PROCEEDINGS

loiml ^oricti) of firtoria.

VOL. XXV. (Niow Series).

PARTS I. AND IT.

Edileii under the Aiil/iority of the Council.

ISSUIil) AUGUST, 1912, and MARCH, 1913.
(^('iintdiiiiitg t'apers rend before the Society during:; 1912).

I'lIK tliriKMtS OK line. ISKVKmL I'AfKKS AKK MKVKKAI.I.V II KDHONSI KLK KOK IHK

KOI'NDNKMH OK TIIK OPINIONS OIVKS AND KOR TIIK \((I'HA( V OK IIIK

STA'I'KMKNTS MADK TIIKKKIN.

MELBOURNE :

FORD & SON, I'KINTF.RS, DRUMMOND STKKKT, CARLToN.

1913.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXV,

Art. 1. — Preliminary Ni)t.e.s on the Moncliiqiiite Dykess of the K^'inlij^o

(^oMfiekl. By V. L. S'nr.LWKLr., H.S,-. (Plate I.) ... 1

II. — The IntrorluetiDii iuid Sprcinl of the Cattle Tick (Boophilus
aunulatus, var. iiiieroptu.s), and of the Associated Di.sease
'I'ick Fever (HaViesiasis) in Australia. By J. A. Grir>BUTH,
D.V.Se., il.R.C.V.S., F.Pt.S.E. ... ... ... ... 15

III. — Furtluu' Observations on Oncliocerea gibsoni, the Cau.se of
Worm-nodules in Cattle, By J. A. Gilkuth, D.V.Sc,
M.E..C.V.S., &c., and Georoina Swkki-, D.Sc. ... 2','>

IV. — Australian and Tasmanian Coleojjtera Inhabiting or BesoTtiiig
to the Nests of Ants, Bees and Termites. (Suppleinent.)
By' Akthub M. Lka. (Plate II.) ... ... ... ;^1

V. — On a new Holothurian of the Genus Taeniogyrus found in Port

Phillip Bay. By E. C. Joshua. (Plates III. and IV.) ... 79

VI. — The Occurrence and Development of Cervical Eibs in Man and
some of the Mammals that have abandoned Quadrupedal
Progression. By Walter Stapley, M.D., D.V.Sc,
M.R.C.V.S. ... ... ... ... ... ... 82

VII. — Contributions to the Flora of Austi'alia. No. IJ). By Alfred
J. EwART. D.Sc, Ph.D., F.li.S., and Bertha Kees. (Plates
V. and VI.) .. .. ... ... ... .. lOo

VIII. — 'J'he Ascent and Descent of Water in Trees. By Alfred J.

Ev^^ART, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S. (Plate VII.) ... ... 11",

IX. — Description of Two New Ischnoeliitons from Western Port,

Victoria. By A. F. Basset Hull. (Plate VIII.) .. 120

X. — An Investigation of Fifty-two Tasmanian Crania by Klaatsch's

Craniotrigonometrical Methods. By L. W. G. Buchner 122

XI. — A Study of the Prognathism of the Tasmanian .Aboriginal.

By li. W. G. •BiJCHNER ... ... ... ... 1.3.5

XII.— The Psychrometric Formula. By G. Smeal, B.Sc .. 151

XIII. — On some New Species of Victorian Marine MoUusca By .7. H.

Gatliff and C. J. Gabriel. (Plate IX.) ... ... 167

XIV. — Additions to and Alterations in the Catalogue of Victorian

Marine MoUusca. By .1. H. (iATf.iFF and C. .1. Gabiuel liiit

XV. — Notes on some " Struigybiirk " Kucalyijts. By Kt>Y.sTON
Dkew. Heber Green ;ind P. R. H. 8t. .John. (Plates
X. and XI.j ... ... ... ... .. .. 176

XVI.— New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the National Museum.
(Part XV.— Some Tertiary Clasteropoda.) By Frederick
Chapmax, A.L.S., etc. (Plates XII. and XIII. I ... 186

't A L

Art. XVII. — On the Cross Inoculation of Root Tubercle Bacteria upon
the Native and the Cultivated Lejjiiminosae. By A. J.
KwART, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., and Norman Thomson,
B.Ag.Sc. (Plate XIV' .) .. .. ... ... H>3

XVIII. — Paralysis in Hor.ses and in Cows due to the Ingestion of
Fodder. By J. A. (^ilruth. D.V.Sc. M.C.R.V.S.,
P.R.S.E. ... ... ... ... ... . 201

XIX. — The Anatomy of 'I'wo Australian Fiand Snails, Paryphanta
atramentaria, Shuttleworth, aud P. oonipacta, Cox and
Hedley. By Olive B. Davies, M.Sc. (Plates XV. to
XVII.) .. ... ... ... ... ... 221

XX. — The Correlation of Size of Head and Intelligence as
Estimated from the Cnliic Capacity of Brain of 855
Melbourne Criminals. By Richard J. A. Berry, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., and L. W. G. BiicHNER ... ... ... 229

XXI. — The Correlation of Size of Head iiml Intelligence as
E.stimated from the Cubic Capacity of Brain of 33
Melbourne Criminals Hanged for Murder. By Richard
J. A. Berry, .M.L>., F.R.S E., au.l L. W. (i. Buchnkr ... 254

XXII. — On the Country between Melbourue and the Dandenong

Creek. By T. S. Hart, M.A., B.C.E., F.G.S. 2(is

XXIII. — The Syrinx of the Connnon Fowl, its Strticture and Devel-
opment. Hy A. O. V. Tymms. (Plates XVIII. and
XXIV.) ... ... .. ... ... 28r>

XXIV^. The Viscosity of Cream. By Frances K. M. Dumaresq,

M.A., B.Sc. ... ... ... ... ... 307

XXV. — General ami Mining Geology of the Diamond Creek Area
By Norman R. Junner, B.Sc (Plates XXV. and
XXVI.) ... ... ... ... ... 323

XXVI.— A New Variety of Volute from Western A u.stralia. By

Agnes F. Ken yon ... ... ... 354

XXVII. — Further Descriptions of the Terti;i,ry Polyzoa of Victoiia,

PartXlI. By C. M. Mapi.estoni.; ( Plate XX VII.)... 355

XXVIII.— New or little-known Polyzoa. By C. M. Mai'lestone.

(Plate XXVIII.) . ... .. ... 357

XXIX. — On a New Silurian Bivalve from the Lilydale Quarries,
Lucina (Prolucina) mitchelli. By G. B. Pritchard,
D.Sc, F.G.S. (Plate XXIX.) ... ... ... 3(53

Annual Report and Bai,an(k Shkkt kok 1!H2 ... ... 305

Oeeice-Bkarkrs ... ... ... ... ... ... 3(iit

committkks ... ... ... ... ... .. •■ -'70

List ok Mkmhkrs ... ... ... ... ... ... 371

Index ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 37!'

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), Ft. I., 1912.]

A III'. \.— Prelim imt/ry Notes on the Monchiquite Dykes of the

Bendigo Goldjield.

By F. L. STILLWELL, B.8c.

(Carolina Kay Scholar and Government Research Scholar,
Melbourne University).

(With Plate I.).
[Read 14th December, 1011].

Introduction.

Tlie following: notes are the result of an unfinished study of the
dyke rocks occurring at Bendigo.

References to the rocks are not very numerous among the literature
of this gold field, which is mostly contained in Professor Gregory's
Bibliography of the Economic Geology of Victoria (1). They are only
occasionally mentioned throughout the publications of the Victorian
Mines Dej^artment, excejDt in Mr. Dunn's monograph (2) where they are
treated at some considerable length, and in Dr. Howitt's petrographical
report (3). Elsewhere they have been referred to l)y Mugge{4) in a review
of Dr. Howitt's paper, and by T. A. Rickard in his descriptive papers
on the Bendigo field published in the Transactions of the American
Institute of Engineers. Kickard (5) has given special treatment to the
dykes in his paper on the Origin of the Gold-bearing Quartz of the
Bendigo Reefs. Australia. In this paper he gives a number of sketchies
illustrating the relations ot the dykes to the strata. One of these,
which is incorrect and deservedly critici^^ed by Argall (6) as being incon-
sistent with Rickard's stated facts, has recently been copied into
Malcolm Maclaren's book on Gold (6) as figure 127. The papers by Argall
resulted in the discussion on Rickard's work.

Very little work has been done on these dykes within the last sixteen
years, and at the beginning of the present year it was thought that a
study of these rocks and their relation to the distribution of gold
could be profitably commenced.

General Relations.

The dykes, which are locally always termed " lavas,"' have been
injected into the folded ordovician sediments of the Bendigo field. Mr.
Dunn (2) has pointed out that the dykes are found along the course of
every anticline, and not in the synclines, and that they are not con-

2

2 F. L. StllhueU:

tinuous along the whole length of the anticlinal axes at -the surface.
The course of a lava upward is irregular, and as it rises through
the different levels of a mine it wanders at times both east and west
of the actual " centre country," but is seldom far away. So regularly
do the lavas follow the centre country that they have been of gi-eat service
to the Geological Survey in the mapping of these anticlinal axes, and
Mr. H. S. Whitelaw (7) has tabulated the surface characteristics of the
lavas which are always decomposed and recognised by (1) the trench
or gutter caused by their weathering more easily than the walls of the
adjoining country rock, (2) their more stable decomposition product,
the magnesium carbonate, which at the surfa.ce occurs in thin nodules
or veins, and (3) the peculiar opaline aspect often induced in the quartz
of a reef with which they have come in contact.

Observed in one anticline they are frequently found to branch into
two or more lava streams which may or may not junction again at
higher levels. At the New CTaristmas shaft, situated on the Christmas
anticlinal axis at Kangaroo Flat, six lavas are met in one small crosscut
of 94 feet, revealing the existence of quite a network of streams.

In thickness they average from 9 inches to 12. Th.ree-inch seams are
not uncommon, and they range down to thin threads which may die
right out. Mr. Dunn (2) records a 5-foot lava in the Great Britain Mine.
The south shaft of the New Christmas Mine contains a lava 6 feet thick.
A 1 2-foot lava was supposed to exist in the Bird's Keef Mine, Kangaroo
Flat, but has been found to be in part sandstone, and is only 5 or 6 feet
thick.

The trend of these dykes, north and south, is remarkably persistent,
and they form a parallel system of the " plateau region " type. The
parallelism is made particularly noticeable by its coincidence with the
direction of strike of the rocks. With this parallelism we do expect
to meet them in anticlines rather than synclines, for anticlines are
always in a state of relative tension to the synclines, and, therefore,
suffer fracturing in the relief of orustal stresses in prefei-ence to the
synclines. The coincidence of the strike of the rocks and the dykes
means that the same kind of crustal stresses have been involved in the
folding of the rocks, and in the injection of the igneous material. The
main earth movements resulting in the folding have resulted from
pressure fronu easterly and westerly directions. The rock stresses which
were relieved l)y the injection of the dyke material, and which no doul)t
result in rock fracturing, in part, have developed at a later date from
the same direction. I think this instance forms a good Victorian
example of Harker's principle of the intimate connection between
igneous action and crust movements (8), especially if we agree with T. C.
Chamberlain that earth movements are inheritances, and likely to lie
continued' in the same manner at different jieriods of the earth's history.

Notes on Monchiquite Dykes. 3

The cross-courses on the tield whicli liave displaced the anticlines and
the slides have resulted from niovemients distinctly minor to the main
ones, and Mr. Dunn has spoken of dyke material filling the cross
fractures, but I have not been able to verify this.

In such a parallel system of dykes as this, which has originated from
the same magma, we might expect the dykes to communicate across the
anticlines at different levels in the crust of the earth. The only pos-
sible instance of this that came under my notice was in the Koch's
Pioneer Mine, Long Gully (Garden Gully line), where a lava comes
from the west at the 120!)-f(iot level, and continues through the upper
levels to the surface, l>ut is not found in the lower levels.

Tlie metaniorphism of the intruded series by the dykes is extremely
slight. Apart from the peculiar appearance sometimes seen in the
quartz reefs, noticed above by Mr. Whitelaw, the only evidence I can
record is the presence of sillinianite crystals in quartz associated with a
lava obtained from the Ironbark Mine.

The penetration of these thin parallel sheets, persistent for miles in
length, through a tliick series of folded sedimentary rocks, is a fact
which is impressive. It has astonished previous observers, and caused
Rickai'd (5) to propound a fanciful theory of dyke intrusion based on an
unproved statement that the mobility of the lava is due to superheated
steam and not to intense heat. Such was rightly attacked byArgall(6)
Mr. Dunn (2) is inclined to imagine the presence of explosive forces. There
is little to be gained at present by speculation. The mechanics of dyke
intrusion is a difficult subject and one little known. It can therefore be
well left to a later date.

The question, too, has been raised as to whether these dykes were
channels of supply for lava flows at the surface. Rickard was quite
sure that they were, because he erroneously connected the monchiquites
with the newer basalt, but Mr. Dunn thought probably not. It is not
uncommon to find a dyke stream fading out in the upper levels, and an
instance was recently noticed in the Koch's Pioneer Mine, where the
top of the dyke was largely a mass of sulphur. The presence of sulphur
now implies the presence originally of svdphurous gases which were
vmable to escape through a vent. In this connection it may be remem-
bered that large black biotite crystals are to be found in the lava in
places like Jones's .shaft, New Chum line (2), and the Victoria Consols
Mine. Small biotites are sometimes seen in the sections of rocks from
the other mines. The formation of biotite as a mineral is now known
to require either the presence of a '" mineraliser" like water vapour, or
pressure. Mineralisers would have escaped and the pressure would
have been established with the existing surface at the time of intrusion.
This helps us to think that these dykes were independent and self-con-
tained intrusive bodies. Yet on the other hand the nearest petrogra-

4 F. L. Stilhvell:

phical allies of these rooks in Victoria, e.sx., the Kino^'s Quarry rnck
at Macedon (11), have resulted in very small flows, and any small flow
at Bendigo could well have been denuded away.

Petrology.

( lieiniral Chnrarferx.

A rock sample from the Central Red, White and Blue Mine, Sheeps-
head line, was analysed. This samiple was taken from the thicker of
the two lavas which occur within a, few feet of each other in a small
crosscut at the 318-foot level. This rock was chosen because it was
found to be very fresh. The analysis made is in general similar to that
made by Mr. Frank Stone, quoted in Dr. Hewitt's paper (3), of a sample
of the New Chum lava in Lansell's 180 Mine.

I.

II.

SiO,

40.92

39.32

AloA -

11.34

17.53

TiOs, -

6.57

—

Fe.O^ -

.54

3.07

FeO

12.96

9.12

CaO

9.28

10.38

MgO -

7.78

8.00

K.3O

1.94

3.04

Na,0 -

3.27

2.44

MnO -

.13

—

P.O., -

.51

—

CO.,

2.82

Moistui'e 2.20

H.,0- -
H,0+ -

.64
1.77

[- 5.10

100.47 99.20

i. Dyke, Central Red, White and IMue Mine, Sheepshead line.
Analyst, F. Stillwell.

IT. Dyke, Lan-sell's 180 Mine, New Chum line. Analyst, F. Stone
The Sheepshead line is immediately east of the New Chum line, and
these analyses tend to emphasise the minor variations that can he noted
microscopically in various samples of the Bendigo monchicpiites. The
Sheepshead lava is relatively more acid, though at the same time it is
a fresher rock. The high titanium content tinds expression in the
highly titaniferous augite, and the abundance of ilmenite. Tlie low
silica percentage, moderately low alumina, moderately high alkalies
with soda predominating over potash, high lime, ferrous irtm and
magnesia are the chemical features of the monchicpiito group of rocks.

Notes on Monvliiqiiile Dijkes. 5

Vi'tnxjnt ph icdl ( 'Jiaracters.

Central Red. White and Blue Hork. :n8-f(K>t level. (Plate T, Fig. 1).
This rock in the hand s))ecinien is dense, bluish-black, and very hard.
Porphyritic crystals of olivine can be seen, and also occasional white
vesicles tilled with calcite.

Microscopically, it is extremely dense. Occasional very large olivine
crystals are found which are more or less completely serpentinised.
Smaller olivine plienocrysts are common, and are for the most part
relatively clear and unaltered. These fresh olivines from the 318-foot
level are remarkable when one considers that the olivine usually seen
in the Bendigo rock sections is very much altered, even at the deepest
levels of the Victoria Quartz Mine, 4(514 feet.

Augite is perhaps the most abundant mineral. It is a ])urii]e, titaiii-
ferous variety, and faintly pleochroic. A brown prismatic hornblende
is present in a- much smaller amount than augite. It is strongly pleo-
chroic, and is distinguished from biotite mainly by its oblique extinc-
tion. The angle between the prism faces can only sometimes be seen.

Ilmenite is extremely abundant in small crystals distributed evenly
throughout the rock. Microlites of ilmenite are also abundant. Tliin,
colourless rods of apatite are discernible in the ground mass.

The ground mass when unaltered is clear, colourless and isotropic.
It-5 X'efractive index is higher than that of xylol (1.4912) and not much
different from that of a sample of cedar oil (1.5090'). The ground
uuiss is therefore a glassy residuum, and not analcite. Not only does
the material serve as a general ground mass for the whole of the rock,
but it appears as well here and there in irregularly-shaped areas which,
tontaining an excess of brown hornblende, form light-coloured patches
ill the rock. These are obviously the acid residuum remaining after
the crystallisation of the bulk of the magma. In part the ground
uuiss is found to be not absolutely isotropic and to show polarisation
colours up to iron grey and grey white. This condition is most evident
in some of the segregated patches when in addition a curious perthitic
intergrowth with ilmenite is evident. It is here found to pass out into
occasional basic felspar laths, and the assumption is that the
remainder of the crystallised ground mass is felspar.

Vesicles in this rock are tilled mostly with a carbonate, probably
calcite. The carbonate could well be dolomite, especially as rhombs of
til is carbonate have been seen in sections from the rocks from other
mines. Occasionally rods of a fibrous carbonate, arragonite or fibrous
calcite, can be seen under the high power lining the edge of some of
the vesicles. Rods of a fibrous zeolite, probably natrolite, are present.
Analcite, in snudl isotropic cubes, has also been seen. Chalcedonic
silica is present as a secondary mineral, and also crystallised silica as

6 F. L. Stilliuell:

quartz. A vesicle tilled with quartz is rimmed with a network of green
prismatic crystals showing high polarisation colours and oblique extinc-
tion. Pleochroism, if any, is extremely faint, and the mineral looks
like epidote, but has not got the extinction angle of ©pidote.

These characters, combined wdth its high basicity and chemical
composition, and its mode of occurrence as a dyke, are sufficient to
place the rock among the monchiquites. The felspar is too insigniti-
cant in quantity to displace it from this monchiquite group.

Dr. Howitt (3) has described a dyke rock apparently similar to the
above, from Lansell's 180 Mine, on the Kew Chum line, and named it
limburgite. Miigge (3) in a review of Dr. Howitt's paper, suggested that
the name monchiquite should be used to agree with the mode of
occurrence, and the name limburgite- should be reserved for very basic
lava flo'ws. This is the proper interpretation of the terms, and there-
fore we may call our type rock monchiquite.

An examination of a number of sections of lavas from other mines
reveals the same general chariicteristics of the monchiquite group, with
minor variations. A complete comparison is not possible, because the
lavas ai'e so frequently decomposed. Tliis decomposition is in no way
proportional to the depth below the surface, as show^n by the Central
Red, White and Blue rock. Further, the decomposition, once started, is
surprisingly rapid. A lava, exposed only for six months at 2600 feet
in the Koch's Pioneer was found to be crumbling in part, though quite
dry. In the Pearl Mine a lava exposed some thirty years along the
roof of a disused drive at 130 feet, has rotted sufficiently to form a
linear heap of mullock along the floor of the drive.

In spite of this, fresh rocks, suitable for microscbiDical examination,
were obtained from a number of places, and the following notes may be
made: — Specimen No. 14, Lansell's 180 Mine, No. 2. The sample was
obtained from the 400-foot level, about 30 feet south of the shaft. This
mine is situated on the Sheepshead line, and adjoins the Central Red,
White and Blue Mine. Three l)ranches of the lava are present in this
mine, while there are only two in the other. In this rock olivine has
been more al)unda.nt, ))ut is now completely serpentinised. Augite is
present in two generations. The large augites are nearly colourless
and sometimes zoned, sometimes with houi-gla^s structure. The small
augites form the san)c kind of network as in the Ci'iitral Hed. Wliltc
and Blue rock. Tlie hornblende is present in al)0ut the same ]n-opor-
tinn, but the ihnenite is relatively much less abundant. The colourless
ground mass is in small piopoi-liou, l)ut a])])ears in the same residuum
as patches, crowded with hornblende and ihnenite microlites. Vesicles
are more developed, and this is always noticeable with the further
<kH'Oui|H)siti(in of tlic rork as recorded by ])r. Tlowitt. Many of these
liave an innei' cow of green anior[>hous siliia, rimmed with calcite, and
the alteration is s(jmetimes repeated.

Notes on Monckiqu'de Dykes. 7

Specimen No. 9, 3827-feet, Victoria Quartz Mine. The complete
alteration of the olivine in this rock is very noticeable, and the ground
mass is perfectly isotropic. This New Chum dyke was found to be
very decomposed down to 1300 feet iu the Pearl Mine, and very hard
ap;ain in the Catherine Mine, Eaglehawk. Here the rock is similar
to that in the Victoria Quartz Mine, but the vesicles are far more
abundant, and many of them contain rims of a coarse fibrous carbon-
ate, probably calcite.

Specimen No. 34, 1868-feet, Johnson'.s Reef Mine, No. I. This is the
Garden Gully lava, and here it is very dense, and the colourless ground
mass is scarcely perceptible. Ihnenite is scarce, vesicles are numerous,
and many are curiously lined with pyrite. The same dyke at the
Clarence United Mine contains a.n average amount of ilmenite.
Natrolite is well developed in the vesicles of this rock. The natrolite is
prismatic, positive in sign, with straight extinction and low polarisation
colours At the Koch's Pioneer Mine, the Garden Gully lava is not so
fresh, but a section of a 2-foot dyke shows it to be relatively coarse.
Olivine is completely serpen tinised. Large augites are present, some
of which have a core of inclusions. Ilmenite and hornblende are
present in average proportions. Small biotites are noticeable. The
ground mass is in general not isotropic, and consists mainly of a low
polarising mineral. This is probably original felspar, but may be
secondary, and developed during the alteration of the rock.

The rocks from the places above mentioned come within the mon-
chiquite group, from which the following deviate : —

Specimen No. 7, Goldfield's Mine, No. I. The GoldtieM's No. 1. is an
abandoned shaft at the southern end of the Nell Gwynne line of reef. The
specimen was obtained from the dump, and was a piece of a thick lava
met in sinking the shaft at the depth of about eighty feet. The first
glance under the microscope shows the rock to be generally Siimilar to
the true nionchiquites. Olivine phenocrysts are partly fresh, and only
jnirtly serpentinised. There is only one generation of augite. The
ilmenite is very abundant and hornblende is present. Blotite is
present in i-elatively large crystals. The feature of the rock is that the
ground nuxss is perfectly clear and colourless, and not isotropic. A
large vesicle is present in the slide, and contains a. little biotite and a
great deal of calcite, and these are mixed with a mineral which is
apparently identical with the true ground mass of the rock. Here it
is found to possess cleavage, and an extinction of three or four degrees.
It is untwinned and the polarisation colours are never above gi'eyish-
white. It is biaxial and positive, and has a refractive index less than
that of oil of cloves (1.5333). Its appearance is that of a felspar, and
its refractive index is that of orthoclase and anorthoclase. In addition
it has in some places an appearance suggestive of \pry fine lamellar

8 F. L. ^StiUiuell:

twinning, and one is therefore inclined to call it anorthoclase. It is
probable that the chemical composition of the rock is not far different
from the Central Red, White and Blue type, where the soda is in excess
of the potash, and this assists the determination as anorthoclase. Tlie
presence of this anorthoclase (?) base distinguishes the rock from
the typical monchiquites.

Specimen No. 5, Forbets Carshalton Mine. The specimen
was obtained from the dump heap without any knowledge of
its depth in the mine. Tlie locality is more than one mile
north of the Goldfields No. 1 shaft. Like the Goldfields' rock
this rock is generally similar to the monchiquites. Olivine is mostly
serpentinised, and the augite is present in two generations. Horn-
blende and ilmenite are perhaps in smaller proportion than in the
typical monchiquite. These minerals are all set in a ground mass of
felspar laths. The felspar shows lamellar twinning, and the lamellae
give extinction angles up to 35 degrees, which determines it as labra-
dorite. This felspar is present in much the same proportion as the
isotropic material in the type monchiquite. In addition it appears on
the segregation patches similar to the light coloured, acid residual
areas in the monchiquite. Clearly this felspar has been the last mineral
to crystallise during the consolidation of the magma, and in this
respect it is certainly analogous to the isotropic material of the mon-
chiquite.

The felspar of this rock and of the Goldtields No. 1 indicates that
they belong to the camptoiiitic variety of lamprophyre. Tbe Forbes
Carshalton specimen is more of a true cami)tonite than the Goldtields
No. 1 sample, with its alkali felspar. It seems to be very similar to
a rock found at Balwyn, which occurred as a small flow. This has been
described by Messrs. Chapman and Thiele (10) as a limhurgite.

The examination suggests that the labradorite and anorthoclase
are but further stages in the crystallisatiaon of the monchiquite
magma. The distribution of each as a base for the other minerals is
very similar, and their relative proportions are much the same. This,
combined with the minute amount of felspar in the monchiquite itself,
suggests the passage from, the true monchiquite through the Gold-
fields No. I. type to the Forbes Carshalton type. The specific gravities
of the two last-named are greater than the specific gravity of the
Central Red, White and Blue type. This is in accordance with the
suggestion Ijecausc the specific gravity of a glass is always less than
that of the mineral which would result fi-om it.

Specimen No. 38. One Tree Hill Mine. (Plate 1., Fig. 2). This speci-
men was collected l»y Mr. Whitelaw, and was obtained from a now
inaccessible part of tlie One Tree Hill Mine, two miles to the S.S.W.
of Bendiy;o. The One Tree Hill anticlinal axis is some distance to the

Notes on MoncJilqihlte Dijkes. 9

east of the main lines of reef. In the hand specimen it is a hard,
greenish rock with shiny tlakes of mica. Microscopically, the rock is
much altered and of porphyritic character. The outstanding pheno-
crysts are those of an originally well crystallised mineral, which is now
completely altered to brownish unrecognisable material, though here
and there small patches have only gone as far as chlorite and calcite.
Some of these well bounded sections are eight-sided, and indicate
original augite. Others are six-sided, and by their prism angle indicate
original hornblende. No unaltered augite or hornblende is present.
Plagioclase felspar occurs sparingly as crystals which are not much
altered. Phenocrysits of biotite with ragged edges are common, with
pleochroism varying from a deep brown to a very pale straw colour.
It has undergone considerable alteration to chlorite. Some crystals of
biotite have undergone internal bleaching, the iron having been leached
from the centre, and concentrated in a ring which now gives a dark
border to an interior of chlorite and calcite. Quartz is abundant, and
the chlorite and calcite extremely so. Ilmenite occurs scattered in very
small crystals, and apatite is also accessory in fine needles.

The rock is a typical mica, lamprophyre, and, if placed in Rosen-
busch's classification, it would be termed kersantite.

The specific gravities of these rocks were determined from small
fragments, and found to be : —

Central Red, White and Blue sample - - - 2.95
Forbes Carshalton sample ----- 2.99
Goldfields No. I. sample ----- 3.05

One Tree Hill sample - - - - - - 2.78

Age of the Bendigo Dykes.

The dykes include ordovician sediments, and are certainly post-ordo-
vician. South of the Big Hill tunnel, a monchiquite dyke cuts a granitic
dyke. The granitic dyke is probably associated with the Harcourt
granite, and the monchiquites are probably post-devonian. At Kan-
garoo Flat a dyke is found cutting through a glacial conglomerate. If
this conglomerate is part of the derrinal series, and of permo-car-
boniferous age, the dykes must be later than permo-carboniferous.
Further than this the stratigraphy of the Bendigo district cannot help
one, for no later geological period has left its record except in .some
tertiary and recent river gravels.

No structural evidence is forthcoming, though there is a possibility
that the relations of the dykes to the series of earth movements that
have affected the Bendigo field may be found and co-ordinated in time
with general movements throughout Victoria.

10 F. L. Stilhvell:

For further help we must therefore depend on the less convincing
petrological evidences. Kickard (5) looked- upon the nionchiquites as
part of the newer basalts. The monchiquites, however, are quite
different from the newer basalt type, and are even more basic than the
older basalt series.

The nearest petroo-raphical allies are found in some limited ultra-basic
lava flows in the Macedon district, e.i;'., King's (^)uarry type. Professor
Skeats and Mr. Summers (11) have placed these flows near the top of
Macedon series of tertiary igneous rocks. They have suggested the
existence of a sub-alkaline magma beneath the whnle of Victoria in
tertiary times, and progressive differentiation from it has produced
first the alkaline rocks and later the basic rocks. If this is correct and
the King's Quarry type is a differentiation product from this magma,
then the monchiquite dykes may well be its dift'erentiation products
also, because the monchiquite itself is a sub-alkaline rock. This
analogy suggests that the monchiquites are of mid-kainozoic age.

Monchiquites are known to occur in a similar manner in other parts
of Victoria.

Correlative evidence may therefore be produced in the future, but
till then the balance of evidence, such as it is, leans towards the con-
clusion that these dykes were intruded in mid-kainozoic times.

Relation of the " Lavas" to the Gold Distribution.

Only a study over an extended period of time can throw much light
on this question. Concrete cases, nowadays, of lavas in contact with
rich gold-bearing stone are rare, and many such instances must be
found and ejcamined before the problem can be thoroughly discussed.
Instances were probably not so rare during the earlier history of the
field when all the development work was in the shallower levels, and
it is more often the miner of the old days who asserts that the lava
exerts an influence on the gold. Tliere can be no doubt that such
belief would be assisted by the presence of the lavas in centre country,
and the lavas have been followed as guides to the unrecognised centre
country. Such is obvious in mines like the Pearl, where drives in each
successive level have been started on the lava.

My contribution to this question is the record of observations in the
Ironbark Mine, Long Gully. Here, in sinking a winze in the centre
country of the Sheepshead line from the end of a crosscut about 700
feet long at the 4:80-foot level, a lava was found to split into two
branches, each about ten inches wide. Tlie branches opened to about
four feet, and tlien continued more or less parallel. Tlie lavas are the
dark, dense characteristic monchiquite, with streaks and segregations
of olivine altered to serpentine. The enclosed space was tilled with
quartz. The winze was down twenty-seven feet at the time of my first

Notes on J]Ioi}chiquite Dykes. 11

visit, and the quartz across its full width showed galena, blende, and
pyrite with just occasional colours of gold. Scattered through the
milk-white quartz were dark fragments of the country rock, angular
in shape, of all sizes, and with definite, unabsorbed boundaries found
in fissure filled reefs. Between this reef and the dykes there is
thoroughly brecciated material, consisting of pieces of slate, reef
quartz and lava. Some of the quartz has lost the milky appearance
and become vitreous, a.nd there are greenish patches near the lava
pieces coloui-ed l)y the serpentinous material. This material is typical
breccia, mineralised, and very rich in gold.

Pieces broken from right in the side of both lavas showed gold. Mr.
Rogers, the manager, gave me a piece of the eastern of the two
branches, showing a coarse shot of gold quite obviously detached from
any quartz whatever. Examination with a pocket lens showed that the
rock immediately around the gold was different from the main mass
of monchiquite.

A thin slice of this rock, cut through visible gold a little distance
from the one coarse shot, was prepared, and revealed the fact that the
rock actually containing the gold itself was a piece of breccia set in tlie
dyke material. The bulk of the gold is mixed with dark, opaque
material, which looks decidedly carbonaceous. This dark patch also
contains small pieces of a white micaceous mineral, calcite and slaty
material. One fragment of gold is detached from the opaque material
and set in a lump of fine sandstone, but has several veins of secondary
calcite leading up to it. The whole is surrounded by fragments of
micaceous slate and sandstone. These fragments have apparently been
caught up by the lava in its intrusion, and cemented well into the lava
during consolidation. The detached fragments of lava in the breccia
indicate earth movements subsequent to the consolidation of the lava.
These may have followed the consolidation immediately, resulting from
the same rock stresses involved in the intrusion itself.

A thin slice (Plate I., Fig. 2) of another specimen of the contact
material was prepared, cut transversely to the contact, and through
visible gold. This section clearly shows crustification parallel to the
direction of the lava. The gold in the hand specimen could be dis-
tinctly seen lying between crustified bands for a length of about four
millimetres before the slice was cut. Under the microscope, pieces of
slate, galena, and opaque material are seen between the cruslitied
bands. Mixed with the opacpie matter and also with the galena is
gold. As before, the opaque matter lookss decidedly carbonaceous. This
crustification clearly shows that mineral-bearing siliceous and cal-
careous solutions have traversed the side of the lava, subsequent to
the lava. The presence of carbonaceims material suggests that it
was the precipitant of the gold.

12 F. L. mUlireU:

Connected with this is the fact that the bulk of the gold ia in the
brecciated material, which would itself certainly provide the easiest
passage for soluticms. This is evidence which points to the conclu-
sion that the gold is secondary, meaning by this that the gold is sub-
sequent to the reef, that the gold haisi been deposited elsewhere first,
from there removed, and re-deposited in this breccia, and that therefore
there has been secondary enrichment in this particular spot.

A drive was opened to the south from this winze for about a hundred
feet, and a second winze is being sunk. In this winze the lavas are six
feet apart, but the whole of the space between is not filled with quartz.
It is in part slate, and tlie reef, about three and a-half feet wide, pursues
a wavy course downwards. Occasional colours of gold, I was informed,
are seen throughout the reef, but the brecciated material seemed to be
absent. The reef in this winze is not nearly so rich as the No. I. winze,
and this erratic distribution supports the conclusion of secondary
enrichment.

The lavas may infiuence the gold distrilnition in the following
ways : —

(1) The heat accompanying the intrusions may stimulate the

flow of tlie underground solutions involved in the formation
of the quartz reefs.

(2) The lava sheets may act as an inpervious barrier to the transr

verse passage of such solutions.

(3) The lavas may form drainage channels for the vertical passage

of such solutions.

(4) The dyke n)aterial may act as a precipitating agent to the

gold carried by traversing solutions.

If the lavas are of the late geological date indicated by the i)etrolo-
gical evidence, the first of these methods has had no effect on the
primary deposition of the gold. Observations where the dykes cut
through reefs at the deeper levels, as at 2300 feet in the Catherine
Mine, Eaglehawk, and at 2600 feet in the Koch's Pioneer, Long (tuIIv,
are all negative, yielding no evidence of any influence on the gold
distribution. Such infiuence would be noticeable, if anywhere, in
the deepest levels, where the heat and stimulation would be greatest
and it is becoming generally recognised that the deeper reefs are not
so valuable as the shallower reefs.

If the second method operated, one would expect enrichment only on
one side of a lava, cutting through a reef, and I have found no evidence
in this direction.

The third method is one which I venture to suggest in explanation of
che above Ironbark occurrence. The evidence points to the circulation
of gold-bearing solutions subsequent to tin- iccf. and to the lava. The
evidence is not suificient to decide whether the solutions came from

Notes on Movchiqviic Dyhes. 13

above or below. Circulation of solutions may operate throufrhout the
whole field, but for enrichment it is necessary that : —

(1) The solutions should traverse the dyke channel.

(2) The solutions should be gold-beax'ing.

(3 The solutions should meet material which will precipitate the
gold.

Only where these three conditions meet will enrichment result. En-
richment will thus not necessarily result when a decomposed dyke
meets a quartz reef or spur. If the enriching solutions are travelling
downwards, enrichment is only likely in the shallower levels of any
mine.

The fourth possible method is suggested by the example recorded
by i\rr. Dunn (2) in the Hercules and Energetic Mine, where a quartz
spur cut through the dyke, and is rich in the dyke and poor on each
side. No evidence has been produced to show how the dyke could
possibly so operate.

In concluding this paper I should like tn acknowledge the invaluable
assistance of Mr. T. W. Itoss, B.M.E., Assistant Inspector of Mines, in
gaining for me access to the mines, and of Mr. H. S. Whitelaw and the
members of his staff, and by no means least the unfailing courtesy of
the mining managers. In the laboratory I have been much indebted
to Professor Skeats and Mr. Summers, M.Sc. To Mr. H. S. Grayson I am
especially indebted fnr the preparation and staining of rock slides.

Summapy.

The dykes of the Bendigo goldfield are intruded into folded ordo-
vician rocks. They form a parallel system with a parallelism coinci-
dent with the strike of the rocks. They occur along the course of each
anticline, and in the mines are always approximately in the centre
country. At the surface they are always decomposed and soft.

Specimens of fresh lava were obtained from several of the mines.
These were examined, and one was analysed. The rock was found to
be highly basic, and a member of the monchiquite group. The mon-
chiquite was found to pass into camptonitic varieties at the Forbes
Carshalton Mine, and at the Goldfields No. 1 shaft. A kersantite is
recorded from the One Tree Hill Mine to the south-west of Bendigo.

The age of the rocks can only be determined by petrological analogy,
and is considered to be probably mid-kainozoic

The relation of the lavas to the distribution of the gold is discussed.
Evidence has been obtained in the Ironbark Mine to suggest the
secondary deposition of the gold. Gold is found more abundantly
and irregidarly in thoroughly brecciated material than in the adjoining

14 F. L. Stilhvell: Monchiqiiite Dykes.

reef quartz. .Some of this g-okl was exaiiiined microscopically in tliin
section, and was found to be in crustified bands along the side of the
lava. Hence the lavas are believed to influence the deposition of gold
only in so far as they provide drainage channels for the flow of
secondary mineralising solutions.

Literature.

1. Gregory, J. W. — Contributions to the Bibliography of the Economic

Geology of Victoria. Reo. Geol. Sur. Vic, Vol. II., Pt. 3. 1907.

2. Dunn, E. J. — ^Reports on the Bendigo Gold Field, Nos. I. and II.

Special Rep. Dept. Mines, Vic, 1896.

3. Howitt, A. W. — Notes on Samples of Rock Collected in the 180

Mine at Bendigo. Special Rep. Dept. Mines, Vic, 1893.

4. Miigge, 0.— Neues Jahrb.., Min. Geol., 1894, Vol. II., p. 271.

5 Rickavd, T. A. — Origin of the Gold Bearing Quartz of the Bendigo
Reefs, Australia. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., XXII., pp.
289-320.

G. Argall, F. — The Dykes and Reefs of Bendigo. Trans. Amer. Inst.
'^Min. Eng., XXIV, pp. 933-942, 1894.

7. Whitelaw, H. S.— The Northern Bendigo and Raywood Goldtield.

Rec Geol. Surv. Vic, Bull. No. 12, 1904

8. Harper, A. — The Natural History of Igneous Rocks. Metheun and

Co., p. 12.

9. Maclaren, J. Malcolm.— Gold, its Geological Occurrence and Geo-

graphical Distribution, p. 367.

10. Chapman, F., and Thiele, A. 0.— On a Limburgite Rock Occurr-

ing as a Plug at Balwyn, near Doncaster. Proc Roy. Soc Vic,
Vol. XXIV. (new series), Part I., p. 124.

11. E. W. Skeats and H. S. Summers. — ^The Geology and Petrology

of the Macedon District. Bull. 24, Geol. Surv. of Victoria (in the
press).

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Mt)nchiquite ; 318-foot level, Central Bed, White and Blue

Mine, Bendigo. x 35.
Pig_ 2. — Kersantite ; One Tree Hill Mine, Bendigo. x 2').

Proc. R.S. Victoria. 1012. Plate I.

<* V

|4^' -• ^ »

35

"f^r

X':

^.

^'?

■^^

^

ir.

X 25

[PRor. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), Ft. I., 1912.]

Akt. 11. -The Iiitrudactioi) and Spread of the CaNlc Tick

(Boophilus ainiulatus, var. riiicropiiis), and of

ilie Associated Disease Tirl- Fever ( B((hesiasis) in
Aiisti'(dia.

By J. A. GILRUTH, D.V.Sc, .M.iJ.C.V.8., F.R.S.E.

[Rend Hlh March, 1912J.

Australia, although a large portion of its local area is situated
within the tropical belt, is happily free from almost all those i)rotozoan
diseases which affect the doiiiesticated animals in tropical regions else-
where. For this she has to thank not quite so much the foresight of
her administrators, as her insular position, the fact that no domes-
ticated animal is indigenous, and above all, the fact that all her
importations have been derived almost solely from the original home
of her people, namely, Great Britain.

Nevertheless, there are at least two specific diseases present in Aus-
tralia, both affecting cattle, and Ijnth the cause of considerable pecu-
niary loss to stockuwners, either directly or indirectly, and these are
diseases which are unknown amongst British stock. The diseases in
cjuestion are " Tick Fever " or " Redwater " (Babesiasis) and the so-
called " Worm Nodules, ' due to the parasite Oncliorcrca (jihxoni,
which is dealt with in another paper.

Tick fever is not found all over Australia. It is rare in the
southern Stoies, and has not yet appeared far south of the tropical
border. The evidence all points to its greater prevalence the further
north stock are pastured.

Now, as the Australian tick fever is not present amongst the British
herds which have formed the basis of our Australian herds, it is highly
incumbent on us to ascertain exactly how it came to be introduced, or
at least the most probable sources of introduction. But to do so one
must first of all consider which countries are most likely to have been
in a position to affect Australia in such a manner.

So far as I can gather there are no official records of stock importa-
tions ever having been made through any ports other than the main
ports of the southern part of the continent and Queensland. At these
ports there. has been almost from the earliest days of settlement a
more or less satisfactory system of inspection and quarantine, and the
most cursory official examination could have hardly failed to detect the
tick parasite, which is a necessary agent in the natural transmission of

16 J. A. Gilriiih:

tick fever. Had its presence been overlooked in any instance, one is
safe in cnnclndinf!: that it would have been heard of primarily in one of
the southern districts. But we hear of its appearance first in the
northern parts of the tropical regions, far away from known ports of
cattle entr}^.

One is therefore impelled to the conclusion that the disease must
have entered by way of the northern littoral, unless indeed it be
assumed that the same tick parasite affects indigenously the native
fauna, for which assumption there is absolutely no evidence. Irresist-
ibly we are compelled to look to the countries lying north of Australia
as the possible source of original infection.

The nearest territory whereon cattle are husbanded is the Dutch
Indies. There we know that the tick is a common parasite among the
native cattle, and that although these cattle exhibit a great natural
immunity to the blood-parasite {Babesia), the true cause of tick fever,
which is transmdtted by the tick, yet imported non-immune cattle
are very susceptible, at least in the Straits Settlements adjacent,
and unless special precautions are adopted, are almost certain to
succumb in considerable numbers. The same conditions obtain in
other tropical countries lying farther north.

Our nearest neighbour has, therefore, this tropical disease of cattle.
But we are separated from her by hundreds of miles of sea, communi-
cation is infrequeni, and besides, there are no official records of the
importation of cattle therefrom to Australia. If it can be shown that
live cattle have been imported notwithstanding, the position becomes
clear. If not, it seems obvious that other agencies must be looked for,
and that if this disease has been introduced by unknown means, other
and perhaps more to be dreaded tropical animal maladies may be
introduced in the future ; indeed, they may be at the present moment
existing to some extent in our northern areas.

The buffalo naturally oft'ered a possible solution. It is well known
that the Governors of the British settlements at Melville Island and
Port Essington (aj)out 1826 and 182(S) imported the mud or swamp-
buffalo from Timor, and Johnston and Cleland have drawn attention
to the fact that the Governor of the Port Essington settlement was
also empoweied to import cattle from the Netherlands Indies, though
they could find no rtMord of this having been done.

Since their introduction to Port Dundas by Sir Gordon Bremnier in
1824, the buffalo have spread all over Melville Island ; and since their
introduction to the mainland at Port Essington they have gradually
spread southward along the swampy plains near the sea-coast to within
a few miles of Port Darwin. A few have wandered inland, hut chiefiy
bulls Avhich have left the main herds, one or two being occasionally
seen as far as the Roper and even the McArthur Rivers.

Cuttle Tick (1 11(1 Tic/: Fever. 17

During my visit, thanks to the kindness of Mr. W. Lawrie, I had
an opportunity of exaniinino; a number of fresh buffalo hides, besides
a buffalo killed for my examination, and no ticks were detected
thereon, although these animals were running on land where the cattle
wore badly tick-infested. Again in Melville Island I was enabled
through the courtesy of Messrs. Robinson and Cooper to examine
buffalo immediately after slaughter, and buffalo hides, and can testify
tj the freedom of these animals, at least at the time of my visit, from
cattle ticks or other tick infection. This, it must be admitted, is in
accordance with the experience of buffalo hunters generally.

Others, it is true, have assured me that they have actually seen the
tick on the buffalo, and while not being in a position definitely to con-
tradict these statements, T am inclined to the opinion that the large
louse (Hae)H(ifopinus sp.) which constantly aft'ects these buffalo, mav,
in a cursory examination, have been mistaken for ticks ; that thev
have been so confounded by some I am certain.

It should be here observed that about 188G, Indian l)uffaIo (two cows
and one bull) were brought to Port Darwin Ijy the agencv of the
Government, with the intention of establishing the Ghi (or buft'alo
butter) industry. Some of the descendants of these buffalo may still
be seen being employed as beasts of burden. They also are apparently
tick-free, and in any case were introduced subsequent to the known
appearance of redwater or tick fever in the north.

I think, therefore, the buffalo may be held guiltless of the charge of
introducing the cattle disease in question, the chief reason being that
to-day he is unaffected with the necessary skin parasite, even when
grazing on the same land as )> a dly- infected cattle.

Tlie result of my enquiries, however, abolishes any necessity for
assuming any other agent in the introduction than the live bovine
animal itself. Through the kindness of Mr. J. Campbell, late Secretary
of Agriculture, Sydney, I have been able to procure a copy of a
despatch, being a report on the Port Essingto^n Settlement, addressed
to the British Government by Captain Everard Home, dated from
H.M.S. " North Star," 19th April, 1843. Captain Home furnishes a
description of the settlement at that date, and states, inter alia,
" of stock they have one English cow and a l)ull, two Indian heifers and
two cows, about 50 goats, and a few fowls. . . . There are besides 6
working oxen and 30 buffaloes and pigs, the property of th-e Gkivern-
ment." That the descendants of these Indian cattle are still on the
Coburg Peninsula is vouched for by Mr. E. 0. Robinson, Mr. H. W. H.
Stevens. Mr. R. J. Cooper, Mr. C. Freer, and others, who have traversed
the country buffalo shooting, etc. The evidence is, however, that these
cattle, unlike the buft'alu, have not spread, and have never reached
country occupied by station cattle. But that they would originally
bring with them cattle ticks is almost undoubted.

3

18 J. A. Gil ruth :

Unfortunately at the time of my visit to Darwin there was no means
enabling: me to reach Pon Essinsjton. so that an examination of the
descendants of the original cattle, interesting: and important as such
an examinatiiin would ha^e l)een, was impossible.

But that this importation alone would not account for the spread of
ticks through tropical Australia I am convinced, for the reason that
the natural spread of ticks is by cattle, and rarely by other a<jencies.
We may look to another and later importation of Brahma cattle as in
all probability the true source of our trouble. Mr. H. AV. H. Stevens.
who was at that time connected with the British Australian Cable
Company, infoi-ms me that in August, 1872, the settleme-nt at Darwin,
then Palmerston, being short of meat, the Company's vessel, the
Investigator," landed from Batavia twelve native cattle (eight cows
and four bulls), and that some of these escaped. Some time after they
were mustered by Mr. Stevens and taken to the Adelaide River, where
they bred up to six or seven hundred head. This is confirmed by Mr.
W. S. Stretton, Collector of Customs at Darwin, who was present at
their landing, and who, in fact, afforded us the first definite informa-
tion regarding this important fact. Furthermore, that Brahma cattle
must at one time have been imported there I can personally testify, for
on the Adelaide River I saw their crossbred descendants, amongst
which was one old cow that might readily have passed as purebred
Brahma. Mr. Lawrie, the owner of the station, very kindly had two
of these crossbred Brahmas shot for me. They were well covered with
ticks, and exhibited a large number of worm nodules, in the usual
regions. As corroborative evidence incriminating this importation,
what I have been able to ascertain regarding the appearance, and early
spread of tick fever in the north is important. For this information
T am largely indebted to Mr. Alfred Giles, who has been in the Terri-
tory for forty years, and has a diary covering the whole period, and
to Mr. W. Lawrie, who has been for thirty years intimately connected
with the live stock and meat trade, and to otficial records.

The first cattle to reach the northern part of the Territory were
bix)ught from Queensland overland via the Roper River in 187'2 by Mr.
D'Arcy Wentwoi-th. The mob consisted of about 400 liead, which were
taken to the Peninsula opposite Port Darwin, and ultimately all
slaughtered for beef. There is no evidence that any of these cattle
were affected with redwater or other serious disease.

The next cattle to arrive was a mob of fat bullocks from the
Macdonald Ranges, In-ought by Mr. T. Nelson in 1876, and owned by
Mr. Abbott, a Port Darwin butcher. There is no histoiy of redwater
or ticks. Messrs. Giles arrived at the Katharine River in 1879 with
2000 cattle and 12,000 sheep for the purpose of stocking land acquired
by the late Dr. W. J. Brown, of Adelaide. .\t that time both ticks
and redwater were unknown in that district.

Cattle Tick and Tirk Fever. 19

Redwater first apears to have been noted at Glencoe, distant 104
miles from Darwin by rail, about the j^ears 1880-1. About this time
ii mol) of cattle arrived at Glencoe from Queensland, and a large per-
centaije soon succumbed to redwater. Mr. Lawrie boupfht a number
to take to Port Dax'win, but 50 per cent, died before reachinor there.
Subsequent arrivals at Glencoe experienced a like mortality. Gradu-
ally the disease and the ticks spread southward. About 1886, 150
head of cattle arrived from Newcastle Waters, at Katharine, where
deliver}^ was taken by Mr. A. Giles, who was to travel them north.
Between there and Glencoe nearly 50 per cent, died from redwater. Bv
1887 the disease had spread to the Roper River, and by 1890 to the
McArthur, beins: manifested chiefly, if not solely, in cattle travelling
through from Queensland.

In the official reports presented to the South xA.ustralian Parliament
from the Northern Territory, the earliest mention of redwater is in
that of the Resident dated 1st January, 1886, which contains the state-
ment that '■ of .3000 "Wave Hill cattle passed to the westward, hundreds
died of redwater." In the report of 1st July, 1886, these losses are again
referred to, and also in some notes by Mr. A. Giles, then resident at
Springvale, near the Katharine Station, who states that ticks on cattle
and horses appeared here for the first time in any number this season,
arguing a recent invasion of the district. In the report of 1st January,
1887, redwater is definitely referred to as a " serious disease." That
its prevalence had pre^nously been well known to settlers is indicated
by a statement in the first report of a stock inspector, who stated that
redwater " continues to be the hete noir of drovers from Queensland
via the Roper River." Henceforth the disease assumes an increasing
importance in these official reports for several years. In that of
January, 1899, considerable space is devoted to its ravages, and Mr.
H. W. H. Stevens affords some valuable information : " The first cattle
that I know of to show redwater were Mr. C B. Fis-her's mobs that
came along the Roper during the drv weather. . . . Out of 1700 we
took delivery of in August, 1882, fully 400 died on arrival on the
Glencoe run." He then fixes the locality where the trouble begins as
"from the junction of the Hodgson River with the Roper River alono'
the Roper west and north-west as far as its head, and in the nei"-h-
bourhood of the Kine and Katharine Rivers for a few miles." He
mentions three mobs from different parts, Gregory Downs, Queens-
land, Limmen Bight, Northern TeiTitory, and Newcastle Waters,
Northern Territory, which suffered a loss of from 20 to 30 per cent, from
passing through the infected country. Yet Mr. A. Giles, then at
SpringA-ale on the Katharine, states the disease in cattle is unknown
there, a position quite easily understood in the light of present-day
knowledge.

20 J. A. Gllrufh:

III the next official report, 1890. the sit^nilicant statement occnrs :
" It is generally stated that redwater (so-called) does not attack accli-
matised or Territory -bred cattle." The chief complaint throughout is
that overlanded cattle travellintr from Queensland especially, alone
exhibit the symptoms of the disease, and die therefrom. To-day. when
the full nature of the disease is understood, these circumstances are not
at all surprising. By 1891 the report shows that cattle coming from
Queensland generally become affected between the McArthur and
Roper Rivers, Avhich proves that the disease was gradually spreading
backAvards towards the Queensland border alone: the stock routes.

It must be remembered that at this time, and. indeed, prior to the
publication by Smith and Kilborne in 1893 of the records of their
exhaustive experiments, the relationship between redwater and ticks
was not appreciated. It will be understood therefore that the spread
of the visible parasite, the tick, was not associated in the public
mind with the specific and deadly disease redwater. Ticks always
appear in a new district for some time before there is any definite
occurrence of the disease redwater, and indeed their multiplication may
be so gradual that, beyond " tick worry," especially where the land is
sparsely stocked, as in the Northern Territorj^, the majority may
become gradually immune to the specifi'^ blood parasite, the actual
cause of redwater. conveyed by the tick.

That ticks and consequently the disease redwater or tick fever
originally reached Queensland from the Northern Territorv. the
reports of the officers of the Queensland Department of Agriculture
leave no doubt. About 1894 Mr. C. J. Pound, Government i-iacteriolo-
gist, was commissioned by the Government to visit the Gulf district,
and report, on the so-called "' redAvater " disease, which was just then
commencing to devastate some of the station herds.

From the exhaustive enquiries made by Mr. Pound, he arrived at
the conclusion that the disease was introduced into the Gulf cnuntrv
from the Northern Territory by cattle tick-infested, but themselves
redwater immune, brought to Qneenslnnd i\< the result of the establish-
ment of boiling-down works at Burketown and Normanton. (Queens-
land Agricultural Journal. June, 1907, Vol. XVIII., pt. 6, p. 283.)

The whole of the evidence which I have been able to secure from
official and private sources, although varying slightly in detail, as is
to be expected, points to- the gradual advancement of the disease red-
water, which we know to-day to be tick-borne, and tick-borne only,
from the point of its original and earliest iippearance — Glencoe Station,
some hundred miles south of Darwin. This is exactly what might now
be assumed a priori would happen given the intmduction of ticks by
the Brahma cattle, which were turned out near ]\')rt Darwin in 1872.
They were taken to the Adelaide River, where they I'apidly nuiltiplied.

Cattle Tick and Tick Fever 21

Durino: the Avet sunimer months when the lowlyin<i coastal lands' are
swampy, some, if n,ot all, would seek higher and drier <;razinfr lands
inland. Bein<^ unable to cross the Adelaide, they would keep to the
left bank, some in straying would ultimately reach and mingle with
the nearest station cattle at the time, which would be those of Glencoe.
Thus they would gradually, but surely, carry the ticks, and so infest
the land with the eggs and larvae. These larvae, though by virtue of
gradual infection of station cattle they might not seriously atlect them
with the blood ])arasite, would almost certainly seriously afi'ect fresh
non-imuiune arrivals that would suddenly be attacked by numbers of
the skin parasites, and thus the appearance of redwater amongst the
Queensland cattle reaching Glencoe about 188U-1881 seems sufHciently
accounted for. Not all these cattle would succumb to the fever. Many
would be but slightly affected ; others would recover, though possibly
be left as useless. Such travelled cattle, wl:cii they leave the iiiuu,
naturally tend to return over the route they have traversed, and seek
their original home. In this Avay the tendency would be for the ticks
to become carried further inland and l)ackwards gradually towards the
Queensland border, as we see was the case. The whole evidence,
although circumstantial, incriminates the importation of Asiatic cattle
by the British-Australian Telegraph Company in 1872 as the actual
agent of the introduction of ticks (Boophi/ns aiiihulatus var. mi crop! us)
and tick fever (Babesiasis) to Aiisbraha. As again.st tlie likliliood of
the Cable Company's importation of Batavian cattle having introduced
ticks, I must quote Mr. H. W. H. Stevens's assurance that during the
vcyage these cattle were daily washed with sea-water, and that no ticks
were observed on them during the voyage and on their arrival. This
may be so, but so far as the sea-water baths are concerned they would
not destroy living ticks, judging by experience of the applicationof much
more potent solutions, and everyone with eixperience of these parasites
knows how easy it is to overlook them when but comparatively few
are present. Writing me in regard to this subject, Mr. Stevens
states : " Although there was a small mob of English cattle depastured
at the Jungle 12 miles from Dainvin, belonging to the Government, I
never heard any reference to ticks, nor did I see them on these cattle
up to the year 1875. We had also milch cows and other stock in the
settlement, but it was not until some years later, say 1880, that any
trouble from tick was experienced." Ihis is additional proof that
ticks were not originally in the Territory. Such cattle were not mixed
with the Brahmas, and probably the infection reached Darwin itself
by a circuitous route from the native herd on the Adelaide River.

Briefly my reasons for suspecting this importation of cattle as the
introducers of ticks and redwater to Australia are as follows : —

1. All cattle in the Dutch Indies are more or less affected with
ticks, although naturally imnnme to redwater.

22 /. A. Gilruth : Cattle Tick ami Tirk Fever.

2. This is the only importation of native Eastern cattle which have
been able to cross with station cattle.

3. These cattle we know travelled inland as far as the Adelaide
River.

4. It is more than likely some of their progeny would gradually
reach from there the main stock route from the South to Darwin.

5. This point would be somewhere about Glencoe.

6. At Glencoe about eight years after the introduction of these
Eastern cattle, redwater as an epidemic and serious disease first
appeared in Australia.

7. The disease redwater only affected travelling non-immune cattle
on reaching Glencoe.

8. The evidence strongly points to the gradual spread of ticks and
redwater to other parts of the continent along the stock routes from
this point, b)^ cattle which had l)een sick and recovered, tending to
travel backwards in the direction of their original home, and in this
way difrseminating the ticks.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), Pt. 1. 19121.

Aht. ]\\. — Fitrther Ol»^ervati()n.s on, Oiickoceira gihsoni, the
Cause oj Worm-nod tdcii in CattU.

Bv J. A. GILKUTH, \).\ .^c, .M H.C.V.S., ic,

AND

GEOlKilNA SWEET, D.8c.

[Read litli Mairli, 19 L2].

Since the publication last year by the CommonAvealth of Aus-
tralia of our previous paper on Onchocerca f/ih-suni, several lines of
external evidence have become available, bearing on the original home
and host, the history of its occurrence and geographical distribution in
Australia, and the means of transmission of this parasite, etc.. so that
it seems desirable that the information should be made public, together
with a record of the results of series of exppiiincnts undertaken to
elucidate the life history.

Historical.

Evidence abtained by J.A.G. during the late expedition to the
Northern Territoiy most strongly corroborates previous statements by
others and ourselves that there is a^jradually iucreasiug extent of infec-
tion by Onchocerca gihsoiu\ the further north the cattle are reared;
that is, the further away from the ordinary ports of stock introduction
in the south and east. From the infomiation available at the time of
their writing (1910, p. 99) Doctors Cleland and Johnston considered
that the buffalo, import-ed into Australia fi'om Timor in 1826-8, was
the originating host, though, as shown by ourselves later (1911, pp.
2 and 34), it was at least highly likely that the Timor cattle imported
about 1824 and 1840 into the Port Essington settlement were the true
original hosts. However, an opportunity was available to J.A.G. of
examining a number of buffalo, the descendants of those introduced bv
Sir Gordon Bremmer in 1824 to Port Dimdas, and later to the main-
land. Tliese have spread from Port Essington southwards over the
swampy plains to very near Port Darwin. These buffalo, so far as
his ex|>erience goes, are all unatt'ected with Onchorerra. but all the
cattle depastured on the same country are more or less affected—
indeed, the greatest extent of infection yet seen was in a steer killed
at Port Darwin, the region of the brisket showing at least a hundred
nodule.s — so that, although experience is limited as regards the buft'alo.

24 GiiriUh and Sweet. :

it seems almost L-ertain that had the buffalo imported at the early dates
given above been the (iri<j;inal and natural hosts, their descendants
would be at least as badly affected as the cattle, if not more aflected.
Were these " worm nodules " at all prevalent in butlalocs, it is certain
their presence would be known to some of the l;utt'alo hunters, who
invariably remove the ))riskets alonii^ with other parts of the flesh for
food. During the j)ast 30 years 1U0,UU0 buft'alo hides have been
exported from Dar"\vin, so that it is unreasonable to suppose that the
parasitic nodules would have been entirely overlooked in all these
animals. Certainly the Indian Ghi buft'alo, iuiiported about 1886 by the
South Australian Government to Port Darwin itself, cannot be respon-
sible for the original introduction of this parasite to Australia, for
even were these nodules known in them, such nodules had been dis-
covered in Australian cattle long before this. Further enquiries, how-
ever, elicited the fact that cattle have been imported from a different
source altogether. Captain Everard Home, writing from H.M.S.
" North Star," 19th April, 1843, reported to the British Government
in a despatch on tlie Port Essington Settlement, among other things,
that there were at that date " 1 English cow and a bull, and 2 Indian
heifers and 2 cows, . . . besides 6 working oxen and 30 buffaloes."
Further, numbers of careful observers among those who hunt buffalo
on the Coburg Peninsula are positive that the descendants of these
Indian cattle are still there, though, unlike the buffalo, they have not
spread across the swampy plains down to the cattle station country.
But it seems at least highly probable that they were responsible for the
introduction of Onchocerca, not only from a comparison of the date of
their entry, and that of the discovery of the nodides in Australian
cattle, and the wide distribution of the parasite, but also in the light
of a well-considered statement by Mr. S. L. Symonds, Government
Veterinarian of the Federated Malay States, that the only animal in
which he has ever found the Oncliorerca nodules in those States was
an old Indian bullock, the native animals and the buffalo Ijeing free.

It must be realised, .however, that, if the intermediate host of
Onr/iocerca fjlbauiii be a tick, as some have suggested, or a louse, as we
ourselves suggested, and considered very proba])le from general evi-
dence in our previous paper, since these ecto-parasites can only be
conveyed any dist.mce by means of their hosts, the ancestors of the
Indian cattle now on the Cuburg 1\ ninsula imild not be incriminated,
for, as already stated, these cattle have never become mixed with the
station herds. Assuming, however, some Vjlood-sucking insect such as
a biting lly to be the intermediary host, then the |)0ssibilitics of trans-
ference over considerable distances must be admitted. A thorough
investigation of the descendants of the Indian and British cattle now
on Coburg Peninsula, will therefore [)rovc extremely interesting, and

Cause of Wonii-A^odules in Caitlc 25

it was a matter of great regret that owing to absence of transport, it
was impossible to make such an examination as was intended. It is
hoped, however, that at an early date such an opportunity may present
itself to test the infection or otherwise of these Indian a,nd British
cattle. In view of the statement recently made to us by Dr. de lUieck,
Director of the Veterinary Laboratory and Veterinary School at Bui-
tenzorg (Java), that tumours similar to those of Onchocerca gihsoni are
cpiite common in Java cattle, it muy yet be found that our original
inference was correct, viz., that tlie Timor cattle, introduced some time
between \&2i and 1S4U into I'ort Essington, were the responsible
agents of introduction.

The importation of Javan native cattle to Port Darwin in 1872
which, as is shown elsewhere, is considered to have been the source
of the introduction of the cattle tick {Boopliilus annul (it ua var.
micro])] u>i) and of tick fever, may also have introduced the " worm-
nodules," yet they could hardly have been the first source of intro-
duction, seeing we have circumstantial evidence of the appearance of
these nodules in (Queensland at least 40 years ago. It may l)e noted,
however, that the crossbred descendants of those Brahma cattle, when
examined, all show more or less Onchocerca infection.

Genei^al Characteps of the Nodules.

In some animals recently examined in>st mortem, the proportion of

nodules situated in the deep pectoral muscles was nmch less than had

previously been noted, while in the thigh they were very few in

number, and then were situated close alongside the head of the femur.

In each case they were more numerous on the right side than on the

left. Two cases are here given of two cows from the same district in

North Queensland, and kept here under exactly similar conditions {vide

infra) for 6 and 8 months respectively, B having been killed two

UKmths later than A.

\ (5 .vpai- eld COW). B (3 year old cow).

Total number of nodules - - 47 (lUL, 28R) 15 (6L, 9R)

Number of nodules in thigh - - 0 3(1L, 2R)

Number of nodules containing eggs

and living larvae - - 22 4

Number of nodules containing in-

traparasitic parasites - - 10 4

Number of nodules degenerate - 1") 11

The proportion of nodules in B, containing degenerate parasites,
is more typical than in A, and undoubtedly a marked diminution in
size of the nodules took place during the months the cows wei-e
under constant observation, as determined byfrecpient manij)uiaLion.

26 Gil ruth anfl Stueet :

We have previously noted the fact that amonf);st the large number
of nodules which we have examined, the female parasite was either in
a stage of complete development lil)erating living larvae, or the nodules
contained degenerated parasites ; in other words, no immature parasite
has ever been found in a nodule. With these two cows for a period of
6 and S months there was absolutely no possibility of reinfection.
Many of the nodules could be felt under the skin, and as a number of
these subcutaneous nodules were found />o'<t mortem to contain living
Onchocerca liberating living larvae, it must be assumed that they had
been continuously liberating such larvae during the whole period, for
as the male lies continuously alongside the female, there is probably
continuous fertilisation of the latter.

We have in the previous paper indicated the probability that infec-
tion of the bovine takes place during its early years (1st and 2nd)
alone. Corroboration of this was obtained by J.A.G. and Dr. Breinl
when in the Northern Territory ; on one station, the station on which
the steer with a hundred nodules had been bred and fattened, an oppor-
tunity was obtained of carefully examining two verj' old bullocks.
In one, only one small nodule, and that containing a living parasite,
could be discovered; in the otlier, a few small, circumscribed, thin,
circular or oval dense fibrous masses about ^ to f inch were found
adhering firmly to the muscular fascia. Section showed a calcareous
centre. Judging from the invariable infection with living Onchocerca
of younger cattle on this station, two conclusions seem fairly obvious—
1st, there is little, if any, reinfection after a certain age; and '2nd,
the tendency is for the nodules to becoiue greatly diminished and
ultimately disappear.

Intepmediary Host.

As indicated in our previous con)munication there are several possi-
bilities with regard to the int<'iiuediale hcjst, whicii we h.ivt- aliciidy
shown must be present, though, as there stated, the evidence then avail-
able appeared to point to a biting insect, and especially the louse, as
being the responsible agent.

Since then, experiments at that time in progress have been com-
pleted, the investigations in the Nortlicrn Territory above referred to
hiive been made, and several other series of experiments have been
carried out with the object of testing conclusively whether the infection
may be brought about by direct contact, by intermediation of the soil,
or by either of the lice normal to the cow, and as to whether perchance
an adult w^orm or the larvae may leave a nodule and infect tlie same or
other animal, thus rendering an intermediary host unnecessary.

Cause of W'orni-No'iules in Cattle. 27

1. — Direct Infection.

Tn test so far a.^ possible whether any intenir^diate host be neces-
sary, a well-formed nodule containintj a livino; parasite was removed
from a cow containinfj; a fair number of nodules, and transplanted,
under all proper conditions of asepsis, etc., to the subcutaneous tissue
behind the shoulder of a calf born and reared at the Institute. Eight
months later this animal was killed. The nodule was found firmly
adherent to the skin, flattened and souieAvhat smaller in diameter than
previously, and surrounded by an intimate capsule of diffuse new
connective tissue, which covered it so effectually that it would have
l)een quite overlooked had not the exact spot of the transplantation
been known. Tlie parasite was dead, and calcified in pinhead areas.
Evidently, therefore, as mitrht be expected, the parasite will not live
in other than the individual host in which it has developed, and
probably cannot leave the nodule once the latter is formed, and so
re-infect the same animal or pass out and infect another. Also, the
larvae from this living nodule had every opportunity and sufficient
time to infect the new host. ;uid to form nodules, since well-formed
nodules have been found in (j-8 months old calves, so that any possi-
bility of direct infection without the iuti^i uit-diaiion of another liust is
negatived, as one would have expected.

2. — 1 iiferniediatiuii of Soil.

A quantity of earth from a cow-yard in North Queensland, wherein
badly infected cows rested eveiy night, was imported here. It was
examined ver}^ carefully for any sign of larvae or adult Onchocerca,
both before and after moistening, and after incubating for some days,
with negative results.

The soil was spread evenly over a deep layer of ordinary soil in a
pen in which a young locally-bred calf was placed. The pen was a
warm one, and the soil was kept moist for some time after deposition.
Seven months afterwards, the calf was killed and most carefully
examined, and showed no trace of nodtdes, or of adult parasites in any
part of the body, or of larvae either in the blood or in the subcutaneous
areolar tissue, glands, muscles, or intermuscular tissue of the brisket ;
so that, at all events in this ca.se, where all the conditions were as
favourable as they could possibly be, infection by intermediation of
the soil alone, is absolutely negatived.

3. — Interrnediafion of the Louse and Infection by Direct Contact.

A calf referred tO' in the previous paper, to which lice had been arti-
ficially transferred after being allowed to feed on a restricted area
inoculated with numerous larvae, died some nine months after trans-

28 GUrufli. and Sweet:

ference of the lice, but showed no sio;n of nodules either in the brisket
or on the thigh, and no filarial parasites at all.

Two cows, each containing a considerable number of nodules, were
imported to Melbourne from North Queensland, and placed in two
separate pens. They were examined very carefully at different times
on and after arrival for ectoparasites, with negative results. A locally-
bred 6-months-old calf was placed with each cow, each calf carrying
numbers of Tricltodectes scalaris (Haeniafopitvus vitiili and H. eury-
sternus not being then available), these being also found later on the
C'Ows. A large number of //. vlfuli and some //. eurysterrius. and a
large quantity of their eggs were later placed on each cow, especially
just over the nodule region. Large numbers of each kind of louse were
examined for larvae up to and about 5 weeks after they had been
placed on the cows, and at intervals later, but always with negative
results. That the worms in some at least of the nodules were living
was shown on arrival by excision of one of a large group lying under
the skin, living larvae and eggs being numerous. The blood of the
animal was examined during the operation, but no larvae could be
detected. Nor were any larvae or intraparasitic parasites found in the
sediment in saline fluid in which this living nodule had been kept at
blood heat for vsome time.

Fluid aspirated after several blisterings in various ways, was
examined at different times after the oedeuux had been produced, both
on the same day and on the succeeding day, but in no case were larvae
to be found.

Further numerous examinations were made of the blood at all hour.?
of the day and night for larvae, but none could be fnund even after
considerable quantities had been centrifuged. and a very large number
of smears, both thick and thin, examined in many ways.

It is well to remember that embryos of Onchocerca volvulus, which
forms similar subcutaneous tumours in natives in West Africa, have
not yet been found in the blood of infected natives; as Bnunpt (p. 457)
very naturally suggests, they may in that case pass into the bloou
intermittently, or at certain times when the patient has not been
examined.

As stated above, we (and we believe others also) have made exhaus-
tive examinations at all hours of the day and night. There is. how-
ever, one possil)i]ity Lingard (p. 2'2) has found in tlie blood of horses
in India, affected by Fihirin cquimi (?) and Fi/aria sp., that compara-
tively few embryos are present in the blood between July and Septeni-
ber, and may he even absent after that date. Thoy wore more
numerous between December and June, being most generally present
from April to Scjitember, during the hot and rainy seasons. This
supports the suggestion we have already iiuide to the effect that a sea-
sonal ])criodi(ity may be found in 0. t/i})soni.

('(i.use of Worvi-Noilnlrs in (Jatlle. 29

After an interval of o months, the calf in one ^^i the pens mentioned
above was killed (as the result of an accidentV and showed no siijn of
Onrhocerra anywhere. Two months later the other calf, whieli had been
in habitual contact with the second cow. was killed, and also showed
no evidence of either free Onrhnrerca or of nodules.

From these experiments, therefore, one may infer that neither direct
contact nor apparently the intermediation of Haeinutopinus vituli or
H euri/sfernus or Trirhoderffs sralaris (thouerh this latter would
hardly be expected to act as such an agent) can act as a means of
transmission of Onchnrerca (jihsoni.

Tliis apparent failure of direct contact and of the louse to act as
ir.tennedian' agencies in the spread of 0. f/ibsnni is extremely interest-
ing in the light of what has been stated earlier in this paper concern-
ing probable introduction of the parasite in Indian cattle, since as
there stated, distribution from the Indian cattle originally introduced,
if they were the original hosts, could hardly have taken place other
than through the agency of a flying and bitinc: insect, though there
are. as pointed out in our previous paper (p. 21) several difficiilties in
respect to this means of transmission.

As regards the apparent absence of embryos from the blood, and the
suggested impossibility of transmission therefore by a blood-sucking
insect, we may note that Brumpt (p. 457) does not hesitate to suggest
in the exactly similar case of 0. roJi'iilus that a specific fly Glossina
palpalis is the distributing agent.

It may be remarked that proof of the intermediation of any flying
insect will be impossible without rigorous methods of experimentation,
and even then vrill be extremely difficult. So' numerous are the native
animals, birds and marsupials, carrying microfilaria in their blood-
streams, that only insects bred in a laboratoiy can be used, and they
must be forms belonging to the North of Australia, since those found
in the southern States are possibly impotent in this respect, while for
this and other reasons, including climatic conditions, the experiments
must be done in the North, with cattle bred preferably in Tasmania,
so as to avoid all possible infection previous to experimentation. The
practicability of. and arrangements for, experiments along these lines
are now under consideration, and facilities for the same have been
asked for from the Federal Government.

From the scientific point of view it is undoubtedly true that com-
plete proof as to the intermediate host would be valuable, but from
the practical point of view, we do not anticipate that the results would
be of anv material value. We have shown that every probability
points to the intermediary host being a fly ; we have also shown
previously that in the northern parts of Australia all cattle are more
or less affected. When one reflects, therefore, that over the grreater

30 GUrvJh (Did Sweet: Wortii-Nodules in Cattle.

part of Northern Australia where vvonn-nodulos are prevalent there are
no fences, that the cattle on tlie average do not nearly ninnV)er 1 per 100
acres (often over large areas not 1 per 1000 acres), and the impossibilityof
copinp: effectually with tick fever in such countries, where the inter-
mediary host, the tick, is well known and cannot fly, the remoteness of
practical means of prevention is evident.

In contradiction, it may be urged that certain biting insects have
been eliminated from certain distincts in the world ; but these have
been insects restricted to certain habitats such as watercourses, etc.,
and we have previously shown that cattle from the driest areas are
often as seriously affected as cattle from wet districts, and that even
areas chiefly supplied by artesian water, are not by any means
immune. Nor so far as is yet determined by the evidence available
at freezing works, etc., is there any natural circumstance other than
latitude, which specially favours infection.

This does not mean that we suggest that scientific investigation
should be discontinued, but that the stockowner and exporter can
hardly expect an extermination of the parasite.

We desire to tbank Dr. W. Stapley, Mr. Norman MacDonald, and
Mr. H. R. Seddon. all of the Melbourne University Veterinaiy Institute,
for their assistance at various times in the above experiments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

rieland, J. B., and Johnston, T. H. — Report of Government Bureau of
Microbiology, Sydney, 1910, p. 91.

Gilruth. J. A., and Sweet, G. — Onrhorerra j/ihsoni : the Cause of Worm-
nodules in Australian Cattle. Published by the Commonwealth
of Australia, 1911.

Brumpt, E. — Precis de parasitologie, 1910.

Lingard, A. — Obsei-vations on the Filarial lunbi-yos found in the
Equidae and Bovidae (I.), 1905.

Art,

[Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Vktokia, 25 (N.S.). l'^'- I-. I'Jl^-]

IV. — Australian and Tasmanian Coleoptera Inhahiflnjj
or Resorting to the Neds of Ants, Been and Ter-

mites

SUPPLEMENT.

By art H mi M LEA.

(With Plate II.;
[Bead 11th April, 1912.]

Probably at no period in Australia has so much attention been
paid to insects, occurring in the nests of ants, as during the last
five years. The result has been that new and remarkable forms have
been obtained in abundance. But, as immense districts of Australia
have never been explored for insects of any kind, it is certain that
large numbers remain to be discovered, and prol)ably the numbers of
insects now known to occur in the nests of ants will be more than
f[uadrupled.

The fact that I am now able to add eight new species of ('hUnnij-
dopsis, of which six were certainly taken since the paper of which
the present one is a supplement was read (July, 1910), is sufficiently
indicative of the perseverance with which these anomalous beetles
have been looked for.

It is also a curious fact that (at any rate in the temperate parts of
Australia) the guests are more numerous in the cooler parts of the
year, and some completely disappear during the summer months, when
the ants themselves are more active. This fact may have something
to do with the paucity of specimens taken by collectors whose holidays
are usually of the briefest during the spring and autumn months.

An asterisk * is prefixed to species previously noted.

Ants.

Additional species of ants now known to act as hosts of beetles

are : —

Acantholepis Froggatti. Forel.
Camponotus cUiripes. Mayr.
Ectatomma Mayri, Forel.
Iridomyrmex itinerans, Lowne.
Odontomachus coriarius, Mayr.
Orectognathus antennatus, Smith.
Polyrhachis ammon, Fabr.
Polyrhachis hexacantha, Er.
Stenamma longiceps. Smith.

32 Arthur M. Lea:

I .icra hi tea, Mayr.

Ectatoiinna ><oriah's, Macl.

Tliere are before me four, evidently co-type specimens, of an ant
from Mr. Masters's collection ; they were placed with four specimens
of the beetle T mexi plionm for/nirinu'^, and labelled Mundarlo, with
the nam© Ectatomma socialis, the original collector and the original
locality. The name is, as I previo'usly suspected, a synonym of Poiiera
httea.

Iridomyrmer c/Jaher, Mayr.

I received this name from the Department of Agriculture at Wash-
ington for the species previously referred to as Colohopsis Gasseri. I
have not been able as yet to check the names of ants with the original
descriptions, although I hope to do^ this later, meanwhile having to
take the names on trust. The species is an important one from a
coleopterist's point of view, as it is common, widely distributed, and
the host ot many species of beetles. i

The true C. Gasseri, I am now given to under.stand, is a rather scarce
species, having its nests in old fences, stumps and hollow ti-ees, and
from whose nests I have never taken an inquiline of any sort. Nor is
it even close in appearance to /. glat)er.

Previously the name /. glatjer was received for a moderately
common species from New South Wales, with long and fairly numerous
setae scattered al)Out. The name struck me as a most inappropriate
one, but it appears now that the identitication was incorrect.

Carabidab.

Nototariii< (III ftf rati s, Chaud.

In his catalogue Wasmann records this species as from ants' nests.

*Philo2ihlaeus wi/rmeropJiilu-t, n.sp. (Plate IT., Fig. 1.)
3'. Reddish-flavous, a])pendages and elytral vittae somewhat paler ;
elytra piceous, the margins narrowly paler, each with a longitudinal
vitta commencing near the base and extending to about one-tifth
from apex ; pygidium and sides of under surface more or less piceous.
Lightly clothed with short and somewhat' golden pubescence, sparser
on head and on middle of ))r()tliorax and of under surface than else-
where ; with a few setiferous punctures.

1 The species previously listed as oceurriiif;- witli this species of nut are: Falagria Fauveli,
p. 122 ; J'oli/lobiiK colobo^isis, p. 128 : /'. intnpidiis, p 12'.» ; Dabrosoma pubi'inYns, p. 135,
Ctfuisop/ian morosuii, p. 155 ; C. rmpifssus, p. 155; Articfnin aiirijlinin p. 1(54; .1. ciirvicurnis;
p. 1C5; Scydafmmii colubiipsi.1, p. 181; S. Dam-i/i, p. 182; Aninotoina iiinrmecupliila, p. 189;
Rodwayia iniiiula, p. 19(5; /.'. onentalis, p. 1%; Bothiidf.res tibialis, p. 210; AiUhicus i/laher,
p. 225.

A Ksh'iil Id n (ind Tasnutii id a Cijh'oj/frra. 33

Ht-dil inoderately large, with nioderate' ^jense and soaieAvhat rouuh
I)Ut 11' t lartrc punctures, mucli smaller ahout base than elsewhere,
witli a setiferous puncture at tlie side of. and annthci- just l)ehind
c;ich eye. Antennae extending' to al)out basal tliiid of elytra. I'm-
thorar ;;bout twice as wide as loni:', a))ex reiiulaily and fairly stroniily
eniariiinate ; front angles strontjly, the hind ones widely and evenly
rounded ; median line distinct to apex, l)ut intei-i ujiled and terminated
before liifse : sides rather widely flattened, with tliree setiferous
punctures, of which the median one is distinctly nearer the subapical
than the subbasal one; disc feebly transversely wrinkled, and with a
setiferou.s puncture on each side ; with small punctures scattered aliout,
hut rather dense and irreg-ular wliere the maru.-ins bcp-in. Scutellum
subtrianfjular, with moderately dense punctures. Elytra at base
-vider than widest part of elytra ; sides fjently rounded and dilated
to bevond the middle ; with distinct but not deeply impressed striae,
the interstices of somewhat uneven widths, and with dense clearly
defined punctures, third with four larger setiferous punctures, ninth
(the marginfil interstice) with an almost regular row of larger punc-
tures. Fygidiuiii with dense but somewhat inegular punctures.
Under fsurface witli rjither sparse punctures. /.'//a- not very long,
front tarsi with three basal joints densely clothed 'm lower surface,
the fourth less noticeably so. middle tarsi with basal joint I'athei'
densely clothed about ajDex. Length S mm.

H<d). — Tasnumia : Sheffield. Chudleigh. from nests of I riddinjirmer
(/Udicr (A. M. Lea).

In size and appearance unuh like (piiulri pctmU and Siidiicii(')i><i>i,
but prothorax with emargination of apex more even, and basal angles
completely rounded off.

On each elytron, the vitta at the luise is ciuifined to the fifth inter-
stice ; it immediately dilates so as to include the fourth, at about the
basal third it extends to part of the third and sixth, at about the
middle it occupies only the third and fourth, and it then contracts
so that at its apex it is only on part of the third.

Although not desci-ibed, a specimen of this species was previously
noted (these Proceedings, 1910. p. 122) as having Ijeen taken from
an ant nest ; as since then I have taken another specimen in the
same way, it is to be presumed that the species naturally occurs with
ants.

Adt/nf(ij/h' ipxoidex, Westw.

On sending a specimen of 'this species from Geelong Mr. Dave}'
wrote: — "Recently I opeiie<l an old established nest of Iridomyrmea-
iiifidus, and it contained a fair nmuber of this species; they Avere
quite covei-ed V)y the ants, ])ut they did not appear to be eating them.''

o4 Avtlnir M. Lea:

AdelotopKs srolytidex, Newin.

A specimen of this species was recently 1aken at Rhyndaston (Tas-
niadia) (Vom a nest of Iridomyrmeo'. (jlaher. Tlie beetle was cdnipleteh
covered l)y a mass of ants, but the ants were not attacking it.

IUapli(iiiit>< StcpJieii-'d, Mad.

y.lv. Davey sent a specimen of this species as from a «iest of an
Indo/iij/rnier at Panniuie (Victoria). I had myself taken specimens
from under ji stone amongst ants.i l)ut thought they were there by
aL;cident. This, however, was probably not the case. Mr. Davey, on
being written to for information as to how he c:iptured his specimen,
wrote: "The Illdjiluiuit-'t was crawling along a drive with the ants
when I took it."

I have recently taken two specimens of the species, under a stone,
close to a nest of Flitidide Tasmaiiieiisis at Dunorlan (Tasmania)^-
and another at the side of a nest of a species of Mouoinariuin at
Spreiit, and another at the side of the nest of a jumper ant [Mt/r/iiecia)
at Evandale Junction.

Ilhi pjxnrus M (irhdyi. Lea.

The types of this species were taken under a stone that covered a
nest of OrertiHiiKtthux anininatus. At the time it was considered that
they were oiily casually with the ants, but this uiay not have been
the case.

Staphylinidab.
I'oJi/Inhiis piri^oxnhri iiitfi, n.sp.

I'iceous ; prothcrax and abdomen obscurely jtaler ; legs, palpi ami
base of antennae tlavous. With rather dense and very tine pul)escen(e.
longer on abdomen than elsewhere.

Head rather rounded; eyes scarcely projeciing. Antennae extending
to biise of pi'othora.x, lig-htly inflated towai'ds apex, (hiid to teiilh
joints transverse, eleventh conical, about as long as three preceding
coniibined. Protlioror moderately tran.sverse, front angles stronglv
Kumded, sides thence oblique to base, which is gently rounded ; with
minute punctuies. Elytra about once and one-third the width of
prothorax, sides feeibly, but shoulders strongly rounded, sides al)0t:l
one-fourth longer than suture; with dense minute punctures.
Ahdoinen feebly decreasing in width to ajiiuil third, thence stiongly to
apex. Length. 1^, to apex of elytra f mm.

1 A snmll liliu'U species, fioin iiu'iimrv i-ithoi- Iri<Unn!)i iiitx ijlubn, or another species of
Jridoinynnex.

■1 It is now first leeoicloil from TiiMiiaiiiii.

Avfitndiii II unci Tdsnninian ('oleiypteni. 35

If ah. — Yiftoi'iii : (ieelon<r, ("i'diii a nest ot" Krtdtoni iiui uiffdninini
(IT. W. Davey).

Tlie jirothorax is dark. Imt not ])lack, but I'eo-ardinir it as such it
differs from (■d/iJio/tsis in havin<i; the head small, tlu' iirotliorax with
sides ol)li(|Ut, to base instead of rounded and antennae lon^'er, ete.
Hetrardinu- the uj^ier surfaee as not entirely Wlaik, it would be asso-
ciated with 7\isnianieiisis, from which it differs in havinp' the pro-
thorax less transverse and darker, and the abdomen not ]>aler at the
base than in the middle.

I'd! ijlohitx hr((('Jii/ pfe.rua, n.s]).

Of a rather dingy flavous, head and Hfth and part of sixth ab-
dominal segments infuscated. With very tine and short pubescence.

Depressed. Head rather longer and less rounded than usual, with
small punctures. Antennae lightly incrassated, extending to base of
j)rothorax ; third to tenth joints transverse, eleventh subconical,
scarcely longer than two preceding combined. Prothora r very little
wider than long, angles rather strongly rounded, side.-? and base feebly
rounded ; punctures indstinct. Elytra no longer than prothorax and
scarcely wider ; punctures indistinct. Abdomen parallel-sided to apex
of sixth segment. Length, 1|, to apex of elytra J mm.

ffab. — Tasmania : Evandale Junction, from a nest of Pheidole roii-
ffirta (A. M. Lea).

A thin pale species, with exceptionally short elytra, that appear
too small to cover wings. Although the colours are somewhat as in
])aIIidomlii()/\ the species is very distinct from that one, being nai*-
r.ywer, ])rothorax less transverse, elytra much smaller, al)domen
parallel-sided to apical segment, antennae slightly stouter, etc.

A specimen from Bagdad, from a nest of Ertatowuia meUdl Ini m,
probably belongs to this species, but is rather i>aler (jierhaps from
immaturity) and smaller.

Polj/lohini tenuis, n.sp.

Of a rather dingy ilavous ; head, antennae (base excepted) and
elytra tlavous brown ; fourth, fifth and part of sixth abdominal seg-
ments darker, sometimes almost black. With very tine, short, pale
pubescence.

Head rounded, punctures very indistinct, eyes moderately pro-
minent. Antennae passing base of prothorax ; first joint moderately
long, but slightly shorter than second and third combined, these
subequal, fourth to tenth transverse, eleventh subconical, as long as
two preceding combined. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides and
base rather strongly rounded ; punctures very minute. Elytra lightly
transverse, scarcely wider than widest part of prothorax, and very

36 Arthur M. Lea:

little longer, sides straight and slightly longer than suture ; punctures
dense and very small. Ahdonien long, thin and parallel-sided to apex
of sixth segment. Length, 3, to apex of elytra 1 ; variation in length,
2 J — 3 mm.

Hdh. — Tasmania : Railton (from nests of Ertatouutia nirtall icinii.
and Iridoiiiyrme r ylaher), Stanley (in tussocks at summit of " Nut "),
Hobart (in tussocks and fallen leaves). Mount Wellington, Parattah,
Launceston, Stonor (A. M. Lea), Victoria, Geelong (from a nest of
Iridomynnc.r nitidiis), (H. W. Davey) ; New South Wales; Glenfield
(from a nest of E. mtfaUirii//i), National Park (amongst rotting
leaves), Tamworth (Lea).

A narrow shining species, in general appearance close to Honialotd
charitssa, but prothorax without the " four large punctures just be-
fore the middle on the disc " of that species. The prothorax is some-
times scarcely paler than the elytra, l)ut is usually conspicuously paler.

Fnljllolnis quadi-ati pentrifi, n.sp.

Of a rather bright Havous red, elytra and metasternum darker,
middle of abdomen still darker. With dense pubescence rather longer
than usual in the genus, the sides, except of abdomen, where they
are dense, with a few short hairs.

Head with sides much less rounded than usual ; with very small
punctures. Eyes fairly large and prominent. Antennae rather stout,
passing base of prothorax, fourth and fifth joints feebly, the sixth to
tentli strongly transverse, eleventh almost as long as three preceding
combined. Frothorar about as long as wide, sides and base gently
rounded, jmnctures small a.nd more or less obscured by clothing.
Ehjtni (|uadi'ate, about one-fourth wider than prothorax, and dis-
tinctly longer ; with small and moderately dense punctures.. A})do)nen
rather narrow and parallel-sided, with strong margins to near apex ;
punctures fairly dense and distinct, except at tips of the segments.
Length, "2^, to apex of elytra 1^ mm.

Ha}). — New South Wales : Barraba, from a nest of I'hf^idoh sp. (F.
A. Rod way).

The elytral punctures from some directions appear to be trans-
versely or obli(|uely confluent. It is distinctly stouter than most
species of the genus occurring with ants.

P(t/i//()hiis apianus. n.sp.

Flavous-red, in places deepening to blond-red, lt\!is. ]ialpi and base
of antennae paler ; a large rounded spot on eaeh elytron, and fourth
and fifth abdominal seguients black. With short jiale pubescence, the
sides, especially of abdomen, with tine hairs.

A aMridian and Tai^mav i<fv Colt'dptom, 37

Thdd more transverse than usual ; punctures fairly dense and
clearly defined. Kyes fairly larj^e and prominent. Antennae rather
lightly thicivened towards apex, not extendiuL;' to hasc (tf prothorax ;
fourth to sixth joints feebly, seventh to tenth moderately transverse,
eleventh luietiy sul)conical. about as lonp: as ninth and tenth combined,
and slightly l)Ut distinctly wider. I'roihtinn about once and one-half
as \\:dc as lon^-, front an<,'les strongly rounded, sides thence obli(pie
to liase, which is almost truncate ; puncture-^ as on head. Eljjtra
moderately transverse, aibout one-fourth wider than prothorax, and
along suture about one-third longer, longer at sides ; jmnctures slightly
sparser and more clearly defined than on prothorax. Ali<hniirii almost
parallel-sided, and with strong margins to near apex : punctures fairly
dense and clearly defined. Length '1, to apex of elytra 1 mm.

Hah. — New South Wales: Sydney, from a wild nest of the domesti-
cated bee (C Gibbons).

The spot on each elytron is moderately distant from the suture,
ratlier nearer the apex than the base, fairly large, and from above
ajjpears almost round, but from the side is seen to be transverse, and
almost touching the margin. The middle of the prothorax appears
to be vaguely infuscated.

I'ohjlohua a pici II ujcr. n.sp.

Bright Havous, antennae (base excepted) somewhat darker : head,
a])ex of elytra, metasternum and fifth abdominal segment black.
Pubescence very indistinct ; except at sides of abdomen.

Head rather short; eyes fairly proinineiit. Antennae somewhrt
incrassated to apex, scarcely extending to base or prothorax. I'ro-
thorar twice as wide as long, rather strongly (for the genus) convex,
sides rounded and increasing in width to base, which is gently rounded.
Ehjfra almost twice as wide as long, distinctly longer and wider than
prothorax : punctures obscured by clothing. Ahdomrti moderately
btu decidedly decreasing in width to near apex, and then strongly
to apex itself; margins com})aratively feeble. Length l.'j, to apex of
elytra H mm.

Hah. — New South Wales: Otford, from a nest of Ertainnnna
metalllcum (A. M. Lea).

A small robust species, in general remarkably like a verv snuill speci-
men of (irceptux, but difi'ering essentially in ibe prothorax ; in arreptus
the sides of that segment are evenly rounded, with the base no wider
than the apex, and considerably narrower than the elytra : in the
present species its sides are also rounded, but they are considerably
wider at the base than at the apex, with the consequence that they
appear to be subcontinuous with thoise of the elytra. In the shape
of the ]U'othorax it agrees with TaxuKuiiciis, \)\\{ that is a much larger

38 Arthur M. Lea:

species, with much stronger punctures, etc. The l)huk at apex <if
elytra is slightly dilated to sides, so that there it occupies about two-
hfths of the length, at rhe suture it occupies al)out one-third.

*P()li/Iobiis seiniopacus. Lea.

Recently taken in numbers at Otford and Sydneyi in nests of
Ectatoiii 111(1 inetall icuin.

*1'(>I l/lohiix jxillidoiiiinor. Lea.

Mr. Cox has sent a second specimen of this species from a nest of
Iridomyrmcx rufoniger. I have also 20 specimens that were taken
in Hood debris on the Nepean River by Mr. A. J. Coates.

*Folylo}>\is Ddvryi, Lea.

A single specimen of this species uas taken near Adelaide, l)y Mr.
Griffith, froui a nest of Ectatoiniiut iiictdHiniiii.

^Calodera citneifera. Lea.

Mr. Davey ha« sent three specimens from Geelong and Ararat, as
having occurred in nests of a species of Iridonnjrincr.

*Mynnedonia claviyera, Fvl
Recently taken near Hohart from a nest of Iridoiinirnic r ylaher.

HovHihitd triyoiiae, n.sp.

Black, shining ; elytra piceous-brown ; legs, palpi and basal joints
of antennae somewhat paler. With very short ashen pubescence, longer
on abdomen than elsewhere ; sides with a few short hairs.

Hcdd convex, moderately transverse ; punctures very indistinct.
Antennae not very thin, just passing base of prothorax ; first joint as
long as second and third combined, fourtli to tenth transverse, eleventh
subconical, almost as long as ninth and tenth ccnubined. I'rothdrar
almost twice as wide as long, sides and base evenly rounded : with a
puncture on each side of the middle at :ibout one-third troui the
l)ase, and with much smaller and dense liut latliei' clearly defined
jMinctures. Elytra sliglitlv widci' than prothmax, and sliglitly wider
ihan long; with small, dense, clearly defined jiumniies. Ahdoimn
as wide at apex as at base, the sides very feel)ly increasing in width
to middle: margins strong. Lrys rather long. Length '1\, to apex
of elytra 1 mm.

Hah. — NeAv South Wales : Sydney, from a nest of Trnjoiid rar-
bonaria (C. Gibbons).

1 Now first recoi'ded from the inainlaiid.

AiLstriili(tii anil Tdsiitc uinn Coleopfcni. 39

In general appearance close to parens, but antennae shorter and
stouter, and prothorax very decidedly transverse, its sides more
strongly and evenly rounded, and disc with two conspicuous punctures.
Also close in appearance to ('ahKlera cuneifura, but readily distin-
tjuished therefrouj by the apical joint of antennae. Fnun some direc-
tions an extremely faint mediiiu protlnjracic line is visible.

1 1 oiiialiifd r:irvii-(ni(l<i, n.sp.

iJlac k, shining ; antennae and pal|)i brownish ; legs (coxae excepted)
tiavous, femora paler than tibiae and tarsi. Rather densely clothed
witii short ashen pubescence, a few hairs on apical sides of abdomen.

Head rather strongly convex, sides rather strongly rounded, eyes
not at all prominent ; punctures indistinct. Antennae rather thin,
extending almost to middle of elytra, first joint distinctl)^ shorter
ihi'.n second and third, these moderately long, fourth and tifth sub-
globular, sixth to tenth transverse, eleventh subconical or almost
wedge-shaped, slightly longer than ninth and tenth combined. I'ro-
thorax about once and two-thirds a.s wide as lung; sides gently, the
base very feebly roiuided ; with dense and sm-iU, but clearly defined
punctures. Elytra scarcely wider than widest part of prothorax, and
with slightly larger ptmctures, moderateiy transverse. Abdo?iiejt with
strong margins, and parallel-sided to near apex; punctures dense
and small, becoming very small posteriorly, /^("//v rather long and
thin. Length 3j, to apex of elytra 1^ mm.

Hah. — Tasmania: Chudleigh, Rj'ilton, a single specimen at each
place fium a nest of Iridomyrmex glaher (A. M. Lea).

Tiie Railton specimen when alive had its tail c(jcke{| ov er its back and
Lmiching the liase of its elytra, and when first seen had much the aspect
of a dea. In general appearance close to the preceding sprc-ies, but
antennae paler, legs much paler, eh-tra darker, prothorax without
the two larger punctures, etc. ; the sides of the prothorax are more
rounded than in Calodera cuntlfera, and the legs are much paler.

U Dinalota myrmecuie. n.sp.

Head and elytra black, jirotlmriix, third, fourth and fiftli segments
of abdomen, and the metasternum dark l)iown, base and a^jex of
abdomen and antennae of a rather dingy Havous, legs paler.
Pubescence very short and fine.

Head moderately transverse, sides rounded, eyes fairly prominent, a
shallow depression between them : punctures indistinct. Antennae
rather thin, extending to about middle of elytra ; first joint distinctl}'
shorter than secnnd and third combined, these moderately long, fourtii
to tenth each about as long as wide, or feebly transverse, eleventh
subconical, sliuhtlv luui^er than ninth and tenth combined. FrotJiorac

40 Arthur M. Lea :

depressed, distinctly wider than head, about once and one-half as -vvido
as long, sides angularly dilated at apical third, thence oblique to both
base and apex ; punctures scarcely visible. Elytra slightly wider
than prothorax, and along middle about as long, but distinctly longer
at sides, punctures dense and very minute. AhdoiHcn with strong
margins, the sides feebly inflated to about middle, punctures slightly
stronger than on elytra. L''(j'< moderately long and thin. Ijcngth
'2\, to apex of elytra 1 mm.

Hah. — Victoria: Lai Lai, from a nest of a species of M yrmecia (H.
W. Davey).

I'he angularly dilated protlmrax renders this si)ecies very distinct.

('niKi^oiiKt Idfcri pen )ie. n.sp.

Testaccuu:^-bi-()wn, hind angles of prothorax, most of elytra and
aj)ical parts of aljdomen somewhat paler, legs and antennae almost
rtavous. Rather densely clothed with short pale jjubescence ; elytra
with a few long black hairs on each side ; abdomen with two fascicles
of black hairs at its tiji.

Head with almost invisible punctures. Antennae moderately stout,
not extending to base of prothorax. Froftiora r about once and two-
thirds as wide as long ; punctures minute, dense, and more or less
concealed. Elytra slightly narrov\-er than, and about the length of
prothorax, apex gently incurved to middle ; punctures slightly more
noticeable than on prothorax. Alhloiiien regularly decreasing in
width to apex. Length 3, to apex of elytra H mm.

Hah. — Victoria : Sea Lake, from nest of Iridomynnex ivitidus (J.
C. Goudie).

In general a])pearance rather close to rufi pal pc : but the long hairs
at the sides of the elytra (there are four on each side) distinguish
from that sjicvics, and from all others known to me except myrtiK-
copliil mil . Iri.m whicii it is distinguislied by being rather narrower,
somewhat dittercnt in colour, and without long hairs at sides of pro-
thoiax autl abdomen.

*('()ii()si)!H(i i/iyri/n <-i)/)li /I II III . Lea.

Mr. Davey sent two specimens of this species frt)m Geelong^ (Vic-
toria); without any indication, however, as to liow they were obtained.
Subsetiuently he ^tut another from a nest of ] ndinii yriiK r iiitidin.

(Jut (/ills: riijjriiniy. Kvl.

Mr. Davey has taken a specimen of this species from a nest of
Canrponotiix iiiyriceps at (icelong.

1 It is now liist rec'ordud for V. .Viistialiu.

Anst I'uLntn ti.iid Ta.s)ii(iniait Cuicoj'tci'it. 41

Scopaeiif< iiitcroruhtrix. n.sp.

lirownish-tlavous, legs and palpi paler ; four bisnl se<j;ments of
abdomen, except inar<iins, infuseated : fifth vljohtly infuscated about
l>ase. and feebly infuscated l)et\veen eyes. With very short pale
l»ul)esccnre, lonirer at sides and apex of abdomen than elsewhere.

I!t(i(l. int'ludiny mouth parts, subquadrate : with dense minute
punctures. Antennae extcndimi' almost to base of prothorax ; first
joint stout, about as long as three foUowino; combined, se-ond to
tenth subequal, eleventh not much longer than tenth. J'rofliora,?;
slightly narrower and slightly longer than head, subovate, apex pro-
duced ; a shallow depression on each side of base marking oft" the base
of a very feeble longitudinal elevation ; punctures as on head. Elytra
parallel-sided, scarcely longer than wide, the width of prothorax, and
with slightly larger punctures. Abdomen feel)ly increasing in width
to apex of fifth segment, thence decreasing rapidly to apex. Lfg>i not
verv long; femora rather stout. Length -"i. to apex of abdomen
1^ mm.

Hdh. — New South Wales: Sydney, from a nest of Irnhniii/niit' r sp.
(A. M. Lea).

In size and sliaiic much like S. duhtwi and .V. om-ol/is, but very
dififerently coloured.

Lithofluirix (■(nil jitiiiofi, n.s]).

Bright fiavous red, appendages somewhat paler, apical two-fifths of
elytra, and basal two-thirds of upper surface of fifth abdominal segment
black. Clothed wuth short depressed pubescence : sides Avith a few
short hairs, becoming longer and denser towards and at apex of
abdomen.

Ht(uL including niaudibles, slightly longer than wide, sides almost
parallel behind eyes, between them the derm somewhat flattened; with
dense minute punctures. Antennae extending to base of prothonix,
first joint aljout as long as second and third combined, each of these
a trifle longer than each (jf the others to tenth, eleventh subconical,
about half as long again as tenth. I'l-titlutrdi with front almost the
exact width of head, and the angles right-angles ; sides gently decreas-
ing in width to base, with basal angles rounded ; punctures much
as on head. Elyti-a just perceptibly longer than wide, the width
of head, bas il and apical angles rounded, sides |>arallel, apex slightly
oblique to middle ; punctures small but more distinct than on pro-
thorax. Ahdoiiun parallel-sided or gently increasing in width to
beyond the middle, thence rapidly decreasing to apex, fourth segment
distinctly lunger than third, fifth longer than third and fourth com-
bined. Leg)t not very long : femora stimt. Length 2|, to apex of
elytra H mm.

42 Artlmr M. Lea :

Hah. — New South Wales: Otford, fioiii nests (if Cai/i/ionofiis
aeneoijiloms (H. W. Cox and A. M. Lea).

Apparently close to cinrtd, but abdomen not entirely pale, elytra
with dark part at, instead of before, apex, and punctures not as
described. Tlie dark part at the apex is sr/metinies slightly cut into
alonji' the suture. Tliere are about three hairs on each side of the
head, four or tive on each side of the i)rothorax. and about the same
on elytra ; they appear, however, to be easily abraded.

*(rl yptoind iin/riiicc(t])liil II III , Lea.

A specimen of this species was recently taken under rotting bark
of a fallen log at Ulverstone.i

*0i i/ti'iiis III irropfei us. Lea.

Mr. Davey has taken two specimens of this species from a nest of
Cdiii pDiintiis II i(jriirp>i at Lai Lai (Victoria).

PsELAPIUOAE.

In addition to the species now recorded I luwe taken a very minute-
specimen of this family from a nest of I ruhmi i/riiii' r i/htlier in Tas-
mania. It is blackish with pale appendages, and is apparently with-
out a medio-basal prothoracio impre.-sion ; tlie head, however, has a
rather deep gioove on each side, the two conjoined in front, and
these combined with an elongated form would appear to exclude it
from Etipinrs, As it is a female it appears undesirable to propose a
new genus for it.

Xarcodes ectatomviat, n.sp.

c? . Of a dingy reddish brown, abdomen blackish, club infuscated.
Clothed with short, subsquamose clothing, mostly stramineous, but
variegated in places (notably on abdomen) with sooty.

Iltad large ; with three shallow impressions, of which the deepest
one is in front; base gently incurved to middle, and produced on eacii
side behind the eye; each margin near apex with a snuill subconical
projection, indistinct froin some diiections. Antennae moderately
long, first joint stout, as long (wlien viewed troni ihi- sides) as second
and third coniljined, third distinctly longer than second or fourth,
ninth distinctly longer than eighth, about as U)ng as wide, tenth
larger, eleventh truncate-ovate, slightly longer than ninth and tenth
combined. I'rotliura.r decidedly transvcisc, apical half with flattened
and dilated sides, which are obtusely bituijcrculate (the Iriul lubiiele

1 Now first reconlud fpnii Tasinaiii;!.

2 It is just iiurcijitildv larmier (liaii hhiitiitidl^x dfislnilh, the sniallcst known species fi-DUi
Australia.

A iixtniliii a iind Tasmmildv. Culeoptcra. 43

vfi'v (tl)tusfc') in middle towards liase with a niodeiatcly *lai <:o fovea,
thence to a})ex feebly ridded, eaeh side with a rather lar<j:e and
shallow fovea. Elytra very short and dilated posteriorly, each with
sutural stria strong and dorsal wide and deep at base, and stron<j; to
IjL'yond the middle, where it rather abruptly terminates. Ahdomen
larj^e, with wide mari^ins ; under surface ;^ently coneavc along middle.
MfJast'-rnatn gently concave along middle, eaeli side with a feeble
ridge terminating in an obtuse tooth posteriorly. /ye(js rather short
and stout ; front trochanters strongly dentate, the tooth itself with a
smaller one on its hind margin : front femora with a small acute
subbasal tooth. Length 2f mm.

Hab. — Tasmania: Hailton, in a nest of Ertdtininiid niefa/linun (A.
M. Lea).

The size is larger than that of y. in</rii'eiiiris, the head is larger
and wider across apex, the prothor-ax has tiie sides more suddenly and
angularly inflated, and its medio-basal fovea and the elytral striae
are deeper. From l)oth sexes of .V. raria it is readily distinguished
by the sides of the prothorax.

On the whole of the ui)i)er surface there are more or less dense
punctures, but these are more or less concealed until the clothing has
been abraded. From some directiims the sides of the elytra towards
the apex appear to be feebly notched.

('tfiiis()j)liii-s It njidpicf iix. n.sp.

(?. IMackish-piceous ; appendages of a rather dingy red. With
very short pale pubescence, giving the upi>er surface a greyish appear-
ance.

Head wide ; with two large Init ratlier shallow inter-ocular foveae.
Antennae coni]>aratively short, second joint slightly stouter than tirst
and, t'loui above, ajipaiently slightly longer, third to seventh small,
eighth, ninth and tenth about as long as wide, sul)e(pial, eleventh
about as long as ninth and tenth comljined, and a trifle wider, i'ro-
f hold I feebly transverse, widest at about apical third, sides tlience
oblique to base; with a rather large medio-basal fovea. Elytra dis-
tinctly transverse ; eaeh with sutural stria distinct, the dorsal rather
wide towards Ijase, and elsewhere very narr(nv l)ut clearly defined.
Under surface of fourth segment of (d)iUumii with a shallow sub-
triangular impression, indistinct from most directions, whilst from
others each of its walls appears to be tipped by a minute tubercle.
Ltya comparatively short (for the genus). Length 1-| mm.

y/a6. - Victoria : Geelong, from a nest of 1 rulnitn/nnt i . sp. (11. \\ .
Daveyj.

Readily distinguished from all i>ri'viously described sj)ecies by its
dark colour; the tip of the al)domcn and the prothorax are not quite

44 Arthur M. Lea:

as dark as fhe rest of the ujtper surface. The four apical joints of
antennae are rather more than half the total lenpfth ; the eighth is
very little longer than t!ie ninth.

*( 'fe/usojtlnis niorosu-s, Kaffr.

Mr. (Jrithth has taken this species in Tasnuuiia from nests of
EctatiHiinui nirtalJiniiii : and I have taken three from a nest of
I'oli/rliar/i is hexucantlui.

Cleinsoph ax viriidJift, King.

Dr. Ferguson has taken sexes of this s})ecies from a nest of termites
{Enttnnex, sp.) at Xarrnmine.

*(_'trin>i()p]iii>i I//I //rrssiis. Sharp.

Mr. Griffith has taken near Adelaide a specimen of tliis species from
a nest of Erf(/to//i uui Mai/ri.

T ntf-si plio) tix liftplon j)luil ux, n.sp.

3- Keddish castaneous, elytra, tarsi and palpi paler. "With
moderately dense short imbescence, tij) of elytra rather densely
clothed, a fascicle of golden hairs on each .side of base of head.

Head with two small inter-ocular foveae, front longitudinally ini-
I'ressed between antennary ridges, a snuill acute conical tubercle or
spine behind each eye ; densely punctate all over. Antennae
modfci-ately long ; third to eighth joints transverse, ninth subcjuadrate,
njuch wider than eighth, and ahnost as long as three preceding com-
bined, tenth aljout as large as ninth, scooped out on one side, eleventh
lop-sided, and about once and one-half as long as tenth. Palpi with
a strong spine on each of the second and third joints, the apical joint
strongly jjroduced on one side and acutely produced at apex. Pri>-
thorar slightly longer than wide, sides widest at about apical third,
thence incurved to base ; with a snndl mcdio-basal fovea, and a larger
but shallower one on each side ; punctures as on head. Eltitrn lightly
transverse; each with dorsal stria, rather wide on basal half and
scarcely traceable beyond the middle ; witli clearly defined punctures,
not as dense as on prothorax. Atxloineii with a strong narrow carina
on each side of the second and third segments : lower surface with a
very feel)le tlejU'cssion in middle of st cond and tlii.d segments.
Trucha liters unarmed ; front libiac excavated in iniddk of iunci- sur-
face. Length '1^ mm.

//a6.--New South Wales: Xarromine. from a nrst of white ants
(E. W. Fergustui).

The head is armed behind each eye sonu'what as in 7'. fm/itfopliilus.
In shape it is much like 7'. po/ierae and 7'. f<r in in n iis. Imt the head

AiLstralian and Tihf<iii(iin<(ii ('uleo/>teiu. 45

and club are different. 7'. breclcorins is without the golden basal
fascicles, and has much shorter antennae. It is ]ierhaps closest to
T. KiiKji of all the described species, but the elytra liave the .-ulcii.s
on each side much less pronounced, the front tiliiac different, and the
ventral impressions of diffeiciit shape and nuich shallower.

From some directions the front til)iae appear to be scooped out in
the middle or bidentate. The eleventh joint of iintennae is obtusely
produced on one side, and its lower surface is <>:ently concave, the
tenth has a small tultercle on one side of its apex.

Davetia. n.tr.

