PROCEEDINGS

lomil <^0fktD of

VOL. XXXII. (Nkw Series).

PARTS T. AND II.

Edited under the Authority of the CoJincil.

ISSUED OCTOBER, igtg, and SEPTEMBER, ig20.

{^Containing Papers read before the Society during IQig).

THK AUTHORS OK TllK SEVKRAL PAPKRS ARK INDIVIDUALLY KESPONSIBLK FOR THK

SOUNDNKSS OF THK OPINIONS QIVKN AND FOR TllK ACCUIIACY OF THH

8TATBMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:
FORU & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STKKET, CARLTON.

1920.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII.

TAOB

Art. I. — The Origin oi the Volcanic Tuff of Pejark Marsh, Victoria.

By E. Henut Walcott ... ... ... ... 1

II. — New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the National
Museum. (Part XXIV.— On a Fossil Tortoise in Iron-
stone from Carapook, near Casterton). By Fredkrick
Chapman, A.I;. S. (Plate I.) ... ... ... 11

III. — On the Essential Oil of Boronia pmnata, Sm., and the presence

of Eleuiicin. Hy Henry G. Smith, F.C.S. ... ... 14

IV. — On tlie "Clawing-" Action of Rain in Sub-Arid Western

Australia. By J. T. Jutson. (Plate II). ... .:. 20

v.— A Striking Example of Rock Expansion by Temperature
^ Variation in Sub- Arid Western Australia. By J. T.

JuTsoN. (Plate II.) ... ... ... ... 22

VI. — On an Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age from Boneo
Swamp, West of Cape Schanck, Victoria. By Frederick
Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates III. and IV.) ... 24

VII. — The Diabases and Associated Rocks of the Howqua River
near Mansfield, with reference to the Heathcotian
Problem in Victoria. By E. 0. Teale, D.Sc, F.G.S.
(Plate v., 4 Text Figures and Map) ... ... 33

VIII. — A contribution to the Palaezoic Geology of Victoria, with
special reference to the Districts of Mount Wellington
and Nowa Nowa respectively. By E. O. Teale, D.Sc.
(Plates VI.-IX.) ... ... ... ... ... 67

IX. — Note on the Correction for Chronometer Rate. By J. M.

Baldwin, M.A., D.Sc. ... ... ... ... 147

' X.— A New Method of Determining the Mechanical Equivalent

of Heat. By Profkssor T. H. Laby, M.A , aud J. K.
Roberts, B.Sc. (Plates X. and XI. and 1 Text Figure) 148

XI. — The Design of an Induction Motor with large Air Gap and
Rotating Field Magnets. By J. K. Roberts, B.Sc.
(2 'I'ext Figures) ... _ ... ... ... ... 156

XII. — Australian Phlebotomic Dii>tera : — New Culicidae, Tabanidae

and Synonymy. By Frank H. Taylor, F.E.S. ... 164

XIII. — On the Synthesis of Sugar from Formaldehyde and its Poly-
mers, its Quantitative Relations and its Exothermic
Character. By Albeed J. Ev;akt, D.Sc, Ph.D. ... 1G8

XIV. ^Contributions to the Flora of Australia, No. 28. By Alfred
J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., and J. R. Tovey. (Plate
XII.) 189

PAGE

XV. — A revision of the genus Paltenaea, Pai-t 1. By H. B.

Williamson. (Plates XIII., XIV. and XV.) ... ... 210

XVI. — Notes on a Collection of Tertiary Fossils from Ooldea and
Watson, South Australia. By Fredeeick Chapman,
A.L.S. (Plates XVI., XVII. and Text Figure.) ... 225

XVII. — The Longevity of Cut Flowers. By Ellinoe Archee, M.Sc. 246

XVIII. — The Endophytic Fungus of Lolium, Part 1. By Ethel
McLennan, B.Sc. (Plates XVIII. to XXVI. and 8 Text
Figures.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 252

XIX. — On the Structure of a New Species of Earthworm from South
Australia, Megascolex fletcheri. By Jean H. Shannon,
B.Sc. (Plates XXVII. -XXXI.) ... ... ... 302

XX. — Notes on Dust Whirls in Sub-Arid Western Australia. By

J. T. Jut.son ... ... .. ... ... 314

XXI.— The I'hysiography and Geology of the Bulla-Sydenham Area
By Albekt V. G. Jamks, B. A., M.Sc. (Plates XXXII.-
XXXIV.) ...

XXII. — On the Seasoning of Hnrdwoods. By R. T. Patton, B.Sc

Index

3;^3
350
355

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I.. 1919J.

Art. I. — Tlin Origin of the. Volcanic Tuff of Pejark Marsh

Victoria.

By R. henry WALCOTT
(Curator, Technological Museum).

[Eead 8th May, 1919].

In view of the discovery of a native implement associated ■with,
fragments of bones of extinct marsupials under volcanic tuff at
Pejark Marsh, near Terang, by Mr. A. J. Merry, i increased
interest is attached to the task of ascertaining the probable age-
and origin of the tuff.

For this reason the opportunity was taken, while supervising^
some excavations being made at the Marsh, in 1909, in search of
further evidence of man's antiquity, of paying a few hurried
visits to various places in the neighbourhood likely to bear upon
the subject. The following notes are principally the result of
information so gained, but, as the time devoted to field investiga-
tion was unavoidably very limited, they must of necessity be
brief, and perhaps omit some matter of value in deciding the issue
in question.

An account of the excavations referred to, and of the occur-
rence of the tuff has already appeared. 2 It might be mentioned
here, however, that the tuff is seen as a fine-grained bedded deposit,
from 15 to 24 inches thick, along a drain made to carry the water
away from the Pejark Marsh. The tuff has Ijeen laid down in an old
swamp, now represented by a stiff, black clay bed, and abundant
leaf impressions are present in the lower layers of the tuff. Rest-
ing on the tuft' again, comes the heavy, black soil of the present
marsh, some two or three feet in thickness.

The tuff is locally known as " sandstone," and is also called*
" sandstone tuff," on the quarter sheet No. 8 N.E. (New Series),,
of the Geological Survey of Victoria.

Previousi reference to the deposit has been made by Professor J.
W. Gregory .3 when he states : " The broad down-shaped hill to the-
south-west of Camperdown, and the plains between Terang and
Noorat, are formed of re-deposited, bedded tuffs. The low cliffs

1. An account of this discovery has not yet been published. The implement

is in the possession of the National Museum, Melbourne.

2. Spencer and "Walcott, "The Origin of Cuts on Bones of Australian

Extinct Marsupials." Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., pt. I., 1911, pp. 92-123.

3. The Geography of Victoria, Melb., 1903, p. 192, and revised edition, 1912,.

p. 204.

2

2 R Henry Waleolt:

ai'ound Lake Teraiig, and a bank on the ruad leading to Gnotuk
Park, near CaniperdoAvn, show the bedding, which indicat-es that
the materials were laid down under water." If Professor
■Gregory's assertion be correct, that the tuff of the plains between
Terang and Noorat, Avhere the Pejark Marsh is situated, has been
re-deposited, then the underlying clay bed may be younger, and
not older than the volcanic rocks of the neighbourhood. This is a
point of very considerable moment concerning the age of the
human relic found in tlie clay bed, under tlic tuff.

In regard to the bedding of volcanic tuff, a connuon enough
character in South-East Australia, Dr. T. S. Hall,'* and Messrs.
Mahony and Grayson^ have shoAvn, that it is by no means j)roof
that the tuffs were laid down under water. On the contrary, the
evidence indicates that they were mostly laid down on dry land,
the exceptions being in those cases, such as at Pejark, where they
may have been deposited in swamps or shallow lagoons. 6

The dirtH-'t deposition in these shallow and stagnant waters does
noh in any way affect the age of the tuiTs; that question only arises
where there is good and suflicient reason to believe that the tuffs
have been, by the natural agency of wind or Avater, removed from
their original places of deposition to others at a perhaps much
lateir period.

The few facts gathered with regard to the Pejark tuff certainly
;seems to negative the idea that there has been any re-disposition
of the material, and one of them is found in the numerous cavities
it contains; a somewhat unusual feature in a, rock of its character.

These cavities are of varying size and form, some being
extremely regular, more especially the smaller ones, which are also
generally spherical, but others again most irregular in sliape. An
•examination in situ shows that the cavities are not all due to one
•cause. Some, the larger and mostly irregular ones, have a
broAvnish coloured lining, and are found only near the bottom of
the bed with the leaf impressions. These are undoubtedly the

4. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. Vol. XX., pt. I., 1909, pp. 20, 21.

5. Mem. Geol. Surv. of Vict.. No. 9, 1910, p. 13, Geology of the Camper-
down and Mt. Elephant Districts.

<6. A specimen of tuff from Pejark Mar.sh, examined by F. Chapman, is
stated by him to " show carbonized and iron-stained impressions of
vegetable stems. When wax squeezes of these were taken they were
seen to be triangular in section, and under the microscope show a struc-
ture exactly matching that of the surface in the living Victorian Marsh-
loving Cypei-HS hicidns. The tuff specimen referred to also show excel-
lent cross bedding disposed at a high angle to the plant-stems, thus
indicating the formation of this deposit from gentle showers of volcanic
•dust."

Volcanic Tuff of Pfjark Marsh. 3

result of the decay, and removal of vegetable remains. Higher
up in the bed, where there is no sign of those remains, the smaller
.and more regular cavities occur in horizontal zones, and these
likely enough have arisen through air entangled in the showers
-of ashes being carried with them to the bottom of the swamp, and
there unable to escape.

In neither kind of cavity is there the slightest indication that it
was formed by the gases given off by the decomposition of vegeta-
tion in the swamp in which the ashes fell. The presence of cavities
due to air or other gases entangled in the shower of ashes, if it lie
-a correct interpretation of the phenonienon, in itself sets at rest
any doubts about the tuff not being in its original site, because
such cavities could not have been retained during a re-distribution
either by wind or water.

Mahony and Grayson, 7 in describing the microscopic characters
of the Hampden tuffs, mention that a deposit at Blind Ci'eek,
about which some uncertainty exists as to whether it has been
re-deposited or not, is similar to the tuffs occuring elsewhere in
their original position. The same may be said of the Pejark tuff,
as its character does not seem to differ from that of tho bods of fine
texture undoubtedly in situ. Tlie Pejark bed is also sharply
defined from both the underlying and overlying deposits, and there
has been no mingling with extraneous material in any part of it.
There are, then, no features in connection with the occurrence
which might be held to indicate that it was laid down under con-
ditions inconsistent with primary deposition.

The facts as they are, point not only to a sudden change in the
nature of the deposited material, but to great rai^idity of deposi-
tion with slight intervals of rest, during which the fine sediment
suspended in the water of the lagoon or swamp settled, forming
thin, impalpable seams in the tuff.

The Avhole bed was no doubt laid down in a comparatively sliort
time, then earlier conditions again prevailed, and the present
alluvial soil was deposited.

Regarding the origin of the tuff in question, there are three
possible sources within the immediate neighbourhood of tho place
where the excavations were made, viz., Mt. Noorat, three miles
to the north, Lake Keilambete, about two miles to the west, and
Lake Terang, one mile due south.

The first of these sources and the most distant from the position
mentioned, while leaving no question of its crater origin, has not

7. Loc. supra cit., p. 19.

2a

4 B- Henry Walcott :

yet supplied evidence of a sufficiently definite nature to prove that;
the tuff emanated from it. Mahony and Grayson^ say that tuff was
proved in Avells sunk through the basalt to the north of the Mount,
and they verbaly informed the -writer that there was also evidence
of tuff underlying the lavas in other directions.

This merely introduces the possibility of Mount Noorat having
contributed to the Pejark tuff, but one of the other suggested places
of origin' is accompanied by evidence quite sound enough to fix it
as the main source.

Lakes Keilambete and Terang, although surrounded by accumu-
lations of tuff, have not been generally accepted as the sites of old"
volcanic vents.

Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn5 thought they were more probably acci-
dental depressions due to other causes, and Professor J. W..
Gregoryio is confident that they, as well as Lakes BuUemerri and'
Gnotuk, are not crater lakes, but occupy basins formed by sub-
sidences in bedded volcanic tuff, which were probably caused by the-
eruptions of neighbouring volcanoes.

Mahony and Grayson, i^ on the other hand, hold that all these
lakes are directly due to volcanic explosions, and with this view
the writer is in accord. Their paper is a most valuable one, not
only on account of the interesting matter it contains, but also be-
cause it is the only systematic account of the geology of the district
yet published. As these notes must necessarily be brief, and only
of a general nature, reference should be made to that paper.

The part of Lake Keilambete visited by the writer, like nearly
the whole of its banks, was hidden by a luxurious growth of grass,
with the exception of some outcrops of soft, tertiary, fossiliferous
limestone underlying the superficial tuffs. ^^

S. Loc. supra cit., p. 6.

9. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melb., 1866.

10. The Geography of Victoria, Melb., 1903, p. 130. Revised Ed., 1913, pp.
131-136.

11. Loc. supra cit., p. 13.

12. Mr. P. Chapman, Palseontologist to the National Museum, who was good-
enough to examine all the fossiliferous material collected, determined
the Lake Keilambete forms from the limestone as follows : —

Foramnifera. — ■TruncaUMna lobatula, W. and J. sp. Also others
indet.

Polyzoa. — Indet.

Echinldermata. — Echinocyamtis (SciiteUina) patella, Tate sp,
Eupatagus (?) laubel, Dvmcan.

Brachlopoda. — Magellania insoUta, Tate sp., and M. (?) pectoralis-
Tate sp.

Pelecypoda. — Pecten yahliensis, Tate.

Pisces. — Lamnu apiculata. Ag. s\).

Mr. Chapman places the limestone bed in the Janjukian series.
Oyster shells of fossilized appearance occur on the beach of the lake,
and it mav be useful to record the fact here given to the writer by
Mr. H. Quiney, of Mortlake, that many years ago an attempt was made
to acclimatize oysters in the lake, but without success. It is to this
soui-ce that the "presence of the shells may be attributed.

Volcanic Tiiff of Pejark Mavslt. 5

The lake has an area of two square miles, ^^ and is' situated about
two and a-half miles north-west of the township of Terang. Its
circular form and low banks of volcanic tuff gently sloping into
.the surrounding plains on all sides, are very suggestive of volcanic
origin. The fact that the banks are raised at all, unless they are
•of aeolian origin, makes it difficult to understand how they could
.have been formed if thei lake is occupying a depression resulting
.from the withdrawal of material from below through the activity
of neighbouring volcanoes.

It seems more reasonable to expect a gradual slope towards the
lake by a sagging of the strata, instead of the reverse. Again, the
.fiymmetrical shape, which has been assumed, in place of one
.more or less irregular, as in the case of lakes situated in areas
w^here the evidence supports an origin by subsidence, is more con-
sistent with a volcanic origin. There is no evidence that this
lake basin was formed in a depression in volcanic tuff. The tuff
appears to have been deposited on a comparatively level land sur-
face, through which the volcanic forces burst an opening. Mahomy
and Graysoni'^ point out with regard to Lake Bullenmerri, which
has only an area of a little over two square miles, is bounded by
steep sides, and has its floor lying 700 feet below the highest
part of the rim, that the formation of such a basin by the sinking
•of its floor has never been actually observed, but that there are
instances of the production of similar depressions by paroxysmal
.explosions.

If it can be jaroved that the accumulations of tuff round the lake
in situ thinned out as they receded frofcn the lake itself, a strong
piece of evidence would bet established in favour of the basin being
.an explosion vent.

With regard to this, and several other points, Mr. A. J. ]\Ierry
very kindly went to considerable trouble to ascertain what data
■were known from well sinkings in the neighbourhood. The result
'Of his inquiries went to show that the well sinkings near Lake
Keilambete all indicated a gradual reduction in the thickness of
the tuff away from the lake, thus supplying the important evidence
'required. It is not certain, however, if this tuff extends to, and
is continuous with, the Pejark bed. On the geological quarter
sheet, buckshot gravel is seen to be the superficial deposit interven-
ing between the former and the Pejark Marsh, and the nature of
the underlying Ijeds is not disclosed.

13. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melbourne, 1866.

14. Loc. supra cit., p. 13.

6 R. Henry Walcott:

While there may be certain characteristics absent from the for--
mation of Lake Keilambete, they do not put nearly such a barrier-
in the way of ascribing its origin wholly, or in part to a volcanic
explosion, as the presence of other characteristics do to the accept-
ance of the explanation that the lake basin is a simple subsidence-
in the land surface.

The site of Lake Keilambete may, therefore, be considered on
good grounds the source from which the tuffs surounding it were
derived, but evidence has not yet been collected to show that it has
contributed to the Pejark Marsh tuff, although quite likely enough
it has done so to some extent. Lake Terang has an area of
one square mile, 15 or half that of Lake Keilambete, and, strangely
enough, although it is without an apparent outlet, the water in it
is fresh, unlike that of Keilambete. It also lacks the conspicuous
circular form of Keilambete, and its irregularity, which is really
nob by any means marked, is emphasised by the varying height of
the surrounding hills. The township of Terang is situated along-
the northern slope of these hills, but also spreads on to the level
country, both eastward and northward. At the east end of the
lake the hills are low, forming a gradual rise from the country
beyond. Following along the township the elevation increases
right to the west end of the lake, where the greatest prominence-
is attained, and is deemed worthy of the title of Mount Terang..
From Mt. Terang, tapering hills extend further to the westward.
Continuing round the lake the land rapidly falls away until a
gap, forming the lowest part of the ring, is reached, and this is
succeeded again on the south by somewhat prominent hills extend-
ing to another gap at the east end.

The greatest depth of water, which is in the centre of the lake,,
at the time of the Author's visit (1909) was said to be three feet.
In this respect it differs much from Lake Keilambete, which, ac-
cording to the geological quarter sheet, had a depth of 96 feet in
the year 1888. It is also said that when the early settlers came to
Terang there were 30 feet or more of water in Lake Terang, and'
that it even flowed out through the gap on the south-west side.
As the surface of the water has not been lowered to this extent, it
is believed by local residents that the bottom has risen.

The growth of peaty vegetation has given some foundation for
tliis belief, but it does not explain the reduction in the volume of
water. This can only be accounted for by its draining away along-

15. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melbourne, 1866.

Volcanic Tuff of Pejark Marsh. 7

some subterranean passage. As already mentioned the water is.
fresh, and it would require a considerable access to bring the level
up to the gap, which is said to have been reached in the past.
There is no doubt that there has been a large diminution in the
quantity of water in the lake Avithin recent years, and if this is
caused by the supply, either superficial, or superficial and sub-
terranean combined, as the case may be, being exceeded by the
loss due to evaporation, it would be noticed in the salinity of the
water. Keilambete has also been lowered in level to some extent
during the same time, but the saltness of its Avaters is very
marked.

A suggestion might here be made Avith regard to this difference
in the Avater of the tAvo lakes Avhich in other respects seem to have
much in conmion. It has been mentioned that in another paper^^ that
at Pejark Marsh, in driving a croAvbar through the yelloAv clay, on
the top of Avhich cut fragments of bone AA-ere found, the bar entered
a softer stratum, and Avater floAved freely from the hole so made,
shoAving that probably the Avater-bearing bed from Avhich the local
residents obtain their supplies, had lieen tapped. It is also thought
that this might be the porous fossiliferous limestone of Tertiary
age exposed along tlie shores of Lake Keilamljetei for some feet above
the present Avater level.

On the shores of this lake Avells have been sunk for some tAventy
or thirty feet in the limestone, it is said, and fresh Avater obtained,
although the lake Avater itself is so saline from the absence of an
outlet that it is unfit for consumption by stock. It, therefore,
seems evident that the limestone bed is a channel by Avhich the
supply of Avater to Keilambete is augmented to some extent. Noav
at Lake Terang conditions are apparently different, and the pro-
cess is reversed. In this case the Avater is either being forced out
through the porous stratum into the surrounding country, AA'here
numerous AA'ells are draAving it away move rapidly than l>efore the
stratum Avas tapped, and more rapidly than it can be naturally
replenished, or else underground svipplies, which were sufficient to
balance the loss by subterranean outlets, have been intercepted.
Mahony and Grayson^^ mention this as a probable factor in tlie
desiccation going on at Lake Te-ona:.

The sides of the lake, or ring of hills enclosing it, are composed
principally of bedded tuffs. An extremely good exposure occurs

16. Spencer and Walcott, " The Origin of Cuts on Bones of Australian Ex-
tinct Marsupials." Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Pt. I., 1911, p. 93.

17. Loc. supra cit., p. 10.

.:8 R. Henry WalcotI :

just at the back of the Mechanics' Institute, where they have been
■quarried for building stone, and a clean vertical fcae about ten
feet in height has been left. The beds here are of much coarser
texture than at Pejark Marsh, and scattered througii them are
small lumps of white, indurated clay, which impart the effect pro-
duced by splashes of whitewash. An interesting feature was
noticed here near the top of the beds, giving evidence that a vol-
canic vent was not far distant. This was the characteristic bend
in the bedding of the tuff caused by impact of a falling body, and
occurred under a cavity at one time occupied by a bomb or ejected
block.

At Mt. Terang, where the tuff is lieing quarried just to the
north of the summit, the beds are seen to be dipping, as far as can
be made out, with the outward and northward slope of the hill.
They are capped by a thin flow of scoriaceous basalt, which seems
to form the cover of the hills extending to the west. Clay en-
closures are also noticed here, but not so abundantly, and in one
place the lava has intruded the tuff in the form of a small dyke
now largely decomposed.

Just south of the summit of Mt. Terang, where a cutting for a
road has been made, from what can be seen, the beds generally
show a dip towards the lake, but as they have here been disturbed
and become almost vertical within a short distance, Avhere they
abut on a coarse agglomerate or mass of volcanic ejectamenta, it
IS not quite certain whether this is the true direction of dip or
not. It may be that this agglomerate is occupying a vent, and
that the disturbance and rapid change in dip of the bedded tuffs
has been caused by the downward drag of the volcanic material
•during its settlement. Enclosed in the agglomerate are lumps of
iiesh-coloured clay, reaching up to the size of a man's head. They
are indurated by the heat to which they have been subjected, and
mostly exhibit an imperfect prismatic structure from the same
cause. These enclosures are of considerable interest on account
of the fossils some of them contain, bearing witness of the presence
of the marine tertiary beds underlying the volcanic deposits of the
district, and from which they have been derived. Mr. F. Chap-
man identified these fossilsi as belonging to two Polyzoan genera — -
Adeona and Lepralia, and a brachiopod, doubtfully referred to the
genus Cranicu. If then, we have here no evidence that the site
of an old vent lies within the limits of Lake Terang, from wlienco
came the various materials forming the mount and the surround-

Volcanic Tuff of Fejarh Marsh. 9

ing hills? The ejected lumps of the older underlying rocks alone
testify to the presence of a not distant source. On the eastward
•outward slope of the lake near the cemetery, a well put down
passed through about 80 feet of tuff before striking water, but half
.a mile or so further east, poor " buckshot " country is encountered
resting on, it is said, a clay bed. Again, near the summit of
Mount Terang, another well was sunk, and a still greater thick-
ness of tuff was met with. Mr. Merry also says that to the west and
south of the lake the good volcanic country is succeeded by
" buckshot " and clay lands. The geological quarter sheet shows
what is called the " older volcanic series," giving place to " buck-
.:8hot " gravel to the west, but to the north extending to the limits
•of the quarter sheet. The title given to this series is badly
■chosen, and misleading, as it does not refer to the older basalts,
known as such since the time of the first geological survey of Vic-
toria, but to a section of the newer volcanic rocks belonging to a
much more recent period. Apart from the confusion occasioned
thereby, " older " is an inappropriate term to employ, as the
basalt it is applied to, is in, part superficial, and at Lake Terang
mapped right up to its side, so that it must be younger than the
tuffs there, and Mahony and Grayson state that the basalts belong
to one cycle of activity, no sharp line of demarcation separating
them. These authors^s have very properly in their paper substi-
tuted the terms " earlier " and " later " for the older and newer
•volcanic series of the quarter sheet. To the north of Lake Terang
we know that at the Pejark drain, distant about a mile, there is
at the most only two feet of tuff, and Mr. Merry ascertained that
between the drain and the lake the tuff or " sandstone" had been
■ encountered in every well sinking and cellar excavation, increasing
in thickness as the lake was approached. The actual thickness of
the tuff bed on that side of the lake could not be found out. The
section behind the Mechanics' Institute shows a face of 10 feet.
This establishes the continuity of the Pejark and Lake Terang
tuffs, and makes it probable enough that they originated from the
same point, although of course, as already stated, they may have
blended to some extent to the west and north with the tuffs which
emanated from the site of Lake Keilambete and from Mt. Noorat.

As the tuffs of Lake Terang are unquestionably occuj^ying their
■original place of deposition, and are continuous with, and thin
•out into, the Pejark loeds, there seems no reason to attribute the

18. Loc. supra cit., p. 4.

10 R. Henry Walcott: Volcanic Tuff.

occurrence of the latter to re-deposition. If Lake Terang does not
represent an ancient centre of volcanic activity, it is inconceivable-
how a mass of volcanic ashes and coarser ejectamenta, covered with
lava for the greater part, and undoubtedly in situ, came to be
piled up there where there is no evidence whatever to connect its.
presence with any other possible source of origin.

It is possible, however, that the crater basin ocupied by the
lake may have been enlarged by subsidence through the withdrawal
of material from below.

In view of the facts given it may fairly safely be taken that any
works of man discovered beneath the tuffsi of the areas under con-
sideration would at least put his history back to the last great
epoch of volcanic activity in south-west Victoria, and make himt
the contemporary of our giant extinct marsupial fauna.

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].

Art. II. — New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the-
National Museum.

Part XXIV.— On a Fossil Tortoise in Ironstone from
Carapook, near Casterton.

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S.
(Palaeontologist, National Museum, Melbourne.)

(With Plate I).

[Read 8th May, 1919].

Note on the Matrix.

Bog iron-ore, known mineralogically as a form of Limonite-
(2Fet,03 +3HoO), is a common preservative of fossil plants and
animals, in which their remains are usually found as casts and
impressions. In Victoria we have numerous instances of such
occurrences of beds of ironstone; as for example, the deposit on the
Parwan Creek, and other exposures near Bacchus Marsh, which
contain leaves of Laurel, Cinnamon and Beech.

Of terrestrial or freshwater (lacustrine) origin, these bog iron-
ores contain the remains either of the organisms which were living
in the swamps and lakes, as the ostracoda and shells ; or remains
of animals as bones and feathers, which were washed into the
deposit off the land.

In the case of the Swedish lake iron-ores, the higher baeteria
have played a prominent part in separating the iron oxide from
the water, and such may have been the case with the beds of iron-
stone near Casterton in which the above fossil tortoise was found.
The iron was in ail( probability derived from the vast outpourings
of lava during late Tertiary times in Victoria, being dissolved out
by meteoric Avaters and re-deposited in pans on the bottoms of
swamps and lakes.

Description of Specimen.

The practically unique fossil now under consideration was found
in a bed of ironstone at Carapook, north-east of Casterton. It
represents a replacement in limonite of the greater part of the
body cavity of a tortoise. On the dorsal surface the vertebral

12 Frederick CJtapman :

column is well-marked by a deep, interrupted groove. The sutures
•of the costal plates are faintly visible. The impressions of the
bones of the pelvic girdle are also seen. On the ventral side
impressions of the bones of the plastron may be made out, and also
those of the epidermal plates; of the latter the most strongly
marked are the grooves between the pectoral and abdominal
shields.

This fossil cast is referable to the genus Emydura, Bonaparte, ^
to which the Murray Mud-tortoise belongs. From all appearances
the fossil may be referred, with some reservation, to the same
species, Emydura niacquariae, Gray sp.2

The length of the fossil specimen when complete was about 28
cm., as against 27 cm. of a full-grown living specimen. 5 Breadth,
about 15 cm. A living example from Wahgunyah, mentioned by
McCoy, shows almost identical proportions. This fossil is slightly
broaden in proportion, both across the carapace and plastron, than
the living specimens, but this difference seems to be due to com-
pression.

Observations. — The Murray Mud-tortoise is common in the
River Murraj^ and its tributaries and branches, but is not found in
Victoria in rivers flowing to the south. This curious point in its
local distribution may indicate the once northern trend of the
rivers in the Casterton district, which now join the Glenelg.

Anent the discovery of the specimen, the question arises whether
this ironstone deposit bears any relationship to that occurring at
Hedruth, which yielded Eiicah/pfus and Banksia leaves, and a
'bird's feather.'' Carapook is in the same district as Redruth, and

1. Arch. f. Naturgeschichte, 1S38, Vol. I., p. 140.
;2. Hydrasiiis macquarii, Gray, 1831, Syd. Rept., p. 40.

Platemys macquariae, Gray sp., Dumeril and Bibron, Erp. Gen., Vol. II.,

p. 438.
Hydraspis victoriae, Gray 1842, Zool. Misc., p. 55.
Chelymys macquaria (pars). Gray, 1844, Cat. Tort, p. 42 .
Euchelymys sulcifera, Gray, 1871. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, Vol.

VIII., p. lis.
Euchelymys sulcifera, Gray, 1872, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 508.
Chelymys victoi-iae (pars). Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 506, pi.

XXVII.
Chelymys macquaria, Cuvier sp. McCoy,, 1884, Prod. Zool. Vict. pp. 11-14,

pi LXXXII. and LXXXIII.
Emydura macquariae. Gray sp. Boulenger, 1889, Cat. Chelonians,

Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in the Brit. Mus., p. 230,

Pig. 63.
Emydura macqxiariae, L,ydekker, 1889, Cat. Poss, Rept. and Amphibia.

Brit. Mus., p. 169.
■Z. Prod. Zool. Vict., Vol. I., 1884, p. 12.

-4. See Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. I.. 1910. pp. 23-26, pis.
IV., V.

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate I.

F.C. photo. ciyp_ J nat. siise.

Fossil Cast of Emydura, cf. Macquarle, Gray sp., Carapook.

Victorian Fossils, Fart XXIV. 13:

lies 20 miles to the N.W. The probable age of the Redruth iron-
stone Avas, in my original description, put down as Miocene, but
it is possible that it may be of later age. This can only be proved
in conjunction with more precise field evidence than we have at
present.

Occurrence. — In an ironstone bed, three feet from the surface^
at Carapook, N.W. of Casterton. Presented by Mr. James S..
Macpherson.

Age. — Probably Pleistocene.

Previous records of Fossil remains of Emtdura macquariae. —

R. Lydekker has recorded^ two fragmentary specimens of the
above species from the collection at the British Museum (Natural.
History), London. One of these is " An imperfect eighth marginal
bone of the right side, belonging either to this or an allied species. "^
Its locality is doubtful, but " apparently from the Pleistocene cave-
deposits of New South Wales.

The other is " An imperfect right tenth marginal, probably
referable to the same species as the preceding; from the Pleistocene-
cave-deposits of the Wellington Valley, New South Wales. This,,
specimen appears to include part of the eighth costal."

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. — Emydura of. macquariae, Gray sp. Dorsal surface of
cast in ironstone. Carapook, near Casterton. About
half natural size.

Fig. 2 — Lower surface of the same specimen. x\bout half natural"
size.

5. Cat. Foss. Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.J,.
pt. III., 1889, p. 169.

[Peoc. Eot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].

AuT. III. — 0)1 the Essential Oil of Boronia pinnata, Sm.
and the presence of Elemicin.

By henry G. smith, F.C.S.

(Sydney Technological Museum).

[Read 10th July, 1919].

The Boronias (N. O. Butaceae) are plentifully distributed in
Australia, and constitute a genus the flowers of which are often
strongly perfumed.

The essential oil. the subject of this communication, was distilled
by Mr. P. R. H. St. John, in Melbourne, from material collected,
.towards the end of the year 1917, in the Longwarry District of
Victoria. The plant at that timei of the year was in full bloom.

Very few species of Boronia have so far been worked for their
oil, and consequently little is at present known concerning the con-
stitution of their odoriferous products.

In this case it is particularly interesting to know that almost
three-fourths, of the oil consists of the trimethoxy-phenol ether,
Elemicin.

This substance which is 4-allyl — 1.2,6, trimethoxy-benzol ;
■Cl2HlfiO;^, occurs in the higher boiling portion of the oil of Manila
Elemi, and it was from this oil that it was first isolated, and its
characters and composition determined.

The constants given for Elemicin are : — boiling point
144.147°C. at 10 millimetres pressure; density at 20°:= 1.06-3, re-
fractive index 1.5284; also that it occurs in the fraction of the
oil boiling at 277-2SO°C.

Ihe oil of Manila Elemi, di.stilled from the oleo-resin of Can-
ari'um commune, L.. is thus derived from plants belonging to the
Burseraceae, a natural order somewhat far removed, systematic-
ally, from the Rutacea?, to which Boronia belongs, and it is thu.s
interesting to find this rare plant constituent so widely distributed.

The slight fluorescence ol the oil is also worthy of remark,
because it seems very probable that this was Avholly or partly due
to the presence of a small quantity of the methyl-ester of an-
thranilic acid, which constituent it was possible to extract from the
oil by agitating with dilute sulphuric acid. As the plant was in
flower at the time of distillation, it is probable that this ester

Essential Oil of Boronia plnnata. 15

was derived from the flowers, and it may ]ye found not to occur in
rthe leaves. Although the fluorescence of the oil was apparently
-considerably diminished after agitation with dilute acid, yet it
was not entirely removed in this way.

A considerable amount of work has been carried out on elemicin,
and iso-elemicin, by Semmler (Ber. 1908, 41, 1768, and other refer-
ences in the same volume), the material worked upon having been
• derived from Elemi oil.

This is the first time elemicin has been detected in the oils of
.Australian plants.

My thanks are due to Mr. F. W. Byrne, of the Chemical Depart-
:ment of the Museum, for assistance in this investigation.

Experimental.

The total yield of oil was equal to 0.383 per cent. The crude
oil, which was heavier than water, was of a light amber colour,
and had a mild aromatic odour, suggesting the presence of geraniol
and geranyl-acetate. It also had a slight fluorescence. When dis-
solved in absolute alcohol the secondary odour was pleasant, and it
appears that the oil of thisi species of Boronia will be found a use-
ful addition to the perfumery products of Australia.
The crude oil had : —

Specific gravity at 15"C. = 1.0197.
Rotation aD= +3.8°.
Refractive index at 20°C = 1.5125.
Soluble in 1 vol. 70 per cent, alcohol (by weight).
The dextrorotation of the oil was due to the activity of a small
•quantity of pinene; this is shown later.

The saponification number for the esters was determined both
by boiling and in the cold.

(a) 1.5252 grams boiled for half-an-hour with alcoholic
potasb, required 0.0-306 gram KOH. S.N. = 20.2.

(b) 1.528 grams treated witli alcoholic potash in tlie cold
with two hours' contact required 0.028 gram KOH.
S.N. = 18.3.

This result is important, and, together with the odour, indi-
cates that the chief ester in the oil is geranyl-acetate, and that
it occurs to the extent of 6.4 per cent.

That free geraniol was also present is suggested from the results
of acetylation. A portion of the crude oil was boiled with acetic
-anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate in the usual way.

1 6 Henry G. Smith :

(a) 1.5144 grams of this esterised oil, when boiled witb
alcoholic potash, required 0.056 gram KOH. S.N.=
36.9.

(b) 1.5162 grams, when treated with alcoholic potash in the-
cold, with two hours' contact, required, 0,042 gram
KOH. S.N. = 27.7.

To confirm this result some cold saponified oil was steam dis-
tilled. Besides the terpenes an aromatic alcohol came over, which:
was strongly indicative of geraniol.

Although the chief alcohol may b© considered to be geraniol, yet
it is evident that other alcohols were also present.

Determination of Combined Acids.

A portion of the crude oil was boiled for two hours with an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The alkaline solution was
separated and acidified Avith sulphuric acid. The clear filtered
solution was distilled until volatile acids ceased to come over. The-
distillate was neutralised with Barium hydrate solution, evapo-
rated to dryness and treated in the ordinary way.

(a) 0.1868 gram Barium salt gave 0.1580 gram BaSO^ =
84.58 per cent.

(b) 0.2306 gram Barium salt gave 0.1958 gram BaS04 =
84.91 per cent.

On treating the Barium salt with sulphuric acid the odour of
butyric acid was noticeable; it is thus assumed that butyric acid'

was also present. The results obtained are equal to 59.8 per cent,
of Barium acetate, and 40.2 per cent. Barium butyrate. The
acetic acid was evidently in combination with the geraniol as

geranyl-acetate.

The amount of free acid in the crude oil could not be satisfac-
torily det-ermined for several reasons, and although a small
amount of a solid acid was eventually isolated, yet the saponifica-
tion number Avas under 2.

Phenol and Free Solid Acid.

A portion of the oil was shaken with dilute sodium hydroxide
until extraction was complete. The aqueous solution was separated,
shaken with ether to remove adhering oil, acidified, and again
shaken with ether. The ether extract thus obtained was equal tO'
0.198 per cent., and was semi-crystalline, due to the presence of the-
solid acid.

Essential OH of Boronia pinnata. 17

The product was dark coloured, and had a strong phenolic
odour. It ■^\-as dissolved in ether, and the acid removed from the
phenol by shaking with a solution of Sodium carbonate. The-
small quantity of acid when finally purified, was crystalline, and
melted at ISO-IGCC. It was not cinnamic acid, and perhaps con-
sisted of trimethylgallic acid, which is formed by oxidation of
elemicin.

The ether solution of the phenol after removal of the acid was
evaporated to dryness. The residue had a strong phenolic or
creosote-like odour, was not crystalline, and when dissolved in
alcohol gave a purplish-brown colour with ferric chloride, which
colour remained persistent.

Tests for some of the well-known phenols gave negative results,
and as the amount was small, its identity could not be determined.

The oil, after the removal of the phenol and free acid, was re-
peatedly shaken for some days, with a saturated solution of sodium
bisulphite, but no combination took place. Aldehydes were thus
absent.

Distillation of the Crude Oil.

100 c.c of the crude oil were submitted to distillation under
atmospheric pressure. A few drops of an acid water with a little-
oil came over below 160°C. (uncorrected). Between 160-250°
only 16.5 c.c. came over as first fraction, 10 c.c. of which distilled
below 180°.

Thes temperature rose rapidly to 259", and distillation then pro-
ceeded as follows : — ■

259-265° = 18 c.c.
265-270° =50 c.c.
270-274° = 63 c.c.
274-280° = 70 c.c.
This fraction was then separated, and although 3 c.c. of an oil
came over on continued heating, yet the temperature did not rise-
beyond 280°. The residue in the still was a dark hard pitch-like-
substance, which powdered readily when cold.
71)6 first fractio7i gave the following results : —
Specific gravity at 15°C. =0.8657.
Rotation aD= +15.9°.
Refractive index at 20° = 1.4639.
Cineol was not present. The oil of this fraction was fluorescent.
15 c.c. of the first fraction were again distilled, when 7.5 c.c.
came over below 158°C., and 5.5 c.c. between 158-190°. The

3

18 Henry G. Smith:

portion distilling below 158° had

Specific gravity at 15° =0.8596.
Rotation aD= +21.2°.
Refractive index at 20° = 1.4569.
;and formed a nitrosochloride, which melted at 104° C.

The lower boiling constituent in the oil was thus shown to be
-dextrorotatory pinene.

Possibly limonene Avas also present in the intermediate portion,
as the specific gravity was only 0.8590.

The second, or large fracfion, gave the following results : —
Specific gravity at 15°C. = 1.0519.
Rotation aD= +0.4°.
Refractive index, at 20° = 1.5230.
"Soluble in 0.5 volume of 70 per cent, alcohol, remaining clear on
further addition.

After removal of any phenol which might be present in this
fraction, it was again distilled under reduced pressure, the first
15 CO. being discarded. The remainder boiled fairly constant
at 191 °C. under 47 millimetres pressure. The product gave the
following results : —

Specific gravity at 20°C. = 1.0705.
Inactive to polarised light.
Refractive index at 24°C = 1.5283.
It was thus considered that the bulk of the oil consisted of this
-constituent. When freshly distilled, it was practically colourless,
had a slight fluorescence, and a delicate aromatic odour, reminding
somewhat of linalool. It darkened slightly on keeping.
Analysis gave the following ; —

(a) 0.1688 gram gave 0.1196 HoO; and 0.4222 CO^ : H = 7.87

and C. 68.22 per cent.

(b) 0.1332 gram gave 0.0932 H.O; and 0.3362 CO;^ ;H = 7.8

and C. 68.85 per cent.
CiaHiA requires H. 7.75 and C. 69.1.

Methoxy Detepmination.

(a) 0.2872 gram gave 0.9498 Agl equal to 43.6% OCH3.

(b) 0.3144 gram gave 0.9939 Agl equal to 41.8% OCH3.

It is thus evident that the molecule Cj^HihOj contains three methoxy
groups.

That the molecule was unsaturated was shown by the action of
Bromine, when the substance was dissolved in carbon tetrachloride.

Essential Oil of Boron ia pinnata. 19

.although a satisfactory bromide was not obtained. At first the
bromine was absorbed without evolution of hydrobromic acid, but
later the evolution of HBr. was pronounced, the solution becom-
ing dark purple.

Formation of the Acid.

A portion was oxidised by Potassium permanganate in alkaline
solution ; considerable heat was evolved. After comi^letion of the
reaction, the remaining colour was removed by sulphurous acid,
filtered, evaporated to small bulk, and acidified with dilute sul-
j>huric acid. A solid acid separated at once. This was purified
from boiling water, from which it crystallised in needles. It
melted sharply at 169°C (corr.) without decomposition. The acid
was titrated with decinormal sodium hydroxide; 0.13 gram dis-
solved in absolute alcohol required 6.15 c.c. J^ NaOH to neutralise,
thus 40 grams would neutralise 211.4 grams of acid, CmHiaOj^ 212.

It was thus evident that the acid was trimethylgallic acid
Cj-pHiaOs, the characteristic acid formed by the oxidation of
elemicin.

That a small quantity of iso-elemicin was also present was
indicated by the formation of a minute quantity of acetic acid on
oxidation by Potassium permanganate. This was shown by dis-
tilling over the free acid and forming with it the Barium salt.
This on ignition gave 91.6 per cent. BaSOj^ . Theory requires 91.37
per cent.

The above investigation shows that the principal constituent in
the oil of Boronia pinnata is the trimethoxyphenol-ether, Elemicin,
(4 allyl — 1,2,6 trimethoxybenzol) and that it occurs in the oil of
ithis species to the extent of about 70 per cent.

3A

[Pboc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].

Art. IV. — On the ^' Claiving" Action of Rain in Sub-Arid
Western Australia.

By J. T. JUTSON

(With Plate II.).
[Read 10th July, 1919].

Introduction.

In sub-arid south-central Western Australia, which is portion'
of the great plateau of that country, erosion presents results dif-
ferent in many ways from those obtained in areas possessing a
" normal " climate. Thia is partly due to the difference in degree,,
and to some extent in kind, of the erosional agents, and partly to
the surface alteration that rocks and soils have in many parts
sustained. There are certain minor featui^es •which are peculiar to
the area, and therefore of interest. Such are the miniature soil-
terraces described in this paper, the formation of which is asso-
ciated w'ith the "clawing" action of rain, and with the gravita--
tional drift of rock debris.

Summary.

The " clawing " action of rain on gentle soil-covered slopes with
a firm surface produces terraces with tiny cliffs, which are termed
" miniature soil-terraces," and at the same time gradually removes
the soil to loAver ground. By the formation and recession of these
terraces, drifting rock debris is undermined, and topples forward
dow'n the slopes. Thus a decided aid is given to the slow, gravita-
tional drift of rock debris from higher to lower parts.

Description of the Processes.

In sub-arid south-central "Western Australia there is a wide-
spread tendency to form hard caps at the surface, owing to water-
Ijeing drawn there by capillary attraction, and to evaporation then
taking place with deposition of the contained salts.

Soils are no exception to this process, although the cap is in
places but a mere film of slightly firmer material than that below.
This film, however, is quite sufficient to influence the transporting
action of the rain. On many gentle soil-covered slopes, especially

^' Clatvlng" Action of Rain. 21

those covered by a sandy loam, the rain passes over the fihw in thin
. sheets or rills without furrowing the ground, despite the latter
having many spaces bare of vegetation. Where the film becomes
broken by any means, miniature waterfalls occur, due to the flow
of water over the film to the softer soil beneath. Tiny cliffs are
thus formed.

These tiny cliffs may be only from an inch to six inches in
height, but they may extend laterally — that is, approximately at
right angles to the direction of water-flow — for many yards, and
thus form a miniature soil terrace on the slope. Other similar
terraces may form alwve and below; and thus on a gentle slope
several such terraces may be seen rising one above another, sepa-
rated by varying distances, but usually fairly close together.

The actual outline of a terrace (see Plate II., Fig. 1) may be de-
scribed as a series of gentle curves or scallops, mostly concave to the
ground at the foot of the "cliffs," and each curve usually presents
a minutely crenulated edge. This appearance suggests some force
that has gently clawed away the soil, and hence the writer terms
the rain action "clawing," Tiny furrows may run from the
"clawed" edges, indicating the direc-tions of the minute rills.
These furrows usually tend to unite Avithin a few feet from the
edges into a larger one, but within a few more feet this larger
furrow dies out, owing to the action of the water in depositing
the transported fine sand and soil as a series of minute, flat alluvial
fans or " lobes." The surface of the lower ground by reason of
such deposit becomes levelled off, thus illustrating, on a very small
scale, one result of rain action in this country. Another general
result is the slow transportation by rain of soil from higher to
lower ground.'

Extensive areas of rock fragments slowly drifting from higher
to lower ground form one of the commonest surface features in
sub-arid south-central Western Australia; but only the most resis-
tant rocks, such as quartz, jasper and ironstone, travel any dis-
tance. On the soil-covered terraces, such loose pieces of rock often
occur; and, as "clawing" proceeds, these fragments are seen in
course of being undermined. Eventually they topple over to the
lower level, and by repetition of this process their migration down
the slope is largely accomplished.

[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].

AuT. V. — A Striking Example of Rock Expansion by Teniper--
ature Variation in Sub-Arid Western Australia.

By J. T. JUTSON.

(With Plate II.).

[Read 10th July, 1919].

A rather remarkable example of rock expansion, due to tem-
perature-variation, having come under the writer's notice in sub-
arid Western Australia, its record may be of value. It occurs
about ten miles to the north-north-Avest of Comet Vale, a niining
township about sixty miles north of Kalgoorlie, on the Kalgoorlie-
Laverton railway line. It is, therefore, situated well in the in-
terior of Western Australia, in an area of low rainfall and of great
temperature variations.

The rock is a biotite granite, which outcrops as a bare rounded
hill rising to an inconsiderable height above the surrounding
plain. This rock is, therefore, constantly exposed to the weather;
and, owing to the great variations in daily and nightly tempera-
ture, it peels off in layers or bands of various thickness, with the
result that the rock assumes the well-known rounded appearance
characteristic of granite. This peeling or flaking ofi is the " des-
quamation " of Richthofen.i

The particular occurrence referred to is a surface slab of
granite, on the lower slope of the hill, abutting a " gnamma," or
natural rock-hole. This slab is 10 feet long, two feet six inches-
Avide, and ranges from one and a half to four inches in thickness.
It is separated from the parent mass, except at its ends (which'
here mean the terminations roughly at right angles to its length).
These ends pass into rock of similar character, but the slab rises
in a gentle curve toAvards the centime, Avhere it is not resting on
anything (except possibly at one point on a loose boulder that has
drifted into the cavity). On the uphill and downhill sides of the
slab, at the centres of the respective sides, the height of the lowe»-
face of the slab from the surface of the solid rock below is seven
inches and four and a-half inches respectively. The slab is cracked

1. Hume, y^. F., "Professor Walther's Erosion in the Desert Considered."'
Geol. Mag., Decade VI., Vol. I., Nos. 595-6 (1914), p. 21.

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate II.

Fig. 1— The fiu-ure shows the tiny rain furrows ruuniiiy from the foot|of the
"cliffs," uniting, and then dying out as "distributaries."

■■■IIIIIIPIIII

V^^P

_^

'^^^M

1

V

Wlm

m-

'.^

^^mMMMI

^ '

m^^'

M

^^^

. ,3

^^^^^E£?>>aHiPS

tc

' '-,i«"i' ijaLptr;

}

Fig. 2.

Rock Expansion by Temjjeratitre Varidtion 23-

right through (vertically and horizontally) across the centre, and
the portion on one side of the crack has sunk one half of an inch
to an inch below the other portion.

This slab of rock has, therefore, been bent and raised to a
maximum height of seven inches above the solid rock below; and
its bending power was so great that it attained this height before
breaking. Temperature variation appears to be the only cause
of this phenomenon.

Tlie accompanying photograph (Plate II., Fig. 2), illustrates the
features here described.

[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].

Art. VI. — On an Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age
from Boneo Swamp, West of Cape Sehanck, Victoria.

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.

(With Plates III. and IV).

[Eead lOtli July, 1919].

Description of Deposit.

The dried marl is of a -whitish-grey colour, but when wet is
grey to smoke-brown. It is light in weight and cavernous in
places, the holes being due to the roots and stems of plants, which
-have been enclosed in the deposit.

The molluscan shells are mainly of freshwater types, belonging
to the genera BuUiniis and Coxiella, but the marine genus, Erycina,
is also well represented.

Ostracoda are chiefly of aquatic character, as Cirpris and Cando-
nojjsis ; LiniTwcy there is a genus, which is' usually found in streams
and lakes, draining high land, and in close proximity to the sea;
Cythere (C . luhhockiana), though rare in this deposit, is a true
.marine ostracod.

Under a high power of the microscope the fine washings are seen
to consist of minute rounded particles mingled with fragments of
■ostracoda, and a few freshwater diatoms iCymhella). This genus
of diatomaceae has been previously recorded from several Vic-
torian localities of Pleistocene age, in deposits of a freshwater or
lacustrine nature, as those of Mickleham (^det. by author), Eglin-
ton, Amherst, Coralulup, Splitter's Creek, Rodborough, Belfast
and Talbot. 1

The material is almost purely calcareous. On testing it for
phosphoric acid, no reaction was obtained.

J. See Mahony, D. J. Bull, Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 26. 1912. pp. 12, 15 and 16.

Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 25

Description of Fauna.

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA.

Class PELECYPODA.

Earn. LEPTONIDAE.

Genus EKYCINA, Lamarck.

Erycina helmsi, Hedley. (Plate IlL, Figs. 1, 2.)

Erycina helmsi, Hedley, 1915, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales,
vol. XXXIX., pt. IV., p. 701, pi. LXXX. Figs. 37-39.
Chapman and Gabriel, 1917, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
XXX. (N.S.), pt. I., p. 6.
Observations. — It is interesting to meet with thisi little bivalve
in these sub-fossil deposits, in which the majority of forms are of
freshwater habitat. The localities where it is found living are Dee
Why Lagoon, New South Wales; and in Victoria, at Port Mel-
bourne, Corio Bay, Altona Bay, Port Albert and Lakes Entrance.
Mr. C. J. Gabriel and the author also recorded it (loc. supra cit.)
from the Pleistocene deposits underlying volcanic tuft" near Warr-
nambool, where it occurred abundantly in association with many
marine shells and a few brackish water forms. Some specimens
from Lake Connewarre, near Geelong, in the Dennant collection,
labelled " Pisidium ether idgei," also belong to the above species.
At first glance, this small form might easily be mistaken for the
-aquatic genus, Pasidium, but an examination of the hinge-line is
sufficient to show the difference.

Occurrence. — Common in the Boneo Swamp deposit.

Class GASTEROPODA.

Fam. TRUNCATELLIDAE.

Genus COXIELLA, E. A. Smith.

Coxiella striatula, Menke sp. (Plate III., Fig. 3.)

Truncattllm striatula, Menke, 1842, Moll. Nov. HoU., p. 9.
Blnnfordia pyrrhostoma, Cox, 1868, Mon. Austr. Land

Shells, p. 95, pi. XV., Fig. U.
Pomiatopsis striatula, Menke sp. Tenison Woods, 1876,

Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. for 1875, p. 78.
Coxiflla striatida, Menke sp., E. A. Smith, 1898, Proc.

Malac. Soc, vol. III. p. 75.
I Coxiella confusa, E. A Smith, 1898, Ibid. p. 76.

Coxiella striatula, Menke sp., Hedley, 1916, Prelim. Index.

Moll. W. Austr., p. 189.

26 Frederick CJiapmarh :

Observations. — Some of the shells of this freshwater or brackish
lacustrine species have as many as six whorls. The periostracum.
having been removed by natural decay, the ornament is clearly
seen as a longitudinal striation with occasional stronger varicial
striae, crossed by finer lineations. The young examples of about
three whorls are not decollated, the protoconch showing as a smooth
depressed spiral of about one and a-half whorls.

The cleaned surfaces of the shells point to a slight age for
this deposit, although it should be borne in mind that the margins'
of some swamps where this S23ecies abounds are covered with layers
of the shells in this condition.

C. sfriatvla is a very widely distributed form in Australia.

Occurrence. — Common in the Boneo Swamp deposit.

Fain PLANORBIDAE.

Genus BULLINUS, Oken.

BiiUimis aci/flspira, Iryon, sp. Plate III., Fig. 4.

Physd ocut.ispira, Tryon, 1866, Amer. Journ. Concli. vol.
II. p. 9, pi. II., Fig. 10. Tate and Brazier, 1881,.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. VI., p. 557. Smitli,
1882, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool., vol. XVI. p. 282,
pi. VI., Fig. 16. Clessin, 1885, Conch. Cab., vol. L
pt. 17, p. 242, pi. XXXIV., Fig. 1.
Btdlinus acutispira Tryon sp., Hedley, 1917, Rec. Austr.
Mus., vol. XII., No. 1, p. 5, pi. I., Figs. 11-13.
Observations. — The present speciments of these freshwater shells
from Boneo Swamp are of thicker build than the var. yarraeiisis,
T. Woods. 2 and are therefore referred to the type species.

BuUinus tasmanicns, T. Woods sp.^ closely resembles the alx)ve
species, but the apex is not so acute, nor is the aperture so open.
Tbe species and variety have been recorded from Horsham, Cape
Grant, near Portland, Yan Yean Reservoir, Bunyip River, and
Carrum Creek, Frankston. One of tlie Boneo Swamp specimens
has an elongated spire, and resembles the figured specimen of
Hedley's, from Horsham.

Occurrence. — This specimen is fairly numerous in the Boneo-
Swamp material.

2. Phijsa yarraensis. T. Woods, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. Vol. XIV., 1S78, p. 64.

BulUnns acutispira, Tryon, sp., var. yarraensis T. Woods var. Hedley,
1917, Rec. Austr. Mus., Vol. XII., No. 1, p. 5, pi. II., Fig:. 16.

3. Physa tasmanica, T. Woods, Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania, for 1875 (176),

p. 74. BulHnits tasmanicns, T. Woods, sp. Chapman, Mem. Nat. Mus.,.
Melbourne, No. 5, 1914, p. 58, pi. I., Figs. 5, 5a.

Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 27'

Ciass CRUSTACEA.

Super-order OSTRACOD A.

Fam. CYPRIDAE.

Genus CYPRIS, Miiller.

Cypris mytiloidts, G. S. Brady. (Plate III., Figs. 5, 5a.)

Cypris mytiloides, G. S. Brady, 1886, Proc. Zool Soc. Lond..

p. 89, pi. IX., Figs. 1-3.

Observations — This species was first described from Kangaroo

Island, S. Australia. It is a well known living form in Victorian.

swamps and lakes, and I have examples from the Yering Flats,.

near Lilydale.

The carapace of C. mytiloides, seen laterally, appears to be:'
generally rather broader than in the majority of living specimens,
but this difference is only sub-varietal. Average length of cara-
pace, 3.2 mm.; breath, 1.4 mm.. The type specimen of Dr. Brady ,.-
supplied by Prof. Tate, has a length of 5 mm.

Occurrence. — In the Boneo Swamp deposit this species is very-
abundant.

Cypris sydneia, King. Plate IV., Figs. 6, 6a.

Cypris sydneia. King, 1855, Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania, vol..

III., pt. I. p. 65, pi. X. Fig. M.
Cypris cilia4a, Thomson, 1879, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XL.

p. 253, pi. XI. Fig. A, la-^.
Cypris sydneia, King, G. 0. Sars, 1894, Vidensk, Selsk,.
Skrifter. I. Math. Nat. Kl. No. 5, p. 27, pi. IV., Figs,.
2a-c. Id., 1896, Freshwater Entom. from neighbour-
hood of Sydney, Kristiania (Alb. Cammermeyers For-
lag), p. 50.
Observations. — C. sydneia was originally described from speci-
mens taken in a swamp near Woolloomooloo Bay, Sydney, and Mr..
Whitelegge collected it from Bourke Street, Sydney. The New
Zealand localities are — lagoons in the neighbourhood of Dunedin ;,
a pond at Eyreton, North Canterbury district; ditches at Kaitaia,.
N. Island.

The present examples are quit-e typical, and the shape and posi-
tion of the muscle-spots agree with the figures given by Sars, of the-
New Zealand specimens. The surface of the shell is sparsely punc-
tate, and from each punctum there is a faint stria directed pos-
teriorly.

:28 Frederick CJiapman :

Occurrence. — This fresh-water species is fairly abundant in the
JBoneo Swamp deposit.

Vi/jjris tenulscidpta sp. nov. (Plate IV., Figs. 7, 7fl, h.)

Descrijytion. — Valve seen from the side, subreniform, highest in
-front, narrowing slightly to the posterior. Edge view subovate,
jnoderately tumid, more compressed anteriorly. Valves slightly
.unequal. Dorsal margin roundly angulate near the middle,
directly sloping to the extremity. Both ends evenly rounded.
Ventral margin incurved at the middle, and curving outwards to
meet the evenly rounded anterior border; the latter having a
narrow depressed margin. Surface of shell finely but distinctly
.sculptured with closely set longitudinal and anastomosing raised
•lines.

Length, 1.3 mm.; greatest width, 0.77 mm.

Observations. — This species closely resembles Cypris laferaria,
King, 4 especially in the figures given by G. 0. Sars^ from the
■ Sydney examples. The chief difference lies in the superficial sculp-
ture, which in the present species is finely lineate, C. lateraria hav-
ing a granulose surface with scattered tubercles.

Occurrence. — Common in the Boneo S^vamp deposit.

Cffiido/ioci/pris assimd/s, G. 0. Sars. Plate IV., Figs, 8, 8a.

Candonocypris assimdis, G. 0. Sars, 1894, Contrib. know-
ledge Freshwater Entom. N, Zealand, Vidensk, Selsk,
Skrifter, I. Math. Kl. No. 5, p. 36, pi. V., Figs. la-c.
Ohservations. — In outline, seen from the side and above, the
fossil specimens perfectly agree with Sars' New Zealand species,
W'hich is a freshwater form. The valves are slightly unequal, as
■seein in at least one of the complete carapaces in the present col-
lection, and the muscle-spots number 7, with 2 arranged slightly
forward and below the others. The. surface of the shell is- marked
with excessively fine, elongate reticulae and a few punctations.

The writer would be inclined to place under the above genus
Brady's Cypris viridula,^ of which the above appears to be a
fuscous varietv. Ihe straifrht dorsal border figured bv Dr. Bradv

4. Cypris lateraria. King, Proc. R. Soc, Tasmania, "Vol. III., pt. I., 1855, p.

65, pi. X.. G. G.

5. G. O. Sars, 1896. On Freshwater Entom., from the neighbourhood of

Sydney, partly raised from dried mud, Kristiania, p. 53, pi. VII., Figs.
'ia-c.
•6. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1886, p. 88, pi. VIII. Figs 1, 2.

Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 29*

is not always represented, and in other ways, as in the thicker
carapace, it seems to be distinct from Il>/odromns, in which genus
G. 0. Sars has more recently placed it.

Sars' specimens were hatched from dried mud taken from
lagoons in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. A female measures 1.6-
mm. in length. The present examples have a length of about 1.4
mm.

Occurrence. — Abundant in the Boneo Swamp material.

Fam. CYTHERIDAE.

Genus CYTHERE, Muller.

Cythere lubhockiana , G. S. Brady. Plate IV., Fig. 9.

Cythert luhhockiana, G. S. Brady, 1880, Rep. Chall. vol. I.
pt. III. Zool. p. 68, pi. XIV., Figs, &a-d. Chapman,.
1914, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXVII. (N.S.), pt. I. p-
36, pi. VII., Fig. 17.

Observations. — The present example of this marine ostracod
appears to be typical in all essentials as form, outline and orna-
ment, with a minor exception that the pittings are replaced by
smaller punctuation, as in U. aciojiunctatd, Brady. 7 As a living
species, it is recorded from Booby Island, Torres Strait, in 6-8
fathoms.

Fossil specimens have been recorded by the writer from the
Miocene and Pliocene of the Mallee bores, the deepest being 542
feet from the surface; these Miocene deposits, by the way, have
been formed m about 100 fathoms.

It is interesting to note the above species under such widely
differing circumstances as to age, depth and geographical posi-
tion. Altliough not yet recorded from coastal dredgings round
Victoi-ia. C luhhoclxiania probably occurs in its shallow depths;
and in times not far distant, this and its allies, along with the
marine bivalve, Erycina helmsi, were washed in by tidal currents.

Occurrence. — One left valve found in the Boneo Swamp deposits.

Limnicythere sicula, sp. nov. PI. IV., Figs. 10, 11.

Description. — Valves very small; seen from the side, subrectan-
gular, expanded anteriorly. Hinge-line long and straight; ven-
tral border incurved in the middle. Anterior margin depressed,

7. Cythere acupunctata, Brady, Rep. Chall. Vol. I., Pt. III. Zool. 1-880, .
p. 68, pi. XIV., Figs. la-h.

.•30 Frederick ChajJinaa:

with a broad border marked with radial lines; posterior with
a narrow depressed margin. Seen from above, carapace ovate,
compressed at the extremities, with a hooked process prominent in

.the median area. Rising from the middle of each valve, a little
in front and towards the ventral margin, the hooked process is
seen to curve towards the dorsal border. Below this, nearer the
ventral margin, is a rounded prominence or tubercle, and near
the dorsal margin, anteriorly and medially are two others,
Superficial ornament consists of fine reticulae or pittings scattered

(Closely over the larger part of the valves.

Length, .3<S mm.; greatest width, .3 mm.; thickness of carapace,
.27 mm.

Ohservafions. — None of the northern species very closely ap-
proach the above form, the nearest being L. monsfrifica, Norman
sp.,8 found living round England, and Pleistocene in the Lincoln-
shire Fens. This has two large spinous processes, with several
smaller spines and ridges. Undoubtedly the nearest allied species
isi the Limnocythere morvhrayensis, Chapman, 9 which the writer
recently described from Mowbray Swamp, near Smithton, N.W.
Tasmania. In this species, the lateral processes are not so produced,

.the tubercles differently spaced, whilst the anterior border is not so
deep nor broad. Moreover, it attains a larger size than the present

. species..

Occurrence. — This very minute species is excessively abundant
in the Boneo Swamp deposit.

General Remarks and Summary.

An examination of the swamp deposit from this locality in the
"Schanck Peninsula affords some interesting points for comment.
Probably in late Pliocene times, and on to Pleistocene, this area
was connected with Tasmania. The immediate progenitors of the
freshwater mollusca and ostracoda found in the Boneo deposit
must have been living in dune and SAvamp country, which no
• doubt extended across Bass Strait. We can conceive this country
then connected by way of a chain of swamps running from the

8. Cypris vionstrifica, Norman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX., 1862, p. 45,

pi. III., Figs. 4, 5. Limnicythere monstrifica. Norman sp. Brady, Men.
Rec. Brit. Ostrac, 1S6S, p. 420, pi. XXIX., Figs. 9-12.

9. Mem. Nat. Mus., Melbourne, No. 5, 1914, p. 60, pi. II. Figs. 8a-c.

Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 31

N.W. corner of Tasmania passing northwards to the east of King
Island, and joining with the Cape Schanck area.^o

That there is a slight antiquity to be ascribed to the Boneo
deposit seems to be shown by the presence of marine shells, for the
existing conditions would appear to preclude their penetration so
far inland, unless perhaps by an abnormally high tide. No doubt
the actual conditions at the time of deposition were those of tidal
-swamps, such as may be seen in the coastal lakes of the Ninety
Mile Beach in Gippsland.

This marl is not phosphatic, as might be supposed from the
abundant remains of ostracoda. An explanation of this may
be found in the fact that those forms wdiich do occur are all thin-
shelled, and of the more purely calcareous type of freshwater
-genera.

The organic remains found in this marl are : —
Pelecypoda. Erycijia helmsi, Hedley.
Gasteropoda. Coxiella sfn'afula, Menke sp.

Bidlinus ociitispira, Tryon sp.
Ostracoda. Cypris mytiloides, G. S. Brady.
,, %ydneia. King.
,, temiisculpfa, sp. nov.
Candonocypris assdmile, G. 0. Sars.
Cythere luhhochiana, G. S. Brady.
Limnicy there sicula, sp. nov.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IIL

Fig. 1. — Erycvna helmsi, Hedley. Left valve. x 10.

,, 2.— £'. helmsi, Hedley. Interior of left valve of another

specimen, x 10.
,, 3. — Coxiella striatula, Menke sp.
,, 4. — Bidlinus acutispira, Tryon sp. x 5.
,, 5. — Cypris mytiloides. G. S. Brady. Right valve. 5o, ven-
tral edo-e view of the same, x 26.

10. In Dr. F. Noetling's paper on the Antiquity of Man in Tasmania (Proc.
R. Soc, Tasmania, 1910), that author, on plate I., Fig. 6, shows the
Tasmania- Victorian coastal contours, as would appear from an uplift
of 40 fathoms of the present sea bottom in the Strait. The tongue of
land thus brought up -w'ould form a direct connection froi-n the Smithton
(N.W. Tasmania) district to the Boneo (Cape Schanck) locality, and
this view helps considerably to explain the theory here advanced, that
the Boneo fluviatile faima was, in part at least, derived from a Tas-
manian one.

o2 Frederick Cht.pman : Ostracod and Shell Marl.

Plate IV.,

l(''ig_ 6_ — Cypi'is sydneia, King. Right valve, showing muscle-
spots, 6a, ventral edge view, x 26.

,, 7. — Cyjiris teiiuiscul'pta, sp. nov. Right valve, x 26. la,
ventral edge view of carapace, x 26. 1h, magnified
view of ornament, x 78.

,, 8. — Gandonocypris assimde, G. 0. Sars. Left valve, show-
ing muscle-spots. 8a, ventral aspect of carapace.
X 26.

,, 9. — Cythere luhhockiana, G. S. Brady. Left valve, x 52.

,, 10. — Limnicythere sicula, sp. nov. Right valve, x 52.

,, n. — L. sicvla, sp. nov. Edge view, dorsal aspect, x 52..

Proc. l^.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate III.

F.C. del, ad nat.

Pleistocene Fossils: Boneo Swamp, C. SchancK.

Pioc. E.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate IV.

F.C. del. ad nat.

Pleistocene Ostracoda: Boneo Swamp, C. Schanck.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victorta, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].

Art. VII. — The Diabases and Associated Rocks of the Howqua
River near Mansjield, witli reference to the Heathcotian
Prohlemi in Victoria.

By E. O. TEALE, D.Sc, F.G.S.

With an account of the Petrography of the Diabases by
Prof. E. W. Skeats.

(With Plate IV., 4 Text Figures and Map).
[Read July 10th, 1919].

Contents.

1. Introdiiction.

2. Position and Access to the Howqua Re^uon.

3. Physiographical Features.

4. General Geology.

5. Lower Palaeozoic Rocks (Heathcotian to Silurian).

A. Diabases : —

(a) Normal Diabase.

(b) Soda Rich Diabase.

(c) Platy Diabase.

B. Tuffs and Agglomei-ates.

C. Alteration features of the Diabase : —

(a) Red Jasper.

(b) Siliceous — cax'bonate rocks.

(c) Talc rocks.

(d) Serpentine and Chrysotile.

(e) Mineralization of the Diabase— Auriferous sulphides, etc

D. The Sediments : —

(a) Tlieir Lithological features.

(b) Apparent structural relationships.

(c) Phosphatic Deposits.

E. Concerning the Age of the Diabase and Cherts — a comparative
review.

6. The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks.

A. Devonian : —

(a) Dacite-porphyry.
^b) Grano-diorite.
(c) Diorite.

B. Lower Carboniferous : —

(a) Basal conglomerates.

(b) Rhyolite.

(c) Conglomerate.

(d) Sandstones.

(e) Purple shales.

7. Summary and conclusions.

1

34 E. 0. Teale:

1.— Introduction.

llie existence of serpentine and associated basic igneous rocks
in the Howqua River to the south-west of Mount BuUer was first
referred to by Mr. A. M. Howitt,i in 1907, in the Records of the
■Geological Survey in a short note with an accompanying sketch
map. Mr. Howitt's visit was an extremely short one, allowing
only about a day in the field, and his main object was to report
on the supposed occurrence of phosphate of alumina similar to that
found near Mansfield. He, however, was able at the same time to
note the outcrop of a considerable extent of basic igneous rocks
and black cherts. Ihe latter he regarded as probably Heathcotian,
on account of their resemblance to similar cherts at Heathcote, which
had then been recently placed in that group by Professor Gregory. 2
The igneous rocks he described as amphibolites, which he regarded
as intrusive into the Lower Palaeozoic and of Devonian age. He
.also obtained a graptolite from the Palaeozoic slates which the
late Dr. T. S. Hall referred to as a Monograptus,^ thus indicating
Silurian strata. The amount of information collected by Mr.
Howitt in a short time, and in such rough and mountainous
•country, is remarkable. The writer having spent considerable time
in the Mount Wellington district in Gippsland, examining the area
where serpentine and associated Upper Cambrian limestones
occur, came to the conclusion that an important axial line existed
in the Wellington region. The extension of the line to the north
passes through inliers of closely similar rocks on the How^qua, and
•at Dookie.

