group of islands lies between 5 degrees and 10 degrees 8. Lat., and 154 degrees and 162 degrees E. Long. The length of the group is well over 600 miles, and many of the larger islands are very mountainous, some of their peaks rising as high as 10,000 feet.
The people of this group are pure Melanesians, and have all the characteristics of this type. It is not for me, however, to advance my theory as to the peopling of these islands, or attempt any system of classification. Better men have failed to agree about these things, and though intensely interesting, we have not time to discuss them to-night. What I can speak with authority on, and what no doubt you will be interested to hear about, is_ the manners and customs of some of these people, and some- thing about their religious beliefs. I have lived amongst the people of New Georgia for the last six years, and there- fore may fairly claim to know a little about them.
ee . 7 24 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA :
~
FORM OF GOVERNMENT. ;
The form of Government is that of hereditary chief- tainship. Over each village is a headman—called by the natives “‘ Palabatu’’—the same word as is_ used » for “husband.” The villages are divided into groups, and over each group is a chief called by the natives ‘na Bagara’’—a man of much more importance than the headman or “ Palabatu.’’ Sometimes the man who has the right to these positions 1s a weakling, and has little or no influence. Or perhaps a man of no family, but of very strong character, will overshadow him, and _ will really exercise a greater influence than the ‘ Palabatu.”’ But though the common people will look upon him as a kind of leader, the other chiefs will refuse to recognise him as one of themselves, or will do so very reluctantly. They speak of him in terms of the greatest contempt as “ having no father.”” Human nature is much the same all the world over. Over a big district, or over one of the islands, reigns the principal chief, or ‘‘ Gati-Bagara.” ““Gati”’ is literally “trunk” or “stem,” and thus this chief is the real or hereditary chief, and is generally a man of great importance, and if a man of strong personality exercises a wide influence, and possesses almost unlimited power in certain directions. Sometimes the influence of one of these strong men will extend far beyond the bounds of his own district, or even of his own island, and thus his village becomes the political centre of that part. Such a one was Ingava, the chief of New Georgia, known to all the naval officers and traders who have been in that part of the world.
Generally speaking, the communistic system prevails— land, houses, canoes, and produce all belonging to the community, and not to any particular individual. Since the advent of the white trader, however, this system has been greatly modified. In the way of trade they are often persuaded to purchase from the trader things that they don’t really require, and thus a debt is incurred for which some individual is made responsible. Other individuals in the same tribe will run into debt also, and to settle these when the trader asks them to pay up, private claims are made to what was once public property. Thus cocoanut
BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. ; 25
trees, sago palm plantations, canoes, and even the land pass into private hands. To protect his property, and prevent others who think that they have as good a right to it as he has, a man will trade on the superstitious fears of his fellow villagers. and put a “tambu’” upon the property he has claimed. This “‘tambu” takes several forms. If it is on a piece of land, it is usually a stick split at the top, with the leaves of a certain tree inserted. If it is a particular tree they wish to preserve they tie a piece of the sacred vine round the stem, and a native seeing this will not touch it, for fear of bringing down upon his head the wrath of the spirits. But more about this later on.
On most of the larger islands there is unceasing hos- tility between the “ bushmen ” and the “salt water men,”’ as they are called, as well as between the tribes inhabiting the different islands. This will show how little ground there is for fear of anything in the nature of a general rising, aS was reported by a trader from the group a few days ago.
The “bushmen’’ protect themselves by building — their villages on the tops of the hills, and some of their positions are so well chosen, and the places so skilfully fortified, that it would be a difficult task even for a force of well-trained men to take them if properly held. I visited one of these fortified villages two years ago. It was situated at a place called “‘ Kumboro,”’ on the S.E. end of the Island of Choiseul, and at the top of a peak about twelve hundred feet (1,200ft.) above sea level. I was the first white man to visit the place, and it was with con- siderable difficulty that I persuaded the chiefs to allow me to go. After climbing—sometimes on all fours—up the mountain side, wading through streams, and getting many a tumble—losing the skin of my shins and hands in the process, I at last, after a three hours’ journey, arrived within hailing distance of the village. It was right above us, and was a great circular enclosure, taking in the whole crown of the hill, and entirely surrounded by great stakes, pointed at the top, about fifteen feet high, and about a foot or more in diameter. These were placed as closely as possible together, and at such an angle that anyone coming up the mountain side would be right underneath the stockade. Inside were walls of rough stone, forming
66
26 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA
a very effective defence against the attacks of the raiders from below. Inside the stockade I found about fifty or more houses. It was with evident reluctance that I was allowed to enter the village, and only after the guides had convinced the people that I possessed supernatural powers.
These defences are very necessary on account of the raids made by the headhunters of Rubiana and other places. These raids were made in order to secure heads for the dedication of new houses and new canoes, and to obtain victims for the cannibal feasts and sacrificial rites performed from time to time. These people are the slaves of superstitious fears, and these superstitions were worked for all they were worth by the old sorcerors and witch doctors. If a house were built it would be neces- sary for the preservation of its inmates to propitiate the spirits by shedding blood, and the obtaining of a number of human heads. If a new “tomoko” or war canoe were about to be launched, the sprinkling of human blood and obtaining of heads would invest it with supernatural power. Therefore these raids were organised by the sorcerors, and in their beautiful war-canoes they would travel some- times over two hundred miles to kill and obtain heads. Before making a start the chiefs pay a visit to one of their many sacred places—generally the shrine of some of their ancestors—and there make sacrifices, and offer prayers to the spirits for help in their raiding operations. With great ceremony they then embark—carrying with them in each of the canoes a sacred relic or charm—as a rule, a small bone of some once-noted warrior, since deceased. Their mode of warfare is that usually adopted by natives of almost any place—taking their enemies by surprise, and killing them before they have an opportunity of defending themselves. Their operations, however, are carried out with an unusual degree of cunning and skill, for they gener- ally try to create the impression that they intend to raid a place to which they really have no intention of going, and after turning all eyes towards that particular place, they suddenly swoop down upon some other unfortunate village, and, catching the inhabitants unprepared, kill and capture to their hearts’ content. On their return to their own village they are received by the women and girls singing and dancing to welcome them home. Immediately
,,
BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. oF
they land another visit is paid to the sacred place, and offerings of food, ornaments, and sometimes of human flesh, are made to the spirits in return for their assistance in the raid. Immediately after these religious observances, a great feast and dance is held—or rather, preparations are made to hold it, for it generally occurs some days after —to celebrate the victory over their enemies. These people are cannibals, and if victims for their feasts could not be obtained in the raid, then so much the worse for some unfortunate slave captured in some previous expedition.
With regard to slavery—the lot of the slaves cap- tured in these raids is not an enviable one. While they are treated with kindness, and the work they are expected to do is not. heavy or difficult, they are the absolute property of their captors. The women, in addition to having to do the work, are nearly always used for immoral purposes, and thus become sources of profit to their owners. Then there is always the dread uncertainty about the tenure of life. When a head is required to pay for some afiront to a neighbouring village. or a life to be sacrificed on some occasion of great ceremony, the unfortunate slaves know that, without warning of any kind—often after helping to prepare the feast—their own life may be taken from them by a sudden blow from the axe of one of their masters. Still I have known cases where the female slaves have become the wives of their captors, and have been treated with as much consideration as the women belonging to the tribe—which is perhaps not saying much.
The marriage laws of these people are very simple. The wife is acquired by purchase. When a man makes a proposal for the hand of the girl of his choice, or when— as is very often the case—a girl makes a proposal for the hand of a young man, a meeting of all the friends takes place, and a price is fixed, which must be paid by the man before the marriage is allowed to take place. This price is regulated by the position occupied by the parents of the bride, and as it is always paid in native money or orna- ments, it is very hard to say what their value would be in English money. In the New Georgian Group of Islands it is not the custom to have more than one wife. though I have known several cases where a chief has had more than one. This happened where the first wife was getting
28 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA
old and helpless, and the man required someone to do the work for him—for the women are always the drudges of the men. In the Shortlands, and in the Islands of Bougainville Straits, however, the chiefs and leading men almost without exception have more than one wife, and Some aS many as ten or twelve. As a rule, the wishes of the girl are not consulted in the matter, if her friends decide that an alliance with a certain young man is desirable, and if she causes any trouble they get very angry with her. Sometimes, however, the youth refuses to pay the amount agreed upon until the girl consents, and sometimes if the fickle lady changes her mind after the payment, which sometimes happens, there is a big row, for there is no law compelling the return of the money. “When everything runs smoothly they hold the marriage feast, the men taking charge of the bridegroom and the girls of the bride, and decked in all their finery they are led to the bridal feast, and from that time the man becomes a member of the women’s tribe.
Female chastity is not a very common virtue among the unmarried women and girls. It is not true, however, as has often been stated by travellers, that it does not exist at all. After marriage, however, the severest punish- ment always follows any unfaithfulness on the part of the woman—the guilty couple being put to death as soon as their crime is proved against them. I have never known a case of exchange of wives, as reported by Dr. Guppy and others, taking place in the Eastern part of the Group.
The birth customs of the New Georgian people are very peculiar. When the time of a woman draws near, she is considered ceremonially unclean. She is taken away to a little house in the bush, built by the women themselves —no man being allowed to touch it—there to await the birth of her child. No man is allowed to come near the place for at least fourteen days after the birth of the child. At the birth a sacrifice is made to the spirits, and blood sprinkled round and on the child, in order to propitiate the evil spirits, and incline them favourably towards the infant. Infant mortality is very great, and under the circumstances it is not to be wondered at. It is rather the result of carelessness, however, than the custom of
BY THE REV. J. GOLDIE. 29
infanticide, which obtains in the Eastern part of the Solomons.
The burial customs, also, are interesting, as indicating some of the religious beliefs of these people. The body of a slave is usually buried in the sea, and no further notice taken. When one of their own people dies, however, it is a very different thing. If he is a man of any import- ance, such as a chief, all his people gather together, and a time of great feasting takes place. The body is decked out in all the finery and ornaments which he possessed, with shield and spear and axe, and fixed in a sitting posture it remains in the house for about three days. All the time great wailing and lamentation goes on in the belief that the spirit of the deceased will hear and be pleased. At the end of three days, the body is taken away, with great ceremony, and left on one of the small islands used as a burial place. After the flesh has left the bones, another big feast takes place, and with great ceremony the skull of the late chief is brought back and safely deposited in a little head house prepared for it at one of the sacred places near the village. To this place the friends go from time to time, taking offerings of food and ornaments, which they leave at the shrine, and make great lamentations in the belief that they are comforting the spitit of their departed
- friend. The period of mourning generally lasts for about
eighty or one hundred days, and during the whole of that time the relatives of the deceased will not entera canoe, or, in some instances, leave the house. They will not allow a drop of water to touch their bodies, nor a comb or knife to touch their heads. Their hair grows long, and is generally whitened with lme, and thus they live in filth and discomfort for months to express their sorrow. The head of a leper, or of a man who has met with a sudden violent death, by accident, they will not bring in for fear that they will meet with a like fate. On some of the islands in the group, the wives of important persons who die are expected to commit suicide, in order to accompany their lord and master on his last long journey. If they refuse, which they sometimes do, they are strangled by their friends, that the departed one may not be lonely. No one, of course, dies naturally in these islands. When
a man dies his friends all believe thet he must have been C—Royat Society.
30 THE PEOPLE OF NEW GEORGIA
bewitched. A witch hunt is organised by the sorcerors, and generally some unfortunate girl—very probably a slave—is taken, and is charged with witchcraft. If she confesses, which sometimes in sheer fright she does, the poor wretch is put to death at once. If she will not con- fess, she is hung up by the thumbs or wrists for several days at a time, until a confession is exorted from her, when death follows as a matter of course.
Concerning the buildings, canoes, weapons, food, etc., I have no time to speak in a paper like this. It would require a book to say all or nearly all about these things. I must, however, say a few words about the religious beliefs of these people. They believe in a Great and Good Spirit, whom they invest with the attributes of omnipotence and omniscience. This great Being is responsible for all things that exist. They believe that life is simply a road which at death is divided in two—the one leading to a place of happiness, and the other leading to “Sondo,” the place of departed evil spirits. At the parting of the ways stands an old woman directing each to his place. They believe that the Great Spirit is not to be approached by mortals and hence they pray to the other spirits which control the destinies of man. To propitiate these they go to the sacred places and pray, and offer sacrifices—sometimes of human flesh, and sometimes of food, ornaments, and other things. Everything in the lives of these very superstitious people is connected in some way and controlled in some way by the spirits, hence the old sorcerers and witch doctors are people of great importance, and make a profit- able thing out of the fears of the people. However, better days are dawning for the people of the Western Solomons. The power of the sorcerer is waning, and heading and witch hanging is ending, and, with a wise paternal govern- ment teaching the people agricultural pursuits and giving them something to employ their time, teaching them to work for themselves and thus better their condition, they would be a happy and contented people.
i i, _ or 7 é * — be : ,
PAPER ON “ CHILLAGOK GARNET ROCK.”
By FRANK E. CONNAH.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 28th, 7 1908.
Introductory.—In all reports dealing with the geology of the Chillagoe District mention is made of the close association in the ore deposits of garnet rock with the copper minerals; in fact, Mr. Alexander Stewart, in his report for the Chillagoe Proprietary Company, in 1898, referred to it as being “ one of the features of the field.”’
Occurrence.—Garnet rock occurs not only in the lime- stone country at Chillagoe itself, but also in other parts of the district, notably at Mount Garnet, where no lim>?- stone is found in the immediate vicinity. Instances have come under my notice of garnet rock being found in the outcrop of lodes which showed no signs of copper or other valuable metal, but very seldom is copper absent.
Garnet Mineral.—Garnet being a mineral of variable type, it isa matter of some interest to fix the type of the mineral of this district. So far as 1 am aware, the only analysis which has been published is one which was included, as being of interest, in the report of Mr. Stewart referred to. As I know that this analysis was made in a bush laboratory, under extremely adverse conditions, I have obtained a sample of the mineral from the same locality, and have submitted it to a careful analysis, the result of which I now lay before you.
Garnet Rock.—Before going further, I would remind you of the difference between garnet mineral and garnet rock, the latter term being applied to rock of which garnet mineral is a chief constituent.
Analysis of Garnet Mineral.—The analysis presented here is of the garnet mineral. The sample was obtained
oo CHILLAGOE GARNET ROCK
from an outcrop near the Dorothy mine at Chillagoe, and consisted of a crystalline aggregate, the crystals being of yellowish brown colour, and consisting mestly of the usual rhombic dodecahedron. The crystals were carefully sep- arated from cementing material (which, by the way, ap- peared to be amorphous garnet), and were obtained apparently clean. The analysis resulted as follows :—
Silica (S10,) a as se 2 See. Ferric Oxide (Fe,0;) .. ai .. TBA Ferrous Oxide (FeO) big i 24 {eQORS Alumina (A1,03) Ne bas aT Manganese Oxide (Mn0) ee .» Ogee Lime (CaO) (other than CaC0,).. .. 81.06% Magnesia (Mg0) sf Bs it Ni Combined water Ke uh > OES Calcium Carbonate (CaCO) ae Oa Moisture ue Je a | 100.07%
The carbonic acid (0.25%) was evidently due to admixed calcite which had escaped in the cleaning of the crystals, and it was therefore calculated to calcium carbonate.
The ferrous iron was determined by the hydrofluoric acid method. Triplicate assays gave identical results, and a check made on ferrous ammonium sulphate gave an accurate result.
The loss on ignition (0.8%) was higher than anticipated and pointed to the presence of combined water. As thig was of interest, in view of the generally accepted theory that the formation of garnet took place under conditions of moist heat, I determined the combined water in 24 grammes, dried at 100° C., using series of calcium chloride tubes placed before and after the ignition tube ; the result was a gain equal to 0.46%, which is reported as combined water.
The specific gravity was found to be 3.429.
Garnet Rock.—The garnet rock consists of garnet mineral, either by itself or, as is usually the case, mixed with one or more other minerals. It is a matter of some difficulty to say just what minerals are associated in the Chillagoe district, though it may be said that hand speci- mens usually show either calcite or amphibolite. When
BY FRANK E. CONNAH. 38
copper minerals also occur above water level they either are secondary depositions in the accompanying mineral, or where the garnet itself has suffered decomposition, the copper is frequently heavily impregnated as oxide in the altered product. Below water level copper sulphide minerals frequently accompany the garnet, magnetic pyrites being often found. At the Dorothy Mine fluorspar is also found accompanying the garnet.
At Chillagoe the garnet-amphibolite combination is common, and was referred to as “eklogite”’ by Dr. R. L. Jack in his report on the field in 1891, and by Professor Skertchly in his report on the field in 1895, and again in his Presidential address to this Society in 1899.
At Mount Garnet the garnet mineral occurs mostly in an amorphous splintery form, closely admixed with calcite. It appears to form the walls of the enriched deposit at water level, being adjacent to a series of felsite dykes. An analysis of this rock resulted as follows :—
For CoMPARISON.
Mt. Garnet. Chillagoe.
Silica (Si0,) aie Sey pag 38.1 38.10 Ferric Oxide (Fe393) eat SU OO 21.5 18.79 Ferrous Oxide (FeO) Pre ee 0.6 1.00 Alumina (A1,03) as Nah» hy LF? 9.75 Manganese Oxide (MnO) eye Ora G 0.4 0.22 Lime (other than CaC03) .. 20.1% 27.2 31.06 Magnesia (Mg0) ¥ 12 Nil —— — Combined Water... sya! Bs 98 .9 98 .92 Calcium Carbonate (CaC03) 2.5% Zine Sulphide (ZnS) He Oo Moisture - se oa ee
99.8%
It was impossible to obtain the garnet in this rock free from calcite, but the only minerals recognised were garnet, calcite and zinc blende. The second column above Shows the figures for the garnet constituents reduced to the same basis as the figures in the Chillagoe analysis for
34 OHILLAGOE GARNET ROCK
purpose of comparison. While only approximate they serve the purpose of showing this garnet to be of the same type as the Chillagoe crystalline variety, both being lime- iron-alumina garnet.
_ Alteration Products.—As is usual in copper deposits the lode rocks above water level show signs of intense action by mineral solutions. The garnet rock is to be found in all stages of alteration, the initial stages giving usually more or less magnetic products, and the final product being of friable nature and yellow to brown colour, having a characteristic appearance not easily mistaken.
LECTURE ON BRISBANE POND LIFE.
(Summary or Lectvurt.)
By W. R. COLLEDGE.
Before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 28th. 1908.
THE lecturer, dealing with the subject generally, spoke upon the adaptation of the creatures to their environment, their great fertility, and the peculiar provision, by means of ephyppial eggs in the Entomostraca, for preserving and propagating their species in unfavourable weather. Fifty lantern slides made from local subjects were exhibited. ' These comprised :—Actinophrys eichornii, Vorticella, Epistylis, Desmids, Closterium Lunata and Striolata, micrasterias denticulata, Spirogyra, with specimens con- jugating, Batrachospermum Moniliforme, Volvox globator, Conochilus volvox, a rare Rotifer Brachionis Falcatus, Limnia ceratophylli, Melicerta Ringens, Utricaria capsules enclosing larva of Ceratopogon, Tanipus, also Cyclops Quadricornis, Tubifex rivulorum, Nais, and Nais proboscidea in the act of dividing, Hydra Fusca, with shde showing its various organs, Cypris, Pulex Daphnia, and the hyaline form of carinata, Scapholeberis mucronata, Cyclops quadri- cornis, male and female, Cetochilis Australiensis, various larv 2 of the caddis fly, using different materials to form their cases. The Water measurer, Hydrometra stagnorum, with parasite on thorax, Naucorides beetles, Notolecta Glauca, Ranatra linearis, Gyrinus Natator, Larva of the Dragon fly, the Ephemera, Coretha larva, and _ pupa, Hydropdilus. Afterwards some living specimens were placed in glass tanks before the powerful lens of the electric lantern; their magnification, and the manner in which various organs were seen, excited much interest as well as amusement, some of the larva much resembling pre- historic monsters.
THE LAND WE LIVE ON. ‘Qum Facrat Letas Seceres.’’—Virgil.
By J. C. BRUNNICH, F.IC.
Presidential Address read before the Royal Society of Queens- land on January 29th, 1909.
So short and yet so comprehensive is the quotation from Virgil’s immortal Georgic : ‘‘ What makes the crops rejoice % ”’ that no better motto could be found for my address, dealing with the land we live on, the crops of this land, and the help which arts and sciences should and must give to agri- culture, in order to utilise our inheritance of land to -pro- duce crops, which will rejoice both in quality and in quantity.
The subject of the address has been, on account of its importance, the favourite theme of many writers. The late Victorian Agricultural Chemist, Mr. A. N. Pearson, read a paper before the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science in January, 1900, on “The Scientific Directing of a Country’s Agriculture,” in which he chiefly directed attention to the great advantage of manuring and improved tillage in order to obtain heavier crops, and drew attention to the necessity of soil survey. establishment of experimental farms, and the systematic examination of products.
My friend, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, the Chemist of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, delivered in 1906 a lecture on “The Application of Science and Scientific Methods to Agriculture,’? under the auspices of the Sydney University Extension Board, in which he gave a short historical review of the evolution of scientific agriculture, and the recent results achieved by the aids of science. Mr. H. W. Potts, the Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, in his address on ‘‘ The Outlook for Agriculture,”
38 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
etc., recently delivered as President of the section for agri- culture of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science held in Brisbane, largely touched on the same question.
Still the question is such an important one that it cannot be brought too often before the public and before our legislators, particularly if we bear in mind how much still remains to be accomplished. Although agriculture has made great strides during the last 50 years, and particularly of late, some startling and far-reaching dis- coveries have been made, yet the Secretary of the United States Department of Agriculture stated, quite recently, that farming is still in its infancy, and that the present productivity of farms is merely a forerunner of the marvellous results which will be obtained in the future.
If there is any country in the world which strives to do justice to the scientific advance of agriculture, it is undoubtedly the United States of America, with its numerous Agricultural Colleges, Experimenta! Farms, with large Stafls of scientists spread all over the States, and at their head the Bureau of Agriculture, with eminent men guiding and controlling the whole. If agriculture is only in its infancy there, how does agriculture stand in Australia ? Is it born at all ?
I myself have been connected with the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock for some considerable time, and must openly confess that agriculture in genera] has not made the progress it ought to have made, although a few branches, dairying for instance, have advanced considerably. But apparent progress is only toe apt to make us satisfied and forget that it might have been possible to do very much better. I cannot do better than quote some of the remarks made by Mr. J. M. Hunter, M.L.A., who recently visited South Australia, and made some of his impressions public in the Brisbane Courier (Nov. 17, 1908) :—“I do not regard it as part of my duty at this juncture to blame or explain the acts of administration, or the want of them, that is responsible for the state of agriculture in Queensland to-day. I content myself by stating an unpleasant but pertinent fact, which is that while in the South and South-west of Queensland we possess a territory unequalled in any State of the Common-
re
BY J. ©. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 39
wealth for size, quality of soil, and rainfall, we are not
growing one quarter of the food-stuff we consume, while in South Australia they not only feed themselves, but after contributing largely to the needs of the Common- wealth, they sent away to oversea markets last year over £2,500,000 worth of wheat and flour.”’
An advancement of our agriculture can only be brought about by encouraging close settlement in agricultural districts ; by affording financial support to the farmers in their earliest struggles, by teaching the farmers the latest methods by practical demonstrations on Experimental Farms, and in Agricultural Colleges by establishing research scholarships at these institutions, and finally by introducing agricultural subjects into our elementary schools, so as to inculcate into the mind of our children a love for the noblest of all trades : ‘‘ To dress the earth and keep the. flocks of it—the first task of man and the final one.”
The carrying out of this policy is largely one of expense, and it is a very bad sign, and shows great shortsightedness, that our legislators during bad_ times, necessitating retrenchments, put the pruning knife into the Department of Agriculture. In times of drought, our proverbial lean years, so far from retrenchment being set in motion, a young country should increase its expenditure, even at the cost of borrowing, just as the gardener waters his plants in dry weather to ensure future bloom. Such expenditure means Prosperity to Posterity. Nations are immortal, individuals are only mortal. I will give an instance of the fallacy of the present policy : A former principal of our Agricultural College was severely criticised for purchasing
machinery and implements for the institution which were
found to be of little or no value, and had to be replaced by other ones. Is it not much wiser that such implements should be tried once for all at a college, in order to let students see the advantages and disadvantages of each, than that useless or inefficient implements should be purchased by farmers, who have nobody to guide and advise, and have to rely upon the glowing testimonials displayed by the agents ; testimonials which perhaps are genuine enough, but not applicable to local conditions ?
But why this singling out of Agriculture, for Soe et wherein lies its importance ?
40 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
Of all the primeval instincts hunger—the craving for food—is the most powerful and far-reaching one, and the supply of the necessary food to mankind is the principal object of agriculture. Nothing perhaps emphasises this necessity better than the humble prayer of every Christian : “Give us this day our daily bread.’’ We do not ask for clothes, or habitation, or other needs of life, but beg for bread only.
How beautifully Ruskin, in his immortal work “ Unto This Last,” shows us the importance of agriculture and the intimate connection of it with the wealth and welfare of a nation :—
“So long as men live by bread, the far away valleys must laugh as they are covered with the Gold of GOD.”
“The wealth of a nation is only to be estimated by what it consumes.”’
“There is no wealth but Life, Life including all its powers of love, of joy, and of admiration. That country is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble and happy beings,” and finally,
“There are two kinds of true production always going on in an active State: one of seed, and one of food; or production for the ground, and for the mouth.”’
The great importance of the food supply of the world was the leading feature of the epoch-making lecture delivered by Sir William Crookes ten years ago, at Bristol, in his inaugural address as President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in which he clearly showed that the world’s consumption of wheat is rapidly overtaking the supply.
Professor Sylvanus P. Thompson, again, declared about two years ago that a shortage of the wheat supply is already imminent, and that in 1910 the demand will be barely covered by the production.
Sir William Crookes’ lecture is particularly interesting to us, as Queensland is specially mentioned in the address, and the extracts of a few of the data will be of value. The world’s wheat crop for 1897-8 was about 2,000 million bushels, to which Australia, with its very vast areas, only contributes 33 million bushels, or about 12%; the United States produced 510 million bushels or 27%, and the two countries Italy and Spain together 178 million bushels
- BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 41
or nearly 10%, corresponding to the annual import of wheat into the United Kingdom. I specially mention these two countries, as their climate somewhat resembles our own. The two States together are about one-half the area of Queensland, but whereas Queensland has only in all 600,000 acres or about .14% of its total area under crop, the land cultivated in Italy and Spain amounts to 47 and 39% respectively, which accounts for the Jarge production of cereals.
Professor E. M. Shelton made years ago a rough estimate of our lands suitable for wheat culture, and considered about 50 million acres were fit for the cultivation of wheat. At present our area under wheat amounts to only 150,000 acres. The great drawbacks to wheat culture in Australia are the climatic vicissitudes, as is clearly shown by the variation in the annual average yield. In Queensland the average yield for twenty years is 14.7 bushels per acre, which in the drought year 1902 dropped to 3.3 bushels, whereas the crops of last year will go well over the average. Victoria shows similar fluctuation, two years ago the crop was only 6.6 bushels, whereas last year (1908-9) an area of 1,885,000 acres yielded 12.8 bushels per acre. But, in spite of dry weather, good crops of wheat may be grown by improved methods of cultivation and the selection of healthy rust-resisting varieties. In 1907, on the Roma State Farm, a crop of 14 bushels per acre was obtained with only 3% inches of rain between seed time and harvesting. Last year the crops were very much heavier, averaging well over 20 bushels per acre, but several varieties of wheat yielded up to 38 bushels.
The United Kingdom with an average yield of 29.5 bushels is only able to grow 25% of its required wheat and has to import 75% from abroad, and rarely holds more than 14 weeks of supply on hand. What help it would be not only to us, but also to the Mother country, if we could cultivate part of our 50 million acres and supply Great Britain’s demand of 180 miilion bushels.
Agriculture 13 the most ancient of all arts, coeval with the first dawn of civilisation. Agriculture flourished in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The ancient Romans highly esteemed husbandry, and spread the knowledge of agriculture all over Europe. In the early times the Anglo-
42 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
Saxon races much neglected agriculture, which indeed could not flourish under the feudal system. In the middle ages the best land belonged to the church, and the monks not only carefully cultivated their lands themselves, but supervised the cultivation of such lands which were leased to farmers.
The development of agriculture in England may be traced from some of the old writings on agricultural sub- jects. One of the earliest works is the “ Books of Hus- bandry,” written in 1539, by Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, followed by Tusser’s ‘‘ Five Hundred Points of Good Hus- bandry,” and Googe’s ‘‘ Whole Art of Husbandry.” Of particular note was the work of Sir Richard Weston, pub- lished in 1645, ‘‘ Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and Flanders,” which largely induced the introduction of some of the methods of the justly-celebrated Flemish. agriculture into England. A very marked influence was also affected by Jethro Tull’s “ Horse-Hoeing Husbandry,” which appeared in 1731.
The value of the application of Chemistry to agri- culture was very soon recognised, and already in 1795 the Earl of Dundonald, an ancestor of our late Governor Lord Lamington, published a treatise showing the intimate connection which existed between agriculture and chemistry. Unfortunately, the work did not receive the attention from the farmers of Great Britain and Ireland which it actually deserved. A much greater practical effect followed a series of lectures delivered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1812 before the Board of Agriculture. The greatest advance in agricultural Chemistry was. however, due to the efforts of Dr. Justus von Liebig, whose first complete work was published in 1840. By the help of his teachings many operations and methods of cultivation carried out instinct- ively by farmers, methods transmitted from father to son, or accidentally discovered, were explained by scientific reasoning, and thus rendered more eminently and con- sistently useful. The work of Liebig was eagerly taken up, and used as a foundation for the scientific building up of agriculture by men like Anderson, Berzelius, Bousingault, Johnston, Voelker, Wolff, and carried on at the present day by Hall, Mitcherlich, Schloesing, Wiley, and many others.
. — a .
pie.
BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 43
The foundation of all agriculture is unquestionably the Soil, a layer of more or less weathered, crumbled rock, which covers the surface of Mother Earth, and is absolutely necessary to support any growth of plants. Only by the aid of the mineral matters obtained from the soil are plants able to grow and assimilate the organic plantfoods existing as an inexhaustable supply in the ocean of air. The con- stitution of the soil is very intricate and ever changing, and both the mineral ingredients, and the organic sub- stances, Humus, formed by the decay of vegetable matter, together with the host of micro-organisms living in the soil, are of vital importance.
The importance of bacterial life has only of late years been properly recognised, and when we are told that one grain of soil may contain millions of micro-organisms, one cannot wonder at their far-reaching influence on the fertility of a soil.
The skeleton of the soil is formed by mineral matters, and Geology is the science which will teach the agriculturadist the influence and importance of certain rocks on the com- position of soils. Geological maps of countries, illustrating the underlying strata, are of immense value to the scientific farmer, particularly those known as drift maps, which show the mineral matters actually existing on the surface. In some countries accurate soil maps are now available, which indicate the class of soil in each locality. These can only be produced by an exhaustive special examination. The United States Bureau of Agriculture has undertaken such a complete soil survey, a truly gigantic undertaking which will employ a large staff of experts for years.
But for the study of the soil, other factors besides geology have to be taken’ into consideration ; they are its chemistry, physics, and, as already indicated, its biology, all which go hand in hand for the elucidation of the character of a soil. For years the fertility of a soil was chiefly judged by its chemical composition, paying, of course, due regard to the mechanical and physical con- dition, but of recent years the American school, as repre-
sented by M. Whitney and F. K. Cameron, declare that the
chemical composition of a soil has little to do with or to
tell about the fertility of a soil, and that manures, if they
44 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
have any effect of increasing the crops, do so by altering the physical texture of the soil.
But other investigators, hke R. D. Hall, the present director of the celebrated Rothamstead Experimental Station, clearly demonstrate from numerous and ¢on- tinuous manuring experiments that the views of the Amert- can scientists cannot be considered as generally applicable. A good many factors unquestionably combine to produce fertility, and the duty of every farmer is to maintain, and if possible increase, the fertility of the soil, so as to get maximum crops from his ground.
Not only the actual amounts of available mineral matters in the soil are of importance, but also the proportion between them, and it has been shown quite recently by Japanese scientists, Loew, Aso, Daikuhara, and others, who have done a large amount of experimental work, that the ratio of Lime and Magnesia are of particular importance.
Whitney’s theory that soil becomes unfertile by tne accumulation of toxic substances excreted by the roots of crops, and that the fertilizer act, not as a direct plantfood, but by destroying these substances and putting them out of action, has been supported by the results of investigations carried out in India. F. Fletcher proved by field experi- ments that there is an actual excretion of alkaloidice sub- stances by the roots of plants, which are toxic both to the parent plant and to other species. The sensitiveness of crops to the excreted toxins varies considerably. The results are of great importance with regard to the rotation of crops, and explain the advantages of certain rotations, showing for example why cotton grows feebly near sorghum, vet thrives at least as well, if not better, after sorghum than after cotton. !
Each crop fouls the soil for a succession of the same variety. The toxic substances can be precipitated by mineral manures, and also by certain vegetable refuse (leaves, etc.) containing tannic acid. Even before Fletcher published the results of his investigations several African Chemists showed that the sterility of certain soils was caused by the presence of toxic organic substances, the effects of which could be corrected by the use of stable manure, green manure, leaves of sumach, oak, ete., tannic acid and
BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.1.C. _ 45
pyrogallol, calclum carbonate, ferric hydrate and carbon black.
Experiments on these lines would ke of particular value in our State to such crops as sugar cane, pine apples, which are continuously grown on the same soil for years.
On the whole, soil chemistry has shown that exceedingly small amounts of mineral matters dissolved in the water within the soil are necessary for plant life, aided perhaps to some extent by a direct solving action of the roots upon the solid mineral matters. This theory had its foundation in the classical experiments of Sachs (1860) in which plant- roots were allowed to attack a slab of marble. Many investigators adhered to the notion that the rootlets excrete acids which help in the solution of the mineral matters, and on this theory the determination of available piantfoods
in a soil by treatment with dilute watery solution of citric
acid, as originally proposed by Dr. B. Dyer, in 1894, is based. The excretion of acids is, however, not necessary to account for the solvent action of roots, as is proved by the fact that soils maintain their neutral reaction under cultivation, although continually removing small amounts of bases from the soil. Instead of the acidity increasing under cultivation the watery soil solutions tend to get more alkaline. The slow solvent action of water on the soil particles is materially aided by the ever-present carbonic acid, given off continually by the growing roots, and indeed the determination of the available mineral plantfoods in a soul by one of the most recent methods, consists in treatment with water charged with Carbonic acid gas.
One of the most wonderful aspects of nature is its dealing on the one hand with infinitely large quantities and distances quite beyond the range of human conception, and on the other hand with infinitesimal minute quantities , while still hoitding a true balance between all.
We know that Carbon is the principal constituent of all organic tissue, and that plants obtain all their carbon from the minute quantities found in the atmosphere. The air contains approximately about three parts of carbonic acid in 10,000 parts, or in a cubic yard of air, weighing a little over 2 pounds (2.28lbs.) we find only 7 grains of Carbonic acid. The amount of carbonic acid varies with the altitude, and at a height of 18 miles, according to
D—Rovyat Society.
46 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
Hinrichs, all carbonic acid has disappeared. Boussingault was the first to prove conclusively that the carbonic acid in the air is used for the assimilation of carbon by plants, and that other sources of carbonic acid, as from soil and water, are of little consequence.
A crop of wheat will remove one ton of carbon from an acre of ground in four months, or as much as is contained in a column of air 3 miles in height, and a crop of maize removes in the same time about three times as much.
Now the actual work done by the sun in the plant tissue to produce this assimilation amounts to at least 3,000 horse power per day per acre, corresponding to the work of 15,000 men. We can now understand what an enormous amount of energy is wasted and lost for every acre we leave even partially uncultivated. George Ville, in lectures delivered in 1883 at the Academy of Brussels, puts this case very clearly. These lectures were translated and edited by Sir William Crookes under the title “‘ The Perplexed Farmer,” and they should be read by every one interested in agriculture.
Another essential constituent of plant food is Nitrogen, one of the most inert of elements, in this respect approach- ing to the argon group. Although an inexhaustible supply exists in the atmosphere, 4-5ths being pure nitrogen, the higher plants cannot use it directly. It would be almost true to assert that the whole question of successful agri- culture centres about the fixiation of nitrogen. This essential of life is largely supplied to plants in the form of that ‘‘ villainous saltpetre’’ which, as gunpowder, we use for the destruction of hfe. Nitrogen, indeed, performs so important a role that one might almost christen agri- culture ‘‘ Azotism.’’ Yet, I would remind you the very word Azote, still used in France, was given to it for the very reason that, per se, it 1s incapable of supporting life — so involved are the processes of Dame Nature.
Only some few of the micro-organisms are able to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen directly ; all higher plants must get their nitrogen in form of nitrates, and the prin- cipal source of this combined nitrogen is the small amount produced when organic substances are burned in air, and by the direct union of oxygen and nitrogen in the air under the influence of electric discharges. The extremely minute
BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 47
amounts of ammonia salts nitrates and nitrates in the air are collected by the rain. The amount of rainwater in nitrogen has for years been carefully ascertained at Rothamstead, and it was found that the average rainfall of 29 inches supplies yearly 3.84lbs. of nitrogen per acre, although the rainwater itself contains in an average only 4-10ths part of nitrogen per million in the form of ammonia, and 1-l0th part per million as nitrate nitrogen. Similar determinations were carried out elsewhere, and the pre- valent idea that the amount of nitrogen in the water of tropical countries is much higher has not been sustained by the records pubhshed by Leather for the rainfall collected in India, at Dehra Dun and Cawnpore. They give almost identical amounts of nitrogen obtained in England, namely, 3.25 and 3.4lbs. per acre, although the rainfall was 86 and 49 inches per annum. Ingle made similar experiments in Pretoria, and found that a rainfall of 24 inches supplied 6.58lbs. of nitrogen per acre aS ammonia, and 1.08lbs. as nitrate nitrogen. I arranged for collection of rain- water at our Roma State Farm, at the tropical Experimental Station at Kamerunga, near Cairns, and at Brisbane, for the past year, and the results so far seem to indicate that our rain is not very rich in nitrogen compounds.
One of the principal objects of agricultural chemistry is to teach the farmer how he can best maintain the fertility of his soil. Fertility can only be maintained by giving back to the ground that which the crops them- selves take away. and this is easily done by the application of artificial fertilizers supplying the essential plantfoods : nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid.
A continual process of gain and loss of all the plant- foods, more particularly of nitrogen, is taking place in every soil, and it is one of the main objects of the agri- culturist to encourage every increase of nitrogen, and at the same time reduce its waste to a minimum. A crop of wheat removes from the soil, in the grain alone, from 30 to 50lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Of all the fertilizing con- stituents, nitrogen, although so abundant in the air, is the most expensive to obtain, and consequently one of the great aims of experimental chemistry has been to devise -a means of utilizing the atmospheric nitrogen.
48 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
‘An increase of nitrogen in soil is derived, as already mentioned, from the small amounts of nitrogen compounds dissolved in the rain water.
As shown by the now historical researches of Hell- riegal, leguminous plants make direct use of the atmos- pheric nitrogen by the aid of micro-organisms, living in the root nodules, and green-manuring, with leguminous crops, can therefore to some extent supersede the direct application of nitrogenous manures. Bacterial cultures under the name of ‘‘ Nitragin,” to be added to the soil or for the direct treatment of the seed itself, to encourage the activity of the nitro-kacteria, were prepared by Nobbe, of Tharand, and Hiltner, in 1896, but did not prove a great success. Such cultures have been improved by G. Moore, of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Another gain of nitrogen is finally obtained by the action of bacteria and micro-organisms living free in the soil, which are capable of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen. Winogradsky has already years ago proved such assimi- lation of nitrogen by certain forms of Clostridiwm ; Beijer- inck, Heinze, and others, by certain blue-green algae, Cyanophyceae.
Of more recent date are the investigations of Kruger, Schneidewind, Mazé, Gerloch, Vogel, Heinze, and others, proving fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by so-called Azoto-bacteria. The presence of these bacterial forms was detected in the soils of cultivated fields and of meadows, in sand of dunes, and also in seawater. Azoto-bacteria require for their growth not only certain amounts of easily available mineral substances, chiefly phosphoric acid and potash salts, but also organic compounds for the supply of carbon, as these low forms of life cannot assimilate carbonic acid. These compounds are furnished by the higher plants, and by the decay of vegetable matters. The bacteria further require suitable temperature, mositure, and finally, plenty of air, so that they thrive best in loose, moist, deeply cultivated soil. |
The farmer has it, therefore, in his own hands to improve the nitrogen contents of his land by encouraging the growth of these organisms by thorough cultivation.
Dr. R. Greig-Smith, the Macleay Bacteriologist - of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, in his studies
BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 49
of slime producing bacteria, proved the fixation of atmos- pheric nitrogen by Azotobacter, and summarised the work of such friendly bacteria (proceedings of the Linnean Society of N.S.W., vol. XXXI., p. 615), by stating : “‘ We are now certain of the kind of help which the bacterium gives the plants. There exists a symbiosis; the plant
supplies saline and saccharine matters, the latter of which
the bacterium converts into gum, and at the same time elaborates atmaspheric nitrogen into constituents which are partly contained within the bacterial cell, and partly diffused in the gum, which by virtue of their presence, appears as a slime. Both the nitrogenous and the carbo- hydrate constituents of the slime are then elaborated by the plant-cells into tissue elements.”
A further supply of nitrogen in the form of artificial fertilizer is frequently absolutely necessary, and hitherto farmers of the whole world have been depending largely on the supply of saltpetre fields of Chili. With an annual output amounting to 1,740,000 tons in 1907, a depletion of these mines is expected within 50 years, and the neces- sity of some other source of mitrogen becomes very apparent
Birkeland and Eyre are now producing nitrates from the atmospheric air at their factory at Nottoden, Norway, by electric discharges, thus reproducing one of Nature’s processes. An enormous supply of water produces the cheap electric power necessary for heating the special electric furnaces through which air is passed, and the nitric acid oktained by the direct combination of nitrogen and oxygen is absorbed by milk of lime, to form calcium nitrate. |
Another new nitrogenous manure is the calcium cyanamide, produced by the action of atmospheric nitrogen on calcium carbide, the well-known compound used fot the production of acetylene gas, or on a mixture of lime and charcoal, heated to 2000 degrees C. The product Cyanamide, or Kalkstickstoff, contains from 14 to 22% of nitrogen, which is given off in form of ammonia, when water acts on the substance in the ground. Experiments carried out with the fertilizer seem to give excellent results.
Another very important line of investigation in agri- cultural chemistry and physiological chemistry is the study
50 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
of animal nutrition, and the composition of foddercrops, and food-stuffs in general. A large amount of experi- mental work has been done in this respect in Europe and in the United States, yet many esssential points are still shrouded in mystery. Wolff was the first to publish a special work on “ farm foods,” in 1864, chiefly based on the researches of von Voit, and Pettenkofer, carried out at Munich, and his own work at the Agricultural College at Hohenheim.
In the analysis of fodders very little progress has been made, and the original “‘ Wende ”’ method, introduced by Henneberg in 1864, is: still largely used, although the results can be hardly called satisfactory.
Of particular importance are the analyses of our stapte foods, wheat and wheaten flour. As most of the wheat is used in the form of flour, the milling and bread- making qualities are of chief value. With the introduction of improved methods of milling, many of our old popular ideas have been exploded, and the notion that dark- looking and whole-meal bread are more nutritious than white bread is proved tobe a fallacy. Our modern millers pro- duce not only a whiter but a more nutritious and more easily digested flour than their predecessors. Professor Snyder, of the University of Minnesota. has clearly shown that from nearly every class of wheat the white flour of commerce yielded more nutriment than the whole-meal, and that the addition of bran made flour more indiges- tible. The value of flour is practically judged by bakers by its strength, or the capacity to produce a bold, large-volumed, and well-risen loaf. We do not know yet what really constitutes the strength of flour, or how many: factors take part in its production. Quantity, composition and character of the insoluble proteins—Gluten—of the flour are some of the principal factors, but others are of equal importance, and the new fact made known by A. D. Hall that, although individual flours may be of poor strength and produce poor loaves, a blending of such flour nevertheless produced an excellent loaf; but only a mix- ture of the flours in certain proportions gave results equal to a sample of strong Manitoka flour. Again, it was shown that the strength varied if the wheats were harvested half ripe or, dead ripe. These investigations prove the practical
BY J. C, BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 51
value of the methods in practice by all millers to blend
their wheats, and also shows that the results of milling and anaylses alone are not at all sufficient by which to judge the value of any wheat. As a matter of fact, experi- mental milling should be carried out on a far larger scale, and a few bags of each of the flours produced, so as to
enable different blends to be made and bread from the
Separate and blended flours to be tested.
A further important research is the detection of injurious and poisonous compounds in fodder plants, and with regard to this an enormous amount of work will have to be done in Australia. Of particular interest has been the discovery of a hydrocyanic acid-yielding glucoside in the fodders belonging to the Sorghum family. Already, in 1803, Schrader had proved the toxic principle of bitter almonds to be hydrocyanic acid, since when investigators have shown the presence of free prussic acid and of cyanogenetic glucosides in many seeds and plants. Most hkely they play an important réle in the synthesis of the Proteins. Treub asserts that these bodies are the first recognisable product of the assimilation of the nitrogen of mtrates by plants. How the hydrocyanic acid itself is first formed is still a mystery, although Gautier’s sug- gestion that it may be formed by a reduction of nitrates by formaldehyde is a very feasible one.
I cannot leave the application of chemistry to agri- culture without mentioning the great value which chemical methods of analysis have been in the develoment of the dairying industry. The introduction of simple methods for the determination of fat in milk and cream has put the industry on a sound scientific basis.
I shall now pass on to the consideration of some of the other sciences influencing the development of agri- culture, and of necessity can only give bare outlines in some cases.
Botany has always been of recognised importance in the search for new plants suitable for food, or of other commercial value. But perhaps one of the chief functions of the application of this science is the improve- ment of plants by breeding and cross-fertilization.
As early as the beginning of last century Lamarck revolted against the dogma of the immutability of species.
52 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
By Darwin’s work—* considered a decidedly dangerous book to old ladies of both sexes ’’—the mystery of hereditary was somewhat cleared up by experiments in cross fer- tilization. The improvement of cereal grain, more par- ticularly of wheat by hybridising, 1s a matter of utmoitt importance, and a good deal of work has been done already in this direction. A large number of hybrids of wheats have been raised at the Minnesota Experiment Station, and in New South Wales the late Mr. W. Farrer produced a large number of cross-bred wheats, some of which proved of considerable value. Similar work with regard to fruits in particular has been done by others.
Still the matter of breeding lacked a_ thorough scientific basis, and the work was, as stated by Lindley half a century ago, “a game of chance played between man and plant,” which, as a matter of fact, was always largely in favour of the plants.
The mystery has been solved by the exceedingly valuable work of a monk, Gregor Mendel, of the Abbey of Brinn, in Austria, who, as the result of eight years’ painstaking experi- ments, communicated to the Briinn Natural History Society a paper on ‘“‘ Hxperiments in Plant Hybridisation.” This work was completely overlooked, and lay for 35 years in the archives of the Society, only to ke re-discovered in 1901, almost simultaneously by three scientists, de Vries, Correns, and Tschermak. It was shown that the work of the amateur botanist gave a clear and complete theory with regard to the working of heredity, and based on his researches and theories cross-fertilization reaches almost the accuracy of mathematical science. Briefly his theory is, that inheritance consists in the transmission of independent characters—the Constant Characters—otf which each species possesses a certain definite number. These characters form pairs of opposites or alternatives. The characters are distributed among the germ cells in systematic manner, so that no germ cell will carry both numbers of a pair. Biffen, of the Agricultural Depart- ment of the Cambridge University, has taken the work up, and has already obtained very interesting results in the cross-fertilization of wheats and _ barleys.
Botany is also of importance in the study of many plant diseases. Smut and rust are very prevalent diseases
+ ee
BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 53
caused by fungi. The infection frequently takes place in the seedling stage, and the germs of the disease may also be lying dormant in the seed itself. In the case of wheat and barley, the seedling is not attacked by the smut spores, but during the flowering stage attacks the plants, settling on the ripening grain. Fungicides, rotation of crops, obtaining seed from healthy crops, and -the breeding of disease-resisting varieties are the principal remedies.
Perhaps no science has made such great progress, and has been of such far-reaching influence in every-day life as Bacteriology. The influence of bacteria on agri- culture is of utmost importance. We have already men- tioned that by the aid of bacteria leguminous plants may directly assimilate nitrogen from the air. In nearly all cases reaction and changes going on continually in soil micro-organisms are the principal factors. The change of the nitrogenous matters into ammonia compounds, and finally into nitrates, generally called the process of nitrification, is caused by certain bacteria. A reversal of the process-denitrification—by which from nitrates and ammonia salts free nitrogen is liberated, and thereby lost—is lhkewise caused by bacteria. Soil Biology is quite a science of its own, and some observers attribute the assimilation of all inorganic and organic plantfoods, by the roots from the soil, to the action and help of bacteria. Bacteriology is of equal importance to dairying; the ripening of cream and cheese are both caused by bacteria, and so are souring of milk, development of bad flavours in butter and cheese. Desired results can only be obtained by thorough sterilisation of milk and cream, and the sub- sequent use of pure cultures of certain bacteria as starters.
The great and principal objects of sciences of Engineering and Mechanics are to harness the forces of Nature to the service of agriculture, and to improve the various implements and machines used in its various branches. These sciences are of further importance in the carrying out of schemes of water conservation, and in the preparing and laying out of land for draining and irrigation. This branch of engineering is of particular value to our State, and just at present, when the Govern- ment are anxious to carry out such schemes, the want of
54 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
trained men is acutely felt. Engineering is of fuatonee great importance in the dairying industry for the con- struction of milking machines, separators, pasteurisers, churns, butter workers, refrigerating machines, etc.
With reference to implements, let me give a short history of the Plough, one of the most necessary implements of a farm, used for the breaking up and turning over of the soil, to replace the slow and laborious hand digging. The use of the plough dates back almost to the earliest history of mankind, but the implements used in early times were, as a rule, primitive and clumsy, chiefly constructed of wood. Ploughing with shares shod with iron and bronze is mentioned in the Old Testament. Ploughs with wheels were also used by the ancient Greeks, but none of the old ploughs actually turned over a furrow. The modern plough. with a mould-board to turn over the soil, seems to have been invented in the Netherlands in the 17th century. Up to the middle of the 19th century the mould-boards were generally made of wood. Since that time great improvements in the construction of ploughs have been made, and different types are used for specific purposes. A particularly great advance was the introduction of the American Gang and Sulky plough, and the newest type of disc plough, so admirably suited for many of our classes of soil. In other implements, such as harrows, rollers, cultivators, etc., the ingenuity of the mechanic has made many improvements. As early as the year 1858, in an article in the Journal of Agriculture, th> necessity of the application of steam ploughs to agriculture was strongly advocated in Great Britain. Paradoxical as it seems, Ruskin in his id2ahstic social democracy emphatically condemns the employment of steam in agriculture. In the year 1618 patents for engines to plough the ground without horses or oxen were taken out by David Ramsay and Thomas Wildgoose, followed by. other patents for the depositing of seeds and manures, which, however, the wags of that time considered regular “‘ wild-goose schemes.”
Towards the close of the 17th century, Francis Moore took out patents for a machine to go without horses, to be applicable to ploughing and harrowing, and to all branches of husbandry. So sanguine was he of his results
BY J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 55
that he sold all his horses. and induced many of his friends to do likewise. His work was improved upon by Richard L. Edgeworth, who took out patents in 1770. Since that time numerous other patents have been taken out, all of which helped to perfect the modern steam plough. I ean only mention the names of Major Pratt, Heathcote, Alex. McRae, John Tulloch, Osborn, Boydell, H. Hannam, James Usher, Hoskyns, Williams, and Fisken, who, during the middle of the 19th century, patented various schemes for steam cultivation, which are the fore-runners of the system of John Fowler, the principal system used at the
present day.
For harvesting, machines were also found a necessity as labour-savers, and as early as 1829 a reaping machine was invented by the Rev. Mr. Bell, of Carmylie, Forfarshire, whose struggles in this regards are almost pathetic. For trials he had to plant stalks of straw one by one in sand in his back yard, in order to find out how his machine would cut the straw. His machine, in an improved form, is still in use. Mowing and reaping machines have now been greatly improved, and not only cut the crops, but bind the straw up into sheaves. Cyrus McCormick is_ the inventor of the most modern reaping machine. One of his first machines, shown in the Crystal Palace Exhibition in 1851, was called by the Times “a cross between an Astley chariot, a wheel barrow and a flying machine,” but afterwards was considered worth the whole of the exhibition.
At the present day one of our chief wants is a good cane-cutting machine, and it is interesting to note, just now, that here in Brisbane an engineer has patented and constructed such a machine, which will soon make its first practical trial, and which from appearance seems to have
solved the problem, and if so will be of enormous value to
the sugar industry.
Other machines in which the ingenuity of the mechanic and engineer has been exercised are implements for sowing of seed, distribution of fertilizers, planting and harvesting of tubers, etc., and finally implements to improve cultiva- tion, so as to conserve the soil moisture as much as possible.
A good deal remains to be done in the invention of machines directly utilising the light and heat of the sun
56 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
as a motive power, to take the place of the expensive steam power. Wind and water power are already largely utilised. The production of a cheap alcohol has made enormous progress on the Continent, and no doubt the time will come when we Shall utilise some part of our crops, and more particularly the millions of gallons of Molasses, the bye- product of our sugar mills, which now almost entirely go to waste, to be manufactured into alcohol, a liquid fuel which can completely replace petroleum and petroleum Spirit, imported in large quantities from America, for the driving of motor cars, launches, farm engines, and also for hghting and cooking.
Electricity itself is now used as a direct aid as a plant producer. I can only mention the Thwaite system of Klectro-culture, a system using direct light and heat pro- duced by powerful arc-lamps to plants, to stimulate their growth. Sir Oliver Lodge’s large-scale experiments of electro-culture, by passing electric currents through wires and cross wires stretched across the fields on poles, are giving according to recent reports up to 40% increase in the yield of grain. Professor Lemstrom’s experiments to apply electric currents to cultivated fields, and the French system of utilismg atmospheric electricity for agriculture, and the direct treatment of seeds with electricity are further attempts in this direction.
Veterinary science will help in the breeding of stock, in the treatment of diseases, and in this respect a good deal of work has to be done in our State, chiefly in the investigation of Redwater and other diseases.
The Entemologist and Vegetable Pathologist have to investigate insect pests, plant diseases, and find remedies for all, particularly to seek the most successful and practical methods of combating insect pests by the introduction of parasites, requires careful and painstaking labour and research. One of our great problems is the destruction of noxious weeds, lantana and prickly pear ; for the former a natural check by insects has already been found in Hawai, and whether it is possible to find a similar remedy for the prickly pear will be seen in the future. |
There are other sciences which have a more or less direct bearing on agriculture, but time permits me _ to mention only one more, and that is Education. Consider-
~ BY J. CG.’ BRUNNICH, F.I.C. 57
4 ing the importance of agriculture it is always to be wondered
at how completely agricultural education has been neglected for years, and how farmers have been left to shift for them- selves and battle with adverse circumstances. How to educate the farmer has always been a question open to different views and serious discussions. It has of late years been seriously taken up and the teaching of the elements of agricultural sciences have been even introduced, as it should be, in the lower schools.
The first Chair of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh was instituted by Sir Wilham Pulteney, in 1791, with Dr. Coventry as its first professor. An agri- cultural College was founded in Cirencester in 1839, which is still in a very flourishing condition. In Ireland, an agricultural school was established in 1821, which was
followed by the establishment of agricultural training
schools, and the introduction of the teaching of agriculture in the national schools, which has proved a very successful and economic system.
Of great educational value are the numerous agri- cultural societies existing everywhere. As early as 1723, a ‘* Society for the improvement in the knowledge of Agrt- culture,’ was established in Scotland, followed by a similar Society in Dublin in 1737. The << Bath and West of England Society”? was founded in 1777, the “ Highland Soctety”’ in 1784, the “ Board of Agriculture’? was formed in 1793, and controlled by Sir John Sinelair, and the “ Royal Society for the improvement of Agriculture” was established in 1847.
At the present day we must consider the United States of America to stand at the top of all countries with regard to agricultural education, their system of Agricultural Colleges, Experiment Stations, Agricultural Universities,
-and the teaching of agriculture in lower schools is well nigh
perfect, no labour or expense appears to be spared.
Let us hope that. our country will soon be in a position to spend a proportionate amount of money for the develop- ment of agriculture, just as it is done elsewhere. We must never forget that farming is not only the most difficult of professions, but the only profession which is absolutely indispensable to mankind. For this reason agriculture
58 THE LAND WE LIVE ON
should be recruited from the most intelligent and persevéring of workers. In “ Time and Tide’? Ruskin says :—
‘A labourer serves his country with his spade just .
as a man in the middle ranks of life serves it with sword, pen or lancet,”’ and finally ‘“‘ Now the fulfilment: of all human liberty is the peaceful inheritanc> of the earth, with its herb yielding seed, and fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, the pasture, or arable land, and the blossom- ing or wooded and fruited land uniting the final elements of life and peace, for body and soul.” .
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Annual Meeting of Members,
HELD ON JANUARY 29th, 1909.
The Annual Meeting was held at the Technical College, Ann Street, on January 29th, 1909.
The President (J. C, Brinnich, F.1.C., F.C.8., occupied the chair. Minutes of last Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.
The Report of Council and Financial Statement for 1908 were read and adopted.
To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.
The Council of the Royal Society of Queensland have pleasure in presenting the Annual Report for the year ending 31st December, 1908.
Nine ordinary meetings were held during the year, when the following papers were read :—
March 26th.—‘ The Jardine Expedition from Rockhampton to Cape York, 1864,’ Hon. A, Norton, M.L.C. ‘‘ Recent Results of Astronomical Photo- graphy,’ W. #. Gale, F.R.A.S. April 24th.—*‘‘ The Origin of Australia,” Professor S. B. J. Skertchly. May 30th.—‘‘ Nature Studies in Queensland, New South Wales, and Fiji,” Hon. A. Norton. ‘‘Men of Colour—Women also,’ ‘ Three Colour Pictures,” W. Saville Kent. June 26th.—‘‘ The People of New Georgia,” Rev. J. Goldie.
August 1st.—‘‘ Palms of the Brisbane Botanical Gardens,”’ J. F. Bailey.
August 29th.—‘‘ Geology of Tambourine Mountains,” J. Shirley, B. Se.
September 25th.— Brisbane Tertiaries,’’ Professor 8. B. J. Shertchly.
li. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
October 31st.—‘‘ Queensland Grasses,’’ Dr. A. Sutton.
November 28th.—‘‘ Chillagoe Garnet Rocks,” F. FE. Connah.
‘‘ Notes on Brisbane Pond Life,” W. R, — Colledge.
A special meeting was also held on March 28th, at which Mr. W. F. Gale, F.R.A.S., gave a lecture entitled ‘‘ Astronomy and Photography.”’
The Council greatly regrets to have to report the death of four prominent members :—Messrs. L. A. Bernays, C.M.G., W. Saville Kent, W. Collins, and Hon. John Leahy.
Eight new members were elected and thirteen resigned or left, leaving the membership at 103.
The following names are those of the new members elected since the last report for 1907: Messrs. &. Dodd, F.R.C.V.S., D. Eglinton, Miss Eglinton, Messrs. EK. H. Gurney, EK. R. Gore Jones, G. Tucker, M.R.C.V.S., C. T. White, Major J.
Johnston. ;
Ten Council meetings were held during the year, and the attendance of Councillors was as follows:—J. F. Bailey, 8 ; W. J. Byram,4; J. C. Brinnich,9; H. M. Challinor, 3; E. H. Gurney, 6; J. B. Henderson, 7; Hon. A. Norton, 9; J. Shirley, 1; F. Smith, 2; Dr. A. Sutton, 4; Dr. J. Thomson, 4.
Mr. C. T. White wa3 appointed Hon. Librarian in succes- |
sion to Mr. Frank Smith, who resigned; and Mr. H. M. Challinor having resigned from the position of Hon. Secretary, Mr. E. H. Gurney was appointed to the position.
During the year, upon the recommendation of the Library Sub-Committee, the Library has been put in order, being classified and catalogued by Mr. and Miss Eglinton.
The financial statement, which is hereto annexed, shews that the monetary affairs of the Society are on a sound basis.
Signed on behalf of the Council,—
J. C. BRUNNICH, President. E. H. GURNEY, Hon. Secretary.
Brisbane, January, 29th, 1909.
iii.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
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iv. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Mr. Briinnich read his Presidential Address, entitled, ‘‘ The Land we Live on,’ and was accorded a hearty vote of thanks by the meeting.
The following office-bearers for 1909 were then elected :— President: J. F. Bailey; Vice-President: Dr. Alfred Sutton ; Hon. Treasurer: J.C. Briinnich, F.1.C.; Hon. Secretary: E. H. Gurney ; Hon. Librarian: C.'T. White; Members of Cownetl : Colonel John Thomson, M.B., P.M.O., J. Brownlie Henderson, F.I.C., J. Shirley, B.Sc., H. Wasteneys, W. R. Colledge: Hon. Auditor : Geo. Watkins; Hon. Lanternist: A. G. Jackson.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Archer, R. 8.
Badger, J. S.
Bailey, J. F. (Life)
Bailey, F. M. (Life) Bennett, F.
Bernays, L. A., C.M.G. Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C. Bundock, C. W.
Bundock, Miss Alice Byram, W. J.
Cameron, J., M.L.A. (Life) Cameron, W. E.
Carter, Hon. A. J., M.L.C. Challinor, H. M.
Colledge, W. R.
Collins, J. C.
Collius, R. M.
Collins, Wm.
Collins, Miss Jane Connah, Frank E.
Cooper, Sir Pope A., C.J. Cory, A. H., M.R.C.V.S.L. Costin, C. W.
Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L. Dunstan, Benjamin Eglinton, D.
Eglinton, Miss
Forrest, Hon. E. B., M.L.A.
Fox, Geo., M.L.A. Gailey, R. (Life) Gibson, Hon. A., M.L.C. Gore, Gerard R. Gore-Jones, E. R.
Gray, Hon. G. W., M.L.C. Greenfield, A. P. Griffith, Sir S. W. (Life) Gurney, E. H.
Hedley, C.
Henderson, J. B., F.1.C. Henderson, Mrs. J. B. Hirschfeld, Dr. Hockings, P. F. Hogarth, Mrs,
Holland C. W.
Hood, W. W.
Hopkins, Dr.
lllidge, T.
Illidge, Rowland
Irving, J., M.R.C.V.S.L. Jack, Dr. R. L. (Life) Jackson, A. G. Johnston, Major J.
Jones, P. W.
Jones, A. Raymond
Kent, W., Saville (Life) Leahy, p. J., M.L.A. Leahy, John, M.L.A. Lord, Frederick
Love, Dr. W.
Lucas, Dr.
Marks, Hon. Dr.
Marks, E. O.
May, Dr.
McCall, T.
McConnel, Eric W. McConnel, James H. McConnel, Edward J. Mackie, R. Cliffe
Miles, Hon. E. D., M.L.C. Millar, T. W. Murray-Prior, Mrs. Norton, Hon. Albert (Life) Parker, W. R., L.D.S
Plant, Lieut. -Col. Cz F, Plant, Hon EH. T.;, MA: Pound, C. J.
Power, Hon. F. I., M.L.C. Pritchard, C.
Raff, Hon. Alex. (Life) Reid, Major D. E.
Roe, R. H., M.A. (Life) Ryan, Dr. J. P.
Sankey, Major J. R. Schneider, Henry (Life) Shirley, J., B.Sc.
Smith, Frank, B.Sc. Stevens, Hon. E. J. (Life) Steele, T. F.L.S., F.E.S. (Life) Sutton, Dr. A.
Sutton, J. W. (Life) Taylor, Hon. Dr. Thomson, Dr. John (Life) Thynne, Hon. A. J. Tonks, T.
Townley, Capt. W. Tucker, G., M.RC.V.S.L. Turner, Dr. A. Jefferis Walsh, Rev. W. M. (Life) Wasteneys, H. Watkins, Geo. Weedon, Warren (Life) White, C. T. Willcocks, G. C. Zoeller, C.
i PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
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PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY H. POLE & Co., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH ST., BRISBANE,
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Royal Society of Queensland
Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR, M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., Ere.
QEERICERS,,. 1910.
President : W. R. COLLEDGE.
Vice-President : IK. H. GURNEY, F.C.S.
Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary : . C. BRUNNICT,, F.LC. Fr. BENNETT.
Hon. Librarian : Cc. T: WHITE:
Members of Council :
J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. W. RR. PARKER, L.D.S. J. SHIRLEY, B.Sc. P. L. WESTON, B.A., B.Sc. Trustees : JOHN CAMERON. Hon. A. NORTON, M.L.C.
Hon. Auditor : GEO. WATKINS.
Hon. Lanternist : A, G. JACKSON.
CONTENTS.
THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST.— H. J. Jensen, D.Sc., September 25th, 1909 ...
NOTE ON ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM FERROCYANIDE. Frank EF. Connah, September 25th, 1909
THE ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN AUSTRALIA.—4H. J. Jensen, D.Sc., October 30th, 1909...
INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS INTO QUEENSLAND.—/J. F. Bailey, February 26th, 1910
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65
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THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST.
By H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, 1909.
The important discovery of the Shackelton Antarctic Expedition of coal seams, within a few degrees of the South Pole, at an elevation of 10.000 feet, is another piece of evidence that this elevated and frozen region was once situated near sea level, and was enjoying a warm or tem- perate climate.
The cause of an “Ice Age,” and the cause of a warm cycle such as may produce a luxuriant tropical vege- tation in Arctic regions, are subjects which have given rise to more controversy than perhaps any other scientific question, excepting the modern problems. of radio-activity.
Although no single theory has been tound adequate to account for an ice-age, still we get closer to the soluticn of the problem as the years roll on. The American Schcol cf Geologists, by their lucid reasoning, have done much to help clear up the question.
The ice-ages of greatest geological significance, that is, producing the most widespread effects, were the Cambrian Ice Age in the dawn of life on earth, the Permo- Carboniferous ice age in the period when ccal measures were laid down, and the late Tertiary when Eurcpe was covcred with extensive glaciers, and an ice age prevailed on Mourt Kesciusko and Tasmania.
The early Cambrian Era was a period of great con. tinental extension and uplift. Either the continents rose and crew larger at the expense of the sea—or what really amounts to the same thing—the oceans grew deeper so that the waters sank or became confined to smaller areas. One of the results of this continental extension was that arms of the pre-Cambrian seas became isolated, and were turned into lakes situated at comparatively high altitudes.
E—Royat Society.
GO sacnne THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST \
During the Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods, which followed the Cambrian, the continents became largely worn down and resubmerged. This was the effect of the cessation of those uplifts of continents and subsidences of ocean basins that characterised the previous cycle. The continents would be worn down by rivers, and the oceans would tend to silt up, causing the waters to rise.
The carboniferous and early Permo-Carboniferous, which followed the Devonian, were periods of fluctuating conditions, as shown by the intercalation of land and swamp deposits, like coal beds, between marine sediments. The late Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic were periods of elevation or continental extension, and the most marked result of the inequalities in level produced was that scme areas became cold and arid (like the Thibet and Gobi to-day), and other areas became ccld and humid (like the west coast of Scotland to-day).
At the end of the Triassic, uplifts ceased, and the following periods, the Cretaceous and Eocene, saw the centinents worn down and largely resubmerged. Absence of high mountains and the prevalence of marshy conditions naturally produced warm climates.
In the middle and late Tertiary pericds which followed the Eocene, particularly in the Miocene and Pliocene, great uplifts again took place. This resulted in the pro- duction of high altitudes and cold climates. The Alps and the Himalayas, and many of our highest tablelands of to-day, were formed during these periods.
It is clear that the three greatest Ice Ages, the Cam- brian, the Per:o-Carboniferous, and the late Teritary, correspond with periods of uplift or “ continental extension.’ 3
The researches of Professors Hull and Spenser show that Europe and North America stood many thousand feet higher in the period of the Great Ice Age than at present. The drowned valleys off the Victorian coast, and the rugged coastline of south-eastern Australia, show that this part of our continent was much higher when an ice-age prevailed on Mount Koscuisko, the Australian Alps. and in Tasmania.
It is therefore quite possible that the Ice Ages of geological history have all seen produced essentially by the
BY H. Je JENSEN, D.SC. 61
existence of much greater inequalities of level during these periods than exist at the present day. An average high altitude for the continents is, per sé, quite capable of pro- ducing an ice age.
The periods of submergence, when continents were low and oceans were silting up, were periods of warm temperatures ; they witnessed great organic evolution, and produced a rich flora in Arctic regicns. Heer has shown that a bounteous plant life existed in Spitzbergen, and other far northern regions, in the Carboniferous, and again in the Cretaceous and Eocene, that is:in the periods of continental submergence or oceanic exten.ion. No such flora existed there in the Permian, or in the Triassic, which were periods of continental extensicn.
Professor Chamberlin, of Chicago, has ably shown that these periods of Arctic warmth can easily be accounted for if we assume that a reversal of deep-sea circulation has repeatedly taken place. Instead of, as at present, the surface currents running towards the pole-, and the deep-sea drift moving towards the Equator, the surface currents flowed towards the Equator, and the deep-sea drift was polewards.
The drift of warm equatorial deep sea waters towards the poles would ameliorate the climate there, and produce conditions suitable for luxuriant vegetation. Professor Chamberlin has shown, beth by mathematical and experimental investigation, that a slight increase in the amount of salt in the sea would reverse oceanic circulation in this way, and that an increase of evaporation in the tropics could easily produce the required increase in salinity of the ocean. Warm dense waters from equatcrial parts would then rise in polar latitudes, and impart their heat to the atmosphere.
The total evaporation over the earth’s surface is roughly proportionate to the area covered with water, and evaporation is greatest in the torrid zone. There- fore, the greatest evaporation in the tropics would take place when this part of the earth is almost wholly sub- merged. Such a condition obtained in the Carboniferous, Cretaceous, and Eocene periods, which, as mentioned above, were periods of a rich Arctic flora.
62 | THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST
Enormous evaporation in equatorial regions led to salinity obtaining a greater influence than temperature over the specific gravity of sea water, hence the salinity controlled the manner of circulaticn. Heavy salt waters sank and drifted polewards from the equator, and lighter, fresher and cold waters formed surface currents from the poles to the equator.
Submarine eruptions, by pouring hot lavas into the sea, would cause increased evaporation and _ increased salinity, and would saturate deep-sea waters with carbonic acid, liberated partly from the lava itself, and partly from the decomposition of corals and coral limestone by the hot lava. The carbenic acid carried poleward in solution under pressure would be liberated as the waters rose to the surface. Carbonic acid thus liberated would be of great value to plant life, both because it is a plant food, and because it renders the climate warm and equable.
It is therefore clear that both the facts of an ice age and the phenomenon of a rich polar flora can be explained on very simple assuraptions, and that there is no need to suppose those vast astronomical and physical revolutions which many theories have hypothesi.ed.
M. Eugene Dubois, in a celebrated essay, tried to explain climatic variations on the earth, and also ice ages, on the assumption that the sun is a variable star. The objection to this view is that variability of the sun implies a harmonicus periodicity, and indeed, we _ possess no evidence to show that intervals between warm and cold periods of geological history were of equal duration. In fact, most of our data tend to disprove any regular periodi- city. On Dubois’s assumption, glaciation shculd also have been universal in the cold cycles, and simultaneous in the two hemispheres. This was not the case. Besides, M. Dubois’s theory is unnecessary, far-fetched, and un- proved.
There may be some variability in the amount of heat obtained from the sun in different epochs, but as the evidence which we possess, proves it to be of an irr gular nature, it must be due to extra-solar or accidental causes. Effective causes of such fluctuation in solar heat might be either (1) the passing of our sun and planetary system through an excessively cold cr hot region in space; or (2)
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BY H, J. JENSEN, D.C. 638
the entrance of the system into a region studded with meteorites. The first is of deubtful possibility, as there seems to be no reason why some regions of space should be hotter than others. The second is a more likely cause: It is easy to understand that if the sun entered a region of space particularly crowded with meteorites or cosmic dust, the first eifect cn the earth would be a cooling cf climates, due to the meteorites intercepting much of the sun’s heat before it reached the earth. The second effect would be a rise in the temperature of the sun consequent upon the meteorites falling into it. The cbjection to the second view is that some of the larger meteorites of such a pericd should remain fossilised in the geological record, which we cannot state to be the case.
If there should be any variability in the sun. the pericds of hot sun would correspond with periods of slow contracticn of cur planet and warm climates, like the Cretaceous. Few or no great up-lifts or down-throws such as produce great inequalities cn the earth’s surface would take place in a period of slow, secular contraction, but the continents would be worn down by rivers, and sedimentx would be piled up in the ocean, and the waters would rise and submerge the lowlands.
Cold sun periods would accelerate the process of secular contraction. Great wrinkliney of the earth’s crust would take place. Continent building (epeirogenic) and mountain
~ building (orogenic) uplifts would occur. The super-elevated
regions become subject to cold and arid climates, whereas the lowlands acquire moist and cold climates, the diminished intensity of atmospheric circulation causing the atmospheric water to be precipitated excessively on the coastal plains.
An interesting view on the cause of an ice-age was recently advanced by Professor David. He showed that a drop of 40° in the earth’s temperature would move the isotherm of permanent glaciaticn (cr snow-line) into the tropics, and would preduce just those conditions which are essential for the production of an ice-age in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Such a cold period might not necessarily be accompanied by severe glaciation in polar and temperate regions, for these parts would suffer from drought. There would be no evaporation outside tropical
64 THE CLIMATES OF THE GEOLOGICAL PAST
regions, and all the vapour formed in the warm zone would be precipitated at the snow-line, where a great and con- tinucus ice-barrier would-form. North of the ice-barrier of the northern hemisphere, and south of that of the scuthern hemisphere, no snow would fall, and the ground might be perfectly free from sncw and ice.
Croll’s theory and Adhemar’s hypothesis, and many other speculations are scientific curiosities of great interest, ard are well known. Croll’s hypothesis, theugh spurned by many, has such merits that even to-day it must be ranked as one of the best attempts ever put forward to explain the cause of an ice-age.
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NOTE ON THE CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGES FROM VOLUMETRIC WORK.
By FRANK E. CONNAH.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, 1909.
NOTE ON ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES BY MEANS OF POTASSIUM FERROCYANTDE.
By FRANK E. CONNAH.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th September, | 1909.
The accurate estimation of zinc in copper ores by means of Potassirm Ferrocyanide as usually recommended is ore which is liable to give trouble, especially if the zinc is only present in small quantity. One is justified in feeling dubious as to the accuracy of results when a blue colour makes its appearance in the solution during the titration, it being almost a certainty that more ferrocyanide is being run in than is required for the zine ions present ; and while this trouble can usually be averted by intro- ducing a small crystal of sodium sulphide into the solution, one can feel more confidence in the result obtained when the zinc is previously separated from the main sclution and dissolved in a measured quantity of acid. Such a soluticn is free from oxidising agents and interfering salts, and approaches more nearly to the conditions of the standard.
The author has been using a process for several years for determining the zinc in copper cres which has invariably given excellent results. The precipitates obtained all allcw of quick filtraticn, and when cne is used to the details of manipulation the process can be quickly carried cut. Briefly, it consists of the separation of manganese by nitric acid and chlorate of petash, iron by ammonia, copper by potassium thiocyanate, and the zinc then is thrown out as a phosphate to be dissolved in a measured quantity of acid, and titrated under standard conditions.
) There are no new reacticns in this, but the combi- nation does not appear to have found a place in the journals and text bocks.
66 ESTIMATION OF ZINC IN COPPER ORES
Process.—The ore is treated in a casserole with strong nitric acid, which has been saturated with chlorate of potash, and the sclution is evaporated to dryness without baking. Solid ammonium chloride is pow introduced (abcut 10 grammes) and then about 25cc hot water, and the assay kept warm till the mass is disintegrated, then excess of ammonia is added, and the solution is filtered. Boiling should be avoided, as there is a tendency tc form insoluble basic compounds of zinc. The precipitate is well washed with hot water containing ammonium chloride and ammonia. If the precipitate is bulky it is advisable to assist the washing by bringing the precipitate back into the casserole with the wash bottle (a cone of platinum in the filter is of great assistance).
The main lot of zinc and copper is now in the filtrate. but it is necessary to retreat the precipitate. If the process has been carefully carried out, only one retreat- ment will be necessary.
The ammoniacal filtrate (about 100cc) is rendered just acid with hydrochloric acid, boiled with a little sulphurous acid, and the copper is thrown out with a ten per cent. solution of pctassium thiocyanate and sodium sulphite, added drop by drop to the solution at about 60° C. If only a little ccpper is present, the addition of a little cold water assi.ts the formation of the precipitate.
To the filtrate a few drops of methyl orange are added and then 5 E bydrochloric acid till the neutral point is indicated, and then one drop more of the 5 E hydrochloric acid. The solution is now heated to boiling, and the zine precipitated by addition of ammonium phosphate. the solution being kept warm for a few mirutes till the precipi- tate becomes granular. Care must be taken here te avcid bumping.
The precipitate is readily filtered off, and is then treated, with the filter paper, in a beaker with 15dcc hot water and 5cc strong hydrcchloric acid, and titiated at 60° C. with standard potassium ferrocyanide as usual.
In dealing with ores which contain under cne per cent. of copper, a very good alternative method is to take the ammoniacal filtrate from the iron, and after adding the required excess of acid add a small crystal of sodium
BY FRANK E. CONNAH. 67
sulphide, and titrate with the copper sulphide precipitate present. If the sodium sulphide be used in the form of crystal, the ccpper sulphide forms a dark precipitate, whereas if a solution were used a brown coloration of the liquid would result, which would interfere with the sub- sequent titraticn.
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THE ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK AND THE POSSIBILITY OF FINDING PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS IN: AUSTRALIA.
By H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc.
Read before the RoyalfSociety of Queensland, 30th October, 1909.
&- Phosphoric Acid, which is an important plant food, is constantly being extracted from the soil wherever intense grazing or cultivation is practised. In our native scrubs, where the plants and animals on dying leave their remains on the ground, most of the phosphoric acid is returned to the soil, but when the beasts and plants of the field are taken to the cities for consumption no such restitution of phosphoric acid takes place ; and to prevent the land from becoming absolutely exhausted the addition of mineral fertilisers containing phosphate is essential. It is therefore clear that from a national and economic — standpoint prospecting for phosphoric acid is a more useful occupation than hunting for gold.
SOURCE OF PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS.
Most of the phosphate deposits of commercial value throughout the world occur in sedimentary rocks, but occasionally large bodies cf mineral phosphate (Apatite) are directly the product of igneous activity, as in Canada, Norway, and Estremadura in Spain.
Primarily all the phosphate of sedimentary rocks was derived from igneous rock. All igneous rocks contain phosphoric acid in small amounts, varying from .01 0 5.00 %-. It occurs in the form of apatite phosphate of lime wivh fluoride or chloride of lime), in smallneedles which crystallised out in an early stage of the consolidation of the rock. As apatite is generally one of the most soluble of the minerals of igneous rocks, it readily passes into the soil, where it is taken up by plants and into the animals which live on the plants, or it passes into the rivers in solution and thence to _ the sea, where it is taken in by fishes, corals, molluscs, and
70 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK
other organisms. These latter are again eaten by sea birds, which excrete much of the phosphoric acid in their droppings. Phosphates in sedimentary rocks may therefore be derived from (1) bird, seal or fish excrements ; (2) bones of fishes and other animals; (3) shells of molluscs, molluscoids, crustacea, corals, foraminifera, etc. ; (4) remnants of swamp vegetation. Phosphoric acid, like carbon, is constantly changing its place between the organic and inorganic world.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN.
Apatite occurs in all rocks in small amount, and, being the most soluble mineral in igneous rocks, it easily passes away into sedimentary formations and the sea to be absorbed into organic life when the rock decomposes. But apatite of this kind is of no commercial value, the percentage in igneous rocks being too small for profitable separation. In some cases, however, large dykes and sheets of pure apatite occur in igneous rocks and in metamorphic sedimentary rocks in proximity to great plutonic intrusions. The most notable instances are the Canadian and Norway occurences. In such cases profitable mining is possible. The origin of these dykes and intrusive sheets is due to vapour action in the period of cooling of the great igneous masses with which they are conected. Vapours or hot waters containing phosphoric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids have circulated in the cracks and joints formed by the cooling of the magma, or formed in the adjoining sedimentary forma- tions by the thrust of the intrusion. In these passages the phosphoric acid has been precipitated in combination with calcium.
Phosphorite occurs associated both with igneous and sedimentary rocks. It may occur either as veins in igneous rock, or bedded in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks, or in lenticular bodies infilling former caverns in limestones, or as an alteration product of limestone underlying guano deposits. In igneous rocks it may be either a primary product of vapour action like the apatite described above, or a secondary product formed by the alteration of calcite veins by solutions containing phoshporic acid from over- lying guano beds.
Secondary phosphorite owes its phosphoric acid to the decomposition of organic remaius. Guano, bone breccia, decaying animal and vegetable matters have the soluble
BY H. J. JENSEN, D.Sc. Th
phosphates of lime (dicalcic phosphate), magnesium, and ammonium leached out by meteoric water containing carbon dioxide. The soluble phosphate solution filtering down come into contact with carbonate of lime, either in the form of limestone or calcite, and alters it to the phosphate, liberating at the same time carbon dioxide.
The origin and mode of occurrence of guano has already been referred to.
High grade apatite and phosphorite should contain from 70 % to 80 % tricalcic lime phosphate.
The occurence of phosphorite deposits at the junction of two formations of a dierent character is not unusual, especially when the lower rock is fossiliferous limestone ; - and its occurrence where there is an unconformity between two formations or a thinning out of a fossiliferous stratum is also well known. It is very often associated with arragonite and not seldom with calamine.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
From the foregoing description of occurrences of phosphate rocks (not considering the apatite and guano deposits), it will be seen that phosphorite may originate
(1) from the insoluble residue of leached guano ;
(2) from the action of ammonium phosphate derived from guano beds on limestone :
(3) as a breccia from the erosion of partly pnos- phatised limestone ;
(4) from the leaching a bone beds ;
(5) from the decompcsition of plant remains in dried up swamps ;
(6) from the leaching of coral limestone, forami- niferal limestone, molluscan limestone, and brachiopod limestone. In such cases the phos- phate deposits may be in pockets either on the surface of the limestone under the soil, or under- laying the limestone on its junction with the subjacent formation.
Aluminous phosphates originate by the action of ammonium phosphate from guano, decomposing organic matter, bones, etc., on trachytic or basaltic rocks or kaolin.
A notable observation is that phosphates often occur at the unconformable junction between two different geological horizons. Thus phosphates occur at the junction
72 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK
of the Cambrian and Silurian at Nerike in Westergotland, Sweden. The overlying Silurian limestone is rich in phosphatic nodules and glauconite, and almost everywhere in Sweden it has been observed that the Lower Silurian begins with a glauconitic bed with phosphatic concretions. The phosphatic nodules are probably derived by the con- cretionary action of water charged with phosphoric acid from the decomposition of brachiopod beds containing obolus and acrothele. There is always a break in the faunal sequence where phosphatic nodules occur. The matrix contains a mixture of two fanuas, due in part to weathering by suberial denudation. In the Cambrian Bala Beds of North Wales it is trilobite remains which have given rise to phosphatic concretions. In the New Brunswick deposits we have sand and glauconite cemented by phosphate of lime, and the nodules always contain trilobite remains, sponge spicules, and protozoan tests.
In the Liassic strata of Lorraine and of the Mendip Hills, and in the Oxford clays phosphatic nodules occur. In the latter stratum they contain casts of cephalopods, lamellibranchs, echinoderms, phosphatised sponges and wood, concretionary masses, bones, teeth, coprolites of fishes and saurians, and pebbles of phosphatised sandstone, and compact phosphate.
In the Devonian of Tennesse above the Chatanooga Black Shale, there is also a nodular deposit containing glauconite.
These nodular deposits have been almost universally ormed along former shore lines, where erosion of coral,’ trilobite, molluscan and brachiopod limestone was going on by subaerial agencies and phosphatic concretions were washed out into the coastal muds just at or below low tide limit. For this reason, too, the phosphate beds always occur where beds thin out as well as where an unconformity occurs. Thus the phosphatic bed overlying the Chatanooga shales in Tennessee is only seven to eight feet thick, but in Virginia the same bed is 400 feet thick and contains no phosphatic nodules. |
Phosphates may also form by direct deposition in deep water in association with glauconite. Some of the palceozoic and mesozoic beds of phosphatic nodules and glauconite may have their origin.
X BY H. J. JENSEN, D.SC. 73
The Challenger soundings off the Cape Agulhas Bank brought up phosphatic nodules and glauconite sand from a depth of 1,900 fathoms. Murray and Renard show that such deposits form particularly off continental borders and where currents of different temperatures meet, and where consequently great destruction of organic life is going on.
GUANO DEPOSITS.
Guano may often occur unleached on rainless islands or in rainless coast districts, as on or off the west coast of South America. It may also cccur in caves, as at Olsen’s Caves near Rockhampton, Queensland. It is composed chiefly of the excrement of seabirds when found on islands or on the coast, and when found in caves it is usually the dung of bats.
WHERE PHOSPHATES MIGHT BE EXPECTED IN AUSTRALIA.
(A) Apatite—In many parts of Australia we have Archean, Cambrian and ancient palceozoic schists and gneisses intruded by gabbroic plutonic rocks. In the Mount Lofty Ranges and Yorke Peninsula of South Australia, the Australian Alps of New South Wales and Victoria, in the Broken Hill district, in both Southern and Northern Queens- land, very ancient schist formations are met with, and where such formations are intruded by highly titaniferous gabbros and norites apatite veins might be expected. In the Northern Territory of South Australia and Western Australia it is hkewise possible that apatite veins of commer- cial value may yet be found.
The country lying to the west of the D’Aguilar Range in Southern Queensland consists largely of gneisses, amphi- bolites, and schists, having an older appearance than any other met with in Australia. In many localities in this area the schist formations are intruded by gabbross. and the entire area being a titaniferous province, the chances of finding payable apatite here are not’ bad. This is the only likely locality with whose detailed geology I am persenally acquainted.
(B) Phosphorites.—These minerals might be met with in pockets in any of the Palceozoic limestones of Australia, and possibly as beds in such limestone. Many of our Cambrian, «Silurian and Devonian limestones were re-
J
74 ORIGIN’ AND» OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK
markably rich in life—molluscan, pteropod, brachiopod, trilobite, coral and foraminiferal remains constituting large limestone formations. Thus the beds of the Devonian lime- stone of the Currockbilly Range of New South Wales are almost wholly composed of brachiopods. Where such formations are followed by an unconformity, and con- temporaneous erosion of the deposit has taken place, rich pockets of phosphorite are possible. An unconformity would be recognised by the prospector if he sees a change in the dip of the overlying strata from that of the limestone, and notices at the same time that immediately above the latter formation comes a bed of coarse shingle.
In these palceozoic limestones glauconitic phosphate rock of deep-sea deposition might be met with. Such deposits would probably be of a dark colour, due to manganese staining and might contain remains of deep-sea trilobites (blind forms), cephalopods, pteropods, and sponges with micro-organisms belonging to the foraminifera, radiolaria, infusoria, and diatoms.
It now behoves us to consider if in Australia we may anywhere expect a counterpart of the Florida phosphates. In Florida we had an elevation of Tertiary limestone depcsits accompanied by drying up of salt marshes and by an inroad
of mammals driven south by the great Ice Age. As the
marshes dried up and the cold increased the animals died in large numbers of starvation and left their bones in caves and solution fissures of the limestone. Bats and_ birds preying upon the carrion left their guano in caves and fissures. The limestone, itself rich in phosphoric acid from the high proportion of foraminifera in it, was further enriched in that ingredient by leaching out of carbonate of lime.
In Australia we have had no great universal Ice Age in Tertiary times, but for all that we have had an almost equal extermination of animal life by the desiccation of the now arid interior. It is believed by Australian geologists that until the Pliocene or early Pleistocene, large stretches of the desert interior were covered with vast lakes. Where the land now lies scorched and parched the rain then fell in copious amount. Vast herds of giant marsupials lived around these lakes and along the streams that watered them. Granually the climate got drier and drier. The animals of the Australian Interior would as a result be scattered in
BY H. J. JENSEN, D.SC. 75
two opposite directions. As the lakes diminished in size and the damp zone around them grew smaller, great herds of animals would draw together around their waters and die of thirst when finally a drought dried up their drinking supplies. In many parts of our interior great masses of bones of extinct animals are found, and where such is the case the neighbouring rock is likely to be a phosphatic limestone, as we remember that limestone in particular has a preservative action on bones.
While some of the animals of the interior migrated inwards towards the drying up lakes, other troupes migrated outwards towards the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Great Aus- tralian Bight. In both of these areas a considerable eleva- tion has taken place in Pleistocene times, and Tertiary deposits, essentially limestone rich in foraminifera, have been raised high and dry, just as the Pleistocene of Florida has been elevated. These troupes of animals always hugging the moist coastal regions would in droughty years die in great numbers, and their remains, when falling upon fora- miniferal limestone or in cracks and crevices of such a forma- tion, would give rise to phosphatic limestone or secondary phosphorite. It is therefore possible that in the Tertiary limestones, both of the Australian Bight and of the Gulf of Capentaria, pockets of rich phosphatic rock, similar to that of Florida, might be met with.
(C) Bone Beds in Limestone Caves.—Several years. ago when rambling through some of the Chillagoe Caves of Northern Queensland, I came upon some caves which contained on the floor a bone bed at least several feet in thickness. This occurrence is probably not an isolated one, but common in our Northern limestone country. In such bone caves phosphate rock of commercial value is possibly to be found.
(D) Guano.—In our limetsone formations, and especially near the coast of Tropical Australia, where luxuriant shrubs provide abundant feed for all varieties of animals, large caves containing great thicknesses of bat guano are commonly met with. A notable example is the occurrence of guano at Olsen’s Caves, near Rockhampton, in Central Queensland.
To summarise, phosphate deposits may occur in Aus-
tralia, F—Royat Socirry.
76
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK
(a) as apatite in very old schist and gneiss formations that have been intruded by basic igneous rocks. (6) as phosphorite in palceozoic limestones, where unconformities occur above them, and leaching by subaerial agencies may have taken place. (c) as phosphorite in Tertiary limestones, where animals have died in large numbers on the desiccation of our interior in Pleistocene times. Such occurrences might be met with in Central Australia, and round the shores of the Aus- tralian Bight and the Gulf of Carpentaria.
(d) as bone breccia in limestone caves.
(e) as guano deposits in limestone caves.
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INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS INTO QUEENSLAND.
By J. F. BAILEY.
Presidential Address read before the Royal Society of Queensland, February 26, 1910.
From my position as Director of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, it may be expected that my presidential address would deal with scme subject appertaining to plant life, and it has occurred to me that it would be well to freshen the memory by a few notes as to whom we are indebted for the introduction and distribution of many of the economic plants now being largely cultivated in this State, as well as others of which trials have been made. The majority of these benefactors have passed away, but their good work for the State is largely in evidence around us at the present day. To many the names of the introducers of the plants, or the first cultivators of them, are unknown, therefcre it is hoped that these notes will furnish a useful record for future reference.
Queensland stands pre-eminent among the States of the Commonwealth of Australia with regard to _ the number and variety of economic plants found in cul- tivation within her boundaries, the great diversity of climate experienced enabling plants from all parts of the world to find a home in one or another part of her large territory.
Unfortunately, a number of those responsible for the introduction of plants in the early days kept little or no record of their work, a circumstance which has rendered it difficult in compiling information.
So far as I am able to gather, the Brisbane Botanic
Gardens, an institution formed in 1854, is responsi,
78 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
for the introduction and distribution of a very large number of the economic plants grown at the present day, and in the early days of settlement it assumed the functions now performed by the State Farms. The name of Walter Hill, who was the first Director. and occupied the position until 1880, will ever be remembered, for it was due, in a large measure. to his efforts that such successful work was done in this direction.
The Acclimatisation Seciety, which was formed in 1862. has also been instrumental in forwarding this good work, and worked side by side with the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. Indeed, during the first year or two. plants introduced by the Society were intrusted to the keeping of the Gardens, until Bowen Park, the home of the Society, was ready for their reception. In connection with the work of the Acclimatisation Society, the name of L. A. Bernays, C.M.G., who, by the way. was a past president of our Society, will always be closely associated, for it was principally due to his indefatigable energies that the Society has earned such a world-wide reputation. The Society was fortunate that the mantle of this worthy gentleman fell on another enthusiastic worker. I refer to Leslie G. Corrie, who, since he succeeded Mr. Bernays in 1896, has interested himself in continuing the good work previously performed, especially with regard to sugar cane, pineapples, and bananas. Valuable assistance has also been rendered by W. H. Parker, the Vice-President of the Society.
Among those who gave practical demonstration of their interest in the work under notice, J. G. Cribb stood in the front rank. he being the introducer of many of the kinds of American fruits now being grown in the State.
One of the early introducers of economics was J. C. Bidwill who, between the time of his appointment as Lands’ Commissioner in 1848 and his death early in 1853, is said to have imported quite a number of interesting plants, the best of which were removed, after his death, to the Sydney Botanic Gardens, and although I can find no list of those taken away, I believe they were included in the economics sent from that institution in 1854 to M. C. O‘Connell, at Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, and mentioned in the annual report of the Sydney Botanic Gardens for that year. G. W. Dart, a very old resident
ae
_——S>
BY J. F. BAILEY. 79
of Maryborough, in a letter recently written to C. H. Hughes, of the same town, states that most of the kinds of fruits now grown about Maryborough were growing in Mr. Bidwill’s garden at Tinana, . . . . and that the large tree of Hovenia dulcis growing at Tinana was planted by that gentleman.
While Government Resident during the middle fifties, Captain Wickham was instrumental in introducing quite a large number of useful plants, which he cultivated at Newstead. For information as to the kinds grown, I am indebted to Robert Lane, now of the Parliament House staff, but who in those days was gardener to Captain Wickham. Mr. Lane also informed me that about the same time R. R. McKenzie had a good collection of fruits, etc., in his garden near the Bulimba point. About the same time the Hon. Louis Hope, of Cleveland, imported quite a number of useful plants, many of which he shared with the Brisbane Botanic Gardens.
With regard to the cultivation of fruits, etc., on the Darling Downs, I cannot obtain definite information on the subject, but Benjamin Crow, a well-known and very able horticulturist of Toowoomba, informs me that when he went as gardener to Dr. Nelson (father of Sir Hugh Nelson, K.C.M.G.), at Gabbinba, in the sixties, that gentle- man had growing apples, peaches, figs, grapes, which appeared to be about 10 years old, and Mr. Crow planted oranges. Dr. Nelson was interested in experimenting with various plants likely to become useful, and at the time mentioned had hops and raspberries thriving. During the early sixties Mr. Penticost planted a small orangery near Toowoomba, and Messrs. Bushnell and Molde, in addition to the above mentioned fruits, had nectarines in their orchards. About this time, Mr. Crow states, good collections of fruits were grown at the following stations :— Gowrie (Mr. King’s), Glengallan (Mr. Deucher’s), Talgai, Eaton Vale. and others.
Dr. Joseph Bancroft, another of our past presidents, must also be included among those who worked in this direction, especially with regard to vines and Indian wheats.
The different nurserymen of Queensland have not been forgetful of the advantages to be derived by the intro-
80 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
duction of economics. Among the early ones we must record the names of A. J. Hockings, 8. H. Eaves, E. Way, — Magill, Alfred Williams, of Brisbane, and C. H. Hart- mann, of Toowoomba. Mr. A. T. MHockings informed me that in one of his father’s letter-books is a copy of a letter dated 3lst January, 1857, addressed to the Curator Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, in which he ordered the following plants:—Sweet Sop, Sour Sop, Mangosteen, Mango, Litchi, Longan, Wampee, Jack Fruit, Avocado Pear, Durian, and Boehmeria nivea.
On several occasions attempts have been made to introduce economic plants on the islands within the Barrier Reef. In the early seventies, Captain Bedwell, of H.M. Surveying Schooner “ Pearl,’ on behalf of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatisation Society, planted Jack Fruit and Pandanus utilis. In the early nineties, cocoanuts, mangoes, peaches, and other fruit trees were planted at the instance of the Department of Agriculture.
It is to be regretted that very few, comparatively speaking, of the many good things introduced in the early days, could be traced in any gardens in the State twenty years since, although thousands were distributed. How- ever, on the formation of the Department of Agriculture, in 1888, the work of re-introducing many of the most desirable kinds was taken up, with the result that the State farms and nurseries at the present are stocked with a fine collection of economic plants of every description.
The statistics quoted herein are taken from the Annual Reports of the Queensland Government Statistician (Thornhill Weedon, F.S.S.). I also found A. Meston’s Geographical History of Queensland useful in obtaining information concerning crops cultivated in the early days.
The following must not be taken as a complete list of the economic plants which have been introduced, but only those which have been given a trial in cultivation, for it must be borne in mind that very many cf the kinds introduced did not progress further than the pot stage.
RUBBER. InpiA RUBBER (Ficus elastica).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1867. InpiA RupBBeR VINE (Cryptostegia grandiflora).
Intreduced during the early seventies by Brisbane
Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society.
BY J. F. BAILEY. 81
Para RuBBER (Hevea brasiliensis). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1877. Seeds imported by the Department of Agriculture, in 1889, and plants now growing at Kamerunga.
PaNnaMA.RUBBER (Castilloa elastica). Planted cut in the Acclimatisaticn Society’s ‘hor ta? in 1882.
CEARA RUBBER (Manthot glaziovit). Planted in Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1882. A plantation grcwing at Mourilyan Harbour early in the nineties.
AFRICAN RUBBER (Funtumia elastica). Planted at Kga, S8.N., about 12 years ago. » Raised at Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1906.
EDIBLE NUTS. QUERCUS CORNEA.
Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1876. BrAzILiAN Nut (Bertholletia excelsu).
Intreduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873,
and again in 1883, and distributed to establishments
in the North in 1887. One of the plants introduced in 1883 is growing in the Gardens, but has made slow progress.
SPANISH CHESTNUT (Castanea sativa).
Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at
Bowen Park in 1866, and _ distributed from last
mentioned place in 1875.
Preccan Nut (Carya olivaeformis), and Hickory Nour (C. alba).
Distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in
1874. and one of the trees of the former raised by Mr.
Aldridge, of Marybcrough, has borne good nuts for
some years past.
WALNout (Juglans regia). Plants distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1874. CULINARY VEGETABLES.
Many of the well-known culinary vegetables were grown in the year 1826, when a convict settlement was established here.
In 1828, Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were grown at the penal establishment at Ipswich, and Backhouse
82 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
and Walker saw Sweet Potatoes (Ipomaca batatas) growing at Brisbane in 1836. The following are some of the varieties since introduced :— JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthus tuberosus). By A. J. Hockings in the early sixties. Tree Tomato (Cyphomandra_ betacea) ! By the Acclimatisation Society in 1885. CHocHo (Sechium edule) By L. A. Bernays, C.M.G., at suggestion of Sir Anthony Musgrave, in 188%. SWEET Corn (Zea Mays, vars.) Several varieties were introduced and_ distributed by :the Department of Agriculture in 1891. Sweet Porators (/pomaea batatas). Most of the best varieties owe their presence in this State to the efforts of the Acclimatisation Society. In 1907 the produce frem 2770 acres was 15.888 tons. Yam (Dioscorea sativa). Grown by T. Petrie at North Pine, prior te 1869, in which year the Acclimatisation Society imported several varieties from the South Sea Islands.
GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER PLANTS.
PERENNIAL Rye (Loliwm perenne). Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1865. PRAIRIE GRASS (Bromus unioloides). Seeds received by Acclimatisation Society in 1865 from Hon. W. H. Groom, Toowoomba, who stated that it had proved successful on the Darling Downs. BuFFALO GRass (Stenotaphrum americanum). Growing at Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at Bowen Park in 1868. Distributed from first-mentioned place in 1874 for binding railway embankments. GUINEA GRass (Panicum maximum). Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1867. Rep Natau Grass (Tricholaena rosea). Introduced by Acclimatisation Society through Dr. Schomburgh of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens in 1876, and now become naturalised in many parts of the State. SoraHuM (Sorghum vulgare). Varieties introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1865. Numerous varieties have been introduced
BY J. F. BAILEY. 838
by the Department of Agriculture during the past twenty years. James Henderson, of Tambourine, is said to have imported Kaffir Corn during the eighties.
Panicum (Setaria italica). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 1871.
Kentucky BLurE Grass (Poa pratense). Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1877.
TEOsIntTE (Huchlaena luxrurians). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1878.
CATERPILLAR GRAss (Paspalum dilatatum). Introduced by John Mahon, Principal, Queensland Agricultural College, who brought it from New South Wales, in 1897.
Oats (Avena sativa). Oats were grown at the penal settlement at Ipswich in 1828. Grown extensively since the fifties, about 17,000 acres being under cultivation in 19/8.
Rye (Secale cereale). In 1877, the Acclimatisation Society distributed seed which had been received from Angas Mackay. It is said that Dr. Joseph Bancroft first cultivated this about Brisbane for fodder.
WoNDER GRASS
or (Panicum. muticum),
Giant CoucH | Obtained by Dr. Joseph. Bancroft in the seventies, from, I believe, Dr. Schomburgh, the Director of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens.
CaNARY Grass (Phalaris nodosa). Growing at Toowoomba Botanic Gardens in E. Way’s time, in the seventies.
CLovers—-THE Rep Criover (Trifolium pratense), and the
WHuiteE CLOVER (7. repens). Were introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1865, and the latter has become naturalised on many of our pasture lands. LucERNE (Medicago sativa). Growing about Brisbane in the early sixties. The following have been introduced on account of their reputation in other countris for bearing pods suitable
84 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
for fodder, but, so far as I am aware, no satisfactory results have been attained. CaRoB BEAN (Ceratonia siliqua). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at Bowen Park in 1866, and distributed from the last- mentioned place in 1871. In 1890, seeds gathered from trees growing at the Park were distributed. ALGAROBA BEAN (Prosopis juliflora) and Mesguit (P. pubescens) Were intrcduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1877. Received from Honolulu. RaAIn TREE (Pithecolobium Saman). Distributed by Acclimatisation Society in 1880.
OLLS,
Castor Orn (Ricinus communis). Growing at Botanic Gardens in 1861, and since become a great weed on our waste lands.
CITRONELLA O1IL (Andropogon Schoenanthus). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1872.
Croton Om (Croton tiglium). Growing in the Brisbane Bcetanic Gardens and at Bowen Park in 1866.
GINGELEY (Sesamum indicum). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871, and introduced in 1889 by the Department of Agri- culture.
OLIvE (Olea europea). According to L. A. Bernays, in “The Olive in Queensland,’ it would appear that W. Cairncross was the first to grow this plant, having set out eight trees at Bulimba in 1858. Importations were made by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society and F. M. Bailey, in the sixties, and by the Department of Agriculture in 1889.
Ort Paum (Elaeis guineensis). Planted in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and still alive, but does not appear as if it would last much longer. Those planted at Kamerunga State Nursery in about 1880 have fruited during several years past.
Grounp Nor (Arachis hypogaea).
? Two thousand ‘ nuts’’ were distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875.
RusstaN SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus). Introduced and distributed by the Department of Agriculture in 1888.
BY J F. BAILEY. 85
Cocoa Nut (Cocos nucifera). Although the Cocoanut was early introduced, it was not until about 1867 that a proper plantation was formed, and that by a Mr. Barnes in 1867, at Mackay. In 1880, the Acclimatisation Society distributed 800 nuts, received from Singapore, among the northern planters. Shortly after its formation, 10,250 nuts were planted by the Department of Agriculture on the islands within the Barrier Reef. The North Queensland planters are evidently not fully alive to the value of this useful palm, otherwise they would follow the example of others in New Guinea, Solomon Islands etc.
DYES.
Loawoop (Haematoxylon campeachianum). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and there are three of the original trees now standing. Inpico (Indigofera tinctoria). Introduced about 1861 by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. Distributed by the Acclimatisation Society in 1872, and by the Department of Agriculture in 1890. ANNATTO (Bixa orellana). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. Mapper (Rubia tinctoria). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 1871. SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctorius). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871, and at the Mackay and Kamerunga State Nurseries in 1889. NOPALEA COCCINELLIFERA. This plant and the cochineal insect were, according to Walter Hill, thriving in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871.
86 INTRODUCTICN OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
FIBRES. ’ Cotton (Gossypium spp.)
Cotton was one of the earliest crops grown, for we find that in the year 1827, thirty acres were under cultivation at a branch penal settlement at Strad- broke Island. After this settlement was broken up, a lapse of some years occurred before resumption. In 1861, the following varieties were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens :—
SEA Istann (G. barbadense). Chester, New Orleans, Honduras, Boyd’s Prolific and Dean’s.
UPLAND (G. hirsutum). Patte’s Gulf and Peruvian. In 1862, samples grown in various localities from Cleveland to Rockhampton were sent to the Inter- national Exhibition, Londen. In 1869, 14.000 acres were being cultivated. For several years prior to 1889, very little was grown, but the industry was again revived in that year. when the Department of Agriculture imported and distributed a large quantity of American seed to farmers in the West Moreton District. In 1908, the production from 540 acres was 17,521Ibs.
Jute (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862. During 1876 and 1877 the Acclimatisation Society endeavoured to start this industry by distributing about half-a-cwt. of seed to growers in localities from Brisbane to Mackay.
New ZEALAND FuLax (Phormium tenazx). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in the garden of the Hon. Louis Hope, at Cleveland, in 1861.
ManitA Hemp (Musa textilis). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in the gardens of Mr. Warner, Brisbane, and Hon. Louis” Hope at Cleveland, prior to 1862.
Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871.
Screw Pine (Pandanus utilis). | Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens ir 1871.
FLAx (Linum usitatissimum). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1$71.
j
BY J. F. BAILEY.
BowstrRinc Hemp (Sansevieria zeylanica), and
ArricaAN Hempes (S. cylindrica and S. guineensis). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862.
Broom Corn (Sorghum saccharatum, var.) Has been grown extensively during the past twenty years.
Mauritius Hemp (Furcraea gigantea). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens during the sixties.
SisAL Hemp (Agave rigida v. sisalana). Introduced by the Department of Agriculture, one thousand plants having been received from Yucatan in 1892.
ABUTILON PERIPLOCIFOLIUM. Introduced by the Department of Agriculture from Trinidad in 1850. ‘
RaMIE (Boehmeria nivea). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens about 1860, and ten thousand plants were distributed from there in 1873.
MucserrRyY (Morus alba, and other species). Introduced for purpeses of silk-culture by Brisbane Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society and F. M. Bailey, about 1865. 4,500 cuttings were dis- tributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873.
Heme (Cannabis sativa). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1873.
SPICES, CONDIMENTS, PERFUMES, Ete.
CLove (Caryophyllus aromaticus). Plants were sent to M. ©. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and te a gardener in Brisbane frem the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854. Plants were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and a distribu- tion was made from there and from Bowen Park in 1867 and 1874.
CINNAMON (Cinnamomum officinalis). Plants were sent to M. C. O’Connel, Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, from the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854. Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden in 1856, and in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 186], 30 plants being distributed from there in 1867
as 88 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
and 1874, and a number from Bowen Park in 1866, 1867, and 1874. GINGER (Zingiber officinale). Was grown at Brisbane Botanic Gardens and by A. J. Heckings prior tc 1862. 160 rhizomes were distributed from the Gardens during the year mentioned. ALLSPICE (Pimenta communis). Plants sent to M. ©. O’Ccnnell, Port Curtis, and a gardener in Brisbane from the Svdney Botanic Gardens in 1854. In Captain Wickham’s garden at Newstead, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1856 and 1861 respectively. Buiack PEPPER (Piper nigrum). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. Nurmec (Myristica fragrans). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. and at Bowen Park in 1866, and distributed from the latter place during same year. CAPER (Capparis spinosa). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. CAYENNE PEPPER (Capsicum spp.) Pepper made from fruits grown by Mr. Giles, of Widgee Widgee, Wide Bay District, was shown at Inter- national Exhibition, Lordon, in 1862. VANILLA (Vanilla planifolia). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and at Bowen Park in 1866. Distributed to north rn localities in 1866, 1872, 1874 and 1885. PatTcHouLi (Pogostemon Patchoulr’. Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 1872. TURMERIC (Curcuma longa). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871. CaRDAMON (Elettaria cardamomum). Plants and seeds were distributed by the Acclimatisa- tion Society in 1885. Tonquin Bean (Dipteryx odorata). Plants growing in Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 1871, and a number received from Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1873. Some recently raised at Gardens from seed imported by Department of Agrculture.
x
BY J. F. BAILEY. 89
MEDICINAL. CamMPHOR (Cinnamomum Camphora). Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden at Newstead in 1856. and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. Was introduced for the sake of the valuable product obtainable from the tree, but is only grown as a shade tree, it being one of the best exotics suitable for this purpese. In other parts of the world it is being extensively grown for the production of camphor. Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871. Noux-vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica). Introduced prior to 1871 by the Brisbane Bctaniec Gardens, and one of the trees now in the Gardens fruits freely every year. PERUVIAN BaRK (Cinchona spp.) In 1862, C. Calisaya, the “ Yellow Bark” was growing in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens, and in 1867, C. succirubra, the “ Red Bark,” and C. officinalis, the ‘“ Brewn Bark,’ were received from Java. Plants of the two last-mentioned species were distributed by the Acclimatisation Scciety in 1889. SENNA (Cassia spp.) Plants of several species were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1865, and distributed from there in 1874. IpEecACUANHA (Cephazlis ipecacuanha). Plants were sent to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens from the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1873. Opium Poppy (Papaver somnijerum). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875. Coca (Erythroxylon Coca). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1877.
TANS. Divi Divi (Caesalpinia coriaria). One of the plants introduced in 1870 is still growing in the Gardens. I have not observed any others about Brisbane. CANAIGRE (Rumex hymenocephalus).
Introduced and distributed by the Department of Agriculture in 1890.
90 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
TIMBER.
Very few exotic timber trees have been tried, and those introduced have been used for shade purposes, fer, as is well-known, timber suitable for almost any kind of work requiring this material abounds within our State.
The following trees were introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens :— Trak (T'ectona grandis),
India, in 1856, and distributed in 1875.
ReEpwoop (Sequoia gigantea),
California, in 1859. One of the original plants
« still standing, but has not made good growth.
BRITISH Oak (Quercus pedunculata), In 1855. One of the original plants has now formed a handsome specimen in the Gardens.
Rosewoono (Jacaranda mimosaefolia),
Brazil, in 1856, and has since become a_ favourite
subject for planting fcr shade and flowering purposes. DeoparR CEDAR (Cedrus Deodara),
India, in 1861.
Biack WALNuT (Juglans nigra),
North America, in 1855, and plants distributed in
1875. WeymoutH Pine (Pinus Strobus), North America, in 1858. Pencit Cepar (Juniperus Bermudiana), Bermuda, in 1862. Huon Prine (Dacrydiuwm Franklins), Tasmania, in 1863. Kauri Pine (Agathis australis), New Zealand, in 1863. Biackwoop (Dalbergia latifolia), India, in 1868. ~ Locust TREE (Hymenaza Courbuaril), West Indies, in 1863. One of the original plants has formed a fine specimen in the Gardens. Satinwoop (Chloroxylon Swietenia), India, in 1867. One of those originally planted has formed a fine tree in the Gardens. Masocany (Swietena Mahogani), West Indies, in 1870, and again in 1907, and seed distributed to localities from Maryborough to Cook- town in 1887.
BY J. F. BAILEY. 91
Epony (Diospyros Ebenwm), Sumatra, in 1870.
Lignum Vivant. (Guiacum officinale), West Indies, in 1871.
TOBACCO.
Tornacco (Nicotiana Tabacum).
Many of the squatters of the early days grew tobacco for the sake of the dried leaf, which they used in the preparation of a sheep dip. Exhibits of prepared leaf were made at the International Exhibition, London, in 182, by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and M. Thozet, of Rockhampton. Ten varieties were under trial at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1870, and 400 packets cf seed were distributed in 1873, and 15 varieties in 1876. In 1876, the Acclimatisatiocn Society distributed seed of the varieties ‘“‘ Maryland,” “ Latakia,’ and ‘ Virginia.” Since then, other varieties have been distributed by the Botanic Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society, and the Department of Agriculture. The produce of dried leaf in 1908 was 5389 ewt. obtained from 669 acres.
SUGAR.
Suear (Saccharum officinarum). We have records of sugar cane having been grown as far back as 1828, when it was used as a fence round the vegetable gardens attached to the penal settlement at Brisbane. Backhouse and Walker observed it being used for the same purpose in 1836. It was not until the year 1862 that any sugar was manu- factured, and then only on a very small scale by Mr. Buhot, from canes obtained from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. During this year the Hon. Louis Hope, of Ormiston, had the largest area under cultivation, viz., 20 acres, and 2,000 cuttings were distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. During the seventies, a nursery was established at Oxley by the Government, and 78 varieties were represented there in 1879. <A distribution of 42 varieties was made in 1882 to 70 applicants, the weight of canes sent out amounting to 40 tons. About the year 1863, the
Acclimatisation Society introduced some of the best G—RovyaL Society,
92 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
varieties then growing at Mauritius, and subsequently distributed various kinds of canes. In 1878, the Society entered into an exchange of canes with the Southern United States of America. Several importations have been made by the Department of Agriculture, notably scme good varieties from New Guinea and Mauritius in the early nineties. Official returns show that in 1867 the 6 sugar mills then in existence produced 168 tons of sugar, and 13,100 gallons of molasses, while in 1907, 48 mills produced 188.307 tons of sugar, and 5,980,433 gallons of molasses were obtained in 1908. BEVERAGES.
ARABIAN CoFFEE (Coffea arabica). Backhouse and Walker record having seen a few strong coffee plants near Brisbane in 1836. In 1862, a plantation was formed in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, the plants having been raised from seed obtained from plants growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, in 1858. In the year 1873, 6,400 plants were sent out frem the gardens, and in 1882, there were 5,000 distributed. The Acclimatisa- tion Society, which, by the way also distributed plants at the same time. introduced the variety ** Mocha” in 1880. In 1908, 285 acres under cultiva- tion produced 116,293lbs. of parchment coffee.
[LiBERIAN CoFFEE (Coffea liberica). | This species, which came with a great reputation from other coffee-growing countries, in the year 1882, was distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and Bowen Park, but has not come up to expectations in this State.
Tea (Camellia theifera). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 1861, and 1,000@ plants distributed from there in 1§62, 2,000 in 1873. Early in 1880, 3,500 plants were ready for distribution, in addition to 200 plants of the Assam variety, and there was a distribution in 1888. So far, these efforts have not resulted in any of this commodity being placed on the market.
v Tea, Paraguay, or Mate (Jlex paraguayensis), Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior
4 BY J. F. BAILEY. 98
to 1861, but as its product did not meet with the taste of Queenslanders, it has not been grown other-
. wise than for shade purposes.
Cocoa (Theobroma Cacao). Plants were introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1866, and were distributed by the Society in the same year, and also in 1872 and 1883, and by the Botanic Gardens in 1874. A plant (under glass) fruited at Bowen Park in 1885. I saw a fine plant in fruit at Hambledon, near Cairns, in 1899, and was informed that it had been received from the Acclimatisation Society.
Cota Nur (Cola acuminata). Intreduced by the Department of Agriculture in the early nineties, and sent to the State Nursery at Kamerunga.
Cuicory (Cichorum intybus). Grown by G. Grimes, at Coomera, in the seventies, and at Kamerunga State Nursery in 1890.
Hor Prant (Humulus lupulus). During the year 1883 experiments were made with the Hop plant at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. The results were exceedingly good, the crop being equal to 10 ewt. per acre. It is said that in England 4 cwt. per acre for the first year is a good return. During James Pink’s time (1885), 1,000 sets were imported by the Gardens, and distributed to farmers on the Downs. Another trial to start the industry was made in 1889, when the Department of Agriculture imported a number of sets from Victoria, and distributed them to farmers in the Killarney district.
FARINAS anp CEREALS. ARROWROOT. Both kinds of Arrowroot, viz., the White (Maranta arundinacea) and the Purple (Canna edulis) were introduced and distributed by the Brisbane Betanic Gardens about 1861. The latter species is reccrded as having been grown near Ipswich, in 1844. The The purple variety has for many years been extensively cultivated in South Queensland, 480,620]bs. of com- mercial arrowroot having been preduced in 1908. The recipients in the early distribution of the
94 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
Maranta evidently did not carry on the work of growing it commercially, for we find that the Depart ment of Agriculture found it necessary to import it again when the Kamerunga State Nursery was formed about twenty years ago.
Cassava (Manihot Aipi, the Sweet, and M. utilissima, the Bitter).
J. Archer presented plants to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1864, and they were growing at Bowen Park in 1866.
Wueat (Triticum vulgare). In the year 1828 there was an area under this crop at Ipswich, and in the year 1856, Mr. Childs had a good crop from about 50 acres at Bulimba. In the year 1859, M. Thozet obtained some seed from wheat- straw found floating in the Fitzroy River, and culti- vated some excellent wheat from it near Rcckhamp- ton. For several years prior to 1862, J. Fleming and a few others cultivated wheat near Ipswich. It was well on in the fifties before wheat was grown on the Downs, and according tc a record of 1862, “ At Warwick, a flour-mill to be driven by steam power is in course of erection.”’ In 1877, the Acclimatisation Society distributed several varieties of Mexican wheats received from Angas Mackay, and in 1880 intreduced a number of Indian varieties on the suggestion of Dr. Joseph Bancroft. Since 1889 the Department of Agriculture has made _ frequent importations of new varieties. The average area under cultivation for the ten years ended 1908 was 90,729 acres, and the average production 1,223,599 bushels.
Maize (Zea Mays). Maize has always been our principal cereal crop, and was one of the earliest grown, for we find that about 1827 there was a good area under cultivation at the penal settlements about New Farm, Bulimba, and also at Ipswich in 1828. In 1867, a trial was made at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens with a large number of imported varieties, but none equalled those already growing in the Colony. The Department of Agriculture, since 1889, has made
BY J. F. BAILEY. 95
frequent importations of the best varieties obtainable from maize-growing countries. The preduce in 1908 from 127,655 acres was 2,767,600 bushels.
Rice (Oryza sativa). Rice was growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and in the garden of the Hon. Louis Hope, at Cleve- land, in 1861. In 1878, 3 cwt. in 17 varieties was imported by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens from India. The Acclimatisation Society grew some good samples in 1871, and distributed seed. and during the early nineties, the Department of Agriculture made several importations of seed. The area under cultivation in 1908 was only 7 acres against 319 acres in 1899.
BarRLey (Hordeum vulgare). Samples of barley grown by M. Thozet, at Rock- hampton, were exhibited at the International Exhibi- tion, Londen, in 1862.
BucKWHEAT (Fagopyrum esculentum). Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1867.
CANARY SEED (Phalaris canariensis). Has been growing on the Darling Downs during the past twenty years.
FRUITS.
Apple (Pyrus Malus). Collections were introduced by the Acclimatisation Seciety in 1868, 1869 and 1870. In 1871, J. G. Cribb presented a_ collection of American apples to the
Brisbane Botanic Gardens. The area in bearing in 1908 was 390 acres, and the production 31,121 bushels.
Paar (Pyrus communis). Dr. Lang cbserved trees growing at Brisbane in 1845. A collection of American varieties was presented to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens by J. G. Cribb. 1,730 bushels of fruit were produced from 41 acres in 1908. PrEacu (Prunus persica). Trees of this fruit were seen near Brisbane by Dr. Lang in 1845, and were growing in the _ Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 1865. In 1871, J. G. Cribb donated a collecticn of American varieties to the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and the Gardens introduced
96 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
four Chinese varieties in 1876. 26,563 bushels of fruit were produced from 444 acres in 1908.
ALLIGATOR PEAR (Persia gratissima). Sent by Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854 tc M. C, O’Connell, Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, and was grewing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and three plants were distributed from there in 1862. Fruited for the first time in 1867. Plants were intro- duced from the Mauritius by the Acclimatisation Scciety in 1867. So far as [ am aware, the only fruiting plant growing about Brisbane is in W. H. Parker’s garden at Enoggera.
AVERRHOA (ARAMBOLA. Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in the eighties.
BLACKBERRY (Rubus fruticosus). J. G. Cribb introduced several American varieties from America during the seventies, one of the most fruitful being Lawton’s Blackberry.
Banana (Musa spp.) Backhouse records having seen bananas growing at Brisbane in 1836. In 1856, Captain Wickham had the Cavendish (M. Cavendishi) and the Sugar Banana (M_ sapientum, var.) growing at Newstead, and eight varieties, including the twc mentioned, were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. The Acclimatisation Society from the first also interested itself in the intrcduction of good varieties, notably» nine from Singapore, in 1874, and several from Fiji, in 1875. Since its inauguration in 1888, the Depart- ment of Agriculture has been active in securing good varieties from ccuntries where this fruit is success- fully grown. During the year 1908, the produce from 4,647 acres under cultivation amounted to 1,651,163 bunches.
BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus incisa). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens at the end of the fifties. In 1860, Hon. H. Hood presented plants to the gardens, and plants were distributed from there and from Bowen Park on quite a number of occasions during the sixties and seventies. Plants introduced from Fiji were distributed by the Depart-
BY J. F. BAILEY, 97
ment of Agriculture in 1892. I[ saw a plant in fruit at the Botanic Gardens. Townsville, in 1899.
JAcK oR JAcA Fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia). Introduced from India by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1856.
Cuina QuINncE (Cydonia sinensis). Plants received by F. M. Bailey from South Australia, and distributed in 1866, and plants worked from these
were presented to the Acclimatisation Society in 1870 by C. W. Jarrott. CHERRY (Prunus Cerasus) Several varieties have been cultivated in the Stan- thorpe District during the past twenty years. CHINESE Raisin (Hovenia dulcis). Introduced by J. C Bidwill in 1850. Was growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, Newstead, in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
ORANGE (Citrus aurantium). Dr. Lang records having seen oranges growing at Brisbane in 1845. They were grown by Captain Wickham. at Newstead, in 1856. Ten varieties were represented in the Brisbane Bctanic Gardens in 1861, those doing best being St. Michael, Mandarin, Bahia, Siletta. Blood and Parramatta. Forty-six varieties were growing in the Gardens in 1870. The Bahia Navel and Jaifa varieties were introduced by the Department of Agriculture in 1888. In 1908, 440,312 bushels of fruit were produced on 3,121 acres.
Lemons (C. medica var. limonum); Crrrons (C. medica),
and SHappocks (C. decumana)
Were seen by Backhouse and Walker in 1836, and Lemons, Citrons, and Limes (C. medica var. limetta) were growing in the Botanic Gardens prior to 1870. 4,366 bushels of lemons were produced from 47 acres in 1908.
Pometo (C. decumana var.) was growing at Bowen Park in 1866.
CustaRD APPLES (Anona spp.)
A. squamosa (Sweet Sop). Plants were sent to M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, in 1854, from the Sydney
98
INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS Botanic Gardens. Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
A. muricata (Sour Sop), and C. Cherimolia (Cherimoyer).
A.
Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden in 1856, and at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. The last- mentioned fruited at the Gardens for the first time in 1867.
reticulata (Bullock's Heart).
Growing at Bowen Bark in 1866.
Thirty-four custard apples were distributed from the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1862, but the species are not recorded. 557 bushels of custard apples were produced from thirteen acres in 1908.
Date (Phenix dactylifera).
Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newsbaea: in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1867. Some years ago the Acclimatisation Society distributed plants of good varieties to some western localities, and good fruit has recently been received in Brisbane from some plants growing near Charleville. The first plantation was one formed by Mr. Barnes, at Mackay, prior to 1868.
Durian (Durio Zibethinus).
Fie
Received by M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and a gardener in Brisbane in 1854, from the Sydney Botanic Gardens. and intrcduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and Acclimatisation Society in 1867. Distributed in that year, and also in 1874, but has not thriven for the same reason as that given in the case cf the Mangosteen.
(Ficus carica).
The follewmg varieties were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1871, viz.:—Smyrna. Black, Brown and Green Iszhia. Several other varieties have been introduced by the Department of Agri- culture since 1888. 741 bushels of fruit were pro- duced from ten acres in 1908.
GRAPE, CURRANT AND Raisin (Vitis vinifera).
Backhouse and Walker saw grapes growing near Brisbane in 1836. In 1856, Captain Wickham had vines growing at Newstead, and twenty varieties
BY J. F. BAILEY. 99
were to be seen in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, those doing best being the varieties Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, White Sweetwater, Wantage, Xeres, and Muscatel Gordo Blanco. In 187], a num- ber of wine-producing varieties were introduced from South Australia, and in the same year J. G. Cribb presented the Gardens with thirty European and thirty American varieties; the latter were distributed to growers in Toowocmba, Warwick and Stanthorpe a year or two afterwards. In 1908, the area under vines was 1,554 acres which produced 4,229,980|bs. of fruit ; 77,698 gallons of wine made, ; and 619 gallons of brandy distilled. In 1865, thirty plants of the Zante currant were received from Victoria by the Acclimatisa- tion Society, and in the same year, F. M. Bailey presented 300 cuttings of this variety to the Society, 200 of which were at once distributed. In 187], the Sultana raisin was growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, and in 1892 and 1893. forty thousand cuttings of raisin and currant grapes were distributed by the Department of Agriculture.
Guava (Psidium spp.) Recorded by Backhouse as growing in Brisbane in 1826. but kinds not stated. P. Cattleyanum, the Strawberry Guava; P. Guava, the Apple Guava; and P. littorale, the Gooseberry Guava, were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
JuJUBE (Zizyphus jujuba). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1864, and distributed to growers in the North, where it has taken such a hold of the lands in some localities as to be regarded as quite a nuisance.
Ket Appie (Aberia Caffra). Introduced and distributed by the Acclimatisation Society in 1876. My grandfather probably was the first to introduce this plant into Australia, he having taken plants to South Australia in 1839.
Lircnt (Nephelium Lntchi). M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and a gardener in Bris- bane, each received a plant from the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854, and it was represented in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, and in the Brisbane
100 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
Botanic Gardens at the end of the fifties. The tree now in the Gardens fruits regularly. Another species of this genus, viz., N. Longana, the Longan, was also received by the same recipients above-mentioned from the Svdney Botanic Gardens in 1854. It was in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, but is a far inferior fruit to that of its ally, the Litchi.
Loguat (Photinia japonica). Growing at Bowen Park in 18»6.
Manoo (Mangifera indica). The Mange, which has become one of the most common fruits along the whole coast line of Queensland, is said to have been introduced by J. C. Bidwill at the end of the forties. Plants were sent from the Sydney Botanie Gardens in 1854 to M. C. O'Connell. at Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane. A plant was growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and fruited for the first time in 1867, and four plants were distributed from there in 1862, and also a number of grafted plants to likely growers in the North in 1883. The well-known varieties Alphonse and Raspberry were introduced from Bombay by the Acclimatisation Society in 1869, and the first-mentioned with the varieties Strawberry and Goa by the Botanic Gardens about the same time. Since then importations have been made by the institutions named. the Department of Agriculture, and privately. The production of fruit in 1998 was nearly 100,000 bushels. Crops from private gardens, however, are not included in this total.
MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia mangostanda). M. C. O’Connell, of Port Curtis, and a gardener in Brishane received plants of this fruit, which is described as the most delicious in existence, from the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854. Although it has since been distributed on numerous occasions by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatisation Society, so far has not met with success, owing no doubt tc the intense humidity required for perfecting its growth not being obtainable even in our northern localities. Several other species of the genus have been introduced and have fruited here, but their fruits have been of a very inferior quality.
BY J. F. BAILEY. 101
MOoNSTERA DELICIOSA. Introduced by the Acclimatisation Society in 1874, and fruited in 1876.
Paraw (Carica papaya). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861. Since then good varieties have been frequently intro- duced by the Gardens, the Acclimatisation Society and the Department of Agriculture. 9,845 doz. fruit from 55 acres was the production in 1908.
Passton Fruit (Passiflora edulis) and the
GRANADILLA (P. guadrangularis) Were growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
PEeRSIMMON (Diospyros kaki). Growing in Captain Wickham’s garden, at Newstead, in 1856, and in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens and Bowen Park in 1885. In 1875. the Acclimatisation Society imported ten varieties, and in 1889, the Department of Agriculture twenty varieties, from Japan. In 1908, seventeen acres produced 670 bushels of fruit.
PINEAPPLE (Ananas sativa). Backhouse records having seen pineapples growing at Brisbane in 1836. They were grown by Captain Wickham, at Newstead, in 1856, and in 1861, twelve varieties were represented in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, those doing best being Cayenne, Enville, Black Jamaica, Queen, Ripley Queen, and Moscow Queen. Good varieties have also been introduced from time to time by the Acclimatisation Society, James Pink and others. The 2,171 acres under cul- tivation produced 598.794 dozen fruit in 1908.
Rose AppiLe (Hugenia jambos). Introduced by the Brisbane Botanic Gardens prior to 1861, and growing at Bowen Park in 1866. Another species of Hugenia, viz., E. uniflora, the Brazilian Cherry, was growing at Bowen Park in 1869.
Rosetta (Hibiscus sabdariffa). Growing in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1875.
SAPODILLA Prium (Achras sapota). Growing at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861, and distributed in 1875.
102 INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC PLANTS
Star AppiLe (Chrysophyllum Cainito). Sent by Sydney$Botanic Gardens to M. C. O’ cone Port Curtis, and to a gardener in Brisbane, in 1854, and was growing at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 1861.
STRAWBERRY (Fragaria vesca). Early in the seventies the Brisbane Botanic Gardens experimented with about a dozen varieties of straw- berry. two of which are now extensively grown in South Queensland, viz., Marguerite and _ ‘Trollop’s Victoria. The production from 157 acres was 338,9C3 quarts in 1998.
TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica). Plants sent by the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1854 to M. C. O’Connell, Port Curtis, and tc a gardener in Brisbane. Grown by Captain Wickham, at New- stead, in 1856, and also at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens in 186]. Twenty plants were distributed from the Gardens in 1862.
Vi1-ApPLE (Spondias dulcis). Introduced by Acclimatisation Society in 1876. Growing at Kamerunga State Nursery in 1891.
GREEN MANURES.
CowPEa (Vigna sinensis). Introduced by the Devartment of Agriculture in the early nineties.
VELVET Bean (Mucuna pruriens var.). Was introduced in the early nineties by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Colonial Sugar Refining
0. Ae
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Annual Meeting of JStembers,
Held on Saturday, February 26th, 1910.
The Annual Meeting was held in the Technical College, Ann Street, on February 26th, 1910.
The President (Mr. J. F. Bailey) occupied the chair.
The minutes of the last Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.
The Annual Report and Balance Sheet being handed to the members were then read and adopted.
To.the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.
Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report for the year 1909.
Ordinary meetings have been held as in Appendix B.
Fourteen Council meetings were held during the year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A.
Part I. of Vol. XXII. of our Proceedings has been published and issued.
The number of new members proposed during 1909 has scarcely been up to the usual mark, and we have been unfortunate in losing by death, removal, and other causes, @ number of members. The deaths have included Dr. J. Thomson and Capt. Townley. In the case of Coun- cillor and Past-President Dr. J. Thomson, a letter of con- dolence was forwarded to his family.
There are now on our roll 88 members ; 14 life members ; 73 ordinary members; besides corresponding members, and 1 Associate member. See Appendix D.
Some difficulty has been experienced in_ getting original contributions for the monthly meetings. Many of our members who are best in a position to contribute original research papers and exhibits plead that their
ii; REPORF OF COUNCIE.
published results are needed for their several Government scientific journals.
It is confidently expected, however, that the forth- coming University, with its bent towards scientific research, will increase our membership and our list of original papers.
In July, Professor Laby was welcomed by our Society, in conjunction with the South Brisbane Tech- nical College. A trip to One-Tree Hill was organized, and the Professor lectured in the evening under the joint auspices in each case.
In November, Messrs. Henderson and Brtinnich gave an exhibition of modern scientific chemical apparatus. A most enjoyable and educative meeting was the result.
The Library is rapidly growing, and is, in fact, too large for the new room to which it was shifted early in January, 1910. When funds permit, it will be well to bind such matter as is still unbound.
The Premier, during the year, took steps to facilitate the possibility of our joint occupancy of the room at present occupied by the Royal Geographical Society in the Public Library, but, as the Minister for Education (the Hon. W. H. Barnes) had just granted us a continued tenancy in the Technical College at a nominal rental, our Library to be open to the students under the supervision of the College Librarian, we decided to remain in our present quarters.
As will be seen by Appendix C, there is a satisfactory credit balance so far as the ordinary working expenses of the Society are concerned, but there still remains the binding of much of the matter in the Library when funds permit.
During the year the Hon. Secretary (Mr. E. H. Gurney) resigned, but was appointed to the Council. Mr. F. Bennett took his place as Hon. Secretary. The place of Dr. J. Thomson on the Council was filled by Mr. W. R. Parker, and Mr. Wasteneys was succeeded by Mr. Gurney.
F. BENNETT, J. F. BAILEY, Hon. Secretary. President.
Brisbane, February 26th, 1919.
REPORT OF COUNCIL. lil.
APPENDIX A.
| S| = ; | a1 local | Office. Name. Sb | 9% ae : 83 | 83 i) SO President .| J. F. Bailey 11 2 | Vice-President ..| Dr. A. Sutton .. 2 1 Hon. Treasurer..| J. C. Briinnich, F,1.C. .. 6 1 E. H. Gurney Ph tet be. 2 Resigned May Hon. Secretary F. Bennett 6 1 Appointed June Hon. Librarian..| C. T. White es as 7 L /| J. B. Henderson, F.I.C... if 2 | J. Shirley, B.Sc... her 0 ect || W.R. Colledge havi 2 meee ~| E.H. Gurney .. -| See | above! Appointed june V. R, Parker, L.D.S. : 3 0 Appointed July Dr. J. Thomson . eel 0 | Died ) H. Wasteneys : ie 1 | Leftim May
iv.