Head transverse, bifoveate ; a wide thin fl;in<re margining each
eye. Eyes small, prominent, coarsely faceted. Antennae moderately
long, ten-jointed, first rather large, second smaller, the others to ninth
small and submoniliform, tenth large. Palpi large, first joint con-
cealed, second rather long and angular, third subtriangular. with
several projections at outer edge, each of which has a clubbed hair,
fourth much smaller than third and also with projections, its apex
with a thin spine or stout seta. VrDilninii feebly transverse, sides
angularly dilated in middle. Elytra short, dilated posteriorly. Ah-
dnmen about as long as prothorax and elytra conjoined, second, third
and fourth segments large, with wide margins. Mffasffrjiii/n
moderately long. Leg-'i rather long and unarmed : trochanters large ;
femora stout; tibiae rather thin, slightly dilated towards apex:
tarsi thin, first joint small, second and third rather long ; claws small
and thin.

The species described below at first resembles a small flattened
Ctenisophus, but is readily distinguished from that genus, and from
all others, by its remarkable palpi and flanges. The latter are wide
and very thin, convex on the upper and concave on the lower surface ;
they are attached to the head partly directly, and partly to the
lower surface of the eyes, so that each appears as a remarkable
canthus. From above, the flanges appear to completely margin the
lower surface of the eyes ; their hind inner margin appears to be
fringed with fine setae. There is nothing nmch like them in any
described Australian genus except perhaps a vague remnant in some
species of Tmesiphorus. A distant approach, however, is made by a
foreign species, C'tenofillus co^tatu>( ; ^ which Raft'ray at the time of
description referred to the vicinity of TmesipliDrus, but later'- placed
closest (of the Australian genera) to Leani/nnix. The palpi" of
Daveyia, however, are very dift'erent to those of Ctenotilhix, and I

1 Raffray, Ann. Soe. Eiit. Fr., Ixv., 1896, Plate II., Fig. 5.

2 In his inoiioirraph in Wytsnian'a Genera Insectorum, p. ;i67.

■i It is very liiffieult to manipulate tlie palpi, as rhey snap ofif almost at a teach.

46 Arthur M. Lea:

have seen nothing; firjured at all like them : the snbapical joint has a
nuni'ber of stout hairs, that from some directions appear to 1)e simple,
hut from others knobbed, and in some lif;hts they look nuK-h like
the sticky hairs of some species nl Droi^era.

The o't-nus evidently l)elr)n^s to the Tyrini, and foi' the present may
be placed in the vicinity of T inexi phorus. It is with very <rreat plea-
sure that I dedicate it to such an enero-etic examiner of ants' nests as
Mr. Davey.

Ddvei/ia mira, n.sp. (Fitis. 2 and 3.)

J . Reddish castaneous, elytra and eye flanges somewhat paler.
Clothed with short whitish pubescence, moderately dense at tip of
elytra, and base of abdomen on under surface.

Head (including flanges) almost twice as wide as long, with two
fairly large submedian foveae. Antennae extending to base of pro-
thorax, surface of first, second and tenth joints somewhat uneven.
J^j'otliora r slightly wider than long, sides strongly and angularly
dilated in middle ; witli a large medio-basal isolated fovea. Eh/tra,
across apex, about one-third wider than long ; sutural stria on each
distinct, the dorsal represented by a short basal groove. Mefnsftrtiiim
transversely excavated at middle of apex. Ahdomoi with under sur-
face regularly convex, the fifth segment semi-circularly emarginate.
Length, 1-li ram.

?. Differs in being slightly larger, legs somewhat shorter, and
abdomen with the fifth segment straight at apex.

Hah. — Victoria : (ieelong and Portland, in nests of I rldoiin/nne.r
itineratis (H. W. Davey).

Under a fairly high power the head appears to l)e covered with
small round flattened granules, and rather less distinct ones are to
be seen on the prothorax and elytra. From some directions the
metasterrium of the male appears to have its median excavation ex-
tending its whole length, but from others it appears to be apical only,
as in the female. Mr. Davey obtained numerous specimens in the
nests and their vicinity, and some of the sj)eciniens sent were uioiintcd
as slides in Canada balsam.

*l'scla,i)]in>< /lavij)a//)is. Lea.

There are five sjiecimens of this species in the IJritisli Museum from
Townsville ; two are nuiles, and dirt'er from the females in having the
middle of the second ventral segment with a slight longitudinal ridge
at its apex. The metasternum is less convex, and about the apex is
somewhat excavated.

* I'stia pliiiK (/f/iiniafiis, Westw.

There is a specimen of this species in the Macleay Museum frouj
South Australia.

AiintnUiaii and Tuisuni ui.au (Udeopittra. 47

Margarix ii/i /x-rifi/ix. Scht's.

In his catalopjue, Wiisiiiiinn states that this species is myrme-
cophilnus. The only specimen I have seen was obtained in flocd
debris.

Hamotopsis auriroinuf;, Lea.

Mr. Davey has taken five specimens of this sjiecies fioni nests of
A //ihIi/()/)one austral Ifi.

Eudranex cariiiafiis. Sharp.
The type of this species was taken from an ants' nest ])y Cnm-
m under J. J. Walker.

RyhariK (ctafiHii iiiae, n.sp.

Brij^-ht castaneous, legs (knees excepted) and palpi somewhat paler.
With short, pale pubescence, interspersed, especially on al)domen,
with some longer hairs.

Head highly polished ; with a (for the genus) rather small and
j)artly open fovea close to each eye, frontal impression shallow.
Antennae rather long, first joint apparently (when seen from above)
no longer than second, but really (when seen from the side) distinctly
longer, third to sixth rather small, seventh larger, eighth slightly
smaller than seventh but larger than sixth, ninth and tenth small,
eleventh snbovate, apex pointed, about as long as three preceding
joints combined. Prothora r moderately transverse, widest at about
apical third ; with a small medio-))asal fovea, indistinctly connected
along base with a comparatively suuill fovea on each side. Elytra
about as long as wide ; each with sutural stria distinct, dorsal dis-
tinct at base, but not traceable beyond middle ; epipleural furrow
absent, but marginal stria distinct ; punctures small but fairly dis-
tinct. Metaxtiinuni rather shallowly impressed. Abdomen somewhat
flattened along middle. I^eys rather long and apparently unarmed.
Length, Ij mm.

H<d). — New South Wales : iJlue Movaitains (E. W. Ferguson),
Orford, from a nest of Eetatnmnia iiiet(dHrinn (A. M. Lea).

In size and general appearance close to E. ■')-f(>veata, but antennae
and prothoracic impressions different. The inflation of the seventh
and eighth joints is not very strong, 1 ut is such that they are notice-
ably larger than the preceding or following ones. Tbe two specimens
l^etore me appear to ))e males, although they have no distinctive
sexual features on the under surface and legs.

Rybaxis villosa, n.sp.
3'- Of a rather pale, dingy castaneous, tarsi and palpi paler.
Indistinctly pubescent, but with numerous distinct and rather long
hairs.

■48 Arl/nir M. Lat :

He<td with a moderately Ini-ge, round, deep, partially open fovea
close to each eye, with a rather shallow impression in front. Antennae
with first joint longer and slightly wider than second, third to eighth
small, ninth slightly larger, tenth distinctly larger tlian ninth, eleventh
ovate, apex pointed, distinctly wider than tenth, and aliout as long
as four preceding combined. Vrothorai feebly transverse, widest
slightly in advance of middle : with a feeble, isolated, medio-
basal fovea, towards l)ase on each side with a fairlv large
fovea. Eh/ti(t about as long as wide, each with sutural stria distinct,
tiie dorsal foveate at base, but not traceable to middle ; epipleural
furrow very short and indistinct. Mftasternuiii excavated at middle
of apical third. Ahdomen flattened along middle of under surface,
eacn side towards base with a small tubercle behind the coxa. Lf;/''
rather l(;ng and apparently unarmed. Length 1^- — Ih mm.

$. Differs in having metasternum less impres.sed, abdomen convex
along middle of under surface, and without tul)trcles, and legs and
antennae somewhat thinner.

Hah. — New South Wales: Otford, from n nest of Ertatomnia
metallicinn (H. W. Cox), from a nest of Stcudiii ma ]itii(iict'j)>i (A. M.
Lea), Sydney (Macleay Museum).

A small species with long straggling hair, especially on the elytra,
where it is more noticealjle than in the preceding species.

Ryhdiis fibid/i-'i, Raft'r.
K. hrj/oph il(u Lea.

M. Raff ray's name was published in 1909, and consequently, not
being noted in the Zoological Record, was unknown to me at the
tiuic I nauied R. hri/diihihi, which is a syr-ouym of it. Raffray's
figure shows the tenth joint of the antennae as longer than in any
of the numerous specimens I have examined.

A single male of this Lnnimon moss species was recently taken from
a nest of [ ri(l<iiiii/rni(' r (jldhtr.

Ri/haris '>-fdvi:dt<i, Ratfr.

Mr. Gilibons sent a specimen of this species as having l)een taken,
at Hornsby, from a wild nest of the hive bee.

* Eu f)i ncx fidvdd piccih^. Lea.
Recently taken from a nest nf E iifiriiux, sp.. at Sy<lnev.

Eiijiniex /luitsfi iicfd. Lea.

A male f)f this species was recently takeu, at Latrobe, fnmi a nest
of Ectdtoiiiiitd iiittullicuin.

*(' i/dfliHjcr /iinirfafuK, Kinc.

A specimen before me was taken by Mr. fieorge Masters at Peter-
sham (the original c-nllector and one of the original localities), and
it can, I think, be fairly regarded as a co-type.

Its metasternum, not mentioned by King, is concave in the
middle, with a strong curved ridge or carina slightly inwards from,
but marking the outlines of each of the hind coxae, the carina at the
highest about its middle, so that fiom the side it appears as a conical
tubercle or tooth. The under surface of the abdomen is largelv con-
cave, each side of the concave portion being bounded by a line of
obtusely pointed tubercles, forming the ridge mentioned by King.
The clul) is decidedly concave on its upper surface, but the hollow is
neither shining nor very deep.

C'l/afJiu/fr 'omiilafor, n.sp.

(J- Reddish-castaneous. With very minute pale pul)escence.

Iffdd moderately large, rather feel)ly convex ; densely punctate ; a
shallow depression between eyes (which are small and prominent),
and another between antennae. Antennae stout, first joint almost as
long as second and third combined, but from above apparently the
length of second, second to fifth transverse, of equal length, sixth
the same length but more rounded, seventh as large as head, subreni-
form, convex on lower surface, hollowed out and highly polished on
upper surface. Prothora i feel)ly transverse, sides widest at about
apical third ; punctures as on head ; with a very small median
sub])asal fovea, and a slightly larger one on each side. Ehjtra about
as long as wide, sides gently rounded, without striae ; punctures
rather coarser than on prothorax, l)ut otherwise the same. Upper
sui'face of ahdomen apparently not segmented, evenly rounded ;
punctures as on prothorax ; lower surface with apical segments ap-
pearing within a slight subcircular depression, liasal segments with a
large depression conspicuously bounded on each side by a ridge or
row of obtuse tubercles. M eta-^ternnin largely excavated in middle,
and tm each side of depression with a large, acute and slightly curved
tooth. Leys: long and thin ; trochanters o])i:usely dentate ; front
femora minutely denticulate, middle femora with a small subbasal
tooth, concealed from most directions : hind tibiae bent downwards
in middle, and somewhat longer than the others ; tarsi terminated
l)y a single claw, the basal joint large. Length 1^ mm.

H<ih. — New South Wales : Otford, from a nest of Stenamnm
liinf/irtps (A. M. Lea),

50 Arthar M. Lra :

At once distinguished From //inirfa/ns by the club ; this is hirger,
of somewhat different shape, and much more hollowed out^ with the
hollow highly polished ; from ahove it appears as a thin hollow shell.
The metasternal depression is hounded on each side by ridges or
carinae ; of these there is one on each side, commencing at the middle
coxa, and extending to the middle, when it turns back so as to become
V-shaped ; at its end it meets a similarly forked carina, the point
of meeting being nuirked by an acute recurved spine or tooth, l)elow
this there is a smaller tooth ; in pioictatus the sculpture is on a
smaller scale and less complicated.

The specimen obtained (in Septemljer) remained motionlesfs for a
little while after the covering stone was removed. It then started
to move slowly, but as soon as touched folded its appendages together,
much as do the species of Diplocfdei^.

Ell plcrtopa erfatnmwae, n.sp.

Bright pale castaneous, abdomen very little darker ; appendages
almost flavous. Rather densely clothed with very short pubescence.

Head moderately transverse ; a large fovea on each side, not quite
closed in front and meeting in front ; base distinctly notched in
middle. Antennae rather thin, almost extending to base of prothorax ;
club three-jointed, ninth and tenth joints rather small, although
larger than the preceding ones, eleventh ovate, apex obtusely pro-
duced. Prothorar rather lightly transverse, sides rather strongly
rounded at apical third, thence decreasing in width to base ; near
base with a strong transverse impression, slightly dilated in middle,
and foveate on each side : median line rather short and shallow,
not extending to apex or subbasal impression. Elytra parallel-sided,
slightly longer than wide, subsutural and dorsal striae commencing
at base in small foveae, the dorsal striae scarcely traceable
to middle ; punctures indistinct. Abdomen slightly longer than
elytra, very feebly increasing in width to apical fourth ; second seg-
ment with a small transverse l)asal tubercle, second t<i fifth sul)equal
in length. Lcy-'^ moderately long. Length \\ mm.

Hah. — New South Wales: Sydney, from a nest of Ertatnitima
mefallieitm (A. M. Ijca).

A small narrow parallel-sided species ; fairly close to depressirnflis,
but larger, more parallel-sided, cephalic impressions moi'e pronounced,
those on the prothorax not the same, etc. ; hasalix is more convex
and polished, antennae shorter and club stouter, etc. ; ziczac has
much stronger impressions and hn/nphilus very different clothing.

From some directions the cephalic impressions appear to be closed

1 Somewhat as in Kaffray'^ fimire <>f the cluh of C. Shiinnl from Hoiiieo : Rev. d'Kiit.
1895, PI. 2, fl(f. 21.

.last ra/ ill II mid Tusmn ninn ('oli'optcrit. 51

ill t'lnnt. l)ut from ntlieis they are seen to be nnly shallower there,
and they really meet in frcnit, so that combined they apjiear to form
a short broad A, with a raised A immediately behind.

I'lcrtuxiuli'!^ inibe!<ctn!<, n.sp.

d- Heddish-eastaneous. appendafjes somewhat paler. Denselv
clothed with very short pale pubescence.

Head rather wide; each side with a wide depression, meetinp: in
front, and deepened posteriorly so as to be almost foveate ; base dis-
tinctly notched, the space in front of notch elevated in the form of a
wide A. Antennae thin, slightly passing base of prothorax, second
to eighth joints small, ninth and tenth larger but scarcely forming
part of a club, eleventh elongate-ovate, apex rather acutely produced.
Palpi very small. Prothorax feebly transverse, depressed ; sides
rounded in front, apex wider than base, near base strongly trans-
versely impressed, the impression foveate at each side and subfoveate
in middle ; median line fairly deep, but not extending to apex or
subbasal impre.ssion ; with small dense punctures. Elytra slightly
longer than wide, slightly wider than widest part of pro-
thorax, sides gently rounded, dorsal stria on each distinct at base,
but scarcely traceable to basal fourth ; with small dense punctures.
Abdomen about the length and width of elytra, parallel-sided to near
apex ; under surface with a large shallow impression on apical seg-
ment. Lef/ft rather long ; front trochanters subtriangularly dentate.
Length \}f mm.

Hah. — New South Wales: Sydney, from nests of Erfatonnna
metallicuni and Po/ijrhacliis auimoii (A. M. Lea).

Close to hrerirepx, but narrower and with denser although still
short pul)escence. From the sides and from certain other directions
the nietasternurn of that species appears to he sulcate throughout
its length, l)ut in this species the surface is scarcely visibly impressed
ahmg the middle. The prothorax is also less inflated than in brevireps.

From some directions the head appears to be conspicuously
bifoveate. Judging by the abdomen and trochanters the three speci-
mens before me are all males.

I'lrctu.^ddix cavifrons, n.sp.

<?• liright reddish-cast aneous. appendages paler. Kather sparsely
clothed with very short ]>ubescence, interspersed with a few longer
but not very conspicuous hairs.

Head wide ; with a wide impression in front, curved round at sides
and foveate close to each eye ; base distinctly notched, the space in
front of notch in the form of a wide elevated A. Antennae moderately
thin, just passing base of prothorax, first joint very little larger than

52 Arthur M. Lea:

second, second slig'hth^ larjjrer thiin third, third to tenth small, the
ninth and tenth slijjhtly larjjer than the eijrhth, but not forming
part of a club, eleventh ov;vte, slio-htl}' lonp:er than ninth and tenth
combined, its apex acute. Palpi very small. Prothorar as long as
wide, moderately convex ; sides strontrly rimnded, base much narrower
than apex ; near base with a strong bisinuous impression, somewhat
expanded in middle and terminated at each side in a strong fovea ;
median line short and feeble ; punctures very indistinct. Elytra
about as long as wide, base wider than prothorax, sides feebly dilated
posteriorly, apex incurved to middle ; sutural stria on each narrow
and commencing in a very small fovea, the dorsal represented hy a
distinct impression at base only : punctures very indistinct. Ah-
domen the width of elytra and somewhat longer, rather strongly
convex on upper surface, and slightly flattened along middle of lower
surface ; apical segment with a median impression. Metasternum
depressed along middle of apical half, /^er/.s moderately long ; hind
trochanters obtusely dentate. Length 1| - 2 mm.

Hah. — Tasmania : Chudleigh. Kindred, Dunorlan, from nests of
I ridomyrmex glaher.

In appearance fairly close to the preceding species, bub larger, more
brightly coloured, differently clothed, narrower and less depressed,
punctures smaller, etc. From hrevice/ps it differs in being larger,
narrower and more convex. In general appearance it is somewhat
like Euplectops carhiatifrons and E. viUosns, but the median line
of the prothorax is feeble and isolated.

The base of the prothorax appears to be rather suddenly narrowed,
ar.d the sides in front of the lateral foveae appear to be almost tuber-
culate ; the median line is shallow and scarcely visible from some
directions, and is traceable neither to the apex, nor to the subbasal
impression, but it is somewhat variable individually. The five speci-
mens before me appear to be all males.

M exopldUm, two species.

Mr. C. Gibbons took a specimen of this genus in a wild nest of the
domesticated bee near Sydney ; it is unfortunately a female, so is
not now described. Another female of the same species, also from
Sydney, is in the Macleay Museuu).

Mr. H. W. Cox took a specimen of an allied species, also unfor-
timately a female, from a nest of Stenamma lonyiceps.

Limoiiiatfx rampniuiti. n.sji.

Pale castaneous, abdomen silightly darker, a))pendagcs flavous.
Very finely pubescent.

Aitstrcdlan ami Tasiiianhtii Coleoptera. 53

Head moderately transverse, notched in middle of base ; each side
with a strong oblique groove, the two meeting, in front. Eyes moder-
ately prominent. Antenmie not extending to base of prothorax ; basal
joint fairly stout, third to eighth rather small, ninth and tenth rather
small, but forming part of elul). eleventh subnvate, as long as three
preceding combined. /'rafhorf/ r moderately transverse, depressed,
widest at about apical third, each side near base with a strong curved
impression, the two meeting in middle, their junction subfoveate ;
each side with a longitudinal impression, invisible from above, dis-
tinct towards base, but disappearing before apex. El jftra subquadrate,
shoulders slightly raised ; base with a few small foveae ; dorsal striae
scarcely traceable beyond base ; punctures minute. Abdomen as wide
as elytra, and slightly longer ; parallel-sided to near a]>ex. 1^*'<J^
moderately long. Length, 1 (vix) mm.

H(d). — New South Wales: Sydney, from a nest of Cai/ijxiiiofus
claripen (A. M. Lea).

Close to suhterraueas but club diti'erent : dorsal striae of elytra
shnrter and less iuj pressed. In general appearance it is close to
Ell plertops deprexxicdlJia, but is rather smaller, with the ce{)halic
and prothoracic impressions different.

Articerus (rriffitlii , n.sp.

c?- Keddish castaneous, appendages scarcely i)aler. Elytra with
short stiff golden setae, abdomen sparsely clothed but with a con-
spicuous fascicle on each side of base.

Head densely punctate ; without a longitudinal impression.
Antennae very wide and flattened, basal third subtriangular, thence
scarcely diminishing in width to apex, which is truncate and with an
elliptic outline. Fi-othorar strongly transverse, sides widest near
apex, thence oljlique to base, with a large but rather shallow medio-
basal fovea ; punctures not quite as dense as on head. Eh/tra moder-
ately transverse, sides lightly dilated posteriorly ; sutural striae dis-
tinct ; punctures clearly defined, coarser at base than elsewhere.
Ahduinen transversely excavated at ba.se, where the sides are dis-
tinctly constricted, the excavation scarcely produced backwards at
each side; under surface deju'essed along middle. M etasteriiuni
largely excavated, the wall on each side of excavation with a distinct
triangular tooth. Front trorhnnters rather obtusely armed ; hind c-oxae
with a large triangular curved tooth; femora moderately stout;
tibiae inflated towards apex. Length I5 mm.

Hah. — South Australia : From a nest of Iridoinijriner sp. (H. H.
D. (Trittith).

Close to A. excavipectus. but metasternum of male still njore largely
excavated^ with the walls of the excavation ansnilar or dentate on

1 The evcavatiori coiuiiniiices cpiite close to the base instead of about the iiiirlrlle.

64 Arthur M. Lea :

each side of the middle, prothnrax with iiiedio-hasal fovea smaller,
elytra without impunctate spots, and the teeth of the hind coxae even
larger and somewhat curved.

The females of the two species are much alike, but when placed side
by side certain differences of degree (as in size of prothoracic fovea and
width of head) can be noted ; although these are of such a nature
that it would be inadvisable to identify a specimen as either excavi-
pectus or Griffithl from the female alone, although the nudes are
readily distinguishable by the metasternum.

*Arfirerus nitidicoll is, Raft'r.

Mr. Davey has taken two males that belong to this sjiecies ; they
agree perfectly with the description, except that the antennae are not
twice the length of the head, but in this resipect they agree with the
figure accompanying the description. The species differs from con-
strictiventris in having the jtrothorax much more polished, with a
shallow transverse subbasal impression suddenly deepened at its
middle. The excavation on the upper surface of abdomen is trans-
versely suboblong, and with the constricted parts of its walls less
triangularly encroaching.

Hah. — Victoria : Portland, in a nest of Ii idoniijniicr rufoniyer.

*Artictrus Masttrsi, Lea.

There is a specimen of this species in King's collection (now in
the Australian Museum) standing under the name of aiigustico/lis ;
it differs, however, from the description and figure of that species in
being considerably suuiller, the prothorax decidedly transverse (in the
figure of that species the prothorax is drawn as longer than wide),
the antennae shorter and stouter, and the abdominal excavation
totally different.

Mr. Davey has recently taken specimens in nests of Iiidomyrintx
yraciUs at Ararat, and Mr. T. S. Hall sent me another that was taken
at Castlemaine, and mounted in Canada balsam many years ago. Mr.
H. II. D. (irithth also has recently taken sexes of the species at Ade-
laide.

The male differs from the feujalc in having a spine marking the
ajiex of a ridge on the front of the prosti'rnum, its metasternuui is
terminated by an oblique acute spine, tlie under surface of the ab-
domen is excavated. The front trochanters are spinose, all the tibiae
are inflated at apex, the front pair terminated by a small spine, and
the middle pair by a curved hook ; the hook and the tarsus combined
from some directions appear like a small claw.

AasfraHan dad Tasind n'm n ('ob-Dpti'i-n. 55

*Arflrmis /'f/xrat us. Sharp.

Tlie British Musouiu sunt sevt>ii uiuiaiiu'd siifciuieus of this siteeies
for examination ; l)iit they certainly iielonyr to I'asroeus. In the
male the fovea nn the u])iier surface of the ahdomei; is |iroflucerl ))aek-
waids at the middle, Imt is inoie or le-s rounded, in the female it is
subangularly produced backwards.

Tlie species is very close to Masfcrsi. and I am unable to define
any character to distinguish the females. JJut the males differ in
the front of the prosternum ; this beiu'jf armed in Mastersi, and
umirnied in Pasroeus.

* A rf ic< Ills (I I lit I [Hs, Lea.

Mr. 11. II. 1). (Jriflith has taken, at Adthiide, nine specimens of this
species in nests of a small ant. The female (previously unknown)
differs from the male in having- the metasternum regularly convex
ana unarmed, the abdumeu convex on under surface, and the legs
thinner and unarmed.

*Arfirf'ri/s I ripynliiris, Lea.

A male before me, taken at Glenfield, from a nest of Iridomyrmex
i/rdrilis, appears to represent a variety of this species. It differs
from the type in being slig:htly smaller, in the fovea of the under
surface of abdomen nmch smaller and deeper in proportion, and the
subbasal impression on each surface of the antennae less noticeable.
Mr. H. W. Davey has recently obtained a female at Geeloug. It
differs from the male in having the under surface of abdomen and the
metasternum regularly convex, and its legs unarmed. Tlie lo[i sided-
ness of the antennae is also less pronounced, although cjuite distinct.

*Arfiri'nis constrict i.cornin, Lea.

The male has the under surface of abdomen with a wide shallow
depression towards the base, and the tibiae more iniiated towards the
apex.

llab. — Xew South W ales : Kopcr Creek.

Articrrwi cijluidncorni-^, liati'r.

A. rijhirdrtcnnus, Lea, n.pr.

M. KaftVays name was puljlished in 1909, consequently his paper
was not included in the Zoological Record by the time my own name
was published (191(J). There is no need to change my name, how-
ever, as the species is the same as M. Uatt'rays, and his specimens
were almost certainly taken by Mr. Goudie, from whom I also first
received it.

56 Artlmr M. Lea :

*Articerns ciirincoriiis, Westw.
lieceutl}' iiiken near Sydney fnini nests of Iridomyrme,!- ruj'onujer.

*C'lavi(/eropsis Austrcdine, Lea.

A second female of this species was taken under a stone, from a
nest of Iridoinyriutr yrarilix at the side of the George's River at
Glenfield (New South Wales).

Mr. Cox has also taken the species in the Illawarra district. And
there is a specimen in the British Museum labelled as from Queensland.

Palssidae.

* Antltrcyplerutt hir,vi$, Westw.

Kecently taken from nests of ('(iiii poiiotiis aeneopi/osiis and of
Ectatoiitina inctaUicii in.

SCYUMAENIDAE.
Sri/diiiacnus i/npdi'idu'i, n.sp.

Bright castaiieous, head and jjrothorax somewhat darker than else-
where, palpi and tarsi fiavous. Upper surface glabrous except for
some sparse clothing at sides of prothorax and a fascicle on each side
of base of head.

Head moderately transverse, not bilobed between antennae. Eyes
very small and not prominent. Antennae rather long and thin,
second joint longer than third, seventh slightly longer than sixth ;
club four-jointed, eighth joint not much longer, but about twice the
width of seventh. Protliora r slightly longer than wide ; base with
three shallow foveate impressions, all connected by a shallow depres-
sion. Eh/tra at base no wider than base of prothorax, somewhat
ol)li(luely dilated to the middle (where the width is twice that of the
prothorax), thence rounded to apex. Li'ys rather long and thin;
hind coxae rather distant. Length 1^' mm.

H(d). — South Australia: Port Lincoln (J. J. Walker).

The type was given to me by Mr. C. French, as having been taken
by Commander Walker, from- the nest of a short, thick, stinging ant.i

The antennae are rather longer than in the following species, and
in others liaving the elytra glabrous, the size is larger, and the
elytra are more strongly narrowed to the base, so that their middle
is aVjout twice the width of their base.

On close examination a few minute setae may be seen towards the
base of the elytra, but they are so few and indistinct that I think
the elytra could cpiite fairly be regarded as glabrous.

1 A sample of the tint did not uoconipan,>' the beetle.

AitHtraliitn diul Tdsnm h nm C (ihiipfcni. 57

I have not described the elytral immturLS of this and of all the

loll()\vin<z- species of the <j;-enus. as tliey are so extremely faint and

sparse as to be scarcely, if at all, visible. On the head and ])rothiirax

they appear to be always absent or at least invisible under a Cudding-

ton lens.

Sri/ch/iaeniis hij'tiscicii/dfun, n.sp.

Heddish-castaneous, elytra (suture excepted) somewhat paler ; ap-
jtendages still paler (almost or quite tlavous) ; metasternum almost
or quite black. Up'per surface ;ilabrous except for rather dense, dingy
hairs at sides of prothorax ; and a distinct fascicle on each side of
base of head.

Hfdd transverse, rounded between antennae. Eyes small and
rather prominent. Antennae moderately long and rather thin ; club
conspicuously four-jointed. I'nttliord i about as lon<; as wide ; each
side of base with a distinct fovea, the two connected by a transverse
inipression. Elytra wide and depressed ; base distinctly wider than
base of prothorax ; sides rounded and increasinu in width to about
the middle, thence decreasing in width to apex. LfW moderately
long; hind coxae not close together. Length 1^ nnn.

Hah. — Victoria (Macleay and British Museums) : Geelong, from
nests of a small variety of Ertdtmn iiui inetaJlicnui, Portland (H. ^^ .
Davey).

Smaller than (jlahripeniiis, difi'erently coloured, and with the club
somewhat smaller; the outlines, however, are alu;ost exactly the same.
Also close to Davtyi, but larger, prothorax more densely clothed at
sides, head wider and more conspicuously fasciculate on each side of
base, and elytra wider, with the apex more rounded. Ect'ifomman, an
inquiline of the same species of ant, is about the same size, but is
of a dingier colour, with shorter antennae and very diii'erent clothing.

The metasternum varies in colour from black to no darker than
the elytra ; two specimens, probably immature, are almost entirely
tlavous. On several of the specimens there are very faint renmants
of pubescence about the base of the elytra, but they are so extremely
faint, that the elytra could iiuite fairly be regarded as glabrous, as
they certainly are in some specimens.

The impression connecting the basal foveae of the prothorax together
appears rather shallow and feeble from some directions, but from
others it appears to Ije quite deejily impressed Ijut rather narrow ; as
results the foveae themselves, according to the points of view, appear
either widely separated, or almost touching.

Scydinatuus inrerticorii is, n.sp.

("aslaucous, elytra diluted with Havous about apex. Ijut suture
somewhat darker ; legs and part of abdomen of a rather dingy tlavous,
but tarsi and palpi paler. Elytra with distinct and suberect cloth-

68 Arthur M. Lea:

iiiL'. but rather sparse and not very lon<>' ; jirotliorax rather sparsely
elothed, even at the sides, middle of disc <^lal)rous ; head sparsely
clothed, the fascicle on each side of base small and loosely composed.

Head lightly transverse, feehly impressed between antennae. Eyes
.small and prominent. Antennae thin and moderately long ; club
rather indistinctly four-jointed. I'rotliorax slightly longer than wide,
more convex than usual ; with two small foveae near base, and some
distinct punctures almost at extreme base ; each side with a strong
oblique impression, which is invisible from above. Elf/t a moderately
long, at extreme base no wider than prothorax, sides obliquely dilated
to near the middle, and then rounded to apex. ^^f'[/'^ rather long;
hind coxae moderately separated. Lcngtli, l.\ mm.

N(/b. — New South Wales: Sydney (Macleay Musemu). tioni nests
of I'oiK^ra hitta and of StfiKtiii nui loiujirfps (A. M. I^ea).

In size and general ap}iearance fairly close to /'(i/rn/i//ff</>sis, l)ut
anteimae dcL'idedly thinner, jjrothorax with ditt'eient inqnessions,
and no darker than elytra, the latter rather narrower at base,
and with shorter clothing. ('oh)J)(>i»'if> is about the same size, but
is flatter, wider, and with the sides of the prothorax very differently
clothed. Ectatoinniae is dingier, with the club stouter, and elytra
nmch more sparsely clothed. Diipliratns is slightly smaller, more
sparsely clothed, and with the eighth joint of antennae larger, in
})roportion, then the seventh. Micro p^, also occurring with Ponera
lutea, has much smaller eyes, and is otherwise different.

The eighth joint of the antennae is about midway in width between
the seventh and ninth, and is slightly shorter than the ninth, so
that while it appears best to regard it as belonging to the club, this
might almost fairly be regarded as three-jointed, or at least with the
joints of su'bcontinuous width. The seventh is almost exactly the
shape of the sixth ; the eleventh is about as long as the two preceding
combined. The pirothoracic foveae are feebly connected with the lateral
inqjressions, but are conq)letely isolated from each other. Scattered
aljout the extreme base are some large punctures, a few of which
might almost be regarded as small foveae.

A specimen given to me by Mr. Cox, and taken l)y him in the
Illawarra district, from a nest of Sttninnnia lonyiceps ditiers from
the type in having the prothoracic foveae less conspicuous (from some
directions they appear to be altogether absent), the elytral clothing
decumbent, and the antennae somewhat stouter. (^)uite possibly, how-
ever, it represents a new species.

Sci/i/i/K/f'ii-iis nisniiiiniitrix. n.sp.
c?- Black; base of protliorax and the elytra (suture widely in-
fuscated) castaneous, antennae somewhat paler ; legs almost, the
tarsi and palpi quite davous. Elytra with sparse and moderately

A Ltsfralum und Tdsum iiyti h (.'olcopffm. 59

long stramineous hairs ; clothing on head and prothorax someAvhat
shorter and darker, on the latter becoming dense on sides, and on
the former forming a feeble fascicle on each side of base.

Head (excluding neck) distinctly transverse, flattened between
antennae. Eyes of moderate size and very prominent. Antennae
lung and thin ; club four-jointed. I'rothnran slightly wider than
long ; base with a strong transverse impression, with a foveate ex-
pansion at each end. Elytra modeiately long, somewhat depressed,
base slightly wider than prothorax, sides evenly rounded and widest
across middle. Abdomen with fourth segment conspicuously armed.
Af//s moderately long; hind coxae rather distant; femora stout,
especially the fnmt pair. Length Ij mm.

Hah.- — Tasmania : Devonport, from a nest of Ectatoini/ia iiictal-
licuin, Stanley, in tussocks at summit of ■" Nut "' (A. M. Lea).

The type has its neck exposed, and this is seen to be castaneous.
The antennae at a glance appear to have the joints subcontinuous in
width, but the seventh, although distinctly longer and wider than
the sixth, is less than half-way in width between that joint and the
eighth ; the eleventh is not much shorter than the ninth and tenth
combined. The prothorax has two rather large transverse foveae,
connected together by a short impression, but they could quite fairly
be regarded as expanded portions of the impression. Each side also
is obliquely imj^ressed, but the impression is invisible from above, and,
as in many other species, is more or less obscured by clothing.

The fourth segment of the abdomen, towards each side, has a long,
and somewhat obtuse, reddish tooth, projecting backwards at an
angle of about 45 degrees ; each is about half the length of the hind
tibiae, and the two are connected basally by a semitransparent, mem-
ijranous tiaj), that is thickened in the middle, causing an appearance
as of a much smaller median tooth.

*Scydrnaenus (jlabripennis, Lea.
There are two specimens of this species in the Macleay Museum
fiom the Tweed River, and five in my own from the Clarence.!

*Scydmaenus colobojjsis, Lea.

Recently taken from nests of Amhlyopone. auatralis.

A specimen from Dunorlan. from a nest of the original ant, differs
from the tyj>es in being considerably darker, almost piceous.

A specimen from an unnoted ants" nest at Sea Lake- sent by Mr.
Goudie, differs from the types in having the impression at base of
prothorax narrower across the middle, but I can find no other dis-
tinctions.

1 Now first recorded from the mainland.

2 Now first recorded from the UKiinland.

60 Arthur M. Lea :

*Sci/d/iiaeni(s ca.stdfieoyJdber, Lea.

Dr. Ferguson has taken a specimen of this species on the Blue
Mountains^ from a nest of Ertatoiiinia iiiftdlliruni. Its eyes, by their
colour alone, are indistinguishable from the rest of the head, and
the right club is almost black, the left being normal ; these, however,
appear to be individual aberrations.

*>Sri/d/tiafiiiII(i piisiJJd, King.

In October, 1910, specimens of this species were taken trom nests
of Ectatoinma mt^tdll tni m, Poiicra hit(<i, Stciuiin ma loiujirc ps, Acdii-
tholepts Froyt/dtfi, and a species of M oiioiiHirnnii .

*Sci/(l iiHK II illd ((iiisfricfd. Lea.

Four specimens were recently taken at (Jlcntield, New Smith Wales,
from a nest of termites. There is also a specimen in tlie i\Jaele;ty
Museum from Gayndah.

II ('t('rii(iiidfbii>< III i/riiicrdiih il IIS, n.sp.

Bright castaneous, somcwluit darker about junction nf prothorax
ana elytra. Upper surface with not very dense, l)ut almost evenly
distributed pale pubescence.

Head moderately long and convex. Eyes small, and latero-frontal,
but not very prominent. Antennae rather long, passing middle coxae,
eight basal points subcylindrical, the others forming a rather narrow
club. Protldjrai: rather strongly convex, distinctly longer than wide,
sides rather strongly rounded but becoming oblique towards base.
Elytra more than twice the length of prothorax, not nmch wider at
base, but fully twice as wide across middle ; sides rather strongly and
ol)liquely dilated to near middle, and then rounded to apex. Lnjs
long; hind coxae widely separated ; femora subclavate. Length '1 mm.

Hah. — Tasmania: Marrawah, Latrobe, from nests of Aiiih/i/i>//(iiir
austraHs (A. M. Lea) ; Victoria : Lai Lai. from nests of sauje species
of ant (H. W. Davey).

About the size of cariiiatiis, l)ut prothorax not carinated and tenth
joint of antennae decidedly smaller. Longer, wider and more convex
than iirdrilis and antennae longer. Also close to Sci/dinai inift opfafits
(which is probal)ly a II etcrotjuathuH), but larger, with decidedly
thicker antennae, which have the club three instead of two — jointed.
The ninth joint of the antennae properly belongs to the club, although
its l)ase is no wider than the apex nf tlic eight li, l)iit it is distinctly

1 Now flrst ruconlud from the iiiainliuid.

2 Now first recordud from the iiiainland.

Aitsfraliii'ii (I'ikJ Tttsind hmi.ii Cnleoptrrn. 61

lonjror, witli the \\\w\ distinctly wider : \\\v tontli is about once and
one-half the len<;th of the ninth, but at i)ase scarcely wider, althoufjjh
increasinj^- in width to apex ; the eleventli is subeonical. al)out onee
and one-half the lentrth of tenth and neai- l)ase slitrhtly wider.

There are some very small ])unetures on the protlioi'ax and elytra,
but thev are almost eoneealed by the elotliimi'. The ai)ieal sejrment
of the abdoujen (on five specimens before nie, probaljly all males)
is large, with its hind margin semicircular, so that the three preced-
ing segments are conspicuously narrowed across their middle. The
middle trochanters each have a small acute tooth, projecting inwards
and slightly forwards, but owing to its position it is not easily seen.

*FJiac/(}))(ij>ha/)a lati peihiiiK, Lea.

There is a specimen of this species in the Macleay Museum from
Rope's Creek, and Or. Ferguson has two from the Blue Mountains. 1

*]'}iaf/()/i(j/t/unio i/Kirrostufa, Lea.

Two specimens from South Australia, in the Jiritish Museum, belong
to this species but differ from the types in having the dark markings
considerably reduced in intensity ; this, however, is a common varia-
tion between Australian and Tasnianian specimens.

A third from Victoria labelled ''Kin(/i?" in Dr. Sharp's writing
also belongs to the same species and has the markings still more
reduced. The species, apart froin markings, may be readily distin-
guished from Kingi, by its femora beine much less clavate ; the
clothing and antennae are also different.

TRICflOl'TERYGIUAE.

Ri)dir<ii/i(i li irsi/fd, n.sp.

Pale reddish castaneous. ayipendages slightly paler. With pale, and,
for the genus, long pubescence.

Head with outline continuous with that of prothorax, about twice
as wide as long. Prothorar rather strongly convex, about once and
one-half as wide as hmg, sides strongly rounded, hind ang-les produced
backwards to clasp elytra. Elytra about as long as prothorax. and a.t
base not as wide, gently decreasing in width to apex, which is widely
rounded. Intercoxal process of pi-i internum moderately notched at
apex. Femora very flat and compressed. Length, f mm.

Hah. — New South Wales : Otford, three specimens from a nest of
Stenamma longireps (A. M. Lea).

In size resembling R. ovafa, but readily distinguished from all
others of the genus by its comparatively long pubescence ; under a
compound power the hairs look like coarse bristles. With u Cod-

1 Now first recorded from K. .\ustralia.

6Z Arfliur M. Lea:

dinfjton lens each hair can he [ticked out when the insect is viewed
from the side ; in the others of the oeniis this cannot lie done owing
to their extreme sliortness. The prosternal process is rather more
parallel-sided than in orientalis, and ratlier more deeply notched at
apex, although less so than in minuta.

Althouffh Mr. Cox and I examined manv nests of the ant named,
no more than the three specimens descrihcd were obtained ; from a
close-by nest to that from which they were taken, Mr. Cox ol)taiiied
several specimens of R. ovafa, and these represent our total captures
of Rodwdtjui in its nests in New South Wales.

*Rndv'ayia orientalis, Lea. (Fig. 4.)

Recently (September and October, 1910), about Sydney, Otford.
etc., Mr. Cox and I saw thousands of specimens of this species in
nests of the green-head {Ectatomma jnetall icuiii). In some large nests,
not uncommonly hundreds were in sight at die same time. Mr.
Davey has also taken the species at Lai Lai (Victoria).

In addition to the previously recorded species of ants, it is now
known to occur with Amhlyoiione australis, Polyrhacliis heracantha,
Camponotus aeneopiloi^us, C. nigrietps, C. claripea, MyvDiecia
pyriforniis, Mynnecia, sp., and Iriduinynnex.

The elytra of some specimens seem more pointed than on others,
but this is probably due to shrivelling at the sides. The prothorax
also appears larger on some specimens than on others, but this seems
due to its base being more extended over the elytra. The colour also
is slightly variable in intensity of shade.

*R()(Iirayi(/ nu/iKta. Lea.

Specimens of this species are usually taken fiom amongst the eggs
and larvae of the ants.

Numerous specimens from Sydney differ from Tasmanian ones in
being a trifle larger, and rather more densely clothed : but as there
appear to be no other distinctions they probably rejiresent a variety

only.

*R()«I irayia nvafa. Lea.

Recently taken by Mr. Cox and myself from nests of Stennmma
/()tif/lrej)s at Otford ; Mr. Davey has taken it at Lai Lai and else-
where in Victoria from nests of Pnlyrlinrliis /te.racniit/ia, J'. Froygatti

and I'dl i/rlKtrli IS, s)>.

CnLAMYDOrSIS.

Of this remarkable genus sixteen species are now known to me,
and seven others (including Orectosrelis) have lieen described. Species
have now l)cen taken in all the Australian States, and it is probable

Australian and Tafonanian (JoleojAtra. 63

that m«ny luore will yet be taken, as all are extremely rare. Formi-
r'lrola was originally taken by the late Rev. R. L. Kinfr in nests of
i'ciiii poinititx atneopi/osii.s ; Mr. Foggatt has taken it in nests of tl.e same
ant, and I also have so taken it, but only one specimen, although
dozens of nests of that ant were specially examined for the beetle.
Mr. Davey has now taken eleven specimens of lonyipes in nests of
ErtdtonniKt iiirlall irit iii . and Mi. H. TT. D. (rriffith and I have taken
it in nests of the same species of ant at Port Lincoln. Recently I
obtained another species, cdaininiiKif, with that ant, and Mr. Hacker
has taken a specimen of (jUOira in company with it. Mr. Davey
took three of tuherruhtta in nests of Iridomyrmex rufoniyer. and
Mr. Gibbons one of epip/eural{f< with another species of Iridonnji m^x.
Mr. Goudie, Mr. Davey and I have each taken (carbo, (jKinukda and
pseudort'pbald respectively) a single specimen in nests of Fheidole.
Ihe hosts of the other species are not recorded, but, as will be seen,
the beetles occtir in the nests of at least four genera of ants, and
they probably occur with others. They have also been taken from
Atigust to January.

Those known to me may be tabulated as follows: —

A. Prothorax with a strong; double process in front.

a. Process considerably overhanging- head - - carbo, Lea.

aa. Process feebly overhanging head

h. Elytra granulate but with very indistinct

punctures .... - ijranvlnla, n. sp.

/>b. Elytra not granulate but with clearly defined

punctures .... - p&eudocepJuda, n. sj).

AA. Prothorax without such a process.

B. Hiad legs fully twice the leugtli of tlie body - lomjipes. Lea.
BB. Hind legs much shorter

C. Prothorax with a very strong liiscal tubercle - titburrulnta, n. sp.
CC. Prothorax without such a tubercle.

D. Prothorax without narrowly upturneil margins

c. Shining . . . - . glabra, Lea.

CC. Opaque ... - - opaca, n. sp.

DD. Prothorax, at least in front, with narrow
upturned margins.
E. Elytra without conspicuous striae on disc.
d. Elytra with distinct punctures on

disc .... variolosa. Lea.

del. Elytra without such punctures.

e. Prothorax with conspicuous net-
like punctures - - - excavata. Lea.
ee. Prothorax with feeble punctures
at most
./'. Elytra tipped with rather long

hairs - - - cavicollis, n.g.

//. Elytra with sparse and very

short Setae at tip - - formicicola. King.

64 Arfhtir M. Lm .-

EK. Elytra with cfnispicuous striae on (Who.
F. Prothorax with dense but rather

small punctures ... epijjleuralis, n. s}>.
FF. Prothorax with conspicuous net-like
punctures.
G. Elytra about scutellar region with
a highly polished non-striated
space.
g. Clothing of epaulettes very

short and almost hidden - sfcuifeWrt, Westw.
(ig. Clothing of epaulettes very

conspicuous - - - retimlata, Lea.

GG. Elytra about scutellar region
strongly striated.
H. Such striae transverse - ertatommae, r\. siy.

HH. Such striae curved - - latipennis, n. sp.

Since the above table was prepared I hfive eixamined the four species
described by the Rev. T. Bhickburn ;i they are all very sing^dar
insects.

Stfrnnlix. — This species belongs to the <4roup whose other members
are rarho, f/raiMdata and p'<eudncepliahi.

Comntd. — This species has highly polished prothorax, striated at
the sides, and elytra with fascicles of extraordinar}^ length arising
from the epaulettes.

Pygidialis. — This species has the hind body margined with a con-
spicuous row of small teeth, and the prothorax with three acute
carinae, which, although not in contact with each other, divide the
disc, as it were, into three large areolets.

I imequaUs. — The body parts of this species are somewhat like
those of lotif/ipes, but the epaulettes are of different shape and dif-
ferently clothed, the hind legs are considerably shorter, with their
til)iae compressed and intiated, and the club of antennae considerably
larger.

('Ii/(i//i i/dii/fos fiihfrciihifa, n.sp.

Dark reddish brown : margins of prothorax and all appendages
somewhat paler, abdonitn (l)asal two-thirds of first segment excepted)
still paler. rrotlioiax with a few stiff setae, py- and propygidium
with denser ami short tr setae, two g(»lden-ied fascicles within each
shoulder.

Head somewhat rounded between antennae, feebly convex ; with
HUiall granules. Antennae when at rest cimipleted fitted into cavities;
first joint large and somewhat boomerang shaped ; last joint about
lialf the size of first, the intermediate joints small. I'rothora.r moder-
ately transverse, apex narrower than base, sides thickened and
strongly raised, base and apex narrower and less strongly raised ;

1 He has also an apparently undcscribed species from Queensland.

A iisl r<f/ id II (1 11(1 T<ixiii'n)i(i.n Colcoiifera. 65

disr witli a lai'^v iiirdiaii tiilieiele, t'oel)ly doubli' at its tip ; witli
niuiiernus smnll distinct ]ninctnres. EJi/tra subquadrate, coarsely and
irreiriilarly ])uiictured ; shuiilders notched out : with a stronur sub-
liasal de])ressi(in ciidin<^- outwardly at the base, and supplied on each
side of scutellar re<:'i<)n with an ()l)li(pie rid^e, the depression without
punctures ; epipleurae with more regular sculpture than discs.
Under surface smooth, shininp: and almost inipunctate ; metasternuni
feel)ly impressed alom;' middle. l-('(l'< loni;', tibiae inflated. Lenfjth
13. - 2J nun.

Hah. — Victoria : Ballarat, from a nest of I ridomifrmer, rufnnujer
(H. W. Davey).'

A small species readily distinpnished from all others of the genus
by its very conspicuous median prothoracic tubercle.

The legs are sometimes infuscated in parts. The fascicles project
obliquely forwards ; they are l)oth small, but the inner one is con-
siderably larger than the outer one on each shoulder. At a glance the
elytra appear to have square shoulders, but the spaces where the
true shoulders should be are excised ; the false shoulders
are smooth and inipunctate at their tips. The tibiae are
compressed and inflated, with their outer edges rounded but not
angular, as in others of the genus, although from some directions
the front pair appear somewhat angular towards the base. The tarsi
are fitted into grooves in the tibiae, the tibiae into the femora, and
the front legs into prothoracic grooves.

The three specimens sent by Mr. Davey (two have been returned
to him as co-types) are apparently females, as each has a process (ai>
parently an ovipositor) with two inner jirojei-tions, extruded from
the tip of the abdomen.

(lihinu/(ln psiti ravicollift, n.sp.

Of a uniform dark chestnut-brown, with rather straggling
stiff yellowish setae ; absent from greater portion of pronotum and
depression and sides of elytra : near shoulders with conspicuous
golden fascicles.

Head between antennae about as long (to mouth parts) as Avide,
flat, finely shagreened ; with small but distinct punctures. Antennae
when at rest completely fitted into cavities. Frotliorar fully twice
as wide as the sides are long, but along middle about one-third longer
than sides ; these almost straight and strongly raised, front margin
sinuous and strongly raised, but somewhat thinner than sides ; disc
gently undulated and finely shagreened. Elytra decidedly wider than
prothorax, apices widely and separately rounded ; near base with a
wide, transverse, shining, irregular depression, which is continued
to each side, where it emerges as a narrow curved slit, but is partly

6

66 Arfhtn- M. Lea:

concealed by the fascicles ; al)()ut scutellar re*;ion with an obtuse
elevation on each side, each shoulder from above appearing as a
raised, narrow, curved epaulette, at its tip almost meeting a strong
projection from the side ; ))et\veen each epaulette and the middle
is a large obtusely tiiangula!' elevation, strongly elevated to its tip.
In parts shagreened and towards apex with small (setiferous) granules.
Epipleurae with dis.tinct striae converging to subhumeral slit, the
upper parts polished and Avithout striae. Under surface shagreened
and in places wdth irregular punctures. Prosternum with a narrow
deep stria, commencing close to each coxa, and curved round so as to
terminate at the extreme base at the shoulder. Metostn'uum with a
narrow median line. Legs long and thin. Length 4^ mm.

Hah. — ^New South Wales : Sydney (type in Macleay Museum).

A large species very unlike any previously described ; the strongly
raised prothoracic margins cause the disc to appear concave.

The fascicles on each elytron are four in number, two are directed
forwards and two backwards, so that they meet or irregularly cross
at their tips : the outer are smaller than the inner ones, and each is
separated from its fellow by a distinct gap. The legs are all longer
than the entire body, the hind pair being the longest ; the tibiae are
not strongly inflated or angular, but the front pair are somewhat
dilated on each side of the tarsal groove. The front femora are too
long to be received into the (rather shallow) prothoracic grooves.

I have not attempted to manipulate the antennae of the type, as
they are completely fitted into their receptacles ; the first joint
appears large and about twice as long as its greatest width ; the
club is only partly concealed, and apparently can be extruded even
when the first joint is at rest.

('Jihitni/ihtpsis ertatnmmae, n.sp.

Black ; appendages chestnut-red. With a few short pale stiff setae
scattered about ; a small and somewhat golden fascicle or pubescent
membrane overhanging each depression towards the base.

Head somewhat rounded ; with large, round, shallow punctures
or areolets. Antennae large, first joint with similar punctures or
areolets to those of head, curved, its outer edge somewhat grooved,
club subcylindrical, lightly curved, almost as large as first ; inter-
mediate joints combined much shorter than first, or club. Prnthorar.
moderately transverse, sides incurved to middle ; margins not nar-
rowly elevate-d, but apex gently raised, disc convex ; with punctures
or areolets as on head. Elytra about as long as wide; towards base
with a large depression, which towards each side becomes vaulted
and does not touch the sides, about base with a feeble elevation on
each side ; shoulders raised into feeble epaulettes, each marked off

A iisfni/itdi (IikI TiisiiiiinUin Colcoptera. 67

inwardlv hy an ohlicnu- iiii|iiessed line. Witli conspicuous lonjj:i-
tudinal striae, except in depression, where they are transverse, and
aliout shoulders, where they are somewhat irregular. Epip-
leurao striated throuo-liout, the striae more or less con-
verfrinor to a suhhuuieial space. Pro- and me.sosterini/n, base and
sides of metasternum, parts of abdomen, py- and propygidium, and
under surface of front legs, with sculpture as on head. Metasternun.
with a narrow median line, /.rf/f: rather long ; tibiae strongly inflated,
the inflated parts suddenly cut off towards the l)ase, so as to appear
strongly angular. Length 2^ mm.

ffah.~ 'New South Wales : Gladesville. near Sydney, from a nest ol
Ectatoiinna nictdllinnn (A. M. Lea).

A black species in general appearance close to striatella, but with
conspicuous transverse striae about the scutellar region ; the epaulettes
are also somewhat different.

Tlie depression, instead of being continued to the epipleurae, as in
some other species, terminates some distance from each side, in a
large, deep cavity or fovea, above which is the small fascicle. The
outer walls of the cavities for the antennae are very thin, and when
looked down into appear of a rather light reddish brown ; from out-
side, however, they a]>])ear almost black. Tlie front legs are entirely
received into excavations, when tlieir siuljiture appears to be as that
of the prosternum.

CJifai/n/dd/ixix Idfipenuls, n.sp.

Dark reddish Ijrown, in places almost black ; shoulders and appen-
dages paler. With' very short, sparse and irregularly distributed
setae ; subhumeral depressions with short, stiff, golden fascicles.

Head and antennae much as in preceding species, except that the
large punctures or areolets are somewhat larger, and that the club
is slightly larger than the first joint. Prothdrax about twice as
wide as long, sides gently incurved to middle and not raised, apex
sinuous and distinctly raised, except in middle, where the elevation is
but slight, disc strongly convex, but scarcely tuberculate in middle ;
with punctures or areolets as dense as on head, but more oval in
shape. Eh/tra slightly wider than long, sides gentlj^ rounded to-
wards base with a large and (for the genus) rather shallow depres-
sion, which towards each side becomes somewhat irregular. Shoulders
each api)earing as a feeble epaulette, and marked off inwardly by a
deep and almost straight line. Pro- and iiifsosternuin, and py- and
propygidium with sculpture as on head, except that it is finer.
Metasternum with a narrow median line, with large round punctures
about middle, a row of punctures margining each middle coxa and
fairly coarse punctures at sides ; elsewhere smooth and almost or quite

68 A, ■[/,,>,■ M. Lra :

impunctate. Abdomen with irre<rular punctures, those on middle
of first segment as on middle of metasternum. Legs long and thin.
Length, 3 mm.

Hah. — N.W. Australia (type in Macleay Museum).

The profrhoracic punctures are larger than in any other species
known to me.

There are four small but distinct fascicles on each side of the sub-
basal depression, two being directed forwards and two backwards,
the outer ones are silightly larger than the inner ones ; there also
appear to be remnants of others. Tbe depression itself, from above,
appears to be in three parts, a median space as in other species
(except that it is somewhat shallower, with the subsutural elevations
less noticeable) and a large round foveate space, interrupted by
fascicles, nearer the side than the middle of each elytron. The elytra
about the shoulders have sculpture much as f n the head ; on the
basal part of the depression the surface is mostly smooth, but about
its middle the punctures appear curved, and then to near the apex as
very elongated ones or broken striae ; about the apex they curve
round, becoming wider than long. The epipleurae are smooth (much
as if cicatrised) in a line with the subbasal depression, and towards
this space all the punctures or irregular striation appear directed.
Parts of the under surface are finely shagreened. The hind legs are
about the length of the entire body, the others are somewhat shorter ;
tne front femora are not fully receivable into excavations ; the tibiae
are angular towards the base (the hind pair less noticeably than the
others) and thence to apex each has a narrow flange, but the flanges
are only of such a width that the greatest width of the tibiae is about
equal to the width of the tip of the femora.

Chlamydi)psis fpi jt/fiirahs, n.sp.

Chestnut brown ; in places somewhat infuscated. With moderately
long grilden setae, absent from pronotum.

Head with numerous hirge shallow punctures or areolets. Antennae
with first joint large, strongly curved inwards and strongly angular
outwardly, with punctures or areolets as on head ; club elongate-
ovate, much smaller than first joint, and scarcely as long as inter-
mediate joints combined. I'rotliora r about thrice as wide as the
sides are long, sides gently incurved to middle and feebly elevated ;
apex more noticeably elevated, and directly from above, its median
half straight but thence oblique to sides ; disc moderately convex ;
surface with dense and very shallow punctures or very small areolets ;
a rather small depressicm or shallow fovea on carh side near base,
the two equidistant from each other and from the sides. Elytra
slightly longer than wide ; towards base with a large depression,

Australian and Ttcsinauian Coleojitera. 69

l)reakiiio^ mit at the sides on the upper edire of the epipleiirae ; a wide,
feeble, transverse elevation on each side of the scutellar reo;ion. Each
shoulder in the form of a raised epaulette, obtusely notched at its
apex and sculptured as on head : separated from the rest of elytra
by a deep, straight line; inwards from this line a raised subtriant^ular
space, with its tip close to the tip of the epaulette, the two points
ulmost meetin<; two points of each elytron behind them, between
which portion of the subl)asa.l dej)ression appears as a fovea. Under
xurfact shagreened, and with sculpture, except that it is finer, as on
head. }tetaxternnin with a narrow median line. I^('U^ l(*rij? : tibiae
strongly inflated, the intiated parts suddenly angular, and rapidly
decreasing in width at about the basal third. Length 2| n)m.

Hdh. New South Wales : Hornsby, from a nest of Iridoniynnex,
sp. (('. (iibbons).

In general appear.mce fairly close to fiirinincola, but the prothorax
with more distinct and ditYerent punctures (much as in variolosa) the
subscutellar and sul)humeral elevations somewhat diti'erent, and the
striation alone will readily distinguish the species from rariolo-ia.

Ihe club, though large, is considerably smaller than in others of
the genus. The upper surface of the elytra is marked by tine longi-
tudinal striae (except towards the base) ; but on the epipleurae the
striae are deep, and are all directed towards the outer edge of the
subbasal depression. Although when seen directly from above the
ajjex of the prothorax appears in straight lines, when viewed directly
from behind it appears to be gently siuuated or lobed. The front
femora are too long to be received into the rather shallow prosternal
excavations. The hind tibiae are somewhat longer than the others,
but are in other respects much the same. I cannot see any distinct
fascicles or membranes within the subhumeral depressions, but there
appear to be remnants of such.

var. Ma-'itrisi, n. var.

A specimen, from South Australia, in the Macleay Museum, appears
to represent a variety of this species. It diti'ers in being slightly
larger (3 mm.); elytral striation much more distinct; prothorax with
the apex, as viewed from behind, more lobed, and its punctures rather
deeper ; punctures of under surface more clearly defined, and py- and
propygidium with fine pul)escence in addition to setae. On its pro-
thorax there are four small darkish spots, placed, as it were, at each
corner of a square ; on the type the basal ones are not distinct, as
the whole of the basal fourth is infuscated.

ChlainyiliiiJ'ii'i psi itdorfplialu, n.sp.
Chestnut-brown, in parts slightly darker ; appendages slightly paler.
With short, pale, stiti' setae, nowhere very dense, but denser on

70 Arthur M. Lea:

pyj:;idiuiii than elsewhere. A small fascicle or pubescent membrane
within each subhumeral depression.

Head, between antennae and mouth parts, about as long as wide,
very feebly concave ; with deep distinct punctures. Prafliorar,
moderately transverse, sides lightly incurved to middle ; median half
of apex strongly and obliquely raised, with summit bilobed, the lobes
strongly divided down middle, and separated from each side by a
narrow triangular groove, which is open in front and closed behind,
rather nearer the base than ajiex ; densely punctate and shagreened,
but about base with punctures only. Elytra subquadrate, each
shoulder deeply and obliquely sulcate, the sulcus opening out pos-
teriorly, so that each side of the base appears elevated, and each side
behind the sulcus still more elevated, with moderately dense and
clearly defined punctures along middle, becoming smaller and sparser
towards sides ; a very fine stria each side of suture. Under surface
with dense and usually clearly defined punctures, but becoming very
dense on prosternum ; middle of prosternum with a narrow deep
groove. Legs short and wide. Length If mm.

Hah. — Tasmania: Latrobe, from a nest of P lie idol e Ta^nnanieiiai'i
(A. M. Lea).

Tlie smallest of the genus. There were not many ants in tlie nests
whence the type was taken, and when in the nest it looked remarkably
like a head of one of the soldiers, amongst a small group of whom it
was noticed. It evidently l)elongs to the same section nf the genus as
■sferiialis, but is considerably sujaller than that species, prothorax not
bisinuate at sides and elytral punctures not mixed with striae.

'i'he median apicail half of the prothorax is strongly elevated in
two lobes, the lobes marked off behind by a deejj impression and
in front by a conspicuous impression, so that they appear as two
tubercles, straight and touching on their inner edges, and rounded
on their ujjper and outer edges. The punctures are so dense across
tlie middle of the prothorax that thcv cause its surface to apjiear
opaque.

On account of the minute size of the tyi'O, I did not venture to
)>risc out the antennae, of w'hich only tlic large basal joint of each
(which is somewhat curvilinearly triangular in shape) and the tip of
tlic clul) is visible. I'he legs are comjiletely fitted into receptacles
on tlic under surfiice, and these also were not jtrised out ; they are
short and wide, the tarsi entirely lonrcalcd, the tibiae (as visible)
slightly wider than the femora, curved outwardly and apjtarently not
angular ; the tip of each of the hind femora just cuts into the elytral
maririn.

AitstnduDi iiiiil TasDijt iiian Coh'optera. 71

C/ihi/ni/c/oji^i" (/rnnnlaht,, ii.sj). (Fijr. 5.)

Colour and clothinjr as in preceding species.

Iltad with central portiim svibcircular, gently concave with distinct
punctures. Basal joint of antennae large, triangularly dilated in
middle, club elongate-ovate, about half the size of basal joint, the
intervening ones small. I'rothorar as in preceding species, except
that the frontal elevations are stouter, have their outlines more
rounded, and that the excavation behind them is larger. Elytra as
in preceding s|>ecies, except that the punctures are very small, and
indistinct, and that the surface is granulated posteriorly, and sub-
granulated elsewhere. Pro-sternum with punctures as on pronotunj,
the middle deeply grooved. M ctasterninii with distinct but not very
large punctures, the punctures becoming nuich smaller and somewhat
<])arser on basal segment of abdomen. Tibi(/e strongly dilated, the
iour front ones angular towards base, the others rounded. J>engtli,
'2\ mm.

Hah. — Victoria : Geelung, from a nest of a species of Pheidole (H.
W. Davey).

Closely allied to the preceding species but larger, elytra with
scarcely visible punctures, the surface granulated, and punctures of
metasternum and basal segment of abdomen not of even size and
considerably smaller. It is possible that the specimen should be
treated as representing a variety of the preceding species, rather than
as distinct, but the differences in the elytral sculpture are so pro-
nounced, that it appears best to regard the differences as specific.
In some lights, vague remnants nf elytral striation are visible.

Clilainydopsis opaca, n.sp.

Black, opaque ; sides of jirothorax, sides of elytra at basal third,
their epipleurae, abdomen and appendages of a more or less dingy
red. Glai)rous.

Head vertical, face slightly concave and with small punctures.
Each basal joint of antennae about as large as exposed portion of
head : somewhat triangular in shape, inner edge bisinuate. outer
gently rounded, and upper notched. I'nithora i feebly convex, about
twice as wide as long, margins not thickened and very feebly raised,
outlines somewhat angular ; surface finely shagreened and with numer-
ous small punctures. Elytra sul^quadrate, sides feebly undulated ;
with a strong, narrow, transverse impression at apical fourth, with a
narrow golden membrane on front edge of impression, occupying the
median third of each elytron ; an obliipie line from each shoulder
ahijjost to the membrane ; surface finely shagreened and with dense
and rather coarse j^unctures, l)ecoming Hner at base, sides and apex }

72 Arthur M. Lea :

epipleurae wtih dense minute punctures, and with fairly numerous
larger ones. Prosternuni, smooth and shining in front, but elseAvhere
shagreened. Metasternum shagreened and densely and finely punc-
tate ; with a narrow median line. Ahdomeii highly polished except
parts of the sides, and most of the middle of the basal segment,
which is shagreened and with rather coarser punctures than on
metasternum. Fnnura wide ; tibiae angularly dilated from base
to basal third, and then rounded to apex, all wide, but the hind pair
wider and less angular than the front pair. Length 4^^ mm.
^a&.— New South Wales : National Park (W. Du Boulay).i
Closer to glabra than to any other desci-ibed species, but upper
surface shagreened and opatpie, elytra with conspicuous punctures,
the transverse subbasal impression narrower and njore ])arallel-sided,
its dilated portion narrower, with a faint line running in from each
shoulder (not a trace of this is in glabra) suggesting the position of
the epaulettes of other species, epipleurae with conspicuous punctures
and the under sui'face opaque, except front of prosternuni and most
of abdomen. The outlines as given for glabra, however, are exactly
as in this species. Tlie type has the head completely retracted within
the prothoracic cavity, and, fearing injury, no attempt was made to
force it out.

*Chlainyd()psis formicirula, King.

*€'. striatella, Westw.

*C'. inquilina, Lewis.
Mr. Lewis recently wrote to me of these species: —
" C. forinicicola, King, differs from striatella, Westw., by being
darker! in colour, less quadrate in form (the elytra being longer), by
the thorax being acutely angulate at the anterior angles, and the
surface is less opaque and less distinctly granulate, by the elytra
having the two elevations behind the scutellum much less oljliipie
and somewhat acutely pointed at their ends. Tlie elevations in
■striatella are somewhat short, distinctly divided in the middle, oblitjue,
and end on each side obtusely. '". inquilina diti'ers from both
species by being nitid, and the thorax is much less transverse, and
is parallel laterally, the edges in front and at the sides being uniformly
and more strongly elevated, the elytra also have the elevations behind
the scutellum ])erfectly transverse, not ol)li(|ue, and they are longer
and acute at the ends, and there is scarcely any discernible median
partition. The legs of inquilina are iiwjre robust, a character

1 A son of the 1>U Bouhiy ulio took llio lirst iloscribfil spefifs ot the ini'inis.

1 This is evidently an error, as /'intiiricota is more or less reddish, and slrinlflla was
described as i)ioeoiisl)lack. My own specimen of ulrialella, from ihe type locality (.Swan Ki\ tr),
is considerably darker than the type of fiirmicicola ; but as Mr. Lewis wrote that his specimen
of striatella was from New South Wales, it seems jiossible that his identification of that species
was not correct.

Australian and Tomininiaii ('ohoptera . 73

especially obvious at the bases of tlie tibiae and the iiiediaii angles
of the tibiae are all less aeiite. My speeiiuens of iiKiuilliid and
striatel/a are from Liverpool, Xew South V\'aks. I think that the
elevations on the elytra behind the seutelhun are likely to afford good
specitic characters should many more species be brought to light."

*( 'lihiiin/dniisis hnKjipcx, Jjca.

Of this species, Mr. Davey recently wrote to me: —
■■ I made a tine haiil of C loiaji pen the other day, took three in
the one nest under a stone, one a small specimen, and tAvo large
ones ; you might not think it (judging by their legs), but my experi-
ence is that they are very ditticult to spot, they seem to favour nests
l)uilt under pieces of ironstone, and when they are at rest with their
legs all tucked a.way, they have a remarkable likeness to the nodules
on this stone, and all I have taken have ahvays been on ironstone
with the green ants."i

Mr. Davey has taken the species at Ararat, a fresh locality.

*(' l(J(nii!jd()p><is (jl (thill. Lea.

There is a specimen of this species in the (Queensland Museum. It
differs from the type in having the elytra rather more conspicuously
|)unctured (much less conspicuously than in opacd, however), and the
prothorax of a dingA' red, with the edges narrowly black, and the
middle of the base obscurely piceous.

It was taken by Mr. Hacker at Brisbane, under a stone, from a
nest of Ectatoinmu metaUicuin ; and in sending it he wrote: — "It
did not attempt to escape, but kept turning round and round in the
same place ; and, when it did move, it had a curious jerky run
ditt'erent to any other beetle I've seen."

NlTlULLIDAE.
Hnii-liii pi- pi US I iiqinl inns, n.sj). (tig. 0.)

Dark piceous-brown : sides of prothorax, base of elytra and all the
appendages reddish. Upper surface with very short and rather
indistinct pubescence, prothorax and elytra distinctly fringed with
short setae ; under surface with distinct and somewhat golden
pubescence.

Head about twice as wide as Imig. a distinct impression towards
each side on clypeal stiture ; with dense and rather small, but clearly
defined ])uncttires. Antennae scarcely longci- than head ; first joint
slout, about as long as three following combined ; club subcircular.

1 Ketaloinma nutallicuin.

74 Artlair M. Lea:

I'rothorai; less than twice as wide as lon^^ wider at base than at
apex, the sides flattened, with the flattened parts narrowed to apex ;
punctures on disc much as on head, but beconiin«r slightly coarser
towards sides. Elytra slightly wider than prothorax, distinctly wider
than long; distinctly but not strongly striated, the interstices densely
punctate. Abdu/nen with basal segments fully as wide as elytra ;
upper surface with punctures as on head, under surface with similar,
but more or less concealed punctures ; third, fourth and fifth seg-
ments each with a shallow depression on each side, third about as
long as first, twice as long as second, slightly shorter than fourth,
and much shorter than fifth. Legs short and stout. Length 4 mm.

Nab. — New South Wales : Hornsby. from a wild nest of the hive
bee (C. Gibbons).

In general appearance somewhat like a very wide specimen of
hf/s(i//.-<. but nuich less parallel-sided, the pale markings of elytra
occupying much less of the base (they scarcely })ass the tip of the
scutellum), and nowhere touching the suture. The clothing also is
somewhat different. The lateral fringes of the prothorax and elytra
are quite conspicuous, although less so than in auritus. Tlie scutellum
appears very distinct on account of being darker in colour than the
base of the elytra.

Brarhi/ptpht-'s blaiu/iis, Murray.

Mr. C. Gibbons also took two specimens of this species from a wild
nest of the same bee.

Carpophihis planatua, Murray.

Mr. Gibbons took a specimen of this species from a nest of Trujona
carbonaria.

*I'ri<i ruhicinida, Mad.

Three specimens recently taken by Mr. Davey from a nest of
Iridoniynnex nitidus.

Tretuthoraciuae.

*T rcfuthiira I rhixftisfoiiid. Lea.

Mr. Hacker has taken numerous specimens of this species in nesls
of a second s])ecics of ant, OdoiifoiiKichiis coriari ns.

Cl'cljidab.

(' rif iifdiiior jilid (hliratd. Uhickli.

A sjtecimen, apparently representing a variety of this species, was
taken at llailton (Tasmania) from a nest, built amongst stones, of a
small form of Ectatuinma inttallirnin, some distance from the nearest

Aujiitralian and Tasmdniaa Cohioptem,. 75

tree. It moved (juite rapidly anion<rst the auts, and I think its pre-
sence there was not at all accidental.

Tlie specimen differs fnnn the ty])ical form of (hi ii-<if(i in havinjj: the
elytra more oi"less stained with piceous ; the biise and iipex are less
stained than elsewhere, Init the shades of colours arc not sharply
limited.

Htkhiiidak.

* M icrorlidctfx ■^/■(iiHirnis, Er.

Mr. Davey has taken two specimens of this species from a nest of
Ertutoiinnd mttftllicuiii. A specimen previously sent by him as from
a nest of a species of Cam poiiottts probably belon;^s to the species,
but is too a])raded for certainty. I have taken one of the species
myself, from a nest of Vdiu rn Jittra near Svdnev.

Ptimi).\e.

I'ol y pJdfofi's ra.sfaiifiis^ n.sp.

Bri^dit castaneous : prothorax somewhat darker. Middle of sterita
and basal sej,nnent of abdomen with dense, and soniewhat <;olden
pubescence ; rest of abdomen and prothorax very sparsely pubescent,
elytra glabrous.

Head strongly transverse ; eyes lather acutely projecting.
Antennae passing base of prothorax, first joint stout and subgranulate,
the others shining, second, third and fourth each about as long as
wide, fifth slightly shorter, sixth and seventh still shorter, eighth
about as long as sixth and seventh comljined, and distinctly wider, its
apex truncated and base rounded, ninth narrower than eighth, and
a little more than half its length. Prof/iorar slightly longer than
wide, sides rounded in front and constricted near base ; near base
strongly transversely depressed, the de])ression terminated in a fovea
on each side ; densely and more or k\ss longitudinally strigose, with a
few punctures scattered about. Elytra ovate, strongly convex;, base
truncate and each side with four small deep impressions ; with regular
rows of small punctures, the interstices each with a series of still
smaller punctures. Three basal segments of ahdonifit rather large,
their sutures obliterated across middle, with fairly numerous punc-
tures. Leys rather long. Length, '1 mm.

i/«6. — X.W. Australia: "Sharp's Collection" (type in British
Museum).

The latero-basal foveae of the prothorax are of considerable si/e.
but invisible from aljove. From, some directions the elytra of the
tj'pe appear to l>e covered with regular rows of large punctures ; but
from others these are seen to be watery-looking marks only, such

76 Arthur M. Lea:

as occur in many specimens of Cordus hospes ; from most directions
they are invisible. The head in front of the antennae is quite in-
visible from above, is strongly sculptured, and (in the type) has the
n)andibles resting between the front coxae.

In general appearance close to Di/jlorofe.s H owiftdiiiK. \mx antennae
nine-jointed only. Westwood regarded BipJocotes as distinct from
Polif plorotex on account of the typical species having the antennae
eleven-jointed ; but two species of the former genus are now known
to have ten-jointed antennae ; and so, later on, it will i)rnbably be
considered advisable to unite the two genera, and to regard the species
having nine, ten or eleven jointed antennae, as l)elonging to sections
only.

['((KKxaptimis (lol uhoiiiiiitlnis, n.^p.

Castaneous, knees slightly infus'jated. Very spavsely pubescent ;
l)ut sterna between coxae with dense, whitish pubescence.

Head a])out thrice as wide as long, front gently l>isinuate ; with
dense, partially concealed punctures. Eyes prominent and apparently
acute. Mouth parts jn-oduced so as to appear like a tbittened rostrum.
Antennae large and wide, their bases almost touching ; first joint
large, its front edge strongly curved, second very small and quite
concealed from above, third to ninth each nnich wider than long,
the joints slightly increasing in size to ninth, tenth about as long as
eighth and ninth combined, its apical edge incurved to middle.
Palpi concealed. I'rutliorar slightly longer than wide ; base wider
than apex, sides dilated to basal third (but not dentate), then nar-
rowed to near base, and then dilated to base; across basal third
strongly impressed, the impression slightly dilated in middle, but
not foveate, densely, conspicuously and more or less longitudinally
strigose. Ehjtra su'bovate, strongly convex ; ba.se narrow and with
eight small foveae ; feebly striated, the interstices finely strigose, and
with scarcely visible fiattened granules. Ltga rather long and fiat-
tened. Length 'i\ mm.

Hah. — C. Australia: Killalpanima (Rev. H. J. Hillier).

The type and only specimen known to me has been returned to
the British Museum It differs from hifiroriiis in having the antennae
with one joint less, the apical joint much larger and of ditt'erent shape,
mouth almost rtistrate, piothorax dift'ereiitly impressed and unarmed,
etc. BrtvipfiNiis (unknown to niej is described at having the antennal
joints differently proportioned, the prothorax with a profound basal
fovea, and its sides tridentate, ett-.

Looking straight at the face below llic antc-nnae, there ap])ears to
be an acute ridge on each side marking otf a strong depression; in
the middle is an acute, narrow il-sliaped elevation, with a small

Australian and Tasmaniaii. (JuleoiJtera, 77

tuhercle between its tips. Then tlie mandibles commence; they are
very curiously shaped, truncated at apex, with their tips crossinfr.
The whole of the projecting parts are rather more than two-tifths of
the total depth of the head.

Tenebrionidae.

Ilyocis ranre/hita. Lea.

Mr. Davey has taken a specimen of this species from a nest of
/V/^/V/o/c, sp.

Jlyocis niyru, Blackb.

In examining the contents of the nest of a mound building species
of Iridomyrmer at Ulverstone I obtained nine specimens of this
species.^

CardlotJiorar aeripennis, Blackb.

Recently at Otford Mr. Cox obtained two specimens of this species,
singly, fronj nests of Sttnamma loiiyiceps ; and I obtained two from
another nest of the same kind of ant.

Lagkiidae.

*L(u/ria foriuiricola, Lea.

Dr. Ferguson informs me that he has taken and seen numerous
specimens of this species in nests of Pti/iera hifea : in several nests
there were at least 20 specimens of the beetles.

Xyloi'hilidae.

XylophiJ lis (il })ic(i1(t, Blackb.
Three specimens obtained fnmi nests, near Sydney, of Poiifnt Jntea.

Brenthidae.

*Cordu!( hoxpe-'i. Germ. (Fig. 7.)

In October, 1910, in examining some nests of Irido/iiyntier iiifldu'<
at Glenfield (New South Wales), I saw thousands of specimens of this
beetle. In parts of the nests they were clustered so thickly together,
that from a space, a square inch in extent, several dozens could have
been taken. The ants moved freely about them without in any way
interfering with them. The beetle also occurs in nests of Steiiamma
lonyircps and of Iridotuyiine r ifnieratis.

1 Xow first i-ecorded (roin Tasmania.

78 Art/nir M. Lea: (hlcoptevd.

CoCCINELLIDAE.

Ehhohius Jiirtelliis, Crotch.

A specimen of this species was taken near Hol)art from a nest of
Iridomyrmex fflaber, where it was feeding on mealy bugs {Dacty-
lopius, sp.).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL

Fig. L Philophhieus myrmecojjhilus, Lea.

2. Daveyia mira, Lea.

?>. Daveyia mira. Lea, palpus.

4. Rodwayia orientalis, Lea.

5. Chlamydopsis granulata, Lea.

6. Brachypephis inquilimis. Lea.

7. Cordus hospes, Germ.

IVoe. K.S. Yietorin. 1!II2. Plato Tl.

[Proc. Uot. Hoc. Vktokia. 25 (N.S.). I'r. I.. li»12j.

Akt. V. — On a new Holothiiriau of the Genus Taenlogyrus
found III Port Pliillip Bay.

Bv K. C JOSHUA.

(With Platf>s \U. .111.1 lY).
[Read llth April. 1912].

Tacnioifyrus alln.ni, sp, nov.

The L'hiridntinid of which a description follows was first dredged
by Mr. J. M. Allan, near Geelonp:. and was subsequently found by
myself near Willianistown.

Descri ptioii. — Tentacles ten, peltato-digitate, pigment spots at base.

Size. — 8 centimetres in length, breadth about 6 mm.

Colour. — Carmine in life, in spirits white.

Calcareous deposits, consisting of wlieels, sigmoid bodies, and rods.
The wheels are principally confined to the three dorsal interambulacra
and are grouped in round and irregularly-shaped papillae, except at
the anterior and jw-terior ends, where tl.tv are thickly disposed all
round the body. They haA'e six spokes connecting with a peripherally
hexagonal rim, the inner margin of which consists of alternate serrated
convexities and unserrated smaller concavities. One side of the hub
of the wheel is closed by a six-rayed plug, the other is open and sur-
rounded V)y a dentated margin. The sigmoid bodies are scattered
singly at fairly regular intervals and roughly at right angles to the
axis of the body ; they occur equally in all the interaml)ulacra. The
rods are confined to the margins of the tentacles and to the inter-
tentacidar web.

Habitat. — On nuid banks, in from f) to 10 fathoms, Port Phillip
Bay.

AiKitonnj. —Genital glands : Two, single, unbranched, sexes separate.
Alimentary canal : Contorted axially.
Polian vessel : Single.
Stone canal : Ap|)arently absent.
Calcareous ring: Consisting of ten pieces.

Two mounted specimens of an animal, which Mr. Allan declares
to be identical with the present species, were sent l)y that gentleman
to the President of the Royal Microscopical Society, London, who
in turn submitted one of them to Professors R. Koehler and C. Vaney
of Lyons. Prof. Vaney identified the specimen as Trorhodota

80 E. a. Joshua :

(luiifdineiisis, Purker (1). In NovenilxM-, 1910, I was fortunate
enough to obtain a number of specimens of the same animal near
Williamstown, and a careful exiimination convinced me that I was
dealing with a different species from the above-mentioned. The
accepted classification of the sub-family Oiirididinae, to which both
dunedinensix and the present species belong, is that of Ostergren
(2), who bases his arrangement on the presence or absence of cal-
careous deposits, and their disposition in the integument. Hubert
Lyman Clark (3) in his monograph on the Apodous Holothurians
gives a key to the genera and species comprised in the sub-family, and
adopting a suggestion of Semper's (4), he establishes the genus Tneni-
ogyrus to include those forms in which the wheel ossicles are collected in
papillae ; the genus Trochodnta, Ludwig, being characterised by the
wheels being scattered singly. The present species has the wheels
definitely aggregated, and could not therefore be placed in the genus
Trochodota, therefore further to consider its identity with T. duiie-
di/ien-^i-'i is perhaps superfluous ; it may, however, be pointed out that
a comparison of the description and figures of the wheels of dune-
dinen>ils with that given by myself of that of the present species,
shows marked variation. T. allani further differs in having but two
genital tubes, as opposed to several in T. diine.dinensis ; and in hav-
ing a contorted alimentary canal as opposed to the straight one of
Parker's species. Its differentiation from its congener Austral iana,
Stinipson (G), ;ind T. contorta, Ludwig, is fairly definite, and is ren-
dered easier in the case of the former from the fact of the species
having been revicAved by Clark (3). We have unfortunately no
description of the wheel of Australiaiut. but as regards the dis-
tribution of the sigmoid ossicles, Clark confirms Stimpson's origina)
observation, that they are in definite papillae ; in T. allani they are
invariably scattered. The genital tubes of T. Australiana are dis-
tinctly branched; in T. allani they are unbranched ; size, colour and
habitat are also different.

F'rom T. ro/itnrfa, it differs in the structure of the wheel ossicle. I
am relying on Theel's (7) figure for this, as I could not get access
to Ludwig's original pii])er. T. ronfurfa has twelve tentacles. T.
allani ten ; 7'. ninforta has branched genital glands, T. allani un-
brunched. T. runtorta is viviparous (8), and though I have opened
many specimens of 7'. allani, \ have been unable to note this
peculiarity in it.

Although I have pointed out above the error of Professor Vaney's
diagnosis, 1 think it but fair lo state that I think it was almost
certainly due to the f;u't that he was furnished with an incomplete
specimen; the slide Mibniittcd t-ontained in reality only about 2 cm.
of the anterior end of the animal. In this portion the aggregation of
the ossicles into papillae is not definite, and unless the wheels were

Pnic. K.S Viotoria, 1912. I'l.itc III.

r^

Wf^

vy^

I'nu'. R.S. Virtwrin. 1012. I'lnt.' TV

New ffolollni rinH (if lite Gcaiis T(a'ii(0(j!/ras. 81

closelv examined, their diflference in structure from that of 7\ diine-
(liiieiisls mi'/lit not l)e detected. Even if noted, it mi<i:ht be regarded
as having imly varietal signficance ; whilst, of course, such a specimen
would be quite useless for noting any peculiarities of the internal
anatomy.

Bibliography.

1. Jour. Roy. Micr. So... London, June loth, 1910.

2. Ostergren, Das System dei' Synapliden (Vorl.HuHge Mittheilung),

Ofv. K. A^et. Ak. Forhand., vol. Iv., pp. 111-120, Stock-
holm, 1S9S.

?). H. L. Clark : The Ajiodous llolothurians. Smithsonian Con-
tributions, vol. xxx'V, 1907.

4. C. Semper: Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen. Trsl. Teil 1,
Holothurien, Leipzig, 1868.

o. Dendy, A.: Jour. Linn. Soc, vol. xxvi., No. 166, Holothurians, N.Z.

G. Stimpson : Proc. .Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., vol. vii.. 1856.

7. Theel: Rep. Challenger Exped., Zool. vol. xiv.

8. Ludwig : Holothurien in Eigebnis.se der Hamburger Maghaeli.s-

chen Samnielreise, Lief. iii.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate TIL

Photo-micrograph of portion of dorsal integument of Taenioc/i/rus
allaiii — to show arrangement of wheel ossicles in aggregations,
and sigmata scattered, . . . x 60.

Plate TV.

Fig. 1 — Wheel ossicle. Outer aspect. Actual size, .20 mm.
2 — Wheel ossicle. Inner aspect. Actual size, .20 mm.
.'). 4, 0 — Sigmoid ossicles. Actual size, .11 mm.
6, 7, 8 — Tentacle ossicles. Actual size, .10 mm.
9, K>^ — Abnornnil wheel ossicles. Actual size, .18 mm.
11 — Calcareous ring. Enlarged.

[Pkoc. Koy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.) Pt. I., ]912.]

Art. VI. —The Occurrence and Development of Cerriral RiJ)S
la Mdii (1)1(1 some of the McDiimals tlmt liove ahdiuioned
Qi((i(lrupc(hd Pro<iresKi<)ii,

By WALTER STAPLF.Y, M.D, D.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S.

(Lecturer in Anatomy and Suro-erv, Veterinary Schnnl. Melliourne
University).

[Read 11th April, 1912].

Cervical ribs have acquired such a prominent place in modern sur-
gery that practical as well as scientific reasons demand that the
causes controlling- their formation should be investigated. The ob-
servations and deductions that are put forth in this paper are the
outcome of my enquiry into such causes, and tiiey foini an extension
of the abstract published in the Australian Medical Journal, August
19, 1911.

The endeavour has been made to discover not only the influences
that cause the development of cervical ribs, but also the hostile
conditions that suppress rib growth and destroy rib structure.

It Avill be shown that cervical ribs develop in the human neck
because the lungs have migrated towards, and encroached on, the
neck; and, from the conditii)ns associated with general rib develop-
ment, the deduction is drawn that cervical ribs form in the human
neck in response to impulses that are generated in the organism
which has been and is being excited by the presence of lung in the
neck.

Classification of the Principal Stages in the Evolution
of Cervical Ribs.

(1) The primary development of rib-structure in I ho neck-area.

(2) The suppi'ession of necK rih-structurc.

(3) The secondary development of cei'vical ribs.

The primary development of rilis in the r.eck-area is illustrated by
the structure of fish.

The suppression of cervical ribs can be studied in the following-
structures : —

(a) The cervical ril)-slumps of crocodiles.

(1)) Costal ))rt)cesses as they occur in the maumialian neck.

(Cervical RiIas in Men. 83

Neck ril) sup))rcssion is further evidenced by the absence of costal
processes from the seventh cervical vertebra of the (|uadriipedal mam-
mals. Tlie absence of these costal processes shows that the rib-
structure which is associated with the seventh neck bone may, under
the influence of the neck Mexion that occurs in the quadrupedal
mammals, suffer extinction.

The development of cervical rilis in the mammalian neck may be
either partial or complete.

(a) T'artial in the short cervical ribs tiiat do not reach tlie

sternum, as seen in duf>'onp;s and man.

(b) Complete in the sternal cervical ribs of the manatee and in

the occasional sternal cervical ril)S of man.

Function of Ribs.

Ribs are stiff and resilient. The uses to which these (jualities are
put by the animal economy constitute the functions of ribs.

Fish-ribs stiffen the l)ody and protect viscera, but they possess no
respiratory function.

In the chameleons, the sphenodon, and other lizards possessing a
low grade of neck development, cervical ribs are continuous with the
ribs of the body-cavit}', their function being to protect viscera and to
assist respiration. In snakes the cervical ribs are greatly developed
and their function is locomotory. The cervical rib-stumps of the
crocodile afford muscular attachments, and they confer some degree
of rigidity upon the neck.

The costal processes of mammals are too small to interfere with the
freedom of the movement of the neck, and they serve merely for
muscular attachments. The nuiin function of the thoracic ribs is
associated with respiration, and the rib development that occasionally
taKes place in the mammalian neck is also intimately associated with
the lungs. Therefore

Cervical Ribs of Mammals are of Respiratory Function.

Cervical ribs have been variously described: — Keen, in 1907, re-
ferred to them as "" congenital anomalies " ; Andrews, in Keen's Sur-
gery, calls tliem "' deformities." Purves Stewart records that Oppen-
heim regards cervical ribs in the human neck as the '' stigmata of
degeneration." Here and there cervical ribs are regarded as examples
of atavism, but the majority of medical men regard them as vestiges.

The term " congenital anomaly " can only be used in a very re-
stricted sense because science cannot regard any natural condition
as anomalous. The word ' deformity "' conveys no idea as to what
causes the development of cervical ribs. The expression '' stigmata of

84 Wdlter Staj)ley :

de;jreneration " throws no light on the cause of cervical ribs, but as
the development of cervical ribs in uianinials is associated with
degenerative changes in the neck, the term is useful.

Considerable confusion seems to exist about vestiges and cervical
ribs. It is as well to preface the remarks on this subject by quota-
tions from Morris's Human Anatomy and Arthur Keith's Huuum
Embryology and Mor])holog}'.

Morris says: — "The costo-transverse foramen is very characteristic
of a cervical vertebra. It is bounded internally by the pedicle, pos-
teriorly by the transverse process?, which corresponds to the trans-
verse process of a thoracic vertebra, anteriorly by the costal process,
which corresponds to the rib in the thoracic vertebra, and externally
by the costo-transverse lamella.

'■ Tlie transverse process (of the seventh cervical vertebra) is mas-
sive ; the costal element of the process is very small, but, on the
other hand, the posterior or vertebral part of the process is large, and
becoming nioie like the transverse process of a dorsal vertebra. The
costo-transverse foramen is the smallest of the series and may be
absent. Occasionally the costal process is segmented off and con-
stitutes a cervical rib.''

Keith says: — "Vestigial Ribs: Although the ribs are only fully
developed in the dorsal region, yet a representative, a costal element,
is present in every vertebra."

" The costal process of the seventh cervical, usually represented by
a mere vestige, may develop into a rudimentary or even a fully
formed rib."

It is difficult to accept this teaching of Keith, because it contains
an error somewhat akin to the exploded idea that cranial bones are
modified vertebrae, for he confuses the costal process, which is a
reduced rib, with the costal rudiment, from which all ribs must
develop.

The formation of costal processes is shown in the monotremes :
there, in the PlatypuK, the rib-stumps are separated from the verte-
brae by joints, but in the Echidna these joints are more or less
indistinct and the ril) tissue is l)econiing confluent with the neck
bones. In the higher mammals these joints have entirely disappeared
and the suppressed ribs remain as costal processes or rib vestiges.
Costal processes are ve.stiges of ribs because they mark the remains
of pre-existing cervical ribs. Mannnalian cervical ribs are develop-
ments because they appear in positions which have been occupied
cither by ribs that have become extinct, or by costal processes, ribs
that have become vestigial. Cervical ribs are developed ribs, and
the development varies from slight to full. A developing, or a
developed, structure is not a vestige, nor is a vestige a rudiment, nor

Cervlod Ribs in Men. 85

is the costal jjrocess the costal rudiiuciit. The term " costal element "
that is frecjiiently used, can ret'ei' to but one thin^', and that one
l.iin<; is the costal rud;)iieiit. t'loin whirli all I'il) tissue, suppressed
and developed, must arise. Costal processes express suppression, by
hostile movement, of rib tissue ; cervical ribs express rib development
over lun;j^ tissue that has miurated into the neck.

If cervical ribs be developed costal processes, as Keith claims, cer-
vical I'ibs should be devoid of joints and appear as buttresses of bone
fused with the transverse process and body of the vertebra, even when
quite small cervical ribs are jointed. The difference between costal
processes (vestigial ribs) and cervical ribs is the difference between
supj)re.-sion and develo)>ment. The <i:reatest likeness that can be
claimed between them is they may both arise from a rib rudiment,
which bv no means nnikes them one and the same thinu.

Atavism.

In order that the association of atavism with cervical ribs niay be
reviewed, it is necessary to pass back throutih the mammals where
cervical ribs were absent, through the monotremes and later reptiles
where cervical ribs occur, back to the early reptiles, where cervical
ribs had persisted from the fish-type ; and then to show
that the geiun plasm as it passed through successive stages of evolu-
tion has retained the hereditary power to form cervical ribs, and
that this power, though possessed, has been held in subjection until
quadrupedal progression has been abandoned and the adoption )f
some other form of progression has made it possible for cervical ribs
to form. This much is necessary to the belief in atavism in spite of
latter-day criticism, with its pruned ver.sion as Lo what atavism is.
Tlie interpretation of the theory of atavism has been altered and
contracted from the widest limits to the narrowest confines. To many
present-day pathologists the word atavism connotes: — "The appear-
ance in an individual of normal or pathological characters which arc
wanting in the parents, l)ut were jjresent in the grandparents or great-
grandparents."' (Ziegler. )

These ideas are embodied in the Meiideliaii law. and if the word
atavism is only to l)e thus used, it should Ijecome obsolete, as it leads
only to confusion.

As an example of atavism. Bland-Sutton wrote : — " The attainment
of a functional condition by parts noimally suppressed is well illus-
trated in the case of man by suiternuuierary ribs."

When going into detail. Sutton displays unfamiliarity with the
neck bones, for he says: — ' Supernumeraiy ribs attached to the
lumbar vertebrae are more instructive than th<tse in the neck. '

86 Walter Stapley :

He is iilso in eri-or when lie says: — "In many i)ii-ds and reptiles
all the cervical vertebrae bear ribs," whereas many birds, ])articularly
ostriches, show large vestigial neck ribs. Owen in lS6f) had correctly
written: — ^" In the cervical vertebrae of birds the pletirapophysis, if
present, is confluent with the neural arch."

Gegenbaur refused to accept the old ideas of atavism and laid it
down that: — "Atavistic parts do not belong to forms palaeontcjlo-
gically or systematically far distant."

Sutton, who accepted Gegenbaur's restrictions, grouped atavistic
phenomena into two classes:— (1) "The attainment of functional con-
dition by structure normally suppressed." (2) " Reversion of organs
and tissues to an original type."

Although Darwin had no difficulty in understanding the extinction
of species, he realised that he was unable to understand the extinction
of organs and structures. The following quotations from Darwin's
writings bear out this point: — "It is most difficult always to re-
member that the increase of every creature is constantly being checked
by unperceived hostile agencies, and that these agencies are amply
sufhcient to cause rarity and finally extinction."

" There remains, however, this difficulty after an organ ha,s ceased
being used, and becomes in consequence much reduced, how can it be
still further reduced in size until the merest vestige is left ; and how
can it be finally quite obliterated? It is scarcely possible that disuse
can go on producing any further effect after the organ has once been
rendered functionless. Siune additional exjvlanation is here requisite
which I cannot give."

The theory of atavism does not fit the evolution of cervical ribs ;
the old idea takes us back to the early lizards and fish, the modern
idea to the ijuadrupedal mammals, and the new idea is distinctly
Mendelism.

The destruction nf neck ribs can lie traced from the tish thmugh
the reptiles and monotremcs until in the mammals thev become small
and confiuent with the neck bones. From the quadrupedal mammals
through some of those mammals that have abandoned (iuadru]>edal
gait,. notal)ly man and sirenia, cervical rib develojmient may he traced
from small undeveloped cervical ribs that appear only occasionally
in the dugfing, to fully formed cervical ribs that occur constantly in
(he manatee.

,Thc point of greatest interest in relation tn maanmaliau cervical
rib.s is the seventh cervical vertebra ; a careful study of this bone
shows that ribs undergo not oidy sujiprcssion, but that they also
undergo extinction, for when the seventh cervical vertebra is without
costal jM-ocesses, il is evident tliat the rilt vestiges have disappeared
and that the ribs, which in an earlier stage of evolution belonged to
this bone, have become extinct.

Cervlcul HIb'S in M<in. 87

It seeins a process of narrow roa«oiiiii'_; wliiili admits the orij^in
of new sjjecies, but refuses to admit that new structures nuiy be
evolyed. Tlie denial of the apjK-arance of new struetures seems to be
tlie basis of the theory of atavism.

Where ribs develop in site.< that have been previously occupied
by vestipes of extinct ribs, new ril)-forniii)g impulses have arisen
which arc of a different character to those impulses that have sup-
pressed ii>-ck ribs and formed rib-vesti^es, or to those that have
broujflit about the extinction of rib.

Daiwin did not fully urasj) the relationship ihat exists between
or<::ans. structures and >pe;-ies. It is apparent that structures and
organs form the parts of the species ; and it follows that that which
applies to the whole nuist ajiply to the part. Species are admitted
to suffer extinction through hostile influences, and therefore it must
also be admitted that structures and organs may likewise suffer
extinction by the same means.

Bland-Button wrote: — "Much that is fancifid and speculative is
mixed uj) with the subject of atavism." and a study of neck ribs
compels the endorseujent of this remark, for it is a fanciful idea
that regards mamnuilian cervical ribs as atavistic to the ribs in the
neck area of fish.

Mammalian cervical ribs develop in association with respiration,
tish ribs are unassociated with lung, therefore mamnuilian neck ribs
and ribs in the neck-area of tish are not teleologically related, for
they are each utilised for a ditt'erent purpose. It will be shown that
cervical ribs are late developments in the mammalian neck, which
developnu^nt is due to the impulses that are occasioned by the en-
croachment of lung into the neck.

The costo-transverse foramen is absent from the seventh vertebra
in most tpuidrupedal mannnals that have well defined neck curves ;
j'.nd usually associated with the alisence of this foramen is the lack
of costal processes. The absence of costal processes from this bone
would appear to be determined by the fact that their presence would
hamper the range of what in quadrupedal aniujals is an extensive neck
movement occurring in this position. The seventh neck bone of such
animals has been submitted to extinction of its rib vestiges by the
hostile effect of neck Hexion upon a thoracic base that has been made
firm by the lateral pressure of the weight of the body. Occasionally
in true quadrupeds, the costal processes on the seventh cervical ver-
tebra are not suppressed oi! both sides. We have found this abnor-
mality in the racehorse " Traquair," and Dr. Dodd, of the Sydney
University, writes me that he also has a specimen of the same ab-
normality, that is, the costal process of the sixth neck bone is sup-
pressed on the same side as it is developed on the seventh. Sisson,

88 Walter Shipleji :

Veterinary Anatomy, jjage 33, records similar abnormalities. This
change of position of the costal process is clearly compensatory, and
it is probably due to the impulses that cause these horses to lead
off the gallop from the same foot.

The extinction of the costal processes from the seventh vertebra by
the flexion of the neck seems to clear up the point which puzzled
Darwin, how structure may become extinct. The costal processes of
the seventh neck bone disappear before hostile conditions that are
sufficiently hostile to suppress them to extinction. We have evidence
that the costal processes of the seventh vertebra are suppressed to
extinction by the flexion of the neck ; and this fact shows a reason for
the extinction of definite structure and it goes to prove that structures
and species are controlled by the same law. If it be admitted that
species and structures are controlled by the same law, it follows that
cervical ribs in mammals represent a new type of rib situated in the
same positions as ribs that have suffered extinction ; and, therefore,
they are not atavistic structures but new developments.

If it be admitted that niannimlian cervical ril)s are atavisms, then
it must be admitted that extinction of rib-structure is a throw-back to
the invertebrates.

A brief account of some of the hostile influences that have assailed
ceiwical ribs, reduced them to vestiges, and finally caused their ex
tinction will be dealt with in the body of this paper.

Impulses.

Smith- Woodward writes thus (Ann. Nat. Hist, xviii., 190G, page
312): —

" Throughout the evolution of the organic world there has been a
succession of impulses, each introducing not only a higher state of
life, but also fixing some essential characters that have been variable
in the grade immediately below."

From this quotation it does not sccui clear what an impulse is.
Does it represent the action of environment on the organism, or the
reaction of living tissues to external conditions from which results
the generation of impulses] These two things are \ery ditiereiii ;
one ignores the re-aetioii of tissues and the other regards it as an
essential factor. In dealing with neck tissues it seems impossible to
ignore the biological factor and to cx|ilain the evolution of the neck
by physical conditions alone. Vov instance, there is a general belief
that " continued pressure causes atrophy, and inttiriuitleiit pressure
hypertrophy,' and yet the necks of porpoises and whales that are
submitted to intermittent pressure show atrophic changes. ThL\se
neck tissues react to the impulses which the biological factor in
reaction with external conditions generates.

Cervical Rihs in Man. 89

In this paper it will be assumed that the evolution of the ueck
is controlled by impulses that are generated by the reaction of the
tissues to external e-hcmical and physical conditions. These im-
pulses determine chanoe and stability in animal tissues and under
their influence it will be shown that tixed-type may be destroyed and
new tissues arise.

The Evolution of the Neck.

Mammalian nei'k evolution may be studied in 'lie Sr/nidpjjcr, Ctu-
todus, Trarhyidnrns riit/oxii'^, Variniu.< no-'titx^ CrocodilKi, FhilDiins.^
Echidna and .Uammn/ia.

In uumy fish dorsal and ventral ribs occur ; the former extend
between the nuiscles and the latter stiffen the walls of the body-
cavity. Some seem to use the words dorsal and ventral to the parts
of a mammalian rib, the rib proper l)einu termed the dorsal rib and
the costal cartilage the ventral ; this use is still more commonly
adopted in desiribing' avian ribs. There also seems to be an ill-
defined tendency on the part of some writers to assign to vertebrae
the power of laying- down ribs. As all the bones of the body are
formed in response to impulses it follows that vertebrae and ribs
come alike under the influence of the impulse. As the body requires
ncAv bone, fresh centres of ossification undoubtedly develop ; and, as
movement becomes necessary, joints appear.

In the schnapper and haddock the heart occupies a position in the
gill-area, and ribs are in the area that ultimately in reptiles, birds
and mammals becomes the neck. Fish are neckless, a state which
is marked by ribs extending to the head. Fish are propelled by the
thrust of the tail and this force is transmitted through the body
mainly by the vertebrae, but the ribs serve to stiffen the body and
thus to prevent loss of propelling power.

The neck is formed l)y the passage of the pectoral girdle, which
strips the neck-area of its libs ; or. to l)e more exact, the passage of
the girdle is associated with the denudation nf the neck of its rib
tissue. From the fact that fish are neckless, and that limbed verte-
brates have necks, it is apparent that the evolution of the neck
becomes necessary as the limbs are evolved. A neck is of no use to
a fish and a formed neck in marine animals has the effect of diminish-
ing speed and making steering difficult. As the limbs were evolved
they descended the neck, and as they descended they became larger
and stronger, and as the limbs became larger and stronger the neck
proportionately developed. Ihe pectoral girdle provided the means
wherein' the fore-limbs were carried down the neck, and Avith them
the heart, from bhe gill-area to the thorax, these migrations becoming
necessary as more perfect land progression was essential to the

90 W(dier Shipley:

animal. As the j^irdle passed down the neck, the cervical vertebrae
were denuded of their ribs, to a greater or less extent, according to the
activity of the neck movements.

The fore-limbs of ('erotodus, the lung-fish of Queensland, thou.gh
only slightly developed, are somewhat larger than the fore-'imbs of
pectoral tins of ordinary fish. It seems most probable that the slight
increase in size of these puny fore-limbs is the result of impulses that
have resulted from contact with mud. Ribs are present in the neck
area and throughout the remainder of the body cavity.

The Menopome, which Owen descriljes on page 4S, vol. I. of the
1866 edition of Comparative Anatomy, shows some Hiuli and neck
development. Small ri])s oi-cur throuuhniit the l)ody and necl\ of
this amphibian.

Tracliysaiirus riK/osi/s, compared with Cf^ratod i"<, shows a great
development of the pectoral girdle, a development which expresses th-j
construction of a bony carriage that is used to convey not only the
fore-limbs down the neck as they progressively develoj), but also the
heart from a position of threatened danger to one of secured safet}%
that is from the throat to the chest. In this lizard the pectoral
girdle embraces the heart in what corresponds to the gill-area, beneath
the neck, and spreads itself over and above the cervical ribs. As the
j^ectoral girdle bears the heart and fore-limbs down the neck, the
cervical ribs are reduced to rilj-stumps, a condition that is remaik-
ably well shown in the crocodile. Trdclii/xanrns has pdor powers of
progression, its limbs being small and its neck undeveloped. It is an
interesting animal because it s'hows the early stages of the migration
of the heart from the gill-area to the thorax, during which migration
the left recurrent laryngeal nerve is caught about the aorta and
dragged into the thorax.

The Tuatara lizard, S^/henodon pniirtatus, shows partial suppres-
sion of the ribs of its neck, therein agreeing with that rib suppression
which is seen in the more common lizard.

Voranus varuis is as active a lizard as Trarln/s(iurii< riKjosux is
sluggish. It has a long neck containing six cervical vertebrae ; its
heart has left the pectoral girdle and become an occupant of the
thorax, and its pectoral girdle shows signs of atrophy. In the croco-
dile the pectoral girdle undergoes further atrophy, and tlie posterior
portion is retained to form the coracoid bones. The narrowing which
the girdle undergoes, in being tiansfonued into the coracoids, enables
the seventh vertebra to perform neck mavements ; and thus the
seven cervical vertebrae that iliaractcrisc the mauimaban necis, ai-e
established.

This is a critical time in the evolution of the mammalian neck,
for at this stage the l)()dy is elevated for raised (piadrupedal pro-

Cervical R'ths In Man. 91

<;ressi(iii. The impulses that accomplish this j^veal rhaiiirc ctcli into
the mammalian neck its very fixed characters.

Tlie neck of the crocodile bears fourteen cervical iil)-stumps, made
up of seven pairs; -the first and second pairs are lon'j l)ecause the
pectoral girdle only caught their tii)s in its span of the ventral and
lateral aspects of the ne<;k; The r.cck of V<trainis l)cars less rib tissue
than tlie (.rocodile, and this difYeience expresses the greater move-
ment of the neck that the Varan iis exercises in comparison with the
crocodile.

According to the activity of the neck movements, the denudation
of the cervical ribs that occurs as the pectoral girdle ])asses down tlie
neck, is more or less complete. The stiffness of ribs in the neck
pre^'ents free neck movement. The cervical ribs stiffen the neck,
therefore those impulses that set up active neck movements in asso-
ciation with liml) progression are destructive to cervical ribs.

Copacoid Bones.

These bones maintain the fore-limljs on the lateral aspects of th;*
body in positions that are favourable for swimming and for flight,
therefore they occur in Hinphibiaus, reptiles and birds. As the body
was lifted for mainmalian quadrupedal progression, the lateral position
of the fore-limbs gave place to the ventral position, and the space
occupied by the coracoid bones became needed, and was later occui)ied
by the limbs. In the impulses that established raised quadrupedal
progression, destructive hostility to the coracoid bones existed and
the coracoids are now to be seen as vestiges on the uuniimalian
scapula.

Vestiges are often referred to as being capable of development, and
in this connection it may be pointed out that the Hying-fox. fox-bat
of Pteropus, a mauunal that has acquired the ability to make sus-
tained flight, has not redevel()])ed its coracoids.

The coracoid bones of birds and rei)tiles cross the sternal ends of
the first ribs, and to avoid collision of bone with bone, the sternal
ends of the ribs are fibrous. In this connection it is to be noted that
Keen, in the American Journal of Medical Science, shows a plate of a
human cervical rib that had a very definite fibrous end. The signi-
ficance of Sibson's fascia remains to be ex))lained : a careful investiga-
tion of this structure is likely to establish l^etwccn cervical rib
develoj)ment and Sibson's fascia a close relationship, for it seems
probable that this fascia is the forerunner of a cervical rib.

The. tiluDUs nature of the sternal ends of the first ril>s in reptiles
and birds lends a yielding character to the junction of neck and
chest, whereas the bony first ribs of mammals give a rigidity to the

92 Walter Stapley :

boundary between neck and thorax. In many birds and nianj rep-
tiles the coracoid bones migrate backwards and establish eight and
more neck bones, and as they go back they imperil rib-end after rib-
end, which becomes removed by the associated impulses. In This way
the long necks of birds and reptiles are apparently formed.

Extinct Sea Lizards. — The Irhthyosaunts had cervical ribs. Thp
Plesiomurus had a long neck and no ribs on the first seven bone« :
it may be inferred that Phaiomiirits was slower in the water than the
Ichthyosaurus, and that it first developed its lung neck on swamijy
land, after which it became aquatic.

Elevated Quadrupedal Reptiles. — The Brontosaurus had both a
long neck and tail, each of which contained nuuiy vertebrae. It had
attained a mode of progression that has some resemblance to mam-
uuilian C[uadrupedal progression. It would seem that these extinct
reptiles were not lifted from the ground l)y their limbs when seven
neck bones had been formed, and that body elevation in their case
only occurred after many neck bones had already been established.

Fixed Mammalian Neck-type. — This is characterised by seven neck
bones devoid of cervical ribs, associated with a definite type of neck
curvature that is more or less marked. This type was established by
the mammalian body being lifted up from the ground by the limbs
when seven neck bones had been formed, an event that was accom-
panied by the suppression of the coracoid bones.

Monotremes.- The monotremes show ne'ck structures transitory
between reptilian and mamnuilian type; the platypus, that lives
mostly in the water, has relatively larger coracoid bones than the
echidna, that lives on land and mostly in soil. It would seem that the
a.pproximation of the limbs to the ventral aspect to allow of burrowing
operations has been inimical to the coracoids. The echidna has
better fore-limb development and greater neck curvature than the
platypus. The straighter neck of the platypus contains cervical rib-
stumps, whereas the rib tissue in the curved neck of the echidna is
less of the nature of ri])-stumps and more of the nature of costal prn-
cesses.

The echidna shows rib-stumps merging into costal processes ;
therefore the suppression of ribs into costal processes can be traced,
but I am unable to find evidence supporting the prevalent idea that
costal processes develoj) into cervical ribs, the term "costal proi.-ess "'
being taken as synonymous with vestigial ribs and not with the costal
rudiment. Iho echidna shows that under the impulses that raise the
body from the gi-ouiiil the curvature of \\\c neck lu'conies estahlislied,
and the rib-stunqis disappear into the costal processes.

The hrst ribs of the monotremes dili'er from those of rei>tiles in
being attached to the sternum lyy hone ; tliey differ from mammals

Cerviad liiMx in Man. 93

with which they are chissed, in liavin<r between the sternal rib and
the true rib an intermediate ril). The first ribs of monotremes are
more ri<;id than the tirst ribs of reptiles, but they are less riu'id thnn
the first ribs of mamnuils. In this connection it may Ije I'oiuted out
that in ruminants a diathrodial joint occurs between the ribs and
the sterna cartilages, whitli joint d(jes not upset the fixed neck type,
but it serves to illustrate the fact that impulses may determine the
formation of joints in parts of the body in which joints do not usually
occur.

Neck curvature is practically absent from lizards and crocodiles :
it is slightly marked in the platypus, and more so in the echidna 5
it reaches its highest development in the mammals, such as llamas
and antelopes. The neck curves of birds do not occur in definite
places as they do in mammals, these definite neck curves being due to
the weight-carrying qualities and length of the fore-limbs, and also
to the length of the neck. The neck must be of sufficient length to
enable the animal to gather its food.