When, therefore, Piofessor Skeats suggested that I should take
up the study of the Howqua region, with the assistance of a Govern-
ment Research Scholarship, I was very glad to avail myself of
the opportunity. I would like at this stage to specially express
my indebtedness to Professor Skeats for his interest and assistance
in this work. He not only visited the out of the way region on the
Howqua, spending about a week in the field Avith me, but very
kindly conducted me over the Lancefield and Heathcote areas,
which may be looked upon as the type occurrence of the much
■debated Heathcotian series.

This work has been invaluable for comparative purposes in deal-
ing with the Howqua region. In the Geological Laboratory of the
University, too, I have had advantage of full access to the numerous
slides and hand specimens from these regions. It is very helpful

omonrd^n i

C

•^

t

= 1

2

u

(/3 ^

•J=5

u ^

R3

--

JS-

5 .^

1

C/1 50

g

u

1*)

* 8

2

!?

1-

±

3

a

o

v>

0

lA. tJ

oiozoyivd

\J3fA01

Rocks of the Howqua River. 35

therefore to be able to treat the new, area in a comparative manner
with the better known regions. While there are certain gaps and
differences in the Howqua region, as compared with Lancefield.
Heathcote and the Dolodrook, near Mount Wellington, many of the
•comparisons are strikingly similar. It is possible to match many
of the special rocks of Heathcote so closely that were the specimens
not labelled, it would be impossible to distinguish them from each
other.

The problems of the Heathcotian series and the controversial
questions wherein Professor Skeats, Mr. E. J. Dunn, Professor J.
W. Gregory, and the late Dr. A. W. Howitt either agreed with or
differed from each other, have been ably set out by Professor Skeats
("* and ^), so that it will only be necessary to enumerate here in
due place those special aspects which call for consideration in con-
junction with the Howqua area. Many important features in the
Lower Palaeozoic history and structure in Victoria are dependent
on the elucidation and interpretation of the origin, age and rela-
tionships of the various rocks in the scattered inliers of diabases
and cherts, now generally included in the Heathcotian series. Re-
garding this series, field work proves that the Heathcotian conform-
ably underlies graptolite bearing Lower Ordovician rocks, and on
field evidence therefore it might be Lower Ordovician or Cambrian.
It is on the reconsideration of the Dinesus material on which the
original claim for a Cambrian age, subsequently abandoned, is
now reasserted, and appears to be established, that it becomes
necessary to include the lowest beds generally known as Heath-
■cotian in the Cambrian.

2. — ^General Location of the Howqua Region.

The area under consideration lies to the south-east of Mans-
field Just within the rough mountainous region of the central
highlands of Victoria. It is distant by road from Mansfield about
22 miles. For 12 miles, as far as Merrijig, on the Delatite River,
the road is good, thence the route follows an old track little used,
and in a very poor state of repair. By this a steep ascent is made
over the shoulder of a ridge overlooked by Mount Timbertop, to
drop doAvn into the deep mountainous valley of the Howqua, a
striking contrast in its rugged and almost uninhabited character
from the open park-like grazing and farming district of Mansfield.

36

E. 0. Tecde

Mfc. Skene
Howqua R.

The Governor
Lick Hole Creek

Mt. Clear
Eagle's Peaks

The Bluff

Howqua R.

Little Buller

Mt. Buller

^■>

*-)»ir:>^j

X.

>«

^

:i: o

■z.

o-$

<-

uJ^

cc ■=

rC

n,

<!;^

\—

-1^

o

^^

o

Fig. 1.

Rocks of the Hoivqua River. 37

3. — Physiogpaphical Features.

Physiographically, the Howqua area is in an interesting posi-
tion. It lies near the northern edge of the great central highland
belt of Victoria, close to the ^Yide and striking sunkland of the
Mansfield district, the development which has had such a remarkable
and interesting effect on the history of the river system of this
region, the details of which have been ably discussed by Fenner.6

Standing on the commanding viewpoint of Mount Timbertop,
at about 4500 feet, the general survey of the phys.iography is
particularly interesting, and is scenically both grand and varied.
(See Fig. 1.) To the south and east especially the view is most im-
posing, looking out over the deep Howqua Valley, across the fretted
.and dissected northern portion of the central plateau, the highest
portions of which rise to close on 6000 feet. Mount BuUer, the
nearest, about four miles to the east, at 5911 feet, present a pre-

■ cipitous front to the west, and forms, with its basalt capped summit,
a striking remnant of the old plateau, with the valleys of the Dela-
tite and the Howqua on either side 4000 feet deep. At Timbertop
the observer is standing in a small outlier, of the flat lying Upper
Palaeozoic strata, with the frequently associated rhyolite at the
base. To the east and south-east he looks over a vast extent of
deeply dissected country, from which the great overmantel of
hard, almost horizontal, rocks has been removed, exposing the
underlying highly inclined Lower Palaeozoic rocks, chiefly slate
and sandstone. The central watershed of the State, known as
the Main Divide, lies about 20 to 30 miles distant in this direc-
tion, and presents a precipitous and ledged front, due to the same

.more or less horizontal strata as those on Timbertop. Mounts
Magdala, Clear and Macdonald, are the most noteworthy points,
while the Bluff of similar structure, distant about ten miles, adds
to the rugged character ol the scene. Should these mountains be
snow-covered, as they frequently are in the winter, the ledged
character is generally emphasised.

The whole view in this direction, and as far round as Mount

■ T'orbreck to the south-west, about 25 miles away, overlooks the
basin of the Upper Goulburn and its tributaries. It may be de-
scribed as a mountainous region of high relief in an advanced
stage of dissection. The original plateau character has been almost

■ obliterated, only restricted ridges within the basin, which rise to
. about 5000 feet, remain to indicate its former features. The old

38

E. 0. Teale:

^ >if

<

<!

2

o
a:

o

Fig. 2.

Rods of the Hoivqua River. 39*

plateau is best preserved round the margin along the main Divide.
These relatively flat, elevated areas at 5000 feet and over are locally
known as snow-plain country. Iliey form summer feeding grounds
for cattle during a few months of the year. The Howqua valley is
one of the main cattle routes to these summer grazing areas from
the low country. A bridle track follows its course towards the
headwaters, where it rises to the open grassy plain near Mount
Howdtt. Thei economic value of the region doesi not lie in its possi-
bilities from a point, of view of settlement. Both from an. agricul-
tural and pastoral point of view^ its capabilities are almost negli-
gible, but it forms an important collecting ground and store-house
for water supply. It is here that the Goulburn gathers its waters,
the value of which for irrigating its fertile alluvial plains is now
being widely recognised.

4. — General Geology.

The area specially considered from a geological point of view-
lies on either side of' the Howqua River, with Mount BuUer in the
north-eastern corner^ and comprises about 60 square miles of
country. The diabases and associated rocks, which are specially
referred to in this paper, cross the tract from north-west to
south-east, which is the general trend or grain of the structure as a
whole.

One great handicap to investigation in this region apart from
itsf uninhabited and mountainous character wasi the absence of any
map suitable for the work in hand. A surveyed traverse of the
Howquai River was kindly supplied by the Lands Department, and
with this as a basis, the re.st of the topography was sketched in by
means of prismatic compassi methods, which was the best that could
be done under the conditions.

The rocks of this region, with the exception of a small outlier
of Kainozoic basalt on the summit of Mount Buller referred to by
Fenner^ are entirely Palaeozoic, but they range in age, probably
from Cambrian to LoAver Carboniferous, and include lx)th sedimen-
tary and igneous rocks. They may be conveniently considered
first in chronological order, starting with the oldest. (See Fig. 2.)

5. — Lower Palaeozoic.

This includes rocks which range from Cambrian to Silurian,
covering more than three-fourths of the area under consideration,
but the exact mapping of the boundaries is rendered very difficult

40 E. 0. Teak:

on acount of the intense folding and crushing to which the series as
a. whole has been subjected, together with the sporadic and appar-
ently erratic distribution of the fossils, which are mainly grapto-
lites in poor state of preservation, and Protospongia. The only
fossils obtained from the Cambrian in this region are Proto-
spo7igta, and possibly radiolaria from black cherts similar to those
of Heathcote.

Camhrian (Keathcotian Series).

The rocks of this series fall into two groups : —

1. Basic igneous rocks (diabases in part), and associated tuffs,
with their alteration products.

2. Protospongia cherts.

A. — The Diabases.

1. The basic rocks referred to here form an important central
occurrence in the area under consideration. There are two l>elts,
more or less parallel, but of unequal size, both, however, Avith a
general north-west to south-east direction. The largest and longest
starts outside of the area at least a couple of miles to the north-
Avest, and passes out of the map in the south-east, where its exten-
sion has not been examined. Its greatest width ia about 1| miles;
the outline is somewhat irregular along portion of its north-
eastern side, where it comes in contact with the dacite jjorphyry,
but otherwise the junction and trend conform closely with the
general strike of the enclosing sediments.

The smaller belt is shorter and narrower, and ends bluntly on
the Howqua, as shown on the map. It would appear to diverge
somewhat in direction from the larger belt towards the south in
the Cameron's Creek area, which has, hoAvever, been only imper-
fectly traced.

In general, the boundary of these rocks is readily traced in the
field, on account of the sharja soil change from the rich dark red
of the diabase to the poorer slaty soil of the surrounding rocks.
The open, park-like and grassy slopes of the diabase, too, are often
in striking contrast to the closer forest Avith scrub undergrowth
of the sedimentary rocks, so that from suitable vantage points the
general bearing and limits of the tAvo formations can be distinctly
observed from a considerable distance. This is quite analogous to
the "clear country," of the serpentine area in the Dolodrook.

Rocks of tJie Huivqua River. 41

The Protospongia cherts bound the diabase along the eastern

iside of the main mass, forming a well-defined belt, about half a

.mile wide. Numerous specimens, showing the characteristic cruci-
form spicular arrangement of Protospongia, were found in the

.field in these cherts, and a microscopic section. No. 78, from this
belt of cherts, displays well the abundance of the sponge spicules

.embedded in a dark, largely chalcedonic ground mass. (See Micro-

,photo Plate I., Fig. 3.)

In the Heathcote area Dr. Howitt held that the silicification of

• corresponding rocks was a metamorphic effect, due to the intrusion

•of the diabase, an interpretation which is dissented from by Pro-
fessor Skeats, who shows good reasons for regarding them in part

.as altered submarine tuffs, silicified by metasomatic action, the
adjacent igneous rock being considered as mainly contemporaneous
lava flows.

The features are closely analogous here, where the Protospongia

^cherts are found, lliese fossiliferous cherts have not been recog-
nised along the western boundary nor along the contact of the

.smaller diabase occurrence. In general, the western junction of
the main mass is marked by much crushing and shearing, wit^i

•other accompanying alterations in both the igneous and the sedi-

.mentary, but nothing attributable to contact alteration has been
noted. Shistose talc rock is abundant in the valley of the Stock-
yard Creek, and elsewhere, close to the junction. An important

.section is exposed in the bed of the Howqua at the foot bridge,
where the old dray track from Merrijig ends. The diabase crosses
the river in a north-west direction, just above the bridge, forming
a bar, and an interesting series of intensely crushed rocks of some-
what varied character can be traced more or less continuously from
within a few yards of the contact down stream for about three

'Chains. A short break of about two chains intervenes, where the
exposure isi masked, and then crushed black slate follows, forming

.a conspicuous cliff, at the bend of the river. The crush zone here
is at least five to six chains wide. A noteworthy feature is that the
rock adjoining the diabase shows not the slightest contact altera-
tion at a distance of less than a yard from the junction. In-
tensely crushed and contorted rocks are the general rule along the

•contact. Ihis feature, together with lithological and fossil differ-
ences of this zone compared with that in the eastern edge are
worthy of note, and will call for further comment later, when
dealing with the sedimentary rocks and general structural con-

rsiderations.

42

E. 0. Teale

(a). Normal Diahase.

The diabasic rocks show some variation in character from a
somewhat doleritic type to that of a dense basalt, the latter being
the dominant type. The dense forms are abnost identical in.
features with those of Heathcote.

Though the sections at the Howqua do not show so clearly the
same interbedded succession, the character and occurrence of the-
diabase, and that of the associated chert-s are so similar that the-
assumption is reasonable that here, too, they represent similar-
submarine lavas, and tuffs, or interbedded cherts.

Chemic.\l An.\i,yses of Diabases

l!v K. (). Teale

Howqua

Heathcote

No. IS

No. 25

No. 630

SiO..

46. i4.

-

.58.17

55.77

Al.,0., -

15.7 1

-

i;^.j5

11.23

Fe,03 .

.53

-

3.18

1.82

FeO

11.21

-

8.61

10.11

MgO -

8.61

-

0.91*

7.94

CaO

12.3

-

6.7

4.64

Na^O -

2.5

-

7.00

4.91

K,,0

.21

-

0.41

.73

H2O+ -

.21

-

0.33

.55

H2O- -

2.54

-

1.34

1.91

TiO^

-

0.8

0.22

100.46

100.61

99.80

* Note low M{{0 content

No. 25.— S

ODA,

Rich Type.

Mineral.

Norm. %

Group.

::

Quartz

.72

-

- Q-

Orthoflase -

- 2.22

-

Albite

- 59.21

-

F. 64.45

Aiiortliite

- 3.07

)

[;.

■ Salic. 65. ir

Diopside

- 28.0

-

1

Hyper.sthene

- 3.56

-

J

P. 31.56

- i'emic 4.55

Magnetite -
Ilmeuite

- 4.4
.15

_

■ M. 4.55

Rocks of the Hotvqua River. 43'-

Class Ml. = ^^^ < ^ > - = Class 2. Dosalane.
Fern. 31.56^1 3

O 72 1

Order ^' = < - = Order 5. Geimanare.

Fern. 64.45 7

Ranc. KaO + Na.^O ^ 117 < 5 3 ^ ^ Alkali Calcic. Ilmenose.

CaO 120 3 5

Sub-Ran.'-. = ^^^ =:— <- > = Sub-Rang. = Persodic. Beerbachose.
" Na,,0 113 7

(6) r/ie i^etrography of the diabases, including soda-rich

tyjyes.

(By Professor E. W. Skeats.)

Reference to tlie chemical analyses shows that diabases of fairly
normal composition are present. Ihe analysis of No. 15 shows
that as regards the alkali content, it is normal, but has a high
content of the alkaline earths, especially of lime. No. 25, however,
on analysis proves to have a very high soda content, and is un-
usually low in lime. It evidently has suffered albitization, and
show's that the spilite type of magma is represented among the-
Howqua diabases, and the analysis of a diabase from Heathcote is
also relatively rich in soda.

The petrographic descriptions which follow show that albitiza-
tion, silicification, chloritization, the production of secondary horn-
blendes from augites, the formation of carbonates, and the develop-
ment of the mineral lawsonite, are features of fairly common oc-
currence among the Howqua diabases, which in hand specimen,.
m,ay not appear to be specially altered.

The term diabase, usfd to describe these rocks, has been found'
useful to retain, although it is now clear from their field relations-
and principal petrographic characters that they are mainly subma-
rine lava flows and ashes.

No. 11. — Diabase from the ridge between Howqua River and
Lick Hole Creek. The rock consists of pale-coloured augite to the-
intent of about 3-5th, and a very kaolinized felspar to the extent
of about 2-5th of its volume. The augite is diallagic in part. Both-
augite and felspar seem to have started crystallizing simultaneously,
as each in places is porphyritic, and in other places is moulded on
the other. The felspar is too cloudy for specific determination, a
little ilmenite, altered to leucoxene and of chlorite after augite, is
also present. Some secondary clear to cloudy chalcedpiLy:.^is also-
present, partly replacing felspar. '''f\ V)^ '■-' •'i /

(uJ I L I B R A R Y j ::rtr

.44 E. 0 Teale:

No. 12. — Locality east of No. 11, but on the same ridge.

The rock is moderately coarse-grained; about t-wo-thirds consists

•of felspar, mostly as relatively large rectangular plienocrysts. with

.a small amount of later micro-spherulitic felspars moulded on

them. Ihe phenocrysts are mainly albite, or Ab,,^ AHio, baving

a refractive index as low as the mounting balsam, which is less than

1-53. Some felspars are untAvinned, possibly 010 sections, with

■ extinction angles, ranging from 3°-19°. Others show carlsbad or
albite twinning, or both. Symmetrical extinction angles of 15°-
18° occur on the albite lamellae. Some of the felspar is saussuri-
tized to granules of epiclote and zoisite. The bulk of the felspar

.slightly preceded the augite in crystallizing, but in one place
augite and felspar are in micrographic intergrowth. A fair

.quantity of ilmenite occurs in elonga^ted crystals, and is more or less

.altered to leucoxene. Clusters of radiating, brown, green or bright
red micaceous products occur. In one place crystals of a secondary
red micaceous mineral product radiate from the ilmenite at
right angles and granular epidote is also a^ociated with it. A
little pleochroic aegirine-augite, with extinction angle of 29"^, is

..also jDresent. The rock may be described as an albite diabase.

No. 15. — Coanpact diabase, from Four Mile Creek (analysed).
(See Plate I., Fig. 2.) There is very little felspar present, and this

■ consists of lath-shaped crystals and larger areas now altered to
.zoisite and minute secondary mica flakes. The rock consists mainly

of granular augite, with some areas of chlorite, a fair quantity
of ilmenite altered to leucoxene, and some granular pale brown
• sphene.

This mineralogical content is in agreement with the high lime
.and magnesia, and low alkali content of the analysis.

No. 16. — Spotted diabase from Four Mile Creek. In the hand
.specimen light circular spots are noticeable, but are much less
prominent under the microscope. However, slightly lighter areas
<;an be seen, and appear to be due to the relative crowding of
.minute more or less altered lath-shaped felspars, while a relatively
.smaller amount of augite and chlorite occur in these areas than
in the rest of tlie rock. One large phenocryst of plagioclase now
•consisting mainly of chlorite and secondary felspar, Avas noticed,
And minute granular oxide of iron, with a little carbonate, occurs.
'.The augite is mostly granular in habit, with undulose extinction.

No. 17. — Compact diabase from smaller diabase outcrop on the
track to Ware's, and' south of Fry's.

Mocks of the Hoivqua River. 45'

In this rcMi'k muck recrystallisation under pressure has occurred.
Most of the augite has recrystallized as fibrous secondary horn-
blende, with light to dark green pleochroisni, and extinction angles-
ranging from 11° to 21°. The felspar has recrystallized to water
clear secondary felspar, "with enclosures of secondary hornblende-
needles. Ilmenite in large skeleton rhombohedra altered to leuco-
xene, is fairly abundant. Some interstitial secondary calcite is
present. The extensive recrystallization of the rock is no doubt
referable to its occurrence in a crushed zone, south of Fry's, and
it resembles some of the recrystallized diabases of Heathcote and"
Mt. William, near Lancefield, but is hardly so altered as the epidio-
rites of Ceres, near Geelong, since some relic structures in the form-
of original augite and felspar are still noticeable.
No. 18. — Diabase, south-east of No. 17.

A. diabase which has suffered fairly complete recrystallization tO'
fibrous hornblende, and secondary water clear felspar. In the
process a considerable amount of granular and dusty magnetite has-
separated out.

No. 22. — From main diabase mass. Lick Hole Creek, and east
of isolated crushed diabase mass. A relatively coarse-grained type-
with no signs of recrystallization under pressure. Coarse plates^
of augite and cloudy felspar form the bulk of the rock, with
chlorite and clear felspar as secondary products.

No. 25. — Soda rich diabase (analysed), Lick Hole Creek, one-
mile north of the Governor, and near the south-east end of the
main diabase mass. (Micro. Photo., Plate I., Fig. 1.)

About 2-3rds of the rock consists of felspar in large and smalh
prismatic, quadrate or irregular crystals. Simply twinned and
untwinned crystals are abundant, and some show lamellar twin-
ning. The loAv refractive index, positive sign, and biaxial figure-
show that albite or albite-oligoclase predominates. All the felspars-
are clear, and some contain secondary hornblende and chlorite,
suggesting recrystallization. Some original augite remains, but
much is altered, either to normal hornblende or green pleochroic-
fibrous actinolite. Sphene, epidote and zoisite occur in granules. -
Brown clustei's of radiating biotite crystals occur, and some calcite,
a little quartz, and a few elongated prismsi of apatite are present.
The high albite content of the rock is confirmed by the chemicaf
analysis, but it is difficult to reconcile the relative abundance of
ferro-magnesian minerals with the strikingly low magnesia content
recorded in the analysis.

.46 E. 0. Teale:

No. 40. — Diabase on spur, east of Blackbird Creek, north of
Howqua River, and about one mile E.N.E. of Fry's. A rock type
in whicli augite and its alteration jDroduct chlorite predominate
and felspar i'S in subordinate amount. Some of the felspar prob-
. ably preceded the augite in crystallizing, and recrystallization of
felspar, with resulting inclusion of chlorite has probably oc-
curred. Ilmenite granules have changed to sphene.

No. 41. — Diabase from Castle Rock, Lick Hole Creek. A
diabase whicli has suffered much secondary albitization. Augite is
altered to pale and to brown secondary hornblende. The original
felspar is noAv quite cloudy, chlorite is developed, and an irregular
vein of secondary albite or albite-oligoclase traverses the section.
It looks like quartz in ordinary light, but isi identifiedi by the pre-
sence of some lamellar twinning, by its refractive index, which is
less than 1-53 and by biaxial figures with positive signs. Ilmenite,
more or less altered to sphene, and hematite, are present. The
albite in the vein occurs in clear interlocking crystals, associated
with calcite, and with fibrous secondary hornblende.

No. 42. — Diabase, near No. 41. A rock similar to No. 41, but
with only a minute vein of secondary albite, traversing the
section.

No. 72. — Silicified fine-grained diabase from Four Mile Creek,
near the massive black bedded cherts at the north-east margin of
the main diabase mass. In the fine-grained diabase area a little
augite remains, but most of it is altered to chlorite and secondary
hornblende. Lath-shaped, water clear felspars, with chlorite in-
clusions occur. Sporadic secondary quartz occurs in granules in
the mass of the diabase, but in over half the section the diabase
has been completely replaced by a radial and granular aggregate of
chalcedonic silica, with some coarser grained quartz crystals. The
rock has a spotted appearance, due tn greater concentration of
felspar laths in roughly circular areas.

No. 73. — Diabase from Four Mile Creek, near to 72. This rock
is rather coarse grained. Brown unaltered augite and large lath-
shaped albite or albite-oligoclase, many with chlorite inclusions,
form the; bulk of the rock. Opaque iron oxide is fairly abundant,
and large areas of chlorite, apparently not derived from augite,
occur.

No. 107. — Diabase from spurs south of Barney Creek, at south-
east end of main diabase mass. The rock may be described in its
-present condition as a micrographic quartz-diabase. Some original

Rocks of the Hoirqua River. 47

;.augite remains, but most of it has changed to secondary horn-
blende. Chlorite is abundant, ilmenite altered to sphene is
prominent, porphyritic crystals of albite or albite-oligoclase. one
■or two prismatic crystals of apatite, and some relatively large
irregular quartz crystals occur. The background is a l^eautiful
micrographic intergrowth of quartz and albite, the latter showing
lamellar twinning in places, and a refractive index lower than
quartz. The micrographic background and the larger quartzes
both appear to b© of secondary origin.

No. 108. — Diabase from spur south of Barney's Creek, Upper
Lick Hole Creek Valley, at south-east end of main diabase mass.
A diabase of moderate grain size, in which very complete secondary
alterations of the original minerals, augite, felspar and ilmenite
have occurred. A little original grey broAvn augite remains, but
most of it has been changed to secondary hornblende, some of it
prismatic to tabular, some to fibrous actinolite, some to vivid
green chlorite in clusters of radiating fibres. Quartz occurs in
scattered granules, and in micrograiDhic intergruwth with augite
and with chlorite. This quartz may be primary or secondary.
Much secondary quartz occurs, more or less completely replacing
the lath-shaped felspars which, however, still show the outlines of
the crystals and the positions of the twin lamellae in a remark-
able way. An irregular vein, about ^ inch wide, traverses the rock,
and consists partly of quartz, but mainly of colourless to cloudy
prismatic and radiating crystals of lawsonite, a hydrated silicate
of lime and almuminium. The mineral is recognised by its posi-
tive sign, and biaxial character, its high refraction and polariza-
tion colours up to second order, w^bereas the quartz shov.s low
neutral tints. The lawsonite is a secondary mineral derived mainly
from the alteration of the felspar, but in places is seen to develop
from altering ferromagnesian minerals in the mass of the rock.
Ilmenite is partially altered to leucoxene, and a little secondary
calcite and epidote are also present. No secondary albite was
recognised in the rock, and the original felspars are so altered
either by becoming cloudy, through incipient saussuritization or
replaced by quartz, that their original character is unrecognizable.

No'. 109. — Diabase from same locality as No. 108. A moderately
coarse grained rock which is free from quartz, but otherwise has
suffered much the same changes as has No. 108. The large platy
albite or albite-oligoclase felspars have chlorite inclusions. Some
■augite has developed a diallagic structure, and there is a consider-

48 ^'. 0. Teale:

able development of secondary lawsonite, principally in clear to-
cloudy minute radiating crystals.

No. 118. — Diabase from Upper Lick Hole Creek, one and a-half
miles N.N.W. of The Governor.

A diabase in which albitization is a marked feature, resulting-
in the formation ol clear secondary platy crystals, and raditaing^'
lath-shaped crystals. The augite is mainly converted to secondary
hornblende, some of which is normal, while some is fibrous, pleo--
chroic actinolite. A good deal of calcite occurs, but neither quartz,
nor lawsonite have been recognised.

No. 119. — Diabase from same locality as No. 118. A coarse-
grained type, with cloudy felspars, pale augite, partly replaced-
by hornblende, and a little quartz.

No. 121. — Diabase fi-om Lick Hole Creek, quarter mile west of"
No. 118. A rock similar to No. 119, but -n'ith an abundance of
large opaque crystals of magnetite or ilmenite.

No. 122. — Diabase from same locality as No. 121. A rock almost
identical in characters -with No. 118.

(c) Platy and Spliiitery Diabase.

Some forms of platy diabase appear to be due to a special .
development of jointing in the diabase. This form w'as favoui-ed
by the natives for making their stone axes, and several small,
quarries occur close to the road, about half a mile north of the old
road terminus. More often they appear to represent altered tuS'
beds. Rocks of this nature occur at intervals throughout the area,
but the outcrops are not readily traced. The most characteristic
and tuft" like occur on Lick Hole Creek, about a mile above Mal-
colm's Creek. Here they are somewhat banded, and suggest stratifi-
cation. The rock is dark green, and of very fine texture in hand
specimens, and under the microscope (section 24) shows a very fine-
textured fragmental structure of minute angular fragments in a
matrix which cannot be resolved. Section 23 is a basic platy roclc
with coarse and fine banding, but is altered, and in parts serpen-
tinized so that its original character is not recognisable, but the
probability is that it represents a tuS. The splintery diabase is
a fine-grained green variety, which sj^lits readily into long slender
splinters, or pencils Avith angular edges. It is found in contact with
massive diabase at the north-western extremity, of the small diabase
area, a little less than a mile in a straight line south of Fry's..

Rucks of tlte Ho'ivqua River. 49

It can be matched exactly with a siiiiilur occurrence at Heathcote
south of Photograph Knob, where Professor Skeats regards it as
an altered tuff.

B. Agglomerate.

A well-marked breccia occurs on the east-west ridge between the
Howqua and Fry's, and the Lick Hole Creek. It forms one of the
prouiiiiLiit po.nts, and is marked Breccia Knob on the map.
This rock is a typical breccia, made up largely of igneous frag-
ments, but contains also some banded chert. Sections of the chert
examined suggested strongly altered tuff, and were of coarser texture
than the ProtosjJongia chert. Under the microscope a thin section
of the breccia (Section 14) sho'ws it to be made of fragments so
dense as to be almost opague, but small pyroxenes present indicate
that the material is igneous and represents rapidly cooled lava.
If the eruption were submarine, as it is believed the general evi-
dence indicates, the rapid chilling of parts of the lava would be
expected.

C. Alteration Features of the Diabase.
(a) The Red Jasper.

The bright red colour of this rock together, with its hardness
and durability make it rather a conspicuous and characteristc rock
in the recent river gravels in the diabase region, and also an easily
recognizable pebble in some of the Upper Palaeozoic conglomerates.

It occurs in situ in the diabase as apparent inclusions, 1 for which
they have have been mistaken, but it is clear in the Howqua, as
in the Heathcote region, as shown by Professor Skeats, that it
represents one of the phases of metasomatic replacement of the
diabase. A good' section can be studied in the bed of the Howqua
River at low water, about one and a-half miles above Fry's, as
shown on the map. The irregular shape is typical of patchy re-
placement areas, and miscroscopic sections occasionally show relic
structures of the original igneous rocks, though in general the
action has gone so far that all that is seen is an aggregate of
secondary quartz and iron oxide stain.

These jasj^ers occur at intervals along a definite line, bearing
from north-west to south-east, that is, coinciding wnth the general
trend of the diabase.

They vary from small aggregates of jasper patches to larger
masses of perhaps 50 to 100 square yards in extent. Associated
with the normal red jasper theie are) often other varieties of quartz
varying both in colour and texture, miUcy quartz and granular
quartzitic forms being frequently present.

50 E. 0. Teale:

Ihe linear arrangement of these outcrops suggests the occurrence
of a shear or fracture zone along this line, which favoured at recur-
ring intervals the access of silicifying solutions. The jasper which
is a definite alteration product of the diabase is distinct in character
from the black bedded cherts, which are altered stratified deposits.

(b) The Siliceous-Carbonate Rocks.

These rocks form a very striking and characteristic alteration
product in the diabase area, and are identical in character with
similar rocks occurring in Heathcote. In appearance the rock has
a somewhat schistose structure due to fine and contorted banding.
(Sec. 51.) It has a prevailing brown colour, with greenish streaks
due to a substance allied to selwynite or green chalcedony, which
.also occurs in lenticles and patches. Numerous sections examined
by Professor Skeats from Heathcote indicate that this was origin-
ally a diabase or diabase tuff which has suffered alteration in two
stages. First it was subjected to a carbonating solution, which
produced a mixture of iron, lime and magnesian carbonates, and,
later, siliica bearing solutions invaded the rock, replacing in part
the original carbonate.

Four separate outcrops of this rock have been noted. One is in
i:he bed of the Howqua, at tlie pack horse bridge, near Fry's — (specs.
51-54); a second about a mile farther down the river, associated
with the smaller diabase area ; the third is on the track to Cameron's
Creek — (Spec. 44)— about a quarter of a mile south oa Lick Hole
Creek; and the fourth is about half mile to the south-west of this
«pot — (Spec. 113). The two lastnamed occurrences are in close
proximity to a serpentine outcrop, and the first is on a fracture
line leading to another serpentine area. It may be, therefore, that
the concentration of carbonates in one place may be casually con-
nected with mineral redistribution, which took place during ser-
pent! nization.

C. The Talc Rocks.

These rocks vary from massive talc rock and talc schist, un-
■doubtedly altered diabase to talcose sediments, which may be
altered tuff beds. The latter will be referred to again, when deal-
ing with the lower Palaeozoic sediments. Talc rock is abundant at
the north-western end of the diabase area, in the valley of Stock-
yard Creek, and its greasy nature adds to the difficulty for horse
■traffic on the steep graded track to the Howqua from Timbertop

Rocks of the Hoivqua River. 51

■Gap, especially in' the present bad state of repair of the road. In
.general it occurs at intervals alono; the western margin of the large
diabase area, and round the edges of the smaller one. Though
.son:ietimes massive it is generally schistose and iron-stained. Tlie
^crushed margins of the diabase appear to have been most favour-
able for its development. At Cameron's Creek about a mile and
a-half south of Lick Hole Creek, a schistose talc rock with very
little iron stain appeared to be slightly auriferous. Some pros-
pectors at work during the writer's examination obtained a fair
prospect of very fine gold fro^m a trench entirely in this rock.

(d) Serpenti?ie and Chrysotile.

Three outcrops of serpentine, all of fairly limited extent, have
been noted. The largest occurs on a ridge about half a mile south
of Lick Hole Creek, in the track to Cameron's Creek. It isi of the
usual dark green type, and varies from massive to schistose.
Isolated grains of chromite have been detected in it, but no quan-
tity of this mineral has yet been found, nor has any corundum
been observed in this district, as in the case of the Dolodrook and
Heathcote regions. A thin section shows the rock to be completely
.serpentinized, and it possesses the platy structure of antigorite, and
is, therefore, probably due to the alteration of a pyroxene rock.

The second outcrop is about a mile south-east of Fry's, on
the western margin of the diabase; its extent is masked here by
much surface soil and hill slip material..

This outcrop is noteworthy, because it contains chrysotile asbes-
tos. The increased deanand for asbestos during the war, both locally
and abroad, has induced much searching after local supplies, and
this occurrence has been taken up by Mr. Fry Avitli a view to open-
ing it up to prove its worth. At the timei of my visit only shallow
'hillside cuts had been made. These revealed thin veins of chryso-
tile traversing the serpentine along numerous joints and slip
planes forming a network which at some of the intersections deve-
loped into knots or centres of chrysotile. All the material noted
was of a slip fibre type — that is, it consisted of somewhat over-
lapping fibres lying parallel to the joint and slickenside planes.
None of the cross-fibre type was observed. With regard to tlie
origin and development of chrysotile veins in serpentine, the sub-
ject has been discussed by Graham in Economic Geology. ^ His
inquiry leads him to favour the idea that the agents of change for
the Canadian occurrences were magmatic siliceous Avaters derived
"from neighbouring granitic intrusions.

5a

52 E. 0. Teale :

Twelvetrees,^" in describing the asbestos occurrence in serpen-
tine at Anderson's Creek, near Beaconsfield, I'asmania, also pos-
tulates a causal connection of the origin of the asbestos with a
neighbouring granitic intrusion.

At Heathcote and Howqua the rocks have certainly been invaded
by siliceous solutions, and in each case granitic intrusions are
present in close proximity. It is reasonable, therefore, to suggest
at any rate that the vicinity of an acid magna may have provided
conditions which were favourable for the remarkable selective'
metasomatic and other changes, which were wrought along favour-
able lines and zones in both of tliese areas. At Howqua, grano-dio-
rite occurs on the southern slopes of Mount Buller, and a mass of
dacite porphyry of related age is actually in contact with the
diabase between the Howqua and Timbertop.

{e) Mhieralizatioii of the Diabase.

Another phase in the alteration of the diabase is shown by the
siliceous sulphide occurrence at the abandoned gold mine, about a
mile south-east of Fry's. Ihe occurrence is an interesting one, and
it has been known under different names during its chequered
career as a mining venture, but perhaps its best known title is the
Great Rand Mine. No accurate survey of this deposit has been i
made so far as the writer is aware, but like many sulphide occur-
rences its shape would appear to be irregularly lenticular, consist-
ing of a metasamotic replacement in a fracture zone. The quartz
is tough, and very finely granular, and the sulphides are abun-
dantly distributed through it. Iron sulphides, pyrite and pyrrho-
tite, predominate, but, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and ar-
senopyrite were noted in small quantity. During my last visit to
this region, the mine was being tested by a small syndicate, Avith
the view to determining whether it was possible to treat the ore
2orofitably. The deposit was systematically sampled under the
direction of Mr. W. A. T. Davis, of Melbourne, and through the
courtesy of Mr. Cottingham, one of the syndicate, I was able to
note hurriedly the character of the deposit, as far' asi the old work-
ings would i>ermit. Ihese reveal a mineralized zone about 300 feet
long, in a north and south direction, by nearly 200 feet from east
to west.

The mineralization is irregular, and sulphides are found in
varying quantities throughout the rock from considerable masses
to a mere impregnation. The examination was too short to deter-

Rocks of the Hoivqua River. 53

.mine whether any definite system or plan of arrangement for the
.mineral material could be recognised, but the observations sug-
gested two sets of fracture lines, or planes, one set about east and
west, another approximately at right angles. Along the former
especially, mineral solutions have been very active, replacing the
.original rock with sulphides associated with quartz or calcite. Two
active processes accompanying the sulphide formation appear to
have been silicification and carbonation. Much of the original
rock in places appears to be almost completely carbonated, as is
shown in a slide (No. 102), from the southern end of the working.
From Mr. Cottingham I have since heard that the result of the
. sampling indicated an average value for the deposit of about 8
• d-ft^. per ton, which they did not regard as sufficeintly encourag-
ing under the circumstances to lead them to undertake further
work.

It is interesting to note that if a north-west to south-west line
through this mine be produced in either direction, it follows the
: trend of the diabase and includes other auriferous occurrences at
intervals. Ihe old alluvial workings in Stockyard Cieek lie at the
north-western end. Another abandoned mine occurs to the south-
> east, on Malcolmn's Creek, while still further in this direction
-extensive alluvial workings, long since worked out, are found in
the upper portion of Lick Hole Creek. Nothing to suggest a con-
tinuous line of lode hasi been noted along this line, but a probable
fracture zone is suggested which provided at intervals favourable
.access to mineralizing solution. This is in conformity with
another jjarallel line to the east previously referred to, along which
siliceous replacements have taken place chiefly resulting in the
formation of red jasper..

The Cameron's Creek gold occurrences appear to be of the more
normal reef quartz type; at any rate, the adit examined in this

. area revealed a quartz lode with well defined walls, of decomposed
diabase. This is on the southerly portion of the smaller diabase

.outcrop. A section of the igneous rock (No. 50) showed much
chloritization, but traces of an original hornblende were recogniz-
able by cleavage lines preserved in iron oxide; triclinic felspar was

< recognizable, and secondary calcite was moderately abundant.

A brief report on the mine was made by the late James Stirlingl^
in 1888, in which he described the Cameron's Creek reef as consist-
■ing of quartz segregations in intrusive diorite.

54 E. 0. Teale:

D. Lower Palaeozoic Sediments.

Ihese are found enclosing the diabase on all sides, except where
later dacite porphyry or Upper Palaeozoic sediments overlie it at the-
northern extremity. These rocks are mapj^ed as Silurian on the
8 inch Geological Map of Victoria, and until the Avriter's examina-
tion the only fossil recorded from this region was a Monograptus
obtained by Mr. A. M. Howitt, and indentified by the late Dr. T.
S. Hall.

The present field Avork has brought to light other graptolites,
ranging from Lower to Upper Ordovician and Protospongia in
cherts identical with those of Heathcote now included in the Cam-
brian, and j^ossibly also radiolaria in the same cherts. The fact
that the graptolites are poorly preserved, and separated by large
intervening barren areas, makes the working out of the correct
stratigraphical succession in this area very difficult. In fact it
would be unwise in the present state of our knowledge in this
region to attempt to mark boundaries between the different mem-
bers of the Lower Palaeozoic. We can only note that the succession
probably ranges from Cambrian to Silurian, and no unconform-
ability has with certainty yet been recognised in this region.

At Heathcote no certain line of division can be drawn between
the lowest beds of the Ordovician and the uppermost of the Cam-
brian. The Dinesus tribolite beds form ai bench marking the Cam-
brian, but above them there is a great thickness of unfossiliferous
sediments which seem to pass comformably into the Ordovician.

In the area above mentioned, and in the Howqua region, it
would appear that there has been a continuous sedimentation from
Cambrian, through Ordovician, and possibly, too, into Silurian in
the last area. The fossil record is, however, unfortunately very im-
perfect.

(a) LIthological Featurta of the Sediments and Apparent
Relationships.

There are certain broad lithological distinctions which are
apparent, and features also with regard to the general distribution
which call for discussion.

First, there is a marked lithological contrast on either side of
the main diabase area.

Rocks of thf' Hoivqua River. bb'

On the western side only Upper Ordovician and, possibly, Silu-
rian graptolitesi have been noted, and these come from a very
restricted area. Slaty rocks often somewhat talcose and chloritic
prevail, sandstones and quaitzites being subordinate. The rocks,
are frequently intensely contorted, particularly at the " Gover-
nor," and a long line to the north west of this.

The unweathered slates v.ere often black, as at the outcrop below
the pack-horse bridge at Fry's. By oxidation and leaching, how-
ever, they are often almost white.

They only show slight local ehertification, and no Protosjjongia
has been noted in these cherts.

On the eastern side, however, the black Protospongia cherts are-
well developed, forming a continuous belt up to half a mile in
width, directly in contact with the diabase. These cherts stop
suddenly to the east and give place to a dark, micaceous and
slightly felspathic sandstone, which' appears to be quite conformable
and then follows a thick succession of olive green phyllitic slates,
alternating with sandstone and quartzite. Traversing these rocks
across the strike in a north-easterly direction tow^ards Mount
Buller, at about one and a-half miles from the cherts, thin black
slate bands begin to occur interbedded with the olive green slates
and sandstone. Two of these bands have yielded Tetragraptus and
Didymograptus, thus indicating a Lower Ordovician horizon.
Continuing still further to the north-east, and approaching the
Mount Buller grano-diorite, these sediments give place to belt of
dark cherty slates, and fine grained quartzite, often veined with
quartz. Microscopic sections of these rocks indicate contact
phenomena attributable to the proximity of the plutonic intrusion.
These indurated rocks form a very jagged outcrop, to which the
rough outline O'f Little Buller is due.

Following up the valley of the Howqua, the direction is in
general easterly, and, therefore, crosses the strike of the same
series of sediments in an oblique direction. Ihe Lower Ordovician
strata, yielding Tetragraptus and Didymograjittis, have not been
noted, but at a few chains west of Eight Mile Creek, indistinct
graptolites were found in black cherts. These were too poorly pre-
served for certain identification, but they suggested B'>plograptus:

1. The writer has spent days searching along the restricted area where Mr.
A. M. Howitt obtained a graptolite, identified by Dr. T. S. Hall as a
Monoffraptns, but did not find a single specimen of this genus, though
hundreds of specimens of less restricted range were obtained, chiefly
Climacograptus and Diplograptns, with probably Glossorjraptus and other
doubtful forms.

56

E. 0. Teale

^

K^ ^-.

J/ZJ, (///*L//

pup MpjQ/) (

,J^Voh'

Fig. 3.

Rods of the Hoivqua River. 57

and Climacograptus. If this is correct, they probably are of

Upper Ordovician age. These sporadic occurrences of imperfectly

preserved fossils are tantalizing, but they indicate that great

■ caution is' necessary in interpreting the stratigraphy of the region.

{h) Stritcture of the Lower Palaeozoic Area.

In general, the prevailing dip on the eastern side of the main
• diabase, as far as observed, appears to be consistently easterly,
while on the western side it is to the west. Ihe structure, however,
is clearly not that of a simple anticline, for the evidence of the
fossils on either side, together Avith the lithological discordance ex-
'Cludes the possibility of such a view.

A faulted anticline, with the fault approximating to the western
margin of the main diabase, is suggested, but this requires an
enormous down throw on the western side to bury the great thick-
ness of Lower Palaeozoic sediments represented on the eastern side.
'The Upper Ordovician, and possibly Silurian fossils on the
western side close to the diabase, would appear to demand this
view, in the absence of any recognised unconformity to afford any
other explanation. The presence of the second diabase occurrence
to the west offers certain difficulties, however, in the way of this
interpretion.

Another alternative would be to assume that the Upper Ordo-
vician, with possibly Silurian, is but a small fragment that has
been nipped in by the intense folding to which the area has been
subjected. The fossiliferous area is very restricted, further search
;may extend it, but the writer has spent much time without success
looking for fossils in the surrounding strata. It may, therefore,
be that the bulk of the rocks which, so far, have proved unfossil-
ferous, are very much older, and may be Lower Ordovician, or
■even Cambrian. With the present evidence at hand the matter
must be left an open question. (See Fig. 3.)

(c) Phosph/ife Dejyosits.

While searching diligently to obtain graptolites to confirm, if
possible, the presence of Silurian, as indicated by a reported Mono-
graptns found by Mr. Ilowitt, Professor Skeats and the writer

■discovered a phosphatic breccia. This was of considerable interest,
because it was the report of phosphatic rock from this district that

lied to Mr. A. M. Howitt's flying visit. The piece shown to Mr.

58 E. 0. Teale:

Howitt was a loose block, which had been brought to the old mine..
As no more could be found in the neighbourhood, it was suggested',
that it might have come from Mansfield.

The position of the present occurrence is shown on the map. It.
is onlv about a mile in a straight line, south-east from Fry's, and
less than half a mile south-west from the old mine.

The rock is light-coloured, creamish, earthy fragments predomin--
ating, but dark, almost black pieces sometimes somewhat cherty,
also occur. Rough stratification is noticeable, and the bed has a
defined dip and strike conforming with the enclosing rocks, llie-
outcrop is not continuously exposed at the surface, and has the-
appearance of being broken and dislocated. The rocks in general,
in this zone are much disturl^ed. The pliosphatic breccia, howevei',
can be traced at intervals along a distance of aliout 1-30 yards, in a.
north-west to south-east direction.

WavoUite is abundant in thin seams along some of the joint
planes, and an analysis of the surface rocks shows that it is an*
impure aluminous phosphate, containing only about 7% of ^2^5.
This may represent leached material; at any rate, it would be un-
wise to say that it represents the composition of this rock at a
depth. Lithologically, the material does not resemble the Mans-
field phosphate rock, which is not a breccia. The organic remains
are imperfectly preserved crustaceans of the character of phyllopod-
like forms, Avhile those of Mansfield have been referred to as prob-
ably Salterella, thus differing also organically. An account of this,
phosphate deposit has recently been published. 2

Since Tefrar/raptns has been recorded at Mansfield, it would'
appear that both Lower and Upper Ordovician graptolite-bearing
rocks are closely associated. At the Howqua, the only fossils in ther
associated beds are graptolites and occasional brachipods, whichi
may l>e either Upper Ordovician or Silurian, and the phosphate-
deposits are definitely interbedded with these.

In order to test the relationship of the phosphate deposit to the
surrounding sediments, the writer and his father spent a couple of
days with pick and shovel putting a trench across the outcrop, the-
result of which was to prove conclusively that the phosphate breccia
is interbedded Avith the surrounding graptolite-bearing strata. The'
accompanying section illustrates the relationship.

Ernest W. Skeats and E. O. Teale, Aust. Inst, of Mining Ensineer-s, Pron.
New Series, No. 32, 1918, pp. 155-165. Fig. 4 is from a block lent bjr
the Aust. Inst, of Mining Engineers.

Rocks of the Howqua River. 59'

S.W.

b c de f '/

Fig. 4. — Section across outcrop of phosphate breccia.

E. Concerning the Age of the Diahase and the Cherts. —
A Comparative Revietv.

These rocks from stratigrapliical considerations appear to be
the oldest rocks in this region, which necessarily places them low
down in the older Palaeozoic series, but on the evidence available
in this region alone it would be difficult to assign a definite horizon
to them.

The view in this direction, however, is sti-engthened, and much
uncertainty as to age is removed, when a comparative review is
made oi other closely similar occurrences in the State. Various
gaps in the evidence, which make any one area in itself incomplete
disappear when all are taken in conjunction. The other areas
which call for special consideration in this direction are : —

1. Heathcote.

2. Dolodrook River, near Mount Wellington, Gippsland.

The fossil evidence of the Dinesus beds with associated Proto-
spongia cherts, at Heathcote, established the age of the rocks as
Cambrian.

There would seem to he little doubt that the Howqua rocks
are on an extension of the Dolodrook line, where the age is definitely
fixed by the tribolite limestone. The absence of this evidence at the
Howqua, however, is counterbalanced to some extent by the presence
of Frofosjjongia cherts and overlying LoAver Ordovician rocks, con-
taining such graptolites as Tetragraptvs and Didymograjitus. At
the Dolodrook, Upper Ordovician rocks oome directly in contact
with the Cambrian. Again, as an offset against the paucity of
direct fossil evidence at the Howqua, we have the very complete
lithological resemblances and mineral changes which match the-
typical Heathcote occurrences. There would seem little doubt,.

^U E. 0. Teale:

therefore, that the diabases and cherts of the Howqua belong to the
Heathcotian series, and must be regarded as Cambrian. Whether
.also some of the adjoining sediments are to be included in this
series must at present be left an open question.

6. — The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks.

Ihe present investigation was principally concerned with the
relationships of the older rocks, but soine of the later geology is
not without interest, and as rocks of this age are found in the
northern portion of the area under consideration, where they come
into contact with the diabase, a little time was devoted to roughly

• demarking their boundaries and noting their main features. The
.rocks of this series fall into the following groups : —

A. — Devonian.

1. Dacite, porphyry,

2. Granodiorite.

3. Diorite.

B. — The Lower Carboniferous.

1. Basal conglomerates.

2. Rhyolite.

3. Conglomerates.

4. Sandstones.

5. Purple shales

1. Dacite Porphi/nj. — This rock covers a considerable tract of
'Counti-y between Mount Tirabertop and the Howqua, and extends

■ easterly towards the Buller Creek, where it gives place to Lower
Palaeozoic strata. It is also found to the north outside the region

■ of this map on the fall towards Merrijig. Rock of this nature is
widely distributed in the King River Valley, as indicated by
Kitson.i2 In both localities it underlies the basal conglomerates

■ of the Lower Carboniferous beds, in which pebbles of the porphyry
are not uncommon. In the Howqua area this feature was noted in
the Timbertop conglomerates. Professor Skeats^ has referred to the
King River porphyry as related to the Dacites. In hand specimens
the rock has a general dark colour, on account of a dark, fine-
grained base. It inclines to red, where oxidized and weathered.
Phenocrysts of felspar and quartz are abundant, the former pre-
dominating, and show up on the dark base, imparting a typical
porphyritic appearance. Garnets are frequently recognizable.
Under the microscope in thin sections chemical alteration in all
the specimens examined has proceeded too far for satisfactory

• determination.

Rucls of tJie Hotuqua River. GT

The structure is typically porphyritic, the base is fine grained
and feist ic, often showing flow phenomena. The phenocrysts in.
order of abundance would appear to be, felsj^ar, ferroniagnesian
mineral, quartz and occasional garnets. The felspars are more
or less decomposed, but in general the twinning and cleavage
can be recognised. There appears to be about an equal amount
of repeated and untwinned forms, but undoubted orthoclase has not
been recognised for the refractive index is invariably higher than
that of the Canada balsam.

The quartz is often rounded, cracked and embayed. The ferro-
niagnesian minerals have been almost completely chloritized, but
their outlines are marked by black outlines due to iron oxides.
Biotite is indicated, and hypersthene and hornblende are also
suggested. The amount of ferromagnesian mineral indicates a
rock related to the Dacites (Slides 29, 30, and 32.)

2. Granodiorite. — This rock is very abundant in the boulders of
the Howqua, but it is only found in situ within the area mapped
in the extreme north-eastern corner on the slopes of Mount Buller.
Its intrusive character is shown by the contact alteration of the-
adjoining Lower Palaeozoic strata. All the sections prepared
were from boulders in the Howqua, as these were the freshest speci-
mens obtainable, and their source was known with fair certainty.
The prevailing rock has a tj-pical granitic structure, and is of a
grey colour, but very fine grained varieties are not xmcommon,.
showing a tendency to porphyritic structure.

It is worth recording that a small splash of molybdenite was
noted in one of the boulders.

Hornblende, biotite and triclinic felspar ai'e readily recogniz-
able in hand specimens. In thin sections, felspars appear to be
slightly more abundant than quartz. Twinned and untwinned
forms are about equal in amount. The repeated twinning
is very minute, with occasional fine cross twinning, suggesting-
anorthoclase.

Biotite and hornblende, both green in colour, are invariably
present, but in varying quantities in the different slides. In the
basic segregation patches, the hornblende predominates, and the
nature of tlie rock approaches that of a normal diorite. In general^
tlie character of the rock compares closely with that of the normal
granodiorites of the State, and its association with the rocks of a
dacite type is also similar. Tbis intrusion, therefore, is probably
to be correlated with the general and extensive one affecting eastern
and south-eastern Australia, and regarded as Lower Devonian in
as:e.

62 E. 0. Teale:

3. Diorite. — This rock has not been observed in situ yet, but
fresh specimens are abundant in the river gravels, and, judging
from the most basic segregation patches in the granodiorite. it is
most probably that the diprite is magmatically related to the
granodiorite, and is no doubt associated with it in its occurrences,
The rock in hand specimens is medium grained, crystalline, of
dark colour, showng abundant hornblende and felspar. In thin
sections the structure is holccrystalline, inclining to panidiomor-
phic, but the ferromagnesian minerals are imperfect in this direc-
tion. The felspars are most abundant and appear to be almost
entirely triclinic. Quartz is rare, being present only as odd grains.
Fcri'omagnesian minerals are abundant, but bulk less than the
felspars. They consist of typical green hornblende and greenish
brown biotite.

B. Lower Carboniferous.

The age of these rocks is determined from the evidence of the
fish remains found in the Mansfield area, with which these beds can
be seen to be continuous. They form jDart of an extensive series
of sediments extending from Mansfield south-easterly into Gipps-
land.

1. Basal Conglomerates. — These are not largely developed within
the area mapped, but small remnants are found directly overlying
the dacite porphyry on the slopes between Timbertop and the
Howqua, and one small outcrop, in the track near the top of Tim-
Ijertop Gap rests in the decomposed diabasic rocks. It contains
pebbles both of this rock and of the porphyry. Quartz and quartz-
itic rocks are perhaps the most abundant generally, but porphyry,
red jasper, and diabase can generally be recognised.

2. RhijoUte. — This is a w^ell-defined sheet of variable thickness
w-liich at Timbertop amounts to about 600 feet. It generally rests
on the conglomerate, but occasionally this bed appears to be absent,
and it rests directly on the porphyry, as on the spur east of Black-
bird Creek. Upon it is found almost invariably either conglome-
rate or pebbly sandstone.

The rock is distinct from the porphyry. It is more felsitic, with
fewer phenocrysts, which are entirely felspar and quartz. Flow
structure is generally apparent. The colour is generally red and
the rock is decidedly more siliceous than the porphyry.

Thin sections show it to be typical rhyolite, but the specimens
examined are more ferruginous than those of Mount Wellington,
and the felspar phenocrysts, all orthoclase, are more abundant than

Mocks of the Hoicqua River. 03

;the quartz. Secondary silicification is apparent in some sections.
;No ferromagnesian minerals were noted. (Slides 26, 28, and .'>4.)

3. Conglomerates. — This bed often passing into pebbly sand-
. stones generally overlies the rh^-olite almost everywhere in this
series. It is well developed at Blount Timtertop, where it passes

!up into the normal sandstone.

4. The sandstones are generally of a coarse texture, often flaggy
and micaceous, and with a reddi.sh colour. They form as a rule
thick beds which alternate with a purplish to chocolate coloured
shale, which sometimes has the appearance of an oxidised ash bed.
The shales generally provide good grazing country. The colour,
texture and generally low angle of dip of these rocks render them
readily distinguishable from' the older i"ocks in the field. Their
influence on the topography, too, is distinct.

The alternation of hard and soft beds more or less horizontally
'disposed gives the hills in general a table topped and ledged ch.arac-
ter, so well shown in the neighbourhood of Mansfield.

Summary and Conclusions.

The area examined covers about 60 square miles of mountainous
• country, previously unmapped. It lies about 20 miles to the south-
east of Mansfield, and forms a portion of the central highland
region of Victoria. Physiographically it consists of an area of
high relief in an advanced stage of deep dissection. The original
plateau character is almoist completely obliterated. Deep valleys
<^•ith permanent streams separated by steep narroAv ridges occupy
the whole of the region. Small remnants of an overmantel of flat-
lying rhyolite and sediments are preserved, provirling a topo-
graphic contrast to the outline of the highly folded older rocks.

The area lies in the drainage basin of the Upper Goulburn, and
the development of this river system as a whole is intimately con-
nected with interesting tectonic and structural questions.

The main problem dealt with in the area concerns the occur-
rence of diabasic rocks and cherts closely similar to those of Heath-
cote, and their relations generally Avith reference to the Heath-
cotian problem in Victoria.

The lithological resemblances are most striking, both with regard
to the diabase and its alteration products. The cherts occiipy a
similar relationship, and in each case contain Protoaiiongia. Con-
tact alteration features are absent, and the rocks for the most part
■have the character of altered lavas and tuffsi of submarine origin.

64 E. 0. Teale:

The trilobite rocks which at the Dolodrook and Heathcote provide-
evidence of the Cambrian age, are absent in the Howqua, but the
field evidence shows that the diabases and cherts are low down in a
series of sediments, in the higher portions of which Lower Ordo-
vician fossils have been discovered.

At 'Heathcote the succession from Cambrian to Lower Ordovician.
appears to be conformable, the diabases and cherts being on an
undoubted Cambrian horizon. It appears reasonable here to in-
clude the similar rocks of the Howqua in the same period.

With regard to the associated Lower Palaeozoic sediments, a-
lithological and fossil discordance on the western and eastern sidea
of the main diabase is noted and discussed. Upj^er Ordovician
and possibly Silurian fossils are restricted to a small area on the
western side, close to the diabase. The rest of the sediments on
this side have so far yielded no fossils. They consist largely of"
slates, sometimes black, often talcose and chloritic, and usually
highly contorted. Chertification is slight. On the eastern side the
Protospongia cherts appear to be conformably in contact with the
diabase. They form a well defined zone, which is followed by a
series of alternating sandstones and olive green phyllitic slates so far
unfossiliferous over a great range of thickness. Higher in the
series, thin bands of black slate carrying Lower Ordovician fossils
are interbedded Avith strata of this type. No Silurian fossils have
yet been obtained on this side. Some which are possibly Upper
Ordovician occur.

The general structure of the area is somewhat obscure, but a
faulted anticline with the Upper Ordovician or Silvirian included*
as a small nipped-in piece, is suggested, as illustrated in the sketch;
section.

The upper Palaeozoic rocks are briefly referred to :

The rocks of Devonian age are : —

1. Dacite Porj^hyry.

2. Granodiorite.

3. Diorit<>.

Those of LoAver Carboniferous age are : —

1. Conglomerates.

2. Phvolite.

3. Pebbly and flaggy sandstones.

4. Purplish shales.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 19] 9. Plate V,

Fig. 1,

X 35 diaiii.

< 35 diam.

Fig. 3.

\

Rocks of the Howqua River. Go

Acknowledgements.

I have previously referred to willing help and criticism afforded
by Professor Skeats, who has now come to the rescue at the eleventh
liour by kindly offering to deal with the petrological description of
the more typical forms of diaV)ase. This work was postponed
pending the completion of chemical analyses by the author, but the
necessity of leaving at sliort notice for West Africa would have
meant leaving this section in a ver}^ incomplete form had it not
been for this friendly offer. I am also greatly indebted to my
father for constant companionship in the field, where the roughness
and inaccessibility of the country would have added considerably
to the difficulty of the work had it been necessary to do it alone.

Bibliography.

(1) Howitt. A. M. — Report on alleged Phosphate of Alumina, near
Great Rand Mine, Howijua River, County of Wonnangatta. Rec.
Geol. Surv. Victoria, Vol. II., Part 4, 1907.

(2) Gregory, J. W. — The Heathcotian, a Pre-Ordovician Series
and its Distribution in Victoria, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XV.
(New Series). Pt. 11, 1903.

(3) Hall, T. S.— Report on Graptolites. Rec. Geo!. Survey of
Victoria, Vol. II.. Part 2.

(4) Skeats, E. W. — On tlie evidence of tlie origin, age and altera-
tion of the rocks neai' Heatcliote, Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic-
toria, Vol. XX., 1908.

(5) Skeats, E. W. — The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria. Presidential
Address, Autialasian Assoc. Advancement of Science, Brisbane,
1909.

(0) Gregory, J. W. — Stanfoi-d's f'ompendium of Geography.
Vol. I.. Australasia, 1907.

(7) Fennel'. C. — Physiography of the Mansfield District. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vic. Vol. XXVI. (N.S.) Pt. II.. 1914.

(8) Howitt, A. W, — "Notes on Diabase and Adjacent Forma-
tions of the Heathcote District, Special Rep. Dep. Mines, Victoria,
1896,

(9) Graham, R. P. 0. — Origin of Massive Serpentine and
rhrysotile Asbestos, Black Lake Thetford Area, Quel>ec. Economic
Geology, Vol. XII., No. 2, Feb.-Mar., 1917.

(10) Twelvetrees, W. H. — Asbestos at Anderson's Creek. Min.
Pesources No. 4. Geol. Surv. Dop. of Mines, Tasmania, 1917.

66 E. 0. Teale:

(11) Stirling, J. — Report on Examination of Reefs at Howqua
Valley. Rep. of Mining Reg., Quarter ending 30th June, 1888.

(12) Kitson, A. E.— The King and Broken Rivers, County Dela-
tite. Monthly Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv., Victoria, N.S., No. 11.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.

Fig. 1. — Rock section, No. 25. Soda-rich diahase from Lick Hole
Creek, one mile north of the Governor, and near the
south-east end of the main diabase mass. Section x 35
diameters. Polarized light. A large simple twin of albite
is seen with smaller quadrate and irregular crystals.
The dark areas are principally intei-locking fibres of
actinolite with S,ugite.

Fig. 2. — Rock section. No. 15. Compact diabase from Four Mile
Creek. Section x 35 diameters. Ordinary light. Abun-
dant augite, showing its cleavages with a few radial
penetrating felspar laths are seen. Black ilmenite is
noticeable, and the clear areas are pale chlorite.

Fig. 3. — Rock section X'> 78 B(Mldpd Mnrk flievt. Howqua
River, on north-east side of main diabase mass. Section
X 24.5 diameters, ordinary light. The black background
consists mainly of chalcedony. Numerous spicules of
Proiospoi^gia either as straight rods or in triradiate or
cruciform arrangements are seen in tlie field of view.

END OF VOLUME XXXIL, PART I

[Publish KD October, 1919].

[Piioc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.). Pt. II.. 192u].

Art. VIII. — A contrlbubtion to the Palaeozoic Geology of
Victoria, with special reference to the Districts of
Mount Wellington and Nowa Noiva respectively.

By E. O. TEALE, D.Sc.

(with Plates VIII., IX.).

[Eead ]4tli August, 1919.]

Contents.

I. — Introduction.

II. — Wellington District.

General Geology.

1. Pre-Ordoviciaii Series.

a. Serpentine — Pre-TTpper Cambrian.

b- Gaf^y ^^^y f "es "^ Upper Cambrian,
c. Trilobite Limestone ) ^^

6 2. Upper Ordovician.

3. Silurian.

4. Upper Palaeozoic (Lower Carboniferous).

a. General succession and structure.

b. Breccias and Cfono'lomerates.

c. Rhyolite and associated rocks.

d. Sandstone and Shales.

e. Melaphyre.

III. — Hickey's Cp.eek District.

a. General Succession.

b. Special structural features.

IV^. — KowA Nowa District.

General scope of the work.

Brief account of Physical features.

General Geology.

1. Upper Ordovician.

2. Snowy lliver Porphyries.

a. Porphyroids.

b. Stratified Ash Beds.

c. Trachytic and Andesitic Rocks.

d. Quartz Porphyrites and Pyroclastic Rock.

e. Quartz Ceratophyres.

f. Granitic JRockjs.

g. Chemical Characters and Petrographical Rela-

tionships,
h. Economic Minerals.

3. Middle Devonian — Limestones and Shales.

4. Kainozoic.

a. Marine deposits.

b. Fluviatile deposits.

c. Basalt.

68 E. 0. Teale:

T. — Palaeozoic Earth Histobt.

1. Successive Distribution of Land and Water.

2. Types of Earth Movements.

3. Granite Biatholiths and their Relation to Palaeozoic Struc-

ture.

4. Pitch along Ajiticlinal Lines.

5. Relation of Dyke Rocks and Quartz Reefs to General Struc-

ture and Earth Movements.

6. The Fracture Line of the Snowy River Porphyries.

TI. SUMMART

TIL BlBIilOORAPHY.

List of Illustrations.

Maps.

1. General Geological ajid Topographical Map of Wellington District.

2. Geological Map of a small area at the junction of Thiele'.s Creek, with

the Dolodrook River.

3. Geological Map of Hickey's Creek Region.

4. Geological Map of Nowa Nowa, and Buchan Districts.

5. Geological Map of small area at Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa Viaduct.

Sections and Diagrams.

1. Section .showing r<>lation of Cambrian Inlier to surrounding Rocks,

Dolodrook River.

2. General Section, Wellington District.

3. Section alcng Roan Horee Gully.

4. Generalised Section from East to West, from Mount Wellington to

Black River.

5. Section Hickey's Creek Region.

6. Section E, Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa.
Section A, Boggy Creek.

Section C, Boggy Creek.

7. Section D, Ironstone Cr^ek.

8. Brogger Diagrams.

9. Sketch from Wallaby Hill. ,

10. Block Diagram of Buchan District.

11. Diagram of Successive Palaeozoic Basins.

Photographs. ,

1. Spheroidal Weathering of Garvey Gully Tuffs.

2. Overfolding of Silurian Strata, Dolodrook River.

3. Western Scarp of Mount Wellington.
'4. Columnar Rhyolite, W^ellington Gorge.

5. Hickey's Creek Monolith.

6. Sketch from W^allaby Hill.

Photomicrographs.

1. Serpentinized Peridotite Pre-UppeT Cambrian, Mt. Wellington District.

2. Serpentinous Grit, Upper Cambrian, Dolodrook River.

Palaeozoic Geolo(jy of Victoria. 69

■3. SerpentinouE Grit, Upper Cambrian, Dolodrook Eiver.

4. Rhyolite Tuff, Upper Palaeozoic, Lake Karng, Mt. Wellington.

5. Melaphyre, Upper Palaeozoic, Wallaby Creek, Welliiifftxi District.

6. Porphyroid, Lower Devonian, Ironstone Creek, Nowa Nowa.

7. Porphyroid, Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa.

8. Altered Andegite. Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa.

9. Tra<;liytic Andesite, Lower Dei\-oniain, Nowa Nowa.

10. Quartz-Porphyrite, Lower Devonian, Tara Range.

11. Quartz-Ceratophyre, Lower Devonian, Nowa Nowa.

12. Quartz-Ceratophyre, Lower Devonian, Nowa Nowa.

Description of Photomicrographs.

iFig. 1. — ^Sertientinized peridotite, showing some unalltered olivine. Pre-
Upper-Cambrian, Serpentine area, Mt. Wellington District.

Slide No. 182. Ordinary light x 40.

.Fig. 2. — Serpentinous grit, showing much calcite and altered basic
igneous fragments. Upper Cambrian. Dolodrook R., Loc. B.

Slide No. 39. Ordinary light x 40.

Fig^. 3. — Serpentinous grit, showing much caloite, one example twinned,
also felspar and pyroxene fragments much altered. Upper Cam-
briaji, Loc. B.

No. 41, Crossed Nicols x 40.

Fig. 4. — Rhyolite tuff, showing irregular tuib? structures set in felsitic
ground-ma*6. Upper Palaeozoic, Lake Karng, Mt. Wellington.

No. 111. Crov-sed Nicols x 40.

Fig. 5. — Melaphyre, s^howing abundant laths of triclinic felspar, probably
ol"'gocla.se, with .lome chlorite and magnetite. Upper PalaeoZv>ic,
Wallaby Creek, Mt. Wellington District.

No. 177. Ordi'-iary light x 40-

Fig. 6. — Porphyroid. Sciiistoee structure indicated by lines of sericite ;
some tricline felspar fragments are ."et in a schistose felsitic
base. Lower Devonian. Ironstone Creek, Nowa-Nowa,

No. 27. Crossed Nicols x 40.

Fig. 7. — Porphyroid. Schistose structure indicated by lines of sericite;
felspar fragments small and less abundant. Lower Devonian,
Boggy Creek.

No. 2. Crossed Nicols x 40.

:Fig. 8. — Altered Andesitp. Phenocrysts of triclinic felspar of stout
habit and chloritized ferro-magnesian minerals in a micrccrys-
talline ground-mass. Lower Devonian, Bc^gy Creek.

No. 11, Ordinary light y 40.

Fig. 9. — Trachytic-Andesite, .showing abundant triclinic fel.spars of 2
generations and central felspar, showing secondary alteration.
Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek.

No. 12. Ordinary light x 40.

"Fig. 10. — Quartz-porphyrite, showing eimbayed quartz phenocryst. Lower
Devonian. Tara Range.

No. 105. Crossed Nicols x 40.

".Fig. 11. — Quartz-oeratophyre, showing triclinic fel«=T)ar phenocrysts, prob-
ably andesine. Lower Devonian, Nowa-Nowa.

No. 68. Crossed Nicols x 40.
Tig. 12. — Quartz ceratophyre (features as in Fig. 11).

No. 68. Croesed Nicols y 40.

70 E. 0. Teale:

. Notes on the Maps.

Wellington District, Map 1.

The area contained in Map 1 comprises about 9i) square miles of moun-
tainous country in a region previously unmapped geologically, except for »
sketch map by Reginald Murray, issued in 186i, scale, 2 miles to an inch.
Though the topography was roughly sketched in by him from main
vantage points, very little of the area included in thia map was examined
geologically, hence as the margins of this region were mainly Upper
Pailaeozoic, he assumed that these rocks probably covered the whole area.
A land survey was made some years ago of a Uraited portion centring round
the serpentine rocks. The blocks were not permanently taken up, and
only about one boundary fence was ever put up, so that very few points
or lines other than parts of the Wellington and Dolodrook river courses
could be definitejly recogni.sed in the field: Tliese. however, were made
use of, and formed the basis from which the existing map was constructed.

The important central portion, which includes the Cambrian and Ordo-
vicia.n inliers, has been accurately traced and mapped. The outlying topo-
graphy has been determined approximately bv a combination of rapid com-
pass traverses, assisted by plane table methods from suitable vantage
points.