10
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
APPENDIX B.
List or Papers Reap Durine 1909.
Date. | Title.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
May July
July
Aug.
| Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
29 | The Land We Live On (Presi- | dential Address)
27 Some Aspects of Savage Life .. |
(1) Life History of the Filaria | Mosquito
(2) Effects and Methods of Eradication
Queensland Vegetation (Lecture)
3 | Scientific Jottings in Remote | Parts of Queensland |
10 | The Atomic Theory of Chem- | istry (Lecture) | |
28 | The Life History of a Mollusc | | (Lecture)
25 | Climates of the Geological Past |
30 | (1) Phosphatic Rocks and their | Occurrence in Australia )
(2) Estimation of Zine by means of Potassium Ferro- cyanide
(3) Calculation of Percentages | from Volumetric Work
|
|
30 | Exhibition of Modern Chemi- (| cal Apparatus |
Notes on an Artesian Water Analysis
Author.
J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C.
Rev. B. Danks. W. RB. Colledge. A. Jefferis-Turner,
J. F. Bailey
F. Bennett
Prof. Laby.
J. F. Shirley, B.Sc.
H. I. Jensen, D.Sc H. I. Jensen, D.Sc.
F. E. Connah.
F. E. Connah
J. B. Henderson, F.1.C. J. C. Briinnich, F.1.C.
J. B. Henderson, F.I.C
—— SS
Vv.
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
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vi.
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
APPENDIX D.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Archer, R. §S.
Badger, J. 8.
Barton, E. C.
*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S. +Bailey, J. F.
Bennett, F.
Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C. Bundock, Miss Alice Bundock, C. W. Byram, W. J. Cameron, W. E., B.A. Colledge, W. R. Collins, Miss Jane Collins, J. George Collins, R. M.
Connah, F. E.
Cooper, Sir Pope A., C.J. Costin, C. W. Dempsey, J. J.
Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L. Dunstan, Benj. Eglinton, Dudley Eglinton, Miss Hilda Forrest, E. B., M.L.A. +Gailey, Richard Gibson, Hon. A., M.L.C. Gore-Jones, E. R. Greenfield. A. P. *+Griffith, Sir S. W. Gurney, E. H.
Hedley, C., F.L.S. Henderson, J.B., F.I.C.
Hirschfield, Eugen, M.D.
Holland C. W.
Hopkins, G., M.D.
Hunt, G. W.
Illidge, Rowland
Illidge, T.
Irving, J.. M.R.C.V.S.L.
+ Jack, R. fag Ds F.R.G.S.
. Jackson, A. G. Jefferis-Turner, A., M.D.
Johnston, Jas. Jones, P. W. Leahy, P. J.
*Members of Philosophical Society.
OrpiInARY MEMBERS.
BAG:
Lindsay, W.
Lord, F.
Love, Wilton, M.B.
Lucas, T. P., L.R.C.P.
His Excellency Sir Macgregor, C.B., D:Sc., de:
Mackie, R. Cliffe
Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.
Marks, Edward O., B.A., B.E. May; Ty 2. M.D. Miles, Hon. E. D., M.L.C. McCall, T., F.1.C. McConnel, Eric W. McConnel, KE. J. McConnel, J. H. +Norton, Hon. A. M.L.C. Parker, W. R., L.D.S. Plant, C.F. Plant, Hon, E. H. T., M,L.C. Pound, C .J., F.R.M.S. Pritchard, C. Pulsford, F. E. *Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C. Rands, W. H., F.G.S. Reid, D. E. Riddell, R. M. +Roe, R. H., M.A. Ryan, J. P., M.D. Sankey, J. R. +Schreider, H., M.A. Shirley, J., B.Sc. Silcock, P. Smith, F., B.Sc. +Steele. T., F.L.S., F.E.S. +Stevens, Hon. E. sr M.L.C. Sutton, A., M.D. +Sutton, 7: W. Taylor, Hon. W., M.D., M.L.C. Thynne, Hon. A. J., M. Day Tonks, T. Watkins, G. C. +Weedon, Warren Willcocks, G. C.
AssocIATE MEMBER. White, C. T.
+Life Members.
William M.D., C.M.G.S.
REPORT OF COUNCIL. Vil.
The President then delivered his address (illustrated by many fine slides) on the ‘Introduction of Economic Plants Into Queensland,”’ and was accorded a hearty vote of thanks by the meeting.
The following office-bearers for 1910 were then elected :— Presidents W. R. Colledge; Hon. Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, C. T. White ; Members of Council: E. H. Gurney, J. B. Henderson, E.1.C., J. Shirley, B.Sc., W. R. Parker, L.D.S.
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SOCIETY _ ais Reo)
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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
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OF
GO ee BN Sb A ND.
VOR CX TTT.
PART I.
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY H. POLE & Co., PRINTERS, GEORGE ST., BRISBANE.
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President : J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.C.
Vice-President : P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.
Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary : J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT.
Hon. Librarian : Cc. T. WHITE.
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Hon. Auditor : GEO. WATKINS.
Hon. Lanternist : A. G. JACKSON.
CONTENTS.
“ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES.—J. Douglas Ogilby, July 30th, 1910
QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS.—Dr. Karel Domin, April 9th, 1910 eke ren ti
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOME LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND.—Dr. J. V. Danes, July 28rd, 1910
‘ON SOME NEW FISHES FROM THE QUEENSLAND COAST.—J. Douglas Ogilby, November 20th, 1910...
NOTES ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMA- CUL OF BRISBANE.—JV. R. Colledge, May 28th, 1910 : x? vas
ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA °OF QUEENSLAND.—John Shirley, B.Sc., September 24th, 1910 ie =e nae i ;
A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY.—John Shirley, B.Se., September 24th, 1910...
ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO.— R. Cliffe Mackie, November 26th, 1910
NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO.—W. &. Colledge, February 25th, 1911... ies
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. 107
. 121
ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES.
By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 30th, 1910.
The following paper contains the descriptions of 2 new genera and 24 new species of fishes and of 10 species which either have not previously been recorded from Aus- tralian Seas or of which the criginal descriptions were insufficient or erroneous. Of the 34 species described, all but 7 belong to the Queensland Fauna, the exceptions being
Dobo, Aru Iss. Croker I:., N.T. Sphyrena altipinnis Hemipimelodus colcloughi Cherodon vitta Brachirus aspilos
Valenciennea aruensis Cynoglossus sindensis Coryzichthys guttulatus With the exception of 5, the types of the new species are in the A.F.A.Q.* Museum, these being Xystodus ban- ficldi, Megaprotodon maculiceps, Brachirus salinarum, and B. breviceps in the Queensland Museum, and Spheroides squamicauda in the collection of Mr. J. T. Jameson, of Woody Point. The new genera here proposed are as follows :— i. Xystopus; fam. Synodidet ; type X. banfieldi. li. Cuit1as; fam. Pteropsaride; type Percis stricticeps De Vis. The new species are :— 1. CARCHARIAS SPENCERI; fam. Carchariide; Brisbane River.
* Amateur Fishermen’s Association of Queensland.
+ By Art. 4 of “‘ The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ” we learn that ‘‘ the name of a family is found by adding the ending ide to the root of the name of its type genus.” Plainly therefore the family name should be written as above, not Synodontide, as it is usually given. The same rule applies to all similar generic names ending in such Greek deri- vatives as odus, stoma, etc.
ie.2)
10.
ai:
iZ.
13.
14. 15
16.
ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
. ANCHOVIA ZSTUARIA; fam. EHngraulide; Brisbane
River.
. XYSTODUS BANFIELDI; fam. Synodide; Dunk Island. . HEMIPIMELODUS COLCLOUGHI; fam. Srluride; Croker
Island.
. SPHYRZNA ALTIPINNIS ; fam. Sphyrenide ; Aru Islands. . PRIOPIS OLIVACEUS; fam. Ambasside; Creeks round
Brisbane.
. PRIOPIS NIGRIPINNIS ; fam. Ambasside@ ; Creeks at Kilcoy. . CH@RODON viTTa; fam. Labride; Aru Islands. . MEGAPROTODON MACULICEPS ; fam. Chetodide ; Moreton
Bay.
TRIACANTHUS FALCANALIS ; fam. J'riacanthide ; Moreton Bay.
SPHEROIDES SQUAMICAUDA ; fam. J'etraodide ; Moreton | Bay.
DICOTYLICHTHYS MYERSI; fam. Diodidew; Brisbane Rive.
CHILOMYCTERUS GRANDOCULIS; fam. Diodide; More- -ton Bay. ne
VALENCIENNEA ARUENSIS; fam. Gobiidew; Aru Islands.
RHINOGOBIUS LEFTWICHI; fam. Gobiide ; Great Sandy Strait.
ScoRPNOPSIS PALMERI; fam. Scorpenide; Moreton Bay. ,
. ScORPHNOPSIS MACROCHIR ; fam. Scorpenide ; Moreton
Bay.
. APISTUS BALNEARUM; fam. Scorpenide; Brisbane
River. EROSA FRATRUM; fam. Scorpenide; Moreton Bay.
. EBISINUS PROCNE ; fam. Dactylopteride ; Moreton Bay. . BRACHIRUS SALINARUM; fam. Soletd@; Kimberley,
N.Q.
2 BRACHIRUS BREVICEPS; fam. Soleide ; Rockhampton. . CoRYZICHTHYS GUTTULATUS ; fam. Batrachoidide ; Aru
Islands.
“CALLIONYMUS GROSSI; fam. Callionymide; Moreton
Bay. The redescribed species are :—
. DECAPTERUS ? ECCLIPSIFER (De Vis) ; fam. Carangide ;
insufficiently described. Burris LONGICAUDA (De Vis); fam. Gobside ; insuffi- ciently described.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILRY. 8
‘'3. AMBLYGOBIUS ‘GOBIOIDES (Ogilby)=Gobius cristatus Macleay ; fam. Gobiide; description insufficient.
4. BRACHIRUS ASPILOS (Bleeker); fam. Soleide; new to Australia.
.5. CYNOGLOSSUS SINDENSIS (Day); fam. Soleide; new to Australia.
‘6. CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis); fam. Pteropsaride ; insufficiently described.
‘7. DACTYLOPUS DACTYLOPUS (Bennett); fam. Calliony- mide; new to Australia.
8. PETROSKIRTES FURTIVUS (De Vis); fam. Blenniide; descriptions insufficient.
9. PETROSKIRTES JAPONICUS (Bleeker); fam. Blenniide.
10. PETROSKIRTES ANOLIUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes) ; fam. Blenniide.
CARCHARIID &. ‘CARCHARIAS SPENCERI sp. nov.
Depth of body 6-5, length of head 5-6, predorsal length 3.35, length of caudal 3-6 in length of body. Width of head 1-3, depth of head 1-55, length of snout (preoral length) 3, diameter of eye 11-5, width of interocular 1-6, of internasal 3, of mouth 2 in length of head.
Body robust ; length of head 1-8 in that of the trunk. ‘Snout short and blunt 1-8 in the space between the eye and the Ist gill-opening ; inner angle of nostril nearer to the mouth than to the tip of the snout; ramal length of ‘upper jaw 1-25, length of snout 1:5 in the width of the ‘mouth. Tip of mandible rounded, extending forward to the vertical from the front margin of the eye ; labial folds ‘short, the upper sometimes absent. Teeth oe erect and fully serrated in both jaws ; those of the upper jaw triangular and without a trace of notch on the outer edge, of the lower much narrower with a broad evenly convex serrated base; a small smooth symphysial tooth in each jaw. Space between eye and snout 1-4 in its dis- tance from the Ist gill-opening ; interocular region convex. Head and trunk as long as the tail.
First dorsal inserted a little nearer to the pectoral than to the ventral, its anterior border slightly convex with the outer angle obtusely pointed ; posterior angle produced and acute, not nearly reaching to the vertical
4 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
from the ventral; base of fin rather more than its vertical height. Second dorsal small, inserted a little nearer to the origin of the Ist than to the tip of the tail. Anal originating somewhat behind the 2nd dorsal, its length 1:6 in its distance from the caudal, which is equal to that from the ventral. Caudal long with the upper angle obtusely pointed. Pectoral extending to below or beyond the end of the Ist dorsal, the anterior and posterior borders convex with more or less rounded angles, the outer border emarginate. Space between ventral and anal 1-75 in its distance from. the pectoral.
Last gill-opening not much smaller than the 8rd, which is rather more than twice the eye-diameter.
Above ashy or lead blue, below white; tips of 2nd dorsal, caudal, and pectorals darker. (Named for my friend and colleague Adkins Robert Spencer, to whom I am indebted for the specimen above described).
Seas and estuaries of Eastern Australia, ascending rivers to, and it is said even beyond, the furthest limit of tidal influence, attaining a length of 2-5 mm. It is the common “‘ blue shark ”’ of the Brisbane River.
Described from a specimen 122 cm. long; the jaws of which are in the A.F.A.Q. collection; Cat. No. 290.
ENGRAULID &. ANCHOVIA AZSTUARIA sp. nov.
D. :13-0r 14; A. 31 to 34; P.. 12; V. 7; Se: 40 ordi 9 or 10. Depth of body 3-55, length of head 3-75, of maxillary 4, of anal fin 3-65, of caudal fin 3-75 in the length. of the body. Length of snout 4-4, diameter of eye 4, width of interorbit 4, height of dorsal 1-4, depth of peduncle 2-4, length of pectoral 1-25, of ventral 2-35 in the length of the head.
Upper surface of head linear and oblique, with a well- marked fronto-occipital ridge, the nape anteriorly with a slight but. distinct acclivity ; snout vertically rounded in front and projecting beyond the lower jaw to a distance equaling three fourths of the diameter of the eye ; inter- orbital region strongly convex. Premaxillary, maxillary, and mandible each with a series. of minute teeth ; tongue toothed. Maxillary extending slightly beyond the mandibular articulation. Scales thin and easily detached ;- ventral profile cultrate and rather strongly serrated.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 5
Dorsal fin originating a little behind the ventral and one fifth nearer to the tip of the snout than to the root of the caudal, its length 1-55 in its height ; outer border linear, the last ray not produced. Anterior rays of anal about thrice as long as the middle rays and 1-4 in the height of the dorsal. Middle caudal rays 2 in the lower and longer lobe. Pectoral fin long and pointed, extending to or slightly beyond the base of the ventral. Space between origin of ventral and tip of snout 1-45 in its distance from the root of the caudal.
Gill-rakers long and slender, 24 on the lower branch of the anterior arch, the longest 1-25 in the diameter of the eye. Vertebre 42.
Pale green above; sides and belly silvery; usually a dusky shoulder spot. Longer dorsal rays and caudal lobes narrowly tipped with blackish.
Total length 150 millim.
Rivers of South-Eastern Queensland. Abundant in the Brisbane River, where it is taken commonly in the prawn nets. but is not used as food.
Described from numerous specimens measuring from 72 to 150 millimeters. |
Allied to A. nasuta (Castelnau)* from the Norman River, Carpentaria, from which it may be distinguished by the following characters :—
Depth of body rather more than 3-00, length of head 4.50 in length of body ; dorsal originating midway between tip of snout and base of caudal .. i nasuta
Depth of body rather less than 3- 50, length of head 3.75 in length of body; dorsal originating one fifth nearer
to tip of snout than to base of caudal .. .. estuaria
Type in the Museum of the A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 496.
SYNODID. XYSTODUS7 gen. nov.
Body depressed. No lateral line. Teeth in the jaws unequal and uniserial, consisting of long compressed w idely separated sagittate fangs, having between each pair one or two much shorter obtusely pointed teeth ; palatine teeth
ee ee a enna e EIDE snes *Engraulus nasutus Castlenau, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, iii, 1879, p. 5). tévarov, & spear ; ddovs, a tooth.
6 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
of equal size, acicular and biserial, forming a long narrow band; hyoid bones with two series of strong teeth; a multiserial patch anteriorly on the tongue. Nostrils well separated, the anterior circular and cirrigerous, the posterior an oblique slit below the level of the anterior. Eye rather small, the adipose lid rudimentary. Dorsal fin inserted midway between the tip of the snout and the root of the caudal ; no adipose fin; anal fin similar to but longer than: the dorsal ; pectorals small and rounded ; ventrals 8-rayed. Vent much nearer to the ventral than to the anal. Other- wise as in Saurida. Coast of North Queensland (Dunk Island).
XYSTODUS BANFIELDI sp. nov.
D. rl; A. 14; P..13; Se. 61-13. Depth of body 77) length of head 3-6, of caudal fin 5-5 in length of body. Length of snout 4-25, diameter of eye 6-8, width of inter- orbit 8-5, cleft of mouth 1-6, height of dorsal 1-9, length of pectoral 2-25, of ventral 1-1 in length of head.
Body slender, a little wider than deep. Frontal groove smooth in front, profusely pierced by small pores behind, continuous with the occipital groove. Diameter of eye 1°6 in the length of the snout ; adipose lid vestigial ; inter- orbital region concave, its width 1:25 in the eye-diameter.
Dorsal fin nearly as high as long, the tip of the longest ray, when depressed, barely reaching to the base of the last. Anal fin originating midway between the root of the caudal and the origin of the ventral, about thrice as long as high, and one-fourth longer than the dorsal. Middle caudal rays 2-5 in the lower lobe ; caudal peduncle as deep as wide, without trace of lateral ridge. Pectoral fin extends. to above the end of the base of the ventral, which is inserted a little nearer to the anal than to the tip of the mandible and well in advance of the dorsal, the 6th ray longest,. not reaching to the vent.
Lilac, each scale of the back with a dark median stripe, which is often forked distally and form together narrow longitudinal pencillings, of which there are about nine ; a purplish lateral band about half a scale wide from the upper part of the opercle to the root of the caudal, dividing the lilac of the back from the yellowish white of the lower half of the body; anteriorly, to above the pectoral the band is black, and from its lower edge it throws
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. cs
off twelve short subcruciform bars to enroach on the lighter color below ; these bars are much larger and darker in front and gradually fade away behind. Head spotted with violet and with transverse dark-edged bands between the eyes and three similar bands directed forwerd and downward from the eye to and upon the premaxillary. Base and middle rays of caudal and base of pectoral yellow. (Named for Edward James Banfield, Honorary Govern- ment Ranger of Dunk Island and the neighboring islets, to whose acute observation Queensland science is greatly indebted for its knowledge of the biology of the district).
Described from a specimen in the Queensland Museum collected by Mr. Banficld, near Dunk Island, and measuring 142 millim.
SILURID &. HEMIPIMELODUS COLCLOUGHI SP. Nov.
D. 16,0; A. 17; P.112. Depth of body 4-55, length of head 3-25, predorsal length 2-35, interdorsal space 3-4, upper caudal lobe 4-2 in length of body. Width of head 1-45, length of snout 2-5, diameter of eye 5-45, width of interorbit 2-9, length of maxillary barbel 1:25, of dorsal spine 1-65, of anal fin 2-25, of pectoral spine 1-8, of ventray fin 2 in length of head.
Upper profile of head linear and but little oblique ; diameter of eye 2-2 in the snout, which is feebly rounded and one fourth wider than long ; interorbital region gently convex, its width equal to that of the mouth. Pre- maxillary teeth in a continuous band, which is somewhat undulous posteriorly, pointed at the extremities, and nearly 4 times as long as wide; mandibular band divided mesially, of nearly equal width throughout, but narrowing rather abruptly to a point externally. Barbels slender, the maxillary extending to the origin of the pectoral fin; postmental barbel 1-5 in the maxillary barbel, inserted but little behind and outside the mental barbel, which scarcely reaches the gill-opening. Cranial shield mostly smooth, with a patch of small granules on either side, and a more crowded mesial patch posteriorly, from which two or three rapidly diminishing series extend forward along each side of the occipital groove. Nuchal shield sparsely granular anteriorly, with a well-marked median ridge, on either side of which is a lower and slightly divergent
8 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
ridge, its greatest width 1:4 in its length, which is 2-6 in its distance from the tip of the snout ; outer border deeply, posterior feebly emarginate. Dorsal buckler moderate, saddle-shaped, smooth. Humeral process smooth and broadly triangular, terminating in an acute point, and extending along the proximal third of the pectoral spine.
Dorsal spine slender, serrated in front and behind, the sides striated; adipose fin moderate, inserted above the middle of the anal, one third higher than long, its base 1-65 in that of the rayed dorsal. Anal fin as high as long. with the outer border fecbly emarginate. Least depth of caudal peduncle 2 in its length behind the adipose fin. Pectoral spine curved, similar to but more strongly serrated than that of the dorsal. Ventral fin obtusely pointed, not reaching to the anal. Vent a little nearer to the anal than to the ventral.
Gill-membranes meeting at a very obtuse angle, the free margin moderate ; axillary pore minute.
Upper surface of body pale leaden blue, of head and nape brown, darkest on the latter; a bluish patch above the eye; checks, preorbitals, edges of mandibular rami, and humeral processes strongly tinged with yellow ; lower surface of head lilac, of body bluish white. Dorsal fin pale blue, the basal portion and the spine gray; adipose fin with a narrow whitish border; lobes of caudal and bases of anal and ventrals yellow, the middle rays of the former and the tips of the two latter pale blue; pectorals pale blue, the spine gray. (Named for its discoverer, Mr. John Colclough).
Described from a specimen, measuring 202 millim., taken at Croker Island, N.T., and presented by its collector to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 993.
SPHYRAINID A.
SPHYRZNA ALTIPINNIS sp. nov.
D. v-19; P. 15: Se. 1812824. Depth of oeae 7-15, of caudal peduncle 14-4, length of head, 3-2, of caudal fin 4:55, of pectoral 8-75, predorsal length 2-45 in length of body. Length of snout 2-15, diameter of eye 5-15, width of interorbit 6-85 in length of body.
Body robust, its width 1-4 in its depth. Depth of head subequal to the postorbital region ; diameter of eye
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 9
2-4 in the snout; interorbital region feobly convex. Maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the eye, its distance from which is 3, its greatest width 2-2 in the eye-diameter ; lower jaw without fleshy appendage. Premaxillary teoth about 54 on each ramus; posterior canine much the larger; 4 enlarged palatine teeth, the second the strongest ; mandible with 9 lateral teeth, the canine sinistral. Operclo with a weak spine. Cheeks and opercles scaly ; upper surface of head naked.
Dorsal fin originating well in advance of the tip of the appressed pectoral ; dorsal spines flexible, the second the longest, 1:35 in the length of the snout; soft dorsal higher than the spinous, its last ray produced. Anal originating below the middle of, terminating well behind, and similar in size and shape to the soft dorsal. Middle caudal rays 3 in the upper and longer lobe ; depth of ped- uncle one and one sixth time the diameter of the eye. Pectoral fin 1:25 in the length of the snout and extending well beyond the origin of the ventral. Ventral inserted below the origin of the spinous dorsal and midway between the tip of the mandible and the middle of the anal, its length 1:45 in the snout.
Ne elongate gill-raker.
Above purple, each of the scales with a light centre ; sides silvery, crossed by fourteen vertical purple bars, the first behind the tip of the pectoral, the last above the end of the anal; lower surface pearly white; dcrsal fins blackish ; caudal grayish brown, darkest above; aral, ventrals, and pectorals gray, the anterior rays of the former and the outer rays of the two latter dusky.
Total length 405 millimeters.
Described from a single specimen obtained at the Aru Islands by Mr. John Colclough.
Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum., Cat. No. 1066.
CARANGID &.
DECAPTERUS ? ECCLIPSIFER (De Vis).* Peete. 1 28 iP. 21: Sc. 1245 E186. Depth of body 4°30, length of head 3°65, height of soft dorsal 8°90, of anal 9°30, length of pectoral 3°75 in
*Caranz ecclipsifer De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, p. 541: Cape York.
10 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
length of body. Length of snout 2°80 diameter of eye 3°15, width of interorbit 4:20, length of maxillary 2°66, of mandible 2°10, height of spinous dorsal 1°80, length of ventral 2°00 in length of head.
Body elongate-elliptical, somewhat compressed, its width 1:50 in its depth, the dorsal and ventral profiles about equally convex. Depth of head 1:50 in its length ; snout pointed, longer than the eye-diameter, which con- siderably exceeds the feebly convex interorbital width ; adipose lid greatly developed, extending well over the preorbital and opercular regions, and leaving uncovered only a narrow vertical slit, of which the pupil is the centre ; cranio-nuchal ridge moderate, extending forward on the snout ; lower jaw the longer; maxillary scarcely extending to the level of the eye, the width of its emarginate distal extremity 2°50 in the eye-diameter. A narrow band of fine teeth in the jaws; vomer, palate, ptergyoids, and tongue smooth.
Scales smooth, in regular series; throat and breast scaly ; occiput, posterior half of interorbit, inner half of opercle and subopercle, interopercle, and cheeks scaly ; head elsewhere naked ; soft dorsal and anal fins with a low basal scaly sheath. Lateral line straight to above the middle of the appressed pectoral, thence gently curved to below the anterior third of the soft dorsal, beyond which it is again straight ; posterior portion 1-40 in the anterior, bearing 31 plates, which are well developed posteriorly, where each is armed with a strong sharp spine ; anteriorly the line is continued in a wide loop over the nape, meeting its fellow immediately behind the nuchal ridge, and forming a definite boundary between the minute occipital and the larger body scales ; the loop itself is bisected by a short supplementary line, which passes forwerd along the interorbit and backward over about 7 scales. Caudal peduncle withcut subsidiary keels.
Spinous dorsal originating behind the base of the pectoral, the 3rd spine longest, two fifths longer than the 2nd ray, which reaches, when depressed, to the base of the 9th ray ; origin of soft dorsal above the vent. Detached anal spines strong and subequal, 2-25 in the eye-diameter, united basally by membrane to one another and to 3rd spine, which is inserted below the 6th dorsal ray ; anal
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. Til fin one third longer than the abdomen, its*anterior lobe- about as high as the soft dorsal. Caudal fin forked, the middle rays shorter than the eye; caudal peduncle wider than deep. Pectoral fin slightly curved, extending to below the origin of the soft dorsal. Ventral small, reaching midway to the base of the 2nd anal spine.
Gill-rakers long and slender, 13-35, the longest 1-80: in the eye-diameter, but not quite so long as the middle fringes.
Above olive green, lightest on the head, below pearly white ; a blackish opercular spot ; base of pectoral dark ; fins colorless.
Described from a Moreton Bay specimen, 230 millim. long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1134.
AMBASSID &. PRIOPIS OLIVACEUS sp. nov. ,
DP vali, * i. 7 Al a 8s -Pal2 + Se.:23-15 » LALO t0-4:: Depth of body 2-55, of caudal peduncle 6-6, length of head 2°85, of caudal fin 2-85 in length of body. Length of snout 4:1, diameter of eye 3, width of interorbit 4:35, longest dorsal spine 1-65, longest anal 2-15, length of pectoral 1-25, of ventral 1-4 in length of head.
Upper profile of head linear, the nape convex with an appreciable median ridge ; interorbital region convex ; maxillary scarcely extending to below the anterior border of the eye. Preopercle with 5 or 6 strong spines at and below the angle. Head scales as large as those of the body.
Procumbent dorsal spine well developed; spinous dorsal originating above the 4th body-scale, the 3rd spine longest and strongest, a little higher than the rayed dorsal ; spine of soft dorsal 1-35 in the height of the spinous dorsal. Anal fin originating below the 12th body-scale ; 3rd spine longest, as long as that of the soft dorsal, a little longer than the base of the fin, and 1-35 in the Ist ray, which is as high as that of the dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked, the middle rays about half as long as the lobes. Third and 4th pectoral rays longest, extending to the 10th body- scale. Ventral shorter than the pectoral, the two outer rays longest, reaching to the vent, the spine as long as the 3rd anal spine.
Green above, yellowish white below; a black line,
* The procumbent spine included.
12 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
‘which is feebly curved anteriorly, from the upper angle of the opercle to the root of the caudal ; the scales forming the series through which this line runs are profusely dotted with black, as also are the edges of all the scales above the line, and antericrly the surface of the scales is similarly but more sparsely dotted; two or three series of body- ‘scales below the line and the scales of the tail with a single marginal series of black dots. Upper surface of head and nape and the opercles so profusely dotted as almost to obscure the ground color; cheeks and lower surface of head less closely dotted. Al] the fins similarly marked, — the dots b2ing most crowded on the membrane of the second dorsal spine, the tips of the anterior anal rays, and the middle ventral rays.
Abundant in all creeks and waterholes in the Brisbane district. Description taken from a 50 millim. example in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, to which it was presented by Mr. W. E. Weatherill ; Cat. No. 463.
PRIOPIS NIGRIPINNIS sp. nov.
D. vi, i8; A.i11.8; P. 10; Sc. 25-12; L. 0 to6,. Depan of body 2-85, of caudal peduncle 7-9, length of head 2°9, of caudal fin 2:8 in length of body. Length of snout 3:8, diameter of eye 2:8, width of intcrorbit 4-05, longest dorsal spine 1-5, longest anal 1-95, length of pectoral 1:3, of ventral 1:45 in length of head.
Upper profile of head linear, the nape feebly convex and with a well defined median ridge ; interorbital region convex ; maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the eye. Preopercle with a few streng spines at the angle. Head scales as large as those of the body.
No procumbent dorsal spine ; spinous dorsal fin origin- ating above the 7th body scale, the Ist spine longest and ‘strongest, somewhat higher than the rayed dorsal; spine of soft dorsal 1-3 in the height of the spinous dorsal. Anal fin originating below the 14th body-scale, the 3rd _ spine longest, as long as that of the soft dorsal, a trifle longer than the base of the fin, and equal to the Ist ray, which is higher than that of the dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked, the middle rays about two fifths of the length of the lobes. Fourth pectoral ray longest, extending to the llth body scale. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral, the two
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 18
outer rays longest, reaching slightly beyond the vent, the spine as long as the 8rd anal spine.
Uniform violaceous brown, somewhat lighter bclow ; edges of all the upper scales clouded with numerous black dots; lower scales and those of the head with scattered dots ; a narrow black line from the tip of the appressed pectoral to the root of the caudal. Fins dusky; mem- brane of first dorsal spine densely powdered with blackish spots ; tips of the anterior soft dorsal and anal rays black.
Inland creeks in the Moreton District. Description taken from a 45 millim. example in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, obtained in Kilecy Creek by Dr. T. Bancroft, and presented. by him to the Association. Cat. No. 1342.
LABRID. CH@RODON VITTA sp. nov.
D. xii 7; A. ti 10; P. 16: Se. 3-27-2-10. Depth of body 2-9, of caudal peduncle 7-7, length of head 3-15, of middle caudal rays 5-9, of pectoral and ventral fins 4:5 in length of body. Length of snout 2:45, diameter of eye 4-1, width of interorbit 3-5, last dorsal spine 3-05, last anal. spine 2-9 in length of head.
Dorsal profile of body evenly and gently rounded,. not appreciably higher than the ventral profile, its highest point above the middle of the appressed pectoral. Head about one sixth longer than deep; upper profile of snout. gently rounded and moderately declivous ; eye moderate, its diameter rather less than the depth of the preorbital.. Cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior nostril.. Anterior canines large ; lateral mandibular teeth without prominent tips; no posterior canine. Preopercle finely serrated. Cheeks with eight series of small subimbricate scales ; some of the opercular scales larger than the breast- scales ; scales at the base of the caudal angulated and but little enlarged.
Soft dorsal and anal fins low, rounded and subequal in height posteriorly, scarcely extending to the caudal fin, and with a low scaly sheath. Caudal fin emarginate. Fourth pectoral ray slightly longer than the third, reaching to below the tenth scale of the lateral line. Outer ventral ray the longest, extending to the vent.
Reddish brown, darkest above; two to four narrow, sometimes anastomosing, silvery lines on the cheeks and
14 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
preorbitals ; a broad blackish band along the middle of the body from behind the eye to the caudal peduncle, separated by a short interspace from a large oval black ‘spot in front of the root of the caudal; fins uniform pale rufous.
Total length (of type) 190 millim.
Aru Islands.
Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1394.
In company with the West Australian C. rubescens and the East Australian C. macleayi this Tuskfish forms a well-marked group, characterized by the smaller size, more slender habit, and uniform or nearly uniform colora- tion, which in the species mentioned is rufous brown in marked contrast to the more brilliant livery of the larger species. With these three should also be associated De Vis’ C. olivaceus.
CHATODID. MEGAPROTODON MACULICEPS sp. nov. \
D. xiv 18; A. iv. 15: Se. 6-46-15; Ll. 36. Depth -of body 1-75, length of head 3-15, of pectoral fin 3-4, of ventral 3-4 in length of body. Diameter of eye 2-4, width -of interorbit 2.75, longest dorsal spine 1.35, longest anal 1-25, length of caudal J-5, depth of peduncle 2-75 in length of head.
Upper profile of head moderately steep and undulous owing to a slight protuberance above the posterior half of the eye. Snout slightly produced and obtusely pointed, 1:25 in the eye-diameter ; interorbital regicn convex ; jaws equal; maxillary extending to below the anterior nostri’. Preopercle serrated. Scales mcderate, those on the middle of the trunk somewhat larger than the anterior scales and much larger than those on the tail, which rapidly decrease ‘in size posteriorly : lateral line but little arched in front, not extending to the caudal peduncle.
Dorsal fin broadly anal narrowly rounded behind, the spinous portion of the former twice as long as the soft portion; 4th and 5th dorsal spines equal and longest, a little longer than the soft rays. Second anal spine longest and strongest, somewhat longer than the dorsal spines and one fourth longer than the rays, which are slightly shorter than those of the dorsal. Caudal fin feebly rounded. Pectoral pointed, the 4th ray longest, reaching
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 1d
to the 12th body-scale. Ventral as long as the pectoral, extending to the vent.
Colors (after long immersion in alcohol). Pale rufous, with five rather wide dark longitudinal bands following the curvature of the back above the lateral line and twelve much narrower linear bars below ; a large black elliptical spot covers the upper middle portion of the side from above the middle of the pectoral fin to below the anterior third of the soft dorsal; about two thirds of it are below the rest above the lateral line, and the twe lower longi- tudinal bands and three upper bars are lost in it ; a large oval black spot on the side of the tail, partly below the end of the soft dorsal and partly on the peduncle, across the upper edge of which it extends but does not reach the lower border. Ocular band running from a short distance in front of the dorsal through the eye to the inter- opercle, darkest superiorly, and somewhat interrupted by a lighter spot where it leaves the nape; opercle with several large dark brown spots. Soft dorsal and anal fins each with a narrow dark inframarginal band, which extends forward on the former to the posterior raysf; caudal fin with a wide pale brown basal and a dark brown subarcuate median band.
Described from a Moreton Bay specimen, measuring ‘75 millimeters, in the collection of the Queensland Museum.
Closely allied to Megaprotodon plebius*, from which it differs chiefly in the color markings. The lateral blotch bears a close resemblance to that of Chetodon speculumt as figured by Bleeker{, but is more pointed at either end.
TRIACANTHIDA. TRIACANTHUS FALCANALIS sp. nov.
D. v or vi—22 or 23; A.18; P. 16. Depth of body 2-75, length of head 3-35, of snout 4.85, of first dorsal spine 3°55, of ventral spine 4:3, of pelvic bone 5-, of soft dorsal 3°55, of anal 5-5, of caudal 3-85, of caudal peduncle 5-1 in length of body. Diameter of eye 3-85, width of inter-
“Chetodon plebeius Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 1789, i, p. 1269... In Turton’s transjation, 1806, no mention is made of this species.
t Chetodon speculum (Kuhl & v. Hasselt) Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss, vii, 1831, p. 73,
t Atlas Ichth, pl. cccuxxy, fig. 3.
16 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISdES
orbit 3-65, of gill-opening 4-6, height of soft dorsal 3-55, of anal 2-5 length of pectoral 2-3 in length of head.
Upper profile of snout linear, its length 1:45 in that cf the head and 1-35 in the space between the eye and the soft dorsal. Distance of eye from gill-opening 1:15 in the diameter of the eye, which is 1-5 in its distance from the dorsal spine; interorbital region concave (nearly flat in large examples), without indication of a median ridge. Gill-opening entirely behind the eye, commoncing in front of the lower third of the pectoral.
Dorsal spine feebly curved or straight, tapering to an acute point, inserted abcve the base of the pectoral, and entirely covered with coarse granules, which ere some- what more cnlarged and pointed in front and behind, its distance from the soft dorsal 2:3 in that from the tip of the snout; soft dorsal with rounded outline, the highest part about the end of its first third, where it is 3-4 in its length. Anal fin much higher than the soft dorsal, below the eleventh or twelfth ray of which it originates and with which it is conterminous ; its outline is deeply emarginate, the anterior rays being produced and falciform, 1-5 in the base of the fin, which is 1°55 in that of the soft dorsal. Caudal fin deeply forked, the middle rays 3-25 in that of the outer; caudal peduncle distally cylindrical. Base of pectoral fin 1-5 in the width of the gill-opening. Ventral spines reaching to or not quite to the vent. Pelvic bone. tapering to a point behind.
Silvery, washed with bronze above; two large oval dark blotches on the back, one below each dorsal fin anteriorly ; two similar blotches on the side, the one above the other behind the pectoral; bese, lower half of mem- brane, and outer half of dorsal spine except the extreme tip blackish.
Total length 260 millim.
Coast of Southern Queensland. Brisbane River and. Moreton Bay, common.
Described from six examples, measuring from 150 to. 256 milimeters.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. ie.
TETRAODID &. SPHEROIDES SQUAMICAUDA Sp. nov. SCALY-TAILED TOAD-FISH.
D. 9; A. 7; P. 15. Depth of body (at the vent) 4-2, length of head 3 in length of body. Diameter of eye 2:6, width of interocular region 6-25, height of dorsal 1-45, length of caudal 1:15, of pectoral 1-5 in length of head.
Body robust, evenly and gently rounded to above the middle of the pectoral fins, beyond which it slopes downward to the caudal. Anterior profile of head linear and slightly oblique, the mouth below the level of the eye ; length of head a little less than that of the trunk. Eye large, narrowly free below, its diameter about equal to the length of the snout ; interocular region narrow and concave, its width 2-4 in the eye. Nostrils pierced in a conspicuous rounded tentacle. A narrow band round the lips and an ovate gular patch naked; rest of head and trunk closely studded with flexible spintles, which do not quite extend to the dorsal fin above nor to the vent below, but are con- tinued backward on the upper side to below the origin of the dorsal where it meets the lateral line, the intervening border concave; between the lateral line and the vent there is also a naked embayment stretching forward to the tips of the appressed pectoral rays; tail spineless, with a low ridge on either side of the lateral line, each of which bears a series of unarmed squamiform processes. Latera} line forming a gentle curve to below the orgin of the dorsal, thence straight to the caudal fin; a linear connecting line across the nape, beyond which the main line curves gradually downward to behind the lower third of the eye where it trifurcates, the middle branch passing directly forward to the angle of the mouth, the others branching off at right angles, the upper eventually curving forward above the eye to between the nostrils, the lower ceasing in front of the inferior angle of the gill-opening. Sides of tail with a well-developed ridge. Width of gill-opening rather more than the base of the pectoral, and extending well above it, the inner flap not protruding, the outer with a flat tentacular process on its lower half.
Dorsal fin falcate, with the extreme tip rounded, its length 2-85 in its height. Anal rounded, originating
B—Royau Socrery.
18 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
below the middle of the dorsal, than which it is much shorter and lower. Caudal fin elongate and rounded, as long as the peduncle. Outer edge of pectoral linear above rounded below.
Upper surface lilaceous with numerous small blackish spots; sides gray, profusely dotted with darker; a moderately wide dusky band separates the two colors on the tail running just below the lateral line ; under surface immaculate white: fins colorless.
Total length 80 millim.
Coast of Southern Queensland.
Described from the single example known.
DIODONTID. DICOTYLICHTHYS MYERSI sp. nov.
D. 12; A. 11; P. 20. Width of body 2°85, depth of body 2:85, length of head 2-70 in the length of the body. Length of snout 3:50, diameter of eye 3-05, width of inter- orbit 2:00, height of dorsal and anal fins 2-00, length of caudal 1:50, of pectoral 2-00 in the length of the head.
Snout linear, rest of head convex above ; mouth below the level of the eye. Head much longer and a little deeper than wide, its length 1:30 in the trunk. Eye moderate, without free lid; interorbital region concave. Nasal tentacle bifurcate. Spines of head and lower surface erectile, of back and sides fixed, the abdominal and sub- caudal spines much smaller than the others, which are of about equal size throughout, the longest pair being on each side of the caudal peduncle and not so long as the diameter of the eye; no turbinal nor preorbital spines ; frontal region with a conspicuous median spine, out- side and behind which is a pair of rather smaller lateral spines; inside and behind these are yet another pair, the inner roots of which overlap one another; beyond these again are three other pairs similarly arranged, while the hinder border of the occiput is armed with a single spine corresponding to the frontal spine ; two short, widely separated supraorbital spines, followed by a series of eight spines, the first three belonging to the temporal region, the last below the dorsal; cheeks and opercles with short sharp spines; caudal peduncle with two pairs, the bases of the upper far overlapping above. Gill-opening narrower than the base of the pectoral.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 19
Vertical fins rounded, the length of the dorsal some- what more than that cf the anal, which is inserted almost wholly behind the dorsal, and about 2-50 in their respective
heights ; caudal fin rounded, the peduncle deeper than wide : pectoral undulous, the upper angle slightly produced, the lower broadly rounded, the width of its base more than the eye-diameter.
Uniform olive-brown, shading into lavender or dull white below ; lower part of the sides and entire under surface of the body, with small black spots ; a black vertical band below the eye, a second in front of the gill-opening, and a third below the tip of the appressed pectoral. Fins uniform gray.
Total length 290 millim.
Coast of South-Eastern Queensland.
Described from three Moreton Bay _ specimens, measuring from 200 to 290 millimeters.
Type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, to which it was pre- sented by Mr. Harry Myers, of Brisbane, after whom I have great pleasure in naming it.
This species is easily distinguishable from D. punc- tulatus* by the small size of the abdominal spines, which are much shorter than those of the back and sides, and from D. jaculiferust by the conspicuous mid-frontal spines, the absence of the elongate pectoral spines, and _ the formula of the vertical fins.
CHILOMYCTERUS GRANDOCULIS sp. nov.
D. 12; A. 11; P. 21. Width of body 2:25, depth of ‘body, 2-50, length of head 2-60 in the length of the body. Length of snout 2-85, diameter of eye 2-20, width of inter- orbit 1-85, height of dorsal fin 1-80, of anal 1-95, length of caudal 1-35, of pectoral 1-80 in the length of the head.
Snout linear, rest of head convex; mouth below the level of the eye ; head as wide as long and two fifths wider than deep, its length 1:30 in the trunk. Eye large, without free lid; interorbital region flat, the supraciliary edges slightly raised. Nasal tentacle compressed and simple. A short strong turbinal spine; a much smaller preorbital spine ; frontal region with a single median spine, its point reduced to a blunt tubercle, or more rarely a pair
* Kaup, Arch. f. Nat., 1885, p. 230: Cape Seas and Mauritius. + Diodon jaculiferus Cuvier, Mém. Mus., 1818, p. 130.
20 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
of similar spines arranged transversely ; three supraorbital spines, the last pair close together and well separated from the first, followed by a similarly arranged temporal series of three, the last above the base of the pectoral ; cheek- spines not piercing the skin ; a few small opercular spines : spines of body strong and fixed, those in front short, quickly increasing in length backward the tip of the appressed pectoral ; four spines in an irregular row behind the temporal series; a single greatly produced movable spine behind the middle of the base of the pectoral, its length equaling the interorbital width; a similar but somewhat shorter spine behind the lower angle of the pectoral ; middle series of abdominal spines short and blunt ; pedurcle naked. Gill-opening much narrower than the base of the pectoral.
Vertical fins rounded, the length of the dorsal 2-20, that of the anal, which is inserted behind the dorsal, 2-85 in their respective heights: caudal fin rounded, the peduncle deeper than wide; pectoral emarginate, the width of its base equal to the eye-diameter.
Dull violet or olive-green above, the tips of some of the spines darker, below white; sides with three usually circular black spots, the first in front of the lower angle of the gill-opening, with often a smaller spot above it; the second below or just behind the middle of the border of the appressed pectoral, sometimes with a smaller spot below and behind it ; the third midway between the origins of the vertical fins ; all these spots surround the base of a spine, and occasionally the third temporal spine is similarly favored. Fins pale brown, the caudal with a darker tip.
Total length 250 millim.
Coast of Southern Queensland (Brisbane River and Moreton Bay).
Four examples, measuring from 130 to 250 millimeters have been examined in the preparation of this article.
This species, the common “ Porcupine-Fish” of the Moreton Bay Fishermen is easily distinguishable from all the other Chilomyctert not orly by the size of the eyes, but especially by the two erectile dagger-like spines, which protect the pectoral region on each side.
Type in the collection of the A.F.A.Q., to which it was presented by Mr. Charles Sigley ; Cat. Ne. 41.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 91
GOBITD. VALENCIENNEA ARUENSIS sp. nov.
D. vi, i12; A. i112; P. 19: Se. 92-42. Depth of body 5:1, of caudal peduncle 9-1, length of head 3:5, of soft dorsal, 3:35, of caudal fin 2-5 in length of body. Length of snout 2-7, diameter of eye 5-1, width of interorbit 5:5, length of. maxillary 2-6, longest dorsal spine 1:25, last. dorsal ray 1:55 (¢) 1-9 (Q), length of pectoral 1:25, of ventral 1-8 in length of head.
Depth of head 1-65, width of head 1:4 in its length. Snout evenly rounded above, nearly twice as long as the diameter of the eye; interorbital region flat; maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the eye.
Spinous dorsal originating above the base of the pec- toral, the 3rd spine produced; last dorsal ray longest, extending well on the rudimentary caudal rays, 1:2 (¢@) 1-6 (Q) in the 3rd spine. Anal fin originating midway be- tween the root of the caudal and the vertical limb of the preopercle and below the 2nd ray of the soft dorsal, with which it is conterminous, the last ray much shorter than (g¢) or as long as (9) that of the dorsal. Caudal fincuneate : caudal peduncle short and stout, as deep as long. Pectoral reaching to below the origin of the soft dorsal. Ventral extending more than half way to the vent, the 3rd or 4th ray longest.
Width of gill-opening twice the diameter of the eye ; 7 gill-rakers on the lower branch of the anterior arch, the longest 2-5 in the eye.
Pale olive-green, the back with ten broad darker cross-bands, of which two are on the nape, two below the spinous dorsal, four below the soft dorsal, and two on the peduncle ; these bands are much darker, sometimes almost black, marginally than mesially, the middle portion being but little darker than the ground color; sides of head and body with two chestnut stripes, the upper from the tip of the snout to the below middle of the soft dorsal, the lower from behind the eye to the upper third of the caudal, the - former bisecting, the latter forming the lower border of the cross-bands ; below these again is a series of six dark spots, which are connected with one another inferiorly, so as to form a third rather obscure stripe between the base of the
22 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
pectoral and the lower third of the caudal, and transversely with the median stripe by narrow cross-bars, which may be interrupted or even absent. Head without spots; snout and opercles dull violaceous brown; two narrow silvery undulous bands from and above the corner of the mouth to the opercle, upon which the lower curves upward and forms a junction with the upper; they are also united by a narrow bar along the edge of the preopercie, and the upper bar is occasionally produced forward across the lip ; there are sometimes two similar short bars in front of the eye. Spinous dorsal with a black terminal spot on the membrane of the third spine and with six narrow undulous bars running obliquely upward and backward from its base; anal with an indistinct infrabasal band; caudal colorless, or with several obscure cross-bands, or with small but distinct purple spots on its basal half inferiorly, and always with a wide terminal silver-edged violet band. Described from 4 Aru Island specimens in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, the largest and type 120 millim.: Cat. No. 986.
BuTIs LONGICAUDA (De Vis).
BD. vi, 97: A: 9; P18 or 19: Sc: 29 or 30-10°or Te Depth of body 4-7, of caudal peduncle 8-4, length of head 2-9, of caudal fin 4 in length of body. Depth of head 2:5, width of head 1-66, length of snout 2-66, diameter of eye 5-75, width of interorbit 4-25, length of maxillary 2-66, longest dorsal ray 2-2, longest anal 2, length of pectoral 1:45 in length of head.
Snout greatly depressed, more than twice the diameter of the eye; interorbital region flat, broader in the male than in the female or young* ; supraciliary ridge crenulate ; maxillary varying much with age and sex, extending nearly to or slightly beyond the anterior border of the eye.
Head almost whelly scaly, the scales on the upper surface small; lower surface of head, extremity of snout, nasal region, maxillaries, and a pair of narrow channels extending from the snout along the frontal region, inside the supraciliary ridges, to and beyond the postero-superior border of the eye, and thence to the upper angle of the
*In a fine male measuring 140 millim. the width of the interorbital region is 3°75 in the length of the head, ina female of 135 millim. the same measurement is 4°35.
BY J. DOUGLAS CGILBY. 293
opercle naked. Most of the scales of the body and opercles with from 1 to 4 subsidiary squamule.
Third dorsal spine longest a little shorter than the snout and 1:35 in the longest ray.* Anal fin originating below the 2nd dorsal ray and conterminous with the soft dorsal, its last ray in both sexes longest but not reaching to the caudal. Caudal fin rounded, the peduncle long, 2-2 times as long as deep.t Pectoral fin reaching to the origin of the 2nd dorsal. Ventral rather more than midway to the anal.
Dark chestnut brown or purple, uniform or with the scales of the lower sides and tail narrowly edged with yellow. Dorsal, anal, caudal, and ventral fins purple, the anterior borders and the tips of the dorsals, the upper berder and tips of the upper rays of the caudal, and the tips of the anal and ventral rays crimson, fading into saffron or white after brief immersion in a preservative ; occa- sionally the whole 2nd dorsal is crimson with the exception of a basal purple band ornamented with a few clear spots ; caudal and sometimes the last anal rays also with clear spots, which may be large and few in number, but are more commonly small and crcwded; pectorals uniform yellow, with a large black white-edged basal ocellus.
The ‘‘ Crimson-tip Gudgeon”’ attains a length of 200 millim. and is one of the most common estuary fishes of our southern Queensland Rivers, ard its presence may always be anticipated in any ccllection from the streams running into Mcreton Bay. Personally I have examined specimens from the Tweed River, t Nerang Creek, the Logan, Brisbane, and Pine River., Nocsa Creek, ard the Mary River, and its range probably extends well beyond these limits. IS may always be reccgnised by the crimson (white) tips to the fins and by the squamule which cover the anterior portion of the scaies, and which are absent in ail our other eleotrins. The only substance found in the stomach of the specimen dissected was the head of a small
*In the male fish the last dorsal ray is the longest and is considerably produced beyond the others, in the female the 2nd or 3rd ray is the longest, 1‘5 time the length of the last ray.
+ The peduncle is more slender in the immature than in the adult.
t Thus adding another genus and species of eleotrin to the fauna of New South Wales.
24 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
fish, apparently some species of goby. These little fishes are said to be excellent eating.
Described from 5 recent examples from the Brisbane River, and 1 each from the Tweed and Mary Rivers and Noosa Creek, the measurements of the 8 specimens being from 75 to 140 millim. I have also examined De Vis’ types from the Brisbane River, as also a specimen from the same source, to which is attached the Museum label ‘* Eleotris papa De Vis”; and yet another, without locality, labeled ‘‘ Hleotris aporos.”?’ From this species, which belongs to the allied genus Ophiocara, it may easily be distinguished by the small size of the occipital scales, which in O. aporos are as large as those of the body.
RHINOGOBIUS LEFTWICHI sp. nov.
D. vi, 10;. A..10.; P. 16: Sc. 30 to 32-10. _ Depths body 4:6, of caudal peduncle 8-85, length of head 3-5, of caudal fin 3-6 in length of body. Length of snout 2-95, diameter of eye 3°85, longest dorsal spine 1-5, length of anal 1:25, of pectoral 1:15, of ventral 1-2 in length of head.
Depth of head 1-5, width of head 1-45 in its length. Diameter of eye 1-3 in the length of the snout ; width of concave interorbital region less than one third of the dia- meter of the eye; cleft of mouth ne to below the posterior nostril.
Third dorsal spine longest, rather less than the space between its base and the preopercle ; soft dorsal and anal fins but little lower than the spinous dorsal. Anal origi- nating below the 8rd dorsal ray and conterminous with the soft dorsal. Base of pectoral 2-6 in its length. Ventral not reaching to the vent.
Pale yellowish brown, all the scales, except those along the ventral profile, edged with dark brown; in half grown examples there is a row of darker blotches along the middle of the sides, with sometimes a second row near the dorsal profile, the anterior spots often meeting across the nape. Upper surface of head and nape spotted and ver- miculated with brown; an indistinct violaceous band curves downward from the eye to the angle of the mouth, behind which are two parrallel bands, which extend upon the base of the pectoral; opercles dull purplish. Fins hyaline, closely powdered with dusky dots; dorsals with a basal row of dark spots; last two dorsal and anal rays
BY J. DOUGLaS OGILBY. 95
‘with alternate darker and lighter bars, sometimes absent in the anal; caudal with a dark basal band. (Named for Mr. R. W. Leftwich, Junr., of Maryborough, to whom I am indebted for many kindnesses).
Described from 6 specimens in the A.F.A.Q. Museum, collected in Great Sandy Strait, and measuring from 58 to 75 millimeters; Cat. No. 1132.
This pretty little goby abounds in the pools left by the receding tide on the oyster banks in the Great Sandy Strait, and I have also seen specimens obtained in the vicinity of Woody Point, Moreton Bay. Along the edges of these pools when undisturbed they lie motionless, basking in the shallow water, but if alarmed by the approach of an enemy they dart away with great rapidity, and seek refuge in the deeper water below or within the bunches of oysters, adjusting their bodies with great nicety to the inequalities of the surface cn which they have found a haven. Here their colors assimilate so closely with their surroundings that it requires a keen eye to locate their position even though one may have been but a few feet from them when they scught concealment ; they ale very quick in their movements, and even with a hand net it is most difficult te catch them. I have never observed one of thess fishes to take refuge in a hole as is the usual habit ef Amblygobius gobioides, which is equally common on the oyster beds. The stomach of thes example dissected was packed with green weed regularly cus into lengths of about an inch, with which also was a shrimp-like crustacean of about the same size.
AMBLYGOBIUS GOBIOIDES (Ogilby).
D. vil3; A.12; P.16. Depth of body 6°25, of caudal peduncle 9, length of head 4, of caudal fin 3°8 in length of body. Diameter of eye 5°5, length of pectoral 1°3 in length of head.
Depth of head 1°65, width of head 1°35 in its length. Diameter of eye 1:4 in the length of the snout; width of interorbital region less than half the eye-diameter ; cleft of mouth reaching to below the anterior border of the eye.
Third dorsal spine longest about one fourth longer than the head, and as long as the distance between its base and the anterior border of the eye; second dorsal and anal fins low, their longest rays 2 in the 3rd spine.
26 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
Anal originating below the 2nd dorsal ray and conterminous with the soft dorsal, its base one fifth more than the head. Base of pectoral 2°6 in its length. Ventral fin 1°25 in the pectoral, reaching midway to the anal,
Purplish or reddish brown above, gradually fading into lilac below, the sides with from 40 to 50 alternate darker and lighter transverse bands, which in large examples are usually broken up into vertical bars. Upper surface and sides of head and nape with numerous round blackish spots. Fins vinous; anterior border of first dorsal white ; sometimes a dark marginal spot between the fourth and tfth spines and some oblique dusky streaks basally ; second dorsal with three series of darl: spots: caudal sometimes with a few scattered spots. When newly caught, the lateral transverse bars are brilliant blue and gold. (Gobi- oides: a genus of Gobies to which this species bears some resemblance in its strengthened dentition and the obliquity of its mouth.)
Total length 120 millim.
Type in the Macleay Museum, Sydney University.
Kast Coast of Australia. I have seen and examined numerous specimens from Port Jackson, the Richmond River, various parts of Moreton Bay, and Great Sandy Strait, in all of which places it is abundant wherever suitable ground exists. It may therefore be safely predicted that its range, both southward and northward, extends well beyond the limits here given.
This species is essentially a ‘mud goby.” In the Wide Bay District I had many admirable opportunities of observing its habits on the vast flats left bare by each recurring tide The fish either excavates for itself a burrow in the mud or takes possession of the deserted burrow of &@ worm or crab, and enlarges it to suit its own convenience.* The burrow is invariably provided with two openings, which may be at the bottom of a small pool, but as often a$ not open upon the bare mud. Here, if one approaches cautiously, the little creature may be seen iying—regardless of or perhaps enjoying the fierce rays of a semi-tropical Summer sun—close to the burrow, bent into the shape of a U with one of the sides shortened, its head turned to-
* When digging these fishes out I have never found any other animab occupying the burrow along with them.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. yr is
wards the entrance, through which it disappears like a flash on any incautious movement of the spectator. If, however, perfect quiet be maintained the head will shortly be seen to emerge from the other entrance, intently scruti nizing its surroundings to ascertain whether the danger be past. When they take refuge at the bottom of their retreat it is not an easy matter to dig them out.
Described from five specimens collected in Great Sandy Strait by myself and a much larger example obtained. at Woody Point by Mr. J. T. Jamison.
Gobius cristatus Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Waies,. v, 1880, p. 610 (20 May, 1881): Port Jackson.
Gobius yobioides Ogilby, Catal. Fish. N. S. Wakes, 1886, p. 35. Substitute for G. cristatus Macleay, pre- occupied—Stead, Eggs and Breed. Hab. Fish, 1907, p. 60.
SCORP ANID i. SCORPZNOPSIS PALMERI Sp. nov.
D.-xii 10; A. iti 5; P. 17 (1+ 5 + 11): Se. 8-45 to: 47-13*; L. lat. 22 or 23. Depth of body 3, of caudal peduncle 8-75, length of head 2-6, of caudal fin 4, of pectoral 3°55, of ventral 4 in length of body. Length of snout 2°85, diameter of eye 4:5, width of interorbit 6:55, length of maxillary 1:9, of longest dorsal spine 271, of longest anal 1:8 in length of head.
Snout long, its upper profile strongly convex, the preocular groove deep; lateral interorbital ridge low, not ending in a spine; an anterior median ridge, bisecting the preocular groove ; lower jaw the longer, without sym- physial protuberance; maxillary extending to below the middle of the eye, the width of its distal extremity equal to or a trifle more than that of the interorbit. Nasal, preocular, postocular (2), exoccipital, nuchal (2), tympanic, and parietal (3) spines present. Preorbital with a strong median hooked spine, from which radiate four smooth ridges, only the lower anterior of which terminates in a spine; the posterior ridge is continuous with that of the suborbital, which is armed with three strong spines ; behind these, but separated from them by a groove, is a stout double preopercular spine, below which are four graduated ridges,
* Above first anal spine.
‘28 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
the two upper ending in more or less conspicuous spinous points ; opercle with two strong spines at the end of diver- gent ridges, the upper spine the longer. Occipital groove deep and transversely oblong, bordered anteriorly by a sharp ridge, which is highest externally. Two or three small cirri on the head of the maxillary and a much larger fringed one behind the anterior nostril ; supraorbital ridge sometimes with a small cirrus; a large fringed cirrus near the distal end of the preorbital and a series of six smaller ones round the chin, behind which are a still smaller pair on the median line; some well developed fringed cirri on the body, principally along the lateral line, which is without spinous plates anteriorly. Scales in fairly regular series ; fins naked.
Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 1:9 in that of the spinous portion; first dorsal spine a trifle longer than the eleventh and 2°5 in the fourth, which is a little longer than the third or fifth; last spine 1°4 in the height of the soft dorsal, which is equal to that of the spinous. Second anal spine much stronger and longer than the third, as long as the anterior rays, and higher than the spinous dorsal. Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral extending to a little beyond the vertical from the vent, the width of its base 1°85 in the fifth anc longest ray. Ventral reaching to the vent, which is an eye-diameter in front of the anal fin.
Gill-rakers 5 + 11, all but the pair at the angle tuber- cular.
Pale brown blotched with blackish brown, the most pronounced markings being across the nape, between the middle of the spinous dorsal and the lateral line, and between the soft dorsal and the anal ; in addition to these the ground color is profusely freckled with darker; a small whitish spot at the base of the last dorsal ray and a second some- times at the root of the caudal; throat and abdomen ~ pearly white: head somewhat darker than the back and sides, the blotches, however, being replaced by dark brown spots, the lower surface dirty white, anteriorly freckled or stained with yellowish brown, the mental cirri and a few scattered spots darker brown; a vertical black bar between the eye and the suborbital ridge; a silvery spot on and behind the interorbital region present or absent. Spinous dorsal blackish, with an irregular suprabasal and infra-
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 29°
marginal silvery or lilac band, the spines with alternating bars of dark brown and pearly white; soft dorsal lilac, profusely freckled with rufous, the base, an obliquely oval anterior spot, and the last rays blackish: anal fin gray, spotted and freckled with dark brown: anteriorly with two pairs of broad alternate white and brown bands: caudal lilac, with a dusky base and a broad submarginal black band, the marginal band also freckled with black : pectoral gray, with two broad dark cross bands on the upper half, the lower haif with ocellated violet dark-edged spots, the base fuscous spotted with lilac: outer half of ventrals with two black cross-bands or irregularly spotted and
- lined with black; an oval blackish spot on the base anteriorly.
Total anath 200 millim.
Coast cf Southern Queensland intoreuon Bay).
Described from two examples measuring respectively 165 (type) and 202 millimeters.
SCORPAINOPSIS MACROCHIR Sp. nov.
D. xii 10; A.mi5; P.16(1+4-+11): Se. 6-41-14; Ll. 22. Depth of body 2°35, length of head 2°35, of caudal’ fin 4°15, of pectoral 2°7, of ventral 3°85 in length of body. Length of snout 3, diameter of eye 4°75, width of interorbit 3°9, length of maxillary 1°9, Icngest dorsal spine 2°85, longest anal 2 in length of head.
A deep naked pit below the anterior border of the eye; lateral interorbital ridge inconspicuous ; no median ridge; lower jaw the longer, without symphysial pro- tuberance ; maxillary extending to below the hinder border of the eye, the width of its distal extremity 1°5 in that of the interorbit. Nasal, preocular, supraocular(2, the posterior large with a serrated upper edge), postocular (2 small and erect), exoccipital, nuchal (2), tympanic, and parietal (4, the last 3 united by a sharp continuous ridge) spines present. Preorbital with a small median spinous point, from which. radiate three low ridges, one directed downward, one for- ward, and one backward, each terminating in a short stout spine ; suborbital ridge with 3 strong spines; preopercle with 4 spines, the upper strongest and double; opercle
with 2 widely divergent ridges, each terminating in a smalk
spine. Occipital groove deep and transversely oblong, bordered anteriorly by a low arcuate ridge. Head and body without cirri, except a pair of small ones anteriorly on the
30 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
preopercle. Postocular region and upper half of opercle scaly ; body scales rather irregularly arranged ; fins naked, except the upper half of the base of the pectoral; lateral line without spinous plates anteriorly.
Length of soft dorsal fin 2°6 in that of the spinous ; Ist dorsal spine 1°3 in the 11th, and 1°75 in the 4th, which scarcely exceeds the 3rd and 5th: last spine 1°25 in the height of the soft dorsal, which is less than that of the spinous. Second anal spine stronger and longer than the 3rd, scarcely as long as the anterior rays, and two fifths higher than the spinous dorsal. Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral very large, extending to above the 2nd anal spine, the width of its base 2.25 in the 5th and longest ray. Ventral reaching to the vent, which is an eye-diameter in front of the anal fin.
Gill-rakers 5 + 9, all but the last lower one tubercular.
Head and body uniform brown, the abdominal region tinged with yellow. Dorsal fin rather lighter than the body, the soft portion with an anterior and posterior median dusky spot; caudal with a broad submarginal dark and a narrow marginal yellowish band, the basal half pale brown; soft rays of anal similar to the caudal, the spines with strongly contrasted alternate blackish and yellow bars; base and terminal border of the pectoral blackish, the intervening portion and the free tips of the rays yellowish; ventral blackish with a yellow tip, the spine similar to those of the anal.
Described from a specimen, 124 millim. long, taken by Mr. James Palmer at Bulwer, and now in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 1305.
APISTUS BALNEARUM sp. nov. ATKINSON’S FORTESCUE.
D. -xv. 95. A. UiL).6 of 75, P..11 + 12 Bese ‘L.l. 25. Depth of body 3°35, length of head 2°4, of caudal fin 3, of pectoral 2°3, of ventral 2°85 in length of body. Length of snout 3°25, diameter of eye 5°5, width of inter- orbit 5°45, length of maxillary 2°5, longest dorsal spine 2°65, longest anal 2°7, detached pectoral ray 2°55 in length of head.
Posterior border of eye nearer to tip of snout than to end of opercular flap; masillary scarcely reaching to
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 831
below anterior border of eye ; lower jaw broadly rounded, not fitting into the rostral notch; tip of mandible with a small barbel, from either side of the base of which rises a much shorter one directed outwards ; beyond these on each side is a much longer barbel, nearly as long as the eye- diameter. Interorbital region as wide as the eye-diameter, with a short median and two longer and higher lateral ridges in addition to the low supraciliary ridges ; occiput with a pair of high sharp arcuate ridges, approaching mesialiy, and terminating in a spine ; preorbital anteriorly with two blunt points, posteriorly with a sharp curved spine ; suborbital ridge well developed, smooth but divided into continuous sections, commencing above the base of the preorbital spine and terminating in front of that of the upper preopercular spine ; preopercle with a long sharp spine at the angle, and 3 others, which grow increasingly shorter and blunter, below; opercle with three low diver- gent ridges, the upper of which ends in a small spine at the base of the flap: parietal ridge smooth divided mesially. Head and breast naked; body-scales in regular series ; fins naked ; lateral line straight.
Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 2°4 in that of the spinous ; Ist dorsal spine equal to or longer than the 14th, which is 1°35 in the 7th and longest; last spine 1:15 in the height of the soft rays, which exceed that of the spinous, and do not extend beyond the base of the caudal. Anal fin as high as the soft dorsal, the 1st spine much shorter than the 2nd, which almost equals the 3rd, and is 1-2 in the longest rays. Caudal fin rounded, the tips of the rays slightly protruding. Pectoral reaching to below the middle of the soft dorsal, the 2nd ray longest ; the 2 lower rays simple, the outer of these wholly detached, the inner sepa- rated from the branched rays by a broad membranous interspace. Ventrals extending to the base of the 3rd anal spine.
When alive or newly captured these fishes are every- where black except the caudal and a marginal band of variable width on the soft dorsal and anal fins, which are pure white. Shortly after immersion in formalin solution the black commences to fade, and now, at the expiration of twelve months, the bodies have become pale olive green, only the upper surface and sides of.the head and the tubular
32 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
scales of the lateral line retaining any semblance of the
living colors. The basal portion of the dorsal and anal fins have alse faded like the body, but the outer portion, the caudal, the pectorals and the ventrals remain as before.
LI am inclined to think that the white fin-markings.
are a token of immaturity,* since in the largest of my speci- mens the marginal dorsal and anal bands are greatly re- duced in width, and the purity of the caudal fin is marred by black lines and spots, which are more closely segregated near the base and tip.
Described from three examples, measuring from 36 to 40 millim., obtained in the Metropolitan Baths, Bris- bane, during May, 1909, by Mr. Richard Atkinson, and
kindly presented by him to the A.F.A.Q.; Cat. No. 1105-6..
EROSA FRATRUM Sp. nov. D. xiv. 7; A. m.-65 P. 16: LL 10. Depth ofhaas 2°25, length of head 2°15, of caudal fin 4:2, predorsal length 2°25 in length of body. Length of snout 3.2, diameter of
eye 4:1, width of interorbit 2°25, length of maxillary 2°15,.
last dorsal spine 3°2, last anal 4°75, length of pectoral 1°55, of ventral 2°15 in length of head.
Head about as wide as deep. Upper profile of snout
feebly complex and strongly declivous; diameter of eye
1°25 in the snout and 1°8 in the interorbital region, which is flat ; maxillary extending to a little beyond the anterior border of the eye, the width of its distal extremity 2°7 in that of the interorbit. Bones of the head deeply pitted
and ridged; preorbital with three blunt points on its.
anterior border; supraorbitals wider forming the lateral margins of a deep fossa, which contains the distal extre-
mities of the premaxillary processes: they are united
opposite the hinder half of the eyes by a much narrower bony bridge, which separates the frontal fossa from the occipital pit, which is bordered behind by a similar but lower ridge; parietal armature ending in 3 strong blunt processes, the middle much the largest ; suberbital and preopercular regicns very rough, the former with a
conspicuous hump, behind which the bony area is greatly
*As is the case with Huelatichthys niger (Mertens)—Diagramma
crassispinum Riipp.—D. affine Gthr., in which the caudal fin remains pure-
white until the fish has attained a length of at least six inches.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 88
expanded and fan-like; preopercular border with two series of blunt spines, the inner 3 the outer 5 in number ; a similar spine behind the angle of the mouth; opercle with 2 high smooth edges, which do net terminate in spines ; frontal and occipital pits, cheeks, a small temporal patch, and the upper angle of the opercle covered with smooth naked skin. Upper part of body with a few smali papille. Length of soft portion of dorsal fin 2°25 in that of the spinous ; Ist dorsal spine lower than the 4 succeeding and equal to the middle spines, beyond which they again increase gradually in height to the last spine, which is the longest and 1-2 in the 5th ray, which extends when depressed well beyond the base of the caudal. Third anal spine longest, 1.5 in the middle rays, which just reach the caudal ; the membrane of the last dorsal ray extends to the caudal, that of the anal not so far. Caudal small and rounded ; depth of caudal peduncle equal to the eye-diameter. _Pec- toral fin wide, its basal width 1:4 in its length; 5th ray longest, reaching to the vertical from the vent, the lower rays unbranched. Middle ventral rays equal and longest, extending rather more than midway to the anal.
Uniform dark brown above, pale brown below. Upper surface and sides of head with some scattered pearly spots. Spinous dorsal pale brown with one or two lighter blotches ; soft dorsal dark brown with an oblique lighter band directed downwards on its anterior half; anal and caudal yellowish brown with black cross-bars, which frequently branch and cross one another so as to form a lattice-work pattern, the latter also with a dusky base; pectoral with the basal half pale lavender, beyond which superiorly is a blackish blotch, its distal half golden crossed by three narrow black bars, the last of which is marginal; inferiorly the two inner bars anastomose like those of the caudal.* (Named for the Brothers Crouch, to whom I am indebted for this unique specimen.)
Described from a Moreton Bay example, 120 millim. in length, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat, No. 4.
*In life the upper surface is rufous brown, shading into pink below.
C—Royau Soctery.
34 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
DACTYLOPTERID~. EBISINUS PROCNE sp. nov.
D.. 43, wy St CAS 6: (OC 67-3 “Piss eee V. 5; Sc. 49-28. Depth of body 4:85, width of body 4:35, length of head 3-8, of nuchal spine 2°65, of pectoral fin 1:15 in length of body. Width of head 1°85, length of snout 2°75, diameter of eye 3:2, width of interorhit 2, length of maxillary 2°5, of preopercular spine 2 (ad.) to 1°35 (juz.),* longest dorsal spine 1:4, middle caudal rays 1:3, length of peduncle 1°25, of ventral fin 1:15 in length of head.
Depth of head 1:3 in its width. Snout subvertical and convex, one sixth longer than the eye-diameter ; depth of interorbital region 4:85 in its width; maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the pupil. Preopercular spine reaching to above the base of the ventrals in the adult, considerably further in the young. Humeral pro- cesses produced to or nearly to the level of the spinous dorsal, the distance between their apices 1:3 in the depth of the intervening notch, which is narrowly rounded an- teriorly. Lower edge of posterior part of body with three of the keeled scales enlarged and mobile, the first below the last dorsal rays, the others on the peduncle. Lateral line conspicuous, extending directly} backward to below the middle of the spinous dorsal, thence sweeping down- ward in a gentle curve to below the origin of the soft dorsal, and finally continuing to the base of the caudal below the 8th series of scaly keels.
Nuchal spine extending to a little behind the spinous dorsal; 2nd detached spine inserted midway between the nuchal spine and the 3rd ray of the spinous dorsal. to the base of which it reaches when depressed ; its length is 3-9 in the nuchal spine and 1:4 in the second and longest dorsal spine, which is subequal to the height of the soft dorsal. Anal originating below the 3rd ray of the soft dorsal and much nearer to the roct of the caudal than to the gill-opening. Caudal fin subtruncate with the outer rays produced. Width of peduncle immediately behind the dorsal fin 1-4 in its length. Pectoral fin reaching to the middle of the caudal, the tips of all the rays filamentous.
*In an example 100 millim. long.
+ According to the figure given by Jordan and Richardson (Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus., xxxiii, 1908, p. 665) the lateral line is strongly curved upward behind the humeral process in Ebisinus macracanthus.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 35
Upper surface pale violet with two broad darker cross bands descending on the sides to the ventral edge; these bands are much mere pronounced in the young, growing gradually fainter with advancing age and becoming in large examples merged in the darker tone of the ground color; back prettily blotched and lined with deeper violet and purple; under surface uniform pinkish white or fawn color. Upper surtace and sides of head pale yellowish brown spotted with violet ; preopercular spine sandy yellow. Free nuchal spine black; detached spine and Ist dorsal dusky ; 2nd dorsal and caudal hyaline, the rays with alter- nate dark and light bands; anal and ventrals like the lower surface, the former with a dark basal blotch between the 4th and 6th rays; pectorals violet, profusely spotted with purple, some of the terminal spots united to form transverse bars. (zpoxvy, a swallow.)
Coast of Eastern Australia, not uncommon.
Described from five specimens, 100 to 390 millim. long, taken in Moreton Bay ; type in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 248. -
This species differs greatly from Hbisinus macracanthus,* from which it may always be distinguished by the want of the pectoral ocellus.
SOLEID At. BRACHIRUS SALINARUM Sp. Nov.
D. 66; A. 53: Sc. 84. Depth of body 2°90, length of head 5-00 in the length of the body. Length of snout 3°00, diameter of eye 8:00, length of right pectoral 2°50 in the length of the body.
Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper eye fully one half its diameter before the front of the lower ; width of interorbital region one sixth more than the dia- meter of the eye. Scales on both sides finely ctenoid; no enlarged nuchal scales; lips and under surfaces of snout and interopercle profusely papillose.
—7
* Jordan and Richardson (loc. cit.) wrongly name this species Ebisinus eheiropthalmus, the synonymy being as follows :— Dactylopterus macracanthus Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., vii, 1854, p. 449: Celebes. Dactylopterus cheirophthalmus Bleeker, ibid., p. 494, Banda. The month’s mentioned by those authors refer to the date of writing not of publication, and have, therefore, no scientific value.
86 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
Left pectoral nearly as long as the right; ventrals. symmetrical, separate from the anal.
The color is now bright green above and below, but there are a few small patches of dark violaceous gray on the eyed side, which may be the true color of the fish in its natural state: outer half of right pectoral black.
Tctal length of type to base of caudal 123 millim.
Salt pans at Kimberley, North Queensland.
Type in the Queensland Muesum; two mutilated specimens. the caudals and ends of the dorsal and anal fins being broken off.
BRACHIRUS BREVICEFS sp. nov.
D. 72; A. 56: Sc. 75. Depth of bedy 3-00, length of head 5:50 in the length of the body. Length of snout 3°50, diameter ot eye 7:00, length of last dorsal and anal rays 1:15, of caudal fin 1:00, of right pectoral 6-00 in the length of the head.
Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper eye about one third of its diameter before the front of the lower ; width of interorbital region equal to the diameter of the eye. Scales on both sides ctenoid; no enlarged nuchal scales; lips smooth; a few minute hair-like cirri on the edges of the snout and chin.
Last rays of dorsal and anal fins nearly reaching to the end of the caudal; caudal fin rounded; left pectoral 1:25 in the right; right ventral well separated from the anal; left ventral atrophied.
The specimen appears to have been cf a light reddish brown or fawn color, possibly with some lighter spots.
Total length of type 157 millim.
Coast of Queensland at Rockhampton.
Type in the Queensland Museum; a single specimen. in bad condition.
BRACHIRUS ASPILOS (Bleeker).
D. 67; A. 52: Sc. 105... Depth of body 2°25, length: of head 4:80 in the length of the body. Length of snout 3:00, diameter of eye 7-00, length of last dorsal and anal rays 1:60, of caudal fin 1:50, cf right pectoral 2°60 in the length of the head.
Snout projecting well in front of the mouth; upper eye about one third of its diameter before the tront of the
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 37
lower; width of interorbital region 1:30 in the diameter of the eye. Scales on the right side ctenoid, on the left side cycloid; no enlarged nuchal scales; many of the scales on the colored side with an elongate cutaneous ap- pendage, some of which may be longer than the eye; lips and entire lower surface of head profusely papillose.
Last rays of the dorsal and anal fins nearly reaching to the end of the caudal; caudal fin broadly rounded ; left pectoral 1:60 in the right; ventrals asymmetrical, the left much the smaller, separate from the anal.
Uniform blackish, ; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins nar- rowly, right ventral broadly tipped with yellow; right pectoral black.
Total length 360 millim.
Malay Archipelago, from Singapore eastward to North Australia.
Described from a specimen measuring 230 millimeters, and taken at Croker Island, Northern Territory, by Mr. John Colclough, who presented it to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 1029. The body of this example is much muti- lated as if by repeated stabs of a knife or spear.
Synaptura aspilos Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., iii, 1852, p. 74: Singapore—id., Verh. Batav. Gen., xxiv, 1852, Pleuron., p. 29—Giinther, B. M. Catal. Fish., iv, 1862. p. 482. Synaptura marmorata Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., v., 1853, p. 90: Solor—Ginther, ibid. Synaptura heterolepis Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Ind. Neerl., i, 1856, Amboina, p. 65—Giinther, ibid. Brachirus heterolepis Bleeker, Atlas Ichth., vi, 18, p. 20, pl. eexxxvi, fig. 2 (juv.) and ccxxxvili (ad) : Timor ; Batchian; Ceram. . Notr.—Synaptura cinerea (De Vis) is identical with S. nigra Macleay. This species rarely shows a few. small cutaneous appendages on the back.
CYNOGLOSSUS SINDENSIS Day.
Cynoglossus sindensis Day, Fish, India, 1877, p. 434: Sind.—Jordan and Richardson, Bull. Bur. Fish., xxvii, 1907, p. 281: Manila.
le ee oe CO. 18 VL 4: Be. 9102.57) Da. tr. 7-9- 24=50. Depth of body 3:75; length of head 4°65 in
38 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
length of body. Length of snout 2°80, diameter of eye 9:00. length of caudal fin 2-25 in length of head.
Head as deep as long; cleft of mouth extending to below the hinder border of the lower eye, its angle midway between the tip of the snout and the margin of the opercle lips smooth ; rostral hook reaching well beyond the max- illary symphysis. Lower nostril tubular, situated close in front of the inferior border of the lower eye; upper nostril an open longitudinal slit between the eyes. Eyes equal, the upper about half a diameter in advance of the lower ; interocular region 1°75 in the eye-diameter.
Seales of colored side ctenoid, those of the head and along the bases of the vertical fins more strongly so than elsewhere ; scales of blind side smooth; postocular scales not or scarcely smaller than those of the body. Two lateral lines on each side, the lower straight, along the middle of the body, forking in front of the caudal fin, along which both branches extend; the upper following the curvature of the back almost to the base of the caudal on the colored, not nearly so far on the blind side: both lines extend forward on the head nearly to the end of the snout, where they meet at a rounded angle, thence passing down- ward to the level of the mouth, where it bends inward and again divides, one branch being continued on to the rostral hook, the other curving abruptly upward and ceasing in front of the interorbital region: the two main lines are also united by a transverse line above the opercle, and a short distance beyond this branch a second subsidiary branch disconnects from the lower line and extends downward to the upper angle of the precpercle, from whence it bends abruptly backward to the border of the opercle, along the outer edge of which it passes to within a short distance of the ventral profile, where it recurves forward to the lower limb of the preopercle, and from thence, forming a rectangle, sweeps downward and forward to the lower lip.
Dorsal fin originating on the snout in front of the upper eye. Caudal fin pointed. Ventral higher than long, not continuous with the anal.
Blue-gray, shading into pale brown posteriorly ; oper- cular region darkest; edges of body above and below yellowish. Dorsal, anal, and ventral fins pale blue tipped with gray; caudal pale brown.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 89
Total length 210 millim.
From the coast of Sind to the Philippines and Northern Australia.
Described from a specimen, 195 millim. long, taken by Mr. John Colclough at Croker Island, Northern Terri- tory, and presented by him to the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. No. 994.
Of the 46 species of Cynoglossus, the descriptions of which I have been able to consult,* six only are provided with a pair of lateral lines on each side. These are as fol- lows :—.
a. Scales ctenoid on both sides.
1. kaupit Bleeker, Act. Soc. Sci. Ind. Neerl., viii, 1860, Sumatra 8, p. 73. aa. Scales ctenoid on the eyed, cycloid on the blind side.
2. diplasios Jordan & Evermann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxv, 1902, p. 367: Formosa—Interlinear scales 14.
3. bilineatus Lacepede,t Hist. Nat. Poiss., iv., 1802, pp. 659 and 663: Indian Seas—Interlinear scales 14 or 15.
4. dispar Day, Fish. India, pt. 3, 1877, p. 434: Bombay—Interlinear scales 18 or 19.
5. sindensis Day, ibid.: Sind—Interlinear scales 19 or 20. aaa. Scales cycloid on both sides.
6. dubius Day, Journ. Linn., Soc., xi., p. 525.
* Eleven species are described in works not available tome. Of these & South African species has been named C. brachycephalus by Dr. Gilchrist, but this name, having been previously utilized by Bleeker for a Sumatran species, is inadmissible, and may appropriately be altered to C. gilchristi, after its discoverer.
+ Lacépéde’s name was altered by Bleeker to quadrilineatus, presum- ably to avoid confusion with Plagusia bilineata, and his example has been followed by Giinther, Day, and others; this course, however, is not only unnecessary but absolutely subversive of the code of zoological nomenclature, since Lacépéde described the fish which is here called C. bilineatus as Achirus bilineatus, and, there being no other species of that name, his specific name passes unquestionably on to the Cynoglossus.
40 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
PTEROPSARID&. CHILIAS* gen. nov.
Body elongate and fusiform. Scales with longitu- dinal striae. Tubes of lateral line short and simple, occu- pying the basal half of the exposed surface of the scale. Herd depressed; cleft of mouth small; lips very thick and wide. Lower jaw without villiform teeth, with two strong hooked canines at the outer angle on either side. Eyes superior, close together. Dorsal fin continuous, with 5 spines, the 4th longest : ventrals inserted below the base of the pectorals. Otherwise as in Parapercis.
Coast of Southern Queensland.
Type Percis stricticéps De Vis.
The most notable characters in this proposed new genus are the depressed head, approximate orbits, and position of the ventrals.
Up to the present time only three species of ptero- psarids have been captured in the seas of Queensland. but it can only be a matter of time before four other species are recorded; they are as follows :—
1, PARAPERCIS NEBULOSA (Quoy and Gaimard), Voy. Uranie, Zoo]., 1824, p. 349 = Percis emeryana Richardson, 1842 = Percis coxii Ramsay. 1883 = P. concinna De Vis, 1884. Coasts of intertro- pical and juxtatropical Australia, ranging south- ward at least as far as Port Jackson.
2. PARAPERCIS CYLINDRICA (Bloch), Ausl. Fisch., vi, 1792, p. 42, pl. cexcix, fig. 1. China Seas to North- Eastern Queensland (Murray Island, ‘Torres Straits and Dunk Island),+ and Lord Howe Island.
3. Parapercis hexophthalma (Ehrenberg) Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., iii, 1829, p. 271. Red Sea to the Louisiade Archipelago.
4. Parapercis tetracanthat (Lacépéde), Poiss., iii, 1802,
a xétAos, lip, with the affix las, ; in allusion to the abnormal develop- ment of the lips.
7 Since writing the above, I have received a fine specimen from Moreton Bay.
{The name is misleading since the species has, as is usual in the genus, 5 spines in the Ist dorsal fin; nevertheless Lacépéde’s failure to enumerate the spines correctly does not confer on any subsequent author, any more than on himself, authority to change the name; much less does it permit of the use of the same name for a distinct species.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 4]
pp. 473 and 488=Percis cancellata Cuvier and Valen- ciennes, ibid., p. 268. East Indian and Louisiade Archipelagos.
5. Parapercis clathrata; nom. subst. for Percis tetra- canthus Lacépéde, ibid., iv. 1803, pp. 285 and 302 : inadmissible on account of the preceding species.
6. Parapercis ocularis Waite, Mem. Austr. Mus., ii, 1899, p. 109, pl. xxiv : Coast of New South Wales in from 30 to 84 fathoms.
7. CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis), Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, p. 545. Southern Queens- Jand (Southport ; Peel Island and Bulwer, More- ton Bay).
CHILIAS STRICTICEPS (De Vis).
Diy 2s A1 teers 17: Sc. 6-62-13." Depth ‘of body 6-1, of caudal peduncle 11-4, Jength of head 3-4 in length of body. Length of snout 2-65, diameter of eye 5, width of interorbit 3, height of soft dorsal 2-35, of anal 2-65, length of middle caudal rays 1-8, of pectoral fin 1-45 in length of head.
Snout broadly rounded, its upper profile flat ; upper lip very wide, more than half the eye-diameter ; maxillary not extending to the vertical from the eye; lower jaw bluntly pointed, much longer than the upper. Upper jaw with a broad band of villiform teeth and an outer series of strong conical teeth; a patch of conical teeth on the head of the vomer.’ Eye superior, well elevated above the surface of the head, its diameter rather more than the width of the preorbital; interorbital region flat. Pre- opercle entire; opercular spine small and sharp; tip of subopercle serrated.
Spinous dorsal originating a little behind the base of the pectoral; 4th spine longest, as long as the eye; Ist spine minute; membrane of last spine fully attached to the lst ray; last ray not differentiated. Anal originating below the 5th dorsal ray. Caudal rounded, the upper rays slightly produced. Pectoral extending to above the origin of the anal. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral ; 4th ray longest, reaching to the anal.
Lilac, clouded above with brown, so as to form about seven broad blotches indistinctly separated by lighter interspaces ; a lilaceous band bordered below by a dark
42 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
brown bar and crossed at regular intervals by eight similar — bars from the base of the pectcral to the caudal ; lower half of the sides with nine vertical brown bands, as wide as the interspaces and gradually fading into the lemon yellow of the lower surface ; each of these bands is divided mesially by a narrow black bar, which is continued across the inter- spaces by dusky spots. Nape and upper surface of the head lilac spetted with brown; a violaceous bar from the middle of the eye, through the nostrils to the edge of the snout, which is spotted throughout with lilac ; middle of snout with five spots arranged like an arrowhead, the shaft being formed by two spots on the interorbital region; a vertical violet bar preceded by a triangular spot below the eye; lips with broad violet bars, those of the lower continued across the chin by a pair of large violet spots ; opercles brown-spotted ; subopercular and branchiostegal regions crossed by two wide violet bands; a series of six violet spots across the throat immediately behind the gill- Openings. Dorsal and anal fins hyaline; spinous dorsal with the base dark brown and with a few smoky brown spots on the membrane above ; soft dorsal with three smali black spots between each ray; anal with a much larger black basal spot similarly placed; base of caudal dark brown; rest of fin partly pale brown partly hyaline, black-spotted, the middle rays tipped with black ; pectorals and ventrals lilac, the former with a violaceous base (strictus constricted ; ceps, head).
Type in the Queensland Museum.
Length to 180 millim.
Moreton Bay District, Queensland.
Described from a fine example, captured off Peel Island by Mr. T. Welsby, and now in the collection of the A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 870.
Percis stricticeps, De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, p.. 545.
BATRACHOIDID &.
CoRYZICHTHYS GUTTULATUS sp. nov.
D. iti, 20 or 21; A. 15 ‘or 16: ‘ Length’ of; headeaea,
of caudal fin 4:5, of pectoral 5-2 in length of body.
Diameter of eye 3-9, width of interorbit 7, length of ventral 1-85 in length of head.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 43
Head as wide as long. Snout short 1-35, interorbital width 1-75 in the eye-diameter. Teeth as in C. diemensis, but without the enlarged ones on the vomer. Two opercular and two subopercular spines, the upper in each being much the larger. Skin of head and body, except the throat and abdomen, covered with more or less reticulated folds. Tentacles moderately developed, those surrounding the jaws simple or bifid in front, much longer and fringed behind, ; a series of broad simple or fringed tentacles round the edges of the opercular bones ; 3 well developed, usually fringed, supraciliary tentacles, the middle the largest ; a small fringed frontonasal tentacle ; 6 longitudinal series. of small tentacles on the occiput, extending backward to below the Ist dorsal; tentacles of the lateral lines very small or absent.
Caudal and pectoral fins rounded; outer ventral ray scarcely longer than the pectoral.
Brown above, more or less blotched with lighter posteriorly, the lighter parts profusely dotted; tail with two broad dark transverse bands more or less freckled with lighter ; lower surface light yellowish brown closely dappled with dark brown. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins dark brown, variously streaked with lighter; pectorals brown with darker dots ; ventrals brown edged with lighter spots.
Described from three Aru Island examples, 110 to 160 millim. long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 991.
CALLIONYMID .
CALLIONYMUS GROSSI sp. nov.
D. iv, 9; A. 8; P..17. Depth of body 9-6, width ot body 5-5, length of head 4:5, of Ist dorsal spine 1:7, of caudal fin 2-66 to 3-5, of pectoral 4-25, of ventral 3:45 in length of body. Depth of head 2-2, width of head 1:15, diameter of eye 3, length of snout 2-6, of preopercular spine 2.5, of last dorsal ray 1:1, of last anal 1-5 in length of head.
Body gently rounded above, its greatest depth below the anterior dorsal rays. Snout about as wide as deep, pointed, its depth 1:15 in it length; eyes close together directed upward, prominent, 1-2 in the snout, and 2°6 in the width of the head. Preopercular spine straight, the
44 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
inner edge with 7 to 9 subequal antrorse serrlue,* the outer with a strong denvicle directed forward near its base. Occiput covered with smooth skin. Lateral line median and conspicuous.
Origin of spinous dorsal somewhat nearer to soft dorsal than to tip of snout; spinous dorsal high, the first spine terminating in e filament, which extends to the last ray of the soft dorsal; the other spines not filamentous, the membrane of the last, which equeds the last ray, not quite reaching the soft dorsal, the base of which is somewhat Jonger than its distance from the tip of the snout; last ray longest, extending slightly beyond or not quite to the base of the caudal. Anal originating below the 2nd dorsal ray, its base less than its distance from the tip of the mandible ; last ray not nearly reaching so far back as that of the soft dorsal. Caudal peduncle distally fusiform, its least depth 1-3 in the eye-diameter. Pectoral inserted below the posterior half of the spinous dorsal, the middle rays longest, extending to below the 3rd or 4th dorsal ray. Ventral reaching beyond or not quite to the origin of the anal.
Gill-openings superior, opposite to the origin of the dorsal, further apart than the outer borders of the eyes, and midway between the eye and the pectoral fin.
Golden brown above, dull yellow below, the throat and ventral region silvery ; back end sides above the lateral line with numerous lilac annuli about as large as the gill- opening, and often crowded together so as to form clusters of considerable size; some of the annuli have a blackish central dot; a broad dusky band across the peduncle ; an irregular series of dark brown spots along the middle of the side just below the lateral line. Upper eyelids and occiput blackish. Spinous dorsal violet, with oblique wavy lilac dark-edged cross-bands, the anterior spine and its filament blackish ; soft dorsal and anal yellowish gray, the former with three series of oblong violet spots, the membrane of the last ray of the latter clouded; upper
* The armature of the preopercular spine is so imperceptibly graduated between a single strong recurved spinule and fine serrule that I cannot see my way, in the absence of additional characters, to admit Calliurichthys Jordan & Fowler (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxv, 1903, p. 941) as_a valid genus or even a well marked subgenus.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 45
portion of caudal yellow spotted with brown, lower portion violet with a paler margin; pectorals dull yellow, immaculate ; ventrals yellowish, the ground color almost wholly obscured by violet dots, emong which are scattered numerous white dark-edged ocelli, and, near the tip, a few blackish spots. A second specimen (? 9) differs in being of a general darker coloration above, the clear golden brown being replaced by violaceous brown, which color extends further down the sides, somewhat obscuring the lateral series of spots and terminating inferiorly in 12 or 13 short blunt processes, which encroach upon the pure white of the under parts. The fins correspond in general pattern with those of the larger example, but the cross-bands on the spinous dorsal are indistinct, and the pectorals are gray, their rays alternately banded with gray and lilac. (Named for my friend and colleague, the late Major George Gross, one of the leading conchologists of Queensland.)
Described from two Moreton Bay specimens,. measuring respectively 128 and 112 millim., in the collection of the A.F.A.Q. ; Cat. No. 958.
CALLIONYMID i. DACTYLOPUS, Gill.
Body subcylindrical. Lateral line single, superior, straight. Head triangular, not depressed, the ~ snout moderate and anteriorly declivous. Mouth small and subinferior ; upper jaw the longer; lower lip expanded to form a small lobe on each side. Teeth long, slender,. and slightly recurved anteriorly, shorter, stouter and hooked laterally. Eyes well separated, superolateral. Preopercular spine well developed, strongly armed above and below. Spinous dorsal originating well in advance of the gill-opening, the last spine without membrane ; soft dorsal high, all the rays except the first branched ; caudal fin graduated above, rounded below ; pectoral fin angular, with 18 rays, the two outer above and below simple : ventral much longer than the pectoral, with i 1+4 rays, the last * the longest, the spine and the outer ray free. Branchial. foramen moderate, lateral.
From the Molucca Seas to the East Coast of Australia.. Monotypic.
There is a remarkable resemblance in some of the generic characters between Dactylopus and the rare Japanese:
46 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
Callionymus altivelis Schlegel. In both the branchial foramen is lateral and below the first dorsal, the last dorsal spine is unattached by membrane to the back, and the soft dorsal is very high and has all the rays except the first branched. Dactylopws, however, differs materially in the increased armature of the preopercular spine and in the presence of a free ventral ray.
Dactylopus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, p. 130
(bennetti =dactylopus).
Vulsus Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p. 15 (dac- tylopus).
DACTYLOPUS DACTYLOPUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes).
D. iv,—8; A. 7; P. 18. Depth of body 6°20; wadth of body 4:50, length of head 3-50, of first dorsal spine 1-15 to 1:50, of caudal fin 2-15 to 2-60, of ventral 2-00 to 2-50 in length of body. Depth of head 1-70, width of head 1:15, diameter of eye 3-60, interorbital width 8-85, length of snout 2-90, of preopercular spine 3-30, of last dorsal ray 1-05, of last anal ray 1-20 in length of head.
Body rounded above, its greatest depth below the anterior dorsal rays. Snout as wide as deep, obtusely pointed, its depth 1-25 in its length. Eyes separated by a deep concavity, the supraorbital ridges high and sharp, extending forward on the snout, the diameter 1-30 in the snout and 3:00 in the width of the head. Maxillary extending to below the anterior border of the eye. Preopercular spine strong and acute, its distal extremity slightly curved inward; outer border with four graduated barbs, the anterior median, very strong, and directed forward, the posterior reduced to a mere tubercle rising from the base of the curve; inner border with three curved subequal antrorse barbs. Occiput with a pair of raised bony bucklers, covered with reticulated sculpture, and separated by a smooth fossa, which is a continuation of the interorbital groove. Gill-openings lateral, opposite the middle of the spinous dorsal, as far apart as the head in front cf the hinder margin of the eye, and about twice as far from the eye as from the pectoral fin. Lateral line well defined in front, less so behind, terminating well above the middle of the base of the caudal.
Origin of spinous dorsal a little nearer to the soft dorsal than to the tip of the snout; spinous dorsal high,
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 47
the three anterior spines terminating in long slender filaments, which extend backward to well beyond the base of the caudal (¢) or to the peduncle (Q); last spine without membrane, much shorter than the rays ; interdorsal space as long as the spinous dorsal: soft dorsal high, the rays but little graduated to the last, which reaches to or slightly beyond the base of the caudal; base of soft dorsal equal to its distance from the anterior border of the eye. Anal originating below the membrane of the third dorsal ray, similar to and nearly as high as the second dorsal, its base about half its distance from the tip of the mandible, its ias¢ tay reaching as far back as that of the soft dorsal. Caudal fin with rounded tip ; caudal peduncle distally compressed, its least depth equaling the eye. Pectoral fin inserted below the end of the spinous dorsal, the middle rays the longest, extending to below the fourth dorsal ray. Free ventral ray as long as the head without the snout, much longer than the succeeding ray ; continuous rays graduated, the last very large, reaching beyond the pectoral, its mem- brane attached superiorly to the base of the eighth pectoral ray.
Olive-or violet-brown above, with six large blackish blotches across the back, the interspaces with darker freckles and sometimes with blue black-edged ocelli of variable size; sides with a similar number of somewhat stellate blotches, more or less corresponding to the spaces between the dorsal blotches, the interspaces chestnut or violet, with or without golden or pearly spots and reticu- lated lines ; lower surface white, faintly tinged with bluish ; under surface of head pale brown. Iris silvery, with an inner golden rim. Spinous dorsal and its filaments blackish, the membrane of the second ray with numerous small pearly spots on its outer half, that of the third with a wide lighter marginal band; second dorsal lilac, the ground color well nigh obliterated by crowded oblique purplish bars: base of anal rufous brown, deepening to purple at the margin: caudal fin golden, the rays brown, speckled with pale blue ; posterior margin with wavy blue transverse streaks, the rest of the fin except the two lower rays which are smoky brown, with elongate blue lines, which are oblique above and horizontal below ; pectorals hyaline, the basal half of the upper and middle rays with alternate lilac and
48 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
rufous rings ; free ventral ray with alternating rings of gold and purple, the united rays blackish or dark olive-green, with one or two large pearly basal spots.
In the female the membrane of the spinous dorsal is golden brown, with darker marblings and irregular light blue spots and short bands ; basal two thirds cf soft dorsal with elongate dark brown blue-edged spots between the rays, the marginal third more faintly banded but profusely freckled with blue: inner third ot anal golden brown with elongate pearly spots, the rest of the fin smoky, with dark blue black-edged spots and lines.
Total length 156 millim.
From the Molucca Seas to South-Eastern Queensland (Stradbroke Island and Wynnum).
Described from a fine Moreton Bay example in the A.F.A.Q. Museum; Cat. No. 684.
Callionymus dactylopus (Bennett) Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., xii, 1837, p. 310—Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., iii, 1852, p. 559: Amboina.
Dactylopus bennetti Gill, Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., 1859, p. 130. Name only.
Vulsus dactylopus Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p- 152: Amboina ; Celebes.
Dactylopus dactylopus Ogilby, Ann. Queensl. Mus., No. 9, 1908, p. 38: Moreton Bay.
Note.—Callionymus achates De Vis (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales), is founded on a female cf C. calawropomus.
BLENNIID &. PETROSKIRTES FURTIVUS (De Vis).
D. xii; 21 or 22> Ava'23t0'25;. C. 13; P. daea eee Depth of body 5-6, length of head 5, of anal fin 2, of middle caudal rays 5-75, of pectoral fin 5-1, of ventral 5-1 in length of body. Length of snout 3-75, diameter of eye 3-85, width of interorbit 9-5, longest dorsal ray 1-35, longest anal 1-85, depth of peduncle 2-3 in length of head.
Head obtusely rounded in front, its width 1-5, its. depth 1-15 in its length; snout short and blunt; upper jaw the longer ; interorbital region convex ; cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior border of the eye. 24. C:
34? a upper canine strongly hooked,
Dentition—l. 5 i
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 49
about half tne length of the lower. Lateral line consisting of 2 short tubes. Dorsal fin originating slightly in advance of the gill- opening, the rays gradually increasing in length to the middle of the soft portion, the longest articulated ray 1-25 time the height of the last spinous ray ; membrane of last ray reaching to the base of the caudal fin. Anal originating below the 11th dorsal spine. Caudal fin rounded, the 3rd to 5th and 9th to 11th rays in the male terminating in a filament. Pectoral fin rounded, the 8th and 9th rays longest, not reaching to the vertical from the vent. Ventral fin long, the inner ray as long as the pectoral.
Gill-opening directed forward from above the base of the pectoral, its width 5 in the head. Vertebre 11+ 31 =42.
Yellow closely powdered with dusky dots; a broad dark blue band from the eye to the gill-opening, continued along the middle of the body as a much paler and rather ill defined band, which becomes forked below the middle of the soft dorsal, the lower branch being usually broken up into a series of spots, and both being continued well on to the caudal fin; behind the pectoral fin the lateral band throws off 6 or 7 conspicuously darker offshoots, which are directed downward and slightly backward ; a row of blue spots along the base of the dorsal fin; abdominal region sometimes crossed by a few narrow dark lines. Head pale olivaceous brown, the cheeks with 2 or 3 darker vertical bars ; lower portion of the opercular, the branchiostegal, and the jugular regions closely spotted with blue. Teeth tipped with tawny yellow. Dorsal fin violet, the spinous portion the darker and with two series of pale spots, the soft portion with several narrow dark lines commencing at the base and running obliquely back- ward; free tips -of soft dorsal and anal rays white; an oblong blackish inframarginal spot on the 4 middle rays of the soft dorsal in the adult; anal lilac; pectoral and ventral pale yellow, the former with a few small round spots on or near the base.
Female.*—Differs in having the lateral band more
*The female bears a remarkable resemblance to the Japanese Petroskirtes elegans as figured by Jordan and Snyder (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xyv, 1903, p. 454, fig. 6).
D—Royat Socirery.
50 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
indistinct and ceasing altogether before the middle of the tail, the posterior half of which is adorned with numerous small blue spots ; the dark band behind the eye is usually broken up in two oval or lunate spots; all the fins are uniform gray except the spinous dorsal, which has a basal series of dusky spots.
This pretty little blenny is an inhabitant of the East Coast of Australia from Port Jackson to the Wide Bay District, beyond which points it has not yet been traced though it doubtless occurs. It is exceedingly abundant on all the rocky sections of the foreshores and islands of Moreton Bay, where it is one of the most common objects of the rock-pool fauna. In the Great Sandy Strait I found it scarce, the environment probably being unsuitable to its habits.
Described from 10 specimens, 45 to 85 millim. long, in the A.F.A.Q. Museum ; Cat. Nos. 71 and 1145.
Petroscirtes fasciolatus Macleay, Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, vi, 1881, p. 8: Port Jackson (male). Not Omobranchus fasciolatus Ehrenberg = Blennechis fasciolatus Valenciennes, 1836.
Salarias furtivus De Vis,* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, iv, 1884, p. 697 : St. Helena, Moreton Bay.
Petrdscirtes macleayt Ogilby, Catal. Fish. N.S. Wales, p. 38, 1886. Substitute for P. fasciolatus Macleay preoccupied.
PETROSKIRTES JAPONICUS Bleeker.
D. xii 22; A.1223° C293; P: 13; V. 2. Depth of fags 6-25, length of head 5-35, of anal fin 2-1, of caudal 6-2, of pectoral 5:4 in length of body. Length of snout 3, diameter of eye 4-25, width of interorbit 9-25, longest dorsal ray 1-45, of ventral 9-35, longest anal 2-05, depth of peduncle 2-15 in length of head.
Head rounded in front, its width 1-5, its depth 1-25 in its length; no nasal nor orbital tentacles ; male with a low cutaneous occipital crest; cheeks swollen. Snout short and blunt ; upper jaw the longer ; beth lips posteriorly with pendent flaps ; eye small ; interorbital region convex ,
*The author cannot, without demur, admit the accuracy of some of Mr. De Vis’ earlier deseriptions, and finds himself compelled to class most of the species of Salarias described by Mr. De Vis, as belonging to the genus Petroskirtes.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 51
cleft of mouth extending to below the anterior border of
ae 28 to 36* 2 ; the eye. Dentition—l. Va C. 5) lower canines
much the longer. Lateral line incomplete, consisting of about 6 tubes, and ceasing nearly above the tip of the appressed pectoral.
Dorsal fin originating above the base of the pectoral, the rays increasing in length to the 38rd, beyond which they are subequal,; longest articulated rays behind the middle of the soft fin and 1-5 time the height of the last spinous ray : membrane of last dorsal ray extending slightly beyond the base of the caudal. Anal fin originating below the 2nd dorsal ray. Caudal fin rounded. Pectoral rounded, the 8th ray longest, not nearly reaching to the vertical from the vent. Ventral short, the inner ray slightly the longer.
Gill-opening in front of and above the base ot the pectoral, its width 5-5 in the head. Vertebre 1] +29—40.
Olive-green, darkest anteriorly, the lower surface tinged with yellow; trunk with 3 to 5 horizontal bars, which disappear above the vent; the upper, however, is continued as a series of distant spots to below the middle of the soft dorsal, and along the middle of the tail there is a series of spots or vertical bars extending to the caudal fin. Head with 3 faint vertical bands, which meet across the under surface, where they show distinctly on the lighter ground. Fins violaceous, the tips of the anal rays white.
This blenny has been recorded from the coasts of Eastern Australia and Southern Japan, and attains a length of 110 millim. The remarks under the preceding species apply with equal force to this, which is not, however, so numerous. I obtained one specimen only in Great Sandy Strait, and one, an exceptionally fine example, at Woody Point, Moreton Bay.
Described from 6 specimens measuring from 62 to 110 millim., among these being Mr. De Vis.’ types. Cat. Nos. in A.F.A.Q., 907 and 1123.
Petroskirtes japonicus Bleeker, Versl. en Med. Kon. Akad. Wetens., iii, 1869, p. 246, c. fig. : Jedo Bay, 8.E. Japan.
* The incisors increase in number with the age of the fish; Jordan and Snyder give “‘ 26 to 28” as the formula of P. dasson, Bleeker ‘ 36 to 40” as that of P. japonicus.
52 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
Salarias helene De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, ix, 1884, p. 697: St. Helena, Moreton Bay.
Aspidontus dasson Jordan and Snyder, Proc. U.S. Nat- Mus., xxv, 1903, p. 456, fig. 8: Wakanoura and Shima, S. Japan.
Aspidontus japonicus idd., ibid., p. 458.
PETROSKIRTES ANOLIUS (Cuvier and Valenciennes).
Dexa Uyoe 18": A. i 20 or 21; Cal’; Pas Depth of body 4:85, length of head 4:66, longest dorsal ray 2-8, length of anal fin 1-9, of caudal 4-65, of pectoral 4-6, of ventral 4:5 in length of body. Length of snout 3°75, diameter of eye 4, width of interorbit 8, longest anal ray 2, depth of peduncle 2-65 in length of head.
Head subvertical in front, its width 2, its depth (without crest) 1-20 in its length;°no nasal nor orbital tentacles; an elevated rounded cutaneous crest extends. from before the upper border of the eye nearly to the dorsal fin, its height equal to the eye-diameter ; cheeks. not swollen. Snout short and somewhat pointed; jaws subequal ; lower lip posteriorly lobate ; eyes small ; inter- orbital region convex; cleft of mouth extending to below the posterior border of the eye. Dentition—l. 34; C. 3; lower canines much the larger. Lateral line curved upward anteriorly, consisting of from 8 to 10 tubes, and ceasing below or before the last spinous dorsal ray.
Dorsal fin originating a little in advance of the base of the pectoral, the spinous rays subequal in length, the soft gradually increasing in length to the 6th; 7th to 13th rays preduced and filamentous, about 4 times as long as the last spinous ray ; membrane of last ray scarcely extend- ing to the base of the caudal. Anal fin originating below the 11th dorsal spine. Caudal rounded. Pectoral rounded, the 9th ray longest. Ventral well developed, the inner ray the longer.
Gill-opening in front of and above the base of the pectoral, its width about 6 in the head.
* In his description of F. wilsoni Macleay gives the dorsal fin formula as ‘© 26” (i.e. xii, 14); of the score or so of specimens which I have examined from different localities none showed a greater variation than that given above; it would therefore be well for one of my Sydney co-workers to. yecount the dorsal rays in the type.
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 53
Head and body chestnut brown or olive-green, the latter with numerous indistinct darker angulated transverse bars, which cease below the middle of the soft dorsal ; rest of tail with 3 darker longitudinal bars and some scattered black spots. Head sometimes with one or two vertical silvery streaks and a dusky cheek-spot. Dorsal fin brownish olive, darkest anteriorly, the spinous portion with 3 or 4 oblique darker bars, the soft immaculate ; anal fin orange brown, each ray with a basal, median, and terminal sky- blue spot; caudal orange; pectoral greenish olive with a large round dusky spot on its muscular base; ventrals sky-blue. After immersion in formalin solution for some time these fishes become uniform blackish brown. (Anolius ; a genus of American lizards, the head of which suggests a resemblance*).
The ‘‘ Crested Blenny” or ‘‘ Oyster Blenny,” as it may with propriety be called, is a resident of the coasts of New South Wales and Southern Queensland, and grows to a length of 70 millim.
The life history of this little creature, so far as it has been determined, is both curious and interesting. Appar- ently they mate at a very early age, since in no other way can we account for their presence in places which it is impossible for them either to enter or leave in their adult state. Having paired, the young couple immediately proceed to the choice of a residence ; this almost invariably takes the form of a dead oyster-shell, between the valves of which they are able at this stage easily to insert their slim and delicate bodies. In the safe seclusion of this retreat they live out their peaceful lives, undisturbed by the strenuous and ceaseless war of Nature, which rages ever around and above them. Here they are dependent for food upon such small animals as may find their way between the valves of their prison and such flotsam as the tide may drift therein. Here too they breed, the female attaching her eggs by means of some glutinous substance to the upper wall of the shell, and it is remarkable that in all the cases which have come under my notice the ova were deposited not in a single mass but in scattered groups of some half-dozen eggs each; this arrangement may
*<T] reléve sa petite téte comme ses petits sauriens nommés anolis dans nos iles.”” (Cuvier & Valenciennes, loc. cit.).
54 ON NEW OR INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED FISHES
possibly be selected in order to ensure a freer play of water on each egg. The young, on their emergence from the ova are quickly driven out from the parents’ domicile to make their own way in the great world beyond. On one occasion only have I known of a specimen having been discovered otherwise than in an oyster-shell; this individual, which was in a greatly contorted condition, had when young insinuated itself into a rock-crevice so small that, as it increased in size, its body was compelled to adapt itself to the form of its cell, of which it was in fact an animated cast ; notwithstanding this disability the fish was in perfect condition, not seemingly having suffered any inconvenience from the distortion of its body. This little blenny has contracted a curious habit, possibly due to inherited instinct consequent on the restricted nature of its normal home environment ; when kept alive in a tumbler or even in a basin, it never willingly moves forward in the usual manner of its class, but invariably retrogrades, pushing itself backward by means of its pectoral and ventral fins.
Described from 3 Moreton Bay and one Great Sandy Strait specimens, measuring from 52 to 70 millim., in the collection of the A.F.A.Q.; Cat. Noo. 871 and 1237. Blennechis anolius Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat.
Poiss:, xi, 1836, p. 288: Port Jackson. Petroscirtes anolis Giinther, B.M. Catal. Fish., ii, 1861, p.
238. Petroscirtes cristiceps Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales,
vi, 1881 : Port Jackson. Petroscirtes wilsoni id., ibid, ix, 1884, p. 171 : Port Jackson.
Note.—The Giintherian genus Petroscirtes has very properly been broken up in sections by various authors, and with the object of facilitating the identification of species may with advantage be still further subdivided as follows :— a. Canine teeth in both jaws.
6. Dorsal fin free cr just touching the caudal a ae i PETROSKIRTES* ec. Anterior dorsal rays produced (Petroskirtes). ci. Anterior dorsal rays not produced.
* Petroskirtes Riippell, Atlas Fisch. Roth. Meer., 1828, p. 110 (mitratus).
BY J. DOUGLAS OGILBY. 55
d. Soft dorsal rays subequal; occiput smooth or nearly so (Aspidontus*).
dt. Some of the soft dorsal rays filamentous ; occiput with an elevated crest (Cyneichthyst).
61. Dorsal fin more or less continuous with the caudal ss or ii. ENCHELYURUS{ a1. Canine teeth in the lower jaw only ; mouth inferior | lil. MACRURRHYNCHUS§ a. No canine teeth. e. Mouth terminal se be RUNULA|| e1, Mouth inferior .. a .. RUNULOPST
* Aspidontus Quoy & Gaimard
+ Cyneichthys ; nom. nov. ; (anolius). Kvvén, a helmet ; ixOus, a fish.
t Enchelyurus Peters, Mon. Akad. Berlin, 1868, p. 268 (davipes).
§ Macrurrhynchus Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S Wales, xxi, 1896, p. 136 (maroubre).
|| Runula Jordan.
{| Runulops; nom. noyv.; founded on two Scuth American species described by Jenyns.
Ries ane tix thus yu oH
papts
QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS ‘Some Problems of Queensland’s Botanogeography).
By Dr. KAREL DOMIN (PRacuE, Ozecn University),
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 9th, 1910.
There are two stages in our knowledge of the flora of every country. First, of course, it is necessary to know the elements of the flora, to identify and classify all the plants and to ascertain their affinities. All these are found in a flora where in natural system (according to their affini- ties) all plants occurring in the country are mentioned, accompanied with descriptions and their localities, show- ing the geographical distribution.
This first step, however, is not sufficient for a complete knowledge of the flora. There are hundreds of questions about the life of single plants and their surrounding cir- cumstances and conditions, which cause the plants to be found in special associations. The material worked, out in a flora makes a foundation for all these questions, which penetrate deeper into the study of plant-life, being a part of a science called Botanogeography or Phytogeography.
Botanogeography deals with the adaptation of plants to different surrounding circumstances; it explains which are the plant-associations of the country, and it tries to find out all the reasons which cause the unequal distribu- tion of the different plant-associations. The geographical distribution of single plants is, of course, given in a flora, but without any explanation.
These reasons mentioned above are partly due to cir- cumstances now existing, and partly they are the result of the historical development of the flora. Therefore, the botanogeography must deal not only with the climate,
58 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
soil, etc., of the country, but it must also study the evolution of the country and its flora during the past geological periods.
A special part of botanogeography—so-called ecology— tries to explain the different adaptations of the plants according to the so-called ecological factors, 7.e., especially the soil and the climate (the influence of warmth, water, air).
The flora of Australia (except in some Northern and Central parts) is in its rough outlines fairly well known, although there is an immense field for future botanists. But there is very little done in botanogeography, except a recent work by Dr. L. Diels, dealing with the botano- geography of extra-tropical Western Australia. In Queens- land however, until the present time, very little was known about the factors which cause the different plant-associa- tions of the State. We know the elements of the flora (and fairly well the geographical distribution of single plants), due in part to Bentham, the author of the “ Flora Australiensis,’’ who unfortunately never was in Australia, and was therefore unable to deal with the botanogeography of the country, although his flora—considering all circum- stances—is wonderful; further due to the numerous works of Baron Ferd. von Mueller, and of F. M. Bailey, who devoted his whole life to the study of Queensland’s flora, and also due to some other authors, who published valuable special papers and works, as J. Shirley (the Lichen-flora of Queens- land), Brotherus and K. Mueller (Mosses), Cooke (Fungi), etc.
Knowing all these circumstances, | made a plan for a visit to Queensland, intending to study the botanogeogra- phy of the State, as there is no other part of Australia which would be so interesting from the botanical standpoint, and which offers simultaneously marvellous prospects for agri- cultural development, combining the possibilities of tropical agriculture in the North and especially in the coastal region, and of growing different plants of temperate region in Southern parts. Besides these there is a large area with splendid timbers; many of them are used at the present time, but still more of them are wasted in a manner, which is understood by everybody familiar with the conditions of this wonderful virgin country, but which nobody from Europe can understand.
But let me begin with a short description of the chiei plant-associations in Queensland. I cannot afiord to speak
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 59
in detail, but the result of my studies in different districts of the State will be found in a book, which I hope to publish soon after my return to Bohemia.
The most favourable conditions occur in the so-called vine scrubs. They are found in those portions where there is sufficient moisture in the soil and sufficient rainfall. In the North of Queensland, and especially in the coastal region, the conditions for vine-scrubs are much more fav- ourable than in other parts of Queensland, and they extend over larger areas on different soils. They prefer, of course, always a rich, deep soil, especially alluvial and _ basaltic, but in those portions where the rainfall reaches a very high range, we find them often on a very poor, almost innutri- tious soil, as on Bellenden Ker or Bartle Frere, on a poor granitic soil.
Where the conditions are less suitable, the vine-scrubs are restricted, to narrow belts along the creeks and rivers. These so-called “‘ gallery vine-scrubs” are often found far in the dry open-forest country, which is usually unable to bear this plant-association, requiring better soil and especi- ally much more moisture, both in the soil and in the air.
In the Southern part of Queensland the vine-scrubs are usually only on good nutritious soil or near watercourses. The largest area of vine-scrubs is found in the Gympie district (Eumundi, Yandina, etc.), but they are besides this nearly everywhere on the basaltic mountains as far as the Macpherson Range, the border of New South Wales. Here we usually find that the distribution of vine-scrubs coincides with the distribution of basalt. Sometimes the scrubs extend from the basaltic plateaux along the creeks down into the open forest country. In some places, where the basaltic strata are too thin or the moisture insufficient, we find forest instead of scrub. On the rich alluvial soil along the creeks and rivers are also often narrow belts of vine-scrubs. But most of them (at least in Southern Queens- land) have disappeared, as they occupied the best agricul- tural country, and have been cut down.
In the far North of Queensland (as Cape York Fenin- sula), there are no vine-scrubs extending over big areas, but notwithstanding there are along the creeks and rivers spiendid vine-scrubs, some of them very little known, but possessing a rich beautiful flora with many relations to
60 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
the Papuan and Malayan regions (I may mention that all Queensland’s pitcher-plants are found here, as Nepenthes Kennedyi, F. v. M., and seven new species described by F. M. Bailey, 1.e., N. albo-lineata, Alicae, Bernaysii, Chol- mondeleyt, Jardinei, Moorei, Rowanae).
The biggest and most marvellous vine-scrubs are found in the coastal districts from Cooktown in the North to Ingham in the South. Townsville itself lies in open forest country, but there are interesting vine-scrubs on Mount Elliot and in many places along the coast southwards.
The vine-scrubs mentioned above reach their best evolution in the Cairns-Geraidton districts, where are the two highest mountains of Queensland, Bellenden Ker and Bartle Frere, both covered with thick jungles. This part of Queensland has a truly tropical character. We find here wonderful scenery, really unrivalled in its glory and its magnificent variations. There are not only the well- known Barron Falls, which with their unique gorge excel in the rainy season, and especially during the floods, the best scenery of the world, but there are everywhere land- scapes of such beauty, that I never saw better ones, either in the Malayan Peninsula or in Java or elsewhere in the tropics. This fact is worthy to be mentioned, as there are people in Queensland itself who do not guess the wonders of this virgin country, and who visit other tropics for the same purpose. Besides, this is the district the best suited for tropical agriculture, and a sugar cane district par excellence. ‘Ihe climate here, though tropical, is by far more supportable than in the wet tropics, where the tem- perature in the night often only slightly differs from the disagreeable wet heat during the day.
It would be superfluous in Queensland to give a detailed description of a vine-scrub, besides it was given years ago by Pettigrew and some time ago by Ph. MacMahon. Vine- scrubs presents always a dense and thick forest association, with very little grass in undergrowth, but with plenty of creepers (vines) and any amount of epiphytic plants on the trunks and branches of the trees. Orchids and ferns are the most numerous among them. There are many pecu- liarities in the vine-scrubs: the trees attain usually an enormous height, but their bark is regularly thin and their top not too dense. They are sometimes cauliflor (producing
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 61
the flowers and fruit directly on the trunk or from old leaf- less branches), and they have on the base of the trunk dilatated flanks.
There are different types of vine-scrubs, as for instance in the biggest scrub district near Cairns there are (except the coastal scrubs) five different types, which appear always under the same (or very similar) conditions and show approxi- mately the same composition. The richest and most mar- vellous are the vine-scrubs in flats on deep alluvium; this is the proper home of the lawyer cane and the climbing bamboo (Bambusa Moreheadiana), the only one known in Queensland. Nearly the whole space between the trees is filled with magnificent creepers climbing from top to top and drooping in wonderful festoons. The trees are here of great size, but their timber is not of such good quality as in the higher positions, for the growth in these warm parts is too quick.
Further on there are three types of vine-scrubs on non- basaltic soil. Each type has its special trees and different characters, but it would take too much time to deal with them. The last type is represented by the splendid vine- scrubs on the basaltic plateaux, as for instance near Ather- ton, Tolga, Aloomba, and all around both volcanic lakes (Lake EKacham and Lake Barein). The scrubs are here not so crowded with creepers and epiphytic plants, but the trees attain an immense height. Here is without doubt the best timber district, which excels all that I saw in other scrubs of Queensland.
Due to the careful investigations of J. F. Bailey, we are familiar with most of the trees in this district. Many of them are just at present used in different sawmills, but there are many others with valuable timbers neglected so far. We find in the sawmills especially the following trees represented :—
Tarrietia argyrodendron and trifoliata, very plentiful everywhere in this scrub, known as Crowsfoot Elm.
Hlaecocarpus sp. div., known as Quondong.
Melia composita or White Cedar is anelegant tree with soft, light-red wood. It is usually a smaller tree, but plenti- ful, especially along the clearings.
Synoum glandulosum or Rosewood is a moderate sized tree belonging to the same family (Meliaceae) and very
62 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
plentiful. It is well known also from the scrubs in Southern Queensland.
Cedrela Toona or Red Cedar, known near Herberton as ‘“ Wanga,” is a tall tree of the same family. Its red col- oured wood of a beautiful grain is very valuable and much required. This tree is getting scarce.
Flindersia Chatawaiana or Maple, again a representative of the Meliaceous plants, is very plentiful and has a nice wood, which is extensively used.
Flindersia Schottiana or Ash is also plentiful; it is known under the native name, ‘“‘Bunji Bunji.”
Castanospermum Australe is the well-known Bean Tree ; it is plentiful in different types of vine-scrub.
Xanthostemon chrysanthus or Pender is very plentiful.
Eugenia hemilampra or Mahogany is rather scarce.
Alstonia scholaris or White Pine, which is very common in the scrubs on alluvium, is not too plentiful on the basaltic plateau.
Gmelina fasciculiflora or White Beech is plentiful, as is
Daphnandra aromatica, the so called Sassafras.
Cryptocarya Palmerstoni or Walnut is very plentiful. Its characteristic nuts are to be found everywhere in these scrubs. |
Under the name of Silky Oak (or Silky Wood), there are known 4 different trees, which are more or less plentiful. They are :—
Darlingia spectatissima
Cardwellia sublimis.
Slenocarpus sinuatus. Embothriuam Wickhami. j
Agathis Palmerstont or Kauri Pine is rather plentiful and attains an immense size.
Podocarpus pedunculata or so called Black Pine is scarce.
Darlingia araliifolia or Bull Oak is a very plentiful tree.
Blepharocarya involucrigera or Bally Gum is very plenti- ful also.
A different type of vine-scrub is often found in a belt along the coast. I use only for these scrubs the name, ‘* Coastal Scrubs.” The trees growing here are not only botanically different, but differ also in their ecology, as
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 68
they are in harmony with the special conditions on the sea-coast. A strong wind usually blows here, the trees are richly branched, with very hard horizontal branches and often with a dense top. The leaves are usually very coria- ceous, and epiphytic plants are not too numerous. We find this type of scrub both in North and South Queensland.
Dealing with the sea-coast we may mention the other plant-associations found here. On the salt-water swamps along the coast, but only in sheltered positions, and along the rivers as far as the tide reaches, are usually found Mangrove Swamps, which show a most wonderful adapta- tion for these extraordinary localities.
On sand and sand-hill (dunes) near the coast there is in many places a special association consisting of very scattered plants, which are creeping, with long, deeply rooting stolons. It is wonderful how the members of dif- ferent orders growing here under the same surrounding circumstances assume the same appearance. We find here grasses (Spinifex, Zoysia, etc), nut grasses, pea-flowering plants (Papilionaceae) and especially one convolvulaceous plant—Ipomoea Pes Caprae or the so-called Goat’s-foot. ‘The last-mentioned plant is very common in the same plant association in different tropics, and provides a good name for the whole association (Pes-caprae-association). Later on plenty of other herbs and especially shrubs appear on these sandy localities near the sea-coast. This shrubby association is splendidly developed in the Southern portion of Queensland, from Frazer’s Island to the islands of More- ton Bay, also on some of the Reef Islands. We find here a great number of different shrubs, most of them of the same mode of growth, but belonging to different families. At the time when most of its component members are in flower (August and September), this association is the most wonder- ful in the whole State, as no other offers such a quantity -of showy flowers as this. The difierent Epacridacee, Myrtaceae, Papilionaceae, etc., are at this season covered with thousands of blossoms.
In fresh-water swamps, especially near the sea, there is usually found a most remarkable association, which de- serves the name of T'ea Treé Swamps, as the prevailing trees and shrubs are usually called ‘‘ Tea-tree.”’ There are many different Myrtaceae, often with she-oaks (Casuarina),
64 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
which make on some localities a special sub-type of this formation (She oak swamps). We find the adaptation of this association again very interesting. The plants growing here must at one period of the year resist the effects of floods, at another season again they must bear dry weather, Neither the vine-scrub nor the open forest is able to grow under these circumstances. In the first stage the tea-tree swamps have hardly any undergrowth, the water at the end of the wet season being full of splendid water lilies (Nym- phaea gigantea and others), which seem to disappear in the dry season. No other association gives us such splendid opportunity to study the changes in the vegetation as this, for the conditions change often in a comparatively short time. We can observe in many localities how the tea-tree swamps take, by and by, the character of forests and at last become permanently so. On the other hand I saw in the district of Cairns different transitions between tea-tree Swamps and vine-scrubs. Tea-tree swamps have in the North of Queensland often beside their own plants elements both of the forest and scrub floras. With the change of conditions one of them becomes more plentiful. In Southern Queensland we see regularly slow transitions into forests ; in Northern Queensland, however, where the conditions are more favourable for the scrub plants, sometimes into vine- scrubs.
A special association is the flora of salt and fresh water. On marshy, muddy ground near the sea and often in the neighbourhood of mangrove swamps we find sometimes a special association of salsolaceous plants. Near the inlet opposite to Cairns this association is very well developed.
On many small islands along the Eastern coast of Queensland we observe a strange phenomenon, as some parts of these islands are barren or covered only with grass or other low vegetation, while some other parts are timbered with open forest or sometimes with vine-scrubs. The reason for this strange and very irregular distribution of forest cannot be found in the dierent character of soil, as it is to be seen on perfectly identical strata and apparently under quite congruent circumstances. I think, however, that the prevailing winds give us the correct explanation for this phenomenon, as we may observe that the exposed parts of islands, where the air is drier and the decomposed
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 65.
parts of rocks easily carried away by means of wind, are barren (or nearly so), the protected parts are timbered. This everybody can observe in cases where the direction of the prevailing winds has not been disturbed. In many cases, however, there are groups of islands and then the direction of wind changes according to their position, and it seems at first sight impossible to find a plausible explanation for the phenomenon mentioned above. I hope in a special paper to deal in detail with this interesting question.
The other type of forest is the very well known open forest, with close undergrowth of grasses and scattered trees, mostly from the genus Hucalyptus, known under different names as gums, box, stringy bark, ironbark,. Moreton Bay ash, coolibah, bloodwood, etc., etc. The other trees growing in the open forest are not only botani- cally but also in their ecology very different from scrub trees, and these two forest associations have no similiarity at all. Forest grows under conditions insufficient for vine- scrub, either from the character of the soil or the small rainfall. Most interesting is the contact between the open forests and vine-scrubs in the Northern and Central portion of Queensland. The line of demarcation between them is most distinct, a phenomenon which is unique in the whole world. I had opportunities to examine these rela- tions in many places and found that the reasons for this most decided demarcation are different on different locali- ties.
Sometimes it is simply the question of water. Along the creeks (where there is usually better humus) there are vine-scrubs ; further on there is open forest country. In some localities a forest pocket occupies a circular slightly elevated ground between rich alluvial soil timbered with vine-scrub. In other places, however, the reasons are insufficient to explain this sharp line. Besides the con- ditions stated, I found these factors of great importance.
1. The forest flora consists of true Australian types ; the scrub flora for the greatest part of Malayan and Papuan types. The historic evolution of these elements has been quite diverse, and we find always that they never come into a friendly contact. They are of quite different character, and on localities where the conditions are not decidedly
E—Royat Socrery.
66 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
in the favour of one of them, there results a strong struggle between them. They do not enter into a special association with the representatives of both types (as it is usual in other countries with forest associations), but each one tries to get the upper hand. Therefore we cannot expect a mixture of types and slow transitions from one forest type into the other.
2. But all these reasons would not be sufficient, if one factor were not here, and that is the regular bush fire, which kills all the scrub plants springing up on the border of the forest.
3. Last we must deal with so-called ‘‘ forest pockets,” in which the phenomenon mentioned above attains its highest evolution. In some few cases there is no difficulty in explaining these forest pockets. On the slopes of Grant Hill, near Cape Grafton, in the North of Queensland, is for instance a system of creeks running mostly through open forest, but accompanied by a dense narrow belt of vine-scrub. In some places, however, the creeks are close together, and besides they often change their course, as is usual on the granite hills and mountains in this country, The result of it is that a bigger area is sufficiently watered, and this enables the vine-scrub to occupy the whole ground. But in one case the bordering creek was too distant from the next current. In the middle of this part, which was evidently drier, was a forest pocket of nearly circular shape enclosed on all sides by dense vine-scrub.
But there are in the Atherton scrubs forest pockets of a circular shape, some of them not broader than one mile ; the line of demarcation is here most distinct. It is very hard to explain this most extraordinary contact between forest and scrub. My opinion is that there are again two different reasons :— -
a. Sometimes the stratum of basalt is in some places very thin, and the soil consequently poor, insufficient for @ vine-scrub.
6. In other cases I regard the forest pockets as a re- mainder of a former bigger open forest, which has been obliged to give way to the scrub. But on very small areas, where the scrub land had not so great possibilities, there remained forest pockets, which, I think, would disappear
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 67
if the bush fires did not protect them against the invasion of scrub.
There are again very different and distinct types of open forest. In the North must be specially mentioned the Eucalyptus forest with close undergrowth of high grass (as the typical form of the open forest), further with plenty of grass trees (Zanthorrhoea) or Cycads (or sometimes both together), or with plenty of she-oaks, etc.
Most interesting is the open forest country in the far West, for instance near Cloncurry. We find along the Northern Railway on the Rolling Downs formation every- where open grassy plains, but with the beginning of the Silurian strata they disappear at once and give way to a special type of open forest with plenty of so-called “‘ Spini- fex”’ (Triodia) in undergrowth. This country is usuallly called ‘“‘ desert country,” but it is a true open forest. It is an interesting fact that very far West the open forest has so wide an area; its character is, of course, according to the soil and climate, very poor.
A special type of open forest is to be found on the sandy soil in some places. near the Main Dividing Range in Northern and Central Queensland. The undergrowth is not close, and consists, instead of grass, of different shrubs. ‘This type recalls another forest association slightly developed in Queensland (for instance in some places in the rough -country between Stanthorpe and Wallangarra), but ex- tending over large areas in New South Wales, where the whole country from Newcastle and Sydney to the Blue Mountains (except the gullies) are the best known localities for this forest with plenty of shrubs and grass ‘in undergrowth.
In some parts of North Queensland there is on the ranges near the coast another type of open forest, consisting mostly of she-oaks (Casuarina) with tall grass trees between, the grass being less dense than in the true gum forest.
A quite different type of forest—and perhaps not a true forest—is seen in the different wattle-scrubs, which are spread over areas between the open forest and the Rolling Downs formation, larger than those of any other plant formation in South West Queensland. A wattle called brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) makes large irregular scrubs. In the neighbourhood of Clermont, and in many places
68 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
between Clermont and Rockhampton, are in patches in the open forest and on many ridges rosewood scrubs. Further westwards, everywhere in the Central and Northern districts, we find mostly boree and gidya scrub; both are species of Acacia. Boree prefers good, nutritious soil, and is often. found in smaller or larger patches on Rolling Downs. Gidya grows more on ranges and on poor, often rocky soil. Most of the Table Mountains are covered with gidya scrub, but- on their top we find regularly “‘ Spinifex”’ (7'riodia) and a set- of xerophilous shrubs. All these trees, although of small. size, give a splendid hardwood, one of the best Lever saw. I am perfectly satisfied that they will be used to a great extent. in the future. As an interesting fact I may mention that this wattle scrub has spread in historical time over open grassy country, as I observed it in Central Queensland, and_ Inspector J. Shirley informed me that he had noted it between Roma and Taroom in Southern Queensland.
The trees (boree and gidya) grow very slowly. Many of the trees killed in the big drought of 1802, which I met on the Rolling Downs, must have been surely 100 years old. I regard it as a good testimony that at least during the past century there was in Queensland no drought of such frightful extent.
On the Main Dividing Range, between the Northern and Central Railway there is everywhere a quite different forest association, not mentioned until now. The prevalent tree is an Acacia called lancewood. It grows very high, has long straight branches and a flat top. The stems are not very thick and the wood splits easily, but the trees are very tall, so that these lancewood scrubs are of quite different character from all other wattle scrubs, which never grow in tall closed forests. Besides these, there are plenty of shrubs in the undergrowth, so that this forest association is closely allied to the forest of New South Wales mentioned above.
These lancewood scrubs are on the rough Desert Sand-- stone country, where the conditions are, of course, different from those of the flat country. In some places between Jericho and Alpha, I found forest pockets enclosed by the the lancewood scrub with a most decided line of demarcation. This phenomenon, unobserved until now, is of the same strik- ing nature as the pockets mentioned above. Here is, how- ever, a different reason; it is the question of soil. The
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 69
sandstones are broken and the lower strata are coming on the surface. Sometimes it is in the form of a gully, and then the greater moisture is in favour of forest. It would be superfluous to mention that in these forest pockets are regular bush fires, while in the lancewood scrubs there are none.
From Jericho eastwards we find again a different type of wattle scrub, very closed and dense, with prevalent Acacia and Eucalyptus. Bottle trees (Sterculia rupestris) are very abundant, but are not clustered together.