The weight of the head suspended at the end of the neck has set up
impulses that have developed the ligamentum nmliae to conserve
tRe muscle energy of the muscles of the neck. The elastic ligament
always exerts its force in definite directions, and it is a prominent
factor in producing the definite neck curves of mammals. In n)an the
ligamentum nuchae is poorly developed, and his neck curv^es are
practically lost.

When it is remembered that fish and snakes have cervical ribs, that
the crocodile has seven pairs of rib-stumps, that the Varnniif is
almost without rib tissue, and that quadrupedal ma'.umals are entirely
free from cervical ribs (except vestiges), it becomes apparent that neck
mobility, when associated with (juadrupedal progression, is hostile to
neck ribs.

Xo quadrupedal mammal normally has cervical ril>s. No mammal
that habitually carries part of its body weight on the pectoral limbs
varies from seven neck bones. All mammalian cervical ribs and all
mammalian variations from seven cervical vertebrae, occur amongst
those mammals that have abandoned quadrupedal progression, such
as Bradijpus, Porpoise, Manatee, Diiyong and Man.

Quadrupedal mammals remain true to neck type because they
perform those neck and limb functions which the mammals were
evolved to perform. Mammals that have abandoned quadrupedal
progression may show destruction of the fixed mammalian neck type,
but all such animals do not vary from fixed type. Those that are
variant have been submitted to impulses of a hostile nature ; great
stability of type occurs when the neck has to operate from a thorax
that has l^een made rigid by the impulses that are associated with

94 Waiter Shipley:

supporting the weitrht of the })ody above ground ; and conversely,
the type is less tixed when the thorax is not made rigid by such
impulses. In the quadrupedal mammals, the transmission of the
wedght of the body from the sides of the ribs through the great
serrated muscles to the scapulae, and thence through the limbs to the
ground, narrows the cephalic end of the thorax by lateral pressure ;
this narrowing of the thorax, which is splendidly shown in the skele-
tons of the horse and giraffe, drives the lungs towards the loins and
keeps the apices of the lungs liehind the anterior liorder of the first
ribs.

The apices of the lungs al)ove the first ribs, the normal anatdmical
position in man, constitutes a divergence from the normal mammalian
position of lung. Ribs unaffected by pressure are curved, probably
because betAveen cui-^^ed ribs the maximum amount of lung may
collect. Be that as it may, the fact stands that the first ribs are the
most curved ribs in the human body, and that the first ribs of the
horse are the straightest in its body. The first ril)s of men are prac-
tically never fractured, because no strain is thrown on them ; the
first ribs of the horse are frequently fractured ]>3' the strain thrown
on them by the weight of the horse's body, and also by the load
superimposed by man. The bearing of these facts on cervical ribs is
that straight first ribs prevent the hmg passing into the neofc,
whereas curved first ribs permit the passage of the apices of the
lungs into the neck, and when lungs gain the mammalian neck, ribs
develop over them as the occupation of the neck becomes more
extensive.

Marsupials. — All these animals, including the extinct Dipi-otndon
ausf7'alis, are true to mammalian neck type. The kangaroos have
acquired a mode of progression that has led tn atrophy, from disuse
of the pectoral limbs and upper thorax. Owing to the inclination of
the body being submitted to great changes, a good degree of neck
curvature exists ; mostly the body is tilted downwards and forwards,
and it is erect for only brief periods ; thus the lungs occupy the posi-
tion that is normal to cpuidrupedal mammals, and they arc not
induced to migrate, as they do in man, towards the neck.

The lungs of the kimgaroo do not encroach upon the neck, there-
fore cervit'al ril)s do not occur in these animals.

Xenarthra. The neck structures of the animals of this order afford
an interesting and difficult study, interesting because of the variation
of type that occurs in the sloths, difficult because abundant material
for comparison is hard to get.

The extinct M f(i<itlitriiiin was true to tyi)c, and tliercfore it is
])robal)le that all tlu^ animals l)clonging to this order wt-re originally
of ordinary mainnialian tvpe.

Cervical Rilis In Man. 95

The dermal arinonr of the ArmndilU) Ims ])revented uiovenient
between the bones of the middle nf the nrik, and they are fused into
a rod of bone : this fact suirfrests that :is the necessity for joints
departs, they disappear.

Bradypux. or three-toed sloth, has been compelled to lenjrthen its
neck to afford the head a wider ran<re of browsing circumference. As
a result of the impiilses generated by its hanging and browsing
habits, the first and second thoracic vertebrae have lost their ribs,
and thereby these l)ack l)ones have been converted into neck bon?s.
The animal s])ends its life hanging l)ody downwards from the branches
of trees, and under the impulses resulting froui this mode of life,
the fixed mammalian type has been broken down, and the rigidity
of the anterior thorax has given place to adaptations that have
extended the movements of the neck to the thoracic region. In this
mammal it is observed that under the necessity for elongating the
neck the first and second thoracic vertebrae are added to the neck,
which is not according to the mammalian rule. Tbe giratYe has elon-
gated its neck, but it has done so under the control of a strictly
quadrupedal gait and consequent!}" its neck is composed of seven
cervical vertebra, according to the law which holds the mammalian
neck true to type. The three-toed sloth, therefore, shows destruction
of the fixed mammalian type, and therefore conclusively proves that
fixed type must, when impulses change and assail its fixed characters,
yield up its stability, become plastic and change into aberrant type.
This fact shows that the law of evolution, like the law of gravity,
is ever operative : the evidence which the three-toed sloth offers in
this direction is augmented by every mammal that has changed from
the fixed mammalian type.

Choloepus. — There is considerable diversity of opinion as to the
number of neck bones that are in the neck of the two-toed sloth.
Owen describes seven bones, Thomson six. and AViedersheim writes
thus of the ribs of mammals : — '" The cervical ribs in nearly all cases
unite completely with the vertebrae, and a vertebrarterial canal is
thus formed. The last cen'ical rib may be well developed and mav
articulate with the corresponding verteltra ((liohiepnx Hofnianii)."

This diversity of opinion may ])e due to the different species of
two-toed sloths varying from one another, as do the two genera of the
order Sirenia, or to -variations within the species itself, as occurs in
man.

The three-toed sloth has a short, thick body which is suspended by
short, thick limbs: the body is too short to sag in the middle of the
back, and it consequently hangs straight in the horizontal. The two-
toed sloths have long, narrow bodies and long limbs, and when
suspended in what would produce a horizontal position in the three-

t)6 ]V<ilh!r Sf<i/>lf'i/ :

toed sloth, the .inimal presents a long II. with the middle of the back
at the lowest part, and the head in a position that is more or less
erect. The two-toed sloth has a body and limbs that are lnn<jf and
lithe enou«rh to gather its food without the neck elongation that has
(iccurred in the three-toed sloth, and in its peculiar position, together
with the fact that it has abandoned quadrupedal gait, it would not
be surprising if dissection should reveal that its lung has risen into
the neck and cervical ribs have formed.

The three-toed sloth is said by Wiedersheim to have cervical ribs
upon the seventh neck bone. A skeleton of this animal in the Mel-
bourne Museum does not show them, and Owen, who went very care-
fully into the question, only depicts rib-stumps on the eighth and
ninth bones. But it is not surprising that Wiedersheim has found
cervical rib structure in the three-toed sloth. In the normal mam-
mals, costal processes are absent from the seventh bone, and this
permits flexion of the neck on the chest, an extensive movement where
neck curvature is great. As the Brndypus, by its peculiar gait,
abolished the curvature of its neck, it may have become necessary to
stiffen up the seventh bone to harmonise it with the sixth above and
the eighth below, so that the neck may be of proper sti'ength in its
various parts.

Clavicles and Flight. — The Pterojms or flying-fox, or fox-bat, is a
mammal that has acquired the power to fly, yet its neck type is true
to mammalian characteristics. This stability of type appears to be
due to several causes : this animal walks on the ground in quadru-
pedal fashion, and not after the manner of birds, on the pelvic limbs :
and in developing its air-planes it has had to do without the great
help that birds derive from the coracoid bones, consequently those
changes that occur in birds through the presence of the coracoid
bones, are not to be seen in the flying-fox. Although the clavicles of
the flying-fox are greatly developed, they can do no more than partly
compensate for the absence of the coracoids, because the position of
the clavicle is anterior and external to the central and interior posi-
tion which the coracoids, if present, would occupy. Tlic clavicles play
no part in the formation of cenncal ribs, but by holding the scapula
off the thorax, they afford the arm the means of executing a wider
range of rotary movement.

If vestigial structures possess the ability to come liack to func-
tional activity, the corat'oid pi'ocesscs of this flying manunal should
re-establish the coracoid bones ; instead of that, the elavicle, by over-
development, throws the pectoral limbs from the ventral to the
lateral thoracic jiosition. Tlie coracoid process remains tmaffo-cted
in spite (if the demands that tiiglit makes upon coraeoid bones. If

('ert'icid Ribs in Man. 97

atavism were a real thing in relation to ribs and other bones, the
tlyinfj-fox should have coracoid bones.

Marine Mammals. — The New Zealand dolphin has had the bones
of its neck fused into a short, solid mass by impulses engendered by
the impact of water on tlie head, which is driven against the water
l)y the force exerted by the tail. This animal does not emerge from
the sea. and consequently it has entirely abandoned quadrupedal gait.
Tlie mammalian character of its neck has been destroyed by the fish-
like impulses that its acquired habits have set up. The Su.iue has
seven Hattened neck bones that occupy verA- little sjiace. On the
second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae the costal
processes are widely separated from the transverse processes ; on the
seventh there are no costal processes, but the head of the first rib
articulates with the body of the seventh vertebra, and its tubercle
with the transverse process of the first thoracic verteljr.i. A similar
arrangement to this occurs in the Beluga Whale.

Seals, sea-lions and walruses form an interesting class of sea
mammals. Their necks are- long, and they are true to nuimmalian
neck type, and this is due to these animals using their fore-limbs to
lift themselves out of the water, and also to their liabit of travelling
over the rocks after the manner of quadrupeds.

At the end of the long neck of the seal are well-developed fore-
limbs. At the end of the shortened neck of the New Zealand dolphin
is an atrophic pair of fore-liml)s. This association of structure sug-
gests that as the limbs descended the neck, during the evolution of
limb progression, a gradual increase in the size of the limbs took
place ; and as the limbs recede up the neck, as quadrupedal progres-
sion is abandoned, and the upper part of the pectoral limb is pro-
jrressively less used, the limbs progressively become smaller as they
approach nearer and nearer to the head. Thus not only can the
evolution of the neck be studied, but it is also possible to study the
involution of the neck.

The seals demonstrate more plainly than any other nuunmals the
effect of quadrupedal progression on struct\ire ; for there can be no
doubt that the long neck of the seal handicaps its progress through
the water, though the neck is retained for the functions it performs
on the land.

The order Sirf/nd offers a valuable mass of material bearing on
cervical ribs. The following quotations are from Flower's Osteology
of Mammalia, 1885, p. 42: —

" In the order Sirenia the Dugong (Halicore) has seven cervical
vertebrae."

" The Rhytina, a large animal of this order, which became extinct
towards the close of last century, has also seven cervical vertebrae,

and the Miocene halitherium had also the same number."

s

98 Walter Stanley:

" The Manatees (^eiius Manatus), of which there are two well-known
forms, one inhabitin<r the West Coast of Africa, and the other the
East Coast of Central and South America, never have more than six
vertebrae in the cervical region."

'' In a specimen of the Manatus senewalensis, in the Museum of the
Collefie of Surjifeons, the second and third are ankylosed by their
bodies. In the skeleton of M. Americanus, in the Museum of Cam-
bridge, the sixth cervical vertebrae carries a distinct moveal)le rib."

Flower does not explain why only six bones occur in the neck of
the manatee, but it is quite clear that the details he describes point
most strongly to the fact that the normal seventh cervical vertebrae
of mammalia has in the manatee developed a paii' of perfect cervical ribs.

The evidence in support of this is open to no other interpretation,
especially in face of the fact that the specimen at Cambridge has
extended the rib-forming process as far as the sixth bone, and also in
face of the added fact that the specimen of the manatee in the Mel-
bourne Museum shows upon the body of the six vertebra demifacets
for the head of the rib that rests in an articulation formed by the
sixth and seventh bones. It also seems that as the miocene
Halitherium was true to uuimmalian type, the manatees have acquired
the change to the six neck bones.

TTie Duciotui occupies a variable position in regard to cervical
ribs ; usually this animal is without cervical ribs ; the specimen in
the Melbourne Museum has a pair of short cervical ribs upon the
seventh cervical vertebra ; they are about two inche<s long, and they
form movable articulations. All the bones of the neck of the dugong
are flattened, and they are not fused by ankylosis.

It is not as easy to ascertain the cause of the development of
cervical ril)s in manatees and dugongs as it is in man, for in these
animals it is necessary to consider two possil)le causes, and then to
determine which is the causative factor. It is therefore necessary
to discuss whether the manatee develops its cervical ribs to stiffen its
neck area, as fish structure suggests, or whether the cervical ribs of
the sirens develop for respiratory purposes. If material could be
readily procured for dissection, the matter could easily be cleared up,
but even at Port Darwin a specimen of a dugong for investigation is
most difficult to procure. If the manatee required a stift'er neck than
it has, impulses would probably set up an ankylosis such as that
which exists in the porpoise ; the ankylosis that is already
established between the second and third bones, places it beyond
doubt that the manatee can, under suital)le impulses, set up ankylosis
of its neck bones.

It is unlikely that the manatee uses twn inoaiis to stitiVn its nwk,
ankylosis and cervical rib formation, when by aiikvli>sis alone the

Cervical Ribs in M<tu. \)\)

]iorpoise has produL-ed a much stiffer neck than tlic manatee. The
ankylosiTi!2r process is all-surticient for stiffening purposes. The ribs
that develop on the seventh vertebra of the manatee are perfect
sternal ribs, and they bear every evidence of being- respiratory ribs.

The iiiipacti(»n and ankylosis of the neck bones of the porpoise has
carried ts head towards its lungs, and the fornuition of cervical ril)s
has carried the thorax of the manatee nearer the head. Marine
aninuds derive some advantage by the lungs being near the head, for
there, by l)uoyancy, they assist the nostrils to come to the surface
when the oxygen su])ply has been used up beneath the water.

It appears that cervical ribs develop in manatees and dugongs in
association with the lungs, and that the need for the stiffening effect
of ribs upon the neck, as an aid to water progression, may be ignored
as a causative factor in the development of cervical ribs.

Tt is difficult to ascertain the rate of speed at which these slow-
moving sirens travel, but as the fast-moving porpoises exhibit im-
pacted necks, it may be inferred that the greater the speed, the greater
the impaction of the neck. When the neck is ankylosed, as the result
of impaction, it is, for all practical purposes, reduced to a condition
that functionally corresponds to the neck area of fish. Under the
sluggish movements that are executed by the dugong, the force that is
set up by the action of the tail muscles, and which is resisted by the
water, is mainly transmitted through the bones of the spine, and it is
not great enough to impact the cervical vertebrae and its effect on the
bones is shown only by their flattened state.

It appears from the study of mammalian neck bones that water
pressui'e, in the absence of quadrupedal progression on land, is a great
destroyer of fixed mammalian neck-type, but that even these ex-
tremely hostile neck impulses are insufficient to destroy mammalian
neck-type when use is made tm rock and ice of the fore-limbs for
supporting the weight of the body.

Mammalian Quadrupedal Progression.

All nianunals that' go on four limbs are not oquallv developed in the
fore and hind limbs, and there are many degrees of quadrupedalitv.
The most perfect quadruped is the horse ; its limbs are entirely
devoted to progression and supporting body weight ; therefore its neck
type is fixed and cervical ribs are unknown in these animals.

Animals that have the power of standing for long periods have
narrow chests ; a narrow chest is a good point in a horse, and great
transverse measurement is the mark of an underbred or slow animal.
The full pectoral region that is so adiuired in soldiers has its counter-
part in the flying-fox. Narrowness of the cephalic end of the thorax

100 WdUrr SUipU'ij:

serves to keep the lungs within the thorax and to prevent them
migrating to the neck.

From the quadrupedal baboon thi'ough the semi-erect apes to erect
man, a jjrogressive comparative decrease in the rehitive size of the
fore-limb to the hind-limb is tn l)e observed. In other words, man's
arms are small compared with his legs ; the- fore-limbs of the baboon
are larger than its hind-limbs. The bal)oon shows on its thorax the
effect of bearing the weight of the l)ody. The neck of the elephant is
compressed by the weight of its head, the neck of swine by rooting,
the neck of man by his head weight. Compression of the neck de-
stroys the neck curves and curtails neck mobility. In man the neck
curves have been obliteirated, and the first ribs have become fully
curved. From these two causes the lung is permitted to rise in the
neck as the erect position has sunk the heart in the thorax and
displaced the lung upward. Lung in the neck has set up impulses
that cause cervical ribs to develop. Such development has occurred
in relation to the disappearance of progressive and other active uses
of the shoulders and arms of the upper limbs, and this fact explains
why cervical ribs are three times as common in women as they are
in men.

As quadrupedal progression has been abandoned by all mammals
that have cervical ribs, and no quadrupedal mammal has cervical ribs,
it may be assumed that the crawling period of infancy is the great
factor that keeps the human neck true to type, or approximately true
to type ; for since the neck of seals keeps true to type, although its
fixed type is challenged every time it swims with its head beneath the
surface, a very moderate amount of quadrupedal exercise is evidently
sufficient to keep the neck true to type.

The Unstable State which follows the Destruction of
the Mammalian Neck-type by Erect Bipedal
Progression.

The migration of the lung towards the neck 'has led to a mass of
lung tissue being piled above the heart, and to an atrophy of the lower
thorax, hence the diaphragmatic base of the human lung is small in
comparison with the phrenic base of the quadrupedal mammalian lung.
As the functions of the lower thorax of man have been transferred to
the upper thorax, diaphragmatic breathing has become less perfect,
and costal breathing has begun to show up. Tliis change
has been caused by the erect position. Tho lightest organs
in the thorax rise to the top, which top, in man, is the widened
space between the first pair of ribs ; the sinking of the heavy heart

Cervical titbfi in Man. 101

displaces the lipfhter luiif; upward ; this sinkinj; is eAMdent from the
fact that tlie ])ericardiuiii in man has a more extensive attachment to
the diaphraiiiii than it lias in any otlicr animal, and also by the aorta
havinof a l(in<j:er ari'h.

Arthur Keith, in liis work on "" The Mechanism of Kespiratinn in
Man," on puj^e 1S7 of " Further Advance^ in Physiology," edited by
Leonard Hill, 1909, draws attention to the observation of Colbeck that
during inspiration the apices of the lungs recede from the neck. In a
rough way this observation can be confirmed by making forced in-
spiration in the front of a mirror and there watching the dimpling
of skin in the neck that takes place with each inspiration. On page
"200 of the same book Keith refers to the observation of Wenckebach,
■ In suljjects of extreme visceroptosis, the diaphragm is thrown out
of action bj- its visceral fulcrum being lost, and breathing is carried on
by an elevation to the upper part of the thorax." This important
observation shows as plainly a« does the effect of tight corset lacing,
that curtailment of the acticm of the diaphragm is compensated by
costal breathing, and there can be no doubt that the diaphragm is a
more efficient muscle of inspiration than the upper intercostal muscles.
As the encroachment of the lungs into the neck is the cause of the
development of cervical ribs, it follows that full curvature of the upper
ribs and loss of the curves of the neck are changes that prepare the
way for the apices of the lungs to pass through the space between the
tirst ribs, and consequently such changes are co-operating factors in
the production of cervical ribs.

In man the costal development that is associated with the seventh
cervical vertebra ranges through all grades from the quadrupedal type
to fully formed cervical ribs. In other words, the seventh cervical
vertebra of man may show : —

(1) The absence of costal processes (extinct ribs).

(2) Costal processes (vestigial ribs).

(3) Cervical ribs in various stages of development.

Far reaching as these changes are, they do not include all varia-
tions, for unequal development of the two sides of the seventh cervical
vertebra is by no means uncommon.

The quadrupedal baboon is, like other quadi'upeds, devoid of costal
processes, and therefore it is probable that during the stage of qiuid-
rupedal progression of the human race the seventh vertebra of man
was constantly without costal processes ; in other words, these ribs
were extinct.

The gorillas in the Melbourne Museum are without costal processes
on the seventh vertebra. An orang, in the same museum, is also
without them. One chimpanzee is without costal processes, another
has them. Of the skeletons of apes in the Melbourne Museum only

102 Walter Sfaph-y :

one lias costal processes on the seventh cervical vertebra— a small
chimpanzee.

The causes that determine the development of cervical ribs appear
to be : —

(1) Disuse of the upper liml)s for the purpose for which they were

developed, viz., tpuidrupedal yn'ogiession. Tlie removal of
the weig'ht of the ])ody from the sides of the ribs has
allowed the tirst and upper ribs to become curved, and
thus an increased space has been afforded throu<^h which
the lung has migrated, hernia fashion, into the neck.

(2) Hostile impulses assailing the established inauinuilian neck

type; the chief of these arise from the presence of lung in
the neck. Nowhere amongst the mammals are jointed ribs
•seen except in association with lung and the function of
respiration.
The following changes have occurred in the huu)an neck : —

(1) The bodies of the neck bones have been flattened by the

weight of the head, and thereby the neck has lost mobility.

(2) The erect position has caused the neck curves to be reduced

and the neck and chest to ))e brought into more direct
line.

Lateral Curvature of the Spine (Scoliosis).

This condition is so extremely rare in (puidrupedal manuuals that
it may be said not to occur in such, aninaals. In man lateral curvature
is common, and, associated with cervical ribs, lateral curvature uuiy be
said to be the rule. The surgical treatment of cervical ribs is insepar-
able from a careful consideration of the part played by lateral
curvature. In the review of the necks of seals and porpoises, it has
been seen that disuse of the fore-limbs for progression on land is
accompanied by a profound atro]>hy of the pectoral liml)s. The term
involution of the nock may be applied to this atrophic condition.
The arms of Man that are associated with cervical ribs are in a state
of atrophy, and they have receded towards the head by the distance
occupied by the cervical ribs. It will be remembered that the fore-
limbs of the slowly moving lizards are near the head, in other AN'ords
in the early evolution of the neck the fore-limbs are near the head.
.Surgeons have repeatedly recorded that lervical ribs shut off by jires-
suro the arterial bUjod supply of the upper limbs, and Keen sh<n\s
an artery that is iiiucli iai^gcr in lumen on llic luoximal than on the
distal side of the cervical rib over which it ]jasses. Anatomy abounds
with evidence that during development arteries mould bone to their
service. Bones support and )>rotect the more delicate tissues of the
body, even the delicate convolutions of the brain leave their indented

Cervical Ribfi in Mun. 103

impressions on the hard inner tables of the chivariiun. The reason
that eerviral ribs appear to stranf^ulate the blood supply of the limbs
is that from the involuted lin)bs no impulses arise to )iut into the
heart and arterj' enouofh force to drive blood in <j:reater (juantity to
the involuted limbs than their atnvphic state demands. If the develop-
ment of cervical ribs occurred with bi<i^ and vigorous pectoral limbs,
there would be force enough in the artery to <rroove the ribs and to
accommodate itself so that the blood supply would be unimpeded.

Tbe treatment of cervical rib is confronted by greater difficulties
than a piece of bone : cervical rib is but the index of an undesirable
evolutionary condition which Oppenheim calls '' stigmata of degenera-
tion." Some of the results of the abandonment of quadrupedal pro-
gression are : —

(1) Weak upper limbs.

(2) Atrophy of the neck.
(.■}) Ck)stal breathing.

{i) Migrated lung.

(5) Depressed heart.

(6) Liability to brain injury through curtailment of neck

mobility.
The practical side of the subject of cervical ribs divides itself into
two sections : —

(1) Tlie treatment of those suffering from the conditions that are
associated with neck ribs. (This is work belonging to
experienced surgeons.)
{'1) The physical training of the huuum body so that the exist-
ing occasional tendency to develop cervical ribs may be
turned into a tendency to remain true to normal neck-
type.
Tlie crawling period of infancy is probably the groat factor keeping
the lunnan neck, arms and thorax true, or a{)pi-oxinuitely true, to
mammalian type; therefore games of a quadrupedal nature are bene-
ficial to children. Growing children should l)e examined periodically
for the detection of any tendency to lateral curvature of the spine.
Exercises for the development of the great serrated muscles should
during the period of growth and development, be taken daily. During
childhood, adolescence and adult life, diaphragmatic breathing should
be regularly practised. Adults starting to take exercises should
remember that there are two types of neck, (1) the normal or mam-
malian ; (2) the aberrant type in which cervical ribs occur.

Tlie exercises that have been'advocated are of the nature of a return
to natural function which the erect position has thrown out of use.
It should bo clearly borne in mind that those adults who have cervical
ribs are likely to cause themselves pain by doing quadrupedal exer-
cises, as their evolved tissues are ill-fitted for such w-ork.

104 Walter Stcqdey : Cervical Ribn in Man.

Summary.

The maiiunalian neck was evolved to co-ordinate its movements with
those of the fore-limbs during elevated quadrupedal progression.
Elevated quadrupedal progression caused the mammalian to become
the most fixed type amongst necks. The mammalian neck remains
fixed to type so long as the functions which compel its evolutions
remain constant. The mammalian neck remains true to type after its
functions have been abandoned until such times as it becomes assailed
by hostile impulses. Cervical ribs in the mammalian neck express
the breaking down of fixed mammalian neck-type.

Literature.

Keen, Cervical Ribs. American Journal of Medical Sciences, Feb ,

1907.
Owen, Comparative Anatomy asd Physiology of Vertebrates, 1866.
Erasmus Wilson, The anatomist's vade-mecum, bS-lu.
Felix Oswald, Sudden Origin of New Tj^pes. Science Progress.
Chaveau's Comparative Anatomy.
Sisson, Veterinary Anatomy, 1910.

Wiedersheim and Parker, Comparative Anatonjy of Vertebratea
Cabot, Differential Diagnosis.
Thomson, Outlines of Zoology, 5th edition.
Morris, Treatise of Anatomy, 4th edition.
International Text-Book of Surgery.
Spencer and Cask, Practical Surgery, 1910.
Keibal and Mall, Manual of Human Embryology.
Keen's Surgery.

Holt, Diseases <jf Infancy and Childhood.
Davis, Applied Anatomy, 1910.

[Proc. Rot. Soi'. Victoria 25 (N.S.), Pr. 1.. 1012.]

Akt. VII. — Coiitrihiitlinis to the Flont of xiu-stralia,
No. 19}

ALFRED J. EWAiri; D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.

(Professor .>f Botany and Plant Physioloj-'y in the University of
Melbourne)

BERTHA REES

(Lecturer on Botany).

(With Plates V. and VI.).
[Read 9tli May, 1912. J.

Abutilon indicum, Sweet. " Indian Lantern Flower." (MalvaLetie).

Coode Island, Victoria. J. K. Tovey, March -iSrd, 1912.

A native of the tropical regions, also found in South Africa. An
exotic not yet sufliciently established to be considered naturalised in
this State.

Ac'AENA MONTANA, Hook, f. (AcAENA TASMANiCA, Bitter, in BibliothecH
botanica, Heft 74, (Stuttgart).). (Rosaceae).

(Determi)ied by Dr. Bitter, Bremen, September, 1911).
Alpine regions of Mount Field East, Tasmania, F. Mueller, Jan.,
1869.

At'AENA ^;anguisokbae, Vahl. forma. (Rosaceae).

(Determined by Dr. Bitter. Bremen, September, 1911).

Summit of Mt. Dayman, New Guinea, 9000 ft., W. E. Armit, 1894,

AizooN KiGiuiM, L. var. angl stifulilm, Sund. " Rigid Aizoon."
( Ficoideae).

Coode Island, Victoria, J. R. Tovey, December, 1908, and March
23rd, 1912.

Indigenous to South Africa. An exotic not yet sufficiently estab-
lished to be considered naturalised in this State.

1 No. IS in Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xxi\. (ii.s.), \i. -Vm, lltll.

]06 Eivart and Bees:

Aliuzzia amoexissima. F. v. M., Fragm. viii., p. 165. (Leguniinosae).

This plant was given in the first Census, from New South Wales,
Queensland and Victoria, omitted from the second Census (presumably
inadvertently), and restored in the manuscript. The only specimens
in the Herbarium are the original types from the north-east boundary
of New South Wales. There is no Victorian specimen or record of
this plant, which must hence be deleted from the Victorian Flora.

Ambrosia artemisifolia, L. " Roman Wormwood." (Compositae).

Wimmera, Victoria, M. Ouerin. 1890: Tabilk. Victoria. Mrs. James,
1J)U5 ; Shepparton, Victoria, J. C Walker, October, 1911; Coode
Island, J. K. Tovey, March 2:3rd, 1912.

This Composite, a native of North America, recorded as a u:arden
escape in the " Weeds, Poison Plants and Naturalised Aliens of Vic-
toria," p. 94 (19U9), has now evidently permanently established itself
as a naturalised alien in Victoria.

Andrupugon gryllus, L. (Gramineae).
North Australia, Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

Andropugon sbriceus, R.Br. (Gramineae).
North Australia, Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

Anthistiria avenacea, F. v. M. (Gramineae).

Roper Plains, North Australia, Dr. Gilruth, 19'11.

'■ Locally known as Blue Grass. Generally eaten last by stock."

Anthistiria memhranacea, Lindl. (Gramineae).

North Australia. Dr. Gilruth, 1911.
" Stock fairly fond of this grass."

Anthyllis vulxerauia, \j. '■ Kidney Vetch." (Leguminosae).

Lilydale district, Victoria, Mr. Kerr, January, 1912.

This herliaceous perennial plant has now established itself in the
Lilydale district, and may l)e considered naturalised. It is a native of
Euiope, Asia and Africa, and is a useful pasture plant for dry pastures.

Aristida calycina, R.Br. (Gramineae).
North Australia, Dr. Gilnith, 1911.

Astreula rHiru' )11)Es. F. v. M., var. i^appacea. lieutli. ((iramineae).
Bull Oak Creek. North Australia, Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

Flora of Australia. 107

Atrii'LEx sTU'iTATiM, Beiitli. ■' Kidney Sallhush." (Chciiuiiodiaft'ae).

Werribee Gorjre, Victoria, V. R. H. St. John, Januaiy 29th, 1912.
A new locality for this jilant. imly previously recorded in Victoria
from the north-west.

Bartsia Trixago, L. " Trixa«>;o liartsia." (Scrophulariaceae).

Near Newstead, County of Talbot, Victoria, F. M. Reader, Oct.,
1909 ; Boorhanian, North-east Victoria, per J. Callander, October,
1911.

This naturalised alien is now recorded from four widely separated
localities, and is evidently spreadinjr. Like " The Couiuion Bartsia "
(Bartsia latifolia, Sibth. and Sni.), it is probably parasitic on the
roots of grasses.

Brassic'A aupressa, Boiss. "Hoary Brassica." (Cruciferae).

A native of Europe, now naturalised as an alien round al)out Mel-
bourne and in the Sale district. It has not previously been recorded.
It has no pasture or economic value, and is usually a weed of waste
places. If neglected it is capable of becoming a troublesome weed in
cultivated ground and even in pastures, owing to its free powers of
seeding. Sheep appear to eat the young shoots, espc'cially when
pasture is scarce.

Caltcotome sriNosA, Link. " Spiny Broom." (Leguminosae).

Growing along roads at Bolwarrah, near Ballarat, C. French, junr.,
July 27th, 1909, spreading on the top of the clitfs at Mornington, C.
French, junr., March :5rd, 1912.

This plant, a native of Spain, can now be regarded as a permanently
established naturalised alien. It was possibly originally planted in a
hedge, thence running wild. It has no known economic value beyond
its value as a hedge plant, and is quite capable of becoming a trou-
blc'some weed if neglected.

Cnicus henedktus, L. (Carhenia bexedicta, Adans.) "' Blessed
Thistle." (Compositae).

North Ovens Shire, Victoria, Feb., 1905 ; North Wangaratta, C. T.
Kidd, Oct.. 1911 ; Springhurst, J. E. Aldridge, Nov., 1911.

This hardy annual, a native of the Mediterranean regions, was re-
corded in the ■" Weeds, Poison Plants and Naturalised Aliens of Vic-
toria," p. 94 (1909), as a garden escape, but it has now apparently
established itself and may be considered naturalised. According to

108 Etvart and Rees :

the 1905/6 Botanical Congress, Carbenia benedirta, Adans., becomes
Cnicus benedicMis, L., as the only representative of the genus Cnirus,
and all other species described under Cnirus must be transferred to
either Carduus or Cirsiuni.

Crtptaxdra UNCiNATA (F. X. M.), Gruning. (Uhanniaceae).

This plant was originally described by Mueller as Beyer ia viscosa,
var. uncinata (Euphorbiaceae), and by Baillon as Beyer ia (?) uiicinata.
Benthani states " male flowers unknown." Gruning, to whom speci-
mens were sent in connection with the preparation of Engler's
Ptianzenreich, finds five stamens to be present, and transfers the species
as above. The original label by Mueller is " Beifera risrosa, Miq., var.
iiiiriiiafd.'' A second label, apparently by Baillon, reads, " Bei/ena (?)
uiirliiafa. In Adansonia VI. (Spec, certe al). B. r/svosy/ distincta),"
and it was published by Baillon as Beyeria (?) itiiriiiata.

DiANTHUS Armkria, L. " Deptford Pink." (Caryophyllaceae).

Upper Gundowring, Victoria, A. B. Braine, December. 1911.

This European plant has only previously been recorded in Victoria
friini Darebin Creek (see Benth. Fl. Aust, vol. i., p. 156 (1863) ), and
was placed in the list of naturalised aliens in the " Weeds and Poison
Plants of Victoria," p. 76 (1909), as probably only a garden escape.
It appears, however, to be now permanently naturalised.

Eragrustis tenella, Beauv. (Gramineae).

Water-course bottom. Bull Oak Creek, Northern Territory Exiiedi-
tion, Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

Eriochloa punctata, Hamilt. (Gramineae).

Bull Oak Creek, N(u-th Australia. Dr. Gilruth, 1911.
■' Fairly common, eaten readily by stock."

Grindelia SQi arkosa, Dunal. " Tar-weed." (Compositae).

Kerang, Victoria, February, 1905 : Tatura, W. F. Mahon, Feb.,
1909; Shire of Kerang, H. IJutson Hooper, April, 1912.

This plant is a native of North-west America. It has no economic
value, but appears to be establishing itself slowly as a naturalised
alien in this State. Though first recorded in the Kerang shire in
1905, it is still scarco there, and is found mainly on close, retentive or
clayey soils.

Flora of Atidralla. lU'J

Hermanma velutina, DC. ■■ Velvet Herimmnia." (Sterciiliaeeae).

Coude Isliind, Victoria. .1. I{. Tovey, March •-'.'{rd. I91l>.
Indiireiious to Soutli Africa. An exotic not yet siitHciently estab-
lished to be considered naturalised in this State.

Ht'YLEYA, Ewart. new <renus. Verbenaceae. Tribe 2, Viticeae.
Suh-tril)e 3, Oxereae.

Ovary distinctly 2 or 4 lobed. Calyx 5 cleft. Plants erect, leaves
undivided.

Flowers rather large, solitary, without bracteoles in the axils of
leaves. Calyx deeply cleft into 5 segments. Corolla tube narrow and
elongated, about the same width throughout, limb spreading into 5
segments. Stamens 4, protruding beyond the tube of the corolla.
Anthers 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary 2-celled, each cell
containing one anatropous ovule attached to the side near the base,
style long, stignui slightly bifid.

This genus differs from Faradaya, the only other Australian genus
of this sub-order, in having the calyx 5-lobed (instead of 2), 5-lobed
corolla (instead of 4), equal stamens (not didynamous), ovary 2-lobed
(not 4), in being an upright herb (not a woody climber), in the flowers
solitary (instead of in terminal panicles).

These distinctions are almost sufficient to make an additional sub-
tribe.

HexLEYA LixiFOLiA, Ewart and Rees. (Verbenaceae).

Flowers on long pedicels without bracteoles in the axils of opposite
leaves (usually 2) near the a]:M?x of the stem. Calyx about 5 lines long,
tubular below, spreading above into 5 narrow acuminate segments,
sparsely beset with hairs on the outer surface.

Corolla tul)e about 1 inch in length. Segments about half the
length of the tube, with tufts of hair at the base, somewhat obovate,
regular or nearly so. Stamens exerted, filaments attached to corolla
tube below the rim, protniding about \h lines beyond it. Anthers
somewhat .sagittate with a bluntly pointed tip. Ovary dark, almost
black in dried specimen. Style almost 1 inch in length, slightly
bifid. Stigma reaching to the opening of the corolla tube. No fruit
present on the specimen.

Locality — Port Darwin, North Australia, X. Holtze, 1892.

Herbaceous plant about 1 foot in height. Stem 4-angled, chan-
nelled, and devoid of hairs. Leaves l^-S inches in length, long, linear,
accuminate, opposite or sometimes alternate towards base of stems,
under surface sparsely pitted with minute glands.

110 Ewart and Rees :

TjAsiosi'ERMrM RADiATL'M. Trevir. (Conipositae).

Hitrhways in Tasmania, R. A. Black, April, 1912.

A native of South Africa which has reached Tasmania either as a
garden escape or with imported seed. It is occasionally i^rown in
Botanic Gardens, hut is of no economic importance.

Mercurialis annua, L. " Annual Dog's Mercury." (Euphorhiaceae).

Coode Island, Victoria, J. R. Tovey, March 23rd, 1912.

A native of Europe and Africa which may be classed as an exotic
not yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised. The
plant contains a substance which turns the leaves, when drying, to the
colour of indigo blue, and also gives a bluish tinge to the milk of
cows eating it.

Oleandra nbriipormis, Cav. (Filices).

Recorded as new to Australia in Proc. Linnean Soc. N.S. Wales,
vol. xxxiv., p. 368. Specimens of this plant from the Sydney Botanic
Gardens did not agree with those in the National Herbarium, and
Dr. Christensen suggests that it mav be a subfjlabrous form of 0.
Cumingii, J. Srn., which is a native of China, India, Assam, Malay,
Luzon and Tahiti, and has the same shape of lamina.

Baker says (Synopsis Filicum, p. 303), " Probably this {0. CumitKjii)
occurs in tropical Australia, as there are specimens among Leichhardt's
plants."

Panicum Crus Galli, L. " Barnyard Grass." (Gramineae).

North Australia, Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

" Fairly common, though much scarcer than Mitchell Grass. Stock
eat it readily."

Paspalum scrobicllatum, L. (Gramineae).
North Australia, Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

Petroi'HILA incurvata, W.V.F., Journal of But any, vol. ")(), 1912,
p. 22. (Proteaceae).

Mt. Churchman, West Australia, Young, 1870 (0: Wathenxi, West
Australia. Max Koch, 1905, No. 1522.

Tliis plant was originally described by Baron Mueller as 1'. semi-
furrafa, var. phi ni folia, in Fragmenta, vol. x., p. 47, 1876, owing to
the resemblance of the cones to this species. Owing to the absence of
flowers the stigmas were not seen, but the later specimens show them
to 1)0 distinctly fusiform, so that apparently the new species formed
from tliis variety is based ujion valid characters apart from the
foliatre.

Flora of A astnilta. Ill

PiiEHALHM ArRK'is (Diels). (Rutaceiic).

This species was described by Diels as Erio-iteiiioii aprirus, in
Engler Bot. Jahrb.. band xxxv., p. 321 (1905). Tliis pb\nt also has
<;labrous or sliirlitly Lilandular filaments, and must therefore be placed
under Plifha/iuni as in the next species.

Phebalium dbserti (Pritzel). (Rutaceae).

This plant was described as a new species under Erio^femon
(Phebalium) iiitermedius, Ewart, in Proc. of the Roy. Soc. of Viet..
vol. xix., p. 40 (1906), but was subsequently found to be the same as
the new species described by Pritzel as Erinstemon desertl, in Engler's
Bot. Jahrl)., l)and. xxxv., p. 321 (1905).

Since, however, the plant has glabrous filaments, and since it
appears best, if only for practical convenience, to adopt the generic
subdivision of Eriostemon as given in Bentham's Fl. Aust., vol. 1, and
also in Engler's Pflanzenfamilien, the plant must be placed in
Phehalium, as above.

Prasophtllum ciliatum, Ewart and Rees, new species. (Orchidaceae).
Sect. 3. Genoplesium. Labellum ciliate or fringed.

Green Valley, County of Talbot, Victoria, F. M. Reader, June 19th,
1910.

Stem about 5 inches long, bract small and less than half an inch
below the inflorescence. Spike about h inch long. Lateral sepals
united at e.xtreme base, slightly gibbous, uai row lanceolate, acuminate,
margins curved inwards, 2^-3 lines long, ovate accumate hooded.
Lateral petals slightly shorter than dorsal, narrow, lanceolate, ending
in long fine point with dark stripe dnwn the centre. Labellum
attached by a claw to the base of the column, about H lines long, long
and narrow, in a blunt tip, channelled down centre, margin fringed
with short cilia, inner plate has the margins free and curving slightly,
extending to the end of labellum. Column about \\ lines long, about
as long l^elow anther as anther. Lateral appendages about the same
length as anther, adnate to base of column, divided into 2 short lobes,
inner shortly acuminate outer somewhat falcate, with outer margin
fringed with short cilia. Stigma comparatively large, mstellum small
and extending but little above the base of the anther. Ovary about
\h lines long, o^'al and swollen looking in the fully-opened flowers.

Appears nearest to /'. Wvollsii, from which it differs in having
larger flowers, no cilia on lateral i>etals, and in the form of the
labellum.

112 El cart and Rees :

PuAsoi'HYLLUM DEspECTANS, Hook, f., viir. INTERMEDIA. Ewait and Kees.

(Orchidaceae).

Eucalyptus forest. Green Valley, County of Talbot, Victoria, F. M.
Reader, May 4th, 1910.

In spite of slipfht difference in the shape and curvation of the
lateral appendages (see Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. 2.3, Pt. 1), this speci-
ujen seems best referable to the above variety.

In view of the amount of variation which seems to be shown in the
lateral appendages of the column, it is questionable whether too much
attention is not attached to them in classification.

Prasophtllum Suttoni, Rogers and Rees. (Orchidacea).

Buffalo Plateau, Victoria, Dr. Sutton, December, 1902.

Plant about 10 inches, fistula about 3 inches below spike, leaf about
2 inches. Spike consists of about 9 flowers, from which the colours
have been discharged in the process of drying, although the faint tints
on all the sepals and the dark tints on the column suggest that these
have been purple. The petals look as though they had been white,
with a coloured dark central streak.

Flowers very shortly stalked and subtended b}' a small semi-
ovate bract about as broad as long. Lateral sepals about 4 lines,
quite free, not gibbous, rather narrow lanceolate, dark stripe down
middle, convex below, channelled on top (i.e., labellar side). Dorsal
sepals about 3 lines, rather narrowly hooded, pointed, not recurved.
Lateral petals broader and longer than lateral sepals, i\ lines, rather
broadly linear with triangular tips, membranous, with dark stripe
down middle. Lateral index 112. Labellum on short claw, obovate
recurved at an angle of about 60 deg. at the middle, proximal part
measuring about 2 lines from claw to bend, not gibbous, with entire
margins, distal part measuring about 2 lines from bend to tip, latter
rather broadly blunt and rounded, margins and surface almost entirely
membranous, slightly crenulated ; callous portion rather narrow,
channelled, increasing in thickness towards the bend and ending
slightly beyond the latter in 2 raised lines. Anther not pointed,
hidden l)ehind rostellum and nnich shorter than latter. Appendages
of column lai'ge, reaching quite to level of rostellum, falcate, with
small basal ovate l()l)e, adnate only to base of column. Rostellum
voluminous, purple, much higher than anther, triangular. Stigmatio
surface large. Ovary short (about 2 A lines), turgid, obovate, on very
short pedicel.

The s])ccies appears to be perhaps most closely allied to /^ fiarinii,
though also related to other species. The examination and descrip-
tion of tlu^ ]ilant was carried out jointly l)y Di'. Rogers and Miss Rees.

Flora of Aihdralia. 113

Sarga sTii'oinEA, Ewart and White, Proc. Roy. Sou. Yiot., vol. xxiii.,
1911, ]i. 207, Andkopogon Sargus. Ewart.

Tlie ii'enus ' Sania." tlioiiLrh ori<iinallv jilaeed in a widely different
]>()sition, would have been practically a revival of the sub-<i:enus
Chri/sopoi/iiii, which it is new generally agreed can best be^ referred to
Andropoi/on. The description o-f the plant already given stands with-
out modification.

Seshaxia aouleata, Pers. (Leuuminosae).
Northern Territory Expedition, North Australia. Dr. (xilruth. 1911.

SiLEXE COXKU, L. ■' Striated Catchtly.'" (Caryophyllaceae).

Bridgewater. South-west Victoria, per J. L. Wyatt, Nov., 1911.
This plant is a native of Europe and Asia. Tt usually grows near
the sea, and has apparently been established for some time in this
district nf Victoria, though not ]ireviously recorded. It is not likely
to become a serious weed, thouirh of no economic value.

Stera (Ewart. Contrib. to Flora of Aust.. No. 18, in Pi'oc. Roy. Soc. of
Vict., vol. 24, p. 263, 1911) = C-ratysttlis (Spencer le Moore, in
Journal of Botany, vol. 43, p. 13(S). (Compositae).

This genus and its 3 species are made from Pluchea ronorepliala,
F. V. M.. and its two varieties, mirmphylla and inthfipinescent. I was
unaware at the time that Spencer le Moore had already made this
change, but the fact that the same decision has been arrived at from
two sources quite independently, is a sufficient proof, if any were
needed, of the necessity of raising this new genus on the basis of
" Pluchea ronorephala, F. v. M." Spencer le Moore's generic name
being the earlier one has. of course, priority.

Thryptomexe racbmulosa, Turcz. (Myrtaceae).
Coolgardie, West Australia, Mrs. Markes. 1895.

TrICHODESMA LATISEPALUM, F. v. M. (TrICHOOBSMA ZEYLANICrM, R. Br.,

var. LATi.sEPALUM, F. V. M.) (Boraginaceae).
Bull Oak Creek, Northern Territnry. Dr. Gilruth, 1911.

Urospermum Dalechampii, F. W. Schmidt. (Compositae).

Domain, near Botanic Gardens. Hobart, Tasmania, R. Black, Feb.,
1912.

A native of Snuthern Europe, now introduced into Tasmania, either
by the agency of impure seed or as a garden escape, but not yet suffi-
ciently established to be considered naturalised.

114 Ewart and Reen: Flora of Australia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate V.
Hv.deyd linitoliii, Evvai t and Rees.

Fig. a. — Portion of plant.

b. — Single flower with calyx and corolla tubes split longitudin-
ally and opened back,
c. — Single anther, back view.
d. — Single anther, front view,
e. — Ovary,
f. — Ovary opened, showing ovule in one cell.

Plate \l.

Franophylhnn. sp.

Fig. a. — Prasophyllum Suttoni.

b. — Column of same, side view.

c. — ^Colunin of same, front view.

d. — Lateral petal of P. ciliatum.

e. — Labelliim of same, side view.

f. — Labellum of same, flattened out.

g. — Column of same, one appendage turned back.

h. — Column of P. despectans, var. intermedia.

Vroc. E.S. Victoria, 1!)12. I'lat<- V

Huxleya linifolia, Ewart and Eees.

Proc. K.S. Victoria, 1912. Plate Yl.

Prasophyllum, sp.

[Pkoc. Koy. Soc. A'lCTOKiA, 25 (N.S.), Pt. I,, l'J12.]

Ar'I". Vill. -The A>icf'iil <in<l l)i'f>ccni of Water in Trers.

By ALFRED J. EWAHT, l).8c., Ph.D, F.L.S.
(Professor of Botany aiul I'lant Physiolo<^y in the MellnKxrni' University).

(Witli Platp VII.).
[Rea-l 9th May, ];)12. .

The question us to whether the aid nf livinp: wood tissue is neoes-
sarv for the continuous conduction of water up loft)' trees is still an
unsettled one, bein<i" answered by some investigators in the affirmative.
and hx others in the negative. According to the theory put forward
by Dixon and Joly, as well as by Askensay, the ascent is wholly, or
almost wholly, due to the suction exercised by the transpiring leaves
upon the cohering columns of water suspended from the:ii in the wood
vessels ; so that the water is drawn up from the roots in umch the
same way that a rope might be hauled up bv hand. In a previous
paperl it was pointed out that an explanation was required, not merely
as to how the water was held suspended in the vessels, but also as to
how the kinetic resistance to How was overcome, and it was shown by
calculation and experiment that in actively transpiring trees the total
kinetic resistance to flow might be several times greater than the
statical resistance due to the height of the tree. In other words,
the suspended water columns in the vessels might at their highest
points in the tallest trees, be under a tension equivalent not merely
to a head of .300 feet of water, but to one of one or two thousand feet,
or even more. Water columns are capable of standing such tensions,
but only under conditions which are not presented in the wood vessels
of trees — namely, the water cohimns must be entirely free from air or
dissolved gases, they must be enclosed in rigid walls inqjermeable to
water and to dissolved gases, and apparently, also, to judge from some
of the experiments performed, the water must be as free as possible
from suspended solid particles. Further, so far as I am aware, all the
physical experiments which have been successful in demonstrating a
high tensile strength for columns of water, have l)een carried out with
">t:or.a'y ?o!'v.>:ins. It "s cpiite nn open miestion ns to wliethcr a
column of water flowing with fair rapidity through a tube would
exhibit the same tensile strength as a stationary one, particularly if
its flow were interrupted by roughness and occasional transverse par-
titions, producing eddy currents or irregular flow instead of steady
stream line flow. This question is, of course, one for physicists, liut

1 Phil. Trans. Hoy. Soc. London, B., vol. 19S, 1905, p. 41

116 Alfred J. Eivart :

until it is answered it is not permissible to assume that the results
obtained in glass tubes with stationary columns of water can be
directly applied to the flowing columns of water, surrounded by the
rough, water impregnated walls of the, wood vessels, which are also
readily permeable to air under pressure.

In a second paper, experiments were conducted on entire trees to
determine whether any of the high tensions postulated in the water
tension theory in the ascent of sap, could be detected in the wood of
actively transpiring trees. The results obtained were in the negative,
but, as pointed out by Dixon, the ordinary manometer experiments
are unable to provide against the existence of air cavities in the wood
tissue, so that the pressure exhibited by a manometer might be con-
siderably less than that actually existing in the cavities of the wood
vessels themselves. In any case this very fact makes it difficult to see
how a high tension could be maintained for any length of time in a
w^ater column contained in a tube w^hose walls were saturated with
water, and which bordered externally upon air spaces. Tlie appear-
ance of the minutest bubble of air in such a column of water would
immediately cause its tension to be reduced to some fraction of an
atmosphere. Actual observations, which have been confirmed by
more than one observer, have shown that the wood vessels in the
functioning wood of actively transpiring plants do actually contain
bubbles of air, and hence cannot possibly transmit any tension exceed-
ing an atmosphere.

In the same paper an account was given of an experiment with an
entire tree, carried out on the same lines as those by Strasburger —
namely, by cutting an entire tree at its base, and allowing first a
poisonous and then a coloured solution to be drawn up the trunk of
the tree. TTie experiments showed that there was a distinct tendency
on the part of the sap to avoid the parts of the wood which had been
killed l)y poison, and to flow in the older parts of the wood to which
less poison had penetrated, but in which the flow is usually least active
under normal conditions.

Apparently this pointed to tlie necessity of the existence of living
wood cells to maintain the function of the wood vessels as conducting
chambers, even for short lengths of time, and this would tend to show
thiit the water tension theory onlv afforded a paiiial explanation of
the ascent of water in tall trees. It was, however, obviously .advisable
to complete such observations l)v experiments canicd out on tlie
tallest trees available of 200 to :^I10 feet in lieight. The initial diffi-
culty lay, however, firstly in the comi»arative inaccessilulity of such
trees for scientific experiments, and secondly in the difficulty and cost
of caiTving out the ri'(|uii-('d mani]uilations. whii'h would include very

1 I'liil Trails. Koy. Soc. London, 11, vol. 100, y. 341.

Ascent and Dencent of Water in Tree><.

\V

strontr scaffolding and special apparatus for rapidly cuttino^ the base
of the tree and avoidinfr its exposure to air. Accordinsrly a simple
]ireliniinary experiment was tried upun a small tree of Acacia
iiioUisxima- irrowing- in the Herbarium <rrounds. The tree was four
years old, 25 feet high, and had a circumference, l^ feet above
ground, of 26 inches. Tlie spread of the tree was 14 feet, and the head
was nearly cylindrical up tn 6 feet from the top, the lowest branch
being 5 feet from the ground. The l)ase of the tree was surrounded
by a cup made of canvas, and cemented until watertight. The cup
had a capacity of 15 litres when filled u^d to a uuu'k below the brim.
In March, after filling the cup Avith water, a ring of bark and wood
was cut away under the water near the base of the cup, by means of a
sharp chisel, to a depth of 1^ inches all round the tree. The remain-
ing core of wood was quite strong enough to support the entire tree,
liut was apparently inactive in the ascent of sap. (See PI. V[I.). Sufti-
cient copper sulphate was then added to make a 5 per cent, solution, and
after some 26 litres ha'l been absorbed, which meant the addition of a
large amount of water, the copper sulphate remaining was washed out
and replaced by a solution of eosin. As can be seen from the data
given beneath, tho au;ount of water absorljed was considerable, but
rapidly fell off after the first few hours.

10

11.30

12.30

1.3U

2. 30

3.30

4.30

10.30

Time.
Wednesday, 13lli
a. 111. - 11.30 a.iu.
a.m. - 12.30 p.iu

.\iiiount absorbed.

p. Ill
p. Ill

() litres.
7 litres.
1.30 p.m. - H\ litres.
2.30 p.m. - 5 litres.

Copper sulphate replaced by eosiu.
p.m. - 3.30 p.m. - t.j litres,
p.m. - i.30 jj.iii' - 22 litres,
p.m.- 10.30 p.m. - i> litres, (li litres per hour)
p.m.- 9.30a.m. - 11 litres. (1 litre per huiir)

Thursday, 14th

!t.30 a.m. - 10.30 a.m. Fresh surfaces ut wood cut
10.30 a.m. - 11.30 a.m. - 2 litres.
11.30 a.m. - 12.30 p.m. - l\ litres.
12.30 p.m. - 1.30 p.m. - 2i litres.

1.30 p.m. - 2.30 p.m.
2.30 p.m. - 3.30 p.m.
3.30 p.m. - 4.30 p.m.
4.30 p.m. - 10.30 p.m.
10.30 p.m. - 10.30 a.m.

l.j litres.

Ij litres.

1 litre.

5 litres (0.83 par hour)

5 litres (0.83 per hour)

Friday, loth.

10.30 am. - 11.30 a.m. - ^ litre.
11.30 a.m. - 12.30 p.m. - 1 litre.

- Briii'lit suu

Overcast, clearing
.slightly to mill-day

Cloudy

Siuii and slight clouds

Cloudy

Slight sun

Bright 3Un

118 Alfred J. Etvart :

The following table from the Melbourne Observatory records gives
the hygrometric conditions for the first day of the experiment.

March 13th, 1912.

Time

Di-.v Bulb Wet Bulb.

Computed relative

humidity.
100 = satuaratioi).

Evaporation at a free surface
of water.

9 a.m.

- 62.5 - 55.2 -

63 pel- ceot. -

Amoiiut of water evaporated

3 p.m.

- 65.3 - 56.0 -

54 „ „

from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m.

6 p.m.

- 60.8 - 53.0 -

■ 58 „ „

0.086 inches.

With a spread of 14 feet diameter, the tree covered an area of
ground of 142,588 square centimetres. With a rate of evaporation of
2.19 millimetres per 9 hours, this would give a total loss from a free
surface of water of 31 litres, or 3.4 litres per hour. The estimated rate
for the whole tree from branch observations made at 10 a.m., 1.30
p.m. and 4.30 p.m., represented an average total of 2.2 litres per hour
during the same period. This is considerably less than the actual
amount absorbed, and less than the amount that would have evapor-
ated from a free surface of water covering the same area as the spread
of the tree. Since the leaflets of the cut branches were, however, in
all cases partially folded by the close of the experiment, it is possible
that the estimated rate of transpiraton was somewhat less than
actually occurred in the tree as a whole.

In all experiments in which eosin is used to indicate the ascent
of water, the lateral diffusion of the dye makes it not altogether a
perfectly safe guide as to the exact path of the Avater current. For
this reason, copper sulphate was used as the poison to precede the
eosin. ^

When copper sulphate is added to a strong solution of eosin, the
greater part of the dye is precipitated, and hence it was thought that
the ascending eosin would be fixed in the walls of the wood vessels
by the copper sulphate impregnating them, and so largely or entirely
prevented from lateral diffusion. This was actually the case. An
examination of the wood showed the almost exclusive part played by
the wood vessels in the ascent of sap. No indication could be seen of
any connection of the medullary ray cells with the a-scending stream,
but as the copper sulphate had killed then before the eosin had
entered tlie stem, this fact affords no evidence one way or another.

In addition, the presence of copper sulphate in the wood caused the
eosin to be held back to such an extent as to make it useless as a
measure of the movement of the sap. Thus when the tree was cut
down at the end of the third day, eosin was only perceptil)le in the
main trunk up to a height of 10 feet, and was entirely restricted to
the outer layers of wood 1 to IJ inches in depth at the base, and
tapering to a depth of ^ inch upwards.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1912. Plate VII.

Ascent aiul Descent of Water in Trees. 119

Traces of copper were, however, detected in the outer wood at the
top of the tree, after incinerating and treatinp: the residual ash with
a drop of nitric acid and an excess of auniionia. At the same time,
however, it was found that the posin solution had also travelled down
the stem, and it was traced out for distances up to 7 feet along the
lateral roots, up to roots less than | inch in diameter. Judging from
the depth of colouration, a greater flow had taken place down the
stem than up it from the point of section. We are so accustomed to
think of the sap as always ascending, that this result seems at first
sight somewhat surprising. As a matter of fact, tne water would flow
more easily downwards, particularly if the central intact wood cylinder
exercised a suction upon the roots below the point of injury. The
fact that this is possible, however, makes this method of investigation
unsuitable fur application to the largest trees, unless two conditions
can be fulfilled, which are --(a) it must l)e possible to cut away the
whole of the alburnum, leaving only perfectly non-conducting
duramen ; (b) the lower cut surface must be blocked with wax or some
siuiilar substance.

The total amount of liquid absorlied by the upper and under cut
surfaces from 10 a.m. to 4.30 p.m. on the first day, was no less than
33-i litres, or 5.1 litres per hour. A large proportion of this, how-
ever, may have been absorbed either to bi-ing the wood to full satura-
tion point, or a portion may have actually oozed out from the roots
into the soil. That pressure applied to a cut stem will cause water
to exude out through the roots, is easily shown, and the pressure of
continuous columns of water in the tallest trees, if it were trans-
mitted directly to the absorbing roots would certainly cause an out-
ward flow through them. Whether the forces preventing this are
derived solely from the suction of the leaves, or are partly the result
of agencies acting in the stem along the path of the transpiration
current, is still an open question, to which the foregoing experiment
affords no decisive answer.

[Pboc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.). Pi- I-> 1912.

Ar'I'. IX. — Description of Two New f,schnoch(toiis froiii Western

Fort, Victoria.

By A. R BASSET HULL

(Sydney).

Commi;nicated \)y C. J. Gahriel.

(With Plate VIII. ).

[Eead 11th July, litl2].

The two shells here described were dredged in from 6 to S fathoms,
between Phillip and French Islands, Western Port, Victoria, by Mr.
C. J. Gabriel, of Abbotsford. They were submitted to Professor Joh.
Thiele, of the Imperial Zoological Museum, Berlin, who expressed the
opini(jn that they were both new species, and after careful examina-
tion I concur, although one of the shells has already been taken by
dredging at Frederick Henry Bay, Tasmania, and identified by Tate
and May as Ischnochiton tateanus. It is, howeiver, undoubtedly
quite distinct from that species.

The small shell, which I propose to associate with the finder, is
considered by I'rot'. Thiele to be certainly an Isrhnochituii, although I am
inclined to think that it possesses more of the characteristics of the
LepidopJeuriduc, inasmuch as valves ii. to viii. are unslit, and even
the anterior valve has very rudimentary slits.

The types of both species are in the collcitiun of Mr. C. J. Gabriel.

1. Ischnochiton gabpieli, n. .sp. (PI. VIIL, Figs. 1, a, b, c, d, e, f).

Shell small, elevated, carinated. Colour yellow, irregularly macu-
lated with brown. Anterior valve fineh' granulose, the granules tend-
ing to a radial arrangement, the rays slightly curved. Median valves,
lateral areas slightly raised, covered with irregularly disposed granules ;
central areas with granules arranged in radiating rows, curving out-
wardly and diverging upwards oa-er the juguui. Posterior valve irre-
gularly granulose ; mucro obtuse, behind the middle. Girdle covered
with small, smooth densely imbricating irregular scales. Interior
white ; sinus broa<l and shallow ; anterior valve interiorly grooved and
with 9 slits ; median and posterior valves unslit.

Proc. K.S. Victnria. ]U\2. Plate VIFI.

"^(^

F/C /

^i

FIC2

7C ka) ^''^^UliP

' ~^. FIC 1(6)

FICI{d)

F/C/w

F/C kF)

% ) Ul^

r/C2(^;

5^^i^:

FIC 2 id)

Basnet Hall: Two New Isch iwckltoni-i. 121

Dimrni^iniis.- Length, 6 iniu. ; breadth, 4 mm.
Sfofiou. 6 to 8 fathoms (dredcrod).

Hdhitdt. — Ik'twfi'ii Phillip and Fr(Mith Ishiiuls. ^Vestern Port, Vic-
toria.

2. Ischnochiton falcatus, n. sp. (PI. VITP, Fi<,'s. 2, a, b, c, d).

IsrJittocJdfon tatemiKS, Tate, and May, non Bednall, Census
Marine Moll. Tasmania, Proc. fjinn. 8oc'. N.S.W., 1901, p. 413.

Shell elevated ; moderately earinated. Colour ochraceouis, irre<j;u-
larly maculated with white, chietiy on the sides and anterior valve.
In some specimens nearly the whole jugal tract is white. Anterior
valve finely radially ribbed, the posterior margin strongly pustulose,
the projecting pustules imparting a serrated appearance^to the edges.
Median valves, lateral areas strongly raised, with two or three radi-
ating ribs, sometimes bifurcating towards the margin ; the posterior
rib strongly pustulose, the edge deeply serrated. Central areas deeply
sulcate, the sulci curving outwardly, the curves being most marked
near the jugum. Jugal tract with V-shaped striae, the apex directed
backwards. Posterior valve, mucro median ; the posterior half finely
radially ribbed like the anterior valve, the anterior half similar to the
central areas, the two sections divided by a pustulose rib. Girdle
with very irregular, striate scales. Interior bluish, with pink spot in
sinus and centre of end valves. Anterior valve having 11, median 1-1,
and posterior 13 slits.

Dimensions. — Length, 15 mm. ; breadth, 9 mm.

Station. — 6 to 8 fathoms (dredged).

Habitat. — Between Phillip and French Islands, Western Port, Vic-
toria. (Frederick Henry Bay, Tasmania, Tate and May.)

Re?}tarks. — This shell differs from I. tateanns in the much finer sculp-
ture of the anterior valve, the deep sulci of the central areas, and the
much coarser sculpture of the lateral areas. A specimen sent to me
by Mr. W. L. May, dredged in 10 fathoms at Frederick Henry Bay,
Tasmania, is identical with the Victorian shell now described.

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 25, (N.S.), Pt. I., 1912.]

Art. X. — An I)iresfi;/afion of Fifty-Tvo Tosmanlan. (}rania
hi/ Klaafsch's (J raniof rigo nouietrical MdJuxU.

By L. W. G. BUCHNER

(( TO vei-ment Research Scholar in tin- Aiithi-opoloL^ical Labo rat nry
of the University of Mellxmrne).

[Read lUh July. 1<H2 ]

When Huxley (1) write that he had arrived at the eonchision " that
no conjparison of erania is worth niueh that is nut founded upon the
establishment of a relatively fixed base line, to which the niiasure-
nients in all cases could be referred," he considered that it would not
be a very difficult uuitter to decide what that l)ase line should be,
and eventually sufigested his now well-known basil-cranial axis. Many
investigators have, however, employed modifications or adaptations of
Huxley's basi-cranial axis, whilsit others have devised totally indepen-
dent base lines. The great objection, however, to the majority of
these base lines is that they are non-correlative with any previous
work, and when the next new base line appears, the others are, to a
large extent, rendered valueless. Such a variety or multiplicity of
methods creates unnecessary complications, and makes it impossible
to obtain comparative data, and the lesult is, that notwithstanding the
jiumerous craniological researches of the last fifty years, there has
been but little appreciable advance in reducing these nieasurements to
one common standard.

Bolk (2) considers that a rational base line of a craniometrical
system must be able to serve for, at least, a prinuiiy division of the
skull. In referring to the base lines which have been drawn through
the base of the skull, ho raises this objection, that whilst these base
lines may Vje of value as boundary lines between the cerebral and
facial skull, they are valueless as the basis of a craniometrical system.
He thus criticises the l)ase lines of Topinard, Aeby and llauber.
SoUas (3) writes that it is interesting to observe how closely in the
consideration of base lines the latest researches have followed those
first laid down by Huxley.

Consideraljle interest attaches to the iiietliods instituted l)y Schwalbe
(4), of Strassburg, on the calvaria of I'lflu'caiithnipus frrrfiis particu-
larly, and pre-historic man generally. In this work he emjiloys as a
base line the plane between the glabella and inion, that is, the
plane previously associated with liieger's name.

Tasvtan idii Crania. 123

In selectinf? this plane, Schwalbe was coniijelled to \n;\\s(i use of tlie
glabella as one of the fixed points, owintr to the fact thnt in ealvaria
of PitJiecanthropus erecius, the face is niissinji^, a remark which also
applies to many of the other calvaria examined by S hwalbe, and
which left him no choice in the matter. In deciding on this plan he
says: — "so erweist sich als eiiifachste und natiirlichste die voiii
vorderen Glabellarende bis zu deiii am vveitesteii iiach hinten voi-ra-
genden Medianpnnkte des queren Hinterhauptwnlstes, welchen Dubois
als " scheinbares Inion " bezeichnet hat. Ich schlectliia als Fnioii
bezeichnen werde."

In their researches on the Tasmanian crania, Berry and Robert-
son (5) also adopted, in the first place, Schwalbe's methods of " form
analysis,"' based on the glabella inion plane, as they were anxious to
institute comparisons of evolution between the Tasmanian and primi-
tive man. Klaatsch (6), in his memoir on the Australian crania, also
adopted the glabella inion plane. He says: — '"To secure a common
standard I take the glabellar point and glabellar inion plane," and
again, " for pur230ses of the more precise comparative investigations
with the fossil fragments, the glabella inion plane is clearly prefer-
able." In his later works, however, he departs from the base line.
Turner's (7) base line, that is, the nasio-tentorial plane, when avail-
able, appears to be one of the most satisfactory and rational planes
for craniologicai purposes. In selecting this plane in opposition to the
glabella inion plane, he states that the variation of the glabella, in
association with the frontal sinus, " unfits it to be used for taking
the point in front from which to estimate the length of the cerebral
part of the cranial cavity."

Berry and Robertson (5) agree with Turner that the glaljella inion
plane is not the best (when others are available), " from which to esti-
mate the cerebral part of the cranial cavity," but consider that "' the
nasio-inion plane coincides more closely with the cerebral part of the
cranial cavity than either the glabella inion or nasio-tentorial planes."'

The influence of the frontal sinus on the glabellar region has been
carefully considered by many authors, notably Schwalbe (4, 8, 9),
Logan Turner (10), Biaiichi (11), Zuckerlandl (1"2) and Cunningham
(13).

Cunningham considers that the relatio.iship which exists between the
sinus and glabella is a problem which must for the meantime remain
unsolved.

As with the glabella, so also the position of the inion has been the
subject of considerable investigation. Keith (14), Klaatsch (15),
Sollas (3), Anderson (16), Rieger (17), Fraipont and Lohest {li^},
Kramberger (19), and others, all agree that variations exist in the
positions of the external and internal protruberantia.

124

L. W G. Baduier

The choice of a base line is therefore, from every staniliioint, a
matter of difficulty, and no matter what the ultimate choice may be,
it is clear that objections may be raised against it.

Notwithstanding the many base lines which have already been em-
ployed, Klaatsch (15 and 20) has recently introduced yet another
method in order to secure a suitable standard basis for craniometrical
observations. Whilst attempting to reconstruct the facial part uf
the Neaudertal skull, lie found that the glabella inion plane was not
suitable for this purpose. He also found that when the skull is
oriented in the Frankfort plane, the position assumed is not in har-
mony with the natural position of the head in the living suljject. that
is, with the eyes directed to the horizon.

On referring to Snllas's work on the Gibraltar skull, he found that
that author had made use of median outline tracings of the cranial
part of the skull minus the face, cut out in paper in order to establish
the centre of gravity of the brain part of the cranium. Klaatsch
reproduced this method, but as an experiment included the face as
well. The centre of gravity now naturally fell further downward and
forward, and to differentiate this new point from that of Sollas,
Klaatsch designated the two points S and K respectively (Fig. 1), S
being the centre of gravity as determined by Sollas, without the face,
and K the centre of Klaatsch with the face.

Fig. 1. —Sagittal diagram of an Australian Skull (Klaatsch). Half
natural size.
K = Klaatsch's Gravitation Point.
S ^ SolJHs's Gravitation Point.

Pr = Prognathic Point.

Tasmanian Crania. 125

Z =Zentiinn.

BGL = Upper Glabella Angle.
LGBa = Lower Glabella Angle.
BGBa = Anterior Glabella Angle.

On making further experiments Kbiatseli was struek with the con-
stant rebitionslii]> which the jioint K bore to the basion In-egma line,
the point being always in that line, or a few millimetres to one or
other side of it. On adding the glabella lambda line, Klaatsch
noticed that it almost always intersected the basion bregma line at a
right angle. The point of intersection he therefore terms tlie
'■ Zentrum."

On account, therefore, of, tirstly, the centre of gravity falling in,
or close to, the basion bregma line ; secondly, that line intersecting the
glabella lambda line at a right-angled " Zentrum," and, lastly, the
natural coincidence of this glabella lambda plane with the natural
position of the head in life, Klaatsch proposes that this plane should
be made the natural base line for all future cranionietrical work.
Upon this base line he further proposes that a quadrilateral figure
should be devised, the sides of which are drawn from the glabella to
the bregma, the bregma to the lambda, the lambda to the basion, and
the basion to the glabella, respectively. These four lines, therefore,
correspond in part, but not entirely, to the chords of the frontal,
parietal and occipital bones, and the " basi-cranial " axis. On the four
sides of this quadrilateral figure Klaatsch further proposes the erec-
tion of a series of triangles for the study of angles of curvature and
other allied points in connection with the several bones of the skull.

The whole of this system he designates as a " craniotrigonometrical "
method for studying the skull (Fig. 2). One advantage, amongst
others claimed ))v its author for his method, is that the various angles
will now receive their correct nomenclature, as Klaatsch, in common
with others, has criticised Schwalbe's method of naming or misnaming
these angles. Klaatsch. for example, proposes to obviate any con-
fusion that may arise by designating angles by the position of their
apices. He says : '■ Mein Prinzip ist jeden Winkel nach seinem
Scheitelpunkte zu beneunen.' He thus terms the angle l)ounde(i
by the bregma glabella and laml)d:i glabella lines the upper glabellar
angle. (See Fig. 2.)

126

L. W. (J. Bachncr

F/C2

Fig. 2. — Illustrating Klaatsch's Craniotrigonometrical Method.

G = Glabella. B = Bregma. L = Lanil)cla. I = Tni()n. Ba

= Basion. P = ProsthioM. S-=Zeiitrum.
1-4 Inner Triangles. 5 Frontal Triangle. 6 Parietal Tri-,
angle. 7 Chief Occipital Triangle. 8 Adjacent Occipital
Triangle. 9 Upper F;tcial Triangle.

It was suggested to uie by Professor Berry, of Melbourne X'^niver-
Bity, that I should apply this new craniotrigonometrical method of
Klaatsch to the fifty4\vo Tasmanian crania previously examined by
Dr. Robertson and himself (5) to ascertain if the methods just referred
to as having been recently used by Klaatsch, were better adapted to
the evolutionary morphology of the skull, than the older '' form
analysis " method of Schwalbe ; and, in the second place, tn ascertain
if the several ranges of vaiiation of the measurements to be recorded
by this new method led to the same general conclusion as those
obtained by the older method.

The u)aterial upon which this invest igatitvn is based will be found
in Berry nnd Robertson's Dioptrographic Tracings in Four Normae of
Fifty-two Tasmanian Crania (21). The present series of observa-
tions will be found in Noiina A, that is, the medium sagittal tracing.

Tatimati hi n Crd'n ia. 127

I have recorded in Table I., twenty-seven selected observations on
every skull, where the natural condition of preservation enabled such
to be recorded. The observations recorded are as follow : —

1. The glabella lambda length.

2. The glabella zentruiu length.

3. The zentrum lambda length.

4. The basion bregma height.

5. The bregma zentrum height.

6. The zentrum basion height.

7. The angle at the zentrum.

8. The glabella bregma chord.

9. The bregma lambda chord.

10. The lambda basion chord.

11. The basion glabella chord.

12. Tlie glabella bregma basion angle.

13. The lambda bregma basion angle.

14. The bregma lambda glabella angle.

15. The basion lambda glabella ancle.

16. The lambda basion bregma angle.

17. The glal)ella ])asion bregma angle.
IS. Tlie basion glabella lambda angle.

19. The bregma glabella lambda angle.

20. The glabella bregma lambda angle.

21. The bregma lambda basion angle.

22. The lambda basion glabella angle.

23. The basion glabella bregma angle.

24. The lambda inion chord.

25. The inion basion length.

26. The basion prosthion length.

27. The prosthion glabella length.

As the nature of thei^e twenty-seven can be easily followed frdui
figure 2, in which they are displayed, it is unnecessary to descril)e
them. Should more informaticm be required as to their character
and nature, the reader may be referred to Klaatsch's original works
(15 and 20) dealing with his metliods herein followed.

In Table I.. I have followed the lines laid down by P.erry and
Robertson (5). This serial number, the present location of the skulls,
and the original number are recorded in the upper three horizontal
lines. In the three left-hand columns are set forth the numl)ers and
the names of the recorded observations. In the vertical columns of
serial numbers are set forth the individual numbers of each skull. The
male and female skull measurements have been separated, and rhe
results are, therefore, tabulated in separate columns. The four ver-
tical columns on the right, after the male skull measurements, record

128

L. W. G. Bnchner

the number of observations made, the minimum and maximum fip;ures
for that particular observation, together with the average results.
The results of the female skull measurements are likewise recorded in
the columns to the right of the measui'ements, whilst the total results
of the unsexed skulls will be found in the columns on the extreme
right. The maximum and minimum figures have been indicated l)y a
+ or — ■ sign in each row, and this method has been adopted
uniformly throughout.

As was also the case in Berry and Robertson's work on these parti-
cular Tasmanian crania, it was not possible to record all of the
observations upon every skull. Number 48 being a juvenile subject,
the measurements recorded upon it have Ijeen uniformly omitted from
the final results. In numbers 4 and 8, where the results concern the
prosthion, they have also been omitted.

r/C3

s../ ^-^^ -^- - -

l^ig. 3 — Four Tasiuaiiian Crania superposed on Ivlaatsch's Base.

Tasiiui nlan Cranio..

129

:-'»A/.\

OojVtdl'C-T ..^- !«*•<)'*?

Fig. +. — The Neanderthal (Klaatscli), Australian, and Tasmanian Skulls
superposed on Klaatsch's Base.

T^nfortunately no couiparative data for this method are yet avail-
able, and so I can only record these observations without instituting
any morphological or evolutionary comparisons. Klaatsch, however,
records the measurements of one Australian (see Fig. 1). when the
angle at the Zentrum is given at 90 deg., but Wetzel (22), on the other
hand, found that in the Australian in no one of this three speci-
mens was the angle of 90 deg.

In the Tas.manian, my investigations show that this Zentrum angle
in over 25 per cent, of the crania examined, is exactly 90 deg., but it
is obvious that in view of the insufficiency of numbers of the Aus-
tralian, and the discrepant results obtained by Klaatsch and Wetzel
from those numbers, no comparison can be instituted l)etween my
results for the Tasuianian, and those already mentioned for the Aus-
tralian, and these apart, there are absolutely no other figures available.

The Tasmanian crania as drawn by Berry and Robertson (21), were
'■ oriented in the Frankfort plane and then drawn by means of

10

130 />■ ^^- ^- Biichner :

Martin's Dioptro^rnipli." The rfsultin.L' dia^iraius art' tluM-L'foro stvi<'tly
accurate ;ind cori-elativt».

Klaatsili. however, in his Australian work did not employ mechani-
cal methods for Hxation in the plane determined on, but used a yield-
intr substance like plasticine. He says: — "In order to obtain exact
results, the skull has to be carefully placed in proper position, it
being essential that the tracins: of its contour be made on the level of
a definite common horizon." But the question arises, can a skull
always l)e placed in its proper position without fixed mechanical
methods? Personally I think not, and for this reason I have not
availed myself of the diagrams furnished in Klaatsch's memoir on the
Australian aboriginal, as it is open to doubt whether the orientation
is absolutely reliable. Consequently, apart from the few comparative
data of the" Zentrum " angle referred to, I do not propose to institute
any further craniotrigonometrical comparisons between my Tasmanian
results and those of other observers on the Australian.

I content myself, therefore, witli leaving to those interested the
further examination of the various figures now for the first time made
available in Table I.

Concerning, therefore, the value of Klaatsch's craniotrigonometrical
system, u)y investigation leads me to the belief that, for reconstruc-
tioiial work, such as tliat of the face from the calvaria, the method
may be of some value, inasmuch as I have satisfied myself that in the
Tasmanian, at all events, the angle formed by the ])asion bregma and
glabella lau)l)da. lines is, as averred ])y Kliiatscli, for all skulls, re-
markably constant at or about 90 deg.

Apart from this the method does not appear to ]iossess any ad-
vantage whatsoever, as compared with the existinir method of
?!chwalbe. The latter method has been shown, notwithstanding its
imperfections, and the fact as proved by Cross (23) that all its data arc-
not of ecpial mor])hological value, to l)e of very real advantage for esti-
mating the relative evolutionary growth of the brain, and of thus
determining the relative positions of pre-historic and recent man of
both low and high civilisations, one to another.

My final conclusion is, therefore, that greater progress will be made
in the craniology of peoples by extending the observations o'f Schwalbe,
Beriy and Uol)ertson, Cross and others to as many nationalities as
possible, than by tlie invention of new methods.

Concerning the range of vaiiations in the 27 observations herein
recorded, it is important, in view of the attention now being almost
generally devoted to this cpiestion, to examine it carerully.

Without going into the modern vexed (piestion of tlie causes of
variations and mutations, it may be stated that there are, at all
events two widely divergent schools. The views of the one school

Tdsmanian Cvdnia. 131

may bo illiistrntetl hy ;i (luotation from Tlionison (24), who savs,
when s|ieitkiiiL;' of llu- causes nf variation : "" In ret^ard to the causes
of variation it is too socm to sjieak, excejit in tentative whispers.
What Darwin said must still he said, ' Our ignorance of the laws of
variation is profound. Not in one case out of a hundred can we
pretend to assifjn any reason why this or that part has varied.' "'

The other line of thoujrht may be illustrated by a quotation from
Cossar Ewart (25), than whom there is no greater living authority on
this particular subject. He says: — "Domestic animals reproduce
themselves with great uniformity if kept apart ; but the moment one
mixed up the two different races, strains, or breeds, one did something
that was difficult to put in words, the result was what has I)een best
described as an ' eiiidemic ' of variations."

The main question in disjiute as to the origin of the Australian
aboriginal is as to whether he is, or is not, an autochthonous race,
that is, a pure-bred race, or the result of a cross, and in the Melbourne
School of Anthropologv, almost all the several lines of research laid
down l)y Professor Berry have been evolved with the solution of this
problem in view.

Frofu what Cossar Ewart has said, it is clear that, if the Tasmanian
be a pure-bred and homogeneous race, the range of variation should
be small, whilst conversely if the Australian be an im]nire or mixed
race the range of variation should be high. With the Australian I
am not at present concerned, but the subject will shortly be dealt with
l)y Professor Berry and Dr. Robertson.

Concerning the mode of situdying the range of variation, provided
there be some standard object of comparison, it is an easy matter to
express the range of the variation of the subject under consideration
in terms of percentage with the standard object, as is now actually
being done by my fellow investigators in this school.

The results ax-e not, as yet, quite ready for publication, but the
work comprises a comparative study of the range of variation of
■■ form analysis," and other cranial and facial measurements of sup-
]iosed i)ure races like the Tasmanian and Andamanese, of known im-
pure races like the modern Italian, and of the doubtful race under
investigation, the Australian.

In my study of the craniotrigonometriual characters of the Tas-
manian skull, it is obvious that as there are no other figures available
to me, I cannot employ this particular method of studying the per-
centage range of variation, but have had to fall back on an ordinary
arithmetical figure for displaying the mean range of variation. I am
well aware that it is more accurate to employ the modern biometric
methods, but in this particular case the final results of the one method
are not materiallv different from those of the other.

132 /.. ir. G. Bihchner:

I have therefore worked out the ranjies (if variation for the whole
of the twenty-seven observations for the males, the females, and both
sexes combined. I have subtracted the minimum ranp-e of variation
from the mean, and the mean from the maximum, added all these
differences together, and divided the quotient by fifty-four, that is,
by twice the number of recorded observations, being once for the
minima and once for the maxima.

The result is that in the twenty-seven craniotrigonometrical obser-
vations herein recorded, in fifty-two Tasmanian crania the range of
variation is as follows : —

For males, 7.9.

For females, 7.5.

For both sexes, 9.9.
As, however, thirteen of my twenty-seven observations comprise angles
only, in which the range of variation can never be appreciably great,
I have again worked out the range of variation for those fourteen of
the twenty-seven observations which do not comprise such angles, and
with the following results : —

For males, 10.2.

For females, 9.9.

For both sexes, 10.1.
In either case the range of variation is so surprisingly small that
it would seem to be reasonable to apply Ewart's dictum that " Ani-
mals reproduce themselves with great uniformity if kept apart," and
to conclude by stating that the Tasmanian is a pure race. This con-
clusion is the more warranted, because when the results obtained
by my colleagues, Drs. Berry and Robertson, are available, it will
be found that they achieve identical results by different methods.

LTTEIRATURE.

1. Huxley, T. H. -Man's Place in Nature, MacMillan and Co., 1897.

2. Bolk, L. — ^" On the Slope of the Foramen Magnum in Primates :"

Repiiiit from Prnceorlings, Dec. 24th, 1909, of Koninklijke
Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam.
:\. Sollas, W. J.—" On the Cranial and Facial Characters of the
Neaudertal Race," Pliil. Trans., B, vol. 199, 1907.

4. Schwalbe, 0. — " Studien iibi r Pithecantlnopus erectus, Dubois,"

Zeit, fill- M()i|)h. und .Vnthrop.. Ikl. I., 1S!)9, |)p. 10 et see).

5. Berry, \i. J. A., and Robertson, A. W. D. "The IMace in Nature

of the Tasmanian Aboriginal, as Deduced from a Study of his
Oalvarium," Part I., Proc. Hoy. Soc. Edinburgli, vol. xxxi.. pt.
1, No. 3.

Tasmaninn (Jrania. I:i3

G. Kliuitsch, Herman — Reports from Patholofrical Laboratory of the
Luiuu-}' Department of N.S.AV.. vol. i., pt. iii.. 1908.

7. lurner. Sir W. " The ('raniok)<ry. Racial Affinities, and Descent
of the Aboriginals of Tasmania." Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol.
xlvi.. 190S. pp. :^65-40:3.

S. ,Scli\vall)e, (i. — " Der NcHndHrLJialsuluulel," Bonner Jahrbucher,

Heft lOfi. 1901.
9. Schwalbe, ii. " Das Scliadelfragment von Biiix und verwandte

Scliadelforinen. ' Zeit. fiir Morph. und Anthrop., Mai, 1906.

10. Turner, Logan — The Accessory Sinuses of the Nose, Edin., 1901.

11. Bianchi, — "J. seni frontali e le arcate sopraciliari studiate nei

crani del delinipienti, degli alienati e dei normali," Archi'vio per
I'antrop e Tetnologia, 1892.

12. Zuckerlandl. E. -Norniale und pathologische Anatomic der

Naseiiliohle und ihre pneumatischen Anliange, Bd. L, 2le
Audage, 189.3.

Lj. Cunningham, D. J. — "' The Evolution of the Eyebrow region of
the Forehead, with Special Reference to the Excessive Supra-
orbital Development in the Neandertal Race." Trans, lloy.
Sc)c. Edin., vol. xlvi.. pt. ii.. No. 12.

li. Keith, Artliui- — Ancient Types of Man, Harpers Living Thought
Series, 1911.

l.j. Khuitsch, Herman — " Das Gesiichts^skelet der Neandertalrasse
und der Australier," Verhdlg. Anat. Ges.. Berlin, 1908.

IG. Anderson, R. J. — " Observations on the Tliickness of the Human
Skull," Dub. Journ. Med. Sci., vol. 74, 1882.

17. Rieger, C. — " Eine exacto Methode der Craniographie," Jena,

1885.

18. Fraipont and Lohest — " La race humaine de Neandertal uu de

Canstadt en Belgique," Arch, de Biol, vol. 7, 1887.

19. (jorjanovic-Kramberger — " Der deviale Mensch von Krapina,"

Biol. Centralblatt, vol. 2.j. 1905.

20. Klaatsch, Herman—" Kraniomorphologie und Kraniutrigunu-

uietrie," Arch, fiir Anthrop., vol. 336, 190.

21. Berry, R. J. A., and Robertson, A. W. D. — "Dioptrogiaphic Trac-

ings in Four Normae of Fifty-two Tasmanian Crania," Trans.
Roy. Soc. Vic, vol. v., 190.

22. Wetzel, G-. — " Die obersben Halswiroel und die Beziehung ilirer

Ebeneu zu deneu des Schadels beiui Menschen und den Anchro-
poiden." Zeit. fiir Morph. und Anthrop., Bd. xiii.. Heft 2,
1910.

134 L. W. G Bilclnier : Tii.siiianUin ('ntnia.

23. Cross, K. S. — " On a Numerical Detennination of the Relative

Position of certain Biological Types in the Evolutionary Scale,
and of the Relative Values of various Cranial Measurements
and Indices as Criteria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxi., pt.
1, No. 4, 1910.

24. Thomson, J. A. — Heredity. Progressive Science Series, John

Murray, 1908, p. 100.

25. Ewart, Cossar — " Discussion on Heredity in Disease," Scottish

Med. and Surg. Journal, vi., 1900, p. 308.

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[Pboc. Rov. Sue. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), I't. I., 1012.]

Art. XT. — .-1 Studi/ of the Prognat/tisiii of tlw. TaaiiuLiilan

Aboriginal.

By L. W. G. BUCHNER

(Government Research Scliolai- in the Anatomy Department of the Univer.sity

of Melbourne).

[Read 11th July, ]!)12.]

According to T'opinard (1), prognathism has, since the time of
Prichard, been understood to mean '' the elongation and prominence
or the obliquity of the jaws, cominion in the black races of Africa and
Oceania, accidental in some Europeans." As thus defined, Topiuard
lias divided prognathism into two categories. (1) ^superior facial, and
(•J) inferior facial.

Tiie former he still further subdivides into three divisions: —

(a) The entire facial prognathism.

(b) The superior facial prognathism.

(c) The alveolo subnasal prognathism.
The latter he divides into two : —

(a) The inferior dental prognathism,

(b) The inferior maxillary region, the teeth being indepen-

dent of the jaws.

In reviewing the various methods of determining that form of facial
projection already defined as '' superior facial," Topinard gives a brief
resume of ten methods, which include such well-known angles as Cam-
pers facial angle, Welcker's nasobasal angle. Yogi's angle (a modifi-
cation of Welcker's angle), Vogt's palatine and vomerian angle, and
Virchow's method, the old German method, that is, the comparison of
the glabella-occipital line with the alveolo-occipital line ; Busk's facial
radii, Broca's auricular radii, the same author's projection method,
Jjucae's method, and, finally, Topinard describes his own method, by
means of which he estimates the " true '" prognathism, determined by
means of the angle formed by the profile line with the horizontal
plane.

Ihering (2) and Lissauer ('}) likewise give a resume of the methods
employed by the German scho'ol up to 1872.

With the possible exception of Topinard's method, most of the
above are now out of date. The more modern means of determining
prognathism and dolichocephaly will be discussed later.

Of the factors which produce prognathism, many investigations
have been made ; for example. Duckworth (4) points out that prog-
nathism is dependent (»n two factors, firstly, the size of the teeth and

136 L W. G. Bilchner:

the length of the palate, and secondly, the size of the nasopharynx,
which may be estimated by the distance from the pharyngeal tubercle
and basi-occipital to the palatal spine, and thirdly, the degree to
which the base is bent at the sphenoethmoidal junction.

Keith (5) has also devoted some thought to this problem, and in
an extract from "Nature," he states: — "The prognathism of the
negro is due to several factors; it is chiefly due not so uuich to a
larger, but a healthieir dental development, which ensures a due for-
ward revolution of the jaws during the eruption of the permanent
teeth, thus providing an ample air-way through the pharynx. In
Europeans the revolution forwards of the jaAvs showed a distinct
tendency to become arrested preniiaturely, thus contracting the
pharynx. The negro condition was the more simian, but it also
one which modern Europeans would willingly share -with hin), because
of its functional methods."

The correlation between prognathism and other cranial features
has also been exhaustively studied. Thus Thomson (6) says that an
association between dolichocephaly and prognathism has been widely
recognised, and he himself finds that prognathism is generally cor-
related with an extension backwards of the occipital region, a view
Dati'ner (7) also holds. Brinton (8) considers this correlation be^
tween prognathism and dolichocephaly is brought about by increased
muscular action. But, whatever the cause of such association of
prognathism and dolichocephaly uDay be, F'lower (9), Wohlbold (10)
and Duckworth (11) are each clearly of opinion that it is, as exem-
plified in the case of the Australian aboriginal, a. characteristic of
race.

Huxley (12) was of opinion that there existed a relationship l>etwet^n
prognathism and the slope of the foram.en occipitale magnum. The
greater the facial skeleton, that is, the more pronounced the degi-ee of
prognathism, the more perpendicular was the slope of tlie foramen
occipitale magnum found to' be. By superposing median diagrams of
the highly prognathic skulls of a negro, Australian and Tartar, be
found that the slope of the foramen occipitale magnum in these
particular sculls formed a somewhat smaller angle with the basi-
cauial axis, than was the case in orthognatic skulls. On the other
hand, Welcker (13) failed to see any connection between prognathism
and the slo})e of the foramen occiptile magnum, but thought there
was some correlation between prognathism and the position of the
opening, which, as Bolk (1-i) says, " comes practically to the same
thing, if a connection between position and slope be assumed.'
Welcker (15) says, " Biegt am Vordersiliadd der Oberkiefer des
Menschen mehr nach vorn (Prognathismus) so riickt /ugleich am Hin-
tersc'hadel das Foramen medullare mehr nach riickwarts." Aeby's (IG)

Prog tiathism of Tasinanimi Ahor/(/l ixil.

IH7

views do not ajri'ft^ witli tliost- of IIunIcv. He says, ' lliixlry !:'liiul)te
(lie Neiufutig iiiit deiii I'ro<riiathisnius in Verliinduniz' l)rin<r<'n /.n
kiinnen. Die Steilheit der Stelhmt:' soUte in «ileiL-heni Masse wie die
lot/tere wachsen. In unseren Tabellen tindet sicli keiiie I'.csiJitiL^ung
dieser Ansitht." Hopf (17), Darwin (IS), (19), Spencer (20). Keith
(21), Duckworth (22), Wiedersheini (2:5), Schaafhausen (2-i), have
each and severally considered the successive stages of growth of the
maxillary region, and the reasons therefor, in order to determine, if
]iosKihle. the causes which produce or accompany an increase or
reduction, as the case may be. in the amount of prognathism present.

Without pursuing further the subject of factors responsible for prog-
nathism, and their association with other cranial features, it should
be sufficiently clear that much attention has been devoted to both
aspects of the question, and that mir knowledge of the sul)ject is
correspondingly enhanced.

Of the uKidern methods of determining prognathism by direct
linear measurements, mention may first be made of F'lower (9), who
calculated the prognathism of the skulls in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons. London, l)y what is now knijwn as Flower's
(inathic, or Alveolar Index — an index which expresses the ratio
which the basi-nasal line bears to the basi-prosthionic line, the
former being taken as lUD (see Fig. [.).

Fig. I. — Illustrating Flower's Gnathic Index, and Fraipont's Methods.
(i:=Glabella : Pr= Prognathic point : N=:Nasion: Ba^Basion:

L=: Lambda.

138 L. W. G. niichner:

Fraipont, in order to estiiuate the forward iirojection of the pre-
uiaxilhiry region, introduced at the 19fKi Liege Congress of French
Anatomists, a new method, employed by him in his investigations
upon the Spy crania. The method consists in producing the glabella
laml)da line forwards, and then dropping perpendiculars at right
angles to it (Kiu. 1). The one drawn troni the glabella, usually cuts
the sei-ond ^jremolar, and, more rarely, the first molar, and is occa-
sionally known as '" Fraipont's line. The point of inteirsection of the
line drawn parallel to Fraipont's line, and cutting the prosthion, with
the glabella-laniibda line, continued forwards constitutes Klaatsch's
" Prognathic point '" ('2')), (Fig. 1). The distance from the glabella
to the '■ prognathic point " expresses, in millimetres, the amount of
prognathism present, that is, the amount of facial projection in front
of the glabella. Fraipont, from the results thus obtained, deduced
the fact that the amount of facial projection, or prognathism, in the
Spy crania, was greater than had been previously suspected (Fig.

Thomson and Ma elver (26), consider that the method devised by
Flower lias several weak points, and they therefore depart from it
in their examination of the ancient Egyptian crania. In their pro-
posed method, they take into consideration two factors which present
themselves in the upper jaw ; firstly, the degree of variation in the
vertical face leng-th, that is, the nasi-prosthionic length, and secondly,
the variations in the horizontal length of the basi-prosthionic line.
By connecting three points— the basion, prosthion and nasion — a
triangle is formed.

From a series of measurements of 38 skulls, these authors found
that the angle formed by the basi-nasal line and the Frankfort hori-
zontal plane varied between 22 degrees and 34 degrees, witli an
average of 27 degrees. They availed themselves of the constancy of
this angle in order to construct a new h(u-izontal, upon which to esti-
mate the degree of prognathism, their procedure being as follows : —
Prolong the basi-nasal line indefinitely downwards and backwards,
upon this erect a horizontal, at an angle of 27 degrees, open forwards
with the basi-nasal line. This line may be prolonged indefinitely
backwards and forwards, and the figure is now converted into a
triangle, by dropping from the nasion a perpendicular, which cuts
the new horizontal at a right angle. (See Fig. 2). The amount
of projection of the prosthion in front of the perpendicular line N-P in-
dicates the degree of prognathism, and is re;id off by means of theii'
specially-devised trigonometer. Fiirst (27) has also studied this
method, Imt he comes to the coni'hision that the liasal aniile possesses
so great a degrei- of variati(in that, he t-aunot, like Thomson and Mac-
Iver, accept a constant size for it. He savs, " Aus allem, was ich

Prog naf/i Ism of TosiiKi/nian, Ahoi'iynud.

130

ol)en antiefuhrt habe, ueht deutlirh hervor (hiss, wenn wir iiiit einer
iiunualen (tI-ossg des Basalwiiikels rochiieai wollen, dieser wohl '.W
Grad angesetzfc werden muss. Aus doii TabelU n wird es aber auch
deu'tlich, dass die Grosse des Basahvinkels eine so weite Variations-
breite hat, dass niiin nicht wie Arthur Thonisoii iind Randall Maidver
l»ei ilim eine konstante Grosse annehiiu'ii iind daiiaeh audere anlliru-
|M)ioo-isrlie .Merkinale aiitrcben kann.'

Fig. I [. —Illustrating Thomson and Maclver's Method.
N = Nasion : P=:Prosthion : Ba=:Basion.

Keitli {2^), in describing a new craniouieter, states that '' the most
satisfactory index is in the area, of the palate, estimated by plotting
out the diameters of the palate on millimetre paper.'' This he does
by means of the instrument he describes, but as this was not available
in Melbourne, I have been unable to adopt his suggestion. In any
case, it is, perhaps, open to question, whether, in view of the fact
that the present research is largely comparative, it would have been
advisable to adopt methods wliich so obviously restrict the field of
comparistm.

From the foregoing brief analysis of such comparatively modern
methods of estimating prognathism, as those associated with the
names of Flower, Thomson and JNlaclver, Fiirst and Keith, it is
apparent that none are entirely satisfactory, or altogether free from
objection. It has been shown that Fiirst differs from Thomson and
Maclver, as to the oonstr.ncy of the basal angle, whilst Keith's
method not only recpiires a special apparatus, l)ut also special modes
ttf inveistigation. Turner (29) had ajtparently this same difficulty in
mind when he wrote, in iWerence to the estimation of pyrognathism of
the Tasmanian crania in the Oxford collection: — "The diti'er

140 L. W. G. Bilchiu'r:

suits procured by these luethods on the same skulls illustrate the
difliculty of obtaining a precise estimate of the degree of progna-
thism.''

With the exception of Keith's method, all were introduced prior to
the invention and general adoption of the dioptrograph and dia-
graph, and it is questionable whether all that is claimed by the
authors quoted for their special methods cannot really be better
done now with t*lie diagraph. In any case, the perpetual multiplication
of new methods and special instruments for the same purpose, renders
it almost impossible to collect sufficient data for the comparative in-
vestigation of tlie several races. For all these reasons, therefore,
I have thought it advisable to confine myself to dioptrographic trac-
ings, which, fur the Tasmanian, have now been rendered available to
all by Berry and Robertson, and to record the degree of prognathism
by Flower's method. This procedure has the great advantage over
and above all the others herein discussed, that it enables me to insti-
tute a series of comparative observations of the Tasmanian with
other races. Personally, I am of opinion that in this way only
will any real progress be made in the complex science of the
craniolog}- of race.

Tlie material upon which the present research is based will be
found in Berry and Robertson's "' Dioptrographic Tracings in Four
Normae of Fifty-Two Tasmanian Crania " (30). All the observations
recorded herein are calculated from the median sagittal tracings,
shown in No)-ma A, and are as follow : —
1 The basi-nasal length.

2. The basi-prosthionic length.

3. Gnathic index.

4. The nasi-prosth ionic length.

."). Ihe glabella prosthion basion angle.
G. The jjrosthion glabella basion angle.

Of these observations, the first three comprise the data necessary
for the estimation of prognathism by Flower's method, and the last
three are supplementary measurements, upon which to estimate the
general projection and height of the face.

As stated elsewhere (31), it was not possibk- to record all of the
observations on every skull. Number -tS, being a juvenile subject, the
measurements recorded on it have been uniformly omitted from the
final results. The results of Numbers 4 and (^ have also been oinitted
where they concern the prosthion.

In Table I. are set forth the individual observations upon the
crania referred to.

In the two columns on the Icji are recorded the original numbers
and their serial numbers. In the columns to the rijjht the several

Prixjiutlhisiit ot Td-smaii /(III Ahm-'Kj'i mil 141

observations recorded are displayed, witli the crania separated into
sexes, and the results tabuhited accordinfrly. At the fo(Jt of the
male and female obsei-vations respectively, the minimum and maxi-
mum fijrures are recorded, to2,ether with the average results. The
total results, for both males and females are set forth at the end of
the tal)le.

TABLE I.— iMALES.

Oriifinal
number.

Serial
iiuinbe

r.

Basi-iia.sal

l5asi-pros-
thioiiic
■ifiiyth.

nnathic -^
index.

asi-jiros
thioiiic
len-th.

(ilal.ella 1
' prosthioii
basion

■rosthloM
■glabella
basion

anjjle.

angle

4288

-

1

-

95 -

Kil -

106.3 -

67

.

()9 -

lit)

4298

-

2

-

100 -

Iih; -

10() -

73

-

69 -

66

43U()

.

3

-

-

-

...

55

-

...

4301

.

4

-

100 -

91 ? -

94 ? -

58

-

80 -

61

4298

-

5

-

... -

... -

...

<;"

-

-

4302

.

12

-

+ 106 -

99 -

- 93. t -

74

-

77

-58

4297

-

13

-

... -

...

70

.

.

4296

-

16

-

102 -

-

-

-

,

-

18

-

-92 -

98 -

106.5 -

-53

-

76 -

+ i;7

1

-

19

.

97 -

94 -

9().9 -

59

.

80 -

61

-

23

-

... -

... -

...

-

...

-

24

-

99 -

103 -

101 -

62

.

74 -

66

1201

-

25

-

103 -

110 -

10(i.8 -

73

.

75 -

()(•)

1203

.

27

-

...

... -

...

59

.

-

1204

-

28

-

98 -

95 -

96.9 -

65

-

76 -

()0

1205

-

29

-

98 -

102 -

104.1 -

7o

-

75 -

(il

1

-

30

-

94 -

JOC) -

: 1I2.S-

+ 76

.

(•).') -

61

1

-

32

-

93 -

99 -

lo6,5 -

5()

.

77

66

2

.

33

-

104 -

9S -

94.2 -

65

.

-62 -

-58

3

-

34

-

90 -

-88 -

97.8 -

60

.

80 -

58.5

4

-

35

-

100 -

99 -

99 -

60

.

7() -

63

5

-

36

-

98 -

101 -

103.1 -

60

.

77 -

64

6

-

37

-

-

... -

.

56

-

.

7

-

38

-

97 -

94 -

96.9 -

62

.

+ 81

60

1

-

39

-

-92 -

92 -

.

.

3

-

40

-

96 -

96 -

100 -

62

.

75 -

62

5

-

42

-

96 -

96 -

KKJ -

59

-

75 -

63

6

-

43

-

103 -

+ 111 -

108.8 -

67

.

72 -

+ 67

7

-

44

-

99 -

-

... -

.

.

8

-

45

-

94 -

98 -

104.3 -

67

-

73 -

63

9

-

46

-

94 -

99 -

105.3 -

61

.

76 -

(i-4

13

.

50

.

-

.

...

.

.

Number

-

32

-

25 -

21 -

21 -

27

.

21 -

21

Maximiun

-

-

92 -

88 -

93.4 -

53

.

62 -

58

Averajic

-

-

97.6-

99.6-

102.3 -

63.6

-

74 -

62.8

Maximiuu

-

-

106 -

111 -

112.8-

76

-

81 -

67

FEMALES.

4287

-

6

-

89 -

91 -

102.2 -

60

.

74 -

65

4293

-

7

-

90 -

90 -

100 -

59

.

75 -

63

4289

-

8

-

92 -

SO? -

86.9:-'-

.

- 35 -

-52

3362

-

9

.

85 -

... -

...

.

-

4294

.

10

-

93 -

...

...

.

-

4292

-

11

-

... -

-

...

+ 66

-

429U

-

14

-

lU) -

97 -

-

-97

.

61 -

75

4295

-

15

-

...

.

...

.

.

4303

-

17

-

93 -

100 -

...

-52

-

/ (

65.5

2

-

20

-

9i -

...

.

-

1572

-

91

-

86 -

96 -

111.6-

.

...

-

22

-

... -

-

.

...

142 L. ^V. G. Biiehiier

... V • Glabellii Hrosthioii

Oii-iii:.! Strial Basi iiiisal ''■'hjI","^' tinaUiir ^^!^}!^°!" luostliioii -labella
i,uiiil)er. number. lon-th ?, , in'le\. ,'' lu ''••**'0" ''*'*'°"

1202

- 2()

93 -

100 ■

107.5 -

63

-

-70 -

+ 69

9

- 31

- +102 -

+ 102 ■

100 -

69

-

77 -

64

4

- 41

89 -

89

100 -

60

-

178 -

60

10

- 47

- - 78 -

... -

-

... -

12

- 49

8(3 -

89 .

103.5 -

60

-

73 -

63

12922

- 51

89 -

-88 ■

98.9 -

60

-

77 -

59

12997

- 52

99 -

96

- -97 -

59

-

77 -

62

11

- J48

76 -

82

- 107.8 -

58

-

66 -

68

Number

- 19 ■

16 -

11

- 11

]1

-

10 -

10

Minimum

-

78 -

88 .

- 97

52

-

70 -

52

Average

-

91.1-

93.7

- 101.6 -

60

-

75.3-

63.3

Maximum

- ...

102 -

102

- 111.6 -

66

-

85 -

69

BOTH SEXES.

Number

51 -

41 -

32 -

32 -

38 -

31 -

31

Minimum -

...

78 -

88 -

93.4 -

52 -

62 -

52

Average

...

95 -

97.5 -

102 -

61.2-

74.6 -

63

Maximum -

... -

106 -

111 -

112S-

76 -

85 -

69

For both sexes ooml)ined there are 32 crania, which yield a gnathic
index of 102, that is, the Tasmania is shown to be niesognathic. Of
the seixes considered separately, there are 21 males, with a gnathic
index of 102.3, and 11 females, witli an index of 101.6, that is, the
sexes, individually or collectively, are shown to be nicsognatliic in
type.

Prior to the present work, the lai'gest number of Tasmanian crania
examined, with respect to the degree of prognathism, as determined
by Flower's index, was 34, a total made up of a combination of indi-
vidual examinations, and thus collectively referred to by Turner (29).
The minimum index was 96.9, the maximum 113.2, and the m€>an
for the series was 103.6, which thus brings the series into the prog-
nathic group.

It will he noted that the two sei'ies of figures produce different
results, my series of 32 giving a niesognathic result, and the previous
collective group of 34 producing a prognathic figure. The actual
numerical difference is, however, but slight, as it only amounts to 1.6,
and is almost certainly due to the use of insufficiency of numbers.
To overcome this objection in so far as is possible to us, I now
propose to combine my own entirely new series, of 32 crania, with
those of other observers.

I have, therefore, availed myself of the necessary figures recoided in
(a) Flower's Catalogue of osteological specimens in the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons, in London (9), (b) Turner's Memoir,
in which are given the observations of the crania in the Brussels
Museum, the University of Oxford, and tlu' I'niversity of Edinburgh,
(c) Klaatsch's Memoir (32) on the Australian skull, (d) one from the

Prorjnafhh<fm of Tasmanian Aborif/inal. 143

Middlesex ll(»s]iital Museum, and (e) Duckworth's (?>?>) study of the
Tn-snianian erauia in tlie Canihridj?e Aiiatoniioal Miisenni.

This nnikes. coinLinol with the tia'ures of the present work, a total
of 74 busi-nasal. (Ki liasi-prosthionic, and 66 gnathic index obserA'a-
tions of Tasmania crania, which, it may be noted, is by far the largest
number of Tasmanian crania as yet investigated in connection with
the question of the prognathism of this nosv extinct race.

The detailed results of the combined figures, and also of my original
figures, are set forth in Table II.

Combined
Results

TABLE II.

Number Buchiicr Number Turner Number

1. The basi-nasal length - 41 - 95 - ... - - 7-t - 9G.G0±.47

2. The ba-si-prostiiiouiclciio-th .32 - !t7.5 - ... - ... - ()(> - 9S.7()±.50

3. Gnathic index - - - 32 - 1(I2 - :31 - W.i.ij - (i(> - 1U2.:!8±.30

This table shows that the gnathic index of the G6 Tasmanian
crania utilised for the investigation gives a true mean of 102.38=b.30,
that is, the Tasmanian is niesognathic, but stands at the extreme
end of the scale, and is just on the confines of mesognathism and
prognathism.

It is clear that these figures must be accepted as furnishing the
correct estimate of the degree of prognathism, for two reasons :
firstly, Ijecause they comprise the largest number of Tasmanian crania
ever previously examined for this purpose, many of which are entirely
neAv to science, and secondly, because the final results are attained by
biometric methods, and not by the laws of arithmetical average.

Further, it is clear that the position of the Tiismanian on the meso-
prognathic borderland, explains many of the discrepant results at-
tained by previous workers with other methods, and insufficient data ;
for example, we have here, I think, an entirely adequate explanation
of the somewhat c^onflicting results achieved by such competent ob-
servers as Turner (29) and Thomson.

For the purpose of establishing a comparison between the prog-
nathism of the Tasmanian and that of other races, I have utilised,
for the former, all the figures available to me, in all 74 observations.
From these I can only avail myself of G6 gnathic indices, for the
suflScieut reason that in the remainder <me or other of the necessaiy
measurements was missing. The selected races for comparison are
the Australian, the Veddah, the Cliine.se, and Andamanese, and the
modern Italian. I he selection so made is not a mere casual one, but
is specially chosen as furnishing examples of admittedly pure races,
like the Andamanese, impure types like the modern Italian, and
races of doubtful purity, like the Australian. The figures in each
instance are taken from Flower's Catalogue, and the results are set
forth in Tables III,-V.

144

L. w. u. nuchuc.

Table III. deals with the hasi-iiasiil length, and shows the pro-
visional mean, the true mean, and the standard deviation of same,
and the co-eflficient of variation, together with the numbers of ex-
amples of each race. The six races are arranged in the order of the
true means of the basi-nasal length.

From this we infer that the basi-nasal length is shortest in the
pure races (Andamanese, Veddahs and Tasmanians), longest in im-

TABLE III.

Ba

SI-NASAl

. FiKNOrHS.

Number

I'lovi-
sional
iiifaii

True iiieaii

standard
deviation

('ottticient

of
\ ariation

1.

Andamanese

- 19 -

91 -

9I.26± .44 ■

• 2.84±.3l ■

■ 3.11 ±.34

2.

Veddah -

- 10 -

96 -

95.60±1.29 .

- 6.08 ±.02 ■

■ 6 37±.96

3.

Tasinanian

- 74 -

94 -

96.60± .47 -

• 6 02±.33 ■

• 6.24±.35

4.

Chinese -

- 35 -

07 -

97.23 ± .63 ■

- 5.53 ±.44 ■

- 5.71 ±.47

5.

Italian

- 50 -

09 -

98.62± .62 .

- 6.46 ±.44 .

- 6.51 ±.45

6.

Australian

- 88 -

99 -

98.75 ± .41 ■

- 5.77±.29

- 5.85 ±.30

impure races, like the Chinese and modern Italians, and longest of all
in the doulitfuUy pure A\istralian.

Table IV. deals with the basi-prosthionic length for the six
races in the same way. The Australian, again, has the longest basi-
prosthionic axis, and the pure Veddahs and Andamanese have the
shortest. The Tasmanians and Italians have changed places, and
the Chinese are in the same relative position as before.

'J" ABLE IV.
Basi-pbosth IONIC Lknui lis.

Number

I'rovi-
sionid
mean

TrUf mean

Standard
deviivtion

Coefficient

ot

variation

1.

Veddahs

7 -

91

- 9l00±1.34

• 5.2(;±.(I5 ■

■ 5.85 ±1.06

2.