Hichnjs Creek Rrgion, Map 3-

The only topographical basis for this map was the position and course
of the Macallister River, obtained from the county map. The road was trar
versed by myself, and tlie rest of the features sketched in — in part by
plane table methods and rapid compass traverses. Murray's Sketch Map
also included this district, but no details concerning important structural
features were shown.

Noica-Nmva — BucJian District, Map 4.

This is another area little known geologically, with a very imperfect
topographical basis to work upon. The main streams, such as Boggy
Creek, Ti-Tree Creek, Yellow Water Holes Creek and Tara Creek, have
been definitely located by Government sur\eys, and the roads and settler's
blocks as indicated provide some fixed points from which to work, but
practically tlie whole of the Tara Range, from its termination in the S.E.,
near Mt. Nowa-Nowa, to where it passes out of the map in the N.E., has
only two fixed points shown in any of the existing maps, namely, the two
trigonometrical stations of Mt. Nowa-Nowa and Mt. Tara.

The only other geological map which includes this area is the general
ma,p of Victoria, 8 miles to an inch. I understand tliere are some unpub-
lished sketch maps in the hands of the Geological Survey of Victoria, upon
which this portion of the general map was based, but I have not seen
them.

The author spent about five weeks in this district, which covers an area
of about 2<X) square miles. It was traversed on foot, single handed, so that
though the boundaries indicated are all my own, they are necessarily only
very approximate.

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Palaeozoic Gfology of Victoria. 71

Introduction.

The foDowing observations and conclusions are the resnlt of field
•work which was started in the vicinity of Mount Wellington, in
North Gippsland, about fifteen years ago. It was the existence of a
small, imperfectly known mountain lake, close to Mount Welling-
ton, which fir.st attracted the writer to this region. Lake Karng,
as it has been named, had been visited by the late Dr. Howitt about
fourteen years previously, but the question of its origin was not
•definitely settled. Of the two views discussed by Howitt (1 and 2),
namely, glacial and landslip origin, the glacial was most favoured.

No other scientific observei' had visited the lake until the writer's
examination in December, 1904. A report of the excursion ap-
peared in the "Victorian Naturalist," 1905 (11). The landslip
origin of the barrier which forms the lake is there upheld, and
several subsequent visits by the writer have greatly strengthened
this conviction.

Incidentally, the first excursion showed that the whole region was
full of interest, both geologically and physiographically, and dur-
ing tlie years 1904 to 1908 (11, 12, 13), four short vacation expedi-
tions were made into various parts of this district. The most im-
portant result of this preliminary work was to show that to the west
of Mount Wellington there was an extensive and complex inlier
of Lower Palaeozoic rocks in an area previously regarded as Upper
Devonian. In tliis region, along the Wellington and Dolodrook
Rivei-s, extensive outcrops of black cherty slates were discovered,
yielding abundant and l>eautifnlly preserved Upper Ordovician
graptolites. Serpentine containing Corundum and Chromite was
also found to occur along a belt within the Ordovician area, but
its age and relationship to the surrounding rocks had not yet been
Avorked out. Sevei-al outcrops of grey crystalline limestone inti-
mately associated with the slates and serpentine were next dis-
covered, and these proved later to 1>? some of the most important
and interesting rocks of tlie district. At first a small brachiopod
was the only fossil obtained, which ]SIr. Chapman regarded as a
Silurian form, but later another outcrop of limestone yielded
abundant trilobites, which Mr. Chapman confidently recognised as
Upper Cambrian (13 and 15). This came as a surprise, for tliough
"the field observations were limited, they had not suggested the
marked stratigraphical break which the palaeontological evidence
now demanded. Shortly previously to this discovery, Mr. E. J.
Dunn (16), late Director of the Geological Survey, in company with

72 E. 0. Teak:

Professor E. W. Skeats, made a flying visit to this region, spend-
ing only about four days there. Mr. Dunn's attentions were speci-
ally directed to the examination of the Serpentine, with the asso-
icated occurrence of the Corundum and Chromite, but the observa-'
tions of lx)th tlie«e geologists on the relations of the limestone to
the surrounding rocks, though hurried, led them also to receive
with some surprise the possibility of their being regarded as-
Cambrian.

A -few years previously, in 1902, Professor Gregory, from a.
study of several Lower Palaeozoic areas in Victoria, but particu-
larly in the vicinity of Heuthcote, claimed that a Pre-Ordovician
series of probable Cambrian age existed; and to which he gave the
name Heathcotian. Professor Gregory's conclusion was not,
however, accepted with full confidence by all the Victorian
geologists, and later. Professor Skeats (18) examined carefully the
Heathcote rocks, and in 1908 published a very comprehensive re-
view of the situation, concluding that the evidence in favour of a
Pre-Ordovician series at Heathcote was not conclusive. He there-
fore for the time being favoured the inclusion of tlie doubtful
rocks in the basal Ordovician.

The Cambrian problem in the Wellington district was therefore
of mo)e than local interest since the existing knowledge concerning
the occurrence of Cambrian generally in Victoria was in an unsatis-
factory state. It was clearly the chief among many interesting and
important quesitions awaiting solution in this region.

At this stage in May, 1908, the writer's departure to undertake-
geological exploration in Africa under the direction of the Im-
perial Institute, postponed indefinitely these interesting researches.

A paper was therefore written, embodying the conclusions
arrived at. and stating also the more' important unsolved problems
(L3).

Eaily in 1915, while in Melbourne, on a short holiday from
Africa, the effect of the Avar led to the suspension of the African
Exploration, and it was suggested by Professor Si;:eats and Dr..
Summers that I should resume in the meantime the Wellington
researches. The University offered encouragement and assistance-
in the form of a Government Research Scholarship, and the oppor-
tunity, therefore, to renew the work was gladly availed of.

The foremost aim of the expedition was to endeavour by careful
survey to m,ap and work out the relations of the various limestone
outcrops to one another, and to the surrounding rocks. It was
soon found, however, that the work grew in scope, for the mapping-

Palaeozoic Ge0logy of Victoria. 73

showed a succession of iuliers ranging from Cambrian to Silurian^
surrounded by a ring of Upper Palaetizoic sediments with associ-
ated acid and basic lava flows. Important broad structural and
tt;ctonic considerations involving palaeozoic geology generally there-
fore, became involved.

On the first expedition of renewed exploration in April, 1915, L
was accompanied by my father, Mr. A. 0. Thiele, who had been
a constant helper throughout the numerous field trips to this area.
Mr. Herman, Director of the Geological Survey, also kindly
arranged for Mr. J. Caldwell, one of the officers of the Survey, tO'
join the party as a field assistant, and I am greatly indebted ta
the willing and able help rendered by both these persons.

Various unavoidable difficulties, due partly to the season and
partly to the rough nature of the country, prevented the com-
pletion of tlie work before the wet season set in, and as the district
was unsuitable for winter field work, it was decided to choose
another region in the meantime, offering unsolved problems likely
to bear in some way with! those of the Wellington region.

The district, therefore, between Nowa Nowa at the head of Lake
Tyers and Buchan, was chosen, for it included two occurrences
believed by Mr. Dunn tu be of Heathcotian age, one in Boggy
Creek and the other in the I'ara Range (19), south-east from
Buchan.

In Boggy Creek, just north of Nowa Ni)wa, Mr. Dunn had stated
that diabases associated with cherts occurred and in the Mount
Tara goldfields he had recognised cherts. Both these occurrences,
had been included in the Heathcotian on purely lithological
grounds, but the relationship to the surrounding rocks had not
been worked out. This district further offered an opportunity of
studying a portion of the important belt of igneous rocks known
as the " Snowy River Porphyries," thus affording scope to discuss
the Palaeozoic volcanic history generally, of which the Wellington
series form an important chapter.

These various journeys through Gippsland provided also some
interesting physiographical studies, so that the extent of the work
has gradually groAvn until it includes a number of distinct prob-
lems wliich will now be considered in turn.

WELLINGTON DISTRICT.

Tlu Palaeozoic Geology. — Thn? Wellington region forms part of
one of the important major tectonic and structural zones of Vic-
toria, which may le conveniently termed the Mansfield-Welling-

74 E. 0. Teale:

ton zone. Tliis belt bears tlie record of a long succession of tectonic
Tolcanic and sedimentary events ranging practically throughout
the Palaeozoic period, starting with Cambrian and closing with
Lower Carboniferous. There are probably three distinct periods
of igneous activity represented, namely, Cambrian, Lower Devo-
nian and Lower Carboniferous. A succession of powerful fold and
fault movements along a line varying between N.N.W. and N.W.
acting at intervals throughout this period, has impressed especially
in the older formation, some marked structural features in the
form of intense folding, crumpling and crushing. A general
parallelism in strike as a rule exists between the different forma-
tions, and the evidence of unconformities has to be considered very
carefully. The problems of any portion of this extensive and
mountainous belt should take note of the general features of the
whole area as far as possible, but, unfortunately, much of the
region is still veiy imperfectly known, and some of it has never
been examined geologically. The Wellington area forms the south-
ern end of the belt, and rises abruptly from the northern edge of
the great Gippsland Plains, a little to the north of Heyfiold, and
forms a part of the great Central Highlands of Victoria.

The Mansfield region lies neai-" the northern end, across the Main
Divide, not far from the border of the Highlands with the northern
plains. The length of the whole t>elt is about 100 miles, with a
width up to about 40. Much of it is covered by Upper Palaeozoic
sediments and igneous rock, but extensive denudation has in places
stripped off this covering, and laid bare the older rocks, notably
near Mansfield, in the Howqua Valley, and also in the Wellincfton
and Dolodrook Kivers. The need for further work in the first and
second localities will be explained later. The particular features
of the Palaeozoic rocks of the Wellington aiea will now be taken
in order and some reference made to i-elated occuri'ences elsewhere
in Victoria.

Ppe-Ordovician Series (Heathcotian). — Under this division
there are three distinct groups of rocks : —

(a) Serpentine Pre-Tpper Cambrian.

(b) Trilobite Lime>tone Upper Cambrian

(c) Garvey Gully series of Sediments

The general occurrence of this series is shown on the map of the
"Wellington region, and the accompanying Sections (Map Xo. 1 and
Sections 1 and 2). It will be seen tliat the rocks of this series occur
as a long, narroAv curved inlier striking generally in a novtii-
westerly direction, which is the grain or trend of the whole structure

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.

75

*of the area. A narrow, incomplete ring of black clierty graptolite
slates of Upper Ordovician age almost surrounds the inlier, but on
the northern side along a portion of the contact the Silurian sedi-
ments rest directly against the Serpentine. The whole series is
intensely crushed and contorted, and so are the Upper Ordovician

HOBIZllKTytl.

VfRTIC/lL C V 1

oeciion ^.

Secfior •ihowinqrcldhon of Cambrian In1ie»- To surrdundina Rocks
Dolodrook Rivfr

rooks. As all the successive formations have been subjected to
periods of folding and compression along a north-westerly direction,
they have a similar strike, and small vertical sections of contacts
do not yield conclusive evidence of unconformity. The mapping,
however, of the boundaries gives more satisfactory information in
this direction, and everywhere the lithological and palaeontological
break is quite sudden.

The Serpentine. — The extent and general features of this rock
with its associated minerals, Chromite and Corundum, were de-
scribed in a previous paper (13), but the age and relationship to
the surrounding rocks had not been definitely established. The
Serpentine was then regarded by me as the oldest rock occurring
in this region, and was put down as Pre-Upper Ordovician. This
view is still upheld, but it is now possible to further restrict its age
to Pre-Upper Cambrian. The Serpentine Avas shown previously
(13) to be of the nature of an altered intrusive rock, originating
from both pyroxenites and peridotites. Various rocks are found
directly in contact with it, for example, serpentinous grits, con-
glomerate and finer sediments derived from the denudation of the
serpentine, also associated diabase tuffs in which there are defi-
nitely interbedded lenticular limestone deposits of Upper Cambrian

7<3

E. 0. Teale.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 77

age; elsewhere Upper Ordovician slate or Silurian sandstone and
shale directly overlie the Serpentine. Nowhere has there beea
observed any rock showing contact alteration. The conclusion^
therefore, is clear that not only is the Serpentine the oldest rock
but there is a stratigraphical break between it and the next oldest
rock, the Upper Cambrian, sufficient to allow of considerable denu-
dation previous to the deposition of the Upper Cambrian. The in-
tense shearing and foliated character of much of the Serpentine has
been previously referred to (13). It is generally recognised that
a certain amount of such structure frequently found in Serpentine
is due to intense expansional forces generated by the increase in
volume, which accompanies the mineralogical change from pyroxene
and olivine into Serpentine. Additional stresses, however, of an
intense character due to general compressional earth movements
have further deformed these rocks, and have largely contributed to
their schistose character.

A very iisaful apd comprehensive summary of the state of our
knowledge concerning the Heathcotian Series is given by
Professor Skeats in the "Volcanic Rocks of Victoria" (18). It
includes references to various Serpentines and associated rocks in
Victoria, some of which have been doubtfully referred to by various
gieologists as Pre-Ordovician. Further interesting information
and statements concerning Cambrian occurrences generally in Aus-
tralia are discussed by Professors David and Skeats in the Federal
Handbook, in the section dealing with the, geology of the Common-
wealth (20). Serpentine has been shown to occur in a number of
widely-separated localities frequently associated with cherty and
diabasic rocks, notably at Waratah Bay, near Casterton and the ■
Limestone River, Benambra. These rocks have been doubtfullj^
included by some authorities in the Pre-Ordovician Series, but
though little is known concerning the relationship ta the surround-
ing rocks, the definite fixing of the age of the Wellington Serpen-
tine adds a little more weight to the conjecture that these other
occurrences inay be correlated with the Pre-Ordovician.

It is interesting to note as previously referred to by Professor
Skeats (18) that near Heathcote the diabase at its margin passes
into a rock allied to Serpentine, known as Selwynite, containing"
chromite and corundum, an association also found in the Welling-
ton area.

The Garvei/ Gully Series. — These rocks were recognised in part
in my previous paper (13), under the heading of " Sediments com-
posed largely of Serpentine Detritus, and were doubtfully in-

-78 E. 0. Teale.-

eluded in the Upper Ordovician. A more extended examination, how-
ever, has shown that they are distinct lithologically from the black
slates; the junction is always a sharp one, and further the
limestone deposits which have yielded definite Cambrian fossils are
interbedded with them. Chemically, these rocks are distinct from
the adjacent cherty graptolitic slates. Their analysis shoAvs a low
silica percentage and lelatively high iron, lime and magnesia con-
tent. The soil, therefore, derived from their weathering is of a
noticeable red colour and clayey character, supporting a richer
growth of grass and other vegetation than the rather stony and
sterile isoil of the slates. The belt is further marked by a rather
striking feature of the weathering of some of the fine grained
sediments, which petrological examination proves to be tuffaceous.
These rocks weather into striking elongate spheroids with a suc-
cession of spheroidal shells similar to the well-known structure of
partly decomposed basalt and other igneous rocks. Their field
•occurrence and petrological examination, however, leave no doubt
as to their sedimentary origin.

There are two separate occurrences of this series, both of limited
extent. The largest and most important is a long narrow belt along
the Dolodrook Valley. It starts about a quarter of a mile north-
west of Garvey's hut, and extends south-easterly on the southern
side of the Serpentine as far as Roan Horse Gully, a distance of
three and a half miles. The greatest width is never more than a
few chains. The other occurrence is a small outcrop^ of highly con-
torted basic sediments exposed in the bed of the Wellington River,
roughly on tlie line of strike, about a mile and a quarter north-
west from the termination of the first-named inlier.

At its north-western extremity, the Dolodrook inlier passes out
of sight under the Upper Palaeozoic rocks, but along its southern
or south-western boundary it is directly in contact with the Upper
Ordovician slates. The character of the sediments varies from
■coarse serpentinous conglomerate through grits to fine greenish
•diabasic tuffs. Several sections merit special attention.

Localif// A, (Dolodrook River). — This position is shown on the
map extending from the junction of the Black-Soil Gully, in a
south-westerly direction, for alx>ut twenty chains. Tbe succession
and relationship are represented in Section No. 1. At' the junction
of Black-Soil Gully with the Dolodrook, there is a small inlier of
Serpentine with contorted black cherty slates in contact on the north
■side. The junction appears to be a fault, and obscure but recognis-
able tapper Ordovician graptolites can be traced in the cherts almost

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 79'

up to the junction. Following the river bed upstream, the Serpentine
about one chain in width passed serpentinous and ferruginous shale
of the Garvey Gully type, highly ferruginous here on account of
weathering. The rock continues for about eight chains, when a
hard cherty band of contorted slates is encountered. It is about
two chains wide and delinitely Upper Ordovician, from which
characteristic graptolites have been obtained. At first sight, the
band has the appearance of being interbedded with the Cambrian
sediments, but palaeontological evidence supported by petrological
differences and coimparison with similar small outliers of Upper
Ordovician in the vicinity, shows that the occurrence is due to
intense folding which has nipped portions of the overlying Ordo-
vician into the Cambrian. Continuing with the section, the cherts
are followed' again by a belt of about 10 chains of typical greenisli
basic tuffs with interbedded Cambrian limestone about one chain
wide and beyond this to the south-west, these rocks are bounded
by a belt of contorted Upper Ordovician cherts.

The contact between the two series is shown in a small gully
which enters the Dolodrook at the limestone outcrop. It is situated
about five and a half chains from the junction in a south-west
direction. The passage from basic tuffs to cherty slates is sharp,
with about two feet of gossany material in between, probably
occupying a fault. The rocks are highly inclined and disturbed on
either side.

A chemical analysis of the tuft' is appended, showing its basic
character.

I. TT.

48.11

13.30

3.70

8.10

MnO 1.43

8.48

9.51

Loss on Ignition 4.21

1.96
1.57

SiO, -

50.09

A1.A-

12.69

Fe^O., -

5.30

FeO -

12.01

TiO, -

2.12

CaO

5.08

MgO -

5.60

Hp-

0.40

H,0 4-

2.72

Na,0-

2.54

KjO -

1.32

CO, -

0.80

100.67 100.37

S.G. 2.86
(I.) Green banded tuft' — Garvey Gully series Dolodrook River
(Teale.)

.•80 E. 0. Teale:

((II.) Purple and green tuff between Pen-Maen-Melyn and Pen-
-Maen-Foel, South Wales, Cambrian, (Wilson), British Petrography,
Teali, page 22i{.

The principal differences to be noted in comparing the Dolodrook
.tu2 with the Cambrian one of South Wales are the greater percen-
tage of iron and smaller amount of lime and magnesia present in
the former^ No other analyses have yet been made of similar rocks
of supposed Heathcotian age in Victoria.

Thin sections of the fine grained tuff (No. 44), from the Dolo-
drook, show a banded and somewhat schistosCi structure, with nume-
rous small sub-prismatic and irregular grains of basic plagioclase
.felspar, many of which are orientated with their longer axes paral-
lel with the planes of schistosity, but many also lie at any angle,
frequently across the plane* of foliation. Much chloritic and some
serpentinous material is present between the felspar grains, but
no fresh pyroxenes were distinguished. Magnetite is abundant,
and several small grains of quartz were noted. Ihe fragmental
structure, together Avith the chemical and mineralogical composition
seems to indicate the nature of an altered subaqueous diabase
tuff.

The secondary silicification, which is one of the marked features
of the diabase tuffs and allied rocks at Heathcote, is absent.

Locality B. — The next section of importance is about two and
a half miles in a south-easterly direction, at the junction of Thielc's
Creek with the Dolodrook. Here within a relatively small area
there are good exposures of the Serpentine, the basic sediments with
interbedded limestone, the Upper Ordovician graptolite bearing
slates; and the Silurian sand.stones and shales (Map 2).

Ihe actual contact of the Cambrian sediments and the Serpen-
tine is shown in the bed of the Dolodrook River, at Thiele's Creek
•Junction. Here the sediments are of the nature of serpentinous
and chloritic conglomerates, grits and finer bands.

A section of this is given by Mr. Dunn (16), who descriljes the
rocks as post-Ordovician, on account of the presence of dense
darker rock fragments, Avhich he regarded as Ordovician slate, but
which microscopic evidence shows to be a basic igneous rock. The
fine dark bands described by Mr. Dunn as slate, prove to be tuffa-
'Coous, and similar in character with the basic sediments associated
with the Cambrian limestone in every case.

In this vicinity there are two lime.stone outcrops associated with
the basic sediments. Additional thin sections of both the coarse
and fine material indicate their uiffaceous character, and supjiort
the view also that they belong to the Garvey Gully Series.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.

81

The contact and section generally are important, as they show
clearly that the Serpentine is a pre-Upper Cambrian rock, the denu-
dation of which in part contributed to the Cambrian sediments.

Map ^.

and 5hdles. general 'v
?,rrike t{W.

Scale

J

ards

The remaining portion, consisting largely of diabasic pyroclastic
material, indicates an Upper Cambrian volcanic phase.

This section shows also an interesting structural twist in the
strike, post-Silurian in age, for the whole series, including the
enveloping Ordovician and Silurian rocks, are locally bent round
from a north-west strike to one varying between 80° and 100°.
This continues for more than a mile easterly, the strike then gradu-
ally swinging back to a more normal north-west direction.

Locality C . (Roan Horse Gully). — A traverse from a few chains
on the north side of the Dolodrook, opposite the Roan Horse Gully
junction, in a S.S.W. direction, across the Dolodrook, and along
the bed of Roan Horse Gully, shows well the relative position of
the various rocks, and illustrates the typical structure of the
inlier.

The limestone is again associated with the same basic sediments,
which rest against the south side of the Serpentine. The envelop-

82 E, 0. Teale:

in<i- Upper Ordovician rocks are found as a very thin belt on the-
north side of the Serpentine, and repeated just to the south of the
limestone. All the strata are highly inclined, being almost vei'ti-
cal, but an overthrust from the north, or north-east, causing a
fault in the vicinity of the Ordovician contact, has placed the lime-
stone locally above the graptolite slate, as sliown in the sketch
section. No. 3. This movement is probably to be correlated with
the general overthrust of post-Silurian date, affecting a consider-
able part of the Dolodrook area, for a fine example of overfolding
of the Silurian rock is shown in thie Dolodrook, about one mile and.
a quarter in a straight line below Thiele's Creek junction
(Photo. 2).

The Silurian sandstones and shales outcrop at each end of the
section forming the next enveloping zone of the complex inlier.
The general ge-anticlinal structure is therefore complete along this,
line.

The Dolodrool- Limestones. — These form one of the most impor-
tant series, for they have provided the definite palaeontological
evidence without which it would have been impossible to discover
the complete key to the structure of this region.

Previous to resuming the field work in this region, the fossils,
chiefly trilobites which Mr. Chapman had definitely concluded to be
Cambrian, came from the limestone outcrop No. 1, at the north-
west end of the belt.

The first fossil obtained in the district from the limestone, origin-
ally regarded by Mr. Chapman as Silurian, came' from Roan Horse
Gully outcrop, about three and a-half miles to the south-east, but
no trilobites had yet Ixien found in this occurrence. The recent
field work, however, has been successful in discovering similar trilo-
bites in four separate outcrops, including i{\Q Roan Horse Gully
limestone, and the mapping generally shows clearly that all the
limestone outcrops, of which there are nine, belong to the same
series. The additional fossils obtained, Mr. Chapman states, give
further convincing evidence of the Cambrian age, and his supple-
mentary palaeontological description will be given later.

Upper Camhrian Fossils. — The following are the fossils described
by Mr. Chapman (15) from the Dolodrook : —
Plantae —

Class, Algae. Girvanella Sp.
Animalia — '

Class Crinoidea

Crinoid stems, joints and ossicles.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 8'S

Class Brachiopoda
Lingulella

Orthis (Plectorthis) platystrophioides.
(Originally confused with Platystrophia biforata.)
Class Gasteropoda.

Scenella t^nuistriata, Chapman.

Related bo Stenotheca — Cambrian of South Australia,

Class Crustacea, Sub. Class Trilobita.
Agnostus australiensis, Chapman.
Ptychoparia thielei, Chapman.
Ptychoparia minima, Chapman.
Crepicephalus etheridgei, Chapman.

The limestone has a pleasing grey colour, is crystalline, and,,
when polished, would make an attractive ornamental stone, but in
its present inaccessible position there is no immediate prospect of
it being available for use. No quantitative analysis of its compo-
sition has been made, but a qualitative test sliowed that it was
relatively pure, Avith only a small percentage of magnesium car-
bonate. All the outcrops are of lenticular character and small
extent, the two- largest being No. 1 Dolodrook, and that at Roan
Horse Gully. The latter can be traced along the strike for about
three hundred yards, and shows a good face towards Roan Horse
Gully of about a chain in width.

Upper Ordovician. — These rocks, consisting of black slates, witL
highly cherty bands frequently intensely contorted, have been re-
ferred to in a previous paper (13), but their extent and relation-
ship to the other rocks in the vicinity had not been fully traced-
It had been recognised in general that they wrapped round the'
central inlier of Serpentine and associated rocks, but the outer
boundary had not been followed. The result of additional field
work makes it now possible to indicate these features on the map
presented; showing that the Ordovician rocks are in turn enveloped
by an outer ring of later sediments, Avith a distinct lithological
and palaeontological break. The slates are everywhere readily dis-
tinguished in the field from the less indurated shales and sandstones'
of the next series. Graptolites are abundant throughout even ini
the most highly cherty representatives, but naturally the best pre-
served specimens are obtained from the less altered bands. The'
forms represented are uniformly Upper Ordovician types. The first
graptolites were obtained by the writer in 1905, and were described
by the late Dr. T. S. Hall (14). Since then other forms have been

3-

84 E. 0. Teale:

collected from various parts of this area, and numerous other col-
lections have been made by various meml^ers of tlie geological sur-
vey throughout Eastern Victoria.

Of these occurrences, tlie best colliections have come from (1) Mat-
lock, (2) the Thomson-Jordan Valley. (3) the Black River Belt,
and (4) the Wellin^jton area. Ihese four localities consist of paral-
lel strips of Upper Ordovician rock, separated by belts of Silurian
sandstone and shale. The fossils show that these outcrops, if not
identical in horizon, are at any rate, very closely allied; and owe
their reappearance to successive intense folding along lines of
N.N.W. axes, resulting also in the folding of the overlying Silurian
rocks in a similar way. Subsequent denudation during the
present cycle of erosion has exposed some Ordovician as inliers.
They are generally narrow, elliptical Ix'lts, conforming to the
general strike, but disappearing along the strike under the Silurian,
often to reappear, however, at varying intervals along tliis line.
This is due mainly to a very general development of i^itch, some-
times north and sometimes south. This structui'e, conmion through-
out the older rocks of Victoria, has been clearly brought out in the
Wood's Point and Walhalla district by the excellent field work of
Mr. 0. A. L. Whit el aw and Mr. W. Baragwanath respectively.

Up to the present no definite graptolite zones have been recog-
nised in the Upper Ordovician in Victoria. It is probable that the
vertical range in the Upper Ordovician is not so great, but it is
likely that systematc work would yield some definite results iu
favourable areas.

The following is the complete lif^t of graptolites recorded from
the Wellington region : —

Diplograptus foliaceus, Murchison.

Diplograptus thielei, T. S. Hall.

Diplograptus (Orthograptus) quadrimucronatus, J. Hall.

Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus, Lapworth.

Leptograptus flaccidus, J. Hall.

Cliniacograptus wellingtonehsis, 1'. S. Hall.

Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall.

Cliniacograptus bicoi'nis, var. tridentatus, Lapworth.

Cliniacograptus tubuliferus, Lapworth.

Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers. ^

Dicellograptus morrisi, Hopkins.

Dicellograptus gurleyi, Lapworth.

Cryptograptus tricornis, Carruthers.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 85

Dicranograptus nicholsoni, Hopkinson.
Dicranograptus hians, T. S. Hall.
Nemagraptus gracilis, J. Hall.
Lasiograptus margaritatus, T. S. Hall.
Most of the above species are widespread and abundant in their
occurrence throughout the area, but Orthograptus calcaratus has
only been found at one spot in the north-western extremity of the
Ordovician, marked G, where it is associated with abundant Clima-
■cograptus bicornis and another rare form, C. tridentatus. The
last-named species was also found at another locality, marked G.o.
Splendidly preserved specimens were obtained, and it is the first
undoubted record for Victoria, a doubtful instance has been re-
corded from Cravensville.

Nemagraptus gracilis has only been found in Roan Horse Gully.
Dicellograptus gurleyi is also rare, and has only been recorded
irom the Wellington area.

See comparative table, showing general record of Ordovician
graptolites in Victoria.

It is interesting to note that a siinall amount of turquoise was
observed in several places, chiefly as very thin veinlets in, the joints
of the cherty rocks and, occasionally, also associated with Avhite
quartz.

The mineral is evidently widespread in its occurrence in the
Upper Ordovician rocks in Victoria. The best known localities are
Eyan's Creek, Myrrhee (31), and Mt. Avis, Edi, King Valley,
Mr. Caldwell tells me that he found it in black slate on the Black
River, and I found it myself in light-coloured chert in the Tara
Jiange.

A certain amount of white powdery phosphatic material also
-occurs irregularly distributed along joints and fractures. One
sample of altered siliceous rock yielded an analysis 8% of Po^s-

Some phosphatic deposits of promise from an economic stand-
point occur in the vicinity of Mansfield. They are associated with
Ordovician rocks, but their true relation is still the subject of con-
troversy.

The cherty nature of the Ordovician rocks of the Wellington
•district is a noteworthy feature. Ihe prevailing colour is black,
and the most completely altered bands are of the nature of lydianite
or black jasper. All grades of silicification occur, and though in
general the cherts run in bands witli intervening belts of more
normal slate, instances are common showing slightly chertified' slate

3a

86 E. 0. Teak:

a feAv inches wide between beds of jasper. There has clearly*, been a
selective action in the process of silicification, probably controlledi
mainly by i^rimary differences in conijjosftion existing in the
original strata. Thin sections, however, of the slates and cherts^
have sq far not revealed what these differences were.

The alteration is not attributable to the direct contact action of
igneous intrusion, but would appear to be explained by a selective-
metasomatic replacement due to aqueous solutions permeating the
rock.

Instances of this type of chertification are found throughout the-
Palaeozoic rocks. It is natural, therefore, to find cherts of very
different ages resembling each other somewhat closely, and this has
led to considerable confusion on account of some geologists having
correlated numerous cherty outcrops with the " Heathcotian " on
purely lithological grounds.

Professor Skeats (18") has discussed the origin and occurrence of
the cherts of the Heathcote area, and has shown that they are
largely due to metasomatic replacement of dialiase and diabase
tuifs. Tlie age is left an open question, but their inclusion in^
the basal portion of the Ordovician was favoured on the then
known palaeontological evidence.

Dr. Summers (21) has described cherts and associated rocks at
Tatong, where they are interbedded with fairly normal sediments,,
which he regards as Upper Ordovician.

In the Wellington area and in the Tara Range, near Buchan, I
have found Upper Ordovician graptolites actually in the cherts. It
is therefore clear, as Dr. Summers points out, that the occurrence
of cherts as characteristic of the Heathcotian Series loses its
significance.

Up to the present no radiolaria have been noted in thin sections-
of the Wellington cherts which have been examined.

Reviewing the important structural points brought out by a
study of the Lower Palaeozoic geology of the Wellington area, it is
clear that the axis of this comjDlex inlier marks an important struc-
tural line, the direction of which is parallel with the main Palaeozoic
trend lines, along which a succession of important tectonic move-
ments have ]>een renewed many times. We therefore find the zonal
arrangement of successive formations l>earing in a prevailing
N.N.W. to N.W. direction very marked, exposing in this case
within a remarkably small area, narrow, parallel but unconformable
belts from Cambrian to Silurian.

With this in mind, it is natural to look expectantly along the-
continuation of the strike of this belt.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.

87

Upper Ordovician Graptolites.

s

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88 E. 0. Teale:

It may be of some significance, therefore, that we find in this,
line other complex Lower Palaeozoic inliers, whose structural de-
tails and relationship® are still a subject of controversy, and pro-
vide promising scope for further work.

The phosphatic deposits at Flannery's, near Mansfield, and the-
associated sedimentary rocks form one of the most interesting inliers
in question.

Some very fragmentary fossils were obtained some years ago
from the phosphatic material, consisting chiefly of Salterella, and
obscure trilobite remains. The fossils were very unsatisfactory, but
w-ere regarded by Professor Gregory as probably Cambrian. Pro-
fessor Skeats and Dr. Summers have obtained both Upper and
Lower Ordovician, and Mr. A. M. Howitt Lower Ordovician grapto-
lites in such close proximity to the spot from which the trilobite-
remains were found that the geology is clearly complex, and the re-
sults of more detailed work should be of considerable interest.

Another area requiring further attention is in the Upper Howqua
Valley, at; such a position that the extension of the Cambrian axis
of the Wellington region might be expected to api>ear.

Mr. A. M. Howitt. (22) made a flying visit to this region about
eleven years ago, and recorded the occurrence of cherts, which were
regarded as Cambrian, phosphate rock, amphibolites and serpen-
tine of undetermined age, also Silurian slates and sandstones.

The relationship of these rocks has recently been discussed by the-
author in tlie Proc. Koy. Soc, Vic.

Silurian. — The rocks of this .series consist chieHy of alternating
quartzitic sandstones and greenish sandy shales. Some of the latter
have a marked rubbly to splintery mode of weathering, and by
oxidation are frequently rusty brown near the surface. Ihey dip
at high angles, and have teen folded along numerous axiall lines in
a general N.N.W.. to N.W. direction. Though they have been sub-
jected to much folding and even overfolding, as shown in the
Dolodrook, below Thiele's Creek junction (Photo. 2), the intense
contortion which is such a marked feature of the Ordovician is as
a rule absent.

The actual contact between the Ordovician black slates can Iw
seen at several outcrops. Three of these are Avorthy of mention.
One is in Blyth's Gully (Loc. D.), about 20 chains N.N.W. from the
Wellington-Dolodrook Junction. Another is in the bed of a steep
tributary gully of the Wellington, about a mile N.W. of the above-
named junction (Loc. E.), and the third is in Thiele's Creek, about

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 89

30 chains south from its junction witli the Dolodrook (Loc. F.). In
all these instances, conformity of strike and similarity of dip are
shown, but the horizontal extent of the exposure is limited, and
when the general boundaries of the contiguous formations are
traced the evidence in favour of an unconfonnity is more marked.
The lithological break is a sharp one in every case, and the
graptolites are abundant in the slates to the junction when they stop
suddenly.

Unfortunately, no distinctive fossils definitely recognisable as
Silurian were obtained, but a grit containing crinoid impressions
was noted at Locality D, and a similar crinoid bearing grit Avas
noted in the Dolodrook valley close to the outer boundary of the
Ordovician, confirming the ge-anticlinal interpretation of the
structure.

Mr. Chapman states that the material, though not conclusive, is
lithologically similar to fossiliferous grits of Silurian age collected
by Mr. Whitelaw in the Wood's Point Belt, where they bear a
similar relation to the underlying slates.

This series is of great extent, wrapping round tlie Ordovician
and older rocks, and forming a Avide area of hill country.

From its furthest limit, in the north of the Carey River, where
it disappears under the Upper Palaeozoic rocks, soutliAvards to the
vicinity of Glenmaggie, where it passes under the Tertiary plains,
is a distance of more than thirty miles in a straight line.

It is the outer zone or ring of the complex Lower Palaeozoic inlier
and the Upper Palaeozoic cover is found continuously along its
eastern limits, approximating to the Avon watershed.

On the west denudation has been more effective, so that the Upper
Palaeozoic over-mass is wanting between Hickey's Creek and the
plains, a distance of about twelve miles.

The rocks, therefore, regarded as Silurian, can thus be traced
continuously to the Macallister Valley to the south of Hickey's
Creek, and thence westerly to the Wood's Point-Walhalla zone, in-
cluded in tlie surveys of Messrs. Whitelaw and Baragwanath, re-
spectively.

Within the area mapped several of the prominent elevated points
ri.sing to well over .'50U0 feet, are due to the superior resistance to
weathering of some of the hard quartzitic sandstone of this series.
The three most conspicuous and noteworthy are Mts. Hump, Mar-
garet and Ronald.

Uppei? Palaeozoic.' — Th« rocks here considered form a portion of

-90 E. 0. Teale:

the most extensive occurrence of this age found in Victoria. The
.extent of the whole belt from its southern border, where it is oon^
tiguous with the Gippsland plains to the northern limit toward
Benalla, is about 100 miles, and the greatest width is alx)ut forty
miles. The general trend of the belt is about N.N.W. It is com-
posed in part of sedimentary rocks, consisting chiefly of thick
x::onglomerates, coarse sandstone and chocolate shales and mud-
stones, with in places interbedded acid and basic lava flows. The
sedimentary series in the vicinity of Mansfield contains fossil fish
-of Lower Carboniferous types, associated with Lepidodendron.

The strata of the southern portion are very similar lithologically
to those of the Mansfield area, but with the exception of an imper-
fect fish scale, the only fossils obtained were those of Lepidodendron,
found in widely separated localities in the Macallister valley, and
also that of the Avon. The Geolo!T:ical Survey Map shows this
iseries as Upper Devonian, and the Mansfield region as Carbon-
iferous, but the evidence in favour of their separation is incon-
clusive, and tliey are here all regarded tentatively as Lower Carbon-
iferous.

In addition to the above group of rocks, there is a great develop-
ment in the northern portion of the belt, and particularly in the
valley of the King River, of acid porpliyritic rocks, which, accord--
ing to Professor Skeats (28), appear to be related to the dacites,
suggesting their correlation with the dacites of the Strathbogies and
-elsewhere, which are genei'ally regarded as of Lower Devonian age.
illhis is in conformity also with the field evidence of A. E. Kitson
(10), who interprets them as being uncoiiiformably overlaid by the
Upper Palaeozoic sediments.

Along the western margin of the Upper Palaeozoic belt is the
Barkly Valley, notably on Fullarton's Spur. O. A. L. Whitelaw
shows in his map the occurrence of porphyritic rocks, some of which
Professor Skeats lias recogni-scd as altered andesites, distinct from
..the acid lavas of the Wellington area, and comparable most probably
with some of the Lower Devonian volcanics, typically known as the
■" Snowy River Porphyries."

Another interesting feature is brought out by a study of the
geological map of Victoria, with reference to the eastern and west-
ern adjoining formations. On the eastern side the older rocks
are Upper Ordovician; no Silurian has yet been recognised.

To the west, and contintiing to the vicinity of tlie meridian of
Melbourne, Silurian rocks, prevail, with only relatively narrow in-
liers of Upper Ordovician.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 91

Should more detailed -work later fail to discover any Silurian
rocks to the east of the Upper Palaeozoic belt, it would seem to
point to the possibility of a.n old eastern shore line of the Silurian
sea, which is now buried beneath the latter rocks of this area.

The whole Palaeozoic history of this belt, with its succession of
•sedimentary and volcanic events emphasises that it has represented
a major tectonic and structural zone throughout Palaeozoic times.

The two areas where the Upper Palaeozoic rocks have received most
attention from me are the vicinity of INIt. Wellington and the Mac-
allister valley, at Hickey's Creek. These two areas will be con-
sidered separately.

W ellington Area. — The position and extent of these rocks within
the area discussed is shown on the map, and their relationship to
the underlying rocks is indicated in sections, numbered 1, 2, 3 and
4. It will 1 e seen that they rest unconformably on tlie Sihn-ian and
older rocks, and in general the beds dip at low angles with a
marked absence of the sharp rej^eated folds of the older series.

On the w'estern side of the map it is seen that the beds dip uni-
formly westerly (W.S.W.), and on the Wellington side the dip is
-easterly. These two directions have been proved to form part of a
large anticlinal fold at least fifteen to twenty' miles in width. The
•axis hasi a direction of about N.N.W. and lies between Mt. Tambo-
ritha and Mt. Wellington. The southern portion has suffered much
denudation, with the result that within the area examined, the
crown of the fold has entirely gone, revealing the underlying older
Tocks, Avhich have, in turn, been much dissected during the present
cycle of erosion. The two limbs of the folds are preserved with
their steep scarp slopes opposing one another, forming, especially
in the case of Mt. Wellington, bold and precipitous cliffs. (Photo.

The rock succession is very constant over the w^hole area, though
the thickness of the individual beds is subject to some variation,,
and in general the observations of Murray (9) and Howitt (4) in
other portions of this region, indicate the same succession and
i'eatuiies.

lh.e basal beds almost everpvhere consist of reddish conglome-
rates, breccias, or breccio-conglomerates, with pebbly sandstone
and red shaly bands developed locally. The pebbles and boulders
-consist chiefly of quartz and quartzite, with some indurated shale
.and clierty slate.

One feature of importance) is the occu'rrence also of acid igneous

[lu LIBRA RYJgj

92

E. 0. Teale

fragments and boulders. Some of these are exactly similar to the
rhyolites and rhyolitic porphyries of the Wellintjton series which,
overlie these beds. Others are too decomposed for definite com-
parison.

No outcrop of Lower Devonian igneous rock has been recognised
in the area, but as indicated previously rocks probably of this age
occur about ten miles to the N.N.W. at Fullarton's Spur and
about forty miles to the N.N.W. in the King River District.

From a comparative microscopic examination of numerous thin
sections of Lower Devonian povjihyries with those from the Welling-
ton area, the details of which will be given later, it appears prob-
able that a satisfactory distinction may l)e made m,icroscopically
between the two series.

If this feature is proved by wider investigation to enable a
generalisation to be made, it may be possible to recognise in these
conglomerates and breccias, porphyries of two distinct periods re-
presenting material derived from a Lower Devonian source, and
also later rocks belonging to the first products of the outbreak of
the Lower Carboniferous volcanic activity.

A considerable thickness of acid lavas and tuffs succeeds these
basal l>eds over wide areas, and it seems likely that though the main
outburst and effusion slightly succeeded the deposition of the-
conglomerates, some of the earliest outbursts were practically con-
temporaneous, contributing some of the admixed igneous material
Avhich suggests the nature of volcanic ejectamenta.

Section 3 0 10

Roan Horse Gully

One of the best sections showing the basal beds where the-
breccia character predominates is at Locality G, Wellington-
River, about three-quarters of a mile below the Wellington-Dolo-
drook junction. The beds are of a coarse nature, and contain
both angular and water-worn rocks, consisting largely of black

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 93"

cherty slates, quartzites and qusirtz; stratification is visible, and
the beds are here inclined at a miich higher angle than usual, dip-
ping to the W.S.W. at about 70". They are seen to rest against the
Upper Ordovician cherty slates, which are much contorted, and the-
junction suggests a fault line, striking north-westerly. The same
beds show a niarked disc-ordance in strike at another outcrop, about
fifteen chains to the north-west, where there appears to be a short
north and south fault. The strike on one side is about N.E., and
on the other N.W .

The belt as a whole, however, is traceable almost continuously
without any noteworthy break, below the overlying rhyolite sheet,
and these disturbances in dip and strike, though striking, are only
of limited extent.

Another deposit with some special features is exposed in the-
bed of the Wellington River, still further to the north-west at
Locality H. Its exact nature and relationship is not clearly under-
stood, but it may be an extreme lithological variation of the basal
beds under discussion. The extent is about 20 chains over alx»ut
a width of one chain along the bed of the river.

Its character is that of a coarsely fragmental deposit, composed
very largely of fine grained diabasic rock, the interstices being-
filled up with granular quartz and calcite. A few angular inclusions
of quartz porphyry similar to that of the Wellington series were
noted.

A number of thin sections from various parts of this deposit
were examined.

The diabasic material is fine grained, and much altered. Fine
plagioclase laths and magnetite are recognisable, but there is much
chlorite and calcite. The interstitial material is siliceous and
calcareous, consisting of a coarse to fine grained mosaic of quartz
and calcite.

Secondary silicification affecting both the diabase and the inter-
stitial material is recognisable, but an original fragmental charac-
ter can be recognised in some sections, showing altered fragments
of shale and diabase, irregular grains of quartz, showing secondary
growth and an occasional fragment of orthoclase.

The porphyry inclusion shows a fine microcrystalline siliceous
base, with corroded and embayed orthoclase phenocrysts, showing-
some kaolinization and secondary silicification.

These acid igneous inclusions suggest possibly a Lower Carbon-
iferous source, and though the relationship of the deposit to the-

*.!94

E. 0. Teale

doiJitiiim ,H

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52 £

H NO I ON 1113 M

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nihil

Palaeozoic Geology of Vicloria. 9b"

surrounding rocks is not clear, the occoi'rence is included ten--
tatively with the basal beds of the Upper Palaeozoic.

The Rhyolites and Associated Tuffs. — These rocks occur as a well-
defined sheet of great extent. They are readily traced in the field,
consistently near the base of the series along either limb of tha-
main anticlinal fold. They vary in tliickness from less than 1000
to over 2000 feet. In the thinnest portions they would appear to
represent a single flow, but in Mt. Wellington where they form a
bold escarpment on the western face, they are composed of suc-
cessive beds of pyroclastic material and rhyolitic fiows.

These rocks, under the name of quartz-porphyries and felsites,
were recognised by Howitt and Murray, in widely separated areas-
in this region, and they were invariably fo4.in-d occupying a position
towards the base of the series. Howitt recognised the volcanic
nature of the rock, and that there were both effusive and pyroclas-
tic representatives. One of the finest sections, that oi\ Snowy Bluff '
in the ]\[oroka Valley, to the north of Wellington, has been carefully
described by both Murray (9) and Howitt (i).

The rhyolitic rocks there rest on conglomerates, and are estimated
at alx)ut 100 feet in thickness. One of the striking features of
much of the igneous material in the vicinity of Wellington is that.
rocks of the outward appearance of quartz-porphyries, are often
crowded with water-worn pebbles of quartz and quartzite, often
producing quite a conglomeratic apj^earance. Numerous inclu-.
sions of indurated slate and shale are also common.

Ihin sections of some of these rocks have show-n that the igneous
material of which they are in part composed, is pyroclastic. One
particularly fine example from the northern shore of Lake Karng,.
Mt. Wellington, showed the tuff character remarkably well (micro-
photo.). It contains angular and broken fragments of quartz and'
felspar set at all angles in a fine microcrystalline base, containing
beautifully preserved tubes of irregular outline so characteristic of
tuffs, but seldom so Avell preserved, llieir bent and twisted shapes
and broken cusp-like forms are particularly striking in the section.

The fact that material of this nature is often admixed with
waterworn pebbles of the old rocks, points to the conclusion that
explosive volcanic action was practically contemporaneous with the-
deposition of part at any rate of the basal conglomerate beds.

Another section from the southern shore of the lake has been
referred to in a previous paper (13). It has the character of a--
rapidly-cooled lava and shows very fine perlitic structure.

^96 E. 0. Teale:

The rock on the summit of the plateau is a typical banded rhyo-
.lite, the flow lines being very conspicuous.

The detailed succession of igneous material building up the Wel-
lington ma«s has not been worked out, but there is a noteworthy
thickening in the vicinity of Lake Karng. In the southern bluff of
Wellington the thickness is not more than IjQUO feet, but in the
vicinity of the Lake it is more than double that amount. This is
piobably accounted for mainly by the presence of marked irregu-
larities of the Palaeozoic surface on which the volcanic beds were
laid down.

It is perhaps strange that no undoubted vent or fissure by which
the volcanic material reached the surface, has yet been definitely
recognised, nor have any dykes, acid or basic, been noted in this
region. Considering the high melting point of rhyolite, its viscous
nature, the deep dissection of the rocks, and the wide extent of
the lava flows in tliis region, it is perhaps reaiiarkable that some
■ channel by which it reaehed the surface has not yet been recognised.

No undoubted intrusive quartz-porphyries have yet been noted
in this region.

A fine section of the rhyolite, showing its relations to the basal
• conglomerates and over-lying sajidstones, is shown in the course of
the Wellington, just north of ShaAv's Gap, or one mile and three-
quarters in a straight line north-west from the Wellington Dolo-
drook junction. (Loc. 1.) Here the river has cut a tortuous canyon
for about half-a-mile through the rhyolite, forming pi-ecipitous cliffs,
showing tine columnar structure. (Photo. 4.)

The remaining portion of the series, amounting to some thou-
sands of feet in thickness, consists largely of alternating beds of
conglomerate, passing into pebbly sandstone and normal gritty
sandstone, separated by beds o^ varying thickness, of purple shales
and mudstones, with, in places, interbedded sheets of altered basalt.
(Melaphyre of Howitt.)

Fossils are rare throughout the series. The first obtained came
from' the sandstones of the Avon River, and were descril^ed by Sir
Frederick McCoy as Lepidodendron Australe. The writer has since
noted Lepidodendron at four localities in the Macallister basin.
'They are as follow : —

( 1 ) Roadside cutting near Basin Flat.

(2) Roadside cutting, Macallister R. — Target Cr. Junction.

(3) Reid's Selection, near Barkly R.

( 4 ) Near Glencairn (Mr. Sweetapple's).

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 97

The oirly other fossil obtained was a fish scale, from near the
Wellington-Dolodrook junction, regarded by Mr. Chapman as
probably belonging to the rhizodont genus Strepsodus (23)

The general nature of the beds, together with the contained fossils,
indicate a freshwater or lacustrine origin, and the shape of the
basin appears to have been that of a long relatively narrow trough,
at least a hundred miles in length, with a general N.N.W. direc-
tion.

The MeUiphyrts. — These have Ijeen referred to briefly in a former
paper (13;, and two analyses by G. Arnpt were included. Reference
is also made to Hewitt's description of the melaphyres of Snowy
Bluff, where at least eight distinct flows separated by beds of sand-
stone and shale have been recognised, but they are never of any
^reat thickness (7).

Until last year, no melaphyre had been noted within the area
under consideration, but one occurrence can now be recorded in
Wallaby Gully, towards its head.

Ihe section forms a small fall in the channel of the creek, show-
ing a hed of melaphyre twelve feet thick resting on red shaly
jnudstones, with a thin band of mudstone on top followed by sand-
stone. The flow^ is distinctly amygdaloidal at the top and bottom
with the usual secondary quartz, calcite and epidote. The central
portion is a dense fine grained rock. A thin section of this shows
under the microscope a distinct flow structure due to the parallel
arrangement of the felspar laths. These have a low extinction
angle, and appear to be oligoclase; they are ophitically enclosed in
chlorite into which all the augito has passed. Analyses of this rock
are not very satisfactory on account of the great amount of altera-
tion whicli has taken plac-e. The one here submitted is from the
■central portion. The low amount of lime and magnasia is probably
due to secondary leaching, foi< calcite amygdales are common in the
"upper and lower portion and. thin sections of these parts also- show
calcite.

For compai-ison the two analyses by Ampt of samjiles from the
basin of the Moroka are repeated. No. 2 was the freshest sample
and, therefore, probably the most normal.

The Melaphyres are clearly subaqueous basic lava flows, and are
always found considerably higher in the series than the Wellington
Rhyolites.

98

E. 0.

Teale:

1

2

3

SiO.,

-

47.84

- 49.35 -

43.88.

A1.A

-

16.17

- 17.61 ■

16.58-

Fe,0;,

-

9.28

1.50 -

5.83

FeO

-

8.64

9.72 -

9.11

CaO

-

4.70

7.71 -

9.60'

MgO

-

2.62

3.17 ■

5.77

Na,0

-

4.47

3.10 ■

2.02

K,6

-

0.08

1.56 -

1.06

p.^o.,

-

tr.

tr.

tr.

H,0

-

0.06

0.65 -

0.64

H,0

-

2.51

2.56 ■

2.22

TiO,

-

2.68

2.83 ■

3.52

MuO

-

0.:50

0.07

tr.

Pyrite FeS.,

—

0.34

99.35 100.17 100.23
S.G. 2.82 S.G. 2.918

1. Melaphyre (No. 177), Wallaby Creek, Wellington Valley.

— Anaayst E. O. Thiele.

2. Melaphyre, Moroka Snow Plain; fairly fresh sample.

— Analyst G. Ampt.

3. Melaphyre, Bad Spur, Mcroka Valley; altered specimen.

— Analyst G. Ampt.

HICKEY'S CREEK DISTRICl'.

This is a relatively small area on the eastern side of the Macal-
lister valley, at Mickey's Creek junction, about twelve miles from
Glenmaggie (see Map 3). It lies on the route from Heytield tO'
Mount Wellington, via the Macallister Valley, and therefore had
been frequently traversed during the journeys to and from the
Wellington region.

Here particularly, as well as at other points further north in the
Macallister Valley, the Upper Palaeozoic rocks had been noted to be
very highly inclined, with dips ranging up to nearly vertical, and
sometimes in the reverse direction to the normal one. It was
therefore decided to give a little time to a more detailed study of
tlie features, with the result that some interesting structural points
are brought out, marking a powerful tectonic lin6 running approxi-
mately N.N.W., and probably continuing for a great distance in
this direction, coinciding very closely with the western boundary
of the Upper Palaeozoic series. A new road for vehicvilar traffic
in place of the old pack track has recently been made as far as the
junction of Target Creek with the Macallister, about thirty miles-
from Glenmaggie. At Hickey's Creek, this road leaves for a time

Falaeozic Geology of Victoria.

SO

MAP N° 3

the Macallister, and rises by a long sidling grade more or less
parallel with the valley of the creek toi a saddle, thence descending
to the Macallister again at Basin Flat by a .similar winding grade
cut out of the steep hillside. Tliis part of the road affords a suc-
cession of fine soct'ons of the highly inclined Upper Palaeozoic rocks,

100 E. 0. Teale:

including the basal beds, rliyolite, conglomerates, sandstones (in
one ijlace containing Lepidodendron), purplish shales and mud-
stones. The area mapped includes this paat uf the road, and the
Hickey's Creek Basin essentially, most attention being given to the
Upper Palaeozoic rocks, and their contact with the older rocks. The
only other formations noted are the Silurian sandstones, phyllites
and shales, and a small remnant of a Kainozoic basalt flow.

Silurian. — The usual alternation of quartzitic sandstones with
phyllites and s'.iales is found in this area, but the phyllites and
shales predoaninate over the sandstones. They are generally green-
ish in colour, due to a certain amount of chlorite, and are fairly
arenaceous. The whole series is inteuvsely folded and frequently
crushed. Small quartz veins are very abundant either along joints,
shear planes, bedding planes, oi*< fi'acture lines.

Upper Pdldcnzoic. — The rocks belonging to this series are identi-
cal in character and succession with those described in the Welling-
ton area, but their hiyh angle of inclination is a striking feature.

The prevalence of thick beds of conglomerates, and coarse pebbly
sandstone, and the general red colour of most of the beds, espe-
cially the shales, combine to form a striking contrast with the
Silurian rocks. The boundaries as a rule are, therefore, readily
traced in the field, and al?o certain characteristic beds within the
series can be easily followed for considerable distances, and these
are of great assistance in working out the structure. In this v>ay
the rhyolite and associated conglomerates were found in following
across the strike to be repeated on account of a marked synclinal
structure, but as the mapping shows it is not of a simple character,
for one limb is bent round in such a manner in the vicinity of Wal-
laby Hill as to bring the strike of similar beds at right angles.
This point is perhaps the most striking feature in this area, for
it forms a precipitous rocky crag rising on the eastern side of
Hickey's Creek. It is composed of l>eds of coa-rse conglomerates dip-
ping at 50 degress) to the N.W. and striking N.E. The beds are
cut through towards the southern end by a small tributary of
Hickey's Creek causing a rocky cleft, which isolates another rock}'
crag of slightly lower elevation, and composed of the same con-
glomerate. Follow^ing these beds along the strike in a N.E.
direction, they soon swing round to N.N.W.. and the same
feature is noted with regard to the underlying rhyolite and
basal conglomerate. The same rhyolite and tonglomerate can be
noted on the western side of Hickey's Creek, dipping in the opposite

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.

101

V s I

.P S,A]>iJIH

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11

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4a

102 E. 0. Tea/e:

direction at a high angle. Fine sections are shown in the road,
cuttings, about two miles northerly from Hickey's Creek junction,
(see 12). From about tliis point, also looking south-easterly across
the deep valley of Hickey's Creek, there is an interesting view of
Wallaby Hill, showing on the upper portion bare dip faces of the
conglomerate striking at right angles to the direction of view.
At the same time, in the lower slopes, there are consi)icuous out-
standing ribs of conglomerate and sa,ndstone dipping at a high angle
to the north-east, and whose strike therefore is at riglit angles
to the rocky face forming the summit.

Faults. — Keference to Map 3 and Sec-tion 5 of this area shows-
that an intense compressional movement at right angles to a N.N.W.
axis has nipped in and folded a belt of the Upper Palaeozoic sedi-
ments in a trough of older rocks. Along tlie western contact, at
several places, the rocks are disturbed and often much crushed.
A fine example of crushed rock is sieen in Hickey's Creek, close to the
old pack track, and about three-quarters of a mile from the Mac-
allister junction. Here a. portion outcrops as a conspicuous mono-
lith, about tliirty feet high. It' consists of broken Silurian quartz-
ite, forming a rough breccia, but distinct from the basal breccias,
and conglomerates of tlie Upper Palaeozoic, Avhich are clearly of a
detrital nature. Tracing the contact along in a north-north-
westerly direction, it is found that in addition to the crush features
a portion of the basal beds is cut out, the features in generjal
therefore indicating a persistent fault along this line.

Transverse sections across the ^lacallister valley at intervals to-
the north, beyond the area included in this map, would seem to
indicate similar structural conditions. The western limb of the
broad anticlinal fold has been bent back to form- a minor syncline,
and faulted against the older rocks on the west. Tbis same feature
is recognisable still further north along this line in the map, and
section of Woods' Point sheet by 0. A. L. Whitelaw, and a gene-
ralised section compiled fi'om that map and extended to the east
from my own observations seems to provide a probable interpreta-
tion of the structure (Section 4). A minor fault with a north-
easterly direction intersects the major one, and corresponds in
position Avith the lower portion of Hickey's Creek, but it is the
other direction which is of greatest importance.

The age of this tectonic movement cannot be fixed closely. It is
clearly post Lower Carboniferous, but may still be Palaeozoic, though
it seems probable that renewed differential movement may have'

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.

103

itaken place along this line at successive intervals during the late
Xainozoic uplift, which produced the existing highlands. The posi-
tion and general direction of the Macallister valley coincides in
_part with this line, and some of the jihysiographic features suggest
at any rate that its course has been controlled to some extent by
this feature.

Kainozoic Basalt. — The extent of this rock is small, it is but a
remnant of an extensive flow -wiiiich once occupied the valley. It is
;about a thousand feet above the present stream bed, and was at one
time clearly continuous with other more extensive fragments, which
are to be found chiefly to the south iri tlie vicinity of Blanket Hills,
where the basalt forms a striking shelf about 800 feet above the
existing stream, which is now entrenched to that amount along the
(eastern margin.

A fine view of this feature is seen from Wallaby Hill, showing also
the sudden termination of the Highlands in the south, a portion
-of the plains of the Great Valley of Victoria, and the Southern
Highlands in the distance. (See Sketch A.) The basalt of Gipps-
land generally is usually regarded as the Older Basalt, and may,
therefore be at least pre-Mioceiie. There is no satisfactory petro-
logical distinction, by which the various Kainozoic basalts can be
recognised.

It is, therefore, often very difficult to correlate many of the lava
flows in even adjacent areas. For instance, the high N. and S.
ridge to the west of the Macallister, from Mount Useful in the
south, where it forms the divide between the Thompson Valley, to
•Connor's Plains in the north, where it is part of tliei Main Divide,
is capped at intervals with basalt resting on river gravels. These

Sketch A

ThcCrcutValk
CippslcinJ Pluini

I MatalU=lpr\/;ille\)

NoitliCirf.'laruiHiijKU
BUirk Rn

104

E. 0. Teak

Map 4

U.OROOVICIAN

Sandi/Dn^phillitcihaketc

Ag Silver
CuCoi

LOWER DEVONIAN

Snowy DiftrPorphyry Series'

MIDDLE DEVONIAN

UPPER KAINOZOiClIlo^iSaN'

Limestone msinlj mth calconeous Fluvis/ile ssndi cbyssndgrwels

jnd luhcecus shjies overlying Lower K^inoioic marine bedsm the sootty

UShsrts or other ^^^' QMrn-aloccvrrences %UpptrOrdowi3fiCr^ptolitei OSpecimen^ Scale - ^ |' ,2fnilea.
excavations Fa iron l>ut noexcsvihons r -^ r
MnMannanese
BaBaryres

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 105

form some of the highest points of the surrounding highlands.

Tlie Mount Useful Basalt is only eight miles in a straight line to
the west of the outcrop here described, and yet it is 3300 feet higher.
It apparently marks the line of an old valley parallel with the
present Macallister, and one question that at once suggests itself
is to account for this great difference in altitude. The two alter-
natives which seem to be most worthy of consideration are, first,
that the two basalts rejiresent flows of totally distinct periods in
Kainozoic times, and, second, that if of the same age, there has
been most extensive differential movement parallel with this line
in late Kainozoic times; which view is correct it is impossible to
say, but on physiographic grounds I am inclined to favour at any
rate a certain amount of differential movement. This will be
referred to again later.

In this section the rock is seen to l>e a typical olivine dokrite.
with a Avell- developed ophitic structure, violet brown titaniferous
augite enclosing oligoclase. Olivine and magnetite are abundant.
The section from the Rickey's Creek area is similar to that from
Blanket Hills, but is of a slightlv finer grain. <^nd contains more
olivine. The specific gravity of the latter is 2.81.

The District of Nowa Nowa. (xMap \.).

The region here described extends from Nowa Xowa, at the head
of Lake lyers, northward to within about four mile;-:i of Buchan, a
distance of about sixteen miles. It lies to the west of the Snowy
River, and includes the southern termination of the great belt of
volcanic rocks known as the '* Snowy lliver Porphyries."

As previously indicated, this region was chosen for examination
mainly for two reasons : — (a) To examine certain outcrops of cherty
rocks, Avhich had been briefly referred to by Dunn (24) as
" Heathcotian," and (b) to study some of the features of the/ Lower
Devonian volcanic rocks.

The late Dr. A. W. Howitt (3 and 5) described the latter series
as consisting of accumulations of acid lavas and associated pyro-
clastic deposits, built up round a line of ancient volcanoes occur-
ring along a meridianal fissure. Certain quartz porphyry occur-
rences were regarded as probably representing the stumps of some
of these old volcanoes.

Since Howitt's contrihution, about forty years ago, giving a
general description of this interesting and important belt of rocks,
there have been no important additions to our knowledge of the
reirion.

106 E. 0. Teale:

Later Held work by Murray (25), Ferguson (26), and 0. A. L.
Whitelaw (27), has added a little to the details concerning tlie dis-
tribution and boundaries in a few localities, but no further petro-
logical work has been done, nor had any chemical analysis ever been
made of rocks from the " Snow}' River Porphyries."

Profesisor E. W. Skeats (28), in his paiper on the Volcanic Rocks
of Victoria, gives a summary of Howitt's description of the " Snowy
River Porphyries," dealing with their distribution, geological rela-
tions and petrological character. Briefly, they form a north and
south belt up to about thirty miles in width, and extending south-
wards for sixty miles from near the head waters of the Murray,
where the highest points rise to over 6000 feet, to the head of Lake
Tyers, where they pass under fluviatile and marine Kainozoic de-
posita at less than thirty feet above sea level. Some doubt has V;een
expressed as to the exact age of these rocks. It has l>een shown clearly
that they are pre-Middle Devonian, but there is some uncertainty
as to the lowest limits of the series. Mahony and Griffith Taylor
(29), in dealing with the geology of the Federal Territory, compare
certain quartz-porphyries of that region with the " Snowy River
Series," but they claini that they represent in the Federal area, an
Upper Silurian volcanic activity, which continued into the Lower
Devonian. In Victoria, the beginning of this important volcanic
outburst cannot yet be fixed so certainly, as Upper Ordovician
graptolites are the only dehnite fossils obtained from the older sedi-
ments, on which the volcanoes rest unconformably.

Howitt's petrological examination of this roc-k was of a prelim-
inary nature, and lie describes them as quartz-porphyries (in which
orthoclase prevails over plagioclase. a point to be referred to again
later), felstones (acid lavas), ash and agglonjerates.

General Surface Feofiires. — The physiography fif tlie area under
consideration will be discussed separately under the section devoted
to that purpose. It will only be necessary here to mention a few
salient points.

The southern portion is part of a low coastal plain of soft roc-ks,
rising, as a rule, not more than several hundred feet above sea
level. The uppermost beds consist of fluviatile grits, sands, gravels
and boulder deposits, which, in the south, overlie marine Kainozoic
limestones and marls, but further north than about tAvelve miles
from the coast, thev rest directly on the older rocks.

The rest of tlie region forms a low portion of the Victorian Hirrli-
lands, mo.st of Avhich is below 1000 feet in altitude, and its soutli-

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.

107

iern boidtr is less sharply marked off from the coastal plain than
usual. Hard roc-ks of a varied nature have controlled lar<j:ely the
main irregularities of the present surface, and the principal feature
is the lara Range, wliich runs ohli(iuely across the area in a N.N.E.
direction. Starting towards the S.W. corner of the map, at Mount
Nowa Nowa (about 1100 feet), the range continues as a rocky forest
clad ridge to the N.N.E., rising in Mt. Tara to nearly 2000 feet.
The rockii composing it consist of quartz porphyrite and Upper
Ordovician slates and sandstones.

Th€| most important streams are Boggy Creek and its tributary.
Yellow Water Holes Creek. Tlie former enters the liead of Lake
Tyers at the township of Nowa Nowa, after passing for several miles
Ihrough a rocky gorge entrenched in the Porphyry Series, and ex-
posing some of the best sections to be seen in this area. A few of the
gullies on eitlier slope of the Tara Range also provide some good
exposures, but most of the area is covered with the scrub and forest,
and the relationship and boundaries of the rock formations are
rathei- difficult to follow. The task of mapping several portions Avas
further hampered by the want of maps of any kind! The sketch

Map 5

iffvre/ dtpm

lU TERTIARY

HI LOWER DEVONIAN ESS23 UPPER ORDOVICIAN

Scale;

108

E. 0. Teale

map therefore acconipanying this paper is in many places only a
very rough approximation. Most attention was given to the lower
portion of the Boggy Creek, and the slopes and gullies of the Tara
Ra<ng|e.

General Geology.

The following formations are included within the area, and will
be dealt with in turn: —

1. Upper Ordovician. consisting chiefly of highly inclined

quartzitic sandstones and slates, the latter chertified
in parts.

2. " Snowy River Porphyry Series " — probablv Lower Devo-

nian in age, and consisting of volcanic rocks, both-
effusive and pyroclastic, ranging from andesites to acid
lavas.

3. Middle Devonian, comprisiTig cr{v'stalline iimestone and"

calcareous shales.

4. Kainozoic, ranging from Lower Kainozoic to Pleistocene.
Observation?, were confined mainly to tlie first two series.
Upper* Ordovician. — This Series consists chiefly of alternating

thin bsds of quart-zitic sandstones, nuidstone, shale, phyllite and
some cherty slate. There is a marked absence of the black grapto-
lite slates, which are so characteristic a feature of the Ordovician
rocks in the Wood's Point and Wellington districts.

Fossils are rare, and frequently imperfectly preserved, but all
the recognisable forms have been Upper Oi-dovician graptolites.

The first record is due to 0. A. L. Whitelaw, who obtained'
graptolites in a road cutting at 5 miles 50 chains from Nowa Nowa,.
in the Buchan Road. These were examined by the late Dr. T. S.
Hall (30), and the forms identified are tabulated in the list given
elsewhere. (Table 1.) Three additional occurrences found by my-
self are marked on the map.

LOWER DEVONIAN _^^ ' '^ UPPER ORDOVICIAN

Chlonficand sericilic porphyro'ids [!l!^J2!lL ^^•^'l^^.^^^^^^, (i^'^ (J usrtv tic sandstones

SC

SECTION L

Boggy Crelk Nowa Nowa

SmIc, 1° I" Mil

Palaeozoic Geolor/y of Victoria.

109-

Five separate areas have been observed within the region here
discussed, wliere rocks regarded as Ordovician have been observed.

Three of these are quite small inliers, two occurring in the bed.
of Boggy Creek (Sees. C. and E.), and the third in Ironstone Creek
(Sec. D.) The relationship to the " Snowy River Porphyry Series "'
can be studied at all these sections, but its best seen at Section E,
Nowa Nowa railway bridge. (See Maps 4 and 5, and Section E.)

Though the strike and dip of the two series are similar in direc-
tion, the junction is seen to be unconformable.

No fossils have been obtained from any of these inliers, but the-
outcrops at both sections, E and D, appear to be on an extension
of the strike of a larger belt to the north, where graptolites have-
been obtained, and the" rocks are lithogically similar. All that can
be said, therefore, with regard to the age of the succeeding igneous,
series is that it is post Upper Ordovician.

The two remaining occurrences are of larger extent, and their-
position will be seen by reference to Map 5. One occurs as a
narrow strip about a mile in width, and nine miles long, with a.
general bearing a few degrees east of north. It is almost sur-
rounded by the " Snowy River Porphyries." Its southern continu-
ation is maskedl by the Upper Kainozoic sands and gravels.

These deposits also border it for alout two miles along the north-
western boundary.

About two-thirds of the length of the belt coincides with the-
crest of the Tara IJanue, but at the northern end it lies a little*
to the west of the watershed.

w

LOWtR DEVONIAN

,:^.7.7/f^V) MI.s-^j.