Great areas in the Central and Western districts of ‘Queensland are occupied by the Rolling Downs forma- tion, and. covered with open grassy plains ; in the Northern part with prevalent Mitchell grass (Astrebla pectinata and others) and Flinders grass (Anthistiria membranacea) ; in the Southern more with blue grass (Andropagon sericeus).
These open plains possess an association, which has no parallel in any other part of the world. It is usually not a dense vegetation. The predominant grass is the deeply rooting, perennial Mitchell grass, really a marvellous fodder. Between its tufts there grow after the rain plenty of annual plants, of which the Flinders and Button grasses are the most valuable. In the Eastern parts we often find patches of scrub, especially boree. But further Westwards there are miles and miles of open plains, and only near the water- courses are scattered gums (especially the so-called coolibah) and tea trees (Melaleuca sp.). Some few shrubs are growing in small gullies; very common is a thorny Acacia called ‘‘ Mimosa,’ and regarded as a sign of water underneath. Fuchsia bush—a species of Eremophila—is scattered here and there. Of the taller treees there are found some few ““emu-apples,” whitewood, Myoporum, etc.
Rolling Downs give the best possible grazing land. If in the future the system of conserving hay may become general, there will be no such catastrophes as after the big drought. But Ido not think that there is a possibility for close agricultural settlement. This part is a splendid grazing country, and gives besides opportunity for growing fruit and some vegetation to a smaller extent along the bigger watercourses. It is a pity that this is until now in hands of Chinese, who make good profit, but do not spend +heir money in Queensland. It would be a great advantage
70 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
to promote the immigration of skilful people from Europe, who could stand the competition with the Chinese, as the English people are usually not fond of this branch of agri- culture.
| As there is not much time left, I will mention only some of the other plant associations of Queensland :—
1. On. the very top of Bellenden Ker there is a most extraordinary form of low mountain scrub, consisting of different -shrubs with extermely hard branches. It is nearly impossible to penetrate through this thicket, which is in many respects of high importance, as there are found ‘several plants (for instance Agapetes Meiniana, Rhodo- dendron Lochae), which have their affinities in the Malayan and Papuan mountains. This association covers only the narrow top of the mountains and the slopes some 80 feet below. _ Except this, the whole mountain is covered with dense tropical vine-scrub, of course of different types at different heights. The soil is everywhere on _ the eastern side granitic and poor. The ascent of the central highest peak is certainly not so difficult as one would suppose after reading the travels of Mr. Arch. Meston. The eastern side of the mountain is not such good timber country as the scrubs on the basaltic plateau. There are comparatively few trees, which are sufficiently numerous and are of a high mercantile value. Meston’s Mangostoen (Garcinia Mestoni), botani- cally an extremely interesting type of the flora of Bellenden Ker, described and discovered by F. M. Bailey, is very plenti- ful in the eastern slopes in an elevation between 2,500- 4,000 feet. But the value of the fruit was exaggerated by Mr. Meston, and I regard all experiments with this tree as useless. First, it will not do well in the low land; and sec- ond, its fruit is of no special taste; naturally it cannot be compared with the true mangosteen (Garcinia Mango- slang).
2. Shrubby plant association, consisting of plenty of low shrubs with little grass and few small trees, is often found on loose sand in the inland country. It is a Xerophilous association.
3. On the islands of Moreton Bay, and also near Sunny- bank, in the vicinity of Brisbane (and surely in several other localities), is to be found an extremely interesting
~
BY DR. KAREL DOMIN. 71
association, not identified until now. It is a true turf in different stages and with a very rich flora, consisting chiefly of Restiaceae, Cyperaceae, etc., with some Exa- cridaceae, Dilleniaceae, small Myrtaceae, Burmannia disticha, Utricularia, Drosera, etc. Turf-moss (Sphagnum) is usually not present, but sometimes it is present in large quantities (f.1., Stradbroke Island).
4. Limestone flora. 1 had opportunity to examine the limestone country near Chillagoe, where on the limestone blufis is a type of flora quite different from all associations mentioned above. There are many plants peculiar to these parts. The flora consists of many shrubs and small trees, and has so many peculiarities that it would require a special lecture to give only the rough outlines of its general char- acter. I was glad to make the first botanical investigations of great extent in this very interesting country.
5. There is a special flora on the rocks along the coast of Queensland, but it is not much developed. In the Glass- houses this association has some interesting members (Micraira subulifolia, Hriostemon myoporoides, Grevillea leiophylla, Dodonaea vestita, Melaleuca Luehmanni, besides the commoner rock plants, as Cheilanthes, Polypodium rigi- dulum, Peperomia, Plectranthus, etc.)
In the North there are hardly more than 20 character- istic species accompanying the rocks.
Let me now say some few words about the evolution of the flora of Queensland. We find,in Australia three dif- ferent elements represented in a very unequal degree in the flora of the different States. There is, first, the true Australian element ; second, the so-called Antarctic element (named so by Hooker) ; and, last, the Malayan (including the Papuan) element. The second element, which is of such great importance for the flora of New Zealand and the moun- tains in the south-east corner of Australia, is (with a few exceptions, as for instance, Dracophyllum Sayeri on the top of Bellenden Ker), not represented in Queensland. Both the other elements are in Queensland well represented, and the Malayan element is in no other State so rich as here. The Australian element, which attains its highest evolution in Western Australia, must be regarded as the true old Australian flora; in Queensland it is spread over the drier districts and is especially rich in Southern Queens-
72 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
land (islands of Moreton Bay). The Malayan element makes the base for the flora of the vine-scrubs. The wet tropical part of Queensland has altogether a true Malayan- Papuan flora, which shows that there was formerly a land or island connection and an easy way for propagation of this equatorial tropical flora southwards. But it would not be correct to regard Queensland’s tropical flora only as a new comer and a recent branch of the regions mentioned above. All that we know seems to testify that :—
1. The tropical “‘ Malayan” flora of Queensland is only a small remainder of a flora spread formerly over large areas, which are now mostly sunken into the sea. Accord- ingly,
2. The flora does not consist only of the original Malayan types. ‘Lhese made only a base, but it has been transformed in the great number of genera and species, which are known only from the Australian Tropics (endemic in Australia). It seems that the separation took place at a very early epoch, so that the ancestors of the present tropical flora in Australia developed themselves quite independent of the Malayan flora, and originated a large number of new forms.
Now we understand the difference between the Malayan and the Australian elements, and we can imagine the struggle which certainly took place after the best and largest localities for the tropical flora disappeared under the sea level. In the Southern part of Queensland there are some differences, as the true Australian type is represented in a few special forms in the vine scrub flora. I may mention for instance the gigantic water gums (Eucalyptus botryoides) (besides some other gums, as Huc. resinifera) in the vine-scrubs on the basaltic mountains in Southern Queensland. Here the contrast is not so great, and we find sometimes diferent transitions, especially in the brushes, which have in sone places quite a mixed character. But we must not forget that just here most of the Malayan types, which require the most favourable conditions, are not so plentiful. Antarctic elements are, of course, missing, the most curious Fagus Mooret in the Macpherson Range being an interest- ing exception.
My studies in different parts of Queensland brought me to the conclusion that the open forests in all parts of
BY DR KAREL DOMIN. 73
Queensland are not a natural association, but a secondary one, changed through the influence of their aboriginal inhabitants, mostly by means of bushfires. It seems rather strange to regard such immense areas in a virgin country covered with open forest as a secondary association, but I hope to bring in another place sufficient proof for it, and I will try to give a reconstruction of their ‘original form, which differs substantially from their present character.
Last, but not least, I will make a few remarks regarding the agricultural prospects for the future, which are closely connected with the botany of the State. Everybody who is familiar with the different plant associations of a country must know thoroughly all the conditions of soil, climate, etc., for the distribution of plants in special associations shows it in a most striking manner. There- fore, it is not useless to go deeper into all these questions and to try to understand the conditions of the plant-life as much as possible. I think everybody who took a keen interest in the connection between the plant-life and its surrounding circumstances, could easily recognize from the character of the vegetation the nature of the country.
No doubt, in Queensland is opened a field for tropical agriculture as well as for cultivation of subtropical plants, and some from temperate regions. It is, of course, necessary to choose the right plant.
I think, there would be a possibility of cultivating a great variety of tropical plants in North Queensland, but just these, which would be of special value, are not fitted for it, as the rates for white labour are so high, that it would not pay to cultivate such plants as coffee, tea, rubber, etc., which must be looked after the whole year round. Sugar- cane will surely remain the most important plant for the future. In smaller quantities it would be, of course, possible to cultivate plenty of tropical plants, but that is not of great importance for the rich coastal scrub districts. Only a few of the true tropical plants do not grow here well, and these are plants which must have rain the whole year round. That is the case with the pale rubber (Hevia Brasiliensis), with the true mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana), etc.
It seems to me much more important to cultivate a greater variety of plants in the central drier districts.
74 QUEENSLAND’S PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
At least as far as Charters Towers, along the Northern Railway, and as far as Barcaldine around the Central Railway, it would be possible to cultivate sufficient fruit not only for the settlers’ own use, but for a supply to the far West. There is a possibility for much more fruit and vegetable growing; there could be grown many plants. hardly cultivated as yet. Arochis hypogaea, date palm, and plenty others would be worth trying.
It seems strange for a visitor to see how European fruits are cultivated in Queensland on localities where they cannot do well, but where it is easy to grow any amount of excellent tropical fruit. Once being in the tropics, it is best to adapt ourselves to them, to take tropical fruit, to adapt the houses to the tropical climate, etc. I was always wondering how little are estimated the yams, which can be grown to perfection, and which are surely more valuable than pumpkins.
Notwithstanding all this; marvellous progress can be observed in agriculture, and no doubt, with the increasing population, we may expect still more improvement.
And last I must express my thanks, not only to the authorities who helped me in a most efiective and kind way to carry out my plans, but to everybody whom I had the pleasure to meet, and whose hospitality was oiten a great help in rather rough conditions of climate and country. I regard it, with my friend, Dr. Danes, as a pleasant duty to give our own people good information about the possibilities for immigrants in Queensland, and it would be only a pleasure to me if many of our agricultural people would come to your prosperous and hospitable State.
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SOME LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND.
By DR. J. VY. DANES (Pracun, Czecu University).
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 23, 1910.
During my stay in Queensland I had occasion to pay more or less hurried visits to three important limestone areas within the limits of the State, and I was able to make some observations about the present state and the develop- ment of some prominent and generally interesting features, which distinguish the pure limestone from most other common country rocks.
Pure limestone differs conspicuously from many other rocks by its comparatively easy solubility through the action of water charged with a slight quantity of carbonic acid. The water widens the joints and clefts in the rock structure, and tries to force a passage vertically into the depths. Where the vertical progress is impossible, the water proceeds more or less horizontally, or follows the inclination of the beds, and starts again in the vertical direction if possible, until it reaches the base of the previous rock or the upper level of the underground water. The disintegrating action of the water upon the neighbour- ing rock is slow in the beginning and purely chemical ; but later on the cavities become so wide that the running water starts on the mechanical work, grinding the rocks with sand and gravel set into rotatory movement by vertical whirls, or scratching the surface with the same material, where the passage is more or less horizontal and unobstructed. Subterraneous passages, extended systems of caves, are results of that process, and their presence is the most characteristic feature of the limestone areas,
76 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND
especially to an untrained eye. Almost all famous caves of the world occur in limestone.
But the existence of caves is not the only result of the ‘ssubterraneous passage of the waters. The rocks below the surface diminish gradually in volume, and concentric depressionsform. Many ofsuch depressions are formed by a slow gradual process, but others are the result of violent, although only localised, processes, being caused by sudden col- lapse of the roof of some cave. The shapes of such sinkholes* explain generally the way in which they originated, and very often the deep, abrupt sinkholes form entrances to the subterraneous passages. On a limestone area con- taining caves and sinkholes the rain water falling upon the surface does not flow away in streams, but disappears underground. No regular graded valleys are formed. Running water flowing in creeks or rivers from areas of impervious rocks seldom succeed in eroding an open valley through a limestone area. It generally disappears in fissures or sinkholes, and continues its way in subterraneous passages, reappearing again on the surface where the limestone area ends, or flows often subterraneously to the sea.
Many of such subterraneous watercourses can be followed on the surface, deep sinkholes marking the direction of the caves, but many of them are completely lost to the human eye. It seems probable that in some limestone areas the cave systems are not yet fully developed, and that the waters after some progress in defined streams lose their individuality, and become a part of a general ground water basin, which fills all cavities and fissures to a certain level throughout some limestone areas. Such conditions seem to prevail in limestone areas, which are morphologically young, and which have not been long (geologically speaking) exposed to the disinte- grating agencies.
During the further evolution, the defined underground watercourses become more and more general, and, prevail completely in morphologically old areas.
The caves in their young stage show everywhere unmistakable proofs of violent mechanical work performed
—_—
* For sinkholes the Servian term ‘‘ doline”’ is most extensively used in scientific literature
BY DR. J. V. DANES. aT:
by water, by help of sand, gravel and rock debris, and are full of potholes of very diversified size and aspect. In old caves, the traces of the mechanical action are generally obliterated ; the old channels are filled by loam, sand and secondary limestone, the walls covered by secondary limestone, and numerous, often beautiful and picturesque stalactites and stalagmites give the most attractive appear- ance to old caves. Gradually the roofs give way to pressure, and. often in old limestone areas there occur long, narrow, precipitous gorges, which were caves before the collapse of upper layers of rocks. Blind valleys are the result of such a process, and also broad level basins* occur in some extensive limestone areas with rivers and creeks, which on one side leave the subterraneous passage, and on the other side disappear once more under the continuous. barrier of rocky ridges.
Many limestone mountains represent rocky deserts, whose passage is very difficult, there being no definite valleys, which generally form the most important ways of communication in rugged mountainous countries.
Where the limestone rocks are devoid of vegetation,. the chemical and mechanical action of the falling rain- waters affects the surface in a peculiar way.
The edges and; corners of limestone blocks look as if worked by a fine chisel, and later develop deep correlated forms; extremely sharp and fine ridges fall abruptly into miniature valleys or basins, which generally end at a fissure or a cavity, where the water disappears into the underground depths.
This phenomenon is very well developed, especially on many barren limestone ridges and plateaus in the Alps, and is known under the name of “‘ Karren ”’ to the Germans, and ‘“ Lapiaz’’ to the southern Frenchmen.t All those forms of terrain, which form the peculiarity of the physiographical character of the limestones, are known as the ‘* Karst phaenomena,” ‘“‘ Karst”? or “‘ Kras” is a South Slavish word designating a barren, rocky country, and was originally applied to the vast limestone
—— a
*Such basins are called ‘‘ poljes,” and occur along the Adriatic coast, in the French Jura, and in Jamaica. The greatest ‘‘ Livanjskopolji” in Western Bosnia covers about 180 square miles.
+ In the Adriatic Karst.
‘78 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND
plateaux and mountain ranges along the north and north- western margin of the Adriatic Sea in the southern countries of Austria-Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula. I¢ became a generally acknowledged scientific term for the ‘forms of terrain of soluble rocks.
The caves, although they are one of the most important “Karst phaenomena,” are known also from other forma- tions, especially from basaltic rocks, from sandstones, and conglomerates with soluble concrete, but the true development of “ Karst’ is characteristic only of the limestone among the very important country rocks. Rocksalt, gypsum and glacier ice develop also the characteristic features of the “Karst,” but their significance is minimal, as they occur rarely in great continuous masses.
With the hope that the somewhat extensive explana- tion of the characteristic features of limestone physiography will give you an idea sufficient to under- stand, my further remarks, I shall proceed to a description of the chief features of the limestone areas I saw in Queensland.
A long and narrow belt of limestone ridges extends in the surroundings of Chillagoe from Almaden in a north- westerly direction, about 20 miles beyond Mungana. The geological character of the country has been described several times by prominent geologists as Dr. Jack, Prof. Skertchly, Mr. Dunstan, and also some descriptions of the caves have been given. The limestones were deposited in the Silurian period, and their position has been violently disturbed through tectonic processes.
The Chillagoe caves are famous as one of the picturesque attractions of North Queensland, and they deserve their fame, although the general extent and size of the principal caves cannot compete with many others of world’s fame. The limestone ridges are low, only 100 to 150ft. high above the valley level. The floors of the principal caves are generally on a level corresponding with the surrounding country, and so the elevation of the roof seldom exceeds 60ft. from the floor. The stalactites and stalagmites are not so numerous as in other caves with a more humid climate, but the secondary deposits cover the walls and the floor so thickly that traces of erosion are
BY DR, Je Vs DANES. 79
almost completely obliterated. The great development of secondary deposits is an unmistakable proof of the old age of the caverns ; another proof is, that many roofs have collapsed, and open sinkholes with almost perpendicular walls are met with in rambles through the subterranean labyrinth. Waters which eroded those caves left them some time ago, and thick layers of “‘ cave-earth ”’ cover the floor of horizontal passages. The outer appearance of the limestone bluffs perforated by caverns in the interior is very rugged, and the bluffs are very inacessible.
The Karren phenomena is developed on most of them in very bold and sharp forms. A climb to the top of a bluff reveals a really stupendous labyrinth of sharp correlated rocks, deep perpendicular chasms, miniature caves and recesses, but further progress is very slow and tiresome, and the edges of the rocks, sharp as a knife, leave dis- agreeable traces on the dress and skin.
Most of the bluffs in the Chillagoe district are of such rugged appearance, with the exception of one group south- east from Chillagoe. A peculiarly shaped, smooth-faced limestone bluff, called generally ‘“‘ The Lion’s Head,” is known to everybody who has been in Chillagoe. The base of the bluff is full of potholes leading underground, and one narrow passage opens into the centre of the Lion’s Head Bluff, ending with a deep sinkhole. All surrounding rocks are smooth on the surface, and differ very conspicuously from most of the others. There can be no doubt that the Lion’s Head and its surroundings owe their shape to the vigorous action of running water in some remote period. The bed of the short ancient river was at a considerable eleva- tion above the present creek beds in the environs. The base of the Lion’s Head is about 100ft. about the present creeks. The Lion’s Head Bluff is an unmistakable remnant of the old landscape, and, I can recommend it to the attention of future investigators, who will be certainly able to say more about the former direction of the drainage at much higher level than the present, and the subsequent evolution of the landscape.
From Rockhampton, I visited the Olsen Caves, which occur in a limestone ridge about 16 miles in an almost northerly direction from Rockhampton. ‘here are several ridges and bluffs to the east and south-east of Mount Etna,
80 LIMESTONE AREAS IN. QUEENSLAND
a conspicuous conical landmark. The limestone is of Devonian age, as proved by corals determined by Mr. Rands. Mr. Rands gives in his report a very good description of the Olsen Caves, and also of a second group, the Johansen Caves, is another mass of limestone.
The Olsen Caves, which perforate in several passages. the narrow limestone ridge, are in size and height very much like the Chillagoe caves. The rivers or creeks which once eroded them left them long ago, but the secondary lime deposits, and especially stalactites and stalagmites, are ~ much less conspicuous than in the Chillagoe caves. The lack of this picturesque and ornamental element makes them less interesting for an ordinary tourist, but for a student of physiography, the work of the running and whirling waters is well preserved and very interesting. ‘he small amount of secondary limestone, and also the better preservation of the caves, although the ridge is only of the same elevation as over the Chillagoe Caves, shows. that they are in a younger stage of development. Innumerable bats have their refuge in these caves, and the deposit on the floor is a magnificent guano preserved by nature for the use of future agriculturists. The top of the ridge shows a most beautiful and diversified develop- ment of the “‘ Karren phenomena,” and is more accessible than the tops of the Chillagoe bluffs, the disintegration being not so far advanced, and the roofs of the caves solid.
Many other limestone areas are met among the paloeozoic rocks in the mountainous eastern parts of the State, and their morphological development will be of great help to a student of the geological changes in the latest periods, since limestone more than other rocks preserves the old landscape and reveals many details, which serve as unmistakable proofs of older stages of the drainage system.
In the farthest north-west of tae State a high level plateau called Barkly Tableland extends and continues. very far into the Northern ‘Territory. The age of the limestones is yet unknown, but the depth of the continuous limestone strata is so enormous that it is quite possible that they consist of layers deposited in very difierent geological periods. Their extent is better known in the
BY DR. J. V. DANES. 81
Northern Territory by the explorations of Mr. Brown, the Government Geologist of Southern Australia.
That limestone area, so far as it is known, differs in many respects from the limestone-outcrops in the very disturbed mountain ranges along the eastern coast. The beds are in almost undisturbed horizontal positions, except in some places along the eastern edge, as Mr. Ball kindly informed me. ‘They fill out a vast basin of unknown deyth. The bores, of which the deepest is on Alexandra Downs Station, 1,700ft. deep, did not reach the base of the lime- stone formation. The surface of the Barkly Tableland, and also of the connected plateaux in the Northern Territory, represent a very good grazing country wherever the limestones form the surface, but gravelly ridges consisting of jasperised boulders and pebbles are in places very extended, and covered by poor open forest and spinifex crass. The water on the surface is scarce, and only the Georgina River contains some permanent water holes, called lakes. Two of them were the refuge of Landsborough’s exploring party. One of them, Lake Francis, supplies Camooweal, the thriving economical centre of the ‘able- land; near the other, ‘“‘ Lake Morry,”’ the homestead of Rocklands Cattle Station is situated.
The lack of a superficial water supply would be a great drawback to the future development of the good grazing country, but the limestone basin contains in the under- ground depths a magnificent supply of water, which can be reached by bores and pumped in unlimited quantities. The eastern part of the Tableland is formed by an impure limestone, where the underground water supply is very limited and not sufficient for practical purposes, but that area is luckily only an insignificant part of the Tableland, which, so far as the limestone extends continuously, can be sure of an unlimited water supply in bores reaching not below 4-500 feet. The extent of that basin in Queens- land is not yet known, but reaches more than a hundred miles further south than suggested until the present. The value of that water supply will be of immense significance for the future development of the farthest West of Queensland and of more extended areas within the Northern Territory. One good quality of it is that pumping is necessary, and so the wasting of superfluous water as in the case of artesian bores
F—Rovyat Society.
.
82 LIMESTONE AREAS IN QUEENSLAND
can never become dangerous to the very existence of the water supply for the future generations. Now almost all of the stations on the Tableland and in the South-eastern part of the Northern Territory use that subterranean water, and in the future a practically unlimited number of bores. will make the extensive use of that Territory for stock one of the most important resources of the interior. I shall be very glad indeed if the present remarks reach the State Governments concerned, and if a thorough geological survey from both sides prove to what extent my Suggestions are of practical value for the development of that, until the present, very little known and neglected country.
The subterranean basin in the limestone formation gives a permanent: water supply to many magnificent rivers and creeks, whose surrounding areas can be the basis of closer settlement in the future. On the Queensland side, the Gregory River derives her splendid stream from numerous springs in the limestone, the lime suspended in the water is deposited in some places. in the form of travertin and calcareous conglomerate, forming natural. dams across the river bed, which the stream leaps in a number of picturesque cataracts and rapids. In the Northern Territory the McArthur, the Roper, the Victoria, the Daly and many other streams get their permanent, splendid quantity of water out of the subterranean limestone basin.
The surface of the plateau is very level and the strata almost undisturbed, and there are extensive patches of country covered by a sandstone formation corresponding very probably with the so-called desert sandstone formation in age and aspect.*
The caves are not very numerous, but they are ex- tremely interesting from the very young stage of develop- ment they represent. They seem mostly to be due to fissures crossing the country in an almost north-south direction, and several groups of caves and sinkholes are known in the environs of Camooweal. I visited most of them. ‘lhe best known are the Nowranie Caves, about 10 miles South-South-East from Camooweal, accessible over a precipice and extending in two levels for some hundred.
* On the Queensland side a small desert sandstone plateau forms the: divide about 30 miles east from Camooweal, near Wooroona Creek.
BY DR. J. V. DANES. 83
yards. The development of secondary limestone is insig- nificant, and stalactites and stalagmites very scarce. ‘lhe water level is about 240 feet below the surface. Another very intererting group of caves and sinkholes is one about 44 miles north from the Rocklands Station. I named that eroup after Mr. A. H. Glissan, the manager of the Rocklands Station, who has a very deep interest in the scientific and economical development of the Tableland, and has gathered most valuable information about the char- acter of the subterranean water basin.. Further to the West the Happy Creek sends a great part of its waters to the sub- terranean basin through a sinkhole. The ‘“ Karren phae- nomen ”’ is only in its beginning—everywhere on the out- cropping rocks.
a
Proc, Roy. Soc. Q’uanp, Vou. XXIII. Prats J,
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WATERHOLE IN THE Wooroona CrEEK, Hast rrom CaMoowEAL (IMPURE LIMESTONE).
A. H. Guissan’s Group or SINK-HOLES AND CAVES. Barkity TABLELAND,.
‘‘ ENDEAVOUR Series No. 1.”’
ON SOME NEW FISHES FROM THE QUEENSLAND COAST.
By J. DOUGLAS OGILBY.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 20th, 1910.
4 —_—__—__.
Since the delivery of the above Paper and the issue of the Author’s Copies, the Council of the Royal Society has been informed by the Commonwealth Authorities that the Australian Museum in Sydney had, before the expedition sailed, been officially entrusted with the scientific descrip- tion of all the Fishes secured, a fact of which the Council was not aware until March, 1911. As most of the fishes described in the Paper have been forwarded to the Australian Museum, the Council has decided to withhold the Paper from publication in the Proceedings.
G Royat Sociery,
NOTES ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMACULA OF BRISBANE.
By W. R. COLLEDGE.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May, 28, 1910.
According to Gosse, “a rotifer is a microscopic animal found in fresh or salt water, which swims by means of cilia on its head, possessing jaws, stomach, and digestive glands, muscles, a well-developed vascular system, and nerve ganglions with fibres passing to the organ of sense.” 825 species are known, 300 are found in America, double that number in England ; other countries contribute their quota ; even Shackleton caught some in his latest expedi- tion to the Southern Pole. Canada is the only place from which we have no record, probably because no student has searched its waters.
A little work was done in Queensland in 1887 and 1889 by a Naval Officer, Surgeon Gunson Thorpe. Two papers, with a list of 23 species are found contributed by him to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Queensland about that period. Seeing that this branch of science would repay a little study, I have devoted the most of my spare time for the last two or three years, and have been able to increase the number of these interesting creatures known in Queensland to 102 species.
Those mentioned in Surgeon Thorpe’s papers are marked by an asterisk, the rest have all been found in the neighbourhood of Brisbane. —
ORDER I. BDELLOIDA.—Creeping like a leech usually, but able to swim freely when they choose to do so.
Famity 1.— Philodina citrina.* Rotifer neptunius.* Rotifer vulgaris.*
88 ON THE ROTIFERS OR WHEEL ANIMACULZ OF BRISBANE.
ORDER IV. RHIZOTA, or rooted ones. These are fixed in one place and rarely move from it during life.
Famity IV.— Floscularia coronetta.* es longicaudata. + ornata.* a campanulata.
Famity VI. — Melicerta conifera.* : ringens.* Limnias ceratophylli.* bs annulatus.* Aicystes brachycera.
és crystallina. Conochilus dossuaris. . unicornis.
ie volvox.
Stephanoceris eichornii.
ORDER V. PLOIMA, or free swimmers.
SUB-ORDER 1.—Illoricate.
Famity 7. — Microcodidus chloena.
Famity 8.— Asplanchna amphora, male. 99 46 female. = brightwelli.
Sacculus viridus.
Famity 9.— Syncheta stylata. | ‘f ovalis. of tremula. Famity 10. —Triarthra longiseta. Polyarthra platyptera.*
Famity 1]. —Cyrtonia tuba. Notops brachionis.
Famity 12.—Copias copias. ig cerberis. - pachyurus. Coelopus brachyurus. Diglena grandis. Eosphora aurita. a digitata.
BY W. R. COLLEDGE.
Faminy 12. —Furcularia equales. longiseta. melandicus. micropus.
99 99
Notammada aurita.
m] clavulata. Proales sordida. Taphrocampa annulosa.
Triopthalmus longiseta.
SUB-ORDER 9.—Loricata.
Famity 13. —Mastigocerca bicornis. bicristata. birostris. carinata. ae elongata.
Rattulus tigris.
“ mucosus. Calopus porcellus.
29 bP)
99
Famity 14. —Dinocharis collinsii. pocillum. tetractis.
99
29
Scaridium eudodactylotum.
longicaudatum.*
99
Famity 15.—Salpina brevispina. eustala.* 3 macracantha. Diaschiza peta. ie semiaperta. Diplax trigona. Diplois davesii.*
99
Famity 16.—Euchlanis dilatata. oropha. triquetra.*
99
9?
Famity 17.—Cathypna luna.* , J leontina. Monostyla bulla. cornuta. lunaris.*
quadridentata.
99
99
93
89
90 ON THE ROTIFERS 9R WHEEL ANIMACULZ OF BRISBANE.
Famity 18.—Colurus amblytelus.* dactylotus. i deflexus. Metopidia, acuminata. Pr lepadella. oxysternum. Es solidus. ~ triptera. Cochlearis turbo.
Famity 19. —-Pterodina patina.*
Famity 20. —Brachionis angularis. sp bakerii.* “ falcatus. cy militaris.* ‘fl pale. oe ,, var. amphiceros. + rubens. “0 urceolus. Noteus quadricornis.
Famity 21.—Anurea aculeata.* » ps var., no ventral spines. fe cochlearis.
Faminy 22. —Pleosoma lenticulares.
Famity 23. —Gastropus minor. = stylifer.
Famity 24. —Anapus ovalis.
ORDER VI. SCIRTOPODA.—Skipping by means of jointed appendages.
Famty 25. —Pedalion mirum:*
This peculiar species was found at Dunk Island by Surgeon Gunson Thorpe, but I have found them in the city and suburbs occasionally.
Another species so peculiar in structure, that its position in the group is uncertain, is Trochosphera cquatorialis. First found in the Philippine rice fields in 1859 by Professor Semper. It was next observed in Brisbane after the lapse
BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 91
w{ thirty years by Surgeon Gunson Thorpe, who also dis- covered the male. It does not appear to have been noticed anywhere but in these two localities, and contrary to the usual wide distribution of rotifers, I have only caught them in two pools for a very limited time in the year. At ‘the request of F. Rousselet—the great authority on these microscopic fauna—I forwarded a batch, and some of these were shown, for the first time to a London audience, and ‘specimens supplied to the museums of the Quecket Club and the Royal Society.
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ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND.
By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. (Senior Inspector or ScHooxs).
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th September, 1910.
At the meeting of the Australasian Association, held in Brisbane in January, 1909, the first list of the known Marine Mollusca of Queensland was published by Mr. Charles Hedley, Assistant Curator, Australian Museum,. Sydney. This list forms part of the Presidential Address to Section D., Biology, comprised in pp. 343-371, of Volume xii., of the Proceedings of the Association. Pages 809-810 of the same volume contain a supplement to the main list. In all, some 1900 species are catalogued.
The following additions are drawn. from a review of the cabinets of my son, Mr. Ray Shirley, who has been collecting for the past six years, and whom I have helped in every possible way. Owing to the greatly increased interest in natural history, many teachers of schools in the coastal towns have made collections of [marine shells, and from these I have received many parcels for naming. This has given me an opportunity to study the mollusca from a very wide stretch of coast. I take this opportunity to thank Mr. F. Barrett, of Cairns; Mr. John Fewtrell,. formerly of Townsville West, now District Inspector of Schools ; Mr. Ivie Murchie and Mr. Long, of Normanton ; Mr. E. Saunders, of Bowen; Mr. C. Kemp, formerly of Gladstone ; Mr. Joseph Hirst, formerly of Bulwer, Moreton Island; Mr. W. Noon, Yeppoon; and Mr. James Bruce, of Murray Island, Torres Straits, whose collections have enabled me to add many species to the Queensland list.
94 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND
I wish also to put on record the assistance I have had from my friend, Mr. Charles Hedley, who has named many parcels of shells sent down to him, and also from Mr. E. A. Smith, of the British Museum; Mr. C. J. Wild, of the Brisbane Museum; Messrs. C. Gabriel and J. H. Gatliff,
of Melbourne; and Mr. A. Simson, of Launceston,
mania. PELECYPODA.
Leda lata Hinds, Bundaberg. Arca bicors Jonas, Moreton Bay. ,, Carpenteri Dunker, Moreton Bay. », Helblingi Chemnitz, Yeppoon. » lima Reeve, Gladstone. ,, pusilla Sowerby, Caloundra. Byssarea zebra Sowerby, Townsville. Glycimeris australis Q. and G. i i v. Greyana Dunker, Moreton Bay. holoserica Reeve, Caloundra. mn striatularis Lamark, Bundaberg. Pinna angustata Lamark, Torres Straits. Perna ephippium Linneus, Torres Straits. » fimbriatum Reeve, Torres Straits. Pteria marmorata Reeve, Yeppoon. Meleagrina vulgaris Schwmacher, Moreton Bay. Ostrea circumsuta Gould, Moreton Bay. glomerata Gould, Moreton Bay. mordax Gould, Bundaberg.
5 rf v. cornucopioides Lamark. Pecten gloriosus Reeve, Yeppoon. leopardus Reeve, Yeppoon.
» medius Lamark, Normanton, Yeppoon. Amusiuim japonicum Lamark, Moreton Bay. Spondylus coccineus Lamark, Moreton Bay. imperialis Chemnitz, Cardwell, Yeppoon.
ag tenellus Reeve, Caloundra. Limopsis multistriata Sowerby, Moreton Bay. Anomia acheus Gray, Thursday Island. Modiola elongata Swainson, Yeppoon. Fortunei Dunker, Caloundra.
2 vagina Lamark, South Passage. Chamostrea albida Lamark, Bundaberg.
99
99
39
29
93
. BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC.
Myodora ovata Reeve, Caloundra. cs striata Deshayes, Caloundra.
Crassatellites Cumingiana A. Adams, Caloundra.
Batissa violacea Lamark, Cairns. Austriella sordida T’enison Woods, Bowen. Codakia punctata L,, Capricorn Islands. Cryptodon globosum Férskal, Tweed Heads. Corbis Sowerbyi Reeve, Torres Straits. Cardium cardissa Linneus, Torres Straits.
ss latum Born, Moreton Bay.
a munda Reeve, Bundaberg.
» oxygonum Sowerby, Burnett River.
, philippinensis Desh,, Normanton. Dosinia corrugata Chem., Gulf of Carpentaria.
_ lamellata Reeve, Yeppoon
3 subrosea Lamark, Keppel Bay.
% turgida Reeve, Bundaberg. Gafrarium divaricatum Gmelin, Bundaberg. ' ‘Cytherea dysera Chemnitz, Moreton Bay.
ey impudica, Sowerby, Normanton.
“j isabellina Phillipt, Moreton Bay. xl lacerata Hanley, Bundaberg. ‘3 puerpera v. Gladstonensis Angas. Macrocallista lilacina Lamark, Cardwell. as lusoria Chemnitz, Normanton. vy pellucida Lamark, Torres Strait. ‘Chione Yerburyi, H. A. Smith, Caioundra. Paphia analis Phillippi, Burketown.
» inflata Desh, Moreton Bay
» semirugata Philippi, Fraser Island.
,, tumida Sowerby, Moreton Bay.
,, turgida Lamark, Yeppoon.
‘Tellina deltoidalis Lamark, Moreton Bay.
» lnbellis Hanley, Eliot River.
,» rostrata Linneus, Murray Island. Donax australis Lamark, Caloundra.
» tinctus Gould, Yeppoon. Anapella cuneata Lamark, Caloundra. Mactra contraria Deshayes, Noosa.
» Cuvieri Deshayes, Bowen.
», depressa Lamark, Bundaberg.
»» luzonica Deshayes, Caloundra.
95
96 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND
Mactra meretriciformis Deshayes, Eliot River. ,, polita Deshayes, Moreton Bay. Solen vaginoides Lamark, Yeppoon.
CEPHALOPODA.
Nautilus macromphalus Sowerby, Torres Straits. = umbilicatus Lister, Torres Straits. stenomphalus, Sowerby, Torres Straits.
Sepia rostrata D’Orbigny, Moreton Bay.
» Rouxii D’Orbigny, Moreton Bay.
Argonanta argo Jinneus, Torres Straits.
AMPHINEURA.
Acanthopleura spiniger Sowerby, Townsville. Cryptoplax striatus Lamark. Ischnochiton fruticosus Gould.
GASTEROPODA. Scutus anatinus Donavon, Moreton Bay. Subemarginula australis Q. and G., Cairns. SS parmophoroides Q. and G., Caloundra. Haliotis coccoradiata Reeve, Caloundra. ss Cunninghamii Gray, Torres Straits. sf Roei Gray, Cairns. Trochus concinnus Dunker, Murray Island. incarnatus Philippi, Torres Straits. os mauritianus Gmelin, Caloundra. z noduliferus Lamark, Caloundra. radiatus Gmelin, Murray Island. @issculus Lischkeanus Pilsbry, Murray Island. Monodonta zebra Menke, Moreton Bay. Cantharidus (Elenchus) leucostigma Menke, Murray Islande Gibbula magus Linneus, Torres Straits. ie Strangei A. Adams, Gladstone. A Coxi Angas, Gladstone. Calliostoma picturata H. and A. Adams, Murray Island. 7. oberwimmeri Preston, Murray Island. Euchelus baccatus Menke, Murray Island. 7 instrictus Gould, Murray Island. fr mysticus Pilsbry, Caloundra. Bankivia fasciata Menke, Moreton Bay. Angaria laciniatus Lamark, Normanton. Ethalia costata Valenc., Murray Island. vestiarium LZ., Murray Island.
39
_ BY. JOHN SHIRLEY, B SC. . 97
“Turbo pulcher Reeve, Bowen.
setosus Gmelin, Gladstone. — stamineus Martyn, Bowen.
Astralium asteriscus Reeve, Normanton.
e fimbriatum Lamark, Caloundra.
Liotia cidaris Reeve, Murray Island. Nerita chrysostoma Recluz, Murray Island.
» patula Sowerby, Caloundra.
» polita v. antiqua Recluz, Yeppoon, Wide Bay. * ,, signata Macleay, Murray Island. + = 4, squamulata Le Guillou, Murray Island. Neritina pulligera Linneus, Cairns.
a Rangiana Recluz, Murray Island.
a variegata Lesson, Bowen. ‘Tectarius bullatus Martyn, Cape York. Phenacolepas granocostatus Pease, Murray Island. Helcioniscus eucosmia Pilsbry, Caloundra.
a tramosericus Montrouzer, Moreton Bay. Rissoina deformis Sowerby, Murray Island. ‘Tatea rufilabris A. Adams, Tweed River. Truncatella valida Pfr., Murray Island. Hipponix antiquatus Linneus, Burleigh Head. Calyptraea calyptreformis Lamark.
Cerithium Hanleyi Sowerby, Murray Island.
re inflatum Quoy, Townsville.
o3 lacteum Kiener, Murray Island.
* tenellum Sowerby, Murray Island.
" tuberculatum Linneus, Moreton Bay.
*s tessellatum Sowerby, Murray Island. ‘Cerithidea Fortunei A. Adams, Yeppoon.
Ss obtusata Lamark, Moreton Bay. Pyrazus zonalis Bruguiere, Burleigh Head. Siliquaria australis Quoy and Gaimard, Caloundra. Strombus dilatatus Swainson, Torres Straits.
a epidromis Linneus, Cardwell.
ie floridus Lamark, Murray Island.
be Isabella Lamark, Murray Island.
a latissimus Linneus, Torres Straits.
99
*Given as a synonym of N. reticulata Karsten, but separated by E. A. Smith.
+ Given as a synonym of N. chameleon Linneus, but separated by E. _A. Smith.
98 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND
Strombus labiosus Gray, Torres Straits. Struthiolaria scutellata Martyn, Yeppoon. Pteroceras aurantium Lamark, Torres Straits. “ chiragra Lamark, Thursday Island. 3 rugosum Sowerby, Torres Straits. Pyramidella sulcata 4. Adams, Murray Island. i variegata A. Adams, Murray Island. g: ventricosa Guerin, Cardwell. Fusus colus Linneus, Torres Straits.
2 ,, Vv. nove-hollandize Reeve, Normanton.
» spectrum Adams and Reeve, Yeppoon. Architectonica areolata Lamark, Murray Island.
wi modesta Phillippi, Caloundra. RS Reevei Hanley, Normanton. Torinia infundibuliformis Gmelin, Caloundra. Cymatium caudatum Gmelin, Caloundra. doliarium Linneus, Torres Straits. * nodiferum Lamark, Bowen. Distortrix anus Linneus, Burketown. 4 cancellatus Deshayes, Yeppoon. Melongena pugilina Born, Yeppoon. Bursa pulchra Gray, Caloundra. Cassidea achatina Lamark, Caloundra. Angasi Brazier, Caloundra. = rufa Linneus, Murray Island. Tonna costata Meuke, Torres Straits.
a fimbriata Sowerby, Murray Island. Harpa conoidalis Lamark, Torres Straits. minor Martyn, Torres Straits.
5, nobilis Martyn, Burketown.
Natica maroceana Chemnitz, Murray Island. + ,, marochiensis Recluz, Moreton Bay. Polinices citrinus Philippi, Torres Straits. lactea Sowerby, Torres Straits. maura Lamark, Murray Island. rufa Born, Cape York.
a Strangei Reeve, Bowen. Sigaretus incisus Reeve, Moreton Bay.
» papillus Gmelin, Moreton Bay. Cypraea annulata Gray, Torres Straits. brevidentata Sowerby, Caloundra.
9?
99
9?
39
+ Joined to the preceding by Tyron, but separated by E. A. Smith.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 99
-Cypraea caput-anguis Phil., Caloundra. cicercula Gmelin, Murray Island. (Amphiperas) concinna Adams and Reeve, Caloundra. cribraria Linneus, Moreton Bay. cruenta Gmelin, Torres Straits. histrio Linneus, Cairns. + interrupta Gray, Murray Island. Gy mappa Linneus, Gulf of Carpentaria. a neglecta Sowerby, Caloundra. nucleus Linneus, Murray Island. ee obvelata Lamark, Cairns. 5 onyx Linneus, Burketown. y pantherina Solander, Torres Straits. =a poraria Linneus, Wide Bay. -: pyriformis Gray, Townsville. = reticulata Martyn, Cairns. ae scurra Chemnitz, Torres Straits. stolida Linneus, Caloundra. pe tabescens Solander, Murray Island. talpa Linneus, Torres Straits. 1 teres Gmelin, Murray Island. rz testudinaria Linneus, Torres Straits. ventriculus Lamark, Torres Straits. ifein Childreni Gray, Wide Bay. Ovulum Angasi Adams, Caloundra. » angulosum Lamark, Murray Island. “ birostris Lamark, Caloundra. ‘“ lacteum Lamark, Yeppoon. a pyriformis Sowerby, Murray Island. fs verrucosum Lamark, Caloundra. Radius nr. seminulum Sowerby, Caloundra. Scaphella Norrissi Sowerby, Cape York. 7 » V. Sophie Brazier, Cape York. a pallida Gray, Barrier Reef, Bowen. se piperita Sowerby, Cardwell. x reticulata Reeve, Gulf of Carpentaria. _ Turneri Gray, Gulf of Carpentaria. vespertilio Linneus, Gulf of Carpentaria. Cylindra nucea Meuschen, Bowen. Oliva bicolor Lamark, Normanton. ,, bulbiformis Ducloz, Murray Island. ,, carneola Lamark, Murray Island.
399
>]
100 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND
‘Oliva elegans Martyn, Murray Island. , erythrostoma Lamark, Cape York. , tfunebralis Lamark, Murray Island. » guttula Martyn, Torres Straits. , inflata Lamark, Trinity Bay. » irisans v. fulgetrum, Murray Island. , mustellina Lamark, Normanton. ,, sanguinolenta Lamark, Torres Straits. ,, tessellata Lamark, Torres Straits. , tremulina Lamark, Murray Island. ‘Marginella compressa Reeve, Murray Island. u triplicata Gaskoin, Murray Island. ‘Terebra babylonia Lamark, Murray Island i cerithina Lamark, Cairns. as Dussumieri, Kiener, Bowen and Normanton. * mera, Hinds, Bowen. * monilis Quoy, Cape York. my nitida Hinds, Murray Island. i subtextile Smith, Bowen. iG trochlea Deshayes, Normanton. ‘Conus aureus Hwass, Moreton Bay. » bullatus Linneus, Burketown. , catus Hwass, Murray Island. ,» cinereus Hwass, Caloundra. , generalis Linneus, Torres Straits. , gubernator Hwass, Yeppoon. ,, lithoglyphus Meuschen, Torres Straits. . luteus, Brod., Burketown ,» miles Linneus, Torres Straits. “* , minimus Linneus, Murray Island. 5 monile Bruguiere, Yeppoon. “+ ., ochroleuca Gmelin, Port Douglas. » omaria Hwass, Torres Straits. » rattus Hwass, Caloundra. ,, Sstillatus Reeve, Dunk Island. ,, stramineus Lamark v. zebra, Torres Straits. » suturatus Reeve, Murray Island » tulipa Linneus, Normanton. » vexillum Gmelin, Torres Straits. , virgo Linneus, Torres Straits.
*s. Conus coronatus Dillwyn. t+ s. Conus fasciatus Martyn.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 10}
Glyphostoma tribulationis Hedley, Hope Island. Mangilia gracilenta Reeve, Hope Island Pleurotoma babylonica Lamark, Cairns.
39
ba J
cognata Smith, Burleigh Head. grandis Gray, Burketown.
' Fasciolaria fimbriata Linneus, Torres Straits. Peristernia australiensis Reeve, Tweed Heads.
99
93
spinosa Martyn, Keppel Bay. ustulata Reeve, Normanton.
Mitra adusta Lamark, Cairns.
aurantiaca Chemnitz, Moreton Bay.
» cadervosa Reeve, Bowen.
cardinalis Gmelin, Murray Island. discoloria Reeve, Murray Island.
» Hainillei Petit, Cardwell. » luculenta Reeve, Murray Island.
papalis Linneus, Torres Straits. pontificalis Lamark, Torres Straits. procissa Reeve, Moreton Bay.
Tritonidea australis Pease, Tweed Heads. Engina zonata Reeve, Murray Island. Arcularia australis A. Adams, Murray Island.
cancellata A. Adams, Murray Island. concinna Solander, Townsville. ecstilba Mell. and Stand., Murray Island. glans v. elegans Reeve, Caloundra. globosa Reeve, Torres Straits. Jacksoniana Q. and G., Caloundra. Jonasi Dunker, Moreton Bay.
monile Kilvzr, Cape York.
labecula A. Adams, Bowen. subspinosa Lamark, Normanton. tiarula Kilver, Townsville.
Pyrene discors Gmelin, Bowen.
H Koya
Filmer Sowerby, Murray Island.
fulgurans v. punctata Lamark, Murray Island. jaspidea Sowerby, Murray Island.
pulchella Sowerby, Murray Island.
marie Brazier, Murray Island.
‘mercatoria Linneus, Bowen.
Tavloriana Reeve, Murray Island.
Tyleri Gray, Moreton Island.
Soerrrty.
102 ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND
*Pyrene zelina Ducloz, Caloundra. Murex acanthostephes Watson, Normanton.
i Bednalli Brazier, Normanton.
4 haustellum Linneus, Torres Straits. . monodon Sowerby, Burketown.
a osseus Reeve, Normanton.
54 pyrum L., Cardwell,
- torrefactus Sby., Gulf of Carpentaria Afer Blosvillei Deshayes, Caloundra.
, carinifera Lamark, Normanton. Thais ambustulatus Hedley, Moreton Bay.
,, bufo Lamark, Yeppoon.
,» haemostoma Linneus, Moreton Bay.
,, intermedia Kiener, Keppel Bay.
» pica Blainville, Torres Straits.
,, succincta v. textiliosa Lameark, Caloundra. Drupa biconica Blainville, Murray Island.
, grossularius Bolten, Torres Straits.
, horrida Lamark, Torres Straits. Plecotrema lirata H. and A. Adams, Burleigh Head. Ophicardelus australis A. Adams, Brisbane River. Melampus castaneus Muhl., Bowen.
Bullina lineata Gmelin, Caloundra. Bullaria ampulla Linneus, Bowen. a » v. bifasciata Menke, Bowen. >, australis Q. and G., Caloundra. ‘Haminea galba Pease, Murray Island. Hydatina albo-cincta, v. d. Hoeven, Stradbroke Island. Hexabranchus marginatus v. Griff, Hope Island.
SCAPHOPODA. Dentalium elephantinum Linneus, Torres Straits. ee katowense Hedley, Murray Island. BRACHIOPODA.
Lingula hians Swainson, Moreton Bay.
* Considered by Tryon to be a form of P. discors Gmelin.
A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY,
——o——
By JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. (Sentor Inspector oF ScHoots).
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th September, 1910.
In my experience of thirty-three years, during which I have held the office of Inspector of Schools, it has been my duty to travel over the whole of the inhabited portion of Queensland. For twenty years this work was done almost solely on horseback, with long periods during which | it was necessary to carry packs, tent, and provisions, and thus an intimate knowledge was obtained of that part of Queensland sufficiently inhabited to require schools. It has often been my good fortune to discover and examine the so-called kipper or bora rings. In each instance these comprised two earthen rings, whose diameters were in the ratio of 3:8, or 1:2, connected by a path, generally 5 feet wide and 4-600 yards long. ;
In the South-east Moreton District | know of four of these bora rings; one at the junction of the Mudgeraba and Gilston Roads, not far from the Nerang railway station ; the second at Munninba, between the selections of Hon. J. G. Appel and Mr. Alexander Duncan; the third about a mile east of the Canungera Mill, at the junction of the Pine Creek and Coomera River Roads. The fourth, which is one of the largest I have ever seen, and differs from all others examined in several important particulars, is the subject of this paper.
It is on the eastern bank of the Albert River, at ‘Tambourine Village, on Mr. Henderson’s farm, and about a quarter of a mile from his house.
The site is in sandy soil, on a flat ridge rising 30-40 feet above the Albert River. The first ring is 80 feet in
104 A BORA RING IN THE ALBERT VALLEY
« diameter, looking like an immense circus ring, with walls: which are now two to three feet above the surrounding level, and almost uniformly five feet thick at the base. In this ring trees of nine inches in diameter are growing, showing that it has not been used for some years past.
Leading out of the large ring at its southern side is a path, now partly overgrown with grass, and varying in width from 2 to 5 feet. This path is 400 yards long, and is in a north and south direction.
The path ends in a second ring, 30 feet in diameter, resembling the first, but with rather less solid earthen walls. So far this “ kipper ring’’ resembles in plan alk others yet visited ; but guided by Mr. Henderson and Mr. B. Geissmann, of Capo di Monte, Tambourine Mountain, it was seen that from the southern side of the small ring the path continued for another 400 yards, where it ended in a third wall of earth, this time of an oval shape.
This oval enclosure measures 80 feet long by 30 feet in its widest part. The long axis lies in the same directicn as the paths, almost exactly north and south.
Mr. Thos. Petrie in his “ Reminiscences of Early Queensland,’ has given a graphic account of the Bora ceremony, as practiced by the tribes in the neighbourhood of Brisbane, pp. 44-57, with a plan of one of the rings on p. 49. But neither in his book, nor in any other work on Queensland aborigines, have I found mention of the third earthen enclosure to which I have referred.
Round the third or oval earthen rampart is a semi- circular track or path, roughly shown in the plan. Unfortunately in the Albert Valley to-day there are only a few half-castes remaining, and from these it is difficult to obtain any information as to tribal customs.
All writers on the “ kipper”’ initiation ceremony describe the tribal fights that took place at its close ; first the fights between the initiated boys, then the melée in which parties of tried warriors distinguished themselves,. and finally the single combats between tribal champions. It is the general belief in the Tambourine neighbourhood that the oval enclosure was the scene of these Homeric contests, and that the semi-circular track surrounding it was beaten by the feet of the tribesmen of combatants when cheering on the champion of their tribe.
_ BY JOHN SHIRLEY, B.SC. 105
When one considers the tools used in raising these ‘structures were merely pointed sticks and stone tomahawks, and that the earth was carried on sheets of bark, one marvels at the energy and persistence of a race generally megarded as one of the Inwest in the scale of humanity.
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Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’nanv. Vou. XXIII. Prater III.
30 FEET
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400 YARDS
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ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO.
By R. CLIFFE MACKIE.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 26th, 1910.
ee
As an old colonist and one whose occupation brought him in contact with the blacks while they were still numerous and while they still retained their original customs, I have thought it might be interesting and useful if I placed on record what I observed among them. This will soon be impossible for men of the present day, for the blacks are now few in number, and it hard to find a district where the blacks retain their old customs unaltered by contact with the white man.
My memory dates back nearly sixty-six years. From the year 1850 up to 1867 I lived principally upon the out- skirts of civilization, engaged with others in establishing cattle stations on suitable areas of recently explored country, and thus necessarily came in contact with the blacks while yet unaltered by contact with the whites in the settled districts. Being young and impressionable I took a deep interest in their ways and customs. As soon as new “runs ”’ were occupied, the blacks began dimly to grasp the new situation. They appointed one of their tribe, who had passed through the usual “‘ Bora’’ ceremonies, to investi- gate as to the “ whitefellow” and his ways. This the black did by volunteering to assist in droving the first lot of fat stock sent from the neighbourhood to market. His services as tracker were most useful in following up cattle that had strayed o:i the camp during the night or had ‘“‘ rushed’? owing to a thunderstorm or any other cause of fright. Having thus made himself indispensable to the camp, he, during a trip of some hundreds of miles in length and of some months in duration, allowed nothing to escape him which was of consequence to his race.
108 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 5O YEARS AGO
Some of their inferences were very amusing. A Moonie River “ boy,’ who accompanied a drover to Sydney, was taken by him to the theatre. The piece was a tragedy, and as a finale the heroine was stabbed by an assassin. The dagger used was of the usual “ telescoping’ kind, and liquid, representing blood, dripped from the blade. Combo stood up in great excitement, and amid the dense silence, cried out in broken English, *‘ Well, well! Stupid white-fellow, to kill that budgeree (i.e., good) young woman! I want to go home!” On my telling him it was not real, he replied, “‘ I saw the blood on his knife.” The curtain fell with the drover, Combo and myself the cynosure of all eyes. I saw this same man about five years afterwards on the Balonne River. He told me he had just returned from North-west Queensland, having spent the whole intervening period fulfilling his mission. Knowing the interest I took in blacks’ ways, he told me his adventures, and, as was the custom in those days, I took him on as a sort of “* Man Friday.”’
The account he gave me was, as near as I can now remember, as follows :—The news of his return from Sydney had soon spread far and wide, and he was required at all corrobborees in order to recount to the other blacks what he had learned.
The listening blacks carried the tale to more distant tribes, who wished corroborative evidence. Their etiquette ran thus : —
A general meeting was convened at some rendezvous, and at dusk the fires were set blazing. The narrator left the circle and took up a position directly opposite to wltere the leading men of the community are stationed. One of the “‘ elders’? then calls out to him, ‘“‘ Where did you come from?’ He replies by naming the last place at which he spoke. ‘‘ Where are you going?” To this he replies that he is going all about with news because he has seen the white-fellows’ camp and the “big waterhole” {t.e., the sea). A general request is then made for him to unfold his tale. Choosing a position so that his voice can be heard through all the camp, and addressing himself to the leading men, he tells all he knows. As this is the univer- sal practice among them, and as in this way the news of Governor Phillip’s landing and the outbreak of the gold
BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 109
diggings would be carried over the Continent, all tales of men who speak of having met tribes that never had heard of or seen white men must be received with extreme caution. I myself met, 40 years ago, blacks who declared that they were a ‘‘ moon’s journey’ from their own “ towrie”’ or hunting-ground. It is very hard to get reliable information as to their ways. They distrust and stand in awe of adult whites and will not reveal much to them. They are more free with young white boy and girls, but the latter are not prone to ask for information of the kind indicated nor to understand it when given. Besides, blacks would be very unlikely to discuss such topics with children too young to be told of such matters. It might be a matter of wonder why those white men who have lived among the blacks for years can or will tell so little about them. As a matter of fast, such whites are merely kept as curiosities by the blacks, just as we keep a strange animalina‘“‘ Zoo.” As the novelty wears off, the prisoner is relegated to the society of the ‘gins ’’ and “* piccanninies,”’ and he is allowed no part in tribal discussions or initiations. This humiliating treat- ment, which is very keenly felt, makes the white prisoner on his return to civilization unwilling even to talk of matters which revive the galling memories of his past treatment. Such men are never allowed to learn anything of the matters and ceremonies afiecting adult blacks, nor would they be very likely to tell if they did know. They resent any inquiries which would lead to the disclosure of how com- pletely they had been ignored.
It is probable that the race at one time were of a higher intelligence and civilization than now. Those who instituted their social and marriage rules must have been of a higher type than the savages that Captain Cook met. ‘The present natives could scarcely invent the laws relating to marrriage and consanguinity nor those relating to their socialeconomy. There are many of their rules which remind one of the ancient Hindu and Thibetan rules. Whether similarity of social rules implies a similar racial origin is unsettled.
With regard to their origin they have no theories to offer. Even with regard to their own individual existence, all they can suggest is that their ‘‘ totem” in some way influences the circumstance. With regard to their charac-
“110 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO
teristics, it may be remarked that treachery is so common. among them that they, from fear of an attack from an enemy, are habitually light sleepers. ‘Lhe circumstances of their lives make them keen observers, though this charae- teristic diminishes after long residence with white men.
Most of the young men are vain, and like to decorate themselves with gaudy feathers, shells, pipe-clay, ochre,. or anything of a showy nature. The “ gins” (except when being young they are given to these decorations) rarely indulge in such frivolities.
The men have no conception of feminine beauty in the: sense in which we understand such a feeling ; and have no sense of conjugal love. They treat their children in- dulgently till the age of puberty, after which they abandon. them to their own resources.
Taken generally, they are a laughter-loving people, and generous to a fault. The narrow rance of their ideas. is, no doubt, responsible for their taciturnity, and this may account for their limited vocabulary, which makes them represent by a _ diiterence in emphasis rather than by a different word any diferent shade _ of meaning. This :s especially the case with the “gins *? when excited. Their language is pronounced with a marked nasal intonation. They had no recognised chief.. Each man had influence according to his force of character.. There were no tribal boundaries beyond the usual habits of remaining on a known hunting ground. An illegitimate could go to the next tribe, select a wife and marry. He would not be killed as an alien. Wounds were healed by an application of mud, and their flesh heals rapidly. They survive wounds which would end white men. For bowel troubles they use “‘ apple-tree ”’ gum, or the gum from some other eucalypt.
When forced to go hungry they gradually tighten a belt of opossum hair round their stomachs, and this mod- erates the pain of hunger, or, at any rate, makes it less. keenly felt.
The mothers are very fond of their sons, and on the return of a son after a long absence, the mother sits in front of him, puts her hand on his knees, and, looking pleadingly up in his face, says, “‘ Ti on naa, nia berahli’”’ (Come to me,. my child).
BY R. CLIFFE MACKIF. 111
A messenger carrying news to other tribes, Lefore he camps for the night, will cross the top end of the water- course, follow down to the lower end, and re-cross. ‘Lhis latter manceuvre is supposed to leave behind any malignant spirit which may have dogged their footsteps.
A myall (wild black) will not follow walking behind a white whom he loves lest his savage instincts should lead him to take a treacherous advantage.
They are not cruel, but, like children, are incapable of mental sympathy. They will not drown or kill puppies, but will put a whole litter into a hollow stump and abandon them to show starvation without compunction. They seem to form no mental conception of pain which they do not actually see or hear.
It is not true that they abandon their aged or infirm to die of starvation. In all cases such victims were volun- tary martyrs, who, owing to senile decay, became despon- dent, and, at their own request, were taken to the neigh- bourhood where they wished to die, the whole camp demon- strating in various ways their sympathy.
Upon arriving there, the patient was laid on his sleep- ing apparel with all his worldly goods. His friends then departed, and the patient, by the mere exertion of his will-power, died off in a sort of stupor or sleep, because he had willed to cease living. It was only those from other tribes, who, unable to brook the restrictions of the white invaders, left their own hunting-grounds and sought an asylum along their neighbour tribes that were left to die neglected. As they had no blood relations, they were left to meet their end as best they could, a tribal law for- bidding sympathy to one who was not of their tribe. But those of the same “‘ totem ”’ might, by consent of the tribe, bury the stranger. No other blacks would venture to do so, lest some evil might befall them. ‘Lhe stranger was generally buried, it may be remarked.
A man or woman might only marry according to certain prescribed “ groups.” If a young gin were the destined mate for a certain black, he allowed her to run about as she pleased just as any mere animal might do till such time as he felt inclined to claim her. From this time on, she was for him alone. Should there be a piccaninny which, owing to this prior freedom of conduct, he did not consider his,.
112 ANTHROPOLGGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO
he refused the midwife all countenance for the child. The midwife then went to the mother who had gone through her confinement at a spot some distance away, and intimated that the child was unwelcome. The little stranger then disappeared as not wanted; so generally did one of twins. It is worthy of remark that the old midwife gener- ally pleaded hard for the child till the blackfellow indicated by an angry reaching for a nulla-nulla that he was weary of the subject, and would knock on the head perhaps her, the piccaninny, or both if she worried him much longer. Sometimes a black through jealousy refused to have the child saved. Crippled or deformed babies might be killed.
It is not true, on the Darling and Murray waters, at any rate, that piccaninnies were killed when food was scarce or when the tribe had a journey to go. I do not presume to speak for districts unknown to me in this connection. The husband might have one or two wives, but they must be of the prescribed ‘“‘ group.”’ He would lend one for any time, short or long, to a visitor from another tribe, provided the visitor were not of the wrong “ group ’’—this to avoid consanguinity. There is a remarkable similarity to Maho- metan customs as regards divorce. They can divorce a wife, and, if all parties are agreeable, make them eligible to re-marry. First cousins may not marry. The children of such marriages and of marriages in prescribed “ groups ” are treated as illegitimates are with us. A front tooth is knocked out as a brand, and the outcast may marry in another tribe, or, if a gin, may become the property of a low white or a Chinaman. The low white or Chinaman prefers such a gin, as no blackfellow is likely to come and dispute possesion with him, nor is any visiting black likely to coax her away for a_ wife, as the tribe to which she belongs would favour the white man or Chinaman.
No “‘ illegitimate ’’ may marry in his or her own tribe. The parents marry their girl to a suitable man. She is not consulted. Two men may exchange wives or barter them.
Grown-up sons are expected to provide for their mother, and according to their lights they do so. The old men are kept in the camp with the gins, who carry them if necessary.
Should any infant die, the mother must carry the corpse about with her for a certain time, according to the social order, before she buries it. The succeeding menstrual
BY R CLIFFE MACKIE. 113
period frees her from the obligation. The burial rites differ according to the several “‘ castes” of consanguinity. Some are put into a hollow tree which is still standing. Others are tied neck and heels and placed face downwards in a moderately deep hole, or they are laid in a shallow trench and covered over with leaves, earth, and long heavy saplings to save them from carrion birds. Dingoes, it is not generally known, will not eat human flesh. A grave was indicated by a single “ blaze ’’ on each tree in a circle round the grave. They had neither fear nor reverence with regard to such burial spots, but would not walk over a grave. One obser- vance is purely religious. A dead warrior is put on a wooden frame and placed over a smouldering smoking fire. The mourners rush up to the corpse and rub the oozing grease from the corpse over their own breasts and limbs. This is done to set free and send his soul away so that it will no longer follow them.
In no instance on the inland waters did cannibalism obtain. The blacks would, however, eat stale eggs, putrid flesh, loathsome insects, etc.
Like the ancient Egyptians, as seen in hieroglyphs, they used “ message sticks.’ Certain characters were cut into the message stick to assist the memory of a tribal dele- gate visiting another tribe on public affairs.
They made effigies—such as a miniature snake—and these were used from the Condamine River to the Murrum- bidgee River at all religious ceremonies. The “‘ Thoroo Mullion”? or ‘“ bull-roarer’”? was only used at “ bora” ceremonies.
They do not eat the animal whose “ totem” they wear, but the rest of the tribe may, as it is only a social “‘ taboo ’— of breaking which they would feel greatly ashamed if detected.
They ate the grubs from the wattle trees, also the little yellow “ hypoxis’? yam. They would not eat the lily root as it made them sick, but they did eat the seed pod of a big lily in the ‘‘ Nangram’”’ waterhole. This is a big lily, sometimes blue and sometimes red, which grows about 6 miles below Fairy Meadow on the Condamine River. This pod when ripe bursts with a great “‘ pop.” They ate a big yam—the “ Weeah’’—which has a running vine. The cattle “ate this yam out” by eating the vine down
114 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO
persistently. It was found by tapping with the foot on the ground. It grew about 12 inches below the surface, and was best when from a year to eighteen months old. It was so juicy as to be as good as a drink on a hot day. They ate white ants, bee larve, and bee bread.
A ‘ possum-belt’’ or loin cloth was worn, but by the young gins only. The males wore nothing. A stranger guest at a ceremony was distinguished by a few strips of kangaroo tail before and behind.
The septum of the nose was gradually dug through with the little finger nail, and a quill inserted. This was considered a great decoration.
The ‘‘ humpies ”’ were called “‘ gundis,”’ and were made of bark. Goondiwindi (the town) simply means “ the hut on the water hole.”
They used no ‘“‘ woomerah.”’ ‘They had the ordinary light currajong “ heelaman,” also a special “ heelaman” for warding off boomerangs. Certain blacks were the recog- nised weapon-makers. The stone tomahawks were sharp- pened by water and friction. One of their “ grounds ” where these were prepared lies about 100 yards below the old house at Cobboreena, on the west of the Creek. The ‘* dilly-bags ’’ were made of Xerotes, which the gins scorched while it was green, and, after a month, they pulled it up, dried it, and used it.
Currajong fibre was beaten out, steeped in water and mud, and made into “ dilly-bags.’”> Kangaroo sinew was used for sewing opossum rugs. The “ reed-spear’’ was unknown, brigalow being used.
The ‘‘ weet-weet ’’—a sort of torpedo-shaped stick— was used in play. One man held a small green twig or branchlet about three feet above the ground. Another jerked the weet-weet through this, and the toy often flew 300 yards, the tail controlling its flight. They are guided in making their appointments as to religious cere- monies, etc., by the movements of the more conspicuous heavenly bodies, as Orion’s Belt, but a moonless night is always chosen for such ceremonies. The Milky Way and Magellan’s Clouds are watched, but the Moon and Orion’s Belt are, in that order, their chief guides as to times and seasons for social functions. They take interest in Venus as an evening star, but fail to recognise her in the morning.
>
BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 115
‘They are afraid when an eclipse occurs, and include it with meteors and whirlwinds among the malignant spirits which they propitiate by making a peculiar kind of noise. When
a blood relation dies, they note the position of some planet,
and when that planet again returns in its annual course they renew their mourning and cry without shedding a tear: They think all the stars, planets, etc., are alive. They had several religious and social ceremonies. The “ corrob- boree ’’ was more of a social character, and a great ‘‘ Borah ”’ was their great religious ceremony. The word “ Bora” means a place where religious functions common to the com-
.munity may be carried out. On the Murray River basin
and all its tributaries a grand bora was held about every 10 years. The time and place were arranged according to conditions of weather. No hunting is carried on in that place for at least a year, that there may be game enough to supply the assembled tribes while the bora lasts. As the time draws near, all the tribesmen within a reasonable distance visit the spot and help in the excavation. They use yam-sticks to loosen the soil, and, commencing from the centre of the ring with flat pieces of wood or tough bark for shovels, they throw the dirt between their legs behind them towards the outer rim of the circle which is to encom- pas the sacred ground. They usually excavate about six inches of the surface soil, which they ultimately form into a mound to represent and define the ring. Within speaking distance is a much smaller circle, where the neophytes must wait till called by the elders.
The Kamiloroi tongue is used in these functions as being commonly understood by all the Western tribes of whatsoever dialect they be.
The Neophytes are taught how to throw bundies, boomerangs, weet-weets, nulla-nullas and spears. They are taught weapon-making and rude blacksmithing. They get a secret family name, which, however, eventually leaks out by accident. The indispensable knack of quivering the muscles of the arms and thighs as shown at corrobkorees is taught here.
Weapons were bartered. Marriage disputes were settled and questions of consanguinity. Jllegitimates had a tooth knocked out. All private and public disputes were argued out. No tribe had a chief. Each man’s opinion
116 ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO
carried weight according to his earnestness on the question and his force of character. These outings sometimes lasted for months, each tribe inviting the other to its “‘ towrie’’ or hunting ground. Idolatry was unknown either at boras. or at any other time. Effigies were used, but not wor- shipped. The ‘‘ mysterious observances’ talked about. have no foundation in fact. They have no theories as to a future life. The ‘“ die blackfellow, jump up white-fellow ’* is a white man’s importation. They believe in the presence of departed spirits and do not like to name a deceased person. Their grief at a death is very demonstrative and noisy, and is accompanied by their cutting themselves with mussel shells and sharp flints. They have no idea of God. All their ‘“‘ theology ”’ is associated with evil spirits supposed to inhabit the heavenly bodies, thunder, lightning, meteors, shooting stars, etc.
Their ideas and ceremonies vary somewhat in different tribes, just as do our own religious sects. In the North the bora ring is an area like a rabbit-warren ; the large and small circles of one tribe and the two equal circles of another being merely differences in matters of form. The root prin- ciples are the same.
The extraordinary lengths to which these bora practices. sometimes run have a parallel in the religious frenzies seen among our own race at times.
The ‘“‘ Yo-Yo” bora ceremonies of the Barwon River are almost identical with the ‘‘ Wom-nay-narah-narah ”’ of Cooper’s Creek.
The cutting off the top joint of the little finger and the piercing the septum of the nose are of social and not of religious significance. Pipe-clay marks on a gin had a medico-sexual import, not a religious one. The corrob- boree serves as a history or record of political and domestic events, and is an easy way of spreading local gossip to the other tribes. To send unwelcome rain away, all the men gathered kneeling in a ring round a “ charm ”’—a water- worn stone—and for half-an-hour repeated “ Wee yan Burran’”’ (Go away, rain). If the rain went, faith in the ‘““stone’’ increased; if not, some other tribe was praying for the rain to continue. With the advent of the whites, and the dying out of the blacks, boras and corrobborees are neglected and forgotten. The marriage and other laws
BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. Li7
of the blacks are becoming confused and forgotten. ‘heir “group ”’ distinctions are dying out, and they no longer take the chance of learning the arts peculiar to themselves, as these are fast becoming needless with the advent of white man’s food, weapons and laws.
Only the low-class whites will fraternise with the blacks, who, therefore, learn nothing of us but our vices. The contact with the lowest stratum of our race has not been a benefit to the aboriginals. All honour to those who have endeavoured to preserve, help and teach them. As their visual and other sense organs are the faculties most developed in them, any attempt at teaching them should be directed to an appeal through these channels rather than through mental processes beyond their grasp.
I append a list of native words with their meanings, as these are often of interest to present day readers.
Billa ee x0) .. = Waterhole, as Wallum- billa, Bogrambilla, Yulabilla
Dilla J, 2 .. = Waterhole, Manandilla,
= Armadilla, Muckadilla.
Kobble sie a .. = Waterhole, Kobble, Kob- ble, Cobblegun.
Bumba a ed .. == An angle in a creek
Cooroora.. be .. = Big waterhole with rocks in.
Euroka a He oe. TTL,
Goodar ve as .. = Pine on one side of the
water and box and coolibah on the other. Ba sf s- ..° == ‘Waterhole, =<‘ Whyen- bah, Tarawinnabah, Ibbinbah, Wallanbah. Whyenbah = Water- hole between two high ridges.
Wallan = Bendee country. Ba = Water. Quey Bunda % .. = Red Kangaroo. Denown = Kmu. Yeppi = ~ Carpet: Snake:
I Koyau Soerery.
118
Mundowie Mil
Binna
Numba Banjamin Meranjan Beerahli Goleer
Geer Kamel
Waal Boie Thaluma Boorae Collie Collie Mungul Ki-i Goona Keel Andillo Bogal Myall
Beer .. Bullah Cooleebah : Tallah Inneu Ti Annowin
Tallah Innen Yan Nowie.. Tanno Qui Qui Arrathy ..
Auga Mundi
Niah Inneu Bunnaguy Bundagie ..
‘A. black who
ANTHROPCLOGICAL NOTES OF 50 YEARS AGO
Foot.
Kye. (Innu-gomille = you see).
Ear (Innu-binna = you hear).
Mother.
Husband.
Wife or woman.
Picanninny, child.
Borrowed wife, sweet- heart, or rejected wife.
Yes.
No (in Kamilaroi ton- gue).
No (in Wallaroi tongue)
Die.
Thunder.
Fire or Lightning.
Water (Umbercollie).
Big waterhole.
Excessively amorous.
Excrement
Urine.
Blackfellow
Stranger blackfellow.
knows nothing of white men.
One.
Two.
Three.
Where have you come from 2
Where are you going to ?
The other side of some
red ground.
Gather round. The ** bora’”’ ground of the white writers.
(“‘ Bora ” is not a blacks’ word.)
I and you go.
Fall down.
BY R. CLIFFE MACKIE. 119
Innu Kunmullie Let go, you.
Kuckill 7 7" -. = No good (anything objectionable).
Weaarree willijoe .. -- = _ we'll sit down.
‘Ti Una = Come here.
MARRIAGE CODE AND LAWS.
Brothers : Sisters : Cubbee Cubbatha Hippi Hippatha Murri Matha
~ Combo _ Bootha
Cubbee Marries Matha
Hippi Marries Bootha
Murri Marries Cubbatha
Combo Marries Hippatha
Children take their parents’ names according to their
‘group; and also their totem appellation, which is exchanged for their group name, when they obtain puberty.
alt
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NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO,
By W. R. COLLEDGE.
Presidential Address, read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 25th February, 1911.
Ladies and Gentlemen,—
You have heard from the Report that the year has not been unfruitful. Our late Premier was reported to have asked if the Royal Society was alive. The best answer to that will be the substantial volume of the pro- ceedings which will soon issue from the press. It will be found more bulky than some of its predecessors. This is partly the result of kind contributors, the efforts of our very energetic Secretary, supplemented by members of the Council. But if the half of those who have been appealed to had responded in the affirmative, the result would have been a still more bulky volume as the evidence of our existence.
Only those who have sought to secure such work as is desired by the Royal Society know the difficulty that exists in obtaining original contributions. A trouble that is not peculiar to our State; for I note in the last report of that old-established Microscopic Society of London, the “ Quekett Club’? (of which our Bacteriologist, Mr, Pound, is a member), that they complain of the same difficulty ; and regretfully say that if more original papers are not forthcoming, then the usefulness of their valuable magazine will be much curtailed. This is somewhat sur- prising, considering that the age is one of intense activity. There has never been as much scientific work done, in the same time, in any previous age, as in the present. All the world over, more men are occupied, who possess wider ‘knowledge and more finished equipment than they ever had before. New fields of work are continually opening
122) NOTES ON A BRUSH TONGUED MOSQUITO
up; many of these are occupied ; the work is being done,. but a great deal of it does not seem to come to the Societies. which exist for its furtherance and development. We are sometimes tempted to ask are these bodies getting out of touch, or sympathy, with their mission, so that. the workers do not receive from them a warm hand grip,. and an encouraging word, and for want of them, keep. aloof. That at least is not the case with the Society here. Its Council are only too glad to welcome all work that bears. on it the stamp of originality. We have suffered some- what from our inability to present, what we do get, in a better illustrated form. In bygone days a Government grant enabled us to secure engravings to _ illustrate adequately some of the subjects read at our meetings. But when, in darker times than these, the knife of retrench- ment ruthlessly lopped off that source of revenue, and we: had to depend only on members’ subscriptions, then as honest men, making the Society pay its way, we did our best to keep the flag flying, but could not afford expensive engravings for the illustration of papers, and. on that account some work done in this State is said to- have gone to others who were able to furnish them in a. superior style. That has told against us, and other States have gained credit for work which otherwise might have appeared in our pages. But we believe that better times are coming. The establishment of the University in. Queensland ; the gathering of the most gifted of our youths. from all parts of the land must give an impetus to scientific work.
The presence of Professors and teachers, who having” won laurels in other lands, and now make this fair city their home, cannot but have a powerful uplifting force. Their sympathies must be with us. And as, amid their onerous duties, some at least occasionally will be able to grace this platform, they will give the Royal Society a deeper inspiration, and make it a mightier force than it. has ever been before.
To-night I wish to bring before you some interesting features of one of the species of mosquitoes found in our neighbourhood. Certain kinds of these insects are knowm to carry very serious diseases, and the whole family are re-
BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 1238
garded with suspicion. But the one I refer to is of a blame- less character, and probably the whole of the group to which it belongs are likewise harmless to humankind. They belong to the genus Megarrhina (R. Desvoidy), and are distinguished from others by their generally large size, brilliant coloration, peculiar shape of proboscis, and the possession of a caudal fan. Tropical and subtropical regions are their homes. Giles in his book enumerates fifteen species. They have been found in the Argentine, Brazil, Sikkim and Central Asia, Java, Batavia, Island of Formosa. Alfred Wallace notes them from Singapore, the Celebes Islands, New Guinea and Queensland. So far only one of the species has been reported from this State. They range from Thursday Island, Port Denison. Mr. Tryon found them on Percy Island, Dr. Bancroft at Caboolture; and I have got larva from North Pine and Milton.
Sufficient material to make complete dissections of all parts of the body have not been available, but the little I have done is both interesting and instructive. This particular species was called Megarrhina speciosa, but Mr. Theobald, the authority at the British Museum on the Diptera, has rechristened it T'oxorynchites speciosa, so that it is now known by that name.
On the 8th March, 1910, Dr. Parry (whose recent decease we greatly lament) brought down to me a living female specimen caught ten miles from Brisbane. This was the first living one I had seen. The next night it deposited on the water in its prison house a few eggs. These were laid, not in a raft like the house mosquito, but sep- arately on the water. They are oval, measuring the 50th of an inch in length by the 42nd in breadth. The micro- pyle is at the centre of one end, and the shell splits cen- trally through its long axis for the emergence of the larva. The eggs are pale in colour, do not darken by exposure to the air, like some species, and the surface is finely granu- lated. In two days they hatched, and the larva, pale and transparent, lay on the surface of the water. I thought from their appearance and absence of motion that they were cast off skins, until on touching one with the point of a needle, it gave a twitch, and I found that they were the new born larva of this particular species.
The larva of many species are characteristic, so that
124 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO
they can be recognised by anyone who has studied thire peculiarities. In the Toxorynchites speciosa the head is small, rectangular in shape, with a short unjointed palp projecting from either cheek. The thorax is about twice the length and breadth of the head. Three sets of short feathered balancing hairs spring from stout conical papilla on the sides. These bend towards the head. On the abdominal segments are similar papilla bearing much longer tufts of bristles. The terminal segment in the new born larva is longer and carries four very long seta, which are replaced in the next moult by a different form of appen- dage. In three or four days the colour becomes yellow. I found to my sorrow they were cannabilistic in practice.
I placed in clean water so that there should be no insects to do them hurt. But they preyed on one another, and it became a question of the survival of the fittest. On returning from business at night, I found only two alive, one seriously injured. He had received a bite through the chest which severed one of the main tracheal tubes, and notwithstanding careful nursing he died in three days.
The survivor was much more robust, and as the effect of his orgies, grew so as to require a new suit of clothes, for he moulted on the fourth day. This did not make any alteration in his appearance excepting in the tail appendages. In some species the difference is much marked, so that before and after the moult they look like two different species. Here the only change was in size and the tail fan. On the fifth day, granules of dark pig- ment began to appear, turning the general colour reddish brown, though the abdomen remained much paler. I regularly fed it on the larva of other mosquitoes, which it seized in characteristic style. First it displayed an aspect of perfect indifference to their presence. Not a muscle moved nor a balancing hair turned. It might be a floating splinter of wood for any sign of life. The other larva might swim round and almost touch it, but there was no sign of anxiety to cultivate a closer acquaint- ance. Thus all fear they might at first have at its presence subsided. By-and-bye, however, it would sidle up with a slow motion, watching intently with the head sloping downwards, the tail being attached to the surface film. Remaining motionless, it) measured the striking
BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 125
distance. If not quite near enough, then there was no muscular motion of the front part of the body, but the three last segments of the abdomen were quietly telescoped into each other, then outhrust, thus bringing him a little nearer. This generally took some time. And as ordinary larva are of an active nature they frequently moved to another place. But, with indomitable patience, the same process was repeated, again and again. Until at last the chance came, there was a flash from the seemingly inanimate body, and the larva struggled in his grip. Seized some- times by the middle, occasionally by one of the palps on the head, there was no escape from those relentless jaws. Gradually it was drawn in, chewed bit by bit, until all the juices were extracted. Skin and crushed organs were then thrown aside, and in an hour or two the same process was repeated, and so several larva were disposed of every day. It did not entirely confine itself to mosquito larva, for a moth accidentally singing its wings at the lamp fell on the water of its preserve. Likea trout at a fly it rose, seized and dragged it down. I regularly fed it with mosquito larva obtained from various sources for the succeeding months, but the cooler weather retarded its development, and it was not until the 27th of August that it threw off its larval skin and entered into the pupa stage. Then it was 24 weeks old.
The pupa, or next stage of the insect, is distinguished from others of the family by its comparative size. They are veritable giants. Mr. D. O’Connor showed me one which had been sent to him as a curiosity some months ago. They are heavily built, chocolate brown in colour, and chiefly spend their time lying on the surface of the water. The cephalothorax is at first triangular in side view, but as the insect develops within, the lower portion grows as far as the third segment of the abdomen.
On the nape is a large tuft of palmate hairs, which, by laying hold of the surface film, helps to steady its body ‘on the surface of the water.
It now breathes from the head, instead of the tail, as in the larval state, and the two spiracles or Lreathing organs are placed one on each side of the head. They are of the same dark chocolate colour as the body, but the internal surface is golden, contrasting beautifully with the darker background.
126 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO
The connecting membrane of the segments, as in the case of the larva, is of a pale and flexible character. At the end is the telson or swimming appendage, composed of two broad fans. These diverge from each other more decidedly than they do in the pupa of other species with which I am acquainted. A stout rib passes down the centre of each leaf, and they are studded with minute hairs. The pupa stage continued for fifteen days; the perfect insect emerged on September 8th; the period from egglaying to perfect insect, being six months. This is probably much longer than it would have been in a natural state. In artificial conditions, mosquitoes require a much longer time to pass through their life changes than if they were placed in natural conditions. But this is the only instance where I have been able to breed from the egg to the perfect. insect.
The adult insect is the largest and most handsome of all the species. The body measures three-quarters of an inch in length, and when the legs are extended from the sides, they cover a space of an inch and a half. So that it is a veritable giant in its tribe.
Not only is it distingiushed for size, but likewise for beauty. The black eyes are bordered by silvery scales. The proboscis, palpi, and antenne, have blue and gold reflections. The pleura, or sides of the chest, are plated with flat gold scales with a pale lustre. The legs are dark brown, ornamented with scattered scales of silver and gold. While from the terminal segment of the body extends a miniature peacock’s tail, termed the caudal fan; it is black with patches of gold. Thus, though our prejudices are strongly against the order, yet we cannot deny that this species possesses beauty.
One thing that strikes us is the shape of the proboscis. In most mosquitoes this organ is straight or slightly curved. This is an exception. The first half—a stout conical por- tion—projects straight from the head, but at the middle: it bends abruptly downwards, tapering at the same time, like the lash of a whip.
An engineer, or a mechanic, examining that instru- ment would say that it was not meant for thrusting into flesh. It would be absurd to make a bayonet fora soldier with a curve in it like that. The hypodermic needle of
BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 127
the surgeon must be made straight for its special purpose. If it were given a curvature, such as we have there, it would bend or break at the first thrust.
These considerations led me to dissect the organ with a good deal of interest, and I was rewarded by an interesting discovery, which, so far as I know, has not been noticed before. We are familiar with the statement that the female mosquito has neatly packed in her proboscis an armoury of six lancets. Some of these have minute teeth on their tips for deepening and enlarging the cut.
In the Toxorynchites, however, I found all the lancets, except two, much degenerated, seemingly comparatively useless for thrusting into flesh. Two, however, were well developed. One, the largest, is a hollow channel, open on its upper side, and bent to the curve of the proboscis, and represents the organ through which the blood is pumped in the biting species. The other was a long slender rod, which near its end expanded into a long club-like form, the swelling being covered with fine hairs, growing larger and curving outwardly as they approached the tip, so that you have a long curved channel, and lying in the inside a long handled brush, not very unlike, in miniature, to that long brush called a ‘‘ turk’s head,” used by housewives in clearing cobwebs from the corners of a ceiling. This formation is quite unusual in the mosquito, and is analagous to some of the insects, whose chief food is the nectar of flowers and juices of fruit. The tongue of the honey bee is a ringed flexible organ, capable of con- siderable retraction and extension, and its food is lapped up in this way, the other mouth organs forming a tube up which the juices ascend by the action of the tongue. In the Mining Bee (which bores holes in the ground {for the reception of its eggs), you have a tongue which is clothed with hairs in the same way as this mosquito.
The bee’s tongue is not so long as this mosquitoe’s proboscis, and the drooping shape certainly points to the idea that it is intended not for piercing flesh, but dipping into the nectaries of flowers and juices of fruits.
Another point of confirmation is that the flabella, or lips of the proboscis, are clothed on the inside also with fine hairs of a similar character, which by capillary attrac- tion, would tend to suck up and retain floral juices, near
128 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO
the tip of the channel of the larger lancet. In the head of the insect is found the pump, or aesophagial bulb, by which blood is drawn in other kinds of mosquitoes from their victims, but its size and muscular force might be insufficient to raise denser fluids, such as nectar, without the help of the hairy expansion on the end of the repre- sentative of the lancet. The probability is, therefore, this species, and most likely the group, are purely vegetable feeders, obtaining their food in apis modo, and are therefore harmless to man.
The cornea of the eye is of a denser structure than usual. The halteres are small in size, pale yellow; near the base on the anterior side, there is a triangular space filled with oval cells, united at their longer axis; above this, near the knob, is a stiff oval ring protecting a softer mass, which divides into two elongated lobes by a deep central fissure, the rim being bordered by minute hairs. These organs are richly supplied with nerves, and are doubtless organs of some special sense not yet understood. There are strong grounds for thinking that insects have senses differing widely from those possessed by man.
The terminal segment of the male body terminates in two ‘slender hooks, and they are tipped by a straight moveable rod arising out of a shallow trench.
I take the following description of the male insect from Skuse :—Antennze brown, a little more than half the length of the palpi; basal joint black, with horny reflections ; second joint more than twice the length of the third, ornamented with some beautifully iridiscent scales, the whorl of very long hairs situated about one-third from the apex. Head covered with brilliant margaritaceous scales, chiefly reflecting green ; in a certain light appearing brown, with a bright pale greenish line round the hinder border of the eyes. Proboscis somewhat longer than the palpi, deep metallic blue, with a purplish reflection before the bend, brown beyond. Palpi deep metallic blue, with purplish reflections, the third joint ringed with golden yellow at the apex, and the fourth joint with a broader. ring of the same beyond the middle. Thorax brown, the lateral margins and prothorax densely covered with pale greenish scales, the latter with long brown hairs ; hinder margin and secutellum richly adorned with brilliantly
BY W. R. COLLEDGE. 129:
iridescent scales, and long brown hairs; pleura with a naked brown stripe from the origin of the wings to the scale like prothoracie projection, below this densely covered with silvery scales; metanotum brown naked. Halteres, ochre yellow. Abdomen about twice the length of but narrower than the thorax, flat, deep metallic blue, except the first segment, the latter green with a yellow patch on each side; fifth segment shows some golden yellow laterally, sixth and eighth segments ornamented with a strong tuft of golden hair laterally, the seventh with black tufts ; all the segments slightly bordered with golden hairs laterally ; the first to the third and fifth to seventh golden yellow beneath with a metallic blue longitudinal stripe down the centre; fourth entirely metallic blue, and the terminal one brilliant pale green. Coxe clothed with silvery scales. Femora and tibiz metallic violet, the -former golden yellow beneath. In the intermediate and fore legs, the first joint of the tarsi white except at the base, and the second also except at the apex; the rest metallic violet. Wings longer than the abdomen, with a pale brownish tint anteriorly and along the fifth longitudinal vein, veins pale brown, cilia pale and short, weak renections. Auxilliary vein joining the costa almost opposite, but some- what beyond the posterior branch of the fifth longitudinal ; sub-costal cross vein distinct, situated about midway between the origin of the anterior branch of the fifth longitudinal vein, and the origin of the second longitudinal ; fork of the latter very small, the tips of the branches slightly bent anteriorly ; supernumerary cross-vein equal in length to the middle cross vein; posterior cross-vein more than twice the length of the latter, rather sinuose, tip of the anterior branch of the fifth longitudinal vein joining the margin opposite the middle of the second posterior cell, a very prominent wing fold running close to the posterior side of the fifth longitudinal for the whole of its length, and another on the anterior side in the anal cell.
The question arises, as we are anxious to destroy the noxious kinds of mosquitoes, and there are unquestion- ably difficulties in the way, would it not be a wise thing to use this particular insect for that purpose? It is not the only mosquito possessing cannabilistic habits. There are two in our neighbourhood which in their larval state
130 NOTES ON A BRUSH-TONGUED MOSQUITO
are unmitigated cannibals. One of these is Culex Tigripes a number of these bred in a tub in the yard attached to my place of business last year. I have a slide here of one which has killed one of the yellow fever mosquitoes larva. The Scotch Grey larva also kill all those within reach. But both of these are also blood suckers, so that they only kill to leave the ground clearer for their own depredations. But in the T'oxorychites we believe we have a vegetarian, which does no harm to any human being, and is at the same time a deadly foe to the young of other kinds of the genus. It can be hired on very reasonable terms. Its working hours are not limited, and it is very unlikely ever to go on strike. It works in the very places where it is needed. All the specimens of larva I have seen have been got in old tanks about human habitations, just the working ground where it is of greatest use. So that we have in it an ally, which, if used, may be the means of greatly reducing the numbers of those which are not only a nuisance, but a danger to the health of the community. | No attempt has ever been made in any country to use them for this purpose, so that Queensland might have the honour of leading the van in the contest.
Proc. Koy. Soc. Q’Lanp, Vou. XXIII. Puate LV.
1.—ToxoRYNCHITES SPECIOSA, X 334.
2.—ToxoryNcHITEs sPEciosA Eaa,
x 70.
3.—ToxORYNCHITES SPECIOSA, PROBOSCIS TIP WITH BRUSH LANCET x Ql.
4,—FULL-GROWN LARVA 41,
‘cane Rae
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Anmal Meeting of Members,
Held on Saturday, February 25th, 1911.
The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Satur- -day, February 25th, 1911. The President (Mr. W. RB. - Colledge}, occupied the chair. The minutes of the previous
Annual Meeting were read and adopted.
The Hon. Secretary (Mr. F. Bennett), read the follow-
ing Report of the Council for the year 1910 :—
To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.
Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report for the year 1910. The ordinary monthly meetings have been held as _ shown in Appendix B. Eleven Council meetings have been held during the _ year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A. During the year 11 new members and nine honorary and corresponding members were admitted, and we lost by death, removal, or resignation, 8 members. We have to regret the loss of J. G. Collins, Esq., of Mundoolan. A letter of condolence was sent to the surviving relatives - of this worthy pioneer. On Lord Chelmsford’s departure to New South Wales, His Excellency Sir Wm. MacGregor was chosen Patron. There are now on our roll 91 ordinary members, 13 corresponding members, and 1 associate _ member, a total of 105. See Appendix D. Of the corresponding members, J. H. Maiden, F.L.S. ; H. I. Jensen, D.Sc.; Rev. G. Brown, D.D.;~A. Gibb- _ Maitland, Drs. Domin and Danes, and Professors Skeats, Rennie, and Pollock were enrolled during the past year. The Hon. A. J. Thynne was elected Trustee in the _ place of Dr. John Thomson, deceased. Mr. E. H. Gurney
ve REPORT OF COUNCIL.
was elected Vice-President in March, and Mr. Weston took Mr. Gurney’s place on the Council; Mr. G. Watkins again accepting the position of Hon. Auditor.
The Council notes with pleasure the honour accorded to one of our members, F. M. Bailey, Esq., F.L.S., in creating him C.M.G. This appreciation of a life time of devotion to Botanical Science must be viewed with satisfaction by all scientists.
Part Il. of Vol. XXII. of our Proceedings was issued during the year.
The papers for last year have added largely to our record of original research, and the forthcoming volume of Proceedings will be one of the bulkiest and most valuable, scientifically, that we have issued.
An attempt was made to let authors have their author’s. copies as soon as possible after the delivery of their papers, and our printers have done their best to help.
The early inception of the University should give a decided impetus to scientific research.
Our Library is almost too large for the space at our disposal, and keeps growing. Some interesting publica- tions on Malaria Prevention were received, in answer to- our requests, from the Health Departments and experts of the world. When the permanent location of the Library is fixed, it will be wise to bind a large mass of valuable — matter still unbound.
By Appendix C, it will be seen that receipts for the year exceeded expenditure by £27 0s. 5d. The credit balance at the end of 1908 was £9 2s. 6d.; at the end of, 1909, £22 12s. 4d.; and at the end of 1910, £49 12s. 9d.
F. BENNETT, W. R. COLLEDGEH, Hon. Secretary. President.
Brisbane, February 25th, 1911.
u
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
—T —y —_e .
APPENDIX A. = ° hol oe = Wing ee On S op Oftice. Name. Se | 98 Remarks Ce Qo ; 2 Ro eS. eS ale : President ..| W. R. College... BF 8 Vice-President ..; E. H. Gurney 7 ; Hon. Treasurer | J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 6 Hon. Secretary..| F. Bennett 11 ? Hon. Librarian | C. T. White 10 J. B. Henderson, F.I.C. .. 8 Members of J. Shirley, B.Sc. .. Babee? Council. W. R. Parker, L.D.S. 4 | P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E. 4 Appointed in
March.
J Rovyat Sociery.
lv.
Author.
J. F. Bailey
Revd. G. Brown, D.D.
Prof. K. Domin (Univ., Prague)
W. R. Colledge Prof.
Danes (Univ.,
Prague) H. C. Richards, M.Sc. J. Shirley, B.Sc. J. Shirley, B.Sc.
Prof. 8. B. J. Skertchly
R. Cliffe-Mackie
REPORT OF COUNCIL. APPENDIX BB. List or Papers Reap Durine 1910. No Date. Title. —_—_ % _— Se —_ 1 | Feb. 26 | Introduction of Economic Plants | into Queensland (Presi- | _ dential Address) | 2| Mar. 3) ‘Melanesians and Poly- | nesians.” Lecture. | 3 | April 9 | Notes on the Phyto-Geography | of Queensland | 4 May 28 | Rotifers of Queensland | 5 | July 23 | The Physiography of Certain Limestone Areas in Queens- land 6 | Aug. 26 | ‘* The Weathering of Building | | Stone and its Prevention ”’ 7 | Sept. 24 | (1) Additions to the List of | | Marine Mollusca in Queens- | land | (2) A Bora Ring in the Albert | | River Valley 8 | Oct. 29 | Geological and Biological Notes of the Nerang District, illus- | trated with Diagrams and Specimens 9 | Nov. 26 | Anthropological Observations among the Blacks of 60
years ago
V.
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
P
19
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Vi. REPORT OF COUNCIL.
APPENDIX D. LIST OF MEMBERS
Honorary AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Dr. Cockle; Rev. Robt. Harley, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.; A. Liver-
sidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F. R. M. Wilson; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor KE. H. Rennie;
H. J. Jensen, D.Sc ; ment Geologist, W.A. ;
rod
A. Gibb-Maitland, Govern-
Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin, University, Prague; Dr. Danes,
Prague University.
OrDINARY MEMBERS.
Archer, R. 8S.
Badger, J. S.
Ball, L.C., B.E.
*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G.
+Bailey, J. F.
Bennett, F.
Briinnich, J. C., F.I.C.
Brydon, Mrs.
Bundock, Miss Alice
Bundock, C. W.
Byram, W. J.
Cameron, John
Cameron, W. E., B.A.
Colledge, W. R.
Collins, Miss Jane
Collins, R. M.
Connah, F. E., F.1.C.
Cooper, Sit Pope A., C.J.
Costin, C. W.
Cowley, R. C.
Dempsey, J. J.
Dodd, S., F.R.C.V.S.L.
Dunstan, Benj.
Eglinton, Dudley
Eglinton, Miss Hilda
Elkington, J. S.C, M.D., D.P.H.
Forrest, E. B., M.L.A.
Fraser, C. 8S.
+Gailey, Richard
Gibson, Hon. A., M.-L. C.
Gore- Jones, E. R.
Greenfield. A. P.
*+Griffith, Sir S. W.
Gurney, E. H.
Hedley, C., F.L.S.
Henderson, J.B., F.I.C.
Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D.
Holland C. W.
Hopkins, G., M.D.
Hiilsen, R.
Hunt, G. W.
Illidge, Rowland
Tack, Re G3) L.bDs F.R.G.S.
Jackson, A. G.
Johnston, Jas.
Jones, P. W., A.I.C.
Lindsay, W.
F.G.S.,
Lord, F.
Love, Wilton, M.B.
Lucas, fT. P., ick Oe
His Excellency Sir William MacGregor, M.D., D.Sc., G.C.M.G. C.B., &e
Mackie, R. Cliffe
Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.
Marks, E. O., B.A, B.E.
May, W., 5.5:
May, T. H., M.D.
Miles, Hon. E. D, M.L.C.
Murray-Prior, Mrs.
McCali, T., F.I.C.
McConnel, Eric W.
McConnel, E. J.
McConnel, J. H.
Morris, L., A.M.I.C.E., Eng. tNorton, Hon. A., M.L.C. Parker, W. R., L.D.S.
Plant, Hon. E. H. T., Mec Pound, C. J., 7.1%. M.B. *Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C. Rands, W. H., F.G.S.
Reid, D. E.
Richards. H. C., M.Sc. Riddell, R. M.
+Roe, R. H., MA:
Ryan, J. P., M.D.
Sankey, J. R.
+Schreider, H., M.A. Shirley, J., B.Sc.
Silcock, P.
Smith, F., B.Sc., A.1.C. +Steele. T., F.L.S., F.E.S. +Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C. Sutton, A., M.D.
tSutton, J. W.
Taylor, Hon. W.F., M.D., M.L.C. Thynne, Hon. A. J., M.L.C. Tonks, T.
Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D. Watkins, Geo.
+Weedon, Warren
Weston, P. L., B.Sc., B.E Willcocks, G. C.
AssocIATE MEMBER. White, C. T.
*Members of Philosophical Society. +Life Members.
REPORT OF COUNCIL. vii.
The adoption of the Report was moved by the Hon. A. Norton, seconded by Mr. J. F. Bailey, and carried.
The Financial Report was moved by the Hon. Treasurer (Mr. J. C. Briinnich), seconded by the Hon. W. Taylor, and carried.
The following office-bearers for 1911 were elected :— President, J. Brownlie Henderson F.I.C.; Vice-President, Poth Weston, -b-ce., B.E.;> Hon. . Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, C. T. White; Council, Messrs. W. R. Colledge, K. H., Gurney, and H. C. Richards, M.Sc.; Hon. Lanternist, A. G. Jackson; Hon. Auditor, Geo. Watkins.
The retiring President (Mr. W. R. Colledge) then installed Mr. Henderson in office. Mr. Henderson called on Mr. W. R. Colledge to deliver his Presidential Address. Mr. Colledge, in his prefatory remarks, announced the issue of a bulky volume of Proceedings, and commented on the indefatigable industry of the Hon. Secretary in obtaining Papers.
The Lecture was illustrated by many fine slides, the lantern being ably operated by Mr. A. G. Jackson.
Professor Skertchly moved, Mr. F. Bennett seconded, and Prof. Watson, of Adelaide, supported a vote of thanks to Mr. Colledge for his Presidential Address.
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STAR
EAS re!
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
oF
QUBEBNSLAND.
VOL. XXIII. PART II. PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY H. POLE & CO,, PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET, BRISBANE. 1912,
PROCEEDINGS
ROYAL SOCIETY QU HHNSLAN D.
Sennen
We. XXITI.
PART II.
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
HH. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET, BRISBANE.
1912.
. “0 4
«
of es:
Royal Society of Queensland
Patron :
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR. M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B.. Erc.
PerAaCERS,. 1912,
President: P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.
Vice-President: H. C. RICHARUWS, M Sc.
Hon. Treasurer. Hon. Secretary: J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT.
Hon. Librarian: T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.
Members of Council:
J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. E. H. GURNEY J. SHIRLEY, D.Sc. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY J. F. BAILEY. Trustees : HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. JOHN CAMERON
HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.
Hon. Auditor: GEO. WATKINS.
\
CONTENTS.
ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE.—Lionel C. Ball, b.E., 14th March, 1911 eg
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IN SOUTH-EaST QUEENSLAND.— E. O. Marks, B.4., B.E., 24th June, 1911 ...
THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.—H. I. Jensen, D.Sc. (Sydney), 29th July, 1911
THE BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHE- DRAL, BRISBANE.-— Henry C. Richards M.Se.,, 26th August, 1911
ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘“‘WORM-NODULES” IN CATTLE.—T. Harvey Johnston,’ M.A., D.Sc., ete., 28th October, 1911 ms
A CENSUS OFAUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA. —T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., etc., 28th October, 1911 Po +
ON A WEAK POINT IN THE LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORESTERI KREFFT.— Thomas L. Bancroft, M.B., Edin., 2nd December, 1911
PAGE,
131
139
149
199
207
233
ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE.
By LIONEL C. BALL, B.E.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 14th March, 1911.
———S— es
INTRODUCTION.
Ir is desirable that an almost unique geological occur- rence—that of coal as gangue in a lead-zinc fissure lode, the discovery of which was among the more interesting results of my visit to the Mended Hill Mineral Field in June last— should be brought to your notice and so_ recorded. Economically the association of the coal and metallic ores is likely to be of some importance, for timber is very scarce in the district ; and it may be possible, in milling and concentrating the ore, to save the coaly slime and use it in briquette form as fuel. Further, the certainty of there being a high class coal here should induce prospectors to be on the lookout for a workable seam in this part of the State; notwithstanding that if it is of inorganic origin, the possibility of which is shown below, no quantity of coal is likely to be discovered away from fissure formations.
STRATIGRAPHY.
The basal rocks of this field have generally been referred to the Silurian on the evidence of certain fossils from the Cairns Range, which lies 300 miles to the south. They consist of grits and shales seldom much altered except at the surface where they are silicified and bleached, but Dr. Jack,* who visited the field two and a half-years ago, discovered carbonaceous shales at the Lilydale mine, and the work done since his visit is indicative of similar, if not the same, shales occurring over an area of many square miles.
*Report on the Lawn Hill Mines, Queensland. By R. Logan Jack, L.L.D., M.I.M.M., late Government Geologist. Sydney, 1908.
A
182 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE
From a stratigraphical standpoint the indication that these supposedly Silurian strata are coal measures is of great interest ; but unfortunately the carbonaceous shales rapidly disintegrate on exposure to the atmosphere, render- ing search for fossils in the material of the waste dumps hopeless; and we are consequently without palaeonto- logical assistance in correlating them with the sedimentaries outside of the district. Mr. Brown, the Government Geologist of South Australia, has, it may be mentioned, referred* the carbonaceous shales of the McArthur River, which may be an extension of the Queensland area, to the Permo-carboniferous system, on account of their resem- blance to the productive coal measures on the north-western coast of the Northern Territory. Further field work in this quarter of Australia is thus likely to have very interesting results, and it may even yet be shown that the strata belong to some of the older palaeozoic formations, as Lower Silurian shales—black from diffused anthracite— are not unknown in other parts of the wor.d.f
OCCURRENCE AND NATURE OF THE COAL.
The lodes of this field are in general composite fissure veins. The Silver King lode formation in particular has a width of over 60 ft., and, while looking into its capabilities as a lead and zinc producer, I noticed in many parts the gangue associated with crystalline blende and galena was very dark in colour. Specimens were collected and subse- quently examined in the laboratory, where pyrognostic tests indicated the presence of carbonaceous matter, which it may be taken was probably effective in precipitating the sulphides of the ore body, although the average amount of fixed carbon over the whole width of the formation does not exceed | or 2 units per cent. Some of the less crushed matrix having the physical characters of coal, a fragment was handed to the Government Analyst, who found it (when separated from the attached ore) to have the com- position tabulated below. This result agrees fairly well with the partial analysis of an ordinary commercial anthracite,t though the vok.ile matter is rather lower
*Geological Reconnaissance from Van Diemen’s Gulf to the McArthur River, 1907.
+See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, 3rd Edition, p. 145.
tSee Economic Geology, Vol. 4, p. 657.
BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.E. 138
than in Welsh anthracite and yet at the same time con- siderably above that of anthraxolite as shown in the subjoined tables :—
Burketown, M.F.| Anthracite.*
Constituent. Anthraxolite. +
i. Analytical Result (at 100° C.).
Moisture ot a 15% eecosere 4-0% Volatile Matter é3 3°1% 580% 1-8%, Fixed Carbon .. me 85-:9% 92-64% 90-19%, Ash ay A so 9-5% 1-56% 4-1%
ii. Recalculated composition of water—and ash—free coal.
Volatile Matter .. wi 35% 5-9% 1-9% Fixed Carbon .. 3. 96:5% 941% 98-1%,
ORIGIN OF THE COAL.
It seemed at first that the question of orgin would not be difficult to settle and that the coal, during movements of the wall rock, must have been dragged into the forma- tion from a bed traversed by the fissure, the carbonaceous character of some of the country rocks lending support to this view; but subsequent study of the available literature of the subject has convinced me that the evidence is not altogether conclusive, and that there is a possibility of the hydrogen and carbon having been derived from a deep-seated magmatic source. That is to say that the coal has been produced like the Canadian anthraxolite (the proximate analysis of which does not differ greatly from the above) from bitumen or petroleum, the case for the magmatic origin of which, long urged by French and Russian geologists and chemists, has been very ably stated by Mr. Eugene Coste, of Toronto.t Even if it is allowed that some petroleums may be of organic derivation the inorganic origin of others seems almost certain.
* Analyses of British Coals and Coke, p, 369. + Ann. Report Bureau of Mines, Ont., 1896, p. 159. t See Journal of the Canadian Mining Institute, Vol. 12, p. 274.
184 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE
APPENDIX I.
PARALLEL CASES. It may be as well to here refer to the few other cases known to me of coal accompanying metallic sulphides in fissure lodes.
GERMANY. Ulrich has stated* that mineral coal occurs in ore lodes in several mining districts in Germany, but I have been unable to discover his original authority.
UNITED STATES.
The association of coal with lead and zinc sulphides has been noted} in Missouri, but, from the brief descrip- tions written, it would seem that the ores there occur not in lodes but in coal seams; and that the metals were precipitated by the carbonaceous matter from percolating meteoric waters.
CANADA.
A carbonaceous material similar to non-caking bitum- inous coal has been said{ to occur in a mica vein in Quebec, but confirmation of this is needed.
TASMANIA.
Anthracite has been reported from several mines in Tasmania. Mr. W. F. Petterd quoteds Ulrich in reference to an occurrence of anthracite “in irregular veins up to }-inch in size enclosed in calcite and siderite in the abandoned lead mine North Valley, Mt. Bischoff.”
In the same work Mr. F. Danvers Power is credited with having identified anthracite ‘“‘in the workings of various quartz reefs in the Beaconsfield Goldfield,” but the substance had already been determined|| by Messrs. A. Montgomery, the then Government Geologist, and W. F. Ward, the Government Analyst, to be a variety of lignite,
*See Catalogue of the Minerals of Tasmania. By W. F. Petterd- Hobart. By Auth., 1910, p. 51.
yLead and Zine Deposits of Missouri. By Arthur Winslow and J. D. Robertson, 1894, p. 157.
t J. Can., M.I., Vol. 7, p. 245.
§ Op. cit. (8).
|| See Aus. Ass. Adv. of Sci., Vol. 4 (18).
BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.A. 135
being brownish black in hue and having the following composition :—
C. 38:91; H., 3:03; O. and N., 21-60; S., 2-36; Ash,
12:00 ; Moisture (at 100° C.), 22-10% —100.
They show that it is mostly found in sandy layers between hard beds of grit (of Silurian age) and also penetrating into cracks and joints in the beds where much shattered. Some years later Mr. Twelvetrees, the present Government Geologist, found on the 800 ft. level in the Moonlight-cum- Wonder mine, lying between grits and limestone; “‘ a peculiar brown earthy carbonaceous (compact bedded) deposit (nine feet wide on one side of the drive) approaching in character to semilignite or brown coal,’ of which the following proximate analysis is given :—
Moisture (loss at 212° F.) .. st Be mit nh Ow Leroy Gases, &c. (lost at red heat) ae Ne ey BN Fixed Carbon aN ah “t a8 .. - 13:9% Mineral Matter (ash) is ¥ é2 2 "21.0%
100.0%
To account for the origin of the lignite Messrs. Montgomery and Ward suggested that it had been deposited from percolating swamp waters, that with the organic matter in suspension descended in quite recent geological times from the surface wherever the much shattered strata offered a ready passage. I do not suppose that when they wrote their paper the possibility of the magmatic origin of hydrocarbons had been seriously considered outside of Europe, but the theory has now many staunch supporters in all parts of the world and would seem to fit this case perfectly. The reference* of Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees to recent timber among boulders of conglomerate, 370 ft. beneath the surface in the Eureka Claim, points to former open communication with the surface at that place, but it need not have any bearing on the origin of the lignites. APPENDIX Il. - SoLtip HyDROCARBONS IN FISSURES.
That various solid hydrocarbons and carbo-hydrates fill extensive fissures is well known. Such are those of asphalt in Utah, Cuba}+ and Peru,{ of albertite in
* See Report on the Moonlight-cum-Wonder Mine at Beaconsfield, Launceston. By Authority, 1902.
+ Economic Geology, Vol. 1, p. 437.
t Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers Bulletin, No. 27, p. 291.
136 ANTHRACITE IN A FISSURE LODE
Nova Scotia, and of grahamite in Western Virginia. Their associations with metalliferous minerals is much rarer, but Dana records* elaterite (with lead ore and calcite) from the Odin lead mine in Derbyshire, resin (with calcite and pearlspar) from the Settling Stones lead mine in Northumberland, and idrialite (mixed with cinnibar, clay, pyrite and gypsum, in brown-black earthy material) from the Idrian mercury mines, Austria; and certain of the asphalite veins of Peru include lenses of sulphides and are mined for vanadium.t
APPENDIX ITI.
GRAPHITE.
Graphite is believed to be in certain cases an end product in the destructive distillation of petroleum that has risen from below.{ Besides occurring disseminated in some of the older rocks of the earth’s crust it is known in fissure veins in Quebec (in gneiss), Ceylon (in granite rock), Cumberland (in greenstone porphyry) and Siberia (in granite and limestone).§
Associated with iron ores it is found at a number of localities ; but Cirkel, the Canadian authority, mentions. only one occurrence with gold (in quartz at the Sunnyside Extension mine, San Juan), although it occurs in several silver veins in Ontario,|| including the Silver Islet, La Rose and Cobalt Hill). Liversidge mentions $ its occurrence with quartz, iron pyrites, and pyromorphite at the head of the Abercrombie River.
In our own State, Mr. Dunstan has shown that the granites of Croydon are graphitic and contain iron pyrites, copper pyrites, galena and arsenical pyrites in small quantities, and though he does not actually affirm it, the carbon appears to have been the precipitating agent-
* System of Mineralogy.
+ Op. cit. (15).
+ See Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, 4th Edition, p. 186.
§ Graphite. By Fritz Cirkel, Dept. of Mines, Canada, 1907. || J. Can., M.I., Vol. 10, p. 55.
$ Minerals of New South Wales. London, 1888.
q G.S.Q. Pub., Nos. 202 and 212.
BY LIONEL C. BALL, B.A. 1287 APPENDIX IV.
GASEOUS HYDROCARBONS IN METALLIFEROUS MINES.
Some passing mention should be made of the occurr- ’ ence—unusual but by no means non-existent—of gaseous hydrocarbons in metalliferous mines; but time has not permitted of my looking up the bibliography of the subject and I can refer to but one case, that of the Silver Islet mine, Ontario, in which gases were met at 1,000 ft. beneath the surface. This was mentioned in a discussion* on the ore deposits of the Cobalt district, when a member, Mr. Hixon, suggested the possibility of the hydrocarbons being magmatic and incidentally the cause of the silver of the lodes being in the metallic state.
‘Op. cit. (20)
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IN SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND.
By E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th June, 1911.
TuHeE following notes have been compiled in the desire of interesting members of this Society in a question on which, in the past as well as in the present, very divergent ‘views have been held—namely, the question of the geological ages of volcanic activity in this corner of Queensland. :
A problem of this. nature is always, to a geologist, one of exceptional interest; in this case, affecting as it does extensive areas of coal measures, it is one which in the future will possibly possess considerable economic importance in addition to its scientific interest.
A by no means small attraction is added by the fact that to the varied volcanic rocks are due, entirely or in part, so many of the physical features characterising the landscapes with which we are familiar, such, for instance, .as the Glass House Mountains, the rugged scenery of Mt. Barney and its neighbours, or of Cunningham’s Gap, the broad rich valleys of the Darling Downs and the beauties of the Toowoomba Range, or the richly beautiful scrubclad valleys, gorges and lofty plateaux which render the head- waters of the Logan, Albert, Coomera and Nerang rivers, a region destined to become the pleasure resort of our metropolis.
Voleanic rocks attain a very considerable develop- ment in the south-eastern corner of this State, and consist of widely varying types. The petrological characteristics of many of the rocks have received a good deal of attention, chiefly from Dr. H. J. Jensen, and further study in this direction is much to be desired. It is not intended here,
140 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
however, to discuss the petrology, except in so far as it concerns the determination of the geological age.
The rocks may be divided for field purposes into the two main types, trachytic and basaltic, though each of these contain widely differing rocks. Many of them have been determined by Dr. Jensen to belong to the alkaline types. Both tuffs, lavas and dykes are met with.
All Brisbane residents are familiar with the trachytic tuff, or so-called “‘ porphyry,” on the streets and in build- ings, as well as with the rock in situ in Kangaroo Point, Leichhardt Street, and other places in and near the city. Trachytic rocks also occur in or form the Glass House Mountains and other mountains in East Moreton, Flinders Peak, Mts. Lindsay and Barney, Cunningham’s Gap, the Little Liverpool Range, and near Esk, besides many other localities known, and many, probably, not) yet recorded.
Rocks of the basaltic type are even more extensively developed, occupying, as they do, so much larger an area than the more acid lavas, due probably to their more mobile condition when extruded. They partake in the formation of the Blackall Range, Tambourine Mt., portions of the Macpherson Range, Little Liverpool and Main Range, as well as large part of the Darling Downs. They are found besides at lesser elevations, and in the neighbourhood of Brisbane and Ipswich, from such comparatively low- lying areas as Cooper’s Flains, Manly, Redbank Plains, Bundamba, etc.
The first observer to offer an opinion as to the ages of the voleanic rocks was the late Sir A. C. Gregory, who, in his capacity of Geological Surveyor for Southern Queensland, between the years 1875 and 1879, traversed much of the country in which they occur. In his report on the south-eastern districts of the Colony of Queensland, he says that the basaltic rock “‘ may be referred to a very recent date in the Tertiary era.” He refers, both in this report and in one on the coal deposits of West Moreton and Darling Downs, to the fact that at Clifton coal mine, under 30ft. of basalt, large pieces of fossil wood were found. so little altered that it split and warped several inches on being exposed to the air. It was associated with woody seed vessels (Conchotheca Turgida). ‘The latter were referred for determination to Baron von Mueller, who
BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 141
mentions their having been obtained beneath basalt— a record to which the writer’s attention was kindly drawn by Mr. E. C. Andrews.
In describing the “ porphyritic’’ rocks, Sir A. C. Gregory considered them to be older than the basaltic, which have cut through and overlie them. He also con- sidered them to be later than the “ carbonaceous series,” which had not then been classed as of Trias-Jura age, but included with them the Brisbane rock.
In 1887 and 1889, Mr. W. H. Rands, working in Brisbane and in the Logan and Albert districts, determined the Brisbane “ porphyry” to be a trachytic tuff, lying at the base in this locality at any rate, of the Trias-Jura system. He encountered at Walton (now Woodhill), a trachyte which he considered to be contemporaneous with the coal measures in which it occurs. The basalt of Tambourine Mt. and the Macpherson Range, found both on the Trias-Jura beds, and on the underlying schists. Mr. Rands considered to be later than the coal measures and Woodhill trachyte, but older than the desert sandstone (Upper Cretaceous), to which age he ascribed a sandstone resting on the basalt and containing pebbles thereof, at the head of Nerang River.
Dr. Jack, in his Geology of Queensland, pointed out that it is a mistake to suppose that the volcanic rocks consist of only one continuous series, but expressed the opinion that the basalt of Tambourine is not necessarily of later age than the Woodhill trachyte, since it lies on strata considerably lower in the ‘Trias-Jura system than the horizon at Woodhill. Dr. Jack considered that the basalt of the lloowoomba Range is contemporaneous, though locally uncomformable with the ‘lrias-Jura rocks, beneath the upper portion of which he supposed them to dip to the west, thus accounting for the absence of an escarpment in that direction to correspond with that forming the Main Range. The basalt at Ipswich he also thought to be contemporaneous with the coal measures there, but this has since been shown of more recent origin. The basalt of Clifton and elsewhere appearing to occupy local hollows in the stratified rocks, he himself considered to be later age than the Trias-Jura.
142 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Mr. S. B. J. Skertchly, in a report on the geology of the country round Stanthorpe and Warwick, refers to the basalt of the Toowoomba Range as Tertiary, but does not record the sections which lead him to that conclusion.
Dr. H.J. Jensen has made several important contribu- tions, to the study of South-East Queensland igneous rocks, chiefly in papers read before the Linnean Society of N.S.W. The rocks described are in the East Moreton as well as in the Fassifern districts, and he refers all of the volcanic rocks he found on Trias-Jura areas to a post-Trias-Jura age. He records, in the Fassifern district, trachyte dykes in the Trias-Jura sandstone, a basalt injected in and overlying the trachyte, but gives no actual section proving, in our present ignorance as to the horizon occupied by the sand- stones intruded, that the volcanic rocks are post Trias-Jura.
Mr. E. C. Andrews, of the New South Wales Geological Survey, in working near the Queensland border, referred the trachytes and basalts of the Macpherson Range to the Trias-Jura age, but subsequent work has, the writer under- stands, led him to regard them as of Tertiary age, corres- ponding presumably with the undoubted Tertiary basalts of New England, described by Prof. David, as well as by himself.
The present writer, in examining the coal measures south of Brisbane, came to the conclusion that the volcanic rocks met with—almost entirely of the basaltic type— belong to two ages, Trias-Jura, and late or post-tertiary. Several sections were observed, including Mr. Rand’s Woodhill trachyte, of interbedded volcanic rocks amongst the upper or Walloon coal measures, in the neighbourhood of Beaudesert. These occurrences, however, are possibly merely sills or dykes parallel to the bedding, though an examination of them does not give one that impression. In a flying visit to the coal seams outcropping in the Upper Logan district, a site was pointed out by Mr. J. Buchanan, where an outcrop of carbonaceous shale or weathered coal had been covered by a recent slip in the bank of Christmas Creek. Mr. Buchanan remarked on the outcrop- having been perpendicular, and the writer observed that sandstone in juxtaposition with the fallen ground was also perpen- dicular, and that this sandstone contained rounded pebbles of basalt similar microscopically to the andestic basalt
/
BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., BE. 148
of the neighbourhood. Some distance further down the - creek, a similar sandstone is seen resting on basalt. Owing to circumstances, a detailed examination could not then be made, but the section thoroughly convinced the writer of the Trias-Jura age of the basalt in that locality. The absence of detailed examination or of fossil evidence regard- ing the sandstone and carbonaceous beds forms but a slight flaw in the otherwise absolute proof, since undoubted Trias-Jura strata occur, with coal seams, on Widgee Creek, less than two miles away, and the same formation appears to extend throughout the intervening ground. The vertical position of the strata, moreover, does not accord with the comparatively undisturbed character of the Tertiary formations elsewhere.
The sandstone and included basalt is presumably on the same horizon as that observed by Mr. Rands, and ascribed by him to the Desert sandstone. Since the time of Mr. Rand’s observations several areas which had been attributed to the Desert sandstone on physical grounds— the only data available—have since proved to be of greater age. It is more than probable, there being no evidence to the contrary, that the sandstone observed by Mr. Rands is of Trias-Jura age, like the remainder of the sandstone in its neighbourhood.
A paper on the Volcanic Kruptives of West Moreton, by R. A. Wearne and W. G. Woolnough, to the former of whom the field work was due, was read before the Sydney meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science in January this year, but has not yet been published. The authors consider that there are, in all probability, two volcanic series :—
(1) Of Trias-Jura age, contemporaneous with the
Walloon stage of the Trias-Jura ;
(2) Of Tertiary age.
The former of these includes the normal trachytes, andesites and basalts of the Main Range ; the latter includes the more alkaline trachytes (comendite and grorundite) of Mt. French, Mt. Greville, etc., the rhyolites of Mts. Maroon and Barney, and the basalts of the Toowoomba Range.
Proof of the Trias-Jura series lay in the discovery of—
(1) Trachyte tuff containing T'aeniopteris Daintreet,
found in the Lockyer district, near the Main Dividing Range (near Mt. Mistake) ;
144 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
(2) A number of trachyte pebbles found in conglom- erate in the upper portion of the Walloon coal measures, in the Fassifern and Lockyer districts.
The authors thus ascribe the trachytic as well as
basaltic rocks to two distinct ages. The Toowoomba basalt, an olivine basalt, is considered to be Tertiary, being distinct petrologically from the basalt referred to as Trias-Jura age, which appears to be of a similar character to that of the Upper Logan districts.
It is interesting to note that the numerous areas of basaltic Java which occur in the neighbourhood of Brisbane, still occupying in places the valleys in which it originally flowed, and nowhere attaining any noteworthy elevation, consist of an ophitic dolerite varying very slightly in character in any of the localities from which the writer has examined specimens. This rock, which is_ of undoubted Tertiary or post-Tertiary age, is equally distinct petrologically from either the Toowoomba basalt or the andesitic basalt of the Macpherson Range.
This dolerite is familiar to us as the “ blue metal” of the streets, for which purpose its great toughness is somewhat discounted by its defective binding power— a defect due to its fine and uniform texture. At Redbank Plains, Cooper’s Plains and Runcorn, and probably else- where, this rock lies on strata, bearing, in certain localities, a plentiful dicotyledonous flora as well as fish and reptilian remains, the age of which have not yet been definitely determined.
From the foregoing list of observations and opinions, . we may summarise the present state of our knowledge of the ages of vulcanicity as follows :—
Undoubted post Trias-Jura basaltic rocks occur near Brisbane, and at Clifton, on the Darling Downs. These rocks are probably of late Tertiary if not of post-Tertiary age.
From opinions formed in the fleld, though not sup- ported up to the present by any positive proof, several observers are persuaded also of the post-Trias-Jura age of some (or most) of the trachytic rocks, a diversity of opinion existing as to whether the main body of these are Trias-Jura or post-Trias-Jura. There can be no reasonable
BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 145
doubt that some are Trias-Jura, excluding the Brisbane tuff, the age of which has long been beyond question.
There is little if any room for doubt also as to the ‘Trias-Jura age of much of the basaltic rock, more especially in the eastern portion of the Macpherson Range.
Opinion is divided in regard to the Toowoomba basalt, no definite proof having been recorded up to the present in favour of either view.
Intimately associated as the volcanic rocks are with the Trias-Jura system, it is essential to realise how much or how little we know about that system before we refer rocks to any particular stage of it. Up to the present time, the only connected or in any way detailed examination made covers a comparatively small area in the neighbour- hood of Ipswich and Brisbane, and from there south to Beaudesert—a total area of roughly some 1,000 square miles of the strata. The whole formation covers at least 15,000 square miles, so our knowledge must be regarded as very incomplete. Inside our limited area we are aware of three divisions—in ascending order:—The Ipswich coal measures, the Bundamba sandstones, and the Walloon coal measures. We are, however, in no way justified in supposing that the Walloon coal measures form the summit of the formation, Just as the Ipswich coal measures are not necessarily the lowest division, though certainly so locally. ;
In the greater part of the areas in which the volcanic rocks occur, the sedimentaries have been the subject of only few and disconnected observations, and it is highly desirable to realise that, in the absence of connected and reasonably detailed work, we are practically in complete ignorance as to the stratigraphical position of these sedimentaries in the ‘Trias-Jura system. For instance, it is a pure assumption, but one that is often made, that the coal measures of the Darling Downs are on the same horizon as those of Walloon. Except for a _ certain similarity in their coals, there is really not the slightest reason in our present knowledge to suppose this to be the case, though there is every likelihood of it being so.
The basalt of Tambourine Mountain is similar to, and, except for denudation, continuous with that of the Macpherson Range, which is almost certainly of ‘lrias-
146 - THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Jura age. Yet the Tambourine rock rests uncomfortably on beds low in the system, as well as on the underlying schist.
The unconformability is interesting, for it shows elevation during Trias-Jura times; it also serves to accentuate the fact that the mere superposition of lava on portion of the system is no evidence, the horizon being unknown, that the lava is of post Trias-Jura age.
Should contemporaneous volcanic rocks prove of wide extension, their study is likely to be of great assistance to the stratigraphy of a system, that otherwise appears to offer few sharply-defined limits on which to base the divisions. The study may thus be of no small aid in the intelligent prospecting of the coal measures.
In those districts where volcanic rocks of both ages occur, or where the age has not been definitely determined, it will be necessary to preserve an entirely open mind regarding the age of any particular rock met with, remem- bering always that neither the contemporaneous nor the later rocks necessarily belong to only one brief period of vulcanicity. We know that elsewhere in Australia there were two periods of volcanic activity in Tertiary times, and it is not unlikely that representatives of both these occur in our area.
Volcanic materials, chiefly tuffs of no considerable development, occur in MesoZoic rocks elsewhere in Australia, but voleanic activity is considered to have been the excep- tion, in Mesozoic times, throughout the world, a fact conferring greater interest on such rocks as do belong to that period. Where, as seems likely in this present case, the volcanic activity was extensive, the interest is consider- ably increased.
It is hoped that these few notes, in drawing the atten- tion of members of this Society to the question will help towards its study by reducing the greatest difficulty—the lack of observers where so much is to be observed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Andrews, E. C.— An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England.
A Preliminary Note on the Structure of Mt. Lindsay. Records Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VII., Part ITI.
BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 147
David, T. W. EL — Presidential Address, Section C., Australasian Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, Hobart, 1892. Contribution to the Study of Volcanic Action in Eastern Australia. A:A.A.S., 1893. sv Vegetable Creek Tin Mining Field. Memoirs, Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Geology No. I.
‘Gregory, A. C.— Coal Deposits of West Moreton and Darling Downs Districts, 1876. (Council and Assembly Paper). Geological Features of the South Eastern Districts of the Colony of Queensland, 1879. (Legislative Assembly Paper).
Jack, BR. L.— Geology and Palaeontology of Queensland and New Guinea (Jack and Etheridge), 1892.
Jensen, H. J.—
Geology of Glass House Mountains. Proceedings, Linnean Society of New South Wales, 1906.
Geology of the Volcanic Area of the East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906.
Distribution, Origin and Relationships of Alkaline Rocks. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1908.
Geology of Mt. Flinders and the Fassifern District. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1909.
The Alkaline Rocks of Southern Queensland. A.A.A.S., Brisbane, 1909.
Marks, E. O.— : Coal Measures of South-East Moreton. Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 225.
Rands, W. H.—
Geological Map of the City of Brisbane and its Environs, accompanied by a Report. Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 34.
Geology of and Minerals occurring in the Neighbour- hood of Beenleigh, and of the Logan and Albert Rivers, 1887. Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 36.
148 THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Rands, W. H.— The Albert and Logan Districts, 1889. Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 51.
Skertchly, 8. B. J.— Geology of the Country Round Stanthorpe and Warwick. Geol. Surv., Q. Publication, No. 120.
THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.
—
By H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. (Sydney).
—_—_—_
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 29th, 1911.
eo
I INTRODUCTION. SCOPE OF PAPER.
THE object of this paper is not to offer the reader any really new material, but rather to present the know- ledge we already possess in a concise form, and to point out which of the very many more or less conflicting theories of earth mechanics are most capable of explain- ing the facts observed in Australia.
The books and papers referred to in the compilation of these notes are so numerous that they are separately entered up in Appendix I. The maps illustrating the growth of Eastern Australia in geological time are based on those issued by Professor David to his tectonic geology class.
It shall be my endeavour first of all to show how the geography of Australia has changed during geo- logical time. After these changes have been described we will try to enquire what meaning can be assigned to them, and what kind of earth movements produced them. We will then further discuss the ‘eae unity of Eastern Australia. The Petrological Unity of Eastern Australia will then be discussed and at the same time some remarks will be made on the origin of some leading Australian ore deposits.
We shall then pass on to the treatment of faulting and folding, the causes of these movements and their effects on topography. The origin of some-of our most important land forms and scenery will then be briefly dealt with.
150 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
THE RECONSTRUCTION OF PALZOGEOGRAPHY.
Just as the historian and the antiquarian in their discussions on events prior to the exact historical period speak of the stone age, the bronze age, and so forth, dividing early historical time according to the nature of the debris characterising the age, so the geologist, who has no exact conception of the duration of his periods, divides geological time into the age of fishes, the age of reptiles, the age of Brachiopods, and so forth.
Just as the historian divides time into periods and his periods into dynasties, so the geologist divides his geological time into periods, and his periods into epochs. In the same way as the historian speaks of the Heroic Age or Era, so the geologist speaks of the Palxozoic Age or Era. The historian has his shepherd king period, Plantagenet period, andso on; the geologist, likewise, has his Devonian Period, Miocene period, and so on. Just as the historian speaks of the dynasty of the Ptolemys, Hanover dynasty, &c., so the geologist has geological horizons based on the predominance of some particular dynasty of animal or plant life.
Our knowledge of the geography of past geological ages is ga-hered from the study of the fossilised remains of plants and animals. Of all petrifactions, none are so important to the geologist as shallow water marine organisms ; because of their abundance in the fossil state, and their uninterrupted sway during the long ages. they afford us landmarks, not only for the division of geological time into periods, but also into horizons and stages. The long persistency of each genus allowed it to differentiate into sub-genera and species, which, besides being very absorbing studies for the evolutionist, are also of great value in delimiting the minor divisions of geological time.
In the following pages it is taken as an axiom that a great accumulation in any place of marine fossils indicates close proximity to the shore line at the time of deposition. This follows from two considerations. In the first place the waters of the continental shelf are better adapted, both as regards temperature and food supplies, for plant and animal life. In the second place, the opportunities for organisms to be preserved
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 151
are better near the shore where sediments may bury them, and where the high pressure of deeper levels does not exist and exert great solvent power on the objects deposited. It is, therefore, axiomatic that the greatest thickness of sediments and the greatest profusion of fossil remains occur within 150 miles of the coast.
The nature and distribution of sediments of various ages, therefore, gives us a clue as to the position of the shorelines of these ages. A glance at the maps on the following pages should convince anyone that prior to the Tertiary period, Australia had a much different outline from that of to-day, and that the geographical unity of Australia begins with the Tertiary. [1]
Il. PALAZOGEOGRAPHIC STUDIKS.
(A) PRE-CAMBRIAN.
By referring to the map (fig. 1) we see that the known Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia are all grouped in the western portions of the continent and Tasmania. A curve drawn from the north-east corner of Tasmania to the Kimberley district of West Australia, with a slight convexity to the north-east embraces all the best known Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia. Such a curve, it is interesting to note, would have its centre near Kerguelen Island, in the Southern Ocean. But, as the Pre-Cambrian is a geological scrap-heap for all the for- mations which antedate the appearance of life on the earth, rocks of that age must underlie all later formations, and they cannot be utilised in the reconstruction of Pre-Cambrian geography. All that we can say is that both sea and land were in existence in this great epoch, for the Pre-Cambrian rocks are largely of sedi- mentary origin.
The principal Pre-Cambrian areas of Australia are (1) the West Tasmanian area; (2) Yorke’s Peninsula, West of Adelaide; (3) the Musgrave Ranges and part of the Victoria Desert, South Australia; (4) an area near Broken Hill; (5) the Macdonnell Ranges, South Australia ; (6) the Kimberley Area, West Australia, and (7) the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie areas, W.A. The igneous rocks of this early period comprise both acid and basic varieties. The acid rocks consisted of granites,
ee
152 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
felsites, graphic granites, gneiss, augen gneiss, basalt, andesite and gabbro.
The sedimentary rocks comprise quartzites, mica schists, andalusite schists, marbles and limestones.
The western portions of Australia, which are so largely of Pre-Cambrian age, have probably in the main, escaped heavy sedimentation in all subsequent geological periods, for otherwise a heavy coat of later sediments would frequently hide the Pre-Cambrian rocks. Western Australia was, therefore, uplifted at an early period. It formed part of a Pre-Cambrian landmass which ex- tended in a north-west direction to Arabia and Abys- sinia and south-wards to Antarctica. This great landmass was probably fairly persistent throughout Paleozoic times, since Africa, India and Australia had a similar flora up to the end of the Paleozoic, namely the Lepi- dodendron flora of the Carboniferous and the Glossopteris flora of the Permo-Carboniferous.
The absence of sediments newer than Pre-Cambrian over large areas of Western Australia, is not the sole evidence for supposing this area to have been essentially a continental mass from that remote geological age to the present. A strip of the west coast of W.A. was sub- jected to several marine transgressions in late Paleozoic and Mesozoic times, but sedimentation was neither prolonged nor heavy, for practically all deposits later than Pre-Cambrian are almost undisturbed by any compressional forces, their dip seldom exceeding 20°. The sediments of various later geogolical ages are deposited upon highly folded, inclined and contorted rocks, con- sisting of schists, conglomerates, gneisses and igneous rocks of the Pre-Cambrian complex. Even the Cam- brian rocks, such as the Nullagine series of Pilbarra, are little disturbed. The WNullagine, Carboniferous, Permian and Mesozoic rocks, where in juxtaposition, are not easily separable by such criteria as hardness, metamorphism, difference in angle of dip, and so forth, but mainly by the occurrence of unconformities between them. Consequently the transgressions of the ocean in these periods did not interfere with the geological unity or plateau character of Western Australia.