Andamanese -

- 10 -

93 -

■ 92.74± .72 -

■ 4.64±.51 ■

■ 5.00 ± .55

3.

Italians

- 50 -

92 ■

- 04()2± .(),S •

- 7.11±.4S ■

■ 7.52± .51

4.

Chinese

- 30 -

96 .

- 9S.70± .55

- 4 74 ±.39 ■

- 4.95 ± .43

5.

Tasmanians -

- (;() -

9S -

9S.70± .50

• 6. 00 ±35 ■

■ 6.08 ± .36

6.

Au.stialians -

- 00 -

101 ■

• l(»(i.91± .47 ■

■ (;.(;o±.33 .

■ (;..J4± .33

In Tal)le V. are set forth the gnathic indices for the six races,
whence we learn that Italians, Veddahs, and Chinese are ortho-
gnathous, the last-named being on the ortho-mesognathic borderline.
The Andamanese are distinctly nie.sogiiathic, as arc also the Tas-
manians, but, as already indicated, it is, on the whole, fairer to re-
gard the Tasmanian as on the meso-prognathic borderline, a remark

I'rof/nathli^in of Tasmanlan Ahorhjiiud.

145

\\\(\v alsti applies to tho Australian, with tlie reservation that the
itter is more pro^'uathic than the Tasnianian.

TABLE V.
OrNATHif Indices.

Number

Provi-
sional
mean

True mean

Standard
deviation

Coefficient

of

variation

1.

Italians

- 50

- 96 .

. 95.92 ±.34 -

3.54±.24 ■

• 3.G9±.25

2.

Veddahs

()

- 9(i ■

. !H).0(:)±.72

■ 2.S0±.r)2 •

- 2.8 ±.55

8.

Chinese

- :?2

- 9.S -

97.94±.4H -

4.03 ±.31- ■

■ 4.11±.36

4.

Andanianese

- 19

- 102 ■

■ 10l.32±.5o ■

■ 3.60±.39 ■

- 3.o6±.4()

o.

Tasmanians

- (it;

- 102

- 1()2.0H±.40 ■

- 4.83 ±.2H

- 4.73±.28

G.

Australians

- SH

- 102

- 102.38 ±.30

- 4. 13 ±.22

- 4.04 ±.21

In view of the fact that Table V. only includes six Veddahs, it
would, I think, be bettter to exclude them from the comparison. This
having been done, there emerges the broad fact that the more primi-
tive races of mankind tend to be less orthognathic than the higher
races, a conclusion which the following extract from Wiedersheim
(23) supports : — " Tlie prognathous type of skull has been assumed
to be a reversion to a pithecoid condition ; but this consideration is
l>y no means a simple one. The cousins Sarasin have pointed out
that the lowest forms of human skulls, e.g., those of Veddahs, Anda-
man Islanders and Bushmen, are of orthognathous, or (Andaman
Islanders) niesognathic type. The orthognathous type may thus
have been attained by human beings at a very early period, and
subsequently lost. If this be the case (but it is doubtful), the prog-
nathous condition of Negroes and Melanesians, and the great projec-
tion of the jaw in some woolly and straight-haired races, must be a
secondary condition, which has been preceded by orthognathy. In
this case the orthognathy once more attained by Europeans mu.st be
regarded as a third phylogenetic phase of the evolution of the skull
(Sarasin)."

A further examination of Table V., from, the standpoint of racial
impurity or otherwise, reveals little or nothing. The standard devia-
tion, which reflects to a certain extent the influence of the range of
variation, is found to be greatest in probably the purest race of all,
namely, the Tasmanian, and, excluding the Veddah, for the reason
already given, least in the known and admittedly impure race, the
modern Italian. Looked at from this standpoint, we find that, as
regards the standard deviation, the five races compared (Veddahs
excluded) may be arranged in an ascending series as follows : —
Modem Italian - . - - 3.54

Andamanese . . - . 3.60

Chinese .-♦.-- 4.03
Australian - - - - - 4.13

Tasmanian ----- 4.83

11

146

L. W. G. BOchner:

Nii.mlef of Individuals.

- 5-5 ^ ^ Oi

fO €>» J^ o^

>«> Oi V

JO

— ^ 03 f

— rOC>3^a>fl^^J^/J

■0

in

o

— fS <P

c^ c ^r "Q -£; i ■%

— r-*</»?rcrNO'~Jj:^^ -C-

C

£2-

c;> -J' -J «r -O z:

Pru(jn((thitiiii at T(1'<iiuih (>i n Aljorlytunl.

147

Notwithstandinjr that there are at the two ends of the scale known
]>ure and impure races, it is sutKciently clear that it would be very-
injudicious to endeavour to draw any conclusions whatsoever as to
the purity or impurity of race from the ranr!;e of variation of a
secondary racial character like pro<rnatliism. What, however, does
emerjje very clearly from the present research is that the Tasmanian
is, as estimated from Flower's ofnathic index, on the meso-prognathic
border line, and slightly more orthognathic than the Australian.

In conclusion, there are appended five frequency polygons of the
gnathic indices in the selected races, and Table VI., which establishes
comparisons of tlie prognathic index, and measurements between
anthropoid apes, prehistoric and recent man. (See Fig. Til.).

The anthro})oid tit^ures are derived from Oppenheim (34), and from
them I have calculated the jrnathic index.

Fig. rV. — Tasmanian

Australian

Neandertal (Klaatsch)

Glorilla — • — • — •• — ■ — ■ — • — -•
(Superpo.sed on basi-na.sal axis.)

The remaining measurements are mostly from Flower's Catalogue,
supplemented in the case of the mesognathic 90 Australians by
figures derived from other sources. Concerning the Tasmanians, the
32 there included are the original contribution of this work to the
subject.

Tlie entire results are classified according to their degree of pro-
nieso-, or orthognathism, but it is important to bear in mind that the
results set forth for the !)0 Australians. 32 Tasmanians, 19 Andamanese

148

L. W. G. Bvchner

and 32 Chinese have been re-calculated by me by biometric methods,
and are therefore more accurate than the remainder, which are only
arithmetical averages.

The entire table contains an interesting survey of the subject
of prognathism from an evolutionary and racial standpoint, and is
fairly free from the objection which so commonly attaches itself to
such tables of too sweeping deductions from an insutliciency of
numbers.

TABLE VT.

Number.

43

40
55

36
58
90
32
19
29
32
184
50

Orange Utan (female)
Orang Utan (male)
Chimpanzee (male)
Chimpanzee (female)
Gorilla (male)
Grorilla (female)
Gibraltar (Sollas)
African Negroes
Melanesians
Australians
Tasmanians
Andamanese
Hindus
Chinese
Eiiropeans
Modern Italians

Basi -nasal
length.

■ 92

■ 96
101

■ 102

• 140

■ 123

• 106
. 98

■ 96

• 98.75 ■
- 96.60 ■

■ 91.26 -
101

■ 97.23 ■

• 98.1 ■
98.6 .

Rasi-pros-
thionic
lensth.

162

164

133

129

173

148

112

102

103

1(X).91
98.70
92.74
94

95.70
92
94.6

V

Gnathic index.

176

170

131

125

123

120

105.7

104.4

103.4

102.38

102.08

101.32
9S.7 '
97.94 ± .48) .
96.2 -|:
95.92 ± .32 I 5

.SO)
.40 I

.55 1

References.

1. Topinard, P. — Anthropology, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London,

1894.

2. Ihering, Herman. — Ueber das Wesen der Prognathic und ihr

Verhaltnis zur Schadelbasis. Archiv. ftir Anthrop., Bd. 5, 1872.

3. Lissauer, Dr.— Ueber die Ursachen der Prognathic und deren

exacten Ausdruck. Archiv. fiir Anthrop., Bd. 5, 1872.

4. Duckworth, L. W. H.— Quoted by A. Keith under (28).

5. Keith, A. — The Position of the Negro and Pygmy amongst

Human Races. Nature, No. 2124, Vol. S4. 1910. pp. M-o.

6. Thomson, A. — A Consideration of Some of the More Important

Factors concerned in the Production of Man's Cranial Form.
Jour. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. XXXIII., 1903.

7. Daffner. — Das Waohstuin des Menschen, 1902.

8. Brinton. — American Ajithropologist. Vol. VII. (quoted by

Thomson, under 6).

9. Flower, Sir Wm. II. — Catalogue of Osteological Specimens in

the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England,
Part I., 2nd Edition, Taylor and Francis, London.

PrognatJiisrii of Tasmanian Aboriginal. 149

10. Wohlbold, H. — Die Kraniologie, ilire (jleschichte und ilire

Bedeutung fiir die Clcissification der Menschheit. Inaupnii'al
Dissertation, Friediich-Alexanders UniversiLat, Eilangen, 'J 1
Juni, 1898.

11. Duckworth, W. L. II.— Morphology and Anthropology, Univer-

sity Press, Cambridge, 1904.
li'. Huxley, T. H. — Man's Place in Nature, III., On Some Fossil

Remains of Man, Maomillan and Co., London, 1897.
1:5. Welcker, H. — Untersuchungen iiber Wachsthuni und Bau des

raenschliehen Schiidels, Leipzig, 1862.

14. Bolk, L. — On the Slope of the Foramen Magnum in Primates.

Proc. Koninklijkc Akadamie van Wetenschappen te Amster-
dam, Dec. 24, 1909.

15. Welcker, H. — Quoted l>y Bolk under (14).

IG. Aeby, C. — Die Schadelformen der Menschen und AfYen, Leipzig,
1867.

17. Hopf, Ludwig. — The Human Species, Longmans, Green and Co.,

London, 1909.

18. Darwin, C. — ^Ttie Descent of Man, John Murray, London.

19. Darwin, C. — The Variation of Plants and Animals under

Domestication, Vol. 1.

20. Spencer, H. — Principles of Biology, Vol. I.

21. Keith, A. — Ancient Types of Man, Librarv' of Living Thought,

Harper Bros., London, 1911.

22. Duckworth, W. L. H. — Prehistoric Man, Cambridge, Manuals

of Science and Literature, 1912.

23. Wiedersheim, R.^The Structure of Man, MacMillan and Co.,

London, 1905.

24. Schaafhausen. — On the Primitive Form of the Skull, Translated

in the Anthropological Review, Oct., 1868,

25. Klaatsch, H. — Das Gesichtskelett der Neandertalrasse und der

Australier, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. XXXII., 1908.

26. Thomson, A., and Maclver, R. — The Ancient Races of the

Thebaid, Oxford, 1905.

27. Fiirst, C. M. — Einiges iiber anthropologische Winkelmessungen

und iiber ein Instrument fiir Wiukel-uud Index -hestimmun-
gen. Zeitscli. fiir Morph. u. Ant-hrop., Bd. IX., 1906.

28. Keith, A. — ■Description of a New Craniometer, and of Certain

Changes in the Anthropoid Skull. Journ. Anat. and Phys.,
Third Series, Vol. V., Vol. XLIV., 1910.

29. Turner, Sir Wni. H. — The Craniology, Racial Affinities, and

Descent of the Aborigines of iasmania. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edinburgh, Vol. XLVL, Pt. II., (No. 17), 1908.

150 L. W. G. Bvchiier: Ta-smaiiian Abvriguud.

30. Berry, R. J. A., and Eol)ertson, A. W. D. — Diptrographic

Tracings in Four Noriuae of Fifty-Two Tasmania Crania.
Trans. Roy. See. Vic, Vol. V. (No. 1), 1909.

31. Biichner, L. W. G.— An Investifration of 52 Tasmanian Crania

by Klaatsch's Oraniotrigononietrical Methods. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Vic, this vol., pi-ecedin<r paper.

32. Klaaitsch, H. — The Skull of the Australian Al»original, Re})orts

from the Path. Lab. of the Lunacy Dept. of N.S.W., Vol. L,
Part IIL, 1908, pp. 45, et. seq.

33. Duckworth, W. L. H. — Studies in Anthropology, Cambridge

University Press, 1904.

34. Oppenheim. S. — Zur Typologie des Priniatecraniums Zeit. fiir

Morp. und Anthrop.. Bd. XIV., Heft. I., 1911.

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victokia, 25 (N.S.), Ft. I., 1912.]

Ar'i'. XII. — The Pfij/chi'oinetric Fonmda.

By G. SMKAI., B.Sc.
(Goveruuient Re-st-arcli Scholar in tlic University of Mulboiirne).

[Read lllh July, 1912.]

In a pai>er published last year by Dr. Love and myself^ we dis-
cussed a uioditication proposed by Ekhohn to be made in the formula
for the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer, wlileh would have important
consequences if confirmed. The formula so modified would be

a- = 77/- AB (/-/'),
where x and f are respectively the actual vapour-pressure in the
atmosphere and the saturation vapour-pressure at the temperature t'
of the wet-bulb. A is the ordinary p^ychrometric constant, and r/ tlie
co-efficient, le.s« than unity, whose insertion Ekholm advises in order
to allow for diminution of vapour-pressure at the surface of the wet-
IniU) h\ a hygroscopic action of the material covering it.

It was shown that, if there were an appreciable hygroscopic action
affecting the temperature of the wet-bulb, a perceptible difference
would be observed between several thermou)eters covered with dif-
ferent materials. The results recorded showed, however, that three
wet-bulb thermouieters, covered respectively with silk, linen and
cotton, agreed in their readings to within the limits of observation,
which were 0.05 C, the thermometers being divided into tenth-
degrees. In all, 63 sets of observations were given, each set compris-
ing a comparison of the tln-ee wet-bulbs with a Regnault condensa-
tion hygrometer. By the application of least squares to the niudi-
tied formula, the value of // was found to be 0.9974, which is unity
to the order of approximation possible in such experiments. Tlie
conclusions arrived at were that the proposed change was not justitied
by the evidence which Ekholm himself produced, and that a direct
test showed the supposed basis of it to be incorrect.

These observations, taken in May and June, were all under con-
ditions of fairly high humidity, above 50 per cent, in every case, and
consequently low values of the dift'erence t - t'. In order to test the
formula under a more extended range of circumstances, the observa^
tions were resumed, and continued until December. No change was
made in the conditions of exposure, nor in the method of procedure,
both of which were fully described in the former paper. The cover-

1 Proc. Roy. .Soc. Victoria 24 (n.s.), Pt. II., lOll.

152 G. Smeal:

ings of the wet-bulbs had been kept clean by periodical washing
during the first series of experiments, but on resuming this was
neglected until August 10, when 31 more sets had been obtained. It
was then found that they were considerably soiled, and an examina-
tion of the results indicated that this had seriously affected the
readings. After cleaning, some superfluous portions were cut away,
leaving the bulbs somewhat freer, and thenceforward the nrnt^'rials
were regularly washed. The results herein detailed comprise only
the observations since August 10, numbering 103 ; some figures
obtained from the other 31 sets will be presented, as evidence of Ihe
necessity for clean coverings to the wet-bulbs. During the last month
of the work obsex'vations were mostly restricted to hot, dry days in
order to gain experience of low humidities. The range of tempera-
ture and humidity has thus been largely extended, the humidities
now varying between 18.01 per cent, and 95.11 per cent., and the dry
temperatures between 7.350 jv^d 31.350C, while the values of t-t'
extend up to H.GOC.

Observations.

The wet-bulb readings are given in Table I., with the differences
between them, the thermometers being numbered 2 (linen), 3 (cotton)
and 4 (silk), as before.

Table I.

No.

2

3

4

•2-3

2-4

1 -

11.55 -

11.65 -

11.70 -

—0.10 -

-0.15

2 -

11.05 -

11.10 -

11.05 -

— .05 -

0

3 -

11.65 -

11.65 -

11.70 -

0 -

— .05

4 -

9.45 -

9.40 -

9.40 -

.05 -

.05

5 -

9.45 •

9.50 -

9.45 -

— .05 -

0

6 -

9.85 -

9.85 -

9.75 -

0 -

.10

7 -

8.45 -

8.50 .

8.50 -

— .05 -

— .05

8 -

9.15

9.10

9.10 -

.05 -

.05

9 •

9.15

9.10

9.10 -

.05 -

.05

10 -

10.55 -

10.60 -

10.55 -

— .05 -

0

11

9.55 -

9.60

9.50 -

— .05 -

.05

12 ■

11.85 -

■ 11.85 -

11.85 -

0 -

0

13

12.75 ■

12.65 -

12.70 -

.10 -

.05

U

11.45 ■

11.45 -

11.50 -

0

— .05

15

- 12.45

- 12.40

12.40 -

.05 -

.05

16 ■

11.65 ■

• 11.55 ■

11.65 -

.10 -

0

17

11.15

- 11.00

- 11.05 -

.15 -

.10

18

12.55

12.45

- 12.50 -

.10 -

.05

19

• 12.65

- 12.65 ■

12.70 -

0 -

— .05

20

1 0.65

- 10.60

10.65 -

.05 -

0

Fsi/chromefft

(• Foriiinhi.

153

No.

2

3

i

2-3

2—4

21 ■

10.45

- 10.45 -

10.45 -

0 -

0

22 -

11.25

- 11.15 -

11.20 -

.10 -

.05

23 -

10.40

- 10.40 -

10.45 -

0 -

— .05

24 -

11.40

- 11.35 -

11.45 -

.05 -

— .05

25 -

13.90

- 13.90 -

14.00 -

0 -

— .10

26 -

12.95

12.95 -

12.95 -

0 -

0

27 -

10.65

- 10.70 -

10.65 -

— .05 -

0

28

8.75

8.80 -

8.80 -

— .05 -

— .05

29 -

7.35

7.40 -

7.40 -

— .05 -

— .05

30 -

9.35

9.40 -

9.40 -

-^ .05 -

— .05

31 -

11.25

11.25 -

11.25 -

0 -

0

32 -

13.80

- 13.90 -

14.00 -

— .10 -

— .20

33 -

13.50

- 13.60 -

13.70 -

- .10 -

— .20

34 -

12.45

- 12.55 -

12.60 -

— .10 -

— .15

35 -

7.85

7.90 -

7.90 -

— .05 -

— .05

36 -

9.95

- 10.00 -

lO.OO -

— .05 .

— .05

37 -

10.70

- 10.70 -

10.70 -

0 -

0

38 -

12.3u

12.35 -

12.40 -

0 -

— .05

39 ■

13.35

- 13.30 -

13.40 -

.05 -

— .05

40 -

14.00

- 14.00 -

13.95 -

0 -

.05

41

12,70

- 12.65 -

12.70 -

.05 -

0

42 -

12.55

- 12.55 -

12.60 -

0 -

- .05

43 -

13.15

- 13.05 -

13.10 -

.10 -

.05

44 -

11.35

- 11.25 -

11.35 -

.10 -

0

45 -

11.85

- 11.75 -

11.85 -

.10 -

0

46 -

13.55

- 13.55 -

13.60 -

0 -

— .05

47

13.40

- 13.35 -

13.40 -

.05 -

0

48 -

14.10

- 14.00 -

14.10 -

.10 -

0

49 -

16.60

- 16.60 ■

16.60 -

0 -

0

50 ■

16.55

16.50 -

16.60 -

.05 -

— .05

51 -

13.90

- 13.80 -

13.90 -

.10 -

0

52

- 12.25

- 12.15 -

12.20 -

.10 -

.05

53 •

14.50

14.40 -

14.50 -

.10 -

0

54 -

10.55

- 10.50 -

10.55 -

.05 -

0

55

10.95>

- 10.90 -

10.95 -

.05

0

56

9.65

9.60 -

9.60 -

.05 -

.05

57 ■

11.35

- 11.25 -

11.35 -

.10 -

0

58 -

14.30

- 14.20 -

14.35 -

.10 -

— .05

59

- 14.90

- 14.80 -

14.95 -

.10

- — .05

60

13.90

- 13.80 -

13.90 -

.10 -

0

61

- 14.00

- 13.90 -

14.(X) -

.10 -

0

62

- 12.35

- 12.35 -

12.40 -

0 -

— .05

(•)3

- 1 5.00

- 14.90 -

15.00 -

.10 -

0

54

G.

Smeal :

No.

2

3

4

■2 3

■2 4

G4 -

7.75 -

7.70

7.80 -

.05 -

— .05

(33

9.75 -

9.70

9.80

.05 -

— .05

06 -

10.85 -

10.80

- 10.85 -

.05 -

0

67

8.85 -

8.85

8.90 -

0 -

— .05

{\H

9.65 -

9.65

9.65 -

0 -

0

6'»

9.45 -

9.40

9.40 -

.05 -

.05

70 -

9.25 -

9.20

9.20 -

.05 -

.05

71 -

9.05 -

9.00

9.10 -

■ .05 -

— .05

7-2 -

9.55 -

9.50

9.60 -

.05

- .05

73 -

12.75 -

12.65

12.70 -

.10 -

.05

74 -

12.60 -

12.55

12.70

.05 -

- .10

75

13.60 -

13.50

13.60 -

.10 •

0

76 -

13.15 -

13.05

13.15 -

.10 -

0

77

13.60 -

13.55

13.70 -

.05 -

— .10

7,s

13.40 -

13.40

13.50 -

0 -

— .10

79

14.10 -

14.00

14.10 -

.10 -

0

80 -

10.55 -

10.60

- 10.65 -

— .05 -

— .10

81 -

8.95 -

9.00

9.00 -

— .05 -

- .05

S-2 ■

11.45 -

11.35

11.45 -

.10 -

0

83 -

11.95 -

11.90

- 12.00 -

.05 -

— .05

84 -

13.15 -

13.05

- 13.20 -

.10 -

^ .05

85 -

11.45 -

11.35

- 11.50 -

.10 -

— .05

86 -

17.20 -

17.10

17.20 -

.10 -

0

87 -

9.15 ■

9.00

9.00 -

.15 -

.15

88 •

- 15.10 -

15.00

- 15.10 -

.10

0

S!)

18.00

17. SO

17.90 -

.20

.10

!)0

16.80

16.70

16.80 -

.10 -

0

1)1

- 17.50

17.30

17.40 -

.20

.10

!)•_»

13.50 -

13.40

- 13.60 -

.10 -

— .10

y:5

12.75

- 12.60

12.60 -

.15 -

.15

94

12.80

- 12.65

- 12.70 -

.15 -

.10

95

- 15.10

- 15.10

15.10 -

0 -

0

9(;

- 16.10

- 16.10

- 16.10 -

0 -

0

!»7

16.50

- 16.50

16.40 -

0 -

.10

98

16.20

16.10

- 16.15 -

.10 -

.05

99

19.25 ■

- 19.25

19.30 -

0

— .05

10(1

15.60

- 15.50

- 15.80 -

.10 -

— .20

101

12.40

12.40

- 12.50 -

0 •

■ — .10

10-i

- 15.80

15.80

16.00 -

0 -

— .20

10:?

- 16.10

- 16.10

- 16.20 -

0

— .10

The ditt'erences are again very slight, and by no means comparable
with thnse which would correspond to any appreciable hygroscopic
action. In the case of linen and cotton, out of 103 pairs, 27 show

Psi/c/iroiuefric Furniuld. 155

no difference, and only (> diffur l)y inoic than 0.1^; the n)ea.n dif-
ference is 0.040, while the observahlc limit is O.Oo'. In the other
case of linen and silk, 36 show a zero difi'ercnce, and only 9 show
above 0. 1° difference, while the averaj^e is 0.015'^. ("onibininjx these
with the observations already piiblished, we find the average differences
in the two cases to be resj)ectively 0.03O and O.Ol^, while out of the
large ninnber of differences only 10 in one case and 11 in the other
are greater than a tentli f)f a degree.

We must conclude from these figures that the value of the co-
efficient -q is not perceptibly dependent on the nature of the covering
used for the wet-l)ulb thermometer, this result holding true through-
out a considerable range of temperature above zero, and under prac-
tically all conditions of humidity.

The full details of the observations are contained in the next table.
Under the heading /' are given the mean values, where necessary, of
the wet-bulb readings ; the pressure is given co^rrected for tempera-
ture.

Table II.

No.

t

t'

Dew-point

1!

Wiml

1 -

10.60 -

11.65 -

6.80 -

765.8

- Fresh N.

2 -

17.40 -

11.05 -

3.85 -

764.8

- Light N.

3 -

15.20 -

11.65 -

8.20 -

761.0

- Strong N.

i -

10.55 -

9.40 -

7.80 -

765.5

- Calm.

5 -

11.80 -

9.45 -

6.85 -

761.5

- Light 8. E.

6 -

14.20 -

9.80 -

4.40 -

764.6

- Light S. E.

7 -

11.45 -

8.50 -

5.35 -

766.1

- Very light S.E.

8 -

13.65 -

9.10 -

4.15 -

764.8

- Very light S.E.

9 -

11.60 -

9.10 -

5.95 -

764.8

- Calm.

10 -

14.75 -

10.55 -

5.00 -

760.6

- Gentle N.

11 -

14.75 -

9.55 -

5.55 -

759.5

- Light N.

12 -

16.70 -

11.85 -

7.95 -

762.6

- Strong N.

13 -

18.90 -

12.70 -

6.85 -

761.4

- Strong N.

U -

17.60 -

11.45 -

6.55 -

761.6

Very strong N.

15 -

20.35 -

12.40 -

5.45 -

760.1

Strong N.

IG -

18.60 -

11.60 -

5.75 -

760.7 -

Very strong N.

17 -

17.50 -

11.05 -

4.75 -

753.4 ■

- N. breeze.

18 -

19.60 -

12.50 -

6.10 -

750.8 -

N. breeze.

19 -

14.60 -

12.65 -

10.70 -

751.7 ■

- Calm.

20 -

12.20 -

10.65 -

8.60 -

762.9

- Veiy light S.

21 -

12.65 -

10.45 -

8.50 -

761.3 -

Very light S.

22 -

12.40 -

11.20 -

9.85 -

763.3

- Very light 8.

23 -

11.85 -

10.40 -

9.25 -

763.2 -

Very light S.

24 -

12.50 -

11.40 -

10.65 -

762.6 -

Calm.

25 -

17. .30 -

13.95 -

11.1?) -

758.8 ■

N. l)reeze

56

G. Smeal :

No.

t

t'

Dew-jioilit

B

Wind

26 -

17.90 -

12.95

- 9.15 -

756.3

- Light N.

27 -

12.7U -

10.65

- 8.30 -

758.3

- Calm.

28 -

11.40 -

8.80

- 6.55 -

758.1

- N. breeze.

29 -

11.60 -

7.40

- 2.25 -

765.4

- Calm,

30 -

14.55 -

9.40

- 3.65 -

761.8

- Very light N.

31 -

15.85 -

11.25

- 7.35 -

759.2

- Light N.

32 -

18.40 -

13.90

- 9.60 -

757.5

Cahi).

33 -

20.45 -

13.60'

7.35 -

751.8

- Fresh N.

34 -

20.75 -

12.55

- 4.35 -

750.0

- Light N.

35 -

10.85 -

7.90

5.55

75<).4

- S. breeze.

36 -

12.20 -

10:00

- 7.80 -

765.3

- Light S.

37

13.35 -

10.70

- 6.15 -

764.3

- Calm.

38 ~

16.15 -

12.35

9.70 -

760.7

- Very light N.

39 -

18.30 -

13.35

- 8.G5 -

758.5

- Very light N.

40 -

17.90 -

14.00

- 10.50 -

758.5

- Calm.

41 -

18.20 -

12.70

7.95 -

756.8

- Gentle S.

42 -

16.05 -

12.55

- 9.80 -

758.7

- Calm.

43

17.55 -

13.10

- 10.10 -

757.5

- Calm.

44 -

13.45 -

11.30

9.50 -

760.2

- Very light S.

45 -

16.15 -

11.80

- 8.15 -

758.8

- Very light S.

46 -

20.25 -

13.55

- 7.45 -

760.3

- Fresh N.

47 -

19.55 -

13.40

- 7.45 -

759.1

- Very light N.

48

20.05 -

14.05

- 8.40 -

757.6

- Gentle N.

49 -

21.05 -

16.60

- 13.55 -

754.0

- Light N.

50 -

21.80 -

16.55

- 12.95 -

751.4

- Gentle N.

51 -

17.00 -

13.85

- 11.35 -

754.2

- Gentle S.

52 -

15.25 -

12.20

- 9.60 -

759.8

- Gentle S.

53 -

20.95 -

14.45

- 9.80 -

756.6

- N. breeze.

54 -

14.55 -

10.55

- 6.25 -

760.3

- Light N.

55 -

14.25 -

10.95

- 8.45 -

764.4

- Light S.W.

56 -

13.45 -

9.60

- 5.95 -

764.7

- Gentle S.

57 -

15.25 -

11.30

- 7.85 -

762.9

- Very light S.

58 -

18.60 -

14.30

- 11.35 -

762.1

- Very light S.

59 -

21.20 -

14.90

- 9.40 -

761.2

- Vei7 light N.

60 -

16.60 -

13.85

- 12.05 -

760.0

- Very light S.

61 -

16.80 -

13.95

- 12.15 -

759.4

- Very light S.

62 -

15.35 -

12.35

- 9.75 -

756.0

- Light N.

63 -

19.25 -

14.95

- 11.05 -

753.5

- Gentle, variable,

64 -

12.70 -

7.75

- 2.45 -

762.7

- Fresh S.W.

65 -

14.75 -

9.75

- 3.75 -

761.0

- Gentle W.

66 -

15.85 -

10.85

- 5.60 -

759.5

- Light S.

67 -

13.15 -

8.85

- 4.40 -

763.2

- Light S.

68 -

14.25 -

9.65

- 3.15 -

762.3

- Light, variable.

Pyschronictrlr For in ula. 1 57

No

t

fi

Ofw jioiiit

r.

Wind

69 -

13.15 -

9.40 -

5.85 -

764.8 ■

- S. breeze.

70 -

14.20 -

9.20 -

3.65 -

765.0 ■

- S. breeze.

71 -

13.85 -

9.05 -

4.05 -

766.2 ■

■ Lirrht S.

72 -

14.35 -

9.55 -

4.85 -

765.5 -

■ Lifrht S.

73 -

19.00 -

12.70 -

6.20 -

761.9

■ Strong N.

74 -

19.80 -

12.60 -

5.45 -

761.0 -

■ Strong N.

75 -

22.45 -

13.55 -

5.95 -

758.6 ■

■ Strong N.

76 -

21.95 -

13.10 -

5.05 -

758.1 •

- Light N.

77 -

23.60 -

13.60 -

5.25 -

756.4

Strong N.

78 -

25.65 -

13.45 -

3.85 -

754.8 -

Strong N.

79 -

24.40 -

14.05 -

4.95 -

754.8 ■

- S.W. breeze.

80 -

15.15 -

10.60 -

6.70 -

755.0 ■

- Light S.

81 -

14.05 -

9.00 -

4.15 -

759.8 ■

■ Light S.W.

82 -

15.55 -

11.40 -

7.40 -

765.9

- Very light S.

83 -

15.75 -

11.95 -

8.90 -

765.0 -

■ Gentle S

84 -

17.20 -

13.15 -

8.95 -

765.5 ■

■ Light S.

85 -

15.50 -

11.45 -

7.45 -

766.0 ■

■ Gentle S.

86 -

29.90 -

17.15 -

5.75 -

755.2 ■

Strong N.

87 -

13.75 -

9.05 -

5.35 -

768.9 •

- S. breeze.

88 -

23.80 -

15.05 -

8.60 -

758.7 ■

■ Light N.

89 -

31.20 -

17.90 -

7.35 -

755.3

- Light N.

90 -

31.35 -

16.75 -

4.15 -

755.3

- Gentle N.

91 -

30.95 -

17.40 -

5.95 -

755.3 -

Gentle N.

92 -

18.20 -

13.50 -

9.40 -

759.5

- Gentle S.

93 -

17.85 -

12.65 -

7.90 -

759.0 -

■ Light S.

94 -

17.10 -

12.70 -

8.80 -

758.6 ■

- Light S.W.

95 -

24.35 -

15.10 -

7.85 ■•

754.5 ■

■ Strong N.

96 -

27.40 -

16.10 -

6.95 -

752.1 -

- Strong N.

97 -

23.60 -

16.45 -

10.40 -

755.6 ■

■ Light S.W.

98 -

21.90 -

16.15 -

11.55 -

754.7 ■

■ Very light S.W.

99 -

28.10 -

19.25 -

13.90 -

750 ■

- Light N.

100 -

26.10 -

15.65 -

7.05 -

745.2 ■

- Strong N.

101 -

21.90 -

12.45 -

2.60 -

752.5 •

- Very light N.

102 -

24.55 -

15.85 -

9.60 -

749.8 ■

- Gentle N.

103 -

27.90 -

16.15 -

5.65 -

749.5 ■

- Very light S.W.

Method of Reduction.

In dealing with the former series of observations, the individual
values of the coTis'tant A were determined from the formula

;c = /- AB(/-/'),

taking the vapour-pressures x and f from Broch's tables. The arith-
metic mean of these values was taken to be the most probable, or most

158 G. Siueal:

suitable, value of A to be used in the formula. Tlie same method was
followed at first in reducinf; the present series, and considerable time
was spent in ofroupin^; and examining the values of A before it was
discovered that the method was incorrect in principle, though yield-
ing approximately correct results so long as the number of observa-
vations was not too small.

By the application of the method of least squares to the more

general formula

.V --'///- AB(7-/'),

in which tliere are two constants, rj and A, to be determined, a single
value of each is obtained to represent the whole set of observations.
The corresponding formula with these numerical co-efficients has the
property that it gives the value of .c with the least probable error
from observations of the values of the other quantities concerned..
Now this is evidently the result which is required ; in practice the
psychrometer is used alone, and we are required to determine from its
readings the actual value r of the vapour-pressure in the air. We
therefore seek a fornmla of the recognised type with such numerical
co-efficients that the value of r will in the long run of similar trials
be given with the smallest possible margin of error. If the simple
formula

X = f - AB{/ - O,

be used, nr, in other words, if the co-efficient 7/ be assumed to be unity,
this end will be attained by a direct application of least squares to the
equation as it stands, and not to the severally determined values of
the constant A. Taking the arithmetic mean of the values of A is an
application of least squares which makes the errors of A a minimum,
instead of those of r. The correct value of A which is appropriate to
the whole set of observations is therefore given by the equation

where 3 is put for convenience in place of B (f - /'). Since the indivi-
dual value of A is given for each obsei-vation by

A = (/- .r)/s,

the correct result is the same as would be obtained by weighting the
individual values proportionally tn z^, that is practically to (f-t)'^.
Since t ■ f \s freiiuently small, and is in the denominator, this makes
it seem probable that the correct value for the present purpose would
also be a better value than the simple mean, if the object were to
determine A with the least margin of error. (This latter might be
the case, for example, if the formula were assumed to be absolute
and not merely an a[>i)roximatioii of varying accuracy : then the value
of A might be considered as an aid to investigation of the projjerties
of air or water-va|)Our. It need haidly bo said that sucli a procedure
would be absurd.)

I'fiijcli roiiirl rlc Fornndii. 159

When this methnd of reduction was first recoj^nised as more
(•orret-t. it was not known that any otlier experimenter had used it.
lUit on investigation, the same method, with a small alteration, the
reason for which I oould not discover, was found given without
remark in Fen-el's paper on '' Psychrometrical Tables,"! though
there are some obvious misprints. The method used by Regnault and
most others is not stated in their papers : on the other hand, Angot2,
Pernter' and Svensson'' certainly used arithmetic mean values. For
this reason I have thought it well to call attention to the discrepancy
between the two methods, though the actual results may not be
much different in a good series of observations. For investigating
the effects of wind-velocity and other circumstances, the same method
is appropriate, and was used in all further study of my own observa-
tions.

Results.

The value of A derived from the 103 observations recorded in this
paper is 0.0007232 ± 0.0000048. Taking the mean of individual
values, the result is higher — viz., 0.01M>7330 ; but the probable errors
of a single observation of x in the two cases are respectively 0.229
mm. and 0.231 mm., so that the difference in the value of A is of
small practical moment. The value given in the previous paper
was 0.0007228 : using the more correct method of reduction it would
become 0.0007167. From the whole set of 166 observations taken
together the resulting value is 0.0007227 ± 0.0000043. Thege
various values all agree when only two significant figures are taken,
and that is all that can be regarded as really valuable. The final
result is then that A = 0.00072, with a probable error of about
half a unit in the last place, i.e., (72 ± .1) x 10—5. The equation
thus becomes

x = f-0.00072}i(f-O-

Applying the two-constant formula, the values of r; and of A are
found to be 0.9877 and 0.0006967 respectively. For the €3 observa-
tions of the earlier series. // had the value 0.9974. The lower value
now obtained might be regarded as due to incomplete saturation of
the air leaving the wet-bulb, or some similar failure in the action
which is assumed in theory to occur. But it seemed scarcely likely
that this would be more noticeable in the present «eries than in the
other one, since the later observations were distinctively superior in
other respects. In order to determine whether the lessened value
might be due to the observations at low humidity, the series was

1 Kerrel, Report of Secretary of War, V.S , 1886, vol iv., p 233

2. Aiijrot, J de Physicpie, 1, l!SS-2, p 119

3. Fernter, Sitzunu'sber. Wiener .\kad. 87, 188;i

4. Sveiisson, Meteor. Zeitschr. 1896, p. 201.

160 G. Smeal:

divided into two groups, in which the humidities were all vibove and
all below 50 per cent, respectively. In the earlier series all humidities
were above 50 per cent. The application of the formula to each'
group separately gave 77 = 0.9589 below 50 per cent, humidity and
0.9715 above. Both these values are less than that obtained for the
two groups combined, instead of being one greater and one less, as
we might expect. Such a result seems to indicate very clearly that
the value of the second constant -q is almost entirely dependent on
the nature and distribution of the accidental errors of the first
constant A, so that it will vary arbitrarily with the particular group
of observations chosen. In other words, there is no physical justifi-
cation for the insertion of a second constant. It is probable that its
value, determined by trial as above, would always be less than unity,
but this does not indicate the existence of any phenomenon which
is not implicitly allowed for by the simple formula. The following
tables will show that the insertion of it is not attended by any
increase in accuracy, provided the observations are good. It may
possibly be permisisible to say that a series of observations which
yields a value of 7) markedly different from unity is unsatisfactory in
some respect.

In Table III. the values of x observed are compared with those
deduced from the two formulae, according to the equations
a:i=/-0.0007232B(/-/')
and x, = 0.9877/- 0.0006967B(/-/''),
and the differences, or errors, S^Xi = x - x\ and AX2 = x-Xo, are also
given.

Table III.

No.

X

^'i

X.,

A^l

^*2

1

7.36 -

7.46

- 7"43 -

— 0.10 -

—0.07

2

- 6.01

- 6.29

- 6.30 -

■ — .28 -

— .29

3 -

■ 8.10 ■

■ 8.25

- 8.19 -

— .15 -

— .09

4

■ 7.88 .

■ 8.14

- 8.06 -

— .26 -

— .18

5

- 7.39

- 7.52

- 7.45 -

— .13 -

- .06

6 -

■ 6.24 -

6.59

- 6.57 -

— .35 -

— .33

7

■ 6.67

6.64

6.60 -

.03 -

.07

8

- 6.13

- 6.09

- 6.(X^ -

.04 -

.05

9

6.95

• 7.23

- 7.17 -

— .28 -

.22

10

- 6.51

■ 7.17

7.13

— .66 -

— .62

11

- 6.76

- 6.01

6.01

.75 -

.75

12 ■

7.96 -

7.66

- 7.62 -

.30 -

.34

13

- 7.39

- 7.51

- 7.50 -

• — .12 -

— .11

14

■ 7.24 ■

■ 6.67

- 6.68 -

.57 -

.56

15

6.71

6.34

- 6.37 -

.37 -

.34

16

■ 6.86

6.31

- 6.33 -

.55 -

.53

Psi/c/i romclrir Foriaala.

161

No.

X

=^1

. .T._)

A a-,

A .r-i

17 -

6.40 -

6.29 -

6.29 -

.11

.11

IS -

7.02 -

6.92 -

6.94 -

.10 -

.08

19 -

9.58 -

9.83

9. 74 -

— .25 -

— .16

20 -

8.32 -

• 8.68 -

8.60 -

— .36 -

— .28

21 -

8.27 -

8.21

8.13 -

.06 -

.14

22

9.05 -

9.24 -

9.14 -

— .19 -

— .09

23 -

8.69

■ 8.59 ■

- 8.50 -

.10 -

.19

24 -

9.54 -

9.42 -

9.33 -

.12 -

.21

25 -

9.87 -

■ 10.00 -

9.92 -

— .13 -

— .05

26 -

8.63 •

- 8.39 •

- 8.35 -

.24 -

.28

27 -

8.16 -

• 8.42 -

8.34 -

— .26 -

- .18

28 ■

7.24

7.00 ■

€.96 -

.24 -

.28

29 ■

• 5.37

5.35

■ 5.34 -

.02 -

.03

30 -

5.92 ■

- 5.94 -

■ 5.94 -

— .02 -

— .02

31 •

7.65

7.40 •

7.38 -

.25 -

.27

32 -

8.90

- 9.34

9.29

— .44 -

— .39

33 ■

7.65

- 7.86

- 7.85 -

— .21 -

— .20

34

- 6.22

- 6.37

- 6.41

— .15 -

— .19

35

6.76

- 6.33

- 6.29 -

.43 -

.47

36

- 7.88

- 7.92

- 7.86 -

— .04 -

.02

37

■ 7.05

- 8.12

- 8.05

—1.07 -

—1.00

38

8.96

- 8.59

- 8.54 -

0.37 -

0.42

39

- 8.35

- 8.67

- 8.63 -

— .32 -

— .28

40

- 9.45

- 9.74

- 9.67 -

— .29 -

— .22

41

- 7.96

- 7.91

- 7.89 -

.05 •

.07

42

- 9.02

- 8.90

8.84 -

.12 -

.18

43

- 9.20

- 8.77

- 8.72 -

.43 -

48

44

- 8.84

- 8.79

- 8.71 •

.05 -

.13

45

- 8.07

- 7.91

- 7.87 -

.16 -

.20

46

- 7.70

- 7.86

- 7.85 -

— .16 -

— .15

47

- 7.70

8.05

- 8.04 -

— .35 -

— .34

48

- 8.21

- 8.63

- 8.60 -

- — .42

— .39

49

- 11.54

- 11.61

- 11.53 -

■ — .07 -

.01

50

- 11.10

- 11.15

- 11.08 -

■ — .05 -

.02

51

- 10.00

- 10.05

- 9.97

— .05 -

.03

52

- 8.90

- 8.89

- 8.8:^

.01 -

.07

53

- 9.02

- 8.67

- 8.65 -

.35 -

.37

54

- 7.10

- 7.28

- 7.24

■ — .18 -

— .14

55

- 8.24

- 7.92

- 7.86

.32 -

.38

56

- 6.95

- 6.77

- 6.74

.18 -

.21

57

- 7.91

- 7.79

- 7.75 ■

.12 -

.16

58

- 10.00

9.75

- 9.69

.25 -

.31

59

- 8.78

- 9.12

- 9.10

- — .34 -

— .32

16'i

G. Sinnd:

No.

X

*i

x..

A^i

AT,':

60

10.47

- 10.26

- 10.17 -

.21 -

.30

61

- 10.54

- 10.27

- 10.18 -

.27 -

.36

62

8.99

9.04

- 8.97 -

— .05 -

.02

63

- 9.80

- 10.29

- 10.21 -

— .49 -

— .41

64

- 5.44

- 5.13

- 5.13 -

.31 -

.31

65

- 5.97

- 6.24

- 6.23 -

— .27 -

- .26

66

- 6.78

- 6.92

- 6.90 -

— .14 -

— .12

67

- 6.24

- . 6.09

- 6.07 -

.15 -

.17

68

- 5.72

- 6.39

- 6.38 -

— .67 -

— .66

69

- 6.90

- 6.71

- 6.67 -

.19 -

.23

70

•■ 5.92

- 5.89

- 5.89 -

.03 -

.03

71

- 6.09

- 5.92

- 5.91

.17 -

.18

72

- 6.44

- 6.21

- 6.20 -

.23 -

.24

73

- 7.07

- 7.45

- 7.45 -

— .38 -

— .38

74

- 6.71

- 6.89

- 6.90 -

— .18 -

- .19

75

- 6.95

- 6.66

- 6.70 -

.29 -

.25

76

- 6.53

- 6.36

- 6.40 -

.17 -

.13

77

- 6.62

- 6.11

- 6.17 -

.51 -

.45

78

- 6.01

- 4.81

- 4.91

1.20 -

1.10

79

- 6.49

- 6.27

- 6.33 -

0.22 -

0.16

80

- 7.31

- 7.03

7.00

.28 -

.31

81

- 6.13

- 5.78

- 5.77 -

.35 -

.36

82

- 7.67

- 7.73

7.70 -

— .06 -

— .03

83

- 8.49

- 8.30

- 8.24 -

.19 -

.25

84

- 8.52

9.01

- 8.96 -

— .49 -

— .44

85

- 7.70

- 7.82

- 7.78 -

— .12

— .08

86

- 6.86

- 7.5S

- 7.65 -

— .72 -

— .79

87

- 6.67

- 5.97

5.95

.70 -

.72

88

- 8.32

- 7.91

7.92

.41 -

.40

89

- 7.65

7.98

- 8.05 -

— .33 -

— .40

90

- 6.13

- 6.20

- 6.32

- .07 -

— .19

91

- 6.95

- 7.3f)

7.45

■ — .41 -

— .50

92

- 8.78

8.93

8.88

- — .15 -

— .10

93

7.94

- 8.04

8.01

■ — .10 -

— .07

94

- 8.43

8.51

- 8.46

- — .08 -

— .03

95

- 7.91

- 7.71

- 7.74

.20 -

.17

96

7.44

- 7.45

- 7.51

- — .01 -

— .07

97

9.39

- 10.00

- 9.98

- — .61 -

-- .59

98

- 10.13

- 10.51)

- 10.45

- — .37 -

— .32

99

- 11.81

- 11.73

- 11.70

.08

.11

100

7.50

- 7.58

- 7.63

- — .08 -

— .13

101

- 5.50

- 5.61

- 5.67

- — .11 -

— .17

102

- 8.90

- 8.66

- 8.68

.24 -

.22

103

- 6,81

- 7.27

- 7.33

- — .46 -

— .52

I'sjiflt roiiH'l rif Form (il<i. H^^

The errors in the two formulae are never far ditt'erent ; sunmiinf!:
them without repfard to si<i:n the results are 27.12 and 27.05. for the
1(W iil)ticrvations, so that the averajje errors are indistinp-uishable
from one another. The same is true of the probable errors deduced by
leiast squares, beinjj: 0.229 mm. in each case.

Tlie correspondinp- values of humidity with the errors of each are
triven in the foUowinj:' table : —

Table IV.

No.

'■

' 1

'•,

In

1,.,

1 -

52.42 -

■ 53.13

- 52.92 -

—0.71 -

— 0.5U

2

40.72 -

42.61

42.68 -

— 1.89 -

-1.96

3 ■

63.08 -

64.25

- 63.79

—1.17 -

—0.71

4

83.12 ■

■ 85.86

- 85.02 -

—2.74 -

—1.90

5 -

71.75 -

73.01

- 72.33 -

—1.26 -

—0.58

6 ■

■ 51.83 -

54.73

- 54.57 -

—2.90 -

—2.74

7

€6.30 ■

- 66.00

- 65.61 -

0.30 -

0.69

8

- 52.75

- 52.41

- 52.32 -

0.34 -

0.43

9 -

68.41 -

71.16

- 70.57 -

—2.75 -

—2.16

10 -

■ 52.20 -

57.50

- 57.18 -

—5.30

-4.98

11

- 54.21

48.20

- 48.20 -

6.01 -

6.01

12

56.33

■ 54.21

- 53.93 -

2.12 -

2.40

U -

45.56

46.30

- 46.24 -

—0.74 -

—0.68

U -

48.43 ■

■ U 62

41.68 ■

3.81 -

3.75

15 ■

■ 37.80 ■

■ 35.72

- 35.89 -

2.08 -

1.91

If)

- 43.09

- 39.64

- 39.76 ■

3.45 -

3.33

17

- 43.07

- 42.33

- 42.33 ■

0.1'4 -

0.74

IS

- 41.44

■ 40.85

- 40.97

0.59 -

0.47

19

77.57 •

79.60

- 78.87 -

—2.03 -

—1.30

20

- 78.71

82.12

- 81.36 -

—3.41

—2.65

21

75.94

75.39

- 74.66 -

0.55 -

1.28

22

- 84.50

- 86.27

- 85.34 -

■ —1.77 -

—0.84

2.3

- 84.12

- 83.16

82.28

0.96

1.84

24

- 88.50

87.:5S

- 86.55 -

1.12 -

1.95

25 ■

- 67.28

- 68.17

- 67.62 -

—0.89 -

—0.31

26

- 56.63

55.05

- 54.79 -

1.58 -

1.84

27

74.73 -

77.11

- 76.37 -

—2.38 -

—1.64

28

- 72.18

- 69.79

- 69.39 -

2.39 -

2.79

29

52.85

- 52.f)6

- 52.56 ■

0.19 -

0.29

30

- 48.09

- 48.25

- 48.25 -

—0.16 -

—0.16

31

- 57.17

- 55.31

- 55.16 -

1.86 -

2.01

32

- 56.62

- 59.41

- 59.10 -

—2.79 -

—2.48

33

- 42.83

- 44.01

- 43.95 -

—1.18 -

—1.12

34

- 34.19

- 35.02

- 35.24 ■

- —0.83 -

— 1.05

164

G

, Snieul:

No.

,■

'"i

'••2

A.,

Aio

35

- 69.91

- 65.46

- 65.05

4.45

4.86

36

- 74.55

- 74.93

- 74.36

- —0.38

0.19

37

- 61.90

- 71.29

- 70.68

- —9.39

- —8.78

38

- 65.69

- 62.98

- 62.61

2.71

3.08

39

- 53.46

- 55.51

- 55.25

- —2.05

■ —1.79

40

- 62.01

- 63.91

- 63.45

■ —1.90

—1.44

41

- 51.29

- 50.97

- 50.84

0.32

0.45

42

- 66.57

- 65.68

- 65.24

0.89

1.33

43

- 61.74

- 58.86

- 58.52

2.88

3.22

44

- 77.07

- 76.63

- 75.94

0.44

1.13

45

- 59.16

- 57.99

- 57.70 •

1.17 -

1.46

46

- 43.65

- 44.56

- 44.50

- —0.91

. —0.85

47

- 45.59

- 47.66

- 47.60 -

■ —2.07 -

—2.01

48

- 47.13

- 49.54

- 49.37 -

■ —2.41 -

• ^2.24

49

- 62.28

- 62.66

- 62.22

- —0.38 ■

0.06

50

- 57.25

- 57.50

- 57.14 -

■ —0.25 -

0.11

51

- 69.44

- 69.79

- 69.24

- —0.35 ■

0.20

52

- 69.10

- 69.02

- 68.56 -

0.08 -

0.54

53

■ 49.00

- 47.09

- 46.99 -

1.91 -

2.01

54

■ 57.68

- 59.14

- 08.8I -

—1.46 -

— 1.13

55 -

68.21

65.56

- 65.07 -

2.65 -

3.14

56 -

60.59 ■

- 59.02

- 58.76 -

1.57 -

1.83

57

61.41

- 60.48

- 60.17 -

0.93 -

1.24

58 -

62.81 -

• 61.24

- 60.87 -

1.57 -

1.94

59 -

46.98 -

f8.80

- 48.69 -

— 1.82 -

—1.71

60 -

74.57 ■

73.08

- 72.44 -

1.49 -

2.13

61 -

74.17 -

72.27

- 71.64 -

1.90 -

2.53

62 -

69.37 -

69.75

- 69.21 -

—0.38 -

0.16

63 -

59.14 -

62.10

- 61.62 -

—2.96 -

—2.48

64 -

49.8'2 -

46.98

- 46.98

2.84 -

2.84

65 -

47.87 -

50.04

- 49.96

—2.17 -

—2.09

66 -

50.67 -

51.72

- 51.57

—1.05 -

—0.90

67

55.47 -

54.13

- 53.96 -

1.34

1.51

68 -

47.35 -

52.90

- 52.81 -

—5.55 -

—5.46

69 -

61.33 -

59.64

- 59.29

1.69 -

2.04

70 -

49.17 -

48.92

- 48.92

0.25 -

0.25

71 -

51.74 -

50.30

- 50.21 -

1.44 -

1.53

72 -

53.00

51.11

- 51.03 -

1.89 -

1.97

73 -

43.32 -

45.65

- 45.65 -

—2.33 -

—2.33

74 -

39.13 -

40.17

- 40.23 -

- 1.04 -

—1.10

75 -

34.46 -

33.02

- 33.22 -

1.44 -

1.24

76 -

33.37 -

32.50

- 32.70 -

0.87 -

0.67

77 -

30.61

28.25

- 28.53 -

2.36 -

2.08

l-'sychroiiK'tric ForiituUi. 165

No.

»•

''i

'■.,

A'l

A 'a

78

- 24.59

19.68

■ 20.09 -

4.91 -

4.50

79

28.60 -

27.63 ■

27.90 -

0.97 -

0.70

80

- 57.11

54.92

54.69 -

2.19 -

2.42

81

■ 51.43

48.49

48.41

2.94 -

3.02

82 ■

■ 58.42 -

58.87 ■

■ 58.64 -

—0.45 -

—0.22

83

63.84 -

62.41 -

61.96 -

1.43 -

1.8S

84

■ 58.44 -

61.80 -

61.45 -

—3.36 -

— 3.01

85 -

■ 58.82

■ 59.74 -

59.43

—0.92

—0.61

86

21.90

- 24.19

- 24.42 -

—2.29

—2.52

87

57.06

51.07

50.90

5.99 -

6.16

88 ■

38.01

36.14

36. IS -

1.87 -

1.83

89 ■

- 22.67 -

23.64

23.85 -

—0.97 -

—1.18

90

18.01

18.21

18.57 -

—0.20 -

—0.56

91

20..s,s

- 22.12

22.39

—1.24 ■

• —1.51

9 -J

56.57

■ 57.54 -

57.22 -

—0.97 -

—0.65

93

52.27

- 52.93

- 52.73 -

—0.66 -

—0.46

94 ■

■ 58.18 -

■ 58.73 ■

■ 58.39 -

—0.55 -

- 0.21

95 ■

- 34.97

- 34.08

- 34.22 .

0.89 -

0.75

90

27.45 ■

27.49

■ 27.71 -

—0.04 -

—0.26

97

43.41

46.23

46.14 -

—2.82

—2.73

98

- 51.92

53.82

53.56

■ —1.90 -

—1.64

99

- 41.83

41.55

- 41.45 -

0.28

0.38

10)

29.87

30.19 ■

■ 30.39

■ —0.32 -

. —0.52

101

28.19

28.75 -

29.06

—0.56 -

—0.87

102

- 38.88

- 37.83

- 37.92 -

1.05 -

0.96

103

- 24.40

- 26.05

26.2fi -

1.65 -

—1.86

,. These figures again show no docided gain in accuracy by the use
of the modified formuhi. The sums of the errors taken without regard
to sign are 182.34 and 180.98, showing an average error 0.01 less in
one case than in the other. Tlie probable errors are respectively
1.57 and 1.54, the difference being too small to be significant.

Wind -effects.

TTie value 0.00072 for the constant A was derived from observa-
tifins taken under all conditions of wind-velocity, no artiticial method
of ventilation having been used. Hy gi'ouping the observations in
accordance with the strength and direction of the wind, however, the
value of the constant is found to vary in the manner generally
acknowledged. It is a maximum under calm conditions and decreases
as the velocity of the wind rises. From only 11 observations in calm
air' A = 0.001)7887, which agrees with the value 0.0007882 from 17
obse-rvations of the earlier series (the values given in the former papei

166 G. Siiteal: Psj/cliroinetric Formuld..

were obtained by kikinfi- the arithuietic means). Willi strong winds,
say from 15 to 20 miles an hour (about 25 ft. a second) upwards, the
result of 25 observations is that A - 0.00()69:K). Taking together all
those observations in which the air was distinctly in motion, the value
is 0.0007213. Thus it would seem that the value 0.00072 is satis-
factory for all conditions oi ■ ventilation, supposed occurring arbi-
trarily, while absolute calm should be avoided if possible.

Tlie suggestion previously made that a ditference might be found
according to the direction of the wind is not contirmed by these obser-
vations. In 47 cases the wind was from the north (including N.E.
and N.W.), and for these A = O.0007186 ; in 42 cases the wind was
from the south, and the value comes 0.0007199.

Any relations which may exist betAveen the value of A and the
temperature or humidity were completely masked by the wind-ett'ect,
and the number of observations was not sutticient to allow of a
separation.

Effect of Soiled Coverings.

That the nature of the evaporating surface does not att'ect the tem-
perature attained by the wet-bulb thermometer is a conclusion which
does not extend to the state of cleanliness of that surface. Tlie
necessity for frequent renewal or cleansing of the materials is well
recognised, and the observations which, as already mentioned, were
unintentionally made with soiled coverings, show that this regulation
is by no means unimportant. The different wet-bulbs agreed together
as closely as when clean, all being equally soiled, or at any rate
exposed to the same conditions, but the observations were discordant
among themselves, i.e., in the individual values of A, several were
erroneous to an extreme, and the wet-bulbs read in practically all*
cases too high. The value of A derived from the 'M ol)servatiojis was
O.O008684, with a probable error of 0.0000232, while with the two-
constant frirmula the result was rj = 0.9254 ± 0.0155, A - 0.0005892
±0.0000631. The hindrance to evaporation wjis evidently large,
and the instrument in such a state is useless.

In closing, 1 should like to offer my thanks ti> l)ofli Dr. Love ann
Professor Lyle for the kindly advice and assistaiuf whiih have always
been placed at my disposal.

[Pkoc. Koy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.8.), Pr. 1., IDi:.'.,

Art. XIII. — On Some New Species of Victorian Marine

MoUit.sca.

Bv J. H. GATLIFF and C. J. GABRIEL.

(With Platf IX.).
[Read nth July, 1912.J

This ])ai)t'r contains the description of three new species of bivalve
shells.

Montacuta dromanaensis, sp. nnv. (Pi. IX., Figs. 1-4)

Shell minute, sordid white, very inequilateral, tiuely ornamented
with concentric, irre;jrularly undulatin<i- striae : the re-sel are dis-
tincth^ capped by what appears to l)e the early stage of growth.
Equivalve.

JJiiiH'iis/oiix of Type. — Anterior-posterior diameter l.G, dorso-
ventral diameter 1.2 mm.

Lorardy. — Type from Dromana San llemo (T. Worcester).
Dredged between Phillip and French Islands, AVestern Port.

06s. — Tliis species can be readily separated from our other forms
by its concentric sculpture. Type in Mr. Gatlifi"s collection.

Condylocardia chapmani, sp. no\. (PI. IX., Figs. .5-8).

Shell minute, white, shining, transj)arent, hinge being d'scernible
from the outside through the shell. Very inequilateral. Ovate, in-
flated. Liuiule slightly discernible. There are three growth lines
visible. Equivalve.

Dnntn^Knix of Z'^/yy^. —Anterior-posterior diameter 1.4, dorso-ven-
tral diameter, 1 mm.

Locality. — Type dredged oft" Portsea, Port Phillip: Ocean Beach,
Point Nepean ; Torquay.

Ohs. — A very small, smooth, simple form. Type in Mr. Gatlitl's
collection.

Modiolaria rhyllensis, sp nov. (Pi. IX., Figs. »), 10).

Shell small, equivalve. subo])lique, profoundly convex, semi-
transparent, horny colour. Valves thin, fragile. Umboes prominent,
with the beaks projecting and slightly incurved to the anterior ;
the umbonal swelling giving rise to a somewhat sharp slope to the
anterior, but a more gradual dip, and with a manifest concavity to
the posterior. Ttie anterior border is straight and decidedly produced
posteriorly.

As regards sculpture, the shell is adorned with closely-set, radiat-
ing ribs, whose surfaces are obtuse and slightly raised from their

168 Gatlijf and Gabriel: Victorian MoUusca.

similarly spaced interstices. Two or three intercalating ribs appear.
The area occupied by the central third bearing ribs fewer in number,
but of greater substance. The shell is further ornamented with about
twenty irregularly-parted, fine, concentric lamellae, which are diffi-
cult to enumerate, owing to their frequent discontinuity. The un-
sculptured portion, generically characteristic, appears in the anterior
third, resolving itself into a narrow- beam about the width of two
ribs, and two grooves. This divides an antei-ior flank of sixteen ribs
from a flank of, approximately, ninety-live to the posterioi. The um-
bonal region is marked by an encircling furrow, s.ituated about one-
sixth the length of shell ; this discriminates two sets of sculpture,
the main ornamental ribs terminating at the furrow ; the umbonal
ornament is much finer, assuming more the character of radial threads
crossed by numerous and stronger lines of growth. This latter area
is lighter in colour, and above the level of the shell, forming a sort
of cap. Hinge norniial. Ligament internal, linear. Muscle scars not
clearly defined ; pallial impression obscure. Inner margin crenulated
by the radial sculpture, which, with the concentrics, may be seen
from, within.

Dimensions of 7'2/pe.— Length, 2.5U; breadth, 1.75; depth, 1.25 mm.

Locality. — Dredged off Rhyll, Western Port, about 6 fathoms.
Type taken alive.

Obs. — This rare and elegant little species has an Australian ally in
M. perstriata, Hedley (P.L.S., N.S.W., 1906, Vol. XXXL, Part .'5, p.
472, pi. 36, f. 9, 10), from wliicli it differs in its l>i-oadt-r form, and the
peculiar capping of the umbo, this latter feature serving as a useful
recognition mark. From its Victorian congeners it is easily distin-
guished by the narrow beam. Consistency of shape is not apparent,
variation existing as regards depth and Avidth of the convexity. The
measurements of our few specimens differ considerably, one valve
attaining the dimensions of 3.50 x 2.25 mm.

Type in Mr. C. J. drabriel's collection.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. L — Montacuta dromanaensis, sp. nov. Interior, left valve.

Fig. 2. — Montacuta dromanaensis, sp. nov. Interior, right valve.

Fig. 3.^ — Montacuta dromanaensis, sp. nov. Exterior.

Fig. 4r.— Montacuta dromanaensis, sp. nov. Exterior, dorsal view.

Fig. 5. — Condylocardia chapmani, sp. nov. Interior, left valve.

Fig. 6. — Condylocardia chapmani, sp. nov. Interior, right valve.

Fig. 7. — Condylocardia chapmani, sp. nov. Exterior.

Fig. 8. — Condylocardia chapmani, sp. nov. Exterior, dorsal view.

Fig. 9. — ^Modiiilaria rhyllensis, sp. nov. Exterior.

Fig. 10. — Modiolaria rhyllensis, sp. nov. Exterior, dorsal view.

The figuics are variouslv magrnified.

t'roc. U.S. Viotoriii, litli'. I'l:ito IX.

[Proc. Koy. Soc. Vicn.KiA, 25 (N.^.)- ^'-^'^'i' 1-. I'Jl^^J-

Art. XIV. — Additions to and, AltcniHon-i in the Cutcdogne
of Victoriii II Mdriiic MuUiisca.

By J. H. GATLTFF and C. J. GAinilEL.

[Kead 11 til July, 1912].

This paper deals with '2i species ; 5 are new, 2 are altered names,
and 17 are known species. The new species include 2 Ischnochitons
kindly described for us by Mr. A. F. B. Hull, of Sydney, who has made
the Poly plucopliora his special study. Tlie named Victorian
I'ol i/pldcopliord now total 46 species, and the total number of mol-
lusks catalogued is 962.

We have again to thank our former helpers in our work for their
kind assistance.

Sepia capensis, d'Orbigny.

1826. Sepia capensis, d'Orbigny. Seichis, pi. 7, f. 1-3.
• 1835-1848. Sepia capensis. 1^'erussac and d'Orbigny. Hist.
Nat., Ceph., p. 278, pi. 7, f. 1-3, pi. 12, f. 7-11, pi.
17, f. 18, 19.
1879. Sepia capensis, Tryon. Man. Conch., vol. i., p. 198,

pi. 94, f. 440-442.
1912. Sepia ca]>ensis, Chapman. V.N., vol. xxix., p. 24, pi. 1,
three figures.
Hah. — Torquay, Grant Coast (F. (luipman). Shorehan), Western
Port.

Obs. — Mr. Chapman gives the following dimensions of a typical
specimen: — Length, 120; breadth, 42; greatest thickness 10.5; the
mucro from base of attachment to apex, 6.5 mm.

Sepia latimanis. (,^)uoy and (4ainuird.

1832. Se])ia latimanus. (,^>u<jy and Gaimard. Astrolabe Zool.,

vol. ii., ]). 68, pi. 2, f. 2-11.
1S79. Sepia latimanus, Tryon. Man. Conch., vol. i., p. 192,

pi. m. f. 40<>, 401.
1912. Sepia latimanus, Chapnum. V.X., vol. xxix., p. 25, 1)1.
1, three figures.
Hdh. — Torquay, Grant Coast (F. Chapman).

Ohs. — Mr. Chapman states tlmt a typical specimen from Torquay
measures : — Length, 135 ; greatest breadth, 47 ; greatest thickness,
13.5 mm.

170 Gatlijf and Gabriel:

TURRICILA HELLAI'RTA. VercO.

19C9. Mitra bellapicta. Verco, T.R.S., S.A., vol. xxxiii., p.
:337, pi. 25, f. 1.
//^//y.— Wt-steni Port.

06s. — Size of type: Length, 9.'6 ; breadth, 5.1 niiu.. Columella
quadriplicate. The author remarks: "This may be a variety of M.
vliirfa, A. Adams (Yolutomitra), close to M. tveldii, Tenisou-Woods."

Marginella nympha. Brazier.

1894. Marginella nympha. Brazier. P.L.S., N.S.W., vol. ix.
(2nd seri&s), p. 168, pi. 14, f. 2.
Hab.—Vort Albert (T. Worcester).

Obs. — Size of tyi)e : Length, 1.75 ; breadth, 1 mm. '" Having much
the shape of M. ontJiun, spire immersed."

Ma.NGILIA HILIXEATA, AugaS.

1871. Clathiirella bilineata, Angas. P.Z.S., Loud., p. 18, j.!.
1, f. 23.
Hah.^Vori Albert, (T. Worcester).

Obs. — ^Size of type : Length, 4 ; breadth, 1.5 mm. Our single
specimen is a little larger. We consider this species to be a Manyilld,
and it somewhat resembles M. •s(i/iit-t/(il/<te, T. Woods.

Daphxella mayi, Verco.

1909. Hemipleurotoma mayi, Verco. T.R.8., S.A., vol.
xxxiii., p. 295, pi. 25, f. 2.
Hdb. — In •■?()() fathoms, 30 miles south of Cape Nelson, Common-
wealth trawler "" Endeavour."

Obs. — Size of type : Length, 4.6 ; breadth, 2.4 nnu. We do not
agree with the author as to the generic jiosition of this species. Our
specific identificati(jn has been confirmed l)y him.

Cassis adcocki, Sowerby.

1896. Cassis adcocki, Sowerby. P. Mai. Soc, Lond., vol. ii.,
p. 14, ttg. in text.
Hab. — Bass's Strait, Commonwealth trawler " Kndeavour.'
Obs. — Size of type : Length, 20; breadth, 17 mm. This species was
named from a South Australian specimen, and has Hve encircling
rows of brown spots. Our example is a young shell, but the dis-
tinguishing characteristics arc readily discernible.

HissoA (Onoha) HAssiANA, Hedley.

iOII. Onoba bassiana, Hedley. Zool., Commonwealth trawler
" Endeavour," part L, p. 108, pi. 19, f. 25.

CdfdhxjW of VictoVKdi Mull used. 171

Hob. — Port Albert (T. Worcester). liass's Strait, Coumionwealth
trawler, " Endeavour. "

Qf)s, — In vol. xxi., p. 379. of these Proceedings it was stated that
we had what we considered to be a large specimen of Oiioha ylonie-
rusa, Hedley. He considers it to be a distinct species, and has named
it as above.

KuciiELis i-L Muao, Tate.

1S9:{. Euchelus puiiiilio. Tate. T.H.S., S.A., vol. xvii., p. 196,
pi. 1, f. :}.
Hub. — San Remo (T. Worcester).
Oft*-. — Size of type: Height, •'} : diameter, 3.25 mm.

LEinDoi'LELRL s liADH s. Hedlev and H\ill.

1909. Lepidupleurus Itadius, Hedley and Hull. Kcc. Aust.
Mus., vol. vii.. p. 260, pi. 73, f. 1, 2.
Hah. — Torquay, two specimens found under one stone close lo
shore.

Obs. — Size of type : Length, (i : l)readth, 3.5 mm. We determined
this species, and submitted it to Mr. Hull, who states: "This shell
corresponds very closely with my co-type of L. had nix: the jnistules
are rather fewer and more scattered, l)ut I cannot separate it.
I.><CHNocrrox frutkosus, Gould.

184:6. Ischnochiton fruticosus, (loukl. Proc. Boston Soc, Nat.

Hist., vol. ii., p. 142.
1892. Ischnochiton fruticostis, Pilsbry. Man. Conch., vol. xiv.,

p. 91, pi. 23, f. 78-8U.
189i. Ischnochiton fruticosus, Pilsbry, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

Philadelphia, p. 72.
1897. Ischnochiton fruticosus, Pednall. P. Mai. Soc. Lond.,
vol. ii., p. 145.
Hab. — Tortpuiy, one specimen only.
Obs. — Size of type : Length, 33 ; breadth, 15 mm.

IsciiNuciirrDN THuMAsi, Bednall.

1897. Ischnochiton thoiiia.si, Heduall. P. Mai. Soc. Lond.,
vol. ii., p. U9, pi. 12. f. 4, 5.
Hab. — Torcjiuiy, one specimen only, under small stone at low tide.
Obs. — Size of type : Length, 10.5 to 14 ; breadth, 5 to 7.5 mm.

IsCHNOCHrruN GABRIELI, Hull.

1912. Ischnochiton gabrieli. Hull. Antea page 120.
Hab. — Dredged between Phillip and French Islands, Western Port.

172 Gatllff' (Hid Gabriel:

IsCHNOCHITON FALCATUS, Hull.

1912. Ischnochiton gabrieli, Hull. Antea page 120.
Hah. — Sauie as preceding species ; also under stones at low tide,
Sunderland's Bight, Phillip Island.

AcANTHOCHiTBs TATEi, Torr and Ashby.

1898. Acanthochites tatei, Torr and Ashby. T.R.S., S.A., vol.
xxii., p. 219, pi. 7, f. 7a-7f.

Hah. Torquay, one specimen only, under a stone, at low tide.

Obs. — ^Size of type : Length, 6 ; breadth, 2.5 nun. Our specimen
is larger, being length 8 ; breadth 3.3 mm. It may be separated
readily from our other species by its girdle Ijeing " covered with short
vellowish-white spicules " ; these are in addition to the sutural tufts.
Dr. Torr also only found the type specimen in South Australia : the
descri{)tion and figures of it are so excellent that there is no ditticulty
in recognising the species.

Chiton verconis, Torr and Ashby.

1898. Chiton verconis. Torr and Ashby. T.R.S., S.A., vol.
xxii., p. 215, pi. 6, f. 1.
Hub.— Port Fairy.

Obs. — Dr. Torr, of South Australia, writes us that he has a specimen
from the collection of the late Mr. AdcO'ck, from the above locality.

DiPLouoNTA GLOHLLosA, A. Adauis.

1855. Diplodonta globulosa, A. Adams. I'.Z.S., Loud., p.

226.
1878. Diplodonta striata, Hutton. Jour, de Conch., p. 51.
1909. Diplodonta striata, Gatlitf and Oabriel. P.R.S., Vic,
vol. xxii., p. 46.
Hah. — Western Port, Point Cook, I'ort I'hillip, 8 fathoms.
Obs. — Specimens from New South Wales and Victoria were submit-
ted by us to Mr. E. A. Smith, of the British Museum, for comparison
with the type, said to be in the Cuming collection ; he replied that
it was not to l)e found there.

After again carefully perusing the original description, which is
somewhat meagre, and consulting with Mr. C. Uedley, of the Aus-
tralian Museum, Sydney, we have arrived at the above decision.

Dr. J. C. Verco, of Adelaide, sent us a specimen of Ga,^trorliaena
tasinatiica, T. Woods, upon opening the tube of which we found it
to contain two complete specimens of the al)ove species.

Cataluyac oj VlcLoiiau MidUiaai. \1'.S

I)n'I,()l>ONTA JACKSONIBNi^IS, AnfTas.

1(%7. Mysia (Felania) jacksoniensis, An<!^as. P.Z.S.. Lond.,
p. 910, pi. 44, f. 10.
Hdh. — Western Port.

Ohs. — Size of type: Length, 8; height, 8.5; breadth, 5 mm. We
have examples which exceed this size by one-third. It differs from
D. Adamsi, Angas, in having a broader hinge shelf, l)eing ol)li(iiie in
form, and of a pale, rosy flesh-colour.

MoNTACUTA UROMANAENsis, Gatliff and (xabriel.

1912. Montacuta dromanaensis, Gatliff and Gabriel. Antea
page 167.
Hab. — Dromana ; San Remo (T. Worcester). Dredged between
Phillip and French Islands, Western Port.

CoNDTLOCARDiA AisTRALis, Bernard.

1896. Condylocardia australis, Bernard. Jour de Conch., p.

176, pi. 6, f. 4.
1908. Condylocardia australis, Verco. T.R.S., S.A., vol. xxxii.,
p. 360.
.Ha&.— Ocean Beach, Flinders.

Obn. — vSize of type: Anterior-posterior diameter, 1.2 : doiso-vential,
1.14 mm.

Condylocardia chapmani, Gatliff and Gabriel.

1912. Condylocardia chapmani, Gatliff' and Gabriel. Antea
page 167.
Hah. — Type dredged off Portsea, Port Phillip : ocean ))each, Point
Nepean ; Torquay.

Cardita calva, Tate.

1887. Cardita calva, Tate. T.R.S., S.A., vol. ix., p. 189, pi.
XX., f. 14.

1908. Venericardia dilecta, Yerco (non. Smith). T.R.S., S.A.,
vol. xxxii., p. 347, pi. xiv., f. 8.

1908. Venericardia dilecta, Verco (non. Smith). Var. excel-
sior, Verco. T.R.S., S.A., vol. xxxii., p. 348, pi.
xiv., f. 9.

1911. Venericardia dilecta. Smith. Var. excelsior, Verco,
Hedley. Zool. Commonwealth Trawler " Endea-
vour," part I., p. 92.

174 Gatllff and Gabriel:

Hah. — Off Wilson's Pioniontorv, Couiinonwealtli Trawler " Endea-
vour," one left valve.

Ohx. — Our sintjle valve agrees in all particulars with specimens <^f
V. (lilerta var. e.rrehior. Verco. of which we possess a fine series,
kindly sent to us by the author. The description and figure of the
tertiary C. calva, Tate, sugpested to us a striking similarity, and
on critical examination, we were forced to the belief that this was
another instance of a siirvivor. With types of both shells existent, we
deemed it expedient to have a comparative examination, and submit-
ted to Dr. Yerco specimens of ('. mJiut, from Forsyth's. Grange
Burn, Victoria (of kalimnan age), with otir living representative, of
V. excelsior, from Wilson's Proujontory. Our contention is e\ndent,
as will be seen in the following reply, received 25.4.12: — "'I have
examined the type and co-types of C. calva, Tate : on his own tablet
are 15 shells, two showing the inner view, and 13 the outer. The
type specimen is the largest, and is quite indistinguishable from what
we have called here Cardita dihcia. Smith : its eccentric and radial
sculpture are exactly the same, and the ]nirt near the umbo has the
radial sculpture visible, except immediately round its apex. The
other examples on his tablet are smaller, and these have the eccentric
(concentric) grooves, well marked, in some instances to the ventral
margin ; but these are smaller shells — in larger ones this may
occupy half the surface of the shell, or more. This part is smooth,
and may show scarcel)'' any radial markings ; in fact, in one valve,
where at least 20 of the concentric markings can be counted, and
where they reach the ventral border, only 2 or 3 radial incisions
are visible in the anterior, and in the posterior part of the valve.
Is not this smooth part simply due to rubbing, and the wearing off of
the sculpture? This area is so variable in size, and so limited to the
prominent part of the shell, that this explanation suggests itself. I
am satisfied that Tate's C calva is my C'. ercehior, and unless there
is an omission in Suiith's description and figure, is not C. dihcta,
Smith. Tate's name is unfortunate, for the ' baldness ' (calva) is
probably accidental, and his type is barely bald at the extreme
apex." C. calva somewhat recalls C. dilecta. Smith, but is easily
distinguished, as Dr. Verco states, by its excentric concentric grooves,
which are not in the slightest degree indicated in the figure and de-
scription of r. dihcta (" Chall. Zool."). The distribution of C. calva
is interesting, as, with a specimen from the trawler " Endeavour,'' we
are able to extend its range to Oyster Bay, Tasmania.

CARniTBLLA BXULATA, E. A. Smith.

1885. Carditella exulata, E. A. Smith. Chall. Zool.. vol. xiii..
p. 215, pi. 15, f. 6, Ga.

('ati(l<j</ae of Victurui u MoUasai. 175

1908. Carditella exulata, Vercn. T.R.S., S.A., vol. xxxii., |..
:552.
Ilab. — Ocean Beach, Phillip Island.
Oh-t. — Size : Lenjjth, 4 ; heijjht, 2.75 ; width, 2 mm.

MoDioLARiA RHYLLENPI^^, Gatliff and Gal)riel.

1912. Modiolaria rhyllensis, (iatlitl' and (xaljiirl. Antea
page 167.
Hah. — Dredtred lietween Pliillip and French Islands. We>tern Pfirt.

[Pkoc. Koy. Soc. Victokia, 25 (N.S.). l'^'- !•> I'Jl^]-

Ak'I'. XV. — Note.<< on f<ome " >Strvngi/h(i rk" EitcdJijpfs.

By ROYSTON DREW, HEBER GREEN and P. R. H. 8t. JOHN.

(With Platt-s X and XI).

[Read 11th July. 1912].

I. — The Occuprence of Eucalyptus Cons\den\a.r>aL (Ynfchili-)
in the Lower Yarra District.

For some years past one of us has had under observation near
Eltham a single " stringybark "' tree which was evidently not E.
macrorhynclia, nor any of the other common species known to be pre-
sent in that district.

About eighteen months ago another specimen was found near
Lilydale, presenting considerable differences both in the size and
shape of its carpels and even, as we have since found, in the oil dis-
tilled from its foliage.

We have since proved that they are both forms of E. Consideniana,
the " Yertchuk " discovered by A. W. Howitt^ in Gippsland, and
described by J. H. Maiden,^ Vjut this is the first record of its appear-
ance so near Melbourne, and our verdict as to its identity has been
confirmed by Mr. Maiden. The tree itself grows on the poor soil
overlying the silurian shales and resembles the stringybarks of the
district {E. marrorJti/iicJia) in general appearance and height. The
bark, however, is softer and less furrowed, and the leaves are nar-
rower ; in these respects it resembles the messuutte {E. ohliqua), but
this does not occur near Eltham. The carpels also usually differ
from those of E. iiian-orlii/NcIia and dther allied species in possessing
a red rim and in not being domed.

The usual difficult}' of discriminating between the various ■" stringy-
barks " was accentuated bj^ the consideral)le vaiiations shown,
especially by the carpels. (See Plate X.)

These variations, which will be referred to later, are much greater
than are indicated l)y Maiden, and it seems advisable to amplify
his deseription.

In our endeavour to identify the tree and to decide wlicther the
various forms observed were of one species (inly, we sought further
information in three directions.

1. Trillin. Ko_v. Soc. Vic, ii., p. 82.

2. Crit. rtev., vol. i., p. 312, .and Proc. l.iiiti. Soc. N..S.\V., I!l(i4, |i. 47.'>.

" Strhvijilxiriy I'Jii.r(d;//>ts. 177

We examined (1) the seedlin<rs, (2) tlie flowers, and (3) the chemical
composition of the oil.

(1) Tlif' scedJiiifiK. Many seeds of hoth the Elthain and Lilvdale
forms and. for comparison, seeds of about half-a-dozen more or less
similar species, were planted in small pots.

The resulting; seedlings conclusively eliminated E. pilularis and
E. pugenioidfs. 1

Seedlintrs of E. iiKtrrorlii/ni-lia. E. M iiellfriaiiH and E. ohlifjiin
api)ear indistinpfuishable in a photojiraph, althoutrh a closer examina-
tion show minor but definite differences in each case. Carefully selected
typical specimens of the seedlings examined are illustrated in Plate XT.

(2) The flowers. — Although buds had been visible for several years,
no flowers were observed until the beginning of this year, when both
trees came into bloom, and the inflorescence was seen to be identical.

The trees were covered with an abundance of prominent panicles of
bloom, white in colour and honey-scented.

The buds in the early stages are narrow and pointed like those of
E. Diarrorlij/iirhd. but before flowering they become more swollen
and then more nearly resemble the Eastern form of E. Cnnnideninna
described by Maiden.

Consideral)Ie searching in the district of the lower Yarra, especially
between Greensborough and Lilydale, has resulted in the discovery of
about a score of trees, several of Avhich have been most prolific in
bloom.

It is certain that the species was much more couiuion in past
years throughout this district, and that the iiresent scarcity is due
to its selection by timber splitters, who look upon it as a superior
kind of messmate. Indeed, several of the trees that we have had
under observation have been cut down during the last few months
and utilised in this way. Ihe wood is a clean splitting and durable
fencing timber, and resembles that of the yellow stringybark {E.
}f iiflhridiHi), in appearance.

{'^) ('licinicdl rdiii position of the oil. — This species nuiy possibly
be the '" peppermint " from which the firs-t eucalyptus oil was dis-
tilled by Surgeon Considen (one of the founders of Australia), after
whom the tree has been named by Maiden. In any case it is closely
related to E. piperita, the species generally supposed to have that
honour. In view of this possibility, it is fitting that a chemical
examination of its oil should be carried out and placed on record.

The oil obtained from the leaves by steam distillation is perhaps
not an infallible criterion, but the work of Baker and Smith and,

1 With reH:aiil to tht liitter we would point out that there appear to be two distinct varieties
which may possibly both lie worth\ of speeifie rank. The form compared here is the ordinary
variety occurring so plentifulh in Gippsland.

.13

178 Dreiv, Green and SL John.-

inoidentally, our own experiments on these stringybarks have shown
that each species yields its own characteristic oil, which varies less
than any of the other features usually relied on by morphologists for
the identification of botanical species.

We shall therefore describe in some detail our experiments on
the oil.

Foliage was collected from four different trees, and in each ca.se
one or more sacks of the leaves were distilled with steam in an ex-
perimental still at the University Agricultural Chemistry Laboratory.
The 400-gallon tanks usually employed in the commercial extraction
of eucalyptus oils hold about half a ton of leaves. Our sitill had a
capacity of some twenty pounds only, but the processes were the same
in principle in both cases, except that we were able to carry out our
operations quantitatively.

The distillation was generally considered to be complete after three
and a-half hours. In one experiment the following measurements
were noted : —

Time of distillation (hours) 12 3 4

Oil distilled 49 cc. ... 18 cc. ... 9 cc. ... 1 cc.

Eucalyptus oils, in general, are mixtures of pinene, phellandrene
and eucalyptol, liquids boiling at 156 deg., 172 deg. and 176 deg.
respectively. They may contain also small percentages of less vola-
tile complex aldehydes and a sesquiterpene (aromadendrene), with
traces of more volatile alcohols, aldehydes and esters.

The physical properties of an oil will naturally depend on the
variety and proportions of the ingredients present, and are often,
though not always, a useful guide to its composition.

A careful fractional distillation enables us, partially, at least,
to separate the different constituents and form an approximate
estimate of the amount of each present. It should also be a pre-
liminary to the (pmntitative determination of eucalyptol, aldehydes,
etc.

We have for this purpose used a glass still of definite dimensions
sealed on to a rod and disc fractionating column so that a definite
degree of fractionation will always be obtained. If the quantity of
distillate passing over between definite temperature limits be plotted
in the form of a temperature-percentage curve, we have a very con-
venient method of gra])hically comparing different oils.

In dealing with an unknown oil, refractionatimi is resorted to, and
derivatives of each coinponcni pi-epared. and identified by their
physical constants.

" Sfrivf/i/licrl," Ivnc(iiyi>ffi.

179

Fi"-. I.

lo()°C

2()() I 27ii
Aronuidendrene.

2«(»

cl-pineiie. l-piuene. Phellan- Eiicalyptol.
drene.
1). = E. dextropinea (d = -877, a = + 38°). E. = E. cagenioidcs (d = -913, a = +4°)
L. = E. hievopinea (d = "870, a = - 47°). ' Ca. = E. capiiellata (d = •917, a = + 4°)
VV.= E. Wllkinsoniana (d - "894,0 = -24°). Ma. = E. man-<yrh ynrha (d = -929, a = - 1°)

In Fip-. 1, the curves are giren for severiil of the typical stringybark
oils, and, although the data recorded by Baker and Smith are some-
what scanty for this purpose, the difference between each curve is
clearly to be seen, and corresponds to the characteristic composition
of eacli oil.

These curves distinguish two classes of stringybarks, the one
including such species as E. hievo-pinea, etc., which yield oils com-
mencing to distil at about 156 dcg. C, and containing either dextro -
or laevo - pinene, and the second, which like E. Diacrorhjjnchd yields
oils containing phellandrene, but not pinene, and only beginning to
distil at a])ove 170 deg. C.

Whereas some of the constituents can be directly determined by
chemical methods, others such as pinene can only be approximately
estimated bv a more or less reliable calculation from the physical
constants of the oil and its fractions.

The method we adopted is as follows: —

Fifty cubic centimetres of the oil are fractionally distilled in dupli-
cate, and the density, optical rotation and refractive index of each
fraction is observed. The lightest fraction is analysed for volatile
aldehydes by absorption with a sodimn bisulphite solution ; eucalyptol

180 Dreiu, Green and <S7. John :

is determined l)y the resorcin method in the middle fractions hoilinj?
from 170 deg. to 190 deg., and the highest fractions are utilised for
the estimation by hydroxylamine of aromadendral and associated
aldehydes. The optical rotation of tlie middle fractions gives a
measure of the phellandrene content of the oil, when a qualitative
test has shown it to be present.

Baker and Smith^ discovered that if the leaves of E. ittdcrorhynrlui
' be extracted with boiling water, a considerable amount of a yellow
dye, which they isolated and mimed myrticolorin, was obtained.
This is an important character in the comparison of the stringybarks,
and we have readily confirmed their observation, but find little oi
none of the dye to be present in the leaves of either E. ConndeniaiKi
or of E. MjieUeriana.

Five different distillations of oil, from four trees of widely varying
ages, were examined, and the results are <riven in Tables T. and II.
Nos. I., II. and III. are from trees growing within a quarter of a mile
of one another between Eltham and Greensborough. No. IV. was
taken from a tree on similar country between Lilydale and Evelyn.

The differences in percentage yield are very marked, but are in
accord with the variations in this respect observed in several species.

The optical rotation, however, also shows considerable fluctuations
fi-om tree to tree : the chemical significance of this variable rotation
is not quite clear, owing to the impossibility of accurately determining
the amount of phellandrene present. It has been suggested that the
optical rotatory power of /-phellandrene is not a constant.

Chemical tests showed that the oil consisted mainly of phellan-
drene and aromadendrene with about ten per cent, of eucalyptol and
small amounts of aromadendral.

TABLE I.
Physical Constants of Oils from the Lkave.s ok Exruhjidug Couitidoiiana.

p . Volumes so per

.^pprox. Affe Date of 5.',,. cent, alcohol Siiecifio Optical Refractive

of tree. '^ distillation. '^'';": ','?'' dissolving one jiravity. rotation. index.

•^"^'*^- voluniLoil.

la. - 20-30 years - July, 1911 - 0.55 - insolnlile - .876 - - UXf - 1.1795

lb. - ,, „ - Oct., „ - ().5() - insoluble - .S71 - -49.4° - 1.4790

II. - 70-100 years - Sept., „ - 0.(15 - 1 v..l. - .880 - - 3t;.;r - 1.4790

III. - 100-150 voar.s - Oct., ,. - 1.05 - 2 vols. - .89B - -23.5" - 1.4S37

IV. - 50-70 years -July, ,. -0.20- 1^ vols. -.905- -17.3^- 1.1804

T.VI5LK II.

Chemical Propkrtiks of Oils from the hv.WKfi of Eucalyyt'ns Consideniana.

1 .. 1 .111 Volatile Higher i.'„t ....

Kucalyptol. Alcohol. aldehvdes. aldehvdcs. ''-'"■'•

I.i - «-7( . •««> . 17 - 14 - 2 7

^'^- 9.6 S .83 s '

Ih. - - - . _ . 1.2

''• 2.50) 2.1)

III. - 7.5 - — - 0.5 - — - 1.(5

We were unable to detect pinene or endesmol in any sample.

1. Smith, Jonrri. Chem. Soc. (1898), 73, 697.

" Strliiijijbark" Eacalypts.

181

Fi-. II.

1(K»

1 1 ■■ 1 1 1 1 II II 11 Hill

..... .^ , „., .i_

^-^^

^-^

SO

S^

cl

i

cm

CB

^

^

X

()U

1

L

a

^40

20

^

loO'c J 160 170 I j ISO 190

Pinene. Phellandrene. Eiicalyptol.

200

210

220

230

2-40

Mu = JB. MuellericDia : C

Aromadendial.
C ir., Cm. = -&'. Consi'JeniiUia.

The distillation curves ol)tained for three of the oils examined
are jriven in Fig. II., and will lie seen to fall between those of the
two classes of striugybark oils shown in Fig. I. There is undoubtedly
a wide variation here, as well as in the optical rotation, partially,
though not quite, bridging the gap between this species and others
closely related.

It will be of interest to compare this variation of chemical charac-
teristics with that shown by the carpels so largely used by mor-
phologists as a basis for the classification of the eucalypts.

Of the carpels figured in Plate X., No. I. was forwarded to one
of us by Mr. J. H. Maiden, as a type of the species occurring near
Metung, Gippsland ; it can be almost exactly matched by a carpel
of E. Siehtriana: Nos. 2-9 were all collected from one single tree,
that growing at Eltham, and from which oils la. and lb. were dis-
tilled, and they also have been matched by carpels from eight different
species as indicated. No. 10 grew on a Lilydale tree and the divergence
exhibited in the chemical composition of the oil is seen to be more
pronounced in the shape and size of the carpel, which clo.sely resembles
that of E. mdcrorhi/ncha.

Such a wide variation as we have found is not indicated in J. H.
Maiden's description of the species, nor in the accurate and detailed
field notes of Dr. Howitt, where he pictures the Yertchuk as he saw
it in (lippsland. It may be noted that the latter describes the timber

182 Drew, Green and St. John:

as beiii<r worthless for .splittintr ; possibly the value put on the tree
by woodmen around Pllthani may be due to the dryness of the soil
in that district.

Conclusion.

The composition of the oils and their physical constants, as tabulated,
are not matched by the oil of any of those species examined by Baker
and Smith that could possibly be regarded as similar to the Yertchuk.
Hence from morphological characters of the buds, carpels, leaves,
seedlings and bark, as well as from the characteristic oil distilled
from the foliage, it is evident that these trees in the valley of the
lower Yarra can only be included in the species E. Consideniana ;
for although they show considerable variations among themselves,
they diverge still further from any other known species.

Mr. J. IJ. Maiden lias included a very careful review of this species
in his Critical Revision of tlie Eucalypts (Vol. I., p. 312), with
accurate hgures of the forms found in New South Wales, but for the
reasons given we would venture to amend and amplify his descrip-
tion of the species, indicating our own alterations and additions
by means of italics.

Description.

A tree of medium height, varying frjmi 20 to 60 feet.

Bark. — Fibrous, resembling Eucalyptus ohliqua, but softer, grey
in colour on the outside, and reddish inside, {in-iier Ixtrk ye/loirisli,
like E. Muelleriana. ). Persisting up the trunk and main branches.
Sniull branches smooth ; hrancJilets a/iyu/ar.

Juvenile Leaves. — Seedlings: Leaves opposite, narrow-lanceolate,
soon' becoming ovate and ovate-lanceolate to broad ovate-lanceolate,
and acuminate ; smooth or rough, sessile and petiolate, varying from
one inch to three inches in length, and one half-inch and more in
breadth, grey-green or sap-green in colour. Margins entire
or undulate luith sinall tuffs of stellate hairs, stems reddish, warty
glandular, ultimately smooth.

Epicormic Shoots. — Leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, obtuse, ovate
t'o broad ovate-acuminate, slightly oblique and falcate, and lanceolar-
acuminate, often nearly straight, hecomnig alter narc with longer
petioles.

lira iicldets s/nnofh. tirttr and angular. I ntraniarginal rriii
distinct, not far rcuinred from fin margin, irifh a stco/ul faint rein,
between flu inner ami outer margins.

" Strliiguhark" EacaLijptn. 183

Vr'nnar]! and suh-priin^irij veins spreading and distinct.

Muture Leaves. — Alternate, petiolate, narrow to broad lanceolate,
t<trui(jht or falcate, oblique and acuminate, firm in texture, with a
hardrncj recurred jxunt.

Varying in lentrtli t'litin "_' to 11 inches, and from ,', to 2.', inclics in
width ; in ft, liori:t)nt(il or droopiiuj. Colour e(jually green on both
sides, dull or shiny, blue-green or a bright sap-green.

Veins strongly marked, and spreading; intraniarginal vein, often
loiiped. and not far riinond from the edye.

Oil -dots numerous.

Buds. — Kumerons or few. ilavate, with or without pointed
opercula. (Some SoutJicrn forms are more " niacrorlii/ncha ''-like
in the !/oun(/ state than- the Eastern would ajjjjear to be).

The pointed opercula less conspicuous when matured; youny buds
are provided with cal y ptra-l ike bracts.

Flowers. — Inflorescence paniculafed or a ciliary: panicles some-
times leafless. Stamens: White, uniform in length. Anthers reni-
form.

Flowers honey scented.

Fruits. — Very variable in size and shape; (three forms some-
times occurri/iy in one umbel): pedunculate, pedicellate, or sessile,
pedicels varying from 1 line to half-inch in length. Pyriforni,
pillular, conical or hemispherical.

Rim usually reddish, smooth, broad, flat or slightly domed.

Valves, one to five sunken; the small deltoid points sometimes
slightly exserted. Und)els, solitary or paniculated, containing from
1 to 8 fruits, \ to I inch in diameter.

Peduncles, slightly angular or flattened. Calyx tube tapering or
suddenly contracted into the pedicel.

Timber. — Wood, pale-coloured, with kino rings, remarkably like
that of the common Sydney Peppermint {E. piperita) or of the
■ Yellow Stringybark " {E. Muelleriana). A durable timber, in
demand for fencing, u-hen growing in dry country.

Oil from leaves.— 6>e67>'f gravity, 0.87 to 0.91; optical rotation
--lo^ to — J6>0; refractive inder, l.^TO to l.JfSO. It is usually.

184 Drew, Green and St. John :

tlioiKjli not alwoys, soluble in one or more volumes of 80 per cent,
alcohol. It con.sist'< essentiall ij of pliellaiidrene with ^onie aroma-
dendretie and from 2.5 to 10 per ceni. of eucahj idol.

Tilt leaves coii'tain liffh or no n) ijrficohtri n .

II. — The Oil of Yellow '' ^\.v\ng\/bQ.Y*k'^ ( Eticabjpfn.? Marlhriana).

As it had been suggested that the Yertcliuk trees described in
the preceding section were forms of the yellow stringybark, it
seemed desirable to make a direct comparison of their oils.

The oil of E. Mueller iana has not been described by Baker and
Smith, nor does this species grow nearer to Melbourne than Southern
Gippsland ; but, by the courtesy of Mr. H. Mackay, Conservator of
Forests, who has had a supply of the foliage collected for us at
Yarram, we have been enabled to distil and examine the oil from
the leaves of two trees, one mature and the other a sapling.

The oils from these two ti"ees were almost identical excejJt for
an insignihcant difference in colour (a brilliant greenish blue),
although the yield from the mature foliage was twice as great a?
from the sapling.

This identity is a striking confirmation of the reliability of the
composition of the oil as a specific characteristic.

The table of physical properties of these two samples and of other
oils obtained from the ordinary or red stringybark [E. macror-
liijnrlia)^ still further illustrates this consistency.

TABLE 111.

Physical Constants uf .Stkinuvbauk Uil!s.

E. Mueller iana —

... , I'liceiitiiyt Soluijilitv .Spfi-ilif Optical liufi-iictive

Locality. Date. ^.j^^,,, in akolio'l. .^■ravit.v. rotiitioii. imlt-x.

Sapling - Yarram - Nov., U»ll - 0.40 - insolul)k' - U.«S7 - -H'O" - l.il^^o

in HO p.c.
Mature - „ - „ - 0.80 - - O.HM - -fL'L'" - 1.4-7;<N

E. niacrorhyncha —

Mature - Elthaiii - Oct., lUll - 0.1 1 - - "'.!t2;J - - ti.r/ -

■ Feb.. l'J12 - 0.11 - - o.'.in. - ±0 - l.nti'M

- N.S.W. - * - 0.27 -sohililcin- o.'Jl'U - ±(f - 1.48U2

V\ vols. 70%
* A\crage rtsults yiveii by Baker and Smith.

1. Ill the case of K. laacrorliynrlui oils, the smalt yields ohtuincil have reiidered iiiipos>ilile
tlicir s,\ steiu.itic chemical examination and fractional distillation, Imt their physical constants may
be compared with the results given by Baker and Sniitli (lUscairb on the Kncidv |it>. y. U7) for
trees (frown in .New South Wales.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1<)12. IMmI.' X.

^

-^p

N*^ ^"

7

i

8.

9.

Photograph shewing variation of fruits of Eucalyptus Consideniana,
and comparison with other species

Proc. R.S. V'ictoiia, 1912. Plate XI.

E. pilulaii.s ; E. Cunsiileiiiaua ; E. eugfiiioules.

E. Consideuiana ; E. obli(|iia ; E. Miielleriaua ; E. luacrorhyneha.
Eucalyptus seedlings (about six months old).

" Sh'til(Ji/h(irk" hjli.rdlijptx. 185

Fractional Distillatinii of Oil of ?]. M inlhrldiid.

Fraction.

I'erct'litujji'.

Hcfractivf Index.

0|>ti<^al Kotation.

1550— 160O

30

1.4640

+ 210.2

1-60O— 1610

20

1.4640

+ 210.6

1610—1650

20

1.4645

+ 190.5

1650—1900

10

1.4675

+ 16o.:5

190° 2050

8

1.4720

± 00

The yellow stringyljark oils consists mainly of dextropinene
althouj^h phellandrene is also presdnt, as may be seen from the
graph of its fractional distillation (Fig. II.) ; this fact at once
absolutely distinguishes it from ?J. ('(iiiside/iiaiui, which is chieHy
camposed of the laevo- rotatory phellandrene, and from B. inarror-
hyiicha, which contains considerable amounts of eucalyptol and but
little pinene.

Hence the chemical comj>osition of the nils (also shown graphically
by their distillation curves in Figs. T. and II.) places E. Maelleriana in
one division of the '" stringybarks '" with E. dtitropinea, E. laevo-
pinen and E. \ViJki/i-so/iinn<i : whilst E. macrorhynrha is placed in
the other main division with such species as E. capiteJIafa, E.
eiujenioidta, E. piperita, E. ohiiqua and E. Deleyattnsis.

E. Cou-sidtuiana appears to be the only known representative of a
division occupying an intermediate position.

[Pkoc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1912.]

Aht. XVI. — New or Little-kaoivn Victorian FossiU in the
National Museum.

Part XV. — Some Tektiahy (tastehupooa.

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.8., etc.

(National Museum, Melbourne).

(With Plates XII and XIII.).
[Read 11th July, 1912J.

Introductory Remarks.

Seven species of gasteropoda are herein discussed, four of which
are new, viz., Astrallum {Iiu perator), undosuin, Hotnahi i in pratint-
ridiontilis, Cypraea yatyricJ i and Pleurotonia sayceana. The species
of Astraliii/n is distinctly Australian in character, showing affinities
both with the New Zealand living A. Jieliutropinm and the Table
Cape fossil A. hudsoiiicDnini, and is older than the last-named fossil
species. One of the chief points of interest in regard to the occur-
rence of Homahixis is that the genus should be discovered in strata in
the Southern Hemisphere, nearly as old (i.e., oligocene) as that of its
first known fossil horizon (middle eocene) of Europe. It is an extiemely
rare and beautiful form, and the present species shows close affinity
with that Lately dredged up from the coast of New South Wales. To
the group of giant cowries, centreing around Cypraea gigas, belongs
the species now described as C. gabrieli. The contused "surface is
highly inteiresting, and suggests affinities with C. coiitusa, which
ranges from balcombian to janjukian (oligocene to miocene). Fhuro-
toma myceana is allied in some resjjects to several members of the
genus now found living, generally in warmer se^as adjacent to Aus-
tralia.

Of the three previously described species, one, Acinaea octoradiata
is described as a fossil for the first time, whilst the two renuiining
species, Turbo etiitridgti and T. atkinsoni are recorded from locali-
ties other than Table Cape, to which they seemed restricted, but from
the same janjukian horizon.

Fam. Patbludae.

Genus Acmaea, Kschscholtz.

AniKini octoradiata, llutton sp. (Plate XII., Figs. 1, 2.)

I'atflla octoradiata, llutton, 187;5, Cat. M'ar., Moll., N. Zealand,
p. 44, No. 1^0 1. Acinafia sarcharin<i, var. perplexa, Pilsbry, 1891,

Vicloriav. Fossils, l\iri XV. 187

Man., Conch., vol. XIII., p. 50. pi. XXXYI., fij-s. (59-71. PatelJa
perphra. Pilsbrv, Pritchard and (iatliff, lOO.'i, Proc. Roy. Sue, Vict.,
vol. XV. (X.S.), pt. 1., p. 1!)1. Acmaeu octorddiata, llutton sj).,
liedley, 1904, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wale-s, vol. XXIX., pt. I., No.
113, p. 188. Pritchard and Gatliti". 1905, Proc. Hoy. Soc, Vict.,
•vol. XVIII. (N.S.), !>. 65. Verco, 1906, Trans. Koy. Soc, S. Austr..
vol. XXX., p. 209.

Obstrvatioiis. — The present record is the tirst occurrence of this
species in the fossil state. It is of great interest to hnd it so low
down as the janjukian, to which stage I refer the fossiliferous iron-
stone of the Fleniington Railway cutting. Although the fossils are
in the form of casts, the moulds retain very faithful impressions of
the external surface of the shell, which can be examined positively
by means of a wax stjueeze. The internal cast in ironstone also
exhibits concentric markings and interned marginal band, charac-
teristic of Actnaea.

In Hall and Pritchard's list of Flemington fossils " Acniaca sp.
afi'. A. rostdtd " [Sow.], is cited, but that form has a larger numl)er of
radial ribs than the present one.i

Aniuita octuradiata as a living species has the following distribu-
tion : — West Coast of the South Island, New Zealand; Port Phillip,
Victoria ; Port Jackson (Maroubra Bay), New South Wales.

Occurrence. — Tertiary ; janjukian series. Ironstone beds at the
Flemington Railway cutting, Melbourne. Specimens collected and
presented by Mr. J. Sidney Green.

Fam. TlRBINIUAK.

Genus Astralium, Link.
Sub-genus Imperatop, Moutfort.

AstrdUuin (l/iiperdtor) intdo^ni in, sp. nov. (Plate XII., Fig. 3.)
Dtscriptiun. — ^Shell moderately large, trochoid, somewhat de-
pressed, with an apical angle of 120<* ; earliest stage of shell nearly
smooth, followed l>y three moderately iutiated whorls. Periphery, when
perfect, bearing 10 flattened, spinose processes. Surface of shell-whorls
ornamented with hue, transverse, undulating wrinkles, which tend to
become tubercles at the junction with the sutural lines. Surface
of spines relieved by fine, curved striae pointing anteriorly. Inner
area of whorl gently inflated, flat at the sutures, and depressed to
form a keel around the external margin. The tracery on the spines
of the inner whorls barely covered up by the successive turns of
the shell, and seen on the external border of the inner whorls. Base
of shell concealed by matrix.

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. ix. (ii.s.), 1897, p. 20!).

188 Frederick i'kapman :

Diin('H'<i()iiK. — Heip:ht from base of the spines, 9 mm. ; greatest
breadth, to extremities of s])ines, 34.5 mm. ; breadth of last Avhorl,
10.25 mm.

Observations. — This handsome shell is closely allied both to As-
tralium {Iniperdtor) heUotropxum, Martyn ( = iinperiale, Chemnitz)^
f(mnd living round New Zealand ; and the janjukian species from
Table Cape, Tasmania, A. (I.) Jiudsonianu/t/, Johnston sp.2 From
the living species the present form differs in having fewer spines,
and in the absence of the centrifugally striate surface, excepting to
a partial extent on the spines alone. The other, fossil form, from
Table Cape, is a heavier and stouter shell with a large' number of
spines and strongly centrifugal ornament as in A. (I in p.) lielia-
tr opium.

Occnrreiire. — Teritiary ; balcombian series. In the Ijlue clays of
the Altona Bay Coal-shaft. Coll. bv Mr. J. S. Green.

Genus Tui'^bO, Linnaeus.
Turlio cthcrulgri , Tenison Woods.

Turbo etlieridgei, Tenison Woods, 1877, Proc. lioy. .Soc, Tasmania,
for 1876, p. 98 .

Obiter ratio IIS. — This hitherto restricted Table Cape fossil has now
occurred in the Flemington tertiary ironstone beds. This record
forms an additional and valuable piece of evidence as to the age of
these beds, which have hitherto been regarded by some authorities as
balcombian, but which, from the prevalence of restricted species of
the janjukian fauna, the writer would relegate to the latter horizon.

Occurrence. — Tertiary; janjukian series. Ironstoue beds at Flem-
ington Railway cutting, Melbourne. A mould of the shell. I're-
sented by Mr. H. Ford, Station Master, Flemington Bridge Railway
Station.

Turbo afkiiixoiii, Pritchard.

Turbo afkiiisoii'i. Pritchard, 1896, Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict., vol. YIII.
(N.S.), p. lis, pi. 111., tig. 12.

Obarrvatiowi. — J3oth the al)ovc and the i>resent species arc found
at Table Cape. A loniparatively long series in the Dennant col-
lection shows all gradatitnis, from a shell with stepi)ed whorls to
tliat with straight sides. The chief distinctions of T. atkinsoni are
the even contour and the broad, sul)carinate base. In the National
Museum collection there is a specimen of this subspecitic form in

J M;u-t.vii, <oii. Icon., 1784, fig. 3(1. Tryoi), Man. Conih., vol. \:.. ISSS, p. 228, pi. hi., tiy. ST.
2 Oeol. of Tiisniania, 1888, pi. x\ix., ti^'s. 12, 12(( (fiy:urfs onl.v). Uescribed bv G. B. Pritchard,
Proc. Ilo.v. So(\ \'ict.., vol. viii. (ii.s.), ls<)(i, p. lUi, undei- the name of .Istniliinii { I inp.mtoi)

jlllimlnui.

Victorian Fossils, Port XV.' 189

its typical aspect, as described hy Dr. Pritchard, fiom Torquay,

Victoria. That locality, althoujzli in tlie same 2:eolo<^ieal sta<>:e as
the Tal)le raj)e beds, is a new one for the above form, since it has
hitherto been restricted to the hitter plate.

Ocrurrence. — Tertiary ; janjukian. 13ird Rock Cliffs, Torcpiay.
Coll. bv tlie kite Mr. J. F. IJailev.

Fam. SOLARIIDAE.

Genus Homalaxis, Deshaycs.

Hoinahicis jyraemeridioimlis, sp. nov. (Plate XTI., Figs. 4-6.)
Description. — Shell small, compressed, subcircnlar ; flat above,
rather deeply concave below, side hollow. Protoconch smooth, in-
flated, consisting: of about one turn ; remainder of shell consisting; of
three whorls. She'll, as seen from above, nearly flat, only very slightly
concave in the last Avhorl ; bordered externally with a beaded or
nodulose nmrgin, whilst from each nodule there proceeds a thin raised
thread normal to the margin. Median surface of whorl relieved by a
strong but narrow, nodulose raised band, which appears submarginal
by the involution of the earlier whorls ; general surface finely spirally
striate and crossed at right angles by the excessively fine growth-
lines, producing a micro-cancellate ornament. Peripheral area
stepped below the inner half of the whorl. As seen from below,
whorls angulately convex, with a median, raised nodulose band, and
several fine, spiral striae parallel to the margin ; these are crossed
by fine lines of growth ; the median band on the inner whorls sub-
marginal in relation to the successive turns of the shell. Mouth
subcircular. slightly elongated in the direction of the long axis of
shell ; the jieripheral border and the outer median liand standing'
out in the oral aspect as two strong, salient l)eaded carinae.

Diiiunxioiis. — Major axis, 0.2,5 mm. : minor axis. 5.5 mm. ; height,
1.75 mm.

Observations. — This handsome species represents the first recorded
occurrence of the genus as an Australian tertiarj^ fossil. Mr. Chas.
Hedley has described and figured a recent species under the name of
Omalaxis 7neridion</Iis,^ from Port Stephens and off Cape Three
Points, New South "Wales, -19-50 fathoms (" Thetis "). Several species
of this genus were described and figured by Deshayes (under the
generic name of Bifronfia) from the middle eocene of the Paris
Basin,- but none has the same type of ornament as the Australian
shells, either recent or fossil.

1 Mem. Austr. Miis., vol. iv., pt. 6, 1903, p. 350, fi>;. 74.

2 Deshayes, Desor. Coo. Foss. Eiiv. Paris, vol. ii., 1824, pp. 222-7, pi. xxvi., fii,'s. 1.1-2i>.

190 ' Frederick C/hi/hiki u :

Occurrence. — Tertiary: l)aleoiiil)ian series. From the l)lue clays of
the deeper part of the Altona Bay Coal-shaft. Collected and pre-
sented bv Mr. J. vS. Green.

Fam. Cypraeidae.

Genus CypPaea, Linnaeus.

Cyyraea gnhrieli, sp. nov. (Plate XIIT.)

Description. — Shell 'very large. Seen fro mi above, siib-oval ;
anterior wide and lilunt, posterior acuminate. Seen from the side,
back very gibbous, with a steep face on the apical end, and sloping
more gradually to the posterior. Spire partly concealed, situated in
a depression. Base flatttened, oval ; inner lip rounded (somewhat
cinished in specimen), smooth within, flattened towards the ant-erior
canal, and termimiting in a projecting flange ; outer lip rather
nari'ow, fairly sniooth, but showing about 6 transverse undulations
in the median and posterior area., representing the bases of unde-
veloped or obtuse teeth. Surface covered with a thin lirown enamel
which is conspicuously contused all over the shell, appearing as a
polygonal system of depressions, fairly regular in. size and averaging
about 5 mm. across. The underlying shell also bears contused mark-
ings, but not SO' prominently.

Dimensions. — ^Length, 136.5 mm. ; width, 101.5 mm. ; height
(base to vertex), 75 mm. ; greatest diameter of depressed apical area,
23 mm. ; width of middle of mouth, 9.25 mm. ; width near posterior
end, 11.25 mm.

Observations. — This large and handsome cowry is nearest to
Cyprnea contusa, McCoy,i both in general form and in the contused
ornament. It is, however, of much larger dimensions, being more
than four times as long, and differs in liaving a broad, flattened
anterior with sunken spire, and a flatter Ivase or oral surface.