^mmlln

'^ b C d €

SLCTioN A. Boggy Creek.

a.Lifhr^reen chlonh'c shult. Jr. Purpk sUe wirh sericfhc markinos

c. Porphjrj hrewa , d. CfiocoUe shdie simi/cirto h.
e. L'l^ht colourec/ ^hedred fe/si/e

HorizoTifal Scale i° ," v"-"

Verfical i°.... ^'° v""

BocGY Creek Region

110

E. 0. Teale

Mount Tara Gold field. — It is in the northern half of this Ordo-
rician area, extending over a distance of about four miles, that
the noAv abandoned Tara goldfield isi situated (24 and 25). Nume-
rous old prospecting shafts and open trenches occur at intervals
thiroughout the field, but most Avork has been done at the northern
end, in the vicinity of Lady Ibrr Creek, where there are a number
• of adits and shafts.

All the accessil)le adits wtre examined, and roughly sectioned.
These observations, together with those above ground, show clearly
that the rocks are very much disturbed, faulted and sheared. The
line of crushing and'^ shearing lies between N. and S. and N.N.E.,
and coincides roughly with that oif the old mines. Though some
quartz occurs, it does not appear to be in the form of a defined
quartz reef, and the lode formation seems to be of the type of a
fracture zone of crushed rock with some quartz and gossany mate-
rial.

The strike of the rocks is generally X. to N.E., but at the north-
ern end of the field there is much variation, north-westerly and
even westerly strikes being observed close to the normal direction.
This is well shown in some of the adits, where numerous faults with
a generally northerly trend are revealed. Most mining appears
to have been done at the " Orbost Tunnel " (Au. No. 9 on Map 4),
where there are two adits and some stoping has been done along a
fault line, striking 10 degrees east of north and dipping W.X.W.
at about 65 degrees.

The auriferous occurrences are in general confined to the Ordo-
•vician belt, but gold has also been obtained in the porphyry, about
half a mile to the north of the termination O'f the Ordovician. This
was at the " Tara Crown," (Au. No. 2 (ui Map 4), where it was
associated with galena. This is probably a continuation of the
"fracture zone, which intersects the Ordovician.

U ORDOVICIAN

Mill rn a tin a thin htih of
sandslone and shale .
■ S/rike /o'Dipcirso'h^

LOWER DEVONIAN

fish heds , well hedged wifh dlternafintj coarse ^nd fine itc/s
di/Ji3nd strike simiL^r fo
U. Ordnv hi/t i/nronfnrmrible.

SECTION c. Boggy Creek

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. Ill'

The rocks tlirou<2:liout tlie gold field, iii\ addition to tli'-.'ir sheared'
features, are frequently somewhat cherty, and on the whole are light--
coloured, varying from whitish to creamish, with some superficial
ironstaining along tlie joints and bedding planes. This light
colour may be due to extensive bleaching Avithin the zone of
oxidation, for occasional loose fragments of black chert are to be ■
found, and there is one occurrence of black chert in situ in the bed .
of Lady Torr Creek.

Special attention was given to the region of the old gold mines,
tecause it was here that Mi-. E. J. Dunn described the occurrence-
of " Heathcotian " (24), as well as Oi-dovician. Mr. Dunn observes
that "the Tara Range is remarkable that within a mile of the
Micawber lease there are three distinct series of rocks carrying
auriferous vein-stones."

The three series referred to are Heathcotian, Ordovician and
Lower Devonian, and the separation of the first two series appears
to be based on lithological differences only, particularly the supposed >
significance of cherts and jasperoid rocks as a distinctive character-
istic of Heathcotian; but here again, as in the Wellington district
and elsewhere, this feature loses its significance, for at locality 6,
north of Lady Torr's Creek, the author found Upper Ordoviciap-
graptolites in light coloured cherty rocks, and in general these •
rocks are so intimately associated with the more normal sediments,
which also yield Upper Ordovician graptolites (locality 18), that
there is no valid reason for separating them.

Turquoise. — A little turquoise Avas found in an old adit in the ■
basin of Lady 1'orr's Creek. It occurs chieflv along the joints,
irregularly distributed in a light-colored felspathic sandstone,
and though of interest as another example of its wide distribution
in the Ordovician, the specimens obtained did not afford much-
promise from a commercial point of view.

Gossany Ironxtniie .- — Towards the northern end of the area under
consideration (Fe 6 on map), there is an ironstone outcrop, consist-
ing chiefly of limonite. It is roughly elliptical in shape, measur-
ing about 3 chains in a north and south direction, and 1^ to 2'
chains across. Much of the limonite is hard and massive, but
some contains quartz, and broken up sedimentary rock. The limits
are rather indefinite, the deposit passing out into ferruginous shale
much crushed and jointed. The strike of the strata is about
N.N.E., and the dip appears to be easterly at a high angle. Anotlier
similar outcrop occurs about 30 chains to the S.S.W., on the fall to

112

E. 0. Teale

CD

<V

«e

Falaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 113

Xiady Torr Creek. These occurrences are distinct from the iron
deposits in the porphyry, to be referred to later, the latter consist-
ing largely of hematite, while the former appears to be the type of
gossany cappings, which may develop into sulphides at a depth.
No work, however, has been done with a vieAv to testing these
-deposits.

Another Ordovician area still remains to be referred to. It forms
part of a large region whicli extends to the Snowy River, and
beyond into Croajingolong. Along its western boundary it is in
contact with tlie Snowy River Porphyries. The line of junction
has not been accurately traced, but it bears in a general N.N.E.
direction. My own explorations here have been very limited, and
were confined principally to the vicinity of the Orbost bridle tra^k,
and to a rapid reconnaisance along the now disused track to Bete
Bolong, on the Snowy River. Some obscure graptolites were found
close to the western boundary, with the porphyry, and are probably
Upper Ordovician. The general strike as far as observed lies be-
tween N. and N.E., and it, is worthy of note that this direction is
characteristic of nearly all the features in this region as a whole.
It is not confined merely to the strike of the strata. The belts of
Ordovician, of porphyry and Middle Devonian limestone, also the
longer axes of many of the granite batholiths. the major faults, and
the trend of the various ore deposits, all conform approximately in
this direction. It is in contrast to a north-westerly trend, which
is a marked feature over a wide area to the west, and it would
appear to be a continuation of the important trend lines of this
direction so well developed in New South Wales.

The Snowy River Porphyry Series. — The distribution of the
rocks of the series within the area here considered is shown on the
map in which the characteristic! N. and S. to N.N.E. trend is well
shown.

Porphyritic rocks of an acid type and general pinkish to brown
colour prevail on the rocky ridges, the highest point in the region
culminating in Mt., Tara, about 1930 feet in height.

These rocks being of a relatively hard and resistant nature, natu-
rally form exposures, while large intervening areas are so masked
■with soil that little idea can be obtained as to the nature of the un-
derlying rock. The spoil heaps, however, of some of the now
abandoned mining shafts and other excavations frequently suffsfest
some types, sliowang considerable variation from the acid por-
phyries, and allied rocks of the ridges, and the sections in Boggy

lU E. 0. Teale:

Creek reveal tlie existence of bands of altered andesitic and'
trachytic rocks.

Ihe fragmental character of much of the rock is frequently-
apparent niacroscopically, and thin sections shoAv clearly that much
of the finer material too, though often much altered and silicified, is
of a pyroclastic origin.

An alternation of coarse and finer-grained material, with slight
indication of bedding, appears to be the general rule, definitely
stratified beds being rare. Howitt (3) observes that he had only
noted at one place, near Buchan, a section which -stiggested aqueous
assortment and deposition, which he regarded as of limited extent
a'o.d purely local. Though this appears to be true in the main, in the
area under consideration, the outcrops in the southern extremity
afford an exception, for at Section A, Boggy Creek, and Section D,
Ironstone Creek, particularly, the character and regidarity of the
bedding are such as to strongly suggest aque<^.ius deposition. In this
region also two other exceptional features are worthy of note : the
beds are highly inclined, and intensely sheared, the latter agency
having converted the rocks into typical porphyroids. These are best
developed at Section E, NoAva Nowa railway bridge. The schistof^-e
character is marked along the Boggy Creek Gorge for nearly a mile-
above the railway bridge, but gradually disappears beyond this.
The direction of schistosity corresponds with that of the strike of
the different beds, being in a general N. to N.N.E. direction. As
the course of the stream bed is^ here about N.W., it is a favourable
one for exposing a good line of Section. For general and petrologi-
cal description, it wil be convenient to group the rocks as follow : —

(a) Poiphyroids.

(b) Stratified ash beds.

(c) I'rachytic and andesitic rocks.

(d) Acid poj-phyritic and pyroclastic rocks.
(e)~ Ceratnphyres.

(f) Granitic rocks.
7'he Por2yhj/rnids. — Ihese rocks form a rather striking group,
for their schistose structure, and often also a sheen or lustre due
the development of sericite give them a distinct lithological
character. Their junction with tlie Tinderlying sediments, presum-
ably Upper Ordovician in age (Section E, Boggv Creek), is sharp
and unconformable. They are again exposed in the bed of Iron-
stone Creek (18-22), and still further to the X.E. to^vards the head
of one of the branches cf Bill's Creek (belcw No. QtS).

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 115

In general these rocks are usually light in colour, varying from
light cream to pale green. Sometimes their fragmental character
can be recognised macroscopically. In Section A, No. 6 specimen
represents a coarse crushed porphyry breccia, with red jasper shale
and chloritic inclusions. The mechanical stresses have developed
a considerable amount of sericite and thin sections show in addi-
tion secondary silicitication. The red jasper has the' appearance of
an altered igneous rock, possibly a diabase or andesite; traces of
felspar can be recognised, and hematite is disseminated through
it. Fragments of fine grained acid igneous rocks, are also present.

On the other hand, many of the rocks of this group have a very
fine texture, with their original character so altered that even thin
sec-tions may not give any satisfactory evidence concerning their
primary nature, but, on the whole, the microscopic examination
clearly points to the fact that they are dynamically altered acid
porphyrites and ash beds.

Specimen 1, Boggy Creek, is a hard schistose rock, which in the
thin section, shoAvs a distinctly fragmental character. There is a
fine micro-crystalline base of quartz and felspar, in part sericitic,.
and set with irregular fragments of plagioclase and quartz, the
former predominating. The felspar is probably an oligoclase-
albite. Vivid green chlorite is abundant as well as sericite.

No. 2 is a light grey porphyroid, the thin section showing abun-
dant sericite and no chlorite. Small fragments of plagioclase fels-
par are present.

No. 18, Ironstone Creek, is a sericitic rock of similar type, with
recognisable granular quartz, but all trace of the felspar has been
obliterated.

No. 19, Ironstone Creek, is a coarse-grained sericitic rock, with
a definite schistose structure. Occasional plagioclase fragments are
recognisable, and some chlorite is present. Among the inclusions
one fragment may represent an altered andesite. The result of in-
tense stress is well shown.

A belt of these porphyroids, 10-12 feet wide, in the bed of Boggv
Creek (No. 63, Map 5), is highly pyritic, and micaceous hematite
is widely distributed, frequently sparsely disseminated and
associated Avith red jasper and ordinary quartz, but occasion-
ally moderate outcrops of fairly piire hematite can be observed.
More often, however, the ore is highly siliceous and lenticular in
occurrence. The iron ores, however, are not restricted to the por-
phyroids, but the micaceous variety appears to be the characteristic-

110 E. 0. Teale:

form occurring in these rocks, and the stresses to ■which they have
been subjected may have been •favourable to the pmdnction of the
micaceous form of the ferric cxide.

One feature worthy of some reference, and well fhown at Section
E, is the fact that the porphyroids appear to have been more affected
by dynamical stresses than the underlying older sediments, consist-
ing of chloritic shales, slates and quartzitic sandstones. They
therefore f re luently approach tyi^ical schists in character, while
the adjoining older beds still preserve the appearance of normal
sediments. It is probable, however, that the two sieries may have
been subjected simultaneously to stresses of the same order of
magnitude, but the nature of the mineral composition of the por-
phyries and ash beds from which the porphyroids have be?n derived
made them more susceptibls to the development of new structures
and mineralogical rearrangement.

Stratified Ash Beds. — These beds are best studied at Section A
and C, Boggy Creek, and at Section D, Ironstone Creek. ll;e
stratification is regular, with an alternation of coarse and fine
material, the dip being at a hiuh angle, westerly in sections A and
D, and easterly at C. It is well known that a sub-aerial deposition of
volcanic ash may result in remarkably regular deposition, and in the
absence therefore of definitely aqueous sediments interbedded with
the ash beds or of the ajssociation of fossils in sedimentary material
with the pyroclastic, it may not be possible to decide whethei- the
beds in c^uestion are really sub-aqueous or not. The fine," purple
shales, beds b and d, Seiction A, however, resendjle very closely true
sub-aqueous sediments, and may, in fact, be such. No. 16, Section
C, may be taken as one typical example of the normal bedded ash
beds, though the degree of coarseness naturally varies from bed
to bed. This example is a light greenish grey granular rock. A
thin section shows well the fragmental structure, with abundant
chlorite, angular quartz, and some triclinic felspar and magnetite
set in a micro-crystalline base of quartz and felspar, witli some
secondary silicification.

At Siection D the beds are exposed more or less continuously for
about 8 chains, and sometimes show a slight a:uount of schistosity.
A good exposure is to be seen under the road bridge. The colour
is in general grey, but darker and lighter bands with slight varia-
tions in texture bring out the thin regular character of the bedding.
Numerous thin sections (27-39) show a general similarity mineralo-
gically. No. 2<S is a finely granular grey rock, with a little fels-

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 117

^ar recognisable luaoroscopically. In the thin section the base is
seen to be slightly schistose, and micro-crystalline, consisting of
felspar and quartz, and showing som^ secondary silicification. It is
set with angular fragments of triclinic felspar, showing fine
repeated twinning after the albite type, and occasionally tarls-
bad twinning also. Extinction measurenaents on several of tlie
most suitable sections indicate that the felspar is probably oligo-
clase-albite. A little sericite and chlorite are also present. No. 38
is somewhat coarser in grain and of a light green colour. The frag-
mental character and slightly i-chistose structure are revealed in
.tha thin section; angular quartz fragments are abundant, also
altered felspar, and probably some scapolite. Dark, green chlorite
and calcite are present as alteration products, and some fine-
grained fragments probably represent altered shale.

One feature worthy of mention in connection with the micro-
scopic examination of the above rocks is that all the identifiable
felspar fragments noted are triclinic.

Tracluific and Andesific Rochs. — In contrast to the liiiht
coloured siliceous rocks just described, another group of darker and
more basic types is met with in Bogg}^ Creek (Specimens 9-14), and
so far they have not been traced or recognised' beyond the restricted
area, in the region here examined. Tliey occur in definite bands,
and appear to represent both effusive and pyroclastic beds. IMost
of the rocks of this type are very much altered, and the original
ferro-magnesian minerals are almost invariably altered to chlorite?.

J*fo. 11 is a fairly typical example of the andesitic type. It is
a dark rock, with pink felspar phenocrysts.

Thin sections under the microscope show phenocrysts of triclinic
felspar, slightly cloudy through decomposition, of stumpy habit and
with broad twin lamellae. No very satisfactory extinction measure-
ments were obtained, but it may be oligoclase. Ihe ferro-magnesian
mineral was proba.bly augite, but it is completely decomposed to
chlorite. Magnetit-e is common. The base is cloudy and altered,
but small felspar laths are abundant in it. The rock is regarded
as an altered augite-andesite. No. 9 is more altered, showing some
-serpentinization, and much chlorite. The felspars are abundant
and similar in habit to 11, but are kaolinizecl and carbonated.

No. 12 is a dark, denfe rock, slightly porphyritic, with patches
-of red jasper. The thin section shows a distinct trachytic structure,
Avith abundant felspar laths in a .brownish devi trifled base.

5 a

118 E. 0. Teale:

The largest felsj^ar phenocrysts are inclined to be of rather stout
habit, showing somewhat broad twin lamellae, and generally low.
extinctions, suggesting oligoclase.

The numerous felspar laths, which Ijulk most largely in tlie slide,..
and show simple twinning, are probably sanidine. as also are a.
number of definitely prismatic form.s of intermediate size. Mag-
netite is abundant, but almost all trace of the original ferro-mag-
nesian mineral has disappeared. Veins and patches of secondar;v'^
quartz and chlorite are present, and one portion of the slide has
been almost completely silicified, showing the quartz both as av
mosaic and microcrystalline form stained by patches of hematite
and some chlorite.

The rock appears to represent an interesting type of altered^
trachyte or trachytic andesite.

No. 14 is a dark grey, finely porphyritic rock macroscopically,
but the thin section shows a distinct fragmental structure, with-
abundant angular fragments of triclinic felspar (probably an-
albite of the type Abjg An J. Smaller felspar laths are present,,
some of which are triclinic, w^th low extinctions, and, maybe, oligo-
clase, also m,agnetite and fragments of altered rocks similar to 12;
much chloritized. The base is finely granular in part, due to second-
ary silicification. There are no recognisable original ferro-mag-
nesian minerals, but chlorite is abundant. The rock probably re-
jDresents an altered andesitic ash.

Acid Porphyritic and Pi/roclasfic Boclis. — Rocks of this type-
are very abundant, and show «_onsiderable variety of colour aiid
texture. In general a prevailing red to brown colour is most com-
mon, but various shades of green to grey are also found.

Flow structure is not common, and was only noted in one place,
namely, in the ridge between Ti-Tree Creek and Yellow Water Holes-
Creek, and W.N.W. fi-om Beecher's.

Quartz and felspar either as fragments or phenocrysts are usually
appaz'ent macroscopically, and in thin sections the rocks of this-
division can generally bei readily separated into two groups —

(1) Those definitely fragmental, representing altered pyro-
clastic material.
(2) Those €if the more normal quartz-porphyrite type, probably
partly hypabassal. having solidified in the fissures, or
vents, through which the more superficial materiaP
reached the surface.

Roth these types are well represented along the Tara Range.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 119

(i.) Fragmental Tijpe. — Sections of this type show all the larger
jniiierals and inclusions as broken/ and angular fragments, with no
€mbayment. The base is siliceous and finely granular, and among
the larger fragments felspar is often more abundant than quartz,
and tl),e triclinic form distinctly predominates, orthoclase being
rare.

The secondary minerals most abundant are chloritei, and occasion-
ally calcite.

(ii.) Acid rorphi/rites (Xon-Frar//nefitaf). — The rocks of this type
liave perhajDs a higher silica percentage than normal porphyrite,
and this may in pai't be due to a certain amount of secondary
silicification and alteration.

The fine grained base of the rock is generally affected to some
extent in this way. All the recognisable felspars, however, are domi-
nantly triclinic, orthoclas^e being more or less rare.

No. 100 is a medium grained porphyritic rock of a red brown
•colour.

In the thin section the plienocrysts have rather irregulail outline,
the quartz is partly rounded, and occasionally embayed. The fels-
pars are more abundant than quartz, and occasionally have a
regular prihinatic outline, but more often are broken and irregular.
'Twinning after the albite law prevails, but occasional pericline and
■ Carlsbad types are represented. The twin lamellae vary from mode-
rately broad to fine bands. Different kinds of felspars appear there-
fore to be represented. Only a few were satisfactory for deter-
mination by extinction angle. These gave readings up to 20
■degrees, and are probably therefore andesine.

The oj^tical features of several examples suggest anorthoclase,
and the chemical analysis further points to some potash felspar,
which, however, has not been definitely recognised microscopically.
Magnetite is only moderately abundant. The base is micro- to
crypto-crystalline, with some evidence of recrystallisation and sili-
cification. Minute laths and fragments of felspars and quartz are
scattered through it.

Chlorite is sparsely distributed through the rock, and calcite is
present in moderate amount.

This rock is regarded as a quartz porpliyrite. No. 105 is a green-
ish porphyritic rock, but the chemical analysis corresponds closely
with that of the previous example.

The thin section is very similai-. Quartz plienocrysts are a little
jnore abundant, and some are Ixautifully cml>ayei]. The felspars

120 E. 0. Teale:

show a similar range and variety. One example has very minute-
pericline twinning, and may be anorthoelase.

Iron oxides are a little more plentiful; sume occur as very minute
grains abundantly scattered tlirough the rock. Con-oded xenolitlis
of both fine grained igneous and altered sedimentary rocks are
moderately numerous. There is an occasional flake of muscovite,
and little chlorite but no calcitt? was observed.

No. 93 may be portion of an agglomerate. It contains numerous
xenoliths, apparently all of igneous origin. One is an altered ande-
site, the others are red, fine grained felsitic rocks, stained with
hematite, and showing small, partly kaolinised felspar phenocrysts.
The rest of the rock is generally similar to the previous examples.
Some of the quartz is rounded, but only slightly embayed.

No. 91 is a specimen from the Dominion! copper mine, now aban-
doned. It is similar in grain, but lighter in colour than the other
examples described, but on exposure suffers a superficial red dis-
colouration, which appears to be due to the presence of some car-
bonate of iron. Otherwise the minerals present are similar. A
little copper pyrites is present in the dump, but as the shaft is full
of water, nothing could be seen as to the occurrence of the copper.

(^) iifi rtz-C erntoph !J re . — No. 68. — This I'ock is of medium grain,
porphyritic. but inclined to be granular in hand specimens, and
has a general grey colour. The analysis show a silica percentage of
72.41, very similar to that of the acid rocks generally of this dis-
trict, but in the alkalies there is a marked difference in that soda is
6.86 and potash only 0.13.

It is very closely comparable with certain rocks, described from
Navigation Creek, Noyang, by Howitt (32), under the names of
quartz-mica-porphyrite and quartz-porphyrite.

Reference to tlie table witli analysis will show the close resem-
blance.

Professor Skeats, in reviewing the volcanic rocks of Victoria (28,
p. 187). quotes Hewitt's analyses and gives some additional re-
marks on these rocks, desci'ibing them as quartz-ceratophyres. Re-
ferring to one example, he says, " This rock shoAvs a microcrystal-
line granular ground mass of quartz and felspar, with minute
microliths of chlorite, replacing probably ampliibole. The por-
phyritic constituents are as follows: —

Oligoclas... of an acid variety, showing both all>ite and carlsbad"
twinning. Quartz in corroded and fractured crystals and chlorite
pseudomorphs after magnesia-iron-mica."

Palaeozoic Geologij of Victoria. 121

The above description also concisely describes the features of No.
68. The occurrence of this rock in shown in Map 4, near the head
of one of the branches of Ii-onstone Creek. The outcrop, however,
is very limited, being partly surrounded by late Kainozoic sands and
graved.

The relationship to the igneous rocks of the district is not shown,
l)ut it is almost certainly later than the earliest members of the
Snowy liiver Series, which show here various stages of shearing
Avith the development of porphyroids. Some of these outcrop in the
stream bed a short distance below the ceratophyre.

From tJie chemical analysis of No. 68, applying the American
Classification, it is interesting to note that it falls into the persodic
Subrang, noyangose, of liparase, the per-alkalic Rang.(l) of
britannare, the quardofelic Order (4) of persalane. Class 1.

Analysis and Molecular Ratios and Classification.

SiO., - 72.41 - 1.207 - - Quartz - 29.28

A1.A - 14.38 - 0.141 - - Orthocla.se - 0.55

Ff-A - 2.94 - 0.018 - - Albite - 58.16

FeO - 0.85 - 0.012 - - Anorthite, - 3.33

MgO - 1.18 - 0.029 - - Corundum - 2.84

CaO - 0.87 - 0.015 - - Hyperstheue 2.90

Na.,0 - 6.86 - 0.110 - - Magnetite - 2.32

K.,6 - 0.13 - - - - llmeiiite - 0.45

H^,0-t- - 0.67 - - - - Hematite - 1.28

H.^0 - - 0.04

CO., - - - - . Class - - 1

TiO'., - 0.26 - 0.003 - - Order - 4

P„Oj - 01 7 - 0.001 - - Rang - - 1

m\i6 - 0.09 - 0.001 - - Subrang - 5

Total 100.85 Magmatic Name, Noyangose.

S.G. 2.63

Granite Eocl-x. — Only one small occurrence of granite- has been
noted in the area included in the map. It is limited to an exposure
of a few chains extent along the bed of one of the branches of the
Tara Creek, No. 98. On the west it is in contact with the frag-
mental igneous roi'ks of the Snowy River Series. No evidence of
contact alteration of these rocks was noted, nor . have any dykes
or offshoots of granitic rocks into them been observed. It is prob-
able, therefore, that the granite is the older rock. A much more
extensive outcrop of granite closely similar macroscopically, and in
thin sections also, occurs a few miles to the east of the Tambo River,

122 E. 0. Teale:

and th(e Bairnsdale-Orbost railway line intersects the southern end
of the mass, showing some good sections in one of the cuttings a
few miles east of Bruthen. The rock is of medium grain and pink
colour, closely resembling the better known Gabo Island granite,
with which it is most probably to be correlated genetically. At the
locality east of Bruthen, the granite intrudes sedimentary rocks,
presumably of Upper Ordovician age.

There is, therefore, no opportunity to study the relationship to
the volcanic rocks of the Snowy River Series.

Another occurrence lies to the east of the Tara Range in the vicin-
ity of the now deserted district of Bete Bolong. The granite here
takes the form of two elongate elliptical masses more or less parallel,
with their longer axes striking north easterly across the Snowy
River. The surrounding rocks are entirely sedimentary, again pre-
sumably Tapper Ordovician. This area was only very hurriedly
visited, at one place on the western margin. Two type^ were noted,
one a fine grained aplitic variety, and the other a distinctly horn-
blendic form without the prevailing pink colour of the types previ-
ously mentioned. Distinct contact alteration is shown in the sedi-
ments in the vicinity, characteristic hornfels being common. As
the area examined at Bete Bolong was very limited, it is impossible
to say wliether or not the position seen is typical of the whole of
the area.

Thin sections of the granite from all tlie above localities were
erxammed.

No. 98, Tara. Range, and that from near Bruthen, most nearly
resemble each other, but liornblende is most abundant in the Bete
Bolong example.

.They all agree in having at least three types of felspar — ortho-
clase and two triclinic forms; much of the felspar is partly kaolin-
ised, and, therefore, unsuitable for determining accurately the rela-
tive proportions, but approximately the monoclinic and tri-
clinic forms aj^pear to be about equal in amount. One triclinic
form is well zoned with moderately broad twinning, while a less
common type has exceptionally fine twinning, often of the pericline
type, and Avith undulose extinction, indicating probably anortho-
clase. The ferro-magnesian mineral is sparsely represented in No.
98, and in the Bruthen type. It is partly chloritized. but in the
former it is green hornblende, and in the latter it appears to 1>p a
greenish brown biotite. No analyses have been made of tliese rocks,
but it is probable that they would correspond fairly closely with

Palaeozoic Geologij of Victoria. 128

that of Gabo Island, falling therefore into the group of Victorian
alkali granites in contrast to the more calcic type of the grano-
diorites. An analysis of the Gabo Island granite is included in the
table for general comparison with those of the quartz-porphyrites
of the Tara Range, and the similarity chemically is vqry note-
■\vorthy.

With regard to the Snowy River Porphyries generally, much more
field work combined with chemical and petrological research is
necessary before any satisfactory coilclusions and generalisations
can bei made concerning many interesting petrological problems in
this area. It is a region which offers splendid scoj^e for future
research, and it is perhaps remarkable, as Professor Skeats has
already observed, that the late Dr. Howitt having done such valu-
able preliminary work in this series, never returned to it. For-
tunately, the collection of his rocks and thin slices, together with
his field notes, are in the possession of the University of Melbourne,
and it has been of considerable help in connection with certain petro-
logical points, to be able to compare my own slides with some of
those of Howitt's from adjacent areas.

It is clear, however, that compared with the very careful detailed
work, both chemical and petrological, given by Howitt to such areas
as Noyang, Swift's Creek, Omeo, etc., this region received very
scanty petrological attention, and most of the slides would seem
to be among some of his very earliest work in this direction, and
are often too thick or too much altered for. very satisfactory deter-
minatiion.

One of the most interesting j^oints, brought out as my own petro-
logical study of these rocks proceeded, was the predominance of
triclinic felspar among the phenocrysts of the acid porphyritic
rocks, especially as Howitt had emphasised the reverse, namely, that
monoclinic felspars prevailed. On referring, therefore, tq the par-
ticular slides, which he had mentioned in this connection, it was
clear that these early determinations of his required some correction
and qualification for all the identifiable phenocrysts Avere certainly
plagioclase. On account, however, of the decomposed state of the
rock, some of the felspars were too kaolinized for determination. An
important point, therefore, is raised, as to whether this feature con-
cerning the felspars applies to the porphyries of this series as a
whole. If so, then it may be possible to distinguisli petvologically
between these and certain other porphyries, macroscopically similar,
but belonging to the Upper Palaeozoic of the Wellington Series.

124

E. 0. Teale

Here again, however, many more sections require to be examined'
in order to deterniine whether in their case, as it would seem to-
be, the orthocbise felspar predominates.

Chemicfil Choracfern avd Pefro()ia pliical Heldfio/is/iijis. — Onlv a
few analyses are available, and from a limited area. These are all
of the acid rocks; none have yet been made of the andesitic types.

Makings use of the instructive variation tables given by Summers-
(•33, Fi*r. 3, p. 270), it is seen that th.e important types of Devonian

N' 8.

Brogger Diagrams

Dacife, Brdemar House. Mac'cd on.

(^SWcits ^nd Summers) '

G ranodionre , Br,iem>ir House,Mjcedon..

(^SKwts.inJ Summers),
N'i7.

Fiq 3.

Sfrinilc, GiSbo Island

(SiirnmerSj 33.)

Ffcj 4.

QudrL'-Porph^nte^Tfirji R<inqe
^^Spcc.ioo. ,/ln<il..Thielel

Fia 5.

Rhyohre, M'^Wellinofon
( Anal .Thicltr)

Qudrlz-Cerafophyrc , Nowj Now.^.
(Spec,63.Awl-ThiEle)

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 125'

igneous rocks, phitonic and voluanic, confonii closely to the graplis
with the Dacites at the least acid end, and the granites of Galx),
Woolamai, etc., at tlie other end.

Tlie quartz porphyrites of the Tara Range are found to occupy a
position corresponding very closely with that of the Gabo Island
granite, and as has been shown petrographically, it is with a granite
of this type that they appear to be associated.

It Avould appear, therefore, that the acid rocks of the Snowj' River
Series belong to an acid alkali province, in contrast to the acid
sub-alkali province, to which the dacites and grano-diorites belong,
but all conforming to a normal variation curve.

It would be further interesting to consider the position and rela-
tionshii^ of- the andesites, but these rocks are much altered and de-
composed, and. so far, no specimens suitable for analysis have been
obtJained.

It is worthy of note also that porphyries and rhyolites of the
Wellington Series form again a more acid series than those of the
Snowy River.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

SiO.,

- 72.55 -

73.41 -

71.68 -

70 51 -

72.41 -

72.39 -

72.49-

Al.,0.,

- 11.74 -

12.30 -

13 57 -

14.36 -

14.38 -

14.42 -

13 48

Fe,03

- 2.54 -

209 -

1.28 -

0.33 -

2.94 -

0.56 -

1.16-

FeO

- 0.46 -

2.13 -

1.94 -

1.95 -

0 85 -

0.30 -

2.09-

MgO

- 0.68 -

0.14 -

1.37 -

1.08 -

1.18 -

1.85 -

0.49-

CaO

- 1.85 -

1.08 -

1.88 -

2.98 -

0.87 -

0 85 -

1.31

Na^O

- 3.46 -

3.71 -

2.22 -

3.17 -

6.86 -

5,93 -

3 38

K.,0

- 4.41 -

4.04 -

3.87 -

3.15 -

0.13 -

1.23 -

4.06

H..O-H

- 0.41 -

1.51 -

1.24 -

1.18 -

0.67 -

1.13 -

0.76-

H^O-

- 0.06 -

0.10 -

0.29 -

—

0.04 -

— -

0.18

co..

- 1.80 -

—

0.08 -

nil -

nil -

—

tr.

Tid,

- 0.175-

0.16 -

0.33 -

1.20 -

0.26 -

—

0.46

PoP„

- 0.14 -

tr. -

0.03 -

0.12 -

0.17 -

tr.

—

"NTiO

0 08 -

MnO

— -

— -

0.13 -

V/.Vy«j

0.09 -

0.01 -

0.13

100.27 100.67 100.11 100.85 98.67 99.99-

1. Quartz Porphyrite, No. lOU, Mt. Tara Ramg^e.

— Analyst E. O. Teale.

2. Quartz Porphyritie, No. 105, Mt. Tara Rang-e.

—Analyst E. O. Teale.
.3. Quartz Porphyry, Federal Territory.

—Analyst A. G. Hall.

4. Quartz Porphyrite, Violet Town, Strathbogie Eange.

— 'Analyst G. Ampt.

5. Quartz Ceratophyre, No. 68, Nowa Nowa.

— -Analyst E. 0. Teale.

6. Quartz Ceratophyre, Navig-ation Creek, Noyang.

— Analyst A. W. Howitt.

7. Granite, Gabo Island.

— -Analyf/t J. Watson.

1126 E. 0. Teale:

Economic Minerals. — The following minerals are known to occur
in the rocks of this region : —

1. Gold.

2. Copper Pyrites.

3. Argentiferous Galena.

4. Iron minerals (Hematite andt Liraonite).

5. Manganese Minerals (Pyrolusite, etc.)

6. Barytes.

Most of the mining has been done in connection with gold. With
most of the others only a few shallow excavations, with an occasional
shaft have been opened up. Very little can be said with regard
either to their geological occurrence or economic possibilities, for
the reason that most of the shafts are inaccessible, and in other cases
the opening up has been far too limited to enable any reliable
■opinion to be formed.

The position of these occurrences is shown on the map. Hematite
would appear to be chiefly if not entirely restricted to the " Snowy
River Porphyries." Two forms have been noted, a micaceous
variety, widely distributed in the southern portions, and a mas-
•sive hematite. 'J'he largest outcrop of this nature was: at locality
Fe 20, about six and a quarter miles north from Nowa Nowa.

Analyses of some of these ores are given in some of the Annual
Reports of the Mines Department, some of them indicating ore of
good quality, but insufficient work appears to have been done to
'determine even approximately the quantity of ore available. The
same observation holds with regard to the manganese ores. The.se
•occur at the northern end of this region (Loc. M, Specimen 104),
and are at the junction of the porphyry, with the overlying lime-
stone series, and from the material exposed in the dump it would
appear that they occur in the calcareous and ferruginous shales
;associated with that series.

Barytes is widely distributed in the poi'phyry, and is very com-
;mon in the hills close to Beechers, Canni Creek, where there are a
few shallow excavations. Most of it is iron-stained, but some good
white material can be seen at Ba II. (Specimens 13 and 74.) A
small open cut here shows an irregular occurrence of Barite in
thin veins and small masses replacing the decomposed porphyry.

Argentiferous galena occurs both in the limestone series and in

the porphyry. Some prospecting Avork was in progress at the

, ■" Tara Crown," during the time of my visit, where there appeared

to be a well-defined fissure lode traversing decomposed felsitic rocks

iin a N.N.E. direction.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 127'

Locality A, 19. — Yellow Water Holes Creek is the position of the
long-abandoned " Good Hope Silver Mine." The shaft here pene-
trates calcareous fossiliferous middle Devonian shales.

Middle Devonian.
The Limestone Series. — Very little time was devoted to this
series. An important area, however, composed of these rocks, occurs
in the northern portion of this region, and is continuous with that
in the vicinty of Buclian. The general' features of these rocks have
been well described by Howitt (3, 4 and 5), and the age is definitely
fixed by the fossils as Middle Devonian.

Associated with the limestones are calcareous shales, and the'
whole series is in general gently folded, though some instances ot
high dip are to be noted. Howitt described these limestones as
being laid down in troughs and basins in the Snowy Eiver Porphvr
ries, into which they have in many cases been further let down by
trough faults. General erosion of the present cycle, and probably
also that of an earlier period acting unequally on the limestones
and surrounding porphyries has resulted partially in developing
important basins, more or less conciding in position with some of
those of Palaeozoic times in which the Middle Devonian limestones
were laid down. Two basins of these types occur in this region.
One is the wide, flat valley of the Ti Tree Creek, surrounded by
ridges of porphyry and older rocks, save on the northern side, and
the other is a narrower valley" to the west, that of the Yellow
Water Holes Creek.

It is interesting to note that small residual Devonian limestone'
occurrences outcrop in both these valleys partly buried beneath
gravels sands and clay of late Kainozoic age. These are represented
in Section 9. The trough faulting is assumed as probable from
general considerations.

It is on the southern end of the large limestone area on a branch
of the Tara Creek, in Mr. A. McRae's property, that the new Com-
monwealth Marble Quarry is situated.

Kaiiiozoic.
These deposits are of considerable interest in that they throw
some light on physiographical cycles preceding the present one.
Their features will only be briefly referred to here. They arc
broadly divisable into three groups —

(a) A loAver series of marine beds.

(b) An upper series of fluviatile beds.

(c) Basalt.

128 E. 0. Teale :

Buth (a) and (b) are to be seen iu some fine sections in the cut-
ting of the new Bairnsdale-Orbost railway line.

I he Marine beds so far noted consist of cream coloured sandy
limestones and marls similar to the Baivnsdale Series, and j^robably
Janjukian in age. These deposits can he traced from the coast to
the head of Lake Tyers, where they are ferruginous, but further
south along the lake cliffs the characteristic limestones are well
developed. Several small outcrops are exposed in the railway line
between Nowa Nowa and the Snowy Kiver. But it is at the latter
locality along the cliffs overlooking the river flats from the western
side, that the finest sections are exposed. The railway cuttings here
reveal cream coloured horizontally l>e(lded limestones underlying
heavy fluviatile gravels and beds of water-worn boulders.

The various sections have not l>een closely studied in order to
determine whether or not the later marine beds of Kalimnan age are
represented, but there are some coarsely bedded ferruginous grits,
probably of shallow water marine origin, which may belong to this
series. They appear to be unconformably overlaid by the later
fluviatile beds.

So far as is known, all the marine beds in this region occur at
less than 200 feet above sea level, and do not extend inland more
than about twelve miles in a straight line from the coast. This
limit approximately marks the position of the early Kainozoie coast
line, and corresponds closely to the soutliern margin of the High-
lands in this region.

Fluviatile Deposits. — Ihe.'^e overlie the uppei'inost marine Ijeds,
and are therefore late Kainozoic. ])ut as no fossils have been
found in them, their age cannot be definitely fixed. They are gene-
rallv regarded, hoAvever, on pliysiographical giounds as represent-
ing an important Pleistocene cycle of erosion. It is almost certain
though, that some of these deposits are older, particularly those
Avhich occupy ancient drainage lines in the Highlands, beneath lava
flows of basalt. In general, hoAvever, most of these fluviatile deposits
may probably safely be regarded as Pleistocene.

Ihey form an extensive superficial sheet of material, ranging
from fine gravels and sandy clays to deposits of large water-worn
boulders, the latter providing a very interesting miscellaneous col-
lection of igneous and sedimentary rocks, among which various
kinds of porphyries are abundant. They range in height from
fifty to several hundred feet above the present river beds, and are
found rising in the soutliern portion of the highlands to at least
'800 feat above sea level.

Palaeozoic Geolog;/ of Victoria.

129

They are to Le correlated with a very general period of great
fluviatile activitj' in Pleistocene times in Australia.

Immediately to the west of the Tara Range in the northern part
of Maj3 4, there is an -extensive basin drained partly to tlie soutli
by Ti-Tree Creek, and to the north into the Buclian River, by the
Tara Creek. (See Block Diagram, No. 10.) Remains of a partly-
denuded sheet of Upper Kainozoic sands, gritaf and gravels are here
_preserved at altitudes rising to about SCO feet above sea level, and
resting on a floor varying from Ordovician sediments to Devonian
porphyry and limestone.

In general, however, they Avould appear to have filled in a basin
corresponding in position to an ancient Devonian one, in which
the Middle Devonian limestones were laid down, almost entirely
burying them. Erosion of the present cycle has again partly laid
bare the limestones, especially in the basin of the Tara Creek.

Basalt. — This rock has been observed only in the nortli-
western corner of this region, in the vicinity of South Buchan,
while passing along the coach road to Buchan, but its extent and
character have not been observed. It is most probably to be corre-
lated with tlie basalt referred to by Howitt, as occurring at Gelan-
tipy and the Buchan River, further north, and classed by him as
" Newer Volcanic."

Palaeozoic Earth History.

From the desiciiptive sections now concluded, dealing wdth two
widely separated areas in Gippsland, Avhich, however, are but very
small fragments of the whole region, it will be seen that the Palaeozoic
history provides a long succession of events, full of interesting
structural, petrological, and other problems about which, however,

M'M'Uori

Buchan R

130 E. 0. Teale:

our knowledge is so fragmentary that at the best, our ideas can only
be largely conjectural. It may, nevertheless, be stimulating to fur-
ther research to attempt to formulate some picture of the earth
history of this ancient era.

It will be seen that the same area along the Mansfield-Wellington
belt, marks the site successively of marine deposition in Upper
Cambrian, Upper Ordovician and Silurian times, with probable
intervening periods of sub-aerial denudation. The Cambrian rocks
also indicate contemporaneous volcanic action of a basic nature, the
extent of which is unknown. Devonian times were ushered in with
the outbreak of great igneous activity, the greatest volcanic period
of Palaeozoic times in this part of Australia. Rocks of this age,
however, are better developed in certain other parts of Victoria.
This region was then mainly a land area, for the volcanic accumu-
lations appear to have been almost entirely sub-aerial. Whether
marine conditions supervened here as they did along the Snowy
River belt is not known, for no Middle Devonian limestones have yet
been recognised, but in late Devonian or early Lower Carboniferous
times, a large trough, at least 100 miles long and possibly fifty
miles wide was developed and occupied by a fresh water lake. The
early lacustrine sedimentation which was thus initiated was accom-
panied in its early stage by energetic volcanic activity, both effusive
and exi^losive, and of a highly acidic nature. Long after this
rhyolitic outburst had ceased, and as deposition proceeded, there
were successive outpourings of basic lavas, mostly of no great thick-
ness, and these in turn became covered with later sediments l>elong-
ing to the same period.

The succession along the Snowy River is less complete. No Cam-
brian, Silurian, or Lower Carboniferous sediments are known, but
the volcanic accumulations of Lower Devonian times indicate very
great igneous activity, which was succeeded by marine invasion in
Middle Devonian into basins and troughs in the " Snowy River
Porphyries.''

The history recorded in these zones implies a sequence of powerful
earth movements of various kinds to be discussed later. Even a
casual look at the geological map of Victoria reveals a general sub-
parallelism of the Palaeozoic formations,, with a prevailing northly
trend, and a little clo?er investigation indicates that certain belts
have had a more varied history, therefore implying zones of greater
unrest or instability, along which movements, also in some cases,.
igneous activities, have been periodically repeated. It has been-

. Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 131

shown that the Mansfield-Wellington belt has had a particularly
varied history, and it contrasts strongly with the belt to the east,,
whicli is almost entirely Ujiper Ordovician, and which we may call
the Dargo-Ovens zone. To the west, on the other hand, the-
rcK.-ks are chiefly Silurian, overlying Upper Ordovician. With
regard to the eastern limits of this area, it is perhaps significant
that it corresponds closely with the Cambrian outcrop in the Wel-
lington district, and also the Howqua-Mansfield and Dookie locali-
ties fartlier norih, in the vicinity of which rocks doubtfully re-
ferred to as the Heathcotian Series occur; while on the western side
forming the boundary in part, between a Lower Ordovician region
to the west, there is the important Mt. William-Colbinabbin line
of Heathcotian rocks. These boundaries, or geological frontiers,
may, therefore, represent certain critical lines in the past earth,
history, along which the struggle for mastery between conflicting^
earth forces has been repeatedly renewed and fought out.

Successive Distribution of Land and Water.

In considering the piobable distribution of land and water
throughout Palaeozoic times, we c'an only be guided by the known
outcrops of the various formations, and fresh discoveries at any
time are liable to modify our views, but the sub-parallel arrange-
ment and the restriction of particular formations to certain belts
or areas strongly suggest a successive alternation of land and
water, which might be brought about by a long continued progres-
sive Avave-like undulation of the earth's crust.

If we consider a succession of east and west sections through Vic-
toria during the Palaeozoic history, representing them diagram-
matically to show the relative position of land and water, certain
interesting features are brought out. (Diagram No. 11.)

With regard to the Cambrian times, our knowledge is far too-
fragmentary to enable us to form any reliable conception of the area
of the sea of that period, but the pre-Cambrian rocks of Western
A'ictoria may have formed the western limit, while on the east it
may have been the belt of crystalline rocks of thd Omeo zone, though
there is some doubt as to whether these rocks are really Archaean
or altered! Ordovician.

At any rate, a probable view that seems reasonable would repre-
sent a wide Cambrian sea, occupying the greater part of the now
dry land of Victoria, with ancient land masses in the east and the-
west (Diagram No. 11, Fig. 1).

Practically all the Cambrian rocks of Victoria so far known repre-
sent accumulations of submai'ine volcanic material of the nature of

132

E. 0. Teaie :

basic lavas and tuffs, the latter often admixed in part with fine
normal sediment. The nature of the deposits, while not suggesting
speciall}' deep-water conditions, would favour the view that they
accumulated over a sea floor at some distance from a shore line.
The cherts and tuffs are of a uniform and fine nature, possessing
none of the special features expected in those deposited under lit-

MfLBDURNt'

Up[j£r "Cambrian Sta

Wellikciom

3NI1VVY niV£K

Lower Ordovician Sea

N° 3
_^ Siluridn Sea ^

yy///

Z^//V///&

y/y

yy^T ,

'/PTTTy/,'

N" 4

Lov/tr Devonian Land Arw in& Terrestrial Volc<\noes

N? 6.

Loner Carbomrtrous
Lft(U5lrin< B<^sins

N^ 1i.

0 laqram of Successive Palaeozoic Bdsin^

toral conditions. The advent of OrdoYieiau time« does not appear
to have been marked bv any break in deposition, but the sediments,
still of a fine uniform nature, became more normal, for submarine
volcanic activity had come to an end. The distribution of land
and water remained much the same, and the succession on the whole,
therefore, is probably a conformable one, but local gaps in the
record appear to occur, notably in the Wellington area, where
Upper Cambrian is in contact with Upper Ordovician. Elsewhere
— as at Lancefield and Heathcote — it is impossible to determine
•closely where Cambrian ends and O.dovician begins.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 133

The existing geological map of Victoria shows a striking restric-
rtion of Lower Ordovician rocks to a region lying to the west of a
line approximating to the meridian of Melbourne, which would sug-
gest an important contraction of the sea at the close of Cambrian
times. Later investigations, however, indicate that this is more
apparent than real.

Prof. Skeats (40) has shown that a large area in the Mornington
Peninsula, originally regarded as Silurian, must now be included
in the Lower Ordovician.

Several inliers of Lower Ordo^^-ician rocks are now known in the
Jieart of the Silurian region as far east as the Mansfield district,
approximately ninety miles to the east of the Melbourne meridian,
and as very large tracts of the mountainous country in the eastern
highlands of Victoria are very imj^erfectly explored geologically, it
is probable that other occurrences may be revealed in the future.
It is unsafe, therefore, in the light of our imperfect knowledge to
generalise too positively on the distribution of land and water in
early/ Palaeozoic times. Li general, however, it would appear that
there was a progressive restriction of the marine basin through
Lower Palaeozoic to the close of Silurian.

In the sections therefore (Diagram. 11), the relative position and
extent of the successive basins are merely represented tentatively,
summarising our existing knowledge of the palaeogeography of this
Ttegion.

In Upper Ordovician times a marked narrowing of the PaUi.eo-
zoic basin appears to have taken jilace, for no Upper Ordovician
rocks have yet been found to the west of the Melbourne meridian.
'The sea may have then occupied tw'o basins partly separated by the
Omeo crystalline belt. (Diagram, 11, Fig. 3.)

The next event was again a considerable restriction of marine
•area, di-'awing the Silurian Sea into a central basin corresponding
to the western part of the Upper Ordovician Sea. It is not clear
whether complete land conditions intervened before the Silurian
Sea reoccupied the site of the western portion of that of the Upper
'Ordovician. The evidence of uncoformability is not conclusive
everywhere. (Diagram 11, Fig. 4.) The advent of LoAver Devonian
"times was marked by the disappearance of marine conditions alto-
gether, and the outbreak of extensive terrestrial volcanic activitv,
accompanied also by widespread plutonic disturbances and eartli
movements. The dacites. porphyrites, granodiorites, and " Snowv
River Series," and possibly also the normal granites belong to this

134 E. 0. Teale:

period. The sea never again transgressed in Palaeozoic times to-
the extent of the early marine basins. (Diagram 11, Fig. 5.) In.
Middle Devonian times, the last marine deposits were formed in the-
restricted basins or troughs in Eastern Victoria, which were de-
pressed below saa level, and were partly filled by limestone and cal-
careous shales.

The region of the depression coincided closely with that occupied,
by the volcanic zone of the Snowy River Series (Diagram 11, Fig.
6). The conditions of late Devonian and early Carboniferous were
essentially terrestrial, but were accompanied by the development of
several lacustrine basins, the greatest of which was the great Mans-
field-Wellington trough, and as previously indicated, the early sedi-
mentation was accompanied by rhyolitic effusions, and, later, by
basic lava flows. (Diagram 11, Fig. 7.)

Ti/pes of Earth Movements.

The general trend of all these Palaeozoic basins appears to have-
been northerly, and the type of crust movement which most reasou'
ably explains the succession of basins, parallel, but lat-erally shifted
or restricted, is the conception of a slow wave-like undulation of the
earth's crust, the basin being reciprocal feature of the adjacent
land mass. It is possible to pictui-e a prolonged progres-
sive movement of tliis type to proceed with or without marked-
compressional or tangential movement. In the first case, the beds
of each successive formation would become highly folded, and in
the latter only slightly so. The idea does not preclude the pos-
sibility of psriods of a much augmented rate, with important
fractures and displacements.

An alternative view would be to consider the formation of a suc-
cession of basins such as here described, as being due mainly to the'
differential movement of great blocks or earth segments along fault
planes, certain areas being alternately lifted and lowered. The
whole structure of the Palaeozoic rocks, however, favours the first
view, but it does not exclude the possibility and even the probability
of a certain amount of faulting and block movement as well, and
it would seem that as the Palaeozoic era drew to a close, after the
great Devonian convulsion, though the fold movement still pre-
dominated, that of the block type became more pronounced, and'
finally prevailed throughout Mesozoic and Kaino^oic. times.

If the regional distribution of calcic and alkali igneous rock is
definitely related to fold and fault movement respectively as Harker
has contended, then in areas where both these types may have actedl

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 135

leither successively or simultaneously, it ^vould be reasonable to ex-
pect complex and apparently anomalous results with regard to the
.associated igneous activity. Summers (33) has reviewed the rela-
.tionships of igneous rocks tO' earth movements in Victoria, and has
opened up an extremely interesting, but very debatable subject.
He has, however, shown that it is impossible to apply Harker's
.generalisation. It is practically certain that if the various geologists
who are sufficiently familiar with the local geology were to attempt
±0 make out a picture of the Palaeozoic history with special refer-
ence to the associated earth movements, they would differ consider-
ably in important details. One or two events, however, stand out
very clearly, and it is probable that all would agree with the view
that the opening of the Devonian epoch was marked by most ener-
getic earth folding, which intensely crumpled all the already folded
pre-existing formations.

As Summers pointed out, the dominant movement was of tlie
Ijacific type along north and south fold lines, but was it accom-
panied by great volcanic and plutonic activity, as has generally
been believed 1 It would i-ather aj^pear that the igneous phase,
though related with this great crustal disturbance, lagged behind
somewhat, otherwise, Ave might reasonably expect to find a definite
linear arrangement or relationship of the igneous rocks, with some
of the major fold lines. This is far from the general rule, how-
lever, in fact it is only in the case of tho " Snowy River Porphyries "
that a meridional arrangement is apparent. All the other occur-
rences appear to be distributed in a very irregular manner. Fur-
ther, the volcanic deposits would appear to rest unconformably on
the upturned edges of the older rocks. It appears to be the except
tion that the ash beds are intensely folded with the older l)eds.

Summers (33) has also discussed the question of the Heathcotian
■diabases and earth movement, and favours the idea that the basic
-eruptions and submarine tuffs of the Heathcotian Series are more
•easily explained as accompanying fault action rather than fold
movement. It must be admitted, however, that the evidence is very
scanty and indefinite, and is open to be interpreted in either way.
The area exposed is far too limited, and the structure too imperfectly
known to enable any satisfactory criticism to be made.

The Granite Batholiths and their Relation to Palaeozoic Structure.
No account of Palaeozoic liistory would be complete without
some special reference to tlie abundant granite masses which pene-
trate the Lower Palaeozoic sediments.

136 E. 0. Teale :

Petrologically, they fall into two groups — (1) the sub-alkali group.-
-of gjraiiodiQ^'i'tes, (2) ,the group oi alkaline granites. Regarding,
their age, they are here on pstrological grounds all considered as
Lower Doyoniaji, but the alkaline granites have been sometimes
referred to as probably older, mainly because they have nowhere
yet been noted intruding Silurian sediments. All attempts so far
to correlate the occurrence and distribution of these rocks with
definite structure lines have been unsatisfacftory.

The various masses are very irregular, both with regard to out-
line and distribution. When elo.ngate or elliptical in shape, their
longer axes just as often as not, are at right angles to the fold lines;
of the ancient rocks. Their contacts have not been exhaustively
examined, but in many of the important instances they truncate
the strata they invade, and no satisfactory linear or other distribu-
tion of the various outcrops has been recognised.

Professor Gregory, in his Geography of Victoria (34), attemjited
to link up certain granite laasses to form the roots of what he-
termed the .Primitive Mountain Chain, having a general east-north-
east trend; and a still more fragmentary line to the south, more or
less parallel, he named the Bunurong Range.

The gpoijiping of the granite areas in this way appears to have
little to support it, even from a linear arrangement, and far less
from any structural consideration, as T. S. Hart has already
pointed out (35).

Howitt (3-2) long ago recognised the importance of the factor of
the assimilajtion of sediment and other rt>cks by a plutonic magma,
a view which has received spec-ial emphasis and elaboration more
recently by Daly.

This idea has received some supjiort with regard to Victorian
granite and allied rocks, from the observations of Howitt (32), Hart
(35), Skeats and Summers (2'7), and Junner (38).

The petrolngical evidence in support of the idea is still very
scanty, but structurally and othei'wise it seems to 25i"Ovide tlie best
conception o-f the great development of gi'anite batholiths and tlieir
distribution in Victoria.

Pitch Along Anticliunl Lhies.

This structural feature is one of great importance in the con-
sideratian of Palaeozoic geology in Victoria. E-very area that has
been closely studied has emphasised the importance of its bearing
on the general structure, and it frequently also demands carefid
consideration in connection with the development of mining opera-
tions on the gold fields. The systematic Avork of the Geological Sur-
vey has added much to our knowledsfe concerning this feature iir

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 187

practically all the important goldfields, but little is known with re-
gard to it in most other regions.

There are various questions which arise when it is made a subject
for careful consideration, and two of these perhaps, stand upper-
most—

(1) Ihe age or geological epoch, when it was impressed upon

the Palaeozoic formation.

(2) The dominant factor or factors contributing to its develop-

ment.
Very few opinions have been expressed concerning this subject.

The late Dr. T. S. Hall (39) apparently associated its development
witix the movements which led to the uplifting of the existing high-
Lands and formation of the Main Divide. This would imply a veiy
late Kainozoic age. Its direction, however, appears to be too in-
consistent and variable to be associated fundamentally Avith a move-
ment which was essentially that of block movement.

T.S. Hart (35) has discussed the question and suggests a number
of probable causes which are worth tabulating : —

(1) The making and dying away of individual folds.

(2) Local disturbances as a fault affecting a small area.

(3) Varying intensity of folding from place to place.

(4.) Transverse folding, simultaneous or subsequent to the main
folding.

(5) Settlement of an imperfectly supported area over an invad-

ing granite.

(6) Subsequent tilting or transverse warping of folded blocks.
The above factors are all clearly competent to produce the results

tinder discussion, and when it is considered that they may all have
repeatedly contributed towards this end through past geological his-
tory, it becomes a com23l'ex problem to endeavour to apply anything
approaching a definite statement with regard to its age and
origin.

Hart, however, would apparently restrict the main period of
development to Palaeozoic times, and this is a view; most consistent
with general tectonic considerations. It is unsafe to lay down any
hard and fast conclusions with regard to this feature generally; each
area will have to be considered carefully in detail wdth due regard
to local and general tectonic disturbances, but one cannot help
being impressed with tlie possible favourable conditions produced
by the great batholithic disturbances of Devonian times, especially
if Daly's conception of magmatic stoping and associated down-

138 E. 0. Tnde:

warping of ovei'lying areas be regarded, as tlie most favourable ex-
planation oi' the mechanism of such an important petrogenic phase
in earth history.

The Relation of the Di/he Rocks and Quartz Reefs to Structure
and Earth Mo re me tits.

It has long been recognised in Victoria that many of the impor-
tant gold-bearing reefs can be grouped along certain more or less
parallel zones, with a northerly trend, and separated by other belts
of non-productive reefs or marked by the absence of reefs alto-
gether. Most of the Victorian reefs (excepting the Bendigo and
Castlemaine fi<^lds) occupy definite fissures, or are associated with
igneous dykes which have intriided fracture lines. The bearing of
these occurrences in general is northerly, parallel with axial lines
of folding.

The age of the great reef formation is generally believed to have
been Devonian, and genetically associated with the granitic intru-
sions of that epoch.

One belt in particular, is worthy of mention, illustrating very
well the features above mentioned ; najnely, the Walhalla-Woods
Point Zone. Tlie prevalence of dykes, frequently of a diorite type,
and auriferous reefs along this zone, is in contrast to their absence
in the country to the west and east. Other such instances might be
mentioned. There are also non-auriferfius zones, where fractures,
faults or dykes are common, about wliich, however, little is known
with regard to their age and distribution. Many of these may not
be Palaeozoic, and these are therefore not included in the present
•disicussi'on.

It would appear from the consideration of the above that one
phase of the i^reat Devonian tectonic and igneous disturliance
found expression in the development of lines of fracture, with a
■definite northerly trend along certain zones, and their infilling
with igneous dykes and quartz reefs. The geological study ofi' these
■areas has so far not revealed anything to suggest that these frac-
ture lines can be regarded as planes of great differential movement
on either side of which important earth blocks or segments were dis-
located. They would appear rather to indicate zones of tension
due to crustal adjustment, accompanying the folding and l)atho-
lithic intrusion/ of that period".

The Fracture Line of the S/iovi/ R'ver Porjj/ii/ries.

As indicated previously, this zone is the only one where the occur-
rence of certain igneous rocks other than dykes of the Devonian

Falaeozoic Geology oj Victoria. 139

period corresiDends closely with the general direction of the Palaeo-
zoic trend lines. This arrangement led Howitt to postulate the
idea that the volcanoes of this epoch were disposed along a meri-
dional fissure, and though the actual position of the sites of these
ancient volcanic vents still remains to be located, the view certainly
offers the most- probable explanation of the features as a whole.

This zone would appear also to have been successively fractured
at later periods. .The occurrence of the iron ores appears to be asso-
ciated with one of these lines. The marked shearing re-
sulting in the production of porphyroids is another phase, and
the origin of the basins in which the limestones occur, though per-
haps referable mainly to warping and erosion, may possibly be asso-
ciated also with some trough faulting. Howitt has also referred to
certain persistent features along the eastern side of the Snowy
River Porphyries, coinciding with the valley of the Snowy River,
suggesting the existence of a powerful meridional fault. Other
parallel faults coinciding with the Limestone Creek and Buchan
River are also suggested. (3, p. 1S9.)

The age, however, of these fault and fracture lines, and, in fact,
their exact position also, is very indefinite. Some may be post-
Palaeozoic, and it is even probable that if not originating in Kaino-
zoic times, the plateau building period that produced the existing
highlands has caused' renewed movement along some of these major
fauJbs.

The undulations a.nd' gentle folding of the Middle Devonian lime-
stones show that tho fold movement, though less intense than in
earlier times, still continued, and the same feature is shown by the
structure of the Upper Palaeozoic rocks of the Wellington region.

Summary.

The principal features to be emphasised as a result of the con-
sideration of the areas under discussion may be briefly/ enumerated
.as follows. —
1. WdliJKjton District.

(1) The general structure of the Wellington-Dolodrook region

is anticlinal, passing from a broad, simple fold in the
case of the uppermost rocks to' complex repeated folding
in the case of the underlying old rocks.

(2) The periods of folding have been renewed from time to time,

possibly on four successive occasions, but the trend of all
the fold lines has persisted in a tolerably constant direc-
tion, varying between north-west and north-north-west.

140 E. O. Teecle:

(3) Denudation of the existing cycle has developed to such an

extent that a complex inlier is exposed, consisting of
a core of Cambrian rocks enveloped successively by
Upper lOrdovician, Silurian and Upper Palaeozoic sedi-
ments.

(4) The Upper Palaeozoic strata are of lacustrine origin, and

those of the other periods are marine. The Cambrian
limestones liave yfelded a definite series of trilobites, and
a-re i.nterbedded in basic tuffs. The Upper Ordovician
rocks are black slates, chertified in part, and they con-
tain aibundant typical graptolites. The Silurian rocks-
have so far only yielded crinoid remains.

(5) Igneous activity is represented in two and probably three,

distinct periods if we consider the district as a whole, in-
cluding the Upper Palaeozoic rocks as far as Mansfield.
'The Cambrian series contains a pre-Upper Cambrian ser-
pentine, with chromite and corundum derived from peri'
dotite and pyroxenite rocks, and the Upper Cambriart
•contains bas.ic tuffs. Volcanic rocks of the nature of ]X)r-
phyrites allied to dacites occur in the King River Valley,
and others, mainly of an andesitic nature, on Fullarton's
'Spur, in the IMacallister Valley. These are probably
Lower Devonian. The basal portions of the Upper
Palaeozoic (Lower Carboniferous), contain thick beds of
rhyolite, and acid pyroclastic deposits. Higher up in
the series there is a succession of basaltic flows (mela-
phyres) interbedded with the sediments.

(6) Special structural features are noted along the Macallister

valley, where the Uj^per Palaeozoic rocks, normally dip-
ping at a low ,a,ngle, are here frequently highly inclined,
and an important fault line is recognised, appi'oximating
in position to that of the Macallister Valley, and bear-
ing, therefore, in a N.N.W. direction.
2. The District of Xova Xou/t.

(1) The cherts and jaspers of the region have been examined
with regard to age and the origin. All the cherts ob-
served are altered slates, and are regarded as Upper
Ordovician. Definite graptolites have been found in
. some of them. The red jaspers are often associated
with micaceous hematite, and are found chiefly in the
porphyroid belt of the " Snowy River Series," and are-

Palaeozoic Geilogy oj Victoria. 141

therefore Lower Devonian. They appear to be metaso-
maticallv altered igneous rocks, varying from andesitic
to more acid types. Tliough widespread in their dis-
tribution, each occurrence appears to be small in ex-
tent.

(2) The oldest sediments in this region are regarded as Upper

Ordovician. Definite graptolites were found in four
distinct localities, and there does not appear to be any
valid reason, structural or lithological, to justify the
separation of any of the non-fossiliferous portions from,
those yielding graptolites.

(3) Ihe igneous series known as the Snowy River Porphyries,

is regarded as Lower Devonian, and rests uncomform-
ably on the Upper Ordovician sediments. The chief
additions to previous knowledge concerning this exten-
sive igneous belt are : —

(a) Tlie recognition of porphyroids.

(b) Finely stratified ash beds.

(c) The occurrence of tracliytic and andesitic rocks.

(d) The fact that the so-called quartz-porphyries are

really quartz-porphyrites, triclinic felspar pre-
dominating. Two analyses of this type are
given,
(c) A soda rich tyjie is described as a quartz-cerato-
phyre. Both microscopically and chemically it
is shown to be closely similar to certain rocks
described by Howitt from Xoyang, as quartz-
porphyrites, and later referred to by Skeats
as ceratophyres.
(f) The chemical characters and petrographical re-
lationships of the igneous rocks are discussed,
and it is shown that the porphyi-ites are genetic-
ally related to the alkali granites, which are
characteristic of this part of Victoria.
Making use of a variation diagram to compare tiie
various acid igneous rocks of Victoria, it is seen that
the quartz-porphyrites of the Tara Range, and the alka-
line granite of Gabo Island, etc., conform closely to
the graphs occupying the opposite end to that of the
dacites and granodiorites. It would appear, therefore,
that the acid rocks of the Snowy River Series belonfr tc

142 E. 0. Teale:

an acid alkali province, in contrast to the acid sub-alkali
province to which the dacites and grano-diorites belong,
but conforming to a normal variation curve.
■3. Under the heading of Palaeozoic Earth History, the following
'.featuresi are discussed : —

(1) Successive distribution of Land and Water.

(2) Types of Earth Movements.

,(3) Granite Batholiths and their Relation to Palaeozoic Struc-
ture.

(4) Pitch along Anticlinal Lines.

(5) Relation' of Dyke Rocks and Quartz Reefs to general struc-

ture and Eartli Movements.

(6) The Fractui-e line of tlie " Snowy River Porphyries."

A succession of Palaeozoic basins of sedimentation, with a gene-
ral northerly trend appears to be recognisable.' These have varied
in position and extent from period to period.

They have overlapped in certain instances, while in others they
appeal' to have been laterally shifted, a land area taking the place
■of the basin of an earlier period, and vices versa.

The resultant formations have nevertlieless a general parallel
arrangement.

This succession of basins, jiaralU'l, but laterally shifted or re-
stricted, is thought to be best explained by the conception of a slow
wave-like undulation of the earth's crust, the basins being the
reciprocal feature of the adjacent land mass. The basin would,
therefore, be regarded as of the type of a geo-syncline. Block
movement, though not excluded entirely, is regarded of minor im-
portance during this era. The most intense folding was pre-
Devonian. The great granite batholiths, though belonging to the
active Devonian period of tectonic and igneous disturbances, show
much irregularity of shape and distribution, and also a discordance
with strike and fold lines. It is considered tliat their features
generally are best explained by the conception of " magmatic
'Stopmg."

The consequent disturbance; of surrounding and over-lying blocks
of sediments may have been one of the most important agencies in-
ducing the features of " pitch,"' so coiimion throughout the Lower
Palaeozoic formations. Certain zones appear to have been subjected
more frequently during Palaeozoic times to tectonic and volcanic
disturbance than other regions.

The Wellington-Mansfield Belt is one of these areas, the zone of
the Snowy River Porphyries represent-s another.

Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 143 ■

The general trend of both fracture and fold lines throughout the
Palaeozoic era appears to have been betwei^n north-west and.
northerly.

Acknowledgments.

In conclusion I wish to express my indebtedness to the following
persons : — The late Dr. T. S. Hall for the careful examination of
numerous Upper Ordovician graptolites ; Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S., for
the identification and description of the Upper Cambrian fossils from,
tiie Dolodrook limestone ; Mr. H. Herman, Director of the Cxeological
Survey, for the loan of an able held assistant in the person of Mr. J.
Caldwell, who accompanied me to the Wellington region on one of my
extended excursions ; Professor Skeats and Dr. H. S. Summers of the
Geology School of the Melbourne University for useful criticism and
advice in tlie laboratory ; Mr. W. Thorn, Chief Mining Surveyor, lor
access to certain mining surveys of assistance for held work ; Mr. J.
Dunn, of the Lands Department, for frequent advice concerning maps
and plans concerning some of the I'egions included in the field work.
Last but not least I wish to include my father, whose untiring and
sympathetic help in the held has been extended over many years on
numerous excursions in this region.

Bibliography.
L HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on Lake Karng. Rep. Mining Depart-
ment, Victoria, September, 1891, p. 28.

2. MESSRS. DENDY, LUCAS AND HOWITT.— A Visit to Lake

Karng, Victorian Naturalist, Vol. VIII., p. 17.

3. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Devonian Rocks of North Gipps-

land, Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. III., 1876.

4. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Geological Structure of North.

Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. IV., 1877.

5. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Physical Geography and Geology

of North Gippsland, Victoria (Q.J.G.S.; Vol. XXXV., 1879,
pp. 1-41).

6. HOWITT, A. W.— Remarks on Rock Samples collected by Mr.

R. A. F. Murray. Avon River, Mount Wellington, etc. Geol.
Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. No. V., 1878.

7. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Devonian Rocks of North

Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. V., 1878, pp.
117-147.

8. MURRAY, R. A. F.— Geological Sketch Map, No. 2, S.E.

Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria. Prog. Rep. No. V.,.
1878, pp. 44-70.

144 E. 0. Teale:

9. MURRAY, R. A. F.— Geology and Physical Geography of Vic-
toria, 1895.

10. KITSON, A. E.— Ihe King and Broken Rivers, County Delatite

(Monthly Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv., Victoria, N.S., No. 11).

11. TIIIELE, E. 0.— A Trip to Lake Karng and Mount Welling-

ton, N. Gippsland. ("Victorian Naturalist," Vol. XXII. ,
1905.)

12. THIELE, E. 0.— Notes on the Upper Macallister Valley, N.

Gippsland. ("Victorian Naturalist," Vol. XXIII., 1906.)

13. THIELE, E. 0. — Notes on the Dolodrook Serpentine Area and

the Mount Wellington Rhyolites, North Gippsland. Appen-
dix. Preliminary Notes and Collection of Trilobite remains
fi'om the Dolodrook River, North Gippsland. By F. Chap-
man, A.L.S. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXI. (N.S.)
Pfc. 1.)

14. HALL, T. S. — Victorian Graptolites, Part III., from near ^It.

Wellington. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, (N.S.), Vol. XVIII.,
Part 1., 1905.)

15. CHAPMAN. F.— On a Trilobite Fauna of Upper Cambrian Age

(Olenus Series), in N.E. Gippsland, Victoria. (Proc. Roy.
Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXIII. (N.S.) Part II., 1911.)