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 158
Another point of interest in this connection is the fact that artesian water, which occurs in Queensland only in rocks of late Mesozoic age, has been obtained in Western Australia in rocks of Permian, Carboniferous, and even older ages. This shows still more forcibly that since the early Paleozoic, Western Australia has been a unit or block of the earth’s crust in which no compression of strata has occurred, and in which the only earth movements (faults and fractures) have been the result of tangential strain.
In {Bull. 33, Geol. Surv. of W.A., Mr. A. Gibb- Maitland [2] shows that at Pelican Hill artesian water was obtained at a depth of about 3,000 feet in the lowest bed of the Carboniferous series, a sandstone stratum about 448 feet thick. In the Collie Coalfield mining is greatly handicapped by the constant soakage of artesian water into the workings.
In the Irwin Coalfield (Bull. 38, Geol. Surv. of W.A.), the coal is hydrous, and the carboniferous rocks are water bearing. [3]
Clearly, from this the post-Cambrian rocks of the Western Australian block are porous by virtue of being uncompressed, and in many Cases they are in a state of strain or tension. We may therefore conclude that West Australia has been a relatively rising mass | from the beginning of the Cambrian. :
In Eastern Australia, all rocks of pre-Triassic age have undergone such compression that their original water content has been expelled, and they have become too impervious to take up water again.
CAMBRIAN SEDIMENTATION.
Examination of the Cambrian areas of sedimenta- tion shows (Fig. 2) us that they are all situated to the east of the main Pre-Cambrian massive, already referred to. They lie on a definite band about 300 miles wide, running in a crude north-westerly direction from Tasmania to Kimberley, in W.A. This band then corresponds to the Cambrian area of intense sedimenta- tion, including the continental shelf of the period.
The chief localities for Cambrian rocks are the Caroline Creek district in Tasmania; the Heathcote
154 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
district, Victoria; the Mt. Lofty Range, north of Peters— burg, Kangaroo Island, Vincent’s Gulf, and thence
north to the Queensland border, in South Australia; and.
the Kimberley district in Western Australia. These beds are in many places rich in the forms of life character- istic of the period—such as the coral Archeocyathine ; sponge spicules; the trilobites Conocephalites, Micro- discus, Olenellus, Dikellocephalus ; the pteropods Salterella. and Tentaculites, and the Gastropod Ophileta.
While the belt referred to was probably the con- tinental shelf and region of heavy sedimentation in Cambrian times, it is probable that the Cambrian ocean extended eastwards over the whole of Eastern Australia. The remarkable crystalline and wholly unfossiliferous rocks, which are known to us as the Brisbane Schists, the Byron Bay Schists and Cofi’s Harbour Schists, are probably deep sea deposits of Paleozoic age, which accumulated in the profound and lifeless ocean during the periods ranging from Cambrian to Devonian. At great depths life would be scarce, and any remains of skeletons of organisms which may have dropped to the bottom would speedily go into solution.
During the Lower Cambrian period, a glacial age was experienced in Australia, boulder beds of iceworn nature outcropping in many places on the belt {of Cambrian sediments, right from Adelaide north to the Queensland-South Australian border, and in the north of Western Australia. [4]
ORDOVICIAN SEDIMENTATION. The region of the heaviest Ordovician Sedimenta-
tion lies east of the region of heaviest Cambrian deposition.
The latter had been uplifted and largely converted into dry land before the Ordovician period. The continent had therefore taken a step in the direction of the rising sun. A strip, two or three hundred miles wide, lying east of the Cambrian continent, had been converted. into land. (f1g. 3).
The Ordovician in the Australian region was truly an age of graptolites, which were in many parts, particu- larly in Victoria, buried in such numbers as to give a graphitic character to the shales and slates of this period. These graphitic shales have acted as precipitants for gold,
BY H. I, JENSEN, D.SC. 155
so that they stand in the same relation to the goldbearing quartz reefs of Victoria as the plumbago beds of the Gympie Goldfield stand to the reefs there.
The main areas of Ordovician Sedimentation in Australia were the Cephalopodan limestone of Tasmania, the Victorian graphitic shales at Sandhurst, etc., the black graptolite slates of the Victorian and Snowy Alps, the Myall Reefs, N.S.W., the graptolite slates at Dubbo and Cadia (near Orange), N.S.W., the Mandurama graptolite and radiolarian rocks (N.S.W.), and the Larapintine system of the MacDonald Ranges of S.A.
The Ordovician rocks of N. 8. Wales, Victoria and Tasmania were probably deposited in very deep water, radiolaria being very abundant in them in the Snowy Alps, at Mandurama and elsewhere.
Contemporaneous tufis and lavas were erupted and occur in the series at Mandurama and Cadia, N.S.W. These volcanic extrusions were of an andesitic nature.
SILURIAN SEDIMENTATION.
Silurian sediments occur over wide areas of Eastern Australia. In Victoria, Tasmania and Southern N. 8S. Wales, where the Ordovician sea was deep, the Silurian | sediments follow the Ordovician, and largely overlie them. Further north, however, the areas of most intense Silurian sedimentation are several hundred miles east of the main Ordovician belt. (Fig. 4).
The Silurian Sea was an extensive one, and a moderately shallow one. Corals played an important part in the life of the time.
Silurian rocks occur at Yass and Bowning, the Jenolan Caves, Wellington, Molong, etc., in N. S. Wales ; at Chillagoe in Queensland ; at Lilydale in Victoria, etc. ; and at Yass (N.S.W.) they contain banded rhyolites and tuffs of a dacitic nature, and submarine tuffs at Wel- lington (N.S.W.)
The shallow nature of the Silurian Sea, together with the slow uplift of the sea bottom, caused a rapid advance of the coastline towards the east, so that it is doubtful that the various Silurian areas of Australie are contemporaneous. They are homotaxial, and belong to the same great period—but may have become elevated into dry land at different times in that period.
156 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Most of the important cave-limestones of Australia belong to the Silurian—as for example, those of Chillagoe and Mungana in North Queensland, and those of Jenolan, Wellington and Yarang-obilly in New South Wales. The Trugose and tabulate corals of that age apparently did not build ona subsiding sea-floor as the madrepore and millepore fauna of the Pacific to-day, but were building on a slowly rising seabottom, gradually extending their domain as successive portions of the ocean floor were raised to the zone of shallow water.
THE DEVONIAN.
In the Devonian Period, the ocean which in the early Paleozoic covered Eastern Australia was much reduced. Here and there basins remained in which Devonian sedi- ments were planked. These basins were probably trough subsidence areas (senkungs-feldter) in the Silurian plat- form. One such basin extended along the south-coast of New South Wales, from the neighbourhood of Tilba-Tilba, through Yalwal and Sassafras, then dipping under the Permo-Carboniferous coal measures of the Sydney basin, it reappears at Tamworth, on the flanks of the New England. Another Devonian basin now forms the Buchan and Bindi limestones of Victoria; another depression is represented by the Murrumbidgee limestones of N.S.W., and extended westwards to Canowindra and Wilcannia. Another great area of Devonian sedimentation was that of the Burdekin beds of Queensland. (fig. 5).
Upper Devonian rocks also occur at Mount Lambie, N.S.W., at Back Creek and Clyde Mountains near Braid- wood, N.S.W., and also between Orange and Wellington, N.S. W.
The earliest rocks of the Lower Devonian period were of an igneous nature, namely, the Snowy River porphyries of N.S.W.
Generally speaking, most of the igneous rocks of the Devonian period were of an acid character.
The nature of Devonian sediments (largely limestones and coarse sandstones) indicates shallow water and derivation from the denudation of and igneous rocks. The Devonian sediments therefore suggest that the volcanic ejacamentea and the igneous intrusions of the late Silurian
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 157
and Early Devonian were of granitic magma: by the same course of argument, we can suggest from the fine grained and dark nature of the slates of the early Silurian that the eruptions of that age and of the Ordovician were of basic magma.
CARBONIFEROUS.
In the Carboniferous period, the movement of the shoreline to the east was further accentuated. Along great stretches the area of maximum sedimentation lay far to the east of the present Continent. (fig. 6). Isolated or semi-detached seas covered the New England area of New South Wales, and the Gympie area of Queensland. Great upliits, accompanied by granitic intrusions, took place in the areas of maximum Silurian and Devonian sedimentation. Mountain building was in this period the result of earth folding processes, as instanced by the gigantic earthfolds in the Devonian beds underlying horizontal Upper Marine, near Braidwood, New South Wales.
A north and south running strip of the West Australian Continental mass was lowered sufficiently to become the depository of marine sediments.
During this period and the following, it is not ‘istieely that portions of Australia were connected with New Zealand, Fiji, and New Caledonia.
PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS.
In the Permo-Carboniferous a shallow sea developed to the east of the main Devonian areas (Fig. 7), running north and south from the Sydney basin to the Dawson River in Queensland. This elongated basin was probably produced by folding, accompanied by faulting. In it were deposited the Permo-Carboniferous beds. This basin lay between the Gondwana land proper and the island continent between Australia and Fiji and New Zealand. It stood to these two landmasses in the same relation as the Sea of Japan does to Japan and China. It afforded a means for floating ice to be carried far to the north. [4]
Mighty upheavals took place in the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous periods. Such elevated lands were built up that mammoth glaciers shed icefloes, which not only found their way far to the north in the South
158 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Australian area, but even as far as Bowen in Queensland The climate was so cooled that the rich flora of the coal measures was driven north, and likewise the mollusca and corals migrated to the north. Of corals only the hardy zaphrentis remained when the cooling of the climate set in. During the Permo-Carboniferous cataclysms com- menced the break up of the great Gondwana continent and the separation of Australia from India and South Africa was commenced.
At the close of this period, the New England area of N.S.W. became compressed between the adjoining segments of the earth’s crust, so that the Permo-Carboniferous strata of this region were folded as intensely as the Silurian in other parts of Australia. [6]
To summarise the geological history of Paleozoic Australia, we may say :—
(1) The Pre-Cambrian is a conglomeration of forma- tions—both acid and basic igneous rocks were intruded. _
(2) The Cambrian was an era of uplift, Continental extension, and mountain building. Whether the Cambrian ice age was caused by earth movements having super- elevated many mountains and produced glaciers, or whether the cause of the ice age is due to any astronomical factors. is hard to say. Eruptions and intrusions were of an acid nature.
(3) The Ordovician was a period of quiet subsidence over most of Eastern Australia; a great thickness of sediments accumulated. Vulcanicity was at a minimum, and the igneous masses which have been proved of this age: were of an intermediate (andesitic) to basic character.
(4) The Silurian was a period of slow elevation of the sea floor over Eastern Australia, and of Continental exten- sion by the piling up in the seas of the weathering products of the Continents. Vulcanicity became more and more marked towards the end of the period, and the intrusions. and lavas became more and more acid in character.
(5) The Early Devonian was an era of rapid elevation in some parts, downthrow in others. Great folds and great faults were produced. The lavas, tufis and intrusive rocks of the period were very acid in character.
The Devonian uplifts must have caused the isolation of many seas, for the Devonian sandstones of some parts
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 159
care like our Triassic rocks, very poor in fossils, and indicate deposition in a semi-brackish sea. The Devonian sediments, where not of organic origin, point to acidic eruptions and intrusions in this and the previous period.
(6) The late Carboniferous was a period of most intense folding and faulting, accompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanic eruptions of strongly acidic character.
(7) The Permo-Carboniferous was a period of general subsidence, accompanied by erosion of the lands and the piling up of sediments in the ocean. Volcanic eruptions took place far and wide in the regions of heavy sedimenta- tion, and the lavas were all of an intermediate to basic nature.
Towards the end of this period the super-elevation of some landmass lying to the south-west of Tasmania, caused an Australian ice age. Evidences obtain at Bacchus Marsh, Victoria; Hallett’s Cove, and other places in §.A., Lochinvar and Branxton in N.S.W., Bowen in Queensland, and the Irwin and Gascoyne Coalfields in W.A. [4 and 5]
In the foregoing notes, the following two points are of special interest :—
(1) The Continent moved in an easterly direction throughout the Paleozoic, and by the end of the Permo- Carboniferous, had captured more than the whole of the present continent, including many deep ocean parts. This is satisfactory evidence that Penck’s theory of the —— ehh permanency of ocean basins does not hold. ~~) Andesite indicates a subsiding and rhyolite . rising area. :
THE Mesozoic.
The Mediterranean Sea of Australia, shown on Figs. 7, 8, 9, commenced in the Permo-Carboniferous period, during which it was probably connected with the ocean by a south passage. Its oceanic connection to the south ceased with the dawn of the Mesozoic.
In the Triassic and in the Trias-Jura, it is probable that the main mountain ranges of Australia lay some distance out in the present Pacific Ocean, in the direction of New Zealand. Regional uplift took place over most of the coal-basin (Permo-Carboniferous) area. The upward movement was not of equal intensity in all parts.
160: THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
During the Triassic, the Sydney basin not only lagged behind in the uplift, but was subsiding at intervals, so that during this period it was a shallow sea in which the Narrabeen shales, the Hawkesbury sandstones, and the Wianamatta shales were laid down. During the Narrabeen interval volcanic eruptions of an andesitic nature showered out ashes, which helped to build up the chocolate shales. The abundance of fossil leaves and wood in this formation indicates shallowness, proximity to land, and possibly nearly fresh water conditions, indicating that this area had participated for a time in the uplift of the late Permo- Carboniferous. The Hawkesbury sandstone system consists of coarse-grained sandstones, which, evidently, must have been deposited in a storm-tossed brackish sea, for the sedi- ments carry no fossils except a few Macroteeniopteris leaves and fragments of fossil wood. Brackish water affords the most suitable habitat for thinshelled molluscs, and a shallow storm-tossed sea gives the best conditions for the complete destruction of shell remains by the grinding action of the sands. The frequency in the Hawkesbury system of false bedding is also indicative of changing currents and shallow water.
The Hawkesbury period was followed by an uplift which inaugurated a lake period in the Sydney area. In the lake then formed the Wianamatta shales were laid down. Mr. F. Chapman, F.L.S., concludes from his study of the fossil microzoa of the series that the Wianamatta shales were deposited in fresh or brackish water. [7] (Records Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIII., Part IV.) The other fossils of the formation, comprising thin-shelled mollusca and labyrinthodont remains, support this con. clusion.
The Hawkesbury sandstone sea was at the start considerably larger than the area now covered by its forma- tion.
Mr. W. 8. Dun [8] has described fossil leaves in Lower Trias rocks from Benolong, in the Dubbo district. The sea gradually dwindled in size as elevation proceeded, and at last only the Wianamatta lake remained.
The elevation of the whole of the eastern belt of the present Australian Continent led to a relative depression of the interior, and in later Triassic times (the Trias-Jura
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 161
of Jack) an epicontinental sea formed in which the Trias- Jura rocks were laid down. This sea extended from the New England and Central tablelands in New South Wales west into Central Australia, thence north to the Gulf of Car- pentaria. It reached the eastern margin of the present Continent in the Moreton Bay district of Queensland, whence a stretch of water extended south over the Clarence and Richmond districts of New South Wales.
The Trias-Jura sea is coextensive (Fig. 8) with the artesian areas of New South Wales and Queensland, and included also the Ipswich and Clarence coal-measures.
The bulk of the sediments deposited in this period consisted of coarse, silicious sandstones, distinguished by current bedding and scarcity of fossils. In parts, as on the Maroochy Beach of Queensland, fossil wood is plentiful. In isolated places leaves and thin-shelled mollusca are found. Evidently, the conditions prevailing in this expanse of water were similar to those prevailing in the Hawkesbury period over the Sydney basin.
The area subject to sedimentation in the Cretaceous period was almost identical with the Trias-Jura basin. (Fig. 9).
In the Cretaceous Mediterranean Sea of Australia were deposited the Rolling Downs formations, consisting of sandstones, marls and limestones, with marine fossils. The Cretaceous sea was probably connected with the ocean, both to the south and to the north.
The Rolling Downs are capped by the Upper Cretaceous or Cretaceo-Tertiary Desert Sandstones, fine-grained, magnesian sandstones—this formation often lies uncon-
-formably, and occurs in the form of broken ridges with
flat summits and precipitous sides. The Rev. Mr. Tennison Woods, F.L.S. [9], considered the Desert Sandstone to be an early Tertiary volcanic tuff deposit, formed under terrestrial conditions, the false bedding being due, in his opinion, to wind changes (Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXII., p. 290). He considers also, that in the period of the Desert Sandstone, Australia was more elevated than to-day.
The theory of the volcanic origin of the magnesite of the Desert Sandstone is probably correct. Although the main trachytic eruptions of Eastern Australia were
162 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
older than the great basic flows, there is strong evidence in the Moreton and Fassifern districts of Queensland, and in the Canoblas, Nandewars, and Mittagong trachyte series in New South Wales, that the trachytic eruptive rocks were preceded by basic and ultrabasic intrusives, and flows quite distinct from the Miocene and Pliocene basalts. The age of this post-Jurassic volcanic period is probably not older than late Cretaceous, nor newer than Eocene.
The Cretaceous was a period of relative quiet, and the great continental rim elevated in the late Permian, Triassic and Trias-Jura periods was being worn down to base level. The formation of the Bolivia and Mole pene- plains was completed in this period. (Andrews—Tertiary History of New England). An early Tertiary uplift followed, and this was accompanied by renewed degradation until the great Miocene peneplain of Eastern Australia was formed (Sandon and Stannifer peneplain of Andrews op. cit. [10], Monaro peneplain of Sussmilch [11] ).
The first great basalt demonstration of the Tertiary occurred before the completion of Miocene peneplanation, and the alkaline lavas of Eastern Australia are usually regarded as early extrusives of that eruptive cycle, a view that assigns them to the Eocene or early Miocene periods. The later basalts succeeded, and are best regarded as late Pliocene. Their extrusion was followed or accompanied by great upheavals in some areas, such as New England.
The igneous activity of the Mesozoic periods has not left such striking evidence as the Tertiary volcanic action just referred to. The following clues are, however, afforded :
(a) The chocolate shales of early Trias (Narrabeen) age contain augite, and are probably andesitic tuffs.
(6) The Wianamatta shales do in many places near Penrith pass into tuffy shales. The nature of the shales themselves is indicative of derivation from basic volcanic rock. Some shaly beds in the Clarence series are likewise tufiy. |
(c) The alkaline rocks of Eastern Australia were preceded by basic eruptions from which they are separated by at least one geological period. The magnesites of the Desert Sandstone may be related to these basic eruptives.
(12]
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 163
From the nature of the Mesozoic sediments generally, we may conclude that the Mesozoic period was not characterised by intense vulcanicity, but some eruptions probably took place, such as the andesitic ejacamenta of the Narrabeen period, the basic tufis of Wianamatta age, and others mentioned above. If any eruptions took place in the Hawkesbury period, they must have been of an acid nature. The Trias-Jura of the Clarence River district of New South Wales contains basic tufis probably contemporaneous, and this is also the case with the Mesozoic rocks between Nambour and Yandina, Queens- land. [13] The latter also contain rhyolites and associated tuffs, some of which show close resemblance to the felsitic tuffs at the base of the Trias-Jura in Brisbane. None of the rocks igneous definitely assignable to the Trias-Jura have an alkaline facies.
The points of major interest in connection with the Mesozoic rocks of Eastern Australia are :—
(1) Our Mesozoic sediments show no folding of conse- quence. Generally speaking, they show only slight dips, and have never been under the influence of tangential pressure like the Mesozoic sediments of the Alps, Himalayas, Java, etc.
(2) Even our Permo-Carboniferous rocks are only strongly contorted in the area of the New England district. ‘Since the Permo-Carboniferous, Eastern Australia has been a stable unit of the earth’s crust; if not actually rising, so that any sedimentation of late Permo-Carboniferous, and later age, is due to marine transgressions and epi-con- tinental seas invading the landmass.
(3) Mountain building from the Permo-Carboniferous on has been by plateau uplift, not by folding, except in the New England, where tangential thrusts must have taken place in the Mesozoic. Faulting has aided in the formation of our mountains, but intense folding of this age has only occurred in the Northern Tableland of New South Wales.
(4) The most folded rocks of late Permo-Carboniferous and Mesozoic age are in a few small subsidence areas, among which the Gympie Goldfield [14], the New England, and the Ipswich Coalfield are prominent.
(5) The discovery by R. A. Wearne, of Fenestella in horizontal sandstones resembling Ipswich coal-measures,
c
164 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
near Mt. Barney, shows that the idea that the formations become progressively more and more folded as we go north towards New Guinea is not without limitations. [15]
(6) So little compression has there been since the ushering in of the Mesozoic in Eastern Australia, that artesian water is obtainable in Mezosoic rocks, but not in oider rocks.
(7) The Desert Sandstone is a volcanic ash deposit, probably partly of late Cretaceous, partly of Tertiary age, as suggested by Tennyson Woods. [9]
THE BRISBANE AND THE GYMPIE ROCKS.
The veteran geologist of Queensland, Dr. Jack, classed most of the unfossiliferous schists of Queensland with the Gympie formation. In my paper, ‘“‘ The Metamorphic Rocks of Southern Queensland” [14], read before the A.A.A.8., Brisbane Meeting, 1909, I gave some weighty reasons for regarding the Gympie area as a small subsidence area, in which, by reason of depression and compression between adjoining blocks of the earth’s crust, more recent formations were metamorphosed than in the more elevated blocks. Mr. Wearne’s interesting discovery of Fenestella, near Mt. Barney, in almost horizontal sandstones confirms this view. [15]
I am inclined to regard the unfossiliferous Paleozoic beds between Brisbane and Coff’s Harbour, and also those north of Brisbane in the D’Aguilar Ranges, and further north in the Yabba Ranges, etc., as a paleozoic complex of deep sea deposits, ranging from, perhaps, Pre-Cambrian to Devonian or Carboniferous in age. These beds were elevated in late Carboniferous or Permian times, and portions of the area which they covered were submerged again by an epicontinental sea, when the great Mesozoic uplift of New England took place. The Clarence basin sandstones and Ipswich coal-measures were laid down in this epicontinental sea.
The Gympie beds of Gympie proper have been proved by their fossil contents to be equivalent with the Lower Marine beds of New South Wales, therefore Permo-Carboni- ferous. While it is not only possible, but probable, that large areas of Queensland were under shallow water in Permo-Carboniferous times, the beds laid down in that period have only been preserved in cases where they have been downthrown by trough faulting. [14]
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 165
The progressive increase of folding in Permo-Car- boniferous rocks observed on going north from the Vic- torian to the Queensland border, reaches its climax in the Macleay-Manning and Southern New England districts of New South Wales. North of the Macpherson Range, the Permo-Carboniferous have only been materially dis- turbed in certain senkungsfeldt areas of small extent.
At Bega, in N.S.W. (see Fig. 11), we have the Ordovician rocks and igneous rocks of granite composition. Further north, in the Cobargo district, lightly folded Silurian shales (Narira schists) rest on the Ordovician. Still further north, not far from the Narrigundah goldfields, Devonian rocks appear, according to Anderson [16], sitting horizon- tally on top of folded Silurian. These Devonian rocks are seen at Braidwood and Ettrema, folded into huge anticlines and synclines. At Sassafras, horizontal Greta and Upper Marine rocks rest on them. That is the case in the Turpentine Range, Sassafras, the headwaters of the Clyde, Endrick and Danjera rivers. [17]
Still further north, as at Sydney and Maitland, the Permo-Carboniferous is lightly folded, and _ horizontal Triassic caps it. Still further north, on the Macleay and Manning Rivers, the Permo-Carboniferous is greatly folded. After that the intensity of fold movements diminishes progressively as we go north into Southern Queensland.
These facts may be stated in geological parlance in this wey—
Sydney was the centre of a great geosyncline, the Bega-Monaro district and the Macpherson Range were the stable and resistant hinges [13] during all periods up to the Permo-Carboniferous. As sedimentation con- tinued in the New England subsidence area during the Permo-Carboniferous, the uplift of this province took place in the Triassic. During the coalmeasures period, therefore, the centre of the geosyncline was near Sydney. East and west folding has taken place in the same way, Sydney being the centre of the depression. (See Fig. 11).
During the subsequent Triassic period, the Permo- Carboniferous sediments were folded in subsiding areas, and eroded away in other areas.
The synclinal nature of the Sydney basin closed with the Triassic period of sedimentation.
. 166 THE BUILDING NF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Prior to the Permo-Carboniferous, the whole of the East Australian Coast was a synclinal. The formation of the Bega-Monaro ge-anticline commenced in the early Paleozoic, and that of the Macpherson Range commenced in the Permo-Carboniferous.
To make the position clear, we may regard the move- ment along the whole Australian coast as either a move- ment upwards or a sinking.
From the point of view of uplift without tangential pressure, the Kosciusko mass has continuously risen since Ordovician times; proceeding northwards, uplift came later and later, post-Devonian at Narrigundah, post- Carboniferous at Nelligen and Braidwood, post Permo- Carboniferous at Yalwal, Ettrema, etc., post Triassic at Sydney. Inthe country stretching from Armidale on New England tothe mouth of the Macleay and Manning Rivers uplift, accompanied by tangential compression, took place prior to the elevation of the Sydney area, namely in the Triassic period. This uplift was also experienced in Northern New England and the Macpherson Range, but was there only accompanied by tangential pressure in localised subsidence areas.
Compression is, generally speaking, the outcome of subsidence. When subsidence ceases, earth segments rise without being folded. Small areas lagging behind in the general uplift may undergo compression. Viewing the Kast Australian earth movements in the sense of downward movements, we see from the above that the maximum subsidence took place in the New England-Manning belt prior to early Triassic, when elevation commenced in this region.
The Sydney area remained submerged longer—in fact until the Triassic sediments had been laid down, when regional uplift set in; and south of Sydney the cessation of subsidence came earlier and earlier in geological time.
The Macpherson Range became a stable or rising area in late Permo-Cabroniferous.
During Mesozoic times, as well as Tertiary, the general tendency has been towards uplift and tension along the whole east coast of Australia, for the horizontal disposition of a formation of a given geological age may be considered as indicating that subsidence had ceased, or did cease, in
BY A. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 167
that period, though the area may have remained sub- merged for a while after.
Hence I deduce from the horizontal nature of Permo- Carboniferous beds at Mt. Barney [15], that in this period, or just before it, subsidence came to an end in this region ; it does not follow that sedimentation must cease at the same time. It may persist for a whole geological period longer. |
Queensland underwent the same general types of movement as New South Wales during the Palxozoic era. In the early Triassic, the super-elevation of some earth segments, such as New England, caused down warpings of slight amplitude, and in the depressions thus formed were the Triassic and Cretaceous rocks deposited.
CAUSES OF FOLDING.
It has been argued that throughout the Palzozoic periods the ancestral Australian Continent was continually adding to itself on the eastern side. Adopting Kelvin’s hypothesis of the origin of the continents, we may regard this original Australia or Gondwana Land as a floater, that is a portion of the earth’s crust, which consisted of acid magma, and was specifically light, and therefore raised by flotation above the heavier magmas, or buoyed up by the heavier basic magmas beneath. As erosion was con- tinually making it specifically lighter, and the detritus resulting from erosion was being piled up in adjoining seas, the process of erosion had the effect of causing continued elevation of the continental area and subsidence for a long period at least in the adjoining basins.
The elevation of the continental area would cease when the underlying basic portions of the earth’s crust had consolidated and fallen under the influence of secular contraction.
The subsidence of the seabasins would cease when sufficient sediments had been heaped together for the depressed isogeotherms to reassert themselves.
The gradual rise of temperature in this great mass of cool sediments would cause first a general uplift, and, later, if upward expansion did not afford sufficient relief of pressure, folding of the sediments would ensue.
168 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
In this way the great accumulation of sediments round the margin of the old continent would be raised into mountain ranges, the continent advancing a few hundred miles in the direction of the former sea in each geological period.
The sediments of one geological period in this way became raised into a marginal buttress of mountain ranges in the next geological period. These mountain ranges in their turn would become subject to denudation, and the material derived from them would accumulate on the new continental shelf and in the adjoining deep; in its turn this new area of sedimentation would become a continental margin.
This view is opposed to the doctrine of Permanency of Ocean Basins advanced by that eminent geologist, Penck, but it derives strong support from the geological history of Eastern Australia. [For further discussion see 12}.
Ocean basis are subsiding segments of the earth’s crust, whose downward movement is probably due to rigid connection with the shrinking interior of the crust. In their downward sag, these segments sink from levels of lower earth temperature to those of higher temperature, with the result that such segments are fused below, and by reason of their expansion exert a lateral pressure on adjoining segments. In this way is produced a creep in the zone of rock flowage from the subsiding segments towards the rising segments. The displaced magmas become injected into cavities (macule), zones of no strain, and fractures in the continental margins, the rocks in which become heated by the injected magmas and consequently expand. A period of mountain building and folding, due to igneous injection as outlined by Reg. A. Daly [18], may therefore succeed or accompany the uplift and folding, due to rise of isogeotherms.
Mountain building by igneous injection, seems to have gone on extensively in the late Paleozoic and _ early Mesozoic in the New England area of New South Wales.
Folding only takes place in the superficial strata of a rising area (undergoing expansion due to rise of isogeotherms) under particular conditions, namely, when the area is a sunken fault block relatively left behind in the
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 169
general uplift, and so pinched in between two other blocks, and when the area is underlying mountain building by igneous injection.
Thus the elevated Triassic Hawkesbury sandstones of New South Wales are not superficially folded, nor are the Permo-Carboniferous sandstones of the Shoalhaven district (Nowra Grits). There have been no _ abyssal injections of magnitude introduced into them since their deposition. They have never been intruded by granites or diorites, or gabbros. This is also true for the Ipswich Coal Measures in Southern Queensland.
But the Ipswich Coal Measures are locally disturbed to a considerable degree at Ipswich in proximity to a fault which suggests that this portion of the area is a Senkungs- feldt. They are also slightly folded in the D’ Aguilar Range, near the Glass House Mountains, the uplift here having probably igneous injection as the immediate causal agent.
Those portions of a continental margin which have their cracks and macule infilled by magmas creeping along the zone of flowage became cemented together, and persist as land for many periods, while those portions which are not affected by igneous injections are weakened and tend to become downfaulted areas (Senkungsfeldter).
In illustration of this statement, it might be pointed out that the Kosciusko fault block, the Central Tableland, and the Northern Tableland in N.S.W., abound in huge granitic intrusions, as is also the case with the Stanley River block of South Queensland (Woodford Peneplain).
In his presidential address to the Linnean Society this year, Mr. C. Hedley gave further particulars of his view that the Tasman deep is a pressure trough, and endeavoured to show that the physiographic features of New South Wales are due to a pressure emanating from the Tasman deep [19 and 20}.
There is no doubt about the existence of a great fold in the Mesozoic rocks of this part of Australia. The Hawkesbury sandstones and the Nowra Grits have in general a gentle dip towards the sea, and the Peneplains formed by the truncation of the original fold in middle Tertiary times have their eastern margins depressed beneath the sea by a further accentuation of the fold movement.
170 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
But this fold is of such a gentle nature, and the dips produced so slight, that the movement may be more aptly described as Andrews has done as plateau uplift [Andrews, 1].
No superheated magmas have yet worked their way up in these sediments and caused expansion and intense folding, but very late Tertiary faults have produced Senkungsfeldt areas (as described by Sussmilch, 11], some of which may, perhaps, in a future period, become so squeezed as to be intensely folded. Up to the present, the uplift has affected the superficial strata only so far as to produce in them faults and great masterjoints. As shown by Sussmilch (op cit) and T. G. Taylor [21], the direction of the rivers of Southern N.S.W. is induced by these faults, while in the present writer’s opinion, the great canons which dissect the Southern coastal tablelands and Blue Mountains of N.S.W. follow principally great joint cracks of the sandstones. TheSe joint cracks, aS Seen by the writer at Ettrema Canon, often coincide in poSition with Paleozoic faults, and may owe their origin to Slight displacements along these old fault lines. Joints and faults in a homogeneous formation conStitute the lines of weakness, along which streams are able to work down and dissect a plateau.
Folding of a compressive nature in an area like that of the Blue Mountains of N.S.W., is very deepseated, and, in the writer’s opinion, pressure is exerted in the deeper portions of the earth’s crust from the sea, towards the land,. from the great subsiding basin of the Tasman Sea towards. the Continent. In this respect, the writer agrees with Hedley, and disagrees with Andrews, who believes that: the continent exerts a pressure in the direction of the ocean. The contour of the east coast of Australia would seem to lend colour to Andrews’ hypothesis, but, as pointed out by Hedley, in an interesting discussion, the apparent convex curve of the East Australian coast becomes two concave curves if we analyse the soundings in the adjoining Pacific Ocean, for a bar of shallow water runs from Point Danger eastwards in the direction of Fiji.
The deepseated landward pressure in itself largely accounts for the buoying-up of the Continent.
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. 171
THe BREAK-UP OF GONDWANA LAND.—FAULTING.
The coasts of Western Australia, India, Arabia, and East Africa are unmistakably faulted coast lines [Atlantic type, see 12].
Recent faulting is still enlarging the Indian Ocean. Madagascar is a horst, and the Mozambique channel is a Senkungsfeldt, the fault which separated the former from Africa having taken place in Pleistocene times.
The faulting in progress at the present time in the Rift Valley of Africa—a region of great modern earth- quakes—is a later instalment of the same process of disruption.
Gondwana Land existed from the early Paleozoic (Cambrian) to the Permo-Carboniferous as a compact landmass. In the Carboniferous, subsidence areas of the nature of trough-faults had already commenced, and over some of them passed transgressive arms of the sea: thus not only in Africa are almost horizontal Carboniferous marine sediments met with, put in West Australia a long strip, occupying mainly the west coast of modern W.A., was submerged in the Carboniferous, and during part of the Permo-Carboniferous, and again at intervals in the Mesozoic. The land connection between Australia, Africa and Antarctica began to break down during these periods, though island bridges probably remained until the end of the Mesozoic, these accounting for the African affinities of the West Australia flora.
This disruption was, no doubt, due to secular con- traction. The interior of the old Continent became unstable, and was downthrown as soon as the cooling of the deeper portions of the earth’s crust commenced to make them contract. Portions of the upper crust became separated from the cooling, lower portions by the forma- tion of shrinkage cavities (macule), some of which were not reached by igneous invasions from the zone of flowage. Thus the upper shell become unsupported, and fell in. The rim of the old Continent was largely strengthened by igneous injections, and thus escaped the general collapse. In this way the old complex of Western Australia, and that of Western Tasmania consist very largely of igneous materials.
172 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
It has been suggested that in the Permo-Carboniferous and early Mesozoic periods the Continent extended far into the present Pacific Ocean, and may have been con- nected both with Fiji and Antarctica or New Zealand. [22, C. Hedley, A.A.A.S., 1909.]
These extensions have been taken away again by faulting.
It should be here mentioned in explanation of the distinctive nature of the West Australian flora, that although all our late Permian and Mesozoic sediments are of a epi-continental nature that is formed in epi-con- tinental seas, Western Australia had, prior to the Tertiary period, very little land connection with eastern portions of the Continent.
The present appearance of the eastern coast of Australia is in many parts that of a strongly faulted coast- line. As shown by Sussmilch, the Southern Tablelands of N.S.W. [11] constitute a blockfaulted peneplain. I have myself corroborated faulting of this kind by describing instances in the country west of Jervis Bay. [17]
A further and more striking example was seen on a later visit to the Bega district. The Bega coastal district is separated from the Monaro Tableland by a linear though facetted fault -scarp, which has downthrown the eastern block about 1,500 feet relative to the Monaro block. The topography is identical on the coastal plain and Monaro Tableland. This fault scarp runs parallel with the Con- tinental shelf, and it is more than likely that some of our steep declivities on the Continental shelf are similar, but submerged, fault scarps.
E. C. Andrews has given a very complete account of Tertiary faulting [1].
MounTAIN RANGES AND DIRECTION OF FOLDING.
As already stated, Andrews has tegarded the con- vexity of the Australian coast towards the Pacific as evidence of folding towards that deep. The veteran geologist, Suess, has drawn similar conclusions from the curvature of mountain ranges, arguing that the East Asiatic mountain festoons and island festoons indicate folding towards the Pacific. Mr. C. Hedley has argued against this view, and I think with ample justification that fold mountains will tend to form a girdle round buffers or
_ +
‘ BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC, 173
bulwarks in the shape of compact and resisting earth segments, the more pliable rocks being moulded against the resisting object.
There are, no doubt, cases of surface folding, in which the fold movement is exerted from the land in the direction of the sea, as in Fig. 13 (a), where two earth segments, a rising one, A’, and a subsiding one, B1, are in contact. At their junction the beds will be in some cases overfolded towards B?; in some places fractured and overthrust faults may develop. This type of earth structure is in evidence at Penrith, in the Blue Mountains, N.S.W., and in the Main Range; Fassifern district, Q. In such cases, we always have a broken plateau, different parts of which are rising or sub- siding at different rates.
More usually, we have surface folding conforming tothe type illustrated in Fig. 13 (6). A synclinal area under- going expansion B? is folded up against the hard-resisting Paleozoic rocks, A+. It is clear that folding of this kind may form either a concave or convex range in the direction of thrust depending on the configuration of the opposing mass. (See Fig. (6), (c) and (d).)
In my paper on the Geology of the East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts, I presented the view that the folding of the Mesozoic rocks of the D’Aguilar Range and the Blackall Range was caused by pressure from the East. This view I still adhere to, and these ranges have a slight convexity to the Kast. As shown in Fig. 12, the south spur of Mt. Mee has small cappings of Trias-Jura rocks elevated high above the surface of the coastal plain. The pressure from the East must have been rather deep seated, the surface formations being at the time in a state of tension.
In discussing the merits of the theories advanced by Hedley, Andrews and others on the direction of pressure, it is the deepseated and not superficial pressures that count, for as already shown, the surface formations of Eastern Australia have throughout Tertiary times been in a state of tension, and plateau uplift has been the main cause of mountain building. Plateau dissection accounts for the curvature of our ranges.
For this very reason it seems absurd to draw inferences as to the direction of existing and Tertiary pressure dis- tribution from the configuration of existing mountain
174 THE BUILDING OF FKFASTERN AUSTRALIA
ranges: Bends concave to the east occur where areas of soft Mesozoic sediments or Permo-Carboniferous rocks have offered an easy task to the forces of erosion. The ranges consist largely of barriers of hard palzozoic rock, whose directions of folding offer no clue to the tertiary direction of pressure.
It seems, therefore, that in the East Australian area we cannot deduce the direction of earth pressures from either the curvature of mountain ranges or from the fold lines in the Paleozoic rocks, but only from the differential movements of fault blocks.
The existence of the high plateaux along the eastern rim of the Continent seems to the writer evidence for believing that the pressure came from the east. The greatest uplift would be in the blocks in closest proximity to the source of pressure. Experimentally this may be verified by pushing a piece of paper away from you while the other end of the paper is clamped under your inkpot. At first it will fold upwards at the end from which the thrust is exerted, then another fold appears near the object offering resistence to the thrust and finally the whole sheet is uplifted. If you try to fold a slightly elastic yet brittle object in the same way, it will fracture before the first fold (that near the source of thrust) is complete. Con- sequently the block faulting in Eastern Australia, along the Pacific rim, is further evidence for deepseated pres- sure from the Kast.
Where least resistance was offered to the thrust by Paleozoic massives, the main uplift was further from the source of pressure. This will account for the wide expanse of lowland country between the Darling Downs and Moreton Bay.
The writer is, therefore, not in agreement with Mr. Andrews’ deductions regarding lines of pressure. Prob- ably his lines of pressure from the Southern Ocean towards the interior of Australia are correct, but his lines of pressure from Eastern Australia towards the Tasman Sea should probably be reversed. [23]
In 1802 [23], Andrews attributed the rugged nature of the North Queensland coast to recent faulting. In the writer’s opinion, this view is corroborated by the fact that the Barrier line of reef is separated from the coast
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 175
by deep water, and not by a sea of coral islands. This implies fast movement such as would be produced by fault- ing. If the movement had been slow the corals would have been able to keep building up at the same pace as the the downward sag, and islands would be scattered through the whole expanse between the reef and the mainland.
Fig. 13 gives the writer’s idea of this block. In it we have a repetition of the processes which build up mountain folds and caused the gradual easterly aggrandise- ment of Gondwana land.
In North Queensland, in the Tertiary period, a plateau uplift gave rise to a plain extending as far as the present Barrier Reef. This plain was faulted, and the seaward portion sagged downward. During this process, volcanic extravasation took place. The subsiding block is getting heavily sedimented, and its western portions are at the same time having their isogeotherms raised by the intrusion of basic magmas as indicated by the recent basalt flows and hot springs of N.Q. The conditions are, therefore, favour- able to the productions of great folds in this block, which in due course will become uplifted and a part of the con- tinent. The down movement of the block will continue until rise of isogeotherms in the sediments is able to over- come the pressure of the sediments.
It strikes the student of geology that folding move- ments were more intense in the Paleozoic periods than later in the earth’s history. This, if so, would seem to corroborate Kelvin’s theory of the origin of the earth, for it would indicate that in the Paleozoic, the earth’s crust was more plastic and the zone of flowage nearer to the surface than at present.
VULCANICITY AND PETROLOGY.
The petrology of the sedimentary rocks of each of the great Palzozoic periods is naturally very similar through- out Eastern Australia. Though similar rocks are not always contemporaneous, and sometimes one series, some- times another, is missing in various parts of the continent, still a general resemblance exists between the sedimentary formations of each period for all parts on the same belt of sedimentation, and this lithological similarity can often be verified by the discovery of fossils.
176 THE BUIEDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
As there was a steady displacement of the shoreline in an easterly direction, we should expect the more easterly portions of Eastern Australia to have deep sea deposits, characterising the early Paleozoic and shallow sea deposits typical of late Paleozoic. The late Paleozoic rocks of the eastern part of N.S. Wales and Queensland should, therefore, be lithologically similar to the Cambrian of Central Australia ; thus, conglomerates formed a dominant series in the Cambrian of South Australia and Western N.S. Wales, and conglomerates are typical of Permo- Carboniferous and Carboniferous in more eastlying parts.
Volcanic rocks because of their want of fossils are more difficult to study, but their study also leads to important deductions.
It appears that intermediate igneous rocks, that is to say, those which are allied to diorite and andesite in magmatic character, are characteristic of any era of subsidence. We see such rocks at the present day extruded from the active volcanoes of the New Hebrides, the Tongan Islands and the Kermadecs in the great Pacific subsidence area. Rhyolites and Granites are more typical of an era of quiet uplift and of mountain building by rise of isogeotherms. Alkaline rocks, both basic and acid, are typical of a period of general uplift accompanied by faulting and Senkungsfeldt formation over portions of the area. Basic lavas belong chiefly to periods of plateau uplift. To illustrate by modern examples—we have in the North Island of New Zealand, an area of post-tertiary elevation, where many volcanoes are even to-day disseminating acid lavas. Alkaline rocks are poured out by the Antarctic active volcanoes on the troughfaulted perimeter of a plateau which has undergone very recent uplifts. [24] We have them under similar conditions in Italy and East Africa.
Basalts of an alkaline facies are to-day emitted from the volcanoes of Tonga and Samoa, in which there is probably a present tendency to general uplift, but calcic and magnesic basalts are often poured over subsidence areas in the period preceding their re-elevation.
Let us now consider igneous action in the history of Australia, investigating period; after period, commencing with the Cambrian..-
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 177
CAMBRIAN.
Acidic igneous rocks supposed to be of this age exist in Western and Central Australia. Similar rocks were not intruded in Eastern Australia till many periods later. They belong mainly to the Upper Silurian period in Central New South Wales, to the Carboniferous in Eastern New South Wales, south of the Sydney basin, and in part at least to the late Permo-Carboniferous or early Mesozoic in New England and Southern Queensland.
ORDOVICIAN.
In Victoria, Professor Skeats [25] has referred the Heathcotian Series to this period. The igneous rocks of this series were of an intermediate to basic nature, and chemically rich in magnesia. From this, one would expect the Victorian area to have been undergoing subsidence during Ordovician times. The evidence of the associated sediments confirm such a_ supposition.
In Central New South Wales we have contemporane- ously interbedded andesites in the Ordovician near Orange, Forbes and Mandurama. Here, too, the sedimentary rocks would seem to indicate a period of subsidence.
Upper SILURIAN.
In Victoria some of the Snowy River porphyries and felsites (all very acid rocks) may belong to this period.
In New South Wales we have acid submarine tufts of this age at Wellington, and banded rhyolites and dacite tuffs at Yass.
The sedimentary rocks of the Upper Silurian in Victoria and Central New South Wales show that a shallowing of the sea had commenced.
In North Queensland too, in the Chillagoe district, we have granites and felsites of this age.
In the New England district and the north coast of N.S. Wales, where subsidence was still in progress, the intrusive rocks being dioritic (blue) granites.
DEVONIAN.
Professor Skeats has demonstrated that some of the Snowy River porphyry series of Victoria were erupted in the Devonian.
Many granite intrusions in N.S. Wales are supposed to be of this age, to which, as well, the Snowy River porphyries of N.S. Wales are referred.
178 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Professor Skeats has assigned to the Lower Devonian, the dacite and quartz porphyrite series of Dandenong Hills ; to the Middle Devonian, the felsite series of Buchan.
Upper PALZXOZOIC.
To the Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous, Professor Skeats has assigned great areas of rhyolite, quartz porphyry and basalt at Mount Wellington, and in the
Grampians. [25]
Many of the N.S. Wales granite intrusions have been referred to the Devonian, as have also many of the granites of Southern Queensland.
By far the most of the granites of N.S. Wales are con- nected with the folding of the Devonian beds, and took place prior to the deposition of the Upper Marine. The granites of Yalwal, Sassafras, Narriga, Moruya, Moonbi Ranges and many more, have proved to be post-Devonian and pre-Greta, and the probability is that they are all of Carboniferous age.
Carboniferous rhyolites occur associated with con- glomerate formation to the west of the New England, in the Nandewar Range.
Melaphyres (basaltic) were at this time poured out in the Avon River district of Victoria.
The north-eastern portions of New South Wales were still subsiding under a load of sediments, and the andesitic eruptions of the Clarence town series were extruded over the Stroud district and eastern New England.
In the Permo-Carboniferous period, the south coast district of N.S. Wales was subjected to eruptions of Alkaline, sub-alkaline and basic rocks. [26] These eruptions initiated the period of uplift.
MESOZOIC.
The chocolate shales of the Narrabeen series contain volcanic minerals, and are probably to a great extent of tuffaceous origin.
Generally speaking, the Mesozoic period was in Eastern Australia notable for the rareness of indications of volcanic action.
Some of the acid granites of the New England may perhaps be of late Permo-Carb. or of early Mesozoic age.
Some of the upper beds of the Clarence (Ipswich) Series seem to have been tufis.
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 179
Marks has demonstrated the existence of dolerites of Triassic age in more or less isolated patches of the Ipswich coalfield. [27] Further, we have the period of Trias Jura sedimentation in Southern Queensland ushered in by eruptions of felsite (Brisbane tuffs), dacite, quartz porphyry and andesite (Eumundi series).
Yet Mesozoic eruptions were extremely localised. Volcanic debris or lava is seldom met within boring in Trias Jura or Hawkesbury formations.
It was only in the late Cretaceous that vulcanicity became more intense, as evidenced by tuffy material in the Desert Sandstone, the trachytic tuffs in the Upper Cretaceous of the Mackay district (Q.). [For references see 9 and 12.]
It has only been shown that in the areas distinguished by Alkaline eruptives in Tertiary time, monchiquites, essexites, picrites and teschenites were erupted during late Mesozoic times [12]; the Alkaline rock being frequently preceded by ultrabasic eruptions which were separated from the main period of Alkatine effusions by a short period of erosion.
In Tasmania the Mesozoic, or at ail events a portion of it, probably the Jurassic, was characterised by extensive volcanic extravasation. The great diabase sills of that State are usually assigned to the Jurassic.
TERTIARY VULCANICITY.
The absence, except in very few cases of fossiliferous aqueous rocks in the regions of tertiary volcanic action, makes it extremely difficult to assign exact ages to Tertiary igneous rocks.
The Kainozoic eruptions may be roughly divided into the Older Basalts, the Alkaline Rocks and the Newer Basalts.
(A) THe OLDER Basatts. In many cases the exact ages of these rocks cannot be determined on stratigraphical evidence. In some cases an age can be assigned to them on physiographic evidence.
E. C. Andrews [1] states that the Leads of the «“Qlder Volcanics” are characterised by the presence of abundant plant leaves, lauraceous types predominating. Fruits and seeds, he says, are characteristically absent.
Their geographic position is above the level of the
D
180 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
great Tertiary peneplain of Eastern Australia, this pene- plain having been excavated out of ‘ Older Volcanics,’’ palzozoic and mesozoic rocks indifferently. They, there- fore, lie on basalt capped hills dotting the peneplain.
As examples, Andrews mentions Dargo High Plains, Vic. ; Kiandra, Older Macquarie and Hawkesbury Leads [Mount King George (?), Bald Hills, Hill End, etc.], Older Tingha and Emmaville Leads (N.S.W.)
Skeats [25] describes numerous occurrences of Older Volcanics in Eastern Victoria. According to this author older basalts are not petrologically distinguishable from the newer, except by their finer grainsize and greater _ decomposition.
In New South Wales, the basalt of the Sydney basin, found in dykes around Sydney, as necks at Hornsby, Pros- pect, Minchinbury, Dundas, etc., and as more extensive cappings on Mount Hay, Mt. Tomah, and Mount King George in the Blue Mountains, are in part referable to this series. These basalts have decidedly alkaline affinities, contain- ing variously sodalite, analcite and hauyne.
The Orange basalts underlying the alkaline pile of the Canoblas must also be put in this class. They were erroneously mapped by Mr. Sussmilch and myself as later than the alkaline eruptions, but Mr. E. C. Andrews dis- covered, by physiographic methods, that we must have made a mistake, which was confirmed by Messrs. Andrews and Sussmilch in subsequent studies in the field. These basalts are in some instances characterised by the presence of melilite and fayalite. Probably the melilite basalts and the tufis of Hobart and the Alkaline basalts of Shannon Tier, Tasmania, are roughly contemporaneous.
It has been demonstrated by Andrews [1], that many of the New England basalts and much of the Darling Downs basalts of Queensland belong to the Older Volcanics. Mr. R. A. Wearne, B.A., and the writer have also seen evidence in the Fassifern district of extensive intrusives of basic magma in very late Mesozoic, or more probably Early Tertiary time, before the Alkaline rocks of that dis- trict were poured out.
The Rhyolites of the Macpherson Ranges, between Queensland and New South Wales, antedate in part at least the extrusion of the Alkaline rocks. [15] From
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 181
physiographic considerations it seems likely that an early Tertiary age must be assigned to them.
(B). THE ALKALINE Rocks. [29] It is quite possible that the lavas of this series were in part at least contem- poraneous with the Older Volcanics. Although petro- logical analogies have tempted the writer in the past to consider all the Alkaline rocks of Eastern Australia to be of identical age, their more detailed physiographic study renders this view questionable.
Alkaline rocks of Tertiary age exist in Victoria, at Mount Macedon, and detailed investigations in this important type district have led Skeats to the conclusion that their age is Middle Tertiary. They are certainly mountains of accumulation and not residules.
In Queensland, the writer has investigated the Glass House Mountains and the Yandina district volcanoes, all of which have been satisfactorily shown to be true mountains of accumulation. Their age, probably, ante- dates the formation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain, which is represented, in this district by the Woodford peneplain, for although dykes of alkaline rocks occur on the peneplain surface, no true lavas and tufis of an alkaline nature have been detected on this level. A monoclinal fold, along the D’Aguilar and Blackall Ranges, broken by occasional faults, has depressed the coastal region so as to preserve it in the volcanic representatives of the alkaline rocks. This fold must have been forming at the time when the alkaline rocks were erupted, and if some of these eruptions were not actually submarine, as maintained by J. Malcolm Newman, B.E., there can be little doubt that the whole present broad coastal belt was submerged in late Tertiary times, and has only recently been re-elevated. The late uplift can date back only to the Pleistocene, as far as can be judged by the evidence of the marine shells of the raised beach deposits.
The Mount Flinders and Fassifern Alkaline rocks, studied by Mr. Wearne and myself, are probably also in part of early Tertiary age, slightly antedating the for- mation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain. There is, however, strong evidence that in this region the eruptions lasted long enough to leave some of their accumulations on the peneplain surface. They were, therefore, partly of Middle
182 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Tertiary age. In this case, as in that of the Glass House region, a monoclinal fold accompanied by _ extensive fractures was produced in the Main Range, parallel to, and in part, along the line of igneous activity after the period of vulcanicity.
The Nandewars, the Warrumbungles, and the Canoblas in New South Wales, are probably also of Lower-Middle Tertiary age, though the Canoblas appear rather younger than the others. These mountains post-date the formation a peneplain carved in the Nandewars out of Palzozoic and Trias Jura rocks, in the Warrumbungles out of the Trias Jura rocks, and in the Canoblas out of the metamorphic rocks and Older Volcanics. The peneplain was under- going re-elevation at the time of the eruptions, for both in the Nandewars and in the Warrumbungles, the volcanic ejacamenta frequently infill erosion hollows in the pene- plain surface. The age of this peneplain was probably Late Cretaceous or Lower Tertiary age, like the Mole peneplain; there being no indications in these regions of an older peneplain surface, the writer has always hesitated to consider this peneplain the equivalent of the Stannifer (Miocene). If the writer is right in this interpretation, it follows that during the great early Tertiary elevation of New England and Middle Tertiary peneplanation, these volcanic groups escaped wholesale degradation by being situated in the Central Australian trough, which was a local baselevel (probably largely lacustrine, as hinted by abundant gypsum deposits in the west), for the erosion of regions which participated in the Pliocene uplift.
The fossil leaves collected in the Warrumbungle tuffs by the writer are most closely allied to those of the Older Voleanics.
Andrews has suggested to the writer that more or less dissected peneplain underlying the volcanic pile of the Warrumbungles is the equivalent of the Stannifer. This view would place a post Miocene age on the volcanic rocks, and assign them to the newer volcanics. Fossil evidence, as well as. physiographic, discountenance this view.
The alkaline rocks of the Mittagong district, N.S.W. [30], and the tinguaites of Kosiusko [31], and of Barrigan [12]. are probably of an early Tertiary age.
BY H. I. JENSEN, DSC. 183:
Tor NEWER VOLCANIC.
The rocks are mainly basalé of a more or less por- phyritic nature. They cover enormous areas of Eastern Australia. In age they postdate the formation of the Middle Tertiary peneplain, and the eruptions were in progress during the great Pliocene uplift. The leads of newer volcanics are consequently buried channels below the peneplain level or resting immediately upon it: their fossil contents are characterised by an abundance of fruits and seeds similar -to those of tropical Australia to-day. Lauraceous types are characteristically absent.
The whole of the extensive basaltic plain of Western Victoria, and many areas in Eastern Victoria belong to the Newer Basalts. In this state eruptive activity con- tinued, as inthe Mount Gambier District of South Australia, into late Pleistocene and recent times. Remains of the Dingo (an animal presumed to have been introduced by man) have been found in the tuff.
On the Monaro in N.S. Wales andin the New Englaud extensive eruptions took place in late Pliocene or early Pleistocene. Most of the Darling Downs basalts were probably erupted at the same time. At the same time extensive sheets were poured out in North Queensland (as at Cairns, Atherton, Geraldton, &c.).
Pleistocene and recent erosion has only had time to slightly modify the original surface. There has been no peneplain formed since these volcanic extravasations. The very level nature of the Darling Downs, and of the tableland on the Blackall Range and of the tablelands on similar ranges is due to the fact that the lavas flowed over a peneplain surface only, slightly dissected, and being of a liquid nature, the lava outpourings made a level surface. The eruptions were dominantly fissure eruptions.
Early Tertiary peneplanation was followed by the eruption of the Older Basalts, which usually cap deep leads of this age.
THE VALUABLE MINERALS OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA.
Closely connected with the petrology of our continent is the study of our mineral deposits of economic value. The genesis of ore deposits is also intimately bound up with structural geology.
‘184 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
It is convenient to consider separately the groups of non-metallic minerals and metallic minerals or ores.
I. Non-MeEtTAuuic MINERALS.
The principal non-metallic mineral is coal. Of less importance are oil shale, phosphatic rock, opal, diatomaceous earth and graphite.
(a.) The occurrence of coal depends on the burial in some bygone epoch of the requisite thickness of plant re- mains, considerable subsidence following so as to allow a great thickness of sediments to accumulate on top of the seam. Under these conditions, the weight of the superincumbent strata, together with the heat appertaining to the depth to which the organic bed was depressed, have produced the necessary pressure and heat to compact and dehydrate the deposit.
Folding and metamorphism in the zone of flowage have not affected the coalfields, for these processes or even a moderate amount of igneous intrusion would com- pletely turn coal into graphite. The moderate folding and the measure of igneous intrusion that have affected the Gympie goldfield, have turned several coal seams into plumbago, which, as is well known, occurs interbedded with Pheenix slates.
Faulting, especially block or trough faulting, is the process most frequently leaving its mark in the coal measures.
Coal occurs in Eastern Australia in the Permo-Carbon- iferous (Newcastle and Wlawarra districts of .N.S.W.; Bowen, Little River, Oakey Ck. and Dawson River in Q.) ; in the Triassic (in the Ipswich and Barrum districts of Q., the Clarence district of N.S.W., and in the Otway and Wannon and Gippsland districts of Vic.; Leigh’s Ck., S.A.; Fingal and Jerusalem, Tas.) ; and in the Tertiary rocks we have hydrous coals, the best of which are the lignites of Morwell, Vic. There are numerous other localities of considerable economic importance, but the main point for us to recollect that vast areas of Eastern Australia represented by our coalfields have undergone no con- tortion since the deposition of the coal. The western half of the Australian continent has been free from such forces even longer. Indeed there is no reason why Carboniferous and Devonian coals should not be found in Western Aus- tralia.
BY H, I. JENSEN, D.SC. 185
The Australian coalfields were probably in most cases formed by the decay of plant life in swampy freshwater areas.
There is strong evidence that considerable plant life, sufficient to give thick coal deposits, existed in parts of Eastern Australia, as far back as the Silurian period ; but the deposits then formed have been changed to graphite by subsequent regional metamorphism.
The writer had occasion some time ago to visit a deserted turquoise mine, near Bodalla, on the South Coast of N.S.W. He observed that the turquoise (AIPO,:Al (HO),+H,0), existed in the form of small segregations, together with pyrites in a graphite bed, associated with quartzites above, and black slate below, of Silurian age. The copper and iron (in part) had evidently been introduced during the metamorphic processes, and the former had chemically combined with the phosphoric acid present in the organic matter, which probably was a coal bed at the time. The same metamorphic processes that produced the mineralisation changed the coal to graphite.
The association of the graphite with quartzite, like coal with sandstone, renders it more probable that the carboniferous matter was of plant, than of graptolitic origin.
(b.) Oil Shale. In N.S.W., the chief oil shale deposits consist of algal remains [32] (Reinschia Australis), and were probably a freshwater deposit.
The Tasmanian ‘‘tasmanite ” deposits are supposed to have formed in salt or brackish water.
The conditions for the preservation of oil shales are the same as for coal.
Petroleum oils have not yet been tapped in Australia, but there are strong possibilities that such will yet be found.
The conditions for the formation of petroleum oils are (a) the existence of beds of coal, oil shale or other organic remains ; (b) regional metamorphism of just sufficient intensity to give rise to folds and suff.cient heat to sublime the oils into the anticlinal maculae, or (c) volcanic intrusions causing the distillation of organic rocks.
In south-eastern Queensland oil may yet be found in the Triassic Walloon coal measures under the Birnam
186 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Range, in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks at a depth under the Eastern Darling Downs, and in the Triassic rocks of the Kast Moreton and Wide Bay districts. _
In New South Wales the Carboniferous and Permo- Carboniferous rocks of the Stroud and Taree districts offer most promise.
(c.) Opal, being a product of mineral spring action, has no great geological importance, so will be dismissed in this paper.
(d.) Phosphatic rocks have been discussed in another paper by the writer. (These preceedings, 1909.)
(e.) Diatomaceous earth of ecohomic value occurs chiefly in direct association with our late Tertiary basalts. It is a deposit formed of the test of organisms which lived in siliceous hot springs. The writer has had excellent opportunities to verify this by his studies in the Warrum- bungle Mountains, where petrified wood and hyalite (water opal) are invariably associated with the rocks surrounding the diatomaceous earths.
Il. Orgs.
The following points are of importance in connectio with the study of our ore deposits : —
1. Mineral lodes are mainly confined to folded areas. This is why coal and gold are seldom found together.
2. The minerals were introduced during a period of igneous intrusion.
3. The intrusions take place chiefly in the portions of the folded earth segment, which are most remote from the source of the folding force.
4. Well defined fissure lodes have the same general direction as the trend lines of folding in the same regions. In the immediate proximity of great igneous intrusions, they may take varied directions, diverging from the intrusion. (See L. K. Ward, ‘‘ Geology of the Heemskirk Massive,” A.A.A.S., 1911, Sydney.)
5. The direction of the zone of mineralisation is that of the fold lines and major faults.
Considering Australian ore deposits, it is interesting to note that in the eastern half of the continent, most were formed during the great abyssal injections of the Carbon- iferous and early Mesozoic periods.
{ BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 187
To the Carboniferous belong the Tasmanian ore deposits ; the Victorian goldfields ; the Yalwal, Braidwood, and other southern goldfields of N.S.W.; the Moruya, Ettrema and Colerado mineral fields of the south coast of N.S.W.; the Grafton Copper Mine (?), Cloncurry, Chil- lagoe, the Etheridge, Hodgkinson, Palmer and ‘“ Towers ”’ fields.
To the early Mesozoic period belong the ore deposits of Gympie, Q., and most of the New England deposits.
The deep leads of Eastern Australia show us that it was not until the early Tertiary uplifts that the con- tinent was sufficiently dissected for the reefs to shed their gold on the surface.
In Western Australia, the igneous injections giving rise to ore bodies were of very early Paleozoic age. Con- sequently there are sedimentary rocks as old as Cambrian in W.A. with alluvial gold. The silver lead deposits of Broken Hill also belong to an earlier era than those of Eastern Australia.
Certain facts in connection with ore deposits in Australia are of interest without being quite apropos in this paper, such as:
1. The association of complex ore (lead, zinc, copper, silver, arsenic) with limestone as at Mungana, Q., Ettrema, &c., N.S.W., and with garnet rock (metamorphosed limestone), at Broken Hill.
2. The possibility that Gympie gold is due to chemical precipitation of gold in magmatic water, by the carbon- aceous Phoenix slates and graphite beds; that Chillagoe is a contact deposit ; that the Towers gold is probably due to physical changes undergone by magmatic waters, &c.
BriEF REVIEW OF THE TERTIARY.
K. C. Andrews in his “ Tertiary History of New Eng- land,’’ and inthe “ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia,’ has given a very detailed and complete history of the Tertiary, and full description of the processes whereby land and sea forms were shaped. No complete description will, therefore, be essayed here.
It is sufficient to say that most Australian geologists are converging to the belief that there are definitely two Tertiary peneplains represented in our scenery.
188 THE BUILDING OF FASTERN AUSTRALIA
The first existed in early Eocene times, during which a warm climate existed throughout Australia.
The Cretaceous sea had vanished, all but a gulf extend- ing over Western Victoria and Riverina. (7g. 10.) . The Central Sea had become silted up or slightly elevated, so that a desert or a series of salt lakes resulted. There were no mountains in Australia, for all elevations had been base levelled during the Cretaceous period of sedimentation. In the waters, about Table Cape, Tasmania, the fora- minifera exhibited tropical affinities, and resembled those now found around Torres Straits. The plant life was of a tropical or semi-tropical character, as shown by their remains in the older leads, and _ so essentially similar a flora existed throughout the eastern part of the continent that it is safe to suppose that geographical barriers, such as high mountains or deserts, were not in existence.
Then followed the early Tertiary uplift which affected the whole rim of the continent. The more central portions of Australia participated only to a minor extent.
A long period of stability then came, during whic the uplifted peneplain was dissected and worn down ag to the form of a peneplain. This stage was reached pro- bably in the Miocene.
Then followed an other great uplift, probably Pliocene, and at the same time were erupted the Newer Basalts.
The period of the Newer Basalts was probably very wet, and the Australian interior was experiencing a wet climate at the same time, and during most of the Fleistocene period as well. As evidence of the lacustrine state of the interior during late Tertiary and Fost-Tertiary times, one might quote the widespread existence of gypsum deposits formed in former lakes, and the great extents of Black Soil Plain, which were formed largely from volcanic detritus, carried down by mightier streams than those which hold sway to-day.
Following the Pliocene uplift and the great basic outpourings of lava, came a period of contracting, fractur- ing and block-faulting of the surface strata of the earth’s crust in the newly uplifted regions. Numerous downthrows (senkungsfeldter) occured as a result. The block-faulting in the southern tablelands of N.S.W. has been ably de- scribed by Sussmilch [11], a long list of probable faults
BY H. I, JENSEN, D.SC. 189
belonging to this late geological age has been prepared by Mr. E. €. Andrews. [1]
: It is the writer’s opinion, as enunciated in’ one of his papers [29 (a)], that an arid climate was experienced in Central Australia, immediately after the uplift of the Cretaceous basin in the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary times. During most of the Tertiary period, however, conditions were extremely wet, a fact borne of it by the sedimentary banding of clays and sands of fluviatile and lacustrine deposition, under the great Red Soil Plain, as well as by the Black Soil Plains and gypsum beds. The writer has had an opportunity to study these deposits at Nyngan, on the eastern flank of the Cobar massive, as well as on the western slopes of the Warrumbungles.
The cause of the aridity of the Cretaceo- Eocene and the present periods is undoubtedly, in part, a geographic one, connected with the uplift of a girdle of tablelands round the margin of the continent at the end of the Mesozoic, and again at the close of the Tertiary period. Partly, too, the cause is meteorological. During the two arid periods, the climate of the Australian zone has been dominated by entirely different atmospheric movements to those prevailing in the Middle Tertiary. As shown in a paper by the present writer to this Society, it is likely that this wet period and the Pleistocene glaciation of Kosciusko was, in all probability, a cosmic one, the nature of which is still doubtful, though it must be admitted that peculi- arities in physical geography alone could have ogee about the result.
The effect of Tertiary changes on the life of this con- tinent have been most pronounced.
The disappearance of the Cretaceous basin caused a migration of those hardy forms of plant life, which had developed on the barren soils of Western Australia into the Eastern parts, where they expelled and subdued the Indo-Malaysian type of flora. The latter has only succeeded in maintaining its predominance on rich scrub soil in leached basalt and alluvial areas.
The invaders probably consisted of eucalyptus, casuarine, acacias, proteaceous plants, zamias, and epac- ridee. The eucalyptus may possibly have originated in south-eastern Australia, and this may also be the case
190 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
with the casuarine, but the others are almost certainly invaders from the west.
The plants which they drove back were largely lauracee,, as is well demonstrated by the fossil leaves of the older deep leads and the trachytic tuffs of the Warrumbungles.
The grasses now dominant in Eastern Australia pro- bably also originated in the west, especially those of the interior.
The wet climate of the Middle Tertiary drove the arid climate plants, which had established themselves over the raised Cretaceous basin, into the Eastern coastal regions, while tuft grasses, similar to those of the Plains of Promise, took possession of the drier parts of the interior.
The re-elevation of the coastal rim, with the restoration of arid conditions on the inland plains, brought victory to the saltbush and similar orders, and caused a return to some extent of the eastern flora.
Messrs. R. H. Cambage, F.L.S., and E. C. Andrews, B.A... F.G.S., are at present carrying on the interesting and im- portant work of tracing the descent of Australian forest timbers, and investigating what geologic and _ physio- graphic causes brought about the specific differences now obtaining between the trees of different parts.
Late Pliocene uplift led to the creation of three climates.. / (1) coastal, moist and warm ; (2) tableland, cool and moder-
ately dry; (3) inland plains, dry and with seasonal extremes of temperature. This movement, according to Cambage and Andrews, caused a differentiation of our trees into three groups. Each genus developed species suited. for each of these climatic zones. Pleistocene faulting, according to the same authors, separated still further members of the same group in such a way that further specific differences arose. In other cases faulting allowed an intermingling of coastal and inland types, as was the case on the Cassilis geocol [33], where the western flora mingles with that typical of the Hunter River Valley.
The work of Mr. Cambage promises to cast considerable illumination on obscure problems of Tertiary geology, thus he shows, from the distribution of the Casuarine, that a portion of south-eastern Australia must have been lost by faulting in post-Tertiary times.
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 191
Mr. C. Hedley and others are carrying on similar work with regard to zoological distribution. Mr. Hedley main- tains that in the Middle Tertiary, when a wide peneplain covered Eastern Australia and a lacustrine region occupied
_ the interior, the giant marsupials, known from our newer
' leads and bone beds, roamed far and wide, and fed on the
plenteous herbage produced by the moist climate.
The elevation of the tablelands decimated them, for the lacustrine interior became an arid plain on which they died out of starvation, the table lands were too cold and did not produce the proper herbage for these huge animals. The great basaltic extravasation caused further destruction to them, and the surviving remnant was slaughtered by the blacks.
An interesting effect of the basaltic outpourings on the temperate tablelands of Eastern Australia was the destruction of the Eucalyptus flora, and the failure of that flora to reassert itself. In coastal regions, basalt country in the state of nature soon becomes covered with scrub, as we call tropical moist climate jungles. Given good soil, this flora can hold its own against the hardy typical Australian flora. But on the tablelands the climate is
‘too dry and cool for tropical jungle ; and inland the climate
is also too dry and extreme, so that basalt flows in these regions never become scrub covered. [35] The basalt
lands therefore remain treeless plains, for the Eucalyptus and Acacia groups requires a loose loamy soil, but our
basalt soils are heavy, and shrink on drying. The cracking
-of basalt soils may be the cause of a normal tree growth
failing to assert itself, and young trees having their roots
torn by the cracking of the soil. Again, it is possible
that the black colour and high lime content of black soil may have some inhibitory effect on the germination of seeds of plants typical of poorer country. This latter
problem has never been investigated.
Some of the Tertiary changes of geography of Australia must have been witnessed by the aborigines.
In Victoria, and in the Mount Gambier district of South Australia, basaltic volcanoes were in active eruption when the Australian aborigines and their dingoes were in possession.
192 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
The faulting down of Bass Strait saved a remnant of the original inhabitants of Australia (the Tasmanian aborigines) from utter destruction by the invading Australian aborigines.
Torres Strait was probably also formed during the occupancy of Australia by the blacks.
STREAM DIRECTIONS.
Great changes in the drainage systems of Australia. resulted from the Pliocene uplift. Andrews has shown that some streams cut down rapidly enough to keep pace with the uplift. He quotes the Hawkesbury River as an instance. Other rivers were diverted from their courses.
The parallelism of many rivers with the coast has given rise to much controversy and speculation. Hedley [19 and 20] sees in it evidence of a great fold rolling in on Australia from the Pacific. Andrews is inclined rather to consider these remarkable streams due to faulting.
[36] Woolnough and Taylor have suggested that the Hawkesbury (Wollondilly) formerly tapped the Shoalhaven, Tuross and other south-coast rivers. But this great Wollondilly river was beheaded by coastal streams which were rapidiy cutting back in a westeriy direction. These streams having a steep fall to the sea carved canons rapidly, whereas the sluggish Wollondilly cut down but loa and fell an easy prey to piracy.
The writer [13] has shown that the Upper Mary River (rising in the Conandale and Yabba Ranges), Queensland, was once part of the Maroochy River, flowing through the Eumundi Gap, in the Blackall Range. Here, undoubtedly, the uplift of the coastal plain of East Moreton has tended to aid a capture of consequent by subsequent streams.
In New South Wales, where the reverse has taken place, we must look for a different cause for the parallelism of the early streams with the coast. To the writer, the most reasonable explanation seems as _ follows :—The elevation of the Miocene peneplain carved in Permo-Carbon- iferous and Mesozoic sandstone gave rise to the production of cracks and joints in the sandstone. The major lines of weakness thus formed followed the structural directions of the subjacent old rocks. Master joints in the sand- stones closely followed fault lives, anticlinal axes and similar structural lines of the older rocks. Along such cracks
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 193
the earliest streams took their courses, and as elevation progressed, they often worked down through the sand- stones into the folded formations, where their tendency to follow structural lines would be accelerated.
Our inland areas not having undergone much vertical movement in the Tertiary, possess very old streams, many of which probably date back to the Eocene.
The Namoi and its tributaries are very old subsequent streams. The Castlereagh is younger, for its original course was filled up by the volcanic pile of the Warrumbungle Mountains, and the river had to wander round this group in a spiral.
PRESENT Day MOVEMENTS.
Only a few salient points will be mentioned. C. Hedley and T. G. Taylor [37] have demonstrated that the east coast of Australia is in the main subsiding, as shown by the existence of the Barrier Reef and numerous drowned River valleys. David and Halligan [38] have proved a coastal subsidence of over 100 feet in post-Tertiary times for the Port Jackson, Hawkesbury and Hunter River inlets. Andrews [77] has shown that a slight elevatory movement followed in extremely recent times. The writer has proved [13] that the coasts of Moreton Bay are being slowly uplifted, and this holds true for all the coast line, from Point Danger to Great Sandy Island.
The Victorian coast line is subsiding from Cape Howe to Cape Otway. That of Western Australia is undergoing elevation.
Faulting is still in progress in the regions round the Gulf of St. Vincent, South Australia, as shown by frequent earthquakes in that region.
ARTESIAN WATER.
Of all Australian geological questions, none are so interesting and valuable as those connected with the origin and distribution of Artesian Water. In Eastern Australia, Artesian Water is confined to formations later than the Permian. In Western Australia it has been obtained in rocks as old as Cambrian, and large supplies exist in the Carboniferous of the Gascoyne River district.
The fact is pretty well established that one of the essentials for the existence of Artesian Water is a pervious
194 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
stratum of rock lying between two impervious strata. It is also established that formations pervious enough to become artesian beds have never been strongly compressed by earth movements or regional metamorphism. They have been areas of tensional strain and fracture since the artesian beds were laid down, for which reason they in most cases signify that elevation relative to adjoining seg- ments of the earth’s crust, has been the dominant earth movement.
In Eastern Australia Artesian Water may be found in the Triassic (as in New South Wales, see Pittman) [39], and in the Cretaceous (see Jack and Etheridge, Geology of Queensland.) ‘Tertiary formations may also contain Artesian (subartesian) Water, as in the Riverina and parts of Victoria.
Two theories as to the origin of the Australian Artesian Water beds have been advanced, neither of which has been properly established.
The one school of geologists, supported by Pittman and David, believe in the meteoric origin. They believe that the pervious beds are continuous over vast areas, and have outcrops on the surface near the edge of the artesian basin, at which outcrops water is taken in from streams that cross them. Water then rises in the bores by hydrostatic pressure. The comparative freshness of the water is supposed to be due to its having outlets to the sea in the Gulf of Carpentaria and Great Australian Bight. This view receives some support from the rapid dwindling of Queensland rivers which cross the Blythesdale Bray- stone (Cret.) in Queensland; from a similar disappearance of the streams that enter the Pilliga Scrub from the Warrumbungle Mountains, in N.S.W.; from the drying- up of the Castlereagh River, west of Mundooran, and many other such occurrences.
The other school follow, Professor Gregory [40], in believing that the water is nascent plutonic water, given off by cooling igneous magmas at great depths. According to this view, the porous artesian beds act as sponges, absorbing the water which rises as subterranean springs along joint cracks and other flows in the formation. Gas and steam pressure would be the expeiling forces.
a *
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.SC. 195
Gregory’s view receives considerable support from the following facts :—
(1) Springs are rare in the artesian area, but abundant outside this area. They frequently occur on the summits of high mountains, where the catchment area is insufficient to account for their permanent flow. [29]
(2) The water bearing beds of the Artesian area are often sand and boulder drifts, and not sandstone: they frequently seem to be mere lenticular patches.
(3) Very pervious rocks like the Blythesdale Braystone are rarely met with.
(4) Artesian Water is generally hottest and purest when tapped from the lower strata: while the water with most solid matter in solution comes from the upper strata.
If the meteoric theory is right, we should expect the water to become more and more impure the farther it is from the intake, and the shallow bore waters should be the freshest. The reverse happens to be the general rule. On the Plutonic theory, the superficial beds contain water which has travelled much further through assimilable sediments, and should therefore be most saline. Experi- ence shows this to be the case.
Probably each of these two rival theories is true for some places. While recognising the meteoric theory as affording a correct explanation for some cases, the writer firmly believes that the plutonic theory must account for the origin of many bore waters.
Proof of a conclusive nature will not be possible uniil a systematic survey is made of the artesian basin, including chemical and physical investigation of the waters at different depths.
It would be well to state here that whether the meteoric or plutonic theory be found to be true for the greater part of our artesian basin, there is little danger of speedy exhaustion of the water supplies. It is true that bores have frequently ceased to flow, but in every case the cause has been either (1) corrosion of the casing allowing the water to escape into dry sandbeds; or (2) the scouring of a water channel between the casing and the walls of the borehole, allowing similar escape of the water. Sometimes the latter cause of stoppage has been aided by tinkering with the bore, e.g., by temporarily shutting the bore.
196 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
When a flow ceases in this way it can usually be got . from the same stratum by sinking another bore a few yards away.
APPENDIX.
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE (Reference number given in square bracket, thus [1] ). AnpDREws, E. C. ‘An Outline of the Tertiary History of New England.” Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 1903, Vol. VII. [10]. ‘“* Report on the Drake Mining Field.” Mineral Resources No. 12, Geol. Surv., N.S.W. [6]. ‘‘ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia.”’ Jour. & Proc., Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLIV, [1]. ‘“‘ Preliminary Note on the Geology of the Queensland Coast.” Proc. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXVII., 1902. [23]. ANDERSON, . CHAPMAN, F. ‘“* Microzoa from the Wianamatta Shales.” Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VIII, Pt. 4. [7]. Carne, J. E. “The Kerosene Shale Deposits of N.S.W.” Geol. Memoir, No. 3, Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., 1903. [32].
Carp, G. W. (with L. F. Harper and J. B. Jacquet). “The Geology of the Kiama-Jamberoo District.” Rec. Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIII., Pt. 1, 1905. [26]. ‘“* Notes on Some Sydney Basalts.”’ Rec. Geol. Surv., N.S.W., Vol. VII, Pt. 3. [28]. CaMBAGE, R. ‘* Notes on the Native Flora of New South Wales.” Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1905, Part 3. [34]. Don, W. 8. ‘“ Notes on Some Lower Mesozoic Plants from Benolong, Dubbo District.” Rec. Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VIIL, Part IV., 1909. [8.] Davin, T. W. E. (with F. B. Guthrie and W. G. Woolnough). “The Occurrence of Tinguaite on Mount Kosciusko.” Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XXXV. [81]. Davip AND HALLIGAN. * Recent Subsidence on the Coast of New South Wales.” Jour. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W. [38]. Davip: Report of Glaciation Committee of A.A.A.S. Promo-Carboniferous Glaciation. [5]. ** Geological Epochs,’ Add. at Mexican. Geol. Conference, 1907. [4]. Dany, Re A. “Mountain Building by Igneous Injection,” [18]
BY H. I. JENSEN, D.Sc. 197
GREGORY, J. W. “The Dead Heart of Australia,” [40].
HEDLEY, C. “A Biological Scheme for the Mid-Pacific.”’ A.A.A.S. Reports for 1909. [22]. Pres. Add. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1910. [19]. Pres. Add. Linn. Soc. of N.S.W., 1911. [20]. “The Barrier Reef,’ (Hedley and Taylor). A.A.A.S. Reports for 1907. [37].
JENSEN, H. I. “ Distribution, Origin and Relationships of Alkaline Rocks.” Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXXIIT, Pt. 3, 1908. [12]. ‘“ Geology of Parts of the East Moreton and Wide Bay Districts.” Same Proc., Pt. 1, 1906. [13]. “The Metamorphic Rocks of Southern Queensland.”’ A.A.A:S. Reports, 1909. [14]. “ Geology of the Country Behind Jervis Bay.”’ Jour. and Proc., Roy. Soc., N.S.W. [17]. «Notes on Quartz Reefs in the Nelligen District.”’ Same Jour. [17]. “Geology of Warrumbungle, Nandewar and Canoblas Mts., N.S.W., and Mt. Flinders, Q. Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909. [29]. “The Vegetation on Basalt Soils.” Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Pt. 4, 1909. [35].
Mawson, D., and TayYtor, T.G. ‘«The Geology of Mittagong.”’ Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XX XVII. [30].
Morpison, ‘““ Voleanic Necks of the Sydney District.”’ Ree, Geol. Surv. of N.S.W., Vol. VII, Pt. 4, 1904. [28].
Pittman, F. ** Artesian Water.”’ Jour. and Proc., Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., 1907, Vol. XLI. [39].
Sxreats, E. W. “The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria.’’ A.A.A.S., 1909 Meeting, Brisbane. [25].
SHACKLETON, E. “In the Heart of Antarctica.” [24].
Sussmincn, C. A. ‘““ Notes on the Physiography of the Southern Tableland of N.S.W.”’ Jour. and Proc. Roy. Soc. of N.S.W., Vol. XLITI. [11].
Tavrog,'T.. G. “The Physiography of Yass-Canberra,”’ Bull. 6., Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology. [21]. ** The Correlation of Coal, Contour, and Climate.”’ Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1908. [33].
198 THE BUILDING OF EASTERN AUSTRALIA
And WooLnovuGeH, W. G. ‘Important Example of River Captive, in N.S.W.” Proc. Linn. Soc.,) N.S.W., 1907, Pt. 2. [36]: TENNISON-WOODS. “The Desert Sandstone.” Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXII., p. 290. [9]. WEARNE, R. A. Paper read at A.A.A.S. Meeting, 1911. [15].
EXPLANATION OF TEXT FIGURES.
Figs. 1 to 10. Maps of Australia, showing supposed distribution of land and sea during geological time and zones of heavy sedimentation, after T. W. E. David.
Fig. 11. Ideal section from Bega, N.S.W., to Southern Queensland, showing geosyncline under Southern New England up to end of Permo- Carboniferous, and under Sydney and the Blue Mountains after the Permo-Carboniferous ; showing also how folding in the Paleozoic Rocks gets more and more intense as we pass from the South of N.S.W. to New England.
QO = Ordovician So = «Silurian
D = Devonian C = Carboniferous
P-C = Permo-Carb. H. =.. Triassie
J = Trias-Jura B = Basalt (Tertiary)
G = Granite T = Acid Lavas (Tertiary).
Note the absence of folding in the Post Carboniferous rocks as Queensland is entered.
Fig. 12. Ideal section from Mt. Byron _(D’ Aguilar Range) to Coast, near Sandgate.
Fig. 13. (a, 6, c, d). Sketches showing how a new range is moulded on old divides.
(a) before folding ; (c) plan of same ; (b) after folding ; (d) plan of same.
Fig. 14. Section showing subsidence area between N. Queensland Coast and Barrier Reef. This area is now being covered with sediments, and will in the next geological period become elevated into a fold range being squeezed between a subsiding massive and a rising massive.
tig th
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PERMOCARB$ Disérib ution of Land & Sea, Strongly Sedimente d Oh Glacial Beds fea] Probable Extent of Sea Areas bs
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fg 8, Triassic Distributio
CONTINENTAL SHELF | <\\1-
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we
Fy8. Triassic Distribution of Land and Sea
Ky) CONTINENTAL SHELF eetee,
TRIAS LAKES
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LINE of ORE DEPOSITION i 5
Dist 5,
Fig W, Distribution of Land and Sea “1 the Crelaceous, The Marine Area is Shaded.
ZCRE TACEOUS —
gone a Ze ZZ ms EEE SELES
a C—
Fig. 10. ; Distribution of Land and Sea in the Tertiary .
Land unshaded : Sea crosshned.
Cobargo Blue Hirs. | Marrigun don Braidwood an eke Mannin
Bega. rf D. = SES SS
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ae 3) Bn i, rx ZZ 7 :
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ie Blue Hics. Shoalhaven
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f Hornblendic ial ee chigts
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ee Nat ar is 4a
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a
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Lnjeclion / ei bxplanation Py Direction of Flow
of Rocks Venn A Direction of Movement | along it Planes +> Fig
| | | |
SUBSIDING OCEANIC
STABLE or RISING c
TILTED SE, y
AREA ee eee <
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long it Planes t+ Fig (4,
THE BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE.
By HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.Sc., Lecturer in Geology, University of Queensland.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, August 26th, 1911.
INTRODUCTION.
Havine witnessed the growth of this building which is likely to be a prominent feature for a long time in Brisbane, and being somewhat acquainted with the stones used in its construction, the recording of available information would seem to the author to serve a useful purpose.
In the choice of the building stone, its actual mode of weathering in a structure is of first importance, but failing this, the practice of carrying out mechanical and laboratory tests approximating as far as possible the actual conditions is resorted to. While these latter tests are extremely useful, that, under normal conditions, is the real one. Unfortunately, records of the stones used in old buildings are generally unobtainable, thus, much of the information to be obtained from a study of the weather- ing of the stones in old structures is thereby lost; hence the importance of accurately recording the available information and current opinions as to the stones at the earliest opportunity.
Stones USED IN THE BUILDING.
These have been gathered from three Australian States, although the bulk of the material is of local origin, and both igneous and sedimentary rocks have been used.
Five different stones, of which the following is a list, are contained in the structure :—
Tuff Locality Brisbane.
Sandstone + Helidon, Queensland Sandstone ra Sydney.
Granite J Harcourt, Victoria.
Basalt . Footscray, Victoria.
200 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE
The igneous rocks, namely the Granite and Basalt, have been used in the basement ; the main structure is of the Brisbane tuff, which is generally called “ porphyry,” while the sandstone used outside comes from Pyrmont, Sydney; the inside sandstone being obtained from Helidon.
DESCRIPTION AND SOME TESTS OF THE STONES. (1). TUFF.
This is the material familiar to everybody, and which is used for road-metal, coping-stones, pitchers, building material, etc. It is a fine-grained fragmental rock formed by the consolidation of volcanic detritus such as ashes, sand and lapilli. It is a hard compact material, exhibiting a variety of colours, salmon, pink, grey, white, green, purple, etc., which blend well with one another. The colour effects may be well seen on roads built of this material, after a heavy downpour of rain, when a handsome multi-coloured mosaic is produced. Owing to the nature of its texture it does not take a polish, and in the Cathedral is used in medium-sized blocks, either rock-faced or smooth- dressed. It is interesting to note that while tuffs are not generally used for building purposes owing to their porosity and friability, the so-called “ peperino”’ of the campagna of Rome and Naples is a tuff, and has been used in other buildings in those cities, it was also used in the houses of Herculaneum and Pompeii.*
The material in question was obtained from the O’Connelitown quarries, one of the numerous tuff quarries in the immediate neighbourhood of this city. Immense quantities of this excellent material exist, as it occurs bedded up to a great thickness, as shown opposite the Botanic Gardens, and at the Leichhardt Street quarry. It occurs geologically almost at the base of the Tria-Jurassic System, being separated from the much-older underlying schists by a few feet of highly carbonaceous shales, which, in many places, contain abundant traces of fossil trees. The source of the ashes which build up this tuff was in all probability an ancient volcano, of which the present Enoggera granite marks the base.
oe
*Hull, Building and Ornamental Stones. P. 283.
BY HENRY 0. RICHARDS, M.SC. 201
This tuff is not of uniform compactness in all the quarries or even in the same quarry, and requires to be carefully chosen, but when well picked and dressed properly, is found to be a highly durable stone under the local climatic con- ditions.
(2) HELIDON SANDSTONE.
This stone is also well known in Brisbane, having been used in many structures.
There are several varieties, white, pink, and brown. The Lands Office affords the best instance perhaps of a structure of the brown stone, while in the Central Station buildings, the white and also the pink varieties may be seen. The former building, with the exception of the columns and the stones above them, which are of Yangan material, is of the brown Helidon stone, the basement being of granitic stones from Enoggera and Mount Crosby. The brown variety is a particularly handsome material, works well, occurs in large blocks, and has a warm tone in contrast to the cold, hard effect of the white variety. The concentric markings due to the iron-staining, together with the variation of iron-contents in the different blocks give a structure of this material a very pleasing effect, particularly when compared with buildings of a uniform grey stone, like the Treasury Building.
All the interior work of the Cathedral, the walls, ceiling and pillars, is done with this stone, and an examination of this building shows the possibilities in working this free- stone.
Owing to its protection from the weather, not the slightest fear need be felt as to its endurance.
The stone was obtained from Wright’s quarry, and the following information on the brown stone used in the Government Printing Office, and now being used in the Central Technical College buildings, has been very kindly supplied by Mr. T. Pye, the Deputy Government Architect:—
COMPRESSION STRENGTH.
Building. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. ft. 1. Government Printing Office .. 5355 344,25 2. Central Technical College Ber 5076 326 3. Central Technical College e 3624 233
Numbers 1 and 2 were dry, while 3 was wet.
202 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE
THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
The specific gravity of the stone used in the Govern- ment Printing Office was 2°337, and the absorption by weight. 4-41 %, giving a bulk absorption of 10-30%.
Subjected to acid tests, the stone, after being immersed in a solution containing 23% hydrochloric and 24% sulphuric acids for 48 hours’ was quite friable after the treatment.
Chemically, the stone is stable, and contains a medium silica percentage, while the loss on ignition and ferric oxide values are higher, the latter one would expect from the colour of the stone ; lime and magnesia are absent or present in slight traces only.
The above results carried out for the Public Works Department on the brown stone obtained from Wright’s quarry for the Government Printing Office now being erected, might be taken in a general way to hold for the brown stone from Wright’s quarry in the Cathedral just completed.
The compression test is a fair one for sandstones, and gives a value more than sufficient for the purposes to which the material is put, being approximately the same as the Sydney stone.
The absorption value is medium, but in a climate like Brisbane enjoys, and which is for building stone purposes free from frost, it does not matter to any great extent, more especially as the atmosphere of this city is not laden with acids, and the stone shows no traces of carbonates.
The chemical constitution and acid test call for little comment.
Reviewing the above tests, this stone for building purposes must be regarded as a very fair building material in comparison with other Australian sandstones.
(3) SYDNEY SANDSTONE.
This is one of the widely-used Sydney freestones, and is obtained from the Pyrmont quarries, being known there as the Purgatory stone. It is hard, according to masons, as hard as its name, and has given evidence of its weathering qualities in Sydney, where the conditions are perhaps somewhat more severe than here. Its chief objection has been the manner in which it frets in certain
BY HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.SC. 203
situations, this being due in the opinion of Messrs. Vernon and Kent to a perishing of the cementing medium of the quartz particles, a kind of dry rot, and which only appears to occur when the stone is not exposed to the moisture of the atmosphere.*
The variety used here is grey-coloured, though occa- sional blocks of the brown variety have been employed, and these arranged somewhat haphazardly produce an effect which serves to break what would otherwise be a somewhat monotonous dull-grey colour. An examina- tion of the stone work around the beautiful window on the N.E. side of the building shows the manner in which this material lends itself to carving.
Views have been expressed to the effect that the Helidon stone might, with more advantage, have been used for the external purposes to which the Sydney freestone has been put.
The former, from a colour effect, may have been more pleasing, but its weathering qualities for this type of work have yet to be fully demonstrated. The-brown variety of Sydney stone, such as has been recently used in the New Zealand Life Assurance building, in Queen Street, is peculiar, owing to its taking on the familiar soft brown colour aiter being exposed for some time. This is due to the fact that the stone when freshly quarried contains a smail amount of ferrous iron, sometimes in the form of carbonate, which becomes oxidised to the ferric state on exposure.
Owing to the somewhat uneven distribution of the ferrous iron contents, the stone does not become a uniform brown, which is rather fortunate from an architectural point of view. hi
The following tests of the Sydney stone will be of interest. Those with an asterisk are taken from the paper published by Nangle and Baker, in Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XLIII., while the others were carried out by the author, and published in “‘ The Building Stones of Victoria,’’ in Proc. Roy. Soc, Vic., Vol. XXII.
*R. T. Baker and J. Nangle, Proc. R.S. of N.S.W., Vol. XLIII., p- 189-
204 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE
COMPRESSION TESTS.
Edge of Cube. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. foot 3 inches .. be = 4800 308°5 3 inches .. Se a 4861 312-5* 3 inches .. ba * 5645 366° 9* 3 inches .. os Sa 5747 370° 1*
ABSORPTION ‘TEST.
This gave a value of 3°65 % by weight and 8-40 % by bulk, which, in comparison with other sandstones, is fair.
ATTACK BY CARBON DIOXIDE.
To ascertain this a current of carbon dioxide gas was passed continually for 3 weeks through water containing the stones in two-inch cubes, and as a result, 0:03% by weight was lost ; this is an excellent result.
ATTACK BY MINERAL ACIDS.
Two-inch cubes were placed in solutions containing 1% hydrochloric and 1% sulphuric acid, and allowed to remain in it for 96 hours. As a result of this 1-031 % by weight was lost, and a decided darkening in colour was produced; this value is rather high.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of this stone is about 2°30, and thus has a weight per cubic foot of approximately 144lbs., a medium weight for a sandstone.
FIRE TEST.*
The stone, after being subjected to a temperature of 750° ©. for 15 minutes was plunged suddenly into cold water and was uninjured, no chipping at the edges, but merely a deepening in colour due to further oxidation of the iron contents.
The above results, together with its observed mode of weathering, point to the stone being quite a satisiactory one for the purpose it is asked to serve in this building.
(4) HarcourT GRANITE.
This has been used very extensively in Melbourne and other parts of Victoria. It is distinctly handsome when polished, though in this building being used in the foundations it is not polished.
This is a somewhat coarse-grained grey granite, which is made up of quartz, felspar, and the black mica biotite, the latter being in abundance and sufficiently fresh to show
BY HENRY C. RICHARDS, M.SC. 205
up well in contrast to the milky-white felspar and colour- less quartz. It has proved its stability as a building stone, and a notable example of its use and weathering is to be seen in the Equitable Buildings, Collins Street, Melbourne. It is a stone that works with ease in all directions, can be obtained in very large blocks, and quarries well ; the quarries being in close proximity to the railway line at Harcourt, it can be delivered in Melbourne at a very reasonable rate.
The local granite from Enoggera must be regarded as an inferior stone in many ways, but owing to its con- taining hornblende, as far as strength is concerned it probably surpasses.the Harcourt material, but this mineral also greatly increases the cost of working. The Enoggera stone is rather fine in texture, has not the same relief when polished, and is liable to contain crystals of pyrites and vughs of calcite. These two latter minerals weather rapidly, especially the former, which becomes oxidised, and a dirty brown patch is formed. This phenomenon may be well seen in many of the stones used in the base of the Lands Office. Compression tests on three-inch cubes of Harcourt Granite have civen the following results :
Stone. Lbs. per sq. inch. Tons per sq. foot. Harcourt granite .. io 2, 11,444 736 Harcourt granite .. =. oe 11,333 729
Being an igneous rock it is almost impervious, and all its minerals are of a very stable nature, there being no carbonates or sulphides, while the black mica is found to stand weathering excellently. The climatic conditions likely to affect the stone are those of extreme temperature, but in this city no fear need be anticipated on that score.
(5) Footscray Basar.
This is the familiar bluestone used in Melbourne for many varied purposes, of which the uses for building stones, copying stones, pitchers, and road metal, are the chief ones. It is a dark compact basalt which works easily and as a result of its proximity to the city in suitable masses is cheap.
Owing to its igneous nature and its chemical con- stitution, it is an excellent weathering material, but buildings of this stone alone are objected to on account of its sombreness, though for bulk stores and gaol structures it gives an air of great solidity. It is chiefly used as a
206 BUILDING STONES OF ST. JOHN’S CATHEDRAL, BRISBANE
building stone for basements, a favourite combinatior being sandstone as a super-st1ucture on basalt, with which very handsome results are obtained.
While not in much evidence in the now completed. Cathedral, it has been used in parts of the foundations of this building, and, as far as durability and strength are concerned, it has fully proved itself under more severe conditions than exist here. |
St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Melbourne is built almost entirely of this stone, with the result that it will long outlive St. Paul’s Cathedral, which is built of the Geelong freestone and Waurn Ponds limestone, both of which stones have already very much decayed. The crushing strength of this material on a three-inch cube was found to be 10,5771bs. per square inch, or 680 tons per square foot, a strength. more than sufficient for its use in this building.
CONCLUSIONS.
From the foregoing it will be seen that of the stones in the Cathedral, the Harcourt Granite and Footscray basalt used in the basement are stones of proven quality, and no doubt need be felt of their lasting properties.
The inside Helidon sandstone, owing to its compression strength, its protection from the weather and its lasting properties even when exposed, also promises a very long existence.
The outside materials, namely, the local tuff and the Sydney freestone will determine the life of the building ; of these the tuff from its texture and composition and apparently wise choice should weather excellently, whereas if any stones show signs of decay one would expect them to be the Sydney sandstone in exposed conditions, where it is finally carved, and the smooth-dressed tuff. Theformer will, in the course of time, almost certainly fret in places, as it has done in Sydney buildings, and being smooth- dressed might be expected to exfoliate in other places, that is, thin flakes a fraction of an inch thick, part from the rest of the stone in a direction parallel to the surface, as a result of the disturbances produced by the uniform tapping over the face of the stone during dressing.
In conclusion, I would like to extend my thanks to Archbishop Donaldson, Mr. R. 8. Dods, and Mr. T. Pye, for information afforded me in connection with this paper.
ON THE OCCURRENCE OF “ WORM-NODULES” IN CATTLE—A SUMMARY.
By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., etc.,
Brotocy Department, University, BrisBane.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, October 28, 1911.
For the past two years a considerable amount of atten- tion has been paid, both in the Commonwealth and in Europe, _ to the occurrence of ‘“ worm-nests”’ or ‘* worm-nodules ” in cattle in various parts of the world, but more particularly in Australia. Since these nodules are known to be common and widespread in this state (Queensland), which is an important meat-producing country, and since their presence is causing heavy financial losses to pastoralists and meat exporters, | have deemed it advisable to bring together for public information, a summary of what is known regard- ing this parasitic condition. As ‘ worm-nodules”’ may be produced in man, camels, horses, etc., by allied parasites (Onchocerca, spp.), casual reference is made to them also. The following account refers to that form of Onchocerciasis met with in Australian cattle :—
Macroscopic appearance :—The naked-eye appearance has been described fully by various authors (Gibson, Park, Cleland and Johnston, Leiper, Gilruth and Sweet), so that only brief mention need be given here. The nodules vary in diameter, {rom under two to four centimetres in the case of approximately spherical forms, while others of an elon- gate shape may possess a long axis, Measuring 7 cms., or even greater. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 7) found one reaching 11 cms. by 8 cms., whilst, very rarely, they meet with others so small that their diameter was only six millimetres. On cutting across a nodule, one notices that the ‘‘ worm-area”’ lies at or near the centre, though occa- sionally quite eccentrically. There is very little variation in the size of this area though the thickness of the surround -
208 ON THE OCOURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ” IN CATTLE
ing fibrous capsule may vary greatly in different nodules- The parasite, Onchocerca gibsoni, Cleland and Johnston, lies coiled in the worm area in such an intricate manner that it is impossible to extract the female entire. The small male worms may occasionally be obtained in an unbroken state. These nematodes are seen to lie in a definite tunnel or canal, within which they appear to be capable of a slight movement. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 10, figs. 3, 4, 37) have figured a tunnel in which the male and female worms are lying side by side. The actual nodules are, of course, the result of irritation of the sur- rounding cells of the host-tissue, set up by the presence of the parasite. An eosinophilia is also present. When the worms dies, it degenerates, becoming calcified and finally breaking down, the worm area undergoing a degener- ation also. This condition is more frequently met with in older animals. The statements that tuberculosis is commonly associated with this alteration are not substantiated.
Seat of infection, etc.:—The commonest situations in which the parasite occurs are the brisket and flank, between whose muscles and in whose subcutaneous tissues the worm-nodules lie. The affected areas have been defined as follows :—(Gilruth and Sweet, 1911, p. 5, 6.) “The commonest situation is the region of the brisket, ‘chiefly the triangular outline formed by the junction of the ribs with the costal cartilages, especially between the fourth and sixth ribs, but often extending backwards to the tenth, and, at times, forward to the second rib. Fre- quently they are superficial, 7.¢., in the subcutaneous tissues, but more often they are situated between the posterior portion of the superficial pectoral muscle and the anterior part of the posterior deep pectoral, between the posterior portion of the deep pectoral and the external abdominal oblique, and between the panniculus and the posterior por- tion of the external oblique, rarely deeper. . . The other situation is the external surface of the hindlimb, especially behind the femoro-tibial joint, and the groove leading upward to the pelvis, anterior to the gluteus maximus, and even near the angle of the haunch. While occasionally superficial and readily detected, they are often under the dense subcutaneous fascia lata, when they are much more liable to be overlooked.” They mention the
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.SC. 209
reported occurrence of nodules in other situations, such as ‘““on the inner side of the thigh, in the groin and even throughout the body,” but they are “strongly inclined to the opinion that such conclusions have resulted from small tumours of different origin being mistaken for these nodules.” Dodd (1910, a, p. 86) mentioned that they may occur in the connective tissues in any part of the body. We found them mainly in the brisket (C. and J., 1910, c, p- 92), but referred to their presence in certain other situ- ations. Dr. Cleland and myself have seen an encapsuled specimen, said to have been taken from the neighbourhood of the spleen, a situation similar to that from which Filaria lenalis was recorded by Stiles.
In regard to the number which may be found in an animal, we (Cl. and J., 1910, c, p. 92) have recorded the finding of twenty-one in the brisket alone. As many as fifty has been counted from one host (Gilruth and Sweet, p. 6.), while a yearling (p. 4) was found to harbour twenty- four. Gibson (1893, p. 577) mentioned that he had been informed by butchers that, in rare instances, nodules were _ so numerous and so distributed in an animal, that condem- nation of the whole carcase was necessary.
Age incidence :—As a result of careful ante- and post- mortem examinations of a large number of cows and_ bullocks of various ages, Gilruth (p. 4, 5) found that there was a heavy infection in the case of yearlings, as in old animals, and that one sex was as liable to become parasitised as the other, but that in the older animals there was usually a greater percentage of degenerated nodules. The youngest animal recorded as having been found to be infected was between six and seven months old (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 92; six to eight months—G. and §., 1911, p. 5). This is con- clusive evidence that the worm can mature very rapidly, and also suggests that the life of the parasite probably does not extend over many years.
Degree of infection :—The most important statements regarding the degree of infection are those of Gilruth (1911, p. 3), who has had opportunities of investigating this side of the question. He states that “so far as could be ascer- tained, no cattle station in Queensland is entirely free from the parasite,” that at least twenty per cent. of animals on “clean” stations are affected, and that a complete
910 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
examination would possibly show that fifty per cent. isa ~ nearer approximation. He instances a case in which ten per cent. were found to be infected after “ very careful. examination by manipulation, using incision only when certain or doubtful, but later on, when the brisket of a num- ber were partially dissected, another 25 per cent. were found to harbour the nodules.” Thus 35 per cent. of the cattle, from a ‘‘ notoriously clean station,” from the south- western portion of Queensland, were parasitised by Onchocerca gibsoni. In two mobs, from different parts of north-western Queensland, the same observer detected their presence in 60 per cent. of the animals “ without any manipulation,” and as a result of “‘a more careful examin- ation by dissection,” found every animal to contain “ from one nodule upwards.” It is known that the heaviest in- fection occur in the more northerly districts, and that the degree lessens as we pass southward. Gilruth and Sweet believe that this state of affairs is not due to the conditions of ‘soil, climate, rainfall or management.’’ Gibson (1893, p. 577) mentioned that he had been informed by Mr. Stanley, the New South Wales Government Veterinarian, that at least 50 per cent. of the cattle slaughtered about that time (1892) in Sydney, contained worm-nests, but Gilruth and Sweet (p. 3) doubt this large percentage. Our own experience did not reveal such a high degree of infection. Hancock (1911, p. 25) states that ‘‘ since examination has been systematically made, at least 50 per cent. of all con- signments from Queensland ‘ports have been found to contain a variable percentage of affected carcases.” Judging from ‘“lruth and Sweet’s findings, Hancock’s estimate would be greatly increased if a more searching examination were carried out. The Editor of the British Medical Journal (3rd Dec., 1910, p. 1797), mentioned that about 75 per cent. of the carcases were found to be parasitised. Macfadden’s findings (1911,.p. 2) corroborate those of Gilruth. He stated that at first ten per cent. of the quarters in each consignment mere examined for the presence of nodules, but on a more complete examination, it was noticed that a much larger percentage was infected, and in some instances “‘as many as a hundred per cent. of those already passed’ were found to contain worm nests. The Editor of the Journal of Meat and Milk Hygiene (1911, p. 23), in a footnote to our paper
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 211
(Cleland and Johnston, 1911, a, p. 21-23), refers to the fact that “‘in one consignment of 1,500 hind quarters which recently arrived in London, 808 were found to be infected.” This is about 54 per cent., and the number would probably have been greater had fore-quarters been examined. If we consider what a large amount of meat is exported from Australia, especially Eastern Australia, to Great Britain and elsewhere, we must realise the serious- ness of this parasitic invasion. Macfadden (1911, p. 3) states that between 60,000 and 70,000 quarters of Australian beef arrived per month, between July and October of last year (1910) at the port of London alone.
Effect on host :—In regard to the result of this para- sitism on the health of the infested animal, it is of importance to note that no authors, excepting Barnard and Park (1894), have mentioned any deleterious effect produced by the presence of the Onchocerca. In reference to the state- ments made by these authors, we (Cleland and Johnston, 1910, c, p. 93) have already suggested that tubercular and actinomycotic tissues, from various parts of the body, had been inadvertently mixed with true worm nodules, and hence their mistake in believing that tubercle commonly follows ‘the parasite. Dodd (1910, a, p. 86), Hancock (1911, p.25), Nicoll (1911, p. 73), Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. vil) and others agree with us in our assertion that the presence of the nematode is not any in way detrimental to the host.
Public health aspect :—From the point of view of public health and meat inspection, we must admit that the presence of animal parasites in food is undesirable. We think that they should be removed, but even if eaten, whether unconsciously or otherwise, as already pointed out by us (1910, a, p. 174; 1910, c, p. 98), no harm would result. Dr. Gibson (1893, p. 579) fed a dog on worm-nests for a -considerable time without ill effect. Then again, the parasite can only survive the death of the host for a very short time. The same remark applies to the embryos. Besides this, there is no possibility of direct transmission through eating, even if the same species were able to live in man which is most improbable.
Robinson (1910, p. 6) reported that Dr. Collingbridge, ‘the Medical Officer of Health for London, had stated that
F
212 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”” IN CATTLE
‘the portions of meat containing the parasite are obviously unfit for food and should be destroyed.” We do not agree with this remark. The meat in unaffected, though the connective tissue immediately surrounding the worm is affected, since the formation of a dense fibrous capsule or ‘‘ worm nodule” is the result, but the effect does not extend beyond this. The Editor of the British Medical. Journal (3rd Dec., 1910, p. 1797) mentioned “ that the meat: in question is little, if at all, deteriorated in quality, that it is perfectly safe for human consumption, and that its. unsightly condition may be remedied by the removal of the nodules.”? Nicoll (1911, p. 73) says, that “‘ there is no evi- dence to show that the meat suffers, or that it is dangerous for human consumption, and the fact that is has been eaten for some time, both in this country and in Australia, without ill consequences being remarked, may be taken to support the Australian view.”
Distribution in Australia :—The greatest percentage of infection appears to occur in Queensland, especially in the more northerly and westerly regions, and as one passes southwards, the condition becomes less common. Though occurring in New South Wales, its presence is more or less restricted to the Northern Rivers and the Hunter districts, though it may be found occasionally in cattle elsewhere. It is difficult, however, to trace the origin of cattle brought in for slaughter, but a large per- centage come “overland” from Queensland to Sydney, Melbourne and elsewhere. Hence at the abattoirs in these cities and in Hobart, nodules are met with. The occurrence of the condition in Victorian-bred cattle is doubtful, while Tasmania appears to be free fromit. It is well-known in Western Australia and in the Northern Territory. The distribution outside of Australia will be referred to in another place.
The parasite:—The main papers dealing with the parasite (Onchocerca gibsoni) infesting Australian cattle are those of Cleland and Johnston (1910, 1911), Leiper (1911), and Gilruth and Sweet (1911). The worm had usually been referred to as Spiroptera reticulata, which is. a parasite infesting horses in Southern Europe. Barnard and Park (1894, p. 644), Park (1893, also in Tryon, 1910),
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 213
Shipley * (1910), and Hancock (1911, p. 25) refer to it under that name; Leiper* (1910), as Onchocerca reticulata ; Bancroft (1893), as Strongylurus sp.; Cleland (1907, p. 88), and Johnston (1909, p. 412), as Sprroptera sp. ; and Tryon (1910, p. 81), as Spiroptera (Onchocerca) sp. ; while Cleland and Johnston, a little later (1910, a, p. 174) described it aS a new species of Filaria, /. gibson. Later in the same year (1910, c, p. 96), they removed it to the genus Onchocerca. Later authors (Leiper, 1911; Nicoll, 1911; Gilruth and Sweet, 1911), have followed them in calling it O. gibsoni. The synonymy of the nematode may be summarised thus :—
Onchocerca gibsoni (C. and J., 1910, a), Cleland and
Johnston (1091, c). ? Filaria lienalis, Stiles, 1892 (undescribed). Spiroptera reticulata, Park, 1893, Bernard and Park, 1893 ; Shipley, 1910, etc. (nec., Diesing, 1841).
Strongylurus sp., Bancroft, 1893.
Spiroptera sp., Cleland, 1£07, Johnston, 1909.
Filaria gibsoni, Cleland and Johnston, 1910 a.
Spiroptera (Onchocerca) sp., Tryon, 1910.
Onchocerca reticulata, Leiper, 1910 (nec. Diesing).
Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni, Clel. and Johnston, 1910, d.
Unchocerca gibson, Clel. and Johnston, 1910, c; Leiper,
1911, etc.
Onchocerca reticulata, Diesing, known more commonly but less correctly, as Spiroptera reticulata, is a distinct, but closely allied, parasite infesting the horse, and is known under various synonyms, ¢.g.: ilari reticulata, F., cincinnata and Spiroptera cincinnata. FF. lienalis, Stiles, may be a synonym of O. gibsoni, and is evidently an Onche- cerca, aS Leiper (1911, a, p. 10) has suggested. Its specific identity with the Australian worm seems to me to be unlikely. The main distinctions between O. gibsoni and O. reticulata have been tabulated by Leiper (1911, @; p. 10).
The original account (1910, @) contains a few in- accuracies regarding the male worm, but these were corrected and a-more detailed description of the male, female and embyro was given in a larger report published some months later. (August, 1910, c.) Gilruth and Sweet have shown recently (1911), that there is a considerable amount of
* Quoted in an abstract of a report (1910)—Editor Jour, Meat and Milk Hygiene, 1911, p. 24. - .
914 ON THE OGCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
variation in the mature parasites. The following summary is taken mainly from the papers just referred to :—
The female is very long, but its exact length is unknown, owing to the impossibility of extracting it entire. By adding the lengths of all the fragments collected from a single nodule, apparently containing only one parasite, we (1910, c) found measurement to be 97 cm., while Gilruth and Sweet found it to vary from 52 to 140 cms. The cuti- cular ornamentation is in the form of series of spirally arranged ridges, each ridge being made up of a series of undulations. The anterior end is bluntly rounded, bearing a tiny papilla on each of the three small lips which surround the mouth. The diameter in the anterior part of the worm is from ‘08 to °16 mm., and throughout the greater part of the body is from ‘37 to ‘5 mm. The vulva varies in its position, being situated between “46 and 1°23 mm, from the anterior extremity. The nerve-ring les at from 142 to .188 mm., and the excretory pore at from °36 to °38 mm. from the head end. The anus is located at about -20 mm. from the posterior extremity.
The male is a very thin and relatively short worm with much less pronounced cuticular ornamentation. It is scarcely half the width of the female and its length varies between 3°75 and 5°3 cm. (Leiper; Gilruth and Sweet.) It is thus approximately only about one-twentieth of the length of its partner. The nerve-ring is situated at from ‘17 to -2 mm., and the excretory pore at -25 mm. from the anterior end. The cloaca lies at a distance of from ‘048 to ‘072 mm. from the posterior extremity.* The two spicules are unequal. The longer is from ‘14 to "197 mm., and is a curved rod with a twisted stem and a pointed distal termination. The smaller spicule is swollen character- istically at the outer end. Its length varies from ‘08 to 094 mm. ‘There are six, probably seven, pairs of pipalle on the tail end of the male. There is a peri-anal group, consisting of four pair, and a caudal group of two pair. _ At the extreme end there is a pair of minute pro- jections, which probably represents the seventh pair.
"eps ele on ag A ie Ss ee
*In our paper (1910, c, p. 94) the distance in one case is given as -072, and in another -65:-m. The latter is a misprint for (065mm. In our preliminary report (1910, a), the length of the smaller spicule was given as ‘047, instead of -(082 mm., and some of the papillz were overlooked.
BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 215-
In the peri-anal group, the first pair are usually slightly more prominent and somewhat separated from the remaining three pair, which are really ad-anal or post-anal in position, the first pair being distinctly pre-anal. Gilruth and Sweet (p. 15) have noted a certain amount of variation in the arrangement. The alae are not very prominent. The tail end has a spiral twist, similar to that recorded as — occurring in O. volvulus. (Parsons, 1609, p. 363.)
The embryos measures from ‘22 to °35 mm. in length by 003 mm. in width, the anterior end being obtusely rounded or nearly straight, and the posterior extremity tapering. Gilruth and Sweet have estimated that there may at one time be as many as two million embryos and fertilised eggs in one female.
The internal anatomy of the parasite does not call for attention in this paper. (Cleland and Johnston ; Leiper ; De Does; Gilruth and Sweet.)
Transmission :—From the economic point of view, the most important feature is the means of transmission. If this be known, then one may hope to be able to formulate Measures to limit the degree of infection, by reducing the numbers of the transmitting agents, as is now being done in the case of mosquito destruction in order to lessen malarial and other mosquito-borne infections. Direct transmission of a filarial worm is quite unlikely. We (1910, c, p. 98), as well as Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 26), failed to inoculate calves by injecting living embryos subcutaneously. An intermediate host appears to be necessary. In some few cases it is known to be a crustacean inhabitating fresh water, but more frequently it is a blood- sucking insect, usually a mosquito. The latter method of transmission presupposes the presence of filarial embryos in the blood of the final or definitive host. But, as yet, these have not been found in the general circulation of cattle affected with Onchocerca, nor in horses harbouring O. reticulata, nor in men infested with O. volvulus. In the case of man, filarial embryos belonging to other Filariidae may be met with in the blood, but in cases of an infection by O. volvulus alone, such larval forms have not yet been detected. We have given a summary of our results (1910, c, p. 97), which were all negative, embryos being found in the peripheral parts of the tumours,
216 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
but not in the blood, though searched for in films taken by night as well as by day, in case there should be any periodicity. Since the nodules are practically restricted to those portions of the animal which come in contact with the ground, and since they are frequently subcutaceous in situation, we were led to suggest that a fresh water crustacean might act as a transmitting agent in a manner analogous to that known to occur in the human guinea- worm, Dracunculus medinensis. Dr. Cleland and myself have not been able, as yet, to infect Cyclops and Daphnia with the embryos, the latter living only a very short time in water. We have, therefore, been driven back to our first idea, that a biting insect or a tick might be the actual transmitter. The lack of material in Sydney, and the pressure of official business, prevented our following up this matter as thoroughly as we wished.
Leiper (1911, a, p. 12), arguing from the structure of the embryo, believes the intermediate host to be a biting insect, such as Stomoxys, Hippobosca or Tabanus, or perhaps one of the Ixodidae. The Hippoboscidae may be excluded on account of their absence or rarity on our cattle. Stomoxys salcitrans is a common fly in parts of Eastern Australia, and may be responsible for the transmission, but this seems rather unlikely on account of the relatively slow, south- ward extension of the condition. The same remark applies to the Tabanidae. Gilruth and Sweet (p. 27) are not in favour of the idea that biting flies spread the parasite, for the same reason, nor do they think that ticks are re- sponsible, as they state that the nodules were observed long before the advent of the tick in Queensland. They evidently refer to the “cattle tick’? Margaropus (or Boophilus) annulatus, var. australis, but there are many other ticks which are known to infest cattle in Australia, e.g., Amblyomma, Haemaphysalis, Aponomma, and Rhipicep- halus, while an Ixodes, (J. holocyclus) attacks various animals here. None of these, excepting M. annulatus are, however, - common on cattle, and may be disregarded for the present on that account. The calf louse (Haematopinus vituli, L.), is regarded by these workers (p. 28) as being the most likely transmitting agent, and point to certain facts which seem to them to support their contention, viz., that the infection in young and old cattle is about the same ; that lice
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 217
are frequently present on weakly young animals; that the situation of the nodules is under those parts of the skin which most frequently harbour lice; and that the south- ward advance is slow. They, moreover, found a living embryo in a louse* which had been fed on an inoculated part of a heifer. It seems to me that the mosquito, the true lice, and the ‘ cattle-fly °°—a species of Musca, fre- quently found associated with Queensland cattle—are the most likely agents. The great objection, however, lies in the fact that, as yet, the embryos have not been detected in the blood-stream, and have not been found beyond the nodule.t’ Even after centrifugalising large quantities of blood, Gilruth and Sweet were unable to detect their presence. In regard to the allied parasite, O. gutturosa, from the Algerian cattle, Emery (in Neumann, 1910, p. 271) mentioned that he had not been able to find embryos in the blood.
The life history is not yet known in any species of Onchocerca. Brumpt (1904, quoted by Fulleborn, 1908, p. 15), Fiilleborn (1908, p. 15), and Rodenwaldt (F.and R., 1908, p. 83), found embryos of O. volvulus in the peripheral parts of the tumours from human beings, and the first named author believed that a Vabanus, Glossina or Simuliwm might act as a transmitter. None of these authors, nor Parsons (p. 366), detected embryos in the blood, but the latter worker states that the distribution of O. volvulus ‘“‘ suggests the existence of a riverine intermediary,” and believes it highly probable that embryos must pass some- time in the general circulation (p. 367), the transmitting
* Dr. Cleland and myself have examined a large number of lice (Haematopinus vituli, L.) and Mallophaga (Trichodectes bovis, L., syn. Tr. scalaris, Nitzsch), taken in New South Wales from a young calf infected with nodules, but without result. Of course the Trichodect is not likely to be a normal carrier on account of its food being epidermal structures and not blood. Sometimes blood is found in the crop, but this is not usual, the blood entering from wounds along with the ordinary food.
+ Park in a footnote to a paper (Barnard and Park, 1894, p. 645) refers to finding ‘‘ young Spiroptera in some of the blood vessels.”” Though Dr. Cleland and myself, as well as Professor Gilruth and Dr. Sweet, have worked through series of sections, we have not been able to find embryos in the blood. Park’s statement stands quite unconfirmed up to the present as regards Australian cattle. It may be mentioned, however, that De Does 41904) found the embryos in the blood of Javanese cattle, and thought that blood-sucking insects were the most likely transmitting agents.
218 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
agent being, by analogy, probably a blood-sucking insect.
We have suggested (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 98) that imprisonment within a nodule may not be the normal fate of O. gibsont. Leiper (1911, a, p. 13) thinks that an examination of the viscera might reveal the presence of the parasite in an unencapsuled condition, where it would liberate its embryos into the blood stream. On the other hand, one would expect that if encapsulation be abnormal, that there should be a greater number of free than encap- suled parasites, and the detection of the embryos in the circulation should not be difficult. As all the known species. of the Onchocerca are found more or less embedded in fibrous capsules, and as both males and females may occur together in these nodules, and in such relation to each other that fertilisation is readily effected, (Brumpt, re O. volvulus, quoted in Fulleborn, 1908, p. 15, and in Fulleborn and Rodenwaldt, p. 83; Gilruth and Sweet, p. 10, re O. gibsoni), it seems to me that the connective tissues, especi- ally the subcutaceous, are @ normal, and probably the normal habitat of the members of the genus.
Origin of the parasite:—The original home of the nematode is almost certainly the East Indies. We (C. and J., 1910, c, p. 99) showed that it was probably by way of Timor that infected animals (buffaloes) arrived in Northern Australia. De Does had already recorded the occurrence of worm-nests in cattle in Java, but we were at the time unaware of his work. Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 34, addendum) mention that cattle were imported from Coepang, about 1824, and from other parts of the East Indies in 1840. This evidence supports the conjecture that infected animals —either cattle or buffaloes, or both—came from the East Indies to the Northern Territory, and became the means of spreading the condition, which has gradually extended its range southward, eastward and westward.
It might be observed that O. armillata (Railliet and- Henry, 1910, p. 250) parasitises Indian and Sumatran cattle and buffaloes, and an allied or perhaps identical worm occurs in Malayan and Indian cattle and buffaloes (Daniels, Tuck, Leiper, Lingard). O. armillata infests the aortic walls. O. gutturosa (Neumann ,1910, p. 270) occurs in the cervical ligament of cattle in Northern Algeria and Tunis. These parasites are distinct from OU. gibsoni.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 219
Historical Summary :—A brief historical summary has been reserved until now, in crder to simplify reference. Only the main papers relating to Onchocerciasis in cattle, more especially in Australian cattle, come in for notice.
The first published record was that by Morris in 1880 (1881, p. 337), though Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 1) have been informed that the presence of nodules in the brisket of Queensland cattle has been known for at least forty years. In 1892, Gibson (1893, p. 576) communicated an article to the Intercolonial Medical Congress, in which he gave an account of the embryo and such facts of the female worm as he could extract; of the pathology of the con- dition ; as well as of feeding experiments performed on a dog, but with negative results. In the same year, T. L. Bancroft referred to the presence of nodules in cattle in Brisbane and Rockhampton.
In 1893, Barnard and Park (1894, p. 642) read a short paper, entitled ‘Notes on Sptroptera, associated with Tuberculosis in Cattle,’ in which they give an account of the result of an enquiry into the condition as affecting Queensland cattle. The parasite was recognised as being similar to Spiroptera reticulata (i.e, O. reticulata), which infests horses. No cattle under two years of age were found to be affected, and this led them to suggest that the worm probably takes at least a year to develop and cause trouble. They thought that human beings might become parasitised by infected meat or drinking water. The disease was stated to be absent in Tasmania, but probably present in South Australia. A short account of the embryo and of a fragment of an adult was given. “A section of a small tumour or nodule containing the worm has a perforated or reticulated appearance, hence the name Spiroptera reticulata’? (p. 644). There seems to be little doubt but that various tissues, some tubercular, others actinomycotic, had become mixed with real “* worm- fibromata”’ (as De Does called them), hence the mistake made by these authors in considering that degenerated worm-nests commonly became the seat of tuberculosis or actinomycosis. (C. and J., 1911, c¢, p. 93.)
Similar information was published by Park, in Dec., 1893, in the Veterinary Journal (1893, p. 102), and in a report to the Chief Inspector of Stock (quoted in Tryon,
220 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
1910, p. 82-4). In the same year, Stanley (1893) referred to the presence of nodules in New South Wales cattle. For many years after this, little notice seems to have been taken of the condition in spite of its commonness. The fact that infected animals apparently do not suffer in health may have been responsible for this indifference towards the matter. The waste of meat incurred in removing the nodules from carcases and in condemning badly-infested portions, should have been sufficient reason for an investiga- tion being undertaken. Apart from a few mere references dealing with the presence of worm-nests in cattle in West Australia (Cleland, 1907), in New South Wales (Johnston, 1909), and in Queensland (Pound, 1909), nothing was done until the latter part of 1909, when Dr. Cleland and myself in Sydney, and Drs. Gilruth and Sweet in Melbourne, began, independently, to devote special attention to the subject. Very shortly afterwards public notice was drawn to presence of these nodules in abundance in frozen carcases arriving from Australia, mainly from this State (Robinson, 1910, p. 6; Ann. Rep. Med. Off. Health, 1909, London, abstract in Jour, Meat Milk Hyg., 1911, p. 24). It was suggested that such infected meat was possibly unfit for human consumption (Collingbridge—quoted by Robinson, 1910, p. 6). This led to severe measures being taken by the Health authorities in London and elsewhere (Robinson, 1910 ;° Hancock, 1910, p. 25;°Macfadden, 1911)7 9G course, @ scare was created, and investigations were com- menced by the Local Government Board (London). In the Annual Report of the Medical Officer for Health for the Corporation of London for 1909 (1910, p. 106-7)*, it was stated that in November, 1909, a large percentage of carcases of Queensland beef were found to contain encapsuled parasites lying in the connective tissues of the flank and brisket. The nodules, together with a small portion of the surrounding tissues, were removed and the rest passed > as being fit for food. In cases where they were very numerous, the whole quarter was condemned. The parasite was identified by Shipley as Spiroptera reticulata, and by Leiper as Onchocerca reticulata. This report was probably isswed early in 1910.
* Abstract in Journal Meat and Milk Hygiene I., 1911, p. 24.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 221
__ Meanwhile a short preliminary paper was published by Dr. Cleland and myself in the February (Feb. 2nd) number of the N.S.W. Agricultural Gazette, in which we briefly described the worm as a new species, Filaria gibsont, quite distinct from, though closely allied to, F. reticulata of the horse. The idea that the nematode could be fm any way injurious to human beings was disputed, as such nodules had frequently been eaten in Australia without any ill-effects having been detected. A more detailed report was reserved for official publication in the Annual Report of the Government Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, for 1909, which, however, did not appear until August, 1910. This delay allowed the inclusion of some further details, and of information either unpublished or not avail- able at the time of writing the earlier article.
There appeared in the same month (February, 1910), in the Queensland Agricultural Journal, two short papers onthe subject, one by Tryon (1910, a), entitled ‘‘ Verminous Tumours in Cattle,’ in which the writer gave a list of Austra- * lian literature, and made public some official information contained in reports by Park, and the other by Dodd (1910 a), who disagreed with Park’s statements regarding the alleged frequent association between these nodules and tuberculosis. About the same time, Railliet and Henry (1910), in Paris, contributed a short paper on the Onchocerca group of parasites, and in it referred to the presence of encapsuled nematodes in the connective tissues of oxen having been recorded from Australia (Cleland ; Barnard: Park), and from Java (De Does). They also dealt with allied worms causing the formation of worm-nests in other hosts. They discovered that there exists in the horse two species of Onchocerca, one O. reticulata preferring the legs as its habitat, though found elsewhere; the other, O. cervicalis, frequenting the neck. O. armillata was described by them as a new species, infesting the aortic walls in oxen and buffaloes in India and Sumatra. Lingard (1905) had already called attention to the presence of aortic worms in Indian cattle. Neumann (1910, p. 270) shortly afterwards described another species, O. gutturosa, occurring fairly commonly in the cervical ligament in cattle in Algeria and Tunis. As already mentioned,
222 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
the Australian parasite, O. Gibsoni, prefers the brisket and flank.
The work of these French parasitologists was not ~available until after the publication of our official report on “* Worm-Nests (Filariasis) in Cattle” (Cleland and Johnston, 1910, c). Inthis article, we reviewed the Australian literature and the public health and pathological aspects of the condition. We also gave a more detailed account of the anatomy of the worm and of its relationship to: various other species of Onchocerca, such as O. volvulus,. which causes nodules in man in certain parts of Africa (Fulleborn, Rodenwaldt, Parsons, etc.), and O. reticulata,. which gives rise to a similar condition in horses (Pader). An account of experiments to determine the mode of transmission was also given. An allied parasite infest- ing the camel was dealt with incidentally, and was. thought to be perhaps identical with O. gibsoni. The camel parasite is, however, a distinct species (O. fasciata), as Railliet and Henry (1910) have shown. Some of the ground traversed by these authors was also covered by ourselves. Their paper reached us in time to allow us to add a reference to it as an addendum to the above article in its rearranged condition, when it was published in the form of two papers (1910, d, 1910, e), by the Royal Society of New South Wales.
Early in the present year (1911), a number of papers appeared, the most important being one by Leiper (1911, a), an article by Macfadden (1911) accompanying it. Others. were published, or rather republished, by the editor of the Journal of Meat and Milk Hygiene (Jan. 1911, p. 21-26), while the February number of the same journal contains. a brief article by Nicoll (1911).
Macfadden (1911) gave an account of the offcial method of inspecting the carcases in London, the present inspection being much more detailed and thorough than that detailed by Hancock (1910), as being in force a short time before. He referred to the heavy infection occurring in some shipments, and to the difficulty of coping with large consignments of Australian beef arriving at the port of London.
Leiper’s paper (1911, @) is a valuable one. In it he deals mainly with the anatomy, geographical distribution, and pathological effects of the parasite. In addition he
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A, D.SC, 228
makes suggestions regarding the probable life-history, these having been referred to earlier. In regard to the geographical distribution, he refers (p. 10) to an encysted parasite found by Stiles in 1892 in cattle in the United States, and mentioned under the name Filaria lienalis, Stiles. A description was not published,* and at a later -date (1894), this nematode was regarded as_ being “ Spiroptera reticulata.’ There is, therefore, little doubt, but that the parasite in question is an Onchocerca, perhaps identical with O. gibsoni, but I am inclined to believe that it will be found to be a different species, whose normal or original host may have been the bison. Some support for the idea that the two forms may be distinct is derived from the fact that Algerian oxen harbour a different species, O. gutturosa, Neumann, and that Indian and East Indian cattle may be parasitised apparently by two species, viz., O. gibsont and O. armillata. Ford (1903) met with one kind—* the aortic worms ’’—which form nodules in the -aortic walls of Malayan buffaloes. These are regarded by Leiper (1911, a, p. 10), as belonging to O. gibsoni, while Railliet and Henry (1910) describe the aortic worms which infest oxen and buffaloes in India and Sumatra as a distinct form, which they named O. armillata. If these species be identical, then the latter will rank as a synonym of O. _gibsom, only a few weeks separating their respective dates of publication. They appear to me to be specifically distinct. Tuck (1907, 1808) referred to the aortic worms as well as to another kind—also belonging to the Filariidae— from Indian and Siamese builocks. From the accounts _given, we had regarded both of these as being distinct from O. gibsont. It seems probable that the “aortic worms ” (which are not yet recorded from Australia) are O. armillata, and that the ordinary “‘ nodule worms” from the brisket -and flank are O. gibsoni. Ags already mentioned, O, _gutturosa is usually restricted to the cervical ligament.
*In Stiles and Hassall’s Index Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary _Zoology, part 29, 1910, p. 2266, there is a reference to a paper by Stiles [1892, g] ‘‘ On the presence of Spiroptera reticulata in cattle,” but mention sis made that the MS. was lost in the mail. The paper is, therefore, -uppublished.
t Lingard (1905) recorded their presence in Indian cattle.
224 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘* WORM-NODULES ”” IN CATTLE
Leiper (p. 7) does not definitely group all the Onchocerca worms producing nodules in cattle under one species. He confines himself to stating that “ this parasitic condition is known to occur not only in Australia, but also in the United States (Curtice; Stiles), in the Malay States (Daniels; Ford), and in India (Lingard).”’
De Does (1904), Dood and Ouwehand* recorded the occurrence of worm-nodules (worm-fibromata) in Javanese cattle.
In Nicoll’s article (1911), there is a brief summary regarding the parasite and the method of inspection of meat in England in order to detect its presence.
Quite recently an important paper by Gilruth and Sweet (1911), entitled “‘ Onchocerca gibsoni, the cause of Worm Nodules in Australian Cattle,’ has been published along with the greater part of our report (C. and J., 1910, c, d, e) by the Commonwealth Government. The work of these authors has been frequently alluded to in the present article. They corroborate our findings generally, and give additional information regarding the anatomy of the worm and the variation met with in the parasites, as well as the early developmental stages of the embryos. Their suggestion that lice may act as transmitters has been already referred to.
The Report. of the Agent-General for Queensland in London, 1910, has just been published (Robinson, Sept., 1911), and in it he again refers to the question of nodules in beef, mainiy from the commercial side. A brief article will shortly appear in the Queensland Agricultural Journal (Johnston, 1911, 6). There is aiso a brief reference made by Tryon (1911), in the Annual Report of the Agricultural Department, Queensland (1910-1911).
In concluding this summary, one must emphasise the fact that we need more definite knowledge regarding the means of transmission of the worm. ‘“ The elucida- tion of the life-history of the parasite is the most important part of the investigation of the disease. Until this is effected, no certain preventive measures can be framed or put into force.” (Nicoll, 1911).
*The articles by Ouwehand and Dood (mentioned by Neumann, 1910) are unknown to me.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 225
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ONCHOCERCIASIS.
Notr.—I have not been able to consult works marked with an asterisk.
Baneroit, t.. L:—
1983. ‘“‘ Notes on Some Diseases in Stock in Queens- land,” in Report of Chief Inspector, 1892 (1863), Appendix, p. 4.
Barnard, C. KH. and Park, A.—
1894—“*‘ Notes on Spiroptera associated with Tuber- culosis in Cattle.” Report Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., V., 1893 (1894), p. 642-5.
Braun, M.—
1908. ‘‘ Die tierische Parasiten des Menschen,” 1£08 Edition. Also English Translation of Earlier Edition.
Brumpt, E.—
*1904. ‘* Apropos dela Filaria volvulus, Leuckt.”? Revue
de Medic et d’Hyg. tropic., 1904. Cleland, J. B.—
1807. “The Diseases of Animals and Meat Inspection in Western Australia.” Journ. Agric., West Australia, XV., 1907, p. 84-94 (p. 88).
1908. The same as above. Report Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1907 (1908), p. 686.
1909(a). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Science, IV., 1909, p. 491-8.
1909(6). ‘‘ Trypanosomiasis, etc., in Camels.” Dept. Agric., West Austr., Buil. 34, 1909, p. 8, etc.
1809(c). Same as 1909(6)—reprinted in Jour Trop. Vet. Sci., LV., 1809, p. 316-344 (p. 324).