Amongst the giant cowries it is shaped more like C. dorsafa, Tate, 2
than C. (jigcts, McCoy, ^ l)cing shorter and more tumid than the
latter. It is very distinct, however, even from C. dorsata in the
steepness of the apical face, in which the spire is deeply immersed.

Occurrence. — Janjukian series ; Bird Bock Cliffs, Torquay, Viet.
Collected and presented by Mr. C. J. Gabriel, after whom the species
is named.'

1. Profl. Pal. Vict., <lee. v^ 1877.1). 38, pi. xlix., fi^s. 3, 4.

'2. Trans. Koy. Soo. S. Aust.r., vol. xiii., 1890, pt. ii., p. 212; pi. x., flff. 4 ; pi. xi., fiff. 6.

:!. Prod. Pal. Vict., dec. ii, 1875, p. 19, pi. xs.; pi. xvi., fig. 2; pis. xvii. and xviii., fig. 1
Iliid., dec. iii, 187(i, p. S.'i, jils. \xviii. and xxix., fly'. 1.

4. Mr. (!al)riel is to ho convrratiilatcd on the coniplote success of his endeavour to secure this
lartre specimen, as he was armed only with a pocket-knife. The shell was very hadly impresnated
with salt from the sea-spray, hut hy slowly dryini; and sizin;;- the specimen it has heen saved from
the rapid disintegration that was going on when ohtained.

rVoC. K.S ViffOHM. llIlL'. PlutC XII.

F.c. ad iKtt. dui. Victorian Tertiary Gasteropoda.

Pr..,-. T7.S. Vif<Mi-ia, 1912. Tlate XTTT.

F.C. ad ii:it. (k-1. Reducefl to one-half.

Cypraea Gabrieli, sp. nov. Tertiary: Victoria.

Vidurian FosslU, Pari XV. lUl

Fain. Plelkotomidae.

Genus PleUPOtoma, Lainarck.

Pleurotoma myeeana (Tate M.S.^), sp. nov. (Plate XIT., Fig. 7.)

Defteription . — Shell of moderate dimensions, pyramidally ovate ;
body whorl approximately equal in length to the spire. Prototonch
large, consisting of two and a half smooth, inflated whorls, followed
l)y six angiilate whorls, with well marked sutureis ; also a median
nodulose keel medially grooved, below which are one ot two strong,
spiral threads. Last whorl with five rounded, spiral ridges inter-
lineated with fine, secondary lirae. The whole shell surface finely,
longitudinally costated with growth-lines. Aperture of medium size,
rather broad, pyriform ; outer margin arcuate ; sinus shallow,
situated just below the suture ; cnlumellar margin smooth, slightly
twisted in front; anterior canal short.

Dimen<sions. — Length, 22 mm. ; greatest width, 9.25 ujm. ; widtli
of aperture, 4 mm.

Observations. — The nearest species to the above in fossiliferous
deposits seems to be the pliocene species Pleurotoma tuherculata,
Kirk,"^ from Petane, N. Zealand. TTiat shell, however, is more' fusi-
form, the carinal tubercles not grooved, and the aperture propor-
tionally broader. A living Australian species, also nearly allied to
the present one, but differing in some important particulars, is
Pleurotoma armiUata, Reeve.'^ This form has a large and deep sinus,
the keel more numerously beaded, and it is altogether a smaller
and lighter shell.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate XIL

Fig. 1. — Acmaea octoradiata. Button. Cast of inside of shell in

ironstone. Tertiary ; janjukian, Nat. S'ize.
Fig. 2. — A. ortoradiata, Hutton. A cast in wax of the internal

mould of the ironstone fossil, showing external ornament.
X 2.
Fig. 3. — Astralium [Imperator) iiiulosin/i, sp. nov. Superior aspect

of shell. Tertiary ; IJalcombian. Altona Bay Coal-shaft.

Holotype. Nat. size.

1. This species was appropriately desig:nated in M.S. by Prof. U. Tate (see this journal, vol. iii..
1891, p. 57—Surcula .Snyceana) in honour of the late Mr. O. A. Sayce, A.L.S., who collected anionust
the fossils .shells in coiiiiianv with Prof. Tate and others in the Gippslaiid Lakes district.

2. Trans. N. Zealand List., vol. xiv., p. 409. Hutton, Alacleay Mem. Vol., I-inn. Soc. N. S.
Wales, 1893, p. ."iO, pi. vi., fig. 29.

3. Reeve, Iconographia, 1843, vol. i., fiir. 170.

192 Chajmaii : Victor lo'ii FcHsih, Fart XV.

Fig. 4. — H(i/)ial(nis prae//ierii/iotiahs. sp. nov. Superior aspect of

shell. Tertiary ; lialcoiubian. Altona Bay Coal-shaft.

Holotype. X 8.
Fig. 5. — H. i^7-aetner)(lion(il is, sp. nov. Inferior aspect of same shell.

X 8.
Fig. 6. — H. jjraemtridional is, sp. nov. Oral aspect of same shell

X 8.
Fig. 7. — DriUia sayreana, sp. nov. Tertiary ; Kalimnan. Lakes

Entrance. Holotype (Dennant coll.). Ventral aspect of

shell. X 2.

Platk XIII.

Fig. 1. — Cyjjraea gahrieli. sp. nov. Lateral aspect. Tertiary;

janjukian. Bird Rock Cliffs, Torquay. Holotype. Re

duced to one-half the diameter.
Fig. 2. — C. yabrieli, sp. nov. Anterior aspect. Reduced one-half.
Fig 3. — C gnhrieli, sp. nov. Oral aspect. Reduced one-half.

Corrigendum.

In Part XIV. of this series, vol. XXIV., pt. II., 1912, p. 300. lim
7 from the bottom of page, for " Plesiotype " read " Paratype."

END OF VOLUME XXV., PART L
[PuBLisHKD August, 1912].

Pkoo. R..V. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.8.). Vr. II.. 1912.

Art. X\MI. — On Ihr Cross I nocnl dl in n nj the Rool Tnhfrrh-
lincli'i-iii iijtoii tilt' Xatir/' uiul iha (' ulthnlcjl L^fJUiiii-
iiOsne.

PKKI.miNAin' C'(lM\rLNICATION-

A. .1. EWART, D.Sc. Ph.D.. F.L.S.

(Professor ..f l{i.t,iiiy aii.l Plant Pliysioloiiv in tlu- University of Melbourne),

AM)

NORMAN THOMSON. B.Ao.Sr.

((inv.-riiuH lit He-soai^'li Bursar. Mejbourn«' Univer.sity ).

(Witli riate XIV).
Read sth .Aut^u.-^t. I!tl2.

Introduction.

If the roots of am' leLinmiiious plant are examined, there will
always be found ceitaiu little round "rowths attached to them;
these are known as nodules or tuliereles, and contain countless
numbers of bacteria. It is calculated that one such tubercle of an
average size (that of a matcli-hoad') would <-ontain from ]()(! to l(l(i(l
million bacteria.

It has been found that the tri-oAvtli of any leguminous crop sown
in certain new sandy oi- heathy ground, will receive a decided
impetus if soil from a field in whicli this same crop has been
recently grown is scattered over it. either before or after sowing.
This is due to the introduction of this bacterium Bacilhix radicicola
('Beyerinck') present in the soil, which causes the formation of the
nodules upon the roots, entry into M'hich is trained through tho
root hairs. Tn these nodules the hacteiia exercise their power of
fixing free nitrogen from tlie air, and passing it on to host plants
in forms it can utilise as nitrogenous food supplies.

The Problem.

There is a difference of opinion as lo whether inoculation can bo
tarried out on any one plant by the bacteria from tlie tubercles of
that plant only, or from any other plant of the same o^enus, or

194 A. J. Eivarf and Nuinidn TIkhhsoii .-

indeed, from any cultivated lej^ume at all. Tlie point of special
local interest was to determine whether the bacteria from the root
nodules of native leguminosae were able to directly infect the
leguminosae (lucerne, peas, clover, beans, etc.), not native to Vic-
toria, but conniionly cultivated.

In the many papfrs published upon this subject, there has
l>een mention of little work in connection with legumes other
than those cultivated, and nore which rould be regarded as afford-
ing a complete and final answer to this question. Nobbe and
Hiltneri had at different times been able to inoculate the bean plant
with bacteria present in the nculules from peas, and Dr. Moore^
had also successfullv cariied out cross inoculation on some culti-
vated legumes.

Its Bearing on Eroiion/ie Agricrih i(re. — Hfiwever, since nothing
of a definite nature had been done with tin- native legumes of any
country, it seemed worth while carrying out experiments with
the bettei- known and more widely spread legumes of this State,
and to settle, if jiossible. tlie question whethei- the bacteria from
various wild and cultivated plants were all alike as regards theii'
power of cross infection, or wlicthci- biological races of the root
nodule l)acteria existed, each eapable of infecting either one plant
only or a few plants of similar physiological cliaracter. In paiti-
cular, the ([uestion whether the same cominou and widely spread
bacteria, which live upon and enrich such native plants, as
for instance Acfic/n, were capal)le of living in symbiosis with the
conunoiier cultivati-d meml»ers of tliis order, hafl an inqiortant
bearing on agriculture, particularly in I'egard to the pi-actice to
be adopted in opening new ground to cultivation. h'or inst.ince.
if all the root nodule l)actei'ia are capal)le of <lirecr cross infection.
then virgin country, whose flora comprisi- such plants as Ainr/'o.
Stnti /mo/If. Plat ylnl)iuin . etc.. will, on being cleared, and ^iven
over to the cultivation of ]»fas. lucerne, rhiver. or anv other sucii
crops, possess in the soil their necessary adjuncts, the nodule
bacteria, wliich <^n entering into symbiotic union would cause n
more luxurious growth than coidd otherwise be possible, .and with-
out the use of heavy drefwings of nitidgenous manures. On the
otlier luHid. if the bacteria from native legumes were unalile to
infect cultivated ones, they must l)e introduced into the soil in some
way, preferably bv the means already mentioned.

1 Not)be. Vcrsuchsst. 1S94. Bd. xl\.. p. 165.

Noblie and Hiltncr. t>iitl>l. Bnkt. u. Par. i, Abt. « (Utoio, No. 14, pp. 44i)-4.')7, pi. 1.

2 Dr. O. T. iloorc. hiocnlation of Soil for l.t-KuniiiiOBae. fnitcd Stittes Mnr. I'l. Ind..
17, 19f»r.. _

Crosfi Inocublatiun of the Root Tubercle Bacteria. 196

Method of Attuvkii(y the I'nihltin. — Eight ul' the luure important
iiieuibt'r.s of the Leguminosat.' weit' taken, viz. : —

1. Bioad Beau Vicia Fabu.

'J. Kidney Bean J*haseolus vulgaris.

.'!. Field Pea Pisuni sativuni.

4. Soy Bean Glycine hispida.

.J. Lucerne Medica<:u sativa.

8.

JMack .Medi.k
FJed rinvrr
Ilaiiv \"et(li

iM.r
rli(t.sen

cros.s inoculatidii l»ur]Kl^^es.

.Medic ago hipulina.
Trit'uli 11111 |>ratense.
\ icia villot<a.
the followintr

plantn-

were

Miiuosae.

\ Papillionaceae.

I. Aiacia iiiolliMsiuia

-. IMatyhil)iuni obtusanguluni
•!. Swainsona galegifolia ...

4. Aotus villosa

5. Bossiaea cinerea

Arranyeinent of Serie-s of L'ot^. — According to Hiltner and

Stornieri, if put exjjerinients were to be carried out, inoculation
by nodule contents was the best way; but fur held woxk, inoculation
Ijy ])ure cultures of the bacteria yielded the best results. Since i'.
vas only possible to keep everything sterile in pot experiments, the
eight diti'erent kinds of seeds were planted in pots, and each series
was inoculated by the bacteria from a different native legume, thus
giving hve series, a sixth being planted iiniaoculatetl. and ci'inpris-
ing a control, a total of -J.^ ])ot i>lants l)eing used for each exj>eri-
nient.

.\s till' risk of coiitaminatiiui and outside infection must be com-
pletely overcome, everything l)efore use was thoroughly sterilised.

Mf-fhod of Sterilisation and l'neo>ifion.<. — The pots l)ef<jre sow-
ing were placed in the steamer and kci)t at boiling ]Miint for 2
huui's. '2 days later being resubjected to the same treatment; this
would effectively get rid of any foreign ro(tt tubercle bacteria that
might be present. The seeds were well washed for a few minutes in
a 2 per cent, solution of formaldehyde, and then several times in
boiled water. This treatment seemed effective enough, yit Harriso/i
and Barlow- ({'anadian investigators) say (hat the vnrioii- uietluids
of sterilisation arc of no avail in removing the living bacteria from
the living seeds; and. in fact, in two cases with clover plants
nodules appeared who.se origin was difficult to explain except on the

1 L. Ililtner atid K. Sioinier. Berlin. .\i-l). l)io1. .\btli. Gesundhtsamt. ;5. 19ii3 (l.-)l-.^07, 44?-545).

2 F. C. Harrison and 15. B.irlow. The nodule orsanisni of the Lestuminosac its isolation and
cultivation, identifii-ation ;md commercial application. (Psendomona-* radicicoIa>. Canada, I'Mt'.

196

A. J. Ewari ami Norinan Thoinnon :

assiiiiiptioii tliat tliey luiglit have l)oeii tavised by bacteria reiiiai)iiiig
nil tlie seed afte)" iiiefteetive sterilisation. BoiU-d water was usetl iu
all eases, and all jars and beakers were plaitil in boilin^ water
before use to ensure peifeet sterilisation and pure iiioruhition foi
each series.

Ma/iner of Infeclinn am/ Soir/n;/. — T<_i infect the seeds, an in-
fusion in water was made of the contents of the nodules from eacli
of the chosen legumes. The ii(»dules were washed thoroughly in
sterilised water many times, no disinfecting agent being used for
fear of killing the bacteria; they were then cruslied u}> in water,
and the seeds before sowing were soa]\cd in tliis l)actcrial iiifusioii.
each series, of course, in its own inoculating mateiial. After

FIG. I.— LIFK-SIZE DKAWINGS »>F NODUr.KS

1. Platylobiiiin iioduk-

2. Aotiis

;i Hossiaea

k .Acacia

o. Swainsona

'2-4 lain, x 1-2 iiiiu. Colour dark l>rowu, white

towards one end. Oval sliapc.
H-20 mm. x 2-5 mm. Lii^ht brown colour.

V^ery elouy;atcd, though rei^ular shape.
.")-l2 mm. X 2-t unu. Creamy brown, and re<4iilar

oval shape.
(MO mm. X 4-5 mm. Liglit brown uuo end, white

the other. Irregular rounded and oval.
3-20 mm. x 2-3 nun. Brown and white, and very

irregular shape, somewhat clongafe. Many

grouped in bunches.

C';-u6>' Inoculation of the Hoot Tubercle Bacteria. 197

sowing'. iNieli infusion was diluted with tlic IxiiK-d watci-. and
purtiun of it used to w atei- the pots, the leniainder heing further
diluted and used for tliree subse(iuent waterings spread over four
or five days, so tliat in this way. the bacteria were iirHULrht into
intimate contact with the seeds and young roots.

PoKS/hle )'('siiffs of Cross-J /loculftf ion . — Tlie imdules from the
various phmts sliowed irreat dilTereiice^ in size, form and cohiur,
each Rind being easy of recognition. If nodule growth on tlie
jdants followed inoculation, tlien it seemed feasilile that the size
and sliape of the niotlier nodule should be repro(luced in the nodules
formed n\n>u the roots of the inoculated host plant.

By microscopic examination it was noticed that there were distinct
differences in sliape ami size between the l)acteria from the dift'erent
native legumes, and that the root ncxlule bacteria from native
plants, were much larger than those examined from the nodtdes of
(lover and hu-erne. •

•

e

0

/

©

C=£^

/ft

1

0

*;i

3

OO

a

1

8 o

0

«0

2.

FIG. II.— DRAWINGS OF BACTERIA FROM NuDULES OF THREE
DIFFERENT NATIVE bELiUMINOSAE ( x 6Q(»).

1. Phxiylohlvm nodule bacteria, Conyreyate in chains, and are buiall roinul

Ijacteria.

2. Acacia nodule bacteria. Curved rods ot varying length, rounded ends.

Longer than FlutijlobiHiv
:3. liwaihsona nodule bacteria. Bacteria found singly; short and stumpy,
• but ot regular size.

198 A. J. J'Jtvart o.nd Noniian Tkomsoii :

Jf tlje t-ross-iiHKulation weie successful, it Avuuld be interesting bo
see wlietlier the nudules I'loduced upon the infected plant were not
only tlie same externallv, i.e.. in .size and colour, as those on the
infecting plant, but also internally; whether the histology and
anatomy weie the same, the cells, the cork tissue, the vascular
bundles, the bacteria containing cells, etc., were identical in each.
If this were so, one would expect the bacteria in the iiodules pr(»-
duced uj^on the I'oots of clover inoculated witli acacia nodule
bacteria, the clover bacteria l)eing smaller than the latter, to be of
a similar size and sliape to the acacia l)acteria and ui similar
pliysi()]ogical ami liiological chai'actcrs.

Actual i-fsulf" ill fohiilar forni. — The experiniejils weir tried
twice, extending over a ]>eriod of seven months, Novemljer. 11)11. in
June. i!)12. After sowing, the jilants were allowed varying periods
()f growth before examinal ion . from seven weeks in the case of most
to four iiioiiths ill that of clovcr and lucerne 4)1 the Hist experiment.

I'hotographs were taken of the live most forward plants in two
sei'ies. that uninoculated and the one inocidated with root nodide
liacteria from I'laf i/lohi iini six weeks after sowing. Although the
results show that no nodules were present on the roots of the
inoculated sei'ies of plants, yet they showed a more decidi'd growth,
and were larger and vstronger. Whethei' this was due to the root
nodule bacteria c(mtinuing to live in tin' soil and hx nitrogen
outside the 2:)lants they were unable to inferi. is an open ipiestion
i9<>:o Plate XIV.)

The i-esiibs max l;e sliown ill the following table: —

l.'oo'l- rTIiiEK'CFiES UKVELOPED AFTEK 1N0CUL.\T1()N WITH BACTERIA
TAKKN FROM NATIVE LEGUMES, AS UNDEK.

( Uiltivatwl

.\c

a till.

l'lat,\

lobiuni.

.Swaitisotia.

.\otus.

Hossiaca.

riiinooHl

ate«i.

l<e^niiies.

Lst.

•JimI.

1st.

iiiid.

lst.

■2ii(l.

•ln<\.

•JihI.

1st.

tuA.

1.

Hroad JJeaii -

nil

- nil

- nil

- nil

- nil .

■ nil

- nil

- nil

- nil ■

nil

2.

Kiduey Heau -

nil

- nil

- nil

- nil

- nil ■

■ nil

- nil

- nil

- nil -

nil

3.

l'.;a

nil

- nil

- nil

- nil

- nil -

nil •

. nil

- nil

- nil -

nil

4.

Soy Bean

nil

- nil

- nil

- died

- nil -

died .

■ died

- die<l

- nil - ^

died

•).

fjxicerno -

nil

- nil

- died

- nil

- died -

nil

- nil

- nil

- nil -

nil

().

Black Medick -

nil

- nil

- nil

- nil

- nil .

- died

- nil

- nil

- died -

nil

/ .

Clover

2

- nil

- nil

- nil

- nil ■

- nil

- nil

- nil

several

nil

s.

^'etch -

nil

- nil

- nil

■ nil

- nil ■

• nil

- nil

- nil

- nil -

nil

The above table shows that of 80 different lots of plants that were
sown, on only two of these, clovers, were nodules found. The
uninoculated clover possessed many nodules, and microscopic
examination sliowed these to be i)acked with bactei-ia of the usual
kiml. It is jiossible that in this case and in the clover infected bv

Proc. K.S. Victoria, 191;i Plate XIV.

BHOAD I KIDNEV

Cross Iiwculadoii of ilw Root Tiihn-ch- BmicrUi. 191)

the root nodule bacteria from ataeia, tlie nodules were derived
from clover bacteria adherinji: to the surface of the small ch.ver
seeds and not renioved in the jirocess of sterilisation. With this
exception all the other results showed that imi direct cross inocula-
tion is possible between native and introduced le<ruminous plants.

Discussion.

The reason for this might l.e that the l)acteria. when taken
directly frt>m a particular root nodide. were biologically adapted
to the special nutritive conditions peculiar to the given
plant, and thus might be unable to directly adapt themselves to
a new host pknt. If, however, the bacteria were ti-ansfened co
sterilised soil and allowed to live there, or grown on artificial non-
living media as a saprophyte feu- some months, the special nutii-
tive adaptation in the course of repeated generations miglit gradu-
ally merge into a moi'e generalised condition, so that it could
inoculate a plant further and further away either systematically
or in physiological condition, the longer it remained in the soil.
Ultimately, the soil might contain bacteria capable of infectin;/
any or all leguminous plants, from whatever ho.st tlu.'y might havf
been derived.

In the above case, the l)acteiial contents were used to inoculate
the cultivated legumes, and so their specialised nature prevented
inoculation with plants presenting dissimilar l)io]ogical and
nutritive conditions. According to Buhlert^. all nodule organisms
are forms of Bacillus radicicola, but the bacteria best adapted lijpi
inoculating are those from the same host plant, and e()nse(iuently.
unless the nodule bacteria have become generalised in tlie soil, tiiey
are too specialised to infect other plants when used directly from
the nodule.

That this is the correct explanation is indicated by the fact that
in some cases difiictdty ua-; experienced in inoculating red clovei'
and lucerne seedlings with bacteiia taken directlv fi-om root
tubercles of the same plants, namely, red clover and lucerne
respectively. Apparently loot tubercle Ijacteria taken dii'ectly
from the living tu1)ei-cle are a)it to die out in sterilised soil or in
water cultures, and will usually do so befoi-e they have become
sufficiently generalised to be cai)al)l(' of infecting a foi-eign ho.st
plant.

On the nthei- hand, when the l)acteria fi'om one ]»lant Mi-e ^rown
on nutrient gelatine media, they appear to i-apidly develo]) more

1 H. P.uhleit. (entralbl. nakt,. .Jt^ia .\ht. 2, l», 1-2I.2 (pp. 148-ln;?. •2-26--24ii. 27:^2S.^, S92-895).

200 Ewarf and Thomson : Cros.^ Inocalation

generalised infective powers. Thus, it was fuund possible to
readily infect peas and to a less extent broad beans, grown both
in water lultnres and in sterilised soil, with l)acteria from acacia
tu))t'i'cles, is()laU'(l and cultivated on nutrient gelatine. Peas and
beiins grown in water cultures inoculated with bacteria taken
directly from acacia tubercles, failed to develop any root-tul^ercles
except in one lase where a pea developed a few tubercles after four
months' growrh, but after so great a length of tiino this miulit have
been due to a secondary infection.

When a loot-tubercle is dying, any still living nodule bacteria it
contains will grow for a time as saprophytes, just as on an artificial
medium, and hence may develop generalised nutritive properties,
so that they are able to survive when set free in the soil by the
decay of the tubercle, and ultimately to become capable of infecting
other plants. In this way it is possible to understand liow such
plants as Alsike clover and peas may develop tubercles in abundance
when grown in uninoculated soils, in which neither plant had
grown for ten or more years^. How long the process of generalisa
tion takes, what conditions favour or retard it, and how far it
extends, are problems for future determination.

1 A. .1. Ew.irt. .loiini. of Aarrif. Vift., vol. viii., pp. 0><-105, lOlo.

Proc. Roy. Sot. Victoria. 25 (N.S.) Part II . 1912.]

Ar'I'. XVI 1 1. — Farali/sifi in Horses and in Coivs due to the
Ingestion of Fodder.

Rv J. A. (ULPvUTH, D.V.Sc. M.R.C.V.S., F.R.S.E.
[Bead 12th September. 1912].

Fur many years a funa of progressive paralysis in cattle, evinced
primarily by an inability to ingest food, associated with absence
of rumination, more or less rapid emaciation and early death, has
been recorded as prevalent in Victoria, South Australia, and
even in certain districts of Tasmania.

Many articles have appeared in the lay and agricultural press
dealing chiefly with the symptoms, the seasonable occurrence, the
nature of tlie food supply, and, to some extent, the post-mortem
appearances, but little systematic enquiry into the etiology seems
to have been attempted.

So far as I am aware, the first accurate and scientific description
of the disease was published in the " Australasian Farm and
Home," in April, 1896, by my colleague. Dr. W. T. Kendall, and
his account of the symptoms is so careful and concise, that no one
having perused it could fail to recognise a typical case. Under
the head of " post-mortem appearances," it is worthy of note that
Dr. Kendall states regarding those cases he examined : — " The sup-
posed impaction of the omasum or third stomach to which the mor-
tality has been entirely attributed, did not exist."

Dr. S. S. Cameron, in Victoria, who gives in various articles a
definite account of the symptoms, concludes that the condition is a
paralysis of the 9th and 10th cranial nerve due either to some
form of mould (fungus) poisoning or solely to the non-succulent and
innutritions nature of the food supply, either of which he con-
siders a useful hypothesis for future work. At a later date I under-
stand he suggested the term " Impaction Paralysis." on account of
the impaction of the rumen, which, in his experience, was almost
invariably present. He appears to consider that the diseases known
popularly as " Stomach Staq-gers." " Winton Disease." " Cripples,"
etc., are one and the same.

In South Australia Mr. J. Desmond has given much attention
to the condition. (See report to tlic Hon. Minister for Agriculture,
and Veterinary Journal. Vol. 60. No. 417. page 161.) In his fir^t

■3

202 /. A. Gilrvth:

reports he also considered the disease due to impaction of the omasum
and termed it " Dry Bible," but in his last report he claimed to
have found the specific bacterium. A description of this organism,
and details of his experiments, however, have never been published,
hence they cannot be dealt with here.

Dr. Wilmot, in Tasmania, recently in a special report claimed
that the disease is really the same as " Louping 111 " of sheep in
Great Britain, but his evidence is, to say the least, very unsatis-
factory.

Prior to joining the Melbourne University in 1909, I had
naturally been aware of the existence of this disease, and hoped to
have an early opportunity of observing definite cases, if not of
making a thorough investigation of the whole condition. It was
only, howevei', in the late summer montlis of 1911 tViat I was able to
examine for myself definite cases in cattle, oases that everyone was
agreed were typical, and this tlirough the courtesy of Mr. Humm.
G.M.V.C, Warrnambool.

During April, 1909. three cows were sent to ine by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture's officials, but none were typical. Indeed, some
of those who had had considerable experience of this form of para-
lysis in cows considered they were not cases at all. One certainly
suffered from acute broncho-pneumonia, and died within 36 hours
after admission to the hospital, but the other two I now consider
were affected with a mild form of the disease.

That the symptoms are frequently very indefinite is pruvotl by
the fact that many cases have been reported to me, by laymen
chiefly, which proved on examination to be of quite a different
nature to the disease imder review. For example, one outbreak of
pleuro-pneumonia was originally reported both to the Department
of Agriculture and to myself, as a severe outbreak of this disease.

The paralysis of the horse, althougli due to the same cause as that
of the cow, is of an entirely different character so far as the muscles
affected are concerned.

The disease has been little o1)served in Victoria, judging b\
available literature, but in Soiitli Australia it appears to be fairly
common, and often assumes the character of a severe endemic. It
has been carefully studied by Mr. J. V. McEachran, M.R.C.V.S..
who, both in correspondence and in consultation, has afforded me
valuable information regarding the disease.

Until recently, and indeed until the experiments recorded latei-
were being condTicted, the e(>iinecti«)n betweeji the disease in the cow
and that in the horse was not suspected. This is not surprising
when the syni])ti)ms are compared, esjiecially in view of the fact

FaralysLs in Horses and Coivs. 203

that Avliile oecasioiiall}- on farms in South Australia the disease may
occur in both cattle and horses, it more frequently happens that
the one or" the other class of animal is alone affected. Why this is
so will, of course, be a matter for further investigation.

Though much has been written regarding the symptoms observed,
especially in the cow, and to some extent in the horse, in this
artitlf 1 propose to confine myself to I'ecording what I have per-
B(.inallv ol)served and ascertained from owners of the affected stock.

Symptoms in Cow.

Usually the first symptom of illness observed by the dairyman is
either a severe diminution, or almost complete cessation, of the
milk supply in a cow which at the previous milking has yielded her
normal quantity.

It is more than probable, however, that a careful observer might
detect some symptom prior to this, especially if close attention were
paid to the animal when feeding or at rest; but in any case, such
abnormality is liable to be overlooked until the milk yield is
affected. Even then other symptoms are by no means very definite.
Kumination is often suspended, but this is not unusual in many
cattle diseases. Often it is intermittent. The most definite and
probably most characteristic symptom at this stage is a peculiar,
slow and very persistent movement of the jaw, not the ordinary
movement which occurs during either chewing food or cud, but a
slow up and down movement, with little, and often no, lateral
niovement of the lower jaw. This movement seems to be almost
involuntary; it will cease Avhen the animal's attention is distracted,
and is resumed again latei- on. The head is held somewhat straighter
than normal, and this becomes more pi-onounced during the progress
of the disease. The expression is peculiar, it may almost be
termed wistful and enquiring. Inattentiveness to smroundings is
obsei'ved, and the animal is generally seen apart from the herd.
No attempt to eat or drink is made, but whether at this stage
because the animal knows she can only chew and swallow, if at all,
with difficulty, or through experience of ineffectual attempts, or
thi'ough intuition, I have not been able to determine. There is,
however, from the first. I think, but little appetite, tliough it may
not have entirely disappeared. In the very mild cases, or cases
which progress slowly, a little water may be swallowed, but with
great difficulty. In one instance I observed a cow hold her mouth
in a bucketful of water for ten minutes, and only succeed in drink-
ing half the contents. On another occasion I observed a cow whicii

3.^

204 J. A.^GUritth:

we had driven into a wateiliole, hold her mouth in the water for
ahriost tit'teen minutes. In both these cases some time elapsed bei'ore
any liquid was swallowed, as observed by carefully watching the
movements of the oesophagus, while but a small quantity was swal-
lowed at a time, and at infrequent intervals.

l^'rom the beginning, prehension of food, even cut green fodder,
is ditncult, and soon becomes impossible, even though the animal
may be obviously anxious to partake of the material. When it is
possible to seize the food, mastication cannot be performed. An
attempt" is made to chew a blade of cabbage, a stalk of sow thistle,
some green clover, or such material introduced into the mouth, but
the process resembles more the action of a human being sucking a
sweet than the normal mastication of a cow. The buccal muscles
do not seem to come properly into action, and there appears to hj
inability to properly direct the tongue. During this attempt to
masticate there is considerable salivation. Often such partially o--
very slightly cliewed material which has been introduced into the
mouth will be dropped, and if it is not, it rarely gets beyond the
base of the tongue just in front of the velum. Indeed, in nearly
all cases it has been observed by most writers that a quantity of
partially chewed food is almost invariably found situated there on
post-mortem examination. In two cattle dead of the disease, or
what was probably the same disease in Tasmania, which I had an
opportunity of examining post-mortem (although unfortunately
dead nearly 48 hours), this plugging of the base of the tongue by
food was very definite.

But the difficulty in swallowing does not cease here; it is evident
that even the oesophagus is in a semi-paralysed condition, for in one
case where with considerable patience and persistence the patient
had slowly and with some distress succeeded in swallowing a little
fresh grass, I found on post-mortem examination a few hours
later, the ingesta lying along the lumen of the intra-thoracic por-
tion of the oesophagus like a loosely twisted green rope.

As the disease progresses, the champing of the jaws l)ecomes more
noticeable, the tongue is frequently protruded as if to make an
attempt to lick the dry muzzle, but without success, and may
remain so protruded for several seconds or even longer. Salivation
l)t'(()ines more profuse, there being a constant dribbling from the
iiiouth of saliva, which is often ropy in consistence. There is fre-
qiiently an intermittent mucoid discharge from the nostrils, which
is probaV)ly saliva which has been only [lartially swallowed and
returned per nasal chamber. The expression becomes more wistful
and the head more straightly lield A slight swaying of the body,

ParaLjfila m /iuor.s and C'uitvs. ~05

accuiuptuiied by Lwiuhiug ut mubclcs, appears, bui nut luvaiiauly,
una seems to mdieate that the anunal is aliaia ol falling, anu even
ol lying (Juwn, ui case she cannot rise again. Cases may ue louna
recum.jent, uut generally m the early stages; when s^niptoais are
vei_) ueiiiute tiic rule is lor the patient to stand i^uieLly, even a
placed in a loose oox. in a hoi the head may Oe otteu iounu
pressed into tlie corner, as it a partial support were given tliereuy.
If forcibly moved, the gait is more or less staggering, and the desire
is to move only in a straight line. Ixespirations are normal, except
when disturbed. The temperature remains normal, though occa-
sionally reaching 103 deg. 1'., particularly when exposed to the sun.
ihe faeces are scanty but not abnormal. Micturition is generally
infrequent, but may be the reverse, and may be accompanied by
evidences of pain. At times injection of the visible mucosae may
be present. Occasionally some evidence of internal colicy pains
is observed, but tliis is not present in all cases. More or less
rapidly, the animal becomes weaker and weaker, chiefly from lack
of food, and, especially in animals unhoused, from lack of water.
Sooner or later the patient lies or falls down, and can be got co
rise with difficulty, or not at all. Gradually a condition of semi-
coma ensues, with complete coma and death resulting. Usually ths
course of the disease lasts from two to four days, but may linger for
a week after symptoms are observed. Occasionally, it is said, cases
recover, but I believe no immunity is attained against a recurrent
attack the next year. I feel certain that were sick animals housed
and 80 kept away from the sun's rays, and especially were they
coaxed to drink from the beginning, they would survive much
longer. Consequently chances of recovery would be much greater.

The most characteristic symptoms I consider to be the champing
of lower jaw, the inability to chew and swallow, the salivation, the
expression, the attitude of head; in other words, partial or complete
paralysis of the powers of prehension, mastication, and deglutition.
The disease is rarely, if ever, seen in animals beloAv two years of
age. and apparently never in calves. In Victoria it does not often
attack steeis. or at all events is rarely observed in that class of
stock, although bullocks are not infrequently attacked in Tasmania.

The season of the year Avhen the disease prevails is the dry
BUinnier months, especially January and February, though cases
may occur earlier or later. For this reason, the dry, often innutri-
tions, nature of the food supply is considered by some as being
the primary cause of the impaction and paralysis of the rumen.

206 J. A. Git ruth:

I'ost-morfe/n Appearances.

There are no pathological macroscopic changes which are con-
stant or in any way characteristic.

ihe so-called impaction of the omasum, with dry ingesta, which
led to the ridiculous term " Dry Bible," observed by some and
considered the causa causans oi' the disease, is not constant, and
is not greater than may be seen often in long travelled l)ullocks
killed at abattoirs, and is not surprising considering the want
of food and water, which may have been for a longer period than
generally estimated. The brain and spinal cord are quite normal.
The meninges may show slight injections, and while in some cases
there has been an abnormal quantity of clear meningeal fluid
present, though not sufhcient to cause the symptoms noted, in
others there was no such excess. The buccal cavity and pharynx are
generally quite normal, and in only one instance liave I observed
congestion of the phai'yngeal mucosa. Contrary to some observers,
1 have never found any food in the pharynx proper, but almost
invariably there is to be found a pledget of partially-chewed
material situated between the base of the tongue and the soft palate.
In addition to this, one may find partially chewed or even unchewed
food within the oesophagus, especially the intrathoracic portion.
The rumen generally contains matted masses of food, though in one
case which had been frequently placed by me in a pond, and had
with difficulty by very persistent effort drunk a quantity of water,
it was found, when the animal was slaughtered soon afterwards,
that this water was almost entirely within the rumen. The
aljomasum is invariably empty; the small intestines are in a
catarrhal condition, and contain more or less milky mucoid material,
particularly the duodenum. The large intestines contain normal
contents, though small in (juantity. All other organs are normal,
including the bladder, which is generally empty.

Bacferiolocjirnl I nvesfif)atio7i.

Microscopical examinations of blood and other body fluids have
always given negative results. Injection subcutaneous, intraperi-
toneal, and intravenous of other cows with blood, spinal fluid, and
even with emulsion of brain and spinal cord (brought to the labora-
try preserved in glycerine and normal saline) have invariably
given negative results. A cow drenched with a quantity of the
catarrhal material found in the small intestines remained normal.
The conflusions to be drawn from these experiments are that the

Paralysis ia H<)rse><. and Coivs. 207

disease is not due to any living organism visible or ultra-visible.
Naturally, however, such were the first experiments to be under-
taken, especially in view of the discovery of an ultra-visible virus
being the cause of human polio-myelitis by Levaditi and Klexner.

Symptoms in Horse.

Instead of localised paralysis as in the enw, the symptoms in the
horse are those of a general paralysis. Premonitory symptoms
consist, at most, of inappetance. Frequently the animal is not
observed ill till seen lying on the side, unaljle to get up even with
assistance, and there may be evidence of intermittent colicy pain.
In some cases the first symptoms are those of hyper-acute and
sudden attack of colic, from which apparent recovery may occur,
to be succeeded, however, by complete motor paralysis of the lind)s.
Often a peculiar paddling of one or more limbs is observed while
the animal lies recumbent. In some cases the patient lies apparently
quite quiet for prolonged periods, in others colicy griping pains of
the intestines appear to ))e frequent, judging by the attitude, par-
ticularly the turning of the head to the flank. Sensation in the
early stage is not lost, as can be demonstiated by pricking the
skin, when the muscles of the flank or shoulder will twitch, but
the limb cannot be moved voluntarily. The paddling movement
appears to be entirely involuntary.

In the early stage the animal retains consciousness, though in the
acute cases this soon gives way to semi-eonia. Tlio pupils are
dilated, and the expression is startled-looking. The temperature
remains normal, or it may be slightly above normal. The pulse is
weak and rapid. The visible mucosae are sliglitly injected. Per-
spiration is often profuse, and may be patchy.

Depending upon the aeuteness of the case, semi-coma, succeeded
by coma, occurs, the paddling movements cease, and death may take
place within 12 to 24 hours from the onset of the symptoms, or in
subacute and chronic cases, the animal may linger for several days.
Death is usuallv preceded by a violent paroxysm.

These are the svmptoms as obsei'ved here in a niutdier of lioth
accidentally and deliberately produced cases.

Po.<tf-mnrfe)n A p]>eora)}res.

Skin and subcutaneous bruises aic common, but are onlv bed
sores.

In two cases patches of semi-gelatinous, straw-coloured oedema
were present in the peri-pharyngeal connective tissue, but

208 J. A. Giiruth:

were al)seiit in otliers. The brain and spinal cord shovf no lesions
beyond at times a slight injection of the ventricles. The meninges
are generally normal, but in one naturally acquired case, and in
one deliberately conferred case, there was an abnormal quantity of
clear cerebro-spinal fluid present, especially around the medulla.

The lungs in very acute cases show passive congestion ; the
pericardium contains a varying, though small, quantity of iloai-
serosity; the heart shows sub-epi- and sub-endo-cardial petechiae;
the blood coagulates readily with a firm clot and clear serum.
The stomach is generally normal, in only one case a few ecchymoses
being seen near the pylorus. The small intestines are invariably in
a muco-catarrhal condition with much serous effusion, coagulable
on exposure, and mixed with flocculi of shed epithelium. This is
found especially in the anterior part of the canal. In one case
small necrotic patches of the duodenal mucosa were observed. The
large intestines are generally tympanitic, but contain normal
ingesta. One case showed a large area of congestion and many
petechiae of the colon. The liver and kidneys are slightly con-
gested, and show cloudy swelling. Otherwise the organs are normal.

Bacterioloyicdl Examination.

Microscopical examination of the blood and other fluids, such as
cerebro-spinal fluid and pericardial serosity, as well as tissues, gave
always negative results. Blood secured from the heart and large
vessels in steiile pipettes and tubes immediately after death
coagulated readily, and remained sterile even at blood heat. Intra-
venous inoculation with such material gave negative results, so
that a living virus as the exciting cause was excluded, so far as
such experiments could determine. Fortunately the fodder wliich
had been fed to horses that had succumbed in an outbreak detailed
below had been secured by me. and tests with this gave interestinj^
and surprising results.

Observations on outbreak of Horse Paralysis in a
Melbourne stable.

In the beginnine of November. 1911, I was advised bv Mi-. W. A
Kendall, n.AT.V.O., of a serious outbreak of disease affectiiMj' lliree
horses belonging to a dealer in one of the suburl)s. The thi-ee liorses.
of a very good draught type, became affected almost simultajieonslv.
and succuml)ed within 24 hours, in spite of treatment. Mi-. Ken-

ruralijxU I'll //(n'.sr.s cnu/ Cuirs. 209

dall's jurouiit ni' tin- s\ iii|itiiiiis, ami tlic (pl)srrvali<>ii> 1 \s ds able
to make throu^li liis courtesy, tallied generally with the symptoTiis
reeorded above, as did the posf-niorftni exariiinations, at only
one of ■which I was able to l)e present and personally secure speci-
mens. The cases did not seem to be those of ordinary poison, and
chemical examination of the stomach contents and of the fodder
gave negative results. Fortunately, however. 1 luul a ipiantity of
the fodder, consi.sting of ordinary mixed chaff, with l^ran and oats,
all apparently of good (juality, sent to the laboratory for experi-
mental purposes. The material collected was kept separate, and
labelled according to the place of collection. These samples were : —

A. From the mangers of the horses that had died.

B. From the nosebags of those horses.

C. From the loft near the chute.

I). From the bidk fodder in the loft.
(N.B. — C and D were similai-. with the exception that D was mixed
later by a few days than C.)

Xo unmixed fee<i remained on the premises.

With the above feed, certain experiments were conducted, t)ut
before detailing these it is necessary to record what may well be
termed an unpremeditated experiment.

When the first horse died, the knacker was instructed to come for
the carcase, and his mail arrived with the cart sometime before
Mr. Kendall had finished his post-mortem examination. While
waiting, he espied a no.se bag half-full of feed hanging on a peg,
and fixed it on his horse's head. The knacker's horse, although fed
as usual only a few hours previously, partook of the chaff in the
nose bag readily enough, and in due course left. Five days later
Mr. Kendall was called in to see this animal, and found him
suffering from .symjUoms exactly similar to those manifested by
the original cases. Death occurred within 12 hours of the first
symptoms being observed. The carcase was brought to my
laboratory, and posf-mortein examination showed conditions similar
to the others. This horse had received no more than a few pounds
of fodder, and no symptoms were declared for at least five days.
Meanwhile our experiments were in progress. *

Horse E. It. an aged animal, in fair condition, was fed about
o p.m. with 5 lbs. of chaff from the mangers. This he ate readily
enough. For the next five days he received a daily ration of 15 lbs.
of chaff from D, the bulk feed. On the morning of the 6th day he
ate his food as usual. In tlie evening at 5 p.m. he was again fed,

1

210 J. A. G'drath:

iiud at (5. 'JO J). in. it was observed he had iKit eaten all the food,
though otherwise he appeared normal. At 9.15 p.m. (or a little
over five <lays aftei' the tirst feed had been given) the animal was
fountl lyJTig down in ihe box, evidently suffering from abdominal
{)ain. Tenipeiature 102 deg. F. Pulse full, but weak and some-
what iriegular. Kespiration norjual, eyes bright with pupik
dilated. When disturbed, he rose and soon afterwards ate a little
food. At 10.45 }).ni. lie was again found lying down, groaning
with eolicy spasms, and struggling. He tried to get up, but was
unsuccessful. He continued to struggle violently for some minutes,
but later settled down. Pulse much accelerated, but gradually
slowed.

At 11.45 p.m. there was another paroxysm similar to last, but
stiuggling was ))iactically confined to continual banging of the
head on the floor, and ]taddlijig motion of hind limbs. Gradually
he()uietened down, ami half-an-hour later manifested little tendency
to struggle when touched, but remained sensitive to all sounds and
skin irritation. Temperature 100.*2 deg.

At ]'2.45 a.m. anotlier jtaroxysm of struggling (»ccurred. so the
animal was given morphine subcutanef>usly. and left for the night,
having been well bedded down.

Next morning the animal was found to have knocked liimself
about a good deal during the night. 'Phidugliout the day he lay
ijuiet for the most part, but off and on theie weie periods of strug-
gling. Temperature did nf)t rise, but respirations became
more lalioured. though hy})ersensitiveness was still juarked, until
j-'emi-con)a ensued shortly before death. The animal died at 5 p.m.,
20 hours after having been first noticed lying down, having struggled
a good deal dui'ing the last hoiir.

I'm^l-nuiritin A piicdrdncfu. — Similar to cases at stable from which
fodder was obtained, but less injection of the vessels, little catarrh
of small infest im;. no oedema around pharnyx. and but slight
excess of stibdural fluid.

The feed left in the maj)ger of this horse (about 0 lbs.) was
divided between two s]iee|). They ate it readily enough, an<l
I'cmained noi-mal during the several wei'ks tliey were under observa-
tion.

I'oiiji R. I'2 1111(1 Coir K. /.—The icmainder nf the feed from the
manger A was fed to }>ony K. 12. which leceived .'? lbs., and to a
cow 4 years old, in good condition, whiili rect'ived J) lbs. For the
next week ordinary fodder, as given t<i other animals at the

J^iirdlytiis la lIvrscH and Cow^. 211

lal)(»iat(iiv stables, was stijiplicd to ihese animals. Then of the
fodder found in the nose bug (li), 2 lbs. was jriven to the pony, and
i) lbs. to the cow. Tliis was an enor. fcir it was intended by me
they shovdd i)e i<}y\ tliereafter with material ('. fiom near the chute
in the loft. This material was used subsecjueiitly. the pony receiv-
ing \\ lbs. and the cow 12 lbs. per day.

It may be here observed that the ilivision of the feed was purely
arbiti'ary. for we had no reason to believe eitiier from tlie owner's
statements oi- from observation tiiat there was any material differ-
ence. The h^ts were kept separate, so that if necessary any definite
pois'on might lie tested for in eacli. The feeding with tlie bulk
iriaterial was adopted beeause the pony had n<»t evidenced any
illness, and tliert' appeared no reason for keeping the material for
too great a length of time, besides which, it saved our own feed bill.

The r(!sull of tlie experiment was very interesting and extremely
instiiutive.

TItt ponii ate well and appeavt'd normal till the thiiteonth day
iifter the first iK.'K^iX. wlien inappetance appeared, the morning
feed being refu.sed. In a few hours a fit of colic occvirred. which
soon passed off. These attacks recurred at intervals, till later in the
day, when they ceased, though the animal still remained dull, list-
less, and refusing food and water.

Xe.xt morning the t>ony was found lying on Ids side, tlie lindjs
straight out, with<uit making any effort to get >ip. Consciousness
Avas definite, the liead l)eing partially raised from tin)e to time.
No evidence <if jiain. No desire for food or watei-. Skin of lind)S
sensitive, as shown l)y twitching of body muscles on jiricking. b\it
otlierwise no refiex aition or voluntary action was obseived. Tem-
perature 100.4 deg. to 101.2 (leg. Pulse and respirations normal.
No faeces or urine passed. Tlie foUowinir or second day <ondition
was much the sam<'. Consciousness remained complete, the pony
neighing on hearing another horse pass by the box. When the head
was held uji, he drank faiily readily, but refuse<l food; he showed
paddling of limbs at inteivals, res))irations were increased, and
t(jwards night, the breath w-as otTensive. mouth was clanuny. no
faeces or urine had been i)assed, catheter showing comj.)aratively
little of latter in bladder, and that of ncu'nial character; the
pulse was slow and full. During the next two days, little or no
<'hange was observed. Med sores liecame extensive in sjiitc of frequent
burning. A little dung, dry in character, was passed occasionally.
Pulse increased to NO )ier mintite. Temperature remained normal.
Jiud breathing was slightlv accelerated. rousciousness was still

2\-Z J. A. (iilrntJ, :

i\'t aiiuil, tlu' rliift' ,sviiii)t<iiii l)i,Mii<; iiia!>iiity to move tlu' limbs oxcept
In- the iiiviiliiiitarv paddliiif,' i-ot'cricd to. At tht' end of tlio fourth
day no impiovc^ment and no ai,'»riiivation in f^^eneral symptoms
having taken place, except increasing weakness, V)ecaiisc of the
fjodsores and tlie absence of feeding, the pony was killed.

l'i)sl-nn)rff'ii) examination was mmh the sanic in results as in
pi'evious cases, with the exception of some areas of l)roncho-
pneunionia.

The ex/periiiiciiidl coir gradually became affected with tongue,
buccal, and pharyngeal paralysis. This cow made an admirable sub-
ject for experiment. For six months she had l)een kept (in conse-
(pience of another experiment) in a loose box along with a yearling
calf, and in the next box another cow had been kept for the same
period also with a yearling calf. During that period the four animals
liad all been fed on the same kind of fodder, i.e., dry chaff, hay, etc.,
with no green feed, or exercise. Although, as will be seen, the cow
fed with the suspected chaff became affected with the paralysis, the
other cow and calf remained normal, and continued to do so while
fed on ordinary chaff, till killed two months latei'. Her own com-
panion had been destroyed prior to commencing the feeding experi-
ment. No symptoms of any abnormality whatever were detected
till tlie thirteenth day after receiving the first feed, or the sixth day
of continuotis feeding on suspected fodder. Then the cow was
noticed to 1)C less keen for food, and next day .seeiiied to chew each
mouthful for a mucii longer ))eriod than usual, without making any
attempt meanwhile to swallow. Although the day was wai-m, little
or no water was drunk. It is safe to .say that had a careful watch
not been kept ft)r some such evidence of disturbance, it would have
been overlooked I)y the attendant. On the third day of sitkness th^^
condition was much tlie same, biit a thin trickle of saliva ran from
the mouth, and some mucoid looking discharge was present in the
nostrils. The fourth day brought improvement, and the cow seemed
practically noi-mal, but on the fifth day the aimless chewing an!
slight salivation had returned, while the expression Avas somewhat
strained. On the sixth day, the symptoms were for the first time
ycry suggestive of the cattle paralysis. Feed was refused ; the head
was held straighter than normal, the eycs appeared staring,
champing of the jaws wilh dril>bling of saliva was constant, occa-
sionally the tongui- i>rotruded in an ineffective way, but seldom was
an attempt made to lick the muzzle. On the seventh and eighth
days the symptoms Avere aggravated. Drinking Avas done sloAvly
and with much difficultT. On the ninth dav the condition Avas nnu^h

I'll rdl I/sis ill //o/'.sx',N- (iu(l Cou'^. l.'Ui

tlie same, the animal continuously standing, staring unseoingly iti
front of her, the salivation and niovemtMit of the jaw in the
characteristic way being almost incessant. A blade of cabbage wan
picked up and sucked laboriously, ])eing finally rejected in an un-
chowed condition. It was ol)viously impossible for her to get the
food between the teeth or backward into the fauces." After this she
refused cabbage, l)ut attempted a little grass with the same result,
and the next titiic grass was offered, she refused that. Evidently
therefore, the appetite was still present, V)ut she remembered her
inability to chew or swallow certain materials. Rumination had
ceased to be observed for several days. On this ninth day, also, the
rumen was sHghly tympanitic, and occasionally eructations of gas
and fiuid occurred, the latter pa.ssing down the nostrils.

l''or the next three days there was little change except that the
animal became gradually weaker and poorer in condition ; as
always, a little faeces and urine were passed, but no food or water
was taken. The temi)erature ranged between 100 and 102 deg.

During this time several veterinarians and others who have had
much experience of the cattle paralysis as it naturally occurs, saw
tlio case, and unanimously confirmed my diagnosis that it was a
typical, though not acute, case of that disease.

During the night of the twelfth day after the first symptoms were
manifested, she gave birth to a fully-developed, healthy calf, but was
herself found prostrate and unable to rise in the morning. As she
had eaten practically nothing for five days, and very little for a
week before that, this Aveakness was perhaps not surprising.
Nothing apparently was to ])e gained by attempting treatment, s>
she was killed.

Po!<t-mortem examination showed no abnormality that could
be considered in any way pathological or associated with the symp-
toms, and no excess of cei-ebro-spinal fluid.

Horse E. 13, aged, and in comparatively poor condition. It was
fed for twelve days with lO lbs. per day of bulk chaff from the
loft, and was run in a small bare paddock. The supply of chaff
being finished, he \<as then placed on the ordinary fodder of the
laboratory. No evidence of any illness was manifested until sixteen
days after the experiment commenced, when he refused his feed, but
otherwise did not appear ill. The following day.he was found lying
0!i his side, presenting all the symptoms of paralysis observed in the
pony, and in the other experimental hor.-<e. The next day (Christ-
mas Eve) no change having occurred, and it being evident he might
live for several days without any material benefit being derived froin
studying the case, the animal was slaughtered.

HU J. A. (iUriUh:

rost-tnorfeiit examination was as in other cases.

Stiniiiiarised. the lestilts of these feeding experiments are as
follow : —

(Ij Kit(icktr\K lloisr. — Fe<l witli cjuantity of ehaff (B) left in a
nose bag, probably not more than 6 to 8 lbs. altogether. Result : —
In five days symptoms developed, characteristic in every Avay of the
disease as it affected the merchant's three horses, and death occurred
under 24 hours later. Otlier horses belonging to the same owner
remained normal.

(2) Experimental Home E. 11. — Fed daily with chaff A removed
from the mangers of the horses that died, this being the last feed
supplied to those horses, and undoubtedly of the same character as
that in the nose bags^. Result: — Colicy symptoms were exhibited
almost precisely five days after first feed was eaten, and three hours
later the characteristic symptoniK were fully developed, and death
incurred seventeen hours later.

Tiie total quantity of feed consumed by this horse was 7-1 lbs.

(3) Experimental Horse E. 12. a pony, fed with 3 lbs. of feed
from manger. A week later, no symptoms having developed, it was
fed with 2 lbs. from nose bags (B), then fed with '.] lbs. per day of
jnaterial in loft near chute (C), ,'j'i lbs. of this being eaten altogether
up to the time he was ttbserved off his feed. In all. this pony ata
T) lbs. of what had been pioved to be poisonous fodder, and 33 lbs. of
suspected material, or 38 lbs. altogether. Result was that refusal of
any food Avas observed twenty days after first feed, and thirteen days
after continuous feeding commenced. This was followed by colicy
pains, and later by definite paralysis. In this case, however, the
disease was not early fatal, the animal being killed four days after
illness commenced, on account of refusal to h\'i\. bed sores, etc.

(4) Experimental llorst E. I.J. — Fed with chaff (D) from bulk in
loft, said to have been mixed a week after that in the manger and
nose bags, leceiving at the rate of 10 lbs. per day for twelve days,
duiing which time no evidence of illness was manifested, being then
placed on the ordinajy chaff of the Institute. Ri.'^ult: — Fcuirteen
<lays after feeding commenceil. and four days al'tci- last feeding of
chaff from the merchant's loft he refused food, and next day was
found down, and paralysed. The animal was killed 24 hours later,
it being evidently a suh-acute case, ami the ("hristnuis holidays
lieing in course.

(i)) E.rptnniiiitdl Coil . — Fed simultaneously with pony. Heieivcd
fii-st !) ]l)s. of chaff froiri manger. .\ week later )ci»'ivcd 5 lbs. chaff
from nose ba«'s. and t lieicaft«'r fed dailv with 12 lbs. chaff from Inl't

J\( rail/sis ill Ilorsen dud Coa's. 215

near chute: llesult : — On tlic thirteenth day al'tcr first feed, some
inappetance was <il)serve(l, but not marked. Gradually symptoms of
l»iu(a]. {iliat yii^real, ;uid to some exti^nt lin<rual paralysis became
maiiit'ested ; she was killed when almost in exfre/nis after having
given Itirth to a healthy calf, and after having eaten and divmk
}iracrica]|y iiotliing foi' the previous five days, thirteen days after
the hrst symptoms of illness appeared, and twenty-six days after
the feeding experiment commenced. In all 88 lbs. of the contami-
nated or poisonous fodder was eaten by this animal.

It becomes ol)vious from a consideration of the results of these
feeding ex'i)eriments that the fodder, consisting apparently of
ordinai'v chaffed oaten hay. with the addition of a slight percentage
of oats, and of bran, contained some element which was the cause
of the fatal results. What this element was, whether some native or
other weed, or a fungus (or other) disease of some of the constituent
plants, there was no indication, and examination of the cvit fodder
was unsatisfa(_to)y on these points. That the horse paralysis in
South Australia, where it has l)een 'most observed, is frequently
found associated with feeding on musty fodder, would seem to indi-
cate the latter hypothesis; but the fact that this is not invariably
the case is against tlie idea of ordinary moulds being a cause.
Again, it must be remembered that if the cause be of a fungoid
nature, it is one that does not deleteriously affect the fodder to such
an extent as to render it unpalatable or even suspicious to the horse
or cow. not to mention ourselves, by any standard we can at present
adojit. Further, wliile I have not heard of any cases of horse
paralysis where the animals were not, at least partially, fed on
<liy fodder such as hay, chaff, etc., cattle paralysis frequently occurs
where animals are feeding solely on natural pasturage. The most
reasonable hypothesis under the circumstances, is, therefore, that
there is some plant which horses are able to avoid while it is growing
naturally, but which even then many cattle cannot or do not avoid ;
a plant also that even the horse does not detect when mixed Avith
other ripe or dried plants, especially if chaffed and mixed.

Htit again, whether fungoid or herbal in origin, it cannot be
gainsaid that the essential cause of the paralysis is some powerful
poison of certain cells in the ci'nti'al nervous system. The chemical
nature of that |)oison cannot as yet be even a.ssumed. for we know
of no poison alkaloidal oi' glucosidal in nature, which woiild have
such a latent period l)efore symptoms were ])roduce<l. In fact, suih
poisons Avoidd be eliminated almost entirely from the system within
24 to 48 houjs, provided no physiological effects were produced. In

216 J. A. Gilruth:

tlic lusc of the two iiisL fXpuriiucntal horses and of the cow, a
luiiiuhitive effect of the poison might be inferred, but the experience
with the knacker's horse, Avhich received only one feed, and with
experimental horse E. 1-3 (the former of which showed symptoms only
hve days after ingestion of a small quantity of the abnormal fodder,
the latter four days after feeding on this Avas discontinued) negative
such an assumption being regarded as a complete explanation. The
best analogue of this poison, whatever may be its nature and
source, is the toxin of tetanus, which has a so-called period of incu-
baton of four to hve days, due to tlie time taken in reaching the
cells of the central nervous system v/a the nerves, instead of by the
blood stream. The Rabies virus offers to some extent another
analogy, but there it is the living entity tliat travels along the
nerves, and probably liberates the toxin in sih/.

At all events the whole circumstances seeni to indicate the study
of tlie native flora in the affected districts as a field of research offer-
ing tlie most fruitful possibilities. Had the fodder with which I
experimented been uncut, I sliould have had the comijoncnt plants
of a large quantit}- segregated after the first two experiments, and
conducted feeding experiments with each lot. As this was not pos-
sible, I requested the Hon. G. Graham, the Minister of Agriculture,
to have a botanical survey made by the Government Botanist of the
farm in the Western district whereon I had seen the most typical
cases of cattle paralysis, to which he kindly consented. This Avas
done, and I append a copy of the report which I received.

The native plants should be secured in some quantity; if necessary
they should be aitificially cultivated, especially the ssenecios, pim-
jicrnels, isotomas and lobelias, and thorough tests made with each
Oil both horses and cattle.

Mr. -McKachran, at my suggestion, is proposing to earry out, at
tlic first opportunity, certain experiments witU dry unchaffed
fodder, where there has been an epidemic, the endeavour being
to segregate the different plants, and carry out feeding experiments
with each.

So far as treatment is concerned, I am sure efficacy will only be
attained by a sttidy of the poison after it has been isolated, or at
* least after its origin has been discovered, and meanwhile all endea-
vours should ])C directed towards that end.

Parahjsis in Horses and Cows. 217

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Kendall, W. T. — Austialiaii Farm and Home, ^'»)l. \'., No. 4,
April, 189G, page 155.

Cumerou, S. S. — Victorian Journal ot' Agriculture, October, 1906,
page 628.

Willmot, K. — A Minute on the Cattle Diseases 1910, Agricultural
and Stock Department, Tasmania, Bulletin No.

Desmond, J. — Veterinary Journal, Vol. 66, No. •ill, March, 1910,
page 161.

McEachran, J. F. — Journal of Dept. of Agriculture of South Aus-
tralia, Vol. XV.. No. 10, May, 1912.

APPENDIX.

Report by Professor A. J. Eirarf, Government Bofanist, on plants
found growing on the 2J>'operti/ referred to in text.

The following is the detailed list of the plants collected : —

Gramineae (Grasses).

Holcus lanatus, L. " Yorkshire Fog Grass." Alien.
Hordeum murinuni, L. " Barley Grass." Alien.
Deyeuxia Forsteri Kunth. "Tooth Bent Grass." Native.
Poa caespitosa, G. Forst. " Tufted Meadow Grass." Native.
Lolium perenne, L. " Perennial Rye Grass." Alien.
Briza minor, L. " Lesser Quaking Grass." Alien.
Aira caryophyllea, L. " Silvery Hair Grass." Alien.
Agropyrum scabrum, Pal. " Common Wheat Grass." Native.
Pentapogon Billardieri, R. Br. " Five-awned Spear Grass.
Native.

Anthistiria ciliata, L. " Kangaroo Grass." Native.

Ctperaceae, Juncacrae (Sedges and Rushes).

Carex Gunniana, Boot. " Green Sedge." Native.
Carex paniculata, L. " Panicle Sedge." Native.
Heleocharis acuta, R. Br. " Common Spike Rush." Native.
Juncus bufonius, L. "Toad Rush." Native.
Juncus pallidus, R. Br. " Pale Rush." Native.
Juncus planifolius, R. Br. "Broad-leaved Rush." Native.
Juncus communis, E. Mey. " Common Rush." Native.
Juncus prismatocarpus, R. Br. " Branching Rush." Native.

&

218 J. A. Gllralh

Leguminosae.

Trifolium resupinatuni, L. " Annual Strawberry Clover." Alien.
Trifolium fragit'eruin, L. " Perennial Strawberry Clover."
Alien.

Trifolium minus, Rel. " Slender Clover." Alien.
Trifolium repens, L. " White or Dutch Clover." Alien.
Acacia mollissima, Willd. " Late Black Wattle." Native.
Acacia melanoxylon, R. Br. " Blackwood." Native.
Psoralea parva, F.v.M. " Small Scurfy Pea." Native.

CO-MPOSITAE.

Carduus lanceolatus, Scop. "Spear Tliistle." Alien. Pro-
claimed.

Carduus pycnocephalus, Jacq. " Shore Tliistle." Alien. Pro-
claimed.

Carduus Mariauus, L. "Spotted Thistle." Alien. Proclaimed.

Cryptostemma calendulacea, K. Br. " Cape Weed." Alien. Pro-
claimed.

Hypochaeris radicata, L. "Flat Weed." Alien.

Anthemis nobilis, L. " Common chamomile." Alien.

Senecio lautus, Soland. Native.

Centipeda Cunninghami, F.v.M. "Sneeze Weed." Native.

Gnaphalium japonicum, Thunb. " Japanese Cud-weed." Native.

Cotula coronopifolia, L. "Water Buttons." Native.

Helicln\vsum scorpioides, Lab. Native.

Leptorrliynchus s(iuamatus, Lessing. Native.

C'ahxephalus lacteus, Lessing. Native.

Various Orders.

Ranunculus muricatus, L. " Sharp-pointed Crowfoot." (Ranun-
culaceac.) Alien.

Plantago laiiceolata, L. "Ribwort Phuitain." (Plantagiu-
aceae.) Alien.

Rartsia latifolia, Sibth. k Sm. " Comiiiini Rartsia." (Scro-
phiihuiaceae.) .Mien.

Acacna sangiiisoil)ae. Valil. " Hi<lg»'c Widgec." ( Rosaccac )
Native.

Lythruin llyssojtifolia. L. " SiDall r.ii(is.>s( lifc. " (Lylhraii
areae.) Native.

Pa rid I J til's in Jiorses (tiul ('uirs. 2l\)

Kpilubiuin juiucuiii. I""(irsi. "Hairy \\ illnwheilt. " (^(Jiia-
-giaceae.) Native.

Myri(ii»liylliiiii elatiiioidcs, (iaud. "Coarse Water Milfoil. "'
•( Halura<;aeeae. ) Native.

I'lrytljiaea aiisi lalin. K. Br. " Au.stral Ceiilaury. " (( lent aiueae.)
Native.

N'illarsia reuil'orini.s. \{. Bv. ((leiitaineae. ) Native.

.Mtei'iiaiitliria iiodiHora. V\. \h\ "Joywecd." (Amaiantaccae.)
Native.

Pdlygoiiuiii ino.stratuin. U. Ui'. "Trailing Knotweed. (l*(ily-
irouaceae. ) Native.

Kiuiiex Bi-o\vnii, Caiii]). "Swamp Dock.'" ( Pi.lygnnaceae. j
Native.

Prunella vulgaris, DC. " Selt'heal." (Labiatae.) Native.

Mentha Pulegiuni. L. '' Pennyroyal." (Latiatae.) Alien.

Asperula olij^antlia. F.V..M. "("onimon Woodiuff." (Rubi-
:iiceae. ) Native.

(Jratiola jjeruviana. T.. " Peruvian Booklime." (Scr<ipliula-
aieeae.) Native.

Trigloehin in-oeera. H. Br. " (iiant Arrow Grass."' (Naiad-
-iceae.) Native.

Anagallis arvensis. ].. "Pimpernel." (Piimulaceac.) Alien.

Myopoiiini insulare. B. Bi-. " Boobialla.'" (.\!y(>p<uineac.)
Native.

Lobelia i)ratioides. lientli. (Campanulaceae; Ijdbeliaceac.)
Native.

Isotoma fluviatilis, F.v.M. " Swam]i Tsotoma." ( "amiianulaeeae.
((Jjobeliaceae.) Native.

Among the ])lants eolleeled were the lOlluwing poisonous, susjiected
j)oisonous, or injurious plants : —

1. .\nagallis arvensis, 1^. " Pimpei-nel."' Alien.

2. Caloeeplialus laeteus, Less. Native.

;{. Centipeda Cunninghanii, F.v.M. " Sneeze Weed." Native.

4. Isotoma fluviatilis. F.v.M. " Swamp Isotoma.'"' Native.

'). Lobelia pratioides. Benth. Native.

(). .Myoporum insulare. 1\. Br. " lioobialla." Native.

7. Banunculus muiieaius. L. " Sharp-poini eil ( "i <nvfoot. ''
Alien.

8. Senecio, lautus. Soland. Native.

Of these, (UtJocephaJus hieteus, Centijiedn Ciutui/it/ItaDii, Myo-
porum Insuhire and Senecio lautus are merely suspected poisonous
plants. The Ranunculus is generally stated to be feebly )ioisonoiis

220 ./. A. Gil rath: Pardli/sis in Horses dud Coiva.

when fresh. If the Se/iccio were poisonous, it wouhl prohably act
like the ordinary ragwort; that is, it would slowly bring on hepatic
•cirrhosi.s as described by Professor Gilruth. The Isotoma and the
Lohelid are undoul)tedly poisonous, but seem to affect sheep more
readily than larger stock, possibly because they are apt to eat rela-
tively more. Anagallix nmensift, " The Pimpernel," was recently
responsible for the death of a large number of sheep at Lilydale, the
round pods of the plant being found in their stomachs in large
(piantities. This plant is a naturalised alien, which has rapidly
spread over Victoria, and is one of those plants whicli it is almost
impossible to suppress. It appears to act as a narcotic jioison. It
frequently remains green for a time when the grass is dying off, and
this may attract the stock to eat it in large quantities if it is
abundant. I suggest as tlie next stage in the in([uiry. that tlu^
stomachs of the stock affected by the " disease," be examined for'
tlie presence of the plants marked 1 to 8, and particularly for
numl^rs 1, 4 and 5.

[rEOC. IfoY. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N S.), 1't. IT., 1913].

AnT. XIX. — The Anatomy of Two AvMralian Land Snails,
Paryphanla atramentaria, Slnitllru'orlli, a ml P. com-
imcta, Co.'' and Hcdley.

Bv OLIVE B. DAVIE8, M..Sc.

(Governiiioiit Keseai-ch Bursar, Melboxirno University).

(With Plates XV.-XVII.).
|Read 10th October, 1912].

Among some snails (kindly sent to mc Ijy Mr. F. J. Thomas, to
whom ray thanks are due) from Beech Forest, Victoria, were some
specimens of Paryphanta compacta. Figures, and a description, of
the shell of this new species of Faryphanta have been given by Dr.
Cox and Mr. C. Hedley in their " Index to the Land Shells of Vic-
toria, "i but no account has hitherto been given of the animal itself.

The specimens of /'. atramentaria, which were used in this work,
were collected by myself about three years ago, at Blacks' Spur,,
near Healesville, Victoria. I did not use the animals at the time,,
and had only this preserved material for working this species.
Several descriptions of the shell have been given, but so far as I
know, the anatomy has been scarcely touched. I have been unable
to see Shuttleworth's original description in Mittheil. Naturf.
Gesell., Bern, 1852.

External Features and General Description.
F. compacta.

Dr. Cox and Mr. Hedley describe the colour of the shell as
" brown, deepening on the last whorl to black, and on the second
whorl passing into straw yellow." The animal itself is dark grey,,
with a lighter grey round the mouth and the side of the foot, be-
coming almost white down the mid line of the sole of the foot.

I took measurements of preserved specimens to compare with F,
atramentaria. An average specimen measured : —

Shell, maj. diam. 20 mm., min. diani. 16 mm., height 15 mm.;
sole of foot 20 mm. long, 10 mm. broad ; height of part outside-
shell, 8 mm.

1 Mem. Nat. Mas. Mfll-ounio, No. 4. l*tl-2, \>. 8, pi. i., fi-^s. 3, 4, 5.

222 Olive B. Davics:

There is only one feature in the external description of this
iiuinial -which I deem Avorthy of special comment. On examining
the live animal, at first sight the smaller tentacle of each side ap-
pears bifui-cated or double, but on closer examination, the lower of
the two parts is seen to lie depressed inwai<ls at the tip, instead of
-ending in a little swollen knob, as the upper (h)es. This depression,
I think, is really the opening of a little gland, and I am told that
when the animal is crawling, mucus can be seen exuding from this
opening, but I have not observed this myself. Mr. Suter, in his
communications from NeAv Zealand, in the Journal of Malacology,
1899, Vol. VIII., PI. III., has drawn a figure of Rhytida green-
woodi, in which the " buccal papillae," as he names them, resemble
ihe structures in V. compacta more than any other I have seen.

r. atratnentaria.

The animal is much larger than /'. compacta. The shell is flatter
and of about the same colour, or, perhaps, a little lighter. The
animal itself is the same dark grey colour except at the edge of the
mantle and the foot, where it is coloured a brilliant oi-ange-red.

I took the following measurements from an average specimen : —

Shell, maj. diam. 31 mm., njin. diam. 26 mm.; height, 18 mm.;
sole of foot, 35 mm. long, 17 mm. broad; height of j^art outside
.shell, 12 mm.

I liave not observed the tentacle in the living animal, but I have
■one preserved specimen (Plate XV., Fig. II.), in which the two
pairs of tentacles are Avithdrawn, but on each side is a little papilla
■(jn the under surface of w4iich is a groove. The left inferior tentacle
.an<l pajiilla of this specimen, Avas cut out and used for sections.

In other carnivorous land Pulmonates, e.g., HhytUhi, structures
.spoken of as labial palps are developed; but these in Faryphaiita,
more especially in P. compacta. seem to me to be more nearly con-
nected Avith the tentacles than Avith the mouth.

In their internal structiirc. the tAvo species resemble one another
A^cry closely, so that the one description may serve for either, except
AA'hen otherwise sta(e<l.

Organs of the Mantle Cavity.

The kidney is a large, roughly triangular, granular l)()dy, pinkish
■giey in colour, lying on the dorsal side of the last Avhorl, at the
J)ack of the roof of the mantle cavity.

The pericardium forms a pear-shaped sac, lying to the left of the
kidney. Tinough it the auricle and ventricle can be seen.

The renopericardial canal, the ureter, and the rectum, occupy
J heir usual jmsitions, and present no points of special interest.

Two A list mild n Laixl Snails. 223

The Reproductive System.

The reproductive systems of tlie two species are very similai-. In
/'. atrainentarin, the heiinaphrodite gland is, comparatively speak-
ing, less compact, the hermaphrodite duct is sliorter, the all)unien
gland is larger and coarser, and the receptaculum seminis is slightly
smaller than in F. conipacta; also the vas deferens, in P. ntranien-
taria, i-uns a little further behind the anterior end of the penis,
before turning to run to its posterior end. With these differences
the following description applies to either species. The hermaphro-
dite gland haiH the form of a loose rosette, the lobes of the rosette
being somewhat pear-shaped. It is embedded in the liver near
the inner edge of "the second last whorl of the visceral hump, the
first whorl being that nearest the centre. From the hermaphrodite
gland the hermaphi'odite duct runs in a sinuous course to the
albumen gland.

The albumen gland is large and compact; it is indefinitely
maikcd off by slight constrictions into three large and one smaller
lube. It lies near the beginning of the rectum, between this and
the first part of the intestine. The common duct is broad and about
half as long again as the albumen gland. One side of it is trans-
versely grooved, the other smooth. These two parts eventually
separate to form the viaduct and vas deferens respectively.

Shortly after the division of the common duct into vas deferens
and oviduct, a long diverticulum is given off from the dorsal sur-
face of the oviduct; this ends in a little swollen knob, the recepta-
culum seminis. This diverticidum runs right back so that the re-
ceptacidum seminis is situated under the aui'icle.

The penis is a very muscular body, lying l)eiieath the right
superior tentacle and across the pharynx.

The retractor penis muscle is attached to its posterior eii<l.

The vas deferens at first sight appears to open into the penis
near its anterior end. but further dissection shoAvs that it runs a
little liehind the anterior end of the penis, then turns and runs
l)ack to open into it near its ])osterior end, just near to where the
retiactoi- muscle is attached, at the swollen portion. Its course
mav be underst(K»d by refeience to Plates XVI. and XVll., Figs.
YI. and X. The oviduct opens to tlie exterior, just to the right of
the penis, through tlie genital aperture.

The Alimentary System.

The motith, situated on the under surface of the head, opens into
a relatively luige buccal mass or pharynx, running almo.st the
length of the foot. The walls of this pharynx are extremely mus-

224 Olive B. Davies:

cular, more especially so at the posterior end, where they form a
rounded muscular pad. Two stout muscle bands are attached to
the dorsal surface of the posterior end of tlie pharynx, and their
other ends to the columellar muscle; these assist in the contraction
of the pharynx. .V number of protractor muscles ai'e attached to
the anterior end of the pharynx, and at their other ends to the
walls of the anterior end of tKe body and head.

If the pharynx is opened from the side, the radula can be seen
lying on a muscular band, which anteriorly becomes developed into
a pad. Attached to this pad are special muscles, connected with the
roof of the pharynx, which assist in the forward and backward
movement of the radula. There is no jaw. The raduia is large, as
is usual in the carnivorous land mollusca. It consists of about !>8
rows of approximately 118 strong, sickle-shaped teeth, eacli with u
very sharp pointed end and a broadened base, the base being pio-
duced in a little knob on the inner side of the sickle, and in the
outer teeth being almost quadrate in shape. There is no rachidian.
The uncini are larger than the laterals, and of the uncini them-
selves, those towards the centre are not so large as those near the
outside, but the two or three most external become smaller again;
this last feature is more marked in P. at ra men f aria than in P. coin-
jmcta. Where one would expect the rachidian, there is a clear
space, and on either side of this are teeth much smaller than the
laterals, and arranged irregularly; beyond these are the laterals, at
first placed almost straight and later becoming more and more
triangular till we come to the marginals. I measured the radulas
of the two species. That of P. cortipacfa was 18 x 4 mm., and /'.
atramentaria was 20 x 5 mm. The teeth are of the same general
type in both species, the differences may be seen in Plate X\II.,
Figs. IX. A. and B. iMr. Suter has given the dental formula for
P. atramentaria as 50.1.5U. I could not find any rachidian, but
down the centre of the radula is the clear space I have mentioned
above, and to eithei- side of this the irregularly arranged teeth,
about one-third the size of the adjacent laterals. I also, in my
specimen, counted at least 56 teeth on each side of tlie central
space, but could not be sure of tlie exact number, as the radula
was slightly torn at the mai-gin.

The oesophagus leaves the pharynx from its dorsal surfaie, about
one-third of its length from its anterior end. It runs as a straight,
narrow tube for some distance, and then widens slightly to form
the stomach. The canal then twists round, as tlu- intestine, under
the stomach, and (.•ontinues running through the liver and finally
twists back to run along the right edge of the pvdmonary chamber,
and opens to the exterior at the pulmonary opening.

Two Australian Land Snails. 225

The salivary glands -.wv two peai--sliaped ln)dies. lying one on
either side of the alinKutary canal, just at the beginning of tlie
stoniacli ; they unite in the midline dorsally; from each a duct runs
forwards to open into the pharynx, just beside the oesophagus.

The liver forms most of the visceral mass. One of its ducts is
seen in Plate XVII.. Fig. VII.

The Nervous System,

The cerebrial ganglia arc two oval bodies, lying on the dorsal
surface of the anterioi- jiart of the oesophagus; they are connected
in the centre so as to form a band across the alimentary canal.
From them two connectives run round each side of the oesophagus
to the sub-oesophageal ganglia. Large nerves are given off to the
tentacles, both superior and inferior, and one large nerve to the
little glandular structure near the inferior tentacle.

The sub-oesophageal ganglia consist of the pedal ganglia, from
which nerves pass to the foot, and the visceropleural ganglia from
which nerves pass to the viscera and the body-wall.

The eyes do not differ from the ordinary pulmonate type. They
are situated a little to the back of the top of the tentacle. In Plate
XV., Fig. I., this is not clearly shown, owing to the position of the
head, but it may be better seen in Fig. III.

The inferior tentacle, as has been mentioned above, has a little
glandular structure with an opening at its base. This structure
seems different in the two species. In /'. compacfa it seems to form
a little pit on the top of a papilla, while in P. atramentaria it has
the foim of a little papilla with a groove on its under surface; but
I have not examined the structure in the living P. atramentaria.
In sections the glands are composed of the same forms of cells, and
in each species there is a large amount of dark staining material,
probably mucus, present. In P. compacta, however, the gland is
not nearly so definite, and seems to lie more in the cephalic wall
than in P. atramentaria. This may be clearly seen on comparing
Figs. IV. and V. in Plate XV. Woodward has noted the very pro-
minent " labial tentacles '' of Nanina caffra. He says they are
extremely sensitive, and " probably tactile in function, 1)ut not
used for prehesion as suggested for Glandina .'^

I can make no definite assertion as to the function of these struc-
tuies; they are certainly glandular, and as they are present on
carnivorous snails, I think they must have some use in either the
capture or killing of tlicir prey.

The pedal gland teseml)les those described by Mr. Collinge for
/'. hochstetteri and /'. edn-ardi. It is greatly developed and folded

226 Olive B. Daclen :

on itself, lying on the floor of the body cavity. In P. compncta it
turns to tlie I'ight. and then to the left; in P. ntramentaria it
only l)ends slightly to the. left l)efoix' dipjiing into the cavity
))ounded by the pedal muscles.

Di-. Cox and .\\v. Hedley have placed the genus as follows: —

<iroup, Signiurethra ; sub-groui), Agnatliouiorpha ; family, llliyti-
didae; genus. Paiyphanta.

/■'. coinpacto is a new species of Cox and Hedley. but P. atramen-
f(iri(i was formed l)y Shuttlewortli in 1^52. One or two sjieeies
Iiave been suggeste<l, at different times, as l)eing most nearly re-
lated to P. (itr<iiii('iif(iria. dlodwin-Austen has suggested placing
]'. (itf(iin('iit(iri(i and /'. spJeiifJidKht in another genus. Sutei" con-
.siders P. edicardi stands neai'est 1'. (itrditxnfnria . Cox and Hedley
consider P. conipacta nearest P. (tfr((iiif'iit(n!a, and tliere is a very
close resemblance; the differences have been noted in the above for
the animal itself, and the following are the differeiH'cs in the two
shells as noticed l)y Dr. Cox and Mr. Hedley : — " The novelty is
nearest in the genus to /''. atrnntciitdrid , but with as many whorls
in about half the diameter, the whoils increase more slowly, the
last whorl is i)roj)ortionately smaller, the perforation naii'ower,
and the whole shell more globose. In size it resembles the Tas-
manian P. fiiinosa, but the whorls of compacta are wound more
nearly in the same plane and increase less rapidly. It seems con-
fined to the southern jiart of the State, while atrainnifarid inhabits
the centre. ' '

Unfortunately, 1 have liecn unable to consult Ik-ntler's jiapi-r,
"Die Anatomic von P. hochstetteii, Pfi'.," Zool. Jahrb. (Anat.
und Ontog.) XIV., 1001, as the work was not procurable in i-ither
.Melbourne or Sydney.

I wish to thank Dr. Hall, under whom this work was carried
on. for all his advice and help; also .Miss Haff, .M.Sc, for her assist-
ance in priHuring s])ecimens.

J.lTKUATl'KK.

JJentler — " Die Anatonde von P. hochstetteii, Pfr., Zool .lahrl).

(Anat. und Ontog.), Xl\'., l!»()l.
CoUinge, \V. I']., K.Z.S., — " On tiie Anatomy of Certain Agnathous

PulnK.nate .Mollusks," .\nn. A- .Mag. <d' Xat. Hist., Ser.

7, \11., I!»(ll.
Cox, J. C., .M.D.,— A .Monograph of Australian Land Shells, lS(i8.
Cox. ,1. C., .M.D.. and Hedley, C., F.L.S.,— "An Index to tlie

Land Shells of \ictoria," .Mem. Xat. .Mus. .Meli... Xo.

4, Feb., 1!»12.

Tv:o .1 lis/ Id/ III II Loiiil SiKii/s. '227

<Iii(l\\ iu-Aiisicn. Pine. Maliic. Sm-.. I.diiddii. |S!):j. vmI. i.. jip. ."j-U,

,.1. i.
Il<<llt\. (',, l''.I>.S.. — " S<liiz(iL;li'ssa ; A New (Anus <i|' ( 'a niivoroiis

Snails." I'ldc. I. inn. Sdc. .X.S.W.. IS!):) {iW-v. 2),

\- 1 1 1 . V i i .
Iliillun — "(hi Xcw Zealand Land Shells."' Trans. .\ . Z.'al. Inst.,

vol. .\vi.. iss;',.
I'aee- I'lVH-. .Malae. Soc. London. IS!).'), vol. i.. ]i]j. '2:>-2-'2:'>:>.

ShllltleWMllJi .Mittheil. Xatmr. (Resell. Belli. . IS.')!'. |.. IHl.

«Su(er — Jouni. of .Malac. IS!)!), vol. vii.. [il. iii.

Suiei- l*ioe. .\lalae. S(k-.. Lmiddn. |S!i!), vi.l. iii. p. L'llO. |.l. .\v.

Wuudward- I'lne. .Malae. S<.e.. L(.ii,i..n. IS!)."), vol. i.. \>\>. 270-277,

}>1. xvii.

KXl'J.A NATION ()K PLATKS.

ti-nies -

—

A.

Anus.

A.G.

Albumen gland.

Aur.

Auricle.

B.C.

Buccal cavity.

]j..Nr.

Buccal mass or j^liarynx.

j{.\ .

Blood vessel.

<M).

( 'omiuuu duct.

€.G.

( 'erehral ganglia.

K.

Kyv.

F.

Foot.

ill.

(Glandular tissue.

O.P.

(ilandular j'apilla.

11.1).

Heiinaplirodite duct.

H.(l.

Hermaphrodite gland.

f.

Intcsline.

i.i:.

Small irregular central tooth

K.

Kidney.

Ji.

Live I'.

L.D.

Liver duct.

L.T.

Lateral looth.

M.

.Mouth.

M;^--

-Marginal tooth.

N.

Nerve.

<).

( )csopliagus.

<)]).

Oviduct.

J'.

I'euis.

]'.().

Pulmonary opening.

228 OH re />'. DauU's: Tn-o Av.i<li'(ili(ni Laml Snalh.

R. KectuTii.

\\m\. Kadnla.

I'.M. Retractoi- iiuiscle.

R.r>. Reproductive opening.

K.vS. Ixeceptaculuin seniinis.

S. Stomach.

S.D. Salivary diut.

S.Ct. Salivary o-lund.

T,I. Inferior tentacle.

T.S. Superior tentacle.

V. Ventricle.

V.D. Vas deferens.

V.H. Visceral hump.

I»LATK X\'.

]''i<i-. 1. — /'. coiiijHictd : tlif living- animal; slidwinj^ the •^laiidular

papilla below tiie int'ei-ior tentacle.
]''ig'. II. — /'. (if 1(1 me II far i(t : head of pi'eserved specimen: sliowin;^-

the retracted superior and inferioi- tentacles, aiiil the

little i)apilla with the groove on its under surface.
Kig. ill. — I'. ((Hiipdcta ; head of living animal; showing position

of eye, and the glandular jiapilla ; to com[)aii' with.

Kig.'ir.

Fig. I\'. — /'. com part (I : section of hody wall and right inferior
tentacle; showing glandular structure beneath the in-
ferior tentacle.

Fig. V. — /'. atrameniai'Ki : section of glandular ])a])illa ; sliowing
structure; to com])are with I'^ig. IV.

ri.ATK XVI.

I'lg. \ I. — /'. compacld : dissection to show the geneial arrangement
of oi'gans.

ri-.VTK XVII.

Fig. \'il. — /'. com pacta : alimentary canal.

Fig. \'lll. — /'. cam piictd : pharynx cut open from l!ie right side to

show 1 he ra<lula in sifti.
Fig. IX. A. — Tyj)es of teeth: /'. compacta.

\\. — Tv])es of teeth; /'. at Kimciitaria .
Fig. .\. — /'. com pacta : dissec'tion to show the vas deferens and

penis.

Proc. K.S. Victoria. l(tl:{. Phil.- XV.

FlG.I.

F. RO.

R.O. (^.F

FigE.

Fio.I.

Fig. II.

J'loc. l.'.S. Victoriii, 1013. PLite XVI.

Proc. E.S. Victoiia. 1913. Plate XVII.

[Proc. Koy. Soc. Victokia, 25 (N.S.). l^''- ^^■> 1-*1^]-

Art. XX. — Tlir. Correlation of Size of Head and Intelligence
as Estimated from the Cubic Capacity of Brain of
S55 Melhourne Crimiiials.

Bv RICHARD J, A. BERRY, M.D., F.R.S.E.

(Professor of Anatomy in thfi University of Melbourne)

L. W. G. BUCHNER

(Government Research Scholar in the Anatomy Department of the
University of Melbourne).

[Read lOtli October. 1912 .

The present iiivestij,Mtioii deals with head measureiueiits of 35.">
male adult criminals incarcerated in Pentridge and ^lelbourne
Gaols, for various offences against the law. For permission tO'
carry out the research we have to tender our thanks to Mr. Calla-
way, the Acting Inspector of Penal Establishments, and to Messrs.
Paterson and Edgar, the respective Governors of Melbourne and
Pentridge Gaols. The objects of the research are threefold. Fir.st,
to determine the amount of brain in cubic centimetres possessed
by a class of the community which is presumably of an inferior
position in the human scale of society. Second, by comparing the
results obtained with those of admittedly superior education and
social status to ascertain what, if any, correlation exists ];etween
size of head and mentality. Third and last, to discover, if i)ossiliie.
what light such an investigation throws on our present social and
political methods of dealing with habitual offenders against tlie
State.

In view of the marked importance of the second of these objects:
and the divergent opinion which has been expressed thereon, it will
be advisable, at tlic outset, to ascertain what are the matured
opinions of other coni]>ctent investigators on the hotly-debated
question as to the correlation between size of head and intelligence.
The problem has been attacked from both a biological and a biomotri-
cal standpoint, and with somewhat conflicting results.

Dr. R. J. Gladstone (1), writing in 1903, states there is a " distinct
correlation between large size of head and a high degree of mental
ability, this correlation being both absolute and relative to the
general size and weight of the body."'

230 Bt'rrji tiv'l BUchnei' :

111 1907 the same obseivcr (2) a<l(ls : "If we take the average
measureniciits, however, of a large muuber of individuals belonging
to a particular class, it will be found that tlieie is a small though
ik'finite coi-relation between large size of head and intelligence,
and that the large size of head is not only actual, but is propor-
tional to the stature and wuiglit of the individuals. . . . We may
say, therefore, that these figures indicate that the more intellectual
are not only finer specimens of liumanity, but that tliey have both
Actually and pi(i])ortioiially to tlic size of their Ijodies lai-ger heads
than the less intellectual."

Baycrthal (3), working on the circumferential head measurements
of school children, finds that large heads are often associated with
inferior talents, and surprising discrepancies can often be noted;
moderate talent may be associated almost equally with large and
small head size.

Pearson (i), in 1906, commenced an investigation " On the
relationship of intelligence to size and shape of the head, and to
other physical and mental characters, ' with the following conclu-
sions, derived from former jjapers : —

a. There is a slight correlation between size of head and

general intelligence.
]). This correlation is not sensibly increased by allowing for

the size of the body relative to the size of head,
c. The correlation is so small that it would be absolutely
idle to endeavour to predict the intellectual ability of
an individual from his or her head measurement. On
the other hand, if a population were divided into those
M'ith large and those with small heads, we should expect
to find a very slight balance of average intelligence in
the former group. "
In the paper from which the foregoing extraits are taken. Pearson
:ilso adds that as tlie measurements therein containeil are based on
:i far larger number than any hitherto j)ublislied, ihey are, he
thinks, convincing as to the small part })layed by head size in detcj'-
mining the grade of intelligence.

Iff also states that it is idle "to assert that head measurements
4aii be of any service in ilie prediction." and that lu' wants "to
•<iiiivime the anatomist and the old .school anthropologist that head
measurements are not of real service as intelligence tests."

Eyt^rich and Loewenfeld (.")) have icceiitly made a very thorough
i iivesi i<^at loll of the relationships of intelligence to size of liea<l,
■employing as inateiial !••!.") soldiers, ."iOO om- year eidistmcnts
■(einjahri^c). who in (Jermany an- usually di'rived from the ])etter
<'lasses, and •') 1 2 boys between 9 and IT) years of age. They reached
the followin<r ctmclusions : —

Correlation oj Brain CapacUij and / ntcUigcnce. 231

From the measureiuents^f licads ami brains no very extensive
conclusions as to mental activity can be drawn.

High intelligence is most fre(|Uently I'imukI in cases witli average
head measurements.

Kxce})tionally large liead measurements, ns also exceptionally
high hi-aiu weights, occasionally pdiiit to gi'cat intelligence, and
in the same way exceptionally small head measurements may indi-
cate an especially inferior intellect.

The greatest head measurements and tin- heaviest brain weights
are found fairly uniforndy in ))oth highly intelligent and less
intelligent persons.

The -very smallest head measurements, apart from family or other
peculiarities, occur in the mentally less functionally capable.

Pearl (6), in a ])aper not available t(^ us in Melbourne, applies to
the above statistical series of Eyerich and L<)\venfeld, Pearson's
correlation methods, and deduces therefi'om that a perceptible but
vei'v slight ])ositive cm-relation between head size (cii-cumference)
and intelligence exists, but warns us from drawing further conclu-
jiions or generalisations therefrom.

Buschan (7) supports the view that there is some correlation
between gi-eat skull cajjacity or great brain weight and marked
mental ability. In support of this he jioints out, amongst other
things, that of the highest professional classes 57 })ei- cent, will have
a brain weight of over 1400 gr., and of the lowest classes only some
2G per cent, will possess a corresponding brain weight.

In children, Lee, Lewenz and Pearson (8) conclude " that there
is no marked con-elation between intelligence and the size and
shape of the head. "

Lee (D) in the course of an important paper, states "that there
is no marked correlation between skull capacity and intellectual
])ower in the case of either sex alone." And. again, " it would not
appear from the above resvdts that skull capacity at any rate is a
character closely correlated with intellectual ability in the indivi-
<lual. and therefoj-e it is rniite eoiieeivably not correlated with
)a(-ial al)ilitv."

In this same paper Miss Lee (-ommits heiself to the following
statement : — " Personally I am inclined to hold with Professor
Peai'son that the complexity of the convolutions of the brain, and
variety of its commissures, rathei- than its uclual size, are the
chai-acters we might expect to dift'ei-eiit iate race from laee, and sex
from sex, and to have developed with man's civilisation."

In 1902 Pearson (10), dealing with " upwai'ds of a thousand
Cambridge undergraduates," states that " so far as the Cambridge
results go, there is no marked correlation between ability and the

232 Berry and Bilchner:

shape 01- size of the head," and concli^des finally that " vei-y bril-
liant men may possibly have a very slightly larger liead than their
fellows, but taking the general population there is really a very*
insignificant association between size of head and ability. For
practical purposes it seems impossible, either in the case of excep-
tionally able men or in the bulk of tlie jtoiuibition, to pass any
judgment from size of head to ability or vice versa."

In this same paper Pearson also states " we have found . . .
a very definite statement made tliat able men have large heads. We
cannot find, however, that there are really reliable statistics, ade-
quately treated, which in any way prove this general statement.
It is perfectly true that the professional classes in this country have
a rather larger head than the liand-working classes, and tbe former
are rather more intellectual. . . Dr. W. K. Macdonoll has

recently shown that the head of the Cambridge undergraduate i.s
larger than the head of the criminal population, but any deduction
from a mixture of these two classes (that ability is correlated with
size of head) would be wholly misleading."

Without multiplying instances further, it is clear from tlic fore-
going extracts that there is much divergence of opini(ui on the
interesting point as to whether there is any relationshi]) between
size of head and intelligence; and, speaking Inoadly. the disputants
to the problem divide themselves into two camps, the biometricians
with no medical training, and the biologists with a corresponding
lack of mathematical skill. The former see little or no correlation
])etween the two things, size of head and intelligence, whilst the
latter seek to establish some slight connection between the two.

For ourselves we approach the problem from the standpoint of
the ti-ained medical man. with a knowledge of the human neurological
fact(jr, and just sufficient mathematics to appi-eeiate Pearson's
dogma that " statistical en(|uiry is not a field for guess-work and
elementary arithmetic ; there is a mathematical science of statistics
which must be learnt, and papers dealing numerically with anthro-
pometric and craniometiic data, which do not now apply tlii.s
theory, are simply outside the field of science.''

The 355 criminals with which this investigation deals were, as
already stated, confined in IVntridge and Melbourne Gaols. They
are all Caucasians and adult males. The olwervations which wo
have recoi-ded upon them fall into two categories, wliich may be liest
described as personal aiid iraniometrical.

Of the personal observations we have recorded the age and
till' nature of the crime. AVe were, for obvious scientific reasons,
most anxious to obtain also tlii' height and bodily weight, but tliis
was, as it turned out, <|uite im])ossible.

Correlation of Bruin (\ip(ii'il;i and Intellifjcnce. 233

As regards the a<j^e, we rejected all juveniles, and tlnis deleted
some 40 measurements. 'J-Jiose wliieli we have letained are, there-
fore, all adults, and the a<;es r\in from 2(» to 72, with a true mean
of 37.90.

Concerning the nature of the crimes, our oljservat iotial data com-
prise such crimes as murih-r, iiianshmghtcr, wounding and assaidt,
sexual offences, larceny, embezzlement, forgery, house and shop
breaking, cattle stealing, inebriety, wife desertion, obscene lan-
guage, debt, receiving, false pretences, gambling, vagrancy. maii\-
tenance, suspected person, bigamy, impersonation and arson.

As the numbers herein dealt with are very unequally distril)Uied
amongst the foregoing crimes, we have thought it desirable to
classify them into groups for convenience of working, and Ave thus
reduce the above many crimes to ten divisions, which, with the
number of criminals in each, aie as follow : —

1. Murder and nianshmghter - - - - 11

2. Wounding and assault ----- 15

3. Sexual oflfences _...-- 56

4. Larceny -------- 144

5. Embezzlement .----. 5

6. Forgery .._.... 14

7. House and shopbreaking - - - - 26

8. Cattle stealing --_-.- 6

9. Inebriety -..----26
10. Miscellaneous 52

Total - - - - 355

Of the craniometric data we have recorded the maximum length
of the head, the maximum breadth, the auriculo-bregmatic height,
the maximum circumference, and the transverse arc. As all these
measurements were taken in accordance with the instructions issued
by the British Association Committee of Anthropometric Investiga-
tion in the British Isles, they require no further comment here.

From the information furnished by the first three measurements
we have worked out the estimated cubic capacity of brain of these
355 criminals, as also the cephalic index, btit we have made no use
whatsoever of the circumferential measurements. They are simply
recorded and published for the information and use of any other
investigators who may care to avail themselves of the data.

The details for the whole series under l)oth the personal and
craniometric heads are set forth in the tabic which accompanies
this work.

Concerning the method by means of whicli tlie cul)ic capacity of
brain has been estimated from the three diametial measurements, we

234 Bei'vij <iml Bi'ichner :

have i.'iiipl(jye(l Lee's fornnila No. 14 (!)), wliieh for males is as
follows : —

C = -000337(L-11)(H- 11)(H- 11) + -106-01.

We have selected this particular formula for the estimation of
the cubic cajiacity for three reasons — first, ])ecause Miss Lee herself
would appeal' to regard this as the most uniformly accurate of tlie
Jiiiiny methods adopted, and tliiidvs that it gives a result to within
4 per cent. Second, because Miss Lee's opinion is supported by
practical experience in this school, one of our fellow-workers. Dr.
J. H. Anderson (11), having proved that the Lee formula No. 14 is
all the author has claimed for it ; and, third, because the data with
which we shall compare our results liave been compiled with the use
of this formula.

The material employed by us for compai-ison with the criminals
has been selected with the special obj».'(.t of establishing the correla-
tion, if any, between the brains of the lower grades of society, and
of those who l)y education and nature of occupation may presumably
1)0 regarded as occupying a higher place in the social scale. If
between two such opposed classes there should prove to be no differ-
ence, oi- but little, in the true mean of the cu])ic capacity of brain,
then we think we should have to look entirely to environment or
heredity, for the solution of the problem of the distinction of the
two classes.

Our cioiiiiaj-ative data belong to two groups— first, tliose whci-e
the methods adopted are in all respects i)i-ecisely similar to those
of the present work, and whicli, therefore, ]X'rmits of a direct com-
])aiisoii between the several results; and second, those where
tlu' nicjjiods of working have been different, and which, conse([uently
lesti-icls us to an indirect comparison.

In the formei- group, where the nii'thods of workiiTg aie in all
respects pi'ei-isely the same' as our own, and wliere Lee's formula
No. 14 has been uniformly employed f(U' the necessary calculati(Uis,
we have included : —

1. Tliirty-five anatomists.

2. Twenty-five members of thi' tenching staff of University

College, London.
.■{. T\v<j hundred and fifteen medical students of the Middle-
sex Hospital and King's College, London.

4. Four Melbouine students.

5. An unknown numl)er of members of the Hiitish Association

for the Advancement of Science.
'JMie necessary figures for tin' anatomists, members and teaching
staff of the T^niversity College, and for the JJritish Association are
all taken from "A Hi'st Studv of the Correlation of the Human

('ovrcldlioit of liraln (kipacity and I ntt'Uigcnce. 235

Skull,"' l)y Alice Let.', with .soiiie assistainc fioia Kail I'rai^on (!)).
If is important to iioti? that all are males ami that, as stated, the
iiU'thods of working' are precisely similar to those adopted by us
r<ir the ciimiiials.

or the *2ir) Middlesex and Kiu<^"s College students, the necessary
-<lata of len<j;th, hieadth and height have been taken by us from
(Gladstone's l!)()fi woi-k (2), and the cubic caiiacities wcjrked out by
•oil I'selves with the same fornnda as l)efore. For the results of the
former we are not, therefore, res])onsible, but for the latter aiiv
<'rrors arc oui- own.

In our second <j:rou]( of com])arativc data, where, the methods of
woiking having been different, only indirect comparisons can be
instituted, we shall uvail ourselves of the published work of
Matiegkji (12) and Costa Fcrreira (20). To these I'efcrcnce wili be
Tiiade later.

The true mean of the cubic capacity of brain of the -ioo criminals
^if the present work is 14-^7.76 cc. Tlie range of vai'iation extends
from IKJi ic, which occurred in a male aged ()"), to 1771 cc,
which also occurred once in a male aged 'V-^. Both the niininuun and
maximum figures recorded by us occurred in persons convicted for
larceny; this, howevei-, nniy be merely a coincidence due to the
fact that the cases of larceny in the present series comprise a larger
number than any of the other gr<nip.s. Expressed differently, if the
true UK.-an of the cul)ic capacity of these criminals be regarded as
l)eing ei[ual to KXI, then the minimum and maximum ranges of
variation wouhl l)e indicated by the figures 80.9 and 12.'j.

Fo)' the •{.■) anatomists, the figures as furnished by Lee and Pear-
.son arc for the true mean of the cubic capacity 1537. If the amount
<)i l)rain cubic ca])acity of the .355 criminals be regarded as being
cipial to loo, then the relative ])ro])ortion of brains possessed by the
-ia anatomists is !(l(i.S. The range of variation in the -55 anatomists
-extends from I. '572. wliich occurs once in a (lerman anatomist who
was attemling the Congress at which th(> heads were measured, to
IS I. "5. which occtiis once iji a Welshman. If the anatomical true mean
be regarded as IvMiig 10(1, then the i-ange of variation extends from
.Si). 2 to 1 17.0.

In the case of the 25 members of the teaching staff of Cniversity
<'ollege. London, till" trtu' mean of the cubic c-apacity, as given In-
Lee and Pearson, is 1511, with a range of variation from l."552 to
J(5."{-5, or in relative numliers, as })efore, from 89 to KiS.

For the males attending the JJritish Association for th(^ Advance-
ment of Science the true mean of the cubic capacity is 1495. As
the minimum "and maxin)\im figures are not furnished by Lee and
Pearson, we are unable to <]tn>te the range of variati<ui.

2?>6 Beri'ji <iii<l llHrJuu'r:

III the case of the four Melbourne students tlu' true mean is-
IJ^G!) cc, with a ian<;e of variation from 12r)f) to l.jOO. or in
numbers lebitive to the true mean (lOO), from 85.7 to 108.2.

The 215 Middlesex and Kinfr's College students are given by
Gladstone in thi-ee groups according as to wheth'r they Avere
medallists and prizemen, students of average intelligence or only
students below average inteTligence. The indivi<lual figures are-
not available, so we can onlv deal with Gladstone's material as a
whole. We find the true mean, as estimated from his table of
average measui-ement for his tlii-ee classes, to be 1507.04. with a
range of variation from 1451.18 in Class C, the students below
average intelligence, to 1565.09 in the medallists of Class A. The
lange of relative variation is. therefore, from 00.2 to IO0.8. TIk-
much more restricted range of variation in tlie Middlesex Hospital
and King's College group is due to tlie fact that it is based upon
averages of groups and not upon individuals, as in the cases of all
our other gi'oups where we liave recorded the range of variation,,
and consequently Ave do not specially emphasise the figures.

We do not intend to institute any t'omparisons in the present
Avork between tlie cnl)ie capacity of males and females, but it Avill
be of interest to study this I'elative lange of A'ariation in the case-
of the 30 Avomen students of Bedford College, the original figures-
for Avhich are again taken from Lee and Pearson. The true mean
of the cubic capacity of brain is in these students loOO. Avith a
lange of variation fi-om 1200 to i(i47. or in numbers i-elative to the
true mean (100). from 86.:} to 118.4.

If the several groups be now arranged in the order determined by
the estimated amount of cubic capacity of brain Avith the minimum
and maximum ranges of variation of each group stated in terms
of the true mean (iOO) of tliat partieular grou]>, wc olitain the-
folloAving :- —

.Miiiiiiiiiiii. Tine ik-aii .\l.i\iumin.

1. .'?.-> Anatniiiists - - S<».2 - ]r>'A7 cc. - 117.«»

•^. 25 University <-%>ll«'o-t' - SO - lollcc. - lo^

:{. 215 London INIodical Stiulents !lt!.2 - 1507 cc. - 103.H

1. Britisli Association males - — - 141)5 cv. - —

5. !■ Mellnaune Students - H5.7 - Uf.i) cc. - 1()H.2

(J. 855 Mell>ourne Criminals - so.'.i - 1 1:{S ce. - 123

If the amount of cubic ca])acity of brain of the foregoing gi-ou])s
be worked out in ri'lative numbers from the lowest class, tiic-
criminal, Avliose cubic capacity of brain sliall be regarded as llKt,
Ave achicA'e the following results : —

1. 3oo criminals .-,... iQO.

2. 4 Mcllmurne Students ----- 102.1
S. British Association nialas ... - IQ.'i.O

4. 2ir) London Medical Stud<<nts - - - 104.7

5. 25 University College Teachers - - - 105.0

6. 35 Anatomiists .--... 10O.8

Correlalioii oj Brain Ccqxicifi/ uiul. I ntcUhjencc 237

The general order of these groups is fully supported by the work of
Matic'gka and Costa Ferreira. to -vvliieh incidental reference has
already been nn\de, and whose work constitutes the line of indiieet
comparison now to ho made. Their results have not been incor-
porated in the above direct comparisons, because we do not know how
thev achieved their r(>sults. and it necessarily follows that if these
investigators em|»loyi'd another formula than that herein adopted,
their results, in cubic lentimetres, cannot obviously be compared
directly with ours.

Matiegka (12) examined the brain weights of a considerable-
number of individuals drawn from different classes of life, and
concludes therefiom that it is clear that high intelligence i.s causally
associated with an increase in the brain weight. ■ The undoubtedly
many discrepancies he ex])lains on the different degree of muscular
development of different individuals. His figures, arianged in
grammes as given by himself, and in relative numbers worked out
bv ourselves, are a.s follows : — ,. „ , ^.

(.raiiinips. Ifi-I. No.

1. 14 Day Labourers of th« Navvy Class 1110.0 - loo

2. ;{4 Workmen - - - - 1 13;?..") - lOl.f)

3. 14 Minor Officials, Overseers and

AVatclinien in whom a certain
amount of intelligence was
necessary - - - -

4. J 23 Tradespeople and Artisans

5. 28 Minor Officers, Teachers, Business

People, Musicians, etc. -

6. Students, Officers, Doctors, etc.
Costa Ferreira (13) measured the cubic capacity of 5.57 skulls from

tw(» churchyards in Lisbon. They were the skulls of persons whose
position in life was known exactly, and which thus permitted of
their subdivision into social groups. The average cranial capacity
was 1572.72. This capacity must not, howevei'. be compared
directly with ours, as it was almost certainly obtained by a dif»
ferent method, and as the Avork was done on the skull itself, the
measurement is probably direct and not estimated. The order
attained by Ferreira'.'-; groups may, howevei". be compared with our
OAvn results, and i.s as follows : —

1. 95 unknown occupation

2. 12 House Proprietors

3. 1(J4 Daily Liihourers

4. 130 Workmen

5. 52 Public Servants im the Pension

List - - . -

fi. 11 Public Servants •

7. 49 Business Men - - -
.s. <J3 Members Learned Professions

113.-.. 7

lol.S

144!t.rt

102.K

14t5!S..-.

104.1

l.'AK)

10t).3

Ciilvic cm.

ltd. No.

1.538.9H

1(K).0

15ti3.02

101.5

l.-)70.()4

102.O

1.-573.C.9

102.2

].->84.91

1(»2.9

1590.18

103.3

1598..-)8

103.8

1 ♦529.9

105 .9

238 lierrij and BilcJinef:

Fioiii the t'(ti-e<^oing t-oinparisons, Ijoth direct and indirect, it is
clear that as regaids ulasseis tlie giealer tlic intelligence demanded
bv tlie profession tlie greater the amount of tlic cubic capacity of
J)rain })08sssed ])V that t-lass; in other words, as regards classes in
general, the evidence herein adduced distinctly poi7its to a corre-
lation between intelligence and size of head.

We have already stated that the '355 criininals of the present
investigation have l)een divided by us into ten groups according
to the nature of theii' crimes, ajid in view of the general conclusion
contained in the last ])aragraph, we have thought it advisable to
examine these ten classes, to see if that conclusion would be sup-
ported or not, by the various criminal groups themselves.

Of these ten groups the t)ue means, probable errors, and stan-
•flard deviations of the cubic capacities of brains, with the minimum
nnd maximum figures in each group, are as follow : —

'ioo Cr'imhmls divided into 1(> (Tronpn accordiwj to thf natnre of the.

crime.

No. Natui-e of rriiiie.

6. Cattle Stealino-

26. Inebriety

15. Assault and Woundiiii^-

l-M. Larceny

26. House and Sliopbi'eaking -

56. Sexual Offences

11. Murder and Manslaugbtei

-)2. Miscellaneous

14. Forgery - - - 12H7 - 14r)9±21.ir) - 1 17.31 ±14.95 - 170J

5. Embezzlement - - 1384 - 1475±31.43 - 1(»3.1»4±22.18 - 1645

If now we express the relative amounts of brain cajiacity possessed
by these several classes of criminals, and ilmsr other learned classt-s
selected by us for comparison in terms of the lowest class of all,
namely, the cattle stealers, avIiosc cubic capacity of brain shall be
iissumed to be e(|ual to lOO, we obtain the following results, where
Are also shown the minimum .'ind iiiaNJmum langes of variation in
the class : —

1. 0 Cattle Steal ill- -

2. 26 Inebriety - - - -
.3. 1.5 Assault and Wonndiii;^ -
4. 144 Larceny - - . .
•5. 2G House aiul Slioj)l)i<'akiii;j; -

6. o6 Sexual Offenee.s

7. II Murder and Manslaii;^hter

8. 52 Mi.sce)fa neons crimes

Mininiiiiii.

Tine .Mean.

.Standard
Deviation.

Maxi-
muin.

1280 -

1377±24.31 -

88.28± 17.20 ■

■ 1516

■ lli>l -

1423^::17.20 -

129.80±12.14 ■

• 1657

12()N -

1425:^:15.48 -

88.86± 10.95 •

- 1595

• 1164 -

1432 ± 5.52 -

98.21 =n 3.90 ■

■ 1771

1317 -

1435-10.82 -

8I.66± 7.63 •

• 1610

■ 1213 -

1440± 9.09 -

10O.89± 6.43 .

- 1668

• 1261 -

14.^6 > 22.98 -

113.()2±16.25 -

• 1675

1269 -

1458± 8.73 -

93.33:4= 6.17

■ 1678

Mlniiiniiii.

t'ai«;iiitv.

Mtixiniiin

!)2.9

-

100.

-

no.

s;^<i

-

lo.-!.;?

.

116.4

S8.0

-

io;}.4

.

111.9

81.2

-

io;{.i)

-

12.3.6

1)1.7

-

101.2

-

112.1

84.2

-

104.. ■)

-

11. kS

86. <;

-

i(r).7

-

ll.").!!

87.0

-

105.8

.

115.8

.MiiiiiMiiiii.

(aiiacity.