16. DUNN, E. J. — The Serpentine Area, Wellington River, Gipps-

land. (Rec. Geol. Surv. Victoria, Vol. III., Part I., 1909.)

17. GREGORY, J. W.— The Heathcotian, a Pre-Ordovician Series,

and its Distribution in Victoria. (Proc Roy. Soc, Vic, Vol.
XV. (N.S.), Part II., 1903.)

18. SKEATS, E. W.— On the Evidence of the Origin, Age and

Alteration of the rocks near Heathcote, Victoria. (Proc. Roy.
Soc, Victoria. Vol. XXL, 1908.)

19. DUNN, E. J.— The Mount Tara Goldfield, E. Gippsland. (Rec.

Geol. Surv., Victoria, Vol. II. Part II.. 1907.)

20. DAVID, T. W. E., & SKEATS, E. W.— Geology of the Com-

monwealth; Federal Handbook on Australia; British Associa-
tion s Visit to Australia, 1914.

21. SUMMERS, H. S.— The Cherts and Diabase Roiks of Tatong.

(Proc Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXL, 1908.)

22. HOWITT, A. M.— Report on Alleged Discovery of Phosphate of

Alumina- near the Great Rand Mine, Howqua River, County
of Wonnangatta. (Rec. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Vol. IT., Part
IV.)

Palaeuzoic Geology of Victoria. ^46

•23. THIELE. E. 0.— Physiographical and Geological Notes on the
Mount VVelling-ton District, North Gippsland. (" Victorian
Naturalist," Vol. XXIV., No. 2, June. 1907.)

:24. DUNN, E. J.— Mount Tara Goldfield, Eastern Gippsland.
(Rec. Geol. Surv., Vol. II., 1907-8.)

25. MURRAY, R. A. F.— Report on Mount Tara, etc. (Geol. Surv..

Victoria. Prog. . Rep. No. IX., 1898.)

26. FERGUSON, W. H.— Report on Geological Survey of Snowy

River Valley, (Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep., No. XL,
1899.)

27. WHITELAW, 0. A. L.— Notes on the Devonian Hocks of

Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Month. Prog. Rep. (New
Series), No. 2, 1899.)

28. SKEATS, E. W.— The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria Pres. Ad-

dress Sec. C, Australian Association Adv. Sc, Brisbane,
1909.

■29. MAHONY, D. J., ct TAYLOR, T. G.— Report on a Geological
Reconnaissance of the Federal Territory, etc. ; Common-
wealth of Australia, 1913.

30. HALL, T. S.— Nowa Nowa Graptolites. (Rec. Geol. Surv.,

Victoria, Vol. II., Part 2.)

31. HOWITT, A. ^L— Report on the Edi-Myrrhee Turquoise Belt,

and the Chert and Jasper Beds neai- Tatong, County of Dela-
tite. (Rec. Geol. Surv., Victoria,, Vol. I., Part 4.)

32. HOWITT, A. W.— The Rocks of Noyang. (Trans. Roy. Soc,

Vic, Vol. XVIII.)

33. SUMMERS, H. S.— On the Origin and Relationship of Some

Victorian Igneous Rocks. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol.
XXVI. {N.S.). Part II., 1914.)

34. GREGORY, J. W.— The Geography of Victoria. (Whitcombe

and Tombs Ltd., Melbourne, etc., 1903.)

35. HART, T. S.— The Highlands and Main Divide of Western

Victoria. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XX. (New Series),
Pt. II., 1908.)

36. DALY, R. A. — Igneous Rocks and their Origin, (New York,

1914.)

37. SKEATS. E. W.. (t SUMMERS, H. S.— The Geology and Petro-

logy of the Macedon District. (Bull. Geol. Surv., Victoria,
No. 24, 1912.)

146 E. C. Teale:

38. JUNKER, X. 1\. — The Petrology of the igneous rocks near-

Healesville and Narbethong. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria,.

Vol. XXVII. (X.S.), Pt. II.. 19U.)
39. — HALL, T. S. — Geology of Victoria; Victorian Year Book\.

1905-6.
40. SKEATS, E. W. — Xotes on the Geology of Moorooduc, Morn-

ington PeninsTila. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Vic.,. Vol. XX. (N.S.),.

Pt. II., 1907.)

Proc. U.S. Victoria, 1920. tlate VI.

Columnar Rhyolite, Wellington Gorge, and weathered
Garvey Gully Tuffs

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plato VII.

Overfolding of Silurian, Doiodrook R., and
Colunnnar Rhyolite, Mt. Wellington

Proc. R.S. Victoria. I!t2(». Plate VIII.

it.4"irr:. .,

Rocks of Mt. Wellington and Nowa Nowa

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate IX.

Rocks of Nowa Nowa and of Mt. Tara (l<>).

[Pkoc. lioY. Soc. VicTOKiA, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].

Art. IX. — Note on the Correction for Chronometer Rate.
By J. M. BALDWir^, M.A., D.Sc.

[Read Itth August, 1919.]

The following very easy way of applying the correction for
chiononieter rate has been in use at the Melbourne Observatory for
some years. As \ find tiiat many who have often to use the correction
are unaware of the method, it seems worth while, although the method
is probably not new, to call attention to it.

Let T be tlie period of a vibrating system in seconds
T' the period as shown by a chronometer
r the daily rate of the chronometer, + if losing, so that
the chronometer indicates (SG-lOO - /•) seconds in a day,

A ^ u , 1 86400

and 1 chronometer secon(l = -— — seconds.

ob400 - r

T = T' ^^*°°

a„dlogT=l„g.T'-log.(l--^)

8(5400 ■
86400>

= log.T' + .43429x I— ^ + Af-^^ V4----)

" lS6400^2V86400/ + )

The value of the right iiand side is nearly

log.T' + ^XlO"'

so that, to obtain log. T, add half the daily ratt in seconds to the fifth
decimal place of log. T. The value of T so obtained will be within one
part in a million for values of r up to 15 seconds. If a siderial
chronometer is used, r^-236-.56, and even in this case the accuracy
attained is 1 part in 100,000.
The expression

log.T = log.T' + ^"xlO--'+i^/-xlO- =

gives a value of T correct to one part in a million, provided r is not
greater than 120, while^the addition of the extra term

'■ 1 '■ 1 - 5

"^900- lyO' 2^
gives more than^sufficient accuracy in every case.

[Proc. Eot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S ). Ft. II., 1920].

Akt. .X. — A New Metliod of Detentiinhig the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat.

BY

Professor T. H. LABY, IM.A.

AND

J. K. ROBERTS, B Sc.

(Natural Pliilosopliy Depaitineiit, University of Melbourne).

(With Plates X. and XI. and 1 Text Figure.)
[Read 11th September, 1919.]

Introduction.

It appeared to tlie writers that an additional dir<_'(.t determina-
tion of the mechanical equivalent of heat would he of valuf, and
might, in view of tlie progress of precise measurement, attain
higher accuracy than that previously realised, and, incidentally,
information might be (djtained as to the accuracy of the electrical
units.

After a long series of preliminary expci-iments, a method, in
Avhich a copper cylinder is heated by a rotating magnetic field, has
been devised, possessintr the characteristics — (1) of accurately
stationary temperatures, and (2) that a small fraction of the heat
•developed is lost. This method is being carried out so as to attain,
if possible, an accuracy of 1 in 10,000 in J, the mechanical equiva-
lent of heat.

Previous Determinations.

Theru have been five determinations^ of the mechanical equivalent
of heat, to which it is neceissary to refer — namely, those made by
Joule, Rowland, Misculescu, Reynolds and iNIoorby and Rispail.
Of these exiDeriments only those of Rowland and of l»eynolds and
Moorby appear to possess high accuracy, and they are not imme-
<iiately comparable, a,s the values of J, which they give, are in terms
of different heat units. Several determinations have been made of
what may be called the electrical equivalent of heat. If the
mechanical equivalent, J, were known to an accuracy of 1 in
10,000 (which should not be lieyond attainment), the degree of its

1. Joule, Phil. Trans., Vol. CXL. p. 61 (1850) ; Rowland. Proc. Amer.
Acad., Vol. XV., p. 75 (1879) ; Micule.scu. Journ. de Phys., Vol. I,, p. 104
<1892) ; Reynolds and Moorby, Phil. Tran. Vol. CXC, p. 301 (1S97); Ris-
j.ail, Aim. Chim. Phys,, Vol. XX., p. 417, fl910).

MecJtanical Equivalent of Heat.

149

.-agreement with the eleetrical equivalent would be an indicatidu of
.the accuracy with which the practical electrical units realise their
intended values.

Principle of the Experiment.

The method to be described,! we believe, has not, been previously
-applied. Bailie and Fery^ proposed to generate heat, not by stir-
ring Avater, but by placing a copper cylinder in a rotating mag-
netic field produced by polyplwise currents. Their proposal is
open to the objection that the lines of magnetic force would prob-
ably have a component of motion in tlie direction of the axis of
the copper cylinder. Heat would then be generated to which there
was no corresponding couple. We have obtained a rotating mag-
netic field Avith a known and fixed axis, A, by the rotation of an
electro-magnet. A copper cylinder is mounted (see Figs. 1 and 2)
.so as to be capable of rotation about a vertical axis, B, and is

2. Comptes Rendus., Vol. CXXVI., p. 1494 (1S9S).

Fig. 1

S

150 Laby and Roberts:

placed in the rotating field. The axes A and B are brought into'
coincidence. The determination of J then becomes a question ■©£
finding the work done on the copper cylinder, and the heat deve-
loped in it. The "work is found as in RoAvland's experiment. The
copper cylinder is attached to a vertical axle and wheel (diameter,
D cm); and the whole is suspended by a torsion wire. Two wires
pass round the circumference oif the wheel over pulleys to two
masses of m gni. The couple mgD dyne. cm. produced by these
weights balances the couple arising from the rotating magnetic
field. The torsion wire gives stability to the system.

The heat developed is measured by a continuous flow method.
Water' flows past a platinum thermometer, then it circulates round
the copper cylinder and out past a second platinum thermometer.
The heat developed is M{6., — 0i) calorie, where M gni. is the
quantity of water flowing in an exijeriment, and (O.^ — Oi) degree
is the rise of temperature. To eliminate the heat losses, L calorie,
from the expression- for J, two experiments are made — a heavy and
a light one — in which the inlet and outlet temperatures' 6i and 6.,
are the same. The heat developed in, the former is about ten times
that in the latter. We then have for the heavy experiment

and for the light

7TD7im.,y = J{6,- 0,)M, + L
and therefore

J =^j)u</{n,, - ,„,)i -; (M, - ^\,){e, - 6,) ]-

where n is the number of revolutions of the field magnets for the
period of an experiment, which is the same for the light and heavy
experiments.

The heat developed in the light experiment is made less than in
the heavy exiDeriment by reducing the strength of the magnetic
field.

In the above relation it is assumed that the loss of heat, L, is
constant for a given value of the inlet and outlet water tempera-
tures. The text-book accounts of Callendar and Barnes' experiments'*
lay inadequate stress on the conditions which those observers
showed must he fulfilled for this assumption to be justified. In our
preliminary experiments the loss of heat, L, bore little relation to
the inlet and outlet water temperatures, B^ and 6.,. With 6^ and
^., fixed, L would vary widely with the rate of flow of the water
through the copper, which was then in the form of a hollow copper
ring. After the factors which determined the heat losses in this-
form of the apparatus had been determined by a number of experi-

3. Callendar, Phil. Trans., Vol. CXCIX., 1902, pp. 112, 114. 115, 122,.
Bnrnes. Phil. Trans., Vol. CXCIX., 1902, pp. 224-228.

Meclumical Equivalent of Heat. 151

anents, the api^aratus now beinp; described was desi<:ned so that
the inlet and outlet water temperatures would determine the surface
temperatures of the calorimeter, and so for a given temperature
of the surroundings of the calorimeter, determine the loss of heat,
L, independently of the rate of development of heat in the calori-
meter.

The equation we have given assumes that three axes are parallel,
namely, the axis of rotation of the magnetic field, the axis aljout
which the copper cylinder is free to rotate, and the axis of the
couple produced b}^ the two masses m. This condition is fulfilled to
tha required accuracy in the apparatus as we are using it.

In another paper,'' the theory of the electrical device, which we
have used in these experiments, is given. It is there shown that
the couple i// dyne. cm. acting on the stator is given by the ex-
pression

where N revolution per sec. is the speed of the rotoi-, ()> maxwell
is the flux crossing the copper cylinder, p is proportional to the
resistance from end to end of the cylinder, and X cm. is a certain
inductance.

Design and Operation of the Apparatus.

It will be convenient to call tlie rotating field magnets, the rotor,
and the copper cylinder and the iron cylinder which it encloses, the
isliator.

The rotor (see Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4) is mounted on ball bearings,
with its axis vertical. The field magnet windings are connected
through slip rings to a lead .storage battery. The rotor is belt-
driven by a shunt motor, and the speed of the former is deter-
mined by means of a worm gear, which, at the completion of every
100 revolutions (that is, about every four seconds), moves a pen
Tvriting on a chronograph ; the pen also indicates seconds, asi given
by a standard clock. In thi.si' way, the rate of rotation and number
of revolutions is recorded.

The rotor, is pierced with eight sighting holes (see Figs. 3 and 4)
for adjusting the axis of the stator parallel to that of the rotor.
These holes, if fully open, thoroughly ventilate and cool the field
magnets.

The lower bearing of the rotor is rigidly held by an iron l>ed
plate bolted to a brick foundation. In order to prevent vibration
in the plate, which carries the upper bearing of the rotor and the

4. J. K. Roberts. The Design of a Motor with Large Air Gap and Rotat-
g Field Magnets. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.. XXXII., h>io, \<. i.-)6.

152 Lahy and Roberts:

bearing of the stator, the rotor was balanced. Suitably illuniinated"
points situated on the plate in quevstion were observed with a-
naicrosoope, carried by a support free from vibration, and the
rotor was balanced until the amplitude (i.e., diameter of circum-
scribing circle) of the vibration of the plate was reduced to .001
cnii.

The; field magnets have two j^oles, and there are two windings on
each pole. These windings can be connected in series so that the-
turns reinforce one another, and the niaxinuim flux for a given
current produced. They are so connected for the heavy experiment.
The windings can also be connected in series so as to oppose one-
another in their magnetising effect. They are so connected for the
light experiment. In this way the flux can be reduced to one-tenth
witliout changing the current in the windings and, therefore, with-
out changing tlie temi^erature of the rotor in the light and heavy
experiments.

l^he Stator and Calorimeter. — The con.struction of the stator is
shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. Fig. 5 shows copper and iron cylinders.
The iron cylinder increases the magnetic flux, and supports the
copper cylinder. The channels on the external surface of the iron,
and the axial hole, carry the water in it« circulation througii the
apparatus. Ilie iron cylinder is attached t-o a glass tube (see Fig.
6) tilled with eider dow'n, in order to reduce loss of heat by con-
duction. The glass, tube in turn is attached to a steel shaft which
passes through a ball-bearing, and, at its upper end, is suspended
by a steel torsion wire. The wire supports the whole weight of the-
shaft and calorimeter.

A thin sheet cylinder encloses the copper cylinder, and a Dewar
flask encloses the steel, copper, and iion cylinders, which to pre-
vent corrosion are all silver plated.

The water enters the calorimeter (see Figs. 5, 6 and 7) through
a rubber tube, flows downwards ];etween the inside wall of the
Dewar flask and the thin steel cylinder, turns upwards and flows be-
tween the steel and the copper, then down between the copper and
iron, and finally out of the calorimeter through the axial hole in the
iron armature. The object of this somewhat elaborate circulation
is — (1) to bring the water into thorough contact wdtli the copper
and iron in which the heat is generated, (2) to break up stream
lines, and so ensure that the inlet and outlet water tenqieratures
determine the heat k)sses of the calorimeter.

The ball bearing which maintains the shaft vertical was very
carefully made, and is used without oil lubrication, which w^as
found to increase the friction. Ihe angular amplitude of the stator

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 153

when set in torsional oscillation decreases by 10 per cent, per
vibration, from which it can be shown that the friction is very
small. A mirror is attached to the shaft of the stator, and its
movement observed by lamp and scale. With the apparatus
arranged for a determination of the mechanical equivalent, the
stator oscillations are not critically damped; frictional resistance
arising from the viscosity of water is added, till the damping is
critical.

Couple. — Two thin wires (see Fig. 1) pass from the circujiiference
of the wheel over two other wheels (see Fig. 2), and then to the
x\''eights. With the axis of the stator vertical (which it is to within
12' of angle) these wires should l;e parallel and horizontal, con-
ditions which are readily fulfilled.

The design, construction and testing of the wheels shown in Fig*.
8 has requii'ed a great deal of attention. Ball, i-oller, and cone
bearings were tested, and found to po.ssess far too much friction to
be suitable for these wheels, and so a knife edge was used. While
this bearing is quite free from friction, and practical in use, it is
necessary to locate the position of the knife edge relative to the
centre of the wheel, a test which is not so eaisily made as might be
expected.

Measurements.

The relation

J = ^J)nyim, - m,)/ -{ (M, - M,)(^, - 0,) |-
indicates what degree of accuracy is necessary in the various
quantities in the right hand niendier, if J is to be correct to 1 in
10,000.

D, the diameter of the wheel, is 20 cm., and can be measured
to the necessary accuracy. The revolutions, n, are counted. The
acceleration of gravit;^, g, is accurately known for Melbourne. The
masses, ?»i and tHo gm., are readily found to the required preci-
sion.

With O., — 0i = lO°C. it is necessary to determine this difference
to 1/1000'C, which is about the limit of accuracy obtainable with
a platinum, or, in fact, any thermometer. The water flows past
the platinum thermometers contained in Dewar flasks, as shown in
Fig. 2.

The water, after passing through the calorimeter is collected in
a copper can. A two-way tap turns it into this can at the begin-
ning of the experiment, and at the same time starts the clirono-
graph record; at the end of the experiment turning the tap causes
the water to flow to a different vessel, and also stops the chronograph
record. The water collected is weighed.

154 Laby and Roberts:

Distilled Avater contained in two thermally insulated tanks, so
arranged as to give a constant head of about 240 cm. (8 feet) is used
ill the exper'iments.

The precision of the experiments will be limited (1) by the steadi-
ness in the rate of generation of heat, and (2) by constancy of the
loss of the heat, L, in the heavy and light experiments. Ihe first
of these has been satisfactory in the preliminary experiments, and
if necessary, could be improved. The principal loss of heat, no
doubt, occurs through the Avails of the vacuum jacket of the calori-
meter, and is proportional to the excess of the temperature of the
inner wall (that is, the temperature of the inlet Avater 8^) above
the outer Avail (that is, the aii- tenii^erature 0^). This difference
(^i"~^^) degree can be determined, it is expected, Avith sufficient
accuracy to attain the desired precision.

Only preliminary determinations of J have so far been made,
further experiments are noAv in progress.

We have to thank Mr. R. Berryman fnr the care he has taken
and the success he has achieved in constructing the apparatus shoAvn
in the figures.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Pl.\te X.
Fig. 2.- General vieAv of apparatus.
,, 3. — Rotor with top removed, shoAving pole j^ieces and wind-
ings.
,, 4. — Rotor mountcMl.

Platk XI.

,, 5. — The tAYo parts of the stator, on the left the iron cylinder
in the channels for Avater, on the right the copper
cylinder fitting over it.
Fig. 6. — Stator attached to torsion Avheel with Hask removed.
,, 7. — Stator witli liask attached, shoAving plate Avitli levelling

screAv.s resting on the top plate of Fig. 5.
,, 8. — Knife edge bearings.

[Note added lObh March, 1 920 : — Inipiovenient in the brush con-
tacts on tlie rotor has led to greater steadiness in the rotor field
magnet current and therefore in the couple; this has made the Avater
damping device mentioned in the text unnecessary.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate X.

1^

''Mm

\^

. ~\|--;

W^:

H

1

ifc^^^^^^^?*^ J

ttgkw-'^tSa^' :_,■ '

^W

r

h.

Fig. 2. Guntnil \icu ut ApiMiatus

Fig. 3. Rotor with top removed,
showing pole pieces and windings.

»..i!,i. 1 . ^ J

Fig. 4. Kotor n ounted.

Proc. E.S. ^ictoiia, 1921). Plate XI.

Fig. 5. The two parts of the stator, on the left the iron
(-■vUnder in the channels for water, on the ri^'ht the copper
cylinder fitting over it.

Fig 6. Stator attached to
tiirsion wheel witli flask re-
moved.

Fig. 7. Stator with flask attached,

showinjr plate with levelling screws

resting- on the top plate of Fig. 5.

Fig. 8. Knife edge bearinj;

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. | 55

It has also beeii shewn that the heat losses take place mainly from
'the tubes which lead the water into the flask and not fiom the flask
itself. For a tixed rate of generating heat the loss of heat is
proportional to the excess of the mean of the inlet and outlet water
temperatures over the air temperature. The rate of loss of heat varies
with the rate of generation of heat for flxed temperatures and iias
(^een shewn to be a linear function of it. This will enable the heat
Josses to be allowed for. J.K.R. I

[Proc. Ror. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 19201.

Art. XL — Tlie Design of an Induction Motor with large Air-
Gap and Rotating Field Magnets.

By J. K. ROBERTS, B.Sc.

(Natural Philosophy Department, University of Melbourne).

(With 2 Text Figures,)

[Read 11th September, 1919.]

It will easily be seen that the apparatus described in another'
paf^eri in these Proceedings is an induction motor, with the follow-
ing peculiarities : — •

1. The field niMgiiets are magnetised by direct current, and are-
rotated to produce the rotating magnetic field. This is necessary
in order that the axis of rotation of the magnetic field may be accu-
rately determined, and that there may be no movement of the ma!g-
netic field along the axis of i-otation.

2. The armature consists of a hollow cylinder of solid copper
witli a soft iron core.

3. The machine works at 100% slip, i.e., the armature remains
at rest.

4. The air gap is very much larger than usual to permit of tlie
insertion of the Dewar fiask.

The problem of designing the instrument was similar to that of
designing an induction motor. A first approximation' to the
behaviour of the instrument may be made by supposing the copper
armature replaced by another armature of the same size, consist-
ing of very narrow strips of conducting material insulated from
each other, the resistance of all the strips in parallel being eipial
to that of the copper cylinder from end to end. and each strip-
being connected at either end with that diametrically opposite to
it by a perfect conductor.

If this armature be placed in a uniform magnetic field of
strength H, which rotates at the rate of N revolutions per second,
the usual theory of the induction motor gives the torque as : —

,/.=7rNH-/VR7*(R-^ + 47r'^N^L-) ~ '

where ^cni. is the length of the armature, c.cni. is the diameter
of armature. 1\. E.M. units is the resistance of each of the cir-
cuits (i.e., twice the resistance of one strip), n total number of

1. Laby and Roberts. A New Method cf Determining the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat, paste 148.

Induction Motor. 157'

circuits (i.e., one-half the number of. strips), and L.cm. the induct-
ance of each of the circuits.

The quantity Hlc is the magnetic flux threading the armature,
and is denoted by <^. Thus we have

We may write R—fju where p is a constant depending on the-
resistance of the original copper cylinder.
Thus

Let L=An where A is a constant

It should be noticed that writing L/n=X (a constant) takes into'
account the mutual action of the induced currents on one another.
For suppose that Ave replace the original copper armature first
by one consisting of n circuits and second by one consisting of 2?i
circuits where n is large. The currents flowing in adjacent cir-
cuits will be nearly the same both in magnitude and in phase, and
since the circuits are near together the mutual inductance of two
adjacent circuits will be practically equal to the self-inductance-
of either of them. Thus the flux threading a circuit when a certain
current flows in it will, in the case of the armature of 2n circuits,-.
Ije approximately twice what it is for the same current in the arma-
ture of n circuits. Writing L = »\ we assume that it is exactly
twice the value.

In order to determine p and A. for particular cases, the fol-
lowing experiments wei'e carried out :—

Experiment (a). — A U-shaped permanent magnet was weighed
and suspended by means of a bifilar suspension so^ that the poles
hung downwards. An armature, consisting of a cylinder of copper
with an iron core was placed midway between the poles and at-
tached to a spindle, by means of which it could be rotated, a revolu-
tion cotmter was attached to the spindle. The couple acting when
the spindle was rotated was measured by observing the deflection of
a spot of light, which was reflected from a mirror attached to the
magnet. The couple was measured for different rates of rotation
of the armature. The value of ^ was determined by winding the-
exploring coil of a Grassot fluxmeter around the armature and
rotating it through 180°. This of course gives twice the value of
2.<^ The result obtained was <^ = 6.2.3 x 10'^/2 Maxwell. Mass of
magnet, 2870 gm. Distance from mirror to scale, 54.5 cm. Length:
of suspending Avires, 44.2 cm. Distance lietween suspending Avires,.
2 cm.

:i58

./. K. Roberts:

llie couples obtained were the following

Revolutions per
second.

43.96 -

33.48 -

21. 9S -

13.G -

Deflection of liffht on rever-
sing' direction of rotation
of copper.

- 97.7 cm. -

- 94.5 cm. -

- 76.2 cm. -

- 49.35 cm. -

Couple
(absolute)

2.69 X 10"
2.26 X 10*
1 .93 X 10*
1.35 X 10*

Tliese result.s are plotted in Figure 1.

Using the values at tAvo points we may determine p and X from
•equation (1). From the graph when

N = 42, i// = 2-6 X 10^ and wlien N = 15, «/^=l-5x 10*,
We liave therefore

= 2-772 xlO-* E.M.U.) ,..,
= 92-5 cm. / ^''>

Substituting these values in equation (1) we calculate the
-couples \lf for difftrcnt values of N, Avith tlie following results : —

N = 20, ./, = l-87x 10
N = 30, ./. = 2-36x 10*

liuiuct'ioih Motor 159'

These values are plotted in Fi<;iire 1, in the "calculated"
curve.

Experiment (b). — Further experiments of the same nature were
carried out by removing the armature from a series wound " Im-
misch " motor, and replacing it by a hollow copper cylinder with
an iron core. The pole pieces were built up with cast iron so as
to clear the copper by about one millimetre. The whole was-
mounted on a cradle dynamometer, and arranged so that the copper
cylinder could be rotated at different speecLs by means of a belt
and pulleys of different sizes.

Current was passed through the field coils and the torque pro-
duced on rotating the copper measured in the usual way.

The value of </> was measured by making and breaking the cur-^
rent in the field coils, and noting the deflection of a fluxmeter with
an exploring coil, wound around the copper. In each case the-
couple with zero flux was measured to eliminate the frictional
couple. The following results were obtained : —

_ , ,. v„\„a rst JIass of Distance of Couple due to Couple corrected

Revolution \alueof ^,,^\^,,^- Hderfrom Eddv ."^ to

per second. 2<^ rider. Centre. Currents. ^=2-79xl05/2

6-6^ 2.72 xlO« 200 52.5 cm.) '•45xl0« /.84x10B

11 /^ 0 100 10 cm. ^ 1 r.O 1A7 1 TO 1 AT

11-0 2.74x10= 200 60 cm. ) 1-08x10^ 1.12x10^

16.1 o-n ,n5 onn -n """ ' 1.23x10^ 1.23 X 10^
2.79 xlO^ 200 70 cm. )

20.2 ^.Q ^^, ]^^ i?^'"- - 1.27 xlOT 1.27x10^
2.79x10= 200 73 cm. )

n^ A 0 100 10 cm. I 1 o- 1A7 1 OT 1A7

24-0 2.79x10= 200 70 cm. , 1-2/ x 10^ 1.27x10^

In order to correct the observed couples for variations in the value -
of <^ ib was assumed that the couple is proportioned to <^'^. To verify
this, two experiments were carried out at the same rate of rotation
with values of <^ in the ratio of 1 to 2. The couples were measured as
before. The values of the ratio Couple :^'^ were found to be

6.07x108 and 6.04 Xl0«.

This justifies the assumption made.

The values of the couples corrected in this way are given in the
last column of the table, and are plotted against revolutions per-
second in Fig. 2.

160

J. K. Roberts:

111 order to compute the values of p and \ of Equation (1) for this
case two points on the graph are used.

When N=10, ^}/=lOA x 10«, and when N = 20, ./.= 12.7 x 10"

In the same way as before we get

p = 4.63xl0^ E.M.U.\ ,<.>

X = 382cm. / ^'

Using these values of A and p the couples which sliould correspond to
•different values of N can be calculated from formula (1) to be : —
N = 15, i/.= 12-33 X 10''' and N = 25, ./.^ 12-29 x 10«
These are plotted in Fig. 2 in the calculated curve.

In order to apply these results to the design of a new apparatus,
it is necessary to compare the values of p as calculated al)ove with
the values of the resistances from end to end of the two cylinders
which were used. If we do this we get the following : —

P/Kesistance of copper cylinder =(a) 17-6 and (b) 24-2 (4)

Tiie values of X obtained were A = (a) 92-5 and (b) 382 (5)

llie reason for the fact that p is about twenty times the resist-
ance of the copper from end to end, which we may call a, is thai if
r is thf resistance of each of the 2.n strips by which the copper is
replaced,

R^2«o- .

Induction Motor. 161

The resistance R of each of the circuits formed by joining' a pair
'of strips in series by two perfect conductors will be

R = 2/=4«cr
But R=:?t/) ;uid .'. /3=4a-

That is, if the ends of the conducting strips were joined by per-
fect conductors, we would have p equal to four times the resist-
ance of the copper from end to end. The remaining factor of five
is due to tlie fact that the effective resistance of the paths joining
the strijis is not zero.

The large increase in the value of A. in the experiments with the
■Cradle dynamometer is probably due to the fact that in these
..experiments the air gap between the copper and the pole pieces was
.smaller than in the case of the permanent magnet.

Another point, which must be determined, before it is possible to
■design a new apparatus, is the* extent to which the magnetic resist-
ance of a magnetic circuit can be inferred from the dimensions of
'the apparatus.

To do this, the " Immisch " motor was used, and the flux thread-
ing the iron core Avas measuied for different diameters of the core,
.and different magneto-motive forces, with the following results : —

Average area
of air ^ap.

Length of

air jrap

(botli side.^).

Magnetic

resistance of

air j,'ap.

llagneto
ilotive force.

Jlayneto

Motive force.

Resultant Flux.

60.43

0.73

0.0121

3.47 X 103
6.01 X 103

0.0251
0.0301

39.4

1.03

0.0261

3.70 X 103
6.61 X 103

0.0380
0.0418

28.8

1.87

0.0650

3.71 X 103
6.84 X 103

0.0o95
0.0630

The numbers in the last column give the effective magnetic resist-
:ance of the Circuit.

Comparing these values with the values of the resistance as cal-
culated from the dimensions, it will be noticed that for small air
gaps, the effective resistance is larger than the calculated, and also
that the value increases with increasing flux density. This means
a higher magnetic leakage at higher flux densities. But Avhen the
.air gap is 2. cm. long, the calculated and effective magnetic resist-
ances are practically the same, and also the value of the effective
a-esistance is almost independent of the flux density.

Certain dimensions in the new apparatus are fixed : —

(i.) The external diameter of the rotor is limited to 30 cm.
(ii.) The internal diameter of the pole pieces must he not less

than 7.3 cm.
.(iii.) The external diameter of the armature must not exceed
5.5 cm.

162 J- K. Roberts:

(iv.) The length of the armature nuist not exceed 13 cm.
(v.) Eough calculations shewed that the thickness of the copper-
should be 3 or 4 mm.
The copper was made 3.3 mm. thick, and 5.45 cm. in external
diameter.

This makes the electrical resistance from end to end 4.46x10^
E.M. unit.

From eciuation (4) we multiply this by 20 to obtain the value of
p = 20x 4.46x10^^

Calculating the magnetic resistance from the dimensions we obtain.
the value

Magnetic resistance = 0.040.

Since the air gap is 1.9 cm. long it can be inferred from the
experiments carried out that this will lio the effective value of the-
magnetic resistance.

The flux obtainable is therefore given by

</, = .47r('ui)/0.04 = 107r(m)

whei'e ni is the number of ampere turns.

It is proposed to run the apparatus at 1500 revolutions per'
mintite, i.e., N — 25.

Power = 27rNi//

= 277-N7)0-(/;- + 47r-N'''/V-^) " '

Since i-Horse Power is required we have

3.73 X 10" = 1-086 X 10'"-(7ti)"(7.95 x 10" + 2.47 x 10^\-)r.'...(6)
If /\=r92 and 382 as in Equation (5) we obtain respectively
7a = 5.38 X 10'^ and 5.86 x 10'' (7)

The inductance term should not be greater than 356, as the air
gap is nearly ten times as large as in the Experiment (b).

The heat generated in a winding of given size depends on the
number of ampere ttirns.

It is, therefore, necessary to discover whether it is possible to dis-
sipate the energy which would be generated in a winding of the
size required by the dimensions of the apparatus. In making cal-
culations it can be safely assumed that .05 watt can be dissipated
per square cm. of the area of winding. With this assumption the-
possible number of ampere turns on each coil comes out to be 4500
— that is, a total of 9000, which 'is more than is required. As only
a limited voltage is available it is necessary to choose wire of such
a gauge that the resistance will be low enough to allow the requisite-
number of ampere turns.

The poles were wound with 4720 turns of 24 gauge copper wire-.

Induction Motor. 163

An experiment Avas cari'ied out to determine the power of the
apparatus so designed. It was found that when the apparatus was
generating one half horse-power the current in the field winding
Avas .575 amperes; since there are altogether 9440 turns this gives-
for magnetising current,

5.43 X 10'' ampere turns.

This value lies between the predicted limits, viz.,

5.38 > lO^""' and 5.86 x lO-'' as in equation (7).

The rise of temperature of the winding was found from its resist-
ance, the temperature coeflicient of a sample of the wire having been
measured. The temperature rose 47° with all the vents in the
apparatus closed. Thus the apparatus realised the power for which
it was designed. The ventilation caused by the vents was large,,
and with them open the rise was much smaller.

[Pboo. Rot. Soc. Victokia, 32 (N.S.) Pt. 11., 1920,].

Art. mil.— Austridian Phlehotomiic Diptera: — Neiv Calicidac
Tahanidae and Sjinuxymy.

By. frank H. TAYLOR, F.E S

Communicated by J. A. Kersliaw.

[Read November 6th. 1919.]

The following paper contains descriptions of three new species
of Diptera, which are contained in the genera Uranotaenia, Sdviiis
and T aha mix.

rhibaloini/ia is sulistituted for the generic nanie Elapliromyia,
as the latter is preoccupied, and two species of Tabanidae are sunk
as synonyms.

Family CULICIDAE.

Uranotaenia albofasciata, sp.n.

Head clothed Avith bluish-white scales; antennae brown, plumes
brown; palpi and proljoscis brown.

Thorax brown, witli blackish-brown, narrow scales. There is a
broad band of white, small, flat scales on the lateral and anterior
margins; piothoracic lobes white scaled; scutellum pale with black
flat scales.

Abdomen covered with dusky scales, first segment white .scaled,
remaining segments, except the apical, with prominent white apical
bands; venter apparently pale scaled.

Legs brown, femora pale beneath, last three tarsi of hind legs
pale seal eld.

Wings black scaled, base of wings white scaled, also apex of
c'osta and the sulx'ostal vein above the cross-veins, anterior basal
cross-vein longer than and about twice its length from the anterior
cross-vein, first fork-cell slightly narroAver and shorter than the
second fork-cell, base of latter nearer the base of the Aving.

Length, 2.5 mm.

Hahitat. — Northern Territory, near Darwin (G. F. Hill).

Abundantly distinct from other Australian species, and a well-
defined member of the genus.

Type in Coll. Hill.

PIdebotomic Dlptera. 165

Family— TABANIDAE.

Sub-Family — Pangoninae.

Phibalomyia, nom. nov.
Elajyhroinyia, Taylor, ntc Bigot.

Pioc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales, 1916, XLI., p. 749 (1917), op.
<cit., XLIL, p. 517 (1917).

I am indebted to J*rof. Dr. Bezzi for informing me that the
name Elaphrom/yia has already been used by Bigot in 1859 (Dipt.
Trypaneidae), thus invalidating its use in the Tabanidae. I there-
fore propose the above alteration.

Pseudotabanus queenslandi, Ricardu.
Corizoneura kurandae, Taylor.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.. (8), XVI., p. 273 (1915); Taylor, Proc.
Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales, 1916. XL!., p. 748 (1917).

I am indebted to Mr. Kershaw, Curator, National Museum, Mel-
bourne, for the courtesy of examining the Tabanidae contained in
the Museum Collections, where there is a specimen of this species
named by Miss Ricardo, thus establishing the identity of the two
namee.

Silvius distinctus, sp. nov.

Length, 10-13; length of wing, 9-11; width of head, 2.5-4 mm.
J Head. — Face and cheeks black, tomentum dirty grey, pubes-
cence grey; beard grey; palpi black, slender; antennae black, base
of third joint with a shallow angle, pubescence black on first two
joints; front narrow, parallel, pubescence grey, black round the
ocellar triangle, frontal callus as broad as the front; eyes black,
bare.

Thorax chocolate-brown, pubescence black, prominent on sides;
scutellum black with black pubescence; pleurae black with grey
pubescence.

Abdomen, black, segmentations creamy, very broad on first seg-
ment, absent on penultimate and apical segments, segmentations
narrowed in the median line, giving the abdomen the appearance
of having a median black stripe; first two segments of venter with
pale pubescence, penultimate and apical black, reanainder with
creamy segmentations.

-IQQ F. H. Taylor :

Legs black, pubescence black.

Wings. — Basal half grey, rest clouded with black; veins black;;
stigma black; no api^endix.

Habitat. — Northern Territory, Bathurst Island (G. F. Hill),

A very distinct and easily recognised species l>elonging to the
■uigrapenms-ferf/usoiii group.

Type in Coll. Hill, paratype in Coll. Taylor.

Sub-Family Tabaninae.
Genus Tabanus.

Group VII. Abdomen, witli one or more stripes, usually con-
tinuous.

Tabanus geraldi, sp. nov.

Length, 17; length of wing, 14; width of head, 5.75.
$ Head. — Face and lower half of cheeks covered with grey
tomentum, upper half of cheeks and subcallus, with dull golden
tomentum; beard gi'ey ; front parallel with creamy tomentum and
pubescence; vertex dusky; frontal callus small, pear-shaped, lineal
extension reaching the, middle of the front; first joint of antennae-
reddish-brown, pubescence grey, long, second joint black, very
short, third joint black, base with a small, prominent tooth; palpi
creamy-yellow, stout, ending in a blunt point, pubescence short,,
black mixed with pale at the base.

Thorax black, tomentum dirty grey, grey above wing roots,
pubescence black and golden, grey above wing roots, black on
sides; scutelum black, pubescence black, grey on posterior border;
pleurae grey with grey pubescence.

Ahd07nen black, with dense black pubescence, with a median grey
stripe terminating on the penultimate segment, lateral margin
with dense, grey pubescence, sides of segments three to five yel-
lowish ; venter slate coloured with grey puliescence.

Legs black, basal third of fore tibiae reddish, mid and hind
tibiae, except the apices, pale reddish-brown, pubescence grey on
femora and tibiae, black on tarsi and apex of tibiae.

Wings clouded with yellowish on the veins except on the marginal
cells; veins black, stigma reddish; no appendix.

Habitat. — Northern Territory, Batliurst Island (G. F. Hill).
A beautiful and very distinct species, quite unlike any other
Rnown Australian Tabanns.

Type unique in Coll. Hill, to whom it is dedicated.

Phlebotomic Dlptera. 167

Tabanus stpangmanni, Ricardo.
Tahanns mastersi, Taylor,

Ann. Mag. Xat. Hist., (8), XIV., p. 393 (1914); Taylor, Proc.
Linn. See, N.S. Wales, 1916, XLL, p. 754 (1917).

This appears to be a variable species, as both names refer to
ithe same species.

[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victokia, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].

Art. XIII. — On the Synthesis of Sugar froon Formaldehyde-
and its Folymers, its QvMntitative Relations and its-
Exothermic Character.

By ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D.

(Professor of Botanj and Plant Physiology in Melbourne University,
and Government Botanist).

[Eead 6tli November, 1919].

la 1861 Butlerow found that on treating trioxymethyleue tri-
molecular formaldehyde) with hot liuie water, a sweet yellow, unfer-
mentable syrup, "methylenitan," was obtained. Loeb^ obtained an
unfermentable " formose '"' syrup by the prolonged action of lime
water on dilute formaldehyde, and by using magnesia obtained a
" methose " syrup containing fermentable sugar. Fischer2 showed
that all three syrups were complex mixtures, containing a acrose
and obtained this sugar, and (^ acrose from Barium hydrate and
acrolein bromide. The « acrose is optically inactive fructose, and the
yS acrose is inactive sorbose.

The methods used for the preparation of sugar are mostly slow
ones, involving incomplete reactions, and no attempts appear to
have been made to determine any precise quantitative relations
of the reacting materials.

In a previous paper ^ a method was described of rapidly polymeri-
sing formaldehyde to sugar by running dilute caustic soda into
a boiling weak solution of formaldehyde, containing calcium for-
mate. The advantages of this method are that there is a definite
end reaction, so that quantitative estimations are possible, that
the process is very rapid, requiring only a few minutes for com-
pletion, and that the amount of formaldehyde polymerised is very
large, llie residual products are calcium and sodium formates,
and sugars, mainly pentoses and hexoses, any methyl alcohol
formed boiling off.

At low temperatures the reaction is extremely slow, and but
little sugar is formed, while when strong caustic soda (35-40%) is

1. Loeh, Ber. D. Chem. Ges. 1887, Vol. 20, 142, 3039; 1888, Vol. 21, 270 ; 1880, Vol. 22, p. 470.

2. Fisher, Ber. d. Cheni. Ges. 1894, seq.

S. Ewai-t, Proc. Roy. Soc. of Vict., 1019, Vol. XXXI., p. 379.

Synthesis of Sugar 169

boiled with concentrated fornialdeh\de mainly sodium formate
and methyl alcohol are produced.

The purpose of the following investigation was to detei'mine more
closely the conditions determining the reaction, and bringing about
the maximum polymerisation. The nature of the reaction appears
to be as follows : — The s diiim hydrate first reacts with the calcium
formate, producing calcium hydrate, and sodium formate. The
calcium hydrate has a more energetic polymerising action than
sodium hydrate, and as this action takes place, it is converted into
calcium formate, and methyl alcohol is produced. The amount of
free alkali present at any given moment is, therefore, small in pro-
portion to the amount of formaldehyde. If any free caustic al-
kali is present the sugar produced is caramelised on boiling, and
the liquid turns brown. A drop or two of free alkali added in
6xces.s produces this change at the end of the reaction.

The polymerising action of an alkali appears to depend partly
upon its valency. Thus the divalent Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba, hydrates
appear to produee more polymerisation than the monovalent Na.
and K, hydrates, the relative order being Ca, Sr, Ba, Mg, K, Na.
Hence in the presence of a calcium salt, much more polymerisation
takes place than if sodium hydrate is added\ directly to the boilinf^
formaldehyde solution. We might y^icture the reaction with formal-
dehyde when no polymerisation takes place as follows : —

H H

Na CrnO

1 +

O-H C = 0

S^a-C=:0

-H

+

H-C-0-

-H

H H

H H

The sodium displaces hydrogen in the first CHj^O molecule, which
together with. the HO radicle of the sodium hydrate, displaces
oxygen from the 2nd molecule. This is transferred to the first one,
producing sodium formate and leaving- methyl- alcohol.

With calcium hydrate the reaction would ' take place similarly,,
but with four molecules of formaldehvde.

170

A.

J. Eivart :

H H

\/
C=0

H H

H

\
H-C-0-

/

-H

0-H

1

c=o

H H

O-H

/
C^O

Ca +

c=o =

^

/

Ca

1
0-H

0=0

/\

H H

\

c = o

\

0-H

C-0-

H

h/i\h

It is not easy at first to- see why under any conditions this reac-
tion sliould lead to a prodnction of .sugar, nor woidd it in all
probability if it were a simple matter of a reaction between for-
maldehyde and an alkali. Bearing in mind the fact that when a
previously measured quantity of dilute alkali is run into lx)iling
dilute fornialdeliyde, the reaction is completed, and sugar is jjro-
duced Avithin two or three minutes, or even more rapidly if an
excess* of soda is used, whereas tlie same solutions kept at 12 to 15°C.
for two months or more develop little or no sugar, it seems probable
that this differenxie can liardly be due wholly to the influence of tem-
perature on the rate of chemical reaction.

If a strong solution of formaldehyde is Iwiled down to 1 or \
its bulk, and cooled, it solidifies to a wliite waxy mass of the poly-
hydrate of formaldehyde. None appears Avhile the liquid is boil-
ing, because of its low melting point. When a litre of 1 or of 2%
formaldehyde is boiled nearly to dryness, and then cooled, it leaves
a considerable solid residue of the polyhydrate of formaldehyde.
Hence, in spite of the loss of formaldehyde vapour, a dilute solution
can be concentrated by boiling. If the solution is evaporated at
a lower temperature, or under reduced pressure all, or nearly all
the formaldehyde escapes, and no residue is left. Presumably
therefore, in boiling water, the substance exists mainly as the poly-
drate of formaldehyde, or as paraformaldehyde, which, on cooling,
partially dissolves and partially dissociates to formaldehyde, so
long as it has not separated out in mass. Hot water poured into
paraformaldehyde or the solid polyhydrate soon acquires a smell of

Synthesis of Sugar 171

'CHi)0, and the solid slowly disappears in excess of hot water. In
■cold water a large part is still present, .undissociated, after three
"d a,y s .

Paraformaldehyde, or the polyhydrate, dissolves in a few hours
in excess of cold 2% NaHO, the liquid smelling of CHoO, but also
•containing a little sugar. In cold, strong 35% NaHO, solid para-
formaldehyde at once dissolves, forming a yellow liquid smelling of
CH2O, and containing sugar. It blackens and gives a caramel smell,
with sulphuric acid, gives Molisch's test (a naphthol) for carbo-
hydrates, and yields furfural on boiling with hydrochloric acid.

Hence, paraformaldehyde and the polyhydrate yield sugar
immediately in contact with cold, concentrated soda, whereas for-
maldehyde does not.

If hot, 35% XaHO is added in slight excess to nielttd parafor-
maldehyde, there is a sudden evolution of methyl alcoliol, and the
resulting brown liquid contains sodium formate and reducing
sugar.

Hence it may be concluded that in boiling watei' the formaldehyde
•exists mainly as paraformaldehyde or the polyhydrate, and that
the alkali produces sugar, methyl alcohol and sodium formate,
when it reacts with paraformaldehyde or the polyhydrate, but only
or mainly sodium formate and iwethyl alcohol when it reacts
directly with formaldehyde.

Suppose three molecules of di-molecular formaldehyde react with
■ one of Barium or calcium hydrate, as folloAvs : —

C,HA CH,OH

nnn ,. HO ,. COOH CHO
U^ti.u.-F t5a^o"" COOH "^ CH^HO
C^HA CH.OH

The upper and lower molecules may be supposed to separate into
'CO and CH5OH, the latter sepai-ating as methyl alcohol and the
former combining with the BaHo02 to form barium forjnate. In
some manner not understood one of hydrogen is by a kind of enzy-
matic action transferred from one portion to the otiier of the cen-
tral dimolecular formaldehyde

CH.,0_CHO
CH.,0~Cir,HO

yielding biose or glycollic aldehyde. This would represent a
maximum percentage polymerisation to sugar of 33%, and if

172 A. J.' Eivart:

tetroses or hexoses were formed directly from biose produced in this-
«vay, the percentage polymerization by weight would be the
same. If, however, pentoses and hexoses were formed by the direct
linking of formaldehyde to the glycollic aldehyde, without further
xjroduction of formates and methyl alcohol, the pohonerisation
ratio for pentose would be 9 :5 (45%), and for glucose would be
10 :6 (60%). If a dissaccharide were produced, the maximum
ratio would be 16: 12, i.e., 75%.

A monovalent alkali such as sodium hydrate can react with single
molecules of C^,H^Oo, pi-oducing sodium formate and methyl alcohol,
and will only produce a liiose when 2 of sodium hydrate react' with
2 of CgHjO,, with a third molecule interpolated. The chance for
this grouping is not more than lialf what it is in the case of a diva-
lent alkali, wliei'e a single molecule react)? with not less than 2 mole-
cules of C,H_,0,.

Methods. — The same result is not produced wlien the licjuids are-
mixed cold, and then heated, as when the sodium hydrate is run into
the boiling liquid. Ihus 250 c.c. of water, with 5 c.c. of 10%
calcium formate and 4 c.c. of 25.2% formaldehyde, after raising
to the boiling point required, 7.2 c.c. of 3.5% NaHO to complete-
the reaction. If mixed cold with 7 c.c. of sodium hydrate, on rais-
ing to the boiling point a further addition of 0.4 c.c. of NaHO was
required to complete the reaction. If mixed cold with 7 c.c. NaHO,
and kept for 15 days at 15° L., on raising to the boiling point, the
addition of a further 1.2 c.c. of NaHO is required to complete the
reaction , And remove all CH^O. Hence at low temperatures more
formate is produced and less formaldehyde is polymerised to sugar,
so that more soda is required to remove all the formaldehyde.

In carrying out estimations, a preliminary test was in each case-
carried out in an open beaker. The amount of sodium hydrate re-
quired was less than the full amount by the amount of CH^O lost
during the boiling. The same amounts of CH.,0; water and cal-
cium, formate, were then placed in a flask fitted with a condensing
apparatus, so that the condensed steam washed back the escaping
formaldehyde. Tlie amount of sodium hydrate previously noted
was tlien run in from a burette fitted to the cork, as i-apidly as
was possible without causing too violent ebullition.

The yellow tinge which indicates the completion of tlie reaction
appears slowly with very dilute solutions, and the preliminary test
must be checked by smell as well as colour. With strong solutions
the yellow colour is produced before the reaction is completed, if

S}/ntliesis of Sugar 173-

the soda is added more rapidly than the formic acid is pro-
duced. With a little practice these two sources of error are easily
avoided.

A solution containing 250 c.c. of water, 5 c.c. of 10% calcium-
formate, and 5 c.c. of 31.5% of formaldehyde required 9.6 c.c. of
3.5% sodium hydrate, and required 25.8 c.c. of soda when no-
calcium formate was present. If no polymerisation had taken
place, then; the equation would be —

2 CH20 + 2NaHO =CH.,HO + Na CO OH

i.e., 60 grams of formaldehyde are required to neutralise 40 grams-
of sodium hvdrate (or 38 grams of calcium hydrate).

3 crams of CH^O ;ire contained in ., , ^ c-C- o^ '■^^■^% solution.

3x100
TL5

Water

CO. of 10'
CaCOo

250 C.C.

5.0

2.50 c.c.

0.0

2 X 100
3 grams of NaHO are contained in -^ c.c. of 3.5 solution.
^ 6.0

.-.Ice. of 31.5%CH,0 = 6c.c. of 3.5%NaHO.

In the experiment 9.6 c.c. of soda were required, whicli represents;
1.6 c.c. of CHoO. Hence of the 5 c.c. of formaldehyde used 3.4
c.c. were theoretically polymerised to sugar. In this way, the appar-
ent percentage polymerisation can be calculated under varying con-
ditions, and with various concenti-ations, as thus : —

c.c of 31. .V: c.c. of 3.5":; Per cent, of CHqO

OH 0 NaHO required polyuierizerl

.5.0 - 9.6 C.C. - 6S

5.0 - 27.8 c.c. - 8

In addition to sugar, however, small amounts of by-products;
may appear. Thus perceptible amounts of dihydroxyacetone are
produced when formaldehyde is polymerised to sugar by boiling-
with calcium carbonate.^ Allowing for this possibility, the per-
centage polymerisation to sugar is between the theoretical maximum
of 75% for the disaceharide and 60% for hexose.

The influence of the concentration of calcium formate present
was found by varying the amount added, while keeping the Avater
and formaldehyde constant. Five c.c. of 31.5%, CH2O were added'
to 250 c.c of calcium formate and water.

The soda first reacts with the calcium formate, forming calciunv
hydrate and sodium formate. The calcium hydrate reacts with the-

4. H. and A. Culer, Ber.d. D. Bot. Ges. 1905, 39, pp. 36, 39.

A. J.

Eivart

•■

'

c.c. of 10 '„
Oil CO ^

Na

c.c. of 3.5/„
HO requii'ed

Per

cent, of formaldehyde
polymerized

0.0

-

27.7

-

8

0.1

-

23.9

-

20

0.2

-

19.8

-

34

0.5

-

17.5

-

42

1.0

-

14.1

-

54

2.0

-

11.6

-

62

2.5

-

11.2

-

&2

3.5

-

10.1

-

66

5.0

-

9.8

-

68

10.0

-

9.8

-

68

15.U

-

9.8

-

68

20.0

-

9.7

-

68

40.0

-

9.7

-

68

174

Water
250
250
250
249.5
219
248
247.5
246.5
245
240
235
230
210

formaldehyde, forming calcium formate and polymerising a por-
tion to sugar. No sugar condensation is produced by boiling for-
jnaldehyde with either calcium or, sodium formates.

From the equation 2 NaHO + ra(C00H)2 =CaHo02 + 2 NaCOOH
• 80 grams of soda = 130 grams of calcium formate ., 10 c.c. of 3.5%
NaHO = o.7 c.c. of 10% calcium formate or 9.8 c.c.% of NaHO =
r>.5 c.c. of 10% calcium formate. Hence maximum polymerisa-
tion is reached at a point where the soda and calcium formate are
approximately equivalent. After that point an excess of calcium
formate causes no increase in the percentage polymerisation.
When still less calcium formate is present, the amount of soda re-
quired rises, more sodium formate being produced and less sugar.

An addition of 20 c.c. of 10% calcium formate causes an appreci-
able rise of the boiling point, and may be responsible for a slight
loss of formaldehyde either as vapour or in the form of by-products
other than sugar, and not involving any reaction with the calcium
hydrate. Hence the slight decrease in the amount of soda required,
which is in fact easily within the limits of error of the method
used. In a further series of tests, the percentage of calcium for-
mate was kept constant, and the amount of formaldehyde varied,
245 c.c. of water and 5 c.c. of 10% CaC'O^ were used in each experi-
^.ment.

c.c. of 31.. 1 per
CHaO

cent.

c.c. of 3.5 per cent.
N.aHO required

Percent, of CH.jO
polymerized

1

.

4.8

-

20

2

.

5.3

-

55

3

.

3.7

-

68

4

.

7.9

-

67.5

5

-

9.8

-

68

5.5

.

14.3

-

56

6

.

IS.O

-

50

7

.

29.0

-

31

SyntJtesis of Sugar

175.

Apparently an excess of calcium formate interferes with polymeri-
sation, when the formaldehyde is very dilute, while with the strong-
solutions since the 5 c.c. of 10% calcium formate requires 8.9 c.c.
of 3.5% to convert it all into CaH202, portion of the 5.5, 6 and T
c.c. of CHjO has to be neutralised directly by the soda, and hence
the percentage polymerization decreas.es.

Starting with 0.25 c.c. of 10% CaCO. and 0.5. c.c. of 31.5%.
CHoO. and increasing or decreasing each proportionately, the fol-
lowing results were ol)tained : —

Water

2J,9.55 c.c.
248.75 c.c.
247.5 c.c.
245.5 c.c.
242.5

c-.o. of 10

per cent.

Ca(C0OH)j

0.62

1.25

2.5

5.0

7.5

c.c of 31.5
per cent.
CH.2(>

1.25

2.5

5.0
10.0
15. t»

c.c. of 3..5 Per cent

per cent. poh nierization

NaHO required of CH.iO

5.1

6.4

13.()

27.9

49.0

32
56

58
54
46

On the basis that 1 molecule of CaHjO, reacts with 9 molecules of
CH^O, then 1 c.c. of 10% Ca(C00H)2 represents 0.66 c.c. of 31.5
tH,0.

Hence the amount of calcium formate present is l>elow that
theoretically lequired, and a large portion of the CH^O reacts-
diiectly with the soda, giving a low percentage polymerisation.
Further, two standards were taken, namely, (A) 5 c.c. of 10%
CaCO, to 3 c.c. of 31.5% CH^O, and (B) 5 c.c. of 10%, CaCO^ to

c.c. of 31.5% CHjO. The amounts of each were increased or de-
creased proportionately to one another in the tv^•o sets of tests, A
and B, and added to 250 c.c. of water.

c.c. of 10 per cent.
Ca(COOH)2

c.c. cf 31.5 per cent.
CH.2O

c.c. of 3.5 per cent.
NaHO required

Pt:r

cent, polymerization,
of CHjO

1.6

1.0

4.8

-

20

3.3

2.0

6.2

-

50

5.0

3.0

6.5

-

63

6.6

4.0

8.6

-

65

8.2.

50

lO.l

-

66

9.8

6.0

13.2

-

63

11.4

70

J 5.6

-

63

13.1

8.0

B

19.2

"

60

c.c. of 10 per cent.
Ca (COOH2)

c.c. of 31. .T per cent.
CH2O

c.c. of 3.5 per cent.
NaHO re<iuired

Per

cent, polvmerizatior*
of CH2O

1.88

1.0

7.1

-

20

2.5

2.0

6.4

-

45

3.75

3.0

7.4

-

60

5.0

4.0

8.2

-

62

6.25

5.0

9.4

.

68

7.5

6.0

11.0

.

70

8.75

7.0

16.1

-

61'

10.0

8.2

18.5

-

61

U76 A. J. Etvart:

A. contains very nearly the theoretical amount of Ca formate
.required for the production of pentose sugar (1 mol. Ca formate = 9
molecules CHoO). If any hexose or disaccharide is formed, less
calcium formate would be required for optimal polymerisation.
The higher polymerization in B indicates that some hexose or di-
. saccharide is produced. With the intermediate concentrations, the
results are very consistent, varying less than 1 % in duplicate tests.
At the extremes, however, the results obtained particularly at the
lower extreme are apt to vary somewhat, however, carefully the
.tests are performed.

Evidently, too great an excess of calcium formate interferes
slightly Avith polymerisation at the higher concentrations, whereas
in lower concentrations the opposite effect appears to be exercised.
The maximum polymerisation is given with concentrations corre-
sponding to 0.62% to 0.75% solutions of formaldehyde.

When strong solutions of alkali are used , or when the formalde-
hyde is concentrated, portion of the alkali is apt to attack the
■sugar produced, decreasing the apparent polymerisation.

When calcium formats is present, however, and the soda is added
■gradually, the percentage polymerisation decreases less rapidly
with increasing concentration.

Thus, adding 10% c.c. of 31.5% CHvrO to 50 c.c. of 10% CaCOv,
(6.3% CH.O), 28.8 c.c. of 3.5% Na HO was required to complete
the reaction, and an abundance of sugan was formed. In this case
52% of the 6% CH-^^O was polymerised. Using a mixture of 50
■ CO. of 10% CaCOtj, and 20 c.c. of 31.5% CHoO, and running in
35% NaHO, it is necessary to obtain an approximately accurate
result to keep the temperature below boiling point, and to shake
vigorously after each addition of soda until the precipitated lime
dissolves as formate. Even then the liquid becomes distinctly
brown before all the formaldehyde lias been removed. The amount
of soda averaged 6.6 c.c, and 1 c.c. of CH^O equalling 0.6 c.c. of
soda, the percentage polymerisation was 45.

Polymerisation by other divalent alkaline metals

In the previous paper it was found that the presence of neutral
barium, strontium or magnesium salts in boiling formaldehyde, to
which caustic soda was added, increased the amount of polymerisa-
tion, and decreased the amount of soda required to neutralise the
formaldehyde. Barium and strontium Avere not quite so effective
as calcium, and magnesium had comparatively small effect. In
these preliminary tests the importance of having a slight excess of

Synthesis of Sugar 771

-the neutral formate present was not realised, and hence further
.estimations were carried out in the same manner as for calcium.

It is, however, difficult to obtain exact quantitative determ^.na-
-tions owing to the delay in the completion of the reaction after
each addition of soda. If the latter is added too rapidly, so that
any precijjilate forms, this only dissolves very slowly, and any un-
dissolved precipitate represents so much neutralised caustic soda.
If, however, the boiling is very prolonged, the li([uid turns yellow,
while still containing formaldehyde, and when the reaetioii is com-
j)leted the liquid appears to contain more by-products other than
sugar. At least the liquid from a reaction completed in two hours
boiling contained from 5 to 10% ]nore reducing sugar, as deter-
mined by the Pavy method, than one completed by six hours' boil-
ing, and the latter required slightly less caustic soda, although all
-other conditions and quantities were the same.

For these tests it was found best to use a simple type of con-
-densing flask, with the burette passing through the cork, and with
an open upright tube 4 ft. long as the condensing column. Of the
SOU c.c. of water used 100 c.c. was allowed to trickle slowly down
this tube during the two-hour period over which the boiling, and
cT,ddition of soda, were spread when strontium and barium salts
were used. As the soda burette becomes slightly warmed during the
boiling, its final reading must be checked after it has cooled to
the original temperature.

SfronfiiiDi. — Crystallised s-trontium formate was used as a 10%
solution. The jiroportions used were 20 c.c. of strontium formate,
500 c.c. water, and 70 c.c. of 31.5 formaldehyde. The amounts
of 3.5% sodium hydrate required varied from 20.8 c.c. to 21.2,
representing an apparent polymerisation' of formaldehyde of 65%.

Barium.— \\\ the presence of barium formate, using similar
quantities, the reaction was slighly more rapid. The amounts of
soda required to neutralise all the formaldehyde varied from 20.4
to 20.9, representing a percentage polymerisation of formaldehyde
of 65 to 66%.

Magnesium. — Owing to the liighly insoluble character of the
hydrate, its polymerising action is extremely slow, and quantita-
tive estimations are difficult to obtain. A preliminary estimation
was made, using an excess of the hydrate precipitated in the liquid
by caustic soda. In this case the only advantage of using caustic
soda is that the hydrate is precipitated in a more bulky and
flocculent form than if the dry livdrate is used. From the amoimt

178 A. J. Ewavt:

of magnesium hydrate, remaining after all the fonialdehyde had
been polymerised, the appro/ximate amount required was esti-
mated'.

Using these proportions more exact estimations were made. The
condensing flask was provided with a condensing tube 4 ft. long,
which was sealed at the upper end as soon as the liquid had been
brought to boiling point, and allowed to blow out to a thin safety
bulb. The liquid was then kept just at the boiling point for several
days. The liquid l>ecame brown before the end of each experi-
ment.

In the presence of magnesium formate, 500 c.c. of water and
10 c.c. of 31.5% formaldehyde, after the addition of 23 c.c. of
3.5% sodium hydrate, a small ansount of a white insoluble solid still
remained after several days. This was not Mg HjO,, and was
insoluble in dilute acid, the liquid was faintly acid, and still con-
tained a small amount of CHjO.

Using 750 c.c. of water, 15 c.c. of 31.5% CK^O, a slight excess
of magnesium formate and 40 c.c. of 3.5% NaHO, all the formal-
dehyde wa.s removed, after boiling for 22 hours, the liquid ^^as
faintly acid, and contained a small amount of white solid, incon-
spicuous when suspended, but not consisting of Mg HjO,. This
represents a percentage polymerisation of 58. A further test gave
a polymerisation value of 57. As a small amount of the magne-
sium hydrate appears to form an insoluble compound, and as
during prolonged boiling a trace of the formaldehyde is oxidised
directly to formic acid, which represents a further direct removal
of magnesium hydrate without producing any polymerisation, the
polymerisation value of 57 to 58 for the divalent Mg corresponds
fairly well with that of 65-68 for the divalent Ca. Ba. Sr, and con-
trasts sharply with the values for the monovalent K and Na of 8 to
14%.

Potassium. — On the basis of the conclusions given above, that
the relative efficiency of calcium and sodium as polymerising
agents depends upon the former being divalent, and the later
monovalent, we should expect to find equivalent solutions of the
monovalent metals, sodium and potassium, exercising a very
much inferior polymerising action, and. that in the presence of
calcium formate it should be a matter of indifference whether
sodium hydrate or an equi-molecular solution of potassium hydrate
was used to bring about polymerisation.

As a matter of fact the correspondence is even more exact than

Synthesis of Sugar 179*

miglit liave been expected. Thus, using 250 c.c. of water to the-
proportions given the following were the results : —

c.c. of 10 per ceiit.
calcium formute

c.c. of 31. !i per
CH.^O

cent.

c.c. of 3.5 per cent.
NaHO required

Per cent,
polj'iiierizatioii

]0.0

5

.

9.8

68

0.0

5

-

27.7

8

U.O

4

22.6

c.c. of 4.9 per cent.
KIIO required

6

10.0

5

-

9.6

68

0.0

ij

-

26.1

14

0.0

4.

-

20.9

12

y on -reducing sugar.

In order to determine whether any non-reducing sugar was-
fornied, to 50 c.c. of calcium sugar concentrated to a thick syrup,
BaH^O^ solution was added. A small amount o^ white precipitate
Avas formed. This was filtered, washed, and treated with CO2.
The filtrate contained a non-reducing sugar, giving reduction
after boiling with a drop of H^SO^, and pink with resorcin and
HCL, but no reaction with phenylhydrazin. Hence a small amount
of disaccharide resembling cane sugar is formed, but the percentage
is much less than 1%, and is greater if the boiling is prolonged
during the production of sugar.

In sugar synthesis by Ba and Sr, a small amount of ppt. always
forms, which does not dissolve even if boiled with excess of CH^O.
It yields sugar after treatment with CO^, and is apparently a com-
pound of a disaccharide with BaH„0.,, or Sr HoO^. The amount
is always small if the sugar condensation is carried out under
proper conditions.

Fischer has shown that in the presence of acids condensation of
disaccharides from mono-saccharides, particularly from levulose, is:
possible, and it seems probable that any disaccharides formed are
not produced by directly polymerisation from CHgO, but indirectly
from the monosaccharides. Hence their appearance Avould not neces-
sarily increase the apparent polymerising action of the alkali.

Reducing power of sugar si/rup.

Although the synthetic syrup contains a mixture of sugars, it is
of some interest to determine its reducing power in glucose equiva-
lents.

The syrups were formed l>y running 4.9% potassium hydrate
into boiling formaldehyde, containing calcium formate.

9

180 A. J. Etvart:

10 per cent. 31.5 per cent. Aniount req.

Water Ca formate CHqO of 4.!) per cent. KHO

A — 750 - 15 c.c. - 15 c c. - 27.0 c.c.

B— 750' - 25 c.c. - ] 5 c.c. - 29.5 c.c.

10 c.c. of A were diluted to 50 c.c. with 10% NHJ^O. and titrated
:against 50 c.c. of Pavy's solution (8.316 grams copper sulphate
-per litre).

34.7 c.c. neutralised 50 c.c. of Pavy. There was no increase in
the reducing power after boiling with citric acid.

After heating with 1 drop of HCl., S^.o c.c. reduced 50 c.c. of Pavy

After heating with 5 drop.s of HCl., 35.-4 c.c. = 50 of Pavy.

After heating with 10 drops, 44.5 c.c. decolorised 50 c.c. of Pavy.

Hence a trace of non-reducing sugar may be present capable of
inversion by HCl, but excess of HCl causes the decomposition of
some of the sugar.

Repeating A and B several times, the maximal reducing action
•obtained was 33.5 c.c. =50 c.c. Pavy = 0.025 gram glucose, and,
therefore, the total bulk of 805 c.c. of syrup had a total reducing
power equivalent to 1.348 gram of glucose. Since 15c.c. of 51.5%
CH::0 were used ; in? terms of glucose this would represent a sugar
polymerisation of 29%.

In a test with caustic soda alone, 35% caustic soda was run into
boiling 31.5% CH^O. A yellow tinge appeared at once, but to
neutralise all the formaldehyde 25 c.c. of 31.5% CHoO required
14.8 c.c. of 35% NaHO. As 14.8 c.c. are equivalent to 23 c.c. of
CH5O, this represents a theoretical polymerisation of 8%. The
liquid contained reducing sugar equivalent to 0.13 gram of glucose,
which represents a polymerisation in terms of glucose of 2%.
Owing to tlie strength of the alkali used, however, much of the
«ugar formed is caramelised.

21ie action of alkali'- s on the polymers of formal dthyde.

The concentrated aqneous solution of CH.^O is supposed not only to

C) _ Y\

C(mtain volatile CH.^0, but also hydrates such ms CH.^_.j_tt, and

(CH/,/^0(0H)2. The latter is a non-volatile polyhydrate which
leaves a waxy' solid on complete evaporation, supposed to be difor-
maldehyde, " paraformaldeliyde " (CHoO)^. The better known
Iriformaldehyde or metaformaldehyde (CHoO)g is stated to be dis-
"tinffuished from diformaldehvde by its subliming just over 100°C.,
whereas its M.P. is 171-172 "C.. and by its insolubility in water,
alcohol and ether.

Synthesis of Sugar 181

Jii contact with peroxides of Ba or Sr, and water, polymerised
.formaldehydes are catalytically changed into- the simple form, and
.much heat evolved.

Tliere appears to be some uncertainty as to the real nature of
"paraformaldehyde," and as to how best to obtain it in pure
form.

If a saturated solution of formaldehyde is evaporated by rapid
boiling to i its bulk, or a 30°/ to i its bulk, and then allowed to

f 5 I '"6

cool, it sets as a white waxy solid. A solution containing 175
90°C., then giving off water and CH^O, recondensing as a solution
grams of CIIo'O yielded 122 grams of this solid. It melt.s at
of CHjO. or escaping as gases. In a desiccator or in air it slowlj"
loses water and CHjO ; after three weeks in a desiccator, losing
36% of its weight. If heated to just over 100° c.c. it boils, and
.after all the water has been driven off the residue sets to a harder
waxy solid, Avith a specific gravity slightly greater than the hydrate
{1.2). Ihis gives off CH^O vapour when heated.