Cleland, J. B., and Johnston, T. H.—
1910(a). ‘‘ Worm-Nests in Cattle due to Filaria gibsont —Preliminary Report.’ Agric. Gazette, N.S. Wales, XXI., Feb., 1910, p. 173-4.
1910(b). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci., V., 1910, p. 520-1.
1910(c). ‘* Worm-nests (Pilariasis) in Cattle.’ Annual Report of Govt. Bureau of Microbiology for 1809 (Sydney, N.S. Wales), I., 1909 (August, 1910), p. 91-99. ;
226 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘* WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
1910(d). ‘‘ Worm-nests in Australian Cattle due to Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni, with Notes on Similar Structures in Camels.” Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XLIV., 1910, p. 156-171. 1910(e). ‘* On the Anatomy and Possible Mode of Trans- mission of Filaria (Onchocerca) gibsoni. Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., XLIV., 1910, p. 171-189. 1910(f). The same as 1910(c).—Reprinted by the editor under the title ‘‘ Worm-nests in Cattle due to Filaria gibsoni,” in Jour. Comp. Pathol. Therap., XXIII., Dec., 1910, p. 335-353. 1911(a). The same as 1910(a),—reprinted in Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., Jan., 1911, p. 21-3. 1911(b). Reprint of 1910(d) and 1910(e) by Common- wealth Govt.—See under Gilruth and Sweet. Curtice, C.— *1892—‘‘ Parasites, etc.” Jour. Comp. Med., and Vet. Archives, XIII. 7, p. 223-236. Daniels, C. W.— *1904. ‘“‘ Studies from Institute for Medical Research, Malay States,” III., p. 17. Diesing, K. M.— 1851—‘‘ Systema helminthum,” II., 1851, p. 287. De Does, J.— *1904. ‘“‘ Wormfibromen en Filaria—embryoen in het bloed.” Geneeskundig Tijd. v. Ned. Ind., Deel. XLIV. (5), Batavia, 1804, 15 pp.T Dodd, 8.— 1910(a). ‘‘ Spiroptera reticulata in Cattle.’ Queensland Agric. Journal, Feb., 1910, p. 86. 1910(b). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sci., V., 1910, p. 518. Dood,— *Quoted by Neumann, 1910. Ford, T. A.— *1903. Veterinary Record, June, 14, 1903. See Tuck. Filleborn, F.— 1908. ‘‘ Uber Filaria volvulus, Leuckt.’”’ Beiheft 7, zum. Arch. f. Schiffis, u. Tropenhyg., XII., 1908,
pp. 1-17.
t I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Henry Tryon, Government Entomologist, for the opportunity of seeing this paper.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 227 Filleborn, F., and Rodenwaldt, E.— 1908. *‘ Filarien”’? in Real Encyclopadie d. ges. Heilk- inde Auil., 4, Vol. V., p. 81,, etc.
1893. ‘“‘ Notes on Certain *‘ Worm-nests’ or ‘ Worm- Knots,’ occurring in the cellular tissues of the brisket in Cattle.” Trans. Intercol. Med. Congr. Austr. II1., 1892 (1893), p. 576-580.
Gilruth, J. A., and Sweet, G.—
1911. ‘‘ Onchocerca gibsoni, the cause of Worm Nodules in Australian Cattle,’ published by the Federal ‘Govt. (Commonwealth of Australia— N.S.W. Govt. Printer, Sydney), 1911, p. 1-34.
On pages 35 to 58 is reprinted (almost in full), Cleland and Johnston, 1910 (d), and 1910 (e). Hancock, G.—
191i. *‘ Report on the Examination of Queensland Beef in the Port of London for the presence of Spiroptera reticulata’ (August, 1910)—quoted by Editor Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., 1911, p. 24-6.
Johnston, T. H.—
1909. Proce. Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, XXXIV., 1909, p. 412.
191i(a). This paper, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q’land, 1911.
1911(6). ‘‘ A brief account of the worm nodules occurring in Cattle.’ Queensland Agric. Journal, Dec., 1911.
Johnston, T. H., and Cleland, J. B., see Cleland and Johnston
Labadie-Lagrave and Deguy, 1899.‘‘ Un cas de Filaria vovulus.”’ Arch. d. Parasitologie, IIJ., 1899, p. 451-460. |
Leese, A. S.—
1910. Annual Report of the Veterinary Offcer inves- tigating Camel Diseases, for the year ending: 31st March, 1910. p. 13.
Leiper, R. T.—
19li(a). ‘‘ Report on Onchocerciasis in Cattle, with Special reference to the structure and bionomic characters of the parasite.” In Reports to the Local Govt. Board, etc., London. New Series, No. 45 (food reports, No. 11), 1911, p. 6-16.
228 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
1911(6). The same—reprinted in Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., 15th March, 1911, p. 87-93.
1911(c). Dr. Leiper’s conclusions republished in Q’land. Agric. Jour., April, 1911, p. 220-1. Under the title ‘‘ Parasitic Nodules in Australian Beef.”
1911 (d) Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond., 1911, p. 45.
Leuckart, R.—
*In Davidson’s Hygiene and Diseases of Warm Climates,
1893. Lingard, A.—
*1905. (a) ‘* Observations on the filarial embryos found in the general circulation of the Equide and Bovide, and their probable pathological sig- nificance.’’ London.
1905 (6). This paper referred to in Lancet, 23rd Sep- tember, 1905, p. 893-4; Brit. Med. Jour., 11th Novr., 1905, p. 1299; Bull. d. V’Inst., Pasteur, IIL, 30th Nov., 1905, p. 933-4; Vet. Journ., XII. (ns.), Dec., 1905, p. 381; Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., VIII., Ist Sept., 1805, p. 268-9.
Looss, A.—
1905.—In Mense’s Handb., d. Tropenkrankheiten,
Leipzig, 1905. | Macfadden, A. W. J.—
1911. ‘“* Report on Meat Inspection at English Ports in regard to Onchocerciasis.” In Reports to Local Govt. Board, ete.
New Series, No. 45. (Food Reports, No. 11), 1911, py, t-b. Manson, P.— *1893. Skin Diseases, 1893, p. 893. Morris, W.—
1881. Jour. Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, XIV., 1880
(1881), p. 337. Neumann, L. G.—
1905. A Treatise on the Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals. Engl. transl., of French Edition.
1910. ‘‘Un nouveau Nematode parasite de Boeuf (Onchocerca gutturosa, n. sp.)”
Revue vétérinaire, May, 1911, p. 270-8. A
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 229
translation of the same, reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Science. VI., 1911, p. 101-5. Nicoll, W.— 1911. ‘‘ Onchocerciasis in Cattle,’ Jour. Meat and Milk Hyziene [., 1911; pei. Ouwehand— * Mentioned by Neumann, 1910. Pader, J.—
1901. “* Filariose du ligament suspenseur du_ boulet chez le cheval.” Arch, d. Parasitologie, IV., 1901, p. 58-95.
Park, A.—
1893. “*‘ Parasitic Diseases in the Colony of Queens- land.’ Vet. Journ. and Annals of Comp. Pathol, XXXVITI., 1893, p. 102-7.
1910. Report to Chief Inspector of Stock, also various newspaper articles (1893), summarised in Tyron 1910 (a), p. 82-3, p. 83-4.
Park, A. and Barnard, C. E.—
1894. See Barnard and Park.
Parsons, A. €.—
1909. “ Filaria volvulus, ete.” in Parasitology LI.,
1908, (1909), p. 359-368.
Penel, R.— *1905 (a), ‘‘ Les Filaires du sang de Phomme.”’ Paris, 1905. 1905. (6), ‘‘ Les Filaires” in Arch. d. Parasitol, IX., p. 187-204. Pound, C. J.— 1909. In Rep. Agric. Dept. Q’land, for 1808-9 (1909), pis eae Prout, W.—
1901. (a) ‘“‘ A Filaria found in Sierra Leone (? Filaria volvulus, Leuckt).”’ Brit. Med. Jour., Jan. 1901, p. 209-211. 1901. (6) ‘“‘ Observations on Filaria volvulus.” Arch. d. Parasitol., IV., 1801, p. 301-307. Railliet, A.— 1895. Traité d. Zool. médic. et agricole, 1895. Railliet, A. and Henry, A.— 1910. Les Onchocerques, etc. C. R. Soc. Biol., Paris, LXVIIL., 1910, p. 248-251.
| 230 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ‘‘ WORM-NODULES ”’ IN CATTLE
Robinson, T. B.— : 1910. Report of the Agent-General (London) for Queens- land, for 1909 (1910), p. 6. . 1911. Report of the Agent-General (London), for Qland for 1909 (1910). Rodenwaldt, E.— 1908. ‘* Filaria volvulus. Arch. f. Schiffs, u. Tropen- hygiene, XII., 1908, p. 701-2. Stanley, E.— 1893. Report to Board of Health, N.S. Wales, 1893. Stiles, C. W.— *1892. (a) *‘ A word in regard to Pilaritdae, found in the body cavity of horses and cattle.’ Jour. Comp. Med. and Vet., Arch. XIII., 1892, p. 143-147. *1892. (b) “A check list of Animal parasites of cattle, etc.’ Jour. Comp. Med. and Vet. Arch., 1892, p. 346-350. | 1892. (c) ‘On the presence of Spiroptera reticulate in cattle.’ Stiles and Hassall, in their IJndex Catalogue of Med. and Vet. Laterature, p. 2266, refer to the fact that the M.S. was lost in the mail. ‘This paper is, therefore, unpublished. *1894. ‘“‘ A preliminary catalogue of the parasites in the U.S. National Museum.” Vet. Magazine, May, 1894. Tryon, H.— 1910. (a) ‘“‘ Verminous tumours in cattle—Australian literature.’ Q’land Agric. Journal, 1910, p. 81-4. 1910. (6) The same, reprinted in Jour. Trop. Vet. Sei, V., 1910, p. 511-516. | 1911. ‘‘ Verminous tumours of Cattle” in Report of Govt. Entomologist—Report Dept. Agric. Stock, Qland, 1910-1911 (i911), p. 73. Tuck, G. L.— 1907. ‘‘ Observations on some worms found in the aortas of buffaloes and bullocks.” Jour. Trop. Vet. Sei., I1., 1507, p. 69-100. 1908. The same—published in Studies Inst. Mea. Research, Malay Straits, Singapore, IIl., 1608, p- 19-66. 1907. Abstracts of same in Veterinary Record, X!IX., 1907, p.- 648-9.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 231
Védy, L.—
*1906. “‘ Filariose dans le district de 1’ Uele.’ Bull. Acad. roy. d. Méd. d. Belgique, Dec., 1906, p. 966-976.
Ziemann.—
*1907. Medizinal—be-ichte tiber die deutschen Schutzgebiete ftir das Jahr, 1905-1906. Berlin, 1907, p. 148, 179 (cuoted by Filleborn and Roden- waldt, p. 84).
Editorial Abstracts and reviews—
1910. Brit. Med. Journ., 3 Dec., 1910, p. 1796-7— referring to Leiper, 1911 (d.)
1911 (a). Lancet, 4 Feb., 1911, p. 317—referring to Leiper, 1911 (a).
1911 (0). ““ Imported parasitic Colonial Beef.” Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., 1911, p. 24-6. Abstracted from Annual Report of Med. Officer of Health for Corp. of London for 1809, p. 106-7 and also from Hancock (Q.V.)
1911 (c). <‘* Australian Meat Regulations.”’ Jour. Meat and Milk Hygiene, I., I911, p. 351.
The greater number of the abovementioned papers deal either wholly or in part with Onchocerciasis in cattle but some of them refer only to a similar condition in man, and a few to that met with in horses and camels. For further literature regarding Onchocerciasis in horses, see Pader (/.c.), as well as various veterniary textbooks.
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A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN KNTOZOA,
—_. —_. -——~
By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., Biology Department, University, Brisbane.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, October 28th, : 1911,
THE present paper is the result of an attempt to collect references to the occurrence of entozoa and haematozoa in Australian reptiles, the term Australian being used in a wide sense so as to include forms from New Guinea and New Britain, as was done in a similar paper on avian entozoa. (Johnston, 1910 c.)
Many of the following records, more especially those which give merely the generic name of a nematode infest- ing a certain host, are of little value, but for the sake of completeness, they have been tabulated. Dr. Sweet (1908) has already collected a number of earlier records and published them in her Census of Australian Entozoa. The greater part of the literature referring to our reptilian haema- tozoa has been brought together in papers by Dr. Cleland and myself. (Johnston and Cleland, 1910 @; 1911 a.)
I have mentioned synonyms of the accepted specific name of the host only in those cases where a recorder of the occurrence of a parasite has referred to the host under such hame.
OPHIDIA. 1. PyruHon sprmoTes Lacep, (syn. Morelia spilotes.) The Diamond Snake. *a Hemogregarina shattocki, Sambon & Seligmann, 1907, p. 284; Sambon, 1907, p. 310; Sambon, 1909, p. 111 ; Dobell, 1908, p. 291 (Hamogregarina sp.) ; Laveran, 1908, p. 103.
*a, denotes that the parasite is a Protozoon; b, that it is a Cestode; c, a Trematode ; d, a Nematode; e, an Acanthocephalan; f, a Linguatulid.
234 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
Sambon’s and Dobell’s specimens were obtained in England, hence the original locality of the host is not recorded. As has been already pointed out (Johnston, 1909 6, p. 403), the snake must have come from the coastal district of New South Wales, if the popular and scientifie names be correct.
b i., Bothridium pythonis, Blainville—more commonly known under the name of Solenophorus megaloce-~ phalus (megacephalus), Creplin.
Baird (1865 a p. 68 ; 1865 6 p. 52)- described a cestode under the name of Bothridium arcuatum, from this host. Monticelli and Crety (1891, reprint p. 17) after having examined Baird’s original material stated it to be a synonym of Blainville’s species. Krefft (1871, p. 214) referred to Baird’s description. Specimens have been taken (Johnston 1910 d, p. 28) from diamond snakes killed near Sydney.
ii, Sparganum sp.
IT have several Bothriocephalid larve from the sub- cutaneous tissues of this host (Hawkesbury River). They resemble at least externally, those recorded here from the connective tissues of other reptiles such as Python varie- gatus (N.S.W. and Queensland), Varanus varius (Burnett River), Varanus gouldii (Burnett River), Dendrophis punctulatus (Burnett River), while an allied form is occas- ionally found in certain frogs between the muscles of the thigh —Hyla ‘cerulea (Burnett River and Sydney), Hyla aurea (Sydney and Perth, West Australia). The parasites referred to as Bothriocephalus mansoni, by Spencer (1892, p. 433) and by Hill (1905, p. 378) whose specimens were found in human beings, should perhaps be grouped merely as Sparganum sp., as their identity with Cobbold’s forms is doubtful. Similar specimens of a Sparganum have been forwarded to me by Mr. Desmond, Government Veterinarian, Adelaide, who found them in the subcutaneous tissues of of a fox in South Australia. Probably the adult forms of these occur in snakes.
d. Ascaris sp., Krefft (1871, p. 214).
A large Ascarid occurs fairly frequently in this species and in P. variegatus (N.S.W. and Queensland).
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 235.
2. PYTHON SPILOTES var. variegata, Gray (syn. Morelia variegata). The Carpet snake.
Unlike P. spilotes, this reptile has a very wide range over Australia.
i, Hemogregarina shattocki. Sambon & Seligmann. Johnston, 1909 6, p. 403; 19106, p. 42 (Enoggera, Brisbane) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 487 (Burnett River).
i., Hemogregarina morelie, Johnston, 1909 b, p. 404; 1910 6, p. 43 (Abrolhos, West Australia).
iii., Haemogregarina megalocystis, Gilruth, Sweet and Dodd, 1910, p. 234 (Victoria).
H. megalocystis is very like H. bancrofti from Pseudechis australis and P. mortonensis (vide infra), in regard to its detrimental effect on the parasitised erythrocyte. The other two haemogregarines will be referred to again (mde infra).
oe Bothridium pythons, Blainville—Johnston, 1910
d, p. 28 (N. S. Wales).
ii. Sparganum sp. in subcutaneous tissues (Hawkes- bury River). ad Ascaris sp., Krefft, 1871, p. 214. Occurs also in Python spslotes. | 3. PYTHON AMETHYSTINUS, Schn. a Hemogregarina amethystina, Johnston, 1909 a, p. 257; 1910 b, p. 42. (Port Curtis, Queensland. ) As a result of having examined haemogregarines from a considerable number of reptiles, it has become evident to me that these haematozoa vary a good deal in form and size. I now regard H. amethystina, H. moreliae, H. shattocki (from Australian pythons) and H. pococki, Sambon (from Python molurus) as being identical, and that they are all (as Dobell suggests in the case of Sambon’s forms) synony- mous with H. pythonis (Billet) Labbé. We cannot agree entirely with Dobell’s suggestion that the generic name of the host might be added as a temporary specific name. We have adopted this method where convenient, but we have met with cases where this would be inapplicable. For example from species of Pseudechis, we have described two haemogregarines differing widely in regard to their
236 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
effect on the red cell; Python variegatus harbours at least two quite distinct forms ; and then again we (J. & C., 1911 a) have met with a species in Varanus Gould‘ which, to our minds, is certainly different from that usually met with in V. varius,
4, DENDROPHIS PUNCTULATUS, Gray. The green tree-snake.
a Hemogregarina dendrophidis, Johnston & Cleland, 1910, a, p. 680 (Burnett River).
b Sparganum sp., from the mesentery and _ sub- cutaneous tissues—collected by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, Burnett River.
5. DIPSADOMORPHUS IRREGULARIS, Merrem.
All the following entozoa were collected by Dr. A. Willey in New Britain.
b Phyllobothrium dipsadomorphi, Shipley, 1900, p. 550.
d i., Physaloptera obtusissima, Molin; Stossich in Shipley, 1900, p. 559.
ii., Physaloptera retusa, Rud.; Stossich in Shipley, 1900, p. 559.
iil., Diaphanocephalus appendiculatus Molin: Stossich in Shipley, 1900, p. 560.
f. Porocephalus tortus, Shipley, 1898, p. 52; 1900, p. 563.
6. DIEMENIA PSAMMOPHIS, Schl. The whip snake.
No parasites have been described from this host though a mere mention of the occurence of Porocephalus sp., Physa- loptera sp., and Ascaris sp. has been made (Johnston, 1910, a, p. xviii; 1910 d, p. 309), Sydney.
7. DIEMENIA RETICULATA, Gray (perhaps more correctly D. PSAMMOPHIS var. RETICULATA).
This Western Australian reptile is sometimes known locally as a “ spinifex snake.”’ Krefft recorded the presence of some parasites but did not give any indication of the locality, in fact one is led to believe that the host came from Queensland or New South Wales. As a matter of fact, his material was from Western Australia. Dr. J. B. Cleland has been kind enough te hand over to me specimens
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 237
which he collected in North Western Australia, and I have had
an opportunity of inspecting Krefft’s collection also. The
latter is very indifferently preserved.
a Hemogregarina sp., Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, p. 682. (N.W. West Australia.)
d Physaloptera sp., Krefit, 1871, p. 214.
I have a few specimens collected by Dr. Cleland.
e Echinorhynchus sp., Krefit, 1871, p. 214.
I have some immature echinorhynchus from the sub- peritoneal tissues (Johnston, 1910 d, p. 659) collected by Dr. Cleland.
f Porocephalus sp., Krefit (1871, p. 214) recorded the presence of Pentastomum in the lung of the above snake. ‘His specimens are specifically identical with those which I have received (Johnston, 1910 d, p. 28) from Dr. Cleland. For the present they may be provisionally identified as Porocephalus teretiusculus (Baird), which they very closely resemble.
8. DIEMENIA TEXTILIS, Dum. & Bibr. The brown snake. a Trypanosoma sp., Tyrie and Love, 1906, p. 408. This record is based upon the following extract. “ Dr.
Love exhibited under the microscope a Trypanosome from
the blood of a brown snake, sent by Dr. Tyrie.” North
Queensland.
d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1910 d, p. 309. (Sydney).
e Echinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi; 1910 d, p. 659.
Adult forms in the intestine, and larval forms in the
subperitoneal tissues. (Sydney ; Hunter River.)
Bennett in his book ‘‘ Wanderings in New South Wales, 1834,” Vol. I., p. 215, refers to the presence of bright red worms one and a-half to two inches long, affecting the lung and perforating the stomach wall of the brown snake. The lung worm is possibly Porocephalus teretiusculus. The stomach worm may have been a Diaphanocephalus or other Strongyle.
9. PSEUDECHIS PORPHYRIACUS, Shaw. The Black snake. a Hemogregarina pseudechis, Johnston, 1909 b, p. 406 ;
1910 b, p. 48 (Sydney) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 487 (Hawkesbury River).
238 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
6b i., Proteocephalus gallardi, Johnston, 1911 a, p 175 (from various districts of New South Wales and
from Gippsland, Victoria). Previously recorded
as Ichthyotaenia sp. (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi; p. Xviil.)
This tapeworm also infests the Tiger Snake, Notechis’
scyutatus (Sydney district). ii, Sparganum sp. Larval forms of a Bothriocephalid
have been taken by me from the subperitoneal
tissues (Sydney).
c Hemiurus sp., from the intestine. Also previously recorded from Denisonia superba (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii) under the synonym Apoblema (Sydney district).
d Diaphanocephalus sp. (Kalicephalus sp.) from the
alimentary tract (Sydney).
e Echinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1909 c, p. 590. From the rectum. A common parasite (Hawkesbury River ; Sydney).
f Porocephalus teretiusculus (Baird).
This parasite infests the lungs of some of our venomous: snakes and has generally been referred to as Pentastomum teretiusculum. Baldwin Spencer (1888, :p. 110) first recorded it from the host from King Island as Pentastomum sp., but later (1892, p. 1) gave a full account of it under Baird’s name. (Victoria.) Shipley (1898, p. 77) summarised Spencer’s and Baird’s accounts. I here record the occur- rence of the parasite in New South Wales (Blue Mountains). 10. PSEUDECHIS AUSTRALIS, Gray. A Northern Black Snake.
a Hemogregarina bancrofti, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a,
-p. 486. Films kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Ban- croft, from Eidsvold, Burnett River, Queensland.
h i. Proteocephalus sp. (EKidsvold, Burnett River.
This cestode is closely related to but not identical with, P. gallardi, but a tapeworm which I have taken from Denisonia superba belongs to the same species as the parasite from this host.
ii. Sparganum sp.
From the mesentery collected from a snake, forwarded by Dr. Bancroft. (Eidsvold, Burnett River).
~-
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, MA., D.SC. 239
11. PSEUDECHIS MORTONENSIS, De Vis.
a Hemogregarina bancrofti, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 486. (Eidsvold, Burnett River.)
12. DENISONIA SUPERBA, Gunther. (Syn. Hoplocephalus superbus). The Copper-headed Snake.
b i Piestocystis hoplocephali, Hill, 1894, p. 49.
Occuring in cysts in the peritoneum around the intestine. (N.S. W.)
ii, Proteocephalus sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii.
This cestode is specifically identical with that referred to above as occurring in Pseudechis australis, and differs only in minor details from Proteocephalus gallardi. Recorded from Sydney district under the synonym Ichthyotaenia sp.
c 1. Hemeurus sp.
From the oesophagus (Sydney). Recorded as A poblema sp. (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii). It also infests the Black Snake.
d Trichosomum sp., (Johnston, 1910 a, p. xviii). From
the intestine. (Sydney.)
f Porocephalus teretiusculus, (Baird):
This ~entastome was described by Baird (1862, p. 114) having been taken from the lung of a snake belonging to this species which had died at the London Zoological Gar- dens. Krefft (1871, p. 211) hereby mentioned Baird’s species. B. Spencer (1892, p. 1) found the parasite in D. superba (Victoria) as well as in Pseudechis porphyriacus. Shipley (1898: p. 76) referred to its occurrence in this host. Porecephalus sp., recorded by me (1910 a, p. xviii) from the same host (Sydney district) belongs to Baird’s species.
13. NoTECHIS scuTATUS, Peters—syn. Hoplocephalus curtus. D. & B. The Tiger Snake.
b Proteocephalus gallardi, Johnston.
Tapeworms which | have taken from a Tiger Snake killed near Sydney, have been identified as belonging to the same species as those from the black snake. WNotechis scutatus is thus a newly recorded host for this entozoon. Kitson’s reference (1904, p. 147) to the occurrence of a long cestode in this host is of no value.
240 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1909 d, p. 590—from the stomach and duodenum (Sydney district). 14. ACANTHOPHIS ANTARCTICUS, Shaw. The death adder. d Physaloptera antarctica, Linstow, 1899, p. 15. (South Australia). 15. Furrma occrpirauis, D. & B. The ringed snake. d Diaphanocephalus, sp. (Kidsvold, Burnett River). 16. A LarGe UNIDENTIFIED SNAKE—from the Bismarck Archipelago. d i Physaloptera, sp. Linstow, 1897, p. 286. ii Ascaris papillifera. Linstow, 1897, p. 281. LACERTILIA. 17. GyMNoDACTYLUS mMILIUSII, Bory. (Syn. Phyllurus milius:t.)
d Ascaris sp. Kreffit, 1871, p. 214.
18. DIrePLODACTYLUS ViITTATUS, Gray, syn. JD. ornatus, Gray.
f Porocephalus sp. Recorded by Krefft (1871, p. 214)
as Pentastomum sp. 19. Gpura TRYONI, De Vis
a i Hemogregarina sp.
ii Hemocystidium sp.
Both were found by Dr. Cleland and myself in a film kindly forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft (Eidsvold, Burnett River).
20. LiaLis BURTONU, Gray. The slow worm. b Piestocystis lialis, Hill, 1894, p. 61. (N.S.W.) d Physaloptera sp. Johnston, 1910 a, vp. xvii. (Sydney.) 21. AMPHIBOLURUS MURICATUS, White. d Strongylus paronai, Stossich, 1902.
bo bo
2. AMPHIBOLURUS BARBATUS, Cuv. The Jew lizard.
d Strongylus paronat, Stossich.
IT am referring to Stossich’s species some Strongyleg collected by Dr. Cleland in the Moree district, N.S. Wales. 23. PHYSIGNATHUS LESUEURII, Gray. The water dragon.
d Microfilaria sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 489. Found in blood smears forwarded by Dr. Bancroft (Bidsvold) Burnett River), who afterwaids ‘discovered the
BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 241
adults in the mesenteric veins. The finding of filarial embryos in the blood of reptiles is rare, this being the only recorded instance as far as Australian reptilia are concerned. 24. CHLAMyDOSAURUS Kinet, Gray. The frilled lizard.
d Strongylus paronai, Stossich.
Some specimens taken by me from a frilled lizard for- warded by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River), are provisionally referred to this species.
25. VARANUS INDICUS, Daud.
b Palaia varani, Shipley, 1900, p. 548. d Physaloptera varan, Parona. Stossich in Shipley, 1900, p. 560.
Both species were collected by Dr. Willey in New Britain. In regard to Palaia varani, the account given does not allow of the genus being properly placed. It seems to me probable that Palaia is a synonym of Proteo- cephalus.
26. VARANUS VARIUS, Shaw. The monitor.
a Hemogregarina varanicola, Johnston & Cleland, 1910 4, p. 683 (N.S.W.) ; 1911 a, p. 487. (Burnett River)
Hemogregarina sp. Gilruth, 1910, p. 36 (Victoria)
is the same.
b i Proteocephalus tidswelli, Johnston, 1910 a, p. 103;
1910 6, p. 87 (N.S. W.?)
This species was first described as Ichthyotaenia (Acan- thoteenia) tidswelli, but Benedict (1), La Rue (2) and others have shown that Weinland’s genus has priority over Lonn- berg’s Ichthyotaenia. I have already shown (1910 a, p. 113- 114) that Linstow’s genus Acanthotaenia is a synonym of Proteocephaius.
ii Sparganum sp.
From the sub-peritoneal tissue. (Burnett River— collected by Dr. Bancroft.)
d Physaloptera sp—P. varani, Parona ?
Johnston, 1909 e, p. 115; 1910 a, p. xi; 1910 6, p. 88 (N.S. W.)
(1.) Benedict, H.—On the Structure of Two Fish Tapeworms, from the genus Proteocephalus. Weinland—-Jour. Morphology XVI, p. 337; Studies from Zool. Lab. Univ., Nebraska, No. 33, Jan., 1900.
(2.) La Rue, G.—On the Morphology and Development of a New Cestode of the genus Proteoeephalus. Weinland.—Studies Zool. Lak Univ., Nebraska, No. 95, Dec., 1909.
242 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
27. VARANUS GOULDII, Gray. Gould’s Monitor. a Heemogregarina gouldii, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 488. Found in films forwarded by Dr. Bancroft from Eidsvoid. b i Proteocephalus tidswelli, Johnston. Some fragments coliected from a specimen (Burnett River) probably belong to this species. ii Sparganum sp. Specimens were forwarded to me by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River) who found them in the subperitoneal tissues. d Physaloptera sp—P. varani, Parona? Johnston, 1910 d, p. 524. I have specimens from this host from Queensland (Dr. Bancroft—Eidsvold), West Australia (Dr. Cleland), Victoria (Mr. A. 8. LeSouef) and New South Wales (T.H.J.)
28. VARANUS sp. From New Guinea.
b i Proteocephalus birot (Ratz). Ratz, 1900 a, p. 658.
ii Proteocephalus saccifera (Ratz). Ratz, 1900 a, p. 658.
iii Taenia mychocephala (Ratz), 1900 a, p. 659.
The two former were described under the genus I[chthyo- iaenia. A description of the three species is given in Ratz, 1900 a, ‘p. 657 ; 1900 6, p. 980; 1901, p. 329.
29. EGERNIA CUNNINGHAMI, Gray.
Krefft (1871, p. 214) mentioned finding worms in this host. They appear to belong to the Oxyuridae. (N.S.W.) 30. EGERNIA wuHitu, Lacep. (Syn. Lygosoma (Hinulia)
whitii, Steind.)
d Ascaris sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 214.
31. TRACHYSAURUS “RUGOSUS, Gray.
d Oxyuris tuberculata, Linstow, 1904, p. 300 (Australia). 32. Tir1qguA SCINCOIDES, White. The Common sleeping
or Blue-tongued lizard.
« Hemogregarina tiliquae, Johnston & Cleland, 1911, a
p. 484. (Hawkesbury River.)
d Physaloptera sp. Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi (Sydney). 33. Tr1qgua GiGAs, Schn., syn. Cyclodus gigas, Schn.
d Physaloptera sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 214.
Boulenger (Cat. Reptilia-Lizards, Edit. 2, III., p. 145) states that the localities from which this lizard is known are
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 243
New Guinea, Moluccas and Java, Australia not being mentioned. 34. TILIQUA OCCIPITALIS, Peters. (Syn. Cyclodus occipit. lis.) d Physaloptera antarctica, Linstow, 1889, p. 15 (South Australia). 35. Lycosoma (HINULIA) TAENIOLATUM, White. a i Hemogregarina sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 479. ii Trypanosoma sp. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 479. Both of these haemotozoa were found in a film forwarded by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River). e Echinorhynchus sp. From the intestine. (Hawkesbury River, N.S.W.) f Porocephalus sp. Krefft (1871, p. 214) recorded the occurrence of Pentasto- mum in the lung. 36. Lygosoma (HinvuLiIA) Quoyi, Dum. & Bibr. a Hoemogregarina hinulie, Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, p. 684, Hawkesbury River); 1911 a, p. 487 (Sydrey). e Kchinorhynchus sp., Johnston, 1909, d, p. xxix. (Hawkesbury River). From the intestine. 37. Lycosoma (HINULIA) TENUE, Gray. d Physaloptera sp., Johnston, 1910 a, p. xi. (Hunter River.) CROCODILIA. No entozoa have, as far as I know, been described from Australian crocodiles.
CHELONIA.
38. CHELONIA MyDAS, Linn. (Syn. Chelone mydas). The Green Turtle.
¢ i Amphistoma scleroporum, Creplin.
ii Octangium sagitta, Looss.
Neither of these trematodes had been previously recorded from Australian hosts. They were known from Mediter- ranean turtles. Amphistoma scleroporum is insufficiently known, Braun’s single specimen (Braun, 1901, p. 56) which he referred to Creplin’s species, being immature. It was 8.2 mm. long by 2.2 mm. broad and possessed only rudi- ments of the genitalia. Looss (1901, p. 623) in his descrip-
H
244 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
tion of A. spinulosum from Chelone mydas from Egypt, states that mature specimens are from 5 to 5.6 mm. long and are thus much smaller than Braun’s specimen of A. scleroporum. Later (1902, p. 430) he referred to specimens 7.5 to 8 mm. long, about 1.6 mm. broad and | to 1.6 mm. in thickness, and mentioned that they were of a pale flesh- red colour when alive. He also stated that the species was unmistakeably like Braun’s form. My specimens (collected on Mast Head Island, at the southern end of the Barrier Reef by Mr. L. Harrison in October, 1910) are from 7.5 to 9 mm. long by from 2.4 to 3 mm. broad. The characters are those of A. scleroporum. The anatomy is strikingly like that figured by Looss (1902) for A. spinylosum, the main difference being that, in some of my specimens, the vitellaria extend a little further forward and the testes are more markedly lobed.
Octangium sagitta was originally described by Lees (1899, ‘p. 772) as Microscapha sagitta, being transferred later to Octangium (1902, p. 685).
39. ERETHMOCHELYS IMBRICATA L. Syn. Chelone cata L.
imbri-
Shipley (1900, p. 532) described a trematode which he regarded as belonging to Monostomum trigonocephalum Rud., the material having been collected by Willey (New Britain ?) Braun (1901) recognised that Shipley had had more than one species before him. He stated (p. 51) that M. trigono- cephalum Shipley 1900, p. 532, pl. 54, fig. 1, did not belong to Rudolphi’s species but to M. rubrum (p. 45): that the form figured on plate 44, figs. lc, 3, 4, 5, 7, as well as Cricocephalus delitescens Looss (1899, ‘p. 759) belong to M. album ; and (p. 38) that Pronocephalus trigonocephalus Looss (1899, ‘p. 756) as well as some of Shipley’s forms belong to Rudolphi’s species. In 1901 Looss (1901, :p. 566) recognised that his trigonocephalus was distinct from Rudolphi’s and consequently re-described it as a new species Pr. obliquus, while Rudolphi’s species was made (1901, p. 567: 1902, p. 548) the type of a new genus Pleurogonius. He stated (1902, p. 549) that some of Shipley’s forms, viz., those described and figured, belonged to this species, while certain forms which were figured but not described, belonged to Cricocephalus albus (K.& Hass.) Looss, which Looss admitted
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 245
(p. 532) to be identical with his C. delitescens ; and that (p. 527) Braun’s account (1901) of M. trigonocephalum ‘included at least two distinct species, Pronocephalus obliquus Looss (on page 40) and M. trigonocephalum Rud. (on p. 3) and in all probability (according to Looss, 1902, p. 557 footnote) includes also a third form, HE pibathra crassa Looss. He regarded M. trigonocephalum of Van Beneden 1859 and of Walter, 1893, as belonging to Plewrogonius longius- -culus Looss (1901, p~. 568; 1902, :p. 558).
From the foregoing it appears that Willey’s collection really contained the following :—
i Pleurogonius trigonocephalum (Rud.) Looss.
ii Cricocephalus albus (K. & Hass.) Looss.
Braun believed that Monostomum rubrum K. & H. was also present. Looss (1902) does not refer to this species. 40. A SEA TORTOISE.
The following trematodes were identified by Braun (1899) from material collected in the Bismarck Archipalego by Dahl. He dealt with a number of other forms from ‘Chelonians in the same paper.
i Distomum gelatinosum Rud. (p. 716).
ii D. irroratum, Rud. (p. 717).
iii Monostomum album, K. & Hass. (jp. 723).
iv M. rubrum, K. & Hass. (p. 724).
D. gelatinosum is called Rhytidodes gelatinosus by Looss (1901, p. 563 ; 1902, p. 445) ; D. irroratum becoming Pachyp- solus irroratus (Rud.), Looss (1901, p. 55; 1902, p. 485) ; and M. album, Cricocephalus albus (Looss, 1902, p. 532).
Braun (1899) has been misquoted by Dr. Sweet (1908 “pp. 459, 460, 463, 464) who includes the following species ‘in error as having been amongst those collected in New Britain by Dahl. | i Amphistoma scleroporum, Crepl. (p. 725). ii Distomum amphiorchis, Braun (p. 719). i.e., Orchid- asma amphiorchis (Braun) Looss, 1901, p. 560; 1902, p. 463. iii Distomum anthos, Braun (‘p. 720)—Calycodes anthos (Braun) Looss, 1901, p. 565; 1902, p. 458. iv Distomum cymbiforme, Rud. (Braun, p. 720).— Phyllodistomum cymbiforme (Rud.) Braun, 1901,
246 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
p. 10—Plesichorus cymbiforme (Rud.) Looss,: 19014 p. 655; 1902, p. 469. ; :
vy Monostomum reticulare v. Ben., Braun, 1899, ‘p. 725 —Microscaphidium reticulare (v. Ben.) Looss, 1902, “pelo9 ly | |
vi Monostomum trigonocephalum (Rud.) \Looss, 1901 p. 567; 1902, p. 548.
41, CHELODINA LONGICOLLIS, Shaw. The long-necked Tortoise.
« i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 482. (Burnett River—Dr. Bancroft; Murray River, South Australia). Originally described from C. oblonga.
ii Heemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland, 1909: a, p. 97; 1910 6, p. 38 (Sydney).
iii Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.), 1907, p. 26 (Murray River, SouthAustralia) ; Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a. p. 479 (Murray River, South Australia ; Burnett River—Dr. Bancroft).
42, CHELODINA OBLONGA, Gray.
a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston, 1909, ‘p. 407, 1910 6, p. 44; Johnston & Cleland, 1910 a, p. 67 footnote; 1911 a, p. 482 (Perth, West Australia).
ii Hemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 482 (Perth, West Australia) —originally described from C. longicoiiis. 43. Ewypura Krerrri, Gray. a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston. J ohnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 483 (Burnett River). ;
ii Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.). Johnston & Cleland, 1911 a, p. 480 (Burnett River.)
In our paper (1911 a) we have given other localities in Queensland from which parasitised blood films were taken by Dr. Bancroft, viz., Enoggera and Petrie’s Creek. The species of tortoise from these localities has been identified as Emydura macquarie, hence the information contained in that paper will need to be modified in accordance with the details as to, host and localities contained in this com- munication. Hemocystidium —chelodine recorded by us.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 247
{1911 a, p. 481) from this host from Petrie’s Creek, near Brisbane, thus should be listed under EF. macquarie (vide infra).
44, EMYDURA MACQUARI®, Gray.
a i Hemogregarina clelandi, Johnston.
ih Hemocystidium chelodine, Johnston & Cleland.
i Trypanosoma chelodina, Johnson (A. E.).
These three haematozoa were recorded (J. & C., 1911 a) as being taken from #. Kreffti from Petrie’s Creek. The host is really HE. macquarie, a very closely related species. All of the above were found in a blood smear taken in this locality by Dr. Bancroft (J. & C., 1910 a, :p. 679).
45. ELSEYA DENTATA, Gray. c Amphistoma sp. Kreffit, 1871, p. 213. d Ascaris sp. Krefft, 1871, p. 213. From Northern Queensland Rivers.
\ My thanks are due to Dr. Bancroft, who has greatly assisted me by forwarding material from various parts of Queensland ; Mr. D. Fry of the Australian Museum, Sydney, who has identified mcst of the hosts for me; Dr. J. B. Cleland ; Messrs. 8. J. Johnston (Sydney University), D. Fry, F. H. Taylor, L. Gallard and L. Harrison for sending
specimens to me.
LITERATURE.
1862 Baird, Proc. Soc. London 1862, p. 114.
1865a Baird, [bid., 1865, p. 68.
18656 Baird, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) XVI., p. 52.
1899 Braun, Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I., XXV., p. 714.
1901 Braun, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, II., 1901.
—— Cleland & Johnston—see Johnston & Cleland.
—— Crety & Monticelli—see Monticelli & Crety.
1908 Dobell, Parasitology I., 12C8 (109), p. 291.
—— Dodd, Gilruth & Sweet—see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd.
1910 Gilruth, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXIII., p. 36.
1910 Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd, Lbid., XXIII., p. £31.
1894. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, IX., 1894.
1905. Hill, Trans. Inter. Med. Congr. Ausir., 1905, p. 378.
1907° Johnson (A. E.), Austr. Med. Gaz., XXVI., p. 26.
1909a Johnston (T. Harvey), Rec. Austr. Museum, VII., p. 257.
248 AUSTRALIAN REPTILIAN ENTOZOA
19096 Johnston, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, XXXIV.,. p.. 400.
1909¢ Johnston, [bid., XX XIV., p. 590, etc.
1909d Johnston, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, XLITL., p. xxix.
1909e Johnston, [bid., XLIII., p. 103.
1910@ Johnston, Jbid., XLIV., p. xi; p. xviii.
19106 Johnston, Ann. Rep. Bureau Microbiology, Sydney, L.,. pp. 38, 41-45, p. 87 (abstracts of 1909a, 18095, 1909e.).
1910c Johnston, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, XLIV., p. 84.
1910d Johnston, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1910, p. 28,. p. 309.
191la Johnston, Annals Queensland Museum X., 1911, p. 175.
19116 Johnston, The present payer.
1909a Johnston & Cleland, Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, ALT;, : 7.997.
1910a@ Johnston & Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.Wales, XXXV., p. 400.
191la Johnston & Cleland, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales. XXXVI., p. 479.
1904 Kitson, Vict. Naturalist, XXI., 1904-5, p. 147.
1871 Krefit, Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S. Wales, II., 1871.
1897 Linstow, Arch. f. Naturg., LXIII., 1897.
1899 Linstow, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, I., (2), p. 15.
1904 Linstow, Arch. f. Naturg., LXX., p. 300.
—— Love & Tyrie—see Tyrie & Love.
1908 lLaveran, C. R., Acad. Sci., CXLVII., 1908, p. 103.
1899 Looss, Zool. Jahrb., XIIJ., 1899, p. 521.
1901 Looss, Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I, XXX., p. 555—; p. 618—. ; .
1902. Looss, Zool. Jahrb., XVI., 1902, p. 411.
1891 Monticelli & Crety, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, Ser. 1I., XLE., 1891.
1900a Ratz. Centr. f. Bakt., Orig., I., XXVIII., p. 657.
19006 Ratz, C. R. Soc. Biol., LII., 1900, p 980.
1901 Ratz, Arch. d. Parasitol., IV., 1901, p. 329.
1907 Sambon, Trans. Pathol. Soc. London. LVIII., 1907.
1909 Sambon, Jour. Trop. Med. Hyg., XII., 1909.
1907 Sambon & Seligmann, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1907-
1898 Shipley, Arch. d. Parasitol, I., 1898.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 249
Shipley in Willey’s Zool. Results V., 1900, p. 531
Spencer, Trans. Inter. Med. Congr. Austr., 1892, p. 433.
Spencer (Baldwin), Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., I., 1888, p. 110.
Spencer (Baldwin), Q. J. M. S., (N.S.), XXXIV 1892-3, p. 1.
Stossich, Bull. Mus. Genova. 1902.
Sweet, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., XXI., 1908 (1909), p. 454.
Sweet, Gilruth & Dodd,—see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd. Tyrie & Love, Austr. Med. Gaz., XXV., p. 408.
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ON A WEAK POINT IN THE LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI, KREFET.
By THOMAS L. BANCROFT ., M.B., Edin.
(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 2nd December, 1911.)
THE writers on Ceratodus, so far as I am aware, have not touched upon a very important matter in connection with the life-history of the fish.
From the earliest date (1870) no one seemed ever to have caught a small Ceratodus, 7.e., a fish, an ounce to a pound or so in weight ; specimens, about six pounds or there about, were occasionally taken and regarded as very small ones. The Blacks even were unable to find the little fellows ; it was a mystery where they hid them- selves; some people thought that they went up small ereeks, whilst others thought that they lived in the mud and some comparatively recent observations have lent support to the latter theory*. 3
It appears that during a dry spell at Cooranga, on the Burnett, when a lagoon was drying up and all the fish were concentrated in a small space, search was made for Ceratodus ; several small fish were taken out of the mud; they were fish about fourteen inches in length, probably about four pounds in weight: these were the smallest hitherto seen, that is in their natural home. Mr. Thomas Illidge has, however, reared fish from the ova up to eighc months ; they were then two and a half inches in length.
All the fishes, in a lagoon drying up, are compelled to sink into the mud or debris, so it cannot be said of those small Ceratodus, that they were in the mud of their free will. There are stretches of the Burnett River with a sandy, and other parts with a rocky bottom, in which
* Notes on the Ceratodus by D. O’Connor, Rep. Aust. Assn., Ad. Science, Vol. XII., p. 383.
952 LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI
numerous full-grown Ceratodus live, and these fish spawn every September; where are the young fish in such lagoons ? There is no mud, but I suppose those who have advocated the mud theory, regard the debris at the bottom, consisting of rotten leaves, sticks and water weeds, as mud.
I have endeavoured to find the little fish by scooping out water weeds, mud and debris of every kind both in the river and in the contributory creeks ; I have found young forms of every fish inhabiting the Burnett with the exception of Ceratodus. I have tried liming a pool with the intention of suffocating all the fish ; I have dynamited holes, but never was a Ceratodus under six pounds taken. I have had conversations with a good many men, who have, for a life-time, dynamited mullet, and they have all had the same experience in that no little ‘salmon’ have been seen.
With a fishing net having a six inch mesh, that is three inches square, set across a deep lagoon, there is no difficulty whatever in meshing forms from six to thirty pounds in weight. With a net of three inch mesh, one might reasonably expect to take smaller forms, but although attempts were repeatedly made both by day and night, night being the best for large fish, no success followed.
Dredging in places, where last year ova were plentiful and even as recently as a month ago, no young fish can be procured although dead ova are to be found. With this experience, I have concluded that there are no young forms at the present time.
Ceratodus was a common fish all over the world ages ago, but is now restricted to the two rivers in Queens- land, the Mary and the Burnett.
It is therefore nearing its extinction. There is a weak spot in its<life-history ; this occurs after the little fish leaves the egg, or rather its gelatinous envelope ; it is then a helpless little creature only able to move a few inches at a time and unable to balance itself, lying upon its side at the bottom for hours on a stretch ; it remains in this helpless state for several days, and during this critical period of its life it is preyed upon by the larve
BY THOMAS L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 253
of dragon-flies: so helpless is it and so numerous its enemies that I am of opinion not one individual ever escapes in an ordinary seascn. In aquaria, it is extremely difficult to prevent the litiie fish from being devoured by insects : so rar I have been unable from this cause to rear fish longer than ten weeks: some of the insects live in the stems of the water weeds and elude the most careful detection; you may. daily watch your little fish thrive right up to its disappearance when further search brings to light a larva or a part of the fish’s remains.
It is probable that certain meteorological conditions. occur, perhaps once or twice in a century, during which the enemies of the young Ceratodus are removed. Such a condition might occur in this manner; during a pro- longed drought when the Burnett River is reduced to a chain of lagoons, the enemies would be absent ; the enemies consisting of small fishes, prawns and _ insects, live in the water weeds in comparatively shallow water, water‘to a depth of six feet or so; now in a drought the water would have receded past this level and the small fish have been devoured by the larger ones, eels especially, so that eventually only large fish remain ; a flood follow- ing would give the Ceratodus freedom from its enemies, possibly for a number of years.
During a flood in an ordinary season all the little fish and insects keep well to the edge and go up gullies, and when the water recedes return again to the same parts of the river which they left. Large trees having been undermined by the flood and falling into the river, are the means of causing a considerable wash out, deep pools or lagoons below the obstruction resulting ; such new lagoons would be free from water weeds ana it is possible that a flood occuring in the winter might bring about conditions favourable to the propagation of Ceratodus in those new lagoons.
As it is manifest that without assistance or unless natural favourable conditions occur in the near future, this interesting fish will shortly be extinct, endeavours should be made at once to prevent the extinction.
Mr. D. O’Connor, on behalf of this Society, which received a subsidy from the Queensland Government
254 LIFE-HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI
for the purpose, was instrumental in transferring many living specimens from the Mary to the Enoggera, Condamine and Logan Rivers; it is very likely that both sexes were taken to each spot, for recent examination of fifty Ceratodus shewed that there were twice aS many males as females: in any bunch of five specimens both sexes would occur. There is no doubt that the fish sur- vived and thrived in their new abode, as specimens have been caught twenty years later.
Nevertheless, [ am of opinion that that method will not suffice to prevent the extinction, and propose the follow- ing scheme. Let a suitable lagoon be constructed and stocked with a dozen fish ; so arranged that the fish could be caught in September, the spawning season, transferred to a hatchery and there stripped of their ova. if that be possible with Ceratodus ; the young fish reared until a year old and then liberated in weedy rivers. A pond, circular in shape, as large as ‘possible, constructed pre- ferably by excavation, bricks and cement, with abrupt walls ; one half to be four feet in depth and planted with Vallisneria and Hydrilla, and one half twelve feet deep. Preparatory to catching the fish any that might be in the weedy portion could be made to go into the deep water by poking a long stick into the weeds: by means of a frame, the width and depth of the deep portion, covered with wire netting and lowered into the water at the junction of the shallow with the deep art and carried towards the end, the fish would be imprisoned ; if the extreme end were made narrow and shallow the fish could be more easily captured. If it were found that Ceratodus was a fish that could not be stripped of its ova, it would be advisable to construct a small pond, the same absolutely protected in every way from insects, into which the fish could be transferred during the spawning season; the ova could be obtained and hatched in aquaria if that were considered advisable. Failing for want of funds to get the scheme as outlined carried out, | would recommend that a smail hatchery be arranged and some one sent to Miva on the Mary River, in September, to procure ova.
Ceratodus spawns in weed beds in still water close to the edge of the river during September and October, in water two to four feet in depth; the ova are eaten by the
BY THOMAS L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 255
*Grunter.”” Therapon percoides and other fish; some few being hidden in the weeds, escape detection ; T believe in thick masses of Hydrilla they have the best chance. On Nitella beds, the ova that sink deep perish owing to the lower portion of the Nitella being in a state of decomposition ; the eggs that reach the sand or mud also die, probably from this being roul. The eggs that get tangled up in the green weeds and not exposed to too much light develop in about a month; the larve of insects seem not to injure them but are attracted by the young fish directly it emerges.
A dredging net made of mosquito net on a stout ring of iron is serviceable in scooping through the weeds in search of ova: the ova must be kept cool and in the dark ; they are very easily killed; only a few obtained in this rough way develop. It is absolutely necessary to keep the newly hatched fish in the dark for a week at least.
Control experiments with the ova of the common Cat-fish, Tandanus tandanus, were very successful under the conditions that seemed the reverse for Ceratodus: a young Tandanus might be likened to the chick of the common fowl and Ceratodus to a young pigeon.
One experienced in rearing trout would be required to attend to the hatchery.
256 LIFE HISTORY OF NEOCERATODUS FORSTERI.
Proposep ArtiriciaL LaGoon For OsszeRvations ON CERATODUS $
POSSIBLY TOO ON ScLEROPAGES LEICHHARDTI AND THE Puaiypus.
2 | c Feet
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Frame To le drawn from
At&R
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
Annual Meeting of Members,
Held on Monday, March 25th, 1912.
The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Queensland University, Monday, March 25th, 1912. The President (Mr. J. B. Henderson) occupied the chair. There was a very fair attendance of Members and _ friends, including His Excellency, Sir Wm. Macgregor, Lady Mac- gregor, and Mr. Byth (Private Secretary). The minutes of the previous annual meeting were read and confirmed. The Hon. Secretary read the accompanying Report for the year 1911, which was adopted on the motion of Mr. J. F. Bailey, seconded by Mr. E. C. Barton. The Financial Report (as herewith) was moved by Mr. J. C. Brunnich (Hon. Treasurer), seconded by Mr. A. G. Jackson, and carried.
To the Members of the Royal Society of Queensland.
Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report for the year 1911]
The Ordinary Monthly Meetings have been held as shown in Appendix B.
Eleven Council Meetings have been held during thg year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A. At no meeting was there an attendance of fewer than five Councillors.
During the year 10 members were admitted, and we have lost by removal and other causes, 6 members. There -are now on the roll 14 honorary and 95 ordinary members, a total of 109. See Appendix D.
Messrs. Bailey and Jackson were selected in March to fill the vacancies on the Council, Mr. G. Watkins again accepting the position of Hon. Auditor.
Vol. XXIII of our proceedings was issued during the year. A number of papers of considerable value were
i. REPORT OF COUNCIN.
given during 1911, especially in the fields of Geology and Biology, and the forthcoming volume promises to be one ot value. Plates will be more in evidence than in years when less funds were available. Our printers do their best to let each author have his author’s copies as soon as possible after the M.S.S. is handed in, and each author is now allowed 50 author’s copies. We have received valuable help from several members of the Univcrsity staff, and have reason to hope that, when matters have passed the difficulties of the inception stage, and when science students are more numerous, we Shall receive for publication much research work from the University and its alumni.
The Library, containing approximately 4,000 volumes, has been shifted from the Technical College to the University. This has entailed considerable expense, and as it is now imperative that we should bind much unbound work, a further expense will be entailed. This, with the cost of a well illustrated volume of Proceedings, will lower our Bank balance during the year ahead of us. We congratulate our members on meeting for the first time in the University, and trust that the Society’s valuable Library will be largely made use of by members and University students in the future. It is hoped that Dr. Harvey-Johnston will take charge of the receipt of exchanges, etc., while the issue of books will be under the control of the University Librarian, and thus both our and the University’s interests will be seen to.
By Appendix C., it will be seen that, though there was an increase in expenditure of about £43 for printing Proceedings, we still have a slightly greater credit to balance than we had at the end of the previous year.
F. BENNETT, J. B. HENDERSON, F.LC. Hon. Secretary. President. February, 1912.
REPORT OF COUNCIL. iil. APPENDIX A. ATTENDANCE OF CounciL, 1911. =i |e Sy os | Office. Name. 52 | — 20 Remarks. =e ‘a os ie ae = \|n President .| J. Brownlie Henderson, | 10
Vice-President .. Hon. Treasurer..
F.I.C. P. L. Weston, B.Se., BE. 5 J. C. Briinnich, F.> fee ae 8
Hon. Secretary..| F. Bennett.. 11 i! Hon. Librarian..| C. T. White 7 1 EK. H. Gurney 7 1 W.R. Colledge .. 9 1 Members of 4H. C. Richards, M.Se ‘i lL Council J. F. Bailey : 3 ei Appointed in A. G. Jackson 2 1 March. APPENDIX B. List or Pavers, Erc., Reap Durine 1911. No.| Date. Title. Author. 1|Feb. 25|A Brush-Tongued Mosquito (Presi- | W. R. Colledge. dential Address) 2 | March 25 | Anthracite in Galena : L C. Ball, B.E. Exhibits of Galena of peculiar H. C. Richards, M.Sc. character New Slides J. F. Bailey. April 25| Exhibition of Chemical Apparatus by Government Analyst and Staff 3 | June 24] Notes on the Geological Age of| B.O. Marks, B.A., Volcanic Activity in South-east B.E Queensland 4 |July 29| The Building of Eastern Australia|} H. I. Jensen, D.Sc, 5 | Aug. 26] The Building Stones of St. John’s} H. C. Richards, M.Sc. Cathedral, Brisbane 6 | Oct. 28] On the Occurrence of Worm-nests | T. Harvey-Johnston, in Cattle D.Se. 7 | Oct. 28}A Census of Australian Reptilian |T. Harvey-Johnston, Entozoa D Sc. 8; Dec. 2] A Weak Point in the Life History of | Dr. Thos. Bancroft.
a Ceratodus
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
‘GI6T ‘havnaqay pug ‘auvgstsg ‘LOjIpNP “UOFT ‘SNIMLV AA ‘OUX) ‘daUNspaty, “wo ‘HOINNNAG ‘OC ‘f "4091100 PUNO puB pouTMIVXy
y Il sels ine ia Ge os a ar oi << a > gouRreg 0 OLO ee o. as ee o. oe adeqaery 6 0 OL O ee oa o- o. oe sesivyg yqueg “6 OPa0- 28 _ ** TIGL ‘taquls00q 09 AayBJeIBO pus quoy _ TEbt-e = ee ‘+ 9Suqsog [viauax) pur yseg Aqyog “ a is va wa os as ‘+ gouvansuy PLEO Be a <i = esvysog suBlieiqiy C—O oF eS = ‘* sSurpaeoo1g jo esuysog “ > OT tT ss ‘* parinbat you ssulpsso0a1g go aseysog “ 0 8TG = = saorjon S1yIUOTY Jo odBysog “ eee ee or < = a ** ‘ojo ‘suoldiiosqng ‘ xe wg. = *? = : "+ (op puv efog) Suyjurrg 4g A? et ee Me y a "* qlodayy ysBl WOsy soUB[Bg OT, DS F Ds F *SLNANASUNASI(] *SLALHOWYy
JIGE ABER 943 AO} BNAWALYLS ITVIONYNIA
‘aNWISNAANO ACO ALABIOOS IWAOW AAL ‘O XIGNUddV
REPORT OF COUNCIL. Vv.
APPENDIX D. LIST OF MEMBERS.
Honorary AND Corresponpinc Mempemrs (13.) Dr. Cockle; A. Liversidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F.R. M. Wilson; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; H. J. Jensen, D.Sc; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; A. Gibb- Maitland, Government Geologist, W.A.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor EK. H. Rennie; Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin, (Czech University),
Prague; Dr. Danes (Czech University), Prague; Professor T. Edgeworth David. Orpinary Mempers (95). Archer, R. 8. Lord, F.
Badger, J. 8.
Ball'L.C., B.E.
*+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G.
+Bailey, J. F.
Barton, E. C.
Bennett, F..
Briinnich, J. C., F.1.C.
Brydon, Mrs.
Bundock, Miss Alice
Bundock, C. W.
Byram, W. J.
Cameron, John
Cameron, W. E., B.A.
Colledge, W. R.
Collins, Miss Jane
Collins, R. M.
Connah, F. E., F.I.C.
Cooper, Sic Pope A., C.J.
Costin, C. W.
Cowley, R. C.
Dempsey, J. J.
Dunstan, Benj.
Eglinton, Dudley
Eglinton, Miss Hilda
Elkington, J. S. C., M.D., D.P.H.
Forrest, EK. B., M.L.A.
Fraser, C. S.
+Gailey, Richard
Gibson, Hon. A., M_L.C.
Gore-Jones, KE. R.
Greenfield. A. P.
*+Griffith, Sir S. W.
Gurney, E. H.
Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.S8c., F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.E.S.
Hedley, C., F.L.S.
Henderson, J. Brownlie, F.I.C.
Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D.
Holland C. W.
Hopkins, G., M.D.
Hiilsen, R.
Hunt, G. W.
Illidge, Rowland
fame, ow G., L:L.D., F.R.G.S.
Jackson, A. G.
Johnston, T. Harvey, M.A., D.Sc.,
EAS:
Johnston, Jas.
Jones, P. W., A.I.C.
Lindsay, W.
B.G.8e;
*Members of Philosophical Society.
Love, Wilton, M.B.
ihueag. CoP... GER.GP:
His Excellency Sir William MacGregor, MD .,.. DS6.. G.C.M.G. C.B., &e
Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C.
Marks, EK. O., B.A., B.E.
Mav, H. W., B.E.
May, T. H., M.D.
Michie, J. L, M.A.
Murray-Prior. Mrs.
McCall, T., F.1.C.
McConnel, Eric W.
McConnel, E. J.
McConnel, J. H.
Morris, L., A.M.I.C.E., Eng.
tNorton, Hon. A., M.L.C.
Parnell, T , M.A.
Parker, W. R., L.D.S.
Plant, Hon. EB; H. T.,, M.L.C.
Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S.
Priestley, H. J.,M.A.
*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C.
Rands, W. H., F.G.S.
Reid, D. E.
Richards. H. C., M.Sc.
Riddell, R. M.
TRoe, R. H., M.A.
Ryan, J. P., M.D.
Sankey, J. R.
Saunders, G@ I., B.E.
pennd, §...):, A.8,, A.S.M: (Adelaide)
+Schreider, H., M.A.
Shirley, J., B.Sc.
Smith, F., B.Sc, A.I.C.
Steele, T., F,L.S., F.E.S.
Steele. B. D., D.Se.
+Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C.
Sutton, A., M.D.
TSutton, J. W.
Swanwick, K. ff., B L :
Taylor, Hon. W.F., M.D., M.L.C.
Thynne, Hon. A. J.. M.L
Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D.
Watkins. Geo.
+Weedon, Warren
Weston, P. L., B.Sce., B.E.
White, C. T.
Willcocks, G. C.
-+Life Members.
Nine admitted. Six left colony or resigned. Now on list, 109.
vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
The following new members were proposed by Mr. H. C. Richards, M.Sc.:—A. W. Oakes, B.A., 8. G. Lusby, M.A., H. G. Denham, D.S8c., and P. P. Fewings, Esq.
The President then delivered his Retiring Address.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Natrona WASTE.
It is only six years since I previously had the honour of presiding over the deliberations of our Society, and I then took for the subject of my address, one in which we all have long taken a considerable interest—Education. T then called attention to the pressing necessity for the influence of a University on our national life, and we are now in the happy position of having achieved our hearts’ desire in that direction, and to-night the Royal Society meets for the first time within the University Building. It is true that it is but an infant among Universities, but it is an infant whose growth has already seriously embarrassed its parents. The baby has completely out- grown its clothes, and judging by this remarkable growth and the preparations proposed for its further expansion, it is going to grow much more quickly than provision has been made for clothing it. And where the money is to come from to feed it as it grows, is already a pressing question, and one that has to be looked at from two differ- ent standpoints—that of the young Queenslanders demand- ing a first class up-to-date education such as will fit them to be capable leaders of this great State, and that of the State Treasurer who has to find the money. Let us hope that Queenslanders will see that the best education that can be had is not too good for the best of our young men and women, and that they will give at eiection times a mandate to their Parliamentary representatives that education, primary, secondary and University, is the most important part of the national life which is dealt with by our system of Government, and must be made efficient. Primary education is already well in hand, secondary and University education are only in their infancy, and must be as carefully nourished and as freely fed as our splendid system of primary education.
BY J. B. HENDERSON, F,I.C. Vili.
Nearly everything has been done for our University so far by the Government ; in the Southern States, the three older Universities have had almost as much done for them by private benefactors as by Government aid. It is to be hoped that Queensland will not long remain distinguished as purely a Government University. Already a few thousands have been given, but hundreds of thousands are required for endowment. It is not generally realised that it takes nearly £25,000 to endow the professor’s salary for any one chair, apart from the cost of lectures, laboratories and other incidental expenses. Sydney has private endow- ments amounting to about £500,000, and we must provide at least as good an education as Sydney, if our students are to hold their own in after life.
, In thinking over possible subjects for my address this evening, I decided to follow up one which must have repeatedly thrust itself on the attention of every student of science—the national waste of material, of energy, and even of life itself that is going on around us in every direction.
It is quite true that we are a young nation, we have only passed our Jubilee, and that youth is the time of waste. It is only on reaching maturity that the individual appre- hends the necessity of conserving energy, and nations are apt to resemble the individuals of which they are mostly built. But, after all, a nation is guided (or should be guided), by individuals of mature thought, by men who have (or should have), the large outlook and who should never hesitate to spend or be spent in the effort to help every individual to get the best possible return for his work, and to advance the nation to the highest, morally, mentally and materially.
My object to-night is to point out briefly some of the directions in which we are wasting materials and energy —and energy means wealth, and in its final application, life. I found when I opened up the subject that it led to much labour, much searching—that many hours spent in looking for information and statistics gave little result, and that the most I could hope for was to interest a few who had more leisure to take up some branches of this subject and investigate them thoroughly.
Viil. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Considering the enormous wealth produced by our handful of people, it may seem absurd to talk of national waste. Let us glance at some of our industries as they stand to-day, and see if after all we are not wasting golden opportunities.
Take first of all our Pastoral Industries. Wool is one of our principal exports. In 1910, the wool exported was valued at £5,808,000 and weighed 139,250,802Ibs. (Government statistician). Much of this was scoured, and most of it could easily have: been scoured here. In France it pays to extract the water-soluble potash salts from wool by washing the wool with cold water and evaporat- ing the solution. From 7.0 to 10.0 per cent of potash salts is obtained in this way from raw wool. (F. H. Bowman’s ‘** Wool Fibre,’’ page 256). We produced over 139 million pounds weight of raw wool in 1910, containing over 6,000 tons of potash salts recoverable without damaging the wool, obtained by washing with water. The evaporation of this solution in the dry atmosphere of West Queens- land should not be an expensive matter. We are evidently losing wealth in that direction.
Wool again is the source of lanoline, which exists in raw wool to the extent of about 14 per cent. So far as I can gather no lanoline is saved in Queensland. So we throw away every year 20 million lbs. weight of lanoline. And the German wholesale price of lanoline is about 11d. per lb. I do not mean the mixture of lanoline, vaseline and water, which is sold as lanoline in collapsible tubes, at a very much higher rate. But at 11d. per lb. our lano- line which we threw away in 1910 had a value of approxim- ately £1,000,000. Personally I think there is certainly a fair margin of profit showing here—it is not at all likely that a process which is already worked successfully and well known in Germany, would cost a great deal more to work here, with such a store of raw material to hand.
Other directions in which it is obvious that waste might be avoided and energy and material conserved in the pastoral industry, are preservation and care of natura] pastures, and the prevention of spread of weeds and other vegetable pests. The danger of practically exterminating some of our most valuable indigenous pasture grasse
BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. ixt
and herbs has repeatedly been pointed out, but the temptation to overstock pastures in good seasons is always present, and the danger is one which it is difficult to over- come, either by legislation or administration. The annual loss of animal life from poisonous weeds is very heavy and in some cases might be avoided. The loss of pastures, through overgrowth of weeds, is almost invariably easily prevented, as in the case of prickly pear, but when lost, the cost of recovery of the pasture is exceedingly heavy. It has been pointed out repeatedly that the spread of cattle ticks, which have wasted millions of money, might have been: prevented when first noticed in Northern Queens- land ; now they are evidently here to stay, and they demand an annual toll running into many thousands of pounds. It probably costs Queensland much more every year for feeding the ticks with cattle than for all the secondary and University education combined.
Another of our great Industries is the production of sugar. In 1910 we produced 210,756 tons of sugar (Government Statistician). Now each ton of sugar means the production of about 35 gallons of molasses, so that 7,376,000 gallons of molasses were produced. Nearly all of that was wasted; so far as I can learn only a very small proportion was made into cattle feed and not much converted into alcohol. Each gallon of molasses yields about 0.4 gallon of alcohol so that molasses sufficient to make nearly 3,000,000 gallons of alcohol was thrown away to become a nuisance to whole neighbourhoods. The importation of petrol to Queensland in 1911 was 765,139 gallons which, at 1s. 4d. per gallon, gives £51,000. | Evidently most of the money sent from here to America for petrol might have been kept in Queensland. I understand that alcohol cannot be bought in Queensland at less than Is. 5d. per gallon. Three million gallons at Is. 5d. represents £212,500, a considerable annual loss to the state. It is possible even now to sell industrial alcohol at Is. 3d. per gallon in Queensland. Unfortunately the stringent Excise Laws add materially to the cost and trouble of using industrial alcohol, owing to the fear that some of our decadent and debased fellow citizens might drink alcohol which had paid no duty. But for that fear, industrial
x. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
alcohol could be sold at 1s. per gallon, possibly lower, and at that price it would probably replace kerosene and largely replace petrol.
I would note here that profitable undertakings, considered from the national and from the trading com- pany standpoint do not necessarily mean the same thing. A trading company with income and. expenditure balancing is a financial failure—a nation with income and expenditure balancing is a financial success. The production of alcohol from molasses, to replace petrol, | if it only paid expenses from a trading standpoint might not be profitable—from the national standpoint there would be one saving among others, of £51,000 which would otherwise have gone to America. In other instances which I note, I obviously do not intend to suggest that the value of the material at present wasted would be all profit to the trader—but that that value is a value lost to the nation. © Whether from the standpoint of National Economics, it would pay to keep an industry going which only paid expenses, is a question which it is not necessary at present to discuss —in most of the instances I have given, the wastes are already being made sources of trading profit elsewhere.
The enormous quantity of megass which is burned in the sugar mills is often looked on as waste, and many suggestions have been made as to its better utilisation as in making paper, paper pulp, etc. I understand that no use has yet been found for this material which will give a greater return than its use as fuel, so at present it can- not be looked on as wholly a wasted product.
In agricultural products, other than sugar, there 1s also a lavish waste of wealth. After good seasons, hundreds of thousands, probably millions, of tons of grass are burned off which might have been stored for fodder, either dry in stacks or as ensilage in silos. 7
I remember a former Under Secretary for Agriculture telling me that in one district shortly after the great drought which ended in 1902, he saw several farmers throw into the roadways alongside, lucerne which they had cut— it was so low in price just then that it would not pay to send to market. And yet a few months later lucerne had
BY J. R HENDERSON, F.I.C. 5
again risen in price and stacked lucerne would have returned many times the cost of stacking. Five years ago the Government fruit expert published the fact that in the Cleveland district alone 300 tons of mangoes were allowed to go to waste—it did not pay to market them As old trees yield from 1 to 2 tons of fruit in a good season, it is evident that thousands of tons of mangoes go to waste in Queensland every good season. |
There is something seriously wrong with the people of a country in which superabundant wealth of agricultural products is produced in a good season, only to be to a large extent deliberately wasted, and who cry out with pangs of starvation after one dry year. Surely with all our education and training and our agricultural experts, it will not much longer be left to sad personal experience, the most costly of all teachers, to teach many of those engaged in agriculture the necessity of making the good seasons provide for the bad.
A most serious blot on our national life is the primitive and wasteful manner in which we are attempting to settle people on our lands. The sacred right of individual liberty has, in this case, been carried to an absurd extreme. It is still true “none of us liveth to himself.’ The State recognises not only the right of the individual to a certain amount of freedom, but on the other hand insists that as he is a part of the State he must not damage the State by, for instance, destroying himself. Where the freedom of the individual undoubtedly and seriously conflicts with the good of the State that freedom should certainly be curtailed. Nothing can damage our State more seriously than to have men throwing away their substance and the best of their lives attempting impossible tasks in pioneer- ing. And yet it is not many years since I heard of a family of new arrivals from England, with only £50 capital, being allowed to take up prickly pear land. The result was a foregone conclusion—they held out until starved out and then abandoned the hopeless task. Most of us in travelling over Queensland have seen the remains of not one or two, but of hundreds of abandoned homes, most of them repre- senting a waste of capital and life which can be ill-spared in our vast territory, and which a little more knowledge
Xli. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
would have prevented—knowledge too, which was possessed by officers in the Lands Department from which the selections were taken. But, owing to the fact that it has hitherto been regarded as the absolute right of every man to *“‘do what he likes with his own,” selectors have been and still are permitted to undertake the task of estab- lishing homes on lands where it is perfectly obvious that the applicants, owing to lack of capital, or experience, or both, must certainly fail. In doubtful cases by all means let the applicant try. but when he asks for land where he obviously cannot succeed, do not give it to him—persuade him to take some where he has at least a fighting chance. It is perfectly obvious that the settler who can start on Jand which is ready for planting, or which will in some way yield him a return for his labour in a short time. is almost bound to succeed. Settlers who tackle pioneering are generally hard-workers, and if success is to be obtained by constant application, they will succeed. It is also perfectly obvious that in many cases, the first clearing work could be done much more economically by the Government with its command of large capital, for large machinery, than it could be done by the selector with his one-man efforts.
Most of us have seen, or know of, thousands of square miles of our Western Country; already fairly well served by rai’way, which if cleared of prickly pear or scrub, or both, ploughed where necessary, and made ready for the farmer to begin work, would be instantly snapped up by farmers. But the first cost of this preliminary work makes it practic- ally impossible for the average farmer to attempt the task with any chance of success. [Lam quite certain that before many years are over, we will find the State Governments of Australia doing this pioneering work as a matter of course, even as they now undertake for the individual the administration of justice, of defence. the post and telegraph, roadmaking, and all those other services which civilised communities have found to be better undertaken by the community than by the individual. The State which leads the way by preparing the land and the railway to market, so that success in settling on new land will be practically assured instead of being exceedingly problem- atical, will not lack increase of population. Immigrants would flock in by thousands to obtain such a chance, while
BY J. Bs HENDERSON, F.I.C. Xill.
the cost to the State of doing the pioneering would easily and certainly be repaid by the increased value of the land. Good agricultural land is one of the few assets which seems never to fall in value—as the population increases’ the value of such land also increases. The unnecessary waste of time and capital and life in the single handed and other ignorant methods of our pioneers, is probably one of the most serious wastes in our national life. It means not only time and capital gone—the crushing, physical strain often: lowers the worker almost to the level of a working animal. He is up before daybreak, toils all day, often till long after dark, and if he is dairying, keeps it up for seven days a week. There is no time for reading, none for thinking, none for recreation, only one long struggle to achieve the goal of: an independent living. But in the struggle, even when successful, there is too often almost as much lost ag is gained. Even years after success has been attained from the material point of view, there is often still no flower garden, no library in the house holding the treasures of the ages, no work of art worthy of the name, and the only music heard is a thing to be avoided. I have even known such a one living in the old tumble-down slab humpy, with all its crudities, inconveniences and ugliness, with no garden, no attempt at bettering in any way the material surroundings, and yet, in a well-finished building close by, a beautiful up-to-date motor car. So common is this loss among the farmers of much that is best and noblest and highest in our lives, that the suggestion that a higher standard is possible, is often received with incredulous smiles. Such words as “ bucolic’? and “ bumpkin ”’ convey meanings not at all complimentary to farmers. But history also teaches that from the farm have come great leaders of thought, soldiers, scientists, even artists—in a word, the past declares that there is nothing in farming that Should lead to the atrophy of our higher nature. In the present each one of us knows of families on the farm where, along with the ability to work hard and successfully, goes a refinement and education, which is as genuine and thorough as could be met with in any city home. The frequent loss of many of those higher attributes which distinguish man from the lower animals, in the terrible struggle for his animal existence in a new land, or for that matter in
XIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
an old land, is a serious form of national waste that undoubtedly saps the strength of any country. Anything that can be done by a Government, that is by the com- munity, to lighten that load and more quickly bring the settler to obtaining a livelihood without such extremes of wasteful toil, it is the imperative duty of that Govern- ment to do, and it can be done without going to the other extreme of sapping the individuality of the farmer. The problem is obviously one which can be successfully financed. The actual details of the methods by which the work should be done would vary with circumstances, but would give by no means impossible problems to a properly qualified agricul- tural engineer. It is rather a notable fact and typical of the state of our agricultural methods that although nearly three-fourths ot our exports are of agricultural origin, agricultural engineers are practically unknown in Queens- land. .
There are other directions in agriculture in which there is at present a great waste of energy and material, such as the burning off of millions of feet of timber when clearing, because no one can find a use for it.
The waste of Forestry has been and still is, appall- ing, but I can find no statistics available.
Water, both rainfall and artesian, is mostly run to wasce.
Then there is the use of horse ploughs for large areas where steam or petrol would be much less costly, and similar primitive methods of working. I noticed recently a statement by a Manitoba wheat farmer, that the replacement of horses by a large petrol tractor for ploughing and reaping had saved him £500 a year. Where capital is not available to small farmers for the purchase of such expensive engines, there is a good opening for co-operation.
Turning for a moment to the Mining Industry, we find there a similar prodigality in wasting our mineral wealth. The history of many mining companies is a succession of managers, each of whom points out that his predecessor knew nothing of his business, and straight- way proceeds to demonstrate that he also does not know how to solve the problems. And so we have the capital which should have been applied to making the mine a
BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.I.C. XV.
wealth-producing business, squandered in useless and often absurd methods. As an example of the results which can be achieved by educated endeavour in our mining methods, take one of our largest well-known Northern mines. There, where everything pointed to disaster, a qualified engineer, a university graduate, was appointed. He reduced the costs by over 20s. per ton on an output of about 20,000 tons per annum, and so turned a dismal failure into a dividend paying mine.
Lying in many places over Australia, including Queensland, are huge heayps of ore residues, all waste pro- ducts. They contain hundreds of thousands of pounds worth of metallic values, but for the lack of a little know- ledge—knowledge of a proces which would economically extract these values, all of that wealth at present lies waste.
From one works alone (Mt. Morgan), over 800 tons of sulphuric acid per day is thrown away into the atmosphere. This enormous loss is much more marked in America than it is here, and the problem of its utilisation is receiving close attention there.
In our coal mining also, the great bulk of our wealth of coal is wasted. First of all, with present mining methods, about one-third of the coal is left in the seams, and can never be recovered. Of what is extracted that used in producing power by steam is mostly wasted— some of the waste being inherent to the methods, much of it due to unsuitable boiler construction, dirty tubes and plates, and bad firing. It has been estimated that of the energy actually obtained from the original coal in a coal seam, less than 10 per cent is utilised by steam engines. With house coal for heating and cooking, matters are even worse, probably less than 1 per cent of the original energy of the coal seam being utilised.
There is one obvious method of effecting a huge saving in this wasteful method of producing energy, a method to which attention has been called elsewhere. It is to establish a huge power station at the centre of the mining district—in our case, near Ipswich. There electrical] power would be generated from waste coal and from the waste gases from large coking ovens. The by-products * rom the distillation of the coal would also yield a return
Xvi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
in ammonia, phenols, etc. Electric power generated on a large scale from such waste fuel would, according to the estimate of one of my engineering friends, cost not more than 0.4d. per unit. From Ipswich, it could be distributed all over the Ipswich and Brisbane districts at a cost that would put electric light, electric power, and clectric heating into every home: With modern metallic ‘lament lamps, electric light is already a competitor with gas; and at such a low rate for electricity, it would at once displace gas for lighting, as much cheaper, more sanitary, more convenient ; in fact, better in every way. I made an attempt to get actual figures as to the probable saving to Brisbane by the adoption of this form of utilisation of the energy of our coal supply, including cost of capital outlay, but statistics and facts were difficult to get, while some necessary factors in the calculation seem almost unobtainable, and they should certainly be handled by an engineer. However, a presidential address is not supposed to concern itself with direct original research, so I will leave the detailed elucidation of this subject to one of our engineering members: more than one good paper could be written on the subject. But I have found enough to justify the statement that the saving would be enormous, both to energy users in cost, and to the reserves of coal.
For example, of the heat produced in cooking at an ordinary stove, probably less than 2 per cent is actually utilised, I can find no statistics of trials, though I under- stand they have been made. But in electrical cooking, from 79 per cent to 80 per cent of the energy is actually utilised. With a low price for electricity the saving would be marked. while the convenience, the cleanliness, the better results, the absence of smells, the ease of controlling the temperatures, and the great saving of labour, would make the change desirable even if it cost more than at present, instead of less. The hot water reservoirs could, if necessary, be heated at night when there is little demand for other current. Imagine a house where the electric current was cheaply available. There would be no fire to light in the morning—the oven could be heated, the kettle boiled, the porridge made, eggs and bacon cooked, the bread toasted—all the heat required obtained by the
BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C. XVll.
turning on of a few switches. No coal, no wood, no ashes to clear away, no smoke, no dust, and no waste heat making the kitchen an oven of itself. When any cooking operation was finished, a switch would be turned off, and heating would cease. In the most recent ovens the temperatures to be obtained are marked on the switch, and so cooking, which depends so much on correct heating, becomes one of the exact sciences. A plentiful supply of hot water would easily be made available for washing or bathing.
When dusting and sweeping had to be done, exhaust sweepers, electrically driven with the exhaust hose dis- charging on the lee side of the house, would drive dust out into the sterilising sunshine where it would cease to be “ dirt,’’ cease to be “ matter in the wrong place.”’
The sewing machines would be driven electrically, as I understand they are now in nearly every home in many American towns—San_ Francisco for instance. Troning would be done with an electrically heated iron, and burning with a too-hot iron and waste work with a too-cold iron would be things of the past. With all our 8-hours days and wages boards and arbitration courts, and partly because of them, there seems to be one individual who is getting longer hours, whose money does not go so far as before, and who has no right of appeal to any wages board or arbitration court—I refer to the mother. Help in the housework is getting more and more beyond her reach as its cost rises, the general increased cost of living affects her nearly as the buyer for the family, and, help or no help, the work must be done, starting at daybreak and finishing long after dark. There is no one who would be more relieved and helped by ‘ eleccrifying ’’ our energy supply than the mother, and there are none who stand more in need of help or are more deserving.
Another result of cheap electrical supply would be the establishment of home industries. The principal reason for gathering hundreds of workers into factories in many industries, is the fact that power is provided more cheaply there, enabling work to be produced at a lower cost than before. But if the power is supplied just as cheaply to run a sewing machine or a loom, or a wood-turning lathe at home, as to run suburban trains and factories, the main reason for congregating sewing machines, looms, or wood-
Xviii. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
turning lathes into factories ceases to exist. The cost of carriage of goods is somewhat greater, but where cheap electricity is supplied, it is found that the worker much prefers the independent life at home to the fixed hours of the factory. The cost of the machinery has proved no bar, as makers have shown themselves only too willing to advance them on the time-payment system. Cheap electrical supply would soon give us a sturdy independent class of home workers.
Electrification of trains would, of course, follow with an enormous saving in cost of haulage, in cleaning of carriages and in waste of passengers’ clothes.
If such a cheap source of power were available in Bris- bane, it would assuredly straightway become the greatest manufacturing city in Australasia. The manufacturer here, with the cheap power, would undersell his rivals elsewhere who used power at about 6 or 10 times the cost; while ore smelting, which is becoming every day more and more electrical, would certainly make its home here.
And to think that all this enormous gain in cleanliness, in convenience, in time, in money, would ‘cost us, as a community, less than nothing—that by making the change we would save money.
This great saving of coal and labour can, of course, only be done by the community, that is, by the Government —no private trading company should or could get the necessary monopoly, probably no one else could raise the necessary capital to effect the change. It would mean buying up several private interests at present supplying some of our wants, probably not more than five companies, but the enormous savings to be made and the gain other- wise would make it a very profitable matter indeed to buy each of these interests at an honest price. There seems a tendency nowadays to confiscate private interests by tax- ation or by Government competition. Where such interests have been honestly acquired and are honestly serving the public as they are in Brisbane, no other course should be adopted than honestly buying them back. Competition by the Government would virtually mean confiscation. And the scheme is no wild Utopian idea—it requires no new discoveries, no new inventions, scarcely any new laws, In November, 1910, the President of the Society of
BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C., XIX.
Electrical Engineers promulgated such a scheme for England, and calculated that electricity could be supplied at one-eighth penny per unit.
There are other forms of national waste which have not yet received the serious attention of those who look © after the welfare of our nation. A few years ago, I heard one of our educational authorities state that nearly two years of a young man’s life were practically wasted by the overlapping of the State school, the Grammar School and the Southern Universities. ‘Fortunately that can no longer be said, and the education of our youth is now in the process of being made as nearly continuous as possible. It is to be hoped that before long there will be no over. lapping, and that a student will not require to reach first year University standard in certain subjects ere entering the University.
The passing from the State School should qualify for the High School, and passing from the High School should qualify for the University, with no side-tracking of education to coach the student to ‘‘ pass an exam.’ That efficient system of inspection, as opposed to examination, which has succeeded so well in our Primary Schools, should succeed quite as well in our Secondary Schools. If, in any instance, it did not, the University would soon let the fact be known. |
Possibly the saddest of all our wastes is that direct waste of human life which could so easily, in many cases, be avoided. In the case of adults phthisis and typhoid are largely “preventable, if watched by the individual and fairly attacked by the community, while malaria, filaria and other mosquito-borne diseases can easily be eradicated. But of all the life losses, the most inexcusable and criminal is that of infant life. Times without number the appalling statistics have been published, but with only a comparatively slight lowering of the infantile death rate. It seems almost impossible to drive home to those controlling the com- munity, in any land, their criminal responsibility for per- mitting the wholesale slaughter to go on. Much of the waste of infant life is due to ignorance of the most elementary facts of infant nutrition. I knew of a baby three weeks old, the mother unable to suckle it, being fed with tapioca made with water, and of several other cases almost as bad,
XMie st PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
the mothers being fairly well educated otherwise although ~ knowing, nothing of. babies. I suppose any medical practitioner could supply hundreds of similar instances. Surely there is something wrong with a system of education which teaches ‘a girl who is presumably going to be a mother, nothing whatever about maternal duties and responsibilities. Motherhood is, or ought to be, the supreme crown of nearly every woman’s life, and her education ought first of all and_ before everything else, fit her for that w hich is her greatest duty, if also her greatest privilege and happiness, and this could easily be done without in the slightest degree sacrificing her general education. ‘There is no question that good mothers are the greatest asset of any nation, and we ought to see to it that the education of our girls fits them for that high position. There is another direction in which even quicker results can be obtained in lowering the infant death rate—that ' of stopping the milk poisoning. It is universally agreed by sanitarians that the high infant mortality of the summer months is due to bacteria in milk, bacteria to which adults are mostly immune. These bacteria get into the milk after it leaves the cow’s. udder, in other words, they get there through. filthy methods of milking and storing the milk. Milk, when it leaves the udder of a healthy cow, js in a sterile ¢ condition. The calf gets sterile milk, the baby gets the filthy. milk. It has been pointed out that if the death rate among calves was as high as among babies, every breeder of cows would soon become bankrupt. We kill during the early summer months more than one baby every day in the Brisbane district, through this filthy milk, yet practically no steps are taken to stop the legalised murder. . Several municipalities in other countries have demonstrated that this particular waste of human life can be stopped, and they have stopped it, and at a very small cost indeed. One London hospital actually bought a farm, got a healthy herd together, milked the cows. with, milking machines under perfect sanitary con- ditions, separated.the milk, chilled the separated milk and cream, sent them by rail.in chilled storage to London, and then got. the pure wholesome cold-stored products for mixing. again for each. child as prescribed, at a smaller
BY J. B. HENDERSON, F.1.C. EX.
cost than they had previously been-paying for the ot death-dealing article.
What is the moral condition of a community which; with such absolutely convincing evidence ‘before it as:to the possibility of protecting these innocent lives, allows them to be slain by the hundred year after year ? ‘Herod had some excuse, if no reason, for his ‘“‘ Massacre of the Tnnocents,’? who could not have numbered so very many. in the small village of Bethlehem; he thought his throne and life were in danger. ‘We certainly have neither excuse nor reason for fling a far greater number every year in Brisbane. ;
And now having rather hastily run over a few of ‘the more obvious sources of. national waste, let me say that the way out in nearly every instance lies in bringing’ mén__ who have been properly educated, to deal with the problems to be attacked. For attacking each separate: problem, education, along specialised lines, is essential for the best. results. For some of the problems, the material solution has already been shown in other lands; the only difficulty, is in educating our community to take the necessary action. In the cases of other problems, more knowledge is required, and I trust that not one of the least; honourable tasks undertaken by the young graduates of our; new University, will be the solution of problems such as these...
I have said nothing of the presence wasteful. methods of the system of party politics by which we are governed. It has been many times pointed out that no.sane business man would ever attempt to conduct his private business, along the lines now used for doing. the national business. | The methods of election, the franchise used, the choosing. of the ministry, the giving of the ministry legislative con- | trol, the methods in use while legislating —in fact the whole — “party ’’ system, requires to be put back into the crucible and remelted. The greater proportion will be found waste material, and a committee of capable business experts, not men who give too much weight to precedent, should » take the resultant pure metal in hand, and from it con- struct a system by which the business of the country could be conducted in a more sane manner than it is at present. Every politician who has written on the matter, has deplored the waste of time and energy which the present
Xxli. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
system entails, yet nothing is done. It has been pointed out that a leader who brought about the change, would commit political suicide. Let us pray that a leader will soon arise in the Empire who will value the good of his country above that of his own political life. The current literature of the Old Country, even more than that of Australia, emphasises the fact that the nation is getting quite as tired of the present system as the politicians are. With the public so educated, the hour is here, let us hope that the hour brings the man. My reason for introducing the debatable subject of politics at all, is that most of the larger problems I have mentioned to-night must be dealt with by politicians, and they are severely handicapped in their attempts to obtain national efficiency by the methods which our present system forces them to adopt.
May the time soon come when it will be recognised as the principal duty of our various Governments to so eontrol and direct the States, that the maximum results will be obtained from the efforts of every individual in every trade and profession, and that the national assets of the State will be conserved for our children.
And the way out does not lie in wasteful wars between Labour and Capital, between Individuals and Communism. We must have labour and capital, we must have individual freedom and control by the community, and when we, as a people, are sufficiently educated to recognise that fact and ahandon the system ot party Government, we will have taken the first and greatest step towards evolving a proper State Control in which waste will be as carefully guarded against, and individuality as jealously fostered as in the keenest of private businesses.
A vote of thanks was proposed by Mr. Richards, and seconded by Mr. Briinnich. _An interesting discussion followed in which His Excellency, Mr. Barton and Mr. Briinnich took part, and Mr. Henderson briefly replied.
The following officers were returned unopposed. President, P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.; Vice-President, H. C. Richards, M.Sc.;: Hon. Treasurer, J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C.; Hon. Secretary, F. Bennett; Hon. Librarian, T.
RFPORT OF COUNCIL. Xxlii.
Harvey-Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.8.; Councillors, H. J. Priestley, M.A., E. H. Gurney, J. B. Henderson, F.1.C., J. F. Bailey, J. Shirley, B.Sc.
The President could not be installed as his train could not arrive in time, and the Hon. A. Norton was absent
through illness.
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VOL. XXIV.
PRINTED YOR THE SOCIETY
he: GARE BY ei: H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGH STREBT BRISBANE.
PROCKEDINGS
ROYAL SOCIETY QUEHENSLAND.
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PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, GEORGE STREET BRISBANE.
1913.
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Royal HOciely of Queensland
Patron : HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MACGREGOR, M.L.D., GGG: C.5., Etc.
OF FI@iaies, 1913.
President : H. C. RICHARDS, M.Sc.
Vice-President: J. SHIRLEY, D.Sc.
Hon. Treasurer : Hon. Secretary : J. C. BRUNNICH, F.I.C. F. BENNETT.
Hon. Labrarian : T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.
Assistant Librarian: D. C. GILLIES.
Members of Councii: J. F. BAILEY. E. H. GURNEY. E. C. BARTON, A.M.I.C.E. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY. P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E.
Trustees: HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. | JOHN CAMERON HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.
Hon. Lanternist: A. G@. JACKSON.
Hon. Auditor : GEO. WATKINS.
CONTENTS.
A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA.— T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., b.L.S., and Launcelot Harrison, April 24th, 1912
A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA.—T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., and Launeelot Harrison, April 24th, 1912
SUPPLEMENT TO THE LICHEN FLORA OF Age Salama Shirley, D.Se., ves 29th 1912
NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN ATHERINIDA.— Allan R. McCulloch, June 26th, 1912
ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND (Part ey Shirley, D.Se., July 81st, 1912 ; -
CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.—R. C. Ringrose, M.A., April 24th, 1912
NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.—!’. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Sc., June 26th, 1912
NOTES ON PORTION OF THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.—E. 0. Marks, B.A., B.F., October 9nd, 1912...
A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BALLAST.—F. P. Dodd, November 27th, 1912..
A NOTE ON AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.—T. Harvey Johnston, M.A., D.Se., and Launeelot Harrison, November o7th, 1912
STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA pee lide.)—A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.E.S., Novem- ber 27th, 1912 ‘ :
THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.—O. Meston and J. Brownlie Henderson, F.I.C., July 31st, 1912..
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A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA.
By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.Sc., F.LS., and LAUNCELOT HARRISON.
ee
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 24th, 1912.
—-
WirH the exception of a few short papers by Messrs. Le Souef and Bullen, in the Victorian Naturalist (see Liter- ature list), no work on Mallophaga has been done in Australia. The forms from Australian hosts that we list have been described by various European writers, rarely from material collected from the hosts in their natural state, but more often taken from skins in European museums, or from animals in captivity in the collections of the various Zoological Societies. It is to be expected that records of this nature will require some revision, as some straggling is bound to occur.
‘The names of bird hosts are in accordance with Mathews’ Handlist (1908), which is itself based on Sharpe’s Handlist of Birds (1899). The synonym under which the host was originally quoted is in all cases given. Parasites from domesticated and introduced animals are dealt with in a separate paper. We have not included parasites described elsewhere from species, the range of which includes Australia, and the Australian seas: nor those from oceanic birds, except where a definite Australian reference is given. In one or two instances, new names have been used to replace others which were preoccupied.
Mr. Le Souef having kindly placed his collection of Mallophaga at our disposal, we are able to establish some synonymy after examination of his types. The making of new records from our own collections is left for a later communication.
It will be seen that Mallophaga have been recorded from but 48 out of nearly 900 bird species listed by Mathews : and from only 7 marsupials.
2 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA
MALLOPHAGA FROM BIRDS. DROM2XUS NOV-EHOLLANDI®, Lath. Degecriella asymmetrica, [Nitzsch], Johnston &
Harrison, 1912.
Syns. Nirmus asymmetricus, Nitzsch, 1866, xxviii, p. 370 ; Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874 p 151, pl. 8, figs. 8-9 ; Piaget, 1877, p. .... ; 1880, p. 205, pl. 17, fig. 3 (Paris Zoo).
Nirmus setosum, Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii.‘ p. 157, figs. 5-6 (mec. N. setosus, Giebel, 1876).
We have examined the type of N. setosum, Le Souef and Bullen, and find it to be identical with Nitzsch’s species as described and figured in both Giebel and Piaget. Le Souef figures the male as possessing continuous bands on the posterior segments of the abdomen. This appearance is due to the strong ventral markings showing through in the cleared and mounted specimens. We have examples from the same host from Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria.
Lipeurus pallidus, Giebel, 1866 (nec. Piaget, 1880).
Recorded from this host. Stated by Giebel (1874, p. 219) to agree so completely with L. heterographus from the domestic fowl, that he considers th two species identical, and the emu merely an accidental host.
CATHETURUS LATHAMI, Lath. Goniocotes fissus, Rudow.
Rudow, 1869, p. 23 (New Holland) ; 1870, xxxv., p. 477; Giebel, 1874, p. 187; Piaget, 18°0, p. pi) Taschenberg, 1882, p. 84, pl. 2, figs. 7-74 (Hamburg Museum).
Goniocotes macrocephalus, Taschb.
Taschenberg, 1882, p. 87, pl. 2, fig. 11. (Hamburg Museum).
Lipeurus crassus, Rudow.
Rudow, 1870, p. 127 ; Giebe 1, 1874, p. 217 . Piaget, 1880, p 259 ; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 174.
Lipeurus ischnocephalus, Taschenberg.
Taschenberg, 1882, p. 173, pl. 6, fig. 8.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON, 3 /
SYN@CUS AUSTRALIS, Temm. Goniodes elongatus, Piaget. Mr. A. 8. Le Souef has collected specimens, which we identify as belonging to this species, from the above host in Victoria. Goniodes retractus, Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 90 The male of this species is unknown, and it is possible that the species may have to be referred to the genus Gontocotes on its discovery. Locality, Victoria.
o
EXCALFACTORIA LINEATA, Scop.
Oxylipeurus acuminatus, [Piaget|, Mjoberg.
Mjoberg, 1910, p. 92.
Syn. Lipeurus acuminatus. Piaget.
Piaget, 1885, p. 70, pl. 7, fig. 6. Host quoted as E. australis. Leyden Museum. Goniodes elongatus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1885, p. 53, pl. 5, fig. 10; 1880, p. 281, pl. 23, fig. 5.
Syn. Goniodes longus, Le Souef, 1902, xix, p. 90.
Taschenberg (1882, p. 71), believes this form to be identical with connie asterocephalus, Nitzsch, but Piaget (1885, p. 53) upholds the validity of the species Host quoted as H#. australis, Leyden Museum.
We have examined Le Souef’s type of G@. longus, and find it identical with G. elongatus, Piaget. Host quoted as EH. chinensis, Victoria.
MEGALOPREPIA MAGNIFICA, Temm. Inpeurus columbae, [Linn]. Syn. Lipeurus baculus, Nitzsch, 1818. This common parasite of pigeons is given as occurring on Carpophiga magnifica by Taschenberg (1882, p. 125). No locality is stated.
MACROPYGIA PHASIANELLA, Temm. Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel.
Re. orded by Piaget (1880, p. 534, pl. sia fig. 5), from Columba phasianella.
4 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA PHAPS CHALCOPTERA, Lath. Goniocotes flavus, |Rudowl|, Giebel, 1874. Syn. Goniodes favus, Rudow, 1870, p. 486. Gontocotes flavus, Giebel, 1874, p. 188: Piaget, 1800, p- 236 ; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 101, pl. 3, figs. 5-5a. Inpeurus angustus, Rudow. Rudow, 1869, p. 34; 1870, p. 137; Giebel, 1874, p- 216; Piaget, 188 , p. 306; Taschenberg, 1882, p- 123. From Tasmania. Taschenberg (1882, p. 123) considers that the species is probably identical with L. baculus (=L. columbae). ; Inpeurus columbae, [Linn.|, Neumann. Syn. L. baculus, Nitzsch. Recorded from the above host by Taschenberg (1582, p. 123), as L. baculus. Colpocephalum albidum, Giebel. Giebel, 1874, p. 268. LEvcosaRciIA PICATA, Lath. Lipeurus columbae, {Linn.], Neumann. Recorded from the above host by Taschenberg
(1882, p. 124). Host quoted as L. plicata and the parasite as Lip. baculus.
RRALLINA TRICOLOR, Gray. Rallicola bisetosa, |Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912. Syn. Oncophorus bisetosus, Piaget, 1880, p. 218. Leyden Museum. MICROTRIBONYX VENTRALIS, Gould. Goniodes cornutus, Rudow Rudow, 1869, p 26; 1870, p 485; Giebel, 1874,. p- 205 ; Piaget, 1880, :p. 284. PORPHYRIO MELANONOTUS, Temm. Rallicola fallax, [Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912. Syn. Oncophorus fallax, Piaget, 1880, p. 220, pl. 18, fig. 6. Eastern Australia, Leyden Museum. Daprion CAPENSIS, Linn. Ancistrona procellariae, Westwood. Syn. A. gigas, Piaget. Recorded from the above host by one of us (L H., 1911) from Narrabeen, New South Wales.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. >
STERNA BERGII, Licht. Colpocephalum crassipes, Piaget.
Recorded by Piaget (1880, p. 566) from a specimen of S. poliocerca in Leyden Museum. As this is Gould’s species from 8. E. Australia, now merged in S. bergit, we have included the reference, although no direct Australian locality is given.
HyYDRALECTOR GALLINACEUS, Temm. Rallicola sulcata, [Piaget|, Johnston & Harrison, 1912, Syn. Oncophorus sulcatus, Piaget, 1880, p. 218. pl. 18, fig. 5. Rotterdam Zoo.
ANTIGONE AUSTRALASIANA, Gould.
Philopterus integer, Nitzsch.
Syn. Docophorus integer, Nitzsch, 1886, p. 360; Giebel, 1874, p. 95; Piaget, 1880, p. 99.
Docophorus noveholl indie, Giebel, 1866,
XXViil., ~. 360; 1874, -p. 96. |
Giebel described the form from the above host (quoted as Grus novehollandie) as a distinct species. Piaget does not uphold the distinction. Lipeurus giganteus, Le Souef & Bullen.
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 156, fig. 1. Lipeurus gruis, [Linn.| Johnston & Harrison, 1912.
Syn. L. ebre@us, Nitzsch, 1818.
L. hebreus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 382; Giebel,
1874, p. 226.
Taschenberg (1882, p. 133) records the occur- rence of L. hebr@us on Grus novehollandie. |
We have examined specimens of the last two species from the same host from Queensland, Victoria, and N.S. Wales.
Ipis motucca, Cuv.
Lipeurus ibis, Le Souef & Bullen.
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 156, ae A Host quoted as Threskiornis stictipennis,
PLATIBIS FLAVIPES, Gould.
Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef.
Le Souef (1902, xix., p. 91) states that he has met with O. fuscus on the Australian spoonbill. Possibly it has only straggled from a swan.
6 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA
XENORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS, Lath. Philopterus horridus, Giebel.
Syn. Docophorus horridus, Giebel, 1876, p. 243% Piaget, 1880, /p. 97.
Host quoted as Ciconiqa australis.
NOTOPHOYX NOV2-HOLLANDIE, Lath. Lipeurus unguiculatus, Piaget. Piaget, 1888, xxxi., p. 247, Pl. 10, fig. 2
Host quoted as Herodias novehollandie.
CHENOPSIS ATRATA, Lath.
Lipeurus anatis megaceros, Johnston & Harrison, 1912,
Syn. Lipeurus squalidus, var. antennatus, Piaget, 1880, p. 346. L. squalidus, Nitzsch, is a synonym of L. anatis, Fabricius. The name antennatus is pre- occupied by L. antennatus, Giebel (1874, p. 213). We therefore propose to substitute the sub-specific name megaceros as above. Host quoted as Cygnus atratus, Rotterdam Zoo. Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef.
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 91. Victoria. Trinoton niger, Le Souef.
Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 91. Victoria. Colpocephalum castaneum, Piaget.
Piaget, 1885, p. 153, Pl. 16, fig. 7. Host quoted as Cygnus atratus, Rotterdam Zco.
CEREOPSIS NOV#-HOLLANDI®, Lath.
Lipeurus australis, Rudow.
Rudow, 1869, p. 38: 1870, p. 130; Giebel. 1874, p. 239; Piaget, 1880, p. 351; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 164.
Taschenberg notes that this’ species is closely related to L. jejunus Nitzsch (=L. crassicornis, Olfers), his material coming from the Hamburg Museum.
NETTIUM GIBBERIFRONS, 8. Mill. Lipeurus anatis major, Piaget.. Syn. Lipeurus squalidus, var. major, Piaget, 1880 p. 346. Host quoted as Anas gibberiformis.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 7
PHALACROCORAX SULCIROSTRIS, Brandt. Inpeurus setosus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 335, Pl. 27, fig. 4. Host quoted as Phalacrocorax (Graculus) sulcirostris, Leyden Museum.
Menopon subrotundum, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 453, Pl. 35, fig. 2. Host quoted
as Gracula sulcirostris, Rotterdam Zoo.
SULA SERRATOR, Gray. Philopterus breviantennatus, [Piaget] J. &. H., 1912,
Syn. Docophorus breviantennatus, Piaget, 1880, p. 108, Pl. 9, fig. 9. Host quoted as Sula australis : Leyden Museum.
Pectinoprgus gyricornis (Denny) J. &. H., 1912.
Syn. Lipeurus gyricornis, Denny.
Piaget, (1880 p. 337, Pl. 27, fig. 8) records this species—originally described by Denny (1842, p. 167) from a tern, Sterna hirundo—from Sula australis, Leyden Museum. This species has the typical form of Lipeures from Sula.
Menopon albescens, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 491, Pl. 41, fig. 4. Hest quoted as Sula australis.
MICROGLOSSUS ATERRIMUS, Gmel. Colpocephalum temporale, Piaget. Piaget, 1888, p. 252, Pl. 10, fig. 6. Host quoted as Psittacus aterrimus, Rotterdam Zoo. Degeeriella paraboliceps, [Piaget]. J. &. H., 1912. Syn. Nirmus paraboliceps, Piaget, 1880, p. 135, Pl. 11, fig. 5. Host and locality as above.
CALYPTORHYNCHUS VIRIDIS, Vieill. Lipeurus circumfasciatus, Piaget. Piaget, 1 &&C, . 301, Pl. 24, fig. 6. Taschenberg (1882, p. 118, Pl. 3, fig. 13) records th is species from the above host under the name of C. leachi, no locality being given.
8 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA CACATUA GALERITA, Lath. Lipeurus albus, Le Souef & Bullen.
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157, fig. 4. Victoria.
CACATUA ROSEICAPILLA. Vieill.
Degeertella eos. [Rudow.| J. & H., 1912. Syns. Nirmus eos, Rudow, 1870, xxxv., p. 471 ; Giebel, 1874, p. 181 : Piaget, 1880, p. 137.
Nirmus tenuis, Rudow, 1870,, xxxv., p. 471 (nec,
Nitzsch in Burmeister, 1832, p. 429).
Giebel has quoted this host under two different names,—as Plictolophus roseocapillus in his Index (1874, p. x.), and as Cacatua cos in the text (1874, p. 181); Gurlt (1878), in preparing his list, has copied Giebel’s names, but has quoted them as referring to two distinct hosts, Psittacus eos and Psittacus roseo- captllus (fide Piaget, 1880, p. xvii.)
CALOPSITTACUS NO V#®-HOLLANDI2®, Gmel. Goniocotes fasciatus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 236, Pl. 19, fig. 11. Host quoted as Nymphicus nove-hollandie, Leyden Museum and Rotterdam Zoo. It is questionable whether this. species should be included in its present genus.
POLYTELIS BARRABANDI, Swains. Philopterus angustoclypcatus, [Piaget] Johnston &
Harrison, 1912. ;
Syn. Docophorus angustoclypeatus, Piaget, 1880, p. 34, pl. 2. fig. 3. Host recorded as Platycercus ba: ratandi.
Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p..... : 1880, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1. Host as above. Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p..525, pl. 43, fig. 8. Host as above - Rotterdam Zoo.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 9
POLYTELIS MELANURA, Vig.
Inpeurus circumfasciatus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 301, pl. 24, fig. 6; Taschenberg, 1882, p. 118, pl. 3, fig. 13. Host given as Platycercus melanurus, Leyden Museum.
APROSMICTUS CYANOPYGIUS, Vieill. Philopterus forficula, [Piaget| Johnston & Harrison,
1912. |
Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. .-..3 1880, p. 32, pl. 2 fig. 1. Host given as Platycercus scapulatus. f
PLATYCERCUS ELEGANS, Gmel. Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 1912. . Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. .... 3 1880, p. 32, pl. 2. fig. 1. Host given as P. pennantis. PLATYCERCUS PALLIDICEPS, Vig. Colpocephalum trimaculatum, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 525, pl. 43, fig. 8. Host quoted as P. palliceps, Rotterdam Zoo.
PLATYCERCUS EXIMIUS, Shaw. Philopterus forficula, [Piaget], Johnston & Harrison, 1912. Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. ....3 1880, p. 32, pl. 2, fig. 1. Menopon psittacus, Le Souef & Bullen. Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158, fig. 8.
BARNARDIUS ZONARIUS, Shaw. Philopterus forficula, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 1912. Syn. Docophorus forficula, Piaget, 1871, p. ....3 1880, p. 32, pl. 2. fig. 1. Host quoted as Platycercus bauert, (p. 33) and P. zonarius (bauert) (p. 684).
DacELO GIGas, Bodd. Philopterus delphax, [Nitzsch| Johnston & Harrison, 1912. Syn. Docophorus delphax, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 360 ; ' Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874, p. 92. Host quoted as Dacelo gigantea, Halle Museum. Piaget, 1880, p. 75.
10
A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN. MALLOPHAGA
Degeeriella bracteata, |Nitzsch| Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Nirmus bracteatus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 369 ; Giebel, 1874, p. 145: Piaget, 1880, p. 163. Host as. above.
Degeeriella goniocotes, {[Piaget| Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Nirmus goniocotes, Piaget, 1885, p. 33, pl. 4, fig. 3. Host given as Dacelo gigas from Mada- gascar (Leyden Museum). As this bird is confined to Australia, either the locality or the host is incor- rectly stated.
Menopon infumatum, Piaget.
Piaget, 1885, p. 106, pl. 11, fig. 7.. Reference
to same host and locality as last species.
CACOMANTIS RUFULUS, Vieill.
Philopterus laticlypeatus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison, 1912. | Syn. Docophorus laticly peatus, Piaget, 1871, p..... : 1880, p. 37, pl. 2. fig. 9. Host given as Cuculus flabelliformis from New Holland, Leyden Museum.
SCYTHROPS NOV#HOLLANDIA, Lath.
Philopterus obcordatus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Docophorus obcordatus, Piaget, 1871, p. ....; 1880, p. 38, pl. 2, fig. 10. Leyden Museum. Degeeriella lipeuriformis, [Rudow| Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Nirmus lipeuriformis, Rudow, 1870, p. 470 ; Nirmus chelurus, Nitzsch in Giebel, 1874, p. 150; Piaget, 1880, p. 138. Dry skin; Paris. Giebel, (1874, p. 151) establishes the identity of Rudow’s and Nitzsch’s species, but wrongly retains Nitzsch’s name. Menopon platygaster, Giebel.
Giebel, 1874, p. 290: Piaget, 1880, p. 420, pl. 32, fig. 5. Leyden Museum.
MENURA SUPERBA, Davies.
Philopterus paraboliceps, [Piaget] J. & H., 1912. Syn. Docophorus paraboliceps, Piaget, 1888, p. 224, pl. 8, fig. 2. Host quoted as Menura lyra.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON 11 Degeeriella submarginalis, [Burmeister] J. & H., 1912, Syn. Nirmus submarginalis, Burmeister, 1832. ; p. 4381; N. submerginellus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 368; Giebel, 1874, p. 148; Piaget, 1880, p. 155; 1885, p. 22, pl. 3, fig. 2 (Halle Museum) ; N. menurae-lyrae, Coinde, 1859, p. 424; N. menura, Le Souef & Bullen, |g pale | ed a Kellogg (1908, p. 27) gives Menura superia as a host of Nirmus (i.e. Degeeriella) marginalis,: Nitzsch. We cannot find any reference justifying this, hence we have concluded that it is an error.
MENURA VICTORI®, Gould. Lipeurus menura, Le Souef & Bullen.
Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157, fig. 3. Menopon menura, Le Souef & Bullen. — |
~ Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158,, fig. 9. Degeeriella submarginalis, [Burmeister].
Syn. Nirmus menura, Le Souef and Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 157. For full synonymy, see under Menura ° superba. We have examined Le Souef and Bullen’s type of N. menura, and find it identical with the above species. These authors quote the host as Menura superba, but Mr. Le Souef informs us that the birds were the now separated Victcrian form M. victoria.
GYMNORHINA TIBICEN, Lath. Degeeriella bimiaculata, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Nirmus bimaculatus, Piaget, 1885, p. 148, pl. 16, fig. 1. Host given as Baryta tibicen, Rotterdam Zoo.
GYMNORHINA LEUCONOTA, Gray. Degeeriella semiannulata, [Piaget] Johnston & Harrison,
1912.
Syn. Nirmus semiannulatus, Piaget, 1883, p. 156; 1885, p. 24, pl. 3, fig. 11... Host quoted as Baryta leuconota. | .
Piaget (1880, p. 140) records Nirmus varius (te. Degeeriella veria) Nitzsch, from the above host. This is a common parasite of European crows, and prob-
2 A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA
ably straggled from one of these on to the Gymnorhina,
whieh was very probably a captive in the Rotterdam
Zoo, where much of Piaget’s material was collected. PARDALOTUS PUNCTATUS, Shaw.
Menopon, sp.
Giebel (1874, p. 286) mentions that Nitzsch had a damaged individual of a species of Menopon from the above host, which was not in sufficiently good. condition to justify description. Nitzsch considered. it to be closely allied to his own M. minutum.
GLYCIPHILA FASCIATA, Gould. Goniocotes candidus var. pellucidus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1885, p. 40, pl. 4, fg. 10. Leyden Museum- This is possibly a straggler, as it is extremely unlikely that Gonvocotes should occur on the Meliphagide, and particularly on such a small honey-eater as G- fasciata.
PTILONORHYNCHUS VIOLACEUS, Vieill. Philopterus grandiceps, [Giebel| Johnston and Harri-
,son, 1912.
Syn. Docophorus grendiceps, Giebel, 1874, p. 85; Piaget, 1880, p. 53, Host quoted as P. holosericeus. Degeeriella pontoni, Johnston & Harrison, 1912.
Syn. Nirmus nitzschi, Ponton, 1871 (nec. Giebel,. 1866, p. 364; 1874, p. 125). This species is referred to by Gurlt (1878). Piaget merely mentions the name. We have not been able to consult Pontcn’s original description. As the specific name nitzeché was precoccupied by Giebel in 1866, we have substi- tuted for it pontoni, in compliment to the author of the species.
Giebel (1874, p. 133) gives a brief description of Nirmus (=Degeeiiella) sp. from the above host, collected from a dry skin, but not in sufficiently good condition to allow description.
SERICULUS CHRYSOCEPHALUS, Lewin. Degeeriella hectica, [Nitzsch| “ohnston & Harrison, 1912.
Syn. Nirmus hecticus, Nitzsch, 1866, p. 366; Giebel, 1874, p. 136; Piaget, 1880, p. 161. Host quoted as Sericulus regens.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 13
STREPERA GRACULINA, White. Colpocephalum vinculum, Le Souef & Bullen. Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 158, fig. 10.
MALLOPHAGA FROM MARSUPIALS. MACROPUS GIGANTEUS, Zimm. Heterodoxus longitarsus, [Piaget] Johnston & Harri- son, 1912. Syn. Menopon longitarsus, Piaget, 1880, p. 504, pl. 41, fig. 7. Rotterdam Zoo. Host quoted as Halmaturus giganteus.
-MACROPUS RUFUS, Desm. Boopia grandis, Piaget. Piaget, 1885, p. 154, pl. 16, fig. 8.
MACROPUS DORSALIS, Gray. Boopia minuta, Le Souef. Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 51, fig. 8. -MAcCROPUS UALBATUS, Less & Garn. Becpia notafusca, Le. Souef. Le Souef, 1£02, xix., p. 50, fig. 1. “* Kangaroos and Wallabies.” Heterodoxus longitarsus, [Piaget| Johnston & Harri-
son, 1912.
Syn. Menogon longitarsus, Piaget, 1880, p. 504 pl. 41, fig. 7. Heterodoxu macropus, Le Souef & Bullen, 1902, xviii., p. 159, fig. 11; Froggatt, 1907, p- 391. We have examined the types of Heterodoxus macropus, Le Souef and Bullen, and find the species to be identical with that described by Piaget ag Menopon longitarsus. No hosts are indicated specific- ally by the former authors. We will deal more fully with the host distribution of this parasite in a forth-
‘ coming paper on Mallophaga from Marsupials. Latumcephalum macropus, Le Souef. Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 51, fig. 4. PETROGALE PENICILLATA, Gray. Trichodectes penicillatus, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 506, pl. 32, fig. 10, Rotterdam Zoo. Taschenberg (1882, p. 214) states that this
14
A CENSUS OF AUSTRALIAN MALLOPHAGA
species is identical with 7’r. crassipes, Rudow (1886, p. 111, pl. 7, fig. 1) from the Angora goat. Raillet
(1895, p. 837) and Neumann (1905, :p. 65) refer to the
species, suggesting that in one of the above cases the host is wrongly indicated. Material collected by ourselves from the above host does not include any T'richodectes, nor have we found a member of this genus on any of a large number of marsupials. examined.
AEPYPRYMNUS RUFESCENS, Gray.
Boopia bettongia, Le Souef. Le Souef, 1902, xix., p. 50, fig. 2. Host quoted as Bettongia rufescens.
PHASCOLOMYS URSINUS, Shaw.
1907 1866 1874 1876 1878 191]
1911
Boopia tarsata, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 599, pl. 50, fig. 1. Host quoted as Phascolomys fossr. Colpocephalum truncatum, Piaget.
Piaget, 1880, p. 540, pl. 45, fig. 2. Piaget (1880, p. 542) records finding this species, which is a parasite of Grus communis, on a wombat. This is evidently a case-of straggling.
LITERATURE LIST. Burmeister—Handb. d. Entomol, 1832. Coinde—Bull. Soc. imp. Nat., Moscou, xxxii., 1859. Denny—Monogr. Anoplurorum Britanniae, Lon- don, 1842.
Froggatt—Australian Insects, Sydney, 1907.
Giebel—Z.f. ges. Naturwiss., xxviii.
Giebel—*‘ Insecta Epizoa, etc.” Liepzic, 1874.
Giebel—Z. f. ges. Naturwiss.
Gurlt—Arch. f Naturgesch., xliv. ;
—Harrison—Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Notes and
Exhibits, pt. 3, 1911.
Johnston & Harrison—** Notes on some Mallophagan Generic Names,’ P.L.8., N.S.W. 1911.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 15
1912. Johnston & MHarrison—‘* A Census of Australian Mallophaga.’’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 1912. (The present paper.)
1908— Kellogg —‘‘ Mallophaga,’? in Wytsmann’s ‘“ Genera Insectorum”’ Fasc. 66.
1902—Le Souef—Victorian Naturalist, xix., p. 50.
1902. Le Souef & Bullen—Vict. Nat., xviii., p. 155.
1902 Le Souef & Bullen—Vict. Nat, xviii., p. 159.
1908 Matthews—*‘ Handlist of the Birds of Australia.” “Emu” vii, pt. 3, 1908, Supplement.
1910 Mjoberg—Arkiv. f. Zoologi. vi., No. 13.
1905 Neumann, “ Parasites et Maladies parasitaires des Oiseaux domestiques,’ Paris, 1909.
1818 Nitzsch—in Germar’s Magazin d. Entom., iii, 1818, pp. 261, sqq.
1866 Nitzsch—Zeitschr f. ges. Naturwiss, xxviii.
1874 Nitzsch—(in Giebel) “ Insecta Epizoa,”’ 1874.
1871 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xiv.
1877 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xx.
1880 Piaget—‘‘ Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique.’ Leiden, 1880,
1885 Piaget—‘* Les Pediculines, Essai Monographique,”’ Supplement, Leiden, 1885.
1888 Piaget—Tijd. v. Ent., xxxi.
1871 Ponton—American Monthly Microscopical Journal, vi.
1895 Raillet—Traite d. Zool. Agric. Medic.
1869 Rudow—Beitrage, etc. Inaug. Dissert. Halle.
1870 Rudow—Zeitschr. f. ges. Naturwiss, xxxv and xxxvi,
1899 Sharpe—* A Handlist of the Genera and Species of Birds,’ London, 1899, sqq.
1882 Taschenberg—* Die Mallophagen, etc,’ Nova. Acta. Halle, xliv., 1, 1882.
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A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA FOUND ON INTRODUCED AND DOMESTICATED ANIMALS IN AUSTRALIA,
By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc., and LAUNCELOT HARRISON.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 24th, 1912.
THE present communication contains a list of the Mallophaga previously recorded as occurring on introduced animals in Australia, as well as several whose presence is now noted in literature for the first time, though some of them are common, well-known forms. We have recently ‘published (J. & H., 1912, a,) a census of the species recorded from the native Australian fauna.
The application of the law of priority has necessitated the alteration of some well-known names.
BIRDS.
(CoMMON Fow. (Gallus domesticus). 1. Lipeurus caponis (Linn). Syn. L. variabilis, Nitzsch. —Common. N.S.W., Victoria,* Q’land, W. Austr. 2. Lipeurus heterographus, Nitzsch.—Vict., Sydney (N.S.W.) 3. Goniodes dissimilis, Nitzsch —Vict., N.S.W. 4, Goniocotes gigas, Tasch.—N.8.W., Q’land. The occurrence of this parasite (quoted as Gc. abdominalis) on fowls in N.S.W., has already been recorded by Bradshaw (1909, p. 51). It is fairly common. 5. Goniocotes hologaster, Nitzsch.—Uncommon. Melbourne (Victoria).
“We are indebted to Mr. A. S. Le Souef for most of the Victorian. -material referred to in this paper. B
18 ' A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA
This species was referred to by DeGeer as Ricinus galling, which name therefore appears to have priority. Linneus, described a Pediculus galline (= Menopon galline), but soon afterwards DeGeer divided up the Linnean genus into Pediculus (including the blood-sucking species), and. Ricinus (including those which feed on epidermal structures). Thus P. galling L. should have become R. galline (L.), in which case R. galline DeGeer would be invalid, as it refers to a different species. DeGeer’s work is not avail- able to us, so that we do not know whether that author believed that he was referring to Linnzeus’ species, or whether he took no cognisance of P. galling L. and erected a new species, R. gallinew. We are thus unable to state whether the parasite should be termed Gc. galline (Geer), or Ge. hologaster (N.), though it seems to us that Nitzsch’s name is the more correct.
7. Menopon galline (L.)—Syns. M. trigonocephalum (Olfers); MW. pallidum, Nitzsch. A common parasite. N.S.W., Victoria, Queensland, West Australia.
8. Menopon stramineum, N.—Syn. M. biseriatum, Piaget. Common—N.8.W., Victoria, Q’land.
TuRKEY (Meleagris gallopavo).
1. Lipeurus meleagridis (li.)—Syn. L. polytrapezius-. N. Sydney (N.S.W.)
2. Goniodes stylifer, N. N.S.W., Victoria, Q’land.
3. Menopon stramineum, N. N.S.W., Victoria, Q’land.
GUINEA FowL. (Nwmida meleagris). 1. Lipeurus caponis (L.)—Sydney (N.S.W.)
2. Goniocotes rectangulus (Nitzsch), Burm.—Sydney. This species is usually quoted as Ge. rectangu- latus N., but the latter name is a synonym.
PHEASANT (Phasianus colchicus). 1. Lipeurus caponis (L.) Victoria.
2. Goniodes colchici, Denny.—Syn G. colchicus, Giebel. Victoria.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 19 Peacock (Pavo cristatus). 1. Goniodes pavonis (L.)—Syn. G. falcicornis, Nitzsch, Melbourne, Sydney. SILVER PHEASANT. (Genneus nycthemerus.) 1. Menopon fulvomaculatum, Denny.—Syn. M. productum, Piaget. Victoria. PicEON (Columba livia dom.)
1. Lipeurus columbe (L.)—Syn. LL. baculus, N, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane.
bo
Goniodes (Coloceras) damicornis, Nitzsch. Sydney. 3. Goniodes (Coloceras), piagetitnom. noy.—Syn. Gd. minor, Piaget (1880, p. 256), nec. Gd. dispar.
var. minor, Piaget (1880, p. 248)*.
4. Goniocotes bidentatus (Scopoli).—Syn. Ge. compar,
Nitzsch. Sydney.
5. Menopon giganteum, Denny.—Syn. M. latum,
Piaget. Sydney.
6. Colpocephalum turbinatum, Denny.—Syn. C. longicaudum, Nitzsch (1866). Sydney.
Inpian DOvE (T'urtur suratensis). A common bird in some Australian cities. .
1. Goniocotes chinensis, Kellogg & Chapman. Sydney. Previously recorded only from Turtur chinensis, from Hawaii.
GOosE (Anser domesticus).
1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers).—Syn. L. jejunus,
Nitzsch. Victoria ; Sydney, Richmond (N.S.W.) DvccKk (Anas domestica).
1. Lipeurus anatis (Fabr.)—Syn L. squalidus, N. Sydney, Melbourne.
2. Menopon obscurum, Piaget. Sydney. Muscovy Duck.
1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers). Sydney.
*According to Article 11, of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, ‘‘ specific and sub-specific names are subject to the same rules . . . . . . and frcm a nomenclatural standpoint, they are co-ordinate - that is, they are of the same value.” Hence our substitution of a new specific name for Piaget’s species.
20 A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA
Swan (Cygnus, dom.)
1. Lipeurus crassicornis (Olfers). Victoria.
2. Ornithobius fuscus, Le Souef (1902, p. 91)—Melbourne
Zoological Gardens.
3. Ornithobius cygni (L.) Victoria, Sydney. SrarLine (Sturnus vulgaris).
1. Philopterus leontodon, Nitzsch. Sydney.
2. Degeeriella nebulosa (Burmeister). Sydney.
3. Menopon spinosum, Piaget. Sydney. SKYLARK (Alauda arvensis).
1. Menopon parviceps, Piaget. Richmond,* (N.S.W.) ‘OsTRICH (Struthio camelus).
1. Lipeurus quadrimaculatus, Piaget. Richmond
(N.S. W.). (In collection of Entomological Branch, Dept. of Agriculture, Sydney).
MAMMALS.
Ass (Equus asinus).
1. Trichodectes pilosus, Giebel (nec. Piaget). Victoria. Horse (Equus caballus). = 1. Trichodectes pilosus, Giebel. Victoria. Lea (1908, p. 105), refers to this species, but does not state whether it oceurs in Tasmania. Linneus (Syst. Nat. II., 1018), described Pediculus equi from the horse. In 1842, Denny (1842, p. 191), gave an account of a parasite which he regarded as belong- ing to Linneus’ form, as Trichodectes equi. In 1874, Giebel (1874, p. 5S), described Tr. pilosus, ostensibly renaming 7'r. equi, Denny and Pediculus equi, Linn. Piaget (1880, p. 397), in 1880, separated Denny's 77. equi from Linneus’ form, redescribing the former as 7'r. parumpilosus, while on p. 395, he described what he believed to be Tr. pilosus, Giebel, giving as a synonym Pediculus equi, Linn. A little later, Taschenberg (1882, p. 214), stated that Piaget was correct in identify- ing Tr. equi, Denny with Tr. parumpilosus, and,
Sen Nn en *We are indebted to Mr. C. T. Musson, of the Hawkesbury Agricul- tural College, Richmond, N.S.W., for specimens from this locality.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 2r
moreover, after having examined’ Giebel’s specimens, was convinced that 7'r. pilosus, Giebel, was also synonymous with Tr. parumpilosus, Piaget. He went on to state that the two species. from horses should be quoted as 7'r. pilosus, Piaget, and 7'r. parumpilosus, Piaget. Taschenberg does. not appear to have recognized that pilosus was already preoccupied when Piaget adopted it. Railliet (1895, p. 835) quoted Tr. pilosus, Piaget, nec. Giebel, under the name T7'r. vestitus.
The synonymy of the two species is thus :—
(a) Pediculus equi, Linn. (6) Trichodectes equi, Denny,. Tr. pilosus, Piaget, nec. nec. Li: Giebel. Tr. pilosus, Giebel, nec. Tr. vestitus, Raill. ' Piag.
Tr. parumpilosus. Piaget,
From the foregoing it will be seen that Giebel, without any justification, renamed Denny’s and Linnzus’ species, believing both to be identical. It has since been shown that his description really referred to Denny’s form, and not to Pedic equi, Linn. His name thus accidentally becomes the valid one for 7'r. equi, Denny, nec. Linn., with Tr. parumpilosus, Piaget as synonym, while the Linnean species must stand for the less common parasite, T'r. equt (L.), with 7'r. pilosus, Piaget, nec. -Giebel and T'r. vestitus, Raill, as synonyms. It might be stated here that Piaget’s. names are those generally used, but from the above dis- cussion it will be seen that this should not be the case. Osborn (1891, p. 45-7) followed Piaget’s nomenclature.
Ox (Bos taurus).
1. Trichodectes bovis (L.)—Syn. Tr. scalaris, Nitzsch. N.S.W., Johnston, 1911, p. 217. Queensland. We have restored Linnzus’ specific name.
SHEEP (Ovis aries).
1. Trichodectes ovis (L.), Raill.—Syn. T'r. sphaeroece- phalus, Nitzsch, Victoria, N.S. Wales. -Lea (1908, p. 105), has recorded the presence of this species under Nitzsch’s name in Tasmania.
22. A LIST OF MALLOPHAGA.
Goat (Capra hircus).
1. Trichodectes climax. Nitzsch, Victoria, Nitzsch’s name was published in 1818, but no description appeared (as far as we are aware) until Gervais published one in 1844.
Cav (Felis domestica).
l. 7. ichodectes subrostratus, Nitzsch. Victoria.
GUINEA Pie (Cavia cobaia). 1. Gyropus ovalis. Sydney. 2. Gliricola porcelli (Schrank)—Syns. Gyropus gracilis, Nitzsch ; Gliricola gracilis, Mjoberg (1910, p. 18): We have reinstated Schrank’s name on account of its priority, even though it is very imapprop- priate.*
LITERATURE. 1909. Bradshaw, Farmers’ Bull. 15, Dept. Agr., N.S. W. 1842. Denny, Monogr. Anoplur. Brit., London. 1907. Froggatt, Australian Insects, Sydney. 1874. Giebel, Insecta Epizoa, Leipzig. 1911. Johnston, Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland. 1911. p. 207. 1912a Johnston & Harrison, Proc. Roy. Soc., Q’land. 1912, pp. 1—16. 19126 Johnston & Harrison, the present paper. 1908. Lea, Insect and Fungus Pests, ete., Edit. 3, Hobart. 1902. Le Souef, Victorian Naturalist, xix., 1902. 1767. Linnezus, Syst. Nat., IT. 1910. Myjoberg, Arkiv. f. Zoologi., VI, (13). 1818. Nitzsch, in Germar’s Mag. d. Entomol. 1891. Osborn, Bull. 7., Dept. Agr., Entomol. Div., U.S.Az 1880. Piaget, Les Pediculines, Leiden. 1895. Railliet, Traité de Zool. Agric. Medic., Paris. 1882. Taschenberg, Nova Acta. XLIV. (1), 1882.
*Froggatt (1907), refers to some of Piaget’s and Le Souef’s species, but does not add any information regarding Australian Mallophaga, either mative or introduced. .
¢
SUPPLEMENT TO THE LICHEN FLORA OF QUBENSLAND. |
By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May, 1912.
The Lichen Flora of Queensland was published in 1888-9. Parts I-III (6) appeared in Volumes V and VI, of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, Part IV, with Index and Supplement, was sprinted by Messrs. Pole & Outridge, in 1889. Since that time, a period of twenty-three years, many additional lichens have been recorded from this State by Dr. Jean Muller, of Geneva ; Dr. Chas. Knight, of New Zealand; Dr. James Stirton, of Glasgow; Rev. F. R. M. Wilson, and the author of this ‘paper.
These additions have been described in various scientific journals of Europe and Australia, and many have been recorded by our Government Botanist in his Bulletins, or in Extracts from the Queensland Agricultural Journal, 1890-1912. In these the sections dealing with lichens were of my drafting.
As many Queensland lichens are recorded under incorrect names, and not infrequently under wrong genera, a revision is necessary, and as the Australian student cannot consult the whole of the works, a summary is required. This paper is an attempt to meet both these requirements.
The reference following the name of each species gives to the student the name of an Australian publiation in which a description may be found, with the habitat of the type specimen, and a means of obtaining other information.
The classification is that of Dr. Jean Muller, of Geneva, who adopted the distinguishing title of Muller of Aargau, for which the abbreviation M.A. is used.
/
24 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. - LICHENS. CoLLeMAcEs, Mull. Arg. Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 18, and Lich. Socot. I. CoLLEME®, Korb., Par., p. 48.
1. Obryzum, Wallr. These are lichens parasitic on species: of Collemez, and are now referred to Pyrenocarpez.. Lich., Great Brit., ii., 264-5. .
O. myriopus f. isidiosum, Wilson. s. Coccocarpia pellita v. tncisa, M.A., Bot. Bull. viii., 97.
”)
2. Synechoblastus, Trev.
S. mgrescens, Huds. s, Collema nigrescens, Huds..,. Lich. Fl. Q., p. 5. cael
S. glaucophthalmus, M.A. 8s. C. leucocarpum, Tayl.; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 6.
S. microcarpus, M.A. s. C. microcarpum, M.A., Lich. Bi a2.,. 2. 0.
S. Gwytheri, Shirley. s. C. Gwytheri, Stirton, Q.A.J.,, Nov., 1899.
3. Physma, Mass., Neag., p. 8. P. byrsinum, M.A. s. C. byrsinum, Ach., Lich. FI- Q., p. 5. P. byrsinum v. amphiurum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 23. 4. Collema, Ach. (pro p.) C. hypolasium, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
5. Leptogium, Fr. (pro p.)
L. bullatulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 23.
L. cerulum, Wils., Bot. Bull. ii., p. 28.—Coccocarpra aurantiaca, Bot. Bull., viii., p. 97. Wilsoni, Shirley=L. denticulatum, Wils., a name already used by Nylander, Lich. Mey., 41. (See Bot. Bull. ii., 28.) L. sphinctrinum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. ii., 28. L. atro-viride, Wils.,-Bot. Bull. ii., 28. L. phyllocarpum v. isidiosum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. iii., 20. L. phyllocarpum v. dedalum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. v., 31. L LD L L
S
. tremelloides v. azureum (Ach.), Mnt., Bot. Bull. iii., 20. ,. tremelloides v. isidiosa, M.A., Bot. Bull. viii., 91.
. chloromelum, Nyl., Bot. Bull. i., 20.
. hypotrachynum, M.A., Lich. Beit. xii., 12.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 25 6. Leptogiopsis, M.A., L.B., 372. L. carneolum (Wils.), Shirley, Bot. Bull. ii., 28.
1. MyrtIaneium, Mnt. et Berk. Now referred to Fungi. Lich. Fl., Great Brit., ii., 263.
IT. EPICONIACE®, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 18; and Lich. Socot.
I. Canicrem®, Mull. Arg. Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 19.
—
. Trachylia, Fries. T. tricincta, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31.
2. Pyrgillus, Nyl. P. javanicus, Nyl. = P. australiensis, Wils., Bot. Bull., i, 31, and Calicium — stenosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull, ii., 29. P. calicirsporus, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31. P. fallax, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 31.
oo
. Acolium (Fee), De Not. A. buelliaceum, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 91.
4, Calicium, Ach. C. trachelinum, Ach. =C. glebosum v. glaucescens, Wils. =C. glebosum v. concinnum, Wils, and C’, hymenosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull, ii., 30; Bot. Bull., viii., 91. . trachelinum v. queenslandie, Wils., Bot., Bull., ii., 30. . glebosum, M.A., Bot. Bull, v., 31. . pachypus, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 23. . chlorosporum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 29. . fulvo-fuscum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 29. atro-nitescens, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30. . victoria, C.K., v. albo-carneum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30. . victoria, C.K., v. jejunum, Wils., Bot. Bull., ii., 30. . pretenue, Wils.,; Bot. Bull., ii., 30. . quercinum v. lenticulare, Ach., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. . curtum, Borr., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184.
OES OO.G20 6
oR eas)
26 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. III. LICHENACE, Mull. Arg. Lich. Soc., and Enum. Lich. -Gen:, ‘p. -18.
I. SPHEROPHORES, M.A., Lich. Miy., p.120.
1. Spherophoron, Pers. S. australe, Laur., Bot. Bull., iii., 20.
11. TYLOPHORE®, Nyl., Prod. Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 430 as TYLOPHOREI.
bo
. Tylophoron, Nyl., Prod. Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 430. T. triloculare, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 92.
mm. *CLADONIEZ, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen.; p. 22.