.Muxiimiii

8G.8

105.9

117.0

80.7

106.6

108.2

98.7

107.1

111.5

108.5

—

89.0

109.7

108.0

89.2

111.6

117.9

Correlation of Brain Caparihj and Intelligence. 239

9. 14 Foi-fioiy -

10. 4 MoUxmnio Studonts -

11. 5 EmhozzliMiiout

12. Britisli As.sociation males

13. 25 UnivtT.sity College Teachens 89.0

14. 35 Anatomi.st.s

The foregoing' tiil)le seems to us to eoiitina the general results
already attained. Of the rriniinal elasses it is extremely signifi-
cant that those convieted of skilled eiiines like forgery and embezzle-
ment head the list, separated fi-oui earh other by four students.
As the forgers and endx^zzlers are drawn from the business classes,
where intelligenee is required, it seems to us that the position
occupied in the tai)le by these two groups of criminals is exactly
that which miglit have l)een expected. The forgers ai'e followed,
in our table. I)v the miscellaneous crimes, which in this instance also
incliule certain crimes where some degree of intelligence would be
demande<l. Cattle stealing can hai-<lly be termed an intelligent
occupation, and it occupies the lowest ])lace on the list. We thus
see that the ciiininal classes ocoipy i)ositioiis which seem to us
to confirm the results we have already attained from our examina-
tion of the learned classes, and which all goes to prove that, as
regards the classes, there is an appieciable correlation between size
of head and intelligence.

Concerning the ages of the .■}")") ciiminals lierein dealt with, we
find the true mean to be 'M AM 3-ears of age. The true means, prob-
able errors anil standard deviation of the ages of the several grouj)3
into which we have divided them are as under : —

True Mean Standard

of .\'^e. Deviation.

•1. Cattle Stoal in;,' - - :?0.sa±1.41 - 4.68± .99

2. Assault and WoniKlin-,^ - 'M H ±\.'y2 - 8.77±1.08

3. Miscellaneous ("rimes - 34.1 ±1.14 - 12.20± .80

4. Hou.se ami Sliophreakinj,' - :io.r):i±l.o8 - 12.01±1.12

5. Larceny - - - 37.3U± .07 - 11.95± -47

6. Sexual Offeuees - - :ilMlG±1.27 - 14.17± .90

7. Forgery - - - :HMJO±2.64 - 14.69±1.87

8. Murder and Manslaughter - t:?.l!)±2.76 - 13.56±1.95

9. Embezzlem<-nt - - 4H.4o±4.(J0 - 1.5.03±3.20
10. Inebriety - - - lit. 13 ±1.73 - 13.11 ±1.22

Individually the youngest cjf thc^c' ( riniinals is aged 20 years, and
tlie oldest 72. 'I'his notwithstanding, the i-omparatively high true
mean of the i limiiials as a wIkiIc. and in individual groups is
somewhat surprising, an<l may })ossibly be accounted for by the
fact that some of them are seiving long sentences. It would, there-
fore, be unwise to luakc any sweeping dt-ductions from these ages.

240 Herri/ and Bnchner :

It is. however, somewhat sif^nitieaiit. that cattle stealing seems to be
a (lime committed by yonii<; persons of exceptionally poor mental
ability; still more striking is the fact that embezzlement would
api)ear to be a crime of middle life, when possil)ly various social
causes have tempted the individual of good previous position in
society to maintain that position at all hazards; and, lastly, chronic
alcfiholism would seem to l)e a disease of middle and old age. A
comparison of the table of ages with that of cubic capacity of
liiain does not appear to sliow any correlation whatsoever between
age and crime.

From the lengths and l)readtlis of the heads of these criminals
we have also worked out the l)readth or cephalic index. It must be
noted that the i^esulting indices are those for the heads including
the soft parts, as we have not tliought it Avorth while to perform
the necessary calculations f<>i- obtaining from the surface anatomy
figures those for the skull itself. We find the true man of the
cephalic index of the 355 ci-iminals to Jje 78.90 + 0.36, and the
standard deviation 3.63 + 0.25. The group, as a group, is thus
mesaticephalic, as were also the 3000 criminals examined by
Macdonell (14) with an index of 78.538. Of the individual groups,
all, with the exception of the forgers, are also mesaticephalic, and
the forgers just come into the brachycephalic class with an index of
80.36 + 1.64. The results are as follow : —

Table of the Ct'phalir Indices of ■>■'>'> Crimitutls.

6 Cattle Stealing -

15 Assault and Woundinj;-

.")2 Miscellaneous Crimes -

144 Larceny

11 Mnrdei- and Manslaughter

2() House and Shop-bi'eaking

■It) Sexual Offences

.") Embezzlement -

20 Inebriety

14 Forgery

The standard deviations in the above table make it evident that,
whilst the whole group is. as stated, and bioadly speaking, mesati-
cephalic, yet many of tlic classrs range from (lolichocephaly to
brachycephaly.

As with the age so with the fc]>li;ilic index, tlu've does not appeal"
to be any correlation between thi- cephnlir index and ei line.

Having thus disposed of the (|iiesf ions of age and ceiibalit' index,
we may now revert to the major question, namely, the lorrelation
between size of head and intelligence.

Tiue Me.iii.

Stand.iid
Deviation.

77.34± .91 -

3.30^^.64

78.07 d; .61

3.50.i.43

78.25 ±: .3:5

3.61±.23

7S.90i: .18

3.28±:.13

7y.(,K)± .77

3.78i:.54

7».3()^r .40 -

3.01) i. 28

75»:i7±: .34 -

3.83^^.24

79.404:1.10 -

3.!»2,^.73

79..-)7='r .78

o.y3::U.55

80.:Uvul.()4

3.57zh.45

Correlation o/ Brain Capacity and Intelligence. 241

We have already shown, as fairly as we can, that on this point
there is a marked diverj^ente of opinion, and we now proi)ose to
examine the facts from both the medical and the biometric side with
a view to determining how far the present research tends to
harmonise the undoubtedly conflicting opinions on the subject. Witli
this object in view we shall first submit the results of the present
work and the selected objects of comparison in a table wherein are
shown the true means of the estimated cubic capacities with their
probable errors, the standard deviation of the same with their
probable errors, as also the extreme minimum and maximum figures
in every class where they are known to us.

Concerning this last, Udny Yule (15) has written, " The simplest
possible measure of the dispersion of a series of values of a variable
is the actual range, i.e., the difference between the greatest and
least values observed. While this is frequently quoted, it is as a
nde the worst of all possible measures for any serious purpose.
There are seldom real upper and lower limits to the possible values
of the variable, very large or very small values being only moie
or less infrequent; the range is. tliei-cfore, subject to meaningless
fluctuations of considerable magnitude according as values of greater
or less infrequency happen to have been actually observed."

In the table which follows, Yule's objection, the very pioper one
jc)f the mathematician, is met by the inclusion of the standard devia-
tion, and the individual range of variation is retained for reasons
which appeal strongly to the medical man on medical grounds alone.

2'ahli'. of true mfiam^, standard deviations, probable errors and in-
dividual range of variation of 355 criminals and other classes oJ

comparison.

No.

Class. ;

VliniiiiDiii.

True .Mean.

Standard
Deviatioti. .Maxinunii.

:{.-j ■

• Anatomists -

1372 -

ir,;i7= 9.80 -

8(5.4()- t;.97 -

1813

34 •

Anatomists -

1372 -

15294:: 8.53 -

73.81 -r: 0.O4 -

1050

2.")

- Teachers

13.->2 -

ir)lln=11.04 -

81.90_^ 7.81 -

1033

>.\:, ■

■ London StiKl^nts

—

ir)()7

.

—

B. A.A.Sc. -

—

1495

—

^-

')

■ Embezzlement

1384 -

1175 ±3 1.43 -

103.94:1=22.18 -

1045

4 ■

■ Melbourne Students

12r,9 -

14f39±42.09 -

120.59±3().27 -

1590

14 .

- Forijery

12f)7 -

1459±21.15 -

117.31 il4.95 -

1701

r,2

■ Miscellaneous

12()!» -

1458± 8.73 -

93.33 - 0.17 -

l(i78

11 .

- Miirder and Man-

»

slautfhter

12GI -

14.5<):t:22.98 -

1]3.02± 10.25 -

1075

.")() ■

■ Sexual Offences

1213 -

11 40.^ 9.09 -

1U0.S9 - (5.43 -

10(iH

2()

- House and Shop-

bi-eakint^

1317 -

1435 --10.82 -

.Sl.Of.i 7.03 -

lOlO

242 Berri/ and Bii'lincr:

No.

Class. Miiiiiiiuiii.

Tnic -Mtaii.

Standard
Ueviation. >li

axiinuiii,

144 .

- Larceny - - 11(54

]4:H2r r,.-i-2 .

98.21 ± 3.90 -

1771

ir,

- Assault and Wouud-

ing - - 12(58

112r)-lo.4S -

S8.8tJ±l(J.95 -

1595

2(5 -

Inebriety - - 1191

142«± 17.20 -

129.80± 12.14 -

1657

() ■

• Cattle-steahng - 1280 ■

1377-i24.:U -

8S.28± 17.20 -

151(5

35o .

• Melbourne Criminals 1191

- 1487. 7(5± 10.47 -

99.74± 7.10 -

1771

We do not think that any unprejudiced person can study this
table and deny that as regards classes there is an undoubted correla-
tion between size of head and intelligence, or, put more accurately,
between cubic capacity of brain, as estimated from three diametral
head niea.surenients, and intelligence. This statement is the more
probable inasmuch as it is strongly supported by the work of Glad-
stone, Matiegka, and Costa Ferreira, to which reference has already
been made, and w'hose work supports in every detail the general con-
clusion here drawn. In view of the fact that Venn and Galton.
quoted by Haddon (16), have shown for 100(1 Cambridge students
that education prolonged into years of adolescence, as amongst
students at a University, increases the size of the brain, we fail to
see hoAv the thesis can be contested. We are, of course, aware that
many of the opponents of the view talk somewhat vaguely of quality
of brain rather than quantity. It has. however, been proved by
Fle<'sliig that the short association fibres of the human cerebral
coi'tex do not myelinate until such time after birth as education
and the exercise of the intellect have stimulated different parts of
the ccrebal cortex to act in harmony. If tliere be no education at
all. these fibres do not myelinate, an<l. consequently, such a brain
could not. other things being equal, ever attain the same size as the
))i:iiii ill which such nerve fibres had myelinated.

Similarly with the statement previously quoted from Miss Lee
that " personally I am inclined to hold with Professor Peai'son that
the conqilexity of the convolutions of the l)raiii, and the variety of
its commissures, rather than its actual size, ai-e the characters we
might expect to differentiate raec from race and sex from sex, and
to have developed with man's civilisation "" ; to us it would rnthei-
appeal as though increased complexity of cerebral convoliitious
^nealls an increased number of Inaiii cells and of axones of cells, and
consequently an increase in size of brain, and that the commissures
cannot be more varied without a cori-esponding increiise in the com-
missural exones, and a consequent ron (•s]»on<ling increase in the
size of the brain. This line of aigunu-nt is supported by the well-
known aMthropological fact that man's civilisat ion has restdted from
a steady increase in cubic ca])acity of brain from /'itfirrfiiifhn>/ni.<
ertcliis with his lUOU cc. of brain through the men of the ])alaeolithic

CorreldfloiL of Brain CdpacUi/ and Intdiajence. 243

iiges with 1100-J"2()() cc, tlic modern day Anstvaliaii alxnigiiuil with
T20()-i:{()0 CO., to the learned classes of the '2(ltli tentuvy with their
inoo (c. This is still further supi)orted by Buschan's recent work
<7;, which investi<j;ated the question as to whether the skulls of to-day
permit us to recoj^nise an increase of intelligence as compartHl with
those of past ages; with which object he examined a number of
French and Hhenish skulls from neolithic to nioilern tiines, and
found that in tiie neolithic skulls of France the largest percentage
(."50 per cent.) had a cubic capacity of from 1300 to 1400 cc. Of
Parisian skulls of the 12th century 37 per cent, had a cubic capacity
■of from 1400 lo 1500 cc. whilst modern Parisian crania had, on an
iiverage, a cubic capacity of from 1500 to 1600 cc. iiuschan attains
like results with his Rhenish skulls, as also for the ancient Egyp-
tians, and in tlu' later he actually finds a diminution of the cubic
vapaiity coincident with the mental decline of that ancient and
highly civilised people. It seems to us, therefore, on neurological
jind anthropological grounds that Miss Lee's opinion is in reality
iiTi argument in favour of correlation of size of head and intelli-
i;ence. and not against it. as she seems to imagine.

It consequently follows that if the expression " ([uality of brain ''
means anything at all, it denotes an activity of nerve cells due to
>>ome subtle and as yet unmeasured and unmeasurable chemical or
physical reaction. As thus defined we do not deny the possil)ility
of " lirain (piality "' entering into the problem, but there is as yet
no jiniof of it. All the facts, as we know then), point to an associa-
tion between size of brain and mentality, and per contra we know
■of no evidence cajtalile of scientific investigation which points to
<|iialiiy of brain rather than quantity as forming the dominant
factor in the mentality of the several classes of mankind.

From the evidence of the jiresent work, supported by the facts of
Others, and confirmed by the great principles of neurology and
anthropolt^gy, we are of opinion that there is an appreciable corre-
lation between size of head and intelligence in tlie several social
liuman classes.

What holds good for the class should also be true for the indivi-
<lual. But here the problem is so obscured by environment, heredity,
disease. <lisposition. habits of laziness or industry, and many other
more or less distui-bing factors that we entirely concur in the
opinion of the In'onietric school of thought as expressed by Miss Lee,
wheii she says: " there is no inarked correlation between skull capa-
city and intellectual power in the case of eithei- sex aloTie." To
argue, however, as she does, that because there is no marked correla-
tion in the individual, there is " quite conceivably no correla-
tion with racial ability'" seems to us to be erroneous reasoning.

8a

244 liprvji (1 11(1 Ihiclnifiv :

From our observation of the prolilem wc reason from the class to-
the individual and not vice versa as does Miss Lee.

We do not think, however. t?iat any medically trained man or
physical anthropolofrist, knowin<i: the possil)ility of error in the-
of the individual, would base any opinion on thi' intellectuality of
that individual from the mere study of his liead measurements; in
all cases excessively large or small figures of estimated cubic capacity
of brain sliould, on medical grounds alone, he regarded Avith
suspicion. Extremely small ones begin to border on the confines of
microcephalic idiocy, and the large ones quickly verge into, or arc-
suggestive of, hydrocephalus. Thus, a hydrocephalic individual who
lived to the age of "54 (a male), and wliose head was measured Ijy
one of us (Berry), had an estimated capacity of 3860 cc. Conversely,
a boy aged 14, who was measured by Professor Berry on belialf of
a Melbourne oculist, had an estimated cul)ic (■ai)acity of but 11(59 cc.
This examination, combined with the oj)tliahiiological report, played
ail important part in the future of the patient, whose father was
dissuaded by the oculist from entering his son for any of the
learned professions.

Then, again, an examination of the Hgures quoted by us on page-
241, shows that the range of variation is so great amongst the
different members of the several classes as to more than warrant
extreme caution in passing an opinion on the individual. Indivi-
dually some of the criminals have a much greater cubic capacity of
brain than have the true means of the learned classes. It is, howevei",
extremely interesting to note that in one case we are. from our owil
knowledge, enabled to state that the criminal wlio heads tlie list
amongst the inebriate group, is a graduate of Oxford, and a man
of great and undoubted intellectuality who has attained his present
unfortunate position as the result of alcohol and neglected oppor-
tunity. The same table shows, on the other hand, that there are-
some individuals amongst the criminal classes who possess so few
lirains it, is ;i mere mockery to go on punishing them for crimes, the-
heinousness of which they have not the brains to realise.

(Concerning, then, the three objects with which the present investi-
gation has been primarily concerned, we conclude : —

1. That the inferior, that is the loss well educated, classes of the-
conuuunity. have an appi-ociably less amount of cubie capacity of
brain than have the more highly educated.

2. That amongst classes thei'o is a distinctly measurable coi relation'
between size of head and intelligence, but that, as Peaison expresses.
it. " it would l)e absolutely idle to endeavour to jiredict tlu' intrllci -
tual ability of an individual from his or her licad mcasui-emrnts. "

Correlation of Brain Capacity and Inldliijeiirr. 245

3. That amongst tlic criminal classes tliere is an un(l<>ul)iiMl per-
centage sufficiently devoid of brains as to loiidcr their lopeatod
punisliments foi" acts of which they ai-e liardly i('sj>(uisil)le as
undcsirahlc as it wouhl appear to be inhiimane.

KEFERENCES.

1. Gladstone, K'. J. — "A jtreliminai'v comnuinical ion on some

cephalometrie <lata l)earing upon the relation of the size and
shape of the head to mental ability.'' Reprinted from the
Archives of the Middlesex Hos])ital. l!)o;5.

2. Gladstone. 1\. J.--" X'ariations in the shape and size of the

skull." J»ei)rinted from the Artliives of the Middlesex Hos-
pital. Vol. l.\.. I !)()(;.

3. IJayerthal. — '" Kopf^rosse und lntelli<ienz im sehulpfliihtige;)!

Alter." Zeit. ex per. Padagogik. B. 10. S. 1 07-21 S.

4. Pearson, Karl. — " On the relationship of Intelligence to size

and shape of head and to other physical and mental charac-
ters." Biometrika. Vol. 5. 1906-7, Pp. 105-140.

5. Eyerich, G., and Loewenfeld, L. — " Uber die Beziehungen des-

Kopfumfanges zur Korperlange und zur geistigen Entwick-
lung. " Wiesbaden.

6. Pearl, R. — " Some results of a study of variation and correlation

in brain weight." Journ. comp. Neurol, and Pyschol., VoL
16, Pp. 189-190.

7. Buschan, G. — " Kultnr und Gehirn." Kori--Blatt. Jahi'g. 35,

S. 127-133.

8. Lee, Leweiiz and Pearson. — " On the correlation of the mental

and physical characters in Man. Part 11." Proc. Roy. Soc.
A^ol. 71, 1903. Pp. 106-114.

9. Lee, Alice, assisted by Karl Pearson. — " Data for the problem of

evolution in Man. VI. A first study of the correlation of
the human skull.' Trans. Roy. Soc. A. Vol. 106. 1901, Pp.
225-264.

10. Pearson, Kail. — "On the correlation of intellectual al)ility

with the sizf an<l shai)e of the head." Proc. Roy. Soc, A.
Vol. 69. 1001-2, Pp. 333-342.

11. Anderson, J. II. — " An investigation as to the most accurate

method of estimating the cubic capacity of the living head,
together with some remarks on the relative thickness of the
cranial integuments." Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Instit., Vol.
XL. 1010. Pp. 264-278.

"246 Berry and Bvchaer :

12. Matiegka, H. — " rijer die Bezioliiiiif^en des Hiingewichtes zum

Berufe.'" Polit. authruiJt)!. Rev., B. 3. S. 7-22.

13. da Costa Fcrreiia, A. — "La capacite du crane cliez les Por-

tugais."' Bull, et .Meiii. Soc. Authropol. Paris, Ser. V. Tome
IV. 1903, P. 417.

14. Macdoiiell, W. R. — '' On criminal anthropometry and the

identification of ciiiiiinals. " liioiiictrika, Vol. I. 1901-2,
Pp. 177-227.

15. Udly Yule, G. — " An introduction to the theory of statistics."

London. Charles (iritiin and Co. Ltd. 1911.

16. Galton, F. — " On head growth in Students at the University of

Cambridge." Nature, May 3rd, 1888; Journ. Anth. Inst.
XVIII.. 1899. P. 155. Quoted by Haddon in his "The
tStudy of Man."' London. John Murray. 1908.

Measurements of 355 Cpiminals.

:i£

rt

»

<

^

P

p o

ii

H £

II

g

5

1

Einl)Ozzl

eiiieiit - -

(53 -

189 -

154 -

126 -

545

- 345 -

81.5 -

1392

2

- -

oO -

194 -

142 -

135 -

500

- 382 -

73.2 -

1407

3

Misappropnation -

36 -

185 -

150 -

131 -

540

- 352 -

81.1 -

1384

4

Enibezzl

eineiit - -

23 -

190 -

159 -

139 -

573

- 369 -

83.7 -

1548

-5

Misappr

opriation -

60 -

205 -

158 -

140 -

579

- 369 -

77.1 -

1645

0

Forgery

- . - -

21 -

186 -

142 -

134 -

550

- 372 -

76.3 -

1356

7

5>

. - -

26 -

192 -

158 -

130 -

560

- 358 -

S2.:5 -

147:?

8

J>

....

4.') -

194 -

150 -

138 -

565

- 360 -

77.3 -

1494

9

) J

. . - -

45 -

193 -

157 -

135 -

563

- 370 -

81.3 -

1516

10

'5

_ . . .

63 -

179 -

146 -

135 -

570

- 35() -

81.6 -

1353

11

>1

- . . -

2o -

189 -

144 -

130 -

540

- 343 -

76.2 -

1355

12

,,

- - - .

41 -

185 -

141 -

124 -

533

- 350 -

76.2 -

1207

13

,,

. - - _

49 -

195 -

149 -

127 -

545

- 340 -

76.4 -

1398

14

J>

_ . . .

40 -

18fi -

150 -

140 -

560

- 362 -

80.6 -

14(i3

15

Ji

- - . .

46 -

19!) -

104 -

143 -

571

- ;i69 -

82.4 -

1(585

16

J)

....

69 -

189 -

1()5 -

126 -

541

- 324 -

87.3 -

1408

17

,,

. - . .

21 -

187 -

160 -

135 -

552

- 376 -

85.6 -

1501

18

.,

. - - .

31 -

1!)7 -

163 -

147 -

(KM)

- 380 -

82.7 -

1701

19

. ,

... -

24 -

185 -

148 -

135 -

5;«)

- 340 -

80.0 -

14(12

20

Wife Desertion

28 -

198 -

N!) -

142 -

565

- 370 -

75.3 -

1545

21

Obscene

Language -

28 -

180 -

152 -

125 -

545

- 356 -

84.4 -

1321

23

Debt -

33 -

188 -

145 -

126 -

550

- ;«o -

77.1 -

1325

23

Obsuone

Language -

24 -

189 -

154 -

130 -

557

. ms -

81.5 -

1426

^4

R«^eoivin

ig ...

30 -

190 -

144 -

125 -

547

- 347 -

75.8 -

1320

1*5

False. Pretences - -

23 -

190 -

140 -

134 -

553

- ;«o -

76.8 -

1407

26

Wife 1>

ceertion

2() -

200 -

115 -

137 -

558

- 360 -

72.5 -

1481

27

Ganibliii

ig - - -

44 -

198 -

155 -

134 -

565

. 3fj3 -

78.3 -

1522

2S

Debt -

33 -

188 -

1 18 -

138 -

550

- ;360 -

78.7 -

1443

'£a

Correlation oj Brain Capacitij aad Intelligence. 24'

■w "o -^ iC ^ rt .— C^ SJ S* « "^ 'O

•g5 z^-' « sa — _j--^uo'

^, ~'

29 B\ilso Pictcnce-s - - 25 - 199 - 15r) - 188 - 570 - 372 - 77.9 - 1.7;4

30 .. . - 42 - 197 - 14() - ]40 - 565 - 365 - 74.1 - 1497

31 D.>ht - - - - - 36 - 206 - 151 - 132 - 575 - 365 - 73.3 - 1528

32 Vafiiaiuy - - - 51 - 190 - l52 - 140 - 557 - 377 - 80.0 - 1503

33 False Piotences - - 20 - 189 - 131 - 131 - 520 - 342 - 69.3 - 1269

34 Debt .T2 - 200 - 149 - 140 - 573 - 389 - 74.5 - 1539

35 Ob.scPiK- .Language - 25 - 186 - 150 - 128 - 540 - 370 - 80.6 - 1365

36 Maintt'iiance - - 46 - 189 - 148 - 128 - 550 - 360 - 78.3 - 1367

37 Obscene Language- 23 - 198 - 156 - 137 - 570 - 380 - 78.8 - 1557

38 Maintenance - - 29 - 194 - 154 - 130 - 550 - 360 - 79.4 - 1455

39 Vagrancy - - - 28 - 195 - 148 - 136 - 560 - 382 - 75.9 - 1467

40 Suspe<-te(l I'ereon - 31 - 192 - 148 - 124 - 525 - 360 - 77.1 - 1358

41 Vagrancy - - - - 24 - 185 - 150 - 127 - 543 - 358 - 81.1 - 1351

42 Bigamy - - - - 31 - 202 - 153 - 134 - 563 - 372 - 75.7 - 1530

43 Vagrancy - - - 35 - 195 - 162 - 134 - 572 - 362 - 83.1 - 1557

44 Train Wrecking - 27 - 204 - 158 - 134 - 577 - 368 - 77.5 - 1582

45 .Smuggling - - - 57 - 200 - 147 - 140 - 575 - 365 - 73.5 - 1523

46 Vagrancy ... 23 - 197 - 148 - 134 - 549 - 375 - 75.1 - 1462

47 ., ... 47 - 185 - 148 - 129 - 545 - 352 - 80.0 - 1353

48 False Pretences - - 24 - 192 - 141 - 134 - 548 - 360 - 73.4 - 1381

49 Vagrancy - - - 20 - 185 - 149 - 142 - 530 - 360 - 80.5 - 1466

50 Bigamy - - - - 29 - 195 - 150 - 129 - 545 - 345 - 76.9 - 1423

51 Impersonation - - 52 - 195 - 156 - 139 - 565 - 375 - 80.0 - 1556

52 Vagrancy - - - 23 - 182 - 149 - 127 - 535 - 340 - 81.9 - 1328

53 Gold-buying . - . 29 - 182 - 154 - 134 - 555 - 350 - 84.6 - 1419

54 .. - - - 38 - 188 - 156 - 129 - 560 - 362 - 83.0 - 1426

55 ,, ... 24 - 190 - 160 - 133 - 562 - 373 - 84.2 - 1502

56 Bigamy - - - - 68 - 200 - 149 - 134 - 570 - 360 - 74.5 - 1487

57 Kecoiving- - . - 26 - 195 - 148 - 132 - 538 - 348 - 75.9 - 1433

58 f.oitering - - - - 35 - 195 - 154 - 144 - 560 - 380 - 79.0 - 1585

59 Trespa.ssing - - - 47 - 194 - 149 - 130 - 550 - 340 - 76.8 - 1418

60 False Pretences - - 41 - 192 - 160 - 134 - 560 - 366 - 83.3 - 1523

61 iteceiving - - - - 23 - 195 - 160 - 136 - 572 - 375 - 82.1 - 1560

62 Bigamy - - - - 31 - 191 - 156 - 133 - 554 - a54 - 81.7 - 1479

63 Keceiving- - - - 66 - 187 - 156 - 130 - ooo - 354 - 83.4 - 1429

64 Illegally on Premises 23 - 200 - 150 - 130 - 565 - 359 - 75.0 - 1459

65 Suspected I'cnsoii - 57 - 200 - 154 - 136 - 578 - 360 - 77.0 - 1544

66 Vagrancy - . . 43 - 195 - 148 - 126 - 565 - 335 - 75.9 - 1382

67 H..ceiving - - - 27 - 188 - 134 - 130 - 568 - 357 - 71.3 - 1279
f^S .. - - - 27 - 199 - 162 - 144 - 561 - 374 - 81.4 - 1678

69 Vagrancy - - . 29 - 195 - 161 - 136 - 574 - 360 - 82.6 - 1568

70 Arson ----- 63 - 184 - 150 - 130 - 533 - 352 - 81.5 - 1370
'I .. ----- 27 - 195 - 148 - 141 - 562 - 348 - 75.9 - 1510

72 Manslaughter - - 27 - 182 - 143 - 130 - 547 - 350 - 78.6 - 1311

73 Murder - - - - .50 - 197 - 157 - 131 - 570 - 370 - 79.7 - 1504
'•* •• - - - 30 - 192 - 151 - 134 - .568 - 362 - 78.6 - 1456
"5 • - - - - 32 - 190 - 152 - 132 - 36o - 330 - 80.0 - 1435
'^ •• - - - - 30 - 193 - 146 - 136 - 550 - 340 - 75.6 - 1441

248

Berry and Biichner

3^

■r. 5

'A

9 oj

it

j=

a

it

^1

1; .

•5~

S

1 1

Murder - -

- -

46 -

187 -

142 -

133

- 570 -

331 -

75 9 -

1353

78

,, - -

- -

47 -

185 -

139 -

125

- 528 -

345 -

75.1 -

1261

71)

;>

- -

61 -

194 -

152 -

13(i

- 545 -

3()0 -

78.4 -

1492

80

l!

- -

33 -

195 -

156 -

142

- 572 -

372 -

80.0 -

1583

81

Manslaughter

- -

52 -

193 -

161 -

149

- 569 -

370 -

83.4 -

1675

82

Murder - -

- -

69 -

195 -

164 -

127

- 560 -

360 -

84.1 -

1506

83

Assault - -

- -

27 -

205 -

151 -

136

- 570 -

370 -

73.6 -

1558

84

Murderous Assault -

22 -

195 -

144 -

134

- 550 -

350 -

73.8 -

1420

85

Wounding

- -

33 -

198 -

146 -

127

- 550 -

340 -

73.7 -

1392

86

Assault - -

- -

30 -

190 -

156 -

147

- 555 -

355 -

82.1 -

1595

87

,, - -

- -

26 -

187 -

152 -

132

- 550 -

375 -

81.3 -

1417

88

)? " "

- -

28 -

188 -

152 -

131

- 544 -

344 -

80.9 -

1415

89

?>

- -

47 -

178 -

149 -

122

- 520 -

320 -

83.7 -

1268

90

,'> " "

- -

29 -

194 -

155 -

131

- 558 -

358 -

79.9 -

1471

91

Wounding

- -

25 -

184 -

145 -

131

- 535 -

335 -

78.8 -

1343

92

>i

- -

25 -

190 -

139 -

130

- 535 -

342 -

73.2 -

1324

93

>>

- -

39 -

189 -

149 -

135

- 560 -

362 -

78.8 -

1432

94

Attempted Mui

•der-

53 -

200 -

150 -

135

- 561 -

352 -

75.0 -

1503

95

Assault - -

- -

30 -

180 -

149 -

130

- 533 -

334 -

82.8 -

1318

96

Criminal Assau

lit -

40 -

190 -

150 -

130

- 530 -

340 -

78.9 -

1403

97

)> >)

-

23 -

198 -

148 -

140

- 563 -

354 -

74.7 -

1519

98

S xual Offence

- -

22 -

197 -

141 -

125

- 550 -

340 -

71.6 -

1334

99

>} }•

- -

22 -

187 -

143 -

131

- 545 -

356 -

76.5 -

1345

1(X)

}>

- -

52 -

198 -

155 -

127

- 554 -

354 -

78.3 -

1458

101

) J

- -

29 -

182 -

139 -

131

- 520 -

345 -

76.4 -

1291

102

)> • •

- -

21 -

184 -

142 -

133

- 557 -

355 -

77.2 -

1337

103

>> •>

- -

48 -

185 -

151 -

135

- 538 -

372 -

81.6 -

1423

104

J 5 )-•

- -

57 -

193 -

152 -

137

- 565 -

365 -

78.8 -

1495

105

."; M

- -

21 -

192 -

159 -

132

- 560 -

355 -

82.8 -

1498

106

) J }i

- -

39 -

193 -

150 -

120

- 540 -

340 -

77.7 -

1335

107

)> )>

- -

60 -

201 -

157 -

132

- 568 -

362 -

78.1 -

1537

108

)>

- -

23 -

200 -

158 -

140

- 580 -

389 -

79.0 -

1613

109

M >>

- -

34 -

191 -

152 -

133

- 550 -

35() -

79.6 -

1449

110

J5 V

- -

21 -

189 -

142 -

131

- 530 -

342 -

75.1 -

1348-

111

y> } '

- -

42 -

190 -

149 -

133

- 542 -

370 -

78.4 -

1421

112

>} >)

- -

26 -

180 -

148 -

127

- 548 -

340 -

82.2 -

1311

113

I J ?^

- -

33 -

190 -

136 -

134

- 534 -

352 -

71.6 -

1333

114

}> 'J

- -

38 -

194 -

151 -

127

- 551 -

326 -

77.8 -

1407

115

,, ,,

- -

58 -

190 -

148 -

140

- 550 -

360 -

77.9 -

1472

116

}> >'

- -

32 -

199 -

156 -

129

- 550 -

356 -

78.4 -

1490

117

>} J?

- -

35 -

197 -

154 -

137

- 558 -

358 -

78.2 -

1535

118

') ! •

- -

29 -

201 -

150 -

134

- 567 -

360 -

74.6 -

1500

119

') M

- -

54 -

185 -

138 -

129

- 530 -

330 -

74. <j -

1284

120

>} '1

- -

56 -

195 -

150 -

140

- 545 -

350 -

76.9 -

1517

121

- -

45 -

185 -

154 -

132

- 545 -

340 -

83.2 -

142(v

122

- -

52 -

200 -

160 -

144

- 570 -

372 -

80.0 -

1668

1 23

.•)

- -

61 -

194 -

148 -

130

- 567 -

360 -

76.3 -

1411

124

,,

- -

32 -

205 -

154 -

135

- 578 -

370 -

75.1 -

1565

C(n-rel(ifurn of Brain Capacity and I iitdlujeiiec., 249

.S —

55

l-_>.-, Srxual Offence - - .'W - 1<)() - 100 - 142 - 549 - .'Wl - 84.2 - lo83

12(i ,, ,. - - ;J7 - 189 - 152 - 141 - 571 - ;U() - 8U.4 - 1505

127 '', „ . - 70 - 195 - 160 - 129 - 5(52 - 301 - 82.1 - 1490

128 [', .', - - 00 - 179 - 102 - 135 - 542 - 364 - 90.5 - 1400

129 „ „ - - 32 - 196 - 154 - 127 - 539 - 350 - 78.0 - 1440

130 ,, ,. - - 31 - 185 - 102 - 131 - 578 - 300 - 87.0 - 1408

131 l\ ,] - - 28 - 180 - 150 - 127 - 543 - 340 - 83.9 - 1397

132 ',, ,, - - ;« - 182 - 149 - 127 - 530 - 335 - 81.9 - 1328

133 „ „ - - 32 - 188 - 149 - 142 - 548 - 345 - 79.3 - 1484

134 „ ,, - - 53 - 191 - 150 - 130 - 553 - 370 - 78.5 - 1409

135 „ ,, . - 34 - 197 - 154 - 140 - 570 - 304 - 78.2 - 1562

136 ,, ,, - - 44 - 185 - 144 - 130 - 530 - 348 - 77.8 - 1334

137 ,. .. - - 40 - 202 - 165 - 136 - 587 - 345 - 81.7 - 1645

138 „ ,. - - ^-"J - 19-t - 154 - 150 - 557 - 375 - 79.4 - 1631

139 „ ,, . . 20 - 184 - 146 - 130 - 528 - 350 - 79.3 - 1342

140 ,. „ - - 34 - 192 - 148 - 127 - 550 - 330 - 77J - 1375

141 „ „ - - r,:, - 192 - 148 - 130 - 540 - 350 - 77.1 - 1408

142 „ ,, - - 33 - 179 - 152 - 135 - 523 ^ 350 - 84.9 - 1395

143 „ ,, - - 21 - 190 - 154 - 134 - 551 - 301 - 78.0 - 1501

144 „ ,, - - 21 - 192 - 100 - 130 - odO - 361 - 83.3 - 1487

145 ,. .. - - 35 - 192 - 150 - 128 - 549 - 352 - 78.1 - 1397

146 „ ,, - - 39 - 189 - 151 - 131 - 545 - 360 - 79.9 - 1407

147 „ „ - - 30 - 174 - 150 - 120 - 520 - 330 - 86.2 - 1238

148 „ „ . - 30 - 192 - 160 - 136 - 568 - 365 - 83.3 - 1540

149 „ „ - - 58 - 190 - 138 - 126 - 530 - 359 - 72.6 - 1302

150 ,, .. - - 68 - 196 - 160 - 130 - 553 - ;i50 - 81.6 - 1511

151 ,, ,, ... 70 - 189 - 165 - 127 - 540 - 323 - 87.3 - 1484

152 „ „ - - 23 - 200 - 147 - 134 - 573 - 363 - 73.5 - 1471

153 „ ,, - - 28 - 179 - 134 - 127 - 528 - 320 - 74.9 - 1213

154 Shopbreaking - - 40 - 188 - 150 - 122 - 545 - 334 - 79.8 - 1326

155 Housebreaking - - 25 - 182 - 153 - 134 - 5.53 - 370 - 84.1 - 1412

156 „ - - 27 - 192 - 140 - 131 - 557 - 340 - 72.9 - 1350

157 ,, - - 59 - 196 - 149 - 130 - 569 - 349 - 70.0 - 1551

158 Shopbreaking - - 63 - 178 - 150 - 136 - 542 - 302 - 84.3 - 1383

159 Hou.sebreaking - - 23 - 178 - 154 - 132 - 542 - 300 - 80.5 - 1379

160 .. - - 50 - 196 - 157 - 134 - 553 - 530 - 80.1 - 1525

161 ., - - 24 - 197 - 149 - 131 - 564 - 350 - 75.6 - 1444

162 ,. - - .33 - 190 - 148 - 126 - 540 - 338 - 77.9 - 1356
l(i3 .Shopl)r<-aking - - 22 - 191 - 146 - 132 - 550 - 355 - 70.4 - 1390
1()4 Housebreaking - - 36 - 195 - 154 - 136 - 558 - 362 - 79.0 - 1514
165 „ - - 50 - 190 - 153 - 140 - 568 - 372 - 78.1 - 1548
160 .. - - 24 - 187 - 150 - 125 - 553 - 3^10 - 80.2 - 1345

167 ,. - - 29 - 198 - 160 - 130 - 562 - 360 - 80.8 - 1523

168 ,. - - 3() - 187 - 148 - 130 - 560 - 362 - 79.1 - 1372
109 Sho])breaking - - 25 - 198 - 152 - 134 - 5.'i.") - 345 - 76.8 - 1498

170 Housebreaking - - 22 - 193 - 140 - 133 - 557 - 365 - 75.6 - 1416

171 .. - - 26 - 197 - 161 - 130 - 567 -.355 - 81.7 - 1524

172 Shopbreaking - - 32 - 197 - 160 - 140 - 578 - 372 - 81.2 - 1610

250

Berrij and Bv.hiirr

tr. :

y.

"

►S

-

'C' ■£

h2

S

173

Hoiisf

't)reakni<>; -

- 30

- 190

- 160

- 130

- 564

- 364

- 84.2

- 1475

174

Shop]

)rea

iking -

- 39 .

- 185 -

■ 146 -

■ 126 -

533 -

■ 342 ■

- 78.9 •

- 1317

175

Hous<=

■bre

aking -

- 38

- 184 .

- 146

- 128 •

• 533

- 3^50

- 79.3

- 1326

176

Shopl

)rea

king -

- 45 -

199 -

153 -

132 -

560 -

■ 357 -

- 76.9 -

- 1407

177

House

'breaking -

- 32 .

- 198 .

- 160 .

- 128 ■

• 550 ■

- 3v36

- 80.8

- 1504

178

Shoi)h

irea

king -

- .>(i .

- 188 -

. 148 -

130 -

530 -

• 325 ■

■ 78.7 -

• 1373

179

House

bre

aking -

- 32 ■

■ 197 -

- 145 ■

■ 132 -

568 ■

- 370 .

- 73.6 ■

- 1430

180

Horse

-stealing -

- 25 ■

- 182 .

- 143 ■

- 126 -

■ 540

- 350

- 78.6

- 1280

181

,">

-

- 32 •

■ 197 .

- 145 ■

- 132 -

• 568 ■

- 370 •

- 73.6

- 1430

182

,,

-

- 32 -

■ 183 -

168 -

133 -

565 -

■ 380 ■

• 91.8 -

• 1516

188

Sheop-

-ste;

aliiig -

- 30 -

186 -

144 -

125 -

529 -

325 -

• 77.4 -

• 1300

184

Horsf>-

■ste;

almg -

- 26 -

195 -

146 -

134 -

562 -

348 -

74.9 -

• 1435

185

Sheep-

■stealing --

- 40 -

186 -

144 -

125 -

540 -

• 362 -

• 77.4 -

. 1300

186

Inebriety

- -

- 44 -

■ 200 ■

147 -

■ 119 -

574 ■

■ 372 ■

- 73.5 ■

- 1341

187

- -

- 51 -

178 -

144 -

116 -

520 -

■ 330 -

- 80.9 •

. 1191

188

' , ,

- -

- 72 -

190 -

147 -

125 -

550 -

■ 359 -

• 77.4 ■

- 1341

189

'5

- -

- 30 -

190 -

149 -

125 -

550 -

• 345 -

• 78.4 -

- 1335

190

J>

■- -

- 43 -

187 -

146 -

122 -

556 -

• 361 -

• 78.1 -

■ 1207

191

!)

- -

- 45 -

190 -

140 -

126 -

534 -

■ 340 ■

73.7 -

. 1300

192

•3

- -

- 27 -

195 -

145 -

131 -

556 -

■ 365 -

74.4 .

. 1403

193

?;

. -

- 43 -

190 -

150 -

130 -

545 -

361 -

■ 78.9 -

. 1403

194

) J

- -

- 65 -

190 -

143 -

128 -

545 -

345 -

75.3 -

1337

195

- -

- 63 -

185 -

150 -

131 -

549 -

363 -

81.1 -

1384

196

,','

- -

- 49 -

187 -

159 -

132 -

572 -

370 -

85.0 -

1468

197

55

■ . .

- 64 -

180 -

146 -

126 -

526 -

340 -

81.1 -

1290

198

_ -

- 72 -

206 -

149 -

131 -

564 -

350 -

72.3 -

1494

199

. .

- 46 -

190 -

150 -

133 -

543 -

355 -

78.9 -

1428

200

- .

- 34 -

200 -

157 -

136 -

584 -

370 -

78.5 -

1568

201

J *

_ .

- 40 -

170 -

155 -

124 -

540 -

348 -

91.2 -

1277

202

. -

- 63 -

189 -

153 -

133 -

550 -

360 -

81.0 -

1445

203

) 1

- -

- 66 -

185 -

156 -

128 -

540 -

. -53 -

84.3 -

1400

204

J J

. .

- 60 -

195 -

159 -

141 -

565 -

380 -

81.5 -

1599

205

> ^

_

- 52 -

203 -

15() -

140 -

574 -

382 -

76.8 -

1616

206

J )

. .

- 28 -

203 -

160 -

140 -

578 -

370 -

78.8 -

1<)49

207

J 5

_

- 49 -

190 -

146 -

126 -

545 -

350 -

76.8 -

1342

208

_

- 29 -

190 -

152 -

130 -

545 -

355 -

80.0 -

1418

209

.

- 51 -

197 -

162 -

140 -

tUK) -

365 -

82.2 -

162t)

210

.

- 48 -

188 -

152 -

132 -

544 -

340 -

80.9 -

1463

211

_

- 51 -

198 -

165 -

137 -

(iOO -

370 -

83.3 -

1657

212

Larcfiiy

_

- 42 -

188 -

142 -

124 -

530 -

325 -

75.5 -

1288

213

.

- 24 -

195 -

148 -

135 -

570 -

368 -

75.9 -

1459

214

.

- 64 -

190 -

140 -

130 -

550 -

350 -

73.7 -

1322

215

_

- 38 -

187 -

143 -

121 -

549 -

345 -

76.5 -

1267

216

_

- 26 -

187 -

146 -

125 -

552 -

360 -

78.1 -

1318

217

_

- 51 -

180 -

146 -

130 -

543 -

370 -

81.1 -

1320

218

.

- 40 -

184 -

152 -

133 -

545 -

367 -

82.6 -

1408

219

• _

- 33 -

188 -

149 -

133 -

535 -

357 -

79 3 -

1410

220

M

- -

- 39 -

202 >

155 -

12() -

590 -

365 -

76.7 -

1471

Coi'i-t'ldtioii of Brain C<t.pacltij <t)id Tolt'JJ'nience.

251

^21

Ijairt^ny

222

.,

*2Ti

.,

:224

, ,

1>25

,,

•226

iJ27

228

.,

229

, J

230

231

^

i232

,,

233

•>

234

23o

?>

:236

,")

237

238

i239

ii40

241

J,

ii42

.,

243

.,

244

))

245

9 9

246

247

248

249

, J

250

>j

251

^

252

, ,

253

,,

254

^,

255

250

257

ItoblxTV

258

Larcoiiy

259

26U

2(51

l{<)l)l)(>ry

262

Laiceuj'

263

•2M

Hobhory

2(j.-,

l^ai<«'iiy

2()()

267

, J

268

J'

29 - 189 -

23 - 192 -

27 - 198 -
38 - 188 -

36 - 19(J -
54 - 198 -
22 - 196 -

22 - 194 -

37 - 192 -
36 - 184 -
42 - 192 -

24 - 190 -
66 - 190 -
33 - 179 -

25 - 190 -

38 - 188 -

23 - 191 -
23 - 188 -
45 - 191 -
47 - 20O -
31 - 186 -
33 - 198 -
50 - 198 -

28 - 196 -

30 - 195 -
28 - 203 -

23 - 189 -
30 - 194 -

24 - 195 -

28 - 192 -

21 - 187 -

24 - 177 -

29 - 194 -

25 - 192 -
41 - 192 -
53 - 192 -
35 - 186 -
57 - 196 -

24 - 195 -

30 - 195 -

27 - 192 -
23 - 192 -

22 - 189 -
21 - 180 -
50 - 183 -
61 - 175 -

25 - 189 -

28 - 194 -

150 -

149 -

157 -

152 -

144 -
142 -

145 -
145-
142 -

150 -

147 -
142 -
138 -

149 -

148 -

145 -

156 -
141 -

151 -
154 -
154 -

153 -
159 -

146 -

158 -

145 -

154 -
144 -

157 -

146 -

151 -
156 -

149 -

150 -

159 -

146 -

147 -

152 -

147 -

150 -
152 -
163 -

148 -
135 -

159 -
148 -

160 -
144 -

122
134
129
120
125
130
135
140
130
125
129
139
134
134
132
128
136
125
126
134
129
135
132
136
143
130
141
132
128
134
140
132
143
134
126
132
137
130
143
135
127
132
130
132
136
125
130
136

si K
5£

552
547
570
545
544
558
564
550
565
538
550
547
535
523
545
545
557
545
565
565
553
568
550
554
560
555
550
550
543
554
540
542
568
560
552
555
525
570
570
562
557
570
542
524
575
581
555

358
365
359
340
340
362
362
390
360
343
345
345
330
350
325
360
360
345
355
370
360
380
360
370
352
376
360
350
350
360
350
360
378
380
360
3.50
345
370
390
350
355
370
342
353
365
366
368
362

— X

79.4 .

77.6 -
79.3 ■
80.9 .
75.8 ■

71.7 .
74.0 .

76.8 .

74.0 -

81.5 ■

76.6 ■

74.7 -

72.6 .

83.2 ■

77.9 ■

77.1 .

81.7 -

75.0 ■

79.1 -
77.0 ■

82.8 -

77.3 ■

80.3 .
74.5 ■
81.0 ■

71.4 ■

81.5 •

74.2 ■

80.5 •

76.0 -

80.7 -

88.1 ■

76.8 -

78.1 -

82.8 -
76.0 ■
79.0 -

77.6 ■
75.4 -

76.9 -

79.2 -
84.9 •

78.3 -
75.0 -
86.9 -

84.6 -

84.7 -
74.2 -

9\

1331

1441
1491
1322
1320
1388
1441
1503
1356
1329
1384
1417
1355
1374
1405
1341
1514
1305
1372
1526
14Q1
1515
1534
1458
1609
1437
1521
1398
1465
1418
1477
1397
1529
1448
1444
1402
1417
1452
1519
1474
1403
1527
1383
1260
1478
1269
1469
1431

252

Hrrri/ dud Hi'irhher

a. 5

269

Liircony

270

,^

271

;'

272

278

, ,

274

,.

275

)'

276

? t

277

278

,,

279

,,

280

,,

281

282

Stealing

283

iLarceiiy

284

285

;•

286

287

,.

288

^89

,,

290

291

292

y

293

y

294

295

Thefc

29f!

Laicoiiy

297

298

, ,

299

l?ohberv

300

liarcoiiy

301

302

Thoft

303

304

fjiirfcii\-

305

SUvilin.;-

3()(i

IjarcfMiy

307

Stcaliim

308

Larcpiiy

309

310

311

J{()!>l)ei\-

312

liiwvvwy

313

314

,

315

.,

31 G

68 - 195 -

39 - 19(5 -

32 - 200 -
51 - 190 -

33 - 202 -

40 - 184 -
2G - 184 -
53 -'l86 -
37 - 193 -

26 - 188 -

39 - 198 -

27 - 188 -
50 - 194 -
26 - 192 -

31 - 189 -

37 - 185 -
36 - 185 -

32 - 184 -
55 - 190 -
48 - 192 -

38 - 192 -

40 - 195 -
26 - 197 -
29 - 196 -

41 - 183 -
48 - 191 -
63 - 196 -
65 - 199 -
50 - 194 -
38 - 186 -

42 - 200 -

35

28
29
42
49

188
182
189

200
TB8

40 - 188

28 - 200

35 - 182

40 - 192

31 - 187

50 - 20()

23 - 189

31 - 194
38 - 192

32 - 200

26 - 185

27 - M)l

160 -

153 -
149 -

149 -
156 -
140 -

139 -
146 -
156 -
146 -
146 -
144 -

156 -
158 -

152 -

148 -

150 -

140 -

154 -

160 -
150 -
152-

153 -
158 -

154 -

153 -
158 -

154 -
150 -
152 -

161 -
146 -
150 -
154 -

149 -
142 -
160 -

157 -
144 -
152 -
152 -
1()2 -

150 -

151 -
157 -
156 -
146 -
142 -

124
137
134
133
136
131
137
120
140
130
136
130
134
142
130
128
126
121
125
130
130
134
134
136
140
131
130
138
127
129
140
133
130
130
130
132
133
130
123
138
137
142
142
141

vn

138
130
132

"51

- 550

- 570

- 562

- 'jijO

- 573

- 525

- 535

- 530

- 550

- 548

- 560

- 518

- 562

- 576

- 542

- 539

- 540

- 550

- 550

- 550

- 563

- 551"

- 552

- 556

- 581

- 567

- 570

- 545

- 547

- 520

- 584

- 5aj

- 552

- 540

- 563

- 540

- 560

- 570

- 523

- 560

- 540

- 580

- 540

- 547

- 564

- 574

- 545

- 5.S1

330
370
345
352
3(i3
344
342
325
3(50
330
350
330
362
380
350
344
350
345
348
354
372
360
355
364
362
370
349
350
342
345
340
350
342
350
340
3(50
355
358
324
3(52
355
370
365
346
262
364
3(50
310

- 82.1 -

- 78.1 -

- 74.5 -

- 78.4 -

- 77.2 -

- 76.1 -

- 75.6 -

- 78.5 -

- 80.8 -

- 77.7 -

- 73.7 -

- 76. 6 -

- 80.4 -

- 82.3 -

- 80.4 -

- 80.0 -

- 81.1 -

- 77.2 -

- 81.1 -

- 83.3 -

- 78.1 -

- 77.9 -

- 77.7 -

- 80.6 -

- 84.2 -

- 80.1 -

- 80.6 -

- 77.4 -

- 77.3 -

- 81.7 -

- 80.5 -
1 1 . 1 -

- 82.4 -

- 81.5 -

- 74.5 -

- 75.5 -

- 85.1 -

- 78.5 -

- 79.1 -

- 79.2 -

- 81.3 -

- 78. (; -

- 79.4 -

- 77.8 -

- 81.8 -

- 78.0 -

- 78.9 -

- 71.3 -

145(»

1521

1487

1421

1572

1308

1346

1273

1553

1364

1469

1350

1505

1580

1412

1345

1343

1246

1389

1487

1414

1481

1500'

1551

1475

1439

1496

1556

1400

1387

1(5:^8

1388

1351>

14J2(5

1451

1351

1490

1512

1295

1498

1459

1705

1498

1528

1474

1578

1348

I3;i7

Correlatiov of Hroiii (■(ipucitu anJ I it I ell }< fence . 253

317 liiirreny

318

31i)

3-_>() Robbory

321

322

323 Larceny

324

325

32G

327 Theft

328 Larceny
329

330

331 Robbery

332 Larceny
333

334 Robbery

335 Larceny-

336 Kobbery

337 Larceny
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
Ua Theft .

347 Larceny

348 Robbery

349 Larceny
330

351

352

353 Robbery

354

355

m - 192

58 - 200

33 - 184

34 - 184
48 - 180

35 - I8(i

27 - 197

36 - 194

29 - 190

30 - 176
41 - 183
66 - 189

28 - 180
33 - 197

26 - 186
52 - 193

27 - 190

45 - 194

46 - 195
26 - 196

29 - 189
57 - 195
45 - 189
39 - 205

65
49
46
55
26
29
48

170
195
194
190
197
185
195

27 - 181
51 - 196
21 - 184
29 - 190

25 - 182

26 - 189
38 - 195
26 - 190

152
149
149
150
160
152
148
156
136
138
139
145
155
170
152
153
150
160
154
160
143
149
157
160
132
150
161
154
150
154
146
138
149
146
144
153
150
153
154

125 -
137 -
128 -
134 -

132 -
13(i -
140 -
140 -
130 -

126 -
128 -
134 -
128 -
148 -
128 -
120 -
140 -

134 -
140 -

136 -
130 -

137 -
130 -
150 -
128 -

133 -

135 -
122 -
128 -
143 -
140 -
126 -

136 -
124 -
130 -

134 -
130 -
132 -

135 -

558
578
537
561
545
525
555
560
570
548
561
560
549
571
544
540
545
570
562
56()
550
562
548
574
512
545
562
550
548
548
538
536
569
532
548
553
548
570

~)00

335
3()2
345
371
352
345
345
360
367
34 (i
350
3()0
352
368
344
335
354
360
362
3(55
349
360
345
380
345
342
362
348
349
330
360
334
362
350
330
370
361
362
368

- 74.5

- 81.0

- 81.5

- 86 .'0

- 81.7

- 75.1
80.4

- 71.6

- 78.4

- 7(i.l)

- 76.7

- 86.1

- 86.2

- 81.7

- 79.3

- 78.9

- 82.5

- 79.0

- 81.6

- 75.7

- 76.4

- 83.1

- 78.0

- 77.6

- 76.9

- 83.0

- 81.1

- 7().l

- 83.2

- 74.9

- 7().2

- 76.0

- 79.3

- 75.8

- 84.1

- 79.4

- 78.5

- 81.1

1386
1513
1347
1405
1469
1445
1513
1559
1303
1203
1274

i;^4

1365
1771
1378
1407
1487
153G
1549
1567
1348
1484
1448
1750
1164
1474
1553
1350
1425
1511
1485
1242
1481
1295
1360
1412
1398
1471
1475

[Pkoc. Koy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), J't. II.. 19i:i.J

Ak'I'. XXI.— 7'A^' CorrcbUloa of Size of Head tnul InteliUfence
as Efit'iniated front the Cubic Capari/i/ of Brain oj oo
Melboitni.e (Jrimituih Ha/n,yed for Murder.

RICHAIID J. A. BERllY, M.U., F.li.S.E.

(Professor of Anatomy in the University of Melbourne)

L. AV. a. BUCHNKll

(<TOvcrniiieut K.esearoli Scholar in the Anatomy Department of the
University of Melbourne).

I Read 14th November, 19 12 J.

In a coiiiiminitatioii [l) presented to tlie Royal [Society of Vic-
toria on the lOtli October, 1*J12, we dealt with tlie debatable «jues-
tioH of the eorrelatiou of the size of liead and intelligence as esti-
mated from the eubic capacity of brain of 355 Melbourne criminals.
That connaunieation was based on observations recorded on the
living subject, whereas the present paper differs fundamentally
inasmuch as it is based on measurements recorded upon casts of
the heads made nUer the judicial death. It consecjuently follows
that in the present t'ommunication there is amitlc scope for error.
llie extent of whicli will l)e pointed o\it latei'. whereas our former
communication was free from any such objections.

For jiermission to examine the casts of the heads of these .'{."J
criTuinals liaiiged foi- mui-der we have to thank Mr. Paterson, the
<Jovernor of the Melbourne (iaol, in whose jtossession all the casts
are safely boused. He informs us that as regards the techni(|ue of
the casting tlie luixedure is as follows: — The execution takes ]>lace
at 8 a.m., and the body renuiins upon the gallows for not less than
an houi-. An incpiest is held, and about 3 p.m. the head is shavecl
anil a cast made. It would ajtpear that sueh casts have been con-
sistently made until about llM)j, wlujreafter the procedure, has ap-
parently been discontinued, inasnuich as there is no cast subsec]uent
to that of James AVilliams, who was hanged upon the 8th Septemljer,
1904.

Corridntioii of Brti'iii ('(i.paclfi/ mid I iilt'Ui<jence. 255

Upon these casts we had (iri^inally iiitcii(le<l to ixrord the length,
breadth, lieifjlit, and ttie seveial slamhird (iicuiuferential measure-
ments. These hist, however, wi- sui)se<iueiit ly <lisi:arded, as it "vvas
<inii'kly Ijorne in u)>(iii iis that the |M)ssil)ility of erior was sufh-
ciently great as to ren<Icr- them, in our ojiinion. juaetically value-
less. We therefore eonei-nt rated our attention cntii-ely upon the
three diametral measurements necessary for the subsequent cal-
culation of the cubic capacity of brain, and even with these, there
are thi'ee very disturbing factors to be taken into consideration.
These are : — 1. The fact that the cast, unlike the living subject, does
not "give" before the callipers. Tt is, therefore, <|uite impossil)le
to obtain that maximum pressure which is so necessary in record-
ing measurements ujton the living. To oliviate this source of
error as far as possil)le. we invai-ia))ly recorded the least possible
figure whicli we could obtain for thi' maximum length, breadth or
height. That we weic fairly successful in this. is. we think, shown
by our measurements of the casts of the liead of the notorious
criminal Albert Williams, alias " Deeming." Of this man's head the
Melbourne Gaol possesses three casts, all taken under the conditions
already pointed out. We measured each of these three casts, and
obtained readings which only differed by 1 millimetre for breadth
and height, and by 3 millimetres for the length. The three seveial
readings so obtained are shown in Table 1. The possible amount
of error under this cause cannot amount, for the estimated cubic
capacity of brain, to more than 1.1 per cent, of the maximum
reading obtained, and is. therefore, inappreciable.

2. The second source of error consists in the fact that notwith-
standing that the customary procedure in obtaining the cast is to
shave the hair of the head, this has not been consistently done
throughout. Thus in the casts of the heads of Edward Feeney,
William Colston and George Syme. the cast was undoubtedly taken
without the head having been shaved. The head measurements
and the estimated cubic capacity of brain are. therefore, for these
three, undoubtedly slightly too high. We are also of opinion that
this same source of error is present in some other instances, though
from the evidence of the cast we cannot exactly specify which. In
the cases specifically mentioned, the hair is so distinctly visible
as to afford no doubt whatsoever upon the subject. In the case
of the females the head is not shaved, but prior to death the hair
is neatly coiled upon the vertex, and the cast taken in the same
way. In the cases of all the females, but particularly so with the
woman Frances Knorr. there is no question that the presence of
the hair has resulted in too high readings for the three diametral
measurements.

256 Berry (ind Bucliner :

o. The third and hist source of error is the undoubted presence
in many of the casts, in how many it is impossible to say, of post
niortetn oedema. This source of error is the most interesting of
the three, as it raises the whole (piestion of the i>hysiological causes
of death in judicial death by hanging. To this interesting phase
of the subject we shall recur later.

In view of these tlnee undoubted sources of error, which were
patently obvious to us before even more than two or three of
the casts were measured, it became a real problem as to whether
it Avas worth while continuing the research. In view, however, of
the interesting possibilities opened up by the source of error due
to the oedema, we decided to contintie the work, and Ave shall pre-
sently relate the methods adopted by us to reduce the threefold
source of error to a minimum for the purposes of estimating the
cubic capacity of brain. Before dealing Avith this point, it Avill
be well to say sometliing of the sex and nationality of the material,
and of the technique employed by us in the research.

As already stated., our material comprises the casts of the heads
of .■).'5 criminals hanged for murder and other crimes in Melbourne
between the years 1853 and 1904. Amongst tliese are some of
AA-orld-wide notoriety, such as Albert Williams, alias " Deeming,"
Edward or " Ned " Kelly, the celebrated Australian bushranger,
as also " Captain " George Melville, and many other equally in-
famous but less Avell known murderers. Of the .■)■) all are males
except 3, the three females being Martha Needle, hanged upon the
22nd October, 1894; Frances Knorr, on the IHth January, 1894;
and Emma Williams, ujion tlie 4th November, 1805.

As regards nationality, all but three are Caucnsiaii, the three
exceptions being Fatta Chand, a Hindu, Ah C.aa a Chinese, and
Frederick Jordan, an American negro. Tlie oedema already re-
fened to was particularly Avell marked in the case of the Chinese.

Of the remaining 27 male Caucasians, all are of Anglo-Saxon
stock except three — namely, Filipi CastiUo. an Italian. August
Tisler, a Russian Finn, and Basilio Bondietto, a Swi.ss Italian.

'I'ho ages are, in the majority of cases, unknown to us, and this
notwitlistanding a careful search through tlie legal nrords ; the
reason, of course, being tliat in many instances the antecedents of
t.hese criminals were nllogether unkrioAvn even to the properly-con-
ixtitutefl h^gal authorit ios. AVe cannot, tlierefori". deal witli the
(luesfion of age.

Such being the material, we may now i)ass to the techniipie.
Til.' incasui-einents Avere the niaxiiiiuni length, maximum breadth
ami auridilar height, and the mode of recording thcMu was in

Correlation of Bi'a'nt Co pari ft/ and Intdligenrr. 257

accordance with the instnutidiis of the Aiitliropometric Committee
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

The formula for the calculation of the estimated cubic capacity
of brain was that emphjyed by us in our previous paper. (1), and
for tlie reasons therein athbiced — namely. Jjce's foitiiula. No. 14,
which for each sex is as follows : —

J" 0 = 0.000337 (L-11) (15-11) (H-11) +400.01
2 C = 0.000400 (L-ll) (l",-ll) (K-11) +20G.G0

We have already stated that the nationality of these 33 criminals
was not always the same, and the ([uestion immediately arises as
to whether Miss Lee's formula is e(|ually applicable to all races.
Miss Lee has herself, in a very able paper (2), investigated this
very point, and states that " rlie ^'enei-al rule for de<lucinj; the
best results would clearly be to wru-k with the formula for the most
closely associated race. But if no as.sociation can be predicted,
then we shall hardly have an eiior as lar^^e as 2 per cent, if we
use the mean formula. As this error is less than that fre(iuently
obtained by different observers for the same series. I conclude that
a fairly satisfactory formula has been reached for the reconstruc-
tion of skull capacity from external measurements." As Miss Lee
also adds that " on consideration, accordingly, we may conclude
that formula 14 or its linear form 17 gives the best results," we
have very naturally employed it throughout the present investiga-
tion for all races of the same sex. the figures for the three females
being calculated, of course, from the foi-mula specially recom-
mended by Miss Lee for females.

Notwithstanding that we knew. bef(U'e commencing the necessary
calculations, all of which were effected on the "Millionaire" cal-
culating machine, that there was a triple source of error, we
first estimated the cubic capacity possessed by these murderers
from the diametral figures recorded on the ca.sts themselves. The
individual results so obtained are set forth in Table I., and the
true means for males and females, Avith their probable errors and
standard deviations, are set forth in Table III. An examination
of either of these tables will, we think, prove convincingly that
the cubic capacity of brain, as estimated from the measurements
recorded on the casts without correction, is far too high. Tlius
the true mean for the 27 male criminals attains the A^ery high
figure of 1611 c.c. of brain with ;» standard deviation of 87.66
+ 8.95, and an individual range from 1456 to 1804. The same
table also shows that the probable errors of both the true means
and also the standard deviations are higher for these uncorrected
cast figures than for any other groups in the table. These facts,

10

268 Berry and liiKluicr :

supported l»y our personal exainination of the casts, together with
the infonnation courteously supplietl us h\ Dr. C. H. Mollisoji,
Lecture)- on Forensic Medicine in this I'niversity. that in his
opinion, and t'runi personal ohsei-vation, the auKjunt of erior due
to post iiiortdii oedema after ileath l)y hanging and tlie otlier
incideJital causes ix'ferred to might aimtuiit to as much as 10- lo
mm., nIiouM, We tliiidv, convince tlie most seejitical tliat the culiic
capacity of brain cannot be estimated from tlie uncorrected figui-es
of the casts.

This being tlie case, the prol)leni ajose in "what way was the
necessary coriection to be made. Our first intention Avas to make
the cid)ic capacity calculations four times, first from the uncor-
I'ected hgures of the casts themselves, mid for the remaining three
calculations to deduct 4, 7 and I I inillimeti-es respectively from
the lengths, breadtlis, and heights. \\\ working out the true
means, standard deviations an<l prnl);il)]e I'rrors of these several
series of calculations, it was ho])ed that we should, by the applica-
tion of general pi-inciples to the )-esults so attained, be enabled to
foi"m a pi'ctty accurate opinion as to which series of deductions
gave the most probable result.

On further reflection it seemed to us that any such procedure
would be at best highly em])iiieal. and on medical grounds was
open to the serious objection that under no jjossilnlity could the
oedenui affect all three diametral measurements equally, certainly
not the height in which one of ilie fixed ])oints is the meatus
acusticus externus. We, therefore, decided to abandon any such
irrational method of establishing tlie correction, and to seek for
some more scii'iitiflc method of effecting our purpose.

AVhile exauiining the literature of the suljjecit for our previous coiii-
munication (1). we had read a shoi't ]iapei- liy Dr. (i. IJ. (ii'iflitlis.
De])iity .Medical Officer in H.M. I'lison Service' in England, on
the " -Measurements of one liundi\'d and thirty criminals '" (o),
and liad noticed that in tliis he records the head lengths, bi-eadths
and heighls of '.\(\ male English iiiiii(K'reis incai'cerated in I'ark-
I'Mst I'risoii. England.

.\s (iriflitlis's ])a])er is strictly technical, and deals with nothing
more than the mere record of his iiicasiiretiieiits, wt' do not know
whether these I'lnglisli criminals were umler senteiut- of death, or
whether they were i>'])rieviMl itmnlereis serving a lifi' sentence in
commutation of hanging, but in view of the conipai'atively larire
numiu'i'. it is oidv reasonable to assume that they "were )'epriev-.><l
murderers. What, howevt'r, is for our jmrpose much more ;iii-
poitant, is that ( Irithtlis's measurements were recorded upon 'ho

Coi'relatioa of Brain Cupatltij and I nlcliijcnce. 259

liviiijj: suhjoct. and upon men of tlir same nationality as the vast
majority of those lierein ilealt with. We very naturally felt, there-
fore, thai in rstal)lisliiii<,' a diriTt coinparisoii hctwueii I he lengths,
breadths and heights as ;_Mven i)y (iriHiths foi- living murderers
with the saniL' mcasuicmciits as riH-oi(l(Ml by ourselves upon the
«;ists. \vx' shoidd be in an infinitely strong(!r jiosilioii to make the
♦■orreet ions wiiich the evidence at our disjiosal showed Mere neces-
sary for 1 he Mi'lbourne criminals. As a control experiment we also
incorporated in the i-om{)arisoii the lengths, breadtlis. and heights
of I I criminals jtreviously recorded by us (Ij. These last measure-
ments were all made ujxin thi; living subject, and comprise 11
imiles i-onvicled for the ciime (d' murder, with the sentence of death
subse(piently commuted to penal servitude.

The comparisons of the lengths, bi-eadths ami heiuhts fo)' ihese
three gi-oups is set foith ill TabU' 11. In every instance the true
means foi- lengths, bicadths and heights is gi-eater for the .\lel-
boui-ne cases than foi- either the "it) Paikhurst living criminals or
the 11 living .\lell)ourne mui-dcrers. an(ither pro(d", if indeed fur-
tiier ]iroof lie re(piired. of the necessity of making some correction
for ciiir ■^'> condemned Melbourne murderers. Omitting decimal
poinls. the true means of the lengths of heads as measured upon
the casts e.veeed the Parkhurst figures by 7 mm., and the small
group (d' 11 reprieved Melbourne mtirdereis by in nini. The cor-
responding excess for the breadth is 10 and H mm., and foi' height
2 ami 4 mm. rcs|)ectivt'ly.

On e.xamining the data afforded by this table it is at once clear
that of the standard gioiips of com])arison, the small .Melbourne
group is open to the objectimi of insutiiciency of nvnnbers, and
also affords the greater ])ossil)li' errors throughout. Further, had
we correcte(l the Melixuiiiie casts from the figures attained l)y the
11 living and reprieved Melbourne murderers, the i-ubic capacity
of Inain for the 3.} murderers hangeil would have hvrw I'tmsiderably
less than we sliall subse(|Uently show it to be.

(hi the other hand if we establish direct comparisons between
the true means of length, breadth and height for the .■)(*) Parkhurst
<riiiiinals. and the •)•"» .Melbourne casts, we have a I'lose a])proxima-
tion <if numbers, ami an excess of the former over the latter of,
for length. 7 mm., breadth lO mm., and height 2 mm. If, there-
fore. We were to correct the Melbourne figures as recorded upon the
casts by de<lucting therefrom the figui-es just mentioned, we should
establish a, correction which would conform, on medical grotmds.
in the m<ist singularly exact way. with what we should expect to
find as the results of oedema. It is clear that any oedema w'ould

260 Berry cmd Biichvcr :

effect tlif vortical hcifrht mefisuroiiicnts least, inasimich as in this
rneasuremeut a fixed point is employed ■which could not under any
cicumstances he effected by oedema. Avhilst the other jioint, heinf^
the vertex of the head upon the scalp, would Ije })ut little sAvollen
no matter how great the oedema. The l)readth would most clearly
reflect the influence of oedema, inasmucli as the callipers toucli
upon both sides the temporal regions where the layers of the scalj*
arc more numerous, and are in the direct channel of the v. jugu-
laris externa. For somewhat similar reasons the length would
occupy an intermediate position in any form of oedema, us here
the callipejs touch two parts liablt; to lie swollen, but those two
parts are not so nearly in the direct path of venous channels as
are those for l)readth, and hence we should expect an oedema of
the head to affect breadth measurements most^ heig?it measure-
ments least, with length measurement in the intei'iiiediate- position.

For all of these reasons we finally determined to correct the read-
ings obtained upon tlie Melbourne casts by the deduction of 7 mm.
from the length, 10 mm. from the breadth, and 2 mm. fi'om the
height, and we are of opinion that in making such deductions we
have been guided by thoroughly i-ational, scientific and medical
reasoning. v

Having thus determined what seemed to us to be an accurate
mode of coi-recting our readings npon the casts, we recalculated
tlie cubic capacity of the brain of these 3.j criminals, and the
results so attained are i?et forth in the extreme right hand column
of Table I. alongside those obtained fiom the uncori'ccted read-
ings. As it will be remend)ci'ed that in Lee's foninda, Xo. 1-1,
eleven millimetres is unifoi-ndy detlucted from length, breadth
and height, it follows that in order to obtain the corrected cubic
capacity we liave, in addition to this deduction, also had to deduct
7 mm. f(jr the length. 10 mm. for bi'eadth, and 2 mm. for height.
In other words, Ihe calculations obtained in the "cubic capacity
corrected" column ai-e athieved by tlie use of Lee's formula. No.
14. with 18 substracted from the lengths, 21 from the l)readths and
1.". from the heights. Tn this same Table L, are also shown the
names of the mnrderei-s h;ii\ged. ihe dates of their execution, the
lengths, breadths and heights as recorded by us upon the casts,
the v\\\nv ca]>acity of brain as calculated from the uncorrected
figures of the casts, as well as the final an<I more neai-1y correct
leadings obtained after the necessary corrections. "We have ar-
ranged them, not in chronological order, but in the order of tlieir
cid)ic capacity of l)rain from the low(>st to the highest. It will be
noted thai the notorious " Deeming " oeeujdcs the second lowest

Correlation of lirnin Capaclf// ortd riifcllif/rtirr. 201

place upon tlie tabic, "vvith " Ned " Kelly in tliu sixth position.
Of the female murderesses tine. Martha Needle, is eix'dited bv the
corrected reading ■\vitli a surprisingly small amount of inain —
namely, 1121.5 c.e.

In Table III. is established a direct comparison i)ctwi'cn the
English Pail^hurst ujurdcrci' and tlie Australian mui'di-rcr. Here
are al.so shown the uncorrected and corrected figures for both the
male and female Australian ci'iminals. f'oncenti'ating oui- atten-
tion solclv uiMiu the cori'ccted readings, the tal)lc cstai)lislK's the
tact that the English muidcrci- is a slightly moi-e intelligent ])erson
than is his Australian confrere, for the true mean of the former is
1491 ±10.25, as against the hitter's 1471.9^10.57.

What, however, is m(n-e important than the slight difference of
the ti-ue mean in favour of the English criminal, is the fact that a
study of the standard deviations, as well as of the individual range
of variation shows cleai"ly that nnirder, as a crime, is not nearly
so restricted to one section of the conmiunity in England as in
Australia. Why this should be we have no jiieans of knowing, but
wc think the table clearly reveals that such is the case.

In Table IV. we have instituted a comparison of the cidiic
cai»acity of brain of these English and Au.stralian murderers with
those several learned classes utiliseil by us in o\ir juevious com-
munication on this subject (1). The general result attained by this
table confirms the conclusions pi'eviously drawn—namely, that for
clas.ses there is an appreciable correlation between size of head and
intelligence. It will be seen that the three groups of crinnnals -Avr
at the bottom of the list altogether behind the true means of the
learned classes. The same geiK-ral conclusion also holds good for
the females where we have been enabled to institute a dii-ect com-
parison between three Melbourne murderes.ses and 'M) Bedford Col-
lege women students. For the latter figui-es we aie indebted to the
work of Miss Lee (2). from whose statistics we have ourselves cal-
culated the standard deviations and probable errors. The table
shows clearly that for the classes of both sexes the correlation be-
tween size of head and intelligemc would ai)i)ear to hold good.

In Table V., the last of the series, we have instituted a com-
parison between the corrected cubic capacity of each individual
Melbourne murderer and the true means of the several learned
and criminal classes of our previous work (1). The list is headed
by six criminals, then follow two of the learned classes, two nuire
criminals, another of the learned classes, two more crinnnals,
and finally the last of the educated groups. Of the 27
individual Melbourne murderers herein dealt with, no less tlian

262 lierrii mid /iHcliner:

().*5 per (.ciit. fall altojL^etlicr liehiiid llie lowest uf ihc several learned
groups. Ill view of the severity of the eomparisou established by
this table, the result is a surjuisin^- one, and seems to furnish one
more additional jiniof of the truth of the statement that in the
ease of elasses tlieie is an undoulited eoirelatiiui hetween size of
head and intelligenee.

In view of the fact that the table is headed liy six criminals, we
tlutught it advisalile to seareh the eriminal reeoids in order to
aseei'tain, if possiiile. if these six had been <j;uilty of crimes display-
in<;- in tlu'ir coiniiiiti al an unusual degree of intelligcme. For this
permission we have to thank Mr. An<lerson. Secretary of tlie Crown
Law Department (d' \ ictoria. We eannot. however, add tliat our
investigation of the criminal records throws inucli li^dit ujtoii the
degiiH- of intelligence or otherwise of the few criminals who head
the list.

Of Freeland .Morrell. who actually appears al the loji of the list
with a corrt'cted cubic ca])acity of 1()4!).7 <«•.. we can oljtain but
meagre information. lb' was an .\iiiericaii seaman who was
hanu'ed for the minder hv stahbing of the second mate of the boat
upon which lie was employed. He died " wiili a sneer on his lips,"
and the words. " I'll show you how an .\merican can dii'."

Charles John Hall owed his downfall to alcohol. ;iiid to sexual
excesses, and was hanged for the' murder of his wife at the i-arly
age of 22.

David ^"ouiig is a relic of the days of the transportation of con-
victs from I'ln^jland to .\ust ralasia. He was an lOnirlish eriminal
who arrived in Tasmania in IS.'iO, under sentence of ten years"
i ranspiu'tation U>v liurglary. His retord is ;i black (Uie, and his
ti'eatment of women, children and dumb animals was particularly
diabolical. Like Hall, he was hanged for the murder of his wife,
and like Hall he was an alcoholic and a sexual maniac.

Charles liushbee, dims " Uaker, " closely resembles ^'oung. There
call be no doubt from his record that he was an alcoholic and a
sexual maniac. The most surprising thing about IJushbee is that, at
the tiini' of his trial, any medical man could be found, as actually
occurred, who could enter a witness box and testify to the man s
sanity, for here is his record prior to tiie crime U^v which he was
hanged. On the Tlh Octobei'. I.'^TT. he attempted suicide by drown-
ing at Sandhurst, having been " liisaiiiiointed in love." Vov this
lie was arrested and conmiitted to Kew Lunatic .\syhun. On his
diseliargc from the asvluni he was lost sigiit of for some time, but
siibse(pien(ly reajipears in the records of Vent ridge (Jaol. Here
are recoriled against him manv ((Uiviotioiis for passing wm-thless

(Correlation of Brain Ca.pac'dn "'"^ I utell'ujence. 26o

che(iuos. and fui- Juipirv. as also for dninkenness and associatiii};
with jirostitutcs. Vet in tliu lacu of this jiartitularly black record,
metlical witnesses went into the witness box some years later to
testify tf( the <onvict"s sanity and responsibility.

Of Keenly and Syine it is unnecessary to speak, because we liave
already pointed out that in our opiniiui even the coriected (•<il)ic
(iqiacity reading is too high, due to the fact that the casts wej-t.-, in
these instances, taken with the fiair unshared.

In almost cvrrv (Uie of these ciiniinals tiie cause of the downfall
is almost invariably the same, drink and sexuality, with or with-
out an associated insanity, or ;ii all events, lack of will power.
What .some of those criminals, who aic shown in our tables to possess
a sutlicient amount of l)rain, might have become with suitable
opportunity and a m(ue lia]))Mly ih-vised system of education, it is
impossible to sav. but thi-re seems no scientific reason to doubt
that given educational opp<n-t unit ies, and witli the avoidance of
alcolioi they might have developed into useful members of the com-
munity.

The last ])oiiit to wliieh we wish to icfer is the (piestion of /^o.vV
mortem oedema aftei- jmlicial (h-aih by luinging. There is no
question that sucli oedema is |)resent in many, though not in all.
of the cases herein dealt witli. It was perfectly obvious to us
when measuring the ca.sts, and that obsei-vation has since been
confirmed by our colleague. Dr. ('. 11. Mollison, from personal
observation on the cadavera of ]iersons who have died from death
by hanging. Now there is no (|uestion that in some of the judicial
hangings death is instant aiieous. In the lecords of the Melb(uirne
Gaol there is a photogra])h <if the atlas or first cervical vertebra
taken from a criminal Avlm had been hanged. This vertebra is
fractured clean across, and must, therefoi-e, by pressure of the
dens of the epistropheus ujxm the inedulla, have produced instan-
taneous death. The bloful ])ressure would fall almost to zero, and
there couhl not ])ossil)ly \,c any /yo.v/ umrlrin oedema.

On the other hand, should the vertebra not be fractured, death
may not be instantaneous, liut of a more lingering character, in
which i-ase oi-dema would naturally be pi'esent. It is j^erfectly
true that in jtidiiial hanging, the i-oi>e and knot are adjusted with
the exprt'ss object of ]u-odueiiig. with the "drop," fracture of
the vertebra referre(l to and instantaneous death. Yet our I'ecords
show that this may oidy oecasioiially be the case, and that in other
instances death inay be of a moic lingering character.

It seems to us. on the evidence at oiir disjiosal. that the physiology
of judicial deatli ])y ]ian;:ing is but imperfectly known, and it

264 Bcrrif (1 11(1 HihltiK'v :

mij^lit well be, that <i^iveu laorc accurate information as to the
precise cause of death in such cases, some more perfect metliod of
administering capital punishment might be devised.

In this connection there is vei y ojiportunely to hand the accounts
of the 1912 Dundee meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. In the Anthropology Section, Dr. ¥.
Wood-Jones presented a communication on the lesions caused by
judicial hanging (4). He stated that during the hrst si-ason's field
Work of the Egyptian Government Survey of Nubia tiiere was
unearthed in the neighbourhood of Chellal. a series of bodii's buried
roughly in trenches, showing the effects of various forms of violent
death. There was every indication that thry had been executed in
Roman times. One man actually liad the hangman's rope around
his neck, and a very large numljer showed a curit)us lesion of the
base of the skull. Dr. Wood-Jones was apparently inclined, at the
field examinations, to attribute this lesion to the hanging, but a
more detailed laboratory search caused him to abandon the opinion,
and he concludes by stating tliat " hanging " might imply — (1)
the hanging of a corpse, (2) the hanging (strangulation) of a living
being, or (3) the dropping and hanging used to-day as the form
of judicial death in England. Each had its historical aspect, and
its anthropological and pathological interest.

Our own contribution to the suliject of judicial death by hanging
is, therefore, that from the evidence at our disposal, we are in-
clined to believe that even the "dropping and hanging" may
sometimes imply slower death by suffocation, that is, Wood-Jones's
" hanging or strangulation "' of a living being.

Concerning the subject of the correlation of head size and intel-
ligence, we are clearly of opinion that the present paper confirms
in every detail our previous results, an<l amounts to this, that the
coi-relation undoubtedly holds good foi- the classes, but is, in the
cases of individuals, so obscured by othei- pathological and physio-
logical causes as to make it idle to endeavotir to predi'"^ intellec-
tuality from head measurements alone.

REFEUENCES.

1. Berry, R. J. A., and l^>iichner, \,. W . (i. — ^" Tiie correlation of size

of head and intelligciut' as t'stiiiiated from the cubic capacity
of brain of 355 Melbftui iic criminals." Preceding article.

2. Lee, Alice. — " Data for tlic iM<.l)Iriii of evolution in Man. — VI.

Correlation o/ Bniin Capdcity and luteUitjencc. 265

A first study of tlic ((.irclatioii of tlic- human skull." Trans.

Hoy. Soc, A. V..1. I!)r.. Pp. 22'}-2('A.
o. (Iritliths, (J. ]i. — " .Mcasuit'inonts of one hundred and tliirtv

iriininals." liic.nut rika. Vol. III., 1904, pp. 60-62.
4. Wood-Jones, F. — " Thi' lesions caused by judicial hanging."

British Medical Jomiial. 14th September, 1012, P. 646.

'V\nu<: T. Details of 33 .Melltourne Criminals han-'ed for Murder.

Cu))ic

Cubic

Order Name

Date

h

B

H

I 'aj>acit\-
un-

Capacity
cor-

corrected

rected

1.

Alfred Archer

-

21/ 11/ 1898 -

193 -

148 -

136

- 1450.3 -

1327.2

2.

A. Williams " Deeoiin*^

23/5/1892 -

192 -

161 -

129

- 1485.6 -

■ 1358.2

A . Williaius " Deeminjj^

"

-

189 -

160 -

130

- 1469.6 -

1343.1

A. Williams " Deemin<f '

.

190 -

160 -

130

- 1475.5 -

l;i48.6

3.

John Weeohurch

-

6/12/1875 -

200 -

154 -

132

- 1508.0 -

1376.7

4.

Albert Edward Macnamara 14/4/1902 -

197 -

149 -

139

- 1513.2 -

1378.9

5.

John Wilson -

-

23/3/1891 -

• 190 -

160 -

135

- 1520.5 -

1388.9

6.

Edward ("Ned") Kelly

11/11/1880 -

199 -

161 -

130

- 1536.9 -

1405.1

7.

William Hastings -

-

14/3/1877 -

198 -

155 -

137

- 1549.2 -

1413.9

8.

Filipi C. Castillo -

-

16/9/1889 -

203 -

154 -

1.35

- 1553.3 -

1417.6

9.

William Barnes

-

15/5/1885 -

195 -

156 -

139

- 1556.8 -

1420.6

10.

John Kelly -

-

5/10/1866 -

198 -

155 -

139

- 1567.5 -

1430.2

11.

Ernest Knox -

-

19/3/1894 -

197 -

153 -

143

- 1580.9 -

1441.1

12.

Robert Landells

-

16/10/1889 -

205 -

156 -

136

- 1590.9 -

1452.4

13.

James Williams

-

8/9/1904 -

205 -

150 -

142

- 1596.4 -

1454.7

14.

Aiignst Tisler -

-

20/10/1902 -

195 -

168 -

133

- 1593.7 -

1458.2

15.

— Coo ley -

-

-

199 -

165 -

134

- 1606.0 -

1468.8

16.

George Melville (Captain)

3/11, 1853 -

198 -

159 -

140

- 16(J9.1 -

1469.1

17.

John Thomas Phelan

-

16/3/1891 -

200 -

167 -

133

- 1618.2 -

1480.5

18.

John Conder -

-

28/8/1893 -

204 -

158 -

140

- 1639.3 -

1496.6

19.

r.asilio Bondietto -

-

11/12/1876 -

195 -

167 -

139

- 1644.1 -

1503.3

20.

William Robert Jones

-

26/3/1900 -

203 -

163 -

138

- 1655.0 -

1512.6

21.

William Colston

-

24/8/1891 -

203 -

162 -

139

■ 1656.6 -

1513.6

22.

George Syme -

-

11/8/1888 -

203 -

162 -

144

- 1705.4 -

1557.5

23.

]M\vard Feeney

-

15/7/1872 -

204 -

168 -

140

- 1723.2 -

1576.2

24.

Charles Bushbee " Bake

I- "

3/9/1885 -

211 -

165 -

138 •

- 1724.2 -

1576.7

25.

David Young

-

21/8/1865 -

209 -

167 -

138 ■

■ 1727.9 -

1580.7

26.

Charles John Hall -

-

13/9/1887 -

200 -

170 -

147 •

• 1783.3 -

1630.6

27.

Freeland Morrell -

-

7 / 1 / 1886 -

203 -

171 -

146 ■

• 1803.6 -

1649.7

3

I'

emales (Caucasian)

1.

Martha Needle

.

22/10/1894 -

183 -

143 -

127 ■

- 12<i0.0 -

1124.5

2.

Frances Knorr

-

15/1/1894 -

190 -

163 -

133 -

• 1.534.3 -

1378.9

3.

Emma Williams

-

4/11/1895 -

195 -

159 -

147 -

1688.0 -

1515.8

3 Males not of Caucausiau Race.

1. Fatta Chaud [Hindu] - 27/4/1891 - 205 - 148 - 138 - 1543.5 - 1406.4

2. Ah Gaa [Chinese] - - 30/8/1875 - 189 - 173 - 137 - 1630.4 - 1492.1

3. Frederick Jordan [Negro] 20/8/1894 - 204 - 165 - 140 - 1698.1 - 1552.3

U

266

Berrij and Bilchnei' .

Tablk II. (Jdiiiparisou of the Lentjths, Kreadths, and Heiglifcs to show th
amount of correction made on the casts of the Melliounie iNlnrdeieis.

m

11

m
11

33
3()

n

standard
Deviation.

Le/nyth.

.Mill. True Mean

Melbourne Murderer.s. Hau^'ed. Oasts. IS'.t . 2U1.3 ±:.79 - 6.68^. 5H - 211 -

Parkhurst Murderers. Reprieved. Living 185 - 194.lO±.57 - o.U9±.40 - 20G -
Melbourne Murdereis. Reprieved. Living. 182

Melbourne Murderers. Hanged.
Parkhurst Murderers. Reprieved.
Melbourne Murderers. Reprieved.

Melbonrne Murderers.
Parkhurst Murderers.
Melbourne Murderers.

Height.
Hanged. Casts. 129 - 138.54
Repneved. Living. 119 - 137. l=k
Reprieved. Living. 125 - 134.11:

Lor-
lertioii.

Living. 182 -

191.0 i:.89

- 4..38±.63 - 197 -

Breadth.

c;asts. US -

1R0.0±.80

- 6.78± .57- 173 -

Living. 138 -

loO.O±.-lo ■

. 4.07 dn .32- IGO -

Living. 139 -

151.2i:1.56 ■

• 7.06^:1. 10- 161 -

:.56 - 4.73±:.39 - J 47
.89 - 7.94±.63 - 157
h-1 31- 6.444-.92 - 149

Tablk III. Comparison of the Cubic Capacity of Brain of v;
English and Australian Criminals condemned for Murder.

Description. Min.

3 - Females. Melbourne. Hanged—

Uncorrected from Casts - 12(50

Corrected from Casts - 1 1 25

11 - Males. Melbourne. Reprieved. 1261

27 - Males. Melbourne. Hanged —

Uncorrected from Casts - 145(5
Corrected from Casts - 1327

1494
1456

±(59.01
±63.15
±22.98

Stand.ird
Deviation.

177.02±48 93
161.98±44.77
113.024-16.25

1611 ±11.39 - 87.66 zr. 8.05
1471.94:10.57 - 81.37 zt 7.47

36 - Males. Parkhurst. Reprieved. 1286 - 1491.5 — 10.25 - 91.18 ~ 7.25 -

Max.

1688
1516
1675

18L>4
1(550
1712

Tablk IV. Comparison of the Cul)ic ('apacity of Brain of Murderers,
Criminals and Learned (-lasses.

No.

Clas-.

Mill.

TriU! Mean.

standard
Deviation.

Ma\.

35 -

Anatomists

1372

- 1537.0 :i: 9.86 -

86.40±6.97 -

1813

25 -

University ('oUegf Staff

1352

- 151 I.O ±11.01. -

81.i»0±7.81 -

1(533

215 -

London Students

—

- l.")07.o

—

—

British Association A. Sc.

—

- 1495.0

—

—

36 -

Parkhurst Munlrrcrs -

12S()

- 1 1-!)1.5 -10.25 -

91.18±:7.25 -

1712

27 -

Melbourne Murderers -

1327

- 1471.9 i: 10.57 -

81.374:7 47 -

16.")0

355 -

Melboiu-Uf^ (hirninnls -

1 19!

- 1 |.37.7(> 10.47 -

90.74^:7.10 -

1771

30 -

Bedford Colleg.^

1201)

- 1390 ±13.75 -

111.55± 9.72 -

i()47

3 -

Melbourne Murderesses

1125

- 1340.0 i-(53. 15 -

161.08^44.77 -

1516

Correhitloii of Brain CtqMclfij <i//id I ntdiigence.

267

Tablk \'. (^'oniparison of the Jii<Hvi(lii;il Molbounie .Munlt^rei-.s with
the true means of the Leai-iied and Criminal Classes.

Iii'liviilual or ( 'lass.

-Mill.

Inilii idital (^ap.acitj'
or True .Moan.

Staiidaril
Deviation.

Max.

Freelaiid Morrell -

—

- 1()49.7

.

—

. —

Charles .John Hall -

—

- KWO.tt

-

—

- —

David Youno-

-

- 1580.7

-

—

- —

Charles Bushhee (" Baker")

—

- 1576.7

.

—

- —

Edward Feeney

—

- 1576.2

-

—

- —

(jreors^e Syme

-

- 1557.5

-

—

. . .

:ir)

- Anatomists - - -

i:i72

- 15;i7.(t-

=9.86 -

8().U» ().97

- 1818

•2o

- University College Staff -

i:{52

- 1511.0^

= 11. Oi -

H1.90 r7.81

- 1688

William Colstou

—

- 15i:i6

-

—

- —

William Kohert Jones

,_

- 1512.6

-

—

- —

I'l.-j

- London Students

- 1507.0

-

- —

Basilio Bondietto

—

- 1503.8

-

—

- —

John Conder

—

- 1496.6

-

—

- —

British Association Adv. Sc.

—

- 1495.0

-

—

- —

John Thomas Phelan

—

- 1480.5

-

—

. .-

5

- Emhi.'zzlement

l.'Wi

- 1 475.0 i

=81.48 -

103.94=1=22.18

- 1645

(ieorge Melville (Ciiptain) -

—

- 1469.1

-

—

- —

— Cooley

—

- 1468.8

-

—

- —

1 +

- Forgery ...

1267

- 1459.0z

-21.15 -

117.81-14.95

- 1701

:>2

- Miscellaneous Crimes

12(59

- 1458.0=1

=8.78 -

98.88±6.17

- 1678

August Tisler

—

- 1458.2

-

—

- --

11

- Murder and Manslaughter

12G1

- 1456.0d

=22.98 -

118.02^:16.25

- 1675

James Williams

—

- 1454.7

-

—

- —

Robert Landells

—

- 1452.4

-

—

- —

Ernest Knoi

—

- 1441.1

-

—

. —

."iO

- Sexual (Offences

1218

- 144().()±9.03 -

I(M).89±6.48

- 1668

L'O

- House and Shop-breaking -

i:{17

- 1485.6,

= 10.82 -

8l.()6i:7.68

- 1610

lit

- Larceny - . -

11()4

- 1432.0a

=5.52 -

98.213=8.90

- 1771

John Kelly - - -

—

- 1480.2

-

-

. -

15

- Assault :ind Wounding

12(iS

- I425.()j

= 15.48 -

88.86=3 1<».95

- 1595

2G

- Inebriety

IKtl

- 1 428.0 r

^17.20 -

129.80 2=12.14

- 1657

William Barnes

—

- 1420.6

-

—

- —

Filipi C. Castillo

—

- 1417.6

-

—

- —

William Hastings -

—

- 1413.9

-

—

- —

Edward ("Ned") Kelly -

-

- 1W5.1

-

—

- —

John Wilson

- 1888.9

-

—

- —

Albert Edward Macnamara

—

- 1878.9

-

—

- —

6

- Cattle-stealing

1280

- 1377.0-

=24.31 -

88.28=^17.20

- 1516

John Weechurch

—

- 1876.7

-

—

- —

Albert Williams (''Deeming"'

) -

- 1858.2

-

—

- —

Alfred Archer

—

- 1827.2

.

—

- —

[Pkoc. Rot. Soc. Victoria. 25 (N.S). I'r. U., 1913.

Akt. XXII. — On the Country hetweeu Melbourne and the
Dandenoiig Creek.

By T. S. hart, M.A., B.C.E., F.G.8.

[Read 14tli November, 1912].

The area whose features are now dealt with extends from the
Yarra, near Toorak and Hawthorn, south-easterly to the Dandenong
Cieek. A part of it is inchided in quarter sheets Xos. I. S.E.
and I. N.E. of the Geoh)gical Survey of Victoria. The Lands-
Department contour maps of Melbourne and subui'bs extend to
beyond IJox Hill and Oakleigh, and further contour maps of the
same d('i>artriieiit cover the parish of Moorabbin, and the country
south of the (iijjpslaiid railway as far as Dandenong. Mr. Saxton
kindly directed my attention to the latter map, and also furnislied
me with levels of several other points.

In 191U. Mr. J. T. Jutson' in " A Contribution to the Physio-
graphy of the Yarra and Dandenong Creek Basins," dealt with
a part of this district, but not so much with the southern part.
His conclusions, so far as relevant to the present subject, may be
summarised as follows : —

The general slope of the country from about Sui-rey Hills and
Mitcham is south-westerly. The name of the Mitcham Axis is
given to a line of high land through tiiesc two i)laces turning north-
east fi-om Mitcham.

.Main Creek, and another further west, follow down the general
slopi- to (Jardiner's Creek. Gardiner's Ci'eek flows from lower
countrv aliout .\! urrumbeena through higher country north (»!'
Malvein.

He consideis that Main Creek may have oiiginally ci>ntinued
south-west, and thai Gardiner's Creek has cut rapidly back and
captured the upi)er i)art of the. original Main Creek.

He admits ditlicullies in the north-westerly courses of Scotch-
man's Creek and the Elsternwick Creek. Alternatively he suggests,
that Gardiner's Creek and its tributaries may be antecedent
streams.

1 Proc. l!o\. Soc. \i(t(>ri:i, vol. wiii. (Niu SciUs). |.i>. J(t!t-.'.U.

Country Sout/i of )'orni. 260

He suggests alsD tliat the " Croydon Seiikuiigsfcld "' iiiclii<lfs the
Curriiin Swamp, and possiljly part of Port Phillip, and that the
west houndary fault of this sunk area is replaced by a gentle
tilting about Scoi('sl)y and Spi-ingvale.

] propose to sho\\ that a north-westerly course of the valleys and
ridges is the rule south of (lardiner's (''reek, and that a north-
west and south-east ti-end of the sui-face features extends as fai- as
Dandenong, with gi't>at regularity in Brighton and Moorabbin, but
affected by the southward fall to the ("arruiu Swainp in the more
easterly parts. An important axis extends from Mitel)am to the
vicinity of Cheltenham and Blackrock. on the line of the continua-
tion of the north-east end of .Tutson's Mitchani axis. Another im-
portant divide extends fi-om South Yaiia to Dandenong, and no
outlet can have existed for Main Creek to the south-west. At
Murrumbeena, on the contrary, there is a recent diveision of waters
north into Gardinei-"s Creek. The numerous closed and ill-drained
holh)ws and some other ])oints will also l)e referred to.

General Descripti,on of the Area.

A ])art of tliis district drains to tlie Yarra, either direct or by
way of Gardiner's Creek. South of this the outlet is direct to
Poit Phillip by the Elsternwiek Creek, and a series of jiarallel
valleys through Brighton and Sandringliam. Betwfcn Cheltt-niiaTii
and Dandenong the waters mm naturally to the Carium Swam]>.
With the assistance of shallow drains, waters from near Oakleigh
are discharged through this area. The Sjiringvale valley i-uns
south-east, and turns south near Dandenong. It i-eceives tributaries
from the north from a little beyond the Fern Tree Gully-idad. A
small area about (ilcn Waverlev discharges into Scotchman's Creek,
ahead of Gardiner's Creek. From "Wheeler's Hill to Mitcham a
triangular area falls direct to the Dandenong Creek.

The cliief dividing line extends from Mitcham south-westerly
through Notting Hill to Cheltenham. Parallel to this is the
liighlaml from north of Suirey Hills to Malvern, broken by the
outlet of Gardiner's Creek. Ti-ansverse to the.se is the divide from
South Yarra to near Dandenong, on the south-west side of tlio
valleys of Gardiner's Creek, and the Springvale Creek. The south-
west limit of the Elsternwiek Cieek is a parallel lino, as are also
the divides between the Brighton valleys. The high land from
Wheeler's Hill north-westerly is parallel to these, and iti the same
line is the Reservoir Hill at Surrey Hills, ami the south limit of
the Koonun*' Creek further to the noith-wi'st. South-east from

270 T. S. Hart:

Wheeler's Hill aie the Police Paddock Hills, and the Dandeiiong
Creek contracts its valley to pass between these and Wheeler's Hill,
as well as changing to a south-easterly direction. The simplicity
of su(;h a rectangular {)lan is broken by the way in which the
Gardiner's Ci-eek catchment is enlarged at the expense of its
neighbours,

dnrd in er's ( ' ri'fk .

Nortli-west of the Malvern Cauiberwell higlilaiid, the, fall is
direct to the Yarra. The valley from near Malvern railway sta-
tion has a very direct north-west couise. The outlet of Gardiner's
Creek has also a nortli-west direction, and a valley no doubt con-
tinues under the basalt to join the buiicd valley of the Yarra.
The fall would bo steeper than is now seen in (Gardiner's Creek.
From the junction of (lardiner's Creek and Main Creek the fall is
from 85 to 25 above sea level in three miles. A mile and a-half
lower, (iardiner's Creek joins the Yarra at "J feet above sea level;
the probable junction of the buried valleys is a mile or a mile and
a half furthei' on, and about GO feet below sea level. Even allow-
ing the l)uried valley to extend some distance up (lardiner's Creek,
the fall will still be greater than the 20 feet to the mile higher up
the valley.

The natural continuation of the (Tardinei's Creek valley is by
Scotchman's Creek tlirough Oakleigh ; a little valley can be followed
south-east to Netting Hill. But by far the greater part of the area
drained by Gardiner's Creek and Scotchman's Creek is to the
north of the main line of Gardiner's Creek. The contributions
from the south are insigniiicant in amount, and the most important
of these, the little rr«'ek at Murrumbeena. will be .shown later to
bo new.

The mouth of Gardiner's Creek must lie a ipiite early feature.
Probably the whole system ilevelop«>d soon rn()ugh to secure the
waters of the area about Blackburn, which might have gone to
Koonung Cieek, and to capture Black Kbit (Glen Waverley) from
(lie eastern vall(\vs. Throughout the Gardiner's Creek area the
streams have cut down to tlu; bedi-ock. .\ much largei- proportion
of the rainfall must In; immediately discharged than by a system in
the absor]>tive tertiaiv jocks. The excavating jn.wer of the streams
is tlmrciln- increased, aiul the higher levels allow deeper dissection
than in the country to the south. No undiained ai'eas of the
kinil common fui-ther south occur. Detail of the course of the
creeks is inHuenced by bedrock structures, which no doubt con-
)ril)u(e to the numei'ous small irregulai"ities.

Country South of YdrnL 271

Are(( ilrdinnnj In Jidhicht ra ami h'lstennnck.

A short (listiincL' sdiitli (if the Malvern tailway station is a
swamiiy area t'oniieily known as Paddy's Swamp. The 140 ft.
contoiii- I'liiis i-onnd an area aliout 40 chains by 10, leaving an
outlet at the west end. which, however. I'annot drain away all
the surface water. Thence the valley falls south-west and west to
ihe Hat at Jialaclava. reaching the sea to the south of the St. Kilda
Hill. South-east from Paddy's Swamp is the flat in the Catilfiehl
Racecourse, and again soutli-east, another aiea of ditticult drain-
age, to be refeii'ed to later.

The trend of the hnvest ground of the Klwood Swamp is from
south-east to noith-west. Tp stream the valley can be followed
almost straight to its head north of Cheltenham. The south-west
limit of the f>l.sternwick ("reek Avaters is a ridge from near the
power house of the lirigiiton electric tram south-east in an almost
straight line. It is close to the Point Xepean-road from North
Brighton to Moor;iI)biii station; thence a little east of the road,
which has turned a little more southerly. This may conveniently
be called the Moorabl)in Ridge. The Elsternwiek Creek lies close
north-east of tliis ridge, a small parallel vallfy intervening at
North Biighton. The creek then receives practically nothing from
the left ])ank. but on the right or north side it receives two im-
])ortant tributaries; one of these runs south from near the Caul-
field Town Hall, and turns west to join the creek near Gardenvale
station. The other flows south, near the Mordialloc railway, le-
I'eiving much water from its east side, including that from the
swamp south of Carnegie station. Here the 140 ft. contour almost
sHirrounds a long narrow area stretching for a mile and a quarter
south-east to north-we.st. The outlet is south-west to the Elsternwiek
Creek tributaiy, but at a point a long way back from the north-
west end of the elongated hollow. At its south-east end it merges
in an ordinary valley from the south-east.

A remarkable broken valley line lies north-east of tlie Elstern-
wiek Creek. One portion of it runs through the entrance to the
Brighton Cemetery, and extends south-east for some distance lower.
This part and another north-west of it fall into one of the
Elsternwiek Creek tributaries. On the same line further south-
'east, a pair of similar valleys falls into tlie next tributary, and a
fifth section, reaching the Elsternwiek Cicek by another route,
occurs further on, east of the Bentleigh station. It is either a
valley broken up by three captures, or indicates a marked tendency
to produce valleys alf)ng one line.

272 T. S. Hart:

The head of the I'jlsternwiek Creek is in a hroad open valley
north of Cheltenham. On each side of the valley the I'iO ft. con-
tour runs in two nearly parallel lines from south-east to north-
west, 20 to 30 chains apart. The 110 ft. contouis come in at the
two ends of this flat, a mile and a half apart. Most of the flat
drains to the Elsternwick Creek, but the south-east end falls to the
south-east and the outlet is steeper than the other end.

The Elsternwick Cieek and its tributaries nowhere cut down to
the bed rock; prol)al)ly much of the main valley at least is in" less
permeable beds low in the tertiary series. The average fall over
4^^ miles from 110 to 10 ft. above sea level is about 22 ft. to the
mile.

A north-westerly trend of the valleys is the rule throughout this
area, but the two tributaries from the north bring nearly all the
waters down to the south-west side of the system. The more im-
portant of these ti-ibutaries receives nearly all its water by north-
westerly valleys. The levels along the divides on the north-east
and south-east of this system range from 190 to 150. The Moor-
abbin ridge, however, only reaches 150 at its highest point, and
the actual head of the Elsternwick Creek is below 120.

The Br/(//ifo/i <ut(l Sa ndri inihoni Vdllfi/^.

These are six parallel valleys Avith a north-westerly direction.
The first is very straight and regular, starting east of the Point
Nepean-road, not far north of Cheltenham, running close to the
Moorabbin Ridge, and entering the sea at the foot of North-road,
North Brighton. The second heads close to the railway between
Highett and Cheltenham, but after running ni.rth-west for a mile
and three-quarters, turns south-west into the tliinl valley. .Vnotlier
valley starts within half a mile of the angle, and continues ti>
the sea on the second valley line. The third extends practically
straight from the Kwami)s in Cheltenham Park to .Middle lirighton.
The fourth heads a mile west of Cheltenham, but after running
north-west to a point nortli of Hampton station, turns south-west
into the fifth. On the line of the fourth lower down two other
little valleys occur. This series is well seen on the Brighton rail-
way, the first just south of (North) Brighton station; the second
and third on each side of Middle Brighton. The fourth is here
only represented by a very slight hollow. The railway follows tlie
fifth from Brighton Beach to Hampton, and the sixth is seen
inside the Beach-road lu-low Sandi-inghani.

Coanlri/ Sont/i of Ydrra. 273

Aliuvf the apparent liead <>( tin- tit'tli valU-v east of SaiMlrin^-liani
statioii-. there is on the same line a long valley Avith iiu nutlet,
terminating in a lagnon cast <>\' the golf club house. A tlatti-ning
of the grade of all these valleys mi iirs about the line of the IJluft"-
rcail. and on the same line ocinis the flattest part of the Klstern-
wii'lv Ci'eek (except its head and swamps at the mouth). The
grades of the valleys are shown in the accompanying table in whieli
the letter D indicates tliat the valley is here diverted south-west,
and the letter B that it is blocked with no free outlet.

On tlie sixth or Sandringham valley the 40 ft. contour is the last
above the cliffs.

I'jisli'rnwick Creek and liruihton Vallfi/s. Dififdnces in ClKiinx
betiveen Sin'cess^ive Contours.

l.fVfls

E. Ck.

1

•J iiH..-

r •! lowei

Hi

r

•iylitoi
3

1 \'allevs.
i

,T ujiix-r .'

1 loWl T

<j

i;{(» to 120 -

-

—

-

21

- li

-

-

29

-

11

. — .

— .

--

120 to no -

-

—

-

38

27

- —

-

(lO

•

11

- 18 -

— -

—

110 to lOO -

-

39

-

44

- 5( »

. —

-

2()

-

47

- 16 -

—

ItK) to 90 -

-

28

-

19

- 41

4

-

18

-

74

- a -

12 -

—

90 to !S0 -

-

44

-

48 A

- ,S51»

- I t

-

65

-

4

. -- - . .

11 ■

—

SO to 70 -

-

.52

-

50

- —

- 41

-

25

-

IS

. — .

37 -

—

7otot;(t

-

23

-

23

- —

- 37

-

29

-

32

- _ .

l-i -

15

HO to .")0

-

25

-

23 .i

. —

- 43

-

40

-

23

. _ .

12 -

14

50 to to -

-

25

-

35

- --

- 34

-

19 i

-

27 D

. _ -

12. i -

lt>

4o to '.iO

-

35

-

32

- —

- 47

-

29

-

. — -

It) -

—

SO to 20 -

-

52

-

26

- --

- 12

-

29

-

- -^ -

13 -

—

20 to ](> -

-

54

-

38. \

- —

- 14

-

20

-

—

. _ .

— -

—

1 0 to sea -

-

90

-

3

. —

3

-

3

-

—

. _ .

— -

—

Avera«,'t' l(X)to20

10 ft. fall

in

35

-

32

- —

- 29

-

32

-

24

. _ .

Hi -

~

Pall in feet

per

•

mile -

.

23

-

25

- —

- ' ■>

.

25

-

33i

- -- -

5< » -

— .

The ridges between the valleys show a gradual descent with
few irregularities. On a si'ction at right angles to the valley the
south-west side is nearly always lower than the north-east. Taking
the general level of the ridges the fall is on the whole west, not
north-west. All the departures from regularity in these valleys
are the few diversions to the south-west and the loss of giade,
producing swamps. Xuniemus ill-drained or undiaine(l areas
occur about the heads of the valleys near (Jheltenliam, and as far
"West as close to the Red Bhifit, Sandringham. These are usually
very closely related to, or actually part of, the valleys. Tlie high
land at the head of the series reaches 170 at one point at Chelten-
ham. The heads of tlie first vallev. and less distinctly the second

274 T. S. Hart :

Jiud fourth, are continuous witli valleys on the opposite fall. The
tertiary rocks aie never cut thiougli, but less permeable beds are
probably often reached, and the waters of the permanent lagoons
may be taken as rej^resenting the level of permanent saturation
about 12U ft. above sea level near Cheltenham.

Parish of Mordialloc and adjacent /ja/'/s of Moorahhin and
Dandenong.

At Mordialloc and Mentone, and east of Cheltenham, and thence
north-east to near Clayton, the valleys fall to the south-east off the
highland at the heads of the Brighton valleys and the Elsternwick
Creek. They commonly show a very regular south-easterly direc-
tion, but ultimately their Avaters reach a channel which runs south
from near Claj'ton to the main drain east of Mordialloc. This is,
however, for the most part the natural course of the waters. A
valley starts on the South-road, a mile and a half east of Moorabbin
station, and runs south-east through the Benevolent Asylum
grounds. Another parallel to this starts near the Centre-road, east
of Bentleigh, and runs south-east into Reedy Swamp. Another
valley starts about a mile west of Clayton station near the Centre-
road, and after running south-cast for a little distance turns south
through Heatherton, becoming the main channel. The fall from
160 to 60 feet above sea level extends over two and a half miles,
about 40 feet to the mile, and thus considerably steeper than the
Brighton valleys.

A south-easterly valley starts between Oakleigh and Clayton, and
its waters are also turned south by an artificial channel into this
main channel, Init a definite south-easteily trend of the valleys is
seen to the east of this made drain.

Ill-drained and swampy places arc common within this area.
From Heatherton the old Dandenong-road continues south-easterly
close to the 70 ft. contoui', touching GO in some of the valleys, l)ut
never again i-eaching 80. Three shallow valleys with a southerly
trend cross the road, but in the country between this road and
the Gijipslaiid railway a south-easterly trend is often seen and
just sf)Uth of the lailwav a definite south-ea.stcrly ridge marks the
south-west limit of the Springvale valley.

Near the main channel south of Heatherton, the contours begin
to show the effect of recent alluviation as high as the 40 ft. level,
])ut in the neighbourhood of Mordialloc the Avell-defined south-
easterly ridges and valleys can be seen as low as the 10 ft. contour.

Country Soo.lh of Vnrra. 275

S /trill (J rale. — A vallev luiis in ;i south-eiisterly direction near
I he (lippshuid railwjiy from a little beyond Clayton to about a
mile before Dandenoug. It receives very little from the south; on
ih^ south side of the railway is tlie ridge just referred to gradually
<leseending in thiee miles from 170 to 100 above sea level. This
Springvale valley reieives tributaries from the north; the most
westerly of the tril)utaries receives valleys falling south-east off
the high land alxuit Xotting Hill. A fall of 20 feet to the mile in
(he Springvale valley seems to be sufficient to alh)W recent scouring
out of th<' channel, necessitating the protection of bridges. This
is in agreenieiit with (lardiner's ("reek. The Brighton valleys,
though slightly steeper on tlie whole, show little tendency to scour,
a difference which is no doul)t due to the slow delivery of rain
from the highly aljsorptive tertiary sands. Tlie valleys of Spring-
vale and its tributaries are often comparatively broad and open.