Apparently the first solid obtained is the polyhydrate. This is,
however, unstable. After two to three weeks in a dessicator, fre-
quently exhausted by a Geryck pump, a considerable loss of water
and CH^O takes place (nearly 40%), and the residue sublimes on
heating. The solid lost on the average 0.8% of its weight daily,
until 38% has been lost, by which time the daily loss liad' fallen to
0.2O//.

Botli the polyhydrate and the " paraformaldehyde," when in
mass, remain incompletely dissolved in cold ether, alcohol or water,
even after three days, but in hot water or alcohol dissolve rapidly.
On cooling the alcoholic solution, a larger proportion of white solid
separates out, which blackens and gives a smell of ether, with warm
strong HflSO^, and decomposes on heating. It is apparently a
compound of CH|,0, with alcohol.

In the intermediate condition between hydrate and C.^H'^O.,.
changes to CH^O when heated in water to 130°C. Samples of
CjHeOa prepared in various ways, were all found to dissolve
slowly, after prolonged heating in excess of boiling water,, when in
the form of a fine powder. Large pieces, however, give for a con-
siderable time the appearance of being insoluble.

In the intermediate condition between hydrate and CjHgOg.
it dissolves more readily in hot water than CjHgOg. melts partiallv
before subliming, and sublimes into oily drops, which set to a
white wax on cooling. When conversion is complete the C3H^0,
sublimes without melting, and deposits as a white solid. Xcs'^^^A/

i^

^ ^m^

4

I LU LIBRARY

182 A. J. Ewart:

The i>roduction of sugar from solids.

If dry (CHjOjj is mixed with crystalline Barium hydrate (Ba
HoOo 8 H2O) and ground intimately in a mortar, a pasty mass is-
obtained, smelling of CHoO. If this is gently warmed at one point
a sudden and violent exothermic reaction spreads through the mass,
CHoO, water vapour and n)ethyl alcohol are given off, and the
teimperature rises, to lOCC. oi-* llO'C. if a large mass is used, witk,
an excess of barium hydrate. The resulting brown, gummy residue-
contains no formaldehyde, but reducing sugar appears.

Similar reactions are given with strontium hydrate, but with
dry calcium hydrate tlie reaction is imperfect. " Paraformalde-
hyde" and the solid polyhydrate may be used instead of metafor-
maldehyde. In the latter case the temperature does not rise beyond'
lOO^C owing to the large escape of steam.

Metaformaldehyde and alkali.

The solid was ground with dry barium liydrate in varying mole-
cular proportions, and the j^asty mass weighed out to contain in
each case 0.45 gram (CH20)3, After warming, the residue was dis-
solved in Avarm Avater, the Barium formate and any excess of
Barium hydrate precipitated as sulphate, and the filtrate tested by
the Pavy method. Any (CHjO), remaining is filtered off with the
Barium sulphate, and if any CH,-0 is present, the ammonia used'
the Pavy method. (Any (CHiO)^ remaining filtered off witli tlie
affect the tests for reducing sugar. Similarly the formic acid is
converted into ammonium formate. As a matter of fact the
reaction is a very complete one, and with the proper proportion of
barium hydrate every trace of formaldehyde is removed.

Tlie following proportions were used : —

A and B. 1 Barium hydrate (0 80 otmiii) to 1.8 (CH.,0)3 (0.45 gram)
C 1 „ „ (0.42 „ ) to 3.6 (CH2O), (0.45 gram)

D and E. 1 „ „ (0.28 „ ) to 5.4 (CH,,0)3 (0.45 gram)

with the foUowinsx results —

I"

roportion

Final reaction

T/Oss of weiu-ht
after warmiii;,'

Mass

Reducing equivalent
in fflncose

A.

1 : 1.8

Strongly alk.

0.21

Brown

0.075

gram

B.

1 : 1.8

,, ,,

0.23

,,

0 074

,,

C.

1 : 3.6

Less

0.23

Yellow

0.073

,, .

D.

1 : 5.4

Weakly alk.

0.17

White or

0.061

,,

5.4 „ „ U.14 pale yellow 0.0G6

Synthesis of Sugar 183

In B and E the separated ground solids were mixed liglitly but
thoroughly, and then Avarmed. In E the mass was mixed and
.ground with a glass pestle, while the reaction was taking place.

Further investigation showed, however, that to obtain maximum
polymerisation, with a minimum loss, quantities totalling not less
than 2 grams must be used. Otherwise the reaction is not so com-
plete, and hence the low production of sugar above. The results
of three tests ares given, the second with a sample of (CH20)3 oh-
tained from thel Chemistry School, the first and third with samples
prepared from a bulk sample supplied by Cuming, Smith's, and
purified by sublimation. The proportions used) were approxi-
mately 4 of (CHoO).-. to V Ba H2O2. In all three cases the residue
was brown, contained no formaldehyde, and was weakly alkaline.

Reduction equivalent
of residue in
CH2O3 BaHoO.2 I.ogs of weight terms of glucose

1.25 gram - 0.78 gram - 0.38 gi'ara - 0.37 gram

1.25 „ - 0.78 „ - 0.33 „ - 0.39 „

2.5 „ - 1.56 „ - 0.78 „ - 0.72 ,,

Ihis represents a polymerisation ecpiivalent in terms of glucose
fO'f 30 to 32%. Tlie maximum polymerisation in terms of glucose
obtained when using boiling dilute formaldehyde was 29 to 30%.
That is, in spite of the loss of ifoimaldehyde vapour, more sugar i»
obtained from solid metaformaldehyde and crystalline barium
liydrate than wlien the reaction is carried out with dilute solutions
in water.

The last experiment (with 2.5 grams) Avas carried out in a small
distilling flask. The distillate^ weighed 0.45 gram, so that appar-
ently at least J of the formaldehyde is lost as vapour. This Avould
increase the actual polymerisation value in terms of glucose to
'36o/o.

Even if an e^ccess of Barium hydrate is used, so that no trace of
formaldehyde^ remains in the residue, the filtered extract gives dis-
tinct aldehyde reactions, and lience presumal)ly contains the biose
'Sugar, glycollic aldehyde.

Paraformdldeltydf. and the, polyli ydrate.

Tlie former Avas prepared by melting the latter and heating till
Avater vapour ceased to escape. Similar results Avere obtained, but
"the production of sugar Avas less, and the hydrate gave off more
^water va2:)our during the strongly exothermic reaction.

]84 A. J. Ewart :

Glucose equivalent Per cent.

Lo.s3 of ol: reducing polymerization >

(CHoO).2H.,0 Alkali weiijht sugar in terms of glucose-

2.09 gram SrH ,0.^ 0.8 gram 0.63 gram 0.35 17%

1.53 „ BaH.,02=l „ 0.55 „ 0.34 22%

1.69 „ NaHO 0.5 ,. 0.74 „ 0.08 5%

(CHaOa

1.25 „ BaH^Oa 1 „ 0.41 ., 0.33 26^^

In each case the amount of alkali was sufficient to remove alh
the formaldehyde. When sodium hydrate and the polyhydrate are-
pounded together, the reaction starts spontaneously, and is very
violent. There is a heavy loss of formaldehyde vapour, and much:
of the sugar is caramelised. For this reason the percentage poly-
merisation is less than when a boiling dilute solution of formalde-
hyde is neutralised with dilute sodiimi hydrate.

If tlie reaction is started by locally warming several grams of
the mixture in a small distilling flask, a large amount of distillate
is obtained witliout applying further heat. This consists in the
case of the polyhydrate (and crystalline Ba H.^Oo) of water, methyl"
alcohol and formaldehyde.

If a slight excess of the polydrate is used, the whole of the
BaH202 is converted into barium formate. Tliis can be obtained
by dissolving the residue in a little water, and adding an equal
bulk of alcohol. A large part of the sugar slowly settles out with
some barium formate. On filtering after 48 hours standing, and
doubling the bulk in the alcohol, a second ppt., mainly of barium
formate, is produced, which, can <'asily be washed and purified.

A point worth noting is that if the finely ground polyhydrate is
mixed thoroughly Avith finely ground crystalline barium hydrate,
the mixture smells strongly of formaldehyde, and its temperature
falls 15°C. for some time. The temj^erature then slowly rises, Vmt
not appreciably above that of the room. The mixture slowly
develops traces of reducing sugar, but does not undergo any com-
plete reaction even after days in contact, until this is started by
heating one j^oint of the mixture.

A similar preliminary fall of temperature is show^n with di-
and tri-ninlecular formaldehyde. If, however, these are mixed
witli freshly slaked dry quicklime, or with powdered calcined
barium or strontium hydrates, the mixtuie remains dry, the fall"
of temperature is hardly noticeable, and on heating the mixture
locally the reaction does not spread. Only the parts heated turn
brown, and methyl alcohol distils over (yielding methyl iodide with
Iodine and red phosphorus). The residue contains an abundance

Sijn thesis of Sugar ISS-

of reducing sugar, but tlie reaction is imperfect, and is difficult
to comi^lete without overheating portion of the mixture, or volati-
lising much of the formaldehyde.

It is the presence of water of crystallisation in the crystalline-
barium hydrate which enables its reaction with solid polymers of
formaldehyde to progress, and be completed throughout the whole
mixture. Some of this water of crystallisation is liberated by mere-
contact with solid formaldehyde.

Summary of Results.

Cold dilute solutions of formaldehyde yield with alkalies, format.<^s-
and methyl alcohol, sugar polymerisation being inappreciable.
The reaction is incomplete after months in contact.

Maximum sugar production is given with boiling liquids, and
the reaction is completed almost instantaneously.

The maximum sugar polymerisation varies from 68% (Ca), 60%.
Ba, 65% 8r. to 58% Mg. for divalent alkalies, and from 14% (K)
to 8% (Na) for monovalent alkalies. The high polymerisation value-
(68%) estimated from the amount of alkali required for neutralisa-
tion indicates either that tlie pentoses and hexoses are produced
directly, or that glycollic aldehyde is produced by the reaction
yielding formates, an^l 3 or 4 of formaldehyde added to it without
further decomposition of formaldeliyde. Tliis is also indicated by
the appearance of pentoses. Polymerisation of biose Avould yield
tetroses or hexoses, but not pentoses.

The greatly increased polymerisation when soda is run into a
solution of formaldehyde containing calcium' formate is merely due
to the fact that calcium hydrate becomes the polymerising agent,,
and as a divalent metal exercises a greater polymerising action.
There is no evidence of any katalytic action, as was formerly sup-
posed.

In terms of glucose, the reducing sugars produced represented a
polymerisation of 29% for calcium, and 2% for sodium. Appar-
ently the sugars have half the reducing power of glucose.

The solid polymers of formaldehyde yield sugar readily, and
abundantly, Avhen in contact with solid alkalies. The most com-
plete reaction its shown with the powdered crystalline hydrates of
Ba and Sr. A feeble endothermic reaction precedes the violent
exothermic one. The production of sugar is greater than with solu-
tions, the polymerisation equivalent in terms of glucose being
30-32%.

In all cases the sugar is a by-prodiict in a reaction, yielding for-

186 A. J. Eiuart:

mates and methyl alcoliol. The alkali is used up and the amount
of sugar formed is proportionate to the amount of alkali consumed.
The reaction is, therefore, widely different from an enzymatic one.
No mode of enzymatically polymerising formaldehyde to sugar is
known, such as might occur in plants.

Conclusions.

The foregoing research was undertaken in order to elucidate cer-
tain points of interest to the plant physiologist concerning the
possible modes in which plants could synthesize sugar from formal-
dehyde, which the purely chemical researches available did not
appear to answer. It has led me to the conclusion tliat a produc-
tion of formaldehyde does not form a stage in tlie synthesis of
«ugar by plants, and that it would be a very wasteful, indirect way
of producing sugar.

The reasons on which this conclusion are based are as follow : —

(1) In 1908 I showed that when chlorophyll was oxidised in the
presence of light, and in the absence of carbon-dioxide, one of its
decomposition products Avas formaldehyde, and that tliis was the
explanation of the appearance of traces of formaldehyde in green
leaves exposed to light. This result has been confirniel by Schryver
.and by Jorgensen and Kidd.* Schryver stated tliat more t'ormal-
idehyde was produced when carbon dioxide was present, but as the
results of experiments extending now over ten years, there can he

-no doubt that the process is purely one of photo-chemical oxidation,
and is not increased by the presence of COo.

(2) There are strong reasons for concluding that alkalies do not
polymerise formaldehyde to sugar, oi- only to a very .slight extent,
but inst?ad produce methyl alcohol an>\ formates. Pronounced su^ar
formation only takes place when the alkali acts on a polymer, such
as parafornuildehyde, the polyhydrate, or metaformaldeliyde. The
production of sugar from a solution of formaldehyde mainly
depends on the presence of the polyhydrate in tlie solution. With
cold dilute solutions the production of sugar is almost negligible.
For a complete reaction and higli polymerisation a temperature
of OCC. to lOO'^C. is necessary. Even then tlie polymerisation is
only partial, and formates and methyl alcohol are formed in large
.amount. These are not known to accompany photosynthesis in
plants.

* Ewart, Proc. Royal Soc. Loud., B 1908, Vol. SO, p. 30; Schryver, ibid. 1910, 82, \\ 226;
Jorgcnson and Kidd, ibid. 1917, 89, p. 342.

Synthesis of Sugar 187

(3) Evtn-y method of polymerising formaldehyde to sugar yields
* mixture of sugars, in which pentoses are included, and often
form the main yield. Pentoses are not direct products of photo-
gynthcsis in plants, but instead hexoses and their 6 or 12 carbon
derivatives, starch and polysaccharides.

(4) It is as easy for the plant to produce sugar directly as to
produce formaldehyde. Tlius taking the process in three stages —

/ CO,, + H,0 = C H O + HO + 0

) C0, + H0 + H,0 = CH,H0 + 30

j CHO + CH.HO =^J^^(). Biose sugar,
-or in one stage : —

2CO, + 3H.O=°20jjO + 20,

The. equation could also be represented as in 1, 2, 3.

/H

(1) 2CO, + 2H.,0=C=0 + HA + 02

(2)

0=0

\h

2C0,+

HA=C-H +30

\0-H

(
I

:;-o-H

N

IH

0=0

HH

C-O-H 0=0

1

+ 1 =2 \

0=0

0-0- li 0-0

\H

K

K H

l\
H H

(3) I +1 =2 I Biose.

" H

^5) This Biose sugar (glycoUic aldehyde) is readily polymerised
•oy sodium carbonate to acrose, a hexose.sugai'.

(6) This mode of producing sugar -would be endothermic, as in the
plant. The production of sugar from the polymers of formaldehyde
involves an exothermic reaction which, under appropriate condi-
tions, is very violent.

(7) Magnesium hydrate has a slowcj- polymerising action on for-
maldehyde than' any other metallic alkali. Since the presence of
magnesium in chloro^jhyll is hardly accidental, its relations to

^glycoUic aldehyde when it is in organic combination merit future

188 A. J. Etvart:

investigation. For it to be able to act as a polymeriser in the*
plant, it must act in ferment fashion without itself being altered
or brought permanently into different combination. That is the-
polymerising action must differ Midely from that of alkalies on for-
maldehyde and its polymers.

(8) If photosynthesis involves an actual combination of chloro-
phyll and carbon dioxide, which combination is distintegrated by
light into chlorophyll and carbohydrate, hexoses would be formed
as readily directly as through the intervention of biose and the-
chlorophyll would act as a lytase or carboxidase enzyme.* Its mode
of action in producing glycollic aldehyde would also be that of ara
enzyme.

* Proc. Royal Soc. of Vict. 191S, Vol. xxx. p. 20S.

[Proo. Eot. Sqc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), P'f- H-, 1920].

Art. XIV. — Contributions to the Flora of Australia, No. ^8'..

BY

ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.

(Govorniiient Botanist of Victoria and Professor of Botany and Plant
Physiology in the Melbourne University).

AND

J. R. TOVEY,

(Assistant, National Harbarium, Melbourne).

(With Plate XII.)
[Read October 9th, 1919.]

Acacia dawsoni, R. T. Baker. (Leguniinosae).
Mi,tta Mitta, Mr. Clinton, Nov., 1918.
New for Victoria.

Acacia lkprosa, Sieb. "Leper Acacia." (Leguniinosae).
Between Eaglehawk and Sydney Flat, Victoria, David J. Paton,.
August 23rd, 1919. An unrecorded locality in Victoria for this;
plant.

Adriaxa, Gaud. (Euphorbiaceae).
Pax in Engler's Pflanzenreich, IV., 147-11., pp. IT to 21
(1910) practically agrees with Bemtliam's arrangement of th© genus-
Adriana . Maiden, in his Census of New South Wales Plants, fol-
lows them.

Bistrihution of Adriana.

A. glabkata. Gaud. V., N.S.W., Q., N.A.

A. GLABKATA, var. acerifolla, Pax. (A. acerifolia, Hook).
v., N.S.W., Q.

A. GLABRATA, var. Cunnirighamii, Mill. Arg. V.

A. GLABRATA, heteropliylla, Miill. Arg. V.

A. TOMKNTOSA, Gaud. W. A., N.A.

A. HooKKRi, Miill. Arg. (inch 2 varieties). V.

A. Q u A* Ri PARTITA, (Lab.) Gaud. W.A., T., V.

A. Klqtzschii, (F. v. M.) JNIiill. Arg. S.A., V.

190 Eivart and Tovey :

In Mueller's Second Census, the foregoing species are reduced
to two, but as they are all readily distinguished from one another
:they must l^e kept separate.

Agkostis lachnantha, Nees. (Gramineae).

Dookie, Victoria, W. D. Wilson. February, 1911. Canterbury
and Mitchani, Victoria, R. Ardagh, December, 1918.

Ihis useful pasture grass, a native of South Africa, is now
apparently establishing itself as a naturalised alien in Victoria.

AizooN ZYGOPHYLLOIDES, F. V. M. (Aizoaccae).

This species was recorded in the Victorian Naturalist, Vol.
XVII., p. 203 (1901), as being new for Victoria. This was evi-
dently an error, as the specimens from Corio Bay, Geelong, Jan.,
1901. on which the lecord was founded, proved on examination to
be Mesembryanthemum angulatum, Thunb., a native of South
Africa, which has Ijeen recorded as an introduction at Coode Island,
in Victoria. (Collected by J. R. Tovey, 1908.) Aizoon zygophyl-
loides is only found in West and South Australia. New South Wales
and Queensland.

Alhagi camelorum, Fisch. " Camel Thorn " (Leguminosae).

Tongala Irrigation District, Victoria. E. Kendall, 13/1/1920.

This plant, a native of Central Asia and the Orient, was pre-
viously recorded as growing wild in Victoria from the North-
•eastern district. It is now evidently spreading westward.

Amakanthus deflkxus, L. (Amarantaceae).

Elwood, Victoria, E. J. Semmens, November, 1917.

Another locality in Victoria for this weed. It is a native of
Europe, and is now apparently in the process of naturalisation in
this State.

Akundo Phragmites, L. (Pliragmites communis., Trin.)
"Common Reed." (Gramineae).

Daly River, Northern Territory, May, 1919.

Probably fairly common in the Northern Territory, but only
previously recorded from Port Darwin, M. Holtze, 1889. It may
possibly in some casep be included under the name Arundo Rox-
burghii, F. v. M. The plant is used for thatching hay ricks and
:sheds in Victoria. It has a certain fodder value V'hen young,
.-and mav have other economic uses.

Flora of Australia. 19 K

Bassia quinquecuspis, F. v. M. var. villosa, Bentli. (Anisncantlui

inuricata, Moq.) var. villosa, Benth. "Spear-fruited Saltbusli".

(Chenopodiaceae).

SedgAvick, near Bendigo, E. J. Semmens. 24/10/1919; Numur-
kah Shire, per Department of Agriculture, Nov., 1919.

This plant is now evidently spreading eastward in Victoria, hav--
ing been previously recorded from the North-West District only.

Brachycomi': microcaupa, F. v. M. (Conipositae).
Ti-tree Creek to Orbost, Mr. Sayer. 1887, Cann River. H. B'.
Williamson, Jan., 1918,
New for Victoria.

Bromus Cebadilla, Steud. "Chilian Brorae Glass" (Gramineae).

East Caulfield, G^o. Seymour, 17/12/1919.

This grass, a native of Chili, may be classed as an exotic not
yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised.

Buchanania oblongifolia, W.V. Fitzg. Royal Society of W.A.,
III., p. 65, 1918. (Anacardiaceae).

A specimen from Robinson River, King's Sound, 1888, G.
Poulton, was identified by Mr. Fitzgerald as B. oblongifolia before
this species was published. It agrees with the specimens quoted in
the Flora of the Northern Territory, pp. 171-172, as Buchanania
Muelli var pilosa. The specimens hardly appear to be suffi-
ciently distinct from the forms of Buchanania Muelleri to justify
raising a new species, B. oblongifolia, W. v. F.

Caleana minor, R. Br. "Small Duck Orchid" (Orchidaceae).

Sperm-whale Head, South-east of Lake Victoria, Gippsland, T.
S. Hart, 12/12/1919.

This orchid has not been previously recorded so far east in
Victoria.

Calochilus cuprkus, R. S. Rogers. "Copper Beard." (Orchidaceae)

A new orchid from South Australia, described by Dr. Rogers
in the Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. of South Australia, col-
lected for the first time in Victoria near Boronia Peak, Grampians,,
bv J. W. Audas, 2/11/1918.

192 Eivart and Tovey :

Calostkmma purpureum, R.Br. " Garland Lily."
(Hydrocharitaceae).

Lake Hattah, J. E. Dixon, April, 1910.

A definite locality in Victoria for this plant.

Cassytha. (Lauraceae).

In regard to the germination of seed of Cassytha, Mr, C. C.
-Brittlebank writes as follows : —

" About eleven or twelve years ago, at Myrniong, I obtained
numbers of young seedling plants in all stages of growth from seeds
just sprouting, rooted seedlings, and even plants, which had become
fixed to young gum twigs. In several seedlings, which had reached
this stage, the lower part had withered, but in some cases the plant
.had broken at the base. As to the conditions prevailing prior to
and during the observations. A bush fire had passed through the
stunted gum scrub, which was heavily loaded with Cassytha. Both
host and parasite had been destroyed by the fire. Heavy rain fell
shortly after, and continued to do so at intervals. The burnt gums
sent out sprouts from their bases, and it was upon these young
suckers that the more mature seedlings had become attached. This
was the only time that I ever saw the seedlings of this plant, and
it was due to this that I so carefully observed them." Evidently
the germination of Cassytha is rare, owing to its hard seeds, and
in this case the heat of the bush fire softened the seed coats and
hence caused the absorption of water and germination of the seeds.
The duration of the seeds in the" ."^oil is not known, but some buried
in the soil of a pot for three years were found to be capable of ger-
:minating after being filed.

Mr. T. S. Hart has also forwarded me seedlings of C.melantha,
found growing wild near Bairnsdale, in Octolier, and apparently
germinating naturally. It is possible that the difficulty of finding
seedlings may be due to the fact that germination only takes place
naturally during one month in the year, and that the rooted attach-
ment is soon lost.

Casuarixa Helmsii. Ewart and Gordon, n.sp. (Casuarinaceae).

Gnarlbine, W. Australia, R. Helms, 12/11/91. Eucla, W. Aus-
tralia, J. D. Batt, 1886. (See Plate XII.).

This plant was named C. humilis by Helms, but has terete instead
• of angular branches. The following is the description : —

Flora oj Australia. 193

A small tree from 5-8 feet in height. Branchlets are from 4-4^
in., and branches slender. The sheath-teeth vary from six to seven
in number.

Fruit cones are cylindrical, and very regular, about J-in. in
-diameter, and 1-in. long. The valves do not protrude beyond the
surface, which is nearly smooth, and quite glabrous.

The seeds are small and red. TheV are much more pointed than
'those of C. humilis, and smaller.

Deviations from C. humilis.

(1) Branches. — Ihese are much more slender, and the branchlets
-are about twice as long, though with shorter internodes and smaller

diameter; they are also less angular than C. humilis. The colour
■ of the branchlets is more greenish than grey.

(2) Fruits. — The cones are shorter and less rugose, the valves and
markings are more regularly arranged, and the valves do not open
as widely. The seeds are small, red and pointed, while those of
'C. humilis are larger, black and blunt.

CoLLOMiA cocciNEA, Lehm. ex Benth. "Scarlet-flowered Collonda."

(Polemoniaceae).

Mandurang, Hintiraecku (without date), Bendigo, E. J. Sem-
.mens, Nov., 1919.

This plant, a native of Chili, is an exotic, found growing wild,
hnt not yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised.

Ckkpis sktosa, Hall, f. "Hairy Crepis." (Compositae).

Ballarat, Victoria, E. J. Seimnens, March, 1913.

This plant, a native of Europe and Asia Minor, may be classed
.as an exotic, not yet sufficiently established to be considered
naturalised. It is a weed of cultivated and waste places, and takes
up the place of useful vegetation, and should be suppressed.

Crowea saligna, Andr. (Rutaceae).

Pine Mountain, Upper Murray Kiver, Vic, C. Walker, Oct.,
11891.

Cytisus linifolius, Lam. "Flax Broom." (Leguuiinosae),

Ruadsides, at Ararat, E. J. Semmens, October, 1918. Anothei
Ideality in Victoria for this inti-f)duced plant.

194 Ewart and Tovey :

EcHiUM vioLACEUM, L., Of Echiuui plaiitagiueum, L.
"Paterson's Curse." (Boragiiiaceae).

Aftfi- the last visit of the British Association some doubt was-
raised as to the correct name for the above plant, and it was even
suggested that it might be Echium italicum. The latter suggestion,
was, however, naerely due to the plant having been seen in fruit
only. To decide the former question specimens were submitted to
Dr. Lacaita, who has been specialising on the genus Echium. In
his reply given beneath, the decision is made that the name given
to the plant by Bentham in 1869, and under which the plant was
proclaimed, is not correct, and that the name should be Echium
plantagineum. As the point is one of some importance. Dr.
Lacaita's reasons are given in full : —

" As to Echium plantagineum and Echium violaceum, the plant
often called violaceum, especially by English botanists, is, as you
rightly say, identical with E. plantagineum, but it is not E. viola-
ceum,L. The violaceum of Sp. PI. is a muddle of two species, quite
unlike each otiiev, neither of which is E.jjlantagineum. The
synonyms all refer to E.rubrum, Jacq., a' very distinct species. It
is the only Echium with a clubbed instead of a trifid stigma. The
definition of the genus lx)th in Bentham and Hooker, and in Engler,
requires modification in that respect. But the observation describes
a plant cultivated in Hort. Uppslana, which is represented by the
specimen in the Linnean Herbarium. This plant is neither rubrum,
nor, as pointed out by Moris in his Flora Sardoa long ago, is it
E. plantagineum (E. violaceum auctt, plur.). Moris says it is very
like tlie Sardinian (and Italian) plant known as E. pustulatum S.
and S. It is very like it, but as far as I can form an opinion with-
out dissection of the corolla, Avhich is inadmissable in Linnean type-
specimen.><, it is more probably the Pcu'tuguese and Spanish E. rnsu-
latum, Lange, which, to this day, is grown at Kew, and taken
under the misnomer of " E. plantagineum," or " E. creticum."

It is curious that Linneaus should never have recognised E.
rubrum, for there are three fine examples of it in his herbariimi,.
two sheets being loose, l)ut the third is pinned to the sheet of E.
italicum. None of these three sheets bears any writing of Linneus,.
who left them undetermined.

E. plantagineum is always easilv recognised by — -
1. Plantain-like basal leaves. .

2. Amplexicaul upper leaves.

3. Peculiar thin texture of corolla in dried plant.

Flora of Australia. 195

4. Corolla glabrous, with long hairs on the nerves and

ciliate, not velvety pubeseent all over, as in all species
for which it could be mistaken.

5. Leaf indumentum homogeneous; the tubercle at base of

hairs conspicuous or inconspicuous, but no carpet of

close short pubescence l^eneath them.
It appears, therefore, that the name E. violaceum, under which
Paterson"s Curse was originally proclaimed, must now revert to E.
plantagineum L.

Eucalyptus Mitchklliana. Cambage. Willow Gum.
(Myrtaceae).

Near Chalet, Buffalo Mountains. An addition to the Flora of
Victoria. The j^lant was originally named E. Mitchelli, but this
name is already pre-empted for a fossil Eucalyptus (Journ. Royal
Soc. of N.S. Wales, Vol. LIL, p. 57, 1919.)

Eucalyptus Woollsiana, R. T. Baker. (Myrtaceae).

About seventeen miles east of Nowingi Railway Station, North-
West Victoria. (L. G. Chandler, 24/9/1919.)

Ibis Eucalypt has not been previously recorded as growing indi-
genously in Victoria.

Ficus MACROPHYLLA, Desf. "MoretoH Bay Fig." (Moraceae).

From the base of a large tree in the University grounds, in
November, 1914, the bark was removed, and two inches of the
outer wood. The tree attempted to send down roots from the cut
surface ait one point. These were cut off. During the first two
seasons the foliage of the tree was quite normal. Later the leaves
began to fall more rapidly than new ones were produced, and
branch after branch died. During the first season the amount of
latex increased markedly, after the second season it steadily de-
creased. The tree was not entirely dead until the declaration of
Peace in May, 1919. It, therefore, lasted four and a-half years
after being rung. During this time the wood remained moist and
sappy to the heart of the tree, and it continued to grow on the
upper part of the tree, above the ringing, but ceased to grow on
the basal portion of the trunk. At the end of the four and a-half
years the roots were- found to be entirelv dead, whereas above the
ringing, the bark at one or two points still shewed signs of life. On
examining the wood it was found that although the apparent rings

10

196 Ewart and Tovey :

are regular and well defined, they are not annual rings. The tree
could not have been planted more than fifty-five years ago, probably
not more than fifty years ago. On some of the projecting buttresses
the rings totalled from 220 to 263. The smallest number between
the buttresses was 121. The tree can. therefore, form two to four
rings in one year. These narrow rings are formed of alternate
layers of wood fibres mixed with vessels, and of thin walled,
rounded, almost parenchymatous cells resembling somewhat tan-
gential medullary rays. If the cross section is examined from a
distance sufficient to obscure the narrow rings, the broader annual
rings can be distinguished. The nuinl>er of these was 46, and in
the buttresses they were broader and included more of the narrower
ri ngss.

The death of the tree Avas due not to any interruption of the
water supply, but to the starvation and death of the roots. The
wood of the Moreton Bay fig apparently retains the power of con-
ducting water indefinitely, or at least, up to an age of 40 or more
years.

Gleichenia Hermanni, R. Br. = G. linearis, Clarke. (Filicales).

As there are no Victorian specimens of this plant, it cannot be
retained in the Flora of Victoria.

GLEiciitiNiA laevigata (Willd), Hook. (Filicales).

There appears to have been some confusion legarding the nomen-
clature of this fern. In " Hooker's Synopsis Filicum," G. laevi-
gata is given as a synonym to G. iiagellaris, Sprengl., but in Chris-
tensen's " Index Filicum," they are kept distinct. See also
" Domin. Prod. Farnfl. Qld. 205, Rosenburgh, in his Handbook
of Malayan Ferns, adoptsi G. laevigata, Hook, for the Malayan
specimens. The typical G. flagellaris, Spreng. is a native of Mauri-
tius only, whilst G. laevigata is a Malayan fern extending to Aus-
tralia. Some specimens of G. laevigata have also been confused
with G. flatellata, R. Br. — those labelled G. flaWlata and
given in Bentham's Flora Australiensis, Vol. VII., p. 698 (1878)
under Victorian localities, proved to be G. laevigata, Hooker.

The distribution of G. laevigata. Hook, and G. flabellata, R. Br.,
in Australia, appears to be limited to the Eastern and Northern
portion — i.e., Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland,
and Northern Australia.

Flora oi Australia. 197

Gnaphalium indicum, L. "Indian Cudweed." (Compositae).

Near Station Peak, Victoria, without collector's name or date.
This species has not been recorded previously for Victoria.

•OooDENiA ARTHROTRicHA, F. V. M., ex Benth. Fl. Austr. IV. 62 (1869)

= G. Bonneyana, F. v. M., Fiagm. VI. 226 (1868), t. LI II..

(Goodeniaceae).

The above is given by Krause in Engler's Pflanzenreich IV., 277,
p. 63 (1912).

The description of G. Bonneyana was published a year earlier
than that of G. arthrotricha, hence G. Bonneyana has priority, and
is therefore a valid species, with G. arthrotricha as a synonyrn.

Distribution. — Western Australia.

GooDENiA GENicuLATA, R.Bf. (Goodeniaceae).

. K. Krause. in his Monograph of the Goodeniaceae, in Engler's
Pflanzenreich IV., 277, pp. 52, 3, I (1912), divides the above species
into five different species, i.e., G. geniculata, R. Br., G. priniulacea,
.Schlechtd., G. robusta, Krause, G. affinis, De Vriese, G. lanata,
R. Br. Of these some of the forms of G. primulacea cannot Ije
readily distinguished from some of those of G. geniculata, hence
G. primulacea can only he considered to be a variety of G. genicu-
lata, i.e., G. geniculata, R. Br. var. primulacea, Benth, as
given in Benth, Fl. Aust. IV., p. 6.3 (1869).

Krause gives the distribution of G. primulacea from South Aus-
tralian localities only, but we have specimens from Victorian and
New South Wales localities, which agree exactly with the alx)ve,
and must be placed under the variety primulacea.

The distribution of the foregoing species are : — G. geniculata, R.
Br., South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, and
Queensland.

G. geniculata, var. primulacea, Benth, South Australia, Victoria,
New South Wales.

G. geniculata, var. heterophylla, F. M. Reader, Victoria.

G. robusta, Krause, South Australia, Victoria.

G. affinis, De Vriese, Western Australia.

G. lanata, R. Br., Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales.

GooDKNiA GRANDiFLORA, Sims. (Goodeniaceac).
In Engler's Pflanzenreich IV., 277, p. 75 (1912), Krause reduces
■G. albiflora, Schl., G. Cliambersii, F.v.M., G. Macmillanii, F.v.M.,

198 Eivavt and Tovey :

an«l G. Nicholsonii, F.v.M., to varieties of G. grandiflora, Sims.

G. albitlora and G. Chauibersii seem to be fairly distinct, and?
may for the present be classed as valid species.

G. Macmillanii and G. Nicholsonii may be placed as varieties of.
G. grandiflora, thus adding this species to the list of Victorian-
Flora..

Distribution.

G. grandiflora, Sims, Western Australia, South Australia, New
South Wales, Queensland, Northern Australia.

G. grandiflora, var. Macmillanii, Krause, Victoria.

G. grandiflora, vai'. Nicholsonii, Krause, South Australia.

Grevillka ramosissima, Meisn. " Branched Grevillea." (Proteaceae)

Buchan. East Gippsland, Miss Margaret McRae, 15/12/1919.
This plant has only been previously recorded from the North-
Eastern districts.

Grevillka rosmarinifolia, Cunn. "Rosemary Grevillea."

(Proteacea<>)-

Whipstick Scrub, Neilborough Road, north of Eaglehawk, Vic-
'toria, David J. Baton, 7/9/1919.

This species has usually reddish flowers, but the flowers of the-
above specimen were of a greenish yellow colour, but turned a dark
colour when drying.

Hakra flexilis, F. v. M. "Flexile Hakea " (Proteaceae).
This is a valid species, and is a native of Victoria, New South'
Wales and South Australia.

Hakea sericea, Schrad. (1795). (H. acicularis, R.Br., 1809).
Hence H. sericea has priority over H. acicularis.

Helipterum microglossum, Maiden and Betche. (Conipositae).

As there are no Victorian specimens of this species, the name
must be deleted from the Flora of Victoria.

Hybanthus filiformis, F. v. M. "Slender Violet." (Violaceae).
Mitta Mitta, S. F. Clinton, Octol>er, 1919.

Not previously recorded for the North-Eastern district of Vic-
toria.

Flora of Australia. 199

Hypolkpis tknuifolia, Benih. "Soft Hypolepia." (Filicales.)

Raymond Creek, near bridge of Old Cann Road, East Gippsland,
(George E. Harrison, 1/1/1917.

This is a definite locality in Victoria for this plant.

Inula gravkolens, Desf. "Stinkwort." (Compositae).

NoAva Nowa, Gippsland, Victoria, Hon. James Cameron, April,
1919. This proclaimed pest is gradually extending eastward in
thisi State.

IsoPOGON ANKMONlFOLius, Knight. "Tall Conebusli." (Proteaceae).

Near Providence Ponds, West of Fernbank Railway Station,
Gippsland, Victoria, T. S. Hart, 15/11/1919.

A definite locality in Victoria for this plant. Although the plant
is given in F. v. Mueller's Census, there were no specimens in the
Herbarium, and Bentham gives it as from Xew South Wales only.

Jasminum lineahe, R.Br. " Desert Jasmin." (Oleaeeae).

North-east of Lake Hattah, Vic, J. E. Dixon, April, 1919. A
.definite locality in Victoria foi- tjiis plant.

Lasiospekmum RAuiATUM, Trev. "Royal Down Flower."
(Coinpo.sitae).

Near Ballarat, H. B. Williamson, Feb., 1914.
This plant, a native of South Africa, has now apparently estab-
lished itself as a naturalised alien in the above district.

LoRANTHUs (Lorantliaceae).

Hill's Northern Territory specimens No. 303 and 421, which
^ere labelled Loraiithus dictyophlebus, are considered by !Mv. Maiden
to be Loranthus Exocarpi, Behr, var. spathulata, Blakely; also
Hill's No. 539, labelled L. longiflorus, Desr., he considers to be L.
'Odontocalyx, F. v. M.

Loranthus longiflorus, Desr. "Long-flower Mistletoe."
(Lorantliaceae).

Genoa, Victoria, Rev. A. J. Maher, Nov., 1918.

New for Victoria.

LoLiuM SUBULATUM, Vis. " Wimmera Rye Grass." (Gramineae).
Nhill, January, 1919, A. J. Mullett.
This is a new record as a naturalised alien in Victoria. It is

200 Ewavt and Tovey :

stated to have spread from a patcli planted near a dam t\Yenty-
three years ago at xMinyip, and now covers several hundred acres.
Il7 has been found at various localities in the Winimera, including
Nhill, Warracknabeal, and has apparently been confused with
some of the numerous forms of English Rye Grass. Italian Rye
Grass, Western Wolths, etc.

It is a native of South Europe, but it does not apjDear to be
common, or to have been investigated economically. Mr. MuUett
informs me that it has a high carrying capacity for stock, main-
tains itself readily by seed, but is injurious to wheat cultivation.
The grass appears to be more vigorous and larger in the Wimmera
than in its native home. Hence specimens were sent to Professor
Hitchcock, United States Agrostologist, who confirms the above
identification.

It is possible that forms might be raised from this grass suitable
for Central Australian regions, as a drought resistant grass. In-
formation in regard to the properties of this grass is given by
Mr. ]\Iullett in the May number of the " Agricultural Journal of
Victoria," 1919.

LONICEKA .TAPONICA, Thunb. (Caprifoliaceae).
Ararat Creek, Narnargoon, Victoria. J. W. Audas, Nov., 1919
A garden escape spreading along the creek and possibly in the-
process of naturalisation.

MiCROCAr.A FiMFORMS, HofF. and Link. " Slender Microcala."
Langwarrin, Victoria, Ed. E. Pescott, Oct., 1919.
A native of Europe, previously recorded as naturalised in the
Western District of Victoria only.

IVIiCROCYBF, PAUciFLOTiA, Tiircz. (Rutaceae).

Localities.— Western Australia, Druumiond, 5th Cullection, n 209,
South Coast, R. Brown, East Mount Barren, G. Maxwell.

South Australia. — Near Lake Hamilton, C. Wilhelmi ; Port Lin-
coln, C. Wilhemi; Port Lincoln, S. S. Browne; Venus Bay, Col.
Warburton; Kangaroo Island, 0. Tepper.

Victoria. — N.W. of Lake Albacutya. C. French, senr. ; Murray-
ville, H. B. Williamson.

MiCROCVBK MLLTiFLOKA, Turcz. (Rutaceae).
Localities. — Western Australia, Drununond 5tli Collection n. 211^
North of Sterling Range, and west of Blackwood River, Muir; be-

Flora of Australia. 201

tweeii Dundas Hills and Lake Lefroy, J. D. Batt; between Eucla
and Fowler's Bay, Miss S. Brooke; Eucla. W. Webb, also J. D.
Batt.

South Australia. — Moonta, Beythieri, Kangaroo Island, 0. Tep-
per; Sedan, Rotlie.

Victoria. — Nhill. St. Eloy D'Alton; N.W. of Lake Albacutya and
beyond Lake Hindmarsh, C. French; Malice, C. Walter; Wimmera,
C. S. Sutton, C. French, junr.

M. MULTIFLOUA, var. baccliarioides.
Near Fowler's Bay, W.A. E. Giles; near Port Eucla, W.A., For-
rest; Gawler Ranges, S.A., Dr. Sullivan.

MicKOCYBE ALBiFLORA, Turcz. (Rutaceae).

Locality. — Western Australia; Drumanond, 5th Collection, n.
210.

The foregoing species were associated together by Baron von
Mueller, under the lieading of Eriqstemon capitatus. The distinc-
tion of Microcybe from Eriostemon is not only a convenient one,
but ii» based upon clear and definite scientific distinctions. Of the
three forms included by Baron von Mueller under E. capitatus,
all are valid as distinct sipecies under Microcybe.

MuRALTiA Hkistkkia, D.C. "African Furze." (Polygalaceae).

Norton's Summit, about eight or nine miles from Adelaide, Sth.
Australia, per A. G. Edquist, July, 1019.

This hardy evergreen shrub, native of South Africa, is evidently
a garden escape, and may become a pest if allowed to spread.

MvosoTis AUSriiALis, R.Br. " Austral Forget-me-not."
(Boraginaceae).

Wedderburn, Victoria, W. W. Watts, October, 1918.
A new locality in Victoria for this plant.

NoTnoscoHDiiM FUAGRANs, Kuuth. "Wild Onion or Scented
Nothoscordmu." (Liliaoeae. )
Cawley's Creek, Timboon, per W. A. N. Robertson, 23/10/1919.
This plant, a ative of North America, recorded as a garden

202 Ewart avd Tovey :

escape in the Vict. Nat., XXIV., p. 193 (1905), may now be con-
sidered to be established as a naturalised alien in this State.

OxAMS PURPURATA, Jacp. (Oxalidaceae).

Drouin, Victoria, Nov. 1919, C. French, Junr.

Recorded previously as a garden escape, and now reported as
common at Drouin. This plant, a native of South Africa, is evi-
dently in process of naturalisation.

Panicum parviflorum, R.Br. (Grainineae).
, As there are no Victorian specimens of this plant, it must be
deleted from the Flora of Victoria. Its original admission was due
to an error. (See Vict. Nat. XXIV., p. 87, 1907.)

Phebalium obcokdatu.m, Cuiin. (Rutaceae).

Whipstick Scrub, Neilborough Road, North of Eaglehawk, Vic-
toria, David J. Paton, 7/9/1919.

This species has only previously been recorded from New South*
Wales. There is a specimen in the National Herbarium labelled in
the late Baron von Mueller's handwriting as Eriostemon Mor-
toni, from Sandhurst, Victoria, September, 1877, without collec-
tor's name. E. Mortoni, F.v.M., is a synonym to Phebalium obcor-
datum, Cunn. The Baron apparently neglected to record it for
Victoria.

Phormujm tkn\x, Forster. "New Zealand Flav." (Liliaceae).
Cawley's Creek, Timboon, per W. A. N. Robertson, 23/10/1919.
This plant, a native of New Zealand, which is often cultivated
in gardens, is stated to l>e growing wild at the above locality.

PiMKLKA FLAVA, R. Bi'. (Thy melaeaceae).
Bentham gives the flowers as being male and female. In Moore's
Flora of New South Wales, this character is used in diagnosis in
the Keys. In a large number of specimens recently examined in
class it was noticed uniformly that each head contained a numl)er
of male flowers, and a few fruiting flowers, but that all the latter
contained two well developed and apparently fertile stamens. The
flowers ma}', therefore, be either male or hermaphrodite.
Ihere appears, however, always to l>e a largt-r number of male
flowers in the head than of the " female," or hermaphrodite, flowers.

Flora of Australia. 203

Plagianthus monoica (R. HeliMS M.S.). Ewart, n.sp. (Malvaceae).
Near Lake Deboiali, We^t Australia. Collector, R. Helms,
1891.

This uiulescrilied plant had the above MS. name, without any
author, attached. It is a shrubby plant, covered with a pale, close,
short tonientum, easily rubbed off or scraped off, leaving a brown
surface on the branches. The leaves are long, narrow, sessile,
nearly linear, with ventrally inrolled edges, 3-5 centimetres long,
averaging about 2 mms. broad. The flowers are in terminal
leafy cymes, usually of 3-6 flowers. Carpels, 3, rarely 2, one-
seeded. Styles 3 (or 2) forking dichotomously into 6 (or 4)
(Ureneae). Flowers male and female. Staminal column bearing
anthers to the summit (Malveae). In the female flowers the petals
are stiff, scarious scales covered with liairs. In the male flowers
the petals are normal.

Although the character of the styles is peculiar, the plant
appears to behtng to Plagianthus. and it may be placed next to P.
squamatus.

PoLYPO(;oN i.ittoralis, Sni. " Perennial Beardgrass." ((iSramineae).
Fisherman's Bend, Port Melbourne, Victoria, A. O'Brien,
18/11/1919.

This species is a native of Europe; has been recorded as intro-

iluced in Queensland and West Australia. It has now made its

appearance in Victoria for the first time. In its native home it

grows 'n salt marshes along the sea coast. It is not likely to prove

•of much value as a pasture grass.

PuLTENAEA POLIFOMA, Cuun. "Dusky Bush Pea" (Leguuiinosae).

Mitta Mitta. S. F. Clinton, Nov., 1918.
New for Victoria.

PuLTENAEA PROCUMBENS, Cunn. "Curl-leaf Bush Pea."
(Leguniinosae).

Mitta Mitta. S. F. Clinton. Nov.. 1918.
New for Victoria.

Ranunculus Muellkri, Benth. "Felted Buttercup."
(Ranunculaceae).

"Flourbag." Bright-Oineo Road. 4600 ft., Nov. 20, 1918, D. J.
Paton.

204 Ewart and Tovey :

In Ml-. Williamson's paper on doubtful Victorian Plant records,,
it was pointed out that Ranunculus Muelleri \Yas only represented
in the Herbarium from the doubtful locality, Munyang Mts., which
might mean a New South Wales locality., VLv. D. J. Paton for-
wards sjjecimens collected on the Onxeo side of Mt. Hothaui, which
belong to Ranunculus Muelleri, and, therefore, give an undoubted
Victorian record for this plant.

Setosa krecta, Ewart and Cookson. (Flora of the Northern
Territory, lUlT, p. 33) =:Setos\ hoiidkace.\, Ewart. (Chamaeraphis

hordeacea, K.Br.)

The characters on which the distinction from Chamaeraphis are
based are : —

Setosa :

Inflorescence a spike

Spikelets single to each a-.Tn

Glumes rigid

" Awn " very long and rigid

Styles fi'ee to the base

Staminodia .'3 in female flower.

Outermost small glume callous and truncate

Chaniaerapliis :

Inflorescence a panicle.

Spikelets two or more to each awn. very rarely one.

Glumes lax.

" Awn " short and soft.

Stj-les shortly united at the base.

Staminodia 2 in female flower.

Outermost small glume thin and membranous.
Setosa represents the highest development of the peculiar mode
of developing an aAvned spikelet, of which the beginnings are shown
in Chamaeraphis, and in Setosa the spikelet, with its basal branch
" awn," disarticulates very readily aind in one piece. In Chamae-
raphis the spikelets disarticulate less readily and separately.

Setosa is strongly xerophilous. though usually growing near water..
Chamaeraphis is semi-aquatic.

Sor-ANUM vioL\CKUM, 11. Br. " Violet Nightslinde." (Solanaceae).

East Gippsland. Rev. A. J. Maher.

New for Victoria.

Flora of Australia. 205-

TjacHiNiuM ALOPECUROiDKUM, iiiiidl. "LongTiiils." (Aiiiariintaceae). .

" Lorquon " received from State School, No. 2590. 5/5/1919.
A definite locality in Victoria for this plant.

Trichomanes PAitvuLtJM, Pojr. (Filicales).
There are no Victorian specimens of this fern. The plants on
which the original record was made proved on examination by the-
Rev. W. W. Watts to be Umhrncuhtm- flahdlatum, Gottsche (Hepa-
ticae) the two plants liaving an extraordinary external resembl-
ance. T. parvuluiii must be deleted from the list of tlie Flora of
Victoria.

TuiGLOCHiN CENTHOCAKPA (Hook) var. lonjt(icarpa. (Naiadaeeae).

Watlieroo Rabbit Fence, W.A., M. Koch, Septem]>er, 1905.

According to Ostenfeld, in Dansk Botanist, Arkiv. Bd. 2, page-
35, 1918, the above was included under I'riglochin centrocarpa.
Hooker, in the collection by Max Koch.

Ulmis CAMPKSTRi.'!, L. "Conimon Elm." (Ulmaceae).

(Rate of growth.)

In the last number of the Contributions to the Flora of Australia,,
some data were given in regaixl to the growth of this tree. One
curious feature was an apparent contraction taking place during
autumn and winter, after the cessation of growtli in circumference,
followed by an expansion during a wet winter period (June-July).
In these observations the bark was left untrimmed around the
measurement line, and the tape used was standardised only at the
commencement and close of the obseii'vations. According to
Trowbridge and Weil (Science N. Series 48, 191S, pp. 348-550),
trees vary both in length and in breadth according to the tempera-
ture. Thus stems of Tilia europaea and Platanus orientalis in-
crease in diameter slightly with a rise of temperature above 32 deg.
F., but undergo marked transverse contraction with a fall of tem-
perature below 32 deg. F. They conclude that the diameter of a
tree is less when frost cracks are open than when they are closed,
and that the cracks are due to this contraction and not to the ex-
pansion of the fi'ozen water. The (juestion naturally arises whether'
full precautions were taken to ensui-e that the measurements taken
were ad'^^quately standardised. Trowbridge and Weil mention tliat

•206 Ewart and Tovey :

.the changes in circumference lag six to twenty-four hours behind
the changes of temperature. Ihe temperature at the centre of the
trunk of a large leafless tree is not, however, affected api^reciably
by daily variations of temperature, and only responds slowly to a
change in the average mean temperature.

In the measurements of the Elm taken in 1917-18, it was found
that an apparent growth contraction took place in winter, and

vthat slight variations in circumference Avere shown fi'om time to
time during the non-growing period. These measurements were
taken with' a tape around a partially smoothed line.

To obtain moie accurate measurements a girdle of bark was re-
moved, leaving a smooth surface close to the cork cambium. A
standard length of 6 ft. 9 in. was marked by Dr. Baldwin, Govern-

jnent Astronomer, on the stone basement. After each measurement
with a waxed tape it was extended over tlie standard, the increase
over the standard giving the actual increment of growth. The tape
was thus merely used to transfer the circumference of the stem to

■'the standard length, and not to measui-e it.

Ihe tape was kept in a dry room, and frt)m Novendx?r, 1918. to
April, 1919, 6 ft. 9 in. on the tape corresponded to 6 ft. 9 in. on

:the standard. The tape then began to shorten, and most rapidly
during May, until 6 ft. 9_V on the tape covered 6 ft. 9 in. on the
standard, and on June IHth, 6 ft. 9y''^. By July 2nd the tape had

^shortened a further ^V of an inch. A similar tape kept in a damp
cellar for a month shoi'tened ^ inch per 8ft. in this time, although
the temperature was fairly constant. The effect is, therefore, due

•to the gradual absorption of moisture, the humidity of the air in-

kCreasing greatly in Melbourne during winter.

The deepening of the girdle on the tree reduced the circumference
from 6 ft. 11| in. to 6 ft. 8f in.

In the previous year's measurements growth did not become per-

'ceptible until tlie first week in November, but here it began during
the first week of Octolier. This was the same time as wlien the
cambium began to divide in the previous years measurements, so
that the removal of the cork ring allows the actual growth to become

■sooner perceptible externally. In 1918 growth ceased at the end of
February, ]>ut in 1919 it continued until the middle of March.

'This w-as probably, however, the result of the exceptionally mild
and favouiable autumn expeiienced in 1919. The total growth in
1917-1918 was 11 in., and in 1918-1919 U in.

Cor

rectc'd t

iirtli.

Rate of Growth

per month of 3U^

da.v.<! in

Ft.

in.

t's''!-

TS '"•

6

8

12

nil.

()

8

13

nil.

6

8

13

nil.

6

8

u.

-

6

8

14

1.5

6

8

15

Z.o

6

9

1

7.0

6

9

5

G.a

6

9

7

8.6

6

9

9

5.5

6

9

11

5.0

6

9

14

4.3

6

10

0

4.6

6

10

■3

4.3

H

10

5

2.9

6

10

5

nil.

6

10

5

nil.

6

10

5

nil.

6

10

o

nil.

Flora of Australia. 20T

July 2(j, 1918
Aiiyust 16, 1918
September 21, 1918 -
October 10, 1918
October 18, 1918
October 30, 1918
November 7, 1918
November 26, 1918
December 3, 1918
December 14, 1918
December 26, 1918
January 17, 1919
January 30, 1919
February 20, 1919
March 13, 1919
March 28, 1919
April 25, 1919
May 21, 1919
August 1 1919

Throughout the autuiun and winter there was no evidence of any
expansion or contraction with changes of temperature within sl
range of 45°F., (34'F.-79°F.), the static measurement being 6 ft.
iOj-f in. On several occasions after rain had fallen and saturated
the bark, corrected readings of 6.10 ^^were given (May 23rd, June
2nd, June 15th, June 3€th, etc.), but between these times the mea-
surement reverted to 6 ft. 10_5_ in. It would be of interest to<
know in detail the method of standardization adopted by Trow-
bridge and Weil, and also what precautions were taken to dis-
tinguish between variations' of girth due to moisture and those-
supposed to be due to temperature. A variation of ^V in. in 6 ft.
lOy^ in. is approximately 0.07%, and if it were due to tempera-
ture, with a range of 45°F., it would represent 0.0017% per 1°F.,
which would in any case be negligable in dealing with a material
like the trunk of tree. The view put forward by Trowbridge and
Weil that frost cracks are due to the pronounced contraction of the-
diameter of the tree and not to the expansion of frozen water merits
further investigation.

Vkrbascum Blattakia, L. Spurious or Twiggy Mullein.
(Scrophulariaceae).

In J. M. Black's Naturalised Flora of South Australia Ver-

In J. M. Black's Naturalised Floi-a of South Australia, Ver-

ralised aliens in South Australia, whereas in Victoria the only two-

,208 Eivart and Tovey.

recognised are V. Thapsus and V. Blattaria. There has always
been some confusion between V. Blattaria and V. virgatuni. Thus
Verbascum virgatum, Spreng. (Syst. 1, 621) = V. Blattaria.
Verbascuni Blattaria, Veil =V. virgatum.

The true V. Blattaiia is that of Linnaeus Sp. PI. 178, a native of
Europe and Asia, whereas V. virgatum was described by Stokes
.(With. Bot. Arr. Brit, PI. ed. 11, 227), and appears to l>e originally
a native of Europe only.

In Bentham's British Flora, V. vii-gatum is distinguished from
V. Blattaria by (1) the more abundant glandular hairs, (2) the
pedicels of the flowers ai-e shorter than the calyx, whereas in V.
Blattaria they are longer; (3} there are usually 2-6 flowers to each
bract.

If the Victorian specimens of V. Blattaria are sorted out into
those with long and those with short pedicels, it will be found that
the glandular pubescence varies in Ijoth series, and that there are
.as many specimens of " V, virgatum," with one flower to each bract,
as with two or more floAvers. If the specimens are sorted into " 1
flowered," and 2, or more, flowered specimens, the long stalked
.and short stalked characters are completely mixed in both sets.
Although V. virgatum is called the " Twiggy ^lullein," branching
.specimens otherwise typical of V. Blattaria are quite common.

The only satisfactory conclusion is to regard V. virgatum as a
variety of V. Blattaria, differing in one constant feature, the length
• of the pedicel, as thus —

V. Blattaria, L. V. Blattaria, L. var. virgatum.

Flowers 1 to each bract Flowers 1 or 2 rarely up to 6 to

Pedicels longer than calyx or each bract.

bracts. Pedicels usually shorter than calyx

or bracts.
Ihe variety virgatum is the commoner form in Victoria, but in
''Europe is of more restricted range than the typical V. Blattaria.

ViciA SEPiUM, L. " Busli Vetch." (Leguminosae).

Alston's Farm, S. Wychepronf, Vic, W. W. Watts, Sept., 1918.

Not previously recorded as a naturalised alien in Victoria, but
probably often confused with Vicia sativa. Vicia sepium is natu-
ralised in South Australia.

ZvGOPHYLi.UM BiLLARDiKRr, D.C. " Coast Twin Leaf."
(Zygophyllaceae).

Wahgunyah. Murray River, G. H. Adcock, Sept. 11, 1919.

In the preparation of phylloxera resistant vines by grafting on

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XII.

Casuarina Helmsil, n sp

Flora of Australia. 209

.to resistant stocks, the grafts are at one stage packed in seaweed
trucked from the coast, and washed at Wahgunyah. This has caused
the appearance of several coastal plants at this inland locality,
including tlie above, as well as Melilotus parviflorus and Salsola
Kali.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII.

Casuarina Helmsii, Ewart and Gordon.

(a) Portion of branch.

(b) Branchlet with leaf-sheaths.

(c) Fruiting cone.

^d) Portion of same, magnified,
^e) Seeds.

[Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S ), Pt. 11., 1920.]

Art. X\'. — A revision of the genus Fultenaea, Fart 1.

BY. H. B. WILLIAMSON.

(With Plates XIII., XlV. aud XV.).
[Keacl November 6th, 1919J.

It is only uatui'al that in large genera more confusion is likely
to occur than in small ones, and some time ago Professor Ewart
advised me that a general revision of the genus Pultenaea would
probably yield protitable results, and was indeed urgently neces-
sary. Ihe results of the first part of this investigation, based on
the examination of the material at the National Herbarium. Mel-
bourne, and of specimens received from the Government Botanists
of the other States, are here given.

The genus Pultenaea is confined to Australia, and comprisenS 92
acknowledged species. Seventy-five species are described in Ben-
tham's Flora Australiensis, two of which have been transferred to
other genera, and one reduced to a variety. The species since
described number 20, comprising those set up by Mueller (3). Tate
(2), Black (2), Maiden (3), Maiden and Betche (2). Bailey (1),
Baker (2), Scott (I), Andrews (1), Pritzel (1). and Hegel (1). No
labelled, specimen of either of the last three is in the Herbarium.

The approximate distribution is — Queensland, 11 species; New
South Wales, 45; Victoria, 37; Tasmania, 13; South Australia, 22;.
and Western Australia, 22.

About half of the species are confined to one State; about 20 are
recorded for two States, 10 for three States, and 6 species are
widely spread — -four States. As with other genera,, few of the
Western Australian species — two — occur east of the limits of that
State, one of which extends to South-West Victoi'ia. It is worthy
of note that in the Flora of the Northern Teri-itory, Ewart and
Davies, 1017, the genus is not mentioned, and that very few records
of Pultenaea exist for Western Australia outside the south-western
district of tliat State.

While attenq^ting a revision of the genus in which, judging by
evidence of labelled and unlabelled specimens in the National
Herbarium, much confusion exists, it is not claimed that finality
can now be reached with regard to certain groups, for the occur-
rence of forms that seem to connect the members of those groups
presents mucli difficulty. Considering the varying forms for
example, of tht group known under Eupultenaea, an advocate for

Genus Pultenaea. 211

reduction of species could place five or six, including P. stricta^
P. retusa, P. Gunnii, under one species name, and cultural experi-
ments may yet prove that they are not all valid species, but few
Avould he bold enough to make such a drastic reduction.

Even if it were proposed to unite, say, the three mentioned,,
which certainly are very close as regards floral structures, the work
of the great systematists, Bentham, Smith, Hooker, Mueller and
others, would be discredited, and their ideas of what constitute a
species set at naught. Wliile recognising most of the species set up
by these great workers, one's aim must be to realise their system,
and to follow it in the light of later discoveries of forms unknown
to thein. At the same time it is inevitable that in all such revisions
of large genera, additional sj^ecies must be set up, consisting for
the greater part of certain forms which have in error or for con-
venience been placed as varieties, but which, if they liad been more-
fully considered by the jiioneers of systematic botany, would have
been given specific rank. Tlie author, recognising the fallacy of
multiplying species unnecessarily, has in doubtful cases allowed'
the varietal rank to stand. It is known that species may show varia-
tions according to climatic and soil conditions, and it may be con
ceded that the variations will be greatest or most likely to occur in
the first named, and least in the last-named of the following : —
Habit; colour of flower; size, shape and texture of leaf; size and
shape of stipules ; arrangement of flowers ; size and -shape of bracts,
bracteoles, calyx, ovary and seeds. So that in the case of Pultenaea
a variation of ovary, whether stipitate or sessile, villous or glab-
rous, shape of calyx, position and shape of bracteoles and bracts,
are of more importance in determining a species than the habit,
the shape aiul size of the leaves, or the colour or size of the corolla.
In other words, if ovary, calyx, bracteoles and bracts are similar,
a good deal of variation in habit or in leaf can be allowed wdthin
the limits of a species, wh'^reas if habit, leaves, corolla and stipules
are similar, a marked difference in the reproductive organs just
named will justify the i-etting up of a species.

In the diagnostic drawings this has been kept in view, and they
include besides sketches showing shape and size of leaves and
stipules, drawings showing only the shape, size and relative posi-
tion of calyx, bracteoles and bracts. No attempt is made to show
the marginal curving of the leaf, or the nature of the indumentum.
Regarding the corolla, one has only to read in descriptions the-
oft-repeated " Standard twice as long as calyx," or " nearly

11

212 H. B. Williamson:

twice," " lower petals shorter " — tliis, by the way, is included in
the description of the genus — " keel dark cohmred," etc., to feel
iiow unimportant these parts are in determining a species of the
^enus. The fact that so many species of Pultenaea have been
described in, the absence of pods seems to show that these are non-
essential, though in the case of a plant without stipules, and with
the bracteoles well away from the calyx tube, the examination of
ripe seeds would be necessai-y to determine the genus.

Section EUPULTENAEA.
Pultenaea e/aphnoieles, Wendl.

Varies much in foliage, the normal plant having leaves cuneate-
•oblong, Avith a fine straight joint. Flowers in dense terminal
heads, and bracteoles well up on the calyx

var. ohcordata Bth. has truncate leaves witli a prominent point.
Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia.

var. parvi flora, n.v.

This has been placed under daplmoides and retusa, and among
doubtful forms. It differs from the type in having cuneate-oblong
leaves 4 to 6 lines long without a point, margins fiat or slightly
incurved, mid-i ib obscure alwve.

Upper Murray district, C. French, Junr., 1886. Wildflower
Show, 1919, no loc.

Pultenaea sfricfa, Sims.

A smaller shrub than P. daplmoides. witli smaller leaves, ovate-
oblong, with recurved margins, and a small recurved point. Bracts
numerous, glabrous, deciduous, with rounded point, outer ones
bifid and shorter. Bracteoles high on the calyx, usually glabrous.
I can find no constant variation from the type in var. incurvata,
Ewart, from Frankston.

Pultenaea Maiden ii. Header.
This differs from P. stricta in its long-pointed hairy bracteoles,
fixed near the base of the calyx. The lower lobes are narroAv, longer
than the tube, and almost setular pointed. The leaves are cuneate,
thin and often conduplicate. Its nearest affinity is P. largifloreiis,
F.v.M. — the broad-leaved form from South Australia — from
"which it differs in having narrower cuneate leaves and a very dif-
ferent calyx. It should retain specific rank.

Genus Pultenaea. 213

Pipe Head Watei-Avoiks, Hamilton, Vic, Collec-ted by the writer,
11/1904.

Pultenaea capitdlata, Sieb.

A species bearing a remarkable general resemblance to* P. pycno-
.cepliala, F.v.M., and variously placed Avith that species, or with
P. stricta, in which latter Beutham wrongly, included it.

Its minute stipules and high-adnate bracteoles place it right
away from Mueller's specieti, although there is a specimen labelled
by him " P. pyciiocephala F.v.M." From P. stricta it can be
separated by its floAver heads, solid and almost globular, and very
persistent bracts, broadly; ovate, densely covered with silky hairs,
•except at the margin, bifid, with a narrow median point. Calyx
lobes and bracteoles are setaceous. Leaves cuneate, slightly
pointed. The specimen, "Port Jackson, Sieb, n. 313," Fl. Aust.,
p. 113. is this species, and not the plant figured by Sims, Bot.
Mag. Sieber's name should be retained for it.

Braidwood District, Twofold Bay, N.S.W., and East Gippsland,
Tic.

Pultenaea pycuocephala, F. v. M.

A remarkable species, with broadly-ovate coriaceous leaves, silky
below, and with fiowei'S in dense globular heads, covered with
imbricate, silky villous, persistent bracts. The bracteoles are long,
Tery silky, villous, and are fixed quite under the calyx.

Bluff Mount, Poverty Point, Tenterfield, N.S.W.

Pultenaea refusa. Smith.

A species with calyx and bracteoles like those of P. stricta, but
with shorter bracts, jnore falcate upper calyx lobes, and leaves
linear to cuneate, sometimes emarginate.

Var. linophylla, Bentli. with longer leaves and longer calyx. Port
Jackson 4

Var. longifolia, F.v.M., with leaves up to 1^ inches.

Specimens from E. Gippsland, with cuneate leaves, almost bi-
lobed, 2 or 3 lines long, seam to Ix; included under the description
in Bentham.

Specijmens from Hazelbrook. N.S.W. , Hamilton, and from Two-
fold Bay, show leaves cuneate-oblong to obovate.

Queensland, XeAv South Wales and Eastern Victoria.

lU

214 H. B. Williamson :

I'uUtnata Benfhami , F.v.M.

Recorded only from tlie Grampians, Vic, with calyx, bracts and:
bracteoles like those of P. daphnoides, but with rigid, almost linear,
acute, or pungent leaves.

P alt en (It a Millari, Bailey.

A species with silky cuneate-ovate leaves, and flowers solitary in.
the upper axils.

Stannary Hills, Herberton, Qld.
var. auf/iisf /folia, n.v.

From Eidsvold, Qld., Dr. Bancroft, are specimens, wliich differ
only from the type in having leaves narrow-lanceolate, with a more
prominent point.

Pulfenaea myrtouhx, Cunn.

With leaves like those of P. Millari, but nearly glabrous.
Flowers are in dense terminal, globular heads, with boat-shaped,
bracteoles fixed }-ather low on the calyx.

New South Wales, Queensland.

I'ldteiKica i)oli./nJia, Cunn.

A Queensland species, with hairy linear leaves, and remarkably
long petioles, and with bracteoles linear-subulate, fixed about the
middle of the calyx tube. Flowers in dense teiminal heads.

Pultenaea peliolaris, Cunn.

A species with leaves linear to lanceolate, with a point sliglitly
recurved. Its calyx lobes are fringed with silky hairs, as are also,
the keeled bracteoles fixed well up on the calyx tube.

Pulfenaea mucroiiafd, F.v.M.
= P. poll folia, Cunn, var. nmcronafa.
This plant was described from specimens from Ovens River,
Vic, and differs from P. jjolifolia only in having broader leaves,
more villous branchlets, and less keeled bracteoles set rather lower
on the calyx tul>e. Bentham says, "This may possibly prove to
be a broad-leaved form of P. polifolia." In the light of evidence of
intiermediate forms, including those from BatloAv and Nungatta,
N.S.W., the species name, mucronata, can be suppi'essed, and all
the forms included under P. polifolia.

Genus FiiUenaea. 215

Specimens from Blaeklieatli, N.S.W., witli cuneate mucroiiate
leaves, and setaceous bracts, stipules and calyx loljes, can provi-
;sionally remain under var. mucronata.

Pultenaea Git/i/ii/, Bentli.

Although very variable in foliage, the small size of the calyx,
bracts and bracteoles, and the constantly recurved edges of the
leaves, keep it quite distinct fi'om P. stricta. " The larger leaved
forms can always be distinguished from P. striata (stricta?) by the
very much smaller bracts," (Bentham). These are scarcely ever
longer than the very short pedicels, and the bracteoles are minute,
of a dark colour, and set well up on the calyx. As regards flowers,
it is nearest to P. microphylla. but that species has cuneate to linear-
vcuneate leaves.

var. plani folia, F.v.M., a broad leaved form from Badger Head,
las.

var. flava, Ewart, from Wandin, Vic, has light yellow flowers.

One or two forms which seem to connect this with P. stricta
remain for further study,

Pulteiiaea microphi/IJa ^ Sieb.

A species from New South' Wales, with linear-cuneate leaves, and
a smaller calyx than the last-named species. Tenterfield specimens
have almost linear leaves, with lower face almost closed.

var. cuneata, Benth ; leaves are cuneatCTtruncate, '5 to 4 lines
long, b'earing some resemblance to P. largiflorens, F.v.M., which
latter may be distinguished by the large upper lip of its calyx.

New South Wales, Queensland.

Pultenaea ci/ierriftceits. Maiden and. Betche.
= P. tnicropJu/lln var. cinerasceiis.
As the only difference between this plant and P. microphylla,
Sieb. is that of habit and foliage, it should not have received
specific rank. Specimens of P. microphylla from Tenterfield
show almost linear leaves. In Proc. Roy. Soc, N.S.W., XXXIII.
310, the authors admit that there is no marked difference of flowers
or inflorescence, and that Gilgandra and Scone specimens arc liid\S
-connecting the two alleged spec-ies. All these foims can n,ow w^'ll be
grouped Tinder Sieber's species name.
Warialda, X.S.W.