3. Stereocaulon, Schreb. S. proximum v. nudatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 21. S. ramulosum v. microcorpoides, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 31. _
4. Thysanothecium, Berk et Mnt. T. Hookerit, Berk et Mnt., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
5. Cladonia, Hftm. s. Pheocarpe. C. fimbriata v. antilopea, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 21; vill., 92. C. fimbriata v. tenella, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. =C. delicata, Wilson, non. Flk. C. fimbriata v. chordalis, Flk., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. C. fimbriata v. radiata, Fr. Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. C. cartosa, Flk.=C. degenerans, Fr., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. C. degenerans v. pleolepis, Flk., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. C. elegantula, M.A.=C. lepidula, Kremp. of Lich. Fl. Q., Pate C. furcata v. foliolosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. C. ochrochlora v. ceratodes, Flk., Bot. Bull., iv., 23. C. rangiformis v. sorediophora, Wain., Bot. Bull., iv., 23. C. squamosula, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 184. s. Erythrocarpe. C. macilenta v. flabellulata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93.
Iv. THAMNOLIEZ, Mull. Arg., Lich. Miy., p. 121.
6. Thamnolia, Sch. T. vermicularis, Sw., Bot. Bull., v., 31.
*Given as an order of Lecideei in Lich. Flor. Great Brit. II, 2.
-
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D SC. 7 2a v. Usnea, Th. M. Fries., Gen. Heter, p. 50.
7. Usnea, Hftm.
U. barbata v. asperrima, M.A.=Eumitria Baileyi, Stirton, B.B., ii., 21.
U. barbata v. hirta, Fr. =U. florida v. articulata, Stirton, Bb. ni 2k .
U. barbata v. scabrida (Tayl.), M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 21.
U. barbata v. strigosa, Krph.=U. florida v. strigosa, Stirton, B.B., iii., 21.
U. sublurida, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
vi. RAMALINES, Th. M. Fries., Gen. Hetero., p. 50.
8. Alectoria, Ach. A. australiensis, C.K., transferred to Fungi, having no gonidia. Bot. Bull, viii., 91.
9. Ramalina, Ach. | R. gracilis, Nyl.=R. geniculata, Hook. et Tayl. (none perforate part), Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. R. maculata. M.A., R. exiquella, Stirt., R. costata, Mey. et Flot. R. Eckloni, Mnt.=R. Yemensis, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., p-- 196. R. Ecklonit v. tenuissima, Mey. et Flot., Bot. Bull., vili., 93. . Ecklonii v. membranacea (Mnt.), Laur., Bot. Bull, Hi.) 22 . Eckloni v. ovalis, Tayl., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. . dendriscoides, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 22. | . dendriscoides v..minor, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 22. . farinacea v. squarrosa, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185. . fraxinea v. teenieformis, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185. . inflata, Hook. et Tayl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 185. . inflata v. gracilis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186. . inflata v. olivacea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. R. letodea, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 22.
10. Platysma, Hoffm. P. eriophyllum, C.WK.=Erioderma Knightii, Shirley.
Sy
thr rea >
vul. PELTIGEREH, M.A., Lich. Gen., p. 29. 11. Peltigera, Hoftm. 3 P. polydactyla v. dissecta, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 93. 12. Nephromium, Nyl. N. tropicum, M.A., Lich. Beit., 559.
28 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
yiu. PARMELIE, Mull. Arg., Lich. Parag., p. 3; and Lich. Gen., p. 3l.
13. Stictina, Nyl. S. argyracea f. isidiosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. . punctillaris, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24. . fragillima v. linearis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188. . fragillima v. dissecta, M.A.=S. fragillissima, Kremp. S. intricata, Stirton (non Del.) =S. crocata v. esorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.; Bot. Bull., viii., 94. S. intricata v. Thouarsii, Nyl.=S. pustulosa, Wilson. S. cinnamomea, Rich.=S. fragillima, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196.
S. impressula, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 189.
S. impressula v. sublevis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.
S. suborbicularis, M.A.=S. subtomentella, C.K., and S. macrophylla, of various authors. Bot. Bull, vill., 94.
S. quercizans, Ach.=S. tomentella, Leighton (non Ach.), Bot. Bull., viii., 94.
S. cyphellulata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 189.
S. fuliginosa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 94.
S. brevipes, M.A.=S. marginifera, Tayl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 55; Bot. Bull., vii, 94.
S. retigera, M.A.=Lobaria retigera, Ach., Lich. Beit., 74-
14. Sticta, Ach.
S. pulmonacea, M.A.=Lobaria pulmonacea, Ach., Lich. Hi Qi). oss
S. variabilis v. papyracea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viil., 94.
S. demutabilis, Krph., Bot. Bull., 11., ep 8
S. carpolomoides, Nyl., Bot. Ball. ni: 2a.
S. dichotomoides, Nyl.=S._ stipitata, Wils., and S-. camare, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196.
S. Sayeri, M.A., Lich. Fl Q., p. 191.
S. Seemanni, Bab., Bot. Bull., viii, 94.
S. fiix v. myrioloba, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 31.
S. glaucescens, Krph., Bot. Balk, im: Za.
S. aurata v. microphylla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190.
S. endochrysea v. flavicans, M.A.=S. flavicans, Hook. et Tayl., Bot. Bull., viii, 94.
S. Richardi, Hook., to be separated from S. Billardiert, Del., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 62; Lich. Beit, 566.
15.
16.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. 29
S. sulphurea, Schaer, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190.
S. Karstenti, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 190.
S. Karstenii v. linearis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.. p- 191.
S. impressa, Hook. et Tayl.=S. physciospora, Nyl., and S. Bornetii, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 94.
~
Riascolia, De Not:
R. erosa, Eschw., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
R. Ravenelit, Tuck., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
Rk. patinifera, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 191.
R. hypoleuca, M.A.=S. hypoleuca, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., 2a 6
Parmelia, Ach.
P. tinctorum, Despr.=P. euplecta, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p- 36; and P. pretervisa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.
. cetrarioides, Del., Queens. Ag. Jour., Nov.. 1899.
. laceratula v. minor, Shirley, Bot. Bull., v., 32.
. tenuirima, Tayl., Bot., Bull, viii., 95.
. tenuirima v. corallina, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186.
latissima v. ciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 23.
. latissima, Fee.=P. platycarpa, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 39.
. hypoxantha, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
. placorhodioides, Nyl., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
. cetrata v. sorediifera, Wain., Bot. Bull., viii., 94.
. corrugis v. sorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.
perforata, Ach.=P. reparata, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q.. 40.
perforata v. ciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.
encausta, Ach., Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899.
perlata v. ciliata, D.C., Bot. Bull, viii., 95.
. perlata v. olivaria, Ach., Bot. Bull., iii., 24.
. Hookeri, Tayl., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.
. tiliacea v. afixa, Strn., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
. tihacea v. rugulata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.
=P. caperatula, Stirton (non Nyl.), Bot.
Bull. viii., 95.
. tiliacea v. stenophylla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.. p. 186.
. tiliacea v. sulphurosa, Tuck., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.
. meizospora, Nyl.=P. tiliacea v. meizospora, Ny)., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.
P. pruinata, M.A., Lich. FI. Q., p. 188.
wey yyw ety WD
a wee
30
“Se ty
wire:
aria a Baia a aa
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
. pretervisa, M.A.=P. tinctorum, Despr., Bot. Bull.,
vili., 95.
. conspersa f. exasperata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188. . conspersa v. hypocleistordes, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. . adpressa, Krph.=P. amplexula, Stirton, Bot. Bull.,
vill., 95.
. rutidota f. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 95.
. limbata v. endococcinea, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 186- . gracilis, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187.
. limbata, Laur.=P. insinuata, Knight (non Nyl.),
Bot. Bull., viii, 95; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 47.
. virens, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187.
virens v. sorediata, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188.
. hypoxantha v. major, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 187.
hospitans, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 188.
. eciliata, Nyl., Bot. Bull, v., 32.
. physodes v. pulverata, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin., 95. . urceolata v. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull. v., 32.
. urceolata v. subcetrata, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 32.
17. Theloschistes, Norm. (Pseudophyscia, Lich. Beit., 1503).
qT,
if.
chrysophthalma v. leucoblephara, M.A.=T. velifer, Wils., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193, as Physcia.
flavicans v. croceus (Ach.), Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 24, as Physcia.
18. Anaptychia, Korb., Fl. 1861, p. 32.
A.
A.
barbijera, Nyl.=P. barbifera, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., De Tks |
comosa, Trev.=P. comosa v. alata, Wils, and Theloschistes comosa v. alata, Shirley, Bot. Bull, ii., 32. ; Bot. Ball., v., 32; Bot. Bull, viu., 95-6. leucomelena, Trev.=P. leucomela, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 70, Bot. Bull., viii., 95-6.
. speciosa v. hypoleuca f. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull,
viil., 95-6.
. speciosa v. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., vili., 95-6. _ obesa v. caesio-crocata, Tuck., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 71, as
Physcia.
19. Physcia, Fr. (pro. p.)
: = Ce
picta v. isidiophora, Nyl., Bot. Bull, ii., 24. picta v. sorediata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 24.
- BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 31
Ix. PyxingE@, M.A., Lich. Parag., ‘p. 6; Bot. Soc., p. 356.
20. Pyxine, Fr. P. endochrysina, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 96. P. cocoes v. endoxantha, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 24. P. meissneri v. endoleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 96. P. meissnert v. sorediosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii. 96.
x. Psorome, Nyl., Syn. II., 21 (ex. Gymnoderma), and M.A., Lich. N.Z.; p. 41.
21. Psoroma, Fr. P. pholidotum, M.A.=Pannaria pholidota, Nyl., Lich. FI. Q., p. 196. P. sphinctrinum, Nyl.=P. contortulum, Wils. P. cesium, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193. P. Karstenii, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 193.
XI. PANNARIEX, Korb., Syst., p. 105.
bo bo
. Pannaria, Del.
P. mariana=P. pannosa, Nyl.=P. cervina, Kremp., Lich: - Fl)-Q:,.p..) FSi yekichy) Beit... 243); Lich. Beit, 1159; Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196.
P. elatior, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
P. terrestris, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
P. mariana f. isidiosa, M.A.=P. pannosa f. isidioidea M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 96.
P. fulvescens, Mnt., Lich. FI. Q., p. 193.
P. brisbanensis, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194.
P. sordida, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194.
>
23. Heppia, Nyl. H. brisbanensis, Wilson. Bot. Bull, ii., 32.
24. Erioderma, Fee, Lich. Schenk. —. E. Knightii, Shirley=Platysma eriophyllum, C.K. Bot. Bull., viii., 96.
xl. PARMELIELLEH, M.A., Lich. Cath., p. 239. 25. Parmeliella, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 36. P. triptophylla, M.A.=Pannaria triptophylla, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 80. P. nigro-cincta, M.A.=Puannaria nigro-cincta, Mnt., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 81. .
bd 1
30.
ol.
32.
+ LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
xi. CoccocaRPIE®, M.A., Lich. Schenk.
. Coccocarpia, Pers.
C. molybdea, Pers., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. C. pellita v. incisa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 97. C. pellita v. isidiophylla, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.
hes =
CO. pellita v. smaragdina, M.A.=C. smaragdina, Pers.,
Bot. Bull., viii., 97.
xiv. PLacopiE®, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 37.
. Amphiloma, Fr.
A. murorum, M.A. = Placodium murorum, Korb. Lich.,
Fl. Q., p. 85.
. Placodium, D.C.
P. clavigerum, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. P. galactinum v. dispersum, Pers., Bot. Bull., iii., 25. P. glauco-lividum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 24.
xv. Psore#, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 8.
. Phyllopsora, M.A.
P. breviuscula, M.A.=Psora parvifolia, 'Tuck., Bot.
Bull., iii., 25 : and P. foliata v. atro-virens, C. K.
P. foliata, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 105, as Lecidea.
Psora, M.A. P. parvifolia, M.A.=Lecidea parvifolia, Pers., Lich,
PL 4d; yw. 2 06.
P. parvifolia v. fibrillifera, Nyl., Bot. Bull, v., 33. P. parvifolia v, subgranulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull.. viii., 97.
Ph
subhyalina, Shirley=Lecidea subhyalina, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 106.
Thalloidima, M.A.
Mish
caeruleo-nigricans, M.A.=L. caeruleo-nigricans, Lghtf., Bot. Bull., viii., 97.
Xvi. LECANORE, M.A., Lich. Socot., p. 358.
Lecanora, Ach.
SESE SE Si SEs
s. Hulecanora, M.A.
. lacteola, M.A., Bot. Bull., vii., 97. . subfusca v. cinereo-carnea, Tuck., Bot. Bull.. viii., 98. . subfusca v. conjungens, M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 19.
. subfusca v. compacta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii, 2 . subfusca v. allophana, Ach., Bot. Bull., i., 2 . subfusca v. distans, Nyl., Bot. Bull, vin., 9
Or
is
12
‘33.
34.
35.
36.
_ BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 35
. subjusca v. subgranulata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 25.
. subfusca v. testaceo-pallida, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 97.
. subpurpurea, Strn., Q.AJ., Nov., 1899.
. granifera, Ach. (non. Krph.), Bot. Bull, tii., 25.
caesto-rubella, Ach., Bot. Bull., iii., 25.
. interjecta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25 ; viii., 98.
connivens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25.
atra v. serialis, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 19.
. albellaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 19.
. flavido-fusca, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20.
. Knightiana, M.A., Bot. Bull, xii., 20.
. melacarpella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20.
. rhodophthalma, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 32.
s. Aspicilia, M.A.
A. impressa, Kremp.= Lecanora levissima, C.K., B.B., vil., 99.
A. melanommata, C.1K.=Lecanora melanommata, C.K., EQ: \p. 91. 4
s. Ochrolechia, Mass., for s. Lecanorastrum, L.F.Q., 94.
SESS SE SESE SESH Si Si sists
Lecania, Mass., Lich. Scand., p. 11.
L. pheoplaca, Strn., Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. .
L. punicea, M.A.=Lecanora punicea, Ach., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 93.
Callopisma, De Not.
C. connabarinum v. opacum, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 98. C. conjungens, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 98.
CO. rubens, M.A:, Bot. Bulli, iv., 25.
Rinodina, M.A.
R. xanthomelana, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 25.
R. diffractella, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv:, 25.
R. rhypoderma (M.A.), Shirley, Bot. Bull., iv., 25: Lich. Brisb., 51.
R. minutula, M.A., Bot. Bult, iii., 26.
Pertusari@, D.C.
. albinea, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 22. amblygona, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.
. commutata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 98.
. confluens, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.
. depressa v. octomera, M.A., Bot: Bull., viii., 98. . elliptica, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.
py
38.
39.
ve WIA
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. XN
P. globulifera, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 98.
P. irregularis, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 22.
P. leucoxantha, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.
P. lactea, Nyl.=P. sorediata, C.K., Bot. Bull., viii., 98. P. leiocarpella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.
P. leioplaca v. gibbosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 33.
P. leioplaca v. octospora, Nyl., Bot. Bull. v., 33.
P. iewcostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 21.
P. macra, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.
P. meridionalis v. xanthostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 26. P. multipuncta, Turner, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
P. persulphurata, M.A., Bot. Bail; 1v2 5. 25.
P. plicatula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 21.
P. rhodotropa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 20.
P. straminea, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22.
P. sulphurata, M.A., Bot. Bull, vii., 98.
P. subvaginata, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 26.
P. subrigida, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 21.
P. Wuljenti, D.C., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.
. Diploschistes, Norm. (Urceolaria, Ach.)
D. actinostomus, Zahl= Urceolaria actinostoma, Scher., Bot. Bull, iii, 26; and Lecidea clausa, C.K., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 123.
xvul. GyaLecte@, M.A. Lich. Parag., p. 12.
Gyalectidium, M.A.
G. phyllocharis, M.A.=L. phyllocharis, Mnt., Lich. FL Q., p. 115: Bot. Bull., vii., 99.
G. filicinum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii, 99.
xvul. LecipEs, M.A., Enum. Lich. Gen., p. 50.
Lecidea, Ach. s. Eulecidea.—Apothecia lecideine ; spores, 8 simple ; hypothecium coloured. L. ferax, M.A., v. geographica, M.A. Bot; Bull, xing 23: L. albo-cerulescens, Wuli.=L. subnubila, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 108; Bot. Bull., vii., 99. L. cinerascens, A.L.8.,=L. speirea, Ach., Lich. Fl. Gt. Brit., ii., 73. s. Lecidella.—Apothecia lecideine: spores 8, simple ; hypothecium hyaline.
>
40).
L.
. leptoloma, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 27. . piperis, Spreng., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 194. . piperis v. melanocarpa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 35
. angolensis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.
s. L. ocellifera, Nyt, Lich. Jap., p. 70.
. nesophila, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 23.
s. Biatora.—Apothecia biatorine, spores 8, simple.
. aspidula v. dispersa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. . nsulana, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 22. . exigua, Chaub., Bot. Bull, iii., 27:
impressw, Krph., Bot. Bull, iii, 27; given as Lecidella, Lich. Cost. Riec., ii., 18.
. impressa v. angulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26.
s. Biatoreila, M.A., Apothecia biatorine, spores numerous, simple. | hematina, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 26.
Patellaria, M.A.
"oT
ga i a
s. Biatorina.—Apothecia biatorine, spores small, uniseptate.
. melaclina, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 100.
s. Psorothecitum.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine ; spores large, uniseptate.
. flavicans, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 26. . melanodermia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26. . Taitensis v. epiglauca, Nyl., Bot. Bull., v., 33.
s. Catillaria.-—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine, finally convex and immarginate, spores 8, uniseptate.
. albo-flavicans, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100.
s. Bilimbia.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine; spores 3 to many-celled, finger or rod-shaped. nodulosa, Shirley. s. L. nodulosa, Stirton Q.A.J., Nov., 1899.
. spheroides, Dicks., Bot. Bull., v., 33.
. leucoblephara, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 195.
. triseptata, Hepp., Bot. Bull., iii., 27.
. luteola v. conspondens, Nyl., Q:A.J., Nov., 1899.
. vinicolor, Shirley. s. L. vinicolor, Stirton, Q.A.J.,
Nov., 1899.
s. Bombyliospora.—Apothecia lecideine-biatorine ; spores shaped and divided like a bee’s body : 5 to many-septate.
36
41.
a ee
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
P. fusco-luteum. M.A.=L. fusco-lutea, Dicks.. L.F.Q.. plis: P. domingensis v. ineaplicata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii, 28. P. vulpinum, Tuck.=L. domingensis v. gyrosa, Stirton, Lich FE Qpe ali s. Bacidia.—Spores acicular, 3 topluriseptate. _ intermiata, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 100. . millegrana, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 100. millegrana v. fusco-nigrescens, M.A.. Bot. Ball, Viii:< “LOO: P. rhodocardis, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 26. P. entodiaphana, C.K., Bot. Bull., i., 28. s. Scoliosporum.—Spores blunt at one end and pointed at the other, 3 to pluriseptate. P. multiseptata, Shirley, Bot. Bull, v., 33. Blastenia, M.A. B. ochroleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 23.
maa
41 (a) Buellia, De Not. Spores brown, bilocular.
42.
_ rimulosa, M.A., Bot. Bull, vin., 101.
_ subareolata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viu., 100. subarenaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., viri., 100.
lactea, Korb., Bot. Bull, i., 29.
parasema v. rugulosa, Korb., Bot. Bull., 1i., 28. parasema v. saprophila, Korb., Bot. Bull, ii., 28, parasema v. vulgata, Th. Fr.; Bot: Bulls! ieee _tetrapla, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q., Shirley ; Lich. War., p. 3. . tetrapla v. nigro-cincta, M.A., Bot. Bull.; viva
_ modesta, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 28.
_ amblygona, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 23.
. innata, M.A., Bot. Bull., 21., 29.
_ lauri-cassie, Fee., Bot. Bull., 11., 28.
. macrosporoides, M.A., Bot. Bully xiii:
. placomorpha, Stirton, Q:. A.J.,. Nov;-189o: sanguinolenta, Shirley=L. sanguinolenta, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. .
. glomerella, Shirley=L. glomerella, Stirton, Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899.
who bb bbb bbb
&
Heterothecium, Flot. (pro. p. Mass.)
H. vulpina, Tuck. s. L. domingensis vv. gyrosa, Stirton, Lich. Fl. Q:, p: IN7:: Bot. Bullewag 101.
44.
45.
46.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. BT
. vulpina v. corallinum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 27.
. vulpina v. glaucescens, Nyl., Bot. Bull., v., 33.
_ fusco-luteum, M.A. s. L. fusco-lutea, Dicks., Lich. FQ), pi 116 Bere Balls wan; 101,
. pulchrum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 27.
. biferum, M.A., Bot. Bull., v., 34.
re es
3. Rhizocarpon, M.A.
R. geographicum v. cyclopicum, Nyl.
S. L. geographica v. cyclopica, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 123:
xix. *Connoconigem®, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 18.
Coenogonium, Ehrenh.
C. confervoides, Nyl. s. C. interpositum, Nyl., Bot Bull., vii., 101.
C. implexum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv.. i:
C’. moniliforme, Tuck., Bot. Bull., i1., 29.
xx. BIATORINOPSIDE®, Mull. Arg., Lich. Parag, p. 18.
Biatorinopsis, M.A. B. planella, Nyl., Lich. Fl. Q., p. 196. B. zonata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 27.
XxI. THELOTREMES, M.A., Graph., Fee., p. 5.
Ocellularia, M.A., L. B., 365.
O. annulosa, M.A., Bot., Bull, xiii., 24.
O. Bailey, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.
O. cricota, Wils. s. Phaeotrema cricotum, M.A., Bot. Bullies 82; vali 102:
O. diffractella, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.
O. endomelena, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 101.
O. goniostoma, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.
O. jugalis, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24.
O. leucotylia, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii., 91.
O. pulchra, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 29.
O. phlyctioides, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 101.
O. platychlamys, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24.
O. xantholeuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 29.
O. zeorina; M.A.. Bot. Bull., iv., 28.
47. Phaeotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, p. 10.
*In Lich. Fl, Great Brit.. 1, 2, placed with Lecidex.
P. cricota, M.A. s. Ocellularia cricota, Wilson, Bot- Bull., viii., 102.
38 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
48. Thelotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, pp. 10-11. T. albo-coronatum, C.K. s. 7. cwpulare, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin, 102: . argenteum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. . bicuspidatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. . cyphelloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 24. . endoxanthum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. . inturgescens, M.A., Bot. Bull, viii, 102. . megalosporum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28. . microphthalmum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii, 24. . profundum, Shirley, Bot. Bull., xii., 24. T. rimulosum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 28.
49. Leptotrema, M.A., Graph. Fee, p. 12.
. emulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25.
. diffractum, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 27.
. compunctum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., viii., 102.
om fs Ee ele Pape ie [arm
a ee ee
. monosporum, C.K. s. Thelotrema monosporum, ee lpn 2: (pe IS . nitidulum, ar Bot;. Boils citi; 25: . patulum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25. . polycarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xili., 25. XXII. GRAPHIDE®, M.A., os a Fee, p. 13., and Bot. Soce., p. 372
eae
50. Tremotylium, M.A. T. nitidulum, M.A., Bot. Bulls; viii., 103:
51. Platygrapha, Ny|. P. Shirleyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 25.
52. Opegrapha, Ny}.
s. Huopegrapha, M.A., Lirelle lecideine, always oblongate, not thalline-margined : perithecium complete ; gonidia chroolepoid.
O. grossulina, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 29.
O. prosodea, Ach., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26.
O. interveniens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30.
O. Bonplandi v. abbreviata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii, 102.
s. Lecanactis, M.A. As in Euopegrapha, but lirelle always when young orbicular, sub- lecideine, at length oblongate, no thalline margin, but often pulverulent : perithecium complete; base incrassate; lips laterally emergent.
OSS
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 39
. varia v. diaphora, Nyl., Bot. Bull, viii., 102.
. vulgata v. subsiderella, Nyl., Bot. Bull., vii., 102. . lacteella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26.
. minutula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xili., 26.
53. Melaspilea, M.A.
M.
s. Holographa, M.A. Perithecium complete, lips connivent ; disk rimiform.
. operaphoides, Nyl., Lich. Nov. Gran., p. 487, No. 92,
as Opegrapha.
leucina, M.A. s. O. lewcina, M.A., Lich. Fl. Q.?
p. 135.
s. Hemigrapha, M.A., Perithecium with base wanting; lips connivent; disk rimitorm- angulate.
asteriscus, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 29.
s. Eumelaspilea, M.A. Perithecium at the base complete ; lips rather small, at length distant or widely gaping; disk wide.
. congregans, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. . intrusa, M.A. s. Opegrapha intrusta, Stirton, Lich.
Fl. Q., p. 135.
. congregantula, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 26.
s. Melaspileopsis, M.A., Lich. Parag., p. 20.
. stellaris., M.A., Bot. Bull., xii., 26.
54. Graphis (Ach.), M.A.
s. Aulacographa, M.A. Perithecium black, base complete; lips connivent: ‘longitudinally suleate ; disk rimiform, black.
. descissa, M.A., Bot. Bull:, xiii., 27. . rimulosa v. pulverulenta, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. . rimulosa v. brachycarpa, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.
s. Solenographa, M.A. Perithecium black, com- plete, not at all sulcate ; disk narrow, black, subrimiform.
. emersa, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 103.
s. Hugraphis, M.A. Perithecium black, wanting beneath the lamina ; lips connivent, not at all sulcate; disk narrow, commonly rimiform, subnigrous. |
. albissima, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27. . tmmersella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.
40 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND.
G. Lineola, Ach., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. . i. scripta v. recta, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iv., 31.
s. Aulacographa, M.A. Perithecium black, wanting beneath the lamina about the middle part of the lirella; lips connivent, longitudinally sulcate ; disk subrimiform and_ subnigrous.
G. duplicata, Ach., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. G. dwplicata v. sublaevis, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 103. G. vinosa, M.A.,: Bot. Bull., xiui.; 27. s. Phanerographis, M.A. Perithecium complete ; disk at length opening widely, plane. G. semiaperta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 31. s. Fissurina, M.A. Perithecium pallid, more or . __ less erumpent ; disk pallid ; spores 4-locular. G. albo-nitens, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 30. G. insidiosa, M.A., Bot. Ball., viii., 103. G. laevigata, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 30.
s. Chlorographu, M.A. Perithecium pallid ; disk
subplane, pallid ; loculi of spores more than 4. G. Baileyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., viti., 103.
s. Diplographis, M.A. Lirelle with lips closely connivent, longitudinally suleate, not at all black ; spores 2-4-locular.
G. robustior, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 31.
s. Mesographis, M.A. Perithecium sulcate/ above
black, within coloured ; epithecium rimiform. G. xanthospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 27.
55. Pheographis, M.A., L. B., 454, 531. s. Anisothecitum, M.A., Perithecium black, base wanting ; disk subrimiform, narrow. P. epimelena, M.A., Bot. Buil., xiii, 28. s. Graphs malacodes, Stirton, non. Nyl.. Lich. Fl. Q.._p- 143.
56. Graphina, M.A.
s. Solenographina, M.A. Perithecium black, com-
plete ; lips not suleate ; disk rimiform, black. G. saxicola, M.A. s. G. olivaceo-lutea, C.K., Lich. FI.
QO: ana Aap:
s. Aulacographina, M.A. Perithecium black, base incomplete, wanting beneath the lamina ; lips longitudinally sulcate; disk rimiform, black.
a
G.
ae
a:
-
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 4]
sophistica v. recta, M.A., Bot. Bull., xin., 28. subvelata, Shirley. s. Graphis subvelata, Stirton, Q.A.J.. Nov., 1899.
tenwrima, Shirley. Bot. Bull., v., 34.
s. Platygrammina, M.A. Perithecium fuscous or pallid, base wanting; disk widely aperient, subplane, pallid, clothed with a thin thalline vestment.
quassiaecola, M.A. s. Graphina pyelodes, Wils., Bot.
Ball, .4di.n32 Paves.
s. Platygraphina, M.A. Apothecia and = disk thickly albido-thalline clothed ; perithecium brown or pallid or almost indistinct, base complete, everywhere thin; disk broad, flat,
pallid.
. simulans, M.A., Bot. Bull., 11., 29.
s. Medusulina, M.A. Lirelle gregariously crowded, not subsequently dispersed.
. egenella, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 31.
Pheographina, M.A.
s. Eleutheroloma, M.A. Perithecium wanting or hyaline under the lamina, elsewhere black or olivaceo-fuscous or evanescent; lips at length distant, thin; disk wide, subplane, nigro-fuscous.
caesio-pruinosa, M.A., Bot. Bull., i., 20.
. caesio v. monospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 28.
s. Homoloma, M.A. Perithecium fusco-nigrous, not sulcate or thalline clothed ; base complete, margins thick ; disk black and narrow.
assimilis, Shirley, Lich. Fl. Q., p. 195.
s. Chrooloma, M.A. Lirelle clothed with thalline stratum, wholly pallid, or golden or brown ; margins thick, connivent, beneath the thallus profoundly longitudinally sulcate; = disk narrow, pallid.
chrysentera, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 31. contexta, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32.
b). Helminthocarpon, Fee.
H. Baileyanum, M.A., Bot. Bull. xiii., 29.
/ #,
42 LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND. 58. Arthonia, Ach. A. albofarinosa, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. A. amoena, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. A. gracilior, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. Ay rubeella, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. A. subgyrosa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii., 30. A. gregaria v. adspersa, Nyl., Bot. Bull., iii.,. 30. A. gregaria v. purpurea, Esch., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. A. leptospora, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 59. Arthothelium, Mass. A. eribrosa, Fee., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 4. favulosa v. depauperata, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. A. fevulosa v. intermedia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30. 4. microsporum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. A. polycarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 29. A. puniceum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. 60. Mycoporellum, M.A. M. perexiguum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 32. 61. Asterotrema, M.A. A. punctuliforme, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. XXII. GLYPHIDE®, M.A. 62. Sarcographa, Fee. S. subtricosa, M.A. s. S. actincta, Wils., Bot. Bull. vili., 104. S. subtricosa v. pulverulenta, Shirley. s. S. actinota f, pulverulenta, Wilson, Bot. Bull, ii., 33. S. oculata, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. 63. Chiodecton, Ach. CO. endoleucum, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. C. hamatum, Nyl., Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. C. spherale, Ach. s. C. stromaticum, C.K., Lich. FI. Q.\.p. 157 C. virens, M.A:, Bot. Bull., xiii., 30. XXII. (a) NYLOGRAPHIDE®, Th. M. Fries. 64. Diplogramma, M.A. D. australiensis, M:A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33.
iV. PYRENOCARPE, “M.A., Consp. Syst. N.Z., p. Td.
I. DERMATOCARP, M.A., Pyreno. Cub., p. 377.
1. Dermatocarpon, Eschw. Syst., p. 21 (pro. p.) D. miniatum, Th. M. Fries, Bot: Bull., x., 28.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. 43 II. STRIGULEH, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 378. 2. Strigula, Fr. S. Glaziovi, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 61. S. elegans v. eumorpha, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104. S. elegans v. pertenius, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.
It. PYRENUL&, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 381. Sub-tribe 1. Astrotheliew, Trev., Syn. Gen. Tryp., p. 22. 3. Parmentaria, Fee., Meth., p. 24. astroidea, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 104.
. Baileyana, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., p. 34. . grossa, M.A., Bot. Bull’, x:, 35. . nterlatens, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 35. . subastroidea, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 35. . subastroidea v. subsimplex, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 35, toowoombensis, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 35. Sub-tribe 2. Pleurotheliew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., jp. 387. 4. Pleuwrothelium, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 387. P. australiense, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33. 5. Parathelium, Nyl., Bot. Zeit., 1862, p. 279. P. decumbens, M.A., Bot. Bull., viii., 105. P. fibrata, Shirley. s. Verrucarria fibruta, Stirton, Q.A.J., Nov., 1899. 6. Pleurotrema, M.A., Pyr. Cub., p. 388. P. pyrenuloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 15.
7. Campylothelium, M.A., Lich. Beit., 595. C. defossum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30, and iv., 33.
C. ntidum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii, 30, and iv., 33. Sub-tribe 3. Trypetheliew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 389.
8. Trypethelium, Trev., Syn. Tryp., p. 19. . anomalum, Ach., Bot. Bull., v., 34. . infuscatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34. . tropicum v. nigratum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34. . virgineum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 34. . eleuterie v. citrinum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iii., 30. . oligocarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 33. 9. Bathelium, Trev. Syn. Gen. Tryp., p. 21. B. chrysocarpum, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. 10. Bottaria, Mass., Misc. Lich., p. 42. B. umbilicata, M.A. ss. Trypethelium umbilicatum, ©. Be. Bats Balls ae 34.
Sila iac Basia aa
eas Pasa
A4
It,
13.
14.
16.
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND
Melanotheca, Wee., Ess. Sup., p. 70. M. cruenia, M.A. s. M. rubra, C.K., Bot. Bull 34. |
M. oxyspora, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 34.
M. subsimplex, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34.
Tomasellia, Mass., F1., 1856, p. 283.
T. aciculifera, M.A., Bot., Bull., iii., 31.
iT’. queenslandica, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 34. Sub-tribe 4. Verrucariew, M.A., Pyr. Cub., 398.
Porina, M.A.; Lich. Beit., 644.
5 Ky
P. africana, M.A. .s. P. limitata, C.K.,, Bot. Bull, x.,
30. . araucarie, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. . bellendenica, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. . fulvula, M.A., Bot. Bull, xiii., 31. gine. NE AC. Bot. Bulli, 30: . internigrans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 30. . pallida, M.A., Bot. Bull., xiii., 31. . rude, M,A., Bot. Bull.) x.; 30.
wy ytd
Oe Bots ‘Bull. 3; "ae
. tetracere, ‘M.A.,. Bot. Bull.,-x:, 30. 3: WW. Stirton.
P. variegata, Fee:, Bot. Bull., x., 30.
Phylloporina, M.A., Lich. Epiph., No. 50. P. epiphylla, M.A:, Bot. Bull, x., 30:
'
. Clathroporina, M.A., Lich. Beit., 541.
C. desquamans, M.A., Bot. Bull, iv., 34.
C. desquamans v. sorediifera, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin.
C. flavescens, M.A., Bot. Bull. iv., 34.
C. olivacea, M.A. s. Porina enteroxantha, C.K.., FL QO op 7k Bor. Balk, aa Oe,
Arthopyrenia, M.A., Lich. Beit., 612.
. aiomaria, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29.
. cinchone, M.A., Bot. Bull., vin., 105.
. consobrina, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29.
, extans, M:.A:; Bot: Bull, =.) 29:
. fallacior, M.A,» Bot.>Bull, x.9.28: limitans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 29.
. oculata, M.A-.,.Bot. Bull, x., 29. suboculata, M.A., Bot. Bull., xm, 31.
Ps fs fb me pe
Ds ps pa
rhaphidospora, M.A. s. Verrucaria rhaphispora,
NANO,
, 105.
Lich.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC. A5
17. Polyblastia, M.A., Lich. Beit., 490. P. geminella, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31. P. gregantula, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 30. P.. nudata, M.A., Bot. Bull., viit., 105. 18. Pyrenula, Fee., Ess. Suppl., p. 76. P.. adacta, Fee., Bot. Bull, 1ii.; 31. P.. adacta v. cinerascens, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. P. bicuspidata, M.A. s. V. subvariolosa, C.Ix., Bot. Bull, viii, 106. . Bonplandie, Fee., Bot. Bull., x. 32. . ndusiata, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 32. . Kunthii., Fee., Bot. Bull., viii., 106. . mastophora (Nyl)., M.A., Bot. Bull, ii., 31. mastophorizans, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 33. . marginata, Trev., Bot. Bull., viii, 106. mamillana, Trev., Bot. Bull, ii., 31. melaleuca, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. . microcarpoides, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 32. . nigro-cincia, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. nitida, Ach., Bot. Bull., vii., 106. . nitidans, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 34. oxyspora, M.A., Bot. Bull.,:x., 32. . pinguis, Fee., Bot. Bull, viii., 106. . pinguis v. emergens, M.A. s. V. punctella v. exstans, Nyl., Bot. Bull... x., 33. . porinoides, Ach., Bot. Bull., x., 33. . subcongruens, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 32. . sexlocularis, M.A. s. V. subvariolosa, C.K., B.B. apes Fp P. velatoir, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 32. P. Warming, M.A., Bot. Bull., 11., 31. s. V. tropica,
Stirton.
Sewwey weve yy
mo Ay ty
19. Anthracothecitum, Mass., Esam. Comp., p. 49. A. aurantium, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 33. A. amphitropum, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii., 31. A. confine, M.A., Bot. Bull., vii, 106. A. denudatum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. A. denudatum v. ochrotropum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33. A. Doleschalii, Mass. 8s. Trypethelium planum, C.K.. Bot. Bull’, viii., 106. A. oculatwm, M.A., Bot. Bull., iv., 35. A. oligosperum, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 33.
46
LICHEN FLORA OF QUEENSLAND
A. pyrenuloides, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 32. A. Thwattesi1, M.A., Bot. Bull., ii., 31. Microthelia, WKorb., Syst., p. 372.
M. . brisbanensis, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31.
. maculiformis, M.A., Bot. Bull, iii., 32.
. obovata, M.A. s. Pyrenula obovata, Shirley, Lich.
alba, M: A; Bot. Bull, x31.
Bis Q. 3p. L76.
M. queenslandie, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 31. . Shirleyana, M.A., Bot. Bull, x., 31. . subgregans, M.A., Bot. Bull., x., 31.
NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN ATHERINTDAL, By ALLAN R. McCULLOCH, ZOOLOGIST, AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, SYDNEY. (Published by permission of the Trustees of the Australian
Museum).
Plate I. and Text Figure 1. Read before the Royal Socrety of Queensland, 26th June, 1912. (Communicated by Dr. T. Harvey JOHNSTON). ATHERINA MUGILOIDES, nom. nov. (Text Figure 1.)
Atherinichthys punctatus, De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. 8. Wales, IX., 1885, p. 869 (not Atherina punctata, Bennett, 1832).
NAVE, L/7-8 5 AAY9-10 Ware ees O FT Maa hat. Soe SE Ly, Tre:
i
ww NV 5a TCC yi; raat: ei cin
=
x N\\ ‘ q
Aa
GI4, it~ 2g ee Ze 4
No ARNE AMRNONN
Text Ficure 1.
od
Body stout, depth at ventrals 51-52 in length from snout to hypural; head 4 in the same. Snout 14-14 in the eye, which is 24-22 in the head, and equal to or wider than the interorbital space. Maxillary not expanded posteriorly, reaching to below the margin or anterior fourth of the eye. Teeth minute, slender, acute, apparently arranged in two series in the upper jaw and one in the lower ; confined to the front and anterior parts of the sides of the jaws. Vomer, palatines and tongue toothless. Gill-rakers long and slender.
48 AUSTRALIAN ATHERINID®
Scales much larger anteriorly than on the caudal» peduncle, in 33-34 series between the base of the pectoral and the hypural. There are six between the median series before the second dorsal and the anal, 10-12 between the first dorsal and the head, and nine between the first spines of the two dorsal fins.
Origin of the first dorsal almost midway between the snout and the hypural, and a little behind the vertical of the vent which is between the middle or hinder third of the ventrals. Ventrals inserted about halfway between the pectoral and the dorsal or nearer the latter, and beneath the hinder third or fourth of the pectoral. Anal com- mencing well, and terminating slightly in advance of the
second dorsal.
Solourless after long preservation in alcohol, with a broad silver lateral band. Cheeks and opercles silver. Upper parts with scattered minute black specks.
Described from six specimens, 28-35 mm. Jong from the snout to the hypural. Through the kindness of Dr. Hamlyn-Harris, Director of the Queensland Museum, I have been able to examine four from Cape York. including the type specimen, while two co-types are in the Australian Museum. The largest of these last is figured. They do not appear to differ generically from <Atherina, but may be distinguished from most other Australian species by their
large scales. CRATEROCEPHALUS, gen. nov.
Freshwater atherines with small protractile mouths, the maxillary not reaching to the anterior margin of the eye. Body covered with large, cycloid, concentrically striated scales which extend forwards on to the upper part of the head: some large scales on the cheeks and opercular bones. First dorsal with about 5-8 spines, the second with 1 spine and 7-8 rays. Anal similar to dorsal. Miero- scopic teeth in each jaw; vomer, palatines and tongue toothless, the skin covering the roof of the mouth often bears minute papillae which closely resemble teeth. Gull- rakers short and few, about ten on lower limb of first arch.
Type.—C. fluviatilis, sp.nov. Atherinichthys inaculatus, Macleay, also belongs to this genus.
BY ‘ALLAN R. MG CULLOGH. AQ: ~ This genus differs from Atherina in having a smaller mouth’ and shorter and fewer gill-rakers. From Tdénio-
membras it is distinguished by the “absence of vomerine teeth.
" Atherininichthys, Bleeker, in which C. maculatus and other Australian atherines have been placed, is synonymous with Chirostoma, Swainson* (type Atherina humboldtiana, Cuv. & Val.), and differs from all the Australian species in its small scales, long anal fin, _and general form. ,
CRATEROCEPHALUS. FLUVIATILIS, sp. nov. (Plate I.:; Figure 1.) - .
D.V-VII, I/7-8; A.1/8-9; V.I/5; P. sg; Segoe OREM & 3
L. Lat. 31-33. | ee Raia]
Head 32- 33 in the length from the snout to the hypural. Depth 14-134 in the head. Eye longer ‘than the snout, about 3 in the head, and equal to or longer than the depth of the caudal peduncle. Interorbital width a little narrower than the eye in young specimens, wider in adults. Cheeks with a single series of large angular scales, and there are similar scales on all the opercular bones ; upper surface of the head with larger irregular scales extending forwards to between the eyes, snout and ‘preorbital'naked. Anterior nostril near the margin of the preorbital on the angle formed between the top and side ‘of the snout ; posterior nostril near the eye. A line of pores extends ‘estan the snout to behind the eye, then bends downwards to a groove above the operculum; another line extends around the preoper- culum and branches behind the angle of the mouth, one branch running along the preorbital and the other on to the lower jaw. Maxillary slightly..expanded posteriorly not reaching the anterior margin of the eye. Six branch- iostegals. Teeth minute, in a single series in each jaw.
Scales large, cycloid, concentrically striated, 31-33 in a row from behind the base of the pectoral to the hypural. Most of those on the dark lateral band are pierced by a simple pore. Between the median scale béfore the second dorsal and that in front of the anal there are 7-10 rows :
?
in 20 specimens from the junction of the Namoi and Barwon
*See Jordan & Evermann, Bull. U,. S. Nat. Muz., No.. 47,. Pt. a 1896, p. 792, and Pt. IV., 1900, pl. cxxm., fig. 334. D
5a AUSTRALIAN ATHERINID®
Rivers there are 7 rows, and. in six from Narrandera three have 10 rows, two have $,andonehas7. Thescales extend on to the base of the caudal
Origin of first dorsal slightly in advance of the middle of the length to the hypural, and a little behind the vertical of the ventrals ; second and third spines. longest. Anterior rays. of second dorsal longest, the fin originating a little farther back than the anal, to which it is similar in form. Ventrals usually reaching to the vent, sometimes shorter. Upper pectoral rays longest, reaching to the vertical of either the ventrals: or the first dorsal.
Colour.—Whitish in formalin with a dark (silver) band extending from abdéve the base of the pectoral to the hypural which may be continued, more or less indefinitely, on to the upper portion of the operculum and side of the snout. Upper portion of head and back with more or less numerous minute black specks which, when present, are arranged near the margins of the scales above the lateral band. Lower parts of the body with a few scattered specks, and a median row on the under surface of the caudal peduncle.
Described from six specimens, 35-61 mm. long, from North Yanko Creek, Narrandera, N.S. Wales,-and twenty from, a lagoon at the junction of the Namoi and Barwon Rivers, N. S. Wales. The specimen selected as the type is 61 mm. long, from the former locality. They were collected by Mr. David G. Stead, who presented them to the Australian Museum. Other specimens are in the Museum collection from the McIntyre River, on _ the boundary between N. 8S. Wales and Queensland.
This species is very probably identical with Atherima interioris, Zietz,* from the overflow of Coward and Strang- ways Springs, Central Australia, which though named, has not been described. Through the kindness of Professor E. C. Stirling, Director of the South Australian Museum, I have been: able to examine one of Mr. Zietz’s original specimens, but its condition is too bad to enable me to say whether it is identical with these described above or not.
The following notes on the distribution and_ habits of C. fluviatilis have been supplied by Mr. Stead. “ The
*Zietz, Trans. Rey. Soc. S. Austr., xxxmi., 1909, p. 264.
BY ALLAN BR, MC: CHLLOCH. 51
Freshwater Hardyhead,” which, curiously enough, considering its abundance, has, apparently, hitherto escaped description, is one of the commonest fishes in the Western waters of New South Wales—I may go farther than that, and say throughout the whole of the Murray River Drainage Area. I have collected it from billabongs and lagoons on the Murray River and have seen it in the Mitta Mitta, and other Victorian feeders of the Murray. It has also been sent to me in a collection from the lower Murray in South Australia. I have taken it in the warrumbools and small waterholes of the country north of the Upper Barwon, not far from the Queensland border, and have taken or observed it in Lake Narran, in several places on the Barwon and the Darling (old Collymungool Station, Collarenebri, Calmundi Station, Walget, Barooma, Brew- arrina, and Bourke), in Tarrion Creek and the Dry Bogan, in the Bogan proper (at Nyngam), the Macquarie, the Cudgegong (at' Rawden and above at an altitude of about 2,500. feet), the Lachlan, the Murrumbidgee (at several places on the plains and also, in the vicinity of Cooma. at an altitude of about 2,500 feet), Yanko Creek, Edward’s,, or Kyalite River and the Wakool,
‘“T have found it equally abundant in such widely- separated places and at such varying altitudes as Munga- barina, near Albury, Rawden near Rylstene, and the Upper Barwon. It may be mentioned that in one haul of the net, at a small waterhole near the junction of the Namoi and the Barwon, I took several thousands of this species from 3-3 inches in length, with a net only 30 feet long by 4 feet deep. In the flowing rivers and larger lagoons it is found principally in the shallows along the banks, and in the clearer waters is seen moving in small schools.
«Adults commonly attain a length of two or three inches, and exceptionally four inches. The spawning season is during the warmer months, and the egg, which s an adhesive demersal one, is_ relatively large. It subsists upon the small aquatic insects and crustaceans which occur in prodigious numbers in most of the waters
of the Murray Drainage Area.’’
52, AUBTRALIAN ATHERINID® ~
CRATEROCEPHALUS MACULATUS, Macleay. (Plate: a eave
Atherinichthys maculatus, Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc, N. Ss. Wales, VIIT., 1883, p. 207, and IX., 1884, p. 40.
D.VI-VII, | ¥/6-8 ¥ A.1/8-9;'V.1/5; P. 11-13; C.-17; L. Lat. 32-33. it r
_ Head 332-41 in the ek from the snout to the hypural, - Depth of foie 11-134 in the head. Eye longer. than, the snout, larger than in C. fluviatilis, 23-34 in the head, its. length equal to or less than the depth of the caudal peduncle. Interorbital as wide as the eye in. young specimens,. half as wide again in adults. : Head scales, nostrils, and pores: as in fluviatilis. Teeth minute, in three or four rows in, the upper jaw, and one or two below.
Scales and fins similar to fluviatilis, but the relative positions and sizes of the latter vary somewhat in both species ; the ventrals appear to be usually larger in C. maculatus. In all my specimens there are seven transverse rows of scales between the median dorsal and anal | series in front of the second dorsal and anal fins. |
Colour.—Whitish in alcohol with a dark band from the hypural to the pectoral, which is usually also distinct on the head. Upper part of head and back more or less densely speckled with black, and in well-marked examples each scale on the sides bears a central dark spot.
This species was originally obtained in Lillesmere Lagoon on the lower Burdekin River, Queensland. I am unable to find the type specimens in the Macleay Museum, and as they are not in the Australian Museum they are probably lost. The Australian Museum collection includes two specimens from freshwater at Cairns, and two from Townsville, collected by Mr. W. Butcher; four from Eidsvold, Burnett River, collected by Dr. Thomas L. Bancroft ; one from near Brisbane, collected by Mr. F, Phillips. Length, 34-74 mm.
O. maculatus is distinguished from C. fluviatilis chiefly. by its different colour-marking and in having several rows of teeth in the jaws instead of only one. The eye is also larger. |
BY ALLAN R. MC CULLOCH. 53
Explanation of Plate I.
Figure 1. Craterocephalus fluviatilis, sp. nov. Type, twice natural size.
Figure 2. Craterocephalus maculatss, Macleay. Twice natural size.
Gtk (OED; ae ae. Woe Ge gine okie . Cara ae fe eae?
LOL DE
“ype
PuatE I.
Proc. Roy. Soe. Q’nanp, VoL. xxiv.
ADDITIONS TO THE MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND. Part ITI,
By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc. Senor Inspecror or ScHoots.
(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 31st July, | 1912.
In continuation of my paper of September 24th, 1910, in which 348 species, not yet recorded from Queensland, were reported, and which formed a suplement to Mr. Charles Hedley’s list of 1911 Queensland species, catalogued in the Proc. Aust. Assoc., Vol. xii., pp. 343-371, and 809-810, I submit a further list of marine shells from this State, not hitherto known to be found on our shores.
Arca (Scapharca) -chalcanthum, Reeve, Normanton. Arca nivea, Gmelin, Moreton Bay.
Arca reticulata, Sby., Moreton Bay.
Glycimeris angulatus, Lamk., Murray Island. Modiola Senhausii, Reeve, Murray Island, Normanton. Crassatellites pulchra, Reeve, Caloundra,
Cardium vertebratum, Jonas, Moreton Bay.
Dosinia laminata, Reeve, Normanton.
Macrocallista impudica, Chem., Normanton.
Euchelus ampullus, Tate, Caloundra.
Euchelus baccatus, Menke, Murray Island.
Turbo pulcher, Reeve, Murray Island.
Strombus tridentatus, Lamk., Murray Island. Pterocera pseudoscorpio, Lamk,, Normanton.
Cithara nove-hollandiw, Reeve, Cape York. Cymatium obscurum, A. Ad., Torres Straits.
Bursa leucostoma, Lamk., Yeppoon.
Cassis strigata, Gmel., Moreton Bay.
Terebra aciculina, Lamk., Murray Island.
56
MARINE MOLLUSCA OF QUEENSLAND.
Terebra cingulifera, Lamk., Murray Island.
Conus betulinus, L., Torres Straits.
Conus maldivus, Hwass, Murray Island.
Harpa: crassa, Morch, Normanton. bits iy Glyphostoma rubida, Hinds, Cape York.
Peristernia nassatula,' Lamk., Thursday Island. Cantharus (T'ritonidea) australis, Pease, Murray Island. Cantharus (Tritonidea) rubiginosa, Reeve, Normanton. Arcularia compacta, Angas, Bowen. Thais armigera, Reeve,* Torres: Straits.’
Drupa concatenata, Blain., Thursday Island.
The following are errata in my previous paper of
September 24th, 1910 :—
p. 147, line 13, for ‘““philippinensis, Desh,” read ** Reeveanum, Dunker.”’
isp. 148, line 30, delete “‘ Gibbula. magus, L.,’ which
though sent down from Torres Straits is undoubt- . edly European. p. 148, line 37, for ** mysticus, Pilsbry,” read “‘ampullus, .Tate.”’
- p. 153, line 10, for “ adusta, Lamark,”’ read “ digitalis,
Reeve.”’
_p. 153, line 15, for ‘* Hainillei, Pet.,” read “ variabilis
Reeve,’’
ORATER NEAR HERBERTON:
By. R. C. RINGROSE, M.A.
— ee
(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 24th April, 1912)
Tuts remarkable spot is situated on the Upper Barron River Watershed, about nine miles from Herberton, and about twelve miles from Atherton, in an area of land com- prising two square miles, reserved at the instance of the Herberton Chamber of Commerce as a Reserve for a National Park. The corrected height of the Crater ‘tip above sea level is 3,341 feet, and of the high ridge outside the scrub is 3,566 feet. The bed of the Barron River (Dinner Creek) encircling the Crater on two sides is 3,101 feet. These readings are the result or a series of observa- tions with two aneroids, and corrected by Mr. C. E. Deshon- chief surveyor to the Hydraulic Engineer’s Department of Queensland.
The whole of this dividing ridge between the Barron River and Nigger Creek is either too heavily grassed or clothed with dense scrub and the vegetable mould formed by the decomposition of the leaves, to admit of accurate observation of the rocks buried beneath. Speaking generally, the whole of this divide consists of quartz porphyries (composed of felspars and quartz with a small quantity of mica) cut through in places by elvan dykes. A large portion of the high mountain on which the Barron River and Poona Creek rises is largely composed of massive porphyry. The main mass of this range is often cut into intrusive dykes of a fine grained porphyry known as elvans. It may here be noted that the main quartz porphyries and granites of the valleys of the Wild and Walsh Rivers as well as many of the Permo-carboniferous or Devonian series of these valleys are everywhere cut into by a series of intrusive elvan dykes, in some places forming dykes cutting through the ridges at their ‘highest points or occurring in the form of irregular compact masses.
58 CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.
These dykes are probably newer, though possibly of the same period as the huge massive porphyry, which extends from the Valley of the Dry River, some 34 miles southerly, from Watsonville and crosses the Wild River some seven miles from MHerberton and extends past Evelyn Station to the Gorge Road and to the Millstream.
In his report on “The Tin Mines of Watsonville,” (1897), Mr. 8. J. B. Skertchly, referring to the igneous rocks of the Herberton and Watsonville Districts, says— ‘““The granites are the oldest of the rocks and they are newer than the permo-carboniferous (?Devonian) sedi- mentary strata for they can be seen forcing their way into these rocks and sending strings and dykes into them, and this is even more marked in the southern part of our Colony than in the northern.”
‘Next in geological sequence is the great porphyry series which has pushed its way through the granite and sent numerous dykes into it. Following this is the period of the elvan dykes, which intersect alike the sedimentary rocks, the granite and the porphyry. Connected with these elvan dykes is the production of some of the tin- bearing matter, as is abundantly shown in the sequel. Next in order are the basic dykes (diorites, etc.) with which the chief outpourmg of the tin occurred.”
Last of all, there are the great basaltic outpourings of the Tertiary period similar to so many other districts in. Australia.
These main characteristics are well illustrated on the main spur of the Hugh Nelson Range, on which the “ Crater” is situated. Descending from the high granite point, from which the view of Bartle Frere and Bellenden Ker is obtained, it is necessary to proceed on foot through the scrub. Here and there cedar trees are met with, and except in a few places the rock is buried under the rich vegetable mould of the scrub. But the main characteristics above referred to are well illustrated, where fragments of the rock are obtainable. Entering the scrub, the rock is here elvan, further on the quartz porphyries appear, and in the bed of the creek, about three quarters of a mile in the scrub, hard elvan porphyry is exposed. Crossing the Creek chocolate soil overlies the rock beneath. Ascend- ing the high ridge forming the Gorge of the Barron River
BY R. C. RINGROSE, M.A. 59 the quartz porphyries are again visible and extend to the “Crater.” The ridge near the ‘“ Crater” is narrow, and towards the Barron River Gorge is exceedingly steep. From the summit of the ridge one descends rapidly amongst cedar trees, until one descends almost unconsciously into the great chasm known as the “ Crater,” hidden ‘amongst the trees at the end of the leading spur, and encircled on two sides by the Barron Gorge. I estimate the distance across the ‘“‘ Crater’ at its widest point to be 34 chains.
From the rim on the low but accessible side, the distance to the water is rather less than 300 feet. On all sides, except where there i is a slight slip, the walls are absolutely vertical. The whole of the bottom of the chasm is water, the depth of which measured by a line with a weight on it, is about 300 feet. (These measurements are subject to correction.) The surface of the water is covered with a weed known as “lemna oligorhiza.”’
The main material of the precipitous walls of the chasm is quartz porphyry, but on one-side there is a small belt of fine-grained elvan porphyry. The height of the ** Crater”? is 3,341 feet above sea level, and the bed of the Barron River, just above the Crater is 3,101 feet. It therefore follows that there is no outlet for the water in the Barron River. As far as is known the level of the water is stationary, and there is no evidence that it either increases or diminishes otherwise than by rainfall or by natural evaporation respectively. The bed of the Barron River is solid quartz porphyry, and from Dinner Creek descends rapidly in a series of pretty cascades, until it passes through a gorge just above Clarke’s track to the Russell. Attempts have been made, but no one _ has succeeded in getting the depth of the water in the centre of the chasm. On the eastern side of the Barron River, Gum Tree Hill 1ises abruptly out of the river.
What is the origin of this remarkable chasm? What is its age? It has none of the appearances of the voleanoes of the Tertiary basalts. It is newer than the quartz porphyries, and newer than the elvan porphyries. Being carved out of solid rock on the main back-bone of Aus- tralia, no other conclusion can be arrived at than that its origin was due to some violent volcanic action of deep- seated origin. There is no evidence of any falling in or
£20, CRATER NEAR HERBERTON.
denudation of the rock. There | is no rock such as limestone,,. soluable enough to account for the erosion of such a chasm. ‘There is no evidence that the waters of the Barron River are affected. by or swallowed up even to the slightest degree by, the, Crater. No similar. vent or chasm is known to exist. _in, any other portion of the district. It is totally different tg Lake .Kacham, which is clearly the ruined voleano of the Tertiary period. But the Crater, might have been caused by the outburst of a period of voleanic, activity, Subsequent to:-the period of the-‘‘ massive porphyries,” and subsequent to the period of the elvan outbursts. . The only. appearance which lends a clue to the origin of-the. Crater is, that on the north-west side and-highest. side rounded stones of exceedingly porous:and vesicular. basalt are found. Altered zeolite ahs yi are embedded in all of the boulders. ; |
On the eastern side of the Crater and right down to the edges of the rocky bed of the Barron River itself, there ‘are in places small fragments of basaltic rock, and in other places up the river a few hundred yards, there is abundance of red chocolate soil. Now whether these apparently rounded, highly vesicular fragments of basalt have been ejected with great force up the vent of the Crater, it is impossible to say at present, until something further is known of the country further up the Barron River. This is a pathless jungle at present, and it will be probably ‘many years before the country up the Barron River’ will be sufficiently opened up to speak with certainty. The writer has not observed such highly vesicular basalt in any other part of the district. Not far away, on the Western edge of the Hugh Nelson Range, the solid basalts of the later’ Tertiary period have flowed down from some old volcano. near the head of the Beatrice, very much along the course of the south branch of Nigger Creek, and finally spread. out over the bed of the old bed of the Wild River, and. have formed what is now known as the Herberton Deep ‘Lead. The river beds were then wider than they are to-day, and probably the ranges were higher and the rain- fall greater. The basalts of these old lava flows are hard, compact basalts for the most part, and have no oe with the vesicular basalts of the Crater.
BY R. ©. RINGROSE, M.A. aes 5 «|
there is nothing extraordinary in finding a volcanic vent carved out of rock of a much older series. But it is not usual to find them in a condition much the same as when they were in their original state of activity, and unfilled by rock originally being rising columns of lava, or by falling debris and rocks, either hurled up the chimney itself and falling back into it, or from surrounding rocks shattered from explosions of steam and gases. There is no great quantity of debris found immediately round the Crater near Herberton. Denudation, no doubt, has ‘worn away some of the volcanic deposits. But it is likely enough that volcanic ashes were ejected in large quantities with great force over a wide area. That the early flows of basalt broke through the underlying deep-seated rocks with great force is illustrated by the fact that a dyke of basalt, having no visible connections, has been exposed in solid porphyry country rock in one of the cuttings of the Herberton-Evelyn line near the great Northern Gully, in the town of Herberton, showing that the dykes burst through the most solid country rocks apparently from great depths. This is the only known instance of an isolated basalt dyke unconnected with ordinary basaltic outpour- ings, and evidently of the most deep-seated origin.
The conclusions to be drawn from the observed facts of the Crater may be :—
1. That the Crater is a volcanic vent, which is newer than the massive porphyries, and newer than the elvan series, and that all the facts point to its origin being caused by a violent manifestation of volcanic activity.
2. Its origin may be older than the period of the Tertiary Volcanic system.
3. It must have been a vent for steam gases and volcanic ejecta between the periods of the massive por- phyries, elvan period and the Tertiary volcanic period, nd it is conceivable that in some early portion of the Vertiary period. it was an outlet for voleanic bombs of the basaltic type, but it has no connection with and may have ‘been closed up before the period of Lake Eacham and other Tertiary volcanoes.
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NOTES ON SOME. ENTOZOA.
a
By T. HARYEY JOHNSTON. M.A., D.Sc. (Biology Dept., University, Brisbane).
(Plates Il, ITI, IV, V).
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 26th June, 1912-
Ophiotenia hyle, n. sp. (Pl. bE; Bigs.. 1,. 2).
Host :—Hyla aurea ; specimens collected by Dr. 8. J. Johnston, of Sydney University, from frogs eaptured in the neighbourhood of Sydney.
Length, over 6 cm. ; greatest breadth, about -75mm.
The seolex is a rounded unarmed structure, :32 mm. in width, with four suckers, each about -11 mm. in diameter, and a rudimentary apical sueker or muscle plug. There may be a slight neck-like constriction, succeeded by a relatively long unsegmented region of about the same breadth as the scolex. Segmentation is of the usual type seen in the Proteocephalide. The proglottids do not project. aterally, nor do they vary much in width after sexual maturity has been reached. The genital pores are situated at about the middle of the segments and alternate irregu- larly.
The muscular, nervous and excretory systems are of the general Proteocephalid type. The testes consist of numerous vesicles of about -08 mm. diameter, arranged dorsally in two wide lateral fields between which lies the uterus. These fields extend almost from the anterior border of the segment to the ovary. The vas deferens may be recognised as a coiled tube in the middle of the proglottis, lying above the uterus and passing laterally n close coils above and parallel to the vagina until it enters the cirrus sac within which the vas becomes thrown into
G4 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.,
a few rather wider convolutions. The greater part of the sac is occupied by the wide eversible unarmed cirrus which is capable of being everted to a length of ;20 mm., its width in such a state being about -033 mm. The cirrus sac, when the cirrus is at rest, is-a pyriform organ -14 mm. long and about -055 mm. wide in its inner. portion. ,The male pore lies postero-dorsally to the female _aperture, both terminating in a very short genital cloaca.
The large bilobed ovary consists of numerous tubes whose terminations lie dorsally, the ovarian bridge being ventral. Its duct is short. Situated dorso-laterally in the cortex in the region of the longitudinal nerve are the vitelline follicles, each with a diameter of about ‘013 mm.
The vagina is a wide tube lying antero-ventrally to the cirrus sac, narrowing somewhat as it passes inwards below~it and the vas deferens to bend backwards and travel above the uterus. Just in front of and above the ovary, there is a slight enlargement, the receptaculum seminis, followed by a narrowed portion or fertilising duct into which the oviduct enters. The shell gland lies in this region. ‘The uterus arises’ as a’ thin duct which passes forwards ventrally, along the mid-line, below the ovary and the vagina. Numerous’ short lateral diverticula appear at an early stage, and as egg-formation proceeds, these become much more prominent, until at length the uterus appears as a much-branched structure almost filling the medulla. The eggs measure from 15 to 19 micra in diameter, and the oncospheres from 7:5 to 11 micra. Vitellaria persist even in segments with fully formed embryos.
Ophiotenia hyle appears to be the first adult cestode described from an Australian amphibian.
La Rue (1911, p. 473), has recently subdivided the genus Proteocephalus, one of the genera being Ophiotenia, to which our form belongs. The differences between Acanthotenia and Ophiotenia are very slight. The latter might even be regarded as a subgenus of the former.
Acanthotenia gallardi, Johnston. (Pl. ID; FWigs.’3, 4)-
This cestode was described by me last year (191la, p. 175), under the name Proteocephalus gallardi, mention being made (p. 181) that it belonged to the subgenus
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC 65
Acanthotenia. La Rue (1911) has recently dealt with the Proteocephalide, and has restored Linstow’s name (Johnston, 1909, pp. 112, 114) to full generic rank. He includes all the known Proteocephalids from amphibia and snakes under Ophiotenia, a genus whose members do not possess the tiny cuticular spines which occur on the anterior end of: species of Acanthotenia. Our form which infests several species of Australian venemous snakes, is, however, a typical Acanthotenia. It was originally described from Pseudechis porphyriacus and very shortly afterwards (Johnston, 1911), p. 239) was recorded from the tiger snake, Notechis scutatus, mention being made that a closely allied species parasitised two other snakes, Denisonia superba (p. 239) and Pseudechis australis. A careful comparison has led me to consider that all four snakes harbour the same species of cestode. The main difference seen is in regard to the number and shape of the testes, but the former is variable, while the elongate form of the glands as seen in specimens from the two last named snakes, is apparently due to imperfect preserva- tions, both series of specimens having been taken by me from the intestine of reptiles which had been preserved for some time in alcohol. The arrangement of all the organs aS seen in transverse sections, agrees entirely with that already figured (19lla, pl. vu., figs. 2, 3.)
Acanthotenia tidswelli, Johnston.
Specimens of this. tapeworm which is known to occur in Varanus varius (Johnston, 1909, p. 103), and in V. gouldit (19116, p. 242), have been collected from Bell’s monitor V. bellii, forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft, from Eidsvold, Burnett River. This reptile harboured in its stomach several nematodes, Physaloptera varani ?, similar to those already recorded from the two above-named lizards, while in its blood there were present hemogregarines, Hemogregarina varanicola.
Some authorities regard V. belliz.as being only a well- marked variety of V. varius. .
Hymenolepis diminuta (Rud.)
From rats, thus decumanus and M. rattus (Alexandrinus)
caught in Brisbane. Not previously recorded from
Queensland. E
66 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
Hymenolepis cartoca (Magalh.)
From a domestic fowl, Brisbane. Not previously reported from Queensland.
Hymenolepis megalops (Nitzsch).
This species has been identified from material collected from a Black Duck, forwarded by Dr. Bancroft, Eidsvold and is now definitely recorded from this State.
A new host for this parasite is the Teal, Nettion castaneum, specimens having been collected by Mr. C. J. Woollett near Cobar, N.S. Wales.
The parasite under review was described by Krefft (1873, p. 220; Johnston, 1912, p. 33) as Tenia cylindrica, and is quite a different form to that described under the same name by Clerc (1902, p. 661), whose specimens came from a gull Larus canus. Clere’s species has been listed as Dilepis? cylindrica and Choanotenia? cylindrica, but since the specific name was already preoccupied in T'enia, the name clerci might be substituted for it. (Tenia clerci=Choanotenia ? clerci, nom. nov.)
Diorchis flavescens (Krefft).
Found by me in a Black Duck, Anas superciliosa, shot on the Burnett River. In company with this species of cestode were some trematodes, Hchinostoma sp. (sensu lato).
Amebotenia cuneata (Linstow).
Found in some fowls in Sydney and also in Brisbane. This small parasite had not been recorded as occurring in Australia.
Bancroftiella glandularis (Fuhrmann).
This cestode was originally described by Fuhrmann under the name of Anomotenia glandularis, from Herodias timoriensis, his material being collected in the East Indies. It is now recorded as infesting the Blue Crane, Notophoyx nove-hollandie, my specimens being collected by Dr. 8. J. Johnston near Gosford, N.S. Wales. I have the same species from this host from Queensland.
It belongs to the genus Bancroftiella (Johnston, 1911c, p. 50).
BY T. HARVEY .JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 67
Tenia crassicollis, Rud. Found in a local cat (Brisbane). Not previously recorded from Queensland.
Cysticercus fasciolaris, Rud.
This bladderworm stage of Tenia crassicollis is fairly commonly met with in the liver of local rats (Mus decumanus and M. alexandrinus) and mice (M. musculus), but its presence in Queensland does not appear to have been reported.
Dipylidium caninum (L.)
A common parasite in local dogs and cats (Brisbane),
but apparently unrecorded from this State.
Diploposthe levis, Bloch.
This large and interesting cestode has again been met with in a White-eyed Duck, Aythya australis, kindly forwarded by Dr. Bancroft from Ejidsvold. It is now definitely recorded from Queensland. Krefft, who described the parasite as Tenia tuberculata, did not refer to a definite locality, mentioning merely that his material was collected in either New South Wales or Queensland.
Metroliasthes luweida, Ransom.
Found in the domestic turkey, my specimens being collected in Sydney from material supplied by Mr. Thos. Steel, through the Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney. This identification constitutes the first record of the occurrence of the species in Australia.
Davainea cesticillus, Molin.
Has been identified from a local fowl (Brisbane). Not
previously recorded from Queensland. Davainea tetragona, Molin.
Has been found several times in local fowls (Brisbane). This species has been previously recorded by Dr. Sweet (1910, p. 243), as occurring in Rockhampton.
Davainea varians, Sweet.
This tiny parasite of domestic fowls has been described by Dr. G. Sweet (1910, p. 243), but it seems to me to. be synonymous with D. proglottina, which is admittedly a variable species. The main difference appears to be in the size
65 - NOTES ON SOME ‘ENTOZOA.
and form of the rostellar hooks, but it is often a difficult matter to figure these quite accurately, and the differences are small. The general anatomy is similar to that of D. proglottina. Cittotenia bancrofti, n. sp. (Pl V; Figs. 42, 45).
This large cestode parasitises one of the small wallabies, Onychogale frenata, specimens having been collected for me by Dr. Bancroft (Burnett River District). The Jength is about 15 cm. and the maximum breadth 14 mm. The unarmed scolex is large, being 1:9 in diameter, and bears four powerful suckers, each about ‘72 mm. in diameter. There is no unsegmented neck region, the strobila consisting of very numerous narrow _leaf-like segments, which gradually increase in length and breadth as they pass backwards. The genital papilla les in the posterior half of each margin.
The longitudinal musculature is very powertul, con- sisting of a broad zone of bundles lying in the inner portion of the cortex, the outer portion being free from them. The bundles on the outer edge of the zone are smaller than those lying nearer the well-developed transverse muscles. Dorso-ventral fibres are abundant. The dorsal excretory vessel is a small tube situated laterally from the larger ventral canal. The nerve lies just above, or at times dorso-laterally to, the dorsal vessel. The sex canals pass above both the excretory canals and the nerve, the male duct lying above the vagina. Both sex canals terminate in a common genital chamber which communicates with the exterior through the genital pore.
Testes were not distinguishable in the specimens. There is a large cirrus sac in each half of the segment. Its length when the cirrus is at rest, is from ‘8 to 1 mm., and the breadth 019 mm. _ It possesses relatively thick muscular walls. The vas deferens forms a small closely-coiled mass near the inner end of sac, and after entering the latter, enlarges to form a vesicula seminalis. The cirrus may be everted to a distance of -30 mm. beyond the genital pore. It then appears as a wide organ (-14 mm. in width), covered with very numerous tiny spines so closely set as to give a stippled appearance. ;
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 69
The female organs are duplicated and are somewhat. obliquely placed. The inner and anterior portion of the female complex consists of the ovary, while the more laterally situated posterior division consists of the vitellarium Separating the two is the receptaculum seminis. The vagina travels inwards behind and below the cirrus sac in a slightly sinuous course, becoming widened in its progress, its inner portion being the widest portion. As already mentioned, this receptaculum lies above and anterior to, the yolk gland. Each uterus arises as a transverse tube from which numerous processes or pouches develop anteriorly and posteriorly. The two uteri extend medianly and eventu- ally almost touch. I have not determined whether they ultimately fuse or not.
The above description is of a preliminary nature.
Dibothriocephalus felis, Creplin.
This cestode is met with occasionally in cats. In addition to specimens from Queensland, I have others collected in Melbourne, in Sydney, and near Gosford, New South Wales.
Cysticercoids of Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina. (PL. Tile: Bie Tb).
_ During the time that I was associated with the Govern- ment Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, I had opportunity of examining some thousands of rat-fleas, the species repre- sented being almost entirely the three common fleas infesting Muride, viz., Xenopsylla cheopis, Ceratophyllus fasciatus and Ctenopsyllus musculi. In the last-named _ species, no parasites were found, while in the two former there were met with occasionally two distinct species of Cysticercoids as well as larval nematodes to be referred to later. Rarely, both the nematodes and one or other species of Cystercoid occurred in the one host, and also rarely, both species of Cysticercoid in the same Ceratophyllus,
These cestode larval are identical with those described and figured by Nicoll and Minchin (1910, p. 9; text figs. 1, 2, Minchin, 1909, p. 741), who proved experimentally that they were the Cysticercoid stages of two common rat-parasites, Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina. They were found only in Ceratophyllus fasciatus and in about
70 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA’
four per cent. of specimens examined. The former larva is pyriform, with an unarmed scolex and a fairly long tail, while the Cysticercoid of H. murina is rather broadér and shorter, has scolex armed with small hooks and possesses a short thick tail.
Xenopsylla cheopis is thus a new host for these two larval forms, and the known geographical distribution is extended from Europe to Australia. As mentioned by Nicoll and Minchin, there is usually only one larva present at a time, but | have met with multiple infection. On one occasion there were found no less than nine Cysticer- coids of H. murina (see Fig. 11) in a Ceratophyllus fasciatus taken from Mas decumanus in Sydney (1909) ; on another occasion three larve: belonging to the same species were found in a Xenopsylla cheopis taken from Mus rattus, also in Sydney. One specimen, a H. diminuta Cysticercoid, was found in one flea, C. fasciatus, out of six sent to me in 1910 from Melbourne for identification.
The presence of these parasites was detected in specimens of fleas after clearing the latter and mounting them in long series in canada balsam.
A record of the per centage infection was kept, but it has been mislaid. It was, I believe, about the same as that already recorded.
Sparganum, sp. (Pl. IL; Figs. 5, 6).
Cestode larve (plerocercoids) occur occasionally in certain parts of the body, mainly in the thigh muscles, of some Australian frogs, e.g., Hyla aurea and H. cerulea. I have examined specimens from the former host from Perth, West Australia, collected by Dr. J. B. Cleland, and from Sydney, N.S. Wales, collected by Dr. 8. J. Johnston, and by myself; and also from the latter host from Sydney, and from the Burnett River, Queensland, collected by Dr. Bancroft. The figures have been drawn from a specimen mounted by Dr. S. J. Johnston.
The parasite has already been described by Professor Haswell (1890, p. 661), its occurrence in various localities having been noted by myself (1911b, p. 234) Prof. J. P. Hill (1905, p. 369) also has referred to it The general
BY T, HARVEY JOHNSTON, M A‘. D.SC. 71
appearance of the anterior end is shown in Fig: 5. The width is fairly uniform (-7 mm.) throughout the greater part of its length, the broadest portion being anterior (1-4 mm.) The length varies somewhat, some of the complete specimens examined measuring 47 mm. The posterior end is rounded (Fig. 6), and bears the excretory pore lying at the base of a small depression. The body is imperfectly ringed, and the cuticle is also thrown into small folds.
Calcareous corpuscles are abundant. The longitudinal muscles. are arranged in a series of well-marked bundles. The excretory canals lie deeply, each being distant from the margin about a third of the body diameter. They join near the posterior end to form a very short common tube terminating at the excretory pore. The nervous system consists of a small mass just behind the slit-like depression at the anterior end, and of a pair of prominent laterally situated strands, as well as a pair of longitudinal nerves.
Fasciola hepatica, Li.
Specimens of the common liver fluke were forwarded
from Ipswich, having been taken from sheep and cattle. Heterakis chenonetite, n. sp. (Pl. TV); Wigkevae,.oa).
Last year, | took from the cecum of a wood duck Chenon:ztta jubata, near Sydney, a number of specimens of a small Heterakis, which appear to belong to a new species. The dimensions are :—Male—length, 6.8 mm.; _ breadth, -i9 mm.; female—length, 7-7 mm.; breadth, -26 mm. This species is thus slightly longer than H. bancrofti.
The cuticle bears very fine annulations. The anterior end tapers rather rapidly from region of the nerve ring, while the posterior portion of the worm becomes gradually narrowed to terminate in small fine tail. The lips are equal in size, but are small. The excretory pore lies at ‘422 mm. from the head end, in the same region as the nerve ring. The vulva is situated just behind the middle of the body (4-2 mm. behind the head). The anus in the female les at .53 mm. from the posterior end.
The tail of the male terminates in a fine point. The ale are prominent and bear nine pair of papille, whose position is indicated in Fig. 30. Four pair are pre-anal
72 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
three pair lying just in front of and laterally to the prominent cloaca, while one pair lies laterally from the sucker of the post-anal papille; three pair are almost caudal in position, The sucker is situated at a considerable distance (194 mm.) in front of the cloaca, and appears as a prominent organ. The spicules are 1:17 mm. _ in length, and -013 mm. in breadth. The longer male spicule is strongly curved, and has a fairly uniform breadth (-008 min.), but tapers slightly towards the extremity. The length is -48 mm. The shorter spicule has a length of .18 mm., and a breadth (in its midregion) of :012 mm., but the extremity is widened and rounded.
The uterus contains eggs with vermiform embryos.
Heterakis bancrofti, n. sp. (Pl IV; Figs. 28, 30).
The cecum of the brush turkey, Catheturus lathami, is commonly infested by small nematodes, which at first sight remind one of Heterakis papillosa of the fowl. Dr. Bancroft has forwarded me material from the Burnett River district, while Mr. R. Dart has sent me material from Laidley. From all of the specimens, this species of nematode has been taken. It is therefore a common parasite of this host. Occasionally one finds in company with it a much larger Heterakis, described below as H. catheturinus, as well as a J'enia-like species of Hchino- rynchus, or, perhaps more correctly, Gigantorhynchus.
Heterakis bancrofti has the following dimensions :— male—4.3 mm. long and -22 mm. broad ; female 6°25 mm. long, and -33 mm. broad. The anterior end tapers gradually while the tail of the female is rather short and sharply- pointed, that of the male being very narrow and delicate (Fig. 30). The vulva is situated at about the middle of the body, the excretory pore at -260--265 mm. from the anterior end, and the anus (in the female) at -91 mm. from the posterior extremity.
There are three prominent lips of equal size, with deep. notches between them. The alimentary canal is of the usual Heterakis type. The nerve ring surrounds’ the pharynx at -16 mm. from the anterior end, and is situated. just in front of the excretory pore.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 73
The male spicules are equal and relatively long. (-860 mm.), sharp-pointed structures, the points being turned backwardly. Their form is indicated in Fig. 30. The sucker is chitinised and possesses a diameter of -073 mm, Its posterior margin is situated at about -035 mm. in front of the cloaca. Lying between it and the cloaca is a pair of pre-anal papille. The disposition of the papille around the lobed ale is indicated in the figure, there being two pair placed pre-anally, two pair post-anally, and two _ pair just near the junction of the ale with the narrow pointed tail.
This species is associated with the name of Dr. T. L. Bancroft, who has rendered me considerable service in regard to material.
Heterakis catheturinus, n. sp. (Pl. TEL > Figs.: 23, 25, PRIS Figs, 26; .27)
As already mentioned, this large species may some- times be found in company with the commoner speciess H. bancrofti, infesting Catheturus lathami. My specimens have been collected from material forwarded by Dr. T. L. Bancroft from the Burnett River. Adult females may reach a length of 28 mm., males being somewhat shorter and attaining a length of 21 mm.
The anterior end is rounded and narrow, while the posterior extremity terminates in a short pointed tail in both sexes. The three lips are equal in size, their characters being indicated in Fig. 24. The excretory aperture lies at a distance of -8 mm. behind the mouth.. The vulva is situated at about the middle of the body length, on a slight elevation. The anus is distant from the posterior extremity -40 mm. in the case of the male, and -86 mm. in the case of the female. At each side of the anterior end of the parasite, there is a ridge or ala, arising laterally just behind the mouth and travelling backwards for about two millimetres. The cuticle bears fine trans- verse rings.
The alimentary canal is of the usual type, and is surrounded at -50 mm. behind the mouth by the nerve ring. |
74 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
The male spicules are slightly curved pointed rods, méasuring 1:05 mm. in length, and -022 mm. in width. The male tail is not prominent, the ale being narrow. The sucker lies at some distance (-275 mm.) in front of the cloaca. There are two pair of prominent pre-anal papille, a small unpaired median pre-anal, and a small unpaired post-anal papilla, followed by six paired post-anal papille, the arrangement of these sensory structures being indicated in the figure of the tail end of the male. (Fig. 25).
Heterakis papillosa, Rud.
A common parasite of poultry (Brisbane), but hitherto unrecorded from this State.
Heterakis perspicillum, Rud.
More commonly known as H. infleza. A fairly common but apparently unrecorded nematode infesting local fowls (Brisbane).
Heterakis spumosa, Schneider.
Present in Mus decumanus and M. rattus (Brisbane). Not previously recorded.
Belascaris mystax, Rud.
Formerly grouped with an allied round-worm parasitic in the dog, under the name of Ascaris canis. This species was found in a local cat, and has not been recorded as yet from this State.
Toxascaris canis, Gm.
Occurs in local dogs (Brisbane), but is apparently unrecorded until now.
Ascaris spiculigera, Rud.
Numerous specimens were taken by me from the oesophagus and stomach of, a cormorant, Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, and a darter, Plotus novehollandie, shot on the Burnett River, Eidsvold, by Dr. Bancroft. Ascaris, sp., . recorded by Krefft (1873, p. 213), from the latter host, belongs to the same species.
Some parasites which I have collected near Sydney from the pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus, are referred to the same species. They are rather larger, but appear to be specifically identical with the above. .
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON Mas, D sc 75
A larger species of Ascaris from the stomach of Phalacrocorax carbo, shot by Dr. Cleland on the Hawkes- bury River, N.S. Wales, is of the same general appearance, but does not agree entirely with the available accounts of A. spiculigera.
Amblyonema terdentatum, Linstow (1898, p. 470).
This species of nematode has been found quite commonly by Dr. Bancroft and myself in the spiral valve of specimens of Neoceratodus forsteri, caught in the Burnett River. In company with it, on one occasion, there were found a few specimens of a small Amphistoma.
Oxyuris obvelata, Bremser.
Occurs in Mus decumanus, M. rattus and M. musculus in Brisbane. Not previously recorded.
Trichosoma hepaticum, Raill.
Found in the liver of Mus decumanus, M. rattus (alex- andrinus), and M. musculus in Brisbane. Its presence in Queensland was recorded by Dr. Bancroft (18936, p. 89), who described it from Mus rattus as Trichocephalus hepaticus. It was originally described by Railliet under the same specific name.
Trichodes crassicauda, Bellingham.
Occurs in the bladder of Mus decumanus (Brisbane).
Not previously reported from this State. Spiroptera obtusa, Rud.
From the stomach of Mus musculus, M. alexandrinus and M. decumanus in Brisbane. Apparently unrecorded from this State.
Hystrignathus hystrix (Cobb).
Cobb (1898, p. 315), originally described this species as Xyo hystrix, it being the type of his genus Xyo. A comparison of Cobb’s figure with those given by Leidy (1853, Pl. 7, Figs. 8, 9, 10), leads us to synonymise Xyo with Leidy’s Hystrignathus.
Dr. Cobb did not actually give an account of his form, but defined it by means of his ‘“‘ nematode formula ” and a figure. The host is quoted as beetle, Passalus, sp. H. hystrix is a parasite of the large common passalid beetle, found in rotten timber, and’ identified for me by Mr. W.
76 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
Gurney, of the Entomologist’s Branch, Sydney, as Mastochilus, sp. It is under this host name that these tiny nematodes should be placed.
My specimens were collected in various parts of New South Wales.
Echinonema cinctum, Linstow.
This roundworm was _ originally described as Hoplocephalus cinctus, by Linstow (1898, p. 469), from material taken in Queensland by Prof. Semon from a bandicoot, Permaeles obesula. It is now recorded, from the “native cat,’ Dasyurus viverrinus, my specimen of the parasite—a female—being collected from a dasyure secured by Mr. T. Steel, in a suburb of Sydney.
Filaria websteri, Cobbold.
This large nematode infests the bursa at the knee- joint of several kangaroos and wallabies. I have recently received specimens collected near Eidsvold by Dr. Bancroft from Macropus giganteus, M. dorsalis, and M. parryi.
Habronema musce (Carter).
The larval stage of this parasite, Habronema musce, has been met with in two species of flies, Stomoxys calcitrans and Musca domestica in Sydney, and in the latter in Bris- bane. As far as I know,: the larval form has not been previously recorded from Australia.
Ransom (1911, p. 690), has recently shown that A. musce is the larval stage of a parasite which infests the stomach of the horse.
A larval worm which has the general form and characters of the above species occurs in the head region of the common “ cattle fly,’ found frequenting, especially the eyes of cattle, in Queensland and determined as Musca vetustissima. I am indebted to Dr. Bancroft for specimens taken near Eidsvold in the Burnett River district of this State.
Filaria clelandi, n. sp.
(Pl. TL: Wipe. Sf Sa A single specimen—a male—was found by Dr. Bancroft in the peritoneum of a magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen, shot
near Eidsvold. Its length is 27 mm., and its breadth -62 mm. The cuticle is quite smooth. The ends are
\
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. v1
somewhat similar in appearance both being obtusely rounded, but the tail end is broader. At the head end are three papille placed laterally, while surrounding the mouth are three very slight pit-like depressions, with each of which is associated a highly refracting rod-like structure, apparently of a chitinoid nature. This bifurcates, each branch being relatively long. These six rods come into relation with the anterior end of the alimentary canal, where it meets the mouth cavity which has thus something of the character of a mouth capsule. The alimentary canal is of the usual filarial type ; the nerve ring surrounding it at a distance of -(027 mm. from the anterior end of the worm. The anus is subterminal, lying at only -08 mm. from the posterior end.
No definite papille were recognised in the colacal region, though there appeared to be indications of a small pre-anal pair. The male spicules are relatively large and thick ; the longer being :75 mm. in length, sabre-like, twisted and with a broad lancet-like termination: while the other is also long, but is bent in a remarkable manner to form an elongate 8. The total length of the latter, including curves, is ‘60 mm. The general breadth of both spicules is the same (‘025 mm. )
T desire to associate with this species the name of my friend and former colleague, Dr. J. B. Cleland. We have already described two forms of larval filarie (Cleland and Johnston, 1910, p. 107), found in the blood of this host in N.S. Wales, but Dr. Bancroft (1889, p. 61), had already recorded the occurrence of larve in specimens taken in Queensland. Simultaneously with ourselves, Drs. Gilruth, Sweet and Dodd (1910, p. 236) described several different forms under the name, Microfilaria gymnorhine. It is inadvisable to confer specific names on larval filarial forms since it is not always an easy matter to associate a larva with the adult form; hence confusion in nomen- clature is more likely. As the specific name given includes more than one form, there need be no hesitation in naming the adult male which has been briefly described above.
Plimmer (1912, p. 138) also mentions finding embryos in this host, his birds having died in the London Zoological Gardens.
78 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
Microfilaria -sp. (Pl. IIL; Figs. 16, 17).
Filarial embryos have been found by Dr. J. B. Cleland and myself in Plotus novehollandie and Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, both shot on the Burnett River by Dr. Bancroft. These larve are relatively long (-163 to -236 mm.) and narrow (-004 to -006 mm), with a rounded anterior end and a pointed posterior extremity. A sheath is present.
Filaria sp. (Pl. TH ; ‘Figs. 14, ‘15).
I found several immature female filarize encysted in the subcutaneous tissues of a “ leather-head’’ Philemon citreigularis forwarded by Dr. T’. L. Bancroft from Eidsvold They were coiled up within fairly thick brownish cysts, only the head end protruding. Their length, when uncoiled, is 10:mm. ‘The cuticle is very distinctly ringed, the ridges being similar in general appearance to those present in species of Onchocerca.
The anterior end is narrowed and bears six papille, while the posterior end is pointed. The anus lies at about -16 mm. from the latter. The nerve ring is situated at about -14 mm. from the head extremity. The mouth soon leads into the esophagus which in its turn communi- cates with the intestine. The excretory pore is situated in the region of the nerve ring. i
Filaria, sp. (Pl. DV Bigs. BT38),
A mature female worm, about 20 mm. in length, and -7 mm. in maximum breadth was taken by Dr. J. B. Cleland from the subcutaneous tissues of a honey-eater, Acanthogenys rufigularis, shot near Sydney, N.S. Wales.
The anterior end is narrowed but terminates abruptly, while the posterior extremity ends in a short bluntly- rounded tail. The cuticle is practically smooth. The three lips are not prominent, but each bears a tiny papilla. Lying at a short distance behind the mouth are the excretory aperture (at -14 mm.), and the female pore (at -24 mm.) Lateral lines are relatively broad, the excretory vessels travelling within them in a _ sinuous course. The
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 19
alimentary canal is of the usual filarial type, the ceso- phagus measuring -64 mm. in length. The anus lies very close to the posterior end, being only -130 mm. distant. The nerve ring is situated at -16 mm, from the anterior extremity.
The two uteri which contain eggs with vermiform embryos within them, join to form a very short vagina near whose external opening are gland cells. The eggs in utero measure ‘050 by -028 mm.
Filaria physignathi, n. sp. (Pl. Jl ; dies. 18,22).
The presence of filarial embryos in the blood of Physignathus lesueuriit, Gray, has already been made known (Johnston and Cleland, 1911, p. 489), .while mention has been made (Johnston, 19115, p. 241) of the fact that the adults were found in the mesenteric veins by Dr. Bancroft. These adult worms, mainly females, were forwarded .to me and are.now dealt with under the name of Filaria physignathi. Filarial.embryos have ;been recently recorded as occurring in another Australian lizard, belonging to the same family, Amphibolurus barbatus, by Plimmer (1912, p. 139), whose specimens came from the London Zoological Gardens.
The dimensions of the new parasite are as follows :— Male 12 mm. long, and -20 mm. broad; female, about 36 mm. long, and -33 mm. broad.
The following account is taken from a female. The diameter of the body is uniform, each end being bluntly rounded. Three small papille appear to be present at the anterior end. Lips are absent. The anus is. terminal, The vulva is situated at about 1:40 mm. from the head end, and lies on the summit of a small elevation surrounded by a definite depression. The excretory pore lies in front of the nerve ring, at about -130 mm. from the anterior extremity. The cuticle is not transversely striated, but is smooth and thin.
There is no mouth cavity or pharynx. The cesophagus is -82 mm. in length, being surrounded at :180 mm. from the mouth by the nerve ring. Its front portion is rather wider than the remainder. Succeeding the cesophagus is the widened thin-walled intestine, which terminates at. the anus at the end of the worm-
80 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
The female glands and ducts are very extensive, coils being present close to the anus, while the common uterus —a wide tube—terminates close to the anterior end, as already mentioned. The lower parts of the female canal are crowded with free embryos of the type already described as occurring in the blood. Surrounding the vulva are numerous vaginal glands. The female aperture is very narrow.
The male is quite small when compared with the female. The tail is spirally rolled. The cloaca les at -097 mm. from the blunt posterior end. The nerve ring lies at about -130 mm. behind the mouth. A coil of the testis approaches quite closely to the region of the nerve ring. The ale are very small and papille are poorly represented. There appears to be a pre-anal pair just antero-laterally to the cloaca, as well as two pair of post- anal papille just behind the cloaca. The spicules are rather small, the larger being -162 mm. long, slightly curved, and bearing a pointed extremity. The smaller is -081 mm. long, also slightly curved, but its extremity is widened, as often happens in Filariide.
The specimens were collected by Dr. Bancroft from the water dragon, Physignathus lesueurii, on the Burnett River, near Eidsvold.
Oxyspirura anthochere, n. sp. (Pl. IV; Figs. 34, 36).
As far as 1 am aware, no nematodes have been described as infesting the eyes of native birds in Australia. Krefft (1873, p. 213), recorded the presence of Ascaris sp. from the eye of a gill-bird, Anthochera carunculata. I have already remarked (1910, p. 111), that the worms probably belong to the Filariide. An examination of Krefft’s specimens, through the courtesy of the Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney, shows them to belong to that family, and apparently to Oxyspirura. In my list of entozoa known to infest Australian birds, I have recorded this form as Ceratospira anthochere. (19126, p. 111). The position of the female pore is posterior instead of anterior, hence the species must be transferred to Oxysprrura.
BY -T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., DSC. 81
The specimens had become dried up and are therefore of little value. The description given below is lacking in many details, but should allow the recognition of the species in the future.
The length of the male is about 8-5 mm., and of the female 8 to 9 mm. The breadth of each is about -11 mm, The cuticle is finely striated transversely. The head end has suffered in drying. Neither lips nor papille are recognisable on the rounded anterior extremity, which is slightly -wollen when compared with the succeeding neck region. The posterior end of the female is sharp-pointed, the anus and the genital aperture lving at -194 mm. and -32 mm. distant. respectively, from the extremity. The cloaca in the male lies at -08 mm. from the tail end, which is spirally curved and is shorter than the female tail. No male papillze were discernible.
A small mouth cavity is present. Surrounding the pharynx at a distance of -195 mm. from the anterior end, is the nerve ring.
Larval nematodes tn fleas. CPLA NT pia k 2. LS).
As a result of examining a large series of rat fleas, as mentioned earlier, the. presence of small coiled nematode larve, Agamonema sp., was detected in a goodly number of Xenopsylla cheopis, and—-on only one _ occasion— Ceratophyllus fasciatus, all the parasitised fleas coming from Sydney and district. As far as I am aware, the presence of larval nematodes in fleas, has not been recorded. Usually, there was only one present, but sometimes two, three or four, while on one occasion, no less than six of them were present in the body cavity of a male X. chcopis When compared with the size of the host, these larvaz are quite large as a glance at Fig. 12 will indicate.
In nearly every. instance the parasite was closely, usually spirally, coiled and therefore very difficult to examine. Sometimes a relatively thick cyst enclosed it. Owing to their transparency, their presence is not detected unless the bodies of the fleas be either carefully teased up and examined in saline or other solution with a minimum amount of light, or the hosts be cleared and examined, very little light being allowed to pass through them. They
-
82 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
are delicate, practically colourless worms 43 mm. in length and -042 mm. in width, which is uniform throughout the greater part of the body. The body bears delicate trans- verse rings. The posterior end tapers rapidly to become pointed, while the anterior extremity narrows more slowly. The whole larva bears a striking likeness to Habronema musce. {1 therefore consider it to be the young form of a Spiroptera sensu lato.
The species of Sprroptera which infests rats and mice in Australia is S. obtusa. It is thus quite likely that the larve under review, belong to this species. The probability is suggested by the following facts :—S. obtusa is quite common here. [ts eggs pass to the exterior with the feces of the rat or mouse and come to reach the earth ju the rat holes, or elsewhere where the rat-fiea eggs are developing into larve. The latter are known to be able to ingest rat-cestode eggs with contained embryos, ¢.g., Hymenolepis diminuta and H. murina which also reach the exterior with the feces. It is thus not unlikely that the life history of S. obtusa is different from that of Habro- nema musce, whose eggs become ingested along with organic matter in horse manure by the fly larve (Musca domestica, Stomoxys calcitrans, and probably other flies). Maturity is reached by the ingestion of the intermediate host by the definitive host. As already mentioned, the larva is of the Sproptera form. It occurs fairly frequently, and is known to infest at least two species of rat fleas.
The objection is, that the parasite occurs chiefly in Xenopsylla cheopis, a flea which lives ordinarily in tropical and subtropical regions ; and quite rarely in the common flea C. fasciatus which forms such a large percentage of the aphanipterous population of murids in temperate and subtemperate zones and in the colder periods of the year in sub-tropical areas. This objection does not appear to me to be a very serious one, as the parasite does not seem to have been recognised elsewhere, perhaps because unsuspected, perhaps because of the ditficulty in seeing it unless very little light be allowed to pass through the specimen.
Stephanurus dentatus, Dies.
The * kidney worm ”’ of pigs was recognised many years.
ago in Queensland by Morris, in 1871, and by Bancroft
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc. 83
(1893a, p. 258). My specimens were forwarded from Ipswich. Immature forms have been fouund by me in the liver.
Agchylostoma caninum, Ercol.
Found locally in dogs and cats. Its presence in dogs in Brisbane (presumably), is inferred from a statement by Dr. Bancroft (1901, p. 41), while I have recorded its occurrence in the dog in N.S. Wales and Victoria. As far as I am aware, this hook-worm is now recorded for the first time as parasitising cats in this continent.
Gigantorhynchus moniliformis, Bremser.
Occurs in Mus decumanus and M. alexandrinus in Brisbane, but apparently hitherto unrecorded.
Echinorhynchus menure, n. sp. (Pl. TV; Figsa0s 40):
A single specimen, 19 mm. in length and i:lmm. in breadth was taken from the intestine of a lyre-bird, Menura swperba, near Gosford, N.S. Wales. Owing. to the large number of eggs overlying the female organs, very little of the internal anatomy was recognisable.
The parasite has a maggot-like appearance, being somewhat narrower at the anterior end. The body wall is thin and delicate and consequently readily distorted. The small tubular rostellum (Fig. 39) measures about -16 mm. in diameter, and bears about seven whorls of very numerous, narrow, sharp-pointed hooks, each of which projects about -04 mm. beyond the surrounding collar. The proboscis sheath is relatively long.
The only part of the female genitalia recognisable is the lower portion of the uterus, or perhaps more correctly, the vagina, which terminates at the gonopore, the latter lying at the base of a concavity. The elliptical eggs measure ‘10 by -031 mm., and the embryos -068 by -019 mm.
Echinorhynchus rotundocapitatus, n. sp. (Pits PVs ties 41). This species occurs commonly (Johnston, P.L.S., N.S.W., 1909, p. 590; P.R.S., Q’land, 1911, p. 238), in the
rectum of the black snake, Pseudechis porphyriacus, Shaw, in various parts of New South Wales and Victoria.
4 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA,
The females may reach a length of 32 mm., the males being much smaller (12 mm. long). The body is firm and whitish, the cuticle being smooth or crinkled transversely: The proboscis is nearly spherical, measuring -76 mm. across, and bearing about seven spirally-arranged series of hooks, each series consisting of twelve to sixteen hooks" according to their position on the proboscis. The hooks are powerful structures, consisting of a relatively strong basal portion and of a stout backwardly-projecting hook, surrounded at its base by a small collar. The posterior end of the male is slightly narrowed, and bears the male gonopore. The extremity of the female is slightly swollen and bifid, there being two prominent lobes between which lies the genital aperture.
The following account is taken from a male. The proboscis sheath is an elongate sac 1-6 mm. long. The lemmisci are extremely long, extending through the anterior three-fourths of the parasite. The two rounded testes lie just in front of the middle of the worm. Their long diameter is nearly a millimetre. The vasa deferentia unite to form a large swollen convoluted vesicula seminalis, the lower part of which is a sac-like structure succeeded by the ejaculatory duct. The latter terminates at the small bursa which in turn communicates with the exterior through the male gonopore.
The vagina or uterus is long and thin. Eggs measure -087 mm. in length, the embryos being -043 mm. long.
Echinorhynchus, sp. (PI! TE 5° Figs? 95" 10).
Last year, I found a larval echinorhynch encysted in the peritoneum lining the body wall of a common golden frog, Hyla aurea, near Sydney. The length, excluding the | rostellum which measures ‘72 mm. when everted, reaches 1:53 mm. The rostellum bears about twelve whorls of hooks, each whorl consisting of about sixteen. The hooks (Fig. 10) possess a stout basal portion, and of a long sharp claw partly surrounded by a collar-like outgrowth of the rostellar cuticle. The entire hook, when measured from the point to the upper end of the base, reaches a jength of -150 mm.. of which -115 mm. protrudes. The rostellar sheath is relatively short, the lemmisci being much longer.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 85
No sex organs were recognisable, but the specimen is. probably a female. Although a large number of frogs. were examined, parasite was found only once. It thus appears to be rare. I refrain from giving a specific name to this jarval form.
LIST OF HOSTS AND THEIR PARASITES, REFERRED TO:.IN THIS PAPER.
MAMMALIA :— Mus decumanus Hymenolepis diminuta (Hpimys norvegicus) Cysticercus fasciolaris
Gigantorhynchus moniliformis Spiroptera obtusa Heterakis spumosa Oxyaris obvelata Trichodes crassicanda Trichosoma hepaticum Mus rattus (alexandrinus) Hymenolepis diminuta Cysticercus fasciolaris Gigantorhynchus moniliformis Spiroptera obtusa Heterakis spumosa Oxyuris obvelata — Trichosoma hepaticum Mus musculus Cysticercus fasciolaris Spiroptera obtusa Oxyuris obvelata Trichosoma hepaticum Canis famlaris Dipylidium caninum Agchylostoma caninum Toxocara (Toxascaris) canis Felis domestica Dibothriocephalus felis Tenia crassicollis Dipylidium caninum Agchylostoma caninum Belascaris mystax
Sus scrofa, dom. Stephanurus dentatus Bos taurus, dom. Fasciola hepatica Ovis aries, dom. Fasciola hepatica
Dasyurus viverrinus Echinonema cinctum
86 NOTES Macropus giganteus Macropus dorsalis Macropus parryi
Onychogale frenata
AvEs :—
Gallus domesticus
Gallopavo meleagris
Catheturus lathami
Anas superciliosa
Nettion castaneum Aythya australis Chenonetta jubata Notophoyx novehollandie Pelecanus conspicillatus
Plotus novehollandie Phalacrocorax sulcirostris
Phalacrocorax carbo
Larus canus
Gymnorhina tibicen Menura superba Philemon citreigularis Acanthogenys rujfigularis
Anthochera carunculata
ON SOME ENTOZOA,
Filaria websteri F. websteri F. websteri
Cittoteenia bancrofti, n. sp.
Hymenolepis carioca Davainea tetragona Davainea cesticillus Davainea proglottina Amebotenia cuneata Heterakis perspicillum Heterakis papillosa Metroliasthes lucida Heterakis catheturinus, n. sp. Heterakis bancrofti, n. sp. Echinorhynchus, sp.
Hymenolepis megalops Diorchis flavescens Echinostoma, sp.
Hymenolepis megalops Diploposthe levis Heterakis chenonette, n. sp. Bancroftiella glandularis Ascaris spiculigera
Microfilaria, sp. Ascaris spiculigera Microfilaria, sp. Ascaris spiculigera Ascaris, sp.
clerci,
Choanoteenia nom.
nov.
Filaria clelandi, n. sp. Echinorhynchus menure, n. sp. Filaria, sp.
Filaria, sp.
Oxyspirura anthochere, n. sp.
C.W.,
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 87
REPTILIA :—
Varanus belli
Physignathus lesueurii Pseudechis porphyriacus
Pseudechis australis Notechis scutatus
Denisonia superba
AMPHIBIA :—
Hyla aurea
Hyla cerulea
PISCES :—
Neoceratodus forsteri
INSECTA :—
Mastochilus, sp. Musca domestica
M. vetustissima Stomoxys calcitrans Ceratophyllus fasciatus
Xenopsylla cheopis
Hemogregarina varanicola Acanthotenia tidswelli Physaloptera varani % Filaria physignathi, n. sp. Acanthotenia gallardi Echinorhynchus rotundocapi- tatus, 1. sp.
Acanthotenia gallardi Acanthotenia gallardi
Acanthotenia gallardi
Ophiotenia hyle, n. sp. Sparganum, sp. Echinorhynchus, sp. Sparganum, sp.
Amphistoma, sp. Amblyonema terdentatum
Hystrignathus hystrix
Habronema musce (larva)
H. musce (larva)
HT. musce (larva)
Hymenolepis diminuta (Cysticercoid) -
Hym. murina (Cysticercoid)
Agamonema sp. (? larva of Spiroptera obtusa)
Hymenolepis diminuta (Cysticercoid)
Hym. murina (Cysticercoid)
Agamonema, sp. (? larva of Spiroptera obtusa)
REFERENCE TO LETTERING.
& anus; a.m.p., apical muscle plug; b., bursa: e¢., cirrus ; c.g., cerebral ganglion ; cl., cloaca ; ¢.s., cirrus sac ;
cyst. .wall; cy.,
cysticercoid ; d.v.,
dorsal vessel ;
88 NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
d.v.m., dorso-ventral muscle; e., egg; e.d., ejaculatory duct ; e.p., excretory pore; g.c., genital cloaca; gl.c., gland cells; g.p.. genital pore; int., intestine; l., lip; lem., lemniscus ; 1.1, lateral line ; l.m., longitudinal muscle ; n., nerve ; n.r., nerve ring; oes., cesophagus ; ov., ovary ; p-, p.l., p.2., etc., papillae ; ph., pharynx; p.s., proboscis sheath; r., rostellum; r.s., receptaculum seminis; s. Sucker ; sh., sheath ; sp., spicule ; t., testis; tr. m., trans- verse musculature; u., uterus; v., vagina; v.d., vas deferens ; v.g., vitelline gland; v.s., vesicula seminalis ; v.v.. ventral ‘excretory vessel.
Plate IT.
| Ophiotenia hyle. Fig. 1. Scolex. Segment showing genitalia.
bo
Acanthotenia gallardi. Fig. 3. Segment showing genitalia. 4. Trans. sect. of segment passing through genital ducts. Sparganum, sp. from Hyla. Fig. 5. Anterior end. 6. Posterior end. Filaria clelandi. Fig. 7. Anterior end of a male 8. Posterior end of a male. Echinorhynchus, sp. from Hyla. Fig. 9. Entire parasite. 10. Hook from rostellum.
Plate ITI.
Hymenolepis murina. Fig. ll. Cysticerecoids in Ceatophyllus fasciatus Agamonema, sp. Fig. 12. Four encysted worms in Xenopsylla cheopis. 13. <A parasite enclosed in a cyst.
Filaria, sp. from Philemon. Fig. 14, Head end. 15, "Pail. end. Microfilaria, sp. Fig. 16. From Plotus noveholiandie. 17. From Phalacrocorax suleirostris
Fig.
42.
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.S€.
Filaria physignatni. Head end of male. Head end of female. Portion showing valva. Tail end of female. Tail end of male.
Heterakis catheturinus. Anterior end of female. Lips.
Tail end of male.
Plate IV.
Heterakis catheturinus. Tail end of female. Tail end of male. Heterakis btancroftt. Head end of male. Lips. Tail end of male. Heterakis chenonette. Anterior end of female. Lip. Posterior end of male. Oxyspirura anthochere. Head end of male. Tail end of male. Tail end of female.
Filaria, sp. from Acanthogenys
Anterior end of female. Posterior end of female. .~
Echinorhynchus menure.
Anterior end of female. Posterior end of female.
Echinorhynchus rotundocapitatus. Entire male worm. Plate V.
Cittotenia bancrojti.
Portion of segment showing one set
genitalia.
89
of
90
1889 1893a 18936 1901 1902 1898 1910
1910
1890 1905
1911 1909 1910 19lla
19116
NOTES ON SOME ENTOZOA.
43. Transv. sect. of segment. 44. Longit. horiz. sect. of segment. 45. Scolex.
LITERATURE LIST.
Bancroft—P.R.S., Queensland, 6, 1889, p. 58-62.
Bancroft-—Austr. Med. Gazette, 12, 1893, p. 258.
Bancroft—P.R.S., N.S. Wales, 27, 1893, p. 89.
Bancroft—P.R.S., N.S. Wales, 35, 1901, p. 41-46.
Clere—Zool. Anz., 1902.
Cobb—Agr. Gazette, N.S. Wales, 9, 1898, p. 296-321.
Cleland and Johnston—-P.R.S. South Austr., 34, 1910, p. 100-114.
Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd—P.R.S. Vict., 23, 1910, p. 231-241.
Haswell—P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 5, 1890, p. 661.
Hill—Intercol. Mid. Congr. (Adelaide), 1905, p. 369.
Johnston & Cleland, see also Cleland & Johnston.
Johnston & Cleland-——P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 36, 1911, p. 479-491.
Johnston—P.R.S.. N.S. Wales, 48, 1909, p. 103-116.
Johnston—P.R.S., 1, N.S. Wales, 44, 1910, p. 84-122.
Johnston—Annals Q’land Museum, 10, 1911, p. 175-182.
Johnston-—P.R.S., Q’land, 23, 1911, p. 233-249.
19llc Johnston—P.L.S., N.S. Wales, 36, 1911, p. 47-57.
1912a 19125 1912c 1873 1851
1898 1909
1911 1909 1910
Johnston—Rec. Austr. Museum, 9, 1912, p. 1-35.
Johnston—The Emu, Oct. 1912, p. 105-112.
Johnston—The present paper.
Krefft—Trans. Entom. Soc., N.S. Wales, 2, 1873.
Leidy—Smithsonian Contrib. Knowl. 5 (2), 1853, 67 pp.
Linstow—In Semon’s Forschungsreisen, 5, 1898.
La Rue—Studies Zool. Lab. Univ. Nebraska, No. 95, 1909.
La Rue—Zool. Anz., 38, 1911, p. 473-482.
Minchin—P.Z.S. Lond., 1909, p. 741.
Nicoll & Minchin—P.Z.S., Lond., 1910 (1911), p. 9-13.
1912 1904
1911 1910 1910
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.SC. 91
Plimmer—J. R. Micr. Soc., Lond., 1912, p. 133-150.
Ransom—Bull 60, B.A. Ind., Dept. Agr., U.S.A., p. 7-54.
Ransom—Science, 34, Nov. 1911, p. 690-2.
Sweet, Gilruth & Dodd, see Gilruth, Sweet & Dodd.
Sweet—P.R.8., Vict., 23, 1910, p. 242-256.
Prate: IT.
Proc Roy. Soc. Q’Lanp, Vou. XXIV.
eee \ ; : eat A / ° A a eee soos ° 8, i cg oR i) inn 02%c Re { of dg Baty ° £90 5 ; ie Xe ty , aa Oxo N' 1 Oo sO Wf agony 0 = ato Yq
POG, 9 420K 82 ? 5 °Q90,.2Q0 7° OOD: °F s, howe ey SARsee gs var qin’
°0 O05 Slee 9 Aspen) 330 09 ee 9 0 oq . Sy . Vw SVE TY yi acavels
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Proc Roy. Soc. Q’ranp, VoL. EV. Prats III.
ead
pees ee as a a & ‘
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Proc. Roy. Suc. Q'Lann. Vou. XXIV. Prater LY.
NOTES ON PORTION OF THE BURDEKIN VALLEY,
WITH SOME QUERIES AS TO THE UNIVERSAL APPLICABILITY OF CERTAIN PHYSIOGRAPHICAL THEORIES.
—
By E. 0. MARKS, B.A., B.E.
(Plates VI, VII, VIII, IX.)
Read before the Royal Soctety of Queensland, October 2nd, 1912.
———
THE advances made during recent years in the scientific interpretation of land forms, and through them of the comparatively recent geological history of land surfaces, have not been neglected by Australian scientists. Their work has already proved of great scientific value, but it is sadly hampered by the paucity of information concerning much of the continent, including the majority of Queens- land.
Since the consideration of such knowledge as is avail. able concerning the drainage systems of the rivers has drawn particular attention to the courses of the Burdekin and Fitzroy, the writer has taken the opportunity, resulting from a recent visit to the most interesting part of the Burdekin’s course, to note some of its characteristics. As the observations made have led him to doubt the correct- mess of the interpretations put by some on the vagaries of the river as well as the universal applicability of certain physiographical theories, the opportunity is also taken to give the reasons for these doubts.
While calling attention, in doing so, to the need for the utmost caution in applying physiographical reasoning to regions the geological structure of which is but imperfectly understood, it is very far from the writer’s intention to belittle, in any way, the value of physiographical studies and reasonings in regions whose outward features and internal structure are reasonably well known. |
94 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.
Among the rivers flowing to the east coast of Aus- tralia, the Burdekin with 53,500 square miles is second only in catchment area to the Fitzroy, which drains 55,600 square miles. These two rivers possess a certain amount of similarity in their systems, the complexity of which, as well as their magnitude compared with the other Pacific streams, has drawn the attention of students of Australian physiography.
Of the large area occupied by the Burdekin basin, the writer is only ‘acquainted with that portion which lies within the Charters Towers and Ravenswood goldfields. This, however, includes the Burdekin falls and gorge, where the river passes through the Leichhardt Range, as well as portion of the so-called peneplain upstream from the falls, these two features being the ones to which most attention has been given.*
The Charters Towers and Ravenswood goldfields consist mainly of granite, and possess an undulating surface whose monotony is broken by occasional ‘‘ monadnocks ” of more resistant rocks or by flat-topped “‘ mesas”’ of a sandstone which, in places, presents lateritic affinities. The undulating country descends gradually to the water courses which thus occupy wide and shallow valleys, con- veying the impression of great maturity in the cycle of erosion.
In streams of great maturity, however, one naturally expects to find great widths of alluvial flats, but the Burdekin has, considering its magnitude, deposited very little alluvium.
Another feature not altogether consistent with an advanced stage in the cycle of erosion, is formed by the rocky bars over which the river passes in not infrequent falls of up to 4 or 5 feet.
*W. Poole, Notes on the Physiography of North Queensland, A.A.A.5., 1909.
C. Hedley. A Study of Marginal Drainage. Pres. Address, Linnean: Soc., N.S.W., 1911.
G. Taylor, Physiography of Eastern Australia. Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology.
J. V. Danes, Physiography of North-Eastern Australia. Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences, 1911.
BY E. O. MARKS, B.A.,: B.E. 95:
Between these bars the river is a wide, sandy bed over’ which the water flows in a quiet and shallow stream from hole to hole. The fall of the river in the 95 miles, between Macrossan Bridge and the top of the falls, amounts to some 400* feet, an average of 4 feet per mile, which is ereater than would be expected of a stream of great antiquity. On the other hand the wide sandy bed and quiet stream, like the wide valley, give an impression of old age almost as strong as does a view from one of the few hills in the peneplain which the stream traverses.
The Leichhardt Range through which the Burdekin has cut its gorge consists, from the gorge northwards to near Ravenswood, mainly of various, more or less altered felsitic lavas, tuffs and conglomerates. The country on the east side of the range has a general level some hundreds. of feet below that of the country on the western side, as would be expected when consideration is taken of the fact that the water of the streams on the western side has so much greater a distance to travel before reaching the sea than has water on the eastern fall. The eastern streams have, in some instances, eaten far back into the range as for example, near Ravenswood, where the head of the Kight- mile Creek has eaten back to the peneplain on the western side of the range. The divide here is not marked by any prominent ridge as viewed from the western side, but further to the east the mountains attain a much greater elevation than the divide. South of this the range does form the divide, and is considerably higher than the country either to east or west.
As one travels southwards down the Burdekin from near Ravenswood, the Canton Range on the left, approach- ing within a mile of the river, is an offshoot of the main Leichhardt Range and is composed of felsites. Below Ravenswood station similar rocks constitute the Twins, and form a narrow belt which crosses the river and runs parallel to it on its western side for a few miles forming a
*The levels of the country about the falls were taken with a single aneroid, and must be considered as approximate only. The weather conditions being normal and readings in the same place agreeing closely on different days, while the readings at Ravenswood, before and after an interval of three weeks. were also in accord, the writer is satisfied that the levels noted may be relied on as being reasonably close to the correct altitude.
"
96 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY. >
line of prominent hills. Where the river is crossed the hills on each side of it, would form a gorge were not the width of the river greater than the length of the gorge. Had felsitie rocks occurred here on a more extensive scale, it seems reasonable to presume that a gorge would have existed. It follows, therefore, that the change again to granite country is the cause of the river valley widening out once more to seeming maturity as we proceed downstream. In the reverse order, it is not till a change of country once more occurs, and the hard felsite hills close in to the river that it enters the gorge and passes over the falls that have drawn the attention of physiographers.
On the river’s first entering the gorge, the wide, sandy bed gives place to one of bare boulder-strewn rock over which, at ordinary times, the water flows in two streams for perhaps half-a-mile, and then with a drop of 50 or 60 feet forms the two falls illustrated. Below these, within a mile and a-half, the river falls in three or four places another 50 feet, passing through a rocky gorge whose width is the width of the river bed. The sides of the gorge can only be climbed here and there as the lower 100 feet or so are exceedingly steep where not perpendicular. Above thig the hills are rounded and rise to the height of some 500 feet above the river on either side.
Further down the river the valley widens out a little here and there, but for 20 miles the river winds its way through mountain ranges from 1500 to 2000 feet in height. The river bed is excessively rough ; and to travel down it can only be done on foot (sometimes, probably, with the assistance of the hands) and necessitates swimming the crocodile-haunted stream at frequent intervals, while to journey along the side of the river entails the ascending and descending of spur after spur and mountain after mountain. In the 20 miles of its course through the mountains, there are said to be very few places where cattle can get down to the river, so rough and steep are its banks.
Though so rough as to its bed and steep as to its sides, no further falls are said to occur of more than a foot or two in drop before the river emerges from the ranges and once more assumes the even tenor of its journey to the sea. The
BY. E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 97
-~writer did not follow the river further than about 6 miles below the falls, but noticed in one place that the river is ‘divided by an island some 150 feet in height.
It is to be pointed out that the falls total between 100 and 150 feet, while the mountains and hills on either ~side of the river are of much greater elevation than that part of the peneplain immediately to the west. Thus, -at the Suttor confluence the elevation is approximately ‘350 feet above sea level, while the hills on either side of the ‘gorge rise to elevations of 800 feet near the start and over '1500 feet lower down the river.
Two creeks joining the river in this part of its course pass through gorges before doing so. One of them, Stones ‘Creek, has the upper part of its course mainly in undulating granite country. Of the remainder of its course, part is in fairly open country composed of purplish felsitic tuffs and ‘lavas, while the part: nearer the Burdekin, where the rocks are similar to those of the Burdekin gorge, lies also in an :almost impassable gorge. |
The belt of country formed by the felsitic rocks prac- ‘tically constitutes the Leichhardt Range between the Burde- ‘kin Falls and Ravenswood. The country is exceedingly ‘hilly, but the hills are rounded and with the exception of Mt. Bluey, as it is known locally, or Mt. Glenroy, as it is named on the maps, do not form prominent peaks above ‘the general level of the range. The creeks occupy steep- -sided V-shaped valleys often difficult to travel along.
At the heads of Glenroy and Stones Creeks areas of ‘granite are marked by the change to the more undulating ‘topography, that at the head of Glenroy forming a table- jand on the divide, a tableland from which the creek ‘descends in a waterfall of 300 feet over exceedingly hard granite.
Perhaps the most interesting example of contrast ‘in topography between the two types of country. occurs at Plumtree Pocket, about 4 miles south-east of Ravenswood. This pocket is almost entirely surrounded by rounded hills or felsitic rocks traversed by narrow V-shaped valleys. The pocket itself, some 500 feet below the summit of the ‘hills, is approximately 3 miles long by 1 mile wide and is -of the usual undulating granite country, almost if not
6
9S THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.:
quite as ‘old.’ in appearance as is the peneplain west of the hills. -The creek draining it is also of the usual type tilk it Tapes its exit, when it passes between the felsitic hills in a V-shaped valley which is so steep and rough that one cannot ride a horse down it, the track leading from the pocket passing in preference over the hills. The granite which occurs in the ranges is not uniform in character, and in places weathers into rough, boulder- strewn hills, but- never with the narrow V-shaped valleys. peculiar to the felsites.
The features presented in miniature by Plumtree Pocket are precisely similar to those exhibited by the Burdekin under similar conditions, but on a much larger scale, as well as by Stones and Glenroy Creeks. It is obvious that Plumtree Pocket owes its differentiations from the surround- ing hills only to the different weathering powers of the component rocks, and not in any way to a difference in age: of denudation. ‘a
It appears to the writer necessary to apply this to the Burdekin and conclude that the contrast between the narrow gorge—the type of youth in denudation—and the pene- plain—the corresponding type of old age in denudation— is merely due to a difference in the weathering powers of the component rocks.
The river, of course, has a history, and this may possibly yet be puzzled out, but in working out the puzzle: undue importance must not, in the writer’s opinion, be placed on the existence of the two types of land forms.
Any discussion of the peculiarities in the directions of the tributary streams, the changes in direction of the Burdekin itself, or as to whether the Belyando-Suttor or the Burdekin above their confluence should be considered the main stream, has been purposely avoided in this paper, as the writer is only acquainted with such a small part of the systems, and information is so scant concerning the rest as to render any suggestions that might be made- of little value.
As already hinted, the writer suspects that the so-called peneplain is in reality deceptive. That the slope of the river is greater than would be expected in advanced old age, the following table will show, and is an interesting comparison with other Queensland streams.-
BY E. 0. MARKS, B.A:, B.E. ) OD»
DECLIVITIES..OF SOME QUEENSLAND ‘RIVERS.
Level Dit- Feet River. Locality. above | S| Ta eriroeate per nye fea. | ‘| mile.
| eet. | Feet. | Miles. Burdekin -.. .. | Macrossan... ‘fe 695* | Falls (above) me 320*| 375 95.) 4-0
Falls (below) Be Pa TP ane ee SHS ee atc cage Ce IO cated Gre By Belyando (branch at) | Alpha a | 1115*# | | and Suttor .. | Confluence with Bur: — Ls / dekin = :. ph wes 765.| 260) 2-9) Cape Biwer 65 ‘oda! Cape River Railway. _ eI |
Bridge .. Erte ol oo Burdekin confluenuce: 350°) 878 140 | 6:3.
and Suttor
~ Dawson ane Fitzroy Boolburra ..° 0: 156. | ~ | Sea .. % os 0} 156.) -180 | 0-9 Nogoa, Mackenzie and) Emerald > ». wo} B28-/: Fitzroy: .. acer fA DOB 5 e% vs | 0 | 523.| 380 |.1-4: Brisbane (Marongi'| Harlin ~~ .. Be dnee) Stas Creek) [Seti . tanh ep ete Ohh ala+! 160 (be ~ Condamine .. .. | Killarney~ .. oof L659
Chinchilla -. F 964 | -595 |° 176 | 3-4. (Charley Creek). _ |
Condamine, Darling; | Killarney .. >. | 1559 | &e. A siniy | ORS fs < “is ae 0 |-1559 | 2300 | 0-68
Warrego: x; .. Charleville... ., S716. 4 {Cunnamulla - .. 590'|. 286 , 150 | 1-8 Thomson | Torrens Creek .. | 1466
|" Longreach-.:-: .. | 580 | 886-| 240 | 3-7
}
la len SB Ate a eae a
Note.—With the exception of those marked with am asterisk, which
are aneroid measurements, the levels were supplied by the courtesy of Mr..
N. G. Bell, Chief Engineer for Railways. The distances were measured on the maps.
The following figures, taken from Geikie’s Text Book. of Geology, are interesting: for' comparison: .
| River.. Fall per mile in feet.
Missouri Thames Shannon Volga e ste FoR Ppa Colorado: in its: Cations
/ ! |
ee = eel) ~1 bo +1 00 bo St bo ot
|
‘100 THE BURDEKIN VALLEY.
The conclusion arrived at in regard to the Burdekin
“basin, that what would ordinarily be considered a youthful -and an ancient type of topography are really in all prob-
:
ability of the same denudational age, naturally leads one to review the reasoning on which physiographers have based their classification. For a summary of modern views on the processes: of stream- eresion,. one can hardly do better than refer to Mr. E.°C. Andrews’ ** Erosion and its
Significance,” read before the Royal Soc. of N.S.W. in 1911.
~The principles have mainly been evolved by American
writers and are fascinatingly told in such works as Chamber- lin and Salisbury’s Geology ‘or W. N. Davis’ Physiography.
A perusal of these writings shews that it is assumed that in a new or rejuvenated land surface. the action of denudation is in effect almost purely mechanical. It is not until the streams are “ graded,” and thus less active, that the relative importance-of weathering action is thought to be sufficiently great to be worth considering.
This assumed predominance of mechanical action is certainly applicable in rocks which are physically soft, but chemically resistant to the atmospheric agencies, or to exceptional conditions in which stream action is very
_ great compared with the decomposition resulting from local
rainfall. Thus a large stream passing through an arid region, or a stream possessing such a fall that its corrosive power is very great compared with’ the work done on its valley sides by the rainfall would certainly approximate in its conditions to the hypothetical cases.
An examination of the usual American illustrations show, in the majority of cases at:any rate, that the conditions are such as are mentioned above. For instance, the Grand Canon of the Colorado is formed by a powerful stream in a region of light rainfall, and is excavated in sedimentary rocks which probably are in their nature, mechanically soft but chemically resistant.
In some text books, inorder to illustrate the principles of erosion, an island of regularly dome-shaped surface is supposed to have risen suddenly above-the sea and to be subjected to the action of the rainfall. In considermg its subsequent history only mechanical erosion is considered.
BY E. O. MARKS, B.A., B.E. 101°
If now we were to suppose that island to be composed of a rock, uniform in texture and so exceedingly hard, . physically, but so readily decomposable that the chemical action alone would be worthy of consideration, what different land forms would result as compared with the usual hypo- thetical developments !
Of course no rock known possesses these qualities in such extreme proportions, but different rocks do differ - very greatly in their relative powers of resistance to- weathering and to friction. The ratio exhibited between the resistance offered to these two destructive forces may be termed the weathering factor of the rock, a factor which would necessarily depend on the chemical or mineralogical composition and on the texture of the rock and would vary with conditions of climate.
Some rocks, such as basalt or some coarse-grained granite, being exceedingly hard and resistant to mechanical action, are yet readily subject to disintegration by chemical means. It seems to the writer improbable that the forces of denudation would be capable under ordinary conditions . of inducing anything but rounded forms of a ‘‘ mature ”’ aspect in large areas of such rocks.
We have, for instance, in North Queensland extensive - basalt tablelands which have been dissected by narrow gorges. These gorges have been cut in the arenaceous. strata below the basalt and are very narrow with precipitous - sides, while the watercourses on the surface of the basalt are mere shallow depressions almost to the edge of the- gorge. Residuals of basaltic lava flows of greater age: occur both in North and South Queensland, and possess, even where they have evidently been subjected to denudation : for long periods, gentle contours on their summits from: which the streams descend in waterfalls, being incapable - of cutting back gorges or narrow valleys in such rocks.
In the same way the undulating character of part of the Burdekin Valley may be attributed to the weathering» factor of its component. granite, and not necessarily to a maturity which it may, but quite likely does not, possess. Of course such a granite, if on the edge-of a plateau where - streams are sufficiently swift and powerful to make light- of the natural hardness of the rock, would be- excavated!
102 THE. BURDEKIN VALLEY. .
‘into gorges, but the angle of.declivity necessary for the streams to form these gorges would cause them to. be short-
While all denuding processes lead: eventually to the formation-of a plain or, in other words, the reduction of ‘the surface to base»levels, and while an approximation
to this result is an indication of great age in the cycle of |
-erosion, the writer has come to the conclusion that the nature of some rocks.leads to their producing surfaces of low relief having a deceptive appearance of old age.
If this view be correct, the greatest caution is necessary ‘in making physiographical deductions from the mere exist- ance of what appears to be a peneplain, since, without a -close acquaintance with its geological structure, one could mot be certain that .it.is due to advanced old age in the «cycle of erosion.
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A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BALLAST.
By Ff. P. DODD.
(IKURANDA.)
‘Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 27th, 1912. |
For some years past,: when collecting Coleoptera on the ranges in this and the Herberton districts, my sons vand I have frequently taken the females of the large and variable buprest, Stzgmodera regia, on the ground, always on hot days and when there was some dry dust or. fine sand, and, for some time, we were puzzled as to the meaning _of its presence there, seeing that the. beetle feeds upon the honey of various Eucalyptus trees., As the yellow beetles, and the yellow bands on the varieties gradually .-echanged to dull brown which is often the case with yellow colored beetles I usually eviscerated all of that color, in the hope of preventing such undesirable change. In operating upon Regia I often noticed and removed two or three little sacs of fine sand at the extreme tip of the abdo- men, but only in the females, invariably in those examples which were rather old and contained but few eggs. This peculiar habit warranted a little investigation, and, as we ‘found other specimens on the ground, we endeavoured to ascertain how the sand was taken in. Though we seldom succeeded in approaching closely to the insects when on the ground, our presence of course alarming them, we were able to ascertain that they curve the abdomen close to the ground, and that the first pair of legs appear to be actively engaged.in kicking up the dust, the body .at the same time working backward and forward on the ‘other legs. Whether the sand is sucked up by the abdomen-
104 A BEETLE THAT TAKES IN BAILAST.
tip direct from the ground, or is received by it from the- kicking front legs, | cannot say (their office may be merely to loosen the sand), but I may have further opportunities. of observing during the coming season.
I know of several species of hovering flies (order Diptera), . which fly closely over the ground, and often drag their: abdomen-tips in the dust, and comparatively recently captured a female of a large species whilst so engaged, which I opened and found to contain a quantity of fine> earth or sand.
The explanation of the beetle’s habit is, I think, quite clear, and, no doubt, the same applies to the flies too. The’ beetle is much in hilly country, where the winds are strong, and often blow in violent whirling gusts, which are apt- to, in fact do, frequently drive and whirl it and flies and other insects out and far from the trees in which they may be feeding. Our beetle, possessing a rather ample or balloon body, and having deposited most of her eggs, and consequently being so much lighter than before, now experiences great difficulty in recovering and flying back to trees in such winds. Moreover the wings of the Buprestide are generally short and narrow compared with beetles in other families, and the assistance of the elytra is invariably required when in the air, they being raised and held out to help support the insect, as during flight the body inclines downward. To overcome the drawbacks. mentioned the sand is taken in, which, lying at the extremity of the body, doubtless effectually ballasts the insect in its- beats and strugzles against adverse winds.
The Cetonnide, another flower hunting family, possess - much larger flying wings, and do not require the support of the elytra, the wings being slipped out underneath, enabling the insects to bore their way horizontally and swiftly through the air.
Several of the Buprestide are extraordinarily variable: in size and coloring. Regia is fairly even in size, except. that the females are larger than the males, but the elytra may be all yellow to deep red, or with two or three dark bands. with yellow to orange or dark red areas between. Four variable female specimens are forwarded for inspection..
A NOTE ON AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.
By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., DSc., and LAUNCELOT HARRISON.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, November 27th, 1912.
No Pediculids have been described, as far as we know, as occurring on our native fauna, although it is likely that a few species will be found to infest the true Australian Muride. One is recorded below. Besides this, one may expect to find some on the various species of seals which,, at times, frequent parts of the Australian coast. Mar- supials apparently do not harbour true lice, their ecto- parasitic insects being Hippoboscids and Mallophaga; the latter, strange to say, belonging to that division of Mallophaga which is mainly parasitic on birds. The bats and flying foxes are parasitised by Nycteribids, as in other perts of the world.
In this note, an attempt is made to give a census of the Pediculids known to occur in Australia. The presence of some species is recorded for the first time.
MAN. Pediculus capitis, L. P. vestimenti, Nitzsch. Phthirius pubis, L.
The presence of the first and third has _ been referred to on a few occasions in Australian medical journals. Mr. Froggatt (1907) and Mr. Lee (1908) also mention the three, but do not locahse them. They are all cosmopolitan species and occur in every State of the Commonwealth. There is no need to make: further reference to them.
106
AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.
Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus).
Pedicinus euryqaster. ¥
We have specimens from Sydney and Melbourne Zoological Gardens.
Dog.
Linognathus piliferus.
N.S.W., Victoria, Queensland—not previously recorded though fairly common. The Mallophagan parasite T'richodectes canis (Tr. latus) also occurs on dogs in Sydney, but is not so frequently met with’ as the pediculid.
Pic. Hematopinus suis, L. (syn. H. uriits).
Tasmania. Victoria, N.S.W., Queensland, West. Australia. . Lea (1908, p. 105) recorded the presence of this common parasite in Tasmania.
CATTLE.
Linognathus vituli, lL. Hematopinus eurysternus, Nitzsch.
The former, the calf louse, was _ incidentally
‘recorded by one of us (Johnston, 1911, p. 217, foot-
note—N.S.W.), and by Gilruth and Sweet (1911, p. 29 ; 1912, p. 28). We have specimens from N.S8.W., Victoria and Queensland.
The latter species has been recorded by Gilruth and Sweet (1912, p. 28), presumably from Victoria. We have specimens from N.S.W., Victoria and Queens- land.
Lea (1908, p. 104) records the presence of both in Tasmania. ;
CAMEL (Dromedary).
Hematopinus tuberculatus, Burm.
We have identified as belonging to. this species some specimens found by Dr. J. By Cleland: on a camel imported into North West Australia from India. Neumann (1909, p. 497) gives a description and refers (p. 498) to the finding of this species, which normally
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON. 107
parasitises the buffalo, on a camel in Australia (Nuttall’s collection). As Dr. Cleland forwarded specimens to Prof. Nuttall also, it may be. assumed with safety that it was these stragglers from West Australia that Neumann had before him. It is a pity that the name of the collector was not indicated, in the case of this interesting find.
HORSE. Heematopinus asini, L. N.S.W.—Collected by Mr. A. 8S. Le Souef. Lea (1908, p. 104) mentions the species, but does not state whether it occurs in Tasmania.
SHEEP. Linognathus ovillus, Neumann.
N.S.W.; South Australia. Not — previously recorded from Australia. This parasite has been recognised by one of us as occurring, though rarely, on sheep in certain localities of New South Wales. Mr. Desmond, Government Veterinarian, Adelaide, has recently forwarded the same species for determina- tion, from two widely separated localities in South Australia. In 1906 Dr. Gilruth (1906, p. 309) met with it in New Zealand and figured it as Hematopinus, sp. Neumann later described it as H. ovillus, Gilruth giving a resume of the description in 1908.
_ RABBIT.
Hemodipsus ventricosus, Denny.
N:S.W. This species is now recorded for the first time as occurring in the Commonwealth. Our specimens were collected in Sydney from rabbits sent from the southern district of N.S. Wales.
MOovsE. Though pediculids have been carefully searched for, none have yet been found by us on this host.