Kast of Notting Hill one of the heads of this system runs south-
.south-wcst across the Fern Tree Gully-road. It starts about three-
([uarters of a mile to the north-east where a low ridge separates it
fiom (lien Waverley.

(j'ltii Wnvtrley. — This is an open valley with gentle slopes near
the crossing of Springvale-road and the Waverley-road. Its west
ond is highest, being formed of the hills north-Avest of Wheeler's
Hill. Beyond these there is a rapid fall to the Dandenong Creek.
The outlet from (lien Waverley is now by a steep narrow valley
to Scotchnuin's Creek. The open valleys coidd have been formed
if tliis outlet were maintained foi- some time at a higher level. The
present outlet crosses tlie high land north of Xotting Hill, and it is
probal)le that the original outlet was south-easterly across the low
ridge whicii now separates Clcn Waverley from the valley falling
to Springvale.

Northward from Glen Waverley the Springvale-road crosses a
number of gullies which fall east to the Dandenong Creek. A line
drawn north-west from Wheeler's Hill and another south-west from
Mitiliam would maik the approximate limits of this area. Further
nortli, at the corner of Canterbury-road, there is a valley which
fonns one of the heads of .Main Creek. The above description is
NutFicient to show clearly that the north-west and south-east valleys
arc the rule throughout tlu' country south of Gardiner's Creek and
the Springvale valley. There is no reason to exclude these two
creeks from this regular system. North of Gardiner's Creek the
south-westerly fall of its principal triVjutaries is the prominent
feature, but this it to some extent anticipated in the tributaries
«jf the Elsternwick Creek. Main Creek receives most of its waters

276 T. .S. Hart:

from tlie cast. That the north-west vaUoys have imt ceased is also
shown in the course of the north-east head of Main Creek and of the
Koonung Creek.

North of the Springvale Valley the southerly fall is conspicuous,
but a north-westerly ridge again ap])ears through Wheeler's Hill.

The Notting Hill Ghelfenhnm Axis. — The importance of this
divide is shown in the description. It is not a narrow ridge, but
a broad elevation or flat arch in shape, with a gradually decreasing
elevation to the south-west. Hence the actual heads of valleys are
not, and need not ever have been, on a straight line. 'J'he heads
are sometimes nearer to one side and sometimes to tlie other. The
general form of the axis is well shown l)y the 200, 150 and 100 ft.
contours. They run in a southerly direction on the west side, cross
tiie axis and lun away to the noi-tli-east. The fall in levels on the
crown of tlie axis is not, however, uniform. At Mitcham the
elevation is about 500; at Xotting Hill 320. Thence the fall is
somewhat rapid to the Ceiiti'e-road, where the 200 ft. level is
passed, but at Cheltenham the highest point is still 170. This is
ci'i-tainly an isolated summit, but the jjart of the axis ncu'th of
Cheltenham has jirobably suffered more severely, as the valleys are
near together, and in .some places nearly or quite cross the axis.

The open valley at the head of Elsternwick Creek suggests that
]»i"iha])S this divide was not original, but that valleys once headed
clear of it and ran across its position. But though the eastern fall
may have been steepened a little, there is no indication of any
general alteration of direction of How even in those valleys which
nearly cross the high land. The head of the Elsternwick Creek
alone might have been thought to have once started further east,
ajid to have lost its u])per i)art by a subsidence in this direction.
Imt thf valley of Keedy Swamp lias certainly always been an
easterly valley, and generally the whole series of valleys gives no
support to any other view than that this axis is original. The Hut
at the head of I'llsternwick Creek is no (hnibt due to the gieat
jtower of widening that a valh'v in these permeable beds act|uires
as soon as it reaehes an impeiiueable bottom. The permanent
water in brick holes east of Moorabbin station indicates that here
at least the i)ermanent water level is practically at the surface
(Ilo ft. above sea level), and the mere existeni-c of the briik j>its
shows that the bed of the valley is not in (he purer and moi^-
permeable sands.

\ 1'lie iiortliwai'd pai't of tlie axis beyond Xotting Hill is indeed
broken liy the outlet from (ilen Waverley, but this is obviously
new, not an original feature.

Country Sov.ih of Yurrn. 277

Tin- ('(xiaf l.nii . — OiiikumI Point (KlmI UluiY, St. Kildu). lit-s on
the exti'iision of tlu- vh\\Hi soutli-wcst of the KlsteiMi wiclv Crock.
The coast soon curves and runs neailv south, ci-ossing the JJrighton
vallevs at a small an^de. The ]»rojectiii^ ])oints are due to the
greater resistance of the lower heds of the tertiaries, and do not
correspond in position to the ridges. The Elsterinvick Creek
enters the sea through the Ehvood Swamp; there is a flattening
of its gradient, Imt in all the Brighton vallevs the reverse occurs.
There is, to put it otherwise, never I'oom for the fall to continue
to the sea at the same rate as the fall from 30 to 20 above sea level.
All of them must lie regarded as slightly encroached upon by the
sea. From Brighton lieach the coast runs in general nearly south-
east, curving out to the west at points due to the greater resistance
of the l)rown rocks. The attack of the sea is evidently more powi-r-
ful here than at Jiiighton, as is seen also in the nature of tlie
beach sand. At Brighton also, where the coast crosses a ridga,
there is a steep rise, usually back in the tea tree scrub. At Sand-
ringhani the cliffs rise higher and direct fi'om the beach. Towards
Kickett's Point there again seems to be a less rapid advance, l)ui
here the outcrop of the resistant roeks is much more continuous.
From Ehvood to this point most of the best dip observations gi'^'fc
a north-westerly strike in the brown rocks with low dips 10 degj-c^s
or less. Joints are often pronunent, and in these north-westerl,
strike is most conunon, though others are also frequent.

Near Beaumaris the coast turns north-east for a mile with cou-
tiiuKuis cliffs to 70 feet high forming one side of Beaumaris Bav.
At the head of the bay is seen a comparatively steep dip in the
tertiaries 25 <legiees south-easterly. l{y this the* i-esistant rocks
are carried well below water level, and a vertical cliff in the soft
upper beds follows, the coast having resumed a south-easterly
direction. The fold is not seen all along the north-west side of the
bay. At the end, where the water appears deep and the beds do
not seem to be curving, it is possibly replaced by a fault or has
been crossed by the marine enci-oachment.

The upper beds of the tertiaries are not seen on the north-west
side of the bay. The highest hill near reaches 1(1(1 feet, but its
top is wind-blown sand. As the removal of the upper l)eds d(»es
not seem to be connected with the subierial denudation, it was pro-
bably achieved by marine action during emergence. As usual, in
a very short distance from the coast, the valley system is (piite
independent of the c<iast line.

The fold at Beaumaris Bay is no doubt a part of the structiire
giving rise to the Cheltenham axis, its strike passing along the east

278 T. S. Hart:

Hank of tlie higher ground not far from suveral places where the
east fall is steeper than usuaL

Beaumaris J3ay is no (k)ul»t due to marine attack favoured by
tlio struetuial eliaraetei'. Furtiier to the south-east the sea has
liad to give phiee to the material brought down from the east
side of the Cheltenham axis, and by the Dandenong Creek. Recent
marine fossils oei-iir at the moutli of the main <lrain at the head
of tile creek at Mordialloe just above sea level.

The relation of the rocks to the valleys.

The tertiary rocks may be divided for tlie present purpose into two
parts — the upper, very weak sandstones, usually pale coloured, '^
but occasionally more ferruginous and then stronger ; the lower
usually brown and often more clayey, with ironstone bands and
some strong coarse ferruginous beds. The upper parts are highly
permeable, they readily lose their iron cement in weathering; pro-
bably even the more ferruginous and stronger beds yield fairly
easil3' to soil waters. These form the bulk of the higher cliffs, and
are exposed in every railway cutting of any depth in the tertiary
areas. The lower less permeable beds are seldom touched in the
artificial cuttings, l)ut probably form the floor of many of the
valleys. They are seen at many points on thi' coast, and some of
the springs can be seen to occur at their upper edge.

On a catchment consisting of the upper parts of the tertiaries,
a very large i)roi3ortion of the rainfall must be absorbed, and if
the valleys have not reached less permeable beds, may never reappear
on the land surface in the vicinity. The erosive power of the
stream woidd be con-esjtoudingly reduced, and when, in addition,
tliere are small catchments, low grades, and only a moderate rain-
fall, the streams nmst be Vi'vy wrak. When the stream reaches the
less permeable lower beds it will rei-eive additions from springs.
These springs must produri' a local weakening, and hence greatly
iiicrease th(> j)owei' t(i widen thi; valley oi' to cul out a channel of a
oraiich gully nu llu- line of a spring. A steeper slopi- caji be seen
sometimes behind a spring at the foot of a hill. This
power of widening has already been referred to, and is
no doubt of general application. It will evidently give
increased it(,)Wer to tlie stream whiili liist reaches the
less ))erineable beds, that is, other things l)eing equal,
to the stream on or near the anticline. A somewhat similar effect
could be produced by any stream reaching the permanent water
level, but in this district the two causes are i)ri)bably practically
coincident.

CotKiUry Sod.l/i of Yarra. 27'J

The valli-ys alxnit ( 'lieltcnhaiii liavc vrr-v little power to re-open
their chaiiiiels if liloekeJ by any eau8e. Fur example the swamp
east of the Culf Club House at Sandringham lies at the north-
west end of a Itollow below the 100 ft. contour, about 50 chains
long and of an area of 50 acres. The whole catchment up stream
from the swamp is only about 300 acres. If a barrier below the
swamp were only to reach 102 ft. above sea level, it would require,
neglecting the depth below the 100 ft. contour, tW'O feet of Avater
over more than 50 acres to surmount the barrier, or over 4 inches
of rain delivered into the hollow so rapidly that absorption could
be neglected. A very low barrier is evidently insurmountable in
such a case. The valley wotdd be re-opened by the stream cutting
back from the lower side of the barrier, and as the direct catch-
ment here is very small, the chief agent would be the oozing of
water along the old Ijed. If the old bed had reached impermeable
material this woidd be much more powerful. A stream which has
reached less jjermeable beds is therefore much more able to keep
its channel open. Wind action or tlie wash from adjacent slopes
might make a barrier, especially after a portion of the heath had
been swept by tire and the sand left unprotected. It may l3e noticed
that while two and a half feet to the chain can be regarded as
moderately steep in the tertiaries, some hillsides reach as much as
10 feet to the chain, and might rapidly supply much material from
these relatively unstable slopes.

As has been noticed, strikes of l)eds and of joints are often
north-westerly in the tertiaries. Any actual inequalities of surface
produced l)y slight folding before emergence of these beds Avould
be liable to be largly or wholly levelled by marine action during
the elevation. Relatively Aveak parts might even be excavated, and
these weaker parts would probably be nearer anticlines. Hence
there is no probability of the production of anticlinal ridges, but
there is a strong probability of lines of easy excavation parallel to
the strike of the folds. The north-Avest and south-east valleys there-
fore, besides being near the direction of steepest slope from the
axis, are probably structurally in a strong position. The relation
of the unusual fold at Beaumaris to the riieltenliam axis is already
noticed.

Explanation of Surface Features.

The Brighton valleys from their simplicity and regularity are no
doubt the <mly system which has ever existed on this area. They <io
not exactly follow the present general slope, but this may have been
altered, either by a general depression to the south or, less likely, l)y

'280 T. S. Hart:

the process of denudation. But to form such a series of parallel
valleys, so close together, merely iis consequent strc.-ims, se<'ms to
require a very regular original surface. Small irregularities can
scarcely be negligible with valleys s(» cU)se to one another. Therefore
it is probable that the valleys have been from the first guided by lines
of easy erosion. Actual inequalities of surface to guide them need not
here l)e required.

Further north, however, we begin to liave evidence of a more
important south-west fall of the country. The Notting Hill-Chel-
tenhani axis itself falls to the south-west j so does the high land
from East Camberwell to Malvern. The tributaries from the noi-th
are necessarily more important. Yet they have not been aVjle to
continue south-west. Either Elsternwick Creek and Gardiner's
Creek are on lines of weakness which gave them an inunediate
advantage, or there was originally an irregularity in the south-
west fall. There is actually no icason why the original elevated
surface should not possess i-egularly arranged inequalities.
Ordinarily streams have been able to do so much work that
minor features have been lost, but heie we are dealing with the
weakest of streams. It must be remembered, however, that all
these creeks had to start as weak stieams in the upper l)eds of the
tertiaries. It may have needed no more to determine the courses
of Gardiner's Creek and the Elstei-nwick Ci-eek than those of the
Brighton valleys. It may bi' noticed, liowever, that .Malvern Hill
is a little higher than we would expect if the i-idge is falling
uniformly to the south-west. ;iml that the cori-esi)ondence between
Gaidiner's Creek and the Sjiringvale valley on the opposite fall,
favours the idea of an original stiuctural character or inetpiality.
The I'llsternwick Creek system is a further develojiment of a system
like tiie Brighton valleys with the addition of the inHuence of the
soutli-west fall as soon as tlie main axis is left. In (iardiner's
Creek and its tributaries these cliaradt-rs are fuitlier devel(q)ed.
If the tertiaries north of Gardiner's Creek are mostly terrestrial,
and those to the south mostly marine, this would involve an
original slope of deposition in the terrestrial part and original
streams before the emergence of tlie southern area, but these streams
would all be in shallow valleys.

Area south of Carneyie and M n rrumbeena. — If .Main (^reek ever
continued to the south-west it must have been across this locality.
Tlie comparatively low levels of the ridges, somewhat lower than
the hills near Caulfield stittion. and also than the high land to the
.south-east, at first suggest a broad valley. But the detail of the
surface is not easily e.xplained ori this supposition. By e.xaiuiuing

Country South of YiDva. 281

the foursf; of tlie 150 aiul 140 ft. contours, it will lie seen
that tlif little creek at Murruiiiheeiia takes the water from a long
liollow with a distinct north-wcsteily trend. This is the lower end
of valleys which head sonic distance lo the south-east, '^^riic pri'sent
outlet is a mile back from the north-west end, and is evidently
well able to cut deeper. It seems to 1)c clearly a new diversion of
the waters of a valley flowin<r noith-west. Immediately to the
south of this hollow is anotlu'r. also elongated in a north-westerly
direction, and making the down stream end of a valley from the
south-east. The present outlet is to the south-west, and again is a
mile back from the north-west end. The outlet is more developed
than in the other hollow. l)ut is still narrow compared with the
size of the liollow, and actually did not naturally drain it com-
pletely. Again it seems cleaily a new diversion. The ridge south-
west of this hollow, which is breached by the present otitlet. is a
well-defined ridge from the south end of Caulfield Racecourse to
the higher land east of Bentleigh. Nor does the country to the
Kouth-west further on show any sufficient evidence of an old valley
of Main Creek. There is indeed the southward tributary to the
Elsternwick Creek, but eventually a south-westerly sti-eam would
reach places where the north-west valleys and ridges run light aci'oss
its line. The idea of a south-wcst continuation of Main Creek wouhl
necessarily involve the suppositioTi that some character of the rocks
so strongly favoured easy excavation on the usual north-westerly
lines as to make an earlier south-west fall a matter of little conse-
quence, so that later valleys sometimes entered the old valley at an
acute angle, heading up stream. Nor does the general run of
the surface levels in Caulfield and Brighton favour the idea of an
old valley, even if a broad one. crossing this area.

This argument evidently does not exclude the possibility of a
stream somewhere near .Main Creek before the emergence of the
land south of Gardiner's Creek, but this would be antecedent to
the development of the present topography. Such a streain may
possibly have had its mouth about this locality, but it might almost
equally have been anywhere else.

It remains to find an explanation of the absence of any outlet to
these valleys to the north-west. They are not alone in this respect;
nn tlic same line are the flat \n Caulfield Racecourse, with a poor
outlet, and Paddy's Swamp. The most probable explanation seems
to be a continued or renewed warping of the surface subsequent to
the establishment of the present valley system.

There is no doubt that the elevation was accompanied by defor-
mation of the surface.

13

282 T. S. Hart:

The deformations and elevations would not be likely to cease sud-
denly. The flattening of the grades of all the Brighton valleys
near Bluff-road has been referred to. This admits of two explana-
tions : either that there is something which the valleys found it
hard to cut through, or that there has been an elevation against
the grade of the valleys which they have not yet been able to
smooth out. The former explanation receives slight support from
the occurrence of the flattest part of the Elsternwick Creek near
the ferruginous rock of the "gravel " pits west of Bentleigh. On
this view the complete obstruction of the valley east of the Golf
Club House at Sandringham would be due to the flat grade allow-
ing this stream, one of the weakest, to be completely obstructed
by other causes. On the view that there has been a late deforma-
tion of the surface, the flattening of all these valleys, and the com-
plete loss of level in the case just mentioned are the direct result
of the deformation. But the diversion of the second valley of the
Brighton system into the tliird is prol)ably due to an earlier slight
irregularity on the same line. Following the same line north such
a warping would increase the power of the southward valley near
McKinnon as compared with the north-west valleys, and would at
the same time account for the blocking of the two hollows south of
Carnegie, and facilitate the formation of a south outlet from the
southern one.

The same explanation may be further extended to the course of
Gardiner's Creek through the high land nortli of Malvern, (iar-
diner's Creek probably preceded the present elevation of the land.
This receives some support from the levels of the base of the ter-
tiaries, whicli is lower up stream than it is at this high land, and
apparently falls much lower on the Yarra side of the high land.
If we suppose that deformations, and not mere elevations and
depressions took place, there is no i-eason to suppose that Malvern
and Hawthorn were equally affected witli tin- Yarra valley, in the
depression Avliich is known to have taken jdacc there.

A similar explanation might extend to tlie steep fall soutli of
the Dandenong-road at Armadale, and to the steep fall on the
Notting Hill-Chelteidiam axis near the Gippsland railway. Tt
would then also explain why the southern divide of the Gardiner's
Creek area is lower at Murrumbeena. It also introduces a cause
with a general power of forming lagoons and closed hollows snoli
as are numerous at and about Cheltenham and many other places.

Wheeler's Hill. — The north-west line of liills through Wheeler's
Hill may be either a more uplifted area or a relic of earlier fea-
tures. Jutson remarks (p. 492) that a fault scarp is suggested at

Country ISooJli. of Yarra. 2^3

Wlieeler'.s Hill, that is, tu the last oi" tlic hill; hut also that the
liill seeiiis to rise above the general height of the plateau in this
locality. Possibly there may be a fault on the north-east of this
grou]) of hills, but the detleition jn-oduced in the Dandenong Creek
may l)e sutlicient cause for the steep slope along the north-east
fall. My suggestion that there has once been a continuous ridge
lo beyond Surrey Hills niiiy raise the objection that it would seen
that the count iv about Blackburn sliould have had its easiest outlet
to Koonuug ('reck, which, with a <lirect course, now joins the
Varra ai 2-1 ft. above sea levtl. But if we imagine the low vallov
of Koonung ('reck tilled in. and the ridge from East Cand;erwt,ll
continuous to Doncaster, the outlet of this area is difficult by any
route, and Main Creek might at some stages in the <levelopment
be the easier in spite of the necessity to cut through the ridge.

Jutson (p. 470) mentions a decreasing throw of the Brushy Creek
fault from north to south till it is no longer traceable as a fault,
and appears to be represented by a gentle tilting on a line con-
tinuing south-westerly toward Springvale (with a possible fault for
a sh(n-t distance at Wheeler's Hill). Following this idea it 6eeo>H
better to consider this fault line as replaced by a wider easterly
tilt from the Notting Hill axis. Then the course of the Dandenong
Creek at Wheelci's Hill is in accordance with the direction of tilt
till it finds its way tlirough the hills. The Springvale valley also
lies within tlie tilted area and further south the tilt extends from
Beaumaris across the ('armim Swamp.

The slope on which the formation of .swampy land appeals at
the lower parts of the creeks is in close agreement in the three
examples in this district. The Dandenong Creek begins to l)e
s\va,m]»y below the 50 ft. contour, falling from 50 to 40 in 50
<liains, or a grade of 1 in .'5.'{0. The channel from Dingley south-
Avard falls from oO to 30 in 65 cliains, and from 30 to 10 in about
105 chains; this biings it into the once swampy land north of tlie
main drain from the Dandenong Creek to Mordialloc. The Elstern-
wick ("reek falls fiom 50 to .')(• in (50 chains, and from 30 to 10
in 100 chains; thence to the outlet is much flatter.

In I'onsidering the lagoons, the question suggested itself as to
whether there was any cause acting to keep them from silting up
<ir even to increase their size. In spite of statements about running
sands in some wells, there does not seem much likelihood of under-
grouTnl channels l)y wliich sand could move; and actually the
closed hollows usually liold water. There seems a slight possi-
bility that under pecviliar circumstances some of the upper sand
might slip in mass on an inclined clayey bed either doMn a valley

13a

284 • T. S. Hart:

or sidewise. As the slopes which stand are soiiietiiues about 10
degrees on the surface, it would probably want a steeper slope than
this. It might possibly occur at a time of ground movements or
warping or elevation, but would ))e exceptional. Wind action
would tend rather to fill than to excavate, as the moist bottom of
the hollow must be less acted on even if the wind blew up the
valley. The existing closed hollows may then be regarded as mostly
newly closed.

General Summary.

The detail of the drainage system is not to })e regarded as
developed on a simple sloping surface. A south-westerly fall is
noticeable across the Gardiner's Greek, and, to a less marked
degree, tlie Elsternwick Greek area. Slight indications of it are seen
even in tlie iJrighton district. A south-Avesterly and sf»utlierly fall
is also seen in the Springvale area; and the parish of Mordialloc
(i.e., from near Clayton to the main <lrain of the Dandenong
(.'rei'k) is under the influence of the southerly fall to the Garruiu
Swam]). I)ut the drainage system is largely controlled by tlie
dotting Hill-('heltenham axis, i>arallel to which is a subordinate
axis through East Camberwell. An easterly tilt from the latter and
other late warping movements are probable. iJut primarily the Nottiiig
llill-Gheltenliam axis divided the noith-western from the south-
eastern streams. The south-westerly tributaries, though important,
in many cases seem to be definitely blocked at certain lines,
especially that on the south-west sides of Gardiner's Greek and the
Springvale \ alley. This feature, combined with tlie extreme re-
gularity of the Brighton system, and the structures of the rocks
so fai' as seen, favours the idea that the streams are guided or
St lengthened on theii' south-east or north-west courses by lines of
wt-akness or by structural featmes. and that there may even have
been original reversals of .slojte against the south-west fall in some
cases.

.\11 the valleys in their earliei- stages weie in the weak and
ab.soij)tive tertiary sandy beds. On reaching impermeable beds
siu^h a valley would leceive additions from springs, and weak
jdaces would be produced on the lines of springs which might
It-suit in a great power of widening the valley or cutting a tributary
valley.

(Tosed hollows are of fiequcnt occurrence, and are easily pro-
duce<l owing to the extreme weakness of the upper juirts of the
Rtreams. Small local causes may have possibly produced some, but;

Coaiilri/ Soiifli of Yorrd. 285

soiiK' c)t' the I;ii<j[cT onus iiioii- remote I'i'oiii the valley heads are
probaljly due to \varj)in<_' alter tlie development of the valleys.

There is no neeessity to rej^ar<l the late depression, known to
have occurred in the Yarra valley, as uniformly affecting a lar<;e
area. Imt rather as part of a movement which acted unequally in
different places even a short distance apart.

[Pitoc. KoY. Soc. Victoria, 25 (M.S.), Vr. 11.. 1918].

Art. XXIII. — The Si/rlnx of the Convnton Fowl, Us St r ad are
<vn d De veloj )ute at.

By a. O. \'. TYMM8

((ioverniuHiit Kcsearch Scholar, Bioloj^ical l)ej)arti(it>iit, University of

Melbounio).

(Willi Plates XVni.-XXlV.).

[Rejul 12th Decomb.-r, 1912].

A. Introduction.
li. Adult Structure.

i. External A.spect.
ii. Detailed Description.
C Euihryonic Development,
iii. Cleueral Survey.

iv. Developing Farts at Different Stashes.
V. Post-embryonic < 'hnnij^es.

D. liiterature.

E. Descrijjtion of Plates and llefereuce Letters.

Introduction.

The material for this investigation consisted of a large number
of syringes of the adult connnon fowl, and of sets of longitudinal
and ti'ansverse serial .sections of cliick unil)ry()s, in all stages, from
nine days' incul)ation until the time of hati-liing, examined in
icgard i(( llic structui'e and developnii'iit of the syrinx; and lastly,
end)ryos at several stages were dissected, especialh' in regard to the
relation of the respii-atory air sacs to the syrinx. •

The work was carried on in the JJiological Laboratory of the
Melboujne University, at the suggestion, and under the dirtntion,
«)f Pr(d'essor Baldwin Spencer, to whom I owe many thanks. Thanks
aie also due to Dr. T. S. Hall and Dr. Sweet, for assistance and
advice, and to .\fr. .T. Brake, and all others who have helped in
various wavs. •

Syrinx of Foivl. 287

Adult Structure.

As far iis the adult structure is (■(•nccniecl, tlie description wliich
folloAvs ct>rroborates the work of, and gives details additional to
those given by Wunderlich (1884, p. 79), who has figured the adult
syrinx, and Garrod (1879, p. ."377), who, in discussing the confor-
mation of the thoracic extreniity of the trachea in birds, deals briefly
with the condition in (rail us hankiva.

1 . — Ej:tt ni al Aspect .
The syrinx or vocal organ of the bird (known previously to
Huxley as the lower larynx), is constituted by the modified tracheo-
bronchial junction, and in the common fowl both trachea and
bronchi are involved in its formation. Each side of the lowej"
tracheal exti-emity presents a membraneous appearance. The ven-
tral surface is mainly occupied by a triangular-shaped plate, more
or less cartilaginous in structure; and a similar but smaller plate
is present on the dorsal stirface. The chamber of the syrinx or
"tympanum." is seen to be compressed from side to side, but there
is a corresponding increase of depth dorso-ventrally. The outer
walls of the bronchi are strengthened by semi-rings of cartilage,
while the inner Avails are mem))i-aneous, and bands of fibrous tissue
termed the bronchidesmus, pass from one bronchus to the other, so
as to enclose beneath the bronchial junction a large air space. The
body of the ventral triangular plate is seen to be continuous with
that of the dorsal surface, through the medium of a semi-carti
aginous or calcareous rod, termed the pessulus. The basal angles
of the plates articulate with the extremities of the first bronchial
semi-rings, and in close relation to each side of the plates are the
lower tracheal rings, which are much modified, lying embedded in
the thin membraneous walls of the trachea. As to the syrinfreal
muscles, they do not appear to be directly and intimately associated
with the syringeal membranes, as they are in many other birds.
Lastly, the whole of this syring(>al chamber, or "tympanum," is in
close relation to respiratory air sacs, whicli extend, not only up
between the two bronchi, lint also around each surface of the svrinx,
so that the whole organ is completely enveloped.

II. — Def ailed strurturc of the syrinx.
The syrinx consists of the following structures : —

1. Supporting framewoi-k,

2. Syringeal mrmbranes,
.3. Syringeal muscles.

4. Svrintrcal air sacs.

288 A. 0. V. Tymms:

1. Supporting; framework.

In place of the simple cartilaginous tracheal rings and bronchial
semi-rings, there has been much modification at the tracheo-bron-
cliial junction, in the formation of the sujiporting framework of the
syrinx, so that we may distinguish the following elements : —

(a) The rod-like portion of the pessulus.

(b) Dorsal triangular plate of the pessulus,

(c) V'^entral triangulai- plate of the pessulus,

(d) Last six tracheal rings,

(e) First two bronchial semi-rings.

(a) Pessulus. — The pessulus is situated just below the junctiou
of the bronchi, and it passes from the ventral to the dorsal surface
of the tracheal extremity. It is rod-like in shape, and in the adult
partly osseous in structure. Ventrally, it expands into the body
of a large median triangular plate, with a cranially-directed apex.
Dorsally, it is continued into a similar but smaller plate, the whole
structure (rod and two plates) lesembling somewhat a double-
headed bolt. Along the cranial margin of the pessulus thei'e is a
thin fold of raucous membrane, termed the mendjrana semilunaris.

(b) Ventral Triangular Plate. — As already stated, this is situ-
ated on the ventral surface of the tracheal extremity. Its apex
extends as far cranially as to lie just liehind the fouith last tracheal
ring. Its basal angles articulate with the exti-emities of the first
bronihial semi-rings. Its lateral edges are in close i-elation to the
last tliree tracheal rings, fusion taking place usually only with the
last ring. Its body is partly calcareous, and may be even osseouis
in structure.

(c) Dorsal triangular plate. — It is situated on the dorsal surfa/e
of the tracheal extremity, and its a))ex extends cranially between th-.;
doi'sal ends of the last two tracheal rings, but does not (piite leach
the ante-penultimate ring. The dorsal ends of thr first broni'hial
semi-i-ings articulate with the lateral angles of the plate, and with
its sides the ends of the last two tracheal rings are in close relation,
but do not fu.se.

(d) Last six tracheal rings. — (i.) Last tiacheal ring. Of the
six rings, this is the most developed. It is not flattened, but
rounded. Ventrally, it widens considt rnbly, and fuses with the
triangular plate, but dorsally. it ]>res.ses closely against the ]>late,
without fusing.

(ii.) Penultimate ring. This second-last ring is band-like, .•iiid
7 ather wider than the others. Its ventral extiemitit-s pi-ess closely
against the sides of the ventral triangular ]date. while doisally the
ends lie on each side of the dorsal plate.

Sjjrin.r of Foui. 289

(iii.) Ante-penultiniatu lin^-. Tliu third-last ring is more re-
(hued. It is made up ut' two straight, hiteral, baud-like rudiuicnts.
its ventral ends do uul fuse, but lie on each side, agaiust the apex
of the ventral triaugvdar plate, its dorsal ends taper considerably,
and come to lie close to each other, without fusing, and just beyond
die apex of the dorsal triangular plate.

(iv.) Fourth-last ring. This ring is so reduced and incomplete
as to be represented by a mere thread-like band, situated a little
beyond the apex of the ventral triangular plate. The left side is
thinner, and does not go much furtlier than half-way towards the
dorsal surface, but generally fuses with the third-last ring. The
right side is wider, and nearly reaches to the dorsal surface. Ven-
trally, the ends come very close together.

(v.) Fifth-last ring. This ring differs from a normal ring in
l)eing slightly incomplete dorsally, where its ends are turned down-
wards, towards the apex of the triangular plate. It is flattened, and
purely cartilaginous in structure.

(vi.) Sixth-last ring. This is the only complete ring of the
syrinx, and differs from those above the rings of the syrinx in not
being osseous in structure.

(e) Bronchial semi-rings. — The first two semi-rings only are
uspecially modified in connection with the syi'inx. The first is
characterised by its large size, thickness and marked cui-vature,
the concavity being directed cranially. It is not flattened, but
round, and it articulates very intimately with the basal angles .A
Ixitli ventral and dorsal triangular plates.

The second semi-ring has its ventral ends fused with those of
the first, but dorsally they are widely separated.

2. Syringeal mendnanes. — As already stated, the syrinx has a
general membraneous appearance, and on closer examination several
distinct membranes mav be recognised. As a whole, they are
characterised by being set or stretched between an air space on
either side. As will be seen, the wall of each mend)rane has histo-
logically three layers. The following membranes may be dis-
tinguished : —

(a) Membrauae exteniae.

(b) Membranae iiittanae,

(c) Membranae traclieales.

(d) Mend)rana semilunaris,

(e) Broncliidesmu.s.

(a) Membrauae externae. — These membranes are situated one
on Ciach side of the tracheal lower extremity. They are very thin

14

290 A. 0. V. Ti/nims:

and traiishifent, and occupy the region between the hist tracheal
ring and the tirst bronchial semi-ring. External to it is a resjjira-
tory air sac, internal to it is the air space of the trachea, and
so the meniln'ane is stretclied between two air chambers. The wall
of the membrane is three-layered. The middle layer is of meso-
blastic origin, the other two being of hypoblastic origin.

(b) Membranae internae. — These membranes are the thin inner
walls of the bronchi, and thus occupy the region between the fx*ee
ends of the bronchial semi-rings. Above they are limited V)y the
pessulus, and below, to some extent, by the bronchidesmus. The
space between the two membranes is occupied by the subpessular
air space. As before, the membrane has three layers, the innermost
being bronchial epithelium, much folded in one part, the middle
layer of mesoblastic origin, and the outer the epithelium of the air
sac.

(c) Bronchidesmus. — This is a fil)r()us band, passing between the
two membranae internae. It is set somewhat obliquely, and is
formed by the apposition of the unsymmetrical right and left
interbronchial respiratory air sacs.

(d) Membranae tracheales. — These are the membraneous lateral
walls of the tracheal extremity. Embedded in them lie the last five
tracheal rings, which are so flattened and reduced that, notwith-
standing this cartilaginous framework, the walls are thin, trans-
lucent and membraneous. They are separated caudally from the
membranae externae by the last tracheal ring. Like the.se latter
membranes, they are composed of three layers, and set between t]\3
air in the trachea and that in the respiratory air sacs.

(e) Membrana semilunaris. — This is a thin fold of mucous mem-
brane, overlying and projecting from the cranial border of the
pessulus. It consists histologically of an inner core of mesoblastic
origin, overlaid on each side by the ti-acheal epithelium. It is only
slightly marked in the adult, but is of considerable size at one stage
in the embryo.

3. Muscles. — In addition to the sterno-tracheales and tracheo-
clavicular muscles, Avhich have relation })oth to the lower and upper
parts of the trachea, there are also present a dorsal and a ventral
pair of muscles. These latter two pairs correspond to the true
syringeal muscles of other lurds. in which, however, they may be
of considerable size, and more intimately associated witli the syrinx.
These true syringeal muscles are said to be derived from the sterno-
hyoid group of muscles, and pass down the trachea to the syrinx
(see Svrinx Dictionary of Birds, by Nowton), but in the common

Syrliur ot Fold. 291

fowl tliey i-eai-h oiilv as far as tlio (>leventh or twelfth last tracheal
ring, while the Mvrinx does not begin until the sixth-last ring. Thus
these muscles of the coninion fowl have no very close relation to the
juenibranes of the syrinx.

4. Respiratory Air Sacs. — The air sacs completely surround the
.syrinx. Tliis envelope is not a sini})le one, but a composite one, in
wliic'h tlie several air sacs air in intimate contact with each other,
and with the syringeal membranes. In development, they are seen
to l)e derived fi-om the third entobronchus of the lung. The third
ontobrouchus teiiiiinates in a stem, which subdivides into two main
.stems, of which one, opening into the interclavicular sac, goes to
form the syringeal air sacs, while the other opens out into the
anterior thoracic air sac. As the stem of the interclavii'idar or
.syringeal air sacs ascends from the third entobronchus of the lung
to the interbronchial region, it expands into several air sacs, which
take uj) different positions in relation to the parts of tlie syrinx.

A large ventral sac passes over the ventro-cranial region of the
bronchus md triangular plate, and comes to occupy the ventro-
lateral rc'giou of the svi'inx.

A large sac from the right side extends up so far as to lie close
beneath the pessulus, the sub-pessnlar air sac. On each side it is
in relation to the mendjranac internae.

Another large sac passes dorsally from between the bronchi, and
then opens out into dorso-lateral sacs. The most cranial one is
large, and comes to occupy the dorso-lateral region of the syrinx.

Other lu-anches pass off, and become related to structures apart
from the syrinx, one main branch and several smaller ones retur]i-
ing to the lung tissue, and so constituting the recuri'ent branches
of the interclavicular sac. The recent research of Juillet, 1012
(Chap. IV.), showing that the direct stem of the interclavicular sac
arises in conmion with the stem of the anterior thoracic sac, is liete
confirmed. What was formerly thought to be the direct bronchial
Ktem. he has shown to be the indirect recurrent interclavicular
branch. Thus the stem of the interclavicular sac, besides giving off
its recurrent branches, expands into the interclavicular region,
•where it gives rise to the syringeal air sacs.

Embryonic Development.

Passing now to the embryonic condition of the organ, a general
survey of its development will first be given, followed by a detailed
description of the gradual appearance, in time, of the several yiarts
<if the syrinx.

SiQH A. 0. V. Tymms:

III. — General Survey.

Concurrent with the development of the trachea and Ijronchi
as hypoblastic outgrowths, the surrounding primitive mesoblast be-
gins to gradually condense, or concentrate, around them, and as
early as the end of the third day of incubation this concentration
is clearly indicated. As development proceeds, there are formed at
regular intervals in this denser mesoblast, concentrations of tissue,
each gradually assuming a ring-like form.

Ultimately, by differentiation, they give rise to the more or less
cartilaginous frameAvork of the trachea and bronchi. However, \\\
the region of the tracheo-bronchial junction, these ring-like con-
centrations are considerabl}" specialised, to form the supporting
structure of tiie syrinx. The most distinctive modiheation. and
one whose bolt-like form is so characteristic of the common fowl
is the appearance of a rod-like concentration just between the con-
joining lironchi, which expands into a dorsal and a ventral plate,
and hence, from its shape, has been well called the pessulus. As
the ring-like concentrations of the syrinx assume definition, thei'c
is a gradual eliange in I'egard to their relative size, some lieeoniing
strongly, otiiers poorly, developed, even to the extent of l)eeoming
mere vestiges. There is also a change in shape, some losing tlu'ir
circular form, and becoming flatter and flatter, until nierely l)an(l-
like rudiments. Still furtlier. thei-e is modification not only in
degree of development, but also in their mutual relations and le-
lation to the dorsal and ventral pessular plates.

As the sup2)orting framework thus develops, the membranes gradu-
ally appear, and become more and more differentiated fi-oni the
surrounding tissue. The first to be indicated are the meml)ranae
externae, and. fi-oni the time when the tracheo-bronchial frame-
work begins to appear, the position of those membranes is recognised
by the gicater intejval between tlie last tracheal ring and the fii-st
bronchial semi-ring. In this interval the wall of the trachea gi-adu-
ally becomes deflected towards and into the lumen, while the tissue
subsequently changes in .structure, and finally gives rise to the very
thin oval-shaped meml)rane of the adult. The next membrane to
appear is the membrana semilunaris, which becomes thrown \\\^ as
a wedge-.shaped fold, cap|>ing the cranial border of the pessulus.
•It increases considerably in size, but in the adult it has become
relatively small. Along with the devel(»pment of this fold, the
inner- walls of the bronchi begin to be clearly separated from eae!i
othei- by a s[)aco, so as to give rise to the membranae internae. 'I'liis

Syrinx of Foai. 293

is jHcoiiiplislud liv tliu upjiTowtli of the iiitLTtlaviiular sac^i from
the luii<^- into the iiiti'rl)roTi(.'lLial region. The steJii of thi' iiilcr-
chivifular sac iiiid tliat of tlie anterior thoracic air sacs, are tlie
hifurcatioiis of the main stem of tlio third entobronchus of the
huiu\ Tiie iiiterl)ronchial sacs are not symmetrical, the huge sul)-
pessuhir sac bein^' derived from the right side, and in contact Avith
botii membranae internae. As a result, there is a three-layered band
of tissue gradually developed, separatin'j: tlie air-spaces of the right
and left sides, and tending to connect obli(iuely the two membranes.
This band of tissue ])Ccomes the bronchidesmus, which, in the adult,
is tough and fibrous. The membranae traclieales, oi' the two lateral
walls of the upper part of the syrinx, have the last five or six
ti-acheal rings embedded in their tissue, and even up to the time
of hatching, tliese walls remain tliiek. After hatching, howevei-,
when the eml)edded rings rapidly l)egin to flatten, the Avails be-
come distinctly meml)raneous and tough, and finally constitute in
the adult tlu' nit^iihranae tracheales.

It lias already been mentioned wliat an intimate relationship
comes to exist between the membranae internae and interl)ioncliial
ail' sacs. A similar relationshi]i comes al)out in reganl to the mem-
branae externae and tracheales. The stem of the interclavicular
sac not only gives off the interbronchial and subpessular sacs, but
also gives oft' lar<re venti-o-lateral and dorso-lateral sacs. The veii-
tral sac expands over the bronchi and the triangidar plate into
a large sac, Avhich gradually becomes closely applied to the ventro-
lateral half of tlie membranae externae and tracheales. The dorsal
sac expands around the dorsal surface of the bronchus and triangu-
lai- plate, giving oft' several dilatations, one large one coming to
occupy the dorso-latei'al half of the membranae exteriiae and
tracheales.

Thus the whole syrinx liecomes enveloped in air sacs, and this
fact, together with the ]toor develoi)ment of the syringeal muscles, is
suggestive of tlie cause of vibration of the syringeal membranes.
(Pis. XVllI. and XIX., figs. 1, 2, 3.)

The syringeal muscles luake their apjiearance at alx^ut the end
of the second week of incubation. Avhere tliey are seen developing
beneath the tracheo-clavicular muscles. A dorsal and a ventral
pair develop, but they do not extend down as far as the syrinx, stop-
ping short at about the eleventh or twelfth tracheal ring from the
caudal end.

Such is the general survey of the developing organ. A more de-
tailed descri)>tion of various stages will how be given, siiowing the
development of the several parts, in order of time.

294 .1. 0. V. Tywms:

IV. — hccdop'uuj Elements at Different Stages.

1. Nine days' incubation. — After nine daA-s of incubation, a
concentration begins to take place in the enveloping dense niesoblasi.
and this is the first indication of what will be the first bronchial
seiiii-i-ing.

2. Ten days. — Early in the stage there has also appeared the first
indication of the last tracheal ring, but it is not so definitely marked
as the first bronchial has now become. Just between the uniting
bronchi, the mesoblast tissue is becoming very concentrated, and
from this the pessulus will develop later. Towards the close of the
tenth day, the penultimate ring and the secon<l bronchial semi-ring
are just forming, while the first bronchial semi-ring and the last
tracheal ring are now more clearly differentiated from the surround-
ing tissue. Between these latter two there is a considerable inter-
val, and in each case they cause the hypoblastic epithelium to project
somewhat into the lumen, the interval marking the site of the future
membrana externa.

3. Eleven and twelve days. — In an early stage of an eleven days'
embryo, the pessulus begins to l)e indicated, as a change gradually
takes place in the I'ontre of the dense interbi'oncliial mesoblast.
Also, the developing tracheo-l)roiiehia] rings are becoming nioi'e
differentiated, and a little latei- in the eleventli day, and by the
twelfth day, the ante-])enultiiiiate fouith and fiftli-last rings have
just appeared, but ai'e inore marked m tlie dorsal i-egion. Also,
cranial to these, a largt' nunil)er of tracheal rings are developing,
while caudally the thiid l)ronehial semi-ring has appeared, and the
fourth is just beginning. The ])essular me.sctblast, in which the
pessulus is developing, now extends to both <loi-sal and ventral sui-
faces of the ti-acheal e.xtretnitv, wlieix' it is expanded to form dorsal
and ventral plates of dense; iiiesoi)Iast, fi-oni whii-h the triangular
cartilaginous plates will aiiso. (PI. XIX.. fig. 4. ) At this stage, thus,
the main elements of the su))]»orting framewoik are all indicated, but
while the fiist l)ronchial semi-ring and the last tracheal ring are now
large and clearly marked, the renuiinder are snuill, less definite,
and imperfect. The degree of development is seen by comparing
the extent to which each element has passed beyond the mid-
lateral region, towards the dorsal and ventral surfaces. The last
tracheal and first bronchial reach the dorsal and ventral surfaces,
where there is fusion with the pessidar plates of dense mesoblast,
except in the case of the ventral ends of the first bronchial, which
He free just caudal to the plate of mesoblast. This ventral plate

syrinx oj Foai. 295

ulsu rcLcivcs the ventral eiifls ul" the seeoiid and third-last rings,
while just beyund them are the ventral ends of the fourth, fifth and
sixth-hist rings. Those of the fourth and fifth fuse on eacli side,
and tlien with those of the other side, while those of the sixth fuse
in the mid-line, and lie quite separate from the others. As to the
t'Xtent of dorsal development, the fourth and fifth-last scarcely pass
ihe mid-lateral line before fading away, and then, likewise, a little
further, the third and the sixth-last. Still further dorsally, the
.second-last fades away, as well as the remnants of the bronchial
semi-rings, except the first, which, together with the last tracheal
ring, passes right to the dorsal surface, there merging into the
pessular mesoblast plate. Even at this early stage, it is noticealjle
that the ventral development is much less restricted than that of
the dorsal.

4. Thirteen days. — By this stage a considerable number of
l)ronchial semi-rings and tracheal rings, not directly concerned with
the syrinx, have begun to form. Those concerned with the syrinx
have all become more distinctive, especially the last two tracheal
rings, and the first two bronchial semi-rings. This is seen in re-
gard to their structure, size and outline. The interval between the
last tracheal and first bronchial is greater, and hence the rudinjents
of the membranae externae are more marked. The difference in size
is even now very noticeable, the third, fourth and fifth last being
relatively verv small. The more distinctive structure and outline
is seen, not only in the rings, but also in the pessulus and its plates,
concentric circles of cells are now seen surrounding the pessulus.
As to the greater extent of developjiient, compared with the last
.stage, this is seen in a few particulars. In the dorsal region, tha
extremities of the last tracheal ring and the first bronchial semi-
ring are now being clearly differentiated from the dense dorsal
me.soblast. so that their ends lie somewhat free. (PI. XX., fig. !l.)

As early as this stage a variation is at times apparent. Tjie
fourth-last ring, which is most poorly developed, and passes little
towards the dorsal surface, usually fuses on the left side with the
third la.st, but sometimes, though less often, the fusion takes pla.-e
with the fifth ring. This fusion on the left side is indicated at this
stage, while on the right the ends are quite free. As in the last
stage, there is little dorso-lateral development of this ring. As for
the second, fifth and sixth-last rings, they now reach the dorsal sur-
face Avhere they merge into the dorsal plate of mesoblast, from Avhich
the dorsal triangular plate is not yet clearly defined. The chief
changes in the ventral region are the separation of the fifth riii"

^96 A. 0. V. Tyinms:

I'ruiii the fourtli lin^', so that it becomes like the sixth ring. The
fourth ling is still associated with the apex of the dense ventral
plate, which is becoming definitely triangular in shape. (PI. XIX.,
fig. 5.)

At a little later stage, on the thirteenth day, more changes are
apparent. The whole framework is of greater size, and more de-
hnite outline, and rapidly approaching tlie cartilaginous stage.
The boundaries of the pessulus are now well defined. Ventrally, the
framework now- presents its characteristic configuration — namely,
the last four tracheal rings are clearly involved in fusion with the
sides and apex of the ventral triangular plate, while its basal
angles articulate with the ends of the first l)ron(.hial semi-rings, and
with the latter the ends of the second l)i(>nchial have ])egun to fuse.
(PI. XIX., fig. 5.^

Dorsally, the ends of the ante-penidtimate have now extended to
the dorsal dense mesoblast.

5. Fourteen days. — As before, there is increased size and dift'er-
entiation in the supporting framework, Avliile other developments
have appeared. On each side of the dorsal triangular plate lie
the free ends of the last tracheal, penultimate and first bronchial.
Just beyond the apex of the plate, there are the ends of the ante-
penultimate, which are noAv clearly defined and jjressed against each
other and the apex of the i)late. yet without fusing. The dorsal
ends of the fifth-last similarly come close togethei- in the middle
line, without fusing, but those of the sixth last do fuse, so tliat this
ling becomes the only complete one associated with the syrinx. The
fourth-last is still small, and now ])asses further dorsal than before.
Ventrally, no marked change has resulted. In addition to these
changt!S in the supporting framework, two other t'hanges are
aj)])arent. Firstly, the medial hypoblastic walls of the bronchi are
thrown into folds; and, secondly, the syringeal air sacs can now
be seen pushing their way up from the third fiitobronchus of the
lung tow^ards the interbronchial tissue. (PI. XVII., fig. I; and
PI. XXIV., figs. 19 and 24.^

As yet the membranae internae are not formed. The stem of
the interclavicular or syringeal air sacs has, however, divided into
its three main diverticula — namely, the large ventral sac. the dorsal
sac, and the smaller eraniallv-directed one, which, from the right
side, will become the sub-pessular sac. (PI. XXIV.. fig. 19.)

'i'his latter change subseipiently becomes of great importance in its
bearing on the whole svrinx. and this fact lieeonies more and more
evident in following stages.

Syriu.r of FoxvL 297

G. Fifteen days. — Tiiis .stafj^e of (levelitpinent is of coiisiderahle
importanee, since, by this time, tiu- foundation of all the main
stiuetures of the syrinx has been laid. (PI. XVIII., fig. 27.)

The supporting framework, with all its elements, is dehnitely
formed, all the syringeal membranes are to some extent indicated,
the syringeal muscles are developing, and lastly, the syringeal air
sacs begin to show intimate relationship with the syrinx as a whole.
As to the general enveloping mesoblastic tissue, it is now losing its
dense character, and gradualh' changing into a reticular meshwork,
but the tissue closely around the lower tracheal rings is still dense,
and is made up of several layers of jflattened cells.

Supporting framework. — A few changes have taken place. Pre-
vious to this stage, the last four tracheal rings have been fused
with the sides and apex of the ventral triangular plate; but now, at
this stage, there is the beginning of a change, which later results
in the separation of all but the last ring from the plate. (Pis. XIX.,
XX., figs. 4 and 8.)

This goes on gradually, and reaches completion some time after
the hatched condition. There is variation in the actual time of
separation, l)ut at the end of the fifteenth day the apex of the ven-
tral plate is no longer intimately fused with the fourth-last ring.
Again, the ends of the third-last now articulate with each side of
the apex, so that only the last two rings remain fused with the sides
of the plate. (PI. XIX., fig. 6.)

It may also be noticed that the ventral ends of the first two
bronchial semi-rings are now- more definitely fused. The smallei'
size of the dorsal triangular plate, as compared with the ventral
one, is now seen. Also, it is not directly fused with any of the
tracheo-bronchial rings. As before, its lateral angles, articulate
with the first bronchial semi-ring, its sides with the ends of the
last two tracheal rings, and its apex articulates with the ante-pen-
ultimate ring, whose ends are now fusing.

On the left side, the fourth-last ring fuses at its extremity with
the fifth-last ring, just before the extremities come close together in
the mid-line.

Syringeal membranes. (PI. XV'llI., fig. 2.) — At tlie close of
the fifteenth day, the raembrana semilunaris first begins to appear,
capping the more ventral region of the pessular rod. It is wedge-
shaped, and simply consists of a mesoblastic interior, covered by the
liypoblastic epithelium. The unattached edge proj^ects slightly into
the lumen of the tracheal extremity. The membranae externae be-

298 A. (J. V. Tijmms:

tween the tracheal I'injrs and the bronchial semi-rings are now
larger in size, and somewhat deflected into the lumen of the syrinx.
Their walls are still thick and dense in structure.

The membranae internae are now developing from the inner
walls of the bronchi, between the free end of the bronchial semi-
rings. At first, the mesoblastic tissue between the bronchi is one
continuous sheet, but at the close of the fifteenth day the inter-
bronchial air sacs have so extended upwards as to reach almost to
the pessulus; hence the mesoblastic tissue is divided into two layers.
In this way the membranae internae first begin to form. Their walls
have three layers, and the mesoblastic layer is as yet of considerable
thickness. As yet the right air sac has not completed the splitting
of the mesoblast in the dorsal region, where the two membranes
have not become differentiated. The hypoblastic epithelium of the
membranes is thickened, and contains spaces, so that it tends to
become folded. With the pushing up of the two interbronchial air
sacs, the bronchidesmus becomes formed at this stage. It consists
of the two thin walls of the right and left air sacs, with a strand
of mesoblastic tissue between them, and continuous with the meso-
blastic walls of the membranae internae. The intimate association
of these three layers constitutes the bronchidesmus, and, owing to
the greater and asymmetrical development of the right sac, the mem-
brane is directed obliquely between the bronchi.

The membranae tracheales do npt become membraneous in struc-
ture until after hatching, and hence at this stage their walls are
thick, and the tracheal rings embedded in them have only just begun
to flatten. There is also to be seen a denser tissue, connecting the
rings.

Muscles of the syrinx (PI. XVIII., fig. 2.)— By this stage, the
tjterno-tracheales and tracheo-cjavieulai- muscles are well marked,
lying close to the ventral and lateial sides of the trachea. The
trachoo-clavicular leave the lattei- walls of tliu tracli^ea just above
the region of the eleventh and twelfth-last tracheal rings. Between
these Tnuecles and the trachea the syriiigt'al muscles are developing
and extending down a short distance towards tlu' syiinx. They do
not reach the syrinx, and, as yet, they are not clcaily differentiated
into a dftrsal and a ventral pair.

Syring^al air sacs. — The syringeal air sacs have now become mucii
expanded, both between the bronchi, and also to the lateral side
of the syrinx. On the right side th<' suV)-pessular air sac has been
given off. and thus the membranae internae are now <lefined, except

ISyrinc <>j Futti. 299

ill tlic more iloisal ic^^ion. On the left si<k' tlie dorsal dilatation
jtasses aronnd the bronehus, and iy approaching the nu-niVji-ana ex-
terna ; other air spaces are also present, coming towards the
lateral walls of the svrinx. (PI. XVlll.. tig. 2.)

7. Sixteen days. — The chief progressive changes that have taken
place at the close of the sixteenth day have to do with the expansion
of the syringeal air sacs. (Pis. XXI., XX 11., and XXIIL, figs.
11-lG.j Very little change has occurred in the supporting framework.
The ventral tiiangular plate lias, fused to its sides, only the extremi-
ties of the last tracheal ring, and one end of the penultimate, the
other end. usually the right one, having separated off frou) the plate.
(PI. XX.. fig. 7.) The apex of the dorsal plate has become more
acute, and is surrounded, as before, by the free ends of the third,
fourth and tifth-last rings, the ends of the fifth ring nt)\v tending
to turn downwards, towards the apex of the plate. Much varia-
tion and irregularity is at times seen at this stage, and in later
stages, in regard to the fused or un fused condition of the dorsal
end of the above rings. The ends of the fifth-last may, or may not,
be fused. The different rings may be free from each other, or par-
tially fused, the tendency being, however, towards fusion of these
three rings in this dorsal region. In one case the fifth ring was
fused on one side with that of the sixth.

As to the membranes, owing to the growth of the air sacs, they all
now take on their characteristic structure of three layers, and are
set between an air cavity on either side of them; .s<» that eventually,
in the adult, this probably becomes a condition of their vibration
during the alternate expansion and contraction of these air spaces,
as the air goes in and out. The membrana semilunaris is now very
well marked, and extends along the whole cranial border of the
pessulus. The tissue of the membranae externae is more reticular,
and their walls become thinner as the air sacs push into them.
(PI. XXTII.. fig. 15.) The membranae internae are now completely
formed. Their walls are thinner, owing to the reduction of the
mesoblastic tissue. To aVjout the middle of the left membrane the
l)ronchidesmus is attached. Little change has taken place in the
memljranae tracheales, except that its tissue has become more re-
ticular, the middle rings smaller, and the membrane as a whole
thinner.

Syringeal air sacs. — As this is the stage at which the air sacs
take up their characteristic relation to the membranes, their origin,
extent and position will now be somewhat fully described. (Pis.
XXL. XXIT. and XXIIL. figs. 11-16.)

300 A. 0. V. T;/mw.f<:

The mesob roil elms of the lung, while passing from the medial to
the lateral region of the lung, gives off its third entobronchus. (Pis.
XXIII. and XXIV., figs. 17, 18, 22.) The third entobronchus is
directed medially and ventrallv. and subdivides into three main
branches. Almost immediately it gives off its first bramh, which is
directed caudally, medially, and slightly dorsally. and is confined
to the lung itself. (PI. XXIV., figs. 18, 22.) The stem then passes
ventrally, and in the ventro-medial region of the lung, bifurcates,
the slightly smaller branch is the stem of the interclavicular sac, or
syringeal air sacs, and is directed cranially and ventrally tow^irds
the interbronchial region. (PI. XXL, fig. 11.) Tht* other sub-
division passes ventrally, and expands into the laige anterior thor-
acic air sac. (Pis. XXIII. and XXIV., figs. 17-24.) Tlie stem of the
syringeal air sacs, after emerging from the lung, passes up close tu
the ventro-medial region of the bronchus, and begins to expand into
several large air sacs, Avhich take up different positions, in relation
to different parts of the syrinx. (Pis. XXL, XXIII. and XXIV., figs.
11, 17, 19.) There are three main sacs arising — a ventio-lateral
interbronchial, and dorsal, Avhich latter is the continuation of the
stem.

The ventro-lateral one passes over the bronchus and ventral
triangular plate, and takes up a position in relation to tlie whole
ventro-lateral region of the syrinx and lu-onchus. (Pis. XXI. and
XXII. , figs. 11-U.)

On the right side the interbronchial sac passes up between tlie
bronchi as far as the pessulus, and extends to the left bioncluis, stv
as to iovm the inner boundary of both membranae internae.
, On the left side the sac is much smaller, not reaching to tlie
pessulus, and confined to its own side. (Pis. XXI. and XXII., figs.
11-13.)

The third main sac, or dorsal one, is large, and gives off three
main divisions before terminating. (Pis. XXL, XXIL, XXllL.
tigs. 11-16.) The most cranial one passes laterally beliimt
the bronchus into a lai-ge expanded sac occupying the whole
of the dorso-lateral re{j:ion of the syrinx. Just caudally. tlie
second smaller division also passes dorso-laterally, beneatii the
bronchus, to the lateral side. The third division is large, and ])asses
laterally, giving off divcrtieula to the upjter vt'Liion of the hiiig.
It passes dorsal to, the bronchus, and in close lelation to the inno-
minate artery. This is the recurrent bronchial branch of the in-
terclavieular sac. (PI. XXIII. . fig. 15.) After giving off its three
main divisions, the main dorsal sac terminates in several small

Syrinx of Fowl. 301

diviTticula in the lun^' i-cgioii. In tliis way are foiiiicd the recur-
leiit bi'aiiclie.s, lar^e ami .small, of the inteixlavicvilar sac.

The venti'o-lateral and dorso-latoral syringeal sacs press close
against the membranae externae, tracheales an<l bronciius. They
iwv also in close contact with each othei', and oveidie the dorsal and
ventral triangular plates. Thus all surfaces of the syrinx — dorsal,
ventral, lateral and interbronchial — are embraced l)y air sacs.

.S. Seventeen to twenty-one days. — The development of the syrinx
after the close of the sixteenth day is one of degree rather than
the laying down of any new structures, hence the remaining days of
incubation are taken together. There are a few changes in the sup-
porting framework. There is first a histological change. Tlie
hyaline or cartilaginous matrix is gradually laid down, and
the cartilaginous cells come to lie in their characteristic lacunae.
On hatching, the left ventral end of the penultimate ring ceases to
be fused with the ventral triangular plate, so that oidy the last ring-
is now fused to the plate. (PI. XX., fig. S.) Dorsally, the down-
turned ends of the fifth-last ring are bound to the apex of the plate
by tissue, which becomes fibrous in the adult. A slight flattening
has occurred in the rings embedded in the membranae tracheales,
the intermediate ones being small, and bound together by a connec-
tive tissue. Hence the membranae tracheales, although thinner,
arc- still far from being membraneous. (PI. XIX., fig. 2.) The
membranae internae and externae have also become much thinner.
The syringeal muscles are more strongly developed. There is now
the dorsal and the ventral pair, but they do not extend further down
the trachea than the twelfth or eleventh-last tracheal rings. The air
sacs have now so completely surrounded the syrinx as to separate
it off from adjacent structures, such as the oesophagus and large
vessels of the heart, whicli are in close relation to the tracheo-ln-on-
chial junction.

Other than the increased size of the elements of the syrinx, thi.^
comprises the development up to the time of hatching.

V. — l'(h<f-(iiihr>/()ii ic (Jcvrlopiiiciit .

The syrinx, being peculiar to birds as a vocal organ, shows con-
siderable development in the post -embryonic period. This accounts
for some marked differences between the adult and the hatched con-
dition.

Since all the morphological structures of the syrinx have been laid
down during the embryonic period, the development in the post-
embryonic period is chiefly histological, but to such a degree that

302 A. 0. V. Tyinncs:

this traclicti-biunchiul juiictiijii is converted into a truly mem-
braneous chamber, whose lateral walls are made up of the mem-
branae tracheales and externac. The membranae tracheales, between
the time of hatching and the adult condition, undergo much change.
The last five tracheal rings embedded in it flatten into extremely thin
band-like vestiges, while the tissue between them Ijecomes thin and
tough, so that the whole constitutes the stout membi anae tracheales
of the adult. The membranae externae become the most distinctive
membranes, thin, yet strong, oval in outline, and stretched between
the last tracheal ring and the well-marked first ])ronchial semi-
ring.

A similar change occurs in the membranae internae. The bron-
chidemus gradually assumes the fibrous condition of the adult.
As regai'ds the supporting framework, tlie changes in the last five
tracheal rings have been noted. The first two bronchial semi-rings
become the most developed of all the syringeal I'ings, and they are
curved so that their concavitv looks ci'anially, and opposes that of
the last tracheal ring. The dorsal and ventral plates considerably
thicken and Ijecome very prominent, and only the ventral ends of
the last tracheal ling fuse with it. Their l)asal angles, however,
articidatc with the other tracheal rings and first bronchial semi-
rings.

In the older fowls, especiallv in the Tiiale liird, the pessulus be-
comes calcified, and may become partially ossified, not only along
the whole extent of the rod, but also in thi' lentral portions of the
ilorsal and ventral triangular plates. In addition to this, there is
a small centre of ossification in the ventral ends of the first bron-
<-hial semi-ring, just before it articulates with the basal angles of
the ventral triangular plate. Ossification also takes ])lace in many
of the tracheal rings above the syrinx. The syringeal muscles
change very little. There are the dorsal and ventral pairs, and they
do not reach the syrinx. Finally, with the change in the external
walls of the syrinx, the characteristic shape of the adidt syrinx is
assumed — namely, the lateral walls have approached one another, o
that the lateral width of the syrinx is less than tliat of the trachea,
but the dorso-ventral depth is somewhat gi(>ater.

As before, the whole svrinx is enveloped by the syringeal air sacs
or diverticula of the interclaviiular air sacs.

Syrinx uj Foai. 303

Summary.

In contlusion, the following points may be given as distinctive
features of the svrinx of the common fowl :—

1. The formation of a syringeal chamber or " tympanum," with
exttjnsive membraneous Avails.

2. The presence of membraneous internal bronchial walls, with
the connectinjr bronchidesmus.

3. The presence of the bolt-like pessulus, with its ventral and
dorsal triangular plates.

4. The very vestigial condition of the last five tracheal rings,
the greater development of the first two bronchial semi-rings, and
tlie close relationship of all these elements with the ventral and
dorsal plates.

5. The very noticeable absence of nmscles in direct or intimate
association Avith the syringeal membranes.

6. The complex and intimate relationsliip of respiratory air
sacs to the syrinx as a whole.

Literature.

Brunelli, G. — Riduz d. laringe sup e. svil d. siringe, etc. Gior-
nale ornitol. Ital. Siena, 1904. (Not available to me for con-
sultation.)

Garrod, A. 0. H. — " On the conformation of the thoracic ex-
tremity of the trachea in the class Aves.'' Pt. I., Gallinae, P.Z.S.,
1879, pp. 354-380.

Hacker, V. — Ueber den unteren Kehlkopf der Singvogel. Anat.
Anz., 189S. pp., 521-532. Gesang d. Viigel, Jena, 1900.

Juillet, A. — Recherches Anatomiques, Embryologiques. Histolo-
giques. et Comparatives sur le Poumon des Oiseaux. Proceedings of
Experimental and General Zoology, Vol. 49, Xo. 3, Chap. IV., Jan.,
1912.

Wunderlich. L. — Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomic und
Entwickelungsgeschichte des unteren Kehlkopfes der Vogel.

Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. CtMinanicae, Bd. XLVIll..
1884.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XVIII-XXIV.

Figs. 1-3. — Median frontal or longitudinal horizontal sections
through the tracheo-broncliial junction of the chick embryo
at three stages, showing cliiefly the elements of the cartil-
aginous framework, the develupinir membranes and the air
sacs in relation to the syrinx.

304 A. 0. V. T>jmms:

Fig. 1. — Stage of 13-14 days' incubation.

Fig. 2. — Stage of 15 days' incubation; interbioncliial air sacs ui
position, lateral sacs appearing.

Fig. o. — Stage of hatched condition; all the syringeal air sacs
in position, and the Avhole structure rapidly approaching
the adult condition.

Figs. 4 to JO. — Frontal sections through the ventral and dorsal tri-
angular plates of the pessulus at different stages, showing
their relation to the tracheal rings, and the first bronchial
semi-ring.

Fig. 4. — Stage of 11-12 days' incubation, ventral triangular plate
appearing, along with the four last tracheal rings, and first
bronchial semi-ring.

Fig. 5. — Stage of 13-14 days' incubation, ventral plate now well
formed, with the four last rings fused to it. First bronchial
semi-ring articulates, but is not fusing with the plate.

Fig. 6. — Stage of 15 days' incubation. The ventral ends of the
third-last tracheal ring are separated from the ventral plate.
The second bronchial semi-ring is fused ventrally with the
first bronchial semi-ring.

Fig. 7. — Stage of 16 days' incubation. The right ventral ends of
the second-last tracheal ring are now separated from the
plate, as well as the ventral ends of the third.

Fig. 8. — Stage of the hatched condition. The left ventral end of
the third-last ring is separated from the plate, so that only
the last tracheal ring has its ventral ends fused to the ven-
tral plate.

Fig. I). — Stage of 13-14 da^^s. Dorsal triangular plate appearing.

Fig. 10. — Stage of 15 days. Dorsal plate well formed, Avith the
various tracheal rings and first bronchial semi-ring articu-
lating, but not fusintr, with it.

Figs. 11-iG. — Stage of 16 days' incubation. Frontal, or longitudi-
nal horizontal sections, through the region of the tracheo-
bronchial junction, to show the arrangement and origin of
the syringeal air sacs, derived from the interclavicular sac.

Fig. 11. — The interclavicular sac is seen passing up from its com-
mon stem of origin with the anterior thoraiic air sac into
the interbronchial region, and opening ventrally at the
cranial end of the bronchus, into the huge vciitro-latt'ral
sac, situated behind the tiiangular plate, ami latcial to the
lowci' tracheal iin<rs.

Proc. ]?.S. A^ii'torin. ^9^?,. rial.- XVIIT.

Proc. K.S. Victoria, 1913. I'late XIX.

6'

-d^

..tr

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1013. Plate XX.

Flg.9. ;,^:^y^..l

t'

'^. ■ ■ xri \'X^ ""■■■''' '-^^

If.-''-

--^'

Proc. R.S. Viotoria, ^9\■^. IMute XXI.

Vvw. K.a. Vittoiia. Wr,i. Plate XXII.

Prof. R.S. Victoria. 1913. Plate XXTTI.

Proc. R.S. Victoria. liH:?. Plato XXIV.

- Oe .

- - 50

Fjg.22

Syrin.r of Fuid. 305

Fig. \'l. — liitL'ilnonihial, veiitro-laturiil, iind dorso-lateral sacs
shown.

Fig. 13. — Interbronchial and lateral sacs shown in relation to the
membranae internae and externae.

Fig. 14. — Dorso-lateral sac, in relation to the membrana externa.

Fig. 15. — Main recurrent interclavicular branch shown, together
with the interbronchial and dorso-lateral sacs.

Fig. IG. — Showing how the dorso-lateral sac passes up from the in-
terbronchial region, dorsal to the bronchus, and at its caudal
end.

Figs. 17-24. — Transverse sections through the bronchi and meso-
bronchi of the lung, showing the origin of the interclavicular
and anterior thoracic air sacs from the thii-d entobronchus of
the lung-.

Figs. 17, 18. — Stage of 10 days' incubation, showing the third
entobronchus, the anterior thoracic air sac. and the inter-
clavicular sac, with its recurrent branch.

Figs. 19-24. — Stage of 13-14 days' incubation, slicnving the third
entobronchus, and the origin of the common stem of the inter-
clavicular and anterior thoracic sacs. Recurrent inter-
clavicular liranch, shown in Figs. 20, 21, 22; interbronchial
sacs shown in Fij;. 19.

Reference Letters.

ao Dorsal aorta.

bl-])3 Bronchial cartilaginous semi-rings.

Bm Mesobronchus of the lung.

Br Bronchus.

bv Lar!.re blood vessels of the heart.

d Dorsal triangular plate.

En Entobronchus of the lung.

En^ Third entobronchus of the lung.

Lg Lung tissue.

Lv Liver tissue,

mb Membrana bronchi desnius.

mc Tracheo-clavicular muscle,

me Membrana externa,

mi ]\Iembrana interna.

ml Membrana semilunaris.

mt Membrana trachea.

ms Syrinereal muscles.

16

306 A. 0. V. Ti/iKiiifi: Syrinx of Fowl.

Oe Oesophagus.

p Pessulus.

pi Pleural cavity.

sa Anterior thoracic air sac.

sai Common stem of tlie anterior thoracic and interclavicular

sacs,

sb, sW Right and left iuterbronchial sacs,

sc Cervical air sac.

sdU, sdl2 Dorso-lateral sacs.

si Interclavicular air sac.

sp. Subpessular sac.

sr, sri Large and small recurrent interclavicular branches,

svli. svl2 Ventro-lateral sacs.

T " Tympanum," or syringeal chamber.

ti-t^ Lower six tracheal cartilaginous rings; t^-t^, fused.

Th Trachea.

V Ventral triangular plate.

I'roc. Roy. Sor. Vktoima, 25 (N.S.), I'r. II., \U\:V.

Akt. XXiV. — T/ie Viscosity ofCred'm.
By FRANCP:s K. M DUMAliESQ, M.A., li.8c.

^ l*liysiolui;i(.Ml L;ilK»i"it<>ry, University of MellKHirne).

[\ien<l lu'tli D.'ceiiilxn-, 1912 1.

It seems to lie roiiiiiioiily suppdNi'd that the tliiekiiess or viscosity
-of ri'L'iun aft'oids a fair tost of its lielmess in fat; investigation,
Jiowever, discloses a number of factors which affect the viscosity to
a greater or less extent. Amongst these there are three to which
a ninre prominent intluenic u|M)n viscosity must be attributed —
viz., acidity, fat content and temperature; hut liesides these there
jire several minor factois. which exercise an undeniable influence
upon the viscosity, and wliose relative important-e is difticult to
-estimate. l'"<>i- instance, such factors as mechanical agitation,
growth of organisms, exposure to higher or lower tem])eratures
for a considei'able period (all of which may be included uiidei- the
term " pi-evious history of the cream "), certainly have their effect
uijon the viscosity, but tliese can hardly be independently investi-
gated, and hence tlieir individual contril)ution to the general effect
•cannot readily l>e calculated. Again, the size of the fat globule
may be of impoitance, or, since each globule may be encased in a
layer of protidn. the number of fat globules in a given volume of
cream of known fat content may liave an appreciable effect in
-determining the viscosity.

The nature of tiie ])idtein niay vary, as regard its physical (;on-
•dition, ill creams fi'om different sources, hut it would be difficult
to obtain an experimental evaluation of the viscosity effect (d' tliis
factor, owing to tiie impossil>ility of ascertaining whether the
various samples of cream iindei- observation were directly com])ar-
able in other respects.

Hence in the following jiajK-r the vaiiations in viscosity due
to acidity, fat content ami temperature changes are alone taken
into consideration.

.]<■/(// fi/ of Grrnm (is Afffcttng Viscositj/ {Critical Acidity). — This
is assuredly the most potent of the factors generally recognised as
influencing viscosity. A fresh cream, of fat content as great as
40 jier cent., will be com])aratively li(piid, and on this account
•ordinary commercial pasteurised cream .seldom ajipears sufficiently
rich to the average purcha.ser.

16a

308 F'lxiitcet: 7v.il/. Ihi ma r< sij :

On the otJief liuiid, a cifaiu of k^ss fat cuiitont may, if acid, l)e-
apparently rich, and How with difficulty.

In order to study the effect on viscosity of rise in acidity uiicom-
pli(;ated liv other disturbing factors, a (|uantity of cream, oi)tained
by sei^aration from fresh milk, was gradually soured artificially,
and its conse(}U(Uit increase in viscosity at a constant tcniperature-
experimentally determined.

In the majority of instances, the cream employed was obtained
by immediately machine-separating milk fresh from one i^ajticular
cow (new milk). Several experiments, liowever, were niade with
cream separated from milk as ordinarily supplied to the consumer
in the city. These latter experiments are duly noted in the tables
as having been made on commercial mill\. The means employed to
acidify the cream were as follow : —

(1) The addition to the sample of cream of minute quantities of
pure lactic acid.

(2) The introduction of a small amount of a pure lactic culture
to the cream, which was stdjsoquently maintained for a prolonged
period at a temperature of ,'52 deg. C, readings of its viscosity
being taken at short intervals. The first method presents consider-
able difficulty, as local clotting is apt to occur upon the additicui
of the pure acid. Addition of dilute^ acid was attempted, but was
abandoned owing to the diluting effect, with the consj(juent
hydrolysis of the calcium cascinogenate of the cream.

Ultimately the following procedure was adopted :— A given
(plant ity of cream, of ]ircviously determined fat content, was
i-apiiliy stiri'cd with a glass rod just moistened with pure lactic
acid. TIk; additicuis thus rlTecti-d were necessarily somrwliat hap-
hazard, and iicnci' wvw subscipicnl ly estimated l)y titration of a
sample of the acidilied cream with X/I(l alkali, using pheiiolph-
tlialein as indicator.

The viscosity detenninations were madi' with an Ostwald viscosi-
inctcr, surroumled l)y a wati'r-jacl\ct kt_'i)i at a temperature of
25 deg. ('. throughout the experiment, this temperature being the
lowist that coiihl be maintained appro\iniately constant in the
lalioiatoiy during the smnmer.

Preliminary experiments soon showed tiiat. whilst ii]i to a (■ertain
point gra(hiai small additi(ms of acid itroduce very slight increases-
in tJK' viscosity, Iher.' is an acid ily-vahu', at which the viscosity
of the ci"eani. as measured by tiie tinn" iiilerval rc(piired for tlie
l)idb of the viscosinieter to enijity, lajiidly lises. This aiidity is
approxinudely e(|uivalent to that at wliieh cream may be considered
rii>e ft)r chui"ning.

Tlir Vi!<cotiity of Cream. iiOU

Foll()\viii<,f a su<4gvsti(iu made by Mr. P. Denstoi], dairy clieinist
to tlie Bacfluis Marsh Dairy Co.. it is proposed to speak of this
aciditv as the " critit;il acidity," and it can be shown that, for
fre.shly-.separated creaiu, the critical acidity of the cream serum is
apparently a constant, independent of fat content. For example,
if several samples of cream, differing in fat content be gradually
acidified, there Mill jje in each case a definite degree of acidity, at
which the viscosity (which at first rises by barely perceptil)l(?
amounts with small im-roasc-s of acidity) suddenly increases very
considerably upon the least further addition of acid. This is the
critical point. The critical acidities in terms of the full cream
have difleient values for \\\v different samples, varying witli tlic fat
content. The fat is, however, an inert, suspended material, and
if the critical acidities ])e recalculated for the cream minus fat —
i.e., for the cream seium, they will be found to have appioximately
the same values.

The following expeiinieiits i'<mfirm this statement : —

TAIUJ-: I.

Cream separjited from new milk, and soured l)y addition
(»f pure lactic acid.

.^(•i(lit> ill cc. of

,. . , Time nf flow . N l'";it coiitfiit.

KxpcTnnei.t. (s^.-o.-ls) NaOll,„l.er 100 cc. (,h..- cent.)

of civaiii sernni.

A - L'40 - lO.f) - 4l>

:345 .■)4.9 - —

108") - o6.sr. - —

B - 170 lit. 07 - .",9

187 - 45.0 - —

200 - r)i.r.

2-jr) - .-)4.! - —

3G0 - 57.2

c - 10." - 15.G - r,r.

108 - 4:5.7") - —

13G - r)(i.2.") - _

560 - 57.8 - —

720 - 68.75 - —

I) - 57.5 . 17.53 - 23

67 - 50.65 - —

105 - 54.54 - —

155 - 55.84 - —

285 - 61 - —

345 - 63.6 - —

310

Fi •(III CCS K. M. J) It III III 'es(j :

.. u i 1 _ .LU^-^ U-

^ tT

^^ _ . X ± ■

- - - IT

; 1 I

__L i ' '""" " '

1 ' ' 1 !

1 1

/T' —jz :__±i___: jL :

^ -4^- -fiiL

^--l-i-i- -u"x_i-J iE

-H-+4--- '

1 i ' - -^

-^1- ■ : J

T^ /

in t

1 it it >it

/ -- T T

4- -^-^ _t L -i_i- J

1 1 1 ,»

-t ' <?

It _^± ^-t''

j

,

0 _ _ _

•^ 4-0- s-o

m

A-0

K

--^'

50

X : :

4-

—i ^ —

:E-::+,£::::ee

--: -ix:~ I

m

:iE

i

.::.::J!

::EE::i: :::

^EE^^EEE

ilii ill. Ie

^ 30 40 S"© 60

Acididity in cc. N/10 NnOM per 100 cc. cream .seruDi.

Fig. I.

The Vlsvofiitij of Crctiin. 311

TABLE 11.

Uream .sepuratfd fn»in

COlllll

leifi

al milk,

and a(n(li(i«Hl by

ure lactic culture.

Ac

i(lit\ in CO.

'^^p-'--- "S:l^^s^"

NuOH^ per 100
111
creiiiu soruni.

Fat content.
^ • (per cent.)

A - 1 20

-

22.2

37

12-2

-

28..")

—

126

-

49.2

—

127

-

60

—

201

-

62.5

—

B - 100

-

15.9

32

96

-

25

— -

110

-

39.7

—

130

-

48.5

—

100

-

65.9

—

236

-

61.7

—

C - 1 20

-

29.6

29

1 30

-

54.9

—

1 :)0

-

63.4

—

330

-

(54.7

—

540

-

67.6

—

D - 1 97

-

31.6

43

219

-

42.1

—

300

-

52.6

—

400

-

56.1

—

E - 120

-

21.7

—

123

-

40

—

130

-

52.1

—

1080

-

66.6

—

F - 138

-

33

39

145

-

42

—

150

-

52

—

170

-

67.2

—

3600

.

77

—

312

Fi ■(( II (V's A'. M. /hi I IK 1 1 ■rs<i :

A:::cii±n±tHi

ii

Hiti

40

50

CO

A'-==::-=-4-5-::--Er::.x::_::±:E-[

4 — ^ 2

-^ ^c

y

y

J ^

^

^ "^

! *•*'*'

^' ,, V, ^^ "-r^, , , .

^---r| _)_

[ 1

4-0 50 60

» T H t/» —

' -h-t- ^^ -r ->

r^'

4,' '^'_ :: :: :: n

1

I -J

~_\ 1/

' J

ii j?

.. J..........^==.^±i-'-—

5-0 60

3 1 H ■ 1

in

I ! r

: I \

.

t

,' y :3

(3 _j_ r: " j"

±i" ::':_." ^. " "J' ^

r- ■ • - - ■ ? -,'

h y'

-- ">'^: — iJ

4- 77 _. >* ..::r',

,' ^^ . ,.„ 7 ,, \J^.

\ ^a^^ 1

' -^^"^ "^ i—

^— -"*- "^ \

n

- .. -i_. J

4-0 5^0 ^'o

AfiditA ill cc. X/10 NaOH pci- 100 cc. cream seriin
Fig. II.

60

Tlte Viscosity of Cream. 313

From these figuies it appears that, fur fresh cream, soured hy
additions of pure hictic acid, the value of the critical acidity
(expressed in the number of c.c. of XaOH IS/ 10 required to
neutralise the acid contained in the cream) is between 5G and
57 cc. N/10 per 100 cc. of cream serum; but if the souring bo
eflfected by means of a pure lactic culture, the critical acidity is
considerably greater, approaching 65 cc. N/10 per 100 cc. of
serum, or possibly even higher.

It is, however, difficult to ol)tain the exact value for the critical
acidity in the latter case, owing, firstly, to lack of evidence as to
the probable effect of such factors as the age of the culture employed,
and the rate at which it produces lactic acid in the cream, and
secondly, to inability to calculate the interval of time required
for the culture to bring the acidity up to the critical j^oint, as it
is found that souring produced by this means is at first slow, but
at a certain stage the rate of acidification is greatly accelerated.

Effect of Previous Heating on Critical Acidity of Cream. — It is
worthy of note also that previous heating of the cream may modify
the results of the experiments, and give a different value for the
critical acidity. Cream, wliich has been pasteurised after separation
from fresh milk, if acidified with pure lactic acid, has a critical
acidity slightly higher than fresh cream so treated.

But if the pasteurised cream is soured by introduction of a pure
lactic culture, the viscosity rises gradually with increase of acidity,
so that instead of a sudden raj^id rise at the critical point, there is
a steady increase of viscosity with increased acidity over a certain
range, a pronounced rise of viscosity being attained at the degree
of acidity which corresponds to the critical acidity in the cases
previously described.

A few experiments made with cream from milk kept at a high ■
temperature for some little time are interesting in that they show
a difference in the behaviour of the cream so obtainc(\ on the addi.
tion of acid.

The fresh milk was gradually heated under pressure in an auto-
clave until the indicator registered 105 deg. C. The milk wa."?
kept at this temperature for al)Out 20 minutes, then removed from
the autoclave and allowed to cool. The skin which had formed
on the top of the milk was skimmed off, and the milk separated.
The critical acidity of the cream thus obtained was found to be
considerably lower than that of fresh cream or pasteurised cream.

When the milk, after heating, was cooled rapidly by being made
to pass through a condenser, around which circulated a stream

17

314 Frances K. M. Diimaresq :

of cold water, the critical acidity of the cream separated from this
milk "was somewhat higher than that of the cream from the milk
cooled slowly in the air.

This is possibly explained by the fact that in the former case
very little skin formed on the milk du)-ing the cooling process; in
the latter case the skin which was removed before separating the
cream contained the larger fat globules, together with an appre-
ciable quantity of protein.

TABLE 111.

Pasteurized cream from new milk soured by pure lactic
acid.

Exi>eiiiiieiit.

Time of flow,
(seconds)

Aciditv in cc.
N
NaOH^^ per 100 ce.

cream serum.

Fat.
(per cent.)

A

118

22.2

32

134

52.9

—

145

5.5.1

—

165

60.2

—

1800

64.7

Commercial pasteurized cream acidirted by pure lactic
culture.

B - 234 - 33.9 - 41

C - 110 - 21.9 - 36

234

33.9

360

51.7

650

55.9

1800

67.8

110

21.9

130

40.6

165

50.8

255

53.1

260

57

325

57.8

2700

59.4

3600

68.7

The Vii^coait}] of (.'ream.

315

-iA-UA U U-

. . ...... .,p.._^ ^

~ .-.:.(

TTiH 1 r

i : ; i ] ! t

' ; M4-,v-!-

:r."i

; 1 ni^^T

M 1 1 : J 1 1 _^

1- .J

li

... ■ , 1 ,' i-j

i i ^ ^ '

] .

■ 1 i- 4-

l_.-p. -_.-,.

"r'Ti +

1

qi;

i i

; I ' J •

4- -^ -i-

t It'

"1 •-■-;

" _r

■ I i ' I '

1 ' '

1 h

■ ( ! '

IE

iO

! ' *

; 1

-+- f-r-— -- r

h !

1 ■

; t

'"ri

-1 r

1 r •

4-1- J

11 "

i— I—

S'

'

' 1

1 1

1

1 I 1 ^

1 , 1

T j_

i 1 1

1 . _1

1 1

J-- -i

' 1

: 1

;

6'

' i i ! ■

; 1

; 1 1 !

■ ' ' 1 ' 1 1 - 1

4 i '

i 1 1 . r 1 1 I

i ' '

' ■ ' !' i

! 1 ' i II 1

1 ! i i

1 i M ' ' i

t 1 '

• i '

' 1

■ \ \ '

j : 1 i j j I

i 1

1

! 1 "1

' i ' 1 ' '

4'

1 ; . .1 i . _i-

t '

1 1 1

! 1 ' ; 1

1 I'

' ! 1

1 1 !

■1

! i i i M ' '

, : •

1 1

) T. i

'

M ' 1 • /

1 Ml

1

M M - > ' i

'■ * ' 1

1 ■ '

! M ^ '

'

saftH

X

tr

0 GO

i

1 ! 1

I'l

: • uj : ■ ; r

', , .

-^

i^"^

1 I

"!

"~

-~

TTTr-r^

br+ 1

-rT+^ ^-

-i-i —

-U

! LL J-

iri

1

j

■ 7^

' :

i

i

I }

44-T-l-

^3

4^

tp

8'

■ ' M

\ ' p-I

T~ r '■

' I ' 1

. i

T

W'

Mi'

'

- ■ lyf 1 1 ■

1 ! ' 1

i

■

1 ' '

\

1 / !

^4-i -E

Tj^w ' it

(.'

ifr^

7i^

i ] I" i

7^

4'

T^:|=

It

^-"^■^ I

iH-i:^

1 LL ' M

! 1 : y< i

-C __| ^' - 4: r!

i

^ -r -^^

1 i

1 1

0', . . . -..^ . -,<- ,1.

«^_ t_ U-

•

/•' __ X X

t» t r-

Pr +4- F-r ' "^

"^+ ■" iTih 41 "iix

4- 4- fit

it 41 ijt

T "" ii 41 jT

* ' 4lt SI

/ Ti*^ . '^

■^ - -. ' ^/ -4-

' 41 T T4- ^'^

it X IZ 4_

_r 47

■ y

• y

^ ^

1 1 ^~^f^\ '

'*■! i 1 ' i ' ' 1 i i ! 1

4:^ STo 4-0 yo

Acidity in cc. N/10 NaOH per 100 cc. cream serum.

Fig. III.

316 Fi'<iiicrf< K. M. Pn nic'resq :

TABLK IV.

Creniii from coiaraercial milk previously heated foi- '2(
minutes to 10-")° C, allowed to cool slowlv.

KxiiiMiiiieiit.

Ac'idit\ ill cc.

Time of flow, xt rur ^' in,, Method of Kat.

(seconds) NaOH^^^perlOO ...idifyi,,.-. (i.e.- .rntV

Cf. cream serum.

A - 78 - 29.1 - Addition of - 28

158 - 40 - pure lactir - —

'180 - 44.4 - culture - —

B - 220 - 31.3 - - .32

510 - 33.3 - . __

1080 - 37.5 - - —

Cream frtdii new milk previously heated to 105^^ C for
20 minutes, and cooled rapidly.

C - 70 - 21.7 - Addition - •"•1

J) - 14G ■ 22 - Addition - 43

70

21.7 -

Addition

70

- 37.7 ■

of lactic

70

■ 40.6 -

culture

240

46.4 -

1 080

60.11 -

14G

22

Addition

200

54

of lactic

220

64

acid

270 .

66

860

72.

127 -

23

lactic acid

1 29

45.8

141

- 56.6 -

3000

- 73.

E - 127 - 23 - lactic acid - 40

The Viscositij of Cream.

. :,M iiM -rrrr ' S : -' mhr

^_xi: ---^L :±: - - -I' '-"-:] \x"' \ "4.

i L "L"

■■ t

t

[

' ,

I !

i ' ' ■

■ 1 1

\ , ill

/T, , 1 1

^_ , _|_ . _. _ --\-yr ^ -{

! ^ -4- i_ U ^ ' J

r-tr "_ ~ "■'

~ --; f -';-j- --r-- p i

■ M 1 i

t J-^ ll " ^"

1

Itf " j ~ "!" " 1 '" " i^"'

i

1 i ■

- - 1" i "

/*' _i i , j_ 1

1 .

^ \ \

-H '^

ill

-/ ^ ii" ■

; 1 '

. y ■ 1 - . - . .

'~

'

t T " '

y

1

^1 ^■^ - - - -^ .-^- - .- -. --

iL

__^ --| 4 T-r^

^

? -r . -^

^ ^ **

----^

I'll ::: ~ :=i_i:::_=;±;:_ _ :„^ = i"";

, : \ ^_| 1 , 1 1 1 1--M

. ^ n

^^-y^t.-^- ^ io 30

31

«"0 60

Acidity in cc. N/10 NaOH per 100 cc. cream serum

Fig. IV.

318 Frances K. M. DaiiKircsti :

As sx matter of interest it may be mentioned that the increase
of viscosity due to increased acidity imparts to the cream certain
definite projierties, viz. : —

(1) The 2)i-operty of -svliipping, and

(2) The proj^erty of buttering.

A cream of sufficient acidit}- (approaching the critical acidity)
will i-cadily AvhijD, and having reached this condition, will, with
very little further mechanical agitation, form butter. It is pro-
bable, therefore, that the butter-maker, in allowing the cream to
ripen, not only aims at improving the flavour of the butter, but
also takes advantage of this pioperty of the cream acquired by
acidification in order that the fat globules may coalesce with the
minimum of loss. In making butter from fresh cream, a consider-
able loss of fat is inevitable, since the globules in this case have not
the strong tendency to coalesce.

The probable explanation of the critical acidity is that at this
])oint a definite change occurs in the proteins of the cream serum,
and the nature of this change is such that the protein, which forms
a kind of envelope around the fat globules, imj^edes their free
motion in rolling past one another.

This theory is supjDorted by the fact that in separated milk there
is no such sharp rise in viscosity on acidifying as is the case with
cream, although at tlie degree of acidity of the milk Avhich corres-
ponds to the critical acidity of the cream serum tliere is a definite
change in the proteins present, evidenced by a visible precipita-
tion.

The capillary of the viscosimcter employed for the experiments
Avith separated milk had only 1/3 of the cross-section of the capil-
lary used for the cream, so that there is no reason to suppose that
a relatively larger space Avas occupied by the milk in any part of
the tube, than by the cream serum, Avhich might otherAvise be thought
a possible explanation of the difference in behaviour of the tAvo
liquids.

In Nature of June 1st, 1911, there appeared a short
summary of a paper on " Viscosity of Emidsions," by Baucelin, in
Avhich the folloAving statement occurred : — " In accordance Avith
the Einstein theory, increase of viscosity is found to be independent
of the size of particles in suspension, and depends oidy on the
total volumei of particles per \init A'olumc."

On this assumption, since the total volume of the fat globules
in any cross-section of the capillary of the viscosimcter could not
be supposed to occupy nearly 2/3 of the total space for any of

Tlte Viscosity of Cream. 319

tlie samples of cream employed, it is reasonable to assume that any
increase in the viscosity of separated milk corresponding to that
at the critical acidity of cream scrum could have been detected Ijy
the use of the smaller capillary, and as no such rise is discernible,
the critical acidity must be due to the change in the nature of the
envelopes of the fat globules, and not to the addition to the li(|uid
of solid maltei- in the form of i)recipitate.

I/iflut/ire of Tenipe rat lire on Crciii/i V/scostfi/.

The effect of rise of temperature of the cream is, as one would
naturally expect from the case of other tiuids, to diminish the
viscosity, at first rapidly, but after reaching a temperature of
about 35 deg. C, the decrease in viscosity due to a further increase
in temperature is less marked. At about this temperature the fat
conunences to melt, and the globules tend to coalesce, so that the
nature of the liquid is changed, and the results of further rise of
temperature are no longer comparable with those obtained by ex-
periment with liquids containing suspended particles which are
not thus affected by change of temperature.

F(tt Content as Affecting Viscosity.

For the investigation of the effect of the fat content of cream
in determining its viscosity, a number of sam2:)les of cream, separ-
ated from the same milk, and differing only in fat content, were
employed, the experiments being performed, as before, at a con-
stant temperature of 25 deg. C, with an Ostwald viscosimeter.

The residts of these experiments show that the viscosity of cream
increases with increase in the fat conent, at first slowly, then more
and more rapidly, till a viscosity is attained such that the cream
will no longer flow.

In an interesting paper by Walter Hess, in Pflliger's Archiv. fiir
Physiologic, May, 1911, on " Blutviskositat unci Blutkorperchen,"
a new theory of the relation betAveen viscosity and content of solid
particles in blood was put forward. It is as follows : — Supposing
a number of samples of blood, the plasma of Avhich has the same
viscosity for all, but which contain different (juantities of solid par-
ticles, amounting to 10 per cent., 20 per cent., and 30 per cent.,
and so on for the different samples, the viscosity of any sample
will be inversely proportional to the amount of plasma contained.

Hence the viscosities of the various samples will be 100/90,
100/80, 100/70. etc., of the viscosity of the plasma, and hence the

320 Frances K. M. Daniaresq :

viscosity of a sample containing 10 pei' cent, of solid particles ^^ilI
be 8/9 of that containing 20 per cent., so that a sample containing
50 per cent, solid particles would have a viscosity twice as great as
that of the plasma.

An attempt was made to a2Ji)ly this theory to the viscosity of
cream, but it did not even approximately agree Avith the results
of the experiments for the viscosity of samjiles of cream of varying
fat content, since the viscosity of a sanqjle of 50 per cent, fat is
found to be nearly tAvelve times as great as that of separated milk.

From the actual experimental results it would appear that at
t'onstant temjierature the viscosity is a quadratic function of the
fat content, and the i-elation between these two quantities may be
grapliically represented by a hyperbola.

Cream from new milk

Experiment A

Experiment B

TABLE V.

k.

Time of flow
(seconds)

Fat content
(per cent.)

57

- 25

89

- 33

103

- 36

U6

- 41

168

- 43

240

- 49

20.8 -

— .

.•58

- 17.2

47.4 -

- 21.06

Gl

- 26.1

80

- 31.2

102

- 31.1

132

- 39

1G9

- 44

The Viscosity of Cream.

321

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Fat Content.

40

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Fig. V.

18

322 Dumaresq : The Viscosity of Cream.

SUMMARY.

1. The main factors instrumental in varying the viscosity of
cream are acidity, temperature and fat content, and of these three
the first holds the most important place.

2. Increase in acidity produces very little effect on viscosity of
cream, up to the " critical point," at which a sudden sharp rise in
viscosity occurs.

3. The change in viscosity of separated milk at the degree of
acidity corresponding to the "critical acidity" of cream is very
slight — i.e., for separated milk there is no "critical acidity,"
proving that this is a property of the fat globule, or rather of its
envelope.

4. Increase in temperature of cream diminishes its viscosity, at
first rapidly, afterwards at a slower rate.

5. The viscosity of cream is a quadratic function of the fat con-
tent, if the other factors remain constant.

In conclusion, I take this opportunity of expressing my sincere
thanks to Dr. Rothera, at whose suggestion this work was under-
taken, for his continued interest and help.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victokia. 25 (N.S.) Pr. II., 1913.J

Art. XXV. — General (tad Mining Geologi/ of I he Diamond

Creek Area.

Bt NORMAN R. JUNNER, B.Sc.

(Kcruot Eesearch Scholar, University of Melbourne).

(With Plates XXV. and XXVI.).

[Read 12th December, 1912].

1. Introduction.

2. Pi-evious literature.
;}. Physiography.

4. Stratigi'aphy.

5. Structural featui-es : —

(a) Folding-, crvimpled anticlines ; zones of crushing.

(b) Dip and strike of silurian and evidence of pitch.

(c) Relation of mining lielts t<) structural features.

(d) Faulting.

(e) Igneous intrusions.
€ Petrology:—

(a) Silurian st^diments and their origin.

(b) Basalt series.

(c) Dykes.

(d) Discussioii of the alteration of the dykes.

(e) Gold quartz veins and shale reefs.

7. Geology of the Diamond Creek mine : —

(a) Featui'es of the silurian, stru(;tui-.il and lithological.
(1)) Breccia and crush conglomerate.

(c) The Diamond Creek dyke.

(d) Faulting later than intrusion of the dyke.

8. Relations of the quartz reefs to one another : —

(a) Occurrences and relative age.

(b) Oi'igin <if the vein fissures.

9. Origin of the gold-bearing solutions.

10. Occurrence and causes <>f the ore shoots, etc.

11. Summary and conclusions.

1. — Introduction.

The area discussed in this paper comprises the central and
western portions of the Parish of Nillunibik. The author originally
intended to map the eastern portion also, but oAving to a rather
late beginning and' to concentration on the mining geology, this

13a

324 N. R. Jur.ner:

was not possible. Nevevtlieless a fair amount of field Avork was.
done in the neighbourhood of Kangaroo Grounds. Tiic only pre-
vious mapping done in the area Avas a rapid survey of portion
of the Parish of Nillumlnk by 0. A. L. Whitelaw in 1895. and the
mapping of the main axial lines east of Diamond Creek by J. T.
Jutson.

2. — Previous Literature.

1. A. K. Selwyn began the literature on this area in a report
on the Geological Structure of the Colony of Victoria, the Basin
of the Yarra, etc. ; Votes and Proceedings of tin' Legislative
Council of Victoria. 1855-1856, Vol. 2, Pt. I., with plans and
sections.

In 1876, R. Brough Smythi briefly described the general mining
features of the Diamond Creek gold field. He mentions the occur-
rence of eurite at Diamond Creek, and draws a parallelism be-
tween it and the acid dykes at Mount Bischoff, Tasmania. He also
traced a line of older basalt and gravels from Kangaroo Grounds
past the Dandenongs to the River Latiobe, and thence to near the
coast in South-West Gippsland. In 1894, R. A. F. Muriay- visited
the auriferous " cement " deposits near Greensboro ugh. Eltham
and Kangaroo Grounds, and reported very briefly thereon.

In 1895, 0. A. L. Whitelaw, of the Victorian Geological Survey,,
made a rapid survey of jjortion of the goldfields between Warrandyte..
Greensborough and Queenstown. He mentions a distiiK'tive l)and
of sandstone traced from 'the River Yarra to Diamond Creek, and
intersected by spurs and veins of a dioritic dyke. He was of the
opinion that the quartz reefs were formed along a line of anticlinal
fracture.

H. S. Whitelaw"' iu 1899 noted the occurrence of sribnitc in
(juartz leefs. and in certain bands of the silurian at Diamond
Creek.

In ]!)()(). V. Iv. Stirling* reported on the New Pioneer reef, Xil-
lumbik. A feriuginous quartz-reef, two to four inches wide, and
dipi)ing at about 70 deg. to the west. Iiad been worked with fair
success.

1 R. B. Smyth. Report on Kltliam iinil .VlleiulaU' ^^old field. I'roj;. rveport Viot. Geol. Sm\.,
No. 3, 1870, pp. 34-38.

2 R. A. V. Murray. Report on the auriferous roinitry near fjineenstowir. I'ro-;. Report Vict.
Geol. Surv., No. 8, 1804.

3 II. S. Wliitelaw. Antimony ores in Victoria. Pro^. Report Vict. Geol. Surv., No. 10, 180S).

4 v. 14. Stirling'. Notes on the New Pioneer reefs, NilhimbiU. Monthly Vvo'^. Report Vict.
Geol. Surv., No. 10, pp. 7, 8, 1000.

Geology of tli<- I'io imnnl Creek A'rea. 325

Ml-. Dunn.l in 1905, visited the L'liioii Mine, Diainoiid Cieeii.
In liis report lie mentioned the northerly pitch of the country and
of the shoots of gold. He stated also that the (piartz veins were
filling couitruction fissures in the dyke, and that payable gold wimid
prol)ably be localised near the intersection of the ff)ot\vall reef
with certain bands of the country rock. Two sections illustrat-
ing the relations of the dyke, breccia and ([uartz reefs with the
Silurian, accompany the report.

J. T. Jutson,2 in a papei' read before this Society ini l!)Ul). de-
scribed very fully the physiographii' characters of the Plenty liiver.
The present valley of the Plenty, south from Morang. is
described as a young stream wliich has eaten its way back toAvards
the old Plenty River near Morang. A tongue of newer basalt filled
up this valley to near Greensl)orough, and the present valley was
cai-ved out near the junction of the neAver l)asalt with th.- older
rocks.

J. T. Jutson,-^ in an excellent jihysiographic papiT on <lie liistoiy
of tlie Yai'ra Tviver and Dandenoug Creek basins, has desi-iibed the
Nillunibik pfiu'plain, and lie has shown that the Yarra River in its
course through the Warraiidytv' gorge is ;i revived antvceih'nt
stream.

The age of the Nilhim])ik penepbiin is diseussed. and he shows
that the age is probably kalinmaii, and that uplift prolial)ly dates
from late kalimnau, and has continued to A'ery recent times.

. In 1910 Jutson* described the interesting Warrandyte goldfield.
The Silurian sediments are described, and the main folds mapped.
The probable age of the series is discussed, and he states that the
oldest beds are jjrobably at Warrandyte, and the youngest in the
BuUeen syncline, and that the beds near the Diamond Creek are
intermediate in age.

3. — Physiogpaphy.

The area is part of Avhat has been called the Nillumbik pene-
plain.-' The average elevation is betAAeen 300 and 400 feet, and
tlie highest point is at (harden Hill. Kangaroo Grounds, Avhich is

1 K. .1. Diinii. The I iiion Mine. IHaiuoiid f!rc-ek. Kw. Vict. (Jeol. Surv., vol. ii., 1907-1008,
\<\\ 3:!-3:-..

2 J. T. Jutsoii. A coiitributioii to tlie plivsioal Jii>toiv of the rieiity Ktver, ete. Hroc. l!oy. Soc.
Vict., vol. xxii., I't. II., (U.S.). 190>».

3 .1. T. Jutsoii. I'livsioiT. of the \';iii-a livei-, etc. I'roc. Kov. Soc. Vict,, vol. .\xiii., (n.s.),
Pt. II., 1911.

4 J. T. Jutsoii. The structiual and jjciieial geoloyy of the Wiinaiidyte gold field and adjacent
country. Proc. Roy. Soc. A'ict., vol. xxiii., Pt. II., 1911.

For pur]K)se-^ of reference we shall call these papers by .hitson, a, h, e, respectively,
u .Jntsoii. h, |>. 477.

326 .V. 7^. Jiinner:

very nearly 1000 feet above sea level. The greater part of the pene-
plain consists of folded silurian sediments. Patches of basalt and
gravel occur near Kangaroo Grounds and Greensborough. Eesi-
duals or monadnocks are few in number, and therefore presum-
ably peneplanation was almost complete, and the then existing
streams were probably all nearly base levelled. This being so, the
present elevations of the river gravels should afford a clue in
determining the variation in direction and intensity of the later
movements cennected with the uplift of the peneplain. The uplift
was slow and differential in character, as is well shown by the ante-
cedent character of the Yarra near Warrandyte. ^' 2 Tilting of the
peneplain has occurred in an east and Avest direction, and also to a
slight extent in a north and south direction. On going north
toAvards Queenstown and Kinglake, the country is seen to rise
gradually. The east and west slope, however, is very marked, a
difference of over 400 feet in the elevation of the gravels occurring
in a distance of about five miles. Thus, near Greensborough, the
elevation of the gravels is about .350 feet.^ About one mile east
of the Diamond Creek mine, the elevation is 520 feet. At the Avest
edge of the Kangaroo Grounds basalt, the elevation of the graA'-els
is 650 feet, and near the cemetery about 750 feet. It is thus seen
that as A\'e go east across the area there is a progressive and
moderately uniform increase in elcA'ation. FoUoAving on the uplift
a neAv cycle of stream activity Avas initiated, Avith the result that
the peneplain has been rather deeply dissected, although at the
same time dissection is far from being matured. The area is
moderately hilly, numerous gullies and small streams abound, and
the dift'erences in elevation betAveen these Avater courses and the hills
are generally from 150 to 300 feet. The Plenty and Yarra Rivers
have been described by Jutson, as has been above noted. The
Diamond Creek, Avithin the limits of the area, is in a fairly matured
state. Fairly Avide alluvial flats occur, and the creek meanders
through these from side to side. The material constituting the
flood plain is generally fine sand, and no coarse gra\^els occur, in-
dicating that former stream velocities could only have been
moderate. Residuals in the peneplain are few, and the main ones
have been mentioned l)y Jutson. No physiographic evidence of
faulting occurs in the area, although not far to the east, near Yaira
Glen, such faulting has l)een described by Jutson.''

1 J. \V. Gregory, Geograpli.v of \ ictoiia, p. IOC, 107.

2 Jutson. b, p. 485.

;) Note all plevations are ariei-oi<l reading's.
i 1), p. HYL
r> 1), p. 478.

GcoliKjij of the Diamonil ('reek Area. ■>2',

4.— Stratigraphy.

The follo\viiii( formations are represented in tlie area: — -

-r, , . I Silurian sediments.

Jralaeozoic ; ■ , , ,

i ? Devonian acid dykes.

,„ . , liiver or lacustrine jfi-avels, sands, etc.

tertiary '

( Basalts.

Recent alluvium.
The oldest member of the series consists of interbedded sandstones,
mudstones and shales, containing considerable amounts of mus-
covite, and varying greatly in colour and coarseness. Occasional
bands of quartzite and slate occur at intervals, and a series of
grits and conglomerates has been described from Warrandyte.i
i-i^rom the various lithological and microscopical characters of these
rocks they appear to be entirely marine, and to have been laid
down mostly under shallow water conditions. Cf Jutson. c, p. 530.
Some of the sandstones in the west of the area show good current
bedding on a small scale, one section in particular from Dry
Creek showed this very well. No extensive palaeontological work
was attempted, mainly owing to lack of time. An interesting find,
however, was the discovery of graptolites in black pyritic slates
from the Diamond Creek mine. Dr. Hall has kindly examined
these, and he has informed me that both climacograptus and diplo-
graptus are represented, but he says there was not sufficient evi-
dence to enable their precise age to be determined. It may be of
interest to note that climacograptus and diplograptus both range
into the lowest member of the silurian, namely, the llandovery
series in England; but as fas as the writer is aware, neither have
been definitely proved to exist in the silurian in Victoria. It
seems clear, therefore, that the beds near Diamond Creek are at
least melbournian or older in age, and probably older than Jutson
was inclined to regard them. It might be noted in this connection
that Selwyn regarded the beds of the Templestowe anticline, i.e., the
anticline near Diamond Creek, as the oldest of the scries. Two
or three other fossils were found, and for the examination of them
the writer is indebted to Mr. Chapman. The first fossil is from
section 7, allotment 3, in the east of the area, and is a trachy-
derma, which Mr. Chapman informs me occurs botli in melbournian
and in the yeringian, and so is of no diagnostic value. The other
fossil examined was from the Plenty River just below the aqueduct.

1 Jutson. c, p. 530.

328 iV. R. Junner :

Mr. ( 'hapTiiaii ck'scrilu-s it as the remains of a })liyllncai'id re-
sembling ]Jit}ii/oc(iri.s praecox. Chapman, hut much smaller. A
similar fox'm has been found in the nielbotirnian at IVIerri Creek.

Acid dj/hes.

Three of these, namely, the Dry Creek dyke, the Diamond Creek
dyke, and the Warrandyte dyke occur in the area investigated,
although only the former paii- have been studied in detail. The
Diamond Creek dyke is most important economically, as it is
with this dyke that mining operations in late years have been
mainly concerned. Their exact age is not stratigraphically deter-
minate. They are later than the folding of the silurian, and are
overlaid in some cases by alluvium. In one case, in section 16,
allotment D, a basaltic dyke cuts across one of these dykes. The
age of the basic dyke is probably about middle tertiary, and so it
affords little value in the determination of the age of the acid
ones. Probably the intrusion of the acid dykes was connected with
the earth movements that caiised the folding of the silurian, and
these are probably devonian in age.

Siih-lxtsalt ic river (/ravels, )^(nif/s, etc.

Lithologically all stages are present in these between coai'se
gravels with pebbles up to six inches in diameter, and fine uncon-
solidated sands. Frequently the sands and gravels have been
cemented togetlier forming the following : —

Silicified grits grading into quartzite. Ferruginous grits where
tlie cementing matei'ial is either limonite or hematite. Calcareous
grits, consisting of ([uartz grains, set in a paste of calcium car-
bonate.

Where the grains of (piartz arc more angular, various ty})es of
bi-eccia are fornu'd. Thin bands of limestone occui- interbedded
with the sands in sevei'al 2:)laces. Silicification of the fine sands
frequently occurs with the forination of (piartzite. Professor Skeats
and Mr. Sumincrsl l:ave noted the intimate association of the
quartzites with the lava flows in the Macedon area. While this
is frequently the easi- near tin- basalts at Greensborough and
Kangaroo (Irounds, (juartzite <loes nevertheless occur associated
with the sands and gravels, where no basalt is present. In such
cases an origin such as that suggested by Prof. Gregory2 might be

1 Professor Skeats and H. S. Summers, M.Sc. Bulletin Vict. Geol. Surv., No. 24, 1912.

2 J. W. GreKor.v. The t;eogra|>hy of Victoriii, p. St4.

Oeoloyy of the Dlaniotul Creek Aren. 329

likely. Near the margin of the basalt in several places, but
especially near the northern limit at Greensborough, good examples
of fossil wood have been found. The structure iias been remaik-
ably well preserved in some examples. A section of the wood was
examined by Prof. Kwart. He informed me that he felt sure
that the wood belonged to the eucalyi)ts, l)ut that one section was
not sufficient to correlate it with existing species. The sands are
frei[uently horizontally bedded, and some sections show good cur-
rent bedding. The gravels which were foi'merly the position of
the valleys now frecjuently occur as ridges elevated above the sur-
roundings. The reason for this is twofold. (T) the basalt has pro-
tected the gravels, and even in places where the basalt is not now
pi-esent. it may formerly have covered them. (2) the resistant
character of the gravels in themselves. Small amounts of gold
occur in the sands and gravels throughout the area, and they have
been worked at several places with indifferent results. Just to the
east of the main road from (Treensborough to Diamond Creek, near
the southern limit of the basalt, over .£1000 worth of gold was won
in about seventeen years. The sands were also extensively used
in the construction oi the Maroondah aqueduct.

Basalts.
The basalts occur in the extreme east and west of the area; one
small patch occurs about one mile to the east of Diamond Creek.
The writer has separated them on peti-ological grounds into 3 types.

1. Fine grained aphanitic basalt.

2. Medium to coarse grained basalt and dolerite.

3. Garden Hill basalt, medium to fine grained in character.
No field .separation of these types was possible. The tirst
type is well exemplified in a quarry off the main road near the
northern limit of tlie l)asalt at Greensborough, and also in a quarry
just to the south-east of Garden Hill. In both quarries the basalt
is clearly the basal member, and has filled up the prebasaltic
stream valleys. In both cases also columnar structure indicative
of fairly rapid cooling has been developed. The columns are ver-
tical and cleanly cut. The second type is a rather coarse grained
basalt or dolerite. i It is the average type throughout the area, and
it overlies the finer grained type near Greensborough and Kangaroo
Grounds.