216 H. G. Williamson:

Fultenaea Draminondii , Meiss.
A Western Australian species, with sliining yellowish scarious;
bracts, and a peculiar calyx, Avith upper lol^es rounded, and united
into a broad eniarginate lip.

Fultenaea Skinneri, F.v.M.
A West<irn Australian species, with recurved mucronate leaves,
reversed on the stem, and witli a large calyx 4 lines long, witli,
bracteoles nearly as long, fixed well Ijelow the calyx tube.

Fultenaea //artmainii \ F.v.M.

A Queensland species, Mith leaves between those of P. scabra and
P. retusa, but with minute stipules, remarkably small bracteoles-
fixed at the base of the caly.\, and with longer calyx lobes than-
those of P. retusa.

FulteiKtea pi/nfol/a, Meiss.

A Western Australian species, with narrow linear leaves,
spreading stipules, and very deciduous bracts and bracteoles, tho
latter being long, and fixed well below the calyx tul>e.

Fultenaea jjeduncnlafa, HK.

A prostrate shrub often matted, with flowers on filiform pedicels,
often half inch long — in some Port Lincoln specimens one inch
long. The calyx is almost glal)rous. with actiminate lobes, and the
bracteoles are nearly as long, linear and below the calyx tube.

South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania.

[As there is .some discrepancy between the description of this
species in Bentham's Flora, and that given in the Botanical Maga-
zine, the matter will be discussed when dealing witli Pidtenaea
Ausfieldii, Kegel, one of the forms that appear to have been in-
cluded under P. pedunculata].

Prilfenaea cotiferta, Benth.

A Western Australian species, with short, linear, crowded leaves,
and a remarkable calyx, with the upper lobes larsfe and free, and
the loAvei' ones very much smaller.

Fultenaea pauc i flora , Scott.

A Western Australia species, with long white hairs on the young-
foliage, and with incurved leaves linear-lanceolate, flat, but with

Genufi Pidtenuea. 217

thickened or sliglitly recurved margins, with mid-rib scarcely
prominent below, tine pointed. The calyx has equal lol^es, and
the bracteoles are free from the calyx. It belongs to section Empul-
tenaea, near P. Drummondii.
Narrogin Exp. Farm. Steward.

I'lilteiiafa scabra, K.Br.

Three very divergent forms have been united by Bentham in
this sptvies : —

(a) 11. Brown's P. scabra. from the Blue Mountains (Sieb, n-

28G). with narrow-cuneate, truncate leaves, Avith a fine
seta terminating the mid-rib, and with setaceous,
spreading stipules, sometimes 'i lines long.

(b) Lindley's P. montana — P. scabra var. montana Bth. — the

common Victorian form, with minute stipules, and
leaves obcordate or obvate, with no point, often with
much recurved margins.

(c) R. Brown's P. biloba — P. scabra var. biloba, Bth. — with

leaves dilated and two lobed. with a short recurved

point.
Brown's scabra and Lindley's plant are very distinct, but as-
there is no marked difference in the flowers they may be kept under
P. scabra, especially as the varying forms of the var. biloba present
graduated intermediates.

Section ACTPHYLLUM.

This section — 3 species — is confined to Western Australia, and is-
distinguished by peculiar transversely reticulate leaves.

['ulfcnaen aciphylJa, Benth — (P. recticulata Bth.) — with leaves
ovate to linear-lanceolate, pungent. Pultenaea aspalafhnides, Meiss,
witli leaves narrower than those of P. aciphylla, with a smaller
calyx, larger bracteoles, and flowers crowded round with leaves.

Pultenaea ochreata. Meiss, distinguished from the two former
by having shorter and broader leaves, with no point, and nearly
orl)iculnr bracteoles.

Section EUCHILUS.

This section contains those species which have ternate or opposite
leaves.

Pultenaea ohcordata, Benth.

A West Australian species, with obcordate, ternate, or opposite
leaves, and a remarkable calyx, with its upper lobes almost orbicu-
lar, and its lower lobes linear and much shorter.

!218 H. B, Williamson:

Pulfenaea rot inidi folia, Benth.

A West Australian species, with minute opposite leaves, rarely
■crowded, and flowers like those of P. olx-ordate, but on filiform
pedicels often half-inch long.

Pidtenaea califcina, Benth.

A West Australian species, with opposite or ternate leaves, like
those of P. retusa, and witli a calyx resembling that of P. obcor-
•data, but witli larger, more separated upper lobes.

Pultenaea acuinindfa , \\. T. Baker.

■ A New South Wales species, Avith opposite leaves resembling
those of P. Gunnii, with a very large calyx— about 4 lines — with a
short tube, and long linear bracteoles fixed below the calyx tube.
Byalong Creek, N.8.W.

PiiJluKica spniiihsa, Bentli.

A West Australian species, with opposite, ci'owded pungent
leaves, reticulate below, and with a calyx having large, almost free,
upper lobes, having subulate points, and with very narrow lower
lobesj.

Pulfenaea fenelJa, Benth.

An Alpine species, with the habit and appearance of P. jialeacea
Tar. sericea, but having ternate, concave leaves, and a long calyx
■with lobes longer than the tul>e.

Alp^; of Victoria.

Pulteiiaed Lxtelimatini , Maiden.

A slender trailing plant, remarkable for its filiform, opposite
b)ranchlets, and distant leaves. Its terminal, head-like inflorescence
•distinguishe..^ it fi'om all other species of the section. Its nearest
affinity is P. tenella, but that species has axillary flowers, and a
larger and a differently sliaped calyx.

Pipe Head. Hamilton Waterworks, Vic. Collected by the writer,
Ts^ov., 1904.

Pultennea ci/mhifoHa, J. M. Black.

A Soutli Australian species, witli small, decussate, convex mucro-
nate leaves, ratlier crowded, and a silky calyx like that of P.
•calycina, with large upper lobes, united V>elow the middle, and
Terv small subulate lower lolies.

Genus Pidtei\aea. ' 219

Kangaroo I., Andrews. A specimen was sent to the Herbarium
in I880 by Miss Brookes, Mt. Kiigged to Victoria Springs, but
was set aside bv Mueller for determination later.

Section COELOPH.YIXUM.

This section includes those species with alternate leaves, flattened,
concave or terete.

Pultnuiea jler'dh^ Smith.

An almost glabious shrub with flat, or slightly concave leaves,
glabrous calyx, with scarcely pointed lo])es shorter than the tube,
flowers axillary on rather long pedicels, with lanceolate, pointed
bracteoles lixed on the tube at the base, and ovary glabrous with a
few long hairs at the top.

Victoria, New South Wales.

Specimens from Clarence River, Beckler, are labelled "P. flexllis
var. mucronata," p. 135, Fl. Aust. They exactly match specimens
from Giggo Range, and the Dandenongs, Vic, since determined by
Muellei' as a variety of P. juniperina. These, as well as specimens
from Pine Mount, N.E. District, Walter, having pubescent ovary,
and bracts and Ijracteoles cf P. juniperina, must be referred to that
rspecies.

Pulfenaca alfisslnw, F.v.M.

A species which has been wrongly united with P. flexilis, from
which it differs in having its bracteoles ovate and free from the

•calyx, in which characters it agrees with P. obovata Benth.. its
nearest affinity. It has also its flowers in terminal und:»el-like
racemes, not axillary as in P. flexilis, and its leaves are linear-
cuneate without points, and rarely over half-inch long. From P.

■obovata it differs in having a much smaller calyx with shorter lobes,
and leaves' nariower. We should follow Bentham in keeping it a
distinct sjiecies.

New South Wales, Twofold Bay, and Upper Genoa River; prob-
ably occurs in East Gippsland.

Fidtenaea nhnvaftt, Benth.

A New Soutli Wales species, like P. flexilis, but with broad-ovate
or broadly-cuneate leaves, tMo or three lines long, on rather long
petioles, concave, light green above. Calyx, with lobes longer

220 H. B. Williamson :

than the tute. which distinguishes it from P. altissinia. and withi
small ovate-orbicular bracteoles fixed below the calyx.
Moona Eiver, Walcha, N.S.W.

Vulienaea paleacen Willd.

A species with linear leaves, long, scarious stipules, and dense
terminal heads much covered witli long imbricate bracts. The
calyx is silky, and bracteoles are ovate, and are fixed on the calyr
tube. Port Jackson, var. obtusata, Benth, has broader cuneate,
leaves; var. sericea, Benth, the form connnon near Melbourne, has-
long, silky, white, scarious stipules and bracts.

Var. robusta, n.v. from Queensland (Gympie, Wellington
Point), is a robust plant, differing only from var. sericea in hav-
ing much larger leaves and flowers.

I'tiUcudKi W iUianisonI , Maiden.
= P. paleacen, var. W iUiamsoni.

lliis plant must now be referred to P. paleacea. It is of stronger
and more robust growth, though of the same habit. Tlie bracteoles
are certainly wider and longer than in P. paleacea, but they are not
constantly fixed at the very liase of the calyx, being often just
above the base. There ai-e specimens from Wellington Point, Q..^
J. Wedd, which match the Victorian specimens in every respect, ex-
cejjt that the bracteoles are smaller, and are fixed rather higher on
the calyx tulje.

From P. stricta this plant is far removed by its habit, its re-
markably large stipules, its large leaves, its large persistent bracts^
and the shape and position of its bracteoles.

Strathbogie, Vic, A. W. Vroland, Nov., 1904.

Wellington Point, Q., J. Wedd.

Pultenaea sf/piilaris. Smith.

A showy New South Wales species, easily distinguished by its^
straight, linear leaves, and very long stipules, calyx lobes, bracts,
and bracteoles, tlie two last-named being hirsute with long hairs.

Port Jackson. Blue Mountains, N.S.W.

Pultenaea c/lahra, Benth.

A New South Wales species, with leaves like those of P. dentata,,
and with few bracts. It can readily be distinguished by its pecul-
lia.r calyx, and the absence of all hairs. The calyx has nearly equal!

Genus Pulteiiaea- 221'

lobes, acute and spreading, as long as the tube. Bracteoles broad-
lanceolate fixed at the middle of the calyx tuln?.
Blue Mountains, N.S.W.

Pxiltetiaea dentata, Labill.

A widespread species, with narrow-lanceolate concave leaves,
and imbricate bracts, covering the dense heads in bud. The species-
is easily determined by its bracteoles, which are ovate or oblontr.
bifid, with a central subulate lobe, giving the summit a dentate-
appearance.

New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania.

Piilftnaeo. suhiimhcllata , HK.

A specie.s Avith heads more capitate than subund>ellate, and flat,
or slightly concave leaves, and a small hairy calyx, with hairy
bracteoles well under the calyx. This last character, along with the-
absence of stipules, makes it a connecting link between Pultenaea'
and Latrobea diosmifolia, Bth. It has. however, strophiolate seeds.

New South Wales. Victoria, Tasmania.

Pultenaea iiicnrv(U<i, (_!unn.

Like P. subumbellata in the absence of stipules, and the position
of bracteoles. but distinguished from that species by its generally
larger leaves, incurved at the tips often wrinkled below. Its bracts-
and bracteoles also are larger. Bi'own's specimens from Port' Jack-
son are not incurvata. as lal>elled. Ijut subumbellata.

New South Wales only.

Pultenaea selaf/inoides, F.v.M.

A Tasmanian species allied to P. subumbellata. having very
minute stipules, shorter, thicker, and more concave leaves, almost
imbricate. The calyx is small and glabrous, with blunt and almost
equal lobes. Bracteoles are lanceolate, concave, fixed under the-
calyx. Flowers axillary, not capitate, as in P. subumbellata.

St. Paul's River, Tasmania..

Pultenaea euchila, D.C.

A plant that looks like a large form of P. flexilis, having larger
flowers and leaves, and longer pedicels. It differs from P. flexilis
in bracteoles. and calyx, the former l>eing linear-subulate, and

:222 H. B. Williamson:

inserted close under the calyx, and the latter being larger, with
lobes longer than the tube, with the upper ones falcate.

Port; Jackson, Hunter River, Clarence River, N.S.W.

Brisbane, IpsAvich, Qld.

Pultenaea densi folia, F.v.M.

A Soutli Australian species, with very small, ol>ovate concave
leaves, with recurved tips, and flowers in axillary, sessile tufts,
near the summit of the' branches. Broad scarious bracts and brac-
teoles conceal the calyx, which is nearly three lines long, and has
pungent-pointed lobes.

South Australia, Port Lincoln, Encounter Bay; doubtful from
Tictoria, " Murray Desert, F. Mueller."

Pulftnaen Camphelli, Maiden and Betche.

A New South Wales species, near P. glabra, but with smaller and
istraighter leaves, and a slight pubescence on the small bi-anches. It
is easily distingxiished from P. glabra, l>y its very small stipular
bracteoles, fixed at the base of the calyx tube. These being all red-
dish brown, have the aspect of trifid bracteoles.

Walcha, N.S.W. , J. F. Campbell. October. 1898.

Piilienaca ar/Ktafd, Sieb.
A New South Wales specit's, with calyx and bracteoles like those
tof P. humilis, but its leaves are narrowei", more concave, and are
armed with a straight bristlet. The floAvers are in /lense tei-minal
heads, unlike those of P. Iiumilis, and are surrounded by reddish
bifid bracts. The general aspect is tlint of P. plumosa.
Port Jackson, Appin, N.S.W.

Pulteuaefi plinnom, Sieb.

A species witli narrow, concave leaves, without a bristle point.
The broader leaved forms resemble P. Iiumilis in foliage, and floAAer
structure. The flowers are, however, in terminal heads, and the
bracteoles are provided with broad stipules, are longer and broader,
and are set under the calyx tube.

Port Jackson, Clarence River, Blackheath, N.S.W.

Pultenaea Bfenerleni, F.v.M.

A New South Wales species, near P. aristata, but with leaves
"filiform, channelled above, granular rough, and vvith no bristle point.

Genus Pultevaca. 22^'

The petioles are cun.^pieuous, ami tlie stipules are long, appressed,
and somewhat dovvnv. Upper calyx lobes are much united, and
and bracteoles are larger, oblong, mucronate, and fixed below the-
calyx tube.

Braidwood District, N.S.W., Banierlen.

Pultenaea eU'rpfica, Smith.

A New South Wales species, with leaves elliptical to ovate, the-
upper ones being long-petiolate. Stipules broad, apj^ressed, the
iijjljer ones being ciliate with long hairs. Flowers are crowded in
tipper axils like those of P. humilis, iiaving bracteoles under the-
calyx, reddish, scarious with small pt)int ; var. thymifolia, Bth. has
leaves smaller and narrower, and slightly smaller flowers.

Pulttnaea rosea, F.v.M.

A sj^ecies with terete leaves, and linear lanceolate bracteoles
fixed tinder the calyx tube. It is, however, quite uniqtie among its
congeners in having j^inkish or mauve-coloured flowers.
Stimmits of Grampians (Mt. William).

Pultenaea largifjoreu'i, F.v.M.

xA. plant with obovate to linear-cuneate leaves, more or less con-
cave or folded, and recurved at the ends, silky below, with flowers
with a silky calyx with much falcate upper lobes, which give the
buds a hooked aspect. Bracteoles are lanceolate to ovate, slightly
hairy on the back, and are fixed well up on the calyx tube.

Grampians and North-Western District, Vic.

var. latifolia, n.v. To this may be referred the South Austra--
lian forms, which have much wider leaves, generally ovate-oblong, .
flat or slightly folded, and sometimes obcordate emarginate (Clare,
S.A., Tate). In some of these, where the leaves are crowded, they
appear almost ternate.

From Wedderbtirn. W. W. Watts, and from New South Wales,
per W. Baker, comes a form differing from the normal only in
having calyx, bracts and bracteoles larger, the last-named being
fixed rather lower on the calyx tube, near its base. It is exactly
similar in habit and general appearance to the Wimmera forms of"
P. largiflorens, and can scarcelv i-ank as a variety.

;^224< H. B. Williamson :

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIIL, XIV., AND XV.

All drawings of leaves are natural size. Where the calyx is
.shown without reference letter it is natural size.
a. Upper and lower calyx lobes x 2.
h. Bract X 2.

c. Bracteole x 2.

d. Ovary and style x 2.

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate Xfll.

7? cahltdlata SieL J^ joycnoceplala f.vM.

T-BenthamL F.m

^

\

a

\*

j^ retusa Sm

T^ Miliar i 'E>ad. 7^ mijrtoUei Cunn. 'RpeCiolamCann

7^/lolihUa Cuvn. m viucronata T CannU FmicrcJ,h^lU Sulr.

r
<^^

0.

l^

P.muroh}njl[<i Sieb- tar
(P.ciAti,itei,% M.>B) PDrummondd Mem PHartmaix-nv. I'M PSkinneri Fyi'l.

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XIV.

■s^;,.^

P^inifoUa Mens. P peduncuLaCa Hk. P covferCa Blk. Pfiaudf^lora Sctll

Q),

c a.

P scaljra RBr.

' C

mcnCana Btti )/ . kckia bth Pacibhi/lla Bth PasjialadioUes Mew

{

6^1 V?

P ochreata Meliy PactfrninaCa ^I&ahr PaUordoh BtU. P catycina Bth.

Prolur^d^foUa Bth. P s^i^nulo^a Bth P Luehman-n, l^a^en

fflc

f «?'. 9 9

' 12> /. I- D.,

\\' Pol/0 vata Bth.

P cymlrtfoUa BlacK PflexiUiSm PalftsiimaF.r^

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XV.

P cal/umlellata Hk P incurvata Cu

P stihularis 5m.

,^

?#^ \Di

a V ^c

PCam/>yii M^B P3(BterleTn Fv/i^ P selaoinoidei Hk

P dcnsifoUa f'ii /n.

n7h

Pellif^tica 5m. Pdentata Lai; Panstata Lai;.

^^J^

^

rq?

// W A ^ 01

F rosea P^M.

'■%

P/iLumoia SteL P lor<^ifloren, r.M ^^^

,n/-v

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920.]

Art XVI. — Notes on a Collection of Tertiary Fossils from
Ooldea and Watson, South Australia.

BY

FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S.

Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne ;
Hon. Palaeont. Geol. Surv. Vict.

(With Plates XVI., XVII. and Text Figure.)

[Read 11th December, 1919.]

Introductory.

On account of the scarcity of iuforniation regarding fossils occur-
j-ing in the area traversed by the construction of the Iransconti-
nental Railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie, it seems advis-
able to put on record some notes of the specimens now in the
National Museum.

The fossils under consideration were collected by Messrs. F. A.
Cudmore, K. C. Chandler and Dr. T. Griffith Taylor, B.E., B.A.,
F.G.S. Mr. Cudmore obtained a large collection of Miocene fos-
sils, mainly as casts and moulds, in his recent trip to Ooldea and
Watson, and a selection of these he has given to the Museum. I
am also indebted to him for tlie pliotographs here reproduced, and
for detailed infoi'iiiation of the various fossiliferous exposures
north and south cxf the raihvay.

Mr. R. ('. Chandler was successful in obtaining a number of fos-
sils in this locality during the early history of the line's construc-
.tion, when engaged in acquiring natural history specimens for the
Museum .

Dr. Griffith Taylor also collected a few fossils during his rec-nt
journey to Central South Australia, and has kindly donated the
cora-1 specimens — one of which is here figured — to the State cnllfjc-
tion.

Localities of Collection.

The Ooldea Soaki has been known to travellers from Fowler's Bay
for many A-ears. It is situated on the Nullaboor Plains, wesr of
the sand-hill country, about 100 miles N.W. of Fowler's Bay, and
about three miles north of the railway line. Various outcrops of

1. See S. A. White. The Kinu, Jan. 1919, ]\ 189.

22 (3 Frederick Chapman :

granite appear in this area, having a general nortli-we.sterly trend.
and there are indications of the superimposed Tertiary beds having:
been displaced in tliat direction. This, indeed, may account tor
the occurrence of the Soak in this desert country, far away from,
any other visible water-hole, except some salt lakes, as Lake TalUi-
cootra, to the south, and which are evidently due to a similar cause.
It is just possible that sub-artesian water is tapped here, and re-
mains held up by the heavier or impervious shell-marls of the Plei-
stocene deposit.

Ilie collection made by Mr. Chandler comprises both Janjukian,
or Miocene fossils (mainly as casts), and some Older Pleistocene
material, cemented together or in loose specimens.

The small but interesting collection made by Dr. Griffith Taylor
WHS from Janjukian beds. The specimens include a hard lime-
stone Avith (7ihf»ii/s cf. murraijauiis, Tate sp., and two examples of
a Janjukian coral, Orhicelh (olim Heliastraea) tasmanie?isis. Dun-
can sp., which had rarely before been found outside of Tasmania.
This Orhicella, Mr. Cudmore informs me is abundantly siattered
over various parts of the Plains.

llie collection made by Mr. Cudmore comprises more than a
hundred specimens. They are chiefly pi'eserved in a hard ochreous
and white limestone, generally as casts and moulds, although some
still retain the shell structures, as Chlamys^ viiirrai/anits. Mr. Cud.
more's specimens came principally from the Ooldea Well (not used),
300 yards west and 200 yards south of Ooldea railway station,
though a few of similar kinds were obtained from the half-mile
cutting at Watson, next to Ooldea, on the road to West Australia.
The limestone country is Avell shown by photographs here reproduced,
taken l)y Mr. Cudmore.

On glancing at the geological map of this district, one sees that
Ooldea is situated on the later Tertiary bed, but close to the boun-
dary of outcrop of the Miocene series. From the disposition of the
two Tertiary beds, as mapped, it would appear probable that the
Pleistocene deposit represents a fairly shallow marine bed laid
down upon, and flanking a Miocene limestone, which extended
south-eastward as a promontory, as far as long. 133°30' at the
present time, as now seen exposed in tlie elevated plains. From
the fact that the Ooldea Soak is fresh, it is highly probable that
the water is deep-seated, and has its origin in or below the mass of
Miocene limestone, which must here be faulted, as seems to be
indicated by the sporadic Init linear arrangement of inliers of
deep-seated rocks, and is not an ordinary soak in an impervious

Tertiary Fossils.

227

bed. In fact, this tlieory of the presence of faults along this par-
ticular trend line is supported bv the parallel system of fractures
re-entrant along the coast, stepped in the same direction from the
Head of the Bight to Anxious Bay, and even bevond.

,4

lo"' <-•

O vdf-

^4

5ft.if LA5«».»a

Ter t-i a-ry

QT-ll^cool-ro

r\o<Mr>-<e Rock

t^^la.ry

Fig. 1. Sketch Map of South Australian area inchidin^ Fowler's Bay ancF
the Ooldea Soak. M.iin details taken from the geological map of South
Australia, by H. Y. L. Brown, 18U9.

This shows the trend, in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction, of
probable fracture zones, involving the Miocene and Pleistocene rocks. The
direction of sand-ridges are also seen to be influenced by the underlying-
structure, since, as Mr. Henry Deaue, M.A., informs me, they generally run in
a similar way. These fracture lines would also appear to have a considerable-
bearing on the disposition of water holes, lagoons and soaks in this part of the
country.

Areas in this map marked Granite may also include Metamorphic rocks, as-
Gneiss, Hornblende and Mii a Schists ; also Diabase dykes and mineral veins.

The Older Tertiary can be referred to the Miocene, to which the older
fossiliferous beds of the Ooldea Soak belong.

The late Tertiary includes the Older Pleistocene of the Ooldea Soak and all
siib.sequent stages, as Sand-dune rock and Concretionary limestone.

12

228 Frederick CJia/nnaii :

OLDER PLEISTOCENE FOSSILS FROM THE OOLDEA
DISTRICT.

Order FORAMINIFERA.

Genus Orbitolites, Lamarck.

Orhitolites complanata, Lamarck.

Orhitolites comjjldnata, Lamarck, 1801, Syst. Anim. sans Vert.,
p. 376. Carpenter, 1856, Phil. Trans., p. 224, pis. IV-IX. Chap
man, 1913, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXVI. N.S. pt. I. p. 170.

This species ranges from the Balcombian (Muddy Creek), through
Janjukian (Mallee Bores) to Werrikooian and Pleistocene (Well
borings, Murray Flats, and Croydon Bore, near Adelaide).

A fine sample of limestone, largely composed of the above fossil,
together with mollusca (Clancnhis and ]irach)/n(Jonfes) was pre-
ssnted to the National Museum by Mr. R. H. Matthews, who obtained
it from Yorke Peninsula, six miles N.W. of Yorketown.

0. coinplanata occurred in the Croydon Boic as far down as 450
feet, and was there associated with Lat/auiim and (Tli/cimeris. At
395-415 feet tlie associated fauna was Ostrea an(/asi\ Glycimeris
obliquys, G. conve.vus, Limopsis fen/so/ii (recorded as L. hrlcheri),
CrassattUitfs ohlonga, Mesalia provisi and Cassis fimhriatus,
This fauna contains some archaic forms, as Mtftalin prorisi and
Glycimtris cnnve.rus, and the age of the deposit is certainly Werri-
kooian or Upper Pliocene. In the present sample, as in the raised
beach at Yorke Peninsula, the beds are slightly younger, and may
be referred to, the older raised beach stage, or Lower Pleistocene.

Chandler Collection.

Class PELECYPODA.
Fam. ARCIDAE.

Genus Area, Lamarck. Subgenus AnadaPa, Gray.
Area (A/if/ara) trapezia, Deshayes.

Area trapezia, Deshayes, 1840. Mag. Zool., p. 21, 3 figs.

The shell attains a large size in this bed, and vies with similar
large specimens in the Pleistocene of the West ]\Ielbourne Swamp.
They reach a length of 104 mm., and a height of 81 mm. ; the shells
are embedded in a fine calcareous mud. Although the abundance
of this species might suggest estuarine influence, the remainder of
the associated mollusca are of the ordinary open water type.

Chandler Collection.

Tertiary Fossils. 229

Faia. PINNIDAE.
Genus Pinna, Linne.

■Flnna intermis, Tate.

Pinna zeylnnica, Angas (non Gray), 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc, p.
<65o.

Pinna inermis, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX.,
p. 71, pi. IV., Fig. 5.

Prof. Tate records this species from St. Vincent's Gulf, and
generally from Eucla to the south-east coast of South Australia. It
is found '•'partially buried vertically in mud or sand in a few
fathoms water."

In some respects the fossil shell resembles the earlier portion of
P. virgata. Menke, a West Australian living form, but is distin-
guished by the feeble radial ridges, which in the living species are
•very distinct.

Chandler Collection. .

Fam. PECIINIDAE.

Genus Chlamys, Bolten.

Chlamys hifrons, Lamarck, sp.

Pecten hifrons, Lamarck, 1819, Anim. sans. Vert., vol. VI. pt.
!I., p. 164, No. 4.

Chlamys hifrons, Hedley, 1914, Biol. Results Endeavour, vol. II.,

p. ra.

This species is recorded from the shores of New South Wales, Vic-
toria and South Australia. The related form, Chlamys undidatus,
Sow. sp., is noted as living in Western Australia. The fossil speci-
.mens are typical of C . hifrons.

Chandler Collection.

Fam. MYTILIDAE.

Genus Brachyodontes, Swainson.

Brachyodontes hirsutus, Lamarck, sp.

Mytilus hirf(ii*us, Lamarck, 1818, Anim. sans Vert., vol. VI. pt.
1. p. 120, No. 5.

Brachyodontes hirsutus, Lam. sp., Hedley, 1917, Journ. R. Soc.
New South Wales, vol. LI. Suppl. p. 11.

230 Frederick Chapvian :

Thiai species is abundant on the South Australian, Victorian and.
New South Wales coasts, but seems to be unrecorded from Western.
Australia.

Chandler Collection.

Fam. VENERIDAE.

Genus Marcia, H. and A. Adams. Subgenus Katelysia, Homer

Mftrcia [Katelysia) strigosa, Lamarck, sp.

Venus strigosa, Lamarck, 1818, Anim. sans Vert., vol. V., p..
6U5.

This common shell is found on muddy and sandy beaches at low
tide.

Chandler Collection.

Class GASTEROPODA.
Fam. TKOCHIDAE.
Genus Clanculus, Montfort.
Chniciiliis dunkeri, Koch sp.

Trochus du/tkeri', Koch, 18-13, in Philippi, Abbild, und Besclir..
neuer Conch., vol. 1, pt. III. p. 67, pi. II. F'\\x. 5.

Clanculus dunkeri, Koch sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 1902, Proc.
R. Soc, Vict. vol. XIV. (N.S.), pt. II., p. 121.

This species is found living in South Australia and Western-
Australia, and is recorded from Wester nport, Victoria.

Chandler Collection.

Fam. T'URRITELLIDAE.
Genus Tuppitella, Lamarck.

Turritella clathrata, Kiener.
Turrittlla clathrata., Kiener, 1843. Icon. Coq. Viv., p. 33, pL
XIV., Fig. 1, Reeve. 1849, Conch, Icon., vol. V.. pi. VIII., Fig.
37. Pritchard and Gatliff. 1900, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XII.
(X.S.) pt. II., p. 202.

This is a ■well known South Australian species, and is also re-
corded from the south-w&st coast of Victoria.
Chandler Collection.

Fam. CERITHIIDAE.
Genus Bittium, Leach.
Bittium cerithium, tihioy and Gaimard sp.
Turritella ceritJiiuni, Quoy and Gaimard, 1834, Voyage Astro-
Inb', vcl. TIT. p. 130. pi. LV. Fiffs. 27. 28.

Tertiary Fossils. 231

A common form in Victorian waters; apparently absent from
lists of other States.
Chandler Collection.

Fam. COLUMBELLTDAE.
Genus Columbella, Lamarck.

Colli mbella aff. nemiconvexa, Lamarck sp.

BucciniDH semiconvexa, Lamarck, 1822, Anim. sans Vert., vol.
VII. p. 272.

rijrene semiconvexa. Lam. sp., Heciley, 1917, Journ. R. Soc. New
South Wales, vol. LI. Supp. p. 90.

This is a common shell, frequent in most shallow sands round
the Southern Australian coasts.

Chandler Collection.

Fam. FUSIDAE.

Genus FUSUS, Lamarck.

FiisNs ousfralis, Quoy and Gaimard.

Fusus ausfralis, Quoy and Gaimard, 1833, Voy. Astrolabe, vol.
11. p. 495, pi. XXXIV. Figs. 9-14. Tryon, 1881, Man. Conch, vd.
illL, p. 55, pi. XXXIV., Figs. 113, 116, 118.

A common shore-living shell in South Australia and Victoria.

CliRndler Collection.

Genu's Fasciolaifia, Lamarck.
Fasciolaria ausfralax/a. Perry sp.

Pijrula nitstralasia. Perry, 1811, Conchology, pi. LIV., Fig. 4.

Fasciolaria ausfralasia. Perry sp., Hedley, 1903, Mem. Austr.
"Mus., vol. IV., p. 373.

A well-knoAvn south coastal species. Recorded from the Western
Bight in 100' fathoms; the species also ranges to shallower depths.

Chandler Collection.

Fam. VOLUTIDAE.

Genus IVIitr»a, Lamarck.

Mifra pica. Reeve.

Mifra pica. Reeve, 1845, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 49, Idem,
1845, Conch. Icon., vol. 11.. pi. XXXI. Fig. 247. Pritchard and
X?atliff, 1899. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XT. (N.S.) pt. II. p. 188.

232 Frederick Chapman :

This species is found living in South Australia, and it also occurS'
along the Victorian coast from Wester nport to Warrnambool.
Chandler Collection.

Fam. BULLARIIDAE.
Genus Bullaria, Rafinesque.
Bullaria hotanica (Hedley).
Bidlu aiisfralis. Gray, 1825, Annals of Phil., N.S. vol. XXV. p.
408.

Bullaria botani^a, Hedley, 1918, Journ. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol.
LI. Suppl. p. 104 (nom. mut. for B. atistraUs, Gray non Ferussac).
A well distributed species in littoral waters round the southern,
parts of Australia.
Chandler Collection.

MIOCENE FOSSILS FROM THE OOLDEA DISTRICT.
Order FORAMINIFERA.

Orhitolifes complanata, Lamarck.

Genus Orbitolites, Lamarck.

This discoidal foraminifer, here also recorded from the Older
Pleistocene (see antea page 228) reaches a diameter of \l, inches. The-
present occurrence of this large variety is interesting, since the
older, Oligocene form in Australia is much smaller, and the
younger, early and late Pleistocene, specimens are not quite so
large. It is fairly common here.

Cudmore Collection.

Class ANTHOZOA.
Fam. TURBIXOLTIDAE.
Genus PlaCOtrochus, Edwards and Haime.
Placotrochtis deltoidei(s, Duncan.
Placotrochvs deltoidemt, Duncan, 1864, Ann, and Mag. Nat.
Hist. vol. XIV., p. 164, pi. V. Fig. 5.
Casts only. Cudmore Collection.

Fam. STYLOPHORIDAE.
Genus Stylophoi^a, Schweigg.
Sfi/lophora sp. nov. ?
Numerous moulds and casts of a branching form. Cudmore-
Collection.

Tertiary Fossils. 2S^

Fam. ASTRAEIDAE.
Genus Monti ivaltia, Lamaroux.
cf. MontUvaltia, sp.
A species with a large discoidal, depressed calyx.
Cuduiore Collection.

Genus Orbicella, Dana.

Orbicella tasmaniejisis, Duncan sp. Plate I. Fig. 1.

Ileliastraea tasinanlensis, Duncan, 1876, Quart. Jouru. GeoL
See. vol. XXXII. p. 342,j pi. XXII., Figs. 1-3.

Astrangia tahulosa, Tate, 1893, Journ. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol.
XXVII. p. 145, pi. Xlll. Fig. 2.

Two species of the above named coral were presented by Dr.
Griffith Taylor. They occur in the hard, reddish limestone of the
Tertiary series, and were found on the surface of a salt lake east
of Ooldea. One of them is preserved in hard, semi-crystalline
limestone, in Avhich the coral structure is much obscured; whilst
the other is weathered and whitened, so that it has the appearance
of a living coral. The structure of the weathered specimen is, how-
ever, none the less perfect, for this process has simply picked out
the calcareous infilling. A large number of wind-worn pieces of
this coral was also secured by Mr. Cudmore. who states that ther
occur scattered over the limestone plains. By their blackened and!
polished surfaces the fragments appear to have been exposed to
the weather for a long time.

The species, living and fossil, formerly referred to the genus-
Ileliatitraea, are now relegated to Orhicella by Verrill and Quelch"
by reason of priority.

There is a close agreement of these specimens from Ooldea with
those from Tasmania, though the former have the calices rather
larger in diameter (9 :iS). The weathered specimen shows that,
although tlie dissepiments are, as a rule, curved downwards, this is
by no means invariable. This specimen has the mesenteric pouches
filled with a pale glauconite, thus showing, in common with other
organic marine bodies, a tendency for the body cavity to act as a
receptacle for the deposition of the hydrous silicate of iron, alumina
and potash to form that mineral.

Orhicella tasmaniensis has, up to the present, been unknown
from any locality outside Tasmania, excepting Flemington, Victoria.

Taylor and Cudmore Collections.

2. Rep. Chall., Vol. XVI., Zool. 1SS6, p. 106.

23'4 Frederick Chapnnan :

Class ECHINOIDEA.
. Fam. CLYPEASTRIDAE.

Genus Laganum, Gmy.
ILaganum sp.

A fragmentary test shows a portion of the sub-angulately con-
toured ambitus and internal supporting pillars. The genus was
previously recorded by Tate from the Tertiary of St. Vincent Gulf,
South Australia. (L. platymofhs.)

Cudniore Collection.

Class PELECYPODA.
Fam. PARALLELODONTIDAE.

Genus Cucullaea, Lamarck.

CvxuUnea corioensis, McCoy.

iJucullaea corioensu, McCoy, 1876, Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. III. p.
32, pi. XXVII. Figs. 3-56. Tate, 1886, Trans. R.S.S. Austr., vol.
VIII. p. 144. Harris, 1897, Cat. Tert. Moll. pt. I. Australasia.
<Brit. Mus.) p, 336.

Numerous casts of this widely ranging species (Oligocene to
Werrikooian), occur here.

Cudmore Collection.-

Fam. ARGIDAE.

Genus Glycimeris, Da Costa.

Glycimcris niaccoyi, Johnston sp.

Pectunculus laticostafus, McCoy non Quoy and Gaimard, 1875,
Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. II. p. 26, pi. XIX. Figs. 10-14.

Pectunculus maccoyi, Johnson, 1884, Papers and Proc. R. Soc.
Tas., p. 199, Id., 1888, Geol. Tas, p. 225, pi. XXX. Fgs, 1. Id.

Casts and moulds of this common Tertiary species occur in the
hard limestone.

Cudmore Collection.

Fam. PECTINIDAE.

Genus Chlamys, Bolten.

Chlamys inurrayanus, Tate sp.

Fecten murrayanas, Tate, 1886, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Australia,
vol. VIII., p. 105, PI. VII., Figs. 5, a, h.

Tertiary Fossils. 2B5

One of the specimens found four miles west of Ooklea by Dr.
'Griffith laylor, is a cast in hard cream coloured limestone. Others
'Collected fiom near the same locality (Watson cutting), by Mr. Cud-
more, show a denuded shell, the riblets being devoid of ornament
except in one case, where the structure is seen to be that of C.
murrayanus ; the appearance is misleading, and the shell might
easily be mistaken for one of the Amusium type, like A. ijahliensis,
T. Woods sp.

In the Miocene seas C. murrayanus attained a large size, some
examples measuring as much as 3^ inches in length.

Previously recorded from South Australia in Miocene beds of the
Lower Murray River.

Taylor, Chandler and Cudmore Collections.

Chhnnys n/dingeiisis, Tate sp.

Pecfen aldingensis, Tate, 1886, Trans. R.S.S. Austr., vol. VIII.,
p. 109, pi. VII., Figs. \a-c. Chapman, 1912, Mem. Nat. Mus.
Melbourne, No. 4, p. 48.

Previously recorded from South Australia in the Miocene glau-
■conitic limestone of Aldinga Bay. Dennant notes it from Stans-
bury. South Australia, and the piTsent Avriter from the polyzoal
limestone of Seal River, King Island. Cudmore Collection.

Fam. SPONDYLIDAE.
Gemis Spondylus, Linne.
Spondylus cf. gaederopoides, McCoy.
Spo7idylus gaderopoides:, McCoy, 1876, Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV.
.p. 27, pi. XXXVIII. Figs. 1-lr/.

Spondylus gaederojjoides, McCoy, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. S.
Austr., vol. VIII. p. 121.

Two casts of united valves occur here. They are solidly built,
and of the general formj of the above species, which, by the way, is
a restricted Miocene fossil. Cudmore Collection.

Fam. LIMIDAE.
Genus Lima, Biuguieie. Subgenus Limatula, Wood.
' Lima (JAmatida) jfffrtysiana, late.

Lima. (LAmafuhi) jeffreysiana, Tate, 1886, Trans. R.S.S. Austr.
^vol. VIII. p. 119, pi. IV., Fig. 8.

A well preserved shell is found here. Cudmore (,'ollection.

236 Frederick CJtap'man :

Fam. CRASSATELLITIDAE.
Genus Crassate Mites, Kruger.
Crassatellites cf. oblonga, T. Woods sp.
Crassatella ohlonya, T. Woods, 1875. Papers and Proc. R. Soc
Tasmania (1876), p. 25, pi. II., Fig. 11.

This internal cast closely resembles the Table Cape form specified^
above, especially in the anterior position of the umbones.
Cudmore Collection.

Fam. CARDITIDAE.
Genus Cardita, Bruguiere.
Cardita cf. tasmanica. Tate.
Cardita tosmanica, I'ate, 1886. Trans. R. Soc. South Austr.
vol. VIII. p. 154, pi. XII. Fig. 13.

The species appears, to be represented here by an internal cast,
judging by the shape and number of riblets. with impressions of
some still preserved, it is in all probability referable to the above
Cudmore Collection.

Cardita scaJirosa, Tate.
Cardita xrahrosa, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. South Australia,.
vol. VIII., p. 152. pi. II., Fig. 4.

A good internal mould of this species occurs hero.
Cudmore Collection.

Fam. LUCINIDAE.
Genus Lucina, Ibuguiere.
Lucina pUinatella, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol..
VOL, pi. XII. Fig. 11, Idem, 1887. ibid. vol. IX. p. 146.

Both moulds and casts, showing ornament and internal form are'
found in some frequency. The species was originally described as
a Table Cape fossil. I have since identified it amongst fossils from'
Maude.

Cudmore Collection.

Fam, CARDIIDAE.
Genus Cardium Linne.
Cardium victoriae, Tate.
Cardium victoriae, Tate. 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr. vol. IX..
p. 151, pi. XIV. Figs. Iff, h. Harris, 1897, Cat. Tert. Moll. Aus-
tralasia (Brit. Mus.), p. 367.

Tertiary Fossils. 237"

Several examples showing typical surface ornament are found
here.

Cudmore Collection.

Subgenus Ppotocardium, Beyrich.

Cardium (Protocardium) antisemigraniilotum , McCoy.

Cardium {Protocardium) aiitisemigraindatum., McCoy, 1877,.
Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. p. 16, pi. XLIV. Figs. 2, 3.
Represented here by an internal cast.
Cudmore Collection.

Fam. VENERIDAE.

G«nus Venus. Subgenus Chione, Megerle.

Venus (Chione) caitiozoicris. T. Woods sp.

Venus {Chione) cainozoico, T. Woods, 1877, Papers and Proc.
R. Soc. Tas. for 1876, p. 11.3.

Chione cainozoicus, T. Woods sp., Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S.
Austr. vol. IX. p. 156, pi. XVI. Figs. 3«, h.

Two examples. Cudmore Collection.

Venus [Chione) ? hormophora, Tate, sp.

Chione hormophora, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
IX., p. 155, pi. XV. Figs, k/, h.

A cast and also an impressed mould of the shell was found. The
former shows the straight ventral region, and the latter the orna-
mentation, of the al)ove typical Table Cape species.

Cudmore Collection. ,

Genus Dosinea, Scopoli.
Dosinca joinislmii, Tate.

Dosinea johnstoni, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust., vol. IX.
p. 161, pi. XIV. Figs. 9 and 12.

A mould of a shell of a Dosinea in white limestone shows by a
wax squeeze the characteristic costation of the alx)ve species. The-
concentric ridges measure 20 in a breadth of 10 mm. and are ele-
vated rather than depressed and rolled over to become almost con-
fluent, as in D. densilineata , Pritchard.^ The length of the present
example, if complete, would measure a]x)ut 50 mm. D. johnstoui
has a long vertical range, from Balcombian to Kalimnan (Balcombe
Bay, Table Cape, Upper Muddy Creek).

Chandler and Cudmore Collections.

3. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. VIII., 1S96, p. 135, pi. IV.. Figs. o-7.

■SW Frederick Chwpmmi :

Fam. TELLINIDAE,

Genus Tellina, Linne.

Tellina, aff. olhinelloides, Tate

Tellina albinelloi'des, Tate, 1887, 1 rans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
'IX. p. 164, pi. XVI. Figs, in, h.

A large shell-impression was found here, which agrees in the
main characters with the above species. T . alhinelloides is a Kalim--
nan form, so that this occurrence, if it be correctly assigned, is
unique as a Miocene fossil.

Cudmore Collection.

Tdlina, cf. cainozoica, T. Woods.
Tellina cainozoica, T. Woods, 1877, Papers and Proc. R. Soc.
Tas. for 1876, p. 113. Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
7X.. p. 164, pi. XVIII. Fig. 5.

A solitary specimen, doubtfully referred to the above species
•occurs here.

Cudmore Collection.

Fam. CORBULIDAE.

Genus CoPbula, Lamarck.

Corhula py.riflata.

Corhida pi/xidafa, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX.
117, pi. XVII. Figs, 12fl, h.

A well defined cast in white limestone occurs here
Cudmore Collection.

Corhida ephamiUa, Tate.
Corhula fphamilla, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX.
p. 176, pi. XVII., Figs. 1.3rt, h. 14.

A mould of this widely distriljuted species was found here.
Cudmore Collection.

Fam. TEREDINIDAE.

Genus Teredo, Linn^.

Teredo di recta, Hutton, sp.

Cladopoda directa, Hutton, 1877, Trans. N.Z. Inst.^ vol. IX. p.
■597, pi. XVI. Fig. 1:1

Teredo directa, Hutton, sp.. Suter, 1914, Rev. Tert. Moll. N.
.Zealand, pt. I. (Pal. Bull, 2, N.Z. Geol. Surv.), p. 54.

Tertiary Fossils. 239'

Two casts of Teretlo tubes found here correspond with the ahaost
straight small tulx>s of the above species which came from the-
Miocene of Canterbury, N.- Zealand.

Cudmore Collection.

Class GASTEROPODA.
Fam. TROCHIDAE.

Genus Astele, Lwainson.
Asfele sp.

Several casta and moulds of a form referable to the above genus;
occur in the white limestone. It has rather smooth, flat whorls, and
a thread-like ornament round the base. It resembles an unde-
scribed species from the Miocene of Victoria.

Cudmore Collection.

Fam. NATICIDAE.

Genus Natica, Scopoli.
Nafica substol/c/a, Tate, var. fji'dndis, nov.

Description. — Shell of the type of Xatico suhsiolida , Tate,^ but
of much larger dimensions and heavier build, the length being
more than twice that of the specific form (54 mm., as compared
with 25 mm. in the species).

A large specimen of Natica, somewhat deformed, but evidently
belonging to the new variety, has been figured by Mr. C. J. Gabriel
and the writer from the Mallee Bores, under the name of N. suhin-
fundihuhun, var. crassa, Tate.^

Ihis large variety is fairly common in the limestone of the
Ooldea district, and its large size (over 2 inches in length), makes
it a conspicuous fossil.

Cudmore Collection.

Natica cf. Jiamiltonensis, Tate.

Nafica Iia/uiltonensif, Tate, 1893, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol..
XVIII. pt. 2, p. .319, pi. X. Fig. 6.

A cast referred with slight doubt to this common Tertiary fossil'
was found here.

Cudmore Collection.

4. Natica (Ncverita) substolida, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., Vol. XVII.,
p. II, 1893, p. 323, pi. VI. Fig. 3.

5. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. XL, 1.914, p. 321, pi. XXV,.
Figs, 15a, b.

:240 Frederick Chapvian:

Genus Euspira, Agassiz.
Euspira cf. effusa, Tate sp.

AmpuUlna tffum, Tate, 1893, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
XVII. pt. 2, p. 327, pi. X. Figs. 2, 2«.

A cast of a' glolwsely whorled naticoid sliell -was found, of whicli
there is very little doubt as to its relationship. E. tffusa was re-
. corded by Tate from the Miocene glauconite sands of the Adelaide
Bore, whilst Dennant notes it from Brown's and Hamilton Creeks,
in Victoria, in beds of Miocene age.

Cudmore Collection.

Fam. CEBITHIIDAE.
Genus Ceifithium, Bruguiere.
Cerithiuin pritchardi, Harris.

I'otamides se/nicostatiim, late (non Deshayes), 1885, Papers and
.Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1884, p. 226.

Cerithiuin pritchwfdi, Harris, 1897, Cat. Tert. Moll. Australasia
(Brit. Mus.) p. 225, pi. VII.sFig. 3.

Numerous pieces of this strongly built shell are included in the
collection, some of which had been weathered. They were found
accompanied by Orbicella in the exposed rubble of the plains. It is a
.restricted Miocene fossil.

Cudmore Collection.

Genus Newtoniella, Cossman.

Newtoiiiella sp.

A hollow mould of a shell referable to this genus, and probably
.new, occurs here.
Cudmore Collection.

Fam. CYPRAEDIAE.

Genus Cypraea, Linne.

Cypi'aea spp.

These are casts, fairly common, related to the typical forms C.
suhsidua, Tate, and C. murraviana, Tate.
Cudmore Collection.

Tertiary Fimiia. 241

Fam. VOLUTIDAE.

Genus, Lyria, Gray.

Lyna acuticustata, sjj. nov.

Description. — Shell long-ovate, volutifoym; apically pointed,
-anteriorly truncated; whorls moderately high, entirely costate,
the acute riblets numbering about 18 on the body whorl. Proto-
conch small, as compared with L. stiiiiacuticostata, Prichard,! and
consisting of two volutions.

The above description is completed from an example in the
Dennant collection, from Bird Rock, Torquay, Victoria.

Dimensions. — The limestone specimen measured when complete,
circ. GO mm. ; the Torquay marl specimen, 42 mm.

Coinparifioii. — In general shape and acute apex this species is
related to L. semiacuficosfate from Table Cape, but differs essen-
tially in having continuous costation. It is clearly an ancestor
.of the living Lyria mitraeformis,' from which it differs in the
more numerous costae and slightly narrower shell.

Cudmore Collection.

Genus Voluta, Linne.
Valuta valiflirnafata. Tate.

Valuta alficastata, Tate, 1889, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.
XI. p. 122, pi. V. Fig. 7.

Valuta valid icastata, Tate (nom. mut.), vide Dennant and Kitson,
■Cat. Cain Foss., 190:j, p. 100.

Several casts of young and median grown sh,ells are found here.
Although occurring in the Balcombian, in Victoria, it is more
typical of Janjukian strata, both tliere and in South Australia.

Cudmore Collection .

Valuta cf. oncillaides, Tate.

Voluta ancilloides, Tate, 1889, Trans. R. Soc, S. Austr., vol.
XI. p. 126, pi. III., Fig. 7.

A cast of a shell of the above specific type occurs in the hard
limestone from Ooldea. V. ancilloides is a well-known Table Cape
fossil.

Chandler Collection.

242 Frederick Chapman :

Fam. OLIVIDAE.

Genus Anciila, Lamarck.

An cilia sp.

A cast of a sliell occurs in the limestone, of the type of an-
Ancilla found at Spring Creek and Table Cape (Nat. Mus. Coll.),
but of very large dimensions. It must have attained a length of
about 50 mm. when complete, whereas the Spring Creek specimens-
rarely measure more than 20 mm., a difference accounted for by
the variation in sedimentation.

Fam. TrRRIIIDAE.

Genus Clavatula, Lamarck.

1 Clavatula sp.

This is an internal cast of the apical portion of a large conical
species, with the earlier whorls faintly costate and medially
ridged.

Cudmore Collection. . •

Fam. COXIDAE.

Genus Con us, Linne.
Conns spj).

Probably several species are represented here, but they are all',
internal casts. So far as can be seen, the commonest form is-
related to Conns lie/at us, Tate.^

Chandler and Cudmore Collections.

Class CEPHALOPODA.
Fam. NAUTILIDAE.

Genus, Nautilus, Linne.
Xatttilus sp. cf. geelo7igensis, Foord.

Xaufilus (jtelongensis, Foord, 1891, Cat. Foss. Cephalopoda
(Brit. Mus. pt. II. p. 332, woodcut. Fig. 69. Chapman, 1915,
Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXVII (X.S.), pt. II. p. 354. pi. IV. Figs.
, 7-9).

The present exam,ple is a large spcL-imen (a fragmentary cast),
having an approximate diameter of about 6 inches when com-

6. Trans. Rov Soc. S. Austr.. Vol. XIII., pt. 2, 1890, p. 196, pi. VII. Figs,
4, 4a, b; pi. VIII.. Fig. 9.

Tertiary Fossils. 243

plete. In its broad contour it is nearest to 3'. geelongensis, a
Janjukian species fi"om the polyzoal rock generally.
Cudniore Collection.

FOSSIL LISTS.— OOLDExV DISTRICT.

Older Pleistocene.
Orbitolifts com 1^1(111 at a, Lam. Turritdla daUirata, Kiener.

Area (Anadara) trapezia, Desh. Bittium cerithium, Q. and G. sp.
Pinna inermis, late. Colunihella aff. semicoiivexa, Lam.

Chlamys hifrons. Lam. sp. sp.

Brack yodontes hirsufus. Lam. s.p. /''/*'(/s ausfralis, Q. and G.
Mareia {Katelysia) strigosa. Lain. Fasciolaria australasia, Perry sp.

sp. Mitra pica, Reeve.

Cla/icidiis dunkeri, Koch sj). BuUaria hotanica, Hedley.

Miocene.

Orhitolites complanafa. Lam. Venus (Chione) Ihormophora,
Plai'ofroc/tus deltoideus. Dune. Tate.

Stylophora, sp. nov. Dosinea johnstoni, Tate.

of. Monilivaltia, sp. Tellina aff. alhinelloides, Tate.

Orhicella tasmaniensis, Dune. Tellina cf. cainozoica, T. Woods.

sp. Corhiila 2^.'/J^idata, Tate.

iLagatium sp. Corluhi epJiamilkt , Tate.

Cucidlaea corioensis, McCoy. Teredo direcia, Hutton sp.

Glycimeris niaccoyi, Johnst. sp. Astele sp.

Chlamys murrayanus. Tate, sp. Natica siihstolida, Tate, var.
Chlamys aldingensis, Tate sp. grandis, nov.

Spondylus cf. gaedtropoides, Natica cf. hamiltonensis, Tate,

McCoy. Euspira cf. effusa, Tate sp.

IJma (Limafula) jeffreysiana, Cerithium pritchardi, Harris.

Tate. Newtoniella sp.

CrassateUites cf. ohlonga. T. Cypraea spp.

Woods sp. Lyria acuticostata, sp. nov.

Cardita cf. tasmanica, Tate. Voluta validicostata, Tate.

Cardita scabrosn, Tate. Vohtfa cf. ancilloides, Tate.

Lucina planatella, Tate. Ancilla sp.

Cardium victoriae, Tate. Clavatula sp.

Cardium (Profocardium) antise- Conus spp.

migranulatum, McCoy. Xautdus geelongensis, Foord.
Venus {Chione) cai7iozoicus, T.

Woods sp.

IS

244 Frederick Cltcqyman :

Episodes in the Formation of the Beds of the Great Biylit Area.

In i^re-Mioceiie times the area abutting on the Cretaceous of
the Lake Eyre district to tlie north-west, to Charh)tte Waters on
the north, to Albany, on the west, and to the Adehiide Ph\ins on
the east,. and far to the soutli on what is now the Southern Ocean,
was probably dominated, by an estuarine or generally base-levelled
country. This area also extended through the Riverina as far as
Wagga, in Xew South Wales, and occupied a large part of the
Wimmera and Mallee districts of A'ictoria. The underlying
(fundamental) I'ocks of this area consist mainly of granite,"
chloritic slate, felspathic quartzites, slaty rocks and sandstones,
.all excepting the granite jJossibly referable either to the Ordo-
vician, Cambrian or metamorphic series, including Algonkian.
Tlie deposits laid down on these basal rocks were river, estuarine,
swamp and lake accumulations, consisting of sands and clays with
carbonaceous and lignitic material.

Following the deposition of these ]>eds, whicli, by the way. were
"not uniformly spread over the entire area mentioned, there were
occasional oscillations which brought them below sea-level, causing
an interstratification of marine beds with the terrestrial. Later,
the oscillations ended in a steady to (|uick downward movement
until a depth of at least 100 fathoms l>elow sea-level was reached.
In this sea-bed a rich deposit of calcareous mud was formed, filled
with debris of polyzoa. echinoids, mollusca and foraminifera.
These beds can lie referred to the Janjukian series of Victoria, and
are honiotaxial with the Miocene of Europe.

In Lower Pliocene times (Kalimnan series) the sea-bed ro.'-e to
witliin a few fathoms of the suiface. with fine sandy deposits,
upon which flourished molluscs as Ostrea. Xafiea, Tvrritella and
the sea-urchin. TMganvm, amongst many otlier organisms. In
places there were huge oyster banks, and in the more rocky parts
vast deposits of mollusca peculiar to such conditions, as Mi/tihis,
Borneo, Veriernp's, Area, CneidJaea and GJi/cimeris, a few species
of which facies are still living. Possijjly a part of tlie Miocene
limestone of which the fauna is here discussed, may have per-
sisted into the Lower Pliocene, as evidently a few forms, such as
TelUno cf. olhinelloides and Loqonnm. seem to indicate.

In the later period of the Pliocene this sea-bed again deepened,
and a shell deposit with many existing species was laid down.

7 Tn the All)any district these older limestones = Plaiitanenet Beds) liave been sliowii
"by J. T. .Intsoii and E. S. Simpson (Journ. and Proo. Hoy. Soc. W. Australia, Vol. II.,
1917, p. 48) to have been laid down on the fjranite.

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XVT.

Fossils of Ooldea

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XVII.

Tertiary Limestone Plains near Ooldea

Tertiary Fossils. 245

'This deposit can be referred to the Werrikooian, as it is geologi-
•cally comijarable with the Gleiielg upraised marine beds. It also
-occurs in the upper part of the Croydon Boi-e, near Adelaide, to
about 400 feet. One of the connuone.st fossils in this l>ed is Orbi-
tolites coinploiiatu . This foraniinifer is now living on the Aus-
traiiac coast, but at lower latitudes. For example, on the west
coasc, at Shark's Bay (lat. 25' S.), and on the east coast at the
Barrier Reef (from about lat. 23'S.). The occurrence of Orhito-
litts at the higher latitude of 32'^S. denotes a wai'mer climate in
Werrikooian and Older Pleistocene times. During the Wceri-
kooian a number of the m,olluscan species became extinct, whilst
others, along' with Orbifohfes, persisted.

In the next period, the Older Pleistocene, the bed of shells and
foraminifera emerged from the sea, and was raised to a height of
about 381 feet between that time and the present; it is found
to-day overlying the Janjukian limestones at the Ooldea Soak. 100
miles inland. Upon the present coast line, in late Pleistocene
times there was laid down an ordinary beach deposit with shells,
and this is now found forming ledges and raised beaches at pro-
tected places along the southern coast, denoting the continuance
of the uplift along the shores of the Great Bight even to the
present time.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Platk XVI.

Fig. 1. — OrbiceUa fasmatiicnsis. Duncan sp. Miocene (Janjukian),
From surface of Salt Lake, W. of Ooldea, South Aus-
tralia. Circ. nat. size.
,, 2. — Fragment of Raised Beach, of Older Pleistocene age;
showing Pinna iiiermis, Tate (shell at base), BulJaria
bofanica, Hedley, and Bitfium cerithium, Q. and G. sp.
Ooldea district. South Australia. Three-fifths nat. size.

Plate XVII.

Pig. 1. — Cutting with fossiliferous Tertiary limestone (Miocene);
half mile east of Watson.
,, 2. — Blowhole in Miocene limestone, near Ooldea. (Plmto-
graphs on this plate by Mr. F. A. Cudmore.)

13a

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. 11., 1920].

Anr. XVII. — The Longevity of Cut Flowers.

By ELLINOR ARCHER, M.Sc,

(Secretary of the Seed Improvement Committee).

[Read 11th December, 19ly.J

This work was carried out in the Botanical Department of Melbourne
Uuiversity, as Government Research Scholar.

Ill studying the question of the longevity of cut flowers, the first
thing to be taken into account is the reason or reasons which cause
cut ffower.s to die, or to lose their characters as flowers by passing
into the fruiting condition.

That is, flowers may undergo either : —

(1) Withering of the sepals and petals due to passage from the

flowering to the fruiting stage.
(2j Falling of the sepals and petals due to the same cause.
(3) Abnormal premature withering.
The last cause is naturally the only one to be considered when
dealing witli the longevity of cut flowers.

Abnormal M'ithering may be caused in various ways : —

(1) By the blocking of the vessels preventing the rise of sap

and. as transpiratioai continues, resulting in a loss of
turgor, followed by drooping.

(2) tiy self-poisoning, owing to an exudation of poison from
cells near the cut surface.

In the work that has been done up to date no actual case of
premature withering due to poisoning has been proved. The man-
ner in which cases of possible poisoning were tested was as fol-
lows : — Some of the suspected material was thoroughly ground and
squeezed, and an extract made, in one case by boiling in water,
and in the other by soaking for a considerable period in cold
water. Fresh flowers were then placed in the extract, which should
contain the poison in concentrated form, but in every case the
material in the extract lasted just as well as the control, proving
that there cannot have been much, if any, . poison present in the
extract.

The most frequent cause of abnormal withering is, therefore,
some form of blocking of' the vessels with a resultant loss of turgor.
That blocking does actually take place can easily be seen by section-
ing the stem at short distances from the cut ends, and examining
the vessels under a microscope.

Longevity of Cut Flowers. 247

This blocking may be caused by external factors, or by factors
within the plant itself. The most connnon external cause is the
development of bacteria in the water surrounding the stem. This
is especially likely to happen if flowers are placed in dirty vessels,
or vessels, in which the water has been left standing for some time.
The bacteria enter the vessels of the stem at the cut end, the sap
being an attraction, and after a time form a complete block, pre-
venting the ascent of water. This may happen to practically any
plant, and the most effectual remedy is to cliange the water fre-
quently, and by so doing the accumulation of bacteiia is checked.

Internal causes of blocking are a gi-eat deal more difficult to
•discover and define. There may be ;in exudation of wound gum
into the vessels, or the parenchyma cells surrounding tlie vessels
may develop outgrowths which push their way into the lumina,
and finally form a parenchymatous tissue completely blocking the
vessels, and very effectively retarding the ascent of sap. This con-
dition is known as tlie formation of a tylosis.

In order to prevent withering in these cases, it will be necessary
to keep the vessels clear, either by preventing the exudation or the
abnormal growtii taking place, or by dissolving it as rapidly as it
is formed. This will have to be done by placing the stem in some
solution which will perform the required action witliout at the
same time having any harmful effect on the living tissues of the
plant.

The work was commenced with any plants that happened to be
blooming at the time, and various well knoAvn household methods
for preserving flowers were tested. Placing the stems in boiling
water, removing the bark for some distance up the stems, and char-
ring the stems, all proved equally unsuccessful with the flowers
used. The only one found to l>e of the slightest use was in the case
of dahlias, which, if inclined to droop, would when placed in
boiling water, very often completely revive.

Chrysantliemums and wattles are very inclined to show sudden
abnormal droojiing, and in one or two cases this Avas proved to be
due to the present of masses of bacteria blockins: the vessels, while
in others what seemed to be a gununy precipitate could be seen
in the vessels by examining a section of the stem. Since the block-
ing and consequent withering take place very rapidly, it is most
probably caused by an internal secretion of a gummy nature. If
this i.s the case it should be able to be prevented by placing the
•stems, either in a solution which will cause a precipitation on the

248 Ellincrr Archer :

walls of the vessels of the gummy substance directly it is formed
and so liievent further exudation, or in a solution which will
dissolve the exudation as fast at it enters the vessels.

Various tests were att-empted to try and discover the solubility
of the blocking nuaterial, but without success. If the material
should be wound gum, which appears most likely, it ought to be
able to be detected by testing with phlorogluciii and hydrochloric
acid, with which it should give a bright red colour, but no colour
change was observable. A special stain for wound gum which
should stain it in contrast to the surrounding tissues known as
Hanstein's mixture, compo-sed of equal parts of concentrated alco-
holic solution of Fuschin and IMethyl Violet, a'lso gave no result.

Xunierous tests for showing the presence of tannin were also
attempted, especially on sections of Acacias, but although the pre-
sence of extensive tannin was shown in the cortex, medullary rays,
and pith, tlie actual blocking substance in the vessels gave no defi-
nite tannin reaction.

The exact nature of the substance exuded from the surrounding
cells into the vessels and causing blocking, therefore, remains
doubtful, although it is most probably a form of wound gum Avhich
will not react to the colour tests.

Although the chemical nature of the substance exuded into the
vessels remains undiscoveied, an effective means was found of pre-
venting the blocking in Acacias. It was found that if fresh speci-
mens of Acacias, soon after being taken from the trees, are placed
in a dilute solution of the non-poisonous heavy metals, no blocking
occurs, and the flowers remain nearly perfect for a considerable
period. The metal Avhich proved most successful was lead, the
nitrate, and the acetate being the salts most used, as they are
the only two lead compounds easily soluble in water. Silver nitrate
in dilute solution also proved fairly effective, l>ut owing to its
power of rapid decomposition it is somewhat unsuitable. Soluble
mercury salts, presumably owing to their poisonotis properties,
proved i-apidly harmful, while the othei- members of the group
were not suitable for use.

The following tables give some idea of the effect that immersion
of the stems in a weak solution of lead nitrate has on various
species of wattle. It would be diffieult to say exactly which day
a certain mass of wattle flower actually died, therefore in the fol-
lowing tables the condition of the flowers at intei'vals of two, six,
and fourteen davs was noted. In a good many cases the flowers-

Longevity of Cat Flowers. 249''

did not shrivel and droop at all; apparently, if it had not been,
for other causes, they would have kept indefinitely, but in every
case, after from ten to fourteen daj-s, the specimens Avould become
discoloui-ed. Ihis discolouring would commence "svith the {^art of
the stalk actually innnersed in lead nitrate, and gradually spread
until it affected tlie v/hole stalk, leaves, and, lastly flowers, so that
in no case could tlie flowers really be called fresh for more than
fourteen days.

In many cases the articulation between the jiedicels of the capi-
tula and the stems become loosened, with the consequence that the
capitula fall off very easily, although remaining tjuite fresh.

It will be seen that the exact effect of the lead nitrate varies with
the different sj^ecies; for example, no experiments with Acacia
arniata succeeded, and the effect on other markedly xerophytic
siDecies, such as juniperina and verticillata, was very slight. A
good deal o£ variation is noticeable in the effect of the lead nitrate
on different specimens of the same variety. In some experiments
the control and the specimens in lead nitrate ha\e lasted for an
equally short period, whereas another experiment with the same
variety will give a good, result. In all cases where rapid withering
has taken place detailed sectioning and examination of the stem
shows blocking. There is presumaldy some undetermined factor
which controls the extent of the exudation, and the effect which
immersion of the stem in lead nitrate will have on this. It is jjos-
sible that the length of time intervening between the time that
the blossom is picked, and the time that it is placed in the solution
will have a considerable influence on its longevity. Accurate ex-
periments to determine this point liave not yet been carried out;
but it was noticed that in any case where the blossom liad been
kept for some time, and had begun to wither, the lead nitrate did
not exert a reviving effect, but the specimen would remain in a
drooping condition for a long time, whereas the control would com-
pletely wither. That is, the lead nitrate does not dissolve block-
ing already formed, but prevents any furtlier exudation taking
place. Another possible factor influencing the amount of block-
ing shown in tlie stem might be tlie age of the wood forming the
vessels at the cut part. Ihis point w^as also undetermined.

Tables to show rhe influence of raryimj strenr/fhs of lead and
silver salts on the lonr/e\vifi/ of the blossoms of varying species af
Acacias.

[The number of days quoted under each column indicates the
number of days that the specimens remain fresh.]

250

Ellinor Archer :

Species.

Control.

Days.

A. saligna -

2

A. salicinia -

2

A. montana -

2

A. prominens

2

A. strict a

2

A. fiinbriata

2

A. diffusa

2

A. neriifolia

6

A. lepi-osa

6

A. loii'rifolia

6

A.

rubida

-

A.

pycnantha

-

A.

1 on i;i folia, vai".

, sophora

A.

dL'Currens var.

norinalis

A.

cultiiformis

-

A.

myrtifolia

-

A.

dodonaeifolia

Control.
1 )ays.

A.

sclorophylla

2

A.

venulosa

2

A.

spectabilis

2

A.

saligua

2

Control.
Da.vs.

A.

. retiuodes

6

A.

lophantba

6

A.

ariuata

2

A.

juuiperina

2

A.

verticilliita

2

A.

acinacea

2

A.

, neriifolia

2

A.

, melanoxylou

2

Lead nitrate

Lead nitrate

1°^

Diiys.

Days.

6

6

2

2

6

6

6

6

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

Control.

Lead nitrate

1%

Days.

Days.

6

14

2

14

2

14

2

G

2

14

()

14

6

14

Sihcr nitrate
Days.

I>ead nitrate

1 .

Days.

6

(!

(i

14

('.

14

14

14

Lead nitrate

IV.

Days.

Lead acetate

17,

Days.

14

14

14

14

2

2

»)

6

6

6

2

2

14

14

6

6

In order to prove that the solution of lead nitrate did actually
prevent blocking in the vessels, and allowed a freer passage through
the stems the following experiment was performed.

Two short stems of as nearly as possible the same length and
■diameter were fixed in a perpendicular position. To the upper
end of each was attached a small rubber tul>e connected with a small
reservoir, while to the lower end a small graduated flask was also
connected by a rubber tube.

Reservoir A, attached to Stem A, was filled witli water, and
Ue.servoir B, attached to Stem B, was filled witl) a 1% solution of

Longevity of Cut Flowers. 2.51

lead nitrate. The reservoirs, which were the same size, provided
.an equal pressure on each stem, and should force an equal amount
of liquid through the stems into the graduated flasks. The stems
being of equal diameter, they should have approximately the same
xiumber of vessels, and unless blocking occurred in one and not in
the other, the same amount of water and lead nitrate should pass
tthrough ii^ the same time.

Experiment 1. — Time, one hour.

Stem A, water only, amount collected -5 ccs.

Stem B, lead nitrate, amount collected 5 ccs.

Experiment 2. — Time. 4.5 minutes.

Stem A, water only, amount collected 5 ccs.

Stem B, lead nitrate, amount collected 5 ccs.

Experiment .3 (with same stem as Experiment 2). — Time, one
ihour 15 minutes.

Stem. A, amount collected 7 ccs.

Stem B. amount collected 7 ccs.

"Experiment! 4. — Time, twn hours.

Stem A, water only, amount collected 5 ccs.

Stem B. lead nitrate, amount collected 3.5 ccs.

"Experiment 5. — Time, three hours.

Stem A. water only, amount collected :.. .5 ccs.