Rats. (Mus rattus (alexandrinus) and Mus decumanus.) Polyplax spinulosus, Burm. Recorded from both hosts, from Sydney; by one of us (Johnston, 1910, p. 20), who has specimens from Melbourne and Brisbane 180. oe oe ie species of rats. | ? ae
rays “OG 4 |
108 AUSTRALIAN PEDICULIDS.
Neumann (1909, p. 515-7) has described a new species Hamatopinus (Polyplax) bidentatus as infesting a Mus rattus from Lake Torrens, South Australia (Rothschild collection). In conneetion with this form Dr. Cleland has made certain inquiries, the result of which has been to make known the following facts, Dr. Borthwick, Commissioner of Public Health, Adelaide, forwarded to the Hon. Rothschild, through Professor Stirling, Director of the Adelaide Museum, a collection of ectoparasites from rats. Amongst them were fleas from the common rats, and pediculids from a water rat, Hydromys chrysogaster, captured at Torrens Lake, a sheet of fresh water in the vicinity of Adelaide. Lake Torrens is a depression, sometimes containing saline water, in the central portion of South Australia. It is. safe to assume that this is the collection which Pro- fessor Neumann handled. The host of this new species of pediculid is thus an Australian rat and, not, as far as we are aware, the introduced house rat Mus rattus. Owing to the collector’s name not having been recorded along with the description, some difficulty might have been experienced in tracing the specimens but for Dr. Cleland’s kindness. One of us has received from the Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, a_ pediculid, one millimetre long, taken from H. chrysogaster, caught om the shore of Sydney Harbour. The head is injured, but the general form of the parasite agrees with that described by Neumann. The sete on the pleura are longer in our specimen, as they extend beyond the stigmata.
Water Rat. (Hydromys chrysogaster.) Polyplax bidentatus, Neumann. S. Australia, Sydney.
(See under Mus rattus and decumanus.)
No doubt many of the forms here recorded as occurring in certain States of Australia are also present in others.
Mr. A. S. Le Souef and Dr. Cleland of Sydney, and Mr. Desmond, of Adelaide, have been kind enough to forward material to us.
1907 1906 1908 1911 1912 1910
A911 1908
1909
BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND LAUNCELOT HARRISON, 109
Froggatt—Australian Insects, Sydney.
Gilruth—Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., New Zealand, 1906.
Gilruth—Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., New Zealand, 1908.
Gilruth and Sweet—Onchocerca gibsoni, ete—(Com- monwealth Gevt.), Sydney, 1911.
Gilruth and Sweet—Proc. Roy. Soc., Victoria, 25, 1912.
Johnston—Ann. Rep. Bureau Microbiology, Sydney, 1909 (1910).
Johnston—Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, 1911, p. 207.
Lea—Insect and Fungous Pests, etc., Hobart. Edit. 3. 1908.
Neumann—Arch, d. Parasitol, 13, 1909, p. 497.
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STUDIES IN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, | PYRALID A,
By A. JEFFERIS TURNER. M.D. F.E:S.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, 27th November, 3 1912. '
MANY species of this family, especially in the sub- families Pyranstine and Phycitine, have a wide distribution from Queensland through the Malayan Archipelago to China and India, and even to Africa. There is consequently in describing Australian species as new a risk of creating synonyms. J! hope I have not often erred in this direction. I have many species which I have thought it more prudent to leave undescribed. In some instances I have been able to send duplicate specimens to the British Museum, and so obtain the assistance of Sir Geo. Hampson’s valuable opinion. .
Subfam. PHYCITINA.
HYPSOTROPHA NIPHOPLEURA, W. sp. vipotAevpos, With snowy costa.
g§ ¢. 10-14 mm. Head. fuscous.. Palpi fuscous ; in g moderate. (3), in @ long (6). Antenne fuscous ; in g with a broad notch containing rough scales on upper surface near base. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey, dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs fuscous. Fore- wings narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded ; fuscous, in ? sometimes reddish-tinged ; a broad, white costal streak narrowing at base and apex, sometimes containing a fine central fuscous streak ; costal edge fuscous near base, sometimes as far as 2; cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, from November to February ; a series received from Mr. Fe P. Dodd.
412 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDPTERA (PYRALID2).
HYPSOTROPHA NIPHOSEMA, 2”. Sp.
viboonpos, Snow-marked.
ft @. 18-20 mm. Head dark-fuscous. Palpi very long in both sexes (g 5, 9 7); dark-fuscous. Antenne fuscous: in ¢g thickened and dentate, with a broad notch filled with rough scales on dorsal surface near base. Thorax dark-fuscous. Abdomen grey; dorsum except near apex ochreous. Legs fuscous. Forewings narrow, ‘costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded ; dark-fuscous, in ? sometimes reddish-tinged ; a whitish or ochreous-whitish costal streak, narrower towards base, and ending in a point at apex ; -costal edge more or less fuscous ; cilia dark-fuscous. Hind- wings grey-whitish, darker towards apex ; cilia whitish.
Like the preceding but considerably larger, the 2 palpi longer, and the 7 antenne dentate. Vein 10 of ‘forewings may be either stalked or separate, so that I ‘doubt whether the genus Hypsotropha as defined by Hampson ‘can be maintained.
Type in Coll., Turner. N.A. Port Darwin. in November and December ; five ‘specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
HyYPSOTROPHA DYSEIMATA, 2. Sp.
dvuceatos, meanly clad.
6 92. 15 mm. Head fuscous-whitish or ochreous- whitish. Palpi very long (¢ 4, 2 6); ochreous-whitish mixed with fuscous. Antenne ochreous-whitish, in ¢@ with a broad notch containing rough scales on upper surface near base, ciliations minute. Thorax ochreous-whitish. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior and middle pairs fuscous in ¢. Forewings narrow, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous- whitish, sometimes reddish-tinged with some dark-fuscous scales ; a dark-fuscous subdorsal dot before middle, another before tornus, and traces of a dark-fuscous line between this and apex; a terminal series of dark-fuscous dots ; ‘cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings grey; in Q whitish ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
BY A. JEFFERIS' TURNER, M.D., F.E.S; 113:
N.A. Port Darwin in October and December and! January ; a series received from. Mr. F. P.. Dodd.
HYPSOTROPHA LAROPIS, n. sp: Aapwris, Of dainty appearance.
Q. 17 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi rather: long (4); whitish with a few pinkish scales. Antenne: ochreous-whitish. Thorax pinkish. Abdomen ochreous- whitish ; dorsum of basal segments’ ochreous. Legs: ochreous-whitish. Forewings very narrow, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; rose- pink, becoming whitish towards dorsum ; veins slenderly” whitish ; a broad white costal streak from base, narrowing to a point at apex, containing a costal and’ subcostal fine- pink lines ; cilia pink. Hindwings and cilia whitish.
Type m Coll., Turner.
N.A., Port Darwin, m November; one specimen: received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
HYPSOTROPHA NEURICA,. n.. Sp..
veupixos, With marked. nerves..
S 24 mm. Head pinkish. Palpi. long (5) ; fuscous.- Antenne ochreous-whitish ; in g thickened. and dentate, with a broad groove containing rough scales on dorsal surface near base. Thorax, abdomen. and. legs pinkish-. grey. Forewings elongate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;: dull-pink, towards. termen, mixed with fuscous; area of. cell. and all veins ochreous-whitish ; cilia pinkish-white.. Hindwings grey ; towards base whitish ; cilia whitish..
Type in Coll., Turner..
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns,. in June ;. one specimen.
ANERASTRIA SYSSEMA, 2.. Sp..
svoonpos, Similarly marked.
Q 12-15 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi in Q long (6); fuscous.. Antenne: whitish-ochreous. Thorax grey. Abdomen grey ; dorsum: of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings. narrow, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish.; a broad: white costal: streak, narrowing towards base and apex, containing a few fuscous. scales towards apex ;. costal. edge’ narrowly
E
114 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDPTERA (PYRALID#).
‘fuscous ; last costal, median, and submedian veins outlined by fuscous irroration; a fuscous terminal line; cilia -whitish irrorated with fuscous. Hindwings and _ cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in November and January; six -specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ANERASTRIA METALLACTIS. Anerastria metallactis, Meyr., Tr. E.S. 1887, p. 262.
Q 15-20 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne brown- whitish ; palpi long (5). Thorax brown-whitish. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair brown-whitish. Forewings elongate, not narrow; costa -gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; pale whitish-brown; most of the veins defined by whitish lines, which are powdered with fuscous scales ; a fuscous -spot at lower external angle of cell; cilia whitish. Hind- ‘wings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish. |
In spite of the difference in locality, I think this must be Mr. Meyrick’s species.
N.A. Port Darwin, in October, November and December ; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, N.S.W., Bathurst (Meyrick).
ANERASTRIA ABLEPTA, 2. Sp. aBXexros, Inconspicuous.
S Q 20-25 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish- Palpi in ¢ rather long (4), in Q very long (7); brown- whitish, irrorated or suffused with fuscous. Antenne brown-whitish; in ~ thickened with minute ciliations, a broad groove containing rough scales on dorsal surface ‘near base. Abdomen ochreous. Legs brown-whitish, ‘sometimes irrorated with fuscous. Forewings elongate, -costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; pale whitish-brown, with a few scattered fuscous scales; a median whitish streak along lower edge of cell to 3; veins towards termen sometimes obscurely whitish ; a terminal series of fuscous dots, often inconspicuous ; cilia whitish. Hindwings grey .or whitish-grey ; towards -base whitish ; cilia whitish.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 115
Vein 10 usually separate, in one specimen short- stalked. Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in November, December, and Feb- ruary. Q. Bunya Mts. -in December ; Brisbane in March ; Mt. Tambourine in November.
ANERASTRIA ARGOSTICHA, 7. Sp.
apyootixos White-lined.
Q 14 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi moderate (3) ; pale-fuscous, towards base whitish. Antennze whitish- ochreous. Thorax pinkish. Abdomen whitish; dorsum -of basal segments ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior pair pale-fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate, ‘costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; pinkish ; veins slenderly whitish ; a white median streak from near base to near termen, its anterior 3 edged ‘dorsally with fuscous ; cilia whitish with a fuscous sub- basal line. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish with -a pale-grey sub-basal line.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received ‘from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ANERASTRIA ’ ENERVELLA.
Erythphlebia enervella, Rag., Rom. Mem. viii., p. 394, Pl. 39, f, 24.
d 20-24 mm. Head and thorax pinkish. Palpi in ¢ ‘rather long (4) ; pale-fuscous. Antenne whitish-ochreous ; ‘in ¢ thickened, ciliations 3, with a dorsal groove filled with rough scales near base. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; ‘dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs pale-fuscous ; posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish. Forewings moderately elongate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, ‘termen obliquely rounded; pinkish; veins whitish more -or less edged with fuscous scales ; a median whitish streak ‘from near base to termen, becoming gradually broader to mid-disc and remaining broad to termen, from mid-dise ‘it is divided by a fine median pinkish streak; a fuscous ‘streak from base along lower edge of median streak to :middle ; .a terminal series of fuscous. dots; cilia pinkish-
116 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2).
white. Hindwings whitish; an interrupted fuscous line along apical half of termen ; cilia whitish.
N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. Q. Eumundi near Nambour, in December, one specimen.
ANERASTRIA AN4EMOPIS, n. Sp.
dvaipwris, pale, bloodless.
Q 18 mm. Head, thorax and antenne brown-whitish. Palpi in Q moderately long (5) ; brown-whitish with some fuscous irroration. Abdomen ochreous-whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings moderately elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown- whitish, with a few scattered dark-fuscous scales, mostly towards termen; a roundish suffused fuscous sub-dorsal spot before middle, and a second similar on dorsum before tornus ; cilia brown-whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia. white, with a grey-whitish sub-basal line.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ANERASTRIA BALIORA, 2. Sp.
BaX.opos, speckled.
9 18 mm. Head and thorax pale-pinkish. Palpi in Q very long (8) ; pinkish-white suffused with pale-fuscous ; under surface whitish. Antenne whitish. Abdomen whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous on dorsal aspect. Forewings elongate, costa rather strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, strongly oblique ; pale pinkish with afew scattered dark-fuscous scales ; all veins outlined in whitish ; a dark-fuscous dot on sub-median vein at +, and a second before tornus ; smaller dots on veins 2, 3, and 4 before their middle ; cilia white. Hindwings whitish ; cilia white.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns in November ; one specimen received from Mr, F. P. Dodd.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 117
ANERASTRIA ACROPH HA, 2. Sp.
axpopaios, dusky at the apex.
36 17 mm. Head and thorax pinkish-fuscous ; face with a long dense tuft of anteriorly projecting hair-like scales. Palpi fuscous; in g¢ moderate (34), terminal joint strongly down-curved. Antennz whitish-ochreous, towards base fuscous; in ¢ thickened and slightly dentate, with short ciliations (4), a broad sub-basal dorsal groove con- taining rough scales. Abdomen ochreous ; towards apex paler; under-surface fuscous. Legs fuscous. Forewings scarcely elongate, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, strongly oblique ; whitish suffused with brown-pinkish ; irrerated rather densely with dark- fuscous seales towards base and termen ; towards the latter this tends to form interneural streaks, of which that running into apex is best marked ; cilia grey-whitish, at apex mixed with fuscous. Hindwings dark-grey; cilia whitish with a grey sub-basal line.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ANERASTRIA PLEUROCHORDA, 2. Sp.
7Xevpoxopdos, With costal line.
Q 22 mm. Head ochreous-brown ; face white. Palpi in Q long (5); brown. Antenne pale-brown. Thorax brown. Abdomen brown; dorsum of basal segments pale- ochreous. Legs fuscous ; [posterior pair broken]. Fore- wings elongate, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded : pinkish-brown ; a broad costal whitish streak narrowing towards base and at apex; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Stanthorpe, in January; one specimen.
ANERASTRIA ERASMIA, 2. Sp.
€pacp.os, lovely.
Q 26 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax bright crimson- pink; palpi in Q long (5). Antenne ochreous-whitish. Legs pinkish; tarsi fuscous; posterior tibize and dorsal surface of tarsi ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate,
118 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDA).
costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen but slightly rounded, oblique; bright crimson-pink ; towards: dorsum suffusedly whitish; a slender whitish median streak from near base to ?; cilia crimson-pink. Hindwings:. grey-whitish ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Herberton, in February; one specimen received. from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
POUJADIA CTENUCHA, 7. Sp.
ktevovxos, bearing a comb.
-G 17-18 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown.. Palpi moderate (3); fuscous mixed with brown-whitish- Antenne with long pectinations (3), not extending to apex ; brown-whitish. Abdomen whitish; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous.. Forewings not elongate, costa gently arched, more strongly towards apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous-whitish or sometimes reddish ; variably irrorated and suffused with dark-fuscous ; usually a broad whitish costal streak from base to 2, containing some fuscous. scales, but often this is entirely obscured by the ground- colour; a terminal series of fuscous dots, sometimes obscure ; cilia whitish. Hindwings whitish, suffused with grey towards apex, and with a dark-grey terminal line not reaching tornus ; cilia whitish.
218-20 mm. Palpi rather long (5). Forewings with less fuscous irroration; costal streak well-defined and. without irroration.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, from September to January ; eight specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
POUJADIA LEUCONEURA, Nn. Sp.
Aevxovevpos, White-nerved.
Q 30 mm. Head and thorax pale-pinkish. Palpi moderate (3) ; fuscous-whitish. Antenne white. Abdomen whitish ; dorsum of basal segments ochreous. Legs whitish. Forewings moderately broad, costa moderately arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly oblique, rounded beneath ; whitish-ochreous with some pink scales; all
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 119:
veins outlined in white which is edged by interneural pale- fuscous streaks; submedian vein edged with pink and’ interrupted by a pale-fuscous dot at 4; a pale-fuscous: longitudinal streak through cell; cilia whitish. Hindwings: grey-whitish ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in March; one specimen received: from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
Gen. DIALEPTA, Nov.
diadertos, very small.
Tongue present. Palpi recurved, ascending, reaching vertex, tolerably pointed. Forewings with nine veins, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 8 and 9 coincident, 10 separate. Hindwings with six veins, cell closed, 4 absent, 5 absent,. 7 running into 8.
DIALEPTA MICROPOLIA, n. sp.
puxpotoAwos, Small grey.
Q@ 8 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi fuscous ; bases of joints whitish. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs- grey with obscure whitish annulations. Forewings narrow, somewhat dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey mixed with. whitish ; a transverse grey line at + ; succeeded by a squarish orey subcostal spot ; an obscure sinuate grey subterminal. line ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia grey with: whitish dots. Hindwings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in November; one- specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
GEN. ECBLETODES. Ecbletodes, Turn., P.R.S.Q., 1903, p. 124.
Tongue well-developed. Antenne in ¢ slightly serrate- towards apex, ciliations minute. Palpi erect, appressed to frons, exceeding vertex, tolerably acute. Forewings. with 4 and 5 connate or short stalked, 9 absent, 8 and 10° stalked. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate or stalked,,. 5 absent, 7 running into 8.
Allied to Hphestia and Homaosoma, but with very distinct neuration. The neuration is given erroneously in my original description.
1120 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID #4).
ECBLETODES ,NICTA, n. Sp.
duvixtos, Obscure.
6 2 14 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen -ochreous-whitish. Palpi ochreous-whitish with some fuscous scales. Legs ochreous-whitish ; anterior tibize and tarsi fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa rather strongly .arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous- whitish with some fuscous suffusion ; a fuseous spot on base
-
-of dorsum ; a broadly-suffused fuscious fascia from % costa to # dorsum ; followed by a pale line, beyond which terminal part of disc is suffused with fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings
-and cilia grey. Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October, May and June ; ‘Stannary Hills; eight specimens.
ECBLETODES OTOPTILA, 7”. Sp. otomtiAos, With eared wing.
g 12 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brown-whitish mixed with fuscous. Antenne fuscous; ciliations in ¢@ imperceptible. Abdomen brown-whitish ; dorsum, except a series of median spots, fuscous. Legs brown-whitish mixed with fuscous. Forewings moderate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown- whitish ; markings and a few scattered scales dark-fuscous ;
-a very obscure sinuate line from % costa to 2 dorsum; a -Short longitudinal streak above middle of disc running mto ithis; a short oblique streak also running into it above ‘dorsum; a terminal series of interneural streaks; cilia ‘grey with whitish dots. Hindwings with a basal costal Jobe formed by an abrupt excavation of costa at }, containing .a curled tuft of long hairs, the costal portion of disc beyond
‘vein 7 being not developed ; dark-grey ; cilia grey.
Very obscure, but easily recognised by the highly ‘peculiar hindwings, which are however probably only a -sexual characteristic.
N.A. Port Darwin, in September ; one specimen received ‘from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 121
Grn. CRYPTADIA, nov. kK pUTTA@OLOS, hidden.
Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed ‘to frons, reaching vertex ; terminal joint well-developed, tolerably pointed. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 8 and 9 stalked, 10 separate. Hindwings with cell very short (1); 2 from well before angle of cell, 3 and 4 short-stalked, 5 absent, 7 running into 8.
Best distinguished from Euzopherodes by the extreme shortness of cell of hindwing.
CRYPTADIA XUTHOBELA, ”. Sp. fovfoBedos, with tawny weapons (palpi).
Q 18-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Face and palpi orange-ochreous. Abdomen and legs fuscous. Fore- wings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; fuscous, with dark-fuscous dots; a dot on costa at 4, another above dorsum at 3, and a third between but slightly posterior to these ; a median discal dot; a dot on dorsum before tornus, another above this, and two in disc placed transversely, slightly: posterior to the preceding; cilia fuscous. Hind- wings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. ;
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, in September, October and March ; ‘five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
KUZOPHERODES SPODOPTILA, 2. sp. wmodoTTiAos, ashen-winged.
6 14 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi fuscous ; apices of second and terminal joints whitish. Antenne whitish ; ciliations in ¢ 4}. Abdomen grey ; basal segments and tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish-grey with fine fuscous irroration. Forewings narrow, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; whitish-grey with some fuscous irroration; a suffused sub-basal fuscous spot from costa, not reaching dorsum ; a similar suffused transverse fascia at 2; a fine fuscous line at ~ angled into a prominent posterior tooth in mid-disc ; an obscure terminal series of fuscous dots ;
122 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ).
cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings whitish ; suffused with grey towards apex and termen ; cilia whitish with a grey sub- basal line, at apex grey.
In wing-shape this resembles H#. leptocosma, from which, however, it is very distinct.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
UNADILLA TRISSOMITA, 1. Sp. T PLO OPATOS, with three threads.
S$ Q 16-18 mm. Head and thorax purple-reddish mixed with whitish ; face ochreous-whitish. | Palpi reddish- fuscous ; base, extreme apex, and most of internal surface whitish. Antenne and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs. ochreous-whitish ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings narrow-elongate, apex rectangular, termen rounded, slightly oblique; purple-reddish mixed with fuscous ; three white longitudinal streaks ; first broad from 1 costa to costa again at apex ; second rather above middle, slender and interrupted, from near base, not quite reaching termen ; third along fold, similar, from near base to beyond middle ; a dark fuscous terminal line ; cilia purple-reddish, apices partly fuscous. Hindwings whitish, tinged with grey towards termen ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and May; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
UNADILLA ATECMARTA, nN. SD. atexpaptos, Obscure.
Q 21 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous- whitish. Palpi fuscous. Antenne whitish. Legs whitish irrorated with fuscous. Forewings narrow-elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; whitish irrorated with fuscous ; an obscure externally oblique fuscous line in middle of disc ; a fuscous subcostal dot at 3; a fine fuscous obliquely transverse line parallel to termen at %; an obscure inter- rupted fuscous terminal line; cilia pale-fuscous irrorated with whitish. Hindwings grey, thinly scaled ; cilia whitish with a grey sub-basal line.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 123
Type in Coll., Turner. N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October; one specimen from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
Gen. MESEINIADIA.
Tongue well-developed. Palpi recurved, ascending, reaching vertex, apex acute ; third joint in ¢ with a short, basal, anterior tuft. Antennal ciliations of ¢ extremely short. Forewings with 2 and 3 long stalked, 4 and 5 long- stalked, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 7 anastomosing strongly with 8.
Related to the following genus, but peculiar in the stalking of 2 and 3 of the forewings.
MESEINIADIA INFRACTALIS. Nephopteryx infractalis, Wlk., Cat. Brit. Mus. xxx., p. 958.
6 @ 12-13 mm. Head brown-whitish; face in ¢ dark fuscous. Palpi whitish ; outer surface of third joint fuscous. Antenne, thorax, and abdomen brown-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish with some fuscous irroration. Fore- wings narrow, costa straight, gently arched beyond middle, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish irrorated and suffused with brown ; markings dark-fuscous ; a dot on base of costa ; costal edge to 4 dark-fuscous ; an interrupted median streak, more or less marked, ending in terminal suffusion; a short streak on base of dorsum ; an oblique streak from } costa, bent in disc to become longitudinal, and ending in terminal suffusion; dorsal edge more or less dark-fuscous ;_ a large tornal dark-fuscous suffusion extending nearly to apex ; cilia grey. Hindwings whitish more or less suffused with grey; cilia grey.
A very obscure little species easily recognised by structural characters.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October and May ; Innisfail in November; also from Borneo.
Gren. ENCRYPHODKES, nov.
éykpupwous, hidden.
Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed to frons, reaching vertex, tolerably acute. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with 2 from before angle of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 anas- tomising strongly with 8.
124 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID).
ENCRYPHODES ZNICTOPA, ”. Sp. aiviktwros, obscure.
Sg 15 mm. - Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-whitish. Antenne pale-fuscous ; in ¢ thickened, ciliations imperceptible. | Legs ochreous-whitish. —Fore- wings moderate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; ochreous- whitish suffused with fuscous ; a straight oblique pale line from #2 costa to 3 dorsum, preceded by a fuscous suffusion; a slightly sinuate pale line from % costa to 2 dorsum:; cilia ochreous-whitish, apices fuscous. Hindwings grey; cilia pale-grey, bases ochreous- whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
EUZOPHERA STICHOSEMA, ”. Sp.
otixoonpos, marked with lines.
S$ Q 11-12 mm. Head _ fuscous-whitish; face ochreous-whitish. Palpi with a small anterior tuft of scales on second joint towards its apex ; fuscous-whitish mixed with fuscous. Antenne whitish; in ¢ thickened, minutely ciliated, and with fine dark-fuscous annulations. Legs whitish mixed with fuscous ; posterior pair mostly whitish ; tarsi fuscous annwated with whitish. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa straight to middle, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-whitish with some fuscous irroration ; two dark-fuscous transverse lines; first from mid-costa to mid-dorsum, outwardly curved ; second subterminal, straight; cilia grey. Hind- wings whitish, becoming grey towards apex ; cilia whitish, at apex grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Brisbane, in August and October; Rosewood in March; three specimens.
HYPHANTIDIUM SERICARIUM. Hyphantidium sericariwm, Scott, P.Z.8., 1859, p. 207, Pl. 61, Euzophera microdoxa, Meyr., P.L.S., N.S.W., 1880, p. 231.
Sir Geo. Hampson kindly identified one of my Port Darwin examples, and these correspond closely with Mr.
; BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 125.
Meyrick’s excellent description. It is the type species of the genus.
N.A. Port Darwin; Q. Duaringa ; N.S.W., Wollombi ; T., Launceston.
_ HYPHANTIDIUM ATERPES.
ATEPTS, unpleasing.
6 Q 1li-12 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish. Palpi brown-whitish with some _ fuscous _ irroration. Antenne brown-whitish; in ¢ thickened and _ slightly serrate, ciliations imperceptible. Legs brown-whitish mixed with fuscous. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown- whitish irrorated with fuscous ; markings dark-fuscous ; a dot beneath mid-costa, a second in disc shightly below and posterior to this, and a third above mid-dorsum ; two dots placed transversely in disc at 3, the lower larger ; a finely dentate line from before apex to before tornus, and another more acutely dentate from apex to tornus ; cilia brown-whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in October and January; twa specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
HYPHANTIDIUM SEMIFICTILE, ”. Sp.
Semifictilis, half made of clay.
6 14mm. _ Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi grey-whitish. Antenne grey ; ciliations in ¢ +. Thorax grey. Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs grey ; posterior pair ochreous-whitish, tarsi on outer surface grey. Forewings moderate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; grey, finely irrorated with fuscous ; cilia grey. Hindwings. brownish-ochreous ; at apex grey; cilia pale-ochreous, at apex grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Stradbroke Island, in September; one specimen.
TYLOCHARES EREMONOMA, 1”. Sp. épnyovoyos, Awelling in the desert. Q 19 mm. Head whitish-brown. Palpi rather long (24), obliquely ascending, not appressed to frons, second joint very long, terminal joint very short 3, obtuse ; whitish
t
126 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).
terminal joint and apex of second joint on external surface brownish. Antennze brown. Thorax brown. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs [anterior and middle pairs broken] posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow-elongate, slightly dilated posteriorly, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; reddish-brown; a_ very _ ill- defined broad costal streak from near base to near apex, white sparsely irrorated with reddish-brown ; cilia whitish- brown. Hindwings grey: ; cilia whitish. Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Adavale, in May; one specimen. ‘TYLOCHARES HEMICHIONEA, ”. Sp.
jpexvoveos, half-snowy. g 17 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous.
Antenne fuscous; in ¢@ thickened and minutely ciliated. Abdomen brownish-grey, base of dorsum ochreous-tinged. Legs white with scanty brown irroration ; apical half of anterior and middle cox, anterior and middle femora except middle, anterior and middle tibize except apex and one or two white dots, and all tarsi, fuscous. Forewings narrow-elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brown-fuscous with purple reflections ; a broad white streak from costa at + to apex, its dorsal edge ill-defined ; costal edge in middle } brown-fuscous ; cilia fuscous, bases whitish. Hindwings grey; cilia grey, paler towards tornus, bases whitish.
Similar to the preceding but with very different palpi, the terminal joint being well developed (2) and rather acute.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
TRISSONCA ODONTOSEMA, 2. Sp.
ddovtoanpos, tooth-marked.
S Q 20-22 mm. Head brownish ; face whitish. Palpi whitish with brown irroration. Antenne pale-fusccus ; in ¢ much thickened with minute ciliations. Abdomen pale ochreous-brown. Legs whitish irrorated, except posterior pair with fuscous ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annula- tions. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, bee) aac diet i
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 127
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; whitish densely © suffused with fuscous ; costal area except basal fourth and apex mostly whitish ; a suffused oblique lne from } costa to mid-dorsum ; a pair of median discal dots placed trans- versely, sometimes obsolete; a finely dentate transverse line at 5; a terminal series of fuscous dots ; cilia fuscous- whitish. Hindwings with cell 4 or rather less, 2 from well before angle 3 and 4 separate but closely approximated at origin ; fuscous-whitish or fuscous ; cilia fuscous-whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda near Cairns, in August, October and April ; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
PHYCITA OLIVALIS. Phycita olivalis, Hmps., Moths. Ind., iv., p. 92.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in August, December and April; five specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
Besides the following I have many unnamed species of Phycita and Nephopteryx, which I think it wiser not to name at present.
PHYCITA CRYPTADIA, 7. Sp. KpuTTaoLos, hidden.
Q@ 25 mm. Head and thorax dark brownish-grey. Palpi’ brownish-grey, second joint irrorated with whitish. Antenne whitish-grey. Abdomen grey tinged with brown. Legs fuscous with obscure whitish irroration and annula- tions. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey tinged with brown and mixed with whitish; a whitish transverse line from mid-costa to dorsum beyond middle, indented inwards above middle and again above dorsum ; beyond this are two rather large brown suffused spots placed. transversely ; a finely dentate whitish line from costa at 2 obliquely outwards, then bent parallel to termen, and ending in dorsum near tornus; a terminal series of dark-fuscous dots ; cilia grey with whitish points. Hindwings thinly scaled ; pale-grey, darker towards apex ; cilia whitish with a grey sub-basal line.
128 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2).
Type in Coll., Turner. My second example is in the British Museum.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; two specimens: received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
CRYPTOBLABES ALPHITIAS, ”. sp.
dAqita, barley-meal.
Q 12 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, thorax, and abdomen grey. Legs white irrorated with grey; tarsi grey with white annulations. Forewings narrow, somewhat dilated posteriorly, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;: fuscous-grey, towards costa broadly irrorated with white ; a fuscous line from costa before middle to dorsum beyond. middle, interrupted beneath costa ; two fuscous discal dots at 3%, placed transversely, sometimes connected; a whitish line at *% parallel to termen, preceded by a fuscous line obsolete towards costa; a terminal series of fuscous dots; cilia pale-grey with white points. Hindwings- whitish ; veins outlined in grey; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ; one specimen: received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
CRYPTOBLABES HEMIGYPSA, 2. Sp.
npcyelos, half-chalky.
gS Q 14-17 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, and thorax whitish-grey. Abdomen grey towards apex in ¢@ whitish.. Legs whitish irrorated with grey, and sometimes also with reddish. Forewings narrow-elongate, posteriorly slightly dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; pale grey, costa half broadly irrorated or suffused with white, sometimes also with some reddish scales ; a fuscous sub-costal spot at 4, sometimes indistinct ; two fuscous discal dots at 2, placed transversely ; an ill- defined fuscous transverse line at 2, parallel to termen, sometimes a similar sub-terminal line; a terminal series. of fuscous dots; cilia pale-grey, apices white. Hindwings thinly scaled, whitish; veins and margins outlined with grey; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Brisbane, in August, September, and November 3. four specimens.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 129
GEN. MACROCHILOTA, nov. paxpoxetAoros, long-lipped.
Frons oblique and flat. ‘Tongue present. Palpi very long, porrect densely hairy above and beneath. Maxillary palpi very short, filiform. Tibize with outer spurs not -exceeding $ length of inner spurs. Forewings with 4 and -5 stalked, 8 and 9 long stalked, 10 and 11 separate. Hind- wings with cell about 3, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 anasto- mosing with 8.
MACROCHILOTA ARAZZOSTICHA, 2. Sp.
A PALOTTLXOS, narrow-lined.
Q 23-26 mm. ‘Head pale ochreous-grey. Palpi in Q ‘7; pale-fuscous, inner surface whitish. Antenne and ‘thorax pale ochreous-grey. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish- ‘grey ; anterior pair grey. Forewings elongate, costa gently -arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale ochreous-grey ; three white lines partly edged with fuscous, -arising from a white sub-costal basal spot ; first line costal, leaving costal edge narrowly grey, running into second line before middle ; second line sub-costal, nearly approximated to first, ending on costa shortly before apex ; third line median, running along lower edge. of. cell, and ending on *termen above middle; sometimes posterior edge of cell and terminal veins are partly outlined with fuscous ; cilia pale-grey with white points. Hindwings whitish suffused ‘with grey towards apex and termen, sometimes wholly ‘grey ; cilia grey- whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.S.W. Ben Lomond (4,500 ft.), in January ; three ‘specimens, of which one is in the British Museum.
Susp-Fam. GALLERIAN:. HETEROMICTA LEPTOCHLORA, 2. Sp.
AertoxAwpos, Slightly green.
g 24 mm. Head white. Palpi fuscous. Antenne white with dark fuscous annulations; in @ mnunutely ciliated. Thorax white with some faint green suffusion. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish irrorated with grey and annulated with dark fuscous. forewings rather ‘elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen
J
130 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID #4).
rounded, slightly oblique ; whitish suffused with pale-green: and irrorated with grey; a transverse whitish line at 4 ‘forming three large dentations: a blackish oblique discal mark at middle preceded by a blackish dot ; a finely dentate: whitish line edged anteriorly by a fine grey line, from 2’ costa outwards, then bent in disc, and ending on + termen : beyond this is a greyish suffusion ; a terminal series of dark- fuscous dots; cilia grey mixed with whitish. Hindwings- grey, paler towards base; cilia whitish with a grey basal: line.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Herberton in January; one specimen received: from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
DOLOESSA VIRIDIS. Viridis, Zel., Isis, 1848, p. 860. Thagora figurana, Wik., Brit. Mus. Cat. xxvii., p. 205,. Hmps., Ill. Het. ix. Pl. 157., f. 8. Moths Ind., iv., p. 5. N.Q. Cairns. Also from Java and Ceylon.
| MELIPHORA MYRMECOPHILA, 7”. Sp.
puppynKxodiAros, ant loving.
Q 22mm. Head, palpi, antennz, thorax, and abdomen: fuscous. Legs fuscous irrorated and annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; fuscous- with some dark-fuscous irroration especially towards base ; some dark-fuscous scales on termen:; cilia fuscous. Hind- wings with termen sinuate ; fuscous, paler towards base ; cilia fuscous.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Townsville, in October; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, who found the rather hairy and somewhat smoky larve in the closed galleries of a tree ant (Crematogaster s.p.), Where they pupate, the saiall oval cocoons being peppered with smail fragments of bark.
Gen. ACARA. Acara, Wlk., Brit. Mus. Cat. xxvii., p. 198, Hmps., Moths Tnd:..~Ivs5 der te Palpi clothed with long hairs. Antenne of ¢ minutely ciliated, with a tuft of long hairs from basal joint. Fore- wings with apex acute and produced ; lower angle of cell more or less produced, 2 from middle, 3 from ?, 4 and 5
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 13
connate or separate, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 and 11 separate... Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked, 6 and 7 stalked, 7 anas-- tomosing with 8. ACARA PSOLOPASTA, 2. Sp. Uvororactos, Sprinkled with soot.
6 36mm. Head, palpi, antenne, thorax, and abdomen. and legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, costa straight, before apex incurved, apex produced, bent costally, and acute, termen scarcely oblique, rounded beneath ; 7 from 8 before 9; ochreous-whitish, suffused with pale - ochreous-grey, and sparsely irrorated with dark-fuscous : cilia pale ochreous-grey. Hindwings with termen rounded ;, ochreous-whitish ; cilia ochreous whitish.
Type m Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Atherton; one specimen.
SuB.-Fam. CRAMBIN/. DipTYCHOPHORA LEUCOGRAMMA, . Sp.
Nevkoypappos, inscribed with white.
6 Il mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi whitish-- ochreous with pale-fuscous hairs. Antenne whitish ; ciliations. in ¢ very short (4). Thorax whitish-ochreous. Abdomen pale-fuscous, at base whitish-ochreous, tuft whitish. Legs. whitish. Forewings triangular, costa nearly _ straight, apex rounded, termen oblique, nearly straight, incised beneath apex ; fuscous mixed with whitish; a patch on base of dorsum and terminal half of disc, especially on veins, suffused with brownish-ochreous ; a median white: line from base to ¢ where in divides into two limbs forming a Y, costal limb ending beneath } costa, dorsal limb at mid-dorsum ; a white line from 2 costa curved outwards. and then parallel to termen and ending in 2 dorsum; an oblique white subapical costal streak nearly to termen ;. a few blackish scales on lower part of termen ; cilia brownish- ochreous, a leaden-fuscous sub-basal line not reaching tornus, apices fuscous at apex of wing, on costa before apex white. Hindwings with termen sinuate ; ochreous- whitish ; cilia ochreous-whitish, a pale-grey basal line on apex of wing.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Bribie Island, near Caloundra, Moreton Bay, ini September; one specimen.
1132 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).
TALIS POLYARGYRA, 2. Sp. TOAVApPYUPOS, rich in silver. G 24-28:mm. Head pale brownish-ochrevus. Palpi -very long (8); pale-fuscous. Antenne grey; in ¢ serrate --with short ciliations (4). Thorax brownish-ochreous, with -a white posterior spot. Abdomen pale-ochreous.. Legs pale-fuscous ; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings -moderately elongate, costa gently arched. apex round- pointed, termen sinuate, slightly oblique; —brownish- ochreous ; markings silvery-white ; a whitish costal streak more or less defined: a broad median streak from base to end of cell edged with a few fuscous scales ; a fine streak along vein 2; five short broad interneural streaks beyond _ cell; veins beyond cell more or less outlined with fuscous ; a subterminal line from beneath apex nearly to tornus, interrupted by fuscous lines on veins; cilia whitish wilh silvery lustre, a fine fuscous: line at 4. Hindwings with ~termen slightly sinuate; pale-ochreous; cilia whitish- _ ochreous. | Type in Coll., Turner.
N.S.W., Glen Innes, in March; four specimens.
Susp-Fam. PYRALINE.
GEN. MICROCYTTARA, NOV. [ALKPOKUTTAPOS, small-celled. Frons flat. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, --porrect ; second joint Jong, slightly ascending ; terminal joint short, stout, obtuse, slightly bent downwards. Thorax with a small posterior crest. Legs with outer spurs less - than 3 as long as inner spurs. Forewings elongate : without _ raised scales ; discocellulars very strongly curved inwards, 2 from 3, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 approximated at ‘ base from angle, 6 from upper angle connate with 7, 8, 9, which are stalked, 10 and 11 separate. Hindwings con- - siderably broader than forewings ; cell extremely short ('), discocellulars very strongly bowed inwards, strongly pro- duced at both angles, 3, 4 and 5 stalked, 7 anastomosing with 8 for some distance.
This curious genus is not closely related to any known
‘to me, but I think it may be regarded as a development . of Bostra with peculiarly exaggerated neural characters.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. F33-
MICROCYTTARA EUMEEES,. ”.. sp.
EVLNKNS, of good length.
Q 42 mm. Head, palpi, and antennz: brownish-grey..
Thorax brownish-grey, a large posterior spot and a small spot on base of each patagium fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-whitish irrorated with pale-fuscous, slightly tinged with ochreous on base of dorsum. Legs ochreous- whitish ; femora, tibiz, and first tarsal joints with oblique dark-fuscous rings. Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; brownish- grey with slight fuscous and reddish-brown irroration ; markings fuscous ; an oblique line from + costa to } dorsum, indented inwards on fold; a median sub-costal spot; a
sharply dentate line from 3 costa to 3 dorsum, bent outwards -
in disc; a terminal series of dots ; cilia ochreous-whitish with some fuscous irroration. Hindwings- slightly sinuate beneath apex ; ochreous-whitish ; a fine interrupted pale- fuscous terminal line from apex for some distance ; cilia ochreous- whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in October ;- one specimen :
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
GEN. ODONTOPASCHIA.
Odontopaschia, Hmps:
Frons with an anterior tuft. Tongue present. Palpi.
long, porrect ; second joint very long, with a short tuft
at apex ; terminal joint short, slender, smooth.. Antenne -
of ¢ unknown. Forewings with tufts. of. raised.
Scales; 4 and 5 stalked, 7 absent, 8, 9, 10° stalked, 11 Separate. Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent, 7 anastomosing with 8.
Type O. virescens, Hmps. from India.
ODONTOPASCHIA ECNOMIA, 2... Sp.
éxvopwos, Unusual,
Q 20 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish mixed |
with dark-fuscous. Palpi 5; brown-whitish, outer aspect
of second joint dark-fuscous. Antenne: brown;whitish.. Abdomen brown-whitish. Legs fuscous ; tarsi annulated.
with whitish. Forewings triangular, costa scarcely arched,
134 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).
-apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; brown-whitish mixed and suffused with fuseous; a tuft of dark-fuscous “scales on middle third of dorsal margin; basal part of disc suffused with fuscous; a large raised sub-costal ‘tuft of dark-fuscous scales at 4, and a second smaller beyond middle; a fuscous line from first tuft to ? dorsum, preceded by a pale line; a fuscous line from ? costa “Obliquely outwards, then acutely angled inwards and finely wavy to dorsum before tornus; a dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia brown-whitish with two dark lines. Hindwings with termen rounded, slightly wavy; grey, towards base paler ; cilia pale-grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda near Cairns, in December ; two specimens “received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which one is in the British Museum.
Gen. SIALOCYTTARA, Nov.
ciAoKkuTtapos, With greasy cell.
Tongue well-developed. Palpi ascending, appressed to frons, much exceeding vertex ; posterior aspect of terminal joint and of apex of second joint clothed with long hairs, which in ¢ form dense tufts ; second joint in ¢ dilated to receive the brush-like maxillary palpi. Antenne of 2 with fascicles of moderately long cilia, no process from basal joint. Thorax with a small post-median crest. ‘Forewings of ¢ with cell on underside covered by modified greasy-looking scales, terminal area of wing abbreviated, and veins short ; 7, 8, 9 stalked. Hindwings broad ; in ¢ with modified scales along costa beneath ; 4 and 5 connate or short-stalked, 7 closeiy approximated to 8, not anastom- -osing. ;
Near Heterobcla, Turn., but with peculiarly tufted palpi, and in ¢ with modified scale-areas and truncated ‘forewings.
SIALOCYTTARA ERASTA, 2. Sp. EpATTOS, beloved.
Gg 28 mm. Head and palpi white mixed with dark- green. Antenne ochreous-whitish ; ciliations 2. Thorax -white mixed with dark-green and reddish-brown ; a central
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 135
ereddish-brown spot. Abdomen white partly suffused with reddish-brown, with some blackish irroration on sides ; ‘tuft pale-ochreous, towards apex fuscous. Legs white -mixed with reddish-brown and blackish ; tarsi dark-fuscous with white annulations. Forewings triangular, costa -straight, apex rounded, termen strongly bowed, slightly oblique ; greenish-grey with glossy reflections; a large snow-white spot on base of costa; some blackish and rreddish-brown scales on basal part of dorsum; a large dark-green central fascia, its edges very irregular, preceded by a snow-white spot on and beneath costa, and containing some blackish scales near posterior edge above and below -middle ; this is partly edged and intersected in middle by whitish-ochreous ; a dark-green spot surrounded by white -on costa at +; before this is a small similar sub-costal spot edged with whitish-ochreous; a third similar spot on dorsum near tornus; some pale reddish-brown suffusion towards termen; four leaden-fuscous spots on termen beneath apex ; cilia fuscous mixed with whitish and reddish- brown. Hindwings pale-reddish; near base becoming ochreous-whitish ; cilia whitish, towards apex barred with
.fuscous.
Q 30 mm. Head and thorax similar. Palpi ochreous- ‘whitish. Abdomen whitish tinged with green: laterally -ehiefly dark-fuscous. Forewings more elongate-triangular ; a snow-white basal costal spot; base dark green to {; .central area white with dark-green blotches on mid-costa
-and mid-dorsum; an indistinct dentate transverse line from ? costa, bent inwards beneath costal blotch and -ending on ? dorsum; terminal area dark-green, becoming fuscous towards termen. Hindwings white ; a large fuscous apical blotch continued as a narrow band along termen.
Though very different I think these will prove to be
Sexes. Types in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in Julv (¢) and December
-(Q)3 two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
136 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 4).
Gen. AXIOCRITA, Nov. .
a&ioxpitos, Worth choosing.
Frons fiat. Tongue well-developed. Palpi slender,.
ascending, very long ; second joint very long, much exceed- ing vertex ; terminal joint acute ; distal half of second joint and terminal joint with long hairs on posterior surface ;
second joint in not dilated. Antenne in moderately - ¥
ciliated, no antennal process. Abdomen with dorsal crests.
on first two segments. Forewings with raised scale tufts ; 4 and 5 separate at origin, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 closely approximated to them. Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate, 7 anastomosing with 8.
Allied to the preceding but differing in the neuration of the hindwings, and in the ¢ palpi.
AXIOCRITA CATAPHANES, hl. Sp.
xaTaparns, Conspicuous.
¢ 25 mm. Head brown, on face mixed with whitish. Palpi very long (6); brown; extreme apex whitish. Antenne grey; in ¢ dentate, with moderate ciliations (1).
Thorax brown with three whitish spots ,one posterior, .
and one on each patagium. Abdomen fuscous; apex brownish ; bases of second and third segments whitish. Legs brown-fuscous ; base of anterior coxze white; tarsi with narrow whitish annulations. Forewings triangular,
costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; .
fusecous ; base, a broad costal streak, a small area in disc, and veins towards termen suffused with dull ochreous-
green ; six prominent scale-tufts ; first near base, white ;_
the remainder fuscous, three sub-costal. and two on median vein ; white dots on costa at !, #, and +; a white dot just posterior to basal tuft ; a faint, whitish, irregularly dentate
line from sub-apical dot to before tornus; beyond this -
terminal area is paler; cilia whitish barred with pale- fuscous. Hindwings bright orange-vellow ; a dark-fuscous terminal band, broad at apex, narrowing to tornus ; cilia fuscous.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in September ; one specimen :
received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. ISF
MACALLA MNIOMIMA, n. Sp.
pviopipos, imitating moss.
6 Q 23-25 mm. Head white with a green spot on crown. Palpi green with a few whitish scales. Antenne ochreous-whitish ; ciliations in 4 2; antennal process in 6 green. Abdomen pale-green mixed with whitish. Legs whitish mixed with green and fuscous ;_ tarsi green-fuscous annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; whitish densely suffused with yellow-green which is arranged in confused, broken, dentate or wavy transverse lines ; a dark-fuscous median spot at }; beyond this an incomplete wavy whitish transverse fascia, divided into two by a wavy green line; a dark-fuscous median sub- costal spot with a similar spot or suffusion between it and dorsum ; sometimes some patchy dark-fuscous suffusion towards termen ; cilia whitish with a basal series of yellow- green dots. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Atherton in February: four specimens. Also in British Museum from New Guinea.
MACALLA CHLOROPHGNA, 2. Sp.
xAwpodowos, green and red.
gS Q 35-42 mm. Head, thorax, palpi. and antenne yellowish-green. Antennal ciliations in @ short (%). Abdomen whitish partly suffused with pale-reddish, with a few fuscous scales. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; whitish densely but patchily suffused with brownish-green ; a short transverse linear dark-fuscous discal mark beneath mid-costa ; a pale trans- verse line from ? costa to + dorsum, angulated outwards in middle, and succeeded by a darker shade containing some dark-fuscous scales; an interrupted dark-greenish terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings brownish-red ; a dark-fuscous terminal band, broadest at apex; cilia pale-reddish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
@. Mount Tambourine, in December and January ; two specimens.
138 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID).
MACALLA PELOSCIA, 2. Sp.
zyA\ookws, With muddy shade.
gd 25 mm. Head and thorax whitish mixed with dull-reddish. Palpi greenish with some whitish and towards apex with some dull-reddish scales. Antenne grey ; ciliations in @ short ($); antennal processes in @ whitish mixed with dull-reddish. | Abdomen ochreous- whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish irrorated with dull-reddish ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; whitish mixed with grey and dull-reddish; a darker dorsal shade containing some fuscous scales from 4 nearly to tornus, extending half across wing ; a pale trans- verse line edged by dark lines at }, obsolete towards costa ; an obscure darker median discal spot; a whitish mark preceded by a dark mark on costa at 3; a darker sub- terminal shade; a terminal series of fuscous dots best marked towards apex; cilia whitish, with a pale-reddish basal line interrupted by fuscous dots. Hindwings pale- fuscous becoming darker towards termen ; cilia as forewings but basal line and dots much paler.
Type in Coll., Turner. .
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in December ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
EPIPASCHIA POLYSCIA, 2. Sp. zodvek:os, very shady.
S Q 25-28 mm. Head pale-brown ; face mixed with fuscous. Palpi pale-brown; second joint with obscure antemedian and subterminal fuscous rings ; terminal joint fuscous except apex. Antenne pale-brown ; ciliations in 3 1. Thorax pale-brown. Abdomen brown-whitish with some fuscous irroration; dorsum tinged with ochreous. Legs brown mixed with whitish and annulated with fuscous ; tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings. tri- angular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; brown-whitish irrorated with brown ; markings fuscous ; a spot on dorsum near base; a large triangular blotch on costa at +; a smaller blotch between this and dorsum ; an interrupted line from 2 costa to mid-dorsum ; a median sub-costal dot preceded by a crest of pale scales ;
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 139
2
a line from 3 costa obliquely outwards, bent inwards in «lise and ending on ? dorsum ; an ill-defined brown blotch containing some fuscous scales on costa near apex; a brown-fuscous terminal line interrupted on veins; cilia pale-brown, apices whitish. Hindwings fuscous; paler towards base; cilia as forewings but with basal fuscous bars on apical half of termen. Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in January ; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
EPIPASCHIA CHLOANTHES, 2. Sp. xAoavGyns, green.
2 30 mm. Head fuscous-brown, sides of crown green. Palpi 2, third joint $; dark -fuscous ; basal half of second joint green; apices of second and third joints narrowly whitish. Antenne grey. Thorax green with a few fuscous scales. Abdomen green; a series of median dorsal dots and a few scattered scales brownish and fuscous. Legs whitish irrorated with purple-fuscous and annulated with dlark fuscous; external surface of middle tibiz green. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; bright-green ; markings brownish-fuscous ; three dark-fuscous costal spots at 4, 4, and 2; less defined spots on dorsum at } and +; a median discal dot with some irroration beneath it ; a line from third costal dot obliquely outwards, bent in disc, parallel to termen for a short distance, then bent inwards, and again to end in dorsum at 2 ; a large dark apical patch ; a small patch above tornus; a series of dark-fuscous terminal dots ; cilia pale-reddish, apices whitish, barred with fuscous, Hindwings whitish with a reddish tinge ; a suffused pale- fuscous terminal band ; cilia as forewings but fuscous bars inconspicuous.
Type in Coll., Turner. N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June; one specimen. ORTHAGA EXVINACEA.
| er f
Orthaya exvinacea, Hmps., Ill. Het. viii., p. 127, Pl. 154, f. 9. Mothes. Ind.,. iv., p. 125.
6 Q 24-28 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi grey-
whitish ; second joint with antemedian and_ subapical
140 AUSTRALIAN LEPTDOPTERA (PYRALID2®).
fuscous rings. Antenne grey-whitish; ciliations in ¢@ Ls Thorax grey-whitish. Abdomen whitish irrorated with’ fuscous and suffused on dorsum with oehreous. Legs: fuscous mixed with whitish ; tarsi fuscous with ochreous- whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, costa straight,. apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; grey-whitish with some brownish and fuscous irroration ; basal fourth shows more brownish irroration; a _ transverse fuscous line at 4, often indistinct ; a fuscous line from 3 costa obliquely outwards, then bent inwards and either dentate: or lost in a dark-fuscous suffusion, then angled inwards, ending on dorsum near tornus; a slight purplish tinge on posterior part of disc ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia pale-brownish barred with fuscous, apices. whitish. Hindwings fuscous-whitish ; darker towards termen ; cilia as forewings.
Sir Geo. Hampson tells me that mine agree with Indiam and Ceylon specimens.
N.A. Port Darwin, in October and November ; four
ral
specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ORTHAGA AMPHIMELAS, 2. Sp. dpoipedas, black all round.
Sg 24 mm. Head grey. Palpi with second joint dilated at apex, terminal joint very short, stout, obtuse = dark-fuscous. Antenne fuscous; ciliations in gL. Thorax blackish. Abdomen grey-whitish densely irrorated with dark-fuscous. Legs dark-fuscous mixed, and _ tarsi annulated, with fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, slightly oblique ; dark-fuscous ; a broad whitish suffusion on middle third of costa ; markings blackish ; an indistinct transverse line at 4; a dot beneath mid-costa; a line from 3 costa obliquely outwards nearly to mid-termen, there forming a rounded projection, angulated inwards above dorsum, which it joins near tornus ; a few white scales near termen ; ciia fuscous, bases barred with brownish, a few whitish points on apices. Hindwings fuscous-whitish; darker towards termen ; cilia white with a fuscous basal line.
The form of the postmedian line of forewings is dis- tinctive. In the palpi this species agrees with the preceding.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 14]
Type im Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ORTHAGA BRYOMIMA, 2. sp.
Bpvopipos, like moss.
¢ 23mm. Head. thorax, and palpi green. Antenne grey: ciliations in g 1. Abdomen whitish mixed with dark-fuscous. Legs greenish; posterior pair mostly whitish ; tarsi annulated with dark-fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; green mixed with whitish-green and with some blackish irroration ; first line indistinct, represented by some confused blackish irroration ; a median subcostal blackish discal tuft of raised seales; second line from 2 costa, green, traversing a whitish-green blotch obliquely outwards, then curved inwards and ending. on dorsum at +; above dorsum it is preceded by a blackish blotch with suffused edges ; an interrupted dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia very pale reddish barred with dark-fuscous. Hindwings fuscous, becoming whitish towards base ; cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Montville (1500 ft.), on Blackall Range, near Nambour, in October; one specimen.
GEN. ENCHESPHORA, ‘nov.
eyyerhopos, Spear-bearing.
Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ; second joint slightly ascending, rough-haired above towards apex ; terminal joint short, broad. obtuse, down-curved Maxillary palpi broadly dilated at apex. Forewings with 4 and 5 approximated for a short distance, 7, 8, 9, stalked, 10 and 11 separate but approximated. Hindwings with 4 and 5 approximated, 7 anastomosing shortly with 8.
The characters of the ¢ are not known. In other respects, the genus is allied to Doddiana, but differs in the more normal neuration. |
ENCHESPHORA POLIGPHANES, 2. Sp. zodwopavys, OL grey appearance.
2 33 mm. Head, thorax and antennze whitish-grey Face and palpi fuscous. Abdomen grey with a series of
142 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ).
large dark-fuscous median dorsal spots. Legs fuscous ; tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate- triangular, costa straight for 3, then gently arched, apex rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique; whitish-grey, with some dark-fuscous markings and trroration; an obliquely transverse bar from dorsum near base, not reaching costa; a median subcostal dot; a large apical blotch produced along termen ending above tornus in a small terminal enlargement ; a terminal series of dark-fuscous. spots; cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings fuscous; paler towards base and suffused with pale-reddish towards dorsum ; a short pale line parallel to termen beneath middle ; cilia whitish with a pale-fuscous sub-basal line.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
Sus-Fam. PYRAUSTIN 2. Gren. AUCHMOPHOBA, Nov..
atypopoBos, tearing drought.
Frons flat. Tongue obsolete. Palpi rather long ; second joint porrect, with a dense tuft of long hairs beneath : terminal joint erect, very slender, acute. Maxillary palpi dilated. Antenne of ¢ simple, minutely ciliated. Legs long and slender; inner spurs longer than outer. Fore- wings with 5 absent (coincident with 4), 10 separate. Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked. 7 anastomosing with 8.
Perhaps nearest Nannomorpha, Turn., but. there are important differences both in the palpi and neuration.
AUCHMOPHOBA TYNNUTA, 2. Sp.
TvVVOVTOS, SO little.
S 10-11 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish ; face whitish. Palpi whitish ; tuft on second joint partly fuscous. Antenne whitish annulated with fuscous ; ciliations in ¢ 4}. Thorax fuscous mixed with whitish. Abdomen fuscous annulated with whitish. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair, except tarsi, whitish. Forewings elongate- triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded, termen excavated in middle ; fuscous mixed with whitish ; a transverse line at 34, dentate beneath costa; four pairs of short white streaks from costa, first strongly outwardly
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 143
oblique at 4, second less oblique at middle, third trans- verse at ?, fourth transverse sub-apical; a fuscous sub- terminal line; cilia whitish, bases and apices fuscous. Hindwings with termen indented at + from apex ; whitish ; a fuscous suffusion on dorsal part of disc before middle, a broad terminal suffusion, and a small suffusion on tornus ; cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Stradbroke Island, in August; six specimens, taken in a swamp at dusk.
AGROTERA GLYCYPHANES, %. Sp.
yAvkvuparys, Of Sweet appearance.
Q 22 mm. Head pale-yellow with two _ posterior orange spots ; face with three orange dots, one on upper and two on lower edge. Palpi pale-yvellow with four orange bars on outer surface, the last apical. Antenne pale- brown ; basal joint pale-yellow with an orange dot at apex- Thorax pale-yellow reticulated with orange. Abdomen whitish-ochreous, dorsum of basal segments barred and of apical segments suffused with orange. Legs whitish ;
: anterior and middle tibize suffused with orange; anterior tarsi white except two apical segments which are dark-fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight for %, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique; pale-brown with a purple gloss; basal third pale-yellow reticulated with orange, bounded by a crenate orange line; a large round pale-vellow spot beneath costa at 3, edged and irrorated with orange; a similar but much smaller spot beneath this ; a pale-orange streak along costa from + to apex ; a fine fuscous line from 2 costa obliquely outwards then bent to form a quadrangular projection, bent again to beneath second spot, thence to # dorsum ; an interrupted fuscous terminal line ; cilia whitish with a brown sub-basal line. Hindwing with termen slightly sinuate; as forewings; but basal patch defined only towards dorsum; no subcostal spots; postmedian line edged externally with orange, and with three confluent vellow spots on dorsal extremity.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in January ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
144 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALIDZ).
DICHOCROCIS XANTHIAS, ”. sp. Eavoos, vellow.
Q 27 mm. Head, palpi, antenne, and _ thorax ochreous. Abdomen ochreous; apices of segments and underside white. Legs whitish-ochreous ; posterior pair white. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 3, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; yellow; basal 4 ochreous; markings pale-fuscous; an irregularly dentate transverse line from { costa to } dorsum limiting basal ochreous patch; a large transversely oval discal spot beneath mid-costa ; a broad fascia from ? costa to 2 dorsum, attenuated at each end; a more suffused terminal band connected with preceding in middle ; cilia ochreous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate ; whitish-yellow : an indistinct pale-fuscous trans- verse median discal mark at 3, a terminal band from apex narrowing to a point at mid-termen ; cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in March ; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd. of which one is in the British
Museum. DICHOCROCIS LEPTOPHAES. 1” Sp Aextodays, slightly shining.
2 28 mm. Head, palpi, and antenne fuscous-whitish. ‘Thorax pale-fuscous with slight purple lustre. Abdomen pale-fuscous ; apices of segments and underside whitish. Legs white ; anterior femora and tibiz and basal part of middle tibie grey. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 2, then strongly arched, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; pale-fuscous with slight purple lustre ; a roundish whitish spot beneath origin of vein 2, and another in end of cell beneath mid-costa ; a suffused whitish spot on mid- costa close to preceding ; a small whitish spot in disc beneath 3 costa ; cilia whitish interrupted with fuscous. Hindwings fuscous-whitish with slight purple lustre ; cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Stradbroke Island ,m February; one specimen unfortunately in poor condition taken among tropical ‘scrub.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 145
Gren. GLYCYTHYMA.
This genus (Tr. R.S.S.A., 1908, p. 91) must be dropped. The type, chrysorycta, Meyr., has the ¢ antennz formed just as in rheonalis the type of Nacoleia. The other species, thymedes, is a synonym of leonina, Butl.
NACOLEIA SYNGENICA, n. sp. TUVYEVLKOS, akin.
Q 23 mm. Head and antenne brown-whitish. Palpi fuscous; under-surface white except towards apex. Thorax pale-brown. Abdomen pale-brown, with dark- fuscous lateral lines; apices of segments and underside white. Legs whitish; tarsi brown-whitish; anterior tibize fuscous except at apex ; middle femora with a fusceus blotch on inner side beyond middle. Forewings elongate- triangular, costa straight for 3, then arched, apex tolerably acute, termen slightly bowed, oblique; pale-brown; a squarish white spot in disc before middle, slightly biconcave ; lines blackish ; first from } costa to 4 dorsum, slightly curved outwards ; second finely dentate, from 3 costa towards ‘tornus, before reaching it bent inwards to beneath end of cell, then bent again and ending on § dorsum ; an interrupted terminal line; cilia fuscous, bases barred with whitish, -above tornus wholly whitish. Hindwings fuscous, towards base whitish ; lines dark-fuscous ; first from } costa to 3 dorsum, outwardly curved ; second dentate, from 2 costa, bent rather outwards in disc, obselete towards dorsum ; -cilia as forewings but more whitish towards tornus.
Best distinguished from rh@onalis by the single whitish ‘spot on forewing.
N.Q. Atherton, in June; one specimen.
NACOLEIA MELANAUGES, 2”. sp.
peravavyns, dark.
Q 20mm. Head ochreous-whitish mixed with fuscous : ‘face fuscous. Palpi fuscous; base beneath whitish. Antenne fuscous, towards base whitish. Thorax and abdomen dark-fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish. Fore- wings elongate-triangular, costa with basal 3 slightly concave, strongly arched before apex, apex rounded, termen “rather strongly bowed, oblique; dark-fuscous ; lines but
K
146 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).
slightly darker and very obscure ; a transverse line at } ;. a whitish subcostal dot about }; postmedian line from #4 costa, wavy, bent above tornus to below end of cell, and again to 3 dorsum; edged posteriorly by a few whitish dots, and on costa by a short whitish streak ; cilia dark- fuscous. Hindwings rather narrow and elongate, termen sinuate ; dark-fuscous, towards base mixed with whitish ; first line distinct, curved, from 4 costa to ? dorsum ; second line obsolete ; cilia dark-fuscous, between tornus and mid--
termen whitish except bases. Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June ; one specimen,
TYSPANODES PHAOSTICHA, 2. Sp.
PULogTixos, dusky-lined.
¢6 Q@ 25-28 mm. Head ochreous; face whitish- ochreous. Palpi fuscous ; beneath whitish-ochreous except towards apex. Antenne whitish-grey; ciliations in ¢ L.. Thorax ochreous ; tegule and bases of patagia wholly or partly dark-fuscous. Abdomen ochreous, dorsum except at base suffused with fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish ;. anterior pair except tarsi fuscous ; all tarsi annulated with fuscous. Forewings oval-triangular, costa rather strongly arched, apex obtusely rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; reddish-ochreous, with numerous’ fuscous inter-neural. streaks variably developed; a whitish patch on termen. from below middle to tornus; the fuscous streaks do not quite reach termen ; cilia fuscous, on tornal patch whitish.. Hindwings ochreous-yellow ; a dark-fuscous apical blotch, prolonged as a band more or less along termen, sometimes not reaching tornus ; cilia on apical half of wing fuscous, beneath this whitish, on tornus and dorsum ochrecus-. yellow.
Ab. Forewings wholly suffused with dark-fuscous. Type in Coll., Turner. N.Q. Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in December.
Q. Eumundi, near Nambour, in October. Five speci-
mens, |
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 147°
SYLEPTA SYMPHONODES, 7. sp.
cvppovodns, harmonious. | |
Sg @ 28 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antenne- yellow. Antennal ciliations in ¢ 1. Abdomen, vellow ; a pair of basal fuscous dots on dorsum of third segment ; . sides and underside whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair tinged with ochreous ; apex of anterior tibiw# fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight for ?, then strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly bowed, oblique ;. yellow ; markings fuscous ; a sub-basal dorsal dot; an outwardly curved line from { costa to } dorsum; an, outwardly crescentic discal mark beneath mid-costa; a line from ? costa, bent outwards in disc and with three- dentations, then bent inwards to beneath discal mark, again curved, with a small posterior tooth above dorsum, ending on ? dorsum ; traces of a pale-fuscous terminal line- best marked near tornus ; cilia pale-vyellow. Hindwings as forewings but without basal line.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in December and May; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which. one is in the British Museum.
SYLEPTA TRACHELOTA, ”. sp. tpaxndotos, With conspicuous throat.
Q 30-38 mm. Head and palpi ferruginous-brown.. Pectus with a large fan-shaped patch of white scales immediately behind palpi. Thorax ferruginous-brown ;. posterior edge brown-whitish. Abdomen fuscous-brown 4 basal segments ferruginous; underside whitish. Legs brownish ; anterior pair and all tarsi fuscous with whitish annulations. Forewings triangular, costa straight for 2, then strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen bowed, oblique ; bright ferrugimous mixed with ochreous-yellow ; markings dark-fuscous ; a sub-basal dorsal dot; a waved transverse line at !}; a round sub-costal dot at +, and a transverse median sub-costal mark in disc; a line from 3 costa, irregularly dentate, displaced outwards in middle, then bent inwards to beneath discal mark, and again bent to mid-dorsum ; a broad fuscous terminal band touching posterior line on projection. only ; a series of dark-fuscous-
148 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).
terminal dots on veins ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings fuscous more or less suffused with ferruginous ; an oblique dark- fuscous mark at } towards costa; a postmedian line at 2, _displaced outwards in middle, the projection with three ‘rounded dentations; this line is edged posteriorly with ochreous ; terminal dots and cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll.. Turner.
N.Q. Evelyn Scrub, near Herberton, in October and November ; four specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd, of which one is in the British Museum.
SYLEPTA SPILOCROSSA, ”. Sp.
o7mtX0KpoT mos, with spotted border.
g Q 18-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous mixed with whitish. Antenne grey, annulated with dark- ‘fuscous ; ciliations in g 1. Abdomen fuscous; apices of second, third, sixth, and seventh segments white; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish annulated with dark- fuscous. Forewings elongate, ovate-triangular, costa straight at base, moderately arched beyond middle, apex . obtusely rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique ; whitish suffused with brownish-fuscous ; markings dark-fuscous ; sometimes a dark basal patch; a transverse line at. }; a rather broad reniform discal spot beneath mid-costa, its centre brownish; two or three brownish-centred costal spots variably developed; posterior line from # costa ‘towards tornus straight and finely dentate ; then obtusely - curved to below discal spot, again curved to end in dorsum at 2, a small posterior tooth above dorsum; a terminal _series of dots; cilia whitish, bases brownish-tinged, with .a median series of fuscous dots alternating with those on termen. Hindwings as forewings but without discal mark ; first line from $ costa to 3 dorsum; second line from 4 -costa, bent outwards in middle and then dentate, towards but not reaching tornus.
Not closely allied to any other species known to me, and not quite certain in its generic position.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June and October ; “three specimens.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 149%
GEN. ELLOGIMA, nov. eAAoyipos, noticeable.
Frons flat, oblique. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ; second joint thickened with appressed hairs. above and.- beneath; terminal joint short, acute.. Antenne of ¢ thickened and bent downwards at 4, with dense short hairs on underside of bend. Forewings with obtusely rounded apex; 8, 9, 10. stalked. Hindwings - with discocellular very oblique, 3, 4, and 5 from angle, and 7 anastomosing with 8 for some distance.
Allied to Camptomastyx, Hmps., but with much shorter: palpi.
ELLOGIMA MACROPERALIS. Piletocera macroperalis, Hmps., Tr. E. 8., 1897, p. 214.
¢ 18-20 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi fuscous ; under- surface except apex white. Antennze fuscous ; ciliations. in ¢ Il. Thorax and abdomen fuscous. Legs whitish. Forewings elongate, costa strongly concave in middle, strongly arched before apex, apex very obtusely rounded,,. termen slightly bowed, oblique ; fuscous with darker lines ; an irregularly wavy, fine, obscure, transverse line at 1; a suffused discal spot beneath mid-costa ; postmedian line: more distinct, finely dentate, from 3 costa, produced out-- wards in mid-dise, then bent inwards to beneath discal’ dot, and again bent to ? dorsum ; apical area suffused with leaden-fuscous ; cilia pale-fuscous with a darker sub-basal line. Hindwings fuscous ; lines obsolete ; cilia as forewings.
N.Q. Cooktown; Kuranda near Cairns, in October: and December; Q. Brisbane, in November and January.
GEN. METALLARCHA. Metallarcha, Meyr., Tr. E. 8., 1884, p. 331.
This genus and the allied endemic genera require careful differentiation from each other, and from Lowostege, Hb. (Phlyctenodes, Gu.), of which the two species affinitalis _ Led., and massalis, Wlk., occur in Australia. ;
I suggest the following scheme of differentiation :—-
A. Maxillary palpi not dilated.
B. Frons with a short, stout, acute prominence,
nearly forming an equilateral triangle Loxostege, Hb--
1150 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID A).
BB. Frons with a very long, flattened, acute
prominence + eb .. Panopsia, 7.g. ‘BBB. Frons with a moderately long. cone-shaped, blunt prominence - .. Metallarcha, Meyr.
‘BBBB. Frons with a moderately long, abruptly truncate prominence excavated at apex | Criophthona, Meyr. AA. Maxillary palpi dilated at apex. Frons with a moderately long, cone-shaped, blunt prominence T ae .. Conoprora, 7.9.
To the genus Panopsia besides the type calliaspis, Meyr., are to be referred tetraplaca, Meyr., pseliota, Meyr., -and goudii, Low.
GEN. METALLARCHA. Metallarcha, Meyr., Tr., E.S., 1884,p. 331.
Frons with a moderately long, cone-shaped, blunt ‘prominence. Tongue well-developed. Palpi rather long, porrect, long-haired beneath; terminal joint concealed. Maxillary palpi not dilated at apex. Antenne of ¢ simple, shortly ciliated. Tibiz with outer spurs shorter than inner. Neuration normal.
Type M. diplochrysa, Meyr., To this genus I refer also epichrysa, Meyr., eurychrysa, Meyr., crocanthes, Low., and /eycodetis, Low.
METALLARCHA PHZENOLIS, 2. Sp. daworts, light-bringing.
6 Q 15-16 mm. Head yellow. Palpi fuscous ; ‘beneath whitish-ochreous. Antenne pale-fuscous ; ciliations in ¢ #1. Thorax yellow; shoulders narrowly leaden- fuscous. Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs pale-ochreous ; anterior pair leaden-fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen strongly oblique, in g nearly straight, in Q bowed; whitish irrorated with leaden-fuscous, more densely so on costa ; markings bright orange; a broad streak along dorsum ‘from base to 3, abruptly truncate ; a fascia from dorsum just before middle nearly to but not reaching mid-costa ; -a second fascia from costa before apex almost to tornus,
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 151
slightly curved inwards ; (cilia abraded). Hindwings and -¢ilia pale-ochreous. | Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Adavale (western interior), in April ; two specimens.
CRIOPHTHONA DELOTYPA, 2. Sp.:
-dyAoturos, Clearly marked.
Q 16mm. _ Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi pale-fuscous ; undersurface white. Antennz whitish-ochreous. Thorax whitish-ochreous with a few fuscous scales.’\”~-Abdomen -othreous-whitish ; apices of segments narrowly’ ‘fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings — elongate-triafhgular, costa slightly sinuate, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; whitish-ochreous with slight fuscous irroration ; markings -dark-fuscous ; a dot on dorsum near base; a line from } -costa, bent outwards in disc, and then straight to } dorsum ; a longitudinally oval pale-centred sub-costal spot at 45 a similar spot beneath mid-costa, transversely oval; a -sinuate line from 2 costa, bent outwards in mid-dise, parallel to termen for a short distance, then bent sharply inwards to beneath median spot, and bent again to end in = dorsum; an interrupted terminal line ; cilia whitish. Hindwings as forewings, but without discal spots; first line from 4 costa to dorsum near tornus ; second line forming
2
three large dentations, from 32 costa to termen beyond tornus ; terminal line not interrupted.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Stannary Hills; one specimen received from Dr. T. Bancroft.
CRIOPHTHONA CELH,NOPHAES, 2. Sp. , KeAawogdans, dusky.
Q 25 mm. Head, thorax, and antennez _ fuscous. Palpi fuscous; beneath white. Abdomen _ pale-fuscous ; -apices of all but basal segments whitish. Legs white ; _all femora and anterior aspect of anterior tibiz and tarsi ‘fuscous. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rather acute, termen bowed, oblique ; fuscous ; first line and discal spot obsolete ; a finely dentate dark- fuscous line from + costa towards tornus, near this bent
152 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID#).
inwards, and again downwards to ? dorsum ; an interrupted dark-fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous. Hindwings. as. forewings, but postmedian line indistinct.
Much larger than the other species but agreeing: structurally.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Stradbroke Island, in February ; one specimen.
GEN. CONOPRORA, Nov.
Kwvorpwpos, With cone-shape prow.
Frons with a moderately long cone-shaped frontal process. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderate, porrect ; second joint rather long with dense hairs above and beneath ; terminal joint concealed. Maxillary palpi dilated with hairs. Antenne of g simple or slightly dentate, with short or moderately long ciliations. Legs with outer spurs rather shorter than inner. Neuration normal.
Differs from Criophthona in the frontal process not. being truncate, from Metallarcha in its being proportionately shorter, stouter, and more obtusely pointed, from both in the dilated maxillary palpi.
Type C. ecista.
CONOPRORA ECISTA, 2. Sp. NKLOTOS, very small.
6 Q@ 10-12 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish. . Palpi moderately long (3); fuscous, beneath white. Antenne pale-fuscous; in ¢@ thicker, annulated with whitish, and with moderately long ciliations (1). Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous mixed with whitish. Legs. grey-whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, apex rounded, termen® slightly bowed, oblique; whitish irrorated with fuscous, less so towards dorsum ; markings dark-fuscous ; slightly outwardly oblique lines from 4 and mid-dorsum, not reaching costa; a wavy line from + costa to before- tornus; cilia whitish, with a basal row of dark-fuscous. dots. Hindwings fuscous; lines indistinct or obsolete ;. cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in October, November and Decem- ber ; three specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 153.
CONOPRORA CELIDOTA, n. sp. knAwooros, blotched.
6 9mm. Head whitish. Palpi dark-fuscous ; beneath white. Antenne whitish ; in ¢ slightly dentate with very short ciliations (4). Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous. mixed with whitish. Legs whitish ; anterior pair fuscous ; anterior tarsi with whitish annulations. Forewings. elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; dark-fuscous mixed with whitish ; lines obsolete ; a quadrangular whitish blotch on dorsum before tornus ; a median white dot in disc above this, surrounded by fuscous ; cilia fuscous, with an interrupted basal whitish line. Hindwings grey; an obscure whitish blotch in disc above tornus ; cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
CONOPRORA ANERASMIA, 2. Sp.
avepacp.os, unlovely.
2 11 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Palpi moderate (23) ; fuscous, beneath whitish Legs whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen slightly bowed, oblique ; fuscous, markings obsolete ; a darker dot on + costa from which a faint dentate transverse line can be traced for a short distance; cilia fuscous with a darker basal line. Hindwings and cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December ; one specimen received rom Mr. F. P. Dodd.
CONOPRORA TRIPLEX, ”. Sp.
Triplex, threehold.
36 2 14mm. Head whitish, posteriorly fuscous. Palpi moderately long (¢24, Q 3); fuscous, beneath white. Antenne fuscous-whitish ; in ¢ very shortly ciliated (4). Thorax and abdomen whitish. Legs whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, strongly oblique ; three oblique fuscous lines, first from +} costa to 4 dorsum, second slightly beyond
454 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID42:).
middle, third from + costa to before tornus ; an indistinct interrupted terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings grey- whitish ; cilia whitish.
Type in Coll., Turner.
@. Adavale, in April; two specimens.
CONOPRORA BALIOCROSSA, ”. Sp. Pudwo«Kpoooos, with spotted border.
g¢ 17-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 23: fuscous ; beneath with basal half white. Antenne fuscous ; ciliations in g¢ 4. Abdomen fuscous ; apices of segments whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish; tarsi annulated with whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; fuscous mixed with whitish, appearing rather dark-grey ; darker along costa; markings dark-fuscous; a line from 1 costa to 4, dorsum outwardly curved; a median line from mid-costa to 2 dorsum, interrupted beneath costa by a slender reniform whitish annulus with dark-fuscous centre ; an irregularly dentate line from ? costa to tornus ; a fine terminal line; cilia pale-fuscous with a basal series of whitish dots. Hindwings fuscous ; cilia as forewings.
Larger than the other species and with the maxillary palpi less dilated, but agreeing in the shape of the frontal process.
Type in Coll., Turner.
Q. Stradbroke Island, in November ; three specimens.
Gen. METASIA. Metasia, Gn., Delt. and Pyr., p. 251., Hmps., P.Z.8., 1899, p. 236. Frons with a rounded or very shortly conical pro- jection.
To this genus I refer ach@alis, Wik., in spite of its somewhat larger size and brighter colouring as: compared with the other species..
METASIA THELCTERIA, 7. Sp. GeAxrypios, Charming.
6 18 mm. Head and thorax yellow. Palpi 2; yellow, base beneath white. Antenne whitish; ciliations in @
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 155
minute. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs white. Fore- wings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique; vellow ; markings blackish, very distinct ; a dot on dorsum at }, a second beneath costa at 4, and a third in disc between but rather internal to these ; a dot beneath mid-costa: a slender line from 2 costa, bent slight outwards in disc, then parallel to termen, until bent inwards beneath discal dot, then abruptly bent and dentate to } dorsum; a series of terminal dots ; cilia fuscous-whitish. _Hindwings fuscous-whitish ; a few pale- fuscous terminal dots; cilia fuscous-whitish, becoming ochreous-whitish towards termen. Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
METASIA GALBINA, 2. Sp.
‘Galbinus, yellowish.
Q 16 mm. Head, antenne, thorax, and abdomen pale-ochreous. Palpi 2); brownish-ochreous, beneath white nearly to apex. Legs whitish-ochreous. Forewings elongate-triangular, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; ochreous- yellow marking fuscous, indistinct ; a dot on fold with some fuscous scales between it and dorsum representing first line; a very faint annular discal spot beneath mid-costa; a finely dentate line from ? costa, bent slightly outwards in disc, parallel to termen for a short distance, then bent inwards to beneath discal spot, again bent, and ending on 2 dorsum; an interrupted terminal line; cilia fuscous-whitish. Hindwings as fore- wings, but without first line and discal spot.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in November ; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
NOORDA HEDYPHAES, 7. sp. idupans, Sweetly shining. Q 16-17 mm. Head and thorax whitish-yellow ; base of patagia ferruginous. Palpi ferruginous irrorated with
fuscous, internal surface white. Antenne whitish-yellow. Abdomen whitish-yellow, sides and under-surface white.
156 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).
Legs white ; anterior femora and tibiz ferruginous-fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa staight to near apex, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique; 10. separate but very closely approximated to 8, 9; whitish-yellow with an oily gloss:;.a ferruginous costal streak from: base to 3, extreme costal edge dark-fuscous to same extent; three dark-fuscous dots, first sub-costal at + touching costal streak, second on dorsum at 4, third in middle of dise at lower angle of cell; a crimson termimal band edged by a dark- fuscous line acutely indented on vein 4; within band is a suffused subterminal fuscous. line, beyond which termer is pale-crimson with darker interneural dots ; cilia yellow, apices paler. Hindwings with termen: well rounded: ;. white, semitranslucent ; a median crimson spot on termen bounded by a dark-fuscous line except costally, where it is continued. by a pale-fuscous band nearly to apex.;. cilia white, bases on apical half of wing yellowish.
Allied to N. fessalis, Swin.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in September and November ;. three specimens recerved from Mr. F. P.. Dodd.
MYRIOSTEPHES XUTHOSPILA,. 2.. S/p.. EovBoomAos, tawny-spotted.
6 Q 12-13 mm. Head orange-ochreous ; face dark- fuscous. Palpi 2, dark-fuscous ; beneath whitish-ochreous. from base to middle of second joint. Antenne dark-fuscous ; ciliations in g minute. Thorax dark-fuscous. Abdomen yellow-ochreous ; bases of segments dark-fuscous. on. dorsum. Legs dark-fuscous annulated with whitish-ochreous ;. posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa straight, slightly arched towards apex, apex round- pointed, termen nearly straight, moderately oblique ; blackish-fuscous with orange-ochreous. spots ; a sub-basal spot on dorsum extending 2? across disc; a rather large roundish spot on mid-dorsum ; a triangular spot on costa at 2; a smaller spot on tornus, more or less confluent with. a spot just above it; cilia blackish-fuscous.. Hindwings and cilia dark-fuscous.
Tvpe in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in December and Mareh; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 157
MYRIOSTEPHES ARGYPHEA, 2. Sp.
apyveos, Silver-white.
6 2 12 mm. Head dark-fuscous. Palpi 2; dark- fuscous. Antenne pale-fuscous ; in ¢ serrate and minutely ciliated. Thorax dark-fuscous; patagia snow-white. Abdomen pale-ochreous. Legs dark-fusecous ; middle tarsi with slender whitish annulations ; posterior. pair whitish ; posterior tarsi beneath fuscous barred with whitish. Fore- wings triangular, costa gently arched, more strongly in 9, apex round-pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; snow-white ; a dark-fuscous streak on costa to middle ; a broad median fascia, its costal half dark-fuscous, dorsal half orange- ochreous ; a broad sub-terminal orange-ochreous fascia, suffused with dark-fuscous towards apex, bounded by a finely waved dark-fuscous line ; a white dot on costa before apex ; a white streak on termen, but terminal edge fuscous ; cilia ochreous. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-whitish, tipped with grey at apex.
This and the two following species are closely allied, but distinct.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in February and March; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
MYRIOSTEPHES CATAXIA, n. Sp.
kataéios, Of good worth.
dg 9-10 mm. Head white. Palpi 23; dark-fuscous ; inner aspect of maxillary palpi white. Antenne fuscous- whitish; in ¢@ slightly serrate and minutely ciliated. Thorax white; patagia crossed -by a pale fuscous bar. Abdomen whitish. Legs dark-fuscous with white annula- tions ; posterior pair except tarsi whitish. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded, termen slightly bowed, slightly oblique; snow-white with pale ochreous-fuscous fascie; first fascia sub-basal, slender, expanded at extremities, with a blackish dot on middle of posterior margin ; second fascia at 4, broad, its anterior edge partly outlined with blackish ; third fascia-at 4, broad with very irregular margins, enclosing a white dot on costa, its anterior edge partly outlined with blackish, its posterior edge giving off a process to mid-termen; a sub-terminal
158 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID2).
and terminal series of fuscous dots; cilia whitish, bases: dark-fuscous. Hindwings pale-grey ; cilia whitish, bases pale-grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; four specimens received: from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
MYRIOSTEPHES POLYZELOTA, 2. Sp.
rodvGyAwros, Much desired.
¢ 10 mm. Head white. Palpi 23; dark-fuscous.. Antenne fuscous; in 4 slightly serrate and minutely ciliated. Thorax fuscous ; patagia pale-fuscous. Abdomen pale-fuscous ; dorsum of first segment whitish. Legs dark-fuscous with whitish annulations; posterior pair except tarsi whitish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly bowed, moderately oblique ; white with dark-fuscous fascie partly edged with blackish ; a small basal fascia connected with second fascia by a costal streak ; second fascia at 4, rather broad, its edges irregularly dentate; third fascia at #, irregularly margined, enclosing a white dot on costa, con- nected by a bar with mid-termen; a dark-fuscous sub- terminal line ; cilia fuscous. Hindwings grey ; cilia whitish,. bases grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in January and February; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
MYRIOSTEPHES EPARGYRA, 2. Sp.
érapyvpos, overlaid with silver.
3} 10 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen reddish-brown. Palpi 24; reddish-brown. Antenne reddish-brown ; ing slightly dentate and minutely ciliated. Legs reddish-brown. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, apex round pointed, termen bowed, oblique ; reddish-brown with silvery white fascie ; first fascia sub-basal, rather obscure, not quite reaching costa ; second fascia from 3 costa to $ dorsum, its posterior edge wavy ; third fascia narrow, sub-terminal,. interrupted in middle ; cilia whitish, bases fuscous. Hind- wings brown-whitish ; a fine fuscous line at 3 and another on termen, neither reaching dorsum ; cilia as forewings.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 159
type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in February ; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
Gen. EMPHYLICA, nov. éudbudixos, Of the same race.
Frons with a rounded short conical projection. Tongue well-developed. Palpi rather long, porrect, densely clothed with appressed hairs, terminal joint concealed, slightly turned downwards. Maxillary palpi large, triangularly dilated. _Neuration normal. Tibiz with outer spurs about half-inner. |
Allied to Myriostephes which it resembles in the tri- angular maxillary palpi, but with a conical frons like that of Loxostege.
EMPHYLICA XANTHOCROSSA, 2. Sp. cavOoxpoccos, vellow-edged.
Q 14mm. Head pale-ochreous. Palpi orange-ochreous at base white. Antenne fuscous, towards base ochreous. Thorax ochreous; patagia fuscous; pectus white. Abdomen fuscous ; base, sides, and tuft ochreous ; beneath whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; middle pair white ; anterior tarsi with white annulations. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex round-pointed, termen slightly bowed, rather strongly oblique ; purple-reddish ; a large triangular orange spot on costa beyond middle ; cilia orange. Hindwings whitish- ochreous ; a broad pale-fuscous terminal band; terminal edge orange except towards tornus ; cilia orange, on fornus pale-fuscous.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N. A. Port Darwin, in November and January ; two specimens received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
| HELIOTHELA FLORICOLA, 7. sp.
Floricolus, flower-haunting.
¢ 10-12 mm. Head blackish. Palpi blackish ; lower surface of second joint except at apex and base of third joint white. Antenne blackish; ciliations minute. Thorax and abdomen blackish. Legs blackish ; tarsi with obscure whitish annulations. Forewings oblong, posteriorly
160 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID).
dilated, costa straight, apex rounded, termen bowed, scarcely oblique ; blackish with a few white scales; a white spot variably developed on ? costa reaching half across disc ‘ lines black; first from } costa to 4 termen, outwardly curved ; second from ? costa towards tornus, bent inwards around white spot, and then downwards to 2 termen ; cilia blackish, apices whitish. Hindwings blackish ; a pure white spot from mid-costa reaching middle of disc ; some- times also a smaller spot above and external to tornus ; cilia as forewings.
Q differs as follows :—14-16 mm. Hindwings without white spot, but with a few scattered whitish or ochreous scales in disc.
Types in Coll., Turner.
N.S.W. Mt. Kosciusko (5000 to 6000 ft.), in March ; a series taken flying in the sunshine and resting on the flower heads of Composite.
Fam. PTEROPHORID.
PLATYPTILIA EUCTIMENA, 2. Sp. EVKTLLEVOS, well-built.
g Q 24-26 mm. Head brownish. Palpi short (14), slender; brownish, internal surface whitish. Antenne brownish ; ciliations in ¢ 34. Thorax brownish. Abdomen brownish ; base and under-surface brown-whitish. Legs fuscous-brown ; tarsi whitish. Forewings pale-brownish with some whitish irroration ; a median fuscous dot at 4 ‘and two fuscous dots just before cleft ; a short whitish streak -on sub-apical part of costa ; a fine whitish line across costal segment shortly before apex ; cilia brown-whitish, a series “of basal fuscous dots, one on mid-dorsum, one on dorsum -at 3, one on tornus, one on apex of dorsal segment, and ‘one on lower angle of costal segment, two fuscous streaks one before last-mentioned dot and one at apex. MHind- wings brown; cilia pale-grey.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Kuranda, near Cairns, in June. Q. Brisbane, in May; Toowoomba, in November. Four specimens of «vhich one is in Coll., Meyrick.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 161
Fam. ORNEODIDA.
Three Australian species of this very curious family have been described, and [ am now able to add a fourth and fifth.
ORNEODES PYGM42ASA.
N.A. Port Darwin.; N.Q. Cairns, Townsville; Q. Brisbane, Toowoomba.
ORNEODES PHRICODES.
I have bred this species from larve feeding in the flowerbuds of Tecoma jasminoides growing in the wild.
N.Q. Cairns, Herberton, Townsville. Q. Nambour, Brisbane, Mt. Tambourine, Southport.
ORNEODES XANTHODES. N.Q. Townsville.
ORNEODES ACASCAA, %. sp.
axackatos, delicate.
9 9 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, and antenne white. Palpi moderate, ascending ; terminal joint about 3 second. Abdomen whitish with several median reddish-fuscous dots Legs white. Forewings white ; markings very pale reddish- fuscous : first segment with a broad fascia beyond middle and a second before apex; other segments with similar markings but much less pronounced ; cilia white. Hind- wings white; segments barred at intervals by fuscous irroration ; cilia white.
In size and fragility this agrees with O. pygmea.
Type in Coll., Turner.
N.Q. Cardwell, in ‘August; one specimen.
ORNEODES AGAPETA, n. sp.
avarytos, lovely.
36 17 mm. Head white: face grev with some white scales. Palpi short, ascending ; terminal joint 1, whitish. Antenne grey-whitish ; in ¢@ finely serrate and minutely ciliated. Thorax and abdomen white. Legs white ; anterior pair suffused with fuscous anteriorly. Forewings white ; costa interruptedly fuscous ; first segment with four or five pale-fuscous bars in posterior half; bars formed by dark- fuscous irroration on second, third, fourth, and fifth
rg
162 AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA (PYRALID 2).
segments before middle; broad pale-fuscous fascie edged by dark-fuscous scales on second and third segments at 3, on fourth and fifth segments at }?. and on sixth segment at 2; pale-fuscous sub-terminal bars and dark-fuscous terminal dots on all segments; cilia white, on apices of segments pale-fuscous. Hindwings as forewings but ante- median bars nearer to base, and with a faintly-marked series of median bars.
Near O. xanthodes though very different in coloration. Type in Coll., Turner.
N.A. Port Darwin, in April; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.
ADDENDUM.
Sub. Fam. CRAMBINE. Gen. ORESSAULA nov.
éperoavdos , dwelling in the mountains.
Frons flat, hairy. Tongue well-developed. Palpi moderately long, porrect, densely clothed with very long hairs beneath, terminal joint concealed in hairs. Maxillary palpi well-developed, ending in a dense tuft of very long hairs. Antenne, in ¢ with paired tufts of long cilia. Thorax hairy, especially on under-surface. Legs with outer spurs 2 of inner. Forewings with 2 from }, 3 from shortly before angle, 4 from angle, 5 from shortly above angle, 7 and § stalked. Hindwings with median vein densely pectinated ; discocellulars very strongly oblique, dorsal edge of cell more than twice costal; 4 and 5 connate or short-stalked, 6 from junction of upper and middle third of discocellulars well-separated from 7; 7 anastomosing at a point or very shortly with 8.
_ A primitive type with the neuration and pectination of hindwing of Talis, but in wing-shape and general appear- ance more suggestive of one of the lower Pyranstine. The general hairiness is rather chiracteristic of mountain forms.
BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 165
ORESSAULA LACHN#A, 2. sp.
AaXVALOS , hairy.
o Q 24-28 mm. Head dark-fuscous with a few whitish hairs. Palpi dark-fuscous; internal surface whitish. Antenne dark-fuscous, ciliations in @ 2. Thorax dark- fuscous. Abdomen dark-fuscous: beneath mixed with whitish. Legs dark-fuscous mixed with whitish ; under- surface aiid spurs whitish. Forewings broadly triangular, costa somewhat arched at base, then straigh , apex rounded, termen bowed, oblique ; dark-fuscous irrorated with pale- ochreous ‘and more sparsely with milk-white scales ; cilia fuscous, apices whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-fuscous, towards base dark-fuscous; cilia as forewings.
Type in Coll., Lyell.
V. Mount Hotham, in February ; six specimens. Mr. Geo. Lyell writes: “‘1 took this species flying close to the ground on the extreme summit of Mount Hotham (just over 6,200 feet). 1 was a fast bustling flyer, and on account of its sombre colour, somewhat difficult to follow with the eye. A fortnight’s stay at Mount St. Bernard, at a couple of hundred feet lower elevation, failed to find it.’’
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THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
By J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.C. and L. A. MESTON.
PLATE X.
{Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, July 31st, 1912.)
At the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting in Brisbane in 1909, a paper was read by Mr. Henderson on “‘ The Freezing Point of Milk ; Its Usein the Detection of Added Water ”’ and the paper was published in the printed Proceedings of that meeting.
So many inquiries were subsequently made for copies of the paper that the Authors’ Copies have long since been exhausted, and it was thought advisable to put on record a more complete description of the work done on the subject at the Government Chemical Laboratory, Brisbane, and to record the results of the practical working of this process in a Foods Laboratory for over five years.
A short paper on the same subject by the same author was published in Vol. XIII. ot the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science.
No article of food has caused more trouble to food analysts than milk, firstly owing to the extremely import- ant place it holds as an article of diet, and then owing to the great variations in its composition. Attempts to regulate the quality by fixing a minimum standard at once led to the watering down of rich milk to that low standard.
166 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
The legal standard for milk in Queensland is :—** Milk shall be the normal, clean, and fresh secretion obtained by completely emptying the udder of the healthy cow, properly fed and kept, excluding that got during fifteen days immediately before, and ten days immediately following on, parturition. It shall contain not less than eight and five-tenths per centum of milk solids not fat, three and three-tenths per centum of milk fat, and not less than twelve parts per centum of total solids ; its freezing point shall not be higher than 0°55°C below zero.”
This is a distinct advance on the old 8.5 Solids not Fat and 3-0 per cent. Fat standard which almost invariably permitted the addition of at least 4:0 per cent. of water without the mixture falling below the standard. The average of the milk supply of Brisbane is 8-9 per cent. Solids not Fat, and 4:1 per cent. of Fat.
So far as we know this is the first occasion in the history of milk control that the freezing point has actually been included in the legal minimum standard, though on the continent of Europe its use by food analysts in judging the quality of milk is by no means new. It is worthy of note that in Queensland there is no “‘ appeal to the cow.” The law provides not only that the milk shall be pure and clean and from healthy cows, but that it shall reach the above noted composition. Pure milk, which owing to its being derived from herds of unsuitable breed or from herds badly fed, falls below the prescribed standard may not be sold in Queensland.
In the paper above referred to it was pomted out that the attempts to solve the problem of added water in milk by treatment of the milk serum had all proved of little practical value. The refractive index method of which most was expected has been shown to be of little use. The index reading varies between thirty-nine and _ forty-six, which means that a rich 46 milk might- have nearly 20 per cent. of water added to it ere falling below the 39 minimum. Apart from the manipulation difficulties which are not small, the range of readings on genuine milk makes the process of little value.
Since E. Beckmann (Milch Zeitung, 1894) drew atten-
tion to the constancy of the freezing point of milk, and Winter in 1895 reported his work confirming it, the results
BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I.6., AND L. A. MESTON, 167
of hundreds of thousands of analyses have added to the certainty of the position. The freezing point of fresh milk from a ae of cows seems never to vary further than from —0-55° C. —0°56° C. with a mean of —0°555° C.. The . maximum Fee represents about 2 per cent. of added water, while the working error of the process is less than 0-5 per cent. of added water.
Betore dealing with the details of the method, it might be well to note the reasons for the constancy of the freez- ing point of a substance of such variable composition as milk.
The freezing point of a solution of a substance in water depends mainly on the number of crystalloid ions dissolved in the solution.
Substances which are not in solution, like fat, do not affect the freezing point. As fat is the most variable component of milk, the most varying factor is removed from affecting the result. Substances also which are in ‘colloid ” solution such as the albumenoids affect the freezing point either not at all or only to a very slight extent, and in any case as the molecular weight of the albumenoids is very high, their relative effect on the freezing point is very small. i
Thus the second most variable constituent of milk does not appreciably affect the result. The milk sugar content of milk is fairly regular, bet again we are dealing with a substance of high molecular weight and with a correspondingly small effect on the freezing point.
It will thus be evident that we get down to the small proportion of other constituents ere we get the substances which control the freezing point, and it seems that these, as in the blood of nearly all animals, are almost perfectly constant in proportion.
The freezing point of milk is, therefore, not in any degree whatever a measure of the proportion of Total Solids or Solids not Fat present.
We have found milks of known genuine origin from small herds, with Solids not Fat 9-7 per cent. and 7-6 per cent. as well as those of normal composition give exactly —0:555° C. freezing ‘point.
168 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
The following references to work done on the freezing point of milk are worth noting :—
Dr. Barthel (‘‘ Methods used in the Examination of Milk and Dairy Products, 1910’) refers to the freezing point of milk as follows :—
“'This method of determining the amount of added water is very simple and perfectly reliable if carried out. carefully. It is remarkable that it has not found more general application, for it not only shows that water has been added, but gives also the amount with accuracy. The author has experimented with this method and is quite satisfied that the results are reliable, and that in agree- ment with Winter and Parmentier, Schnorf, and others, pure unadulterated milk never has a higher freezing point than —0-:54° C. This is independent of breed, individuality, sexual excitement, the amount of fat, etc., but avery small addition of water at once raises the freezing point.”
J. Cornalba (‘‘ On the Milks of Lombardy, Chemiker Zeitung, 1907-1909 *’) shows the constancy of the freezing point to fall between —0°55° C. and --0:56° C. He also points out that colostrum with salts ranging between. 0-9 per cent. and 1:12 per cent. gave normal freezing points.
J. Winter and E. Parmentier obtained from single cows freezing points varying from —0°54° C. to —0°57° C. The mixed milk from a herd never rose above -—-0°55° ©.
or fell below —0:56° C.
P. Ducross and H. Imbert (Bull. Sciences Pharmacal, 1905) obtained a value of -——-0°533° C. from a sick cow and a sample of milk from a cow in calf gave a freezing point of —0°535° C.
Beckmann & Jordis (Forschungs berichte uber Lebens- mittel, 1895, Vol. II.) found the average freezing point to be —0°554° C.
It seems that for the mixed milk of a herd there is variation between only —0°55° C. and —0°56° C., but for milk from single cows in a diseased or abnormal state wider variations may occur.
_ The freezing point method places us in a sound position ag regards the milk control. In the past, on the old standard an honest milk vendor was liable to be prosecuted for
BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON. 169
selling as watered milk, genuine milk which simply failed to reach the legal standard. On the freezing point test, we have been able to warn three vendors in the last three years that the milk they were vending was genuine but below the Jegal standard, and that they had better take steps to improve their herds by feeding or “ culling ” in order to meet the standard.
It has been pointed out by one or two critics of the freezing point method that the results can easily be masked by the addition of substances which depress the freezing point.
Any of the substances likely to be used in this direction can be readily detected by an analyst. Many tests at the disposal of the analyst are liable to be masked, and it is part of his duty to look out for this masking, as for example the masking of the heat test of explosives by the addition of mercuric chloride, the masking of Becchi & Halphen reactions for cotton seed oil by boiling the oil and other treatment, and the masking of MHehner’s reaction for formaldehyde by adding sodium. nitrite.
The freezing point is such a sensitive test however that if the ordinary dairyman did start tampering with the milk he would either add too little to cover the addition of water or add too much and make the freezing point abnormal.
For the last four years in the Government Chemical Laboratory, Brisbane, every legal sample of milk for prose- ¢cution purposes has been checked by this method, and most of the results are shown in Tables A. B., and C.
Table A. shows results obtained on legal samples of milk taken during the last three years, wherein an increased acidity had developed. When the milk becomes acid the larger molecules are decomposed into a number of smaller ones. The osmotic pressure increases and the freezing point is further depressed. Without this knowledge the results in Table A. would, make it appear that some of the samples were abnormal before watering, while others were only slightly above the legal standard of 85 S.N.F. The added water, however (calculated on the minimum
170 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
proportion of 0-5 per cent. nitrogen and 0-7 per cent. ash,: found in normal milk), is higher than that estimated from: the freezing point of the sample.
We have not done sufficient work to enable us to say whether any definite relationship exists between the. depression of the freezing point and the increase of acidity. It is very doubtful if any constant factor could be obtained to correct for the acidity as the fermentation products would vary with the nature of the ferment and the time and temperature of the reaction. Barthel states that the percentage of water can be determined fairly accurately if the acidity is 20° (Thorner) by adding 5 per cent. to the result of Winter’s formula. Figures obtained by us, on a small number of samples only, indicate that 1 per cent. increase of acidity covers the addition of 0-5 per cent. of water. It is to be noted that any error introduced by the increased acidity is entirely in favour of the milk vendor.
TABLE A.
|
> oO S. = | O
| Total | Fat. | Solids | Nitro- Ash ccs. Freezing | Added a
| Solids not Fat} gen n NaOH Point. ,0: eae
|. per per per per per lio oY 6 cn z al
| cent.:| cent. | cent. cent. cent. | per 100 | 8-5S.N.Fi 3S 2h
| | c.cs. milk Pts
EPP R ERIC Pato —— | — > —_—— ——| — — | -—_. —-_ oO
| ee aa
11-6 | 3-3. 8-3. | 0-47 | 0-68 | 20-0 :| —0-340 | (2-3 | 1:8 124.) -4°2°.18-2) | 0-47.) 0-66) |.18-4)) 0-517). aT eee D7 BO 18 +1 0:45 | 0-66 | 17-0 | —0-537 4°02 t 12-2 | 4-1 | 8-1 0-46 | 0-68 | 15-6 | —0-515 4-8 | 6-4: 10:8 | 3-0 |7-8 | 0-44 | 0-62 | 20-0 | —0-500 | 8-3 / 9-1] 10-6") °3-0 > | 7-6 0-42 | 0-63 | 24-0 | —0-527 | 12-9 | 4-1 9-5 ).2-0 17-5 0-41 | 0-64 | 17-6 | —0°520 | 11-8 | 5-4 8-8 | 2-5 16-3 | 0-36 | 0-50 | 17-6. | —0-435. | 25-5 [20-9
The acidity of milk is determined by Dr. Chapman’s method, using 25 c.cs. of milk, 100 c.cs. of water, and 1.c.c. of 0-1 per cent. of phenol phthalein solution and titrating with » NaOH. The normal acidity of milk by this method is about 13-5 c.es. 2, NaOH per 100 c.cs. of milk.
BY J. BROWNIE HENDERSON,, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON,
TABLE B.
171
Showing results from legal samples of milk obtained during the last three years, containing 8:5 per cent. and over of Solids not Fat.
Total Solids Solids Fat not Fat pel per cent. per cent | cent. | = Gd OE 14-8 5-1 | 9-7 Pee a ees OG 130% |) A] 9-5 13-4~'| 4-1) 9-3 13-3 | 4:1 9.2 14-2 | 5-0 | 9-2 Bee | aes 9-1 13-3 | 4-2 9-1 i2-8 | 3-7 9-] fees hs BZ 9-() my 5] 9-0 | 14-4 | 5-4 9-0 2 a ee eg 9-0 12-4 3-4 9-0 13-5 4-5 9-0 12-9 3-9 9-0 12-8 3°8 9-0 13-0 4-] 8-9 13°] 4-2 8-9 {13-2 4-3 8-9 | 12-9 4-0 8-9 13-3 4-5 8-8 11-3 2-5 8-8 12-8 | 4:0 8-8 12-5 | 3-7 8-8 12-8 | 4:0 8-8 13-3 | Ro eas 14-6 A-8e |. 8-8 13-6 | 4-8 8-8 12-9 | 4-1 8:8 12-6 | 3-9 8-7 13:3 | 4-6 8-7 \ 12-4 / 3°7 Sek 12-9 | 4-2 &-7 13-3 4-6 8-7 19-2 173-5 8°7 12-6 | 4-0 8-6 12-4. | 3-8 8-6 | ee am eee, 3 8-6 12-2 | 3°6 8-6 feee 36 8-6 il Sow | acl 8-6 12-2 3-6 8-6 12-3 Here Sie. 7 | 8-6 /12-6 =| 4-0 8-6 11-3 2-8 8-5 11:5 3°0 8°5 12-2 3°7 8+5 2b As eee i
Nitrogen |
per eent.
Or ~!
0+50
Q-
ls’
I Or
|
Freezing
R«
—0 —0
ryint.
i Ou Se St St Ot St Str Ot G1
COT Ss See Ot St Cr Sr Or
St St ie
Sto =
-550 -550 °547 °DAT7 “545 ain 4 -532 *530 -560 »5D50 » HAT
Added HO calculat- ed on, P ——()"550C per cent.
0-9 a
0-9
m bo
on be .. ome one 6
Ie Oo
| |
172 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
TABLE B—Continvgep.
Added Total Solids | Nitrogen Ash HO Solids Fat not Fat Freezing calculated per per cent. per per | sper Point. on F.P. cent. cent, cent. | cent. —0°55°C, | per cent. 12-1 3°6 | 85 —0.544 1-0 11:7 3-2 | 8-5 0-69 —(,544 1-0 12-0 3°5 | 8-5 —0-542 | 1-4 12-4 3-9 | 8-5 | —0-+540 1-8 | 12-0 2-5 | 8-5 | 0-7 0-540 | 1-8 12-6 40h)! BFR I —0+540 1-8 | 12-2 3-7 | Bh —0-+535 2°7 12:1 | 3-6. | 85 | | —0-532 | 3-2 | | 12-9 4-4 | 85 | 0 +530 3-6 12-5 4-0 | 855 | | 0-580 3-6 12-1 36 | 85 | | — 0-530 3°6 | 12-4 3-9 | 85 | O47 | OFT +528 | 4-0 12-3 3°S 85 0°7 —0 +527 4-1 | 12-3 ae. 8S | —0-593 | 4:8 12°5 4-0 | 85 0-71 —0-520 5-4 | 12-6 4°] | 8-5 | 0-74 —0 +520 | 5-4 ! . i
SUMMARY OF TABLE B. Results from 64 legal samples of milk obtained during the last three years, containing from 8-5 to 9-7 per cent. of Solids not Fat. |
6 Samples 9-2 to 9-7 per cent. Solids not Fat. All normal Freezing Point.
3 Samples 9-1 per cent. Solids not Fat 2 normal Freezing Point. 1 1-2 % Water.
8 Samples 9-0) per cent. Solids not Fat 5 normal Freezing Point. 3 less than 1°, Water.
4 Samples 8-4 per cent. Solids not Fat 2 normal Freezing Point. 2 less than 1-5 % Water.
9 Samples 8-8 per cent. Solids not Fat = 4 norma] Freezing Point. 5 from | to 5-4, Water.
6 Samples 8-7 per cent. Solids not Fat 3 normal Freezing Point. 3 from 2 to 7%, Water.
9 Samples 8-6 per cent. Solids not Fat 5 normal Freezing Point. 4 from | to 3-6 % Water.
19 Samples 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat 3 normal Freezing Point.
16 from 1 to 5-4 % Water.
The amount of watering is not appreciable until the Solids not Fat figure falls below 8-9 per cent., although there are genuine milks on every figure from 8°5 to 8-9 per cent. Solids not Fat. The greatest proportion of adulteration falls on the 8-5 figure, only 3 samples being genuine out of 19 received. The actual proportion of added water read off from Winter's table is given, as obviously for this comparison any working error of the process should not be taken into account.
BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.I,C., AND L. A] MESTON 173
TABLE C,
Showing results from legal samples of milk obtained during the last three years, containing under 8-5 per cent. of Solids not Fat.
| Added | Added
i Solids | HO | H-0 Total Fat Not |Nitrogen} Ash | Acidity | ealey- \Caleu- Solids Fat Freezing | | Jateq | lated per per per per Point. | ‘on 8.5 | _on cent. cent. per cent. cent. oC | S.N.F.| F.P cent | per per | | | cent. | cent alg Sah RCA Naat ick 2 ara el ae a a | | 11-8 | 3-5 | 8-3 | 0-40 | 0-70 | —0-520 | 2-6 5-4 Pie ds 4 893.- | O60 | 0-68 | —0-485 | 14-t | 3-0 | 11-8 11-1 | 2-8 | 8-3 | 0-45 | 0-66 | —06-480 | 30>) a2. 11-6 | 3-3 | 8-3 | 0-49 | 0-69 | —0-490 | 3-1 | 10-9 12-5 | 4-3 | 8-2 | 0-43 | 0-68 | —0-495 | 13-6 | 3-4 | 10-0 11-6 | 3-4 | 8-2 | 0-48 | 0-70 ] --0-530 3-5 | 3-6 10-, | 2-5 | 8-2 | 0-41 | 0-68 | —0-528 3-8 1050 11-5 | 3-3. | 8-2 | 0-49 | 0-66 | —0-530 | 14-0 | 4-0 3°6 11-3 |3-2 |8-1 | 0-47 | 0-70 | —0-594 14-5 | 467 11-5 | 3-4 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-66 | —0-480 4-6 | 12-7 11-2 | 3-1 | 8-1 | 0-48 | 0-68 | —0-510 4-7 m2 11-9 | 3-8 | 8-1 | 0-44 | 0-68 | —0-520 | 14-0 | 4-7 5-4 12-0 | 3-9 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-70} —0-505 12-0 | 4-7 8-1 11-4./ 3-3 | 8-1 | 0-48 | 0-68 | —0-517 | | 4-7 5-9 11-1 | 3-0 | 8-1 | 0-46 | 0-71 | —O-510 | 5-0 7-2 11-6 | 3-5 | 8-1 | 0-47 | 0-72 | —0-520 | 5-0 54 11-1 | 3-0 | 8-1 | 0-46 | 0-71 | —0-510 5-0 7-2 11-4 | 3-4 | 8-0 | 0-47 | 0-69 |. —0-497.| 13-2 | 5-9 9-6 11-8 | 3:8 | 8-0 | 0:44 | 0-67 | —0-505 | 12-0 | 5-9 8-1 1f-0°.|-3-0 | 8-0 | 0-49~ | 0-72 ; —0-525 | 12-0 5-9 4-5 11:1 | 3-1 | 8-0 | 0-44 | 0-69 | —0-515 | 12:0 | 5-9 6-3 10-9 | 2-9 | 8-0 | 0-48 | 0-63 : —0-475 5-9 | 13-6 10-5 | 2-6 | 7-9 | 0-41 | 0-70 | —0-460 | 6-6 | 16-5 11-0 | 3-1 | 7-9 | 0-45 | 0-64 | —0-490 7-1 | 10-9 11-2 | 3-3 | 7-9 | 0-45 | 0-65 | —0-470 | 7-1 | 14-5 11-0 | 3-2 | 7-9 | 0-46 | 0-62 | —0-475 7-9 | 13-6 11-5 13-7 17-9 | 0-44 0-67.| —0-500 | 12-8 | 7:6 | 9-1 11-8 |3-9 | 7-9 | 0-44 | 0-67 | —0-495 | 7-3 | 10-0 11-0. | 3-2. | 7-8 | 0-45. | 0-68 | —0-472 8-2 | 14-1 11-3 | 3-5 | 7-8 | 0-47 | 0-63 | —0-458 | 12-4 | 8-2 || 16-8 11-6 | 3-8 | 7-8 | 0-46 | 0-64 | —0-507 | 8-2 77 10-9 | 3-1 | 7-8 | 0-48 | 0-64 | —0-496 | 12-0 | 8-2 | 9-8 11-3 | 3-6 | 7-7 | 0-44 | 0-62 | —0-505 | 12-8 | 8:8 8-1 11-5 | 3-8 | 7-7. | 0-44 | 0-61 | —0-452:) 12-4 |10-1 17-7 11-2 | 3-5. 17-7 ' 0-46 | 0-63 | —0-470 | 9-4 | 14-5 es |. 3:6 7-7 "| 0-46 .| 0-65), 0 77 | 14-0 | 9-4 | 13-2 10-6 | 2-9 | 7-7 10.45 0-67 | —0-494 9-4 | 10-1 11-2 .|.3-5 «| 7-7 .|.0-46 | 0-66 | —O-484 9-4 | 11-9 TOPE abel TT | 0-45 0-63 | —0-492 Y-4 10-5 11-8 | 4-1 | 7-7 | 0-47 | 0-65 | —0-470 | 9-4 | 14-5 11-2 | 3-6 | 7-6 | 0-44 | 0-60 | —0-475.| 13-2 {10-1 3-6 10-2 | 2-6 | 7-6 | 0-41 | 0-65 | —0-465 | 13-0 (10-1 15-5 i) 11-6 | 4-0 | 7-6 | 0-49 | peel —O-502 | 12-0 10-4 8-7 | | |
174 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
TABLE C.—Contrinuep.
| mas Added | Added Sotids F:0 H;0O Total Fat not |N itrogen, Ash : : Acidity | caleu- | calecu- | Solid® Fat Freezing lated | lated 1 per per per per Point. | on 8°5 on i cent. cent. per cent. | cent. | eC. S.N.F.| F.P. i cent. per per | | cent cent. 10-6 | 3-0 | 7-6 | 0-43 | 0-64 | —0-502 10-6 | 8-7 10-8 3°35 1:5 0-46 0-65 | —O-467 11-8 | 15-] 10-9 | 3-4 | 7:5 |.0-44 | 0-62 | —0-448 112-2 | 184 | 10-2 | 2-8 | 7-4 | 0-41 | 0-63 | —0-500 ! 13-0 1. Oe14 | 10-2 | 2-9 | 7-3 | 0-42 | 0-61 | —0-477 [14-1 | 18-2 | 39-1 | 9-8 | 7-3 | 0-41 | 0-60 | —0-455 | 12-8 |14-1 | 17-3 | 9-7 | 2-4.) 7-84 | 0-62 | —0-455 14-1 | 17-3 | 10-1 | 2-9 | 7-2 | 0-42 | 0-60 | —0-451 5-3 | 17-9 10:0 | 2-8 | 7-2 | 0-41 | 0-58 | —0-433 | 12-0 [15-3 | 21-2 | 9-4 | 2-3 | 7-1 | 0-48 | 0-58 | —0-425 16-1 .| 22-7 10-1 | 3:0 | 7-1 | 0-41 | 0-64 | —0-440 16-1 | 20-0 1 10-0 | 3-0 | 7-0 | 0-41 | 0-56 | —0-433 7-7 | 21-2 1 10-0 | 3-0 | 7-0 | 0-38 | 0-54 | —0-425 \17+7 | 22-9 | 10-4 | 3-5 | 6-9 | 0-44 | 0-61 | —0-430 | 9-2 [18-2 | 21-8 | 9-6 | 2-8 | 6-8 | 0-39 | 0-57 | 0-425 | 120-5 | 22-7 | 8-9 | 2-2 | 6-7 | 0-38 | 0-56 | —0-420 | 14-0 [21-2 | 23-6 1 °9-8 13-6 | 6-2 | 0-41 | 0-54 | —0-407! 8-0 (26-8 | 25-9 | 7.7 | 1-9 | 5-8 | 0-36 | 0-48 | —0-377| 9-2 |31-8 | 31-4 | 5-9 | 1-9 | 4-0 | 0-25 | 0-37 Rouend 52-4 | 53-6 | 5B 1-5 | 3-8 | 0-23 | 0-33 ee 55-2 | 60-0 | i |
SUMMARY OF TABLE C.
Results from legal samples of milk obtained during
the last three years.
In 54 samples out of 63 the water shown by the freezing point is from 0-2 per cent. to 9-9 per cent. higher than that shown when calculated on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat, the average being 4 per cent. In 5 cases, the calculation of added water on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat and the freezing point are practically identical.
Tn the other 3 cases the added water on 8-5 per cent. Solids not Fat is from 1-7 to 3-9 per cent. lower than by the freezing point. In the 3-9 per cent. case the acidity was not determined.
A. A. Bonnerna (Zeitzchrift fur Nahrungs und Genus- mittel, 1908, X.V., page 34) points out an inaccuracy im Winter’s formula for calculating the percentage of added water :
Suppose a milk to contain W per cent. of water, then the cyrstalloids which cause the depression of the freezing point in 100 grams of milk are dissolved in W
BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON by 33
grams of water. If X grams of water are now added to 100 grams of milk, the cyrstalloids are dissolved in (W + X) grams of water.
Now let D be the observed freezing point of the
diluted milk expressed in — degrees Centigrade then 0-55 X W pt EU —W D
As the value W can easily be. calculated when the percentage of Fat and the specific gravity are known, the value of X can also be obtained.
This formula, however, is not accurate from a theoretical point of view, because on diluting with water the electrolytic and hydrolytic dissociation of the salts is increased and consequently the freezing point decreased. This error is, however, sufficiently compensated for practical purposes if the calculation is based on the volume instead of the weight. The error thus introduced compensates the one arising from the increased dissociation.
Kxamples of Bonnerna’s Formula.
MILK, Specific Gravity .. ae .. 1:0142 Total Solids (weighed) .. car BRD Freezing Point .. Ss -. . —0.255 0-55 X 94-] X =———_—-—_-— —94-]
-=/203 —94-1) X 100
SS
==93-64 per cent. Water by weight,
53-64 X 1-0142 = 54+4 per cent. Water by volume against 53:7 per cent. Water by volume calculated by Winrter’s formula,
MILK. Specific Gravity .. a «.. 1-0298 Total Solids - * eG YT Freezing Poimnt./... os 420° 0" 026 0-55 X 88-03 xX =——_—__—_—_— 88:03 0-526
=4-35 Water by weight.
—4-48 Water by volume against 4-32 Water by volume according to Winter’s Formula.
176 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
The following is a description of the method and apparatus that have been used in the Government Chemical Laboratory, Brisbane, for the last three years. The diagrammatic sketch shows the arrangement of the very simple apparatus required.
“A.” ig a stand made of wood 1 ¢.m. thick, 30 e.m. high, 31 ¢.m. wide and 18 ¢.m. deep. Two rests “B”™ at a height of 9 c.m. carry a movable shelf “ C.” on which the vessel containing the freezing mixture stands. We use a porcelain beaker “ D.”’ 16 c.m. high by 10 ¢.m. wide for a freezing vessel, and tie around it for insulation, a roll of flannel to the thickness of about one inch.
A circular hole ** E.” centrally situated in the top of the stand carries the milk tube “ FF.” We use a flat bottomed tube 14 c.m. deep and 3 ¢.m. diameter for holding the milk sample. We find it much easier to get agreeing results with this size of tube than with the longer round bottomed tube recommended by Winter.
The indiarubber cork has two perforations for carry- ing thermometer and stirring rod_ respectively.
The first thermometer we used was a Beckmann graduated in ,\,ths.. The special thermometer devised by Winter for this work was subsequently obtained from Paris, but we found the Beckmann easier to read. For the last year, a thermometer graduated in ,},ths, a degree covering 8°5 c.m. of the stem, and specially made for us of normal glass by the V.F.L. has been used and gives ‘splendid results. The trouble of having to occasionally readjust the mercury of the Beckmann has been avoided, while the true zero point which is determined afresh, at least once every day on’ which the thermometer is used, has not varied more than 0-02° C. A small telescope “H”” is used for reading the thermometer. The telescope is mounted on the stand in the usual manner. ‘The stirrer ‘‘K.”’ is a brass rod 2 m.m. in diameter, the spiral part being partly flattened out and armed with four small points of wire to break up the ice formed in standardising.
In practice, 50 ces. of each milk to be tested is put into a tube, titted with a cork, and the tubes are put into crushed ice and allowed to remain there (generally standing in the
BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F£.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON 177
ice chest) until required. By this means the freezing of each sample is started close to 0° C. While the samples are cooling, the freezing mixture is prepared. The ice is conveniently prepared from the ice block by means of the usual ice plane. Alternate layers of ice and salt (3: 1) are added until the porcelain beaker is filled. When about half filled, an empty “ milk ” tube is put into the middle of the beaker and the mixture packed around this tube. On removing the empty tube when the beaker is filled, there is no difficulty in inserting the tube containing the milk sample. After filling the beaker, the shelf is put in position on the rests and the beaker put on it. A tube containing a sample is then put through the hole in the top of the stand into the freezing mixture. The indiarubber cork is inserted, carrying the thermometer and -+the stirrer. The thermometer has been so adjusted that the bottom ot the thermometer is about 2 c.m. from the bottom of the tube when the cork is in position.
The stirrer is now worked up and down continuously at the rate of from one to two complete movements per second to preveut the formation of a solid block of frozen milk in the tube as the temperature falls. As a rule the mercury will rapidly fall to a point below the true freezing point of the milk (surfusion of the milk), and then rapidly rise and become almost stationary ; the highest point of the rise after the fall will be found to be very close to the true freezing point. When the tube has become partly filed with finely broken up frozen crystals-—(experience with the method soon enables one to judge of the correct proportion of crystals to have in the liquid)—the porcelain beaker containing the freezing mixture is removed by withdrawing the shelf C and lowering the beaker and the hand put round the tube ‘*G.” so that its warmth may cause a rise in temperature, the stirrer being worked very gently until there is a rise of about ,2,ths on the thermometer scale. The hand is now removed and the milk well stirred so as to surround the thermometer bulb with crystals of frozen milk.
The stirring is stopped and the temperature observed- the mercury will slowly fall, and when it becomes stationary the reading is taken, but should not be taken as final unless if remains constant for at least two minutes.
Wi
178 THE FREEZING POINT OF MILK.
The position on the thermometer scale of the freezing point of water is determined in exactly the same way as in the case of milk, distilled water being first placed in one of the tubes “ F.”’ and cooled in a mixture of ice and water. Particular care, however, must be taken to break up the ice formed and to prevent the formation of a shell of ice round the sides and bottom of the tube. The fine ice should extend from the surface to the bottom of the thermometer bulb to ensure a good reading. It is much easier to deter- mine the freezing point of a milk than that of water, owing to the fact that “ milk” crystals are easily kept small, while water always tends to freeze in one lump. “lhe difference between the freezing point of the distilled water and that — of the milk on the thermometer, gives the freezing point of the milk.
For deducing the proportion of added water from the determined freezing point, the following table, extended from Winters, is used.
BY J. BROWNLIE HENDERSON, F.1.C., AND L. A. MESTON
179
Table giving the number of ccs. of added water per Lhitre of Milk examined, corresponding to the temperatures —°550 to —°351° C. (Les nouveaute’s chimiques pour, 1905
page 276, par Winter.)
—
. bad hm 4 eee hee e| 2 S C S S 8 ge g S Fen o, meee SS ; Zz = eS i ee |e 235 [ees |S35| See |ESS( sas | ETE BPs | SHS Seal SESW SES] Heal aes
=] ete oH | Om om] (| oO SGQ | adel Ssoo| as || S52) S_& || Soe S@,/|s Siiagenl] aut las2z!l 3S i asa So hoe | Soa ise Hl hes. Se eS s ace tela |e o| 2S BH #|/ 2s a & So | we on od meee Eo Be e/18 S) © ni x eu e Qa (am) = (ax)
i}
550 0 510 (ee "470 | 145°4 430 °549 1.8 509 74°5 469 | 147°3 429 548 3.6 508 76°4 “468 | 149°1 428 ° 547 5.4 507 78°2 "467 | 150°9 427 *546 7.3 506 80°0 || °466 | 152°7 426 545 9,1 505 81°8 “465 | 154°5 425 544 | 10.9 504 83°6 || °464 | 156°3 424 543 | 12.7 503 85°4 °463 | 158°2 423 542 | 14.5 502 87°3 ‘462 | 160°0 422 541 | 16.3 501 89°1 “462 3) L618 421 540 | 18.2 || -500 | 90:9 || -460 | 163-6 || -420 539 | 20.0 499 | 92°7 || °459 | 165-4 || -419 538 | 21.8 498 94°5 || °458 | 167°5 °418 bon | 23.0 497 96°4 || °457 | 169°1 417 536 | 25.4 496 98°2 456 | 170°9 416 535 | 27.2 || -495 | 100°0 “A255: lene "415 534 | 29.1 494 | 101°8 "454 | 174°5 414 533 | 30.9 493 | 103°6 453) |) LiGee 413 532) | 32.2 492 | 105°4 4527 | Ss a 412 531 | 34.5 491 | 107°2 451 | 180°0 411 530 | 36.4 || -490 | 109°1 450 | 181°8 410 529 | 38.2 489 | 110°9 449 | 183°6 409 528 | 40.0 498 | 112°7 448 | 185°4 408 527 | 41.8 487 | 114°5 447 | 187°3 "407 526 | 43.6 486 | 116°4 446 | 189°1 “406 525 | 45.4 485 | 118°2 445 | 190°9 “405 524 | 47.3 484 | 120°0 444 | 192°7 404 523 | 49.1 483 | 121°8 443 | 194°5 °403 522 | 50.9 482 | 123°6 442 | 196°4 “402 Bee 52.7 481 | 125°4 441 198°2 “401 520 | 54.5 480 | 127°3 440 | 200°0 400 519 | 56.3 479 | 129°1 439 | 201°8 *399 "518 |.58 52 478 | 130°9 438 | 203°6 *398 olr |, 60.0 ATE \eloged 437 | 205°4 °397 516 | 61.8 || -476 | 134°5 || -436 | 207-3 | 396 515 | 63.6 475 | 136°4 435 | 209°1 °395 514 | 65.4 || °474 | 138°2 434 | 210°9 *394 518 | 67.3 || -473 | 140°0 430 [20S 2e °393 512 | 69.1 472 | 141°8 432) | 204-5 *392 *51T 70.9 AG le L43°7 431 216°4 °391
added
Water in 1 Litre of
of Sample.
ces
283°
~
on
i=) PADSWEUNTNOR WE AODWODW PUNTO OR AODONW ROINTORM OO RO DOb
285°
287°3 289-1
Temperature
observed. Degrees below zero.
*361 *360 *359 *358 *357 *356 355 “354 °353 *352 *351
ecs of added Water in 1 Litre of
Sample.
DOW MUAAMSHWRADONEUTSHWRADON ROUSE WRADONRAIS
180 THE PREBZING POINT OF MULK
' SUMMARY.
(1). We find that the freezing point of pure fresh milk saroples from herds of cows in Southern Queensland never shows & greater variation than from —055°C to —0-56°O, the mean being —O0:525°C. This is exactly in accord with Continental experience.
(2). The freezing point determines with accuracy, the proportion of water added to any milk from a herd, and distinguishes with sbsolute certainty the watered rich milk from the naturally poor milk.
Proc. Roy. Soo., Vou. XXIV. Prara X~
er.
On ee
en
.
~ PROCEEDINGS
| ROYAL SOCIETY
OU eta Sree ND.
!
VOLK.
1914, | | |
; PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY , | 4 - H. POLE #.CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE.
My VEE NU Ve:
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
QUBEPNSLAN DTD.
VOLi gaex NY .
PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY BY
H. POLE & CO., PRINTERS, ELIZABETH STREET, BRISBANE
1914.
Bist = =
Royal Society of Queensland
Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY SIR WILLIAM MacGREGOR, M.D., G.C.M.G., C.B., Etc.
OF FIGEreswe1913.
President: H. C. RICHARDS, M.Sc.
Vice-President : J. SHIRLEY, D. Sc.
Hon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary: J. C. BRUNNICH, F-I.C. F. BENNETT.
2
Hon. Librarian: T. HARVEY-JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.
Members of Council: E. C. BARTON, A.M.I.C.E. E. H. GURNEY P. L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E. PROFESSOR PRIESTLEY J. F. BAILEY.
Trustees: HON. A. NORTON, M.L.C. JOHN CAMERON HON. A. J. THYNNE, M.L.C.
Hon Auditor: GEO. WATKINS.
CONTENTS.
Tue INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AS A FAcTOR IN
NATIONAL PROGRESS (Presidential Address) —
P. L. Weston, B. Sc., B.E., 26th March, 1913
On AN EASY AND CERTAIN METHOD OF HATCHING
CeRATODUS Ova—Thos. L. sae M.B., 29th
April, 1913
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GasTEROPODA —John Shirley, D.Sc., F.M.S., 27th June, 1913 ue iy
NOTES ON THE CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF EREMO- PHILA MacuLata— Frank South, BSe; FT Aes 26th August, 1913
THE PLANTS OF Mast-HeEap IsLanp— H. A. Longman, 27th June, 1913
UNDERGROUND WaTERS (1.)—Thomas Parker, F.GS., 27th May, 1913
UNDERGROUND WartTERS (II.)— Thomas Parker, F.G.S., 26th August, 1913
Pace
vl
13
17
25
31
PROCEEDINGS
OF '\HE
Annual Meeting of Members,
Held at University on Wednesday, March 26th, 1913, at 8 p.m.
The Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the ‘Queensland University, Wednesday, March 26th, 1913, at 8 p.m. The President (P._L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E.) occupied the chair, and there was a good attendance of members.
Apologies from Messrs. W. R. Parker and J. Shirley, D.Sc., were read. :
The Minutes of the previous Annual Meeting were read and confirmed.
The Hon. Secretary then read the accompanying Report for 1912, which was adopted on the motion of Mr. E. @. Barton, seconded by Mr. F. Bennett. The’ Financial Report (as herewith), was moved by Mr. J. C. Briinnich (Hon. Treasurer), seconded by Mr. Weston, and carried.
Mr. J. B. Henderson, F.I.C., urged the necessity of binding much of the Library matter when funds allowed. The Secretary urged that this could not be done till the membership increased, as the expense of publishing valuable papers absorbed practically all the revenue. Mr. E. C. Barton suggested popular science lectures, and personal propaganda as means towards increasing the membership.
To tHE MEMBERS OF THE Royat Socrery or QUEENSLAND. Your Council have pleasure in submitting their Report for the year 192. The Ordinary Monthly Meetings have been held as shown in Appendix B. Eight Council Meetings have been beld during the year, at which the attendance was as shown in Appendix A.
ii. REPORT OF COUNCIL.
During the year 17 members were admitted, and 5 re- signed. This shows a satisfactory increase in the membership. We have no deaths to regret. .
C. Hedley, Esq., F.L.8., was elected an honorary member. We have now on our Roll 14 honorary members, and ordinary members, 112. See Appendix D.
Special inducements were offered to Science students at the University, but there was not the response expected. This may come after the present year, when the Science students, having finished their University Course, will have time for original research work
Vol. XXIII. part ii. of our Proceedings was issued during the year, and proved a valuable volume, several of the articles published arousing wide-spread interest and remark. The forth- coming volume is likely to be of considerable scientific value, and will give evidence of a valuable year’s work.
As foreshadowed in our last Report, considerable expense was entailed in connection with the Library. £4 was spent in shifting it, and £12 in re-arranging, the latter work beiny yet to be completed. Dr. Harvey Johnston took charge in place of Mr. C. T. White, on the removal of the Library to the Univer- sity. The services of Mr. White in the past are thankfully acknowledged, and the energetic efforts of Dr. Harvey Jonnston much appreciated. The systematic acknowledgment of all -HMxchanges received has increased the Librarian’s Postage Account. During Dr. Harvey Johnston’s absence, Mr. D. C. Gillies is acting as Librarian.
The increase in Library expenses has lowered our Credit Balance despite the increased membership, but this expense will not recur. The forthcoming volume of Proceedings is to be issued without delay, at an earlier date than usual, and it would help the Council to defray its cost if subscriptions were forwarded earlier than usual. The President’s Address and this Report will not appear in the volume, as that would delay its issue, but in the next volume.
Our Representatives at the Melbourne Meeting of the Austr. Assn. for the Ad. of Science were Professor Priestley and H. C. Richards, M.Sc.
PERCY L. WESTON, B.Sc., B.E., President. FY BENNETT, Hon. Seeretary
3rd. February, 1913.
REPORT OF COUNCIL. iii.
APPENDIX A.
ATTENDANCE oF CounciL, 1912.
slial Office. Name. fn a Remarks. of | © oS | as President .. | P.L. Weston, B.Se., B.E.| 6 Vice-President .. | H. C. Richards, M.Se. .. 7 Hon. Treasurer | J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. 5 Hon. Secretary.. | F. Bennett 9 Hon. Librarian |T. Harvey Johnston, 5 | M.A., D.8e. / ee Brownlie Henderson,,; 7 | gate he Be 0 Members of J. Shirley, D.Sc... 5 eel Council Prof. Priestley ... 1 K. H. Gurney 7 J. F. Bailey 2
APPENDIX Bb. List or Papers, Erc., Reap purine 1912.
No.| Date. Title. Author. 1912. 1 | Mar 25 | National Waste (Presidential Address)| J. Brownlie Hender- son, F.1.C. 2|Apl 24|1 An Extinct Crater near Herberton | R. C. Ringrose, M.A. 2 Critical. Census of Australian
Mallophaga T. Harvey Johnston,. © List of Mallophaga found i) M.A., D.Se., and
vo
Native and Introduced Animals L. Harrison. in Australia
3 | May 29/1 Revision of Queensland Lichens | J. Shirley, D.Sc. 2 Exhibit—New Mineral from North | F. E. Connah, F.I.C. Queensland P iy 3 Exhibit—Entozoa . ie .. | T. Harvey Johnston, , D.Se.. 4 |June26|1 Entozoa .. 8 ite -. | T. Harvey Johnston. M.A., D.Sc. 2 Freshwater Fish of i poem Allan McCulloch. 3 Ceratodus .. ‘ oe -- | D. O’Connor 5 | July 31 | 1 Queensiand Shells.. : 2 Exhibit—A Poisonous J. Shirley, b.w . don 3 The Freezing Point of Milk ... | O. Meston & J. Brown-
lie Henderson, F.I.C. 6 | Oct 2 The Burdekin Valley and Certain| E. O Marks, B.A,. Physiographic Theories. . ns B.E.
A Beetle that takes in Ballast .. | F. P. Dodd.
Notes on the Westralian egskg A. Jeffries Tarner,. tera (Pyralide) .. ; M.D., F.E.S.
3 Census of Australian Pediéulids. . T. Harvey Johnston,
M.A., D.Se. and L.
Harrison
Ne
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REPORT OF COUNCIL. ¥
APPENDIX D. LIST OF MEMBERS.
(1912.)
Honorary AND CorRRESPONDING Mempers (14.)
Dr. Cockle; A. Liversidge, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S.; Rev. F.R. M. Wilson J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; H. J. Jensen, D.Sc; Rev. G Brown, D.D.; A. Gibb- Maitland, Government Geologist, W.A.; Professor E. W. Skeats; Professor- EK. H. Rennie ; Professor J. A. Pollock; Dr. K. Domin. (Czech University),.
Prague; Dr. Danes (Czech University),
David, C. Hedley, F.L.S.
Ornpinary Mempers (112) ;
Archer, R. S.
Badger, J. 8.
Ball, L.C., BE. *+Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., C.M.G. Bailey, J. F.
Barton, E. C., A.M.I.C.E. Bell; byte.
Bennett, F.
Briinnich, J. C., F.I.C. Brydon, Mrs.
Bundock, Miss Alice Bundock, C. W., B.A. Byram, W. J. +Cameron, John Cameron, W. E., B.A. Colledge, W. R.