The third type, as the name suggests, is typically developed afc
Garden Hill, Kangaroo Grounds. It is medium to fine grained

1 Chamberlin and Salisbury. Processes and Results, p. 398.

330 N. R. Junner:

in character, and is frequently vesicular. Further down the slopes
of Garden Hill, the basalt is a dark compact fine grained type. Ao
stratigraphic determination of the age of the basalts is possible,
since they overlie leads whose age also is in doubt. The basalt at
Greensborough is older than the newer basalt to the east of Mel-
bourne, since a tongue of this basalt has filled up the old valley,
which has been cut near the junction of the older basalt and gravels
with the Silurian. On petiological and physiographical grounds
the writer has no hesitation in correlating it with the older
rather than the newer basalt. The 1902 geological map of Victoria
issued by the Geological Survey shows the Greens1)oi-ougli basalt as
older basalt and the Kangaroo Grounds type as newer basalt.
A later mai? published by the same department shows both as older
basalt. More certain evidence of their age is obtainable physio-
graphically. Jutsoni mentions that the Kangaroo Grounds basalt
is a monadnock in the peneplain. He2 also has shown that the
age of the peneplain is probal)ly kalimnan, tliat is, lower pliocene^
or upi3er miocene. This being so, the age of the basalt is prepliocene
and probably miocene. The brief investigation of this point by the
writer supports the view that the Kangaroo Grounds basalt is a
monadnock, and that vei-y little vertical erosion occurred between
the filling up of the river valleys by the basalt, and the final pene-
planation. At Greensborough the evidence is less certain, but
petrologically these basalts appear to be identical, and the writer
believes therefore that thev Avere both extruded towards the end
of the peneplanation, and therefore their age is probably miocene.
The Garden Hill basalt occurring at the highest point of Kangaroo
Grounds is much more scoriaceous, and has a smaller specific
gravity than the main Kangaroo Grounds basalt, and is possilily
of more recent age.

5. — Structural Features.

(a) Foldiuff, crumpled aididines ; zones of crushing.

The Silurian sediments have been normally and fairly openly
folded throughout most of the nrpa. The major axial lines in the
east of the area have l)ecn inajiped by .Tutson. The positions of
these have been verified by tlie author, and, in additi(ui, a few
minor folds have been located. A major fold is well seen in a
railway cutting near Greensborough station, and the same fold has

1 b, p. r.02. 0

2 1), p. 4yy.

3 F. Chupiuaii. A stiul.v of tli l{.iti"»foi'<l liinistorK-. I'l-oc. l{oy Soc. Vict, vol. xxii. (ii.s.), I't. II.

Geology of the Diamond Creek Area. 331

been ])irke<l up where it crosses the Maroondah aqueduct in the
north of the area. The railway section shows that near tiie axis
tlie fold is extremely crumpled and crushed. Small thrust faults
having displacements of three or four feet are common. No quartz
reefs occur near bv, and this is what we might expect. In general
it is only in places where the rocks have fractured by tension as
near the anticlinal axes that fissures have formed through which
solutions have reached the surface. Following Gregory and Jutson
it is proposed to call the above fold the Greensborough syncline.
The western limb of this syncline consists of fairly steep, dijiping
beds, and near the Plenty River it passes into a sharp anticlinal
flexure. The anticlinal axis is not symmetrical having a dip to
the east of about 70 deg. In a section in Dry Creek an acid dyke occurs
i-ight on the axis. Going further east from here along the east
iind west bend of the Plenty River, two or three minor folds occur
fairly close to one another. The Templestowe anticline is, how-
■ever, the axis with which we are most directly concerned. Jutson^
has traced this fold for nine miles south of the northern boundary'
of the parish of Nillumbik. The wi-iter has traced it still further
north to near Hurst's bridge, that is, for about three miles further
north. The Avestern limb of the fold, as Jutson has pointed out, is
very greatly contorted and fractured. This is very well exemplified
at and near the Diamond Creek mine. The silurian sediments
throughout the area are well jointed, but near the above-mentioned
anticline, rectangular jointing is sometimes so Avell developed that
it is almost impossible to di.stingui.sh bedding from joint planes.
This is well illustrated in cuttings in the recently-opened railway
to Hurst's bridge. Another interesting feature are the numei'ous
bedded and nearly vertical joint plane reefs in close proximity to
the axial lines, especially the anticlines. It appears clear, there-
fore, that the pressure near the anticlinal axes during folding was
tensional, and led to the formation of fractures and fissures
through which mineral-bearing solutions have reached the surface,
"while the pressure in the synclines was compressional rather
than tensional, as is shown by the case of the Greensborough
syncline above mentioned, and hence no passages or outlets for
solutions from below occurred. Hence the reason for the localisa-
tion of the mining belts to the anticlines.^ such as Warrandyte and
Diamond Creek, is apparent.

Associated with the Diamond Creek cTyke there occurs a zone of
brecciation which will be dealt with in detail later.

1 Jutson. 1), p. .5'22.

2 The proximity of acid dykes to the .inticliiies near Warrandyte, Diamond ("reek, Dry Creek
and Templestowe furtlier illustrates this point.

19a

332 N. li. Jminev

(b) Dip (tnd strike of the siluria/i and evidence of pitch.

The strike of the folded sediments is fairly constant tliroughout.
The maximum value of the strike is about north 45 deg. east, and
the minimum value is a few degrees west of north. The average
value is about north 20 deg. east. It is only in the Avest and
northern parts of the area that any considerable variation from
the average value occurs. To the north-west of Greensborough,
near the bend to the west of the Plenty River, the strike is nearly
north and south. The dip varies considerably, and when away
from the axial lines the average value is between 50 deg. and 60 deg.
In the east and north-east of the area, Jutson^ has shown that the
beds have a decided northerly pitch. Certain sections along the
aqueduct illustrate this very well. Near Diamond Creek and
further west near Greensborough, however, no defined regional pitch
occurs. Mr. Dunn- has stated that the pitch of the beds near
Diamond Creek is to the north. The writer has not been able ta
verify this, and he believes that no regional pitch is here present^
but that minor local pitches do not infrequently occur.

(c) Relation of mining helts to structural features.

Since the fine and instructive paper by Emmons^ in 1886, it has
become more and more recognised that the study of the structural
features in any mining field is essential to the complete mastering
of the various problems connected with the ore deposits. We have in
Victoria, at Bendigo, perhaps as fine an example of this connec-
tion as we might wish for. It is essential, therefore, that wc .should
study the structural features in some detail. This has been done-
to some extont above, and it has been seen that the payable quartz
reefs in the silurian in this urea, in practically all cases.
are localised to near the axial lines, and generally to
near the anticlines, and a reason for this has been sug-
gested. Synclinal reefs do sometimes occur, however, as
at Warrandyte,^ and in a section along the railway line
between Greensborough and Eltham, a minor anticline and syncline
occur with a thin bedded svnclinal reef. Jointing lias been shown

1 Jutson. c, p. 525.

2 Op. cit.

3 S. F. Eninioiis. The structural features of ore deposits. Trans. Aiiur. Inst. Min. Kng.,
vol. xvi., p. 804-839.

4 Jutson, c, p. 535.

Geology of (he l>iariioad Creek Area. 333

to be extensively developed near the Templestowe anticline, and the
joints are seen to be mainly strike joints, and are probably con-
nected with the folding of the sediments.

(d) Fault} in/.

Two main periods of faulting have been noted : —

1. Pre-mineralisation.

2. Post-mineralisation.

As examples of faulting previous to the formation of the quartz
reefs, we have the brecciated zone, now occupied by the Diamond
Creek dyke, and probably the slips parallel to the bedding plaries
belong to this period. Movement later than the formation of the
reefs is well illustrated by tlie numerous strike faults occurring in
the Union and Diamond Creek mines. This type of faulting has
not been recognised elsewhere in the area, although it is possible,
but not probable, that such fatdting has been missed, due to the
fault planes coinciding with the dip of the beds.

As regards igneous intrusions, the basalts and acid dykes have
already been described under stratigraphy. Only two basic dykes^
from the area are known to the writer. One was found by Howitt^
at the Caledonia mine, Warrandyte, and was determined by Pro-
fessor Skeats as a monchic[uite, and the other was found by the
writer in section 16, and is described later.

6.— Petrology.

(a) Sandstones and their origin.

Several sections of the sandstones from various parts of the area
have been examined by the writer. Section A18 from the Watts
River aqueduct near the AVarrandyte anticline is a typical example.

In hand specimen it is seen to l»e a dark-coloured, dense, micaceous
rock .

Microscopically the foUoAN ing minerals arc recognisable : — Quartz,
muscovite. chlorite, tlint. t<>ur-malinc. zircon, rutile, apatite, mag-
netite, leucoxene. biotite, plagioclase, iron oxides and patches of
carbonaceous material. Quartz occui's in all sections examined in
well over 90 per cent, of the rock. Tlie grains are either angular
er subangulai', and are very rarely rounded. Numerous micro-

1 Tlie writer has since seen in the National Mdsenni, Melhourne, a specimen of j/iira lanprn-
pkyre from the liiioii Mine, Diamond Creek.

2 A. M. Howitt. Notes on a Sketch Survey, of the Caleilonia Reefs at Warrandyte. Kept. CJeol.
Surv. Vict., vol. 3, Pt. I, 1900, p. 40.

334 iV. li. Junner :

.sco})i(.- ])ri!siiis of lutile or zircon, and linearly arranged gas and
liquid inclusions aie present in the quartz grains. Strain polarisa-
tion is a common feature in the quartz grains. Muscovite is i'airly
common, and occurs as twisted flakes which are frequently bordered
by green chlorite. Chlorite also intrudes itself along cleavage
planes. A brownish green variety of chlorite is more common, and
it api^ears to be an alteration product of some iron magnesium
mineral, as biotite. Biotite and an acid plagioclase also occur
in small amounts in nearly all sections. Of the usual concentrates
found in such rocks as these, zircon and touinialine are most
common. The detrital origin of these is evident by the rounding
of the salient angles in the prismatic crystals, llutile is not un-
common, and generally occurs in brown j^rismatic crystals. The
individual cpiartz grains are generally not very closely packed,
and the cementing material usually is micro- or cryptocrystalline
silica, which is often stained with brown hydrated iron oxide.
Occasionally tine sericitic mica and chloritic material form the
bond. In the fossiliferous g-rit from Warrandyte. the cement is
largely calcite. The nature of the rocks from which the silurian
sediments were derived has been discussed by Jutson.i He showed
that the pebbles in the Warrandyte conglomerate were practically
entirely of a sedimentary nature, i.e., quartz, quartzite and sand-
stone, and no jDebbles of an igneous rock were present, and this
led him to conclude that the rocks from which the conglomerates
were derived consisted largely, if not entirely, of altered and
unaltered sediments. In such an old conglomerate as this,
however, we might well expect to find onl}' the more resistant
rock types, like the ones above-mentioned, remaining, although
igneous rocks may have originally been present. On petrological
grounds, the writer draws the conclusion that the sandstones were
derived to a fair extent at least from a pre-silurian igneous rock,
probably granitic. Tliis view is supported by the following evi-
dence : —

(1) The abundance of mu.scovite ;

(2) The presence of biotite and plagioclase, and chlorite, which
is usually derived from unstable iron magnesium minerals;

(3) The occurrence of zircon and rutile ci'vstals in the quartz
grains in the sandstone may indicate an igneous origin for such
quartz.

(4) The constant presence of tourmaline sup])orts such an origin ;

(5) The absence of metamorphic minerals, garnet, etc., show that
they were not derived from metamorphic rocks.

1 p, p. .'■.32.

Geology oj the Uiamond ('reek Area. 335

(1)) Basalts.

1. Fine grained Ijusalt, ([uarry near the northern limit of the basalt
at Greensboroiigli. Macrcscopically this rork is dark grey in colour,
and is compact, and aphanitic with the exception of occasional
felspar phenocrysts. A sample was collected from the quarry above
mentioned and analysed by the writer in tlie Univei'sity geological
laboratory. The weathering of the basalt in this quarry has led to
the solution of lime and magnesia, and these have been redeposited
as a niagnesian limestone. For the purpose of comparison an
analysis by F. L. Stillwell of Uie older l)asalt from near Broad-
meadows is appended.

A.

B.

SiO,

46.43

44.95

AlA

17.60

15.50

Fe,03

8.51

2.04

FeO

2.44

10.47

MgO

8.03

7.43

CaO

8.12

8.24

K^O

0.92

1.98

Na.,0

3.56

3.04

H.p +

1.20

2.60

H.,0-

0.81

0.52

CO,

p.n.d.

0.18

TiO.,

2.25

2.77

PA

0.37

0.52

MnO

0.22

0.21

(Ni,Co)0

0.07

—

Total

100.53

100.45

A. Fine grained ba.salt quarry
off main road, near northern
limit of the basalt, Greens-
borough— S.G. 2.94.

B. Older ba.salt (A) quarry,
Section 15, TuUniarine, county
of Bourke.

Mici'oscopically the texture is aphanitic with occasional por-
phyritic felspars. The mineral composition of the rock is thus : —
Plagioclase, olivine, augite, magnetite, ilmenite. zeolites and
apatite. Plagioclase occurs in two generations, firstly as long
iaiomorphic clear and gla.ssy laths showing lamellar twinning
generally, but occasionally only simply twinned. Pressure effects,
probably of a local origin, are noticed in the twisting and fractur-
ing of the laths, by wedging of the twin lamellae, and also by cross
fractures almost at right angles to one another, and generally
obli(|ue to the planes of twinning. Olivine is almost indeterminate
in ordinary light, due to its invasion by the ground mass. Concen-
tration of black iron oxide occurs frequently in the centre of the
crystals, and radiating linearly arranged rods of the same material

336 N. E. Junner:

pass out to the edges. In bright, reflected sunlight, the olivine is
seen to be mostly altered to red iron oxide, probably hematite.
An occasional porphyritic crystal of augite occurs, and has sui!ered
like the olivine. The bulk of -the augite, however, occurs scattered
through the ground mass of the rock as yellow and colourless
anhedral grains and prisms. The ground mass of the rock consists
of microscopic laths of felspar, often in fluidal arrangement, and
abundant dust and fine grains of black iron oxide. Zeolites occur
in all sections examined, and they are frequently associated with
apatite needles, and contain prisms of augite and grains of
magnetite as inclusions. The phenocrysts of olivine and plagio-
clase had probably crystallised out from the magma before ex-
trusion, and rapid chilling caused the separation of microlites
of felspar and dust of iron oxide. Section A.32, Kangaroo Groimds,
quarry, south-east of Garden Hill, shows i^ilotaxitic structui'e.
Zeolites of very low birefringence occur filling vesicles. Radiating
natrolite with birefringence, considerably above the felsj^ar also
occurs, filling steam cavities. Section A28 shows olivine frequently
clear and colourless. Occasionally the outlines of felspar now
replaced hy zeolites are seen.

2. Medium to coarse grained basalt. — In hand specimen, with the
aid of a lens, crystals of weathered olivine and felspar laths can lie
sometimes identified.

Microscopically this type differs from the first in the presence
of numerous phenocrysts of titaniferous augite, and in the iiatu>'e
of the giound mass. Section A15, Kangaroo Grounds, is a holo-
crystalline fairly even grained hypidiomorphic rock with oj^hitic
texture. The minerals present ai'e plagioclase, augite, olivine,
magnetite, ilmenite and apatite. Zeolites and chlorite occur as
secondary constituents. Plagioclase is present in long prismatic
lath.«!, frequently zoned, and having a maximum extinction of about
42 deg. The augite is a titaniferous variety, and it is pleochroic
from jiurple to brown or yellow, and occurs in anhedral forms.
Extinction angle of the augite is 50 deg. from 100. The augite is
ophitically penetrated by the felspar laths. Numerous inclusions
of olivine occur in the augite. Olivine is present chiefly as allotrio-
morphic grains. Alteration has taken place along ci'acks to
greenish chloritic material, and occasionally to red iron oxide.
Magnetite commonly occurs idinmorphic as octahedra. Numerous
irregular grains, purple in reflected light, are probably ilmenite.
Low polarising zeolites frequently fill interstices in the rock.
The rock may bo described as an ophitic olivine dolerite.

Geologi/ of the Diamond Creek Area. 337

Section A2;j, Kaiigaruo Grouiids, near the ceiueterv. In this «ec'-
tiuii the ophitic texture is absent, and tlie felspar hillis are hirger
tlian in section Al").

."5. Garden Hill basalt. — This typu dilleis Ifoni tlie second type
in the rarity of the phenocrysts of augite, and in its finer grained
character. The specific gravity of this type is also markedly dif-
ferent from that of tlie former types. The specific gravity of the
third type is about 2.86, while that of the fii'st two types is about
2.9;J.

Section A24. soutli of (iarden Hill, is a typical example. Tn
hand specimen it is a black, dense, almost aphanitic rock.

Microscopically it is a huloLrystalline fine gi-ained lock, showing
pilotaxitic structuic, and having a tendency toAvards a porphyritic
habit. Phenocrysts of olivine occur in a moderately hne grained
base of augite, plagioclase. magnetite, ilmenite and apatite.
Secondary minerals, as seri:>entine, zeolites and iddingsite are pre-
sent. Olivine, colouj'less, is occasonally altered to green serpentine,
and I'ed brown iddingsite. Augite occurs very rarely as purple
phenocrysts, and is generally 2)resent as microscopic anliedral grains
and prisms, having an extinction angle about 45 deg. Long prisms
of felspar, Avith maximum extinction angle about 33 deg., indicate
labi-adorite of composition near Ab.^ Aug. Microspherulitic zeolites
occur distributed throughout the ground mass.

Section A21, Garden Hill. — Olivine is largely replaced l)y idding-
site. Small amount of glass or isotropic zeolite present.

(c) T)!flce.<<.

1. Basic dyke. This dyke occurs in a small shaft in section
16, allotment D. It was not possible to determine its strike or to
trace it on the surface. Macroscopically it is a greenish grey
coloured amygdaloidal rock, resendiling a basalt. It weathers to
a brown iron-stained material containing numerous unaltei'ed
crystals of augite. Microscopically it is a holocrystalline, panidio-
morphic, porphyritic textured rock. It consists mineralogically of
phenocrysts of olivine and augite in a ground mass of microlites
of felspar, granular augite, olivine, magnetite and apatite.
Secondary minerals compiise zeolites, talc, calcite and leucoxene.
Augite occurs in large idiomorphic phenocrysts, brown or purple
in colour, and decidedly pleochroic, indicating a titaniferous
variety. Simple twinning im 100 is seen by re-entrant angles and
differences in polarisation colours. Multiple tAvinning, tAvin and

•20

'638 iV. R. Junner:

oouipusition 2:ilane UOl well developed. Iddings^ mentions that this
type of twinning is often developed by pressure. Extinction angle
of the augite varies from 30 deg. to 37 deg. Cleavage parallel to
110 perfect. This augite is of interest since in some cases it appears
to be almost uniaxial, and the writer was able to determine its
sign as positive by the mica plate. A. N. Winchell^ has noted
that in a titaniferous pyroxene from Pigeon Point, Minnesota, the
optical axial angle is so small that in some cases the mineral
appears uniaxial. This seems to be the case in the above-mentioned
augite. Inclusions of plagioclase in augite show" that, in part, the
augite crystallised out later than the felspar. Augite in the
ground mass occurs as eight-sided granules and prisms. The prisms
occasionally cross one another, forming stellate aggregates sugges-
tive of the rare mode of twinning on (T22).^ Olivine occurs as
anhedral crystals of moderate size, now almost entirely replaced by
a colourless micaceous mineral with high birefringence, probably
talc. Along cracks alteration to green serpentine or chlorite has
occurred. Plagioclase is present in long latlis, having a maximum
extinction of about 37 deg. The rock may be described as a basaltic
dyke.

2. Dry Creek dyke. Section A25, Dry Creek dyke, near the
Plenty River. In hand specimen this is a light-coloured rock, fre-
quently iron stained due to oxidation of crystals of pyrite. The
minerals present are not determinable in hand specimen. Micro-
scopically the texture is holocrystalline and porphyritic. Miner-
alogically the rock consists of phenocrysts of orthoclase and quartz
in a ground mass of quartz, sericite, bleached biotite, plagioclase,
orthoclase, magnetite and kaolin. Brown hydrated iron oxide is
fairly abundant. Orthoclase is the chief jjorphyritic constituent.
It is present as large, simply twinned crystals, having a maximum
extinction angle of about 17 deg. Considerable replacement by
quartz and sericite has occurred in many cases. Kaolin is probably
a surface alteration of the orthocla.se. Plagioclase liaviiig a maxi-
mum extinction angle of 14 deg. from the traces ol' the twin planes,
to probably albitc, occurs in consicK'rablc amount in tlic ground
mass of the rock. The biotite lias been bleached, antl hydrated
iron oxide has been redeposited along cleavage traces, and it is
frequently associated with brown piisms of rutile. The consider-
able amount of iron oxide tliioughout the section represents the

1 UldiiiKM. Ro('l< Numerals, p. :i05.

2 A. N. Wincliell. Notes on .a titaniferous p.M'oxene. Aiuer. Otolosiist, vol. xxxi., 1903.

3 Iddiii-fS. Op. cit., p. aOf).

Gcoioyy of the Diamond Creek Area. 339

replacement of pyrites by limonite. An occasional six-sided crystal
of quartz, partially replaced by sericite, is present. The original rock.
is thus seen to have been a quartz felspar porphyry. A similar
conclusion was reached as to the original character of the Diamond
(^reek dyke.

Section A 21, from near the edge of the Dry Creek dyke, contains
numeroTis xcuoliths of sandstone and slate. The plagioclase is
zoned, and the quartz is frequently eaten into and replaced by
.sericite.

•5. Diamond Creek dyke. — This dyke was sectioned and examined
before the writer had seen the Dry Creek dyke, and the main con-
clusions regarding the nature of the alteration it has suffered were
thus deduced previous to the examination of the latter dyke.
Jn hand specimen the Diamond Creek dyke is yellow green in
•colour, and contains abundant minute cubes of pyrite. Micro-
scopically it is a hypocrystalline, very even grained aphanitic
I'ock, with skeleton outlines of original porphyritic constituents.
Microcrystalline quartz grains and flakes of sericite constitute con-
jsiderably over 90 per cent, of the rock, the other minerals present
being pyrite, stibnite, bleached biotite, rutile, carbonate occasion-
ally, and possibly arsenopyrite and zircon. Idiomorphic outlines
of the original felspar crystals are distinguished by the mox'e com-
pact nature of the sericite in such areas. The metasomatic replace-
nient of the felspar is generally complete, and so the stages in the
alteration are not determinable. In only one section of the Dia-
mond Creek dyke did the wa-iter see original orthoclase remaining.
Karely a residual phenocryst of quartz occurs. Sericite usually
occurs in cleai', colourless microscopic flakes, show'ing the usual
delicate polarisation colours. Where replacing felspar, a linear
arrangement of the sericite is sometimes seen. The original femic
constituent of the rock was apparently biotite. As a result of
the alteration, the l)iotite was leached, and simultaneously i-utile
separated out in the biotite areas. This separation was usually
in the form of " segenite "^ webs, but occasionally rutile occurs
in prisms roughly parallel to the length of the biotite. Carbonate
often occurs associated with quartz in veins through the dyke, but
otherwise it is rare. Some of this vein carbonate was examined and
found to be dolomite. Pyrite is common in cubic crystals, and
stibnite is always present, but generally in very small amount when
not near the quartz veins.

1 Rosenbusch, IddinjfS, p. 146.

340 N. R. Jn liner:

(d) /)/seussio/i of the alteration of the (h/l.-a.

It will l)L' seen that the Diamond Ci-et'k dj'ke consists of a very
mucV altered porphyry. The alteration has been complete, and all
of tliG original minerals have been replaced, and the ground mass
has been recrystallised. Petrologically, it is seen that tiie biotite
was the first mineral to be attacked, as in all sections of the Dry
Creek dyke examined biotite was always entirely replaced, although
plagioclase and orthoclase were sometinics only partially altered. The
alteration apjjears to start first in the areas of orthoclase, although
orthoclase occasionally remains when all the plagi(jclase has been
replaced. Kirk.l in discussing somewliat similar mineral changes
to those here described, has shown that the iron magnesium minerals
are the first attacked, and that plagioclase commences to be re-
placed ])y sericite and ijuartz before the orthoclase is attacked.
Replacement of tlie felspar frequently starts along planes of Aveak-
ness. such as cracks and cleavage planes. An analysis of the Dia-
mond Ci-eek dyke was made for the purpose of studying the chemical
migrations during the alteration. Tlie analysis gave the follow-
ing results : —

A.

SiO,

76.25

AI.A

15.12

Ve,0.,

1.86

FeO

tr.

MgO

0.18

CaO

tr.

K,0

3.10

Na.,0

1.37

H,0-

0.10

H..0 +

1.61

TiO,*

—

►S

0.92

MnO

tr.

8b,S,

p.n.d.

100.51

less 0

= S.34

A. Diamond Creek Dyke, 800 feet level,
;d)out 200 feet from the underlay shaft
along the north drive. Diamond Creek
Mine. S.G = 2.72.

— N. R. Junner, Analvst.

100.17

1 C. T. Kirk. Conditions of inint'i'alisatiori in the copper veins at lintte Montana. Kc'onoiuie
Geology, vol. ii.. No. I., 1012.

«■ TiOvi incliiflcd Hitli tlie AI-jO;i

(icoluijij of the i) id mo ml Creek A reel. 341

From tlif fair amuiiut nf hintitr and lime soda felspars pro-
bably orij^'iiially present, it may \'.v inferred that the percentages
of lime and maj^'nesia were vei-y mueh higher than in the altered
roek. The iron has probably not changed very much in amount,
but sulphur has been introduced either as sulphuretted hydrogen
or as alkaline sulphides, and this has united with the iron forming
pyrites. It is not possible to say from the evidence of a single
analysis what migration has taken place in the alkalies, although
it seems 2>i'<>bal)le that a reduction in amount of Ixith potash and
soda has occurred. Silica and watci- have both apparently increased
in amount. Sericite is essentially a potash mica, and in the
analysis over one per cent, of soda is represented. 'J'liis may pos-
sibly be due to the presence of the soda mica paragonite, although
microscopically no distinction could be made out. Kegai-ding the
temperature of tlie altering solutions, Kirkl states "that where
sericite can be certainly identified, it becomes a useful corroboiative
criterion in the interpretation of previous hydrothermal liigh pres-
sure coiulit ions. " Kutile is also mentioned as forming under eim-
siderable pressure and modei-ate temperatures. We may, therefore.
conclude that the alteration which the Diamond Creek dyke has
suffered was prol)al)ly of the nature of a solfatarie after-effect
undei- moderately high pressuie and temperature operating on the
quartz felspar porphyry. This type of alteration agrees with
" pi'opylitisation '"' as defined by Vogt.2 Kirk^ has summed up in
tabular form the various alterations during propylitisation of
the Butte granite, and the table below is a partial extraction.

Chemical Alterations.

Iron gained, sulphui- added to form pyrite. Losses in lime,
magnesia and soda; transfornuition of iion o.xides to sulphides;
decrease in all bases except potash, (xains in iron sulijliide, silica
and water, alunnna. i)0tash, etc.

M inei'a! .\lteiat ions.

Development of sericite, (piari/. })yiite, chlorite, epidote, rutile.
etc. Femie minerals are first altered and felspars are more-
resistant.

1 Kirk. Op. cit.. p. lu.

2 Vosjt. Cienesis of ore liejiosite. Tran>. .^niiT. Inst. Miii. Emu'., liinl, |>. "KiS.

3 Op. cit.. p. (i7.

342 iV. 7^. Janner :

Physical Alterations.

Increase in density.

With a view to deteiiuiniug the ehange in density due to the
alteration, the specitie giavities uf the Dry Creek and Diamond
Creek dykes were compared, with the following result : — Density of
little altered dyke at Dry Creek, equals 2.59. Density of the Dia-
mond Creek dyke from the 800 feet level of the mine, equals 2.72.
We see thus that a marked increase in specific gravity has occurred,
and this is largely exj^lained by the presence of pyrite in the one
and its absence in the other. The chemical and mineral changes
agree very well with those tabulated above, and the writer feels
quite justified in calling the alteration a " propylitic " one. In
the typical projiylitic alteration, chlorite is generally developed,
and the potash percentage is generally increased. The alteration
of the above dykes appears to differ from the typical propylitisa-
tion in these i-espects. The only previous cases of propylitisation
that have been described in Victoria are the Woods' Point dykes, ^
and a proi^ylitised dacite^ from Macedon. The Dian]ond Creek
example differs from lioth of these in the absence of chlorite, and
also in the fact that the ground mass recrystallised in eutectio
proportions in both of the above cases, Avhile it has not done so in
the Diamond Creek dyke.

(e) Byhc veins and slate reefs.

Section A23. — Cold-bearing quartz vein in the dyke, Diamond
Creek mine.

The vein is small, but very rich. The gold is seen without the
aid of a lens sticking out at points through the vein. A consider-
able amount of stibnite is present, giving the quartz a dark colour.
Under the microscope the gangue is seen to be practically entirely
quartz, and the metallic minerals are chiefly stibnite and gold.
Orains of a. translucent, highly refracting and apparently isotropic
mineral associated Avitli the stibnite appear to be the oxide senar-
montite. The section .shows that the gold occurs in anhcdral grains
and masses, frequently disseminated through the slilmite, and oc-
casionally intergrown Avith it. The intimate association of the
gold and the stibnite is well i(.'coguised l)y tlic minei-s. for they say
that wherever you find stibnite, gold is certain to be ]»rcsent. Lin-
colnS has examined twenty-eight sjxcimens of gold stibnite veins

] I'lof. C!re!,'ory. Men. Geol. Siiiv. Vict., No. ::, l!)Or>, p. 34.

'1 I'rof. Skeatsaiid H. S. Suniiuers, M.Sc. null. No. 24, Geol. Surv. Vii-t., 1012.

;; V. C. Lincoln. Ceitain iiatunil associations of ;;ol<l. I'lconomic O.colojjf.v, \ol. vi., 1011, \\ 287.

Geologij of the J)i(uiiou<l Creek Area. -t^'S

from various localities, and he has shown that in IG cases the gold
occurs with the stibnite, in 7 cases disseminated through it. and
in 4 cases intergrown with it. The above-mentioned section shows
well the contemporaneous origin of the gold, quartz and stibnite.
Pyrite occasionally occurs in the quartz veins associated with the
gold, and in the 800 feet level small crystals of sphalerite were
present.

Section A4, slate vein, GOO feet level south, Diamond Creek mine.

Quartz, sericite, carbonate, pyrite and stibnite are the minerals
present. A series of roughly parallel Avave-like fractures pass
through the grains of quartz, and sericite and carbonate have
intruded along these planes and replaced some of the Cjuartz.
Marked granulitisation of the quartz grains occurs. Pyrite and a
little stibnite are present along cracks and through the vein.

7. — Geology of the Diamond Creek Mine.

The Diamond Creek mine is situated on a hill just to the east
of the Diamond Creek, and just south of the railway station of the
same name. At present it is the only mine working in the field,
although the " Allendale " Conqjany is about to recommence opera-
tions. Of late the working of the mine has been carried on with
very fair results. For the half-year ending July 19th, 1912, 2009
tons of ore were crushed, yielding 2835 ounces of gold, giving an
average yield per ton of 28.2 pennyweights. Five sixpenny divi-
dends have been paid since the beginning of the year, and during
the same time the shaft has been sunk a further one hundred and
fifty feet. The main shaft is sunk vertically for 700 feet, and then on
the underlay of the dyke for a further 280 feet. Most of the
development work, especially in the lower levels, has been done
north of the shaft. The reefs in the bottom levels Avere of very
fair value, and there seems no reason why ]Hirm;nifnrf in ilcptii
of the gold bearing veins slioidd not be realised.

(a) Ftaf tires of the sih/r/an, structural and Uthological.

The chief structural features of the silurian have been dealt with
before. Near the mine the silurian' consists of shales and sand-
stones and rarely small Viands of l)lack slate. These, when tliey
occur in proximity to the dyke, ai-e frequently changed to graphitic
slate. Bands and small lenticular segregations of carbonaceous
matter occur in nearly all the sliales. The dip near the mine is to
the W.N.W. at about 45 deg. — GO deg., and the strike is approxi-
mately N. ^4 deg. E.

344 N. E. Junner:

Tlie dyke outcrops on the surface just to the west of the mine,
and some good sections showing the various rehitions of the dyke
breccia and sihiriaii are seen in shallow workings in the dvke.

(1)) The breccia and crush conglomerate.

Tliis interesting feature was first examined in numerous woi-kings
along the line of the dyke below the mine, and north of the Diamond
Creek. Numerous pebbles, set in a very fine matrix, frequently
occur in the silurian alongside the dyke. At first sight this might
be mistaken for a sedimentary conglomerate, but a little considera-
tion shows that it is a fault conglomerate, and not a sedimentary
one. In the first place all the pebbles consist of similar sandstone,
shale and quartzite to the adjacent wall rock. Secondly, on the
surface this conglomerate has been seen alongside the dyke at places
over half a mile apart. Now the strike of the dyke is approxi-
mately north and south, while that of the silurian is about north
2U deg. east. Hence it will be seen that the conglomerate is not
bedded, and cannot therefore be a clastic conglomerate. Thirdly,
when examined in tiie mine, sections frequently show the junction
of the normally dipping silurian with the breccia and dyke, and it is
seen tiiat brecciatitm occurs in a zone roughly parallel to the walls
of the dyke. Also in some cases a passage from a breccia into a
breccia conglomerate and crush conglomerate is noticeable,
l^ourthly, the cobljlcs sliuw certain 2:)eculiarities, such as diiupling,
plane surfaces where the cobbles have rubbed against one another
flattening and twisting. The fault origin appears therefore to be
clearly establislicd. Considerable variation in the size of the cobbles
has been noted. The average size is two or three inches in dianietei-,
while one extreme example was over two feet long, and nion- than
fourteen inches' in diaiiictiT. WIkmi the fragnie!its aie angular and
sub-angular the rock is called a crush breccia. Further rolling
and crushing of the |)i'l)bles rounds oft" the angles and forms a crush
conglonierati'. Mr. Dininl mentions the oeeurrt'iiee of the breccia
on only one wall ol' the dyke. The writer, however, has seen that at
the mine and elsewliere the breccia t i-ei|ueiit ly occurs on lioth walls.
Tins fault zone has acted as a plane of weakness, thrinigh which the
dyke has In-en intruded. Horses of breeciated-niateiial and fault
cobbles ai-i; frecpiently found well within the dyke; in one case in
the 300 feet level fault cobbles were seen as much as six
feet within it. The dyke occasionally wanders from the zone

1 K. .1 Diimi Oji. cit.

Geuloyij of the JJuviiioad Creek Area. 345

of brecciation, as is well seen in a section between the mine and the
Diamond Creek station. The dyke in this section is seen to be
bounded \)\ ciuiiipled slates, and the brecciated zone occurs seven
or eight i'eet to the west. The width of the original fracture zone
is probably not represented by the width of the dyke. Lateral pres-
sure exerted during intrusion and a certain amount of stoping
has probably enlarged the width of the fracture. It is not clear
what the final displacement is, but it is probable that the movement
was oscillatory, and the hnal displacement may have been small.
If the quartz reefs on either side of the dyke at the stii-face are
identical no great displacement can have occurred.

(c) Tlic JJidinoitd Creek dijke.

ilie dyke near the mine strikes practically north and south, and
dips to the east at about 45 deg., i.e., the dip is approximately at
right angles to the dip of the shales. In some places the dip is
nearly vertical and in others it is much flatter than the average.
Considerable variation occurs in the width of the dyke, both along
its length, and in vertical sections. The maximium widtli
is about 35 feet, and the average about 20 feet. Rectangular
jointing, with one set of joints roughly parallel to the dip of the
dyke, and the other set almost at right angles to these, frequently
occurs. Slickensides, striae, brecciation and other evidence of
movement under pi-essure are not uncommon, especially near the
faults. Large horizontal slickensides occur in the dyke below
the 300 feet level north, and large curved ones are not infrequently
present in other parts of the mine. Lnpregnation with pyrites of
the bi-eccia and slates surrounding the dyke for a few feet has taken
place.

(d) Faulting later than the intrusion of the dyke.

The best opportunity for studying this faulting was afforded at
the mine. Nearly all these faults appear to be normal strike
faults having a strike approximately north 20 deg. east, and
hading to the west. Their strike varies from north 10 deg. east to
about north 30 deg. east, and their hade is generally between the
limits 40 deg. and 80 deg. The effect of the difference in strike
of the faults and the dyke gives the faults the appearance of pitch-
ing to the north. Being normal faults, the dyke is always brought
back in a westerly direction, and this has materially aided the com-
pany in the lower levels, where the dyke was going away from the
shaft. In the Union mine, immediately to the south of the Diamond

346 iV. li. Junner :

Creek Company's workings, two fair-sized faults of this nature
were encountered. The hrst one was passed through near the sur-
face, and it intersects the dyke near the Diamond Creek shaft
at the 500 feet level. The other one came in near the Union shaft
at the No. 6 level. The vertical displacement, or blank ground, in
this case was about sixty feet, and as yet it has not cut the Diamond
Creek workings. Another fairly large fault of a similar nature
has intersected the dyke near the latter shaft at about 200 feet from
the surface. Numerous others, with displacements of 20 feet and
under, occur througliout the mine. Considerable brecciation of the
dyke has occurred near the faults, and later solutions passing
through these fissures have deposited pyiites, and this frequently
binds the fragments of dyke together. Besides these strike faults,
one or tw^o cross or " transverse " faults have been noted. A good
example of this faulting occurs in the 700 feet level, south drive.
The strike of the fault is about 15 deg. north of east, and it hades
to the N.N.W.

8. — Relations of the various Quartz Reefs to
one another.

(a) Occurrence and relative size.

At least 4 distinct types of veins have been observed. They are,
in order of age as far as has been determined : —

1. Vertical reefs — oldest.

2. Bedded reefs.

3. Dyke reefs.

4. Joint plane reefs — youngest.

As an illustration of the first type, we have the reef Avhich runs
into the dyke from the south-west side of the main drive north, at
the 300 feet level. The actual junction of the dyke with the slate
reef was not seen, but sections along the drive shoAv that the reef is
not continuous across the dyke. The management liave driven along
the hanging wall of the dyke for some short distance with the view
<if locating the northern continuation of the reef. They were not
successfid, liowever. and it is prohal)lf tliat pre-dyke faulting con-
nected with tlic biecciation has displaced the reef. On the sur-
face two reefs, uiu- of which is jiossibly the upward extension of
the above mentioned reef outci-op on the noi-th-east side of the
dvkc. From surface shafts which are only down to relatively shallow
<lepths, and are nearly all vertical, it was not possible to be
certain that these reefs were not bedded, as tlie dip of the silurian

(jeoloyy of the Diamond Creek Area. 347

near Ijy is veiy steep, being 70 deg. or 80 deg. The possibility of
these reefs being bedded is not very likely, however, as the bedded
reefs iire generally very thin and barren, while these are much
wider,! and they are fairly rich. The reef at the 300 feet level
dijjs slightly to the east, and cuts across west dipping country.
This rqef has been located about 500 feet south from where it
junctioi'ls with the dyke, and its departure is about seventy feet
from the dyke at this point. A reef Avorked for a short distance
on the sui'face tu the south-west of the dyke appears to be the up-
ward continuation of this reef. Similar reefs occur in the Union
No. 7 level, and in the Diamond Creek 400 feet level. In the Union
level above-mentioned, the relation of these reefs to the bedded ones
is well seen. The bedded reefs are seen to displace these nearly
vertical ones, although the displacement is small, generally a foot
or two. Jutsoni has shown that the bedded reefs displace the main
reefs in the Warrandyte goldfield. The reefs worked on the western
limb of the Templestowe anticline, about three-quarters of a mile
south of the Diamond Creek mine, are also probably of the same
nature as those near the mine. The strike of the reefs in both cases
conforms with the strike of the silurian, being north 15 deg. east
to north 25 deg. east. Another reef of this kind was seen in a
section in the Maroondah aqueduct just to the west of the Bulleen
syncline. The reef is about 16 inches in widtTi, and it has been
displaced by a small dip fault. As far as the writer could learn,
considerable amounts of gold have been won from these reefs. Near
the surface they averaged about one ounce to the ton, and occasion-
ally patches giving returns of as much as twelve ounces to the ton
were found.

Bedded veins. — These are common at and near the Diamond
Creek mine. They have been shown before to occur only in close
})roximity to the axial lines, especially the Templestowe anticline.
The veins are generally thin, varying from ^ inch to 2 inches in
casts of friction striae are well preserved in the quartz.
In some places the quartz reefs give place to a small
fissure filled with gouge or fiucan. The relation of these
veins to tlie dyke is i-athor obscure. Nowhere do they
cut across the dyke, although occasionally the reefs have
been traced on either side of it. These reefs, as far as the writer
is aware, contain little or no gold, and their effect, if any, on the
localisation of the gold in the dyke veins, is not appai-ent. The
striae on the cjuartz show that the movement that has occurred was
mainly a slip in the direction of the dip of the dyke.

1 1-, p. n36.

348 N. R. J tinner :

Dyke Veins. — These are the most persistent and by far the most-
important economically of the reefs near Diamond Creek. Gener-
ally two well-defined reefs occur : —

1. Hanging wall reef.

2. Foot wall reef.

Besides these, others are occasionally present, and sometimes one
reef will split into two, and the i:)arts may junction again to form
the main reef. In general these reefs are approximately parallel
to the Avails of the dyke, and it is only on rare occasions that
a quartz-reef cuts the dyke transverseh'. The reefs are generally
within the dyke, sometimes as much as six feet, but generally only
about twelve inches. An inch or so of pug sometimes accompanies
these reefs and striae and slickensides are often present. The
thickness of the reefs varies considerably, from a mere thread t&
two or three feet. The reefs, when they occur at the junction of
the dyke and the shales, are usually smaller than the average,
and sometimes they split up into a number of leaders, running out
into the country.

Joint Plane Reefs. — These are not of any economic importance.
They occur typically in the 600 feet level south. Here one section
shows one of these reefs displacing a tongue of the dyke, and there-
fore they are later in age than the dyke.

(b) Fissures and their origins.

1. The dyke fissures. The frequent association of the dyke veins
with a little flucan. and the striae on the dyke walls between the
dyke and the quartz are suggestive of movement. The direction of
the striae is generally, l)ut not always, in that of the dip of the
dyke, and having no north or south component. One very good
example of these striae occurred on the footwall of the dyke in the
stopes al)ove the 800 feet level, where tlie (juartz had been broken
out. Two sets of striae "were present, the Hr.st consisting of coarse
rfor]-ugati()iis. having no meridional component, and the second set
■were later, and very fine, and pitched to the south. The (piestion .
is whether these movements occuiicd In-fore the formation of the
reefs or after. Rarely the striae aie also on the ([uartz, indicating
that the nioven'iont iii part at l(>ast was later than the formation of
the reefs. The writoi- bclirvi's that the ri'cfs ari' tilling contraction
joints whicli are roughly i)aiallel to the Avails of the dyki-, and that
movement has occurred both before the formation of the reefs and
for a AA'hile, after the ore had formed, .\ci-ording to this vicAv the
fissures are essentiallv neither eoniraetion tissuies nor iissures of

Geology of the DlaiHond Creek Area. 3-J'.>

discission, Imt they are a combination of both. It is also fairly
certain that the fissures in some places have l)een enlarged by
metasomatic replacement. Absence of crustification, the dense
character of the quartz, and irregular inclusions 61 dyke material,
probably undigested portions, suggest this.

(2) Fissures in which the bedded reefs occur. The origin of tliesc
has previously been suggested as due to movements connected ■with
the folding of the sediments. The correspondence of these reefs in
dip and strike with the silurian also supports sncli an origin.
Movement on a minor scale has taken place along the bedding
before the formation of these reefs as noted al)ove. Occasionally
slipping has occurred along the bedding, although no reefs are
present.

9. — Origin of the Gold Bearing Solutions.

One or two points bearing on tliis discussion might be first
noted : —

(1) The close association of the c^uartz veins with the dyke sug-
gests strongly some genetic relationship between them.

(2) The nature of the minerals formed in the dyke due to the
alteration. These minerals have been shown ;ii)ove to be those that
are formed by juvenile solutions rather than by vadose ones. Pyrite,
for instance, is generally decomposed by the vadose waters, but is
frequently formed by either upwai-d or downward moving thermal
waters.

(o) Assays of the pyrites and of the dyke have been made at
various times to see whether it would jjay to treat the proposition
as a low grade one. Very little gold was found to occur in the
pyrites, and still less in the dyke. It might be suggested tliat tlie
gold originally occurred disseminated through tlie dyke, and that
it was transferred to the veins by a jjrocess of lateral secretion. The
assays shov.'. iiowevei', very little guld in the dyke away from the
mineral veins, and such a transference as suggested above dovs not
seem likely to have occurred. The presence of stibnite in both
the dyke and in tlie (piai'tz veins suggests that tlie solutions which
caused the alteration of the dyk(?, and those which introduced the
gold were of similar origin. The fact that the Dry Creek 'dyke,
wliicli has l)een very little altered, contains very little gold, ^ issti'ong
evidence in support of the view that the solutions which brought the
gold into its present position were a final phase of the same
solutions that caused the alteration of the dyke. The writer pic-

1 Cf. Oregon . Memoir Oeol. Siirv. Vict., No. 3, IftO.T, j>. lU.

350 N. Ji. JiDiner:

tures tile following sequeuc-e : — Tlie quartz porphyry was intruded
t'roni some magma, probably at considerable distance below the
then surface, along a plane of weakness, namely, the zone of breccia-
tion. After sulidiheatinn, and probably while the dyke was still
hot, alkaline sulphide solutions Avere introduced along fissures in
the dyke, and these caused the extensive propylitisation. Finally,
the gold stibnite and (piarlz were introduced througli the same or en-
larged fissures. Contrasted with the above alteration, is the effect of
the present day vadose circulation. Pyrites is dissolved from the dyke,
and from the brecciated fault zones, and becomes oxidised, and is
redei^osited in the lower levels of the mine as hydrated iron oxide.
In abandoned and little-used Workings, as in the 'Uiiion mine, long
needles and hair-like crystals of epsomite are abundant. Green
vitriol (Fe SO^. 7 H^-O), also frequently occurs, due to the oxidation
of the pyrites. Where Avater has percolated down the hanging wall
of the dyke, considerable altei'ation of the dyke to a clayey material,
largely kaolin, has occiured.

10. ^Additional Features.

Locahsaf/on of values, evidence of secondnri/ eiiriclinicnf , etc.

Owing to the rather limited stud}' of the occurrence of the gold,
the writer being largely concerned with the then working levels,
namely, the two bottoiu ones and the uppermost one, sufficient
data were not gained for the fixing of pay shoots of gold, although
there is little doubt that they do exist. According to evidence that
the Avriter has gained from the officials at the mine, there appear
to be two main shoots.

1. North hanging wall or wliiiu shoot.

2. South footwall shoot.

Of these two shoots, the northern one is the richer, and is more
well defined lliaii the soutlierii one. They both pitch to the north,
tlie nortli one at a very steep angle, and the south one at about 45
deg., so that they incline towards one another, and in the 700 feet
level the two shoots are only 70 feet apart. The lengtli of the
shoots appears to be fairly uniform, and about ^TiO feet. With
respect to the cause of the shoots, the evidence is largely of a nega-
tive character. Mi-. Dunn,i in his examination of the Union mine,
was inclined to think that the shoots were due to the selective
infiuence of certain bands of the country roclv. Appearances at
the mine point against this, however. The best values occur when

1 hiiiiii. <))). ('it.

Gcoiotjij of the Diamond Creek Area. 351

the reefs are within the ilykc. When tlie reefs wander out intu
the slate or breccia, iiu nutieoable increase in values utxurs, an(.l, in
fact, lu sucli cases there seems to be ratiier a uecrease in values.

The ett'ect of the " diagonal "^ veins. Bedded reefs are loniniun
at the mine, but their effect, if any, on the gold values is not rlear.
A very interesting case of local enrichment occurs in the oOU feet
level north near the intersection of the dyke, with the nearly verliial
shale reef before mentioned. Here a very rich pocket of gold oc-
curred in the very fractured dyke. This fracturing in parts ap-
pears to antedate the formation of the quartz veins, as no definite
reefs exist here, the dyke being simply veined by numerous very rich
stringers of quartz. Three possibilities exist for the localisation of
the gold at this point : —

1. Action of the shale reef.

2. Effect of pre-existing fractures.

3. Secondary enrichment.

The first effect may probably be omitted, for the same leason
that the effect of certain bands of tlie country is out of question.

A section was made of the ore from here, and it was seen that the
gold and stibnite were intimately associated, although botii were
.secondary in relation to the quartz. The stibnite was seen to con-
sist of agg)'egates of needles, and not to be like the usual secondary
sulphides that occur in some mineral helds, such as Bi-oken Hill,
near the water level. Very little information could be gained
regarding the character and value of the ore above the -{OO feet
level at the mine, as tliis was worked in the early days of the fii-ld.
No great variation in values, as far as could be learned, oci-urred
in going down from the surface. The evidence appears insuthcient
to justify us drawing any extensive conclusions witli regard to
secondary enrirlnnent. The presence of senarniontite in the lower
levels does not necessarily mean that the zone of oxidation reached
that depth, but probably that sueh ore was near fractures <lo\vn
which surface waters percolated. Tlie evidence, sueh as it is. tnids
to support the view that secondary enrichment has occurred to a
limited extent. The great amount of strata removed since foldingv;
would tend to concentrate the gold, Mhile the dense character and
small size of the quartz reefs would exclude any large circulation
of solutions. Tn the neighbourhood of faults, enrichment has occa-
sionally been noted. In the Union mine, the gold-1)eai-ing stone was
mainly the footwall stone, ^ and the hanging Avail st(uie was hardly

1 " DiajfOiial " is the miner's term for the slate \ oitis.

2 JutBoi). c, p. h'i'K

3 Oiinii. Op. cit.

352 i\'. R. Junner :

thouglit profitable to break oiu. In the south workings of the Dia-
mond Creek mine, the iootwall stone was worlved almost exclusively.
North of the shaft, however, both walls have been worked consider-
ably. It is taken as a general rule at the mine that if the gold
occurs on one wall it will not occur on the other. An exception
to this was noted in the 700 feet level north, where the gold occurred
on both walls.

Summapy and Conclusions.

The study of the Diamond Creek area has brought to light some
very interesting relations. The bearing of the present elevation of
the river gravels formed before uplift in the direction of the slope
of the peneplain has been noted. The stratigraphical relations
have been described, and a few fossils found. The discovery of
climacographtus and diplograptus in the so-called Silurian near
Diamond Creek is of interest, and should act as an incentive to
further palaeontological work. The other fossils support a mel-
bournian age for these beds. An intimate I'elation between the
mining belts and the structural features, especially the anticlines,
has been shown to exist. The petrological examination of two
dykes from the area brought out some interesting relations; the
Diamond Creek dyke appears to be an almost completely altered
facies of a rock allied to the Dry Creek dyke. The former dyke has
been described as a propylitised quartz felspar porphyry. The con-
temporaneous character of the gold and stibnite, and sometimes of
the quartz, has been noted. Another interesting feature is the fric-
tion breccia and conglomerate, through which the Diamond Creek
dyke has been intruded. The relations of the various quartz reefs,
the problem of the genesis of the ores, the localisation and cause
of the ore shoots, etc., have also been dealt with. Chemical analyses
were made of the basalt and of the Diamond Creek dyke.

In conclusion, the writer Avishes to record his indebtedness to Pro-
fessor Skeats for his advice and suggestions on many occasions, and
for his kind criticism of the paper; also to Mr. Summers, M.Sc,
for help in the laboratory, and references to the literature. He
al.so desires to thank Dr. Hall, Prof. Ewart and Mr. F. Chapman,
A.L.S., for their kind examination of fossils, and Mr. Grayson for
rock sections, and micro-photographs. To Mr. Christian, the
manager of the Diamond Creek mine, the writer is greatly indebted
for securing him access to the mine, and for information relating
to it, and to Mr. Brooks, Mr. Ditchl)>irn, and the various officials
of the mine for their kind co-operation in the woik.

Proc. K.S. Victoria, WV-i. Plate XXV

LEGEND

Seel-] on along line A-a-c

Shaped

LoNGiTUDiMAL Section of mine

Transverse Section

Froc. U.S. Victoria, 19l:i. I'late XXVI.

4 .^v,.. 4 ®'

Geology of the Diamond Creek Area. 353

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XXV.

Geological sketch map of the Diamond Creek area; the alluviuin of
the Yarra not shown ; also longitudinal and transverse sec-
tions at the Diamond Creek mine. The longitudinal section
is published by permission of Mr. Christian.

Plate XXVL

Fig. 1. Photomicrograph of the fine-grained basalt analysed, x 25,
ordinary light, with a felspar phenocryst in the field of view.

Fig. 2. Photomicrograph of the breccia, Diamond Creek mine, x
8, ordinary light, S = sandstone, SI = slate, C = calcite,
Sh = shale. Secondary quartz and calcite veins intersect
the rock.

Fig. 3. Microphotograph of a gold-bearing dyke vein, x 25,
ordinary light, showing the contemporaneous origin of the
gold, quartz and .stibnite. Q = quartz, G = gold, S :=
stibnite, P = pyrite, Se = senarmontite, D = dyke.

tig 4. Microphotograi^h of gold-bearing quartz from the -300 feet
level of the Diamond Creek mine, x 25, ordinary light.
The secondary character of the ffold is well shown.

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1913.]

Art. XXVI. — A New Variety of Volute from Western
Australia.

By AGNES F. KENYON.
[Read 12th December, 1912].

Voluta nivosa, var. coxi.

Shell, dull red colour. This dullness may be owing to being
a dead specimen ; ovately oblong, spire short, lower whorls noduled,
upper whorls slanting from apex and noduled. These are almost
obscure when touching body whorl at an angle. Columella four
plaited, snowflake marking large on body whorl, and in most
respects resembling original description of V . nivosa. The differ-
ences consist in the largeness of the size, difference of colour, and
the tuberculation of the whorls, also colouring of interior, which
is lemon colour merging into orange.

Greatest length. 5 inches. Greatest breadth, 2 inches.
Greatest circumference, 6^ inches.
Locality. — Garden Island, W.A.

There are now several varieties of V . nivosa, but in colouration
and form the most remarkable of these varieties is the recently de-
scribed var. irviniana of E. A. Smith, owing to its coronal spikes,
whereas V . coxi, although of the same ruddy hue, has reverted to
the original shape of V . nivosa as described by Lamarck, but is of
iiiucli larger size.

The specimen now described is from the collection of Mrs. J. F.
Irvine, Evandale, Tasmania, and is named as a tribute to the late
Dr. J. C. Cox, of Sydney, whose lamented death is a great loss to
the scientific world.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), Pt. IT., 1913.]

Art. XXV II. — Further Descriptions oj the Tertiary Polyzoa
of Victoria, Part XII.

By C. M. MAPLESTONE.

(With Plate XXVII.).
[Read 12th December, 1912].

Stpongylopopa concinna, n.s. (Plate XXVIT., Fig. 1).

Zooecium oviform, witli six marginal fenestrae. Avicularia in
distal angles. Thyrostonie arched above; margins raised, Tvith a
sinus in the proximal one. Ooecium large, ventricose, adnate on
distal zooecium; with a rai.sed median longitudinal ridge; aperture
large, arched above.

Locolitjf. — Geelong (J. F. Muldei).

A single specimen, consisting of three zooecia and an ooecium;
the proximal zooecium is imperfect, the front wall is broken away;
in the lateral one the lower margin of the thyrostonie is imperfect;
the distal one has the thyrostome perfect, and the ooecium extendi
over the fi'ont wall nearly up to the thyrostome.

Stpophlpopa episcopalis, n..s. (Plate XXVTI., Fig. 2).

Ooecium oblong, ventricose. Front surface with a subtriangular
or mitriform depressed area surrounded by raised margins and a
round perforation with a raised margin at the apex. Aperture
large, with raised margins, arched above; lower margin somewhat
irregular, Avith a ridge extending from the centre to the base, and
dividing into two parts a depressed area in which are several
minute perforations: an elevated transverse ridge separates this
area from two lateral depressed areas. On one side of i\w ooecium,
near the distal end, outside the mitriform area, are a few .small
perforations.

Localiii/. — Geelong (J. F. Mulder).

A single specimen. I place this in Strophipora on account of its
resemblance to S. triangularis.

22a

356 C. M. Maplestone : Tertiary Polyzoa, Pt. XII.

Strophipopa clubia, n.s. (Plate XXVII., Ki^^. 4).

Ooeciuin subtriuugular, elongated, broad at the base, with pro-
jeetiiig angles, above which is a sub-globose area, with poi-es (or
fenestrae), having slits distally converging towards the centre.
An aviculariuni at eacli distal angle. Ajjerture brdad, distal and
proximal margins arcuate, proximal one with a siiiail sinus in the
centre, proximal to Avhich is a broadly cordate de^jressed area with
a quadrate projection from the lower margin ; on each side of which
is a small oval depressed area.

Localitij. — Geelong (J. F. Mulder).

A single specimen, which, although it is difficult to assign it
definitely to Stropliipora, is sufficiently distinctive to warrant its-
description, and to place it tentatively in that genus.

Catenicella rugosa, n.s. (Plate XXVII., Fig. 3).

Ooecium pyriform, broad end proximal, surface rugose : a round-
elevation on the distal end. Aperture broad, arched above, lower
margin slightly curved and projecting over the aperture.

Locality. — Geelong (J. F. Mulder).

A single specimen, not very well preserved, but distinct from
any other sjiecies.

Cabepea pedunculata, nom. nov.
I'rom Mr. R. Henry Walcott, of the National Museum, I have
rec-eived a note made by Mr. Chapman, Palaeontologist to the
Museum, that a species of fossil polyzoa, which I described in 1911
(Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, vol. xxiii. (New Series), p. 271), under
the name of Caberea morninytoniensis, was apparently dift'erent
from one which I described under the same name in VMM) (ibid.,
vol. xii., !>. 164). Tlie species are quite distinct, and the use of
the same name in the later case was the result of my having for-
gotten that I had used it before; consecpiently a new name is re-
quired for the species described in 1911. I have therefore re-named
that species Caherea peclu'iiculata.

Caberea pedunculata, nom. nov.

= C. morriingfoiiiensis, Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict., vol. xxiii. (New
Series), p. 271, no/i C. nior/u'in/tonicn.^hs, ibid., vol. xii. (Ncav
Series), p. 164.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 191:^ Plate XXVII.

'^

^mki

'k^^^

■vv- '.'iV^'

m

/^'^''""■^x

3

f-

[I'ROC. Roy. Soc. Viotoria, 25 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1913."]

Art. XX VIII. — New or UtUe-knovn Polyzoa.

JBy C. Af. MAPLESTONE.

(With Plate XXVIII.).

TKead 12tli December, l!tT2].

Digenopora latissima, u. .sp. (Pi. XXVIII., Fig. 1).

Some few years ago, in the course of my examination of my
slides of itrent polyzoa, to compare with the fossil forms
upon which I Avas working, I discovered a new species of Diyeno-
2>(>ra (a genus of the family of Cuteuicellidae, described by me in
Part II. of " Further Descriptions of the Tertiary Polyzoa of Vic-
toria "), whicii 1 found at Williamstown in 1869, and labelled it
CoteiiicfUd lutatdia, overlooking the two sets of fenestrae. Ten
years afterwards I found it living at Portland, and hgured it in
my paper to the Society on " Observations on Living Polyzoa," in
1881, and in that figure the two sets of fenestrae are indicated
in one zooecium; but as the drawing was made specially to show
only the pigment cells in the ectocyst, other details being omitted,
their significance was again overlooked. Unfortunately. I have
only the specimen mounted at Williamstown.

Zooecia oval ; lateral processes very wide and flat, with
numerous minute perforations or semi-globose elevations. Inner
set of fenestrae, seven ; i)yriform. imperforate, in a scutiform
area; outer set seven round elevations, submarginal; avicularia
recessed, very small, on a level with the proximal lip of the
thyrostome ; thvrostome arched a1x)ve, straight below with a
very small irregular sinus in the lower margin. Ooeciuuf
globose, surmounted bv a truncate conical process, a shallow
oval depression sun-ounded bv a raised border on each side
on the upper part; an irregular reniform, slightly raised area
on each side of the apertui'e; a small vertical oval opening in the
centre; apt^rturt- very large and broad, lower margin, with a sharp
sinus in the centre ; five large oval perforations in a curve lielow
and three small fenestrae underneath the sinus.

Lorolit!/. — Williamstown and Portland.

The colour of the zoarium when living is orange. Init the zooecia
are moi'e or less spotted with purple or dark green pigment cells
the greater or less abundance of which cause it to appeal' of various
shades, from orange to ])urple and dark greenish grey.

358 0. M. Mapledone :

The inner fenestrae are very slightly raised pyrifonn areas, not
always well defined, and might be easily overlooked, but the scuti-
form area is always present, though the boundaries of individual
fenestrae are often indiscernible. In the fossil JJ. ro/npta they are
conspicuous, as the ectocyst is not preserved, and tliey show as
perforations. This epecies is the only living representative of the
genus.

Schizopopella baccata, n. sp. (PI. XXVI FT., Figs. 2, 2a).

Zooecia undefined; surface granulose; with numerous subconical
umbonate processes upon them; most of those near the margin of
the zoarium and in the vicinity of the ooecia are furnished with
avicularia which have straight ligulate mandibles, incurved at the
distal end. Thyrostome large, arched above with a very broad
curved sinus in the proximal margin. Ooecia globose, surface
granulose, with a prominent conical umbo on the summit.

Locality. — Po rtl and .

This is a very distinct species. The zoarium is orange coloured.
The umbonate processes on the zooecia in the central portion of
the zoarium bears no avicularia. The portion figured shows two
perfect ooecia; on another portion of the margin of the zoarium
are numerous ooecia in an incompleted state. Fig. 2a is an out-
line sketch of one.

Schizopopella complanata, n. sp. (PI. XXVIIL, Fig. 3).

Zoarium encrusting, zooecia oval, slightly ventricose. Thyros-
tome arched above with large rounded sinus in the proximal mar-
gin. xVvicularian cells very large, Ooecia (?).

Localiti/.—Voitland.

This species is characterised by the very large, almost flat, avicu-
larian cells which cover the whole surface of the zooecia; at the
distal end of them there is a ventricose process, with a variously
denticulated margin, and within which is an acute mandible open-
ing upwards. These large avicularian cells completely conceal the
thyrostome in almost every case, and in the specimen figured it is
seen in only one zooecium, in which the avicularium is absent.

Mucronella ovifera, n. sp. (PI. XXV J II., Fig. +).

Zoarium encrusting, zooecia undefined. Thyrostome auborbicu-
lar, with a broad ligula in the proximal margin. Avicularian cells
ovoid, enormous, concealing almost the wliole surface of the zooecia
and bearing broad semi-elliptical avivularia.

Localtti/. — Portland.

Netu or Little-knotvn Polyzoa. 359

The groat distiuj^aiishinp: feature of this species is the enormous
ovoid avicularian cells, which are sometimes " twinned." They
cover nearly the whole surface, only a small y)Oi-tion of which can
be seen, not sufficient to allow of the dctoniiination of the form.
The distal basal margins of the avicularian cells overhang, and
partially hide the proximal margins of some of the thyrostomes.

Dimorphocella portmarina, n. sp. (PI. XXVTTL, Fig. 5).

Zoarium erect, ttabellate, bilaminate, zooecia of two forms, subtle
and angular, elongated; margins raised; surface granular; a row
of pores round the margins. Thyrostome of smaller zooecia trans-
versely sub-elliptical, with distal margins more curved than the
proximal. Thyrostome of larger zooecia transversely elongated,
proximal margin sometimes slightly incurved; an ovoid avicu-
larium, with an acute triangular mandible, in the centre of the
frontal wall in both kinds. The larger zooecia are more or less
covered with mammillated nodules. Smaller zooecia 0.4 to 0.5 mm.
long; 0.2 to 0..3 mm. wide. Larger zooecia 0.6 to 0.8 mm. long;
0.4 to 0.5 mm. wide.

Locality . — Portsea .

A single specimen, about 12 mm. in diameter. This species be-
longs to the genus DimorphoceUa, which I, in Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict..
Vol. XVI. n.s. Pt. 1. p. 340, established to include D. pi/riformis
and D. triton, McG. sp., found in our tertiary deposits.

The larger zooecia are present, either singly or in groups, upon
both surfaces of the zoarium. All the^ zooecia are somewhat irre-
gular in shape; in the smaller form tlie marginal row of pores is
very regular, but in the larger form they are sometimes obscured
by the mammillated nodules. The oval avicularium is constantly
present in both forms, and in the portion illustrated one of them
is reversed; the mandible pointing proximally instead of distally

The following is a description of a very interesting form, from
Disaster Bay, N.S.W., given to me by Mr. C. J. Gabriel.

Selenariopsis, n. gen.
Zoarium dome-shaped. Zooecia quadrate in a single layer, and
in radial series. Ooecia and avicularia present. No vibracula.

Selenariopsis gabr'lell, n. sp. (PI. XXVTIL, Figs, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10).

Zoarium a hemispherical dome, 5 mm. in diameter, 2.5 mm. hig:h.

Zooecia radially arranged in straight rows, quadrate or sub-quad-

360 C. M. Maptestone:

rate in t'orni, smooth with slightly raised and faintly sinuous
margins. Thyrostomes oval, ooecia somewhat larger than the zooe-
cia, with a broad aperture below two smaller ones on the front
wall. Avicularian cells quadrate, with a large, somewhat hour-
glass shaped cavity. In the basal walls of the zooecia there is a
large aperture, and there is also an aperture on the side walls of
the zooecia.

Locality. — Disaster Bay, N.S.W. (C. J. Gabriel;. A single
specimen.

This is a very peculiar form; it is allied to Sele/iaria, and, in
the radial and linear disposition of the zooecia, to Lunulites. It
is a hemispherical dome (a small portion of which is broken away),
composed of a single layer of zooecia arranged in radial lines, inter-
calating towards the margin. The thyrostomes are oval, but some-
what i regular in form. The ooecia have a large, broadly oval aper-
ture, with two smaller ones above. The basal walls have a large
aperture, and there is also a smaller one in the side walls of the
zooecia, through which probably living tissue, connecting the occu-
pants of the adjoining zooecia, extended, It differs from Selenana
in having large avicularia, but not vibracula, and the ooecia are on
the same level as, and in series with, the zooecia, not exterior
as in Seleiiar/a, and by the zooecia being clearly defined on the
basal surface.

Owing to the irregularity in the shape of the thyrostomes, and
in tlie presence of the large aperture in the basal wall, and also
the absence of the opercula of the thyrostomes and the mandibles
of the avicularia, I am of dpinion that the specimen exhibits the
internal calcareous structure only, and that in life it had an ecto-
cyst covering it entirely on both basal and upper surface in or
upon which were the true thyrostomes with their opercula,
also the mandibles of the avicularia, and that it covered
the basal surface, and the large aperture in the basal wall
of the zooecia, which is such a conspicuous feature, and which
must have had a covering of some kind. Consequently, if living,
or perfect, specimens be found, it will be necessarj' to modify the
description, but there is no doubt that its structure abundantly
justifies the establishment of a new genus for its reception.

Parmulapia obliqua. (PI. XXVTTI., Fig. 11).
A new form fiom West Australia.

The specimens of I'annularia obliqtia, from the Soutli Australian
coast, to which I alluded in my " Observations on I'armiiUiria

iVew or Liltl(.'-knoiVH Poli/zoa. ^61

obliqua and a I'ussil species" (I'loc. Ivoy. Soc, Vict., Vol. XXIII.
(new series), p. 42), are aliaost always symmetrical in furni; in the
adult stage kidney shaped; in the younger forms they are either
fan-shaped, with (.l)tusely crenate edges, or are palmate.

i have lately received from Dr. Verco, of Adelaide, some speci-
mens which he dredged in King (Jeoi-ge's Sound, West Australia,
which are extremely asymmetrical and sometimes very much lobed,
almost digitate in some cases. 1 have drawn several of the zoaria,
half natural size, and it will be seen that there is great dissimilarity
in the forms. I can detect no difference whatever in the zooecia from
tln»se in South Australian form, but as the zoarial character is so
different, the specimens from West Australia must be considered
a distinct variety, for which 1 piopose the name " Farmuho'ia
ohilqiia var. lohata.

In the South Australian form the zoaria do not bear ooecia until
they arrive at the adult stage, and they they are always on, or near
the outer margin of the zoarium, but in West Australian form one
specimen (marked "A ") bears a few ooecia in a curved transverse
row in the centra' i)ortion of the zoarium.

Variable forms of Celiepora fossa (Harwell sp.).

1 think the variations in the form of the zoaria of this species
worthy of notice, as from a casual examination of the specimens no
one would think they Iselonged t<> tlie same species.

The form from Avhich Prol. llaswell originally described the
species, under the generic name of Spliaerojmra, is " subspherical,
slightly depressed. ' '

Among the polyzoa, drc'dged by Dr. Verco in South Austialian
waters, sent to the late J. Dennant, and which I examined some
years ago, there were two different forms. One w^as circular, thick,
slightly raised in the centre, with rounded edges (bun-shaped), and
on the under surface (chiefly in an annular area near the edge of
the zoarium), there were numerous small conical pits, which
descend to a consideralile distance into the zoarium. These pits
are formed by a small parasitic "actinid." The upper surface
of the larger specimens was mammillated, but in the smaller ones
was not. The zooecia on the edges of the zoarium have the umbon-
ate process, which bears a semi-iiicular aviculaiium, produced
into a blunt conical pioeess. Tiiis form grows to a very large size,
some l:)eing over an iiuii in diameter.

The other foini was oval, oi- latlier ellipsoidal, smooth, with a
deep conical pit at one end.

23

362 G. M. Maplestone: New or Little-known Polyzoa.

Another very different form occurred in some material dredged
off the coasts of New South Wales. It was spindle, or cigar-shaped,
with a very irregular, nodular surface. It was 3 cm. long, 7 mm.
wide at the truncated end; tapering to a rounded point at the
other end. It had a single conical pit in the truncated end of a
larger size than those in the other specimens, but evidently caused
in a similar way.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1. — Digenopora latissima, x 30.

Fig. la.- — Do. do. do., ooecium, x 30.

Fig. 2. — Schizoporella bacata, x 24.

Fig. 2a. — Do. do. incomplete ooecium, x 24.

Fig. 3, — Do. complanata, x 24.

Fig. 4. — Mucronella ovifera. x 24.

Fig. 5. — Dimorphocella portmarina, x 24.

Fig. 6. — Selenariopsis gabrieli, portion of zoarium, x 5.

Fig. 7. — Do. do. section of zoarium, x 20.

Fig. 8. — Do. do. basal surface of zooecia, x 20.
"o " do. do. of ooecium, x 30.

Fig. 9. — Do. do. upper sui-face of zooecia, x 20.
" o " do. do. of ooecium, x 20.

Fig. 10. — Do. do. upper surface of zooecia, x 20.
" a " avicularian cell
" o " ooecium

Fig. 11. — Parmularia obliqua var. lobata

various forms of zoaria, nat. size.
" a " zoarium, with ooecia.

Proc. R.S. Victniia. I'M;!. I'lnfr X'W'IM.

>■

mrnmrn

^^?u

[Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 25 (N.S.), I't. II-, li)13.]

Art. XXIX. — On a New SUurlan Bivalve from the Lilydale

Quarries, Liteind. (Probicina) mifcludli.

By G. B. PRITCHARI), D.Sc, F.d.S.

(Lectiuvr in lieology, &c., School of Mines Departmeut, Working?
Meu's College, Melbourne).

(With Plate XXIX.).

[Read 12th December, 1912.]

Lilydale is a well known locality for well-preserved fossils of
very high antiquity, namely, silurian, and the Cave Hill Quarries
have been yielding up their treasures to diligent searchers for
quite a number of years. A glance at the list of fossils from this
locality will, however, show that we have at present rather a
scanty knowledge of its bivalved molluscan fauna, as the record
includes only six species.

Any additional information should therefore be of some interest
and value, and it is with pleasure that I now make the record of
a new sj^ecies.

During a recent visit to the Cave Hill Quarries, my assistant,
Mr. Stanley R. Mitchell, had the good fortune to discover a very
fine and perfect specimen of a large bivalve, which evidently belongs
to the family Lucinidae. This specimen he has very kindly placed
in my hands for description, and I take this opportunity of tender-
ing him my thanks and of naming the species after him.

Lucina (Prolucina) mitchelli, sp. nov.

Dcsm pfion. — Shell orbicular, tumid, beak small, depressed, con-
vexly rounded and situated at about one-third of the diameter fiom
the anterior margin; lunulc narrowly cordate, very small but dis-
tinct. Anterior margin regularly convexly rounded, from the lunule
to the ventral margin, the latter becoming distinctly straighter as
it reaches up to the posterior margin; posterior truncation makes
an obtusely angular junction with the ventral margin of about
110 degrees, and runs obliquely upwards to join the convex posterior
dorsal margin. Tlie shell sliows its greatest tumidity slightly to

■23a

364 G. B. Pritchard : New Slhiriaii Hiralrc.

the front of its centre line uniljo-venti-ally, hut liveonics notably
flattened towards the anterior margin as well as towards the pos-
terior keel. Posterior keel only faintly defined iiiuljunally, but
rapidly increasing in strength posteriorly, till it foinis an excep-
tionally strong ridge margining the depressed posterioi- area. Shell
surface finely concentrically sculptured, running about three ridges
in two millimetres in the middle region, apparently raised into
slight frills on the posterior keel; the frills are strongest post-ven-
trally, l)ut tlie preservation of the specimen is not so perfect as to
fully show the original extent of this feature. No radial marking
is aj)i:)arent. Interior of valve deeply concave umbonally and
running out shallower towards the ventral margin, which is bevelled
off to a general acute edge, with a suspicion of faint denticulation.
The hinge has been cleared of matrix, but the cardinal teeth are
evidently obsolete; there is a faint suspicion of an anterior lateral
tooth, whilst to the posterior a broad shallow area for the reception
of the internal ligament is margined by an elongated nariow ridge.
Anterior adductor muscular scar very large, f)vate. and showing a
distinct and elevated callous rim towards the ventral margin, callous
failing out dorsally. Posterior adductor muscular scar much
smaller, narrowly elongate and margined anteriorly with a strong
callous ridge. Pallial line entire and narrow. Internally there is
some evidence of a radial structure wliiih jxobably gave rise to a
slight denticulation of the ventral margin, but this is not very
distinctly preserved in the present specimen.

Dimensio7}s. — Antero-posterior diameter, G8 mm. ; und)o-venti-al
diameter, fi2 mm.; greatest thickness through one valve. 15 mm.;
thickness of shell about 2 mm.

Locdlifl/. — Cave Hill Quarries, Lilydale. Siliiii.in limestiuie
fauna. Collected by S. H. Mitchell.

1 desire to express my best thanks to Mr. L. Knibhs for the
])hotogra})hs which illustrate this shell.

EXPLAN.\T10X OF PL.VTK .\X1X.

Fig. 1. E.xteriial view of valve, about two-thirds natural size.
Fig. 2. internal vIcav of valve, about two-thirds natural si/.e.
Fig. 3. Unibonal aspect, a little less than natuial size.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1913. Plate XXIX.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIE

FOE THK YEAR, ]ill2.

The ('ouiicil herewith presents to Members and Associates of the
Society the Annual Keisort and Details of Receii^ts and Expenditure
for the year 1912.

March llth. — Papers read: (1) '"Esperanto and Science," by
Dr. W. T. Kendall; (2) " Oi, tlie Introduction of the Cattle-tick
Fever into Australia," by Piofessor J. A. Gilruth, D.V.Sc, etc.;
(3) " Further Observations on Onchocercus gibsoni, the Cause of
Worm Nodules in Cattle, "" by Professor J. A. Gilruth and Di-.
Georgina Sweet.

April 11th. — Papers read: (1) "Australian and Tasmanian
Coleoptera Inhaljiting oi- Resorting to the Nests of Ants, Bees and
Termites""; Supplement, by A. M. Lea; (2) "On a New Chirido-
tinid of the <ienus Taeniogyrus Found in Port Pliillip Bay," by
E. C. Josliua ; (3) "The Occurrence and Development of Cervical
Ribs in Man and Some of the Manunals that have Abandoned Quafl-
rupedal Progressii)n." by Walter Stapler, M.D., D.V.Sc, etc.

May 9th. — Papers read : (1) " Contributions to the Flora of Aus-
tralia," Part XVIII., by Professor A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, etc., and
Bertha Bees; (2) "Note on the Ascent and Descent of Water in
Trees," by Professoi- A. J. Ewart. D.Sc, etc.

June 13th. — Lecture : " The Diamond in South Africa," by
Prof. E. W. Skeats, D.Sc The lecture was illustrated by lantern
slides and numerous specimens.

July llth. — Papers read: (1) "An Investigation of Fifty-two
Tasmanian Crania, by Klaatsch's Craniotrigonometrical Methods,"
by L. W. G. Biichnei- ; (2) "Description of Two New Ischnochitons
from Western Port," by A. F. Basset Hull (communicated from C.
J. Gabriel); (3) " Some New Victorian MoUusca," by J. H. Gatliff
and C. J. Gabriel; (4) "Additions to the Census of Victorian
Marine Mollusca,'" by J. H. Gatliff and C. J. Gabriel; (5) "Addi-
tional Remarks on the Psychrometric Formula," by Glennie Smeal,
B.Sc ; (6) " New or Little-known Fossils from the National
Museum, Part XV. — Some Tertiary Species," by F. Chapman,
A.L.S. ; (7) " Notes on Some ' Stringy Bark' Eucalyptus Oil, and
the Occurrence of Eucalyptus cf>nisideniana near Melbourne," bv

366 Prori't'di ng.s of the Roijal Socieiij of Victoria.

lloyston Drew (\ictoriaii Research Scholar), Heber (Ireen, and P.
K. H. St. John. Mr. Gabriel showed the two species of Ischnochton
described by Mr. Hull; Messrs. Gatliff and Gabriel, Chairman and
Drew, Green and St. John showed specimens illustrating their
papers. Mr. T. (jritfith Taylor exhibited and spoke on rock speci-
mens from Antarctica.

August 8th. — Papers read : " On the Cross-Inoculation of rlie
]loot-tubercle Bacteria upon Native and the Cultivated Legu-
minosae," by Professor A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, and Norman Thomson
B.Ag.Sc. Mr. A. J. Higgin .showed a Leitz metallographic micro
scope; Dr. Hall, by permission of the Director of the Geological
.Survey, show'ed a Parkes-Lapworth microscope, and also teeth of
Nototherium tasmanicum from Tasmania, lent by Mr. T. Stepliens.
Prof. Skeats showed an alkaline rock from Macedon, which indi-
cated the way in which " buckshot gravel " could originate. Dr.
Payne Philpots showed aboriginal jaws which gave evidence of
great wear and of the absence of dental caries.

September 12th. — Paper read : " Paralysis in Horses and Cows
due to the Ingestion of Fodder," by Dr. J. A. Gilruth, M.R.C.V.S.
Mr. J. J. Fenton exhibited a dioptreuieter. Mr. F. Chapman
showed marble froni Buchan, such as is being used in the new
reading-room at the Public Library.

October 10th. — Papers read : (1) " The Anatomy of Two Aus-
tralian Land Snails, Paryphanta atramentavia, Shuttleworth, and
P. compacta, Cox and Hedley, by Olive B. Davies, B.Sc. ; (2) " The
Correlation or Size of Head and Intelligence, as Estimated from the
Cubic Capacity of Brain of 355 Melbourne Criminals," by Pro-
fessor R. J. A. Berry and L. W. G. Biichuer. Prof. Ewart showed
the seed of Caesalpinia sp., a native of Queensland, said to liave
come from the Otway Forest.

Noveniber 14th. — Lecture: "Rock Paintings and Carvings in
South Africa," by J. L. Elmore, M.D. Papers read : (1) " On the
Country between Melbourne and the Dandenong Creek," by T. S.
Hart, M.A., F.G.S.; (2) "The Correlation of Size of Head and
Intelligence, as Estimated from the Cubic Capacity of Brain of
Thirty-three Melbourne Criminals Hanged for Murdei," by Pro-
fessor R. J. A. Berry and L. W. G. Blichner.

December 12th. — Papers read: (1) "Parasitic llyiiicn(>i)teia of
Victoria," by P. Cameron (coinnniiiicated ])y J. A. Kershaw); (2)
" The Syiinx of the Common Fowl ; Its Structure and Develop-
ment," l)y A. O. V. Tymms (Goveinment Research Scholar); (3)
" The Viscosity of Croani," 1)V l^'ranccs K. M. Duinarosq. M.A.,

Froceedimp of the. Royal Socldi/ of Victoria. 367

B.Sc. (communicated by Prof. W. A. Osborne); (4) "The General
and Mining Geology of the Diamond Creek Area," by Norman R.
Junner (Kernot Research Scholar); (5) " A New Variety of Volute
from Western Australia (Voluta nivosa, var. coxi), by Agnes F.
Kenyon; (6) " Further Descriptions of the Tertiary Polyzoa of Vic-
toria," Part XII., by C. M. Maplestone ; (7) " New or Little-known
Polyzoa," by C. M. Maplestone. Mrs. Kenyon showed specimens of
Voluta in illustration of her paper, also siliceous sinter from the
Pink and Wliite Terraces of Rotomaliana. Mr. Junner showed
rocks from tlie Diamond Creek District.

During the year 4 members, 1 country member, and 6 associates
t\"ere elected. Two life members who served the Society well in its
early days, namely. Mr. H. F. Eaton and Mr. J. S. Butters, have
died. "S\v. IJurter.s \v;is one of the founders of the Society and an
occasional attendant at meetings till a few months before his death.
One member, 1 count iv member, and 1 associate resigned, and the
names of two associates who were non-tinancial were ronoved from
the lists.

The Proceedings, Vol. XXIV., Pt. 2, and Vol. XXV., Pt. 1, were
published during the year.

The Committee of the National Park, Wilson's Promontory, has
erected a cottage at Barry's Hill, for a second ranger, who was
appointed in December. A cottage for the accommodation of the
Committee and a rest-house for tourists were erected at the Derby
River. A rest-house was put up at the Beehives, and the pier, at
the same place, was moved to a better position. A track to Sealers'
Cove was marked by an officer of the Public Works Department,
and work on it will be begun. Several new animals were intro-
duced, and most appear to be doing well.

The Librarian reports the addition of 1925 volumes and parts
during the year. A large number of copies of Brough Smythe's
"Australian Aborigines," Baron von Mueller's "Iconography of
the Acacias," and Neumayer's " Meteorological Observation," were
received from tlie Government Printer. The storage of this mate-
rial and of the Library is a more acute problem than ever, and the
question of additions to the building should be faced as soon as
possible.

368 Proceedings of the Royol Society of Victoria.

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orictn of Victoria.

1912.

Jjatron :

SIR JOHN KLILLEK, HART., K.C.M.G.

IJrcsttii'ut :
J. .siip:phai;i>.

PROF. R. .J. A. BERRY, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E.
T. .S. HAIJ., .M.A , D.SC.

3ijou iLlC.lSUll'l- :
W. A. HARTNELL.

^Ott. ICibiavhiiv :

R. D. BOY.S B.A.
T. S. HALL, M.A., D.Sc.

(Council :

p. BARACCHI, F.R.A.S.

E. J. DUNN, F.G.S.

P. DK J. GRUT.

J. .IAMIE.SON, M.D.

.1. A. KERSHAW, F.E.S.

PROF. W. A. OSBORNE, .\I.H., h.Sc.

PROF. E W. SKEATS. D.Sc.
W. STAPLEV, M.D., D.V.Sc.
G. SWEET, F.(;.S.
R. H. WALOOTT, F.G.S.

E. .1. WHITE, F.R.A.S.

F. WISEWOI'LD.

24

(?^ommittffs of tijf Council

j!l)0U3f (Tominittrr

THE HON. TREASURER (Convkxer).
P. DE J. GRUT.
G SWEET, F.G.S.

JJiiuting (Committee:

THE HON. TREASURER.

PROF. R. J. A. BERRY, M.U., F.U.S.E.

^jonor.uM.t jKubitovs :

J. E. GILBERT.
J. A. SMITH.

^ioncir.ui) Architect

\V. A. M. BLACKETT.

Iffrnstccs :

p. BARACCHI. K.R.A.S

PROF. W. BALDWIN SPENCER, C.M.G., M.A., K.R.S.

E. J. WHITE, F.R.A.S.

1912.
L I S T O F M E M B E R S

WITH THEIR YEAR OF JOINING.

Patrons.
His Excullcney Sir John Fuller, Bart., K.C.M.G 1011

Honorary Members.

Forrest, The Hon. Sir J., K.C.M.G., West Australia ... 1888

Liversidge, Professor A.. LL.D., F.R.S., Hornton-street, 1892
Kensington, Lond.

Scott, Rev. W., M.A., Kurrajong Heights, N.S.W ISbo

Verbeek, Dr. R. D. M., Speelmanstraat 19, .sXTi-aven- 188(1
hagf, Holland.

Life Members.
Butters, J. S., F.R.G.S 186U

Fowler, Thos. W., M.C.E., Colonial Mutual Ch., 421 Col- 1879
lins-street, Melb.

Gibbons, Sydney, F.C.S., 31 Gipps-street, East Melb. 185i

■Gilbert. J. E., "Melrose," Glenferrie-road, Kew. Vic. ... 1872

Gregory, Prof. J. W., D.Sc, F.R.S., University, 1900
Glasgow.

Love, E. F. J.. M.A., D.Sc, F.R.A.S., Moreland Grove, 1888
Morel and

Nicholas, William. F.G.S 1864

Selby, G. W., 99 Queen-street. Melb (881

Smith. W. Howard, " Moreton,"' Esplanade. St. Kiida . 1911

White. E. J.. F.R.A.S., Observatory. Melb 18(;8

Ordinary Members.
Anderson, J. H., M.B., B.S., Woodend, Vic 19<i!)

Balfour, Lewis, B.A., M.B., B.S., Burwood-road, Haw- 1892
thorn, Vic.

■M.K

372 List of Memhrrs.

Baracchi. Pietro, F.R.A.S., Observatory, Melb 1887

Barnes, Benjamin, Queen's Terrace, South Melli 18G6

Barrett, A. 0., " Melisse," Bruce-street, Toorak, Vic. ... 1908

Barrett, Dr. J. W., M.D., M.S. Collins-street 1910

Berry, Prof. K. J. A., M.D., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E., Uni- 190r>

versity, Melb.

Boys, R. D., B.A., Public Library, Melbourne 1903

Brittlebank, C. C, " Queensgate,"' St. George's-road, 1898

Elsternwick

Broome, G. H., State Coal Mine, Wonthaggi 1911

Cameron, S. S., D.V.Sc, Agricultural Dept., Melb 1910

Cherry, T., M.D., M.S., Cni versity, Melbourne 1893

Dunn, E. J., F.G.S., " Roseneath." Pakington-street, Kew, 1893
Vic.

Esvart, Prof. A. J., D.Sc, Pli.D, F.L.S., University, IVEell). 1906

Fryett, A. G., care Dr. F. Bird, Spring-street, Melb. ... 19tK)

Gault, Dr. E. L., M.A., M.B., B.S., Collins-street, Melb. 1899

Gillott, The Hon. Sir S., K.C.M.G.., " Edensor," Bruns- 1905

wick-street, Fitzroy, Vic.

Gihuth, His i:xcellency Dr. J. A., D.V.Sc. i9();>
M.R.C.V.S., F.R.S.E., Darwin, Northern Ter-
ritory.

Giimwade. \V. R., B.Sc, 335 Spencer-street, Melb. ... 1912

Grut, P. de Jersey, F.R.Met.S., 29 Kensington-road, 19(»1
South Yarra.

Hake, C. N., F.C.S 1890

Hall, T. S., M.A., D.Sc. University, Melb 1890

Hartnell, W. A., '■ Irrewarra." Burke-road, Cauiborwell, 1900

Vic.

Harvey, J. H., A.R.V.I.A., 128 Powlett-street, East Melb. 1895

Hig-iii, A. J., University. Melb 1912

Jauiieson. Jiimes, M.D., 12 M.-ilvcrn Ku.id, 'I'oor.-ik. ... 1877

Kelly, Bowes, 70 Queen-street, Melb 1910

Kendall, K. A., d:. M. V.C., " Conislcn," Esplauad.', M itldic UUO

Brii,dH(.ii

Kendall, W. T., D.V.Sc, M.K.C.V.S., 36 Park-street, 1911

Brunswick.

List of Meinbers. 373

KcriK.t. \V. X., J5.C.E., Uiiiveisity. Mvlh 1!)()G

Kershuw, J. A., F.E.S., National Museum. Melb 1900

Kitson, A. E.. F.G.S., Imperial Institute, S. Kensington, 1894
Lond.

Laidlaw. W., B.Se.. Department of A^'riculturi'. Mel- 1911

bourne.

Leach, A. J.. D.Se., Education Department. McU). ... 1901

Lyie, Prof. T. R., M.A., D.Sc, University, Melb 1889

Loughrey, B., M.A.. M.D., Ch.B.. M.C.E., 1 Elgin-street. 188Q

Hawthorn, Vic.

Lowe, W., M.B., B.S., 279 Victoria-street, W. .Melb. Mill

MacDonald, N., Veterinary Scliooh I'arkville 1911

MacKenzie, Colin W. M.D., B.S.. F.R.C.S., Collins-street, 1910

Melb.

Massou, Prof. Orme, M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S.E., F.K.S., Uni- 1887

versity, Melb.

Merrill, A. P., D.D.S., Collins-street, Melbourne 1911

Miehell, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., University, Melb 1900

Nanson. Prof. E. J., M.A., University, Melb 1875

Oliver. C. E., M.C.E., Metropolitan Board of Works. 1878

Melb.

Osborne. Prof. W. A., M.B.. Ch.B., D.Sc, University, Melb. 1910

Payne, A. T., "Scotsburn," Toorak 1911

Payne, Prof. H., M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., University, Melb. ... 1910

Petherick. E.A., F.R.G.S.. F.L.8., 251 Albert-street, East 1910
Melbourne.

Kichaidsdu. A. K. \'.. Agricultuial Dcpt.. .Melli I!)I2

Robertson. A. W. D., M.D., B.S., University, Melb 1909

Robertson. W. A., G.M.V.C, Agricultural Dept., Melb. ... 1910

Rowe. W. C, '• Invicta," Chaucer-street, Canterbury. Vic. 1908

Schlapp, H. H., 31 Queen-street, Melb 1906

Shephard, John, Clarke-street, South Melb 1894

Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc, University, Melb 1905

Spencer, Prof. W. Baldwin, C.M.G., M.A.. F.R.S., Uni- 1887

versity, Melb.

Stapley, W.. M.D.. D.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S., Cambridge, New 1910

Zealand.

Sweet, George, F.G.S., Wilson-street, Brunswick. Vic. ... 1887

374 lAst of Members.

Swinburne. Tlie Hon. G.. M.L.A.. " Shenton," Kinkora- 1905
road. Hawthorn, Vic.

Taylor, R.. 31 Queen-street, Melb 1907

Taylor, T. G., B.A., B.E., B.Sc. Commonwealth 1912

Weatliei; Bureau, Melb.

Thom, L. X.. B.Sc. Essex-road. Surrey Hills. Melb. ... 1910

Walcott. B. H.. F.G.S., Technological Museum, Melb. ... 1897

Ware, S., M.A.. Education Department, Melb 1901

Wisewould, F., 408 Collins-street, Melb 1902

Country Members.

Desmond, J., R.V.S., G.M.V.C. " Ellerslie," Hurtle- 1901
square, Adelaide. S.A.,

Hart, T. S., M.A., B.C.E., F.G.S., School of Mines, Bal- 1894

larat, Vic.
Hogg, H. II., M.A., 38 Harrington Gardens, S. Ken- 1890

sington, Lond., S.W.

Ingram, Alex., Hamilton. Vic 1903

Lea, A. M.. F.E.S., Museum, Adelaide, S.A 1909

Maplestone, C. M., Eltham, Victoria 1898

Mennell, F. P., Rhodesian Museum, Buluwayo, South 1902

Africa

Murray, Stuart, C.E., '• Morningside." Kyneton, Vic. ... 1874

ShaAv, Dr. A. E.. Healesville, Vic 1912

- Corresponding Members.

Bailey, F. M., F.L.S., Government Botanist, Brisbane, 1880
Queensland

Dendy, Professor Arthur, D.Sc, F.R.S., Sec.L.S., King's 1888
College, London

Etheridge, Robert, .Tunr.. Australian Museum, Sydney, 1877

N.S.W.
Lucas, A. H. S., M.A., B.Sc, Sydney Grammar School, 1895

Sydney, N.S.W.

Stirton, James, M.D., F.L.S., 15 Newton-street, Glasgow 1880

List of Members. 375

Associates.

Abbott, S. B., G7 Pakiiigton-street, Kevv 1910

Anuitage, R. W., B.Sc, Inspector of Schools, Educa- 1907
tion Dept., Melb.

Asliton, H., "Argus "Office 1911

Audas, J. W., "Engnwrn," Punt-road, St. Kilda 1911

Bage, Mrs. Edward, " Cranford," Fulton-street. St. Kilda, 1906

Vic.

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc Fulton-street, St. Kilda, Vic 1906

Baker, F. 11., 167 Hoddle-street, Richmond 1911

Baker, Thomas, Bond-street, Abbotsford, Vic 1889

Bale, W. M., F.R.M.S., Walpole-street, Hyde Park, Kew, 1887

Vic.

Bennetts, W. R. Pakington-street, Kew, Vic 1894

Barkley, H., 9 Denham-street, Hawthorn 1910

Booth, John, M.C.E., B.Sc, "The Gables," Berkeley- 1872

street, Hawthorn.

Breidahl, H., 36 Rovise-street, Port Melbourne 1911

Brodribb, X. K. S., Cordite Factory, Maribyrnong 1911

Brook, R. H. T 1906

Buchanan, Miss G., M.Sc, University, Mell) 1910

Biichner, L. W. G., 258 Riversdale-road, Hawthorn ... 1912

Canwell, C, 139 Hoddle-street, Richmond 1911

Chapman, F., A.L.S., National Museum, Melb 1902

Corbett, J., " Clifton," 39 Rushall-crescent, N. Fitzroy, 1907
Vic.

Danks, A. T., 391 Bourke-street West. Melb 1883

Davies, Miss 0. B., B.Sc, Mentone Parade, Mentcne ... 1911

Fenton, J. J., 89 Royal Parade, Parkville 1910

Ferguson, W. H., 59 Brinsley-road, E. Camberwell 1894

Finney, W. H., 40 Merton-street, Albert Park. Vic 1881

Foiibister, J. J.. 45 Queen's Parade, Clifton Hill 1911

Foxcroft, A. B., Public Libraiy, Mell)Ourne 1911

Gabriel, C. J., Victoria-street, Abbotsford, Vic 1908

Gabriel, J., " Cwmdar," Walmer-street, Kew 1887

Gatliff, J. H.. Clowes-street, S. Yarra 1898

Green, W. Heber, D.Sc, University, Melb 1896

Grayson, H. J.. University, Melb 1902

Hamilton, J. T., F.L.S., "Brooklyn," Heidelberg-road, 1910
Ivanhoe.

376 Lid of Memhers.

Hardy, A. D., F.L.S., Forest Department, Melb 1903

Herman, Hym.an, B.C.E., F.G.S., Department of 1897

Mines, Melb.

HoKclley, C. A., B.Sc, " Bella Vista," Cotham-road, Kew 1910

Howitt, A. M., Department of Mines, Melb 191(1

Hunter, S. B., Department of Mines, Melb 1908

Jobbins, G. G., Electric Lighting and Traction Co.. 1902
Geelong, Vic.

Joshua, E. C, 906 Malvern-road, Armadale 1911

Junnur, N., Geol. Department, University, Melb. ... 1912

Jutson, J. T., Geological Survey, Perth, W.A 1902

Keble, R. A., Winstay-road, Armadale 1911

Ivenyon, Mrs. A. F., 291 Highett-street, Richmond, Vic. ... 1908

Kenyon, A. S., Heidelberg, Vic 1901

Lambert, Thomas, Bank of New South Wales, Benalla, 1890
Vic.

Lewis, J. C., L.V.Sc, Darwin, N.T., 1910

Luly, W. H., Department of Lands, Treasury, Melb. ... 1896

Mann, J., Chester-street, Surrey Hills, Melb 1912

Maclean. C. W., " Bronte," Strand, Williamstown, Vic. 1879

Mahony, D. J., M.Sc., Dept. Mines, Melb 1901

McKenzie, G. Lands Department, Melb 1907

McNab, V. R., " Almaden," Kooyong-road, Caulfield 1910

Mickle, K. A., " Illira," Marine Parade, St. Kilda 1911

Miller, E. E., Boundary-road, Toorak, Vic 1908

Morris, M., B.Sc.. Cotham-road. Kew 1912

Nicholls, E. B.. 164a Victoria-street. North Melb 1904

O'Neill, W. J., Lands Department, Melb 1903

Ower, L, H., State Coal Mine. Wonthaggi 1910

Philpots, G., E.P., D.D.S., M.A.C.D., 110 Collins-street. 1911

Melbourne.

Pritchard, G. B., D.Sc, F.G.S., " Talavera," 6 Kooyong- 1892

koot-road. Hawthorn.

Rati; .Mi.s.s J., M.Sc, University, Melb 1910

Rees, MissB., University. Moll) 1910

Richards, H. C, M.Sc, liiiversity of Queensland, 1909
Brisbane.

List of Members. 377

Ritchie, E. G., Assoc. M.I.C.E.. Met. Board of V\oiks. 1909

Melb.

Rivett, A. C. D., H.A.. H.Sc. University, Melbourne ... l'.)ll

Roberts, R. 1>.. " Hraeniar," Stirling-street, Kew 1909

Schafer, K., " Invercloy," Xaijier-street, E.ssendon, 1883

Vic.

Smeal, G.. J5.Sc 1911

Smith, J. A., 15 Collins-place, Melb 1905

Stilhvell, F. L., B.Sc 1910

Suiun/ers, H., M.Sc, University, JMellwurne 1902

Sutton, C. S.. M.B., B.S., Rathdown-street, N. Carlton, 1908

Vic.

Sutherland, Ian M.. M.C.E., " Novar," Dandenong, Vic. 1905

Sweet, Miss G., D.Sc, Wilson-street, Brunswick, Vic. ... 1906

Thorn, Wm., Mines Department. Melb 1907

Thiele, E. 0., M.Sc, c/o 0. A. Thiele, •• Evandale," 1898

Chatham-road, Canterbury, Vic.

Tovey, J. R., National Herbarium, South Yarra 1911

Traill, J. C, B.A., B.C.E., " Osmington," Domain-road, 1903

South Yarra, Vic.

Wedeles, James, 231 Flinders-lane, Melb 1896

White, Miss R. E. J., D.Sc, Agricultural Dept.. 1908

Brisbane, Queensland.

Wilkinson, H. L., M.C.E., Equitable Buildings, Melb. ... 1909

Woodward, J. H., Queens Buildings, Rathdown-street, 1903

Carlton, Vic.

Woodburn, Mrs. Fenton, " Warrawoona," Gunnedah, 1910

N.S.W.

Wright, R. A., L.D.S., Brunton Chambers, Collins- 1912

street, Melb.

IN DKX.

3'/m.' /MiHK.'s 11/ new ijenera and speclas are printed m italics.

Abutiloii ji)di(um, 105

Acaena moiitaria (tasmanica), 105

Aoaena siiiignisoihac (forma), 105

Acaiithocitps tatei, 172

Acinae octoradiata, 186

Adelotopus ipsoides, 33

Adelotopus Koolytides, 34

Aixoon rig-idnni, var. angiistifolium,

105
Albizzia amoeiiissima, 106
Ambrosia artemisifolia, 106
Andropog'on gryllus, 106
Andropo'go'i sericeus, 106
Aiithistiria avenacea, 106
Anthistiria mombranacea, 106
Anthyllis viiliiiMaria, 106
Ants, jil

Aristida- calycina, 106.
Ai*ticorus cojistrictieornis, 55
Ai'ticerus cylindricoi'nis, 55
Articerns deutipes, 55
Articenis griffitJii, 53
Articerns irregnlaris, 55
Articeris mastcri, 54
Articprns nitidicollis. 54
Articerns pascoeus, 55
Ascent and Descent of Water in

Trees, 115
Astralinm (Imperator") undosuin , 187
Astrebla triticnides var. lappacea.

106
Atavism, 85

Atriplex stinitatnm, 107
Anstralian <^)l^'optera. :?1
Babesiasis, 15
Bartsia Trixago, 107
Bendigo Goldfield, 1
Berry. E. J. A., 229. 254
Bivalve Silurian. 363
Boopliihis annnlatus. var. niicio-

plus, 15
Brachypepliis inquilivus. 73
Brassica adpressa, 107
Brenthidae. 77
Brighton Valleys, 272
Biiebner. L. W. G.. 122. 135. 220. 254
Byrrliidae, 75

<^'aberea pednncnlata, noni. hot.. 356
Talodera onneifera, 38
<'alycotome spinosa, 107
Tarabidae, 32

<''ardiothorax aeripennis, 77
Tardita calva, 173
rarditella exnlata. 174
Cassis adcocki, 170
Catalogue of Mollusca, 169

Catenicella ntc/nsa, 356
Cattle Tick, 15
Cellepora fossa, 361
Cervical Ribs, 82
Chapman, F., 186
Chiton verconis, 172
C'hlaniydopsis caricollis, 65
Chlaniydapsis ectatommae, (56
Chlamydopsis glabra, 73
Chlamydopsis Qyauulnta, 71
Chlamydopsis lafiprnnis. 67
Chlamydopsis longipes. 73
Chlamydopsis npara, 71
Clilamydopsis fvl" rculata, 64
Clavigeropsis aiistraliae, 56
Cnicus benedictns (carbenia bene-

dicta), 107
Coleoptera, 31
Coccinellidae, 78
Condylocardia austral is, 173
Condylocardia cliapinaiii. 167, 173
Conosoma lateripenne, 40
Conosoma myrmecophilnm, 40
Coracoid Bones, 91
Cordns hospes, 77
Correlation of Size of Head and

Intelligence, 229, 254
Crania, 122

Cream, Vi-soosity of. 307
Criminals. Melbourne. 229, 254
Cross Inoculation, 193
Cryptamorpha delicata, 74
Cryptandr'a nncinata, 108
Ctenisophus impressus. 44
Ctenisoplius n)orosns, 44
Ctenisoplins nigromcctiti, 43
Ctenisophus vernaliB, 44
Cucuiidae, 74
Cyatlilger punctatus, 49
Cyathiger sinmJafor. 49
Cypraea nahrieli, 190
Dandenong Creek. 268
Daphnclla mayi, 170
Davyia, 45
7^<irryia mira, 46
riavies, O. B., 221
Development of Cervical Ribs, 82
D'aniond Creek Area, 323
Dianth'ns Arnieria. 108
Digenonora lafisfiinid, 357
Diniorphocella portmarina. 359
Diplotlonta globulosa, 172
Diplodonta iacksoniensis, 173
Drew, R.. 176
Dumaresq. F. K. M., 307
Ectatomma socialis, 32

380

Proceedings of the lioyal Societij oj Vnlor'ta.

Elsternwick Creek. 21?,
Eragp'ostis tenella, 108
Eriochloa punctata, 108
Eucalypts, 177

Eucalyptus Consideuiaiia, 176
Eucalyptus Muellcriaua, 184
Euclielus pumilio, 171
Eudranes carinatus, 47
Eupincs flavcapicallH, 48
Eupines indistincta, 48
Euplectops rctafninindc., 50
Ewart, A. J., 105, 115, 193
Flora of Australia, No. 19, 105
Fossils, Victorian, 186
Fowl, Syrinx of, 286
Gabriel, C. J., 167. 169
Gardiner's Creek, 270
Gasteropoda* (tertiary), 186
Gatliff, J. H., 167. 169
Geoloijy, 268, :^2:{
Gilrutli, J. A., 15, 2-A, 201
Glyptoma myrmecopluluni, 42
Green. H., 176
Grindelia squarrosa, 108
Hamotopsis auriconius. 47
Hart, T. S., 268
Herinannia velutiiui, 109
Heterognatlius inyniucophilus, 60
Holotliurian, 79

Ilomalaxis praiMiicridionaHs. 189
Homalota cui-vicauda, 39
Hcmalota myrmeciae, 39
Homalota trioonae, 38
Hull, A. F. B., 120
liuxleya, 109
HurJi'iiu linifoViii, 11-9
Illaphanus macleayi. 34
Illapliaiius steplionsj, 34
Iridomyrmex glahcr. 32
Ischnochiton fuJcafux, 121
Ischnocliiton falcatiis, 172
laclinocliiton nahricli. 120, III
Ischnochiton thoniasi, 17]
Ischncchitons, Two New, 120
Joshua, E. C, 79
■Tunucr, N. E.. 323^

Kenyon, A. F., 354

Klaatsch's Cranio! liootKunetrical
Metliods. 122

Laf^riidao, 77

Land Snails, Anatomy of two Aus-
tralian, 221

Laaiospermum iiuliatiiin. 110

Lea, A. M., 31

Lcgiiniinosac, 193

Lepidopleurus badius, 171

Liuioniatcs cdinpoiKifi, 52

Lithocliaris camiMinoti, 41

Lucina (T'rolucina ) initcltcll i< 363

Mangilia bilineata, 170

Maplestone, CM., 355,357

Margaris iniperiaiis, 47

Marginella nymplia, 170

Mercurialis annua, 110

Mcsoplatus. ."'J

Microcbaetes scoparius, 73
Mining Geology, 323
Modiolaria rliylJciisis, 167, 175
Molliisca, Yicturiau ^Marine. 167. 169
Monchiquite Dykes. 1
Montacuta (Iroinuiidnisis. 167
Mantacuta (IroinaiKd'iisis. 173
Mordialloc, 274
Mucroiu'lla (irifcra, 358
Murderers, Melbourne, 254
Myrniedonia clavigera, 38
Narcodes ictdiommuc. 42
Neck, Evolution of, 89
Nitidulidae, 73
Nototarus australis, 32
Occurrence of Cer^rical Ribs, 82
Oleandra uei'iiforniis, 110
Onchocerca gibsoui, 23
Oxyteius micropterus, 42
Panicum Crus Galli, 110
Paralysis in Cow, 203
Paralysis in Horse, 207
Paralysis in Horses and Cows, 201
Parnuilaria obliqua, 360
Pai'yphanta atranientaria. 221, 222
Paryplianta compacta. 221
Paspalum scrobiculatuni. 110
Pau.ssoptinus dolialiognathus, 76
Petrophila incurvata, 110
Phagonojihana latipennis, 61
Phagonophana macrosticta. 61
Phebaliuni apricus. 111
Plienaliiun deseiti. Ill
Philophlaeus myrineCDphilus, 32
Plectusodes cavifrouK, 51
Plectu&odcs puhesreiis, 51

Pleurotonia sayceana, 191

Pclylobus apianiis, 36

Polylobus apiciniger, 37
Polylobus ])rachyptiTus. 35

Poly]ol)us davoyi, 38

Polylobus ])a]lidouiin:>r, 38

Polylobus picco.sobrinus, 34

Pulybus (luadratipennis, 36

Polylobus .seniiopacus, 38

I'olj'lobus tcnus. 35

I'olyplocotes cdshi luiis. 75

I'oly/.oa. 357

I'oniMa lulea. 32

Prasophylluu' cilidfuiii. Ill

I'rasopliylluin lU'spectans (inter
nu'dia). 112

I'rasophylluin Suttoni, 112

I'ritchard. G. B., 363

Prognathism. 135

I'selapliidae. +2

Pselaplnis tlavipal|)is. K>

Pselaphus gem iiiat us, 46

Psyclii'ometrie I'lirmula, 151

Ptinidac, 75

Quedius cuprinus. 1-0

Rees, B.. 105 •

Ropoi't of Council. 365

Ribs (Cervical). 82

Rissoa (Onoba) bassiana, 170

Indt

1581

Eodvvayia liirsuta, 61

Kodwayia ininuta, 62

Rodwayia orieiitali.s, 62

Eodwayia ovata, 62

Root 'I'uberck', Inoculation of, 193

Kybaxis hryoijliihi, IH

Kybaxih icfihtoiiuntie, 47

Rybaxis 5-t'ovoata, 4<S

Rybaxi.s rUlosa, 4-7

Sandriiighani Valleys, 272

Sarga stipoidca (Andi'opi><>"oii sar-

giis), 113
Schizoporella hacaita, 358
Schizopnrella comphinata, 358
Scopacus iuterocnlaris, 41
Scydmaenilla constricta, 60
Scydmaenilla piisilla, 60
Scydnuu'niis hifascicitlatu.'i, 57
Scydmaeuus castanooglaber, 60
Scydmacnns colobopsis, 59
Scydmaeuius glabripennis, 59
Scydmaeuus incciticoniis, 57
Scydniaonus iiisif/nirrntris, 58
Scydmaeiuis iinparidiis, 56
Selenariopsis, 35!)
Selenai'iopsis yahridi, 359
Sepia capensis, 169
Sepia latimanus, 169
Sesbania acult-ata, 113
Silene coiiica, 113
Silurian Rivalvo, 363
Smeal, G., 151

Snails, Two Australian Land, 221
Sta.pley, W., 82
Stera (Cratystylis), 113
Stillwell, F. L., 1

St. John, P. R. n., 176

" Striiigyhark " Eucalypts, 176

Strongj'lopova cuiicinnd, 355

Stropliipora duhia, 356

Strophipora ei>iscopalus, 355

Structure of Syrinx (Fowl), 286

Sweet, G., 23

Syrinx of Fowl. 28(i

Taeniogyrus (ilhnii, 79

Tasmania aboriginal, 135

Tasmauian C'oleoptera, 31

Tasmanian Crania, 122

Tenebrionidae, 77

Tertiary polyzoa, pt. xii., 355

Thomson. N., 193

Tliryptonieno raccMiulrisa, 113

Tick Fever, 15

Traesiphorus lioploccphalus, 44

Ti-etothoracidae, 74

Trichodesma latisepalum (zeylani-
cum, var. latisepalum), 11:5

Tricliopteiygidae, 61

Turlw atkinsoni. 188

Turbo ("tlieridgei, 188

Turrieula bellapicta, 170

Tymms, A. O. V., 286

L'rospermum Dalechampii, 113

Victorian Tertiary Polyzoa, 355

Viscosity of Cream. 307

Voluta nivosa, var. coxl, 354

Volute, New Variety of, 354

Water in Trees, Ascent and De-
scent of, 115

Worm-nodules, 23

Xylophilidae, 77

!uj LIBRARY?^

Publications of the Royal Society of Victoria, and
of the Societies amalgamated with it.

Victorian Institute for the Advancement of Science.
Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855.

Philosophical Society op Victoria.
Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855.

These two Societies then amalgamated and became : —

Philosophical Institute of Victoria.
Transactions. Vols. 1-4.

The Society then became : —

lloYAL Society of Victoria.

Transactions and Proceedings (Vol. 5, entitled Transac-
tions). (8vo). Vols. 5-24.
Transactions. (4to). Vols. 1, 2, 3 (Pt. 1 only was pub-
lished), 4, 5. 1888-1909.

Proceedings (New Series). (8vo). Vols. 1 .1888 ,

Microscopical Sociktv of VictoriII.

Journal (Vol. 1, Pt. 1, entitled Quarterly Journal). Vol. 1
(Pts. 1 to 4), 2 (Pt. 1), title page and index [nil
published]. 1879-82.

[The Society then combined with the Royal Society of Victoria]

Note. — Most of the volumes published before i8go are out
of print.

MBL WHOI Librarv ■ Serials

5 WHSE 00607