Collins, Miss Jane Collins, R, M.
Connah, F. E., F.I.C. Cooper, Si: Pope A., C.J. Costin, C. W.
Cowley, R. C.
Dempsey, J. J.
Denham, H. G., M.A., D.Sc.,Ph.D.
Dunstan, Benj.
Eglinton, Dudley, F.R.A.S. Eglinton, Miss Hilda Elkington, J. S.C, M.D., D.P.H. Fewings, P. P.
Forrest, Hon. E. B.
Fraser, C. S.
+Gailey, Richard
Gibson, Hon. Angus, M_L.C. Gore-Jones, E. R. Greenfield. A. P.
*+Griffith, Sir S. W. Gurney, E. H.
Halst:-ad, W. H Hamlyn-Harris, R., D.Se.,
F.R.M.S., F.L.S., F.E.S. Harvey- Sabuskon, T., M.A., D.Se. Henderson, J. Brownlie: F.I.C.
Hirschfeld, Eugen, M.D. Holland C. W. Hopkins, G., M.D.
*Members of Philosophical Society.
Prague; Professor T. Edgeworth
Live Memperrs (14)
Hiilsen, R.
Hunt, G. W.
Illidge, Rowland
fdecs, Bo OL. Le DEG E-R.G:S.
Jackson, A. G.
Johnston, Jas.
Kenny, F. Hamilton, M.D.
Lambert, C. A
Lennon R. T.
Lindsay, W.
Longman, H A.
Lord, F.
Love, Wilton, M.B.
Lueag, T. P., L.B.C:P.
Lusby, 8S. G., M.A.
Lyons, R. J., B.A.
His Excellency Sir William: MacGregor, M.D., D.Sc.,. G.C.M.G! C.B., &c.
Marks, Hon. C. F., M.D., M.L.C..
Marks, E. O., B.A., B.E.
May, H. W., B.E.
May, T. H., M.D.
Michie, J. L., M.A.
Murray-Prior, Mrs.
McCall, T., F.I.C.
McConnel, E. J.
McConnell, Eric W.
McConnel, J. H.
Morris, Leon, A.M.I.C.E., Eng.
Morton, C. R.
+Norton, Hon. A., M.L.C.
Oakes. A. W.. B.A.
Pani): EC. PhD.
Parker. 'l'., F.G.S.
Parker, W. R.
Parnell, 'T' , M.A.
Plant, Hon. E. H. T., M L.C.
Pound, C. J., F.R.M.S.
Priestley, H. J., M.A.
*Raff, Hon. Alex, M.L.C.
Rands, W. H., F.G.S.
Reid, D. E.
Kichards, H. C., M.Sc.
+Life Members.
Vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,
List of Members—(Continued)
!
Riddell, R. M. +Stevens, Hon. E. J., M.L.C. +Roe, R. H., M.A. Sutton, A., M.D. Ryan, J. P., M.D. tSutton, J. W. Sankey, J. R. Swanwick, K. ff., B.A., L.L.B. Saunders, G. I., B.E. Taylor, Hon. W. F. ., M.D., M.L.C. Schild, S. D., A.S.A.S.M. Thynne, Hon. A. J.. M.L.C.
(Adelaide) furner, A. Jefferis, M.D., F.E.S. +Schneider, H., M.A. Watkins, Geo. ‘ Shirley, John, D.Sc. +Weedon, Warren Smith, F., B.Sc., A.I.C. Weston, P. L., B.Se., B.E. Spark, E. J., M.D. White, C. T. Spenceley, T. White, Jean, D.Sc. +Steele, T., F.L.S., F.E.S. Willcocks, G. C.
Steele, B. D., D.Se. ” Assoc1aTE MEMBER, Gillies, D. C.
Miss Freda Bage, M.Sc., and A. B. Walkon were pro- posed as new members, by Messrs. Henderson and Richards, respectively. Mr. J. W. Watkins, proposed by J. Shirley, D.Sc., was unanimously admitted as a member.
The President then delivered his retiring address.
THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AS A FACTOR IN NATIONAL PROGRESS.
The subject which I have chosen for my address is perhaps of too technical a nature to prove of general in- terest on such an occasion, but, as it rarely falls to the lot of an engineer to have the honour of presiding over this society, the choice of an engineering subject might be excused just for once. In vain did | search for some subject of a more suitable and catholic a nature, such as the question of national waste which produced such an interesting and instructive address from our preceding president, Mr. Henderson. My subject to-night is in one particular direction a sequel to Mr. Henderson’s address, inasmuch as it deals with means for minimising the na- tional waste in one important direction—viz., fuel con- ‘sumption.
My theme deals with the influence of the internal combustion engine on national progress and develop- ment. It is perhaps hardly necessary to point out that.
| Life Members.
BY P.-L. WESTON, . BSC., B.E. VII.
the onward march of civilisation is marked by an ever insistent demand for power. The immense progress of
the past century is largely to be attributed to the de- velopment of the steam engine, which has reigned su-
preme as a prime mover or machine for the production of mechanical power since the days of Watt. There are
many signs, however, that this supremacy is being seri- ously challenged by the internal combustion engine, mainly by reason of its superior efficiency as a heat en- gine or apparatus for turning the energy of fuel into mechanical power. We know from a study of the theory of heat engines that of the total energy to be derived from the combustion of fuel not more than about 15 per cent. can be converted into mechanical work by the combination of a steam boiler and steam engine or tur-
bine, whereas with an internal combustion engine as
much as 35 per cent. of the fuel energy can be converted into useful work. Hence it is safe to assume that the promise of the future lies with the engine having the higher intrinsic efficiency, and in the same way as the 19th century can be aptly ealled the steam age so the 20th century seems destined to merit the designation of the gas age. The term gas engine can for the sake of brevity be used to inelude all forms of internal combus- tion engines.
Except in a few favoured localities where water power is available power has to be mainly de-
‘rived from the combustion of fuel of various
kinds, of which coal is the chief. Consequently one of the most important of a nation’s assets lies in its stores of fuel and the rate of consumption is so rapid that the question of the conservation of fuel resources is one of ever increasing urgency. From time to time we have pointed out the inevitability of the early depletion of our coal and other natural fuels, especially of the higher grades, but unfortunately too little heed is paid to this matter of vital national importance. Fortun- ately much of the present waste of fuel can be minimised by the adoption of the internal combustion engine, with its superior economy and adaptability to use low grade fuels, which are at present discarded. The economic import-
VIII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
ance of doing this can hardly be over-estimated. Owing to a number of varying factors this problem presents it- self in a different aspect in every country.
In Australia, with its limited population and manu- racturing industries, together with a fairly plentiful supply of coal, the necessity for economising fuel has not been so pronounced as in most other older countries. Consequently we are far behind these places in the use of the gas engine. I faney we hardly realise the extent of the development that has taken place on the Con- tinent in this direction. In order that success can be achieved with gas engines of any considerable size the local conditions have to be carefully taken into account, more especially with regard to the nature of the avail- able fuel. Very little has so far been done in Australia in this direction, and there is scope for much investiga- tion of local coals, ete. Other countries, notably Ger- many, under stress of dear fuel conditions, have success- fully utilised fuels which previously were of no commer- cial value. For instance, gas engines are being success- fully operated on mine refuse containing as high as 80 per cent. of non-combustible matter, and peat and hg- nite containing 50 per cent. of water.
Such fuels are absolutely useless for steam-raising purposes. The waste gases from coke ovens, blast fur- naces, and even copper smelters are also very extensively used for operating gas engines. We have had pointed out to us the possibility of more economically using Ips- wich coal for various power requirements in Brisbane by generating electricity at the pit’s mouth from inferior fuel instead of transporting higher grade coal to the me- tropolis. Of the economy and feasibility of such a scheme there can be little doubt in the technical mind, ‘but before such a project can eventuate it is generally neces- sary for the public to appreciate the value of the pro- posal. In the case of water power, the man in the street rarely fails to discern the potentialities of a handy water- fall, and henee it is usually comparatively easy to get such a scheme developed. For instance, if we had a Barron Falls at Ipswich it would no doubt have been harnessed for Brisbane’s needs long ago. It may ocea-
BY P. L. WESTON, B. SC., B.E. x*
sion surprise to many to learn that even in our present state of knowledge power could probably be produced by gas engines at Ipswich at a price which would com- pare with the cost of the average water power scheme with its expensive hydraulic engineering works. Water power is comparatively scarce in Australia, and for that reason our engineers should be fully alive to the possi- bilities of the gas engine as a source of cheap power.
In this respect I may mention that the manufacture of calcium carbide, which is usually considered to be commercially possible only when cheap water power is available, is now being successfully carried on in New South Wales with gas engines using coke as fuel. There seems to be every probability of metallurgical coke being produced at Ipswich in large quantities in the near fu- ture, and the generation of power from the oven gases would appear to be a natural sequel. When one looks into the commercial use of gas and other internal com- bustion engines the most noticeable feature is the rela- tive searcity of engines of large or even moderate size. The cause of this is that all internal combustion engines: show up to best advantage when in comparatively small units, say, below 200 horse power. Larger units show ao inerease, either in fuel consumption or first cost per brake horse power, while increase of size is accompanied. by greatly increased difficulty of construction and opera- tion.
This is in marked contrast to the steam engine, and more especially the steam turbine, as, in both these types of prime movers increase of size is accompanied by de- crease of fuel consumption and capital cost per horse- power, while difficulties of construction and operation do not materially increase. As a result gas engines over about 200 horse-power capacity are almost as rare as steam turbines under this capacity. These intrinsic dif- ferences between gas and steam engines are due solely to the higher temperature of the working fluid in the gas engine. In the steam plant the fuel is burnt in the boiler furnaces at a temperature of, say, 1200 degrees Centi- grade, and the heat transmitted.to the working fluid, steam. which enters the engine at, say, 200 degrees Centi- grade.
x. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
In the internal combustion engine the working fluia is air, which is heated by the direct combustion of the fuel inside the cylinder to as high as 1700 degrees or 1800 degrees Centigrade. Since the working parts could not, for obvious reasons, be allowed to attain this tempera- ture, the positive cooling of the cylinder walls is a prac- tical necessity. In the steam engine the temperatures are easily dealt with, and the abstraction of heat from the cylinder walls is to be avoided as being merely a source of waste.
Since increase of cylinder dimensions means a de- erease in the ratio of area of cylinder walls to eylinder volume, it will be seen that, whereas this condition is desirable in a steam engine, in a gas engine it merely leads to practical difficulties in keeping the temperature of the working parts within a practical limit. For in- stanee, when the diameter of a gas engine cylinder is greater than about 20in. it becomes necessary to water cool the moving piston, whereas in smaller sizes water jacketting of the cylinder walls is quite sufficient. In large cylinders also the increased thickness of metal re- quired to resist the explosion pressure leads to liability to severe internal strains, due to unequal expansion of the metal, and pistons and cylinders have frequently eracked from this cause. In addition to the above troubles with large gas engines, the fuel used in the majority of the larger size units was either coke oven gas or blast furnace gas, and it was not properly realised that efficient purification of such gas was necessary to avoid fouling of the engine.
The result has been that the large gas engine has in the past gained an unenviable reputation for unrelia- bility of operation. Profiting, however, from past experi- ences, designers have now been able to produce large gas engines for various classes of land service which ap- proach very closely the reliability of operation of good steam engines. It must not be supposed, however, that the one class of engine will satisfy all classes of service. Many of the failures to secure satisfactory service have been due to the attempt to apply the one class of engine to all classes of work. Now, in steam engine practice, very
BY P. L. WESTON. B.BC., B.E. XI.
widely differing types of engine have been evolved for dif- ferent kinds of work and the same process of evolution is now taking place, and already many standard designs have been produced. The largest engines at work are those to be found in most modern iron smelting works in America and on the Continent. In the largest of these installations the power of the engines aggregates 150,000 horse power. The economy of using the gases escaping from the blast furnaces has in many cases re- duced the cost of the production of pig-iron by 2 or 3 per cent.
The efforts of designers are now being mainly con- ecentrated on the problem of adapting the internal com- bustion engine in large sizes to marine work. This is a matter which I think is worthy of special comment on this oceasion, because probably the most noteworthy en- gineering achievement of the term of my presidency has been the birth of the motor ship. The pioneer ship of any considerable size to be fitted with internal combus- tion engines was the Zealandia, launched early in 1912; and during the same year no less than nine other ocean- going ships were launched. It is perhaps a matter for national regret that, though the British engineer led the way in the development of the marine steam engine, and later on the marine steam turbine, yet in the matter of the marine internal combustion engine the pioneers have been chiefly Swedish, German, and other continental engineers. There is, however, every indication that the English engineer and shipowner will before very long make up the leeway, and it is pretty safe to prophesy that before long the public will have to get reconciled to the disappearance of the familiar funnel from the ocean tramp and other low powered craft. Whether it will be feasible to produce internal combustion engines of suit- able size for the high powered liner and battleship is a matter about which it would now be premature to ex- press an opinion, It must be remembered that the work- ing fluid in an internal combustion engine is actually white hot flame, and when one considers the amount of heat being produced in the numerous furnaces of a big liner and realises that to produce the same power in an
XII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
internal combustion engine approximately half as mucky heat has to be generated as white hot flame inside the cylinders themselves, the problem of doing so is seen to: be of no mean order.
At present the marine engine is invariably of the: Diesel oil engine type, and so far satisfactory operation: has been secured in sizes up to 200 to 300 horse power per cylinder. As the Diesel engine is unique among in- ternal combustion engines, and has only recently become prominently under the notice of the lay public, a brief description of its peculiar features may not be out of place. In other forms of internal combustion en- gines, the fuel which may be combustible gas or oil in a state of vapour or minutely subdivided is: drawn into the eylinder together with the air necessary for combustion. This charge of explosive mix- ture is then compressed by the return stroke of the piston and caused to ignite at the proper instant by electric spark or other suitable means.
In the Diesel engine, however, the fuel charge is not admitted to the cylinder until the end of the compressiom of the cylinder charge. The compression of any gas is accompanied by rise of temperature, and in the case of the Diesel engine the compression is carried to such a degree that the air in the cylinder is red hot before the oil fuel is injected into it. In this way ignition and per- fect combuston are secured without any separate ignition device. Incidentally a higher degree of economy in fuel consumption is secured by the high compression pres- sure than is possible in other forms of internal combus- tion engines and, more important still, cheap erude oils: and even tar oils can be readily used. The consumption of oil per brake horse power is less than half a pound per hour as compared with, say, three times this weight. — of coal which the steam engine requires for the same out- put. The gain in saving of cargo space by the adop- tion of the Diesel engine is then obvious and also the desirability of eliminating the steam boiler and the stok- ers to feed it. |
BY PLL. WESTON, B. SC., B.E. XIII.
There are other advantages, such as the ease of handling liquid fuel and the instant readiness for start- ing of the Diesel, as compared with the time required to get up steam in a boiler. It seems improbable that the steam turbine will be superseded by the internal com- bustion engine for some time to come where very large ' powers are concerned, but the present limits are bound to be exceeded, and the present rate of the development of the latter engine is surprisingly rapid. Perhaps here in Australia we can hardly realise the progress béing made on the other side of the world in this direction, and
especially on the Continent. It is a remarkable fact that in Germany the manufacture of steam engines has almost
been abandoned, and the works are turning out instead gas and Diesel engines, the latter mostly adapted to operate on tar oil. There are approximately 30 German firms manufacturing Diesel engines, while Britain has only three makers.
Much work remains to be done in connection with investigating the best means of utilising various classes of fuel in internal combustion engines. In Germany a State commission has been constituted to deal with this problem. This is an example which might well be fol- lowed in every country, since each locality has its own particular kinds of fuel. Ordinary bituminous coal ean be prepared for use in internal combustion engines in several ways. It can be gasified in various forms of pro- ducers, which turns both the fixed carbon and the vola- tile constituents into fixed gases, or other forms of pro- ducers may be used, which leave the tarry vapours to be condensed into creosote, benzol and other distillate oils. The benzol will no doubt very largely replace petrol for motor car engines and similar purposes, while the heavier oils ean be used in Diesel engines. It is obvious that liquid fuel can be transported with much greater ease than coal, so that the tendeney of the future will be to abandon the present wasteful method of mining only the choicest portions of the coal seams and transporting the solid fuel over long distances. Instead, the whole of the seam will be utilised for the production of power at the pit’s mouth, and for the various liquid fuels and
xIV. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
other by-products. Already the available supplies of petroleum oils are unable to cope with the demand, and prices are on the increase, so that sooner or later other sources of oil must be pressed into the service.
Turning now to a consideration of the more common applications of the internal combustion engine, we find that for small powers it stands practically unchallenged as a prime mover. For ordinary industrial work up to, say, 200 horse power gas engines with suction gas pro- ducers using anthracite, coke, or charcoal, have become extremely popular, and form very convenient and econo- mical sources of power. It is not, however, yet fully recognised by the public that such plants have certain peculiar limitations with regard to overload capacity and behaviour when running on varying loads.
There is also a more or less popular impression that these plants can be successfully run by unskilled attend- anee. As with other classes of comparatively high grade machinery proper reliability of service can only be en- sured by having suitably trained attendants. In Aus- tralia at any rate the supply of really capable gas engine attendants is somewhat limited, with the result that com- plaints of unreliability are not common, especially with units of any size. While the cause of trouble is very often due to unskilful engineering in selecting the plant, or in the manner of erection, or even in the design or manufacture of the plant, still, with a properly trained man in charge, reliable operation can generally be ob- tained such as would compare favourably with steam plant.
It is to be hoped that the facilities now being of- fered by technical education will be effective in remedy- ing the deficiency in the near future. In this connection, I may remark in passing that some four years ago I had the privilege of inaugurating what I believe was the first course of technical classes in Brisbane dealing with the internal combustion engine. The present trend of practice is towards the use of cheaper fuels, such as bitu-
BY P. L. WESTON, B.SC., B.E. Xv.
minous coal, wood, ete., which have been previously found difficult to gasify in the ordinary form of updraught pro- ducer without including tarry vapours which affect the running of the engine.
A number of different types of producer have been designed to obviate this difficulty, and it is perhaps worthy of special mention, that one of the most pro- mising designs originated in New Zealand, and is coming into local use. This development, if it proves as success- ful as present indications promise, will still further popu- larise the suction gas plant, especially in fairly moderate sizes where the cost of fuel begins to be a considerable item. The influence of such a cheap and convenient souree of power for comparatively small installations is no mean factor in the development of every country, and more especially in a comparatively young and sparsely populated country lke Australia. The small manufaec- turing concern, the butter factory, the irrigation plant of the farmer, the isolated electric light installation are familiar instances of its ready application. In many other countries the Diesel oil engine is a close competitor of the suction gas plant for such work, but locally the comparatively high cost of oil, and the uncertainty of supply, have put it at a disadvantage. It is in the sphere of portable work of all kinds, however, that the internal combustion engine has made its influence most felt. It is almost unnecessary to mention its use for motor car, motor boat, and aeroplane work. So great has been » the demand for engines for these purposes that already a very high degree of excellence has been attained in the design and manufacture of petrol engines of these types.
a critical examination of, say, a modern aeroplane or high-class automobile engine discloses a truly cour- ageous piece of machinery, which for lightness of con- struction in relation to output would have been econ- sidered mechanically impossible a few years ago. The demand for materials of the highest possible strength has led the metallurgist to produce various alloys of iron and other metals, usually termed alloy steel, which pos- Sess extraordinary strength and toughness. For in-
XVI. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
stance, we have nickel steel, with an elastic limit of 70 tons per square inch, chrome vandium spring steel which will permit twice the working extension in a spring that ean be endured by an ordinary carbon steel spring, and a host of other alloy steels with peculiar properties for the particular service for which they were produced. In addition, machinery has been perfected for obtaining extreme acenracy of workmanship in machining parts of engines and motor cars in general. For instance,
hardened steel balls for ball bearings are guaranteed to be accurate in diameter to within’ one-ten-thou- sandth (.000lin.) of an inch. In fact, not only do we owe to the internal combustion engine the whole of the motor ear industry, but mechanical engineering gener- ally has advanced in innuimerable ways in response to the demands of ‘the motorist. The mechanical achieve- ment represented in, say, a modern racing ear, is to say the least of it, rather surprising. We take a flimsy-look- ing engine, mount it on a springy platform, make it develop very considerable power by getting, say, twenty explosions per second behind a piston, which is subjected to, say, a thrust of two tons each time, and let the whole power station on wheels fly along at speeds of approach- ing 100 miles per hour, or higher than the fastest steam locomotive. Of the value of motor transport little need be said, as we see its use extending every day, and we have now the motor car, motor lorry, fire engine, tractor, railway autocar, motor cycle, and a host of other pos- sible applications of the ever-ready little engine.
Australia with its immense distances affords a wide field of usefulness for all kinds of motor transport. Few ‘station homesteads are without their motor cars, and the motor tractor is beginning to be widely adopted, especi- ally in dry country, where the steam traction engine is at a disadvantage. For railway work it appears most prob- able that certain classes of traffic can be better handled by the railway autocar than by the steam locomotive, and experiments in this direction are shortly to be made on the Queensland railways. Where the traffic does not warrant the use of long trains, a single motor coach can be used to advantage, the cost of working being less,
BY P. L. WESTON, B.SC., B.E. XVII.
owing to the abolition of the stoker, and the engine is always ready for starting without the necessity for in- eurring stand-by losses as with a steam locomotive. There is also the absence of grit or sparks, and the problem of taking in fuel and water is much simplified. I under- stand the use of internal combustion engines is sug- gested on the transcontinental railway, owing to the searcity of water along certain sections of the route. Though I understand the autocars now being procured by the Railway Department were intended for trial in country districts where traffic is infrequent, this system seems to me to be very promising for suburban traffic in order that a quick service could be maintained. The Enoggera line, for instance, would benefit greatly by a more frequent service than is warranted at present with the ordinary steam train. The high cost of oil fuel in Australia is, however, a serious drawback. One respect in which the internal combustion engine is inferior to the steam engine is in the ease with which the latter can be started and stopped. This necessitates the use of special means of transmitting the power from the engine to the wheels, a frequent method being to do this elec- trically, an arrangement which gives great flexibility of control, which is of special value for high speed work with frequent stops. For work of all kinds where small power is required, engines using petrol and paraffin prac- tically hold the field except, of course, where electric supply is available.
In these days of high wages every effort should be made to supplant manual labour by power as far as practicable, and new uses for the internal combustion engine are being found every day. In building opera- tions, for instance, hoisting of materials, mixing up of concrete, sawing and dressing of timber, and stone dress- ing tools should be power driven whenever there is any quantity of such work to be done.
One future sphere of usefulness for small engines is — for producing electric light in small: isolated installa- tions such as a country hotel or station homestead. The
remarkably high efficiency of the modern metal filament ” B
XVIII. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
lamp has enabled such an arrangement using storage batteries to commercially compete with acetylene and other forms of lighting and when this is realised by the public small electric lighting schemes will become very popular. While-on this subject I may be permitted to remark that in the matter of electric lighting in this State we are decidedly behind the times in many re- spects.
A prominent visitor recently remarked to me on the public lighting of the Brisbane streets, or rather on the comparative absence of such in the main streets, and on taking a house in New Farm expressed surprise that electric supply was not available in the suburbs. In the question of electric supply our provincial towns are very much behind those of the other Australian States, where small electric supply schemes are being installed in large numbers, the source of power being in most cases suction gas plants. Why Queensland should be so less progressive in these respects than the Southern States I fail to understand, more especially as the climatic conditions render electric lighting and fans highly de- sirable.
However, it is gratifying to note signs of a spirit of inquiry and progress in our citizens as evinced, for in- stanee, in matters of education and sanitation, and I hope that now the spirit of unrest, which spells the dawn of progress has been engendered further advancement will not be long delayed. We may even hope for the adoption of a decimal system of weights, measures, and even money, for the establishment of a rational system of training our artisans now that the old apprenticeship system is dead, for direct railway connection across the river and the proposed standard gauge line along the coast to New South Wales, for a new town hall, for re- vision of the Electric Light Act and the Local Authori- ties Act in so far as it debars local authorities from establishing electric supply schemes, and we may even hope to secure proper public recognition of the value and the status of the engineer. |
BY P..L.. WESTON? B.EC., B.E: XIX...
Returning now to our original theme, and summing up, the internal combustion engine has already become a factor of great economic importance in our national life, and before long it promises to become the chief agency for turning the useful energy of fuel to account unless the dream of the scientist of turning the energy of fuel direct into electricity without first producing mechanical work is realised.
With regard to general design of internal combustion engines, the present standard design of reciprocating en- gine is not likely to be drastically altered unless the pre- sent fundamental principles of operation are abandcned,. since its performance very closely approaches in effi- ciency what is theoretically possible under the cireum-. stances: The possibility of the evolution cf a gas tur-. bine is often mentioned, but when the problem is eare- fully examined it does not look very promising. There- is, however, a special form of engine for pumping pur- poses which is most interesting, and bears little resem-. blanee to the ordinary form of engine. This is the Humphrey gas pump, in which there is no piston in the ordinary sense of the word, its place being taken by the- fluid to be pumped, which is subjected directly to the force of the explosion in a closed chamber. In this way there is a practical elimination of working parts, and as. the apparatus takes the place of both an engine and a pump, a very high efficiency is possible, and these plants: have been successfully used for very large installations.
In conclusion, I may remark that fire has been the servant of man since the dim days of our prehistoric ancestors, and its uses have been multiplied through the- ages, contributing in no small degree to the advancement of civilisation. A new era was heralded when mankind learned how to harness steam, the product of the two- opposing elements, fire and water, and extract its latent energy by the steam engine. Now another era has been instituted by the subjection of our willing slave in a more direct manner in the internal combustion engine.
In the one case we imprison him within the walls of a furnace made of refractory materials, but now we have.
XxX. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
bottled him up inside the metal walls of the engine it- self, like one of the genii of mythical fancy pent up in a magic jar, and ever struggling to escape from his prison.
With the aid of our tame giant we are enabled to outstrip the fastest steed on land, the fish in the sea, and the bird in the clouds, so there are no more king- doms for us to invade and conquer. How mueh further progress will be made it is impossible to predict, except to venture the opinion that, while steam still holds the field in most cases where large powers are required, this supremacy will shortly be seriously challenged by its more modern rival. In this development the services of the engineer will be largely dependent on the researches of the chemist into matters pertaining to the treatment of fuels, and on the-metallurgist for the production of special alloys and other materials to resist the onerous conditions of service.
Mr. Henderson moved a vote of thanks to the President for his interesting and valuable address.
The following o‘tice-bearers were declared elected unopposed for 1913 :—
President—H. C. Richards, M.Sc.
Vice-President—J. Shirley, D.Sc.
Hon. Treasurer—J. C. Briinnich, F.1.C.
Hon. Secretary—F. Bennett.
Hon. Librarian—T. Harvey Johnston, D.Sc.
Assistant Hon. Librarian—D. C. Gillies.
A ballot among J. F. Bailey, E. C. Barton, A.M.1.C.E., E. H. Gurney, Professor Priestley, P. L. Weston, B.Sc., B.E., R. Hamlyn-Harris, D.Sc., resulted in the election of the five former as Councillors.
Mr. G. Watkins was re- aiched Hon. Auditor.
The new President was then inducted to the chair, and returned thanks for his election.
The Report from the Delegates to the Melbourne Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advance- ment of Science was read. 3
On the motion of Mr. Barton, the President and Mr. Weston were deputed to meet the Decimal Ass3ociation’s representatives on =o Ast, 1913, and the meeting term- inated. :
ON AN BASY AND CERTAIN METHOD OF HATCHING CERATODUS OVA,
By THOS. L. BANCROFT., M.B. Edin.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, April 29, 1913.
Hitherto only a very few of the Ceratodus ova obtained each season hatched out* and it was generally considered by myself and others, who have made the attempt, that the ova were easily injured by handling or that strong light quickly killed them or that a large proportion were: infertile, that it was essential for success to keep them in running water or the water changed for fresh every day.
Semon in his work ‘In the Australian Bush,” p. 90,. says :—‘* The eggs of Ceratodus are extremely frail and. tender. If the water in which I kept them ior breeding purposes became too warm or there happened to be too many in one vessel or if I did not take care to remove every dead egg immediately, all the eggs died off rapidly. This circumstance formed a great hindrance to my embryo- logical collecting.”
Having made the discovery that when more than three ova were placed in the same glass jar all of them perished, and that with two or three ova success occasionally followed ; it occurred to me that if each egg could be kept separately in a jar of water of its own, any that were then alive would probably develop. For this purpose I gathered together over a hundred pickle “bottles, filled them with river water and placed each bottle inside a jam tin to exclude light, old rusty tins from the rubbish heap were requisitioned ; the tins with their bottles were placed on and under a table in a corner of the verandah and screened from the light
* Proc. lioy. Soc. Queensland Vol. xxur., p. 251.
2 HATCHING CERATODUS OVA.
with afew corn sacks. Into each bottle one egg was dropped. Upon examination of the ova in a week’s time almost every one was noticed to be alive ; this is easily seen by observ- ing the change in shape of the yelk from the round to pear shape (see figure, b and c). In three weeks’ time the little fish had left their gelatinous envelopes. A bit of conferva was then dropped into each bottle for food ; shortly after- wards the little fish were noticed to have insinuated them- selves in the conferva and even when the latter had floated to the top, as occasionally occurred, the fish were able to find it. The bottles were disturbed as little as possible and the water was not changed nor added to, and at the end of four weeks, although the water had diminished by evaporation to less than half, it made no difference what- ever.
The little fish after a week’s sojourn in the pickle bottles were removed to glass cells of a half to a gallon of water capacity, prepared with some clay at the bottom and conferva; ten fish were put into each vessel. Some of the jars were placed in a tub of water so as to keep them cool. Some were left on the table and in these the fish thrived equally well, but a time came when the whole lot suddenly died one day, and it was thought from the water getting too warm. Some fish were put into a wooden tub, it was half a wine cask; I had used it before as an aquarium ; it was cleaned out and filled with river water and some conferva and pieces of floating green water weed put in; no clay or sand; it was so arranged that any insect enemies might be easily detected; it was partly covered over with a board to exclude light. The tub was placed inside a galvanised iron wash tub containing water, the idea being to prevent evaporation from the wood.
The fish for the most part lie quietly at the bottom ; they never bury themselves in the clay and never come to the top to breathe air. At night time they are more active ; in one glass jar, which was totally immersed in a tub of water, the little fish escaped into the tub during the night..
No attempt was made to feed the fish otherwise than with conferva. There is evidently some other food neces-
BY THOS. L. BANCROFT, M.B., EDIN. 3
sary for their well-being, and possibly they need cooler and deeper water than I was able to give them.
The fish, whether in glass cells or in the tub, rapidly increased in size to three-quarters of an inch in length and up to two months ; after that time they were noticed to become sluggish and emaciated and began to die off, and at the end of three months all had died.
I am of opinion that were the Ceratodus reared even up to two months and then liberated in a suitable artificial lagoon, that a large number would survive.
oe eo <
A—Appearance of fresh egg, life size,
B—End of one week.
C—End of second week.
D—Empty envelope showing exit hole.
E—Young Ceratodus just emerged; will often go back into gelatinous envelope if disturbed,
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.
By JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc., F.M.S. (SENIOR INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS.)
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 27th, 1913.
The number of aquatic gasteropods, reported as inhabit- ing Queensland waters, amounts in all to 1,619 species Mr. Charles Hedley published a list* and supplementt of 1328 species ; and, in papers read before this Society, the writer has suppled lists containing 291 additional names.
A study of the geographical distribution of these 1619 gasteropods has revealed some interesting facts. One of the most striking is the similarity of the molluscan faunas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; no less than 520 Queens- land species, or nearly one-third of the whole, having this extremely wide range. It, therefore, seems likely that the two oceans have been in free and uninterrupted connection for many geological ages, since many species, which are at home in both oceans, belong to such genera as TJ'urbo.{ Trochust and Phasianella, known to extend back to Devonian times ; others as AHaliotis, Nerita, Litorina, Strombus, Triton, (Cymatium), Dolium (Tonna), Sigaretus, Mitra, Cancellaria and Murex® to Cretaceous times ; while Liotia, Terebellum, Ranella, (Bursa), Marginella, Engina and Purpura date from the Eocene epoch. Very few genera, be- longing to the two oceans in common, appeared later than the Miocene era.
*Proc. Aust. Assoc., Vol. XII., pp. 343-371. Loc. cit., pp. 809-810.
tTryon, Vol. I., p. 57, says “ Silurian.” °Tryon, Vol. L., p. 57, says “ Jurassic.”
6 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.
Just as the most westerly region in which the Malay race exists is the island of Madagascar, so this Indo-Pacific molluscan region, with its centre of distribution in Malaysia, has for its western frontier the eastern coast of Africa, 76 species found on the northern or eastern coasts of Queensland being reported from such distant localities as Natal, Mada- gascar, Mozambique and Zanzibar. ~ Acommon shell of our EBarricr Reef—Septa aquatile, Reeve, better known as Triton pilearis, L., is reported from the following localities : —Natal, Seychelles, Red Sea, China, Japan, Philippines, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and, still stranger from Florida and Erazil. The genera best represented and most widely spread are Cerithium, Strombus, Conus, Ovula and Purpura (Thais).
This great province, formed of the two oceans that have no north and south barriers, and in which therefore the great equatorial current is not deflected into frigid regions,: ex- tends also into the Red Sea, where 147 species are common to that sea and to the shores of Queensland. The genera best represented are :—Cer.thium, Strombus, Triton (Cyma- tium), Ranella (Bursa), Conus, Pyramidella, Drillia and Mitra. So strong is the relationship between the Red Sea molluscs and those of Queensland, that of 573 species, enumer- ated in Issel’s Malacologia del Mar Rosso, no less than 133, inhabit the seas of our State. It is necessary to mention that Issel’s list contains bivalves as well as gasteropods.
Woodward* in his Manual of the Mollusca, says, “ of the 408 mollusca of the Red Sea collected by Ehrenberg and Hemprich, 74 are common to the Mediterranean from which it would seem that these seas have communicated since the first appearance of some existing shells. Of the species common to the two seas, 40 are Atlantic shells which have migrated into the Red Sea by way of the Mediterranean, probably during the newer Pliocene period ; the others are Indo-Pacific shells which extended their Tange to the Mediterranean at an earlier age.” Fishery points out that this statement is in part incorrect, some of the so-called Red Sea shells having been collected off
*Reprint of 4th Edition, 1890, p.-73. +Manuel de Conchyliologie, p. 159.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 7
the Syrian and northern Egyptian coasts. The Revd. A. H. Cooke, says* that “of 818 shells collected by Macandrew at Suez, 17 are undoubtedly Mediterranean.”
It would be well to try and ascertain in what geologic age the great equatorial current swept in an unchecked stream across the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans, carrying with it the vivifying warmth acquired in its long course through tropical seas. In the Cretaceous age the southern type of the system attained a great development on both sides of the Mediterranean basin, and covered a vast area of the north of Africa. In the Sahara region, forming the interior of Algeria, it extends in broad plateaus, ending in abrupt escarpments, showing the varied outlines that might have been an old shore line. In these rocks the various Cretaceous subdivisions from the Neocomian upwards have been recognised. One important member of the system forms the upper part of the ‘“‘ Nubian Sand- stone,’ which is so important a factor in determining the character of the landscape in north-eastern. Africa. This formation extends eastwards into Syria, and is found in the region of the Lebanon. In the Eocene epoch the most widely distributed marine deposit is represented by the nummulitic limestone, which extends from the Alps to the Caucasus, through northern Africa, from Persia to the Suleiman Mountains, and is found again in China and Japan. Lyellt says of it—‘‘The nummulitic limestone is of world-wide extent, and contains many corals of large size, of genera now common in tropical seas, some of the same fossil species ranging from Scinde in India tothe West Indies.” A. Geikiet believed ‘‘ that the open Cre- taceous sea must have stretched through the heart of the Old World.”
The Cretaceous fauna, as seen in European forma- tions, includes such genera as Strombus, Fusus, Fasciolaria, Oliva, Pleurotoma and Conus, and, in India, Cyprea and Voluta, which in the present age are most abundant in warm seas. In Eocene times the affinities of the
«Cambridge Natural History, Molluscs and Brachiopods, p. 369. +Principles of Geology, Vol. L., BE 207. tGeology, p. 325.
ds DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.
Kuropean molluscan fauna, with those families now inhabiting the Indian and Pacific Oceans, becomes uch closer, the most prominent forms represent- mg the following genera :—Cancellaria, Fusus, Oliva, Voluta, Conus, Mitra, Rostellarva, Pleurotoma, Cyprea, Scalaria (Epitonium), ete.
In these two periods, when the connection between the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, across Northern Africa and the basin of the Mediterranean, appears to have been wide and complete, the climate must have greatly modified by the flow of a vast current warmed in equatorial regions ; and, though there are undoubtedly other causes that have modified terrestrial climate since Miocene times, sufficient stress does not seem to be given to the presence in recent times of the two great barriers, the isthmuses of Suez and Panama. These, by causing the equatorial current to be deflected, first round Cape Agulhas and then round Cape Horn, united with the influence of the west wind drift, change it to a cold current on the southern and western extremities of Africa and America.
When we contrast the climate of British Columbia with that of Labrador in the same latitude, we have evidence of the striking results caused to the one by the warm Japan current of the Pacific, and to the other by the cold Labrador current that sweeps down from the Arctic into the Atlantic.
Wallace* expresses his belief in a former connection of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans thus :—‘** We also know that a little earlier, in Eocene times, tropical Africa was cut off from Europe and Asia by a sea stretching from the Atlantic to the Bay of Bengal, at which time Africa must have formed a detached island-continent such as Aus- tralia is now, and probably, like it, very poor in the higher forms of life.
Huxley} also expresses the same opinion, as follows :— ‘There is every reason to believe that both Hindustan, south of the Ganges, and Africa, south of the Sahara, were separated by a wide sea from Europe and North Asia during
*Island Life, p. 418. +Anniversary Address to the Geological Society, 1870.
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 9
the Middle and Upper Eocene epochs. . . . . Some time during the Miocene epoch, the bottom of the Num- mulitic Sea was upheaved, and converted into dry land, in the direction of a line extending from Abyssinia to the mouth of the Ganges.
The earth movements that severed the connection of the north-west portion of the Indian Ocean with the Mediterranean, caused the Red Sea to retreat to its present limits, but it still maintained its union with the great Indo- Pacific province, and the character of its molluscan fauna remained unchanged. The Mediterranean Sea no longer traversed by a warm equatorial current, lost most of its genera that are typical of the Indian, Malaysian and Aus- tralasian sub-regions, and, maintaining its connection with the Atlantic, gave to its mollusca a northern facies. The presence of isolated species belonging to tropical genera like Fasciolaria, Cancellaria, Sigaretus, Cymbium, Cyprea, Marginella, Mitra, Cassis and Pisania, is strong testimony that the Meditrranean region was formerly a part of the great waterway of the equatorial current.
To the north of Australia the extension of the typical molluscan fauna of Queensland is equally wonderful. The Philippine Islands lie 3,500-4,000 miles from our shores, yet the appearance of its molluscan fauna would be per- fectly familiar to the Queensland collector. Of our 1,619 species of Gasteropoda, no less than 673, or over 40 per cent., are known to inhabit the shores of this distant archi- pelago. Of 18 additional species to our fauna, found in collections sent down from Murray Island, Normanton and Torres Straits, no less than half are also reported from the Philippines, showing that the affinities are still greater if we make the comparison between the shells of our northern coast and those of this distant group of islands. Wallace’s Line, though it may separate land faunas of very dissimilar nature, forms no hindrance to the spread of marine molluscs. |
As American collectors reveal to us the wealth of material which the Philippine Archipelago affords, as settle- ment progresses in Northern Australia, and when the discovery of intermediate forms has reduced the number
10 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.
of supposed species, the two faunas will show still more striking points of agreement.
The only inference to be drawn from this remarkable similarity in marine life is that, however much the areas of the intervening islands may have been extended or diminished in the successive geological epochs, between Queensland’ and the Philippines an open sea has been main- tained through a vast series of years. |
Wallace, when accounting for the differences in animal life of the land faunas of the various East Indian Islands, sheds some light on the question under discussion in the following statement :—‘‘ Beginning in late Miocene times, when the deposits on the south-east coast of Java were upraised, we suppose a general elevation of the whole of the extremely shallow seas uniting what are now Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines with the Asiatic con- tinent, and forming that extended equatorial area in which the typical Malayan fauna was developed. After a long period of stability, giving ample time for the specialisation of so many peculiar types, the Philippines were first separated, then at a considerably later period, Java; a little later, Sumatra and Borneo; and finally the islands south of Singapore to Banca and Billiton.’
In other directions the same conclusions must be made. As the islands of Melanesia and Polynesia come under . European influence and their molluscan life is made known, the astonishing range of species found on our shores is extended. Of 487 species or marked varieties collected by Mr. C. Hedley at Funafuti, one of the Ellice Islands, no less than ‘261 also inhabit Queensland ; and a definite, but decreasing relationship is shown as we study the marine shells of New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, the Paumotus and the Sandwich Islands.
-Darwin,* in his ‘‘Voyage of a Naturalist,” states that of 90 shells collected by Cummings at the Galapagos, 25 are found on the west coast of South America, and 18 are natives of the Low Archipelago or of the Philippines. The Galapagos group therefore marks the junction between the Western South American and Indo-Pacific provinces ; the
*Sir John Lubbock’s Edition, p: 285.
—_ er ey ee 7
BY JOHN SHIRLEY, D.SC., F.M.S. 1k
stretch of deep sea parallel to, and west of the Andes, separat- ing two very different conchological faunas.
A study of the molluses of the Pacific coast of Mexico and Central America shows that 17 species known in Queens. land also inhabit those distant waters. They are in some cases of genera like Hipponix, Cheilea and Ianthina, which, from their mode of life, are easily and widely spread - but include others such as Natica, Drwpa (Ricinula), and Pyrene (Columbella) which have no special means of dis- persal in adult life.
Of the barrier between the equatorial portions of the Pacifc and Atlantic formed by Central America and the Isthmus of Panama, Geikie* says :—‘‘ While the fishes and molluscs. living in the seas on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama are on the whole very distinct, a few shells and a large number of fshes are identical ; whence the inference has been drawn that though a. broad water- channel originally separated North and South America in Miocene times, a series of elevations and subsidences has since occurred, the most recent submersion having lasted but a short time, allowing the passage of locomotive fishes, yet not admitting of much change in the stationary molluscs. Of species found on the Atlantic side of America, in the West Indies, Florida and Brazil, 35 are also found in Queensland ; two of these are reported doubtfully, and may be rejected; the remainder include species of Fis- surella, Hipponix, Litorina, Tectarius, Planaxis, Epigrus, Rissoina, Intiopa, Cerithium, Llanthina, Epitonium (Scalaria), Cymatium (Triton), Distortrix, Septa (Triton), Cassis, Tonna (Dolium), Trivia, Oliva, Murex, Hydatina and Pyrene (Columbella).
Geikie’s use of the term “stationary molluscs” is rather misleading. It may be true that they deserve that title in adult life, but the immature mollusc in the veliger period is a great traveller, floating over widespread areas before coming to rest. Many of these juvenile forms, before their proper place in molluscan history was under- stood; have been regarded as species, and given such. names as Macgillivrayia Sinusigera, etc. This power of ranging
*Geikie, Text Book of Geology, I., 391.
12 DISTRIBUTION OF QUEENSLAND GASTEROPODA.
widely over ocean waters is also possessed by the sea creatures formerly placed in a separate class as Pteropoda, but now regarded as molluscan forms whose life-cycle has been arrested at the free floating marine stage. The Rev. A. H. Cooke,* M.A., states the case as follows :—‘‘ The Pteropoda are a group whose true relations are masked by the special conditions of their existence, which has tended towards the development of certain organs, the so- called ‘ wings’ and the shell, which give them an apparent symmetry ; this symmetry disappears on a close investi- gation of the internal organs.” This author reduces the Pteropoda to a sub-class of the mollusca.
Recapitulating, the aim of this paper is to show from the distribution of Gasteropods, geographically and geologically, that the shell-fish of the great Indo-Pacific province were almost universally spread through warm temperate and equatorial regions to the end of Eocene times ; but that the north and south barriers, formed by the elevations that produced the Isthmuses of Suez and Panama, limited the range of species to the two oceans that are connected in tropical areas, and by giving rise to modifications of climate in the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins, caused great changes in the character of their molluscan faunas.
eens a ETE
*Cambridge Natural History; Brachiopods and Molluses, p. 435.
NOTES ON THE CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF KREMOPHILA MACULATA,
(NATIVE FUCHSIA.)
By FRANK SMITH, B:Sc., F.1.C.
(Read before the Royal Society of Queenslard, 26th August, 1913.)
THE occurrence of an hydrocyanic acid yielding glucoside in a member of the exclusively Australian natural order Myoperinae, Eremophila Maculata, was first noted by the author and J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C. (Queensland Agric. Journ. XXV., 291) in November, 1910, in pursuance of an enquiry into the cause of mortality among stock on Carondotta and Roxbrugh stations in the Boulia district.
In the interim an attempt has been made to isolate the glucoside, and though unsuccessful, it is proved to be one of the Amygdalin group, probably difficultly crystal- lisable, and yielding on decomposition with emulsin benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic acid and reducing sugar.
The observation that the glucoside and the enzyme necessary for its decomposition occur separately in leaves and fruit respectively, could not be confirmed on subsequent specimens of the plant. Though not actually resulting in the separation of the glucoside in the pure state, the details of the experimental work performed may be cited.
EXPERIMENTAL.
Onc kilo of dried leaves including a small quantity of fruit, after preliminary extraction with petroleum ether, was thoroughly extracted with 90 per cent. alcohol, and
c
’ re
?
14 CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDE OF EREMOPHILA MACULATA
the resinous material obtained on evaporation of the solvent treated with water. The aqueus solution, precipitated by basic lead acetate, and excess of lead removed by H.S, was concentrated under diminished pressure, taken up in aleohol and finally extracted with ethyl acetate.
The brown syrup obtained on evaporation of the solvent showed no sign of crystallisation even on standing several months, and was without appreciable reducing action on Fehling’s solution.
It was furthertaken up in water when addition of acetate of lead produced further small quantity of yellow precipitate.
The solution freed from lead and concentrated to a syrup was repeatedly taken up in alcohol and fractionally precipitated by addition of ethyl acetate and ether when small quantities of resinous material were deposited.
The decanted liquor on concentration in partial vacuo did not crystallise. nor could crystallisation be obtained by use of a mixture of ethyl acetate and toluene as recom- mended by Herissey (J. Chem. Soc. Abr., 110, pt. 1, 31).
An attempt was made to prepare the acetyl derivative of the glucoside by boiling a quantity of the crude syrup with acetic anhydride. The oil obtained by pouring into water was washed with 5 per cent. sodium hydroxide solution to free from acidic substances and finally thoroughly with water.
It was completely soluble in ethyl acetate, chloro- form, ether, and 95 per cent. alcohol, and evaporation of the last mentioned solvent vielded a quantity of rhombic crystals. These were purified by two crystallisations from hot 95 per cent alcohol and were found to melt sharply at 123 degrees C.
This melting point isidentical with that of tetra-acetyl- prulaurasin, though from its sparing solubility in cold alcohol and its crystalline form it could not be identified with that substance. The amount available did not permit of further experimental work. Cooling of the mother liquors to—5 degrees C. gave a further quantity of similar crystals, and also a small quantity of needles, apparently orthorhombic, though it was found impracticable to effect the separation of the two substances.
BY FRANK SMITH, B.SC., F.I.C. 15
Caldwell and Courtauld (J. Chem. Soc., 107, 91, 666) state that tetra-acetyl-prulaurasin separates from concen- trated alcoholic solution in orthorhombic needles at— 5 degrees C., and that prulaurasin is difficultly crystallisable. Prulaurasin, therefore, is probably present in Eremophila maculata.
A portion of the crude syrup (9 grms. in 50 ces. of water) was decomposed by :05 grm. of Merck’s emulsin and dis- tilled in steam. The distillate contained hydrocyanic acid and benzaldehyde, the latter being positively identified by the formation of its phenylhydrazone (M.Pt. 153 degrees C.). The’liquid from the distillation flask was found to reduce Fehling’s solution strongly, and after precipitation with lead subacetate yielded with phenylhydrazone the typical osazone of glucose.
v=
oP Mba Py ery or Bar “ar ane”
el Rath. Ff
THE PLANTS OF MAST-HEAD ISLAND.
By H. A. LONGMAN.
(Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, June 27th, 1913.)
MvucuH prominence has been given of late years to the study of island floras, perhaps the most noted instance being that of Krakatau* In 1883, the entire vegetable life there was blotted out of existence by lava streams, the result of a volcanic eruption so gigantic that the sound of it travelled 3,000 miles and was heard here in Queens- land. Yet to-day this island is so thickly clothed with vegetation that in places it is almost impenetrable, and an object lesson has been given of the manner in which organisms re-establish themselves on island homes. The interest taken in ‘the flora of Krakatau is an incentive to Australian botanists to note the growth of vegetable organisms on those islets of our Great Barrier Reef which are known to be of comparatively recent origin.
The respective theories of elevation and depression, formulated by Murray and Darwin, to account for the growth of coral islands, and somewhat strenuously advocated by adherents of each school, are now found to be both correct. Whilst certain coral atolls are due to depression, others are indubitably formed by elevating influences. The whole of the Barrier Reef region is, of course, the result of subsidence, but varying factors have contributed to-
*New Flora of Krakatau, A. Ernst; English trans. A. C. Seward, Cam. Univ. Press, 1908.
Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the nuts of Oocos nucifera, Linn., the cocoanut palm, ever germinate naturally when cast upon a beach, and in the majority of cases they evidently fail so to do. But in the Flora of Krakatau definite evidence is given that a large number of these valuable palms have established themselves on that island by natural methods.
18 PLANTS OF MAST-HEAI) ISLAND.
wards the formation of its many islands. Mr. Charles Hedley*, to whom we are indebted for considerable inform- ation respecting Mast-Head Island, considers that it was formed by the action of tides in the shallow waters. Drifts of sand apparently develop, and through the interaction of lime and water a core of rock is formed. Depositions of matters are constantly added to its bulk, until we have an island centre, and a lagoon, suitable for the growth around of a wonderful world of coral organisms. The island sand is soon enriched by the excretz of birds and it forms a ‘fit soil for the development of a wealth of vegetable life. The great Greeks who worshipped art conceived their goddess of love and beauty as rising from the pure waters of ocean. And is not much of the glamour and fascination experienced by visitors to one of these coral islands on the Barrier Reef due to the fact that these little paradises are sea-born—the work of the waves and of ocean organisms 4
Mast-Head Island is situated just outside the Tropic of Capricorn, 31 miles from the mainland near Port Curtis, and is but 160 acres inextent.+ The outstanding feature of its botany is the luxuriance attained, although com- paratively few forms participate. Apparently the potentialities of the environment, so far as Phanerogams are concerned, are utilised to almost the same extent as though treble the number of forms were competing for sustenance. We have here a striking illustration of the advantages to an individual species of an island habitat where the struggle for existence is less keen than on the mainland. Of the first plants established, a very large proportion of offspring must have survived. We may expect in such insular floras opportunities for the develop- ment of variations which the curtailing influences of Natural Selection might stamp out in less congenial habitats. The position is somewhat analogous to some of Luther Bur- bank’s experiments, where, in order to get all possible varia- tions, the fullest scope is given to every seed of the selected plant. Both in botany and zoology we find island varieties of mainland species. A surprising number of specimens
*Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S.W., 1906, Vol. XXXI., part 3 Commonwealth Year Book, 1912, p. 60.
BY H. A, LONGMAN. 19
from island habitats appear in records with ne specific name attached or are noted as varieties. This 1s par- ticularly true of the Challenger Volume by Hemsley, on Insular Floras. In certain species a change in environ- ment tends to increase variability, and this is surely true of many plant immigrants on islands.
The study of insular floras reveals successive stages in plant colonisation. My list from Mast-Head, numbers only twenty-six species, two of which are but carpological and represent unestablished forms. There may be, of course, additional annual plants, not found during our visit.* We may anticipate that a census taken some years hence will show an increase, even though some species fail to survive. The majority of the plants found are naturally conspecific with those on the adjacent coastal districts. With these the most interesting point is not a mere enumeration of names, but an inquiry as to the method of colonisation. Primary importance should be given to ocean currents. I was fortunate in securing a pod of Castanospermum australe, A. Cunn., the Moreton Bay Chestnut, which had been washed high on the beach, and which in the ordinary course of things might have taken root and flourished. Our veteran botanist, Mr. F. M. Bailey+, has noted a fruit of Parinarium lauri:num, a Rosace- ous tree found in Fiji and the Samoan Islands, which was secured in a similar position on the island in 1907. In this connection it is interesting to remember the experi- ments of Darwin, Guppy, Ch. Martins and others, demon- strating that long immersion in sea water fails to rob many seeds of their vitality. Casuarine and Pandani flourish on coral sand debris, and are usually among the first comers brought by ocean currents. Associated with them is the common seashore grass, T'huarea sarmentosa, which has valuable binding properties in loose sand. Mast-Head is circled by a gray-green belt of Casuarina equisetifolia. The small cones of these trees sink in the water when green, but when somewhat dry they float and retain their vitality for several days. Other plants in my list, the seeds of which probably reached the island by ocean currents are Sophora
*Qid. Univ. Biol. Students’ Trip, Sept., 1912. TQlid. Agric. Journ., Feb., 1907, p. 76.
20 PLANTS OF MAST: HEAD ISLAND.
tomentosa, Abutilon muticum, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Tribulus cistoides, Tournefortia argentia, Ipomea Pes- caprae, I. Turpethum, Boerhaavia repanda, Euphorbia atoto.
As an interesting sidelight on the growth of know- ledge on this point, it is worth while noting an article by Charles Moore on the flora of Lord Howe Island, read before the Royal Society of N.S.W., and published in their Trans- actions of the year 1871, in which he frankly expresses his disbelief in the agency of ocean currents except in the case of such fruits as the cocoa-nut.
Several species are stated to have the advantage of two methods of transport. The seeds of Cassytha are found in the crops of carpophagous birds and are also said to be conveyed by ocean currents. The same applies to the seeds of many grasses.
Some seeds are unquestionably transported in eartli adhering to the roots of trees, sent adrift by storm or flood, and which find a resting place on the beaches of islands. The amount of timber seen in the drift zone at Mast-Head was remarkable. The island is celebrated for its multi- tudes of birds, and by their agency some of its plants must have been introduced. Birds are usually credited with the transport of the inland portion of an island flora. In dealing with so small an island, the term inland flora, in contradistinction to the drift zone and the strand area, seems a little incongruous, and except that at Mast-Head the Pisonia trees were found in the centre, and Casuarinas on the shores, no rigid demarcation should be made. Among the fruits eaten and dispersed by birds may be mentioned, in addition to Cassytha and the grasses, Ficus (two species)
_and Solanum nigrum, but for want of fuller knowledge on this subject, I do not care to add to the list. Banfield* has compared Pisonia Brunoniana to the fabled Upas tree because the viscid substance coating its seeds is comparable to birdlime and it ensnares and occasionally causes the death of small birds. So many insects perish in the gummy envelopes that Banfield asks whether it may not be to the advantage of these seeds to have animal matter present to assist them in germinating. J. A. Leachtf refers to the
** Confessions of a Beachcomber,” p. 207. 7° An Australian Bird Book,” p. 36.
BY H. A, LONGMAN. 21
** wonderful partnership’ between the noddies and this tree, adding, *“‘ The birds are sometimes so loaded and clogged with these fruits that they are incapable of flight.”
The seeds of some of the smaller plants are often con- veyed in mud attached to birds, and in this connection we have Darwin’s classic illustration of 82 seeds germinating from a ball of hard earth found on the leg of a partridge. The well-known Plumbago zeylanica, which is firmly estab lished at Mast-Head, has a glandular calyx surrounding the fruit and which falls off with the ripening seeds. This sticky calyx is doubtless responsible for the transfer of seeds, for this widely-spread species is found in most of our scrubs.
It is with disidence that one mentions the possibility of wind dispersal in regard to the plants in my list. Of the two Composites found on the island, the Wedelia has no pappus, but the seeds of Gnaphaliwm luteo-album, a very common weed, may well have been blown from the
Fy | mainland.
As Mast-Head has been visited at various times by camping parties, it is by no means unlikely that man himself has unintentionally been responsible for the conveyance of some species.
Only one parasitical plant was found, that being Cassytha filiformis. Species of Loranthus are very com- monly found on Casuarinas, but they have as yet failed to establish themselves at Mast-Head.
No fungi, lichen or mosses were noted ; perhaps the season and the time of the year were partly responsible, but no careful search was made for such small forms as usually escape ordinary notice.
A large number of Mast-Head plants represent very widely-spread species, and among them are some of the most successful colonists of the vegetable world. Touwrne- fortia argertea was collected by Darwin at the Keeling or Cocos Islands, 600 miles from the nearest land. Taking the areas of Continental Asia, Polynesia, Australia, Africa and America, as tabulated by Hemsley, we find that seven of our plants have the full range : Tribulus cistoides, Suphora tomentosa, Sesuvium vportulacastrum, Boerhaavia repanda, Achyranthes aspera, Cassytha filiformis and Casuarina
og. PLANIS OF MAST-HEAD ISLAND.
equisetifolia. Several of the other species are also widely dispersed, and it is thus evident that this island has been reached by some of the most ubiquitous of plants.
One of my specimens, Stenotaphrum subulatum, an ally of the Buffalo grass, is a new record for Australia. It is a common grass in New Guinea and Fiji, and will doubt- less before long establish itself on our mainland. A variety allied to this species was secured from the south-eastern Moluccas during the Challenger expedition and may prove to be intermediate between subulatum and americanum.
Leaving on one side the fruit of Castanospermum australe, we have only three Mast-Head species which should be classed as truly endemic to Australia. These are Euphorbia eremophila, Ficus opposita and Pandanus pedun- culatus.
As several Pandani are mentioned from islands in the Pacific but with no specific name attached, the range of this last species may need to be enlarged. According to Bentham our Abutilon muticum agrees with specimens from tropical Asia, generally referred to A. asiaticum*
My thanks are due to Mr. F. M. Bailey and his assist- ant, Mr. C. T. White, for help with one or two difficult specimens. I should also like to take this opportunity of expressing my obligations to Mr. J. H. Maiden for his ever- ready assistance to botanical workers.
Order CRUCIFERZ. Senebiera integrifolia, D.C., var. scaber, Bail.t (R.A.O.U., Excur. 1910. Not seen in 1912.) Order MALVACEZ. Abutilon muticum, G. Don. Order ZYGOPHYLLEA. Tribulus cistoides, Linn. Order LEGUMINOSA. Sophora tomentosa, Linn. Castanospermum australe. A. Cunn. (Fruit only.) Order ROSACEA. Parinarium laurinum, A. Gray (Fruit only.)t
*Benth. Fl. Austr., i, 204. +Qld. Agric. Journ., Nov., 1910, p, 234. tfyld. Agric. Journ., Feb., 1907, p. 76.
BY H. A. LONGMAN. 2a
Order FicorpE2. Sesuvium portulacastrum, Linn. Order ComMposiIT&. Gnaphalium luteo-album, Linn. Wedelia (not seen by writer; noted by ornitho- logists ; probably W. biflora, D.C.). Order PLUMBAGINE®. Plumbago zeylanica, Linn. Order BoRAGINE®. Tournefortia argentea, Linn. Order CONVOLVULACES. _LIpomea Pes-caprae, Roth. Ipomea Turpethum, R. Br. Order SOLANACE. Solanum nigrum, Linn. Order NYcTAGINE®. Boerhaavia repanda, Willd. Pisonia Brunoniana, Endl. Order AMARANTACES. Achyranthes aspera, Linn. Order LAURINE. Cassytha filiformis, Linn. Order URTICACES. Ficus opposita, Miq. Ficus, sp. Order EUPHORBIACEZ. Euphorbia atoto, Forst. Euphorbia eremophila, A. Cunn. Order CASUARINE. Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst. Order PANDANACES. Pandanus pedunculatus, R. Br. Order GRAMINEZ. Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers. Stenotaphrum subulatum, Trin.
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UNDERGROUND WATERS.
(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND QUEENSLAND.)
By THOMAS PARKER, F.G:S.
——_—
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland, May 27th, 1912.
RESEARCHES IN GREAT BRITAIN.
A @QREAT impetus to the study of underground waters —that is, water subterranean, sub-artesian, and artesian -—was given by the researches in Great Britain of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. A Research Committee was appointed in 1874, and their work was spread over a number of years. At the com- mencement of that committee’s investigations a list of questions was sent out to voluntary observers in different parts of the country. These questions had relation to the wells in their localities, the depths, and yields of water, the variations of the water levels in the wells in dry and wet seasons, and other important points. At an early stage of this inquiry the decision was arrived at that the source of underground waters was the rainfall by percola- tion from the surface.
NortTErs on SoutH AUSTRALIA.
About this time I was engaged in making engineering ‘surveys in connection with water conservation and irriga- tion in various localities in South Austrajia. During this work I met some striking instances of the great amount of percolation of the rainfall below the surface of the country, In the Willochra Valley, during the great drought of 1885-6, the ground in many parts was covered with large cracks and fissures, extending down into the subsoil for a con- siderable depth. From this I concluded that, during the
26 UNDERGROUND WATERS.
season of heavy rainfall which followed, a very great pro-. portion of the rainfall would disappear underground. Here is another instance of excessive percolation. In the bed of the Wakefield River, during a dry season, I noticed a large number of wide cracks in the river bed, into which during the next flood the water poured, and arrested the river channel flow for some time. This shows what large quantities of the rainfall percolates and goes underground. These observations of great percolation confirmed my opinion, largely held by others, that underneath the beds of most rivers and streams there is a subterranean stream following a direction and gradient similar to that of the river at the surface.
URGING THE COLLECTION OF DATA.
In South Australia I found that, with the exception of rainfall records, there were at that time little data upon which to base conclusions as to the feasibility of works of water conservation and irrigation. In order to arrive at a thorough knowledge of the underground waters I urged on the Government the great need of systematic gauging of the water flowing in the rivers, and showed that this work, and the measurement of evaporation and absorption, were quite as important as the survey of the lands and the mineral-bearing areas of the country. Soon after this the work of gauging the rivers of South Australia was initiated. 1 made similar recommendations in Queens- land about five years ago, and I am pleased to hear that river gaugings have since been begun in this State.
UNSCIENTIFIC SEARCH FOR UNDERGROUND WATER.
The search in South Australia for suitable sites for bores and wells at the dates referred to had not been always conducted under the guidance of recognised scientific principles. Artesian. water had been found in some localities, and a speculative use of the boring rod was frequently made. The tendency was to take the most hopeful view of the prospect in connection with many of these earlier ventures in search of water. The professor
of the divining rod was then, and even up to the present is, too much in evidence.
BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. ! 27
e
I may here relate an interesting test I had the oppor- tunity of making of the work of a divining-rod practitioner. One of these had applied to the South Australian Govern- ment to be appointed as water finder. The matter was referred to me for inquiry and report. I proceeded with the diviner and a number of interested visitors to the Plain of Adelaide. After a locality was selected for the test the operator moved about with the rod held in his hands in the usual way. At the bending down of the forked twig at certain spots 1 had pegs driven to mark the places. I next proposed to sink bore holes at these spots marked by the pegs, having with me some men and boring appliances.
Before beginning the borings I asked the practitioner of the rod what was his opinion about the points which the rod had passed over without turning down. Did he consider water could be found under these places? After having this question put to him more than once, the operator at length declined to answer. Several of the visitors from other States agreed with me that it was a fair inquiry to make. The only reply obtainable was: He considered it was only a catch question.
I then had borings made, both at the points marked by the pegs and at two other points where the rod passed over without turning down. The result-was that, the ground being soft and the boring easy, water was soon reached, being found at a shallow depth. The borings went on, and water was reached at a similar depth at all the places, as water prevailed under the locality generally.
The conclusion I arrived at was that the turning down of a divining rod, by whatever force it may be pro- duced, is not a reliable guide to the presence of water under the surface at the spot where the rod turns down.
UNDERGROUND WATER EXPLORATIONS SCIENTIFICALLY GUIDED.
A very important question may be asked here. What progress has been made in Australia towards a scientific method of exploring for underground water supplies, artesian or otherwise, previous to sinking or boring? As far as I have ascertained neither America nor Australia can report much progress towards a solution of the problem. In a
Cy UNDERGROUND WATERS.
D
\
recent official report in the United States it is stated ‘‘ Much blind optimism prevails on this subject.’’ This is also true, to a large extent, of Queensland, with the exception of some able work done by the Geological Department. Measuring evaporation and gauging the run-off in the rivers have been left undone until recently. I began this work in South Australia 25 years ago. Such data are necessary to solve the problems of the source of the artesian wells, and the permanency or otherwise of their flow. A METHOD oF EXPLORATION.
I would again emphasise the importance’ of the question: what is the best scientific method of explora- tion for underground waters ? As a contribution to the answer to this I shall now describe some work I undertook some years ago in that direction. I had to examine the Willochra Valley, in South Australia, where a water supply was required for railway purposes. I was instructed to make an engineering survey, and report on the proposed construction of a large dam on the Willochra Creek to conserve water in the valley. I found the locality, after examination and survey, not at all suited for that kind of scheme, and considered a work of that nature probably would prove an abortive one.
Before preparing my report, I decided to examine the neighbouring Coonatto and Flinders Ranges. To enable me to decide on the probability of discovering an under- — ground supply of water there, 1 took levels of the mountain slope with the aneroid barometer, measured the depth of some wells, in the foot hills, yielding good potable water. From these and other data obtained in the locality I pre- pared a hydro-geological sketch section across the valley. In this section I indicated the underground water surface or line of saturation. This was obtained by joining the points, indicating the water level in the wells. Then, inferentially, I indicated the probable course of the under- ground water, by producing this line of saturation down to the bottom of the valley, intersecting the line of railway at the township of Bruce. I then reported on the probability of underground water being found near the
BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 29
railway at the depth indicated in my sketch section. On a bore being sunk there, good water was found at about the depth indicated in my section. I adopted the system whilst in South Australia up to 1889, a step in advance of the old haphazard method.
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UNDERGROUND WATERS
(In SourH AUSTRALIA AND QUEENSLAND.)
By THOMAS PARKER, F.G.8.
Read before the Royal Society of Queensland Auqust 26th, 1913.
FurRTHER NOTES ON SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
ANOTHER stream of underground water, which I ex- amined during my water explorations in South Australia, was from acatchment on Mount Lofty. This stream, though not artesian, was of interest as showing the grade of the under- ground flowing water. Coming from the range behind Adelaide, it passed thence under that city, towards the sea, and at increasing depths along the line of its flow. The depth at Glen Osmond, on the foot-hills, was 40ft. from the surface ; at Adelaide, 70ft.; at Kilkenny, nearer the sea, 118ft.; and under Port Adelaide probably at a greater depth, as a bore made at the port down to 100ft. from the surface did not reach the underground water. It is most probable that this underground water passes under the sea bottom of the Gulf of Saint Vincent, and finds an outlet further seaward.
A WATER-LOGGED VALLEY IN QUEENSLAND.
One of my first studies of the underground waters of Queensland was the large subterranean storage of water on the western side of Rockhampton. This extends to Warren, on the Queensland Central Railway, a distance of 18 miles. The water is found at a depth from the surface of about 22ft. As the rise of the surface between the two places just named is 150ft., the slope of the surface of this underground water will be about 8.3f{t. per mile, and the water must be a flowing stream. Some years ago I made an examination of this body of water by means of bores,
32 UNDERGROUND WATERS.
trial shafts, and surface surveys, and found the storage an extensive one, and the water in the drift sand had been tested in one locality to a depth of about 50ft. of water and find sand. I afterwards had an opportunity of deter- mining the source of the supply as coming from the moun- tains near Stanwell, Mount Morgan, and Lion Mountain. Near Stanwell a large number of creeks unite, and the combined waters percolate under the sandy bed of Neerkol Creek. In the lower part of the valley of this creek, right on to Rockhampton, the water flow is mostly underground. The stream appears to pass under the flats west of Rock- hampton, and the railway at Yeppen, and probably finds its way into the Pacific Ocean.
THe ARTESIAN WELLS OF WESTERN QUEENSLAND.
The advancing surveys and delimitation of the great Australian basin enable us now to form some conception of the paramount interest which Queensland has in the artesian water question of Australia. The total area of this basin is about 481,000 square miles, of which near three-fourths is in Queensland, and the remainder in New South Wales and South Australia. Since the discovery of the existence of this immense basin some hundreds of artesian wells have been sunk, and the daily flow was given recently as 529 million gallons ; this, however, is probably only a fractional part of the water percolating on the catchment, going down to maintain the flow of the under- ground streams, so that the artesian wells are not likely to diminish in yield for want of water to maintain their supply. The prominent features of these wells are the great diversity of chemical contents of the waters, the varieties of rocks bored through, and the temperature of the waters at the surface. At Longreach, for instance, where I designed and carried out works for laying on the bore water to the town, the water is of high temperature, also is so high in saline contents as to render it unsuitable as a potable water. Still, it is found most pleasant for bathing, of great use for domestic purposes, for fire ex- tinction, andfor manufacturing purposes. The beds passed through by the. boring were mostly shales down to the water-bearing beds.
BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 30
OUTLETS TO THE CCEAN.
Another condition of these artesian waters’ is that they find an outlet to the sea at points greatly distant from the locality of their intake. Mr. A. Gibb, Maitland, formerly of the Geological Department of Queensland, some years ago reported on the leakage of Queensland artesian waters into the sea. He said that, as is the case in Queensland, nearly all the important artesian water basins cf the world leak into the sea, or present facilities for the escape of water at a lower level than that at which it isreceived. My researches in South Australia and Central Queensland also lead me to the same conclusion that the ocean is largely the ultimate destination of underground waters. Keasoning then, as I think one may, from the analogies of artesian basins in other countries, it appears a safe inference that the underground waters of Western Queensland are not a motionless reservoir of water, but a moving stieam; a stream passing onward through the porous 1ocks and the fissures and openings of the several rock formations in which the water is found.
Is CLOSING OF ARTESIAN WELLS DIMINISHING THEIR FLOW 2
It is well-known that the flow of artesian wells in Queensland and New South Wales has diminished during recent years. The most common cause of reduced flows, according to some American experience, is improper casing, and these have existed from the beginning of the well. In other cases the failure of flow is ascribed to poor jointing or packing. In other instances a friable rock has been fractured by the boring tools, and this part of the bore has been subjected to caving.
From these and similar causes the leaks around the casing or into adjoining porous beds may easily cause a diminution cf the flow, or lead to the total loss of the flow of the well.
Some remarkable evidence on this question has been given by Mr. R. S. Symmonds, of New South Wales, which goes to prove that closing down artesian bores. is ‘an injurious practice. Mr. Symmonds describes 19 bores in which the closing of the valve at the surface was followed by a rush of water outside the bore, causing permanently
34. UNDERGROUND WATERS.
decreased flow. After explaining in detail the injuries to the bores through closing the valves, he remarks, ‘“ It is quite possible, indeed very probable, that this (closing down the valves) is the true reason why many of the flows are diminishing.”’
In the case of the Longreach town bore, Central Queensland, I found on examining it, before beginning the reticulation works of the town from the artesian bore, the water was flowing almost as much outside the bore easing as within it. Evidently some injury had been done previously to this bore, probably through a shock from water ram. The depth to the water-bearing bed is about 2400ft. ; the pressure of the water at the surface was about 75lbs. to 9Olbs. per square inch. The shock from water ram which oceurs when a bore is valved down, would be a heavy one, and most probably sufficient to burst the casing, and cause a diminution of the flow inside the bore casing, and also make the water leak away underground. It is well known that if a valve in a line of system or water pipes be suddenly closed while the water is flowing freely under pressure, such sudden closing of the valve will pro- duce a strain upon the pipes far greater that that due to the static head of water. I have known cases where town water pipes were burst by the closing of the street valve, and water ram caused by such closing. The bursts occurred so frequently that the matter was investigated by me, and it was found the bursts of pipes were caused by closing a hydrant valve from time to time, and the pipes were also found weak through corrosion. In the case of an artesian bore well, the bursting of the casing pipe, from water ram and corrosion of the pipe, would show by water coming up outside the casing, or the water would find an escape underground into some porous beds of rock, or some open- ings in the shale, or some permeable rock through which the bore has passed.
WastTE CAUSED BY RESTRICTION OF FLOW.
From inquiries I have made respecting some of the artesian bores of Queensland I consider the facts and conditions point strongly in the direction of the conclusion that the diminished flow of artesian wells is mostly caused by the closing down of the valves, and thereby bursting
BY THOMAS PARKER, F.G.S. 30
weak or corroded casing pipes. I know one district in Western Queensland where galvanised wrought iron pipes have been so corroded by the surface soil contents that the pipes have become worthless by corrosion within two years. Where the casing pipes of artesian wells have suffered by corrosion the shock of closing down the valve at the surface will easily cause the rupture of the casing, and bring about the diminished flow of the wells already described. It would appear, then, that the practice of valving down adopted to prevent waste of artesian water is more likely to have a contrary effect, and rather cause a diminished flow at the surface, and bring about a real waste of the water underground. It may here be asked, What is a waste of the water of a flowing artesian well ? Evidently the opinion in some quarters hitherto has been this, that by allowing the unrestricted flow of the bores to the surface much of the water is wasted. Hence the decision to restrict the flow. But I think if the facts and arguments I have presented were taken into account, and fuller inquiry made, it would be found that this unrestricted flow of existing bores is not a waste of the water, although at the first glance it may appear so; also that valving down existing bores does not conserve the underground supply. It should be remembered that the closing down of a bore and stopping the flow, even if it could be done without a water ram shock and consequent damage to the bore, does not necessarily conserve the water. All the time the bore is closed the opening at the ocean end of the under- ground stream is there. The water into which the bore has originally pierced is not a closed reservoir, but a flow- ing stream, though moving slowly, hence no water is being actually conserved whilst the bore is closed at the surface, for the stream below is passing the locality of the bore all the time. The water, as before, is flowing down the incline between two watertight strata, which form a kind of water pipe, but one, however, which is open at the lower end. When it is considered what a very large amount of money has been expended on artesian wells in this State, and that the maintenance of that water supply in the arid western areas is of vital public importance, the question of the di- minishing flow of the well should be thoroughly investigated.
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Royal Society of Queensland.
mo
fe -INDEX
| | | ~ VOLUMES | to XXV_
INCLUSIVE.
HON. -EDITOR.
Bri shine;
COMPILED BY A. B. WALKOM, B.Sc.,
: BR. Poum & Co,, Printers, Hlizabeth Street. bea : hte 1914. A eee llama == i - : 2 4 / Pig fect Me aie g ee ee : eS et foe tet tn ee -
Peters 2s
THE Royal Society of Queensland.
INDEX
TO PAPERS IN
VOLUMES I to XXV_
INCLUSIVE.
COMPILED BY
A. B. WALKOM, BSc., HON. EDITOR.
Brisbane, 3. Pour & Co., Printers, Elizabeth Street.
1914.
DATES OF PUBLICATION OF VOLUMES.
pies cee Vou. I. Parts 1, 2, 3. 1884. Part 4. 1886. I. Part 1. 1885. Part 2. 1886. iil 1887 IV 1888 ¥; Parte 1, 2, 3, 4. 1888. Part 5. 1889. Vi Parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 1889. Vil. 1891. VIIl. Parts 1, 2. 1891. Parts 3, 4. 1892. 1X. 1893. b & 1894. Ai; Part 1. 1895... Part 2. 1896. XI. 1897. XIU. 1898. XIV. 1899. RY; 1900. XVI. 1901.
bo
EV ti. Part 1. 1902. Part 1903.
XVIII. 1904.
XIX. Part 1. 1905. Paet 2. 1906 xX. 1907. XXI. 1908. XXII. Part 1. 1909. Part 2. 1910. XXIII. Part 1. 1911. Part 2. 1912.
XXIV. 1913" KY. 1914.
Nore.—Some volumes were published in parts, others complete. In the following index the Roman numeral represents the number of the volume, the figure in brackets the number of the part, and the final number the page; eg., I (1) 1 means Vol. I., part 1, page 1, and X 40 means. Vol. X., page 40.
INDEX.
A number of papers of which the title only, or an abstract of two or three lines, has been printed are marked with an asterisk.
A.A.A.S. Report of delegates to, VIII (4) 122, *X 40.
Aboriginal Customs in N. Queensland. XT 33.
drill.
Description of an, XIII 87.
languages of E. Australia com- pared. XII 11.
s. Notes on the, of Stradbroke and Moreton Islands. VIII (2) 40. Social and Individual nomen- clature of the N.W. Central Queens- land, XIII 39.
Aborigines. Food of the. of Central Australia. I[ (3) 104. On an undescribed class _ of
rock-drawings of, in Q. I (2) 45. *Stone cooking holes of the Australian, XV 3.
Acacia delibrata. On the discovery of saponin in, IV 10. — melaleucoides, Bail. of, V (3). 121. Notes on, V (4) I48. S. Occurrence of Australian, and Albizzias. Acarus. On an, associated diseased condition in the IV 106. Address, Inaugural, I (1) 3. * Ailanthus imberbiflera, var macartneyt. Constituents of the resin of, XI (2)
Description
saponin in XIT 103. with a banana.
42.
Albatross Bay and the Embley and Hey Rivers. XII 42.
Albizzias. Occurrence of saponin in
Australian acacias and, Aneitia graffet and its allies. V (5) 162. Angophoras. Gums of Eucalypts and, VIII (2) 37. : Anopheles pictus. Notes on a malaria- carrying mosquito (,) XVI 45.
Anthills. Note on the meridional, of the Cape York Peninsula. NII 99. Anthracite in a fissure lode. XXIII (2)
131.
XIT 1053. ,
Anthropological notes of 50 years ago. XXII (1) 107. ‘
Ants. Judicial entomology and- on an unrecorded habit of white, 1V 119.
Notes on Queensland, I. Harvest- ing ants. II (2) 146. ;
———— On a sense of hearing in, I (2) 79:
Arauearia. Notes on the resins of two- Queensland species of, VII (1) 1.
bidwilli. On the resin of, Xf
(1) F2: Armit W E. Notes on the philology of the islands adjacent to the SE.
extremity of New Guinea. II (1) 2. The Papuans : comparative notes on various authors, with original observations. II (2) 78. Artesian Basins. The geological structure: of extra-Australian, XII 17 Wells and Water. II (2) 208. water by the Hwang-Ho Rivers. AAT: 25.
*
as illustrated and Yane-tse
Stratigraphical notes on the Georgina Basin with special refer- ence to the question of, XI (2) 70.
The submarine leakage of, XII 59. A post-Pliocene, III 42. VIII (4) 114. Atherinidz#. Notes on some Australian, XXIV 47. . Australia. The building of, X XI 57. The building of E., XXIII (2) 149. | : *__ ns. The supposed the, XI (2) 46. their life-history and effects.
Artiodactyle. Asbestos.
descent of
* Bacteria : & 34.
* Bacteriological knowledge as applied to: the human race. X 34.
Baiera bidens. XII 74. wi
Bailey F. M. A contribution towards a flora of Mt. Perry. I (2) 61, Botanic notes. XI (1) 14, Concise . history of Australian Botany... VEIT (2)
| INDEX.
Bailey VF. M.—Continued.
xvi, Contributions to Queensland Flora I (1) 9, I (2) 84, I (3) 148, Contributions to the New Guinea Flora. XVIII 1, Description of a new Eucalypt. X 17, Description of Acacia melaleucoides, Bail. V (3) 121, Description of the Queensland form ot Nipa fruticans. V. (4) 146, Sxhibit of a bunya nodule. X 53, *Exhibit of new and _ interesting plants. X 37, Fasciation in Bouvardia triphylla, Salisb. ITT 153, Fasciation in Sicyos angulata, Linn. T (2) 102, Excursion to Eumundi. X 51, Notes on Acacia melaleucoides. V (4) 148, *Notes on fresh Queens- land plants. X 101, Notes on some plant specimens collected by Dr. T. Baneroft on the Diamantina. VIII. (4) 128, Notes on the vegetation of New Guinea. XIV 14, Obituary notice of Dr. Chas. Prentice. X 50, Speeimens of Blackall Range plants. VIII (4) 136.
‘Bailey J. F. The introduction of econ- omic plants into Queensland. XXII (2) 77.
Ball L. C. Anthracite in a fissure lode. XXIIE (2) 131.
Bancroft J. An inquiry into the maize disease of the Caboolture District. Ill 108, An unusual agency in the destruction of marine mollusca. IV 26, Experiments with Indian wheats in Queensland. I (4) 176, Food of the aborigines of Central Australia. I (3) 104, Obituary notice of N 102, Presidential address (1885) [1 (2) 67.
aS ap. Distillation ‘of ‘native essential oils from a commercial aspect. VII (1) 6, On a method by which a pure water-supply. could be obtained for Brisbane. XV 83, On a weak point in the life-history of Neoceratodus forstert, Krefft. MXIT (2) 251, On an easy and certain method of hatching Cera- todus ova. XXV 1, On Echino- coceus ina wallaby. VII (1) 31. On Filarie of birds. VI (1) 58. On Hematomonas of rat’s blood. V (1) 31, On the discovery of saponin in Acacia delibrata. IV 10. On the physiological action of Cyrtocarya australis. IV 12, On the physio- logical action of Daphnandra yepandula. ¥V 13, On the poisonous property of Nicotiana suaveolens.
Bancroft 'T. L.—Continued.
IV 9, Preliminary notes on some new poisonous plants. VIII (2) 35, Psoriasis in horses. VIII (3) 665, Strychnine, a useless remedy in snakebite. VIII (2) 29.
Barramundi. Description of a new species of true, Osteoglossum jardinii from N. Queensland. VIII (3) 105,
Bartley N. Gold occurrence in Queens- land. LV 124, The first discovery of gold in Queensland. IV 114.
Basalt. Contemporaneous, im Gympie Formation. XII 95.
Bees. Notes on, and wax-scales. XIV 1.
Bennett E. J. IV 129.
F. Botany of Irvinebank and
its neighbourhood. XIX (1) 65,
Permo-Carboniferous fossils from
Banana (Abstract). XI (2) 47,
Probable outcrop of the Blythes-
dale Braystone south of its supposed
the
Observations on cataract.
boundary. XIII 23. Dr. George. Obituary notice of, i ee ff
Berge J. S. See Ringrose R. C. ete.
Bernays L. A. Description of exotic fruits new to Queensland. I (3) 136, Gruinea grass (Panicum maximum) ; its history. cultivation and value. VIII (2) 51, Notes on the palm, Caryota wrens. LIT 33, On the palm, Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. IL (2) 210, Presidential Address. Lit » Ee. Sechium edule (Chayote). Its intro- duction into Queensland—cultiva- tion and uses. VII (1) 41, The economic aspects of entomology. Tr. (2): 43:
Birch C. W. de B. Sesbania, a native fibre-producer. I (2) 101.
Birds. Additions to the list of fossil, VI (1) 55.
Description of new, from Herberz-
VI (5) 242.
On Filariew of, VI (1) 58.
On the migration of, at Cape
York Peninsula. I (2) 93. .
The, of Charleville. III 23.
The, of the Chinchilla district.
IE (2) 117.
of Central Queensland. V (1) 14.
*Blackman F.A. The effect of advanced bacteriological knowledge as applied to the human race. X 34.
Blake E. C. See Shirley J. and Blake.
ton.
INDEX.
Blythesdale Braystone. Probable out-
crop of, south .of its supposed boundary. XIII 25. Bora ring. A, in the Albert Valley.
XXII (1) 103.
AE CD dA.
* Botanical excursion to Burleigh Heads and the Macpherson Range. X 02.
Botanic notes.
_- work. A review of recent. in Australia. IX 12.
Botany. Concise history of Australian, VIII (2) xvi.
of Irvinebank and its neigh-
bourhood. XIX (1) 65.
Bouvardia triphylla, Salish. Fasciation in, IIT 153.
Braula ceca, a bee parasite. ITV 17.
*Brigalow. The chemistry of, XI (2) 56.
Broadbent K. Birds of Central Queens- land. V (1) 14, On the migration of birds at Cape York Peninsula. I (2) 93. The Birds of Charleville. II 23, The birds of the Chinchilla District. If (2) 117.
Broun N. W. *Further notes on crater lakes at Ban Ban. XI (2) 88, On the discovery of two crater lakes and other evidences of volcanic activity near Ban Ban. X 44.
Brownlee J. H. See Ringrose R. C. etc.
Briinnich J. C. Graphical and mechan- ical aids to calculation. XXI 33, The land we live on. XXII (1) 37.
V (4) 148, VI (1) 76,
gum.
Bryological notes. VI (2 & 3) 104. Building stones of St. John’s Cathedral, Brisbane. XXIII (2) 199. Exhibit of a, nodule. XI (2) 45.
X 53.
Bunya.
— bunya nuts.
Burbung of the Wiradthuri tribes. XVI 35.
Burdekin Valley. the, XXIV 95.
Butterflies. List of, of the District. XIII 89.
New species of Queensland, VI (2 & 3) 117.
Byram W. J. Recent aspect Theory. XVI (1): v.
Notes on portion of
Brisbane
of the Cell The begin-
nings of Life. XV 5. Caffein-yielding plants. XI (2) 82. *Callophyllum inophyllum. Resins of,
XII 10.
Cameron J. Presidential Address.
<0 (1) a.
i
5 Canarium mulleri, (Bail.). On the oleo- resin of, VILT (3) 95.
Cancer On the prevalence of, in Aus” tralasia. X 65 & 89. Caryota urens. Notes on the palm,
lit 33: Cassowary. On the Australian, varius australis) X 59.
( Cas-
Casuartus australis. On the Australian
Cassowary, X 59.
lV
Cave-drawings. On aboriginal, on the: Palmer goldfield. XI (2) 91.
Cataract. Observations on, 129.
Caves. Description of some, near Cam- ooweal. XY 87.
Cell Theory. Recent aspect of the, RVI (1) v.
Ceratodus. On an easy and certain method of hatching, ova. XXV lI.
Oo
Report on preservation of, XII 101. forstert. X AO.
post- Pliocene.
1 (1) 40.
On the occur- Til 141.
Noto-
Chanos salmoneus, Forsk. rence of, in Moreton Bay. The lesser, of the Ke OLS. The discovery of chicken, in XI (2) 77. Cinnamomum oliveri, Bail. The sassafras trees of Queensland and _ the chemistry of, XI (1) 20. Clarke A. W. Reply to Lindon’s note.
Chelonians. therium drifts. Cholera.
Queensland.
IV 112, The Mineral Scolecite occurring in granite, Charters Towers. IV 109. The occurrence:
of triclinic felspars in the granite of Charters Towers. IV 131. Climate. The influence of the, of Queens- land on its inhabitants of Kuropean origin and their descendants. XI (2) xxiii. s of the geological. past.. XXII
(2) 59. *Coalfields. On the oldest worked, of. China. XIII 38.
Cobalt ore. On the mineral resources of Kilkivan, Wide Bay, and. on the recent discovery of, in that district.. III 129.
Cognac. Distilling, from sugar and. grape- juice. XI (2) 57.
Colledge W. R. Notes on a_ brush- tongued mosquito. XXIII (1) 121,. Notes on a malaria-carrying mos- quito ( Anopheles pictus).. XVI 46,
f ‘Colledge W. R.—Continued.
Notes on a species of sandfly. XVII (1) 17, Notes on an apparently new species of hyaline Daphnia, XX 58, Notes on Brisbane pond-life. XXII (1) 35, Notes on the rotifers or wheel animalcule of Brisbane. XXIII (1) 87, Notes on the Scots Gray Mosquito (Culex mucidus alternans, Westwood) XVIII 67. Observations on the life-history of the common mosquito, XV 111.
V (5) 161. Colocasia imacrorrhiza. On the curative properties of the cunjevoi, I] (2) 211.
Collurinel: sibila sp. nov.
Colour sight and colour — blindness. XVIII 29. Cones. Notes on poisonous, X 38.
*Conglomerate. The, rocks of Wild R. XI (2) 56.
CConnah F. E. Chillagoe garnet rocks: XXII (1) 31, Estimation of Zine in
copper ores by Potassium ferro- cyanide. XXIT (2) 65.
‘Cosside. Australian woodboring, XVII (2) 161.
‘Coxen Mrs. C. Meteorological Notes.
V (5) 158 VI (2 & 3) 122, VIII (2) 56, Notes on floods in the Brisbane R. X 32, Notes on poisonous Cones. X 38, Notes on the Cypree. X 35, Obituary notice on Dr. G. Bennett.
X 37, Rainfall at Bulimba. XJ (2) LOS, CET LY SBS 55,
Temperature of the capital of each
colony in Austraha during 1898. XIV 54. ‘Crater near Herberton. XXIV 57.
*Crater lakes. Further note on, at Ban Ban. XI (2) 88. On the discovery of two,
and other evidences of volcanic
activity near Barn Ban. X 44: ‘Crocodiles. Australian, XVIIL 201. ‘Crookshank E. M. Science and _ the
State, with special reference to
Tuberculosis and the public health. XVII (2) 25. . Culex mucidus alternans, Westwood.
Notes on the Scots Gray mosquito, XVIII 67.
‘Cunjevoi. On the curative properties of the, (Colocasia macrorrhiza) IT (2) 211.
‘Cyclone. On the Bowen, of 30th Janu- ary, 1884. I (1) 30.
‘Cypree. Notes on the, X 35.
|
INDEX.
Cyrtocarya australis. On the physio- logical action of, IV 12.
Danes J. V. Physiography of some limestone areas in Queensland. XXIII (1) 75.
Daphnandra repandula. On the physio- logical action of, [V 13.
Daphnia. Notes on an apparently new species of hyaline, XX 53.
Davis H. L. Description of an antique plaque. XIII 29.
Deglutition in the freshwater snake. I (2) 82.
Dendrobium cincinnatum, sp. noy. I (3) 113.
Dendrolagus. Notice of a probable new
species of, IIT 11.
De Vis C. W. A conspect of the genus Heteropus. 1 (4) 166, A further account of Prionodura newtoniana. VI (5) 245, A possible source of
Isinglass. | (2) 58, A post-Plocene Artiodactyle. Ill 42, A whale
(Ziphius layardi, Flower) recently stranded near Southport. I(4) 174, Additions to the list of fossil birds. VI (1) 55, Australian ancestry of the crowned pigeon of New Guinea. V (4) 127, Ceratodus forsteri, post- Pliocene. I (1) 40, Collurinela stbila, sp. nov. V (5) 161, Degluti-
tion in the freshwater snake. I (2) 82, Description of a species of Eleotris from Rockhampton. II (1)
32, Description of new birds from Herberton. VI (5) 242, Nest of Philemon corniculatus, Lath. I (2) 58. Notes on the fauna of the Gulf of Carpentaria. I (3) 154, Notice of a fish, apparently undescribed. I (2) 144. Notice of a probable new species of Dendrolagus. II 11, On a bone of an extinct eagle. VI (4) 161, On a femur, probably of Thylacoleo. 11 122, On a fossil Saurian. II (2) 181, On a lizard and three species of Salarias. II (1) 56, On a naked-eyed scink, appar- ently new. V (5) 160, On a new form of the genus Therapon. I (2) 56, On a new species of Hoploce- phalus. 1 (2) 100, On a new species of Hyla. I (3) 128, On a third species of the Australian tree kangaroo. IV 132, On an anomalous snake. I (2) 58, On an extinct genus of mammal. V (5) 158, On an extinct mammal of a genus appar- ently new. IV 99, On an extinct monotreme (Ornithorhynchus agilis)
INDEX. 7:
De Vis C. W.—Continued.
II (1) 35, On apparently new’ species . Of; ,Halmaturus. I (3) 107, On bones and teeth of a large extinct lizard. TEL (1) 25, On Diprotodon ménor, Hux. V. (2) 38, On Megalania and its allies. VI (2 & 3) 93, On new Australian lizards. I (2) 53, On new fish from Moreton Bay. I (3) -144, On new Queensland Lizards. I (2} 77, On new species -of Australian lizards. I (2) 97, On the genera Nototherium and Zygomaturus. V (3) 111, On the mandible of Zygomaturus. XI (1) 95, On the Phalangistida of the Post- Tertiary, period in Queensland. VI (2 & 3) 105, Perameles bougain- vilht, Q. & G.I (2) 101, The lesser Chelonians of the Nototherium drifts. X 123, The Moa (Dinornis) in Australia. I (1) 23, The ribbon
fish. VIET (4) 109. Dinornis. The Moa (,) in Australia.
Eh) 23: Diprotodon minor, Hux. V (2) 38. Disease garden. A, XIX (2) 73.
s. Inseets and, X XI 99.
*______ Prevention of infectious, X Il. = The serum treatment of infec-
tuous, XI (1) Ll.
Dodd F. P. Reptile that takes in ballast XXIV 103
Dodgson F. H. Some abandoned gold- fields of the old World. XI (2) 59.
BDomin K. Queensland plant associa- tions. XXIII (1) 57.
Duffield A. J. Notes on the inhabitants of New Ireland and its Archipelago. I (3) ENS.
Eagle. On a bone of an extinct, VI (4) 161.
Echinococcus in a wallaby. VII (1) 31.
MEX (2) iv.
Description of a species of,
11 (1) 32.
the, of the
( Ostrea
Education in Queensland.
Hleotris. from Rockhampton. Embryology. Notes on
Australian rock Oyster glomerata), VII (1) 33.
Entomologica. Miscellanea, XV 133.
Entomology. Judicial, and on an unrecorded habit of white ants. Ly 119.
The economic aspects of, IL (1) 13.
‘of a teatree swamp. XV 1
Entozoa. A census of Australian Rep- tilian, X XIII (2) 233.
Notes on some, XXIV 63. Eremophila maculata. On the cyano- genetic glucoside of, XXV_ 15 *Eucalypti. Drought perties of. X 13. Eucalypt. Description of a new, X 17.
resisting _pro-
s. Gums of, and Angophoras. VITI (2) 37.
Exploration in W.A. XVI 9. *Explosives. Notes on some modern, XVI 7. The detection of mercury in, EMT 51.
Falconer J. Artesian wells and water. II (2) 208, Queensland gold deposits. I (3) 131, Water Supply: Springs and their origin. J (1) 28.
Fasciation in Bouvardia triphylla, Salish.
IIL 153.
Fauna. Notes on the, of the Gulf of Carpentaria. I (3) 154.
Felspars. The occurrence of triclinic,
in the granite of Charters Towers. FV. 131.
Field Naturalists’ Section. Excursions VI (1) 64, to Ashgrove. VI(2 & 3)
123, to Brookfield. VI (1) 65, to Caboolture. V (4) 137, to Eumundi. X 51, to Peechey’s Scrub. V (4) 144, IV 135, to Pimpama, VI (5) 252, to Sunnybank. VI (5) 255, to Upper Ithaca Creek. VI (2 & 3) 125, togWoolston. V (5) 175. Report of, V (2) 70. Filariw of birds. VI (1) 58. Filter. An efficient automatic X XJ 45.
The domestic water, XI (2) 49 Notice of a, apparently un- described. It (2) 144.
On. acclimatisation in Queens- land. III 139.
On new, from Moreton Bay. I (3) 144.
The ribbon, VIII (4) L109. acclimatisation in Queensland.
sand,
Fish
XIT 108. poison. A, of the aborigines. XI (2) 88. Fishes. New genera and species of, 7. He. ep
New Genera and species of,
Queensland, X XI 87.
8 INDEX.
Fishes. On new or insufficiently de- scribed, XXIYIM (1) 1.
On some new, from the Queens- jand coast. XXIII (1) 85.
Some new pediculate, XX 17.
Symbranchiate and Apodal, new to Australia. XX 1.
Floods. Notes on, in the Brisbane R. a 2,
Flora. A contribution towards a, of Mt. Perry. +1 (2) 61,11 (1) 41.
* - Additions to the fossil, of Queensland XIII 38.
Contributions to the New
Guinea, XVIII 1.
— Queensland, I (1) 9 [ (2) 84, I (3) 148.
* — on Moreton, I. X 17.
Flying fox. The,; its habits and depredations. XII 49.
Forests. On the decadence of Aus- tralian, III 15.
Fossils. Permo-Carboniterous, from
Banana (Abstract) XI (2) 47.
Fowl-enteritis in Brisbane. XIII 51.
Fox H.W. On indelible writing inks. 111 149.
Frog. A new tree, from Brisbane. XX ol.
Frost.
On the possibility of preventing damage by, XVIT (2) 101.
Fruits. Description of exotic, new to Queensland. I (3) 136.
Fryar W. Remarks on the temperature of the earth as exhibited in mines, with special reference to some Gympie mines. VII (1) 12, On the mineral resources of Kilkivan, Wide Bay. and on the recent discovery of cobalt ore in that district. IT 129.
Garnet rocks. Chillagoe, XXII (1) 31.
Gastropoda. The geographical distribu- tion of Queensland, X XV 5.
Gems. Queensland, XX 61.
Geological Survey. The establishment of a, in Queensland. II (2) 198.
Geology and mineral deposits of the country around Herberton, Watson- ville and Chillagoe. XIV viii.
Geology of Glasshouse Mts. XXI 27.
Gold. Observations on the occurrence of, at Mt. Morgan, near Rockhamp- ton. I (3) 141.
Queensland, deposits.
1 (3) 131.
Gold. The first discovery of, in Queens-- land IV 114.
occurrence in Queasnsland.
124.
fields. On some abandoned,
the Old World. XI (2) 59.
Goldie J. The people of New Georgia. XXIT (1) 23.
Grape vines. The native, of America and Australia. WITT (3) 101. Graphical and mechanical aids to cal-
culation. XXI 33. : Gregory A.C. Inaugural address. . 1 (1)>
3, Observations on the occurrence:
of gold at Mt. Morgan, near Rock-
1y"
of-
hampton. I (3) 141.
Guinea grass. (Panicum maximum) ; its. history, cultivation and value. VIII (2) 51.
*Gum. The chemistry of brigalow:-
XI (2) 56. *___s, Chemistry of some undescribed,. XI (2) 62. of eucalypts and Angophoras- VIII (2) 37.
Gympie Formation. Contemporaneous. basalt in the, XII 95.
Hematomonas. On, of rat's blood. V (si. Hall E. and Stokes H. G. Ashestos..
VIII (4) 114. Halmaturus. On apparently new species. of I (3) 107.
Hann F. Exploration in W.A. XVI 9. Harrison L. See Johnston T. H. and Harrison L.
Hawkins Mrs. From Sydney _ to- Bathurst in 1822. XVIIT 95. Health. Summer heat and, (Abstract).
I (4) 173.
Hedley C. A list of landshells recorded from Queensland. V_ (2) 48, Anatomical notes on the Helicide. VI (1) 62, VI (5) 249, Anetha graffer and its allies. V (5) 162,. Description of a new slug, with notes on other terrestrial mollusca. V (4) 150, Note on Mr. Tryon’s
errata. V (5) 179, Notes on Queensland landshells. VI (2 & 3): 100, Notes on the Heélicide. VI
(2 & 3) 120, Uses of Queensland plants. V (1) 10.
Helicidz. Anatomical notes on the,. VI (1) 62, VI (5) 249; Notes on,. VI (2 & 3) 120.
INDEX.. %
Henderson, J. B. Domestic water supply in Brisbane with special reference to the presence of Zinc. XVII (2) 131. Education in Queensland. XIX (2) iv, The detection of Mercury in explosives. XXI 51. See also Meston and Henderson.
Hepatics. On the mosses and, of the Synopsis, Queensland Flora. V (3) 116.
Hepialide. XVI 65.
Hemalus (2) virescens (VD bld). The larval structure of, XV 89
Hesperidw. Descriptions of some new species of Australian, VI (4) 146.
Australasian © woodboring,
Heteropus. A conspect of the genus, I (4) 166. Hirschfeld,, EK. Inspection of meat.
XI (2) 62, Obituary notice of Dr. J. Bancroft. X 102, On the prev- alence of Cancer in Australasia. X 65, X 89, *Prevention of infec- tious diseases. X 11, Preventive measures against the spread _ of Tuberculosis. XVI 1, *The serum treatment of infectious diseases. XI (4) 11.
Holocephalus. Descriptions of new snakes with a synopsis of the genus.
I (3) 138.
Hoplocephalus. On a new species of, I (2) 100. Horses. Psoriasis in, VIII (3) 65.
Hybridisation. I (4) 161. Practical, (Abstract).
A plea for the, of plants.
11 (2) 141.
Hyla. On a new species of, I (3) 128.
Ichthyology. Studies in the, of Queens- land. XVIII 7.
Illidge R. Entomology of a teatree
swamp. XV 1, List of butterflies ot the Brisbane District. XIII 89, Life history etc. of timber moths. XIV 21, Miscellanea entomologica, XY 133, Notes on Lepidoptera from the vicinity of Brisbane, whose larvie feed on Loranthus. XX 33. and Quail A. Australasian wood- boring Hepialide. XVI 65. Australian woodboring Cosside. XVII (2) 161. T. On Ceratodus forstert. X 40. Immunity : natural and acquired. XVII (2) 128. Inks. On indelible writing, [11 149. Insects. Colouration’ of, XI (2) 66.
|
XXI- 99. International Catalogue. A reply to some critical notes on the Queens-
Insects and diseases.
land volume of the, of scientific literature. XV 75. Tsinglass. A possible source of, I (2) 53.
Jabiru. Nest and eggs of the, II] 139-
R. L. Note on the discovery of organic remains in the Cairns Range- XII 47. Note on the meridional anthills of the Cape York peninsula. XII 99, On a new Queensland locality for Zygomaturus, Macleay. X 120, On aborignial cave-drawings on the Palmer goldfield X1{ (2) 91, Presidential Address XI (1) vii, Stratigraphical notes on _ the Georgina Basin, with special refer- ence to the question of artesian water. XI (2) 70, The submarine leakage of Artesian water. XII 59.
Jaggard W. N. JMesoplodon layardi. I (2) 58.
Jardine expedition from Rockhampton to. York. -X AIL (1) 1
Jensen H. I. Origin and occurrence of phosphate rock and the possibility of finding phosphate deposits in Australia. X XII (2) 69, The building of E. Australia. XXIII (2) 149, The climates of the geological past. XXII (2) 59.
Jobnston T. H. A census of Australian reptilian entozoa. XXIII (2) 233, Notes on some entozoa. XXIV 63, On the occurrence of worm-nodules in cattle. XXIII (2) 207.
and Harrison IL. Queensland Mallophaga. XXIV 1, A list of Mallophaga. XXIV _ 16, A note on Australian Pediculicds. XXIV 105.
Jones P. W. XXI 49.
Kangaroo. On a third species of Aus- tralian tree, 1V 132.
Jack
A census of
A new test for mercury
Keys J. A contribution to the flora of Mt. Perry. II (1) 41. T. BP. Description of some
caves near Camooweal. XV 87. Kissack A. H. The Savo megapode. I (4) 18]. Knight C. A description of new species of Parmelia from Victoria. I (5) 114,
Lagoon. Description of a typical Queens- land, (Enoggera Reservoir) XIX (2) 105.
10
INDEX.
*Lakes. Further notes on crater, at | Leichhardt Dr. Ludwig. Unpublished
Ban Ban. XI (2) 88. lecture by, X 46. On thé discover or Hae beer: Lepidoptera. Descriptions of Queens- and other evidences of volcanic land, XIIT 59. | activity near Ban Ban. X 44. New species of Australian macro-, VITT (3) 57.
Lauterer J. Anatomical and chemical New species of Queensland researches on the parasitic phanero- XV 137 Shia lt) : j gams of Queensland. XI (2) 75, ;
A new method of assaying tannates. (Rhopalocera). Note on some
XI (2) 43, Bunya bunya nuts. XI (2) 45, Caffein-yielding plants. XI (2) 82, Chemical affinities between Rutacez and Umbellifere. XII 72,
*Chemistry of some undescribed gums. XI (2) 62, *Comparative
grammar and vocabulary of the Yogum and Yaggara languages. XI (2) 102, *Constituents of the resin of Ailanthus imberbiflora vay. macartneyt. XI (2) 42, Distilling cognac from sugar and grape-juice.
eae wr A ran sy & * Drought-resisting properties of Eucalypti. X 13, *Exhibits of plants possessing or
credited with medicinal properties. X 36, Gums of eucalypts and Ango- phoras. VIII (2) 37, *Native astringent medicines and tanning materials of Queensland. XI (2) 46, Native medicinal plants from Queensland. X 97, Naturalised and acclimatised plants in various parts of the world.. XVIII 55, New investigations on Rickets and Macrozamia. SIV 5, New native medicinal plants of Queensland. XII 92, *Notes on a new worm discovered in Moreton Bay oysters. XIIL 25, Occurrence of saponin in Australian acacias and albizzias. XIE 103, On leprosy in the north of Europe, and its contagious character. X 14, On Queensland scorpions. X 19, *On Queensland wines. X 44, *On some new species of Queensland spiders. X 34, On the resin of Araucaria bidwilli. XI (1) 12, *Resins of Callophyllum inophyllum. XII 10, Snake-poison v. Strychnine. VIII (2) 32, The aboriginal languages of E. Australia compared. XII 11, *The chemistry of Brigalow gum. XI (2) 56, *The poisonous principle of Wacrozamia spiralis, X1(2) 90, The sassafras tree of Queensland and the chemistry otf Cinnamomum oliveri, Bail. XI (1) 20, *The supposed descent of the Australians. XI (2) 46, *Unpub- hshed songs and corroborrees. XI
(1) 13.
undescribed Australian, VI (5) 263.
Notes on, from the vicinity of Brisbane whose larve feed on Loranthus. XX 33.
On 34 new species of Australian,
VIII (3) 68.
Queensland, XVI 73.
Studies in Australian (Pyralidz) XXIV III.
Leprosy. Ethnography of, in the Far East. XIII 1.
On, in the north of Europe, and
its contagious character. X 14. Lichen. Additions to the, flora of Queensland. V (1) 7, V (2) 72, VI
(2 & 3) 115.
Note on a remarkable, growth in connection with a new species of Sticta. VII (1) 8.
Supplement to the, flora of Queensland. XXIV 23.
The, flora of Queensland, with descriptions of species. V (3) 78, VI (1) 3, VI (4) 129, VI (5) 165. Notes on, in N.S.W. V1(2 &
Lichens. 3) 85. On some Victorian, X 54.
from Warwick and neighbour- hood. VIII (4) 132. XVI vii. The beginnings of, XV 5.
Lindon E. B. A catalogue of such minerals as are at present known in *Q. with their principal associations and places of occurrence. IV 32, Note on A. W. Clarke’s paper on Scolecite. IV 111, On native zinc in Queensland. III 154, On the occurrence of Topaz in association with tin. JII 155.
Lizard. On a, and three species of Salarias etc. II (1) 56.
On bones and teeth of a large extinct, II (1) 25. s. On new Australian, I (2) 53.
On new Queensland, I (2) 77.
Life, chiefly bacterial.
INDEX.
Lizard. On new species of Australian, T (2) 97.
Locust. A, plague on the Lower Her- bert. I (2) 59. Longman H. A. The plants of Masthead ae? XOEV “Tk Love W. W. R. Immunity, natural and
acquired. XVII (2) 123. Lucas T. P. A _ few scientific notes
taken during the present drought. XVII (2) 97. The colouration of insects. XI (2) 66, Descriptions of Queensland Lepidoptera. XII 59, New species of Queensland butter- flies. VI (2 & 3) 117. New species of Queensland Lepidoptera. XV 137, On 34 new species of Aus- tralian Lepidoptera. VIII (3) 68, Queensland Lepidoptera. XVI 73, *Scrubs and the part they play in the mitigation of tropical floods. XIV 2, Six new species of Rhopal- ocera. VI (4) 155, The flying fox : its habits and depredations. XII 49. MacGregor 8. Observations on extinct volcanoes in Victoria. X 47.
Mackie R. C. Anthropological notes otf “~ 930 years ago. XXIII (1) 107.
Macrozamia. New investigation on Rickets and, XIV 5. - spiralis. The poisonous prin-
ciple of, X1'(2) 90.
Maiden J. H. Notes on the resins of two Queensland species of Araucaria. VII (1) 1. On the oleo-resin of Canarium mullert Bail. VIIL (3) 95.
Maitland A. G. The geological structure of extra-Australian artesian basins. MILE.
Maize disease. An inquiry into the, of the Caboolture District. III 108.
Malaria. Mosquitoes and, XV 7l.
Mallophaga. XXIV 1.
A list of, XXIV 16.
A census of Queensland,
Mammal. On an extinct genus of, V (5) 158. On an extinct, of a genus
apparently new. [V 99.
Marks E. 0. Notes on portion of the Burdekin Valley. XXIV 93, Notes on the geological age of volcanic activity in S.E. Queensland. XXIII (2) 139.
Martin S. G. The principal causes of
mortality. in Queensland. XVII (4) lL.
|
li
Mathews R. H. Aboriginal customs in N. Queensland. XIII 33, Burbung of the Wiradthuri tribes. XVI 35, Rock-carving by the Australian aborigines. XII 97, *Stone eceoking- holes of the Australian aborigines.
XV 23. *McCall T. Notes on some modern explosives. XVI 7.
McCulloch A. R. Notes on some Aus- tralianJAtherinidie. XXIV 47. *Meat. The inspection of home and
export, supply. XVI 44. Inspection of, XI (2) 62. * Medicines. Native astringent, and tanning materials of Q. XI (2) 46 Megalania. On. VI (2 & 3) 93. The Savo, I (4) LSI. Mental development in animals.
and its allies.
Megapode. XX 41. A new test for, X XI 49.
The detection of, in explosives. XXI 51.
Mesoplodon layardi. 1 (2) 58.
Meston A. On the Australian Cassowary (Casuarius australis). X 59.
Mercury.
©. and Henderson J. B. The freezing point of milk. NXIV 165. Meteorological notes. V (5) 158, VI
(2 & 3) 122, VIII (2) 56. Micro-organisms from the Brisbane air. XII 77. Migration of birds. On the, at Cape York Peninsula. I (2) 93. Milk. The freezing point of, XXIV 165. Mineral. On the occurrence of a green,
in the schists of Adelaide St. Bris- bane.<s’ me Bl.
Resources. On the, of Kil- kivan, Wide Bay and on the recent
discovery of cobalt ore in that district. III 129. Minerals. Catalogue of, known in Queensland etc. IV 32. List of, Walsh and _ Tineroo Districts, N.Q. XV 47.
Miskin W. H. A revision of Australian Sphingide. VIII (1) 1, Descrip- tions of some new species of Aus- tralian Hesperide. VI (4) 146, Further notes on Australian Sphingide. VIII (3) 60, New species of Australian macro-Lepidop-
tera. VIIL (3) 57, Note on some undescribed Australian Lepidoptera
12 Miskin W. H.—Continawed.
(Rhopalocera) VI (5) 265, Papilio parmatus, G. R. Gray, at Mackay. IV 17, Revision of Australian species of T'ertas, with deseriptions of some new species. VI (5) 256.
Moa. The, (Dinornis) in Avwstralia, L(t) 2: Mollusea. Additions to the marie, of
Queensland. XXIII (1) 93. XXTV OD.
An
destruction
a - unusual agency in the of marine,’ IV 26. Description of a new slug, with notes on other terrestrial, V (4) 150. Monctreme. On an_ extinet, (Oxn- thorhynchus agilis). Il (1) 35. Mortality. The principal causes in Queensland. XVII (1) 1.
Mosquito. .Notes on a_ brush-toneued,. |
MATT) Vo.
of,
Notes on a_malaria-carrying,.
( Anopheles pictus). XVI 45. ——— Notes on the Scots Gray, (Culex mucidus alternans. West-
wood), XVIII 67.
- Observations on the life-history of the common, XV 111.
XV 71}.
es and malaria.
Mosses. On the, and Hepaties of the Synopsis, Queensland Flora. VY (3) 116.
Moths. Life-history ete. of timber,
XIV 21. Mud eruptions. Hot springs and, on the Lower Flinders R. I (1) 19-
Mueller F. von. Dendrobium cincinnatum, sp. nov. I (3) 113, Description of a new tiliaceous tree from N.E. Australia. IT (2) 141.
Natural History collection. Preliminary observations on a, VI (5) 219. Neoceratodus forsteri, Krefft. On a
weak point in the life-history of, XXII (2) 251. New England, N.S.W. XVII (2) 71.
New Georgia. The people of, XXII (1) 23.
New Guinea. Notes on a trip to, Il 2.
New Ireland. Notes on the inhabitants of, and its archipelago. I (3) 115.
Nicotiana suaveolens. On the poisonous principle of, [V 9.
Nipa fruticans. Description of Queensland form of, V (4) 146.
the
= SS
INDEX.
Norton A. *A trip to the Darling» R. N.S.W. in 185% X 101, Mentab development in animals. XX 41, New England, N.S.W. XVII (2) 71, Notes on a living tree stump. ITI 38,. Notes on travel, Brisbane to Port Curtis by land in 1861. XTX (2) 91, Notes on travel, 1859-60. XVIITS81,. On the decadence of the Australian , forests. III 15, *Parthenogenesis. and bisexual characteristics. XIII 32, Presidential Address. IV 94, VIII (2) x, Settling in Queensland, and the reason for doing 30, XVII (2) 147, The Jardine expedition from: Rockhampton to C. York, 1864. XXII (1) 1, Tuberculosis. X 105.
Nototherium. On the genera, Zygomaturus. Vo (3) Wd. O'Connor D. acclimatisation in Queensland. XII 108, On ‘fish acclimatisation in Queensland. UT 139, The oceurrence of Chanos salmoneus, Forsk, in Moreton B.. IIT 141, Report on preservation of Ceratodus. XII 101.
Ovilby J. D. A new type of tree-frog from Brisbane. XX. 31,. Australian crocodiles. XVIII 201,. Catalogue: of the Kmydosaurian and _ testu- dinian reptiles of New Guinea. XIX (1) 1, New genera and species of Queensland fishes. XXI 87, New genera and species of fishes. XXI 1, Ona new Terapon, from Stanthorpe District. XX 37, On new or insufficiently described fishes. XXIII (1) 1, On some fishes from the Queensland coast. X XIII (1) 85, Some new pediculate fishes. XX 17,. Studies in the Ichthyology of Queensland. X. VIII 7,.symbranchiate, and apodal fishes new to Australia.
b. 9. SB
and
Fish
Oils. Distillation of native essential, from a commercial aspect. VIL (1) 6.
Olsson-Seffer P. On the possibility of preventing damage by frost. XVII (2) 101.
Organic remains. Note on the occurrence of, in the Cairns Range. XII 47.
Ornithorhynchus agilis. On an extinct. monotreme, I1 (1) 35.
Osteoglossum jardinii.. Description of a new species of true barramundi, from N. Queensland. VIII (3) 105.
Ostrea glomerata.. Notes on the embryo-
logy of the Australian rock oyster, VII (1) 33.
INDEX.
Palm. Notes on _ the, ‘HET 33.
On the, Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. WT (2) 210.
Palmer E. Hot springs and mud erup- tions on the Lower Flinders R. i (1) 19, Notes on a great visitation of rats in the N. and N.W. plain
_ country of Queensland in 1869 and
1870. II (2) 193, Notes on bovine pleuro-pneumonia. IV 20.
Caryoia wrens.
Parcun maximum. Guinea grass (,)5 its histery, cultivation and value. VIUIT (2) 51.
Papillo parmatus. Mackay. IV 17.
Papuans. The,: comparative notes on
, various ‘authors, with omrginal observations. II (2) 78.
Parasitic scourge. A, of warm climates. XI (2) 99.
Parasite. Braula ceca, a bee, IV 17.
Parker T. Underground waters. XXV 25 & 31.
Parmelia. A description of new species of, from Victoria. I (3) 114.
*Parthenogenesis and bisexual charac-
G. R. Gray, at
teristics. XIII 32.
‘Pediculids. A note on Australian, XXIV 105.
Perameles bougainwillii, Q. & G. I (2) 101.
Perspatus. On, and its occurrence in Australia. IV 78.
Perishable articles of food. On. the preservation of, by refrigeration. III 49.
Permo-Carboniferous fossils from
Banana (Abstract). XI (2) 47. _ Pettigrew W. On the curative properties
of the cunjevoi (Colocasia macro- rrhiza). It (2) 211.
Phalangistide. On the, of the post-
' Tertiary period in Queensland. VI (2 & 3) 105.
Phanerogams. researches Queensland.
Anatomical and chemical on the parasitic, of XI (2). 75. Philemon corniculatas, Lath. F (2) 58. Philips G. On the comparative
necessity for the drainage of dray- roads and railroads. VIII (4) 137.
P ayo Notes on the, of the islands . to the S. E. extremity of New Guinea. II (1) 2.
Nest of,
PPonmiecd
13 Phesphate rock. Origin and oceur- rences of, and the possibility of finding phosphate deposits in Australia. XXII (2) 69. Photomicrography and photo-micro- metry. XVI 61.
Physiography of some limestone areas in Queensland. XXIII (1) 75. Pigeon. Australian ancestry of the
crowned, of New Guinea. V (4) 127.
Pink J. A plea for the hybridisation of plants. I (4) 161. Practical hybrid- ization. I] (2) 141.
Plant. Queensland, associations. (1) 57. *_____«. Exhibit of new and interesting,
mad
XXIIt
*
SIL ALM.
Introduction of economic, Queensland. XXII (2) 77. Native medicinal, from Queens- land. X 97. Naturalised in various XVIII 55. New native medicinal, of Queens- land. XII 92. * Notes X 101.
Plants. Preliminary note on some new poisonous, VIII (2) 35.
Insectivorous.
into
and acclimatised, parts of the world.
fresh
on Queensland.
Specimens of Blackall Range, VIII (4) 136.
Uses of some Queensland. V (1)
10.
of Masthead J. XXV 17.
possessing or credited medicinal properties. X 36. Notes on some, col- T. Bancroft on the VIIT (4) 128.
Plaque. —_ Description XIII 29. Pleuro- pneumonia.
in Queensland. Pond-life. (1) 35. Potts J. W.
Guinea.
with
Plant specimens. lected by Dr. Diamantina.
of an antique, Notes on bovine, IV 20. Notes on Brisbane, XXII Notes on a trip to New Hit 2.
Fowl-enteritis in Brisbane. XIII 51, Notes on the cattle tick. XIV 28, On Trypanosoma and their existence in the blocd of Brisbane rats. XIX (1) 33, The discovery of chicken cholera in
4 INDEX.
Pound C..J.—Continued. - | Rhopalocera. Six new species of, VE Queensland. XI (2) 77, The Stock-~; (4) 155. _ i Owners’ indebtedness to the micro- | Richards H. C. The building stones of scope. XIII vi, Tuberculin; its St. John’s Cathedral, © Brisbane. history, preparation and use. XIV XXIII (2) 199. wes 39 Rickets. New investigation on, and
Prentice Dr Chas. Obituary notice of, Macrozamia. XIV 5. f X 50. _ Ringrose R. C. Crater near .Herberton.
Prionodura newtoniana. A further XXIV 57. Notes on the congiom-
account of, VI (5) 245. *Proteacex. Peculiarities of the flowers of the order, XIII 32.
Protoplasm. The nature and origin of living matter. (,) XV 27. Pseudomorphism in minerals. [I (1)
Psoriasis in horses. VIII (3) 65.
Pterophyllum. Two new species of, XII
89.
Pyralidze. A preliminary revision of the Thyridide and, XVIII 109, XIX (1) 39, XIX (2) 89.
Quail A. See Illidge and Quail. The larval structure —_ oof Hepialus (2) virescens (Dbid.) XV 89. Quinnell W. C. *The inspection of home and export meat supply. XVI 44.
Radford H. W. Summer heat and health. (Abstract). I (4) 175. Rainfall. The, at Brisbane and its
periodicity. IT (2) 176.
at Bulimba. XI (2) 103, XII U11, XIII 88, XIV 55.
Rands W. H. Contemporaneous basalt in the Gympie Formation. XII 95.
Raphia (Sagus) ruffia. On the palm. I (2) 210.
Rats. Notes on a great visitation of, in the N.W. plain country of Queens- land in 1869 and 1870. II (2) 195.
Reptile that takes in ballast. XXIV 103.
s. Catalogue of the Emydosaurian and testudinian, of New (Guinea. XIX (1) 1.
*Resin. Constituents of the, of AWdanthus imberbiflora, var. macartneyi. XI (2) 42.
On the,
x1 iy
On the
of Araucaria bidwilli.
oleo-, of Canarium mullert (Bail). VILL (3) 95.
—s. Notes on the, of two Sere land species of Araucaria. VII (1) 1.
erates and sandstone series of the Wild R. Valley and of the head- waters of the Walsh R. XII 54, *The conglomerate rocks of ‘Wild R. XI (2) 56, The establishment of a Geological Survey in Queens- land. IJ (2) 198.
Berge J. S. and Brownlee J H. List of minerals, Walsh and Tinaroo districts. XV 47.
Roads. On the comparative necessity for the drainage of dray, and rail, VIII (4) 13 oy
Rock-carving by the Australian aborig- ines, XII 97.
Rock Drawings. On an _ undescribed cla’s e ‘of aborigines in Queens- land. I (2) 45.
Experiments with, XI186.
Description of an aboriginal XIII 87, Notes on savage life
Rontgen rays Roth W. E. drill.
in the early days of W. A. settle- ment. XVII (2) 45. Social and individual nomenclature of the N.W. Central Queensland aborigines. XIII 39.
Rotifera. A list of Queensland, VI (1) 70. ;
On certain, found in the ponds. of the garden of the Acclimatisation Society, Brisbane. IV 28.
Rotifers. Notes on the, or wheel animal- cule of Brisbane. XXIII (1) 87.
Rutacex. Chemical affinities between, and Umbelliferze. XII 72
Salartas. On a lizard and cheaes species of, ete. II (1) 56.
Sandfly. Notes on a species of, XVII (1) 17.
Sankey J. R. Queensland gems. KX
Ol. -* ;
Saponin. Occurrence of, in Australian
——— of (as snophyllum. XIE 3
10.
acacias and albizzias. XII 103..
On the discovery of, in Acacia delibrata. IV 10.
Sassafras trees of Queensland and the chemistry of Cinnamomum oliwert, Bail. XI (1) -20.
INDEX.
Saurian. On a fossil, {1*(2) 181.
Savage life in the early days of W.A. settlement. XVIT (2) 45.
Saville-Kent W. Description of a new species of true barramundi, Osteog- lossum jardinii, from N. Queens- land. VIII (3) 105, Notes on the embryology of the Australian rock- oyster (Ostrea glomerata). VII (1) 33, Preliminary observations on a natural history collection. VI (5)
219, Presidential Address. VII (2)
17.
Science. Progress in Australia. XII viil.
Scink. On a naked-eyed, apparently new. V (5) 160.
Scolecite. Note on a paper on the mineral, by A. W. Clarke. IV 111.
On the mineral, occurring in Granite, Charters Towers. IV 109.
Reply to E. B. Lindon’s note on Clarke’s paper on the mineral, IV 112.
Scorpions. On Queensland, X 19.
Scortechini Rev. Benedict, Obituary notice of, IV 2.
The, and its nature.
TI (1)
Sea-scum. 18.
Sechium edule (Chayote). Its introduc-
tion into Queensland—cultivation and uses. VII (1) 41. Sesbania, a native fibre-producer. I (2)
101. Settling in Queensland and the reason for doing so. XVII (2) 147.
On the disposal of, X 21. Shells. Errata in list of land, recorded from Queensland. V (4) 131.
A list of land, recorded from
Queensland. V (2) 45.
- Notes on Queensland land, VI 2 & 3) 100.
Shirley J. A bora ring in the Albert Valley. XXIII (1) 103, A fish poison of the aborigines. XI (2) 88, A reply to “ Some critical notes on the Queensland volume of the International Catalogue of Scien- tific literature.” XV 75, A review of recent botanical work in Aus- traha. IX 12, Account of Field
Sewage.
Naturalists’ Excursion to Peechey’s ©
Scrub. IV 135. *Additions to the fossil flora of Queensland. XIII 38, Additions to the Lichen flora of Queensland. YV (1) 7, V (2) 72, VI {2 & 3) 115, Additions to the marine
15
Shirley J.—Continued.
Mollusca of Queensland. XXIII (1) 93, XXTV 55, Australian vegetation and its geological development. XVI 39, *Bacteria: their _life- history and effects. X 34, Field Naturalists’ Section Excursion to Caboolture. V (4) 137, *Flora of Moreton I. X 17, *Insectivorous plants. XII 111, Liechens’ from Warwick and neighbourhood. VIII (4) 152, Mosquitoes and malaria- XV 71, Note on a fossil wood from Mt. Astrolabe, New Guinea.’ XIV 3, Notes on bees and wax-scales. XIV 1, *On a botanical excursion to Burleigh Heads and the Mac- pherson Range. X 32, On Baiera bidens. XII 74, On some Victorian lichens. X 54, Report of delegates to A.A.A.S. ~ VIII (4).122, *X. 40, Supplement to the Lichen flora of Queensland. XXIV 23, The geo- graphical distribution of Queens-
land Gastropoda. XXV 5, The Geology of Glasshouse Mts. XXI
27, The Lichen flora of Queensland with descriptions of species. V (3) 78, VI (1) 3, VI (4) 129, The lichen flora of Queensland. VI (5) 165, The native grape-vines of America and Australia. VIII (3) 101, Two new species of Pterophyllum. XII 89, Vocabularies of the Gowrburra and Koolaburra tribes. XII 1.
Shirley J and Blake E. C. *Peculiarities: of the flowers of the order Prote- ace. XITT 32.
Sicyos angulata. Linn. Tt (2) 102.
Sillago bassensis.. On the common whiting of Moreton B. (,) XVII (2). 175.
Simmonds J. H. Field Naturalists” Section Excursions. VI (1) 64, VI (2 & 3) 123, V (4) 144, V (6) 42, VI (1) 95, VI (2 & 3) 125.
Skertchley 8S. b. J. *Artesian water as illustrated by the Hwang-Ho and Yangtse Rivers. XIII 25, Ethno- graphy of leprosy in the Far East.
Fasciation in.
XIII 1, Geology and mineral deposits of the country around. Herberton, Watsonville and
Chillagoe. XIV viii, *On the oldest- worked coalfields of China. XIIL 38, The building of Australia. XXI 57. ; Smith F. On the cyanogenetic glucoside- of Evemophila maculata. XXV 13.
16
Snake. Deglutition in the freshwater, T (2) 82.
On an anomalous, I (2) 58.
bite. Strychnine, a useless remedy
in, VIII (2) 29.
poison v. Strychnine. VIII (2) 32.
Snakes. Descriptions of new, with synopsis of the genus Holocephalus. IT (3) 138.
Spicer E. On a sense of hearing in ants. I (2) 79.
*Spiders. On some new species of Queens- land, X 34.
Sphingide. A revision of Australian, VIII (1) 1.
——— Further notes VIII (3) 60.
Springs. Hot, and mud eruptions on the Lower Flinders R. I (1) 19.
on Australian,
r Supply : , and their origin. T (4) 28. Sticta. Notes on a remarkable lichen
growth in connection with a new species of, VIT (1) 8.
Stockowners’ indebtedness to the micro- scope. XIII vi.
Stokes H. G. green mineral Adelaide St. Brisbane. see Hall E.
Stratigraphical notes on the Georgina Basin, with special reference to the question of Artesian water. XI (2)
70.
Strychnine—a useless remedy in snake- bite. VIII (2) 29.
Snake-poison v., VIEL (2) 32
Sutton J. W. Experiments with Réntgen rays. XII 86, Presidential
On the occurrence of a in the schists of X 1), also
Address. XV x.
Tannates. A new method of assaying, XT (2) 43.
Taylor W. F. On the disposal of sewage. X 21, The influence of
the chmate of Queensland on its inhabitants of European origin and their descendants. XI (2) Xxill, Public abattoirs and the prevention of tuberculosis. XV 95, The domestic water filter. XI (2) 49, Water supply for domestic use. XI (2) 27.
‘Temperature of the capital of each colony ain Australia during i898. XIV 54.
Re
INDBX.
‘femperature of the Earth. Remarks on the, with special reference to some mines on the Gympie goldfield. VI (1) 12.
Terapon. On a new, from Stanthorpe District. XX 37
Trias. Revision of Australian species of, with descriptions of new species VI (5) 256.
Therapon.
[ (2) 56.
Thomson J. A disease garden. XIX (2) 73, Colour-sight and colour-blind- ness. XVIII 29, Life, chiefly bacterial. XVI vii, Photo-micro- graphy and __ photo-micrometry. XVI 61.
Thorpe J. On the Bowen cyclone of 30th January, 1884. I (1) 35.
V.G. A list of Queensland Rotif- era. Vi (1) 70, On certain Rotifera found in the ponds of the garden —
On a new form of the genus.
of the Acclimatisation Society, Brisbane. IV 28
Thylacolco. On a femur, probably of, Til 122.
Thryidide. A preliminary revision of the Australian, and Pyralidz.
XVITT 109, XTX (1) 39, XIX (2)'89.
Tick. Notes on the cattle, XIV 2
Tiliaceous tree. Description of a new, from N.E. Australia. II (2) 141.
Title of the Society. Correspondence relating to the, II (2) 64.
Tolson J. On the preservation of perishable articles of food by refrigeration. III 49.
Topaz. On the occurrence of, in association with tin. III 1565. Tosh J. R. On the common whiting of Moreton B. (Sillago bassensis)
XVII (2) 175.
Travel. Notes on, XVIII 81.
Notes on, Brisbane to Pt. Curtis by land in 1861... XIX (2) 91. Tree-stump. Notes ona living. III 3s.
Trigonometrical Survey of Queensland. Short account of the measurement of the baseline. IJ (2) 127.
Tryon H. A locust plague on the Lower Herbert. I (2) 59, Braula ceca, a bee parasite. IV 17, Errata contained in list of land- shells recorded from Queensland.
INDEX.
Tryon H.—Continued.
V (4) 131, Judicial entomology and on an unrecorded habit of white ants. IV 119, Notes on
Queensland ants, I. Harvesting ants II (2) 146, Obituary notice of Rev. Benedict Scortechini. [V 2, On an acarus associated with «w diseased condition in the banana. IV_ 106, On an undescribed class of rock- drawings of aborigines in Queens- land. I (2) 45, On Peripatus and its
occurrence in Australia. IV _ 78, The seascum and its nature. II (1) 18,
Trypanosoma. On, and their existence in the blood of Brisbane rats. XIX (1) 33.
Tuberculin: its history, preparation and use. XIV 39.
Tuberculosis. X 103.
Preventive measures against the spread of, XVI 1.
Public abattoirs and the pre- vention of, XV 95.
Science and the State, with special reference to, and the public health. XVII (2) 25.
Tully W. A. Short account of the measurement of the baseline in connection with the trigonometrical survey of Queensland. II (2) 127.
Turner A. J. A_ parasitic scourge of warm climates. XI (2) 99, A pre- liminary revision of the Australian Thryidide and Pyralide. XVIH 109. XIX (1) 39, XIX (2) 89, Insects and diseases. ML GS:
Micro-organisms from the Brisbane
air. XII 77, Remarkable reaction
of the typhoid bacillus. XIII 26,
Studies in Australian Lepidoptera
(Pyralide). XXIV 111, The nature
and origin of living matter (proto-
plasm). XV 27.
Typhoid. Remarkable reaction of the, bacillus. XIIT 26. Unmbelliferz. Chemical affinities
between Rutacee and, XII 72. AAV 25 & Sl.
Albatross Bay and the XII 42.
Australian, and its geo- XVI 39.
Underground waters. Urquhart F. C. Embley and Hey Rivers.
Vegetation. logical development.
hg
Vegetation. Notes on the, of New Guinea. XIV 14.
Vocabularies of the Gowrburra and
ALLL
Volcanic activity. Notes on the veo- logical age of the, in S.E. Queens-
land. XXIII (2) 139.
Koolaburra tribes.
Volcanoes. Observations on extinet, in Victoria. X 47.
Wagenknecht B. The rainfall at Brisbane and its periodicity. IL (2) 176.
Wallaby. Echinococcus in a, VII (1) 31. Wallmann H. F. Pseudomorphism in minerals. I (1) 32.
An efficient automatic sand filter. XXI 45, Description of a typical Queensland lagoon (Inoggera Reservoir). XIX (2) 105.
Wasteneys H.
Water.” An unexpected source of, in the bush. I (4) 175.
supply. Domestic, in Brisbane, with special reference to the presence of zinc in tank waters. XVII (2) 131.
a pure, Brisbane.
On a method by which could be obtained for
XV 83.
: Springs and their origin.
I (1) 28.
for domestic use.
XI (2) 27.
Watkins G. Notes on the aboriginals of Stradbroke and Moreton Is. VIII (2) 40, Report of Field Natur- alists’ Section. V (2) 70.
Weston P. L. The internal combustion engine as a factor in National Pro-
gress. XXV vi. Whale. A, (Ziphius layardi, Flower),
recently stranded near Southport. I (4) 174.
Wheats. Experiments with Indian, in Queensland. I (4) 176.
White W. T. Nest and eggs of the Jabiru. IL] 139.
Whiting. On the common, of Moreton B. (Sillago bassensis). XVII (2) 175.
Wild C. J. Bryological notes. V_ (4) 148, VI (1) 76, VI (2 & 3) 104, On the mosses and hepatics of the Synopsis, Queensland Flora. V (3) 116,
18 INDEX.
Wilson F. R. M. Notes on a remarkable lichen vrowth in connection with a new species of Sticta. VII (1) 8, Notes on lichens in N.S.W. VI (2 & 3) 85.
* Wines.
Wood. Note on a fossil, Astrolabe, New Guinea,
*Worm. Notes on a new, discovered in Moreton b. oysters. XIII 25.
On Queensland. X 44.
from Mt. XIV &
nodules. On the occurrence of, in cattle. XMXEL (2) 207.
Zinc. Estimation of, in copper ores by Potassium ferryocanide. XXII (2) 65. : On native, in Queensland. III 154.
Ziphius layardi, Flower. A whale (,) recently stranded near Southport. I (4) 174.
Zygomalurus. On a new Queensland locality for, Macleay. X 120.
On the Notothertum
and, V (3) LLL.
On the mandible of, XI (1) ‘5.
genera
. .~ ~ ers Bm ynt ~ , oe >> .
VM
6746