Stem B. lead nitrate, amount collected 5 ccs.

These experiments show that the vessels are more open to the
'passage of lead nitrate solution tliau water. The viscosity of the
lead nitrate solution is slightly greater than that of water, but its
density is greater, and the greater head balances the higher vis-
cosity largely. Neither facror Avould cause more tlian a 5 to 10%
difference in the rate of flow, whereas the differences observed
amount to 700 to 1000%. and this fact can only be explained by
presuming that some form of blocking of the vessels intervenes to
prevent the passage of water, but this is not developed when lead
■nitrate is passed through instead of water. This is proved by
microscope examination of sections of the stems which have been
used in the experiments. Stem A showed extensive blocking,
whereas the vessels in Stem B were quite empty and with open
lumina.

This method of preserving wattle blossom could be quite easily
carried out in the household. A few crystals of lead nitrate to a
quart of water should make a solution of a sufficient strength to
■preserve the blooms without having any harmful effect.

[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. 11., 1920J.
Art. XVII I. — TJie Eiulophytic Fungus of Lolhiin, Part L.

BY

ETHEL McLennan, b.sc,

(Lecturer on Botany in the Melbourne University.)

(With Plates XVI II. to XXVI. and 8 Text Figures.)

[Read Dec. 11 tb, 1019.]

Historical Introduction.

llie fact, that grains of Lol/u/n ttinulentvm, L. (Darnel) con-
tain a layer of fungal liyphae, situated between the aleurone layer
and the fruit and seed coat, was demonstrated by Vogl (1) in 1898.
In tlie same year Guerin (2), Hanausek (o), and Nestler (-1). pub-
lished jDapers dealing with this subject.

These earlier workers drew attention to the fact that the presence
of the fungus in tlie grain is a fairly constant feature. Guerin
examined samples of l.oJiuin tcinuhuit inn from South America,
Asia, Africa, and Europe, and recorded that only three showed the
absence of hyphae. He failed to note their presence in the embryo,
although they were observed in the ovary before tlie fertilisation
of the ovum. Loliinn arrense. With., and Loliiu/i Jiinrolum.
Sond., were also found to ))e fungal-containing, l>ut he reported
only one cxamide of LoJimu pcrciiiie, L., witli the fungus. He sug-
gested that the presence of tlie fungus in the Darnel grains is
pipbaljly an example of symliiosis rather tliaii one of actual para-
sitism.

Hanausek's results confii'med those of Guerin, and, in addition,
he noted tlie presence of the hpyhae in the nucellus of the young
ovary, where, he stated, it produced knots. This fact, he suggested,
indicates a possible athnity of the fungus in (luestion with the-
U><f ihu/i iieae.

Hanausek never examined a Dai-nel grain witliout finding hyphae
in the usual position, but all samples of L. peremie, L. examined
showed the al>sence of liyphae.

Nestler working along the same lines traced the distribution of
the fungus in the seedling, and in the growing plant right up to
the formation of the grain. He, in addition, tried to cultivate the-
fungus in artificial media with negative results. Only a few
grains were found to be devoid of the fungus. He examined several

Fungus of Lolium. 253-

of the species of Lolium, including Lolium peremie, L., but found
that the hyphae Avere absent in all cases. It was suggested that pos-
sibly Woionin's " Taunielroggen "' and the fungus of Darnel bore
some relation one to the otlier, on account of their somewhat simi-
lar iDhysiological action. At the same time, however, he called
attention to the many differences which might be cited between the-
two.

Hiltner's (5) attention was drawn to tlie work of Hanausek and
Nestler, and in 1899 he pul>lished a paper dealing with the func-
tion of the fungus found associated with Darnel. This he stated to
be of a nitrogen fixing nature, and proceeded to verify the state-
ment by experiment. He recorded that Lolium femuhnfum grew
equally well in nitrogen-free and nitrogen-containing sand, and he-
was thus drawn to the conclusion that the above statement as regards
its function is the correct one. The methods employed by Hiltnor
are open to criticism, and I shall refer to his work in a later part
of this paper (pp. 284-285.)

Micheletti (6), 1901, worked mainly on the chemical side of the-
question. A paper, " The Seed Fungus of Lolium trmuhntum, L.,
the Darnel," by Freeman (7), appeared in 1902. Freeman found
that samjjles of Darnel from various localities showed wide differ-
ences in the proportion between fungal containing and fungal free
seeds. He correlated the absence of the fungus with certain morpho-
logical characteristics, vi/.. colour and shape, although he indi-
cated that in a few cases this coi'relation was not evident. Perhaps
the chief point in his paper deals with the mode of entry of the
fungus into the embi-yo. He described an isolated patch of hyphae-
at the base of the groove on the inner side of the grain. Tins
patch he railed the " infection layer " and he stated that it was
from this layer tliat infection of the end^ryo took place. The course
of the hyphae, according to his observations, was always intercel-
lular, and penetration of the aleurone layer by tlie infecting-
hyphae took place at the junction of several cells. In all grains
examined where hyphae were present in the end>ryo they were also
found in the grain, and all the evidence Avas negative as to the pos-
silulity of their presence in tlie embryo and absence in the grain.
However,, he cited one doubtful case as regards this converse state-
ment.

The disti-ibution of the fungus in the growing plant was noted,,
and in dealing Avith the inflorescence and ovary he described in;
detail the development of his "infection layer."

:254 Ethel McLennan :

All attempts to cultivate the fungus in artificial media were un-
successful.

In conclusion he pointed out that Guerin considered the relation
between the two organisms, one of true symbiosis; he agreed with
this idea, but added, " the large hvplial layer of the grain, and
.the occasional penetrations of the endosperm, suggest vestigial indi-
. cations that the action of the fungus is, or has been, at times
injurious to the endosperm of the plant. Otherwise the fungus
seems ordinarily to exert an almost stimulating influence on the
host."

Freeman examined 30 grains of Loliuin perenne L., and found
•only 5 contained the fungus. Of 59 grains of Lolium itaUcum.
Braun, 2 alone s-howed tlie second organism, while of 25 grains
-of Lolium JinicoJuin, Br., the full number gave positive results.

Another paper by Nestler (8) appeared in 1904, but it throws
little further light on the problem. Fuclis (9), 1911, viewed the
subject from the chemical standpoint, ami hTially, in 1912. a re-
:>jearch by Buchet (10) was published, but. unfortunately, I have
been unable to obtain this paper in Australia.

The erratic occurrence of the fungus in both Lolium temuh^iifii m
and Lolium perenne recorded by these investigators does not tend
to support the idea of a symbiotic association, but rather stresses
the pi'obability of its parasitic nature, llie investigations described
in the following paper wei-e carried out in order to test these results
for those grasses grown in Australia, andj also to attempt to eluci-
date the actual relation between the two organisms. In attempting
to furtlier our knowledge of the relation between the grass and
its associated fungus, I have limited myself mainly to a study of
Lolium perenne, as practically no work has been done on this grass,
and, in addition, it is a much more convenient form for obtaining
•embryological material. As far as time permitted I have compared
this form Avith Lolium femulenfuin, and the results recorded in
this paper are true for lx)th forms. Perhaps a few minor differ-
ences may l>e determined later, but the main points are undoubt-
edly true for both grasses.

Methods.

Microtome sections were employed in the examination of the
mature grains. The grains were soaked in distilled Avater for
several hours, and tlien placed in a fixing fluid. During the early
-part of this work, Carnoy's fixing solution was used. Owing to the
:starchy nature of the endosperm, it was difficult to get good results.

Fungus of Loliuvi. 255*

but if a paraffin Avith a fairly low melting point be used, it was
found quite possible to obtain good and serial sections, after using,
this fixing reagent. At a later stage Bouin's fixative was employed,
more particularly when dealing with the later stages in the develop-
ment of the grain. It was quite easy to obtain absolutely entire
sections after the specimens have been fixed in this way. The disad-
vantage lies in the fact that the starch in the endosperm was not-
well preserved, and also after this fixative the staining reactions,
with the stains employed, do not seem to be as brilliant as they are
following upon Carnoy's fixative.

The ether-freezing microtome was not satisfactory, owing to^
the difficulty in obtaining serial sections, and it was generally
necessary to do this. Again, it was impossible to obtain as thin
sections in this manner as with the paraffin method.

Hand sections were practically useless. They can only confirm
the presence of the hypliae in the grain, but evidence as to their
absence cannot be drawn from them.

The stain most generally employed, in fact, solely, as regards the-
mature grain, was aniline gentian violet. i In using this stain care-
must be taken to see that it is always fresh, as it does not keep well.
Its staining cai3acity diminishes rajiidly after several days. This-
stain was washed out with Gram's iodine water, then with absolute
alcohol. Sections were next cleared in clove oil, and mounted in
balsam.

Excellent results were obtained with this stain, the hyphae for
the most part being stained a brilliant bluish purple, and the endo-
sperm reacting to the iodine. 2 It far exceeded any other stain T
have tried, among them being Haidenhain's haematoxylin, aniline-
safranin, erythrosin, aniline blue, etc. The aleurone cells for the
most part and the cells of the scutellum and embryo do not stain,,
so that the hyphae present in these tissues stand out in striking ■
contrast to the colourless cells around them.

This stain, used by itself, was only useful when dealing with the
mature grain. In studying the embryology of the grasses in ques-
tion it was necessary to counter-stain. Sections of the ovary
iDefore, and at the time of fertilisation, wore stained with Bismarck

1. One Soloid tabloid of gentian violet dissolved in 7 ccs. of abs, ale, and'
63 CCS. of water containing 2.S ccs. of aniline solution.

2. The colourisation of the endosperm by the iodine is, of course, not per-
manent, although the hyphae retain the violet stain well. This is certainly -
a drawback to the method, but it is more than compensated for by the excel- ■
lent results obtained, which, indeed, are not approached by any other method.',

256 Ethel McLennan :

brown, followed by aniline gentian violet ;• later stages were also
treated in the same way. In addition, some of the later sections
were stained with eongo red. These were first stained with aniline
gentian violet, followed by Gram's iodine water, and finally by
Congo red. This stain washes out very readily in the alcohols, so
it was found necessary to use a watery solution of congo red. and
to wash away excess with water, then to drain off as much of the
water as possible, and transfer immediately to clove oil. If the
sections be left on the water oven at a temperature of -1:5 -50° C
they will clear perfectly well in from 1-2 Ins., and they can tlien
be mounted in balsam and juove to be quite permanent.

llie mature (jraiti.

Mv aim at fiist was to make a record of the grains of both J.olium
te/?iulf/ifiii/i, and Loliuin perciint examined, and to note the number
of fungus-containing and fungus-free seeds.

After examining a large number of grains, I have been forced
to the conclusion that it is impossible to distinguish macroscopic-
ally grains containing the fungus from those devoid of it (if any).
The colour difference cited by Freeman cannot be regarded as a
distinguishing feature.

Nine grains were chosen from a sample of Darnel obtained from
Northam, Western Australia. Of these 4 were very dark in
colour, 2 more or less intermediate, and 3 a pale straw yellow, but
all of the nine showed a dense hyphal layer situated between the
aleurone layer and the outer testa and pericarp. This is but a
single example of many similar series. As the work proceeded it
became more and more evident that both colour and size of grain
were quite indejiendent of the fungal constituent.

When commencing this record hand sections Avere used, as it was
possible to handle a large number of fruits in a comparatively short
time, by this means. Sometimes these hand sections revealed a
grain apparently fungus-free — i.e., no definite layer of hyphae
could be seen in the usual position in the grain. Ihese, when ob-
tained, were frequently microtomed, and fine but distinct fungal
hyphae were found penetrating the scutellum, so it seemed impos-
sible to decide whether a particular grain was devoid of the fungus
unless serial sections were obtained sufficiently thin to enable these
fine threads to be demonstrated. Although hand sections are use-
ful in demonstrating the presence of the fungus, they cannot be
.accepted as evidence in regard to its absence.

Ftiiigtii^ of LolliLim.

257

The follo-\ving I'esults show tliat Loliiim lierenne is just as strik-
ing' an example of a t'ungus-iontainiiig frviit as Jj>hiiiii temiihti-
hnn, and that the number of eirliei- grains devoid of tlie fungus
is remarkahly small. In fact, they suggest that prQbably all grains
■of Darnel and, Englisli rye grass contain this second organism, and
failure to discern it in some grains is due to the fact tliat it is
present in such minute quantities in the mature grain that it needs
.special care and staining to bring the hyphae out, or, as this paper
proceeds, a second alternative will be considered (p. 293).

Loll Kill tciniil( iifii/n, L.

Locality

No. of grrains
e.xamined

Fung-, pres.

Fiui^'. abs.

Victoria

-

93

93

—

Northam, W. Aust.

-

9

9

—

Katanning-, W. Aust.

-

27

27

—

Kew, England

-

31

31

—

■Cambridge, England^

-

9

9

—

'I'otal

169

169

Locality

Victoria
Cowra, N.S.W.
New Zealand
South Africa
Scotland
Ireland

Total

Lolium pereune, L.

No. of Rr.aiiis

e.Kainiiied

Fun

tf. pres.

53

-

53

12

-

12

4

- ■

4

18

-

18

11

-

11

17

-

17

115

115

Fung. abs.

Although former workers have recorded the presence of the fungus
in Lolium 'perenne, previously it has been thought to be very sj^ar-
ingly distributed in this species. The above results show that this is
not actually so. It has also been suggested that the toxicity of Darnel
is due to its fungal component, but since English' rye grass shows a
regularly occurring hyj^hal layer as well as Darnel, this suggestion

3. The " seeds " of this Cambridge sample were much smaller than those
of any of the Australian samples. Frequently also on hand-sectioning no
liyphal layer was evident, but several of the grains were microtomed, and
further examination then showed distinct hyphae in the scutellum and
embryo. Possibly the plants yielding the grain were grown under condi-
tions which did not favour the luxuriant development of the fungus, so that
the absence of the extra-cellular hyphal layer was more common in this
sample than is usually the case. Only these grains which were actually
microtomed are included in the above list.

258 Ethel McLennan :

does not seem to be a feasible one. Of course it niiglit be argued
that the two grasses contain different species of fungi, one of which,
might be toxic, the other liarmless. Ihe actual identity of the
fungi obtained ,from the grains can only be established when they
are grown artihcially, and the sporing stage obtained, but as far
as one can judge by comparing the two forms, they are very simi-
lar, and are certainly very closely related if not actually identical.
Seemingly the explanation of the cause of the poisonous nature 'if
Darnel must be looked for elsewhere, and is not to be furthered by
a study of the fungus found inhabiting it.

Freeman, when discussing the fungus in the embryo of the grain,
records some experiments which were undertaken in order to inves-
tigate the function of the nucellar layer of hyphae, although it is
not quite clear what bearing they have on this point. He grafted
embryos of Loliinn ttiiuihiitiim on endosperms of Lolivm 'perenne,
and vice versa, the grains having previously been sterilised, and
all manipulations carried out under sterile conditions. Thirty-
four grafts of Loliinn perenne embryos on IJ>Jliiin teniulentitm
endosperms were made, and of this number eighteen germinated.
He examined two of these seedlings, and found both contained
hypliae, from this lie argued it was very probable that " liypliae
from the infection layer of the />. terniilentmn grains were able to
gain entrance to the embryos of Loliiim perenne/'' These experi-
ments really lead nowhere, for the hyphae are already in the rye
grass end)ryos before grafting on any foreign endosperm, and their
jjresence cannot possibly be due to infection from the nucellar
hyphal layer or from his loialised infection area.

Disfrihiition of tJie fi/nr/iis in the f/rain^

Many grains of Loliinn jterenne were sectioned with a view to
determining the distribution of the fungus in the fruit. Transverse
sections taken at different levels are shown in Plate XVIII., Figs.
1-3. The yellow line illustrates the distribution of the fungus. A
transverse section at the distal end of the grain, Fig. 1, shows the
hyphal distribution to be co-extensive with the aleurone layer. A

4. Following upon Brown and Morris (11), I have adopted the follow-
ing terminologj- in describing the grain. The furrowed side of the grain is
the ventra} STirface, the side opposite to this the dorsal. The embryonic
end is called proximal, while the stigmatic end, or that portion remote from
the embryo, is distal. A section passing through the ventral and dorsal sur-
face is a sagittal section, while the longitudinal section at right angles to
this is a coronal section. The sagittal plane which divides the grain into
two equal halves is the median sagittal plane. A section at right angles to
both sagittal and coronal planes is tra^isveisc.

Fungim of Lolium. 259

transverse section nearer the proximal end of the grain, as is-
shown in Fig. 2, would cut- through the scutelluni. Such a section
shows that the hyphae occur Ijetween the endosperiu and the scutel-
luni wherever the tissues are in contact, and hyphal 2^t?iit?trations
into the scutelluni may and do take place at any point over this
area. Tlie hyphae in addition extend even past the limits of the
aleurone layer, and penetrate the scutelluni on its outer exposed
dorsal surface. A transverse section at the extreme proximal end
of the grain. Fig. -S, passes through the embryo, l)Ut the starchy
endosperm is no longer included in the section. Even at this level
the hyphae surround the scutelluni, as is indicated by the yellow
line in tlie Hgure. The coronal plane is perhaps the best for demon-
strating the distribution of the fungus in any one section (Plate
XVIII. Fig. 4), the occurrence of the fungal layer between the
scutelluni and endosperm at all points of contact and the extension
of the fungal tissue on the dorsal proximal surface is clearly seen.

Plate XVIII. Fig. 5, shows a median sagittal section illustrating
the same points and, in addition both of these latter sections shew
the distriltution of the hyphae in the embryonic area. The scutellum
is often very richly traversed by tine fungal threads, and they are
not restricted to any special area, but occur more or less uniformly
right through the tissue. Some grains show these threads more
readily than others, but a study of the embryology of the grain
will suggest that this might often be the case. Ihe hyphae are
readily discernil)le in the growing cone; their presence here has
been pointed out by the earlier workers. (Text-figure 1.). The
alx)ve facts are also true of Lohuin tenudentuin, but it is much
rarer in this case to obtain a scutellum so markedly inliabited as
in Loliiiiu pcrenne, and in any case the threads are generally finer.
In several examples of Lolium iierenne I have found hyphae present
in tlie railicle, but they are not generally evident in this region.

Freeman raises the question — How does the fungus obtain en-
trance to the embryo? As an answer, he devoted a large part of
his paper to a description of a localised patch of liyphae, which he
termed " ihe infection layer-,''' and to its mode of origin. He says
that on the ventral proximal end of the grain there occurs an iso-
lated patch of hyphae which penetrates between the aleurone cells?
and cells of the scutellum, and tliereby gain entrance to the
embryo when it is fairly advanced in its development. He
states that- on the dorsal surface of tlie grain the hyjahae
do not extend to the end of the aleurone layer. To

14

260

Ethel McLennan

Text-Figure 1.

<jrowing point of an embryo from a Loliuin perenne grain. The
section was cut obliquely and includes only the growing point
— Si young leaves = l ; and scutellum = s ; hyphae = h.
X 850 dinni.

Fungus of Lolium. 261

• fluote directly: "It is not impossible perhaps that infection
.may, in exceptional cases, take place from this side of the
scutellum (dorsal); but, if so, it occurs very seldom. I have
seen no evidence either in the mature grain or in the developing
ovary to indicate that such an infection is ever accomplished."

My observations permit of a different answer to this c[uestion.
Hyphae occur at the junction of the scutellum and endosperm, not
only near the ventral surface (Freeman's infection layer), but
wherever these tissues are in contact I was unable to demonstrate
the existence of an isolated patch as described by Freeman, Fur-
thermore, it is impossible to agree with the statement that the hyphal
layer does not reach the end of the aleurone layer on the dursal
side of the grain. As is shown in Plate XVIII. Figs. 2-5, hyjjhae
can and do occur right round the periphery of the embryonic area.
These facts in themselves are interesting, but they do not answer
our question. At a later stage, in this paper, it will be shown that
infection of the embryo t^iikes place at a very early stage in develop-
ment, and that the distrilnition of hyphae in the mature grain has
no bearing on this point, but is a result of the special function
carried out by this partner in the development of the grain.

It is only fair to emphasise the fact that Freeman dealt only with
LoJiuni temulentum when working out his idea of an infection
layer, and that this criticism is based mainly on work done on
Lolium perennt. However, if the facts ciemonstrated in the embryo-
logical section (pp. 267-281) are true, they apply equally well to
botli forms, and it becomes abundantly clear that the distribution
in the adult grain is not associated especially with the infection of
the embryo as Freeman suggests.

Previous workers have descritecl the hyphal layer itself in
detail. Australian grown grains of either grass seem to shew a
very rich growth of hyphal tissue. Some grains of Darnel grown
in the University grounds, Melbourne, had an average layer of
31.6 u. Grains of English rye in many cases showed a layer quite
as broad as that shown by an average Darnel, but in both the width
or extent of the layer is extremely variable, depending largely on

-the activity of the fungus during the period between fertilisation
and formation of the seed. Aniline gentian violet, followed by
Gram's iodine water, was used solely for staining the adult grains.
The hyphal layer does not stain uniformly, however, with this stain,

•some portions of the hyphal threads reacting to the violet colour,

•other parts remaining colourless. This variation in the staining

14.\

262 Ethel McLennan:

properties was displayed by different parts of the same hvphae, the
coloured portions being interrupted bv colourless, in a very irregu-
lar manner. In order to ascertain whether these unstained seg-
ments contained protoplasm or were devoid of contents, and thus
remained unaltered by the stain, sections were submitted to a
second stain following upon gentian violet. Congo red was chosen,
as it stains the cell Avails, and also the protoplasm The result wag-
that the former uncoloured sections were stained with the red, and
displayed dense contents just as is the case with the coloured seg-
ments The difference in the staining capacity is probal)ly due to
the presence of ferments in certain parts of the hyphal network
wherever the ferment is pre.sent in any quancity, then will the
"blue" stain be evident. Colour is lent to this idea by the fact
that the aleurone layer shows the same staining reactions as the
hyphal layer. Ihe majority of the cells do not react to the violet
stain, but certain of them stand out markedly from the rest, for
they stain densely and form very striking portions of the section.
The number of such coloured cells varies in each individual grain.
In addition, the scutellum repeats the above phenomenon. In this
case, tlie "blue" cells are generally restricted to the epithelial
layer of this tissue.

Brown and Morris (11) liave shown that in Uordtiim rulgare
the secretion of diastase is located in tlie aljsorptive epithelium, and
in a later paper Brown and Escombe (12) that in addition, the
aleurone layer is capable of bringing about marked changes in the
endosperm when this is separated from its embryo, and placed
under favourable conditions.

Ihe distribution of tlie active ferment-secreting cells tlierefore,
agrees with the staining reactions described above, and supports
the view that the coloured segments of the hyphae contain either an
enzyme or its fore-runner, and this conjecture is further strength-
ened by the later embryological work.

When examining a sample of English rye grass from Ireland, a
specimen was occasionally found showing hyphae (which for the
most part stained with gentian violet) invading the starchy endo-
sperm. Freeman records a similar distribution for grains of
Loliimi temulenfiini from Ghent. A careful examination of the
aleurone layer of such a grain showed that the hyphae were also
running riot here. Instead of the usual inter-cellular course, many
hyphae could be made out actually passing into the cells, and in
many cases a single hypha could be traced entering and leaving

Fungus of Lollmn. 2 60

.as many as three cells. As is well known, the cell walls of this
layer are thick, and also pitted. The hy^shae enter through these
j)its, and thereby gain access to the cell (Plate XIX. Fig 5). Sonie-
tinies the opening in the M'all of the aleurone cell was smaller in
diameter than the penetrating hypha ; when this was the case a
conspicuous narrowing was noticed at the point of entrance, but
on the far .side of the pit the hypha again attained its previous size.
In addition the scutellum showed an extraordinarily large amount
of tlie fungus. Here the intra-cellular course was also verv evi-
dent (Plate XIX. Fig. 4). Many of the scutellar cells stained
vividly; such cells were seen to be fungal containing. The entrance
to the cells was gained through jjitted walls, as is the case in the
.aleurone layer. The remaining cells of the scutellum Avere normal,
and the grains did not seem to be any the worse for tliis excep-
tiimal behaviour on the part of the fungus. In such abnormal
grains the hyphal layer was present as usiial. There is no doubt
that the hypliae invading tlie cells are the same as those composing
the extra cellular layer.

These phenomena were not confined to the sample from Ireland,
one of English rye grass from Soutli Africa also contained certain
grains showing an extraordinary distribution and growth of the
fungus. As before, both the aleurone layer and the scutellum were
permeated by intra-cellular hyphae. In one jjarticular case +he
scutellum, which normally is packed with aleurone grains, appeared
to consist of a dense sclerotial-like mass of threads. The ])ulk
remained colourless, and they resembled " ghosts," or casts, of
former more virile hyphae (Text figure 2). They are represented
in the text figure as dotted lines, and they completely filled the
whole of the scutellar tissue, although the cells composing it were
not distorted or enlarged in any way. lliis section cut in the
coronal plane) and the others accompanying it, wei'e later stained
witli Congo red; it was then easier to decipher the.se ghost-like
contents of the scutellum. Many were cut transversely, but owing
to a large amount of twisting some were seen running lengthwise
through the tissue for a short distance. They probably represent
fungal hyphae, which were numerous at certain stages in the
development of the grain, carrying a, special food supply to special
■parts, and in giving this up to the host-plant theyhave undergone
a partial dissolution, which was not completely carried out in
"these few excejDtional cases by the time the grain reached maturity.

264

Ethel McLen^Kcn .-

-^-

\

Text-Figure 2.

A longitudinal section through the radicle, and a portion of the-
scutellum of a gram of Lolium j)erenne (Ireland). This was-
an abnormal grain. r = radicle, rh = hyphae iu radicle, s =
Scntelliim, gh = ghost-like hyphae forming a sclerotial like
growth in the scutellum which was nevertheless perfectly
formed; h= hyphae staining with gentian violet. x 103-
diam.

Fangus of Lolium.

265

Text-figure 3 illustrates the stigmatic end of the same grain (a
coronal section not cut in the median line shows portion of the

Text-Figure 3.

A section of the stigmjitic end of the same grain as text fig. 2.
a = aleurone cells, tlie outlines of which are distorted by
abnormally hirge intercellular hypliae ; h = intercellular
hyplme, h = intra-cellular hyphae, w = wall of aleurone cell.
X 10C)0 diam.

2.66 Ethel McLennan :

aleurone layer at this end of the grain cut tangentially. and there-
fore it does not appear as a single layer of cells.) Interpolated be-
tween the aleurone cells, lying in the inter-cellular spaces, alter-
ing their whole contour, are outlines of hyphae, whicli seem to be
swollen, somewhat gelatinised, and in a state of disorganisation.
Similar bodies were also visible in the matrix of the Cflls them-
selves.

These occurrences lead me to believe that at some stage in the
life of the grain tlie hyphae were intra-cellular, and that in the
few aberrant cases met witli this embryohigical condition persisted
in the mature grain.

JJevelopi/ienf of tJie Orart/ from the Flotri r'uKj to the Fruiting

St (I fie .

It is convenient to divide this portion of the paper into sections,
and to consider the i-elation of the fungus to tlie grain, at certain
definite stages in its formation. This relation becomes very pro-
nounced and charactei-istic, either just about the fertilisation
period or inmiediately afterwards, and from here to the final stages
is most intimately associated with the changes taking place, result-
ing in the formation of the endosperm, witli its aleurone layer, and
the various parts of tlie embryo.

St(i!/f^ A.

Text-figure 4 illustrates the external appearance c>f the
ovary at the flowering stage just prior to fertilisatioti. It is
drawn from the ventral surface, and shows tlie stigmas arising from
the dorsal side, the bi-carpellai-y nature of the fruit is indicated in
the figure. The ovum lies directed towards tliy proximal end of the
ovary. I have designated this period Stage A.

Hyphae are present in the carpels from their earliest inception,
but it is only at about tjiis stage that theii- intimate relation with
the ovarian tissues of the grass is evident. They enter the ovary
at the stalk end, and branch through the carpellary wall. They
are generally nioi-f abundant during the eai'lier stages at this end
than at the distal stigmatic end. These hyphae characteristically
accompany tlie vascular tissue of the stalk, and are to be seen in
very close liroximity to the annular and spiral vessels running m
this area. (Plate XXI. Fig. 4.) In many of the sections numerous
small lateral buds on the hyphae suggested haustoria, but thev may
be minute lateral liranches just lieing caught in tlie section. The

Fungus of Loliwni.

267

^^^^■'

>/

'-^^^"'^S>.

it

"--S^^^i

/'•x

^;yi«wwa?afi)J<"i

•■• /

%:

'f'Ui-S^r^.*'''

/

Text-Figure 4.

External appeaiance of the ovary of Lolium pcrenne at Stage A.
X 15 diam.

268 Ethel McLennan:

cells of the carpellary stalk do not contain starch, and many of
them stained deeply with the gentian violet after counter-staining-
the sections with bismarck brown. These blue cells were always-
plentiful in this region; such cells have been invaded by the fungus,
and their contents probably used for its own nutrition. They
always stain deeply, and the hyphae in their vicinity do likewise.
If the cells do not stain too darkly, it is possible to observe fung.al
threads forming a network in the lumen of the cells, many of the-
threads being exceedingly fine. The position of these cells is shown
in Plate XX. The cells are not enlarged, and apparently only
differ from those around them by their different staining properties.
The cell walls in this area are pitted ; whether this is the normal'
condition or whether the pit has resulted from a secretion of the-
fungus is a debatal)le point.

The lateral walls of the carpel are packed with small compound
starch grains, and in tliis region the hyphae only occur between
the oells. They run in all dii-cctions, but are, as far as I have-
observed, strictly inter-cellular in this position, at this stage.
However, Avhen the stigmatic region is reached they seem to get the-
upper hand, and a large number of cells become their prey. These
cells are also starch-containing, and when so intruded upon they
immediately react to the violet stain. Sometimes the whole of this
area will aj^peav a dense violet colour, for the great majority of
the cells in this part are attacked at this period. When the cell is
first invaded, the starch is seen to become swollen and disorganised,
and loses its ])Ower of reacting to the iodini' wash used in prepar-
ing the sections (Plate XXI., Figs. 2 and 5). The fine hyplial
threads wrap round the starch groups, and even enter between
each individual grain (Plate XXI. Fig. 5), apparentlv digesting
them. There is no doubt that these cells are suffering at the hands
of tlie fungus, and that their contents are being transferred to tliis
fungal system. Some of the cells show an entire absence of starch;
they appear to be practically empty, and somewhat collapsed.
These have l>cen invaded at an earlier stage, and yielded their con-
tents in a similar way. The stigmatic tracts present in the carpel
wall generally show hyphae in abundance; they extend right into-
the stigmas, and even here become intra-cellular, but do so proliably
only arcer fertilisation has taken place, wlien the function of the-
stigmas has been completed.

Occasionally, the base of a staminal filament remained attaclied'
to the uvarv during sectioning, and hyphae were found to extend;

Fungus of Lolium.

269'

into this region. One or two examples were obtained, showing such
hvphae in a much convoluted condition. Parts of the thread were
swollen and bladder-like, with sharp constrictions at intervals..
The contents, however, were the same throughout the length of the-
thread, showing no signs of spore formation. (Text-figure 5.)

Text-Figure 5.

Hyphae from a staminal filament shewin<| sharp constrictions-
occurring at intervals along tbeir length, x 1700 diam.

-^70 Et.ltel McLennan .-

While these changes ano proeeeding in the carpel wall, the hyphae
in the developing ovule are not quiescent. Ihey keep pace with the
growth of the ovuLe, and until the embryo-sac is at the 8-celled stage
they simply run between the cells of the nucellus, ramifying in
ever}' direction. They exten<l right through the nuciellar tissue

^completely surrounding the end>ryo-sac. Freeman, when discuss-
ing the ovary of Lol/ian femulenfu in at this stage, states that hyphae
are comjiletely wanting on the outer dorsal surface towards the
embryo-sac end, stopping at about tlie level of the antipodal group.
If this is so, it is difficult to see how hyphae come to be present in
this position in tlie mature grain. As far as I have observed they

.are uniforndy distrilnited through the inner layers of tlie nucellus,
Init do not generally extend into the very outer layers until later
in development. The dual staining properties are sliown by these
hyphae, but the great majority of them will pick up thie purple
stain.

The first indication of any change in the relation between the
fungus and the cells of the ovule at this stage is the tendency for
tlie hyphae to form knots (Plate XXI. Fig. •'}). These ai'e especiallv
striking if the sections are cut rather thicker than those to be used
for detailed high power examination. Hanausek described the
occurrence of knots (Kniiuel) in the ovary of Darnel, and figured
them. I liave been unable to o])tain his original paper, only

.■al)stracts withtnit figui'es being availaljle. He offered the occur-
rence of these knots as evidence in favour of the fungus being
related to tlie (^stihufi neae . Freeman says : " I have found no

;such knotting of hyphae to indicate the commencement of Ustilagine

rspore formation." These knots undoubtedly do occur, but are
rather to be regarded as the first stages in the penetration of the
nucellus cells. The hyphae arch round all sides of the cell before
entering it, and as they generally invade two or three adjacent

•cells simultaneously, this arching gives the knot-like formations
above described. 1 do not think they afford any clue to the actual
systematic position of the fungus in question. Since they are just
on the point of attacking a cell th^y ore rich in ferments and
always stain vividly.

Cells showinof a later stage of invasion are also ])resK.'nt in sucli
an ovule. Lateral branches ari.se from these enfolding hyphae,
which penetrate the cell wall and pass into the substance of
the cell itself. It soon becomes filled with a dense network of
•threads, and in this condition forms a most striking part of the

FiDigus of Lolium. 271'

section, for such cells are the only members of all the nucellar
tissue, Avhich will stain in tlie same way as the fungal system.
(Plate XXI. Fig. 1). They stand out in contrast to tlie l)ackgri)und
of normal, unattacked nucellar cells.

It is difficult to determine whether the hyphae actually
apply themselves to the nuclei, but it is readily seen that
the nuclei dO' undergo a definite change, l>ecoming large and
somewhat distorttd, and at this stage will stain uniformly
with the violet dye. These fungal-containing cells may occur in
any position in the nucellus, but at this stage they are few in
number, and are generally to be found at the end of the ovule
furthest from the micropyle. They become more abundant after
fertilisation occurring in any part of the nucellar tissue.

The embryo-sac at this stage is ready for fertilisation, and it
■agrees with the rest of the ovule in containing the fungus. The
protoplasmic lining of the sac carries the hyphae. They run
rather sparingly along tlie sides, and at the distal end of the
embryo-sac, but are more abundant at the proximal end in the
vicinity of the ovum. Ihey are in close connection with both the
synergidae and the egg-cell, and enter into tlie substance of the
latter at this early point in the development of the grain. (Plate
XXI., Fig. 0.) Previously it has been thought that " infection "
took place at a much later stage, after tlie differentiation of the
gi-owing cone, Avhen the formation of the embryo was fairly ad-
vanced. It has l>een suggested that the entrance of the fungus into
the embryo was due to tlie chemotactic influence of the growing
ajDex. My observations show that the fungal constituent is present
in the ovum before any divisions have taken place, and that the
formation of a special layer in the grain for the purpose of infect-
ing the embryo at any specified/ period is not necessary.

Sfar/e B.

Text-figure 6 illustrates the external appearance of the ovary
after fertilisation, and at the commencement of endosperm forma-
tion. Ihe elongation of the ovary which accompanies this change
is beginning to be apparent. As in Stage A, it is drawn from the
ventral surface, and shows the same features as before.

If an ovary be sectioned at approximatelT this stage, our know-
ledge of the relation of the fungus to the grass is considerably
augmented.

The hyphae are still active in the carpel wall. The cells com-
posing: the distal area of this wall are attacked by the fundus, their

i272 Etliel McLennan

M^

/': .

V"V«

1 •'■>4

'vM^

V i^"v-

■\-.

;";^?:>.v#^ ./

_\ t ■• -'^■-r

■ . ■■^" %

,'-<■" -^ ' t: ••**'

^m^

,' "

■■'■■^'■' „'^

it"

Text-Figure 6.

The external appearance of the ovary of Lolium j^erenne at Stage
B. X 15 diam.

starchy contents are disorganised and absorbed into the hyphal
system. The collapse of these cells enables the ovule to encroach
on the space formerly occupied by them, and elongation of -the
developing grain thereby results. At this period the ovule does
not increase markedly in breadth, and so the cells composing the
side walls of the carpel are not yet invaded, the activity of the
fungus is, as in Stage A, more evident in the distal region.

The most noticeable change occurs in the ovule itself. Tlie
r'fungus is responsible for the disorganisation of the nucellus.

Fungus of Lolium. 273

Thriving on the nutriment obtained from these cells, and also on
that obtained from tlie carijellary wall, it increases tremendously
in amount, invading and attacking every portion of this tissue.
(Plate XXII. Fig. 1.) This figure represents the hyphae massed
together in this area. For the most part it is difficult to discern
the outlines of the disorganising cells, except at the edge of the
■ovule, where they are still intact, although, unlike the previous
stage, the hyphae have spread now into these outer layers. The
nuclei of the cells of the nucellus persist for some little time after
invasion, but they become enlarged, and stain uniformly, as shown
in the figure.

The type of branching of the hyphae is very characteristic. (Plate
XXII. Fig. 2.) The branches are given off almost at right angles to
the main thread, and at their point of origin a slight swelling
generally occurs. They are strongly septate, and rich in proto-
plasmic contents, and they show numerous vacuoles and well marked
nuclei. If the sections are stained only with gentian violet, fol-
lowed by Gram's iodine solution, the majority of the hyphae in
these regions stain deeply, but the colourless portions noticed both
in the adult grain and in the ovary prior to fertilisation are still
present. In order to stain these segments sections at this stage
were subjected to congo red, after staining in the abuve manner.
Such treatment made the study of the endosperm much simpler.

The embryo-sac as a result of the stimulus of fertilisation lias
enlarged considerably, the enlargement being accompanied by the
appearance of endosperm. The formation of this tissue is at first
most active at the proximal end of the sac, in the vicinity of the
ovum. On the dorsal proximal surface it forms a complete plate of
tissue, the distal extremities of which are separate and considerably
narrowed. These dip towards the ventral surface, and in section
appear as two bands of tissue, from one to two cells in width, each
being surrounded by nucellus.

The cells of which the endosperm is composed are highly proto-
plasmic, and contain large nuclei. Starch has not, as yet, been
laid down in them. The endosperm is formed at first by a process
of free cell formation. This soon ceases, and further growth takes
place by the repeated division of the outer layer of cells, and thus
the tissue grows, and gradually assumes its mature condition.
This mode of growth is more easily followed at a later stage, so fur-
ther reference will be made to it when dealing with Stage C.

27-i Ethel McLentian :

Until the endosperm commences to be formed, the fundus has-
been increasin<^' in amount at the expense of tlie nucellus, etc.
This increase is only a temporary one, for tlie hyphae now grow in
close contact with the endosperm cells. They enter them when
the cells are young and not fully formed, and are here seen to be-
come disorganised. The food material thus gained by the grass
is used in tlie preparation of the reserve store of fnod, which is
later to be deposited in this tissue. Plate XXII., Fig ."5, shows a
portion of the endosj^erm and the accompanying hyphae. lliis
fjectidu Avas stained with congo red, and the hyphae and proto-
plasm stain in the same way. Plate XXII. Fig. 4, also shows the
close union betAveen the fungus and tlie grass. This section was
stained oidy Avith gentian violet, and tlie hyphae could /je traced
more readily in tlie cell itself. Many of the disorganising tlireads
running in the host cells stained blue, and are shown in the figure,
the cells themselves lemaining unstained. Plate XXII., Fig. 5, re-
peats the structure shoAvn in the tAvo previous figures, but in addi-
tion it shows extremely Avell, lateral bi-anches, Avhich arise from a
hyplia I'unning parallel to the length of the endosperm, ami Avhich
enter adjacent cells of this tissue, yielding up their food to the-
embryo grass plant.

The fungus is most al)undant in the region of the ovum, due
prob'ably to the fact that the lumen of the emliryo-sac begins to fill
first around the embryo. In this region the cells are long and
crescent shaped, and have very dense contents.

The synergidae are still present, and tlieir alisorption is no doubt
the result of the activity of the fungus, a fact which may help to
explain the pronounced growth of hyphae always present in this
position.

The ovum is Still undivided, although it has increased in size-
and the cytoplasm has become vacuolai-.

In the intermediate stages betAveen B and f, the division of the
ovum and the subsequent groAvth of the embryo are points of
interest. The first di\'ision of tlie egg is generalh' transverse, at
right angles to the j^i'o-embryo, and each cell usually contains a
AA'ell-marked vacuole. The fungus ramifying in the nucellus in this
part of the sac comes into direct contact Avith the endosperm, which
forms a lining to the pocket in Avhicli tlie end^ryo groAvs. The
hyphae are unusually abundant, and are actively ti'ausferring food-
material from the various parts of the carpel to the endosperm in
this area. (Plate XXV., Fig. ].) These cells are later absorbed

Fung as oj Loliuin. 275

•
by the growing eiiibrvo, which, therefore, ultimately benefits by this
concentration of hyphae. The cells of the pro-embryo also receive
hyphae directly. Plate XXV., Fig. 3, shows a more advanced
eml^ryo. Tlie dermatooen has just been cut off, and the hyphae are
seen to enter right into the substance of the embryo. The endos-
perm cells at the extreme micropylar end are disorganising as a
result of the presence of the fungus, and are also included in the
figure.

Stage G .

Text-figure T illustrates the external appearance of the ovarj^
when it is approaching maturity. A considerable amount of
endosperm has been formed; the shadowed portion of the diagram
indicates the extent and distribution of this tissue. As in the two
previous stages, the ovary is drawn from the ventral surface.
The furrow is noticeable at the proximal end, but as yet, is not
well developed at the distal extremity. The dorsal proximal end
projects beyond the rest of the ovary in the form of a pocket, in
which the embryo develops.

Sections taken at this -stage emphasise the facts already disclosed.
The great bulk of the nucellus has disappeared, whilst the endo-
aperm has increa-sed in a well-marked and definite manner. The
hyphao are still abundant, but owing to their absorption by the
endosperm they are not as plentiful as in Stage B. The disorgani-
sation which takes place all round the periphery of this layer keeps
the growth of the hyphae in check, and, consequently, they never
over-run the developing grain, but tend to decrease in amount after
the first appearance of endosperm. (Plate XXIII.) The food-supply
made available to the grass by the digestion of the hyphae is
utilised by the young actively growing endosperm cells. This is
rendered possible, foi- the growth in size of this tissue takes place
from the outer surface. The outermost layer of the endosperm may^
be regarded as a cambium, wliich is active only on its inner sur-
face. This meristematic layer divides in the usual manner, and
the cells so formed are at first more or less brick-shaped, but gradu-
ally assume an approximately spherical form, and attain their
adult size. Gi^wtli is carried on in this manner until the fruit is
practically mature, then this outermost dividing layer ceases its
activity, but persists in the grain as the aleurone layer, the
cells of which serve as a store of nitrogenous material. This idea
of an endosperm ic camhium is supported by the fact that the nuclei
of this layer remain large and intact, even when the cells are

276

Ethel McLennan

...^

.*-^

^=^-:

!M

^^fei-.:

^1-

?^

Text- Figure 7.

The external appearance of the ovary of Lolivm pevenne at Stage
0. X 15 diam.

Fungus of Lolium. 2 77

packed with reserved food, and also the walls of the aleuroiie cells
become thickened, showing pits or points of communication at
intervals. It is a well-known fact that cambial cells embarking on
a period of rest show considerably thickened cell walls. The thicken-
ings are usually removed wholly or in part, wlien such a layer
recommences its activities.

If the stamens, before they ripen, are removed from a spikelet
and cross-pollination is also prevented, the ovary remains small,
but the fungus will gi-ow rapidly in the nucellus, and ultimately
forms a sclerotial-like mass of hyphae, occupying the main part of
the ovule. Freeman records this fact for Darnel, arid I have had
similar results with English rye grass. Since, by preventing pol-
lination, endosperm formation does not take place, this dense
growth is only to be expected, for even in a fertilised ovary the
fungus is parasitic on the nucellus, and for a short period tends
to increase in amount. The prohibiting factor is the endosperm,
which destroys the hyphae as fast, or faster, than they are being
formed, hence removal or absence of this factor favours the develop-
ment of the fungal organism, and the attempt towards sclerote
formation is the result.

The primary tissues have been cut off in the embryo. It lias
elongated considerably in length at the expense of the endosperm
cells adjacent to it. (Plate XXV., Fig. 3). These no longer foi-m
a close investment to the embryo, but have disappeared at the
micropylar end, and the embryo now lies free in the embryo-sac.
The attachment of the suspensor to the microple is broken at this
stage. Hyphae still run in close association with the embryo, and
in section it shows the hyphae running in its tissues.

Transition from Stage G to the Mature Grain.

Extci-nally, the only changes which are evident during this tran-
sition are tlie elongation of the; ovary, accompanied by an increase
in breadth, and the development of the embryonic area, which
becomes more pronounced as the scutellum develops and the embryo
reaches maturity.

Sections taken at ' any stage during this period show features
common to the earlier stages. The increase of endosperm, resulting
from the continued activity of its outer layer, tends to crush the
hyphae.^ which are ramifying in the remnants of the nucellus, into
a layer running round the periphery of the seed. This layer becomes
more pronounced as the endosperm reaches its adult size, and tills

15a

278 Etltel McLennan :

the space formerly occupied by tlie nucellus, the outer parts of
which are the last to disappear. Starch cells continue to be formed
until the seed is almost ripe, and the hyphae nourish these young-
starch cells, just as they did the inner, now mature, starch cells, in
the younger stages already described.

When the endosperm attains its full size, the outer dividing
layer ceases to function, and becomes the young aleurone layer.
The cells, which constitute it, retain their embryonic form, as.
regards both their size and shape, in their adult condition. They
eventually thicken their walls considerably, and their contents be-
come packed with aleurone grains, so that finally the nitrogenous
layer characteristic of the endosperm of cereals is formed.

Plate XXIV. illustrates a section of the endosperm taken at the
stigmatic end of a grain, at a stage Avhen the aleurone layer is not
yet adult. The hyphae, which by this time are in the form of a
layer, take jjart in the nourisliment of the aleurone cells. Just, as
in the case of the starch cells, they actually enter into the cell cavity
by penetrating the cell-wall, and become absorbed by the protoplasm
which converts the nourishment so obtained into the aleurone grains^
which are present in great abundance in the adult layer. Ihis
plate shows several hyphae passing through the walls and disap-
pearing into the cell-contents.

The aleurone cells figured are young. They show a well-marked
nucleus, and are filled with protoplasm, in the mes.hes of which
aleurone grains are being formed. The absorption of the hyphae
continues until the cells are packed with grains, and the seed is
nearly ready for ripening. A section of a fully mature noi-mal
endosperm shoAvs, however, no signs of the endophytic nature of the-
fungus.

It is interesting to note that Peklo (16) suggested that the
aleurone layer was probably fungal in origin in all cereals. The
suggestion arose as a result of an incidental examination of some
Loliian temulentiim grains. In order to carry tue investigation
further he decided to examine grains of Triticum, Secale, and
Hordeum. He recognised the necessity of examining rust-resistant
types, and stated fully in his paper tlie varieties he proposed to-
examine. AVith the forms chosen he obtained negative results. Not
deterred, he next examined material he already had embedded in
paralhn, but he did not state its origin, or given any information;
regarding its rust-resistant capacities.

Fang US of Lolium. 279

Examination of siu-li material revealed funiral liypliae occupying
the lumen of the aleurone cells, from which densely stained Imdies
"were budded olf. Peklo l>elieved tliem to be aleurone grains. It
seems highly probable that the grains used for sectioning -were
mouldy, and that tlie aleurone gi-ains figured are in the process of
digestion. Ihis is accentuated l)y tlie fact that some grains were
found actually embedded in the hyphae themselves, and also by the
fact that Peklo suggests that the fungal threads found bear a
resemblance to tliose of Mucor Eouxianus (Amyloinyces Rou.rii),
although the actual identity of the two was not established. The
point of interest as far as tliis paper is concerned lies in the
fact that Peklo [irobably found the fungus in the aleurone cells of
young Lohitm tenndenium grains, and fi'om this isolated case he
attempted to generalise, stating that such was the oi-igin of the
layer for all cereals.

The breadth of the hyphal layer found in the grain is dependent
on two factors —

(a) The activity of the fungus,

(b) The absorbing power of the endosperm.

If the fungus is strong and luxuriant in its growth, and can keep
pace with the activity of the endosperm, a thick hyphal layer would
result, for even at maturity the endospei'm will not have used, as
food-material for itself, all the available hyphae.

If, howeveJ", the growth of the mycelium is inclined to be weak,
the absorbing power of the endosperm will be greater than the
growing power of the fungus, and the result will be a very small
layer in the mature grain, or even perhaps the complete absence of
■such a layer.

In the earlier part of this paper (p. 256) I emphasised the fact
that absence of tlie fungus in hand-sections, or in any individual
microtome section could not be taken as evidence of the total absence
of the fungus in the grain. Tlie reason for this statement should
noAv he clear. The presence or absence of a definite layer in the
grain is dependent on the activity of the fungus, and the absorb-
ing power of the endosperm. Even if a grain does not exhibit a
■definite layer, hyphae may still be present in the embryo in sufficient
amount to ensure the appearance of the fungus in quantity at the
desired stage in the development of tlie next generation of Lolivim.

We are also in a position to discuss the significance of tlie dis-
tribution of the fungus in the grain. Freeman attributed it
mainlv to the result of the method of infection of the embryo, but I

280 Ethel McLennan:

am led to the conclusion that it is a result of the part played by
the fungus during tlie development of its host. The grass so con-
trols and subjugates the mycelium during the changes which take
place after fertilisation, that the erabryo-sac, as its increases in size,,
pushes the fungus closer and closer to the periphery, until the
mature condition is reached. Not only is the hyphal layer found
between the endosperm and the testa, but, if the fung'us is active,
remnants may be found all round the periphery of the embryonic-
area, in fact, in any position occupied by them during the later
embryological stages. (Plate XVIII. Figs. 1-5.)

The embryo during this period follows the usual course of
development. At Stage C it was an undifferentiated club-shaped
body, and hyphae were in close association with its micropylar
end.

The next marked i>eriod of growth results in the appearance of
the stem apex (Plate XXV., Fig. 4.) This is followed by differen-
tiation of the radicle and elongation of the cotyledon. Wlien all
the parts of the embryo are thus marked off from one another,
growth continues until thf embryo is fully develoj^ed. The fungus,,
in the meantime, can generally be seen at both the micropylar end,
and also, between the developing scutellum and endosperm. It is
generally pronounced in the region of the plerome cells of the
cotyledon.

Further investigations of the development of the embryo have
been commenced in order to determine more exactly the relation of
the fungus to its later development, as it is possible that the
fungus plays a role in the formation of the scutellum comparable to
the one it plays in the formation of the endosperm.

The hyphae, already in the very young embry^o, follow the
development of the stem-apex, and remain localised in their growth
until germination takes place.

Tlie Fungxs in the I'lant.

The growtli of the fungus keejjs pace with that of the plant, the
hypliae, however, are mainly restricted to the growing apex, but
can be seen extending for a short distance down the stem. Ihey
show the dual staining property already described (pg.

Even at this stage the intra-cellular nature of the fungus can
be demonstrated. Some of the parenchymatous cells of the grass
are invaded, and used as a food supply by the hyphae. Such cells
always stain with gentian violet, and they show a dense network of

Fivngtis of Lolium. 281

hyphae. They may occur near the vascular tissue, and also
towards the periphery of the stem.

When the inflorescence is formed, they ai-e especially abundant
at the base of the carpels. The cells so affected do not increase in
size, and are only to be distinguished from a normal unaffected
cell by their different staining properties. It is not till the ovule
is well advanced that any great increase in the fungal partner takes
place, when the phenomena already detailed follow in their natural
sequence.

Ctdtivatiou of tlie Fungus in Artificial Media.

All attempts by previous workers to obtain a pure culture of The
fungus have been unsuccessful. Their work lias been limited
mainly to the nucellar hyphae. So far I have been no more suc-
cessful than Xestler and Freeman in endeavouring to get the
fungus to grow outside its host. As further work is being done
in this direction, it has been thought advisable to give a short
account of the methods employed^ and the results so far gained.

Since hyphae isolated from the hyphal layer of the grain had not
yielded any result, and as they represent the dormant stage of the
fungus, I thought greater success might be attained if the cultures
were made from a more active stage in its life-history. Accord-
ingly, the ovary was thought to be a suitable stai'ting point, and
stages ranging from A-C in the development of the grass have been
used for infecting the culture media.

For the most part the culture medium has been made up in the
following way : —

A decoction of Lolium iierennt in water was autoclaved, then
filtered and cleared with egg albumen. The liquid so obtained was
made into a 1% agar solution, and autoclaved. It was subsequently
filtered, titrated, tubed and sterilised.

Other media have been tried, e.g., honey agar, starch agar, etc.,
but with no better results.

The ovaries were treated in various ways, before using them for
infecting the plates.

(1) Some were washed for one minute in equal parts of a 1%

mercuric chloride solution and 45% alcohol, followed
by a thorough washing in sterile distilled water.

(2) Others were washed in ether for varying lengtlis of time,

from five minutes to one minute.

(3) Others, again, were shaken for some time in sterile dis-

tilled water.

282 Ethel McLennan :

After this preliminary treatment tliey were cruslied with sterile
forceps and introduced into the mouth of the agar tube, and then
immediately plated. A drop of lactic acid solution being intro-
duced to eliminate the growth of bacteria.

(Crushing the ovaries brings the fungal hypliae into direct con-
tact with the medium used, and it wa.s though that this might
induce growth).

Some of the plates were left at room temperature, others were
incubated at 2'3^-25T. As a rule the plates were found to remain
remarkably free from external contamination, and exhibited no
growth at all. Occasionally, some superficial fungus, mostly Peni-
ctUium. developed from the surface of the ovary, more especialy
from the stigmas.

Probably the preliminary trcatnient to which the ovaries were
subjected may have acted detrimentally on the fungus, even kill-
ing it. Further work, however, requires to be done to decide this
point.

One plate infected with an ovary, which had previotisly Ijeen
immersed in ether for four minutes, exhibited a fungal growth
whicli seemed to arise from the ovary as a centre and which could
not be attributed to any of the commoner superficial forms.

The first signs of growth appeared on the third day after infec-
tion. Ihe liyphae were extremely septate, and their tips seemed to
divide into two. the resulting branches growing equally.
At this time there were no signs of spore formation. On the thir-
teenth day signs of fruiting bodies were noticed. When young
they appeared salmon pink in C(>lour, becoming very dark when
•old. They were irregular in size and shape, and appeared to be of
the nature of pycnidia.

I have to thank Mr. C. C. Brittlebank (Government Plant Patho-
logist) for identifying the growth so obtained. He had no hesita-
tion in placing it as a Conioflij/rnini. probal)ly closely related to
C. olivdceuni, Bon. Tlie ovary from which the felt Avas obtained
was fixed, along with a portion of the felt, in Fleming's weak solu-
tion, and afterwards microtomed. The sections showed tliat the
tissues of the ovary remained intact during tlie growth of the myce-
lium, and hyphae similar to those composing the felt were found
running in its tiissues.

This may or may not be the fungus found in the Loliums, but its
close affinity to Phoma is rather suggestive, for many mycorrhizal
forms have been found to belong to this latter genus.

Fungus of Loliwni. 283

The ovax'v used in this plate was obtained from a plant growing
in the Mellouine University grounds. It ■was apparently the pro-
<duct of a second flowering resulting from heavy early autumn
rains. Since all attempts t) obtain this form again have l>een
-unsuccessful, it might be argued that it cannot be the fungus found
associated with Loliuiu pereune. lliis may be so, but it is just
probable that since the ovary represented a second flowering the
fungus may be growing more actively than the developing grain,
the grass being naturally weakened by its previous flowering, so
that the fungus may have been in a suitable condition to grow
■on the artificial medium provided.

Concerning the Function of the Funr/us.

It has been suggested that the fungus associated with Darnel
grass possesses the power of nitrogen-fixation. Hiltner (5) was the
first to formulate this idea, and after testing it by experiment, he
concluded that Loliuni frni>ile?i,tum grew as well in nitrogen-free
sand, as in sand to which nitrogen, in the form of potassium
nitrate, had been added as a fertiliser. As a control he grew
Loliuui italicum under similar conditions. This species, at the
time of Hiltner's work (1899), was regarded as being fungus
free. Later, Freeman (1903) found in a sample of 59 grains two
-contained the fungus and 57 were devoid of it. This, although it
is a low percentage of infected grains, could introduce a serious
error into such work when using this species as a control.

The experimental methods employed by Hiltner are also open to
•criticism. He planted grains of both species in pots, which were
•completely nitrogen-free, but he watered one set of two with tap-
water, whicli contained 0.84 nig. of nitrogen per litre. To the
•other set of two he gave in addition 50 mg. of nitrogen in the
form of potassium nitrate. These pots were appai-ently left exposed
to the air, and so were subject to many sources of external nitrogen
contaminatitm, the most formidable perhaps being nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.

An experiment can-ied out in this manner could not aim at deter-
mining whether the fungus is capable of fixing free atmospheric
nitrogen in the coinpelett absence of comhiiied nitror/en. How-
ever, as several investigators have shown. Berthelot (17), Purie-
witsch (18), and Latham (19), that certain fungi can fix free
nitrogen if supplied with a small amount of this element in a com-
bined form, the results given by Hiltner might have some bearing
• on the latter point.

284 Ethel McLennan :

The following figures are extracted from his paper : —
I. — Without nitrogen mounre.

Nitrogen

Dry Weight .—

tfr. absolute nig. per cent.-

Lolium temiilentum - - 5.173 - 30.35 - 0.59
Lolium italiciun - - 0.974 - 6.69 - 0.69

Eoot mixture - - 3.619 - 7.78 - 0.22

'i'otal - -. 9.766^rr. - 44.S2nig - 0.46%
II. — Manured with 50 mg. of nitrogen.

Nitrogen

Dry \\ eight

al)Solnte nig.

per cent.

Lolium temulentum -

5.867

72.87

1.24

Lolium italicum

2.329

40.70

1.75

Boot mixture

3.3S1

12.60

0.37

Total -

- 11.577gr.

- 126.l7mg. -

1.09%

The nitrogen content of Lolixtm temulentum plants, when fer-
tilised with potassium nitrate, is seen by the above figures to in-
crease markedly as compared with that obtained for unfertilised'
plants, i.e., plants watered with tap water only. Not only is this;
so, but the increase is nearly as great as that obtained for Lolium
italicum. The small difference between the percentage results for
both species is not outside the limit of experimental error, especi-
ally when the sources of such error are as gi-eat as in tlie experi-
ment in question.

Kayner (20) wlien dealing with the symbiotic relatiun of an asso-
ciated fungus in Calluna I'ldgari-^t, refers to the case of Darnel
grass, and says: " Some degree of symbiosis has been inferred, but
the experiments of Hiltner to establish nitrogen fixation for this
fungus are inconclusive."

In describing the distril)ution of the fungus (a peculiar mycor-
rhizal form) found in Calluna vulgaris,. Rayner draws attention tO'
the fact that in many points it resembles the fungus in Darnel.
The fungus from Calluna was isolated and grown in pure culture,
and was found to be closely related to the genu? I'hnma: nitrogen-
fixation was suggested as its function. Duggar and Davis (21)
showed that Phoma Beiae, when grown on mangel or sugar beet
decoction, produced a nitrogen gain of from 3.022 — 7.752 mg.,
pointing definitely to nitrogen fixation for this particular fungal'
species. In fact, it Avas the only definite positive result obtained'
from all the forms experimented with.

Fungus of Lolium. 285'

Although many mycorrhizal fungi are thought tn aid their host
23lant in this way, consideralile luicertainty exists cimcerning the
determination of the species producing mycorrhiza and their actual
function.

These facts suggest that it is not improbable that the fungus
associated with Darnel or English rye grass might act as a nitro-
gen-fixer, so an experiment was devised to try .and establish a defi-
nite answer to this suggestion as regards Lolium perenne.

Materiah and Apparatus.

(1) Method of rreparing Sand.

Sand cultures were chosen, as they supply a rather more natural
condition for the plant roots than water cultures, and sand has
the additional advantage of being practically insoluble, and it
does not interact with the nutritive compounds used in the water-
ing solutions. In order to obtain it free from all traces of nitrogen,
it was subjected to the treatment recommended by Schramm (22),
A good sample of fine quartz sand was chosen. This was thoroughly
washed for about two hours in running tap-water. It was next
boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for about one hour, and then
washed with distilled water until chlorides could no longer be
detected on the addition of silver nitrate. The sand was then
heated to a red heat in a furnace for eight hours. This effectively
removes any organic material which may be j^resent. The ash
formed in this way and any remaining traces of nitrogen were
removed by a second boiling in pure strong hydrochloric acid. A
second washing with distilled water ensued, and was carried on
until the sand was free from chlorides. Finally it was washed
a dozen times with nitrogen free water, and then dried in a
drying oven. After this treatment, on testing for ammonia,
nitrites and nitrates, onlv nesative results were obtained. ^

.5. Nessler's reagent wns used in testing for ammonia. The Lunge test
(Dlplienvlamine) was used in testing for nitric acid. A modification of the
Peter-Griess method was used in testing for nitrous acid. This test is^
extremely delicate, according to Anderson (25). One-thousandth ot a
milligram can be detected with certainty. The Griess-Ilosvay method is as
follows : — ■

(1) Dissolve 0.5 gm. of sulphanilic acid in 150 cc. of 2-normal acetic
acid.

(2) Boil 0.2 gm. of a naphythylamine in 20 ccs. of water. Pour
off the colourless solution from the violet residue, and add to the
solution 150 cc. of 2-normal acetic acid. Mix the two solutions^
(This mixture must be kept in a dark place.) Take 50 cc. ot
the material to be tested with 2 cc. of above reagent, and allow
it to stand 5 or 10 minutes; it will be coloured red if a trace of
nitrous acid is present.

In using this test, the flask should be plugged with cotton wool, to prevent
dust from entering the solution and disturbing the result.

:286

Etltel McLennan

(3) JjJtv coii(hictirit y water.

I have to rhaiik Dr. llivett. of the Chemistry Department, Mel-

. bourne University, for tlie use of a still, the pattern of which was

first described by Hartley, Poole and Campbell (28), and which

readily yields water of conductivity as low as 0.4x10—6 mhos.

The method eniployed is briefly as follows : —

Ordinary distilled water is boiled for about 10 mins. in a 10
^litre copper vessel, open to the air, and this is connected to the
apparatus shown in text-figure 8.

"^

Wslir

'goiter

r

T

c

3

I

Text-Figure 8.

.A diasfram of the condenser used in preparin*:^ low eondctivity
water, A>{ = condensing tuba; E = collecting funnel ; € and D
= Copper sheet baffles; Gr = tin flap welded to AB to prevent
condensate from soldered junction running down A.B.

Fungus of Lolium. 287'

The essential part is the condeiisiiit; tubes A B, which is of pure
tin. Before the entering steam can reach the condenser, it must
travel round two copper-sheet batHes C and D, which effectively
retain liquid particles projected from the boiler. The condensate
drips into the tin-funnel E, and is collected in a 3-litre Jena glass
flask, wit-h the usual guard tubes of soda lime. It is removed from
the flask by siphoning. The outer cylinder is of copper, and is
protected by asbestos sheeting on the outside. No water whit-h
condenses on the cylinder or the copper batfles-plates can enter
the funnel E; it is drained away at F. To prevent tlie coaidensate
running down A B from the soldered junction of the tube
with the top of the cylinder, a tin flap is welded on, as shown at
G. The drippings from this fall outside the funnel E. The
middle fraction of 3 litres is the purest.

Apparatus.

Two large glass shades, fitted into a groove round the peri-
phery of wooden stands, were used for covering the pots, in
which the grains were planted. Ihese were carefully cleaned with
acid-dichromate cleaning mixture. In each case a long glass tul^e
bent at right angles to itself was inserted through tlie stand into the
cylinder. These were connected in turn to a series of wash-bottles.
The first of these contained chemically pure sulphuric acid, giving
no nitrogen reactions. This acid bottle was connected to two series
of water-wash bottles, one set belonging to each cylinder. The con-
nections were made with glass and rubljer tubing. Between the last
wash-bottle and each shade, a tube of wider diameter, was inserted,
containing a germ-proof cotton plug. A second tube of smaller
length, also bent at right angles and fitted through the wooden
base into the other side of the cylinder functioned as an exit tube.
These in turn were connected each to a wash-bottle, and then to a
water pump. By this means a slow current of air could be kept
drawn through the cylinders. Before reaching them, the air had
to pass through the acid, two wash-bottles containing nitrogen-
free water, and finally through the cotton plug, so all combined
nitrogen in the form of dust, etc., was removed before the air
reached the pots. This treatment also reduced to a minimum the
chance of nitrogen fixing bacteria, present in the atmosphere,
gaining access to the sand.

After the experiment had been running for some little time, it
was evident that a larije amount of water was being carried over-

;288 Ethel McLennan :

by the air and condensing on the sides of the glass cylinders. In
order to prevent the air from being too moist, U-tubes containing
pure calcium chloride were inserted betweeen the last wash-bottle
and the cotton plug.

Watering with the nutritive solutions was carried out by a siphon
arrangement. A glass tube bent at an angle over each pot was
connected by rubber tubing to a separating flask. This was tightly
stoppered, and tlie stopper coveied by a small inverted beaker to
prevent dust from falling on it. B\ raising or lowering this flash
the solutions flowed freely on to the pots and the quantities given
could be altered at will.

The pots themselves had, glazed surfaces, and were quite nitrogen
free.

Before setting up the experiment, all the glass bottles and tubing
were washed with the cleaning mixture, and then several times
with nitrogen-free Avater. The open ends were plugged with cotton
wool and sterilised, in a steam steriliser, on three successive days.
The rubber stoppers and tubing were boiled in dilute alkali, then
in dilute acid, and subsequently Avashed with nitrogen free Avater.
Connections AA-ere made as soon as possible after removing the
jplugs.

The slot in the stand into which the cylinders fitted Avas sealed
Avith putty, all the other joints Avere sealed Avith paraffin. There
Avas every indication that the connections were air-tight.

"The grains before planting Avere treated with a 2% formalin solu-
tion for 8 minutes, then Avashed thoroughly in nitrogen-free Avater.
By previous trial it was found that this treatment did not afiect
the germination capacity of the seeds, and rendered them as
sterile as possible.

The sand, being prepared in the manner already described, Avas
sterilised, left to cool, moistened with nitrogen-free] distilled Avater,
and the grains planted. The shades were immediately fitted into
place, the connections made, and the experiment commenced run-
ning on August 18th, 1919. It Avas so arranged that an equal
amount of illumination Avas receiA^ed by lx)th. pots.

The drying tubes soon became saturated with water, and it Avas
found necessary to change tliem every second day. The U-tubes
Avhen not in use Avere kept sterilised and plugged, so that the
sterility of the system Avas not affected by this factor. Ihe sul-
phuric acid and water in the Avash bottles Avas also changed occa-
sionally, so as to prevent any traces of nitrogen accumulating in

Fungus of Lolium. 289

■.the last wash bottles, and thereby reaching the cylinders. During
the i^rocess of changing the bottles, the rubber connections with the
cylinders were clamped, so that air could not reach them.

(^) Nutritive solutions.

The control pot was watered with a nutritive solution, made up
.according to the following formula : —
Annnonium nitrate, 0.5 gram.
Potassium di-hydrogen jjhosphate, 0.2 gram.
Calcium sulphate, 0.1 gram.
Magnesium sulphate, 0.1 gram.
Sodium chloride, 0.1 gram.
P'erric chloride, 0.04 gram.
Nitrogen-free water, 1000 ccs.
The second pot was watered with a similar solution, excluding
the ammonium nitrate.

The chemicals used were the purest that could be obtained. The
watering solutions when ready for use gave negative results, with
the nitrogen tests already described.

Results.

August 18th. — Experiment commenced.

August 27th. — Grains were germinating freely in both pots.

September 15th. — The seedlings in the control pot were taller
and were showing a better colour than those deprived
of nitrogen.

September 16th. — First signs of yellowing at tips of leaf in
nitrogen-free seedlings.

.September 19th. — All the seedlings in the nitrogen-free cylin-
der showed their first leaf distinctly yellow at tip, and
the yellow colour was extending back along the edges of
the lamina. The seedlings were all in the two leaf stage.
The second leaf was quite green. The seedlings in the
control cylinder looked very healthy. No signs of dis-
colouration were evident in them.

September 30th. — The nitrogen-free seedlings were about one-
third the height of the control seedlings. The first leaf
was very much discoloured and withered. The second
leaf was still green, showing no signs of yellowing.
The third leaf just visible. The control seedlings were
healthy, and of a good green colour; they showed 5-6
leaves.

290 Etltel McLennan :

October 13th. — Ihe nitrogen-free seedlings were very un-
healthy. The second leaves showed discolouration, and'
were dying from the tip downwards. Very much behind,
the control.
October 20th. — The nitrogen-free seedlings were beginning to'
die out. The control seedlings were exceedingly
vigorous and normal.
October 30th. — The experiment was dismantled for photo-
graphic purposes, as the remaining nitrogen-free seed-
lings were failing rapidly.
The phenomena noted during the course of the experiment are
typically those resulting from nitrogen starvation. The yellowing'
of the older leaves always conmiencing at the tip indicates that these
members are being sacrificed in order that any nitrogen they pos-
sess (i.e., niti-ogen obtained from the seed) may be made available-
for transference to the young devehiping leaves. This transference'
of nitrogen from the first-formed leaves to the actively growing
centre enables the j^lant to exist for a certain period of time, but
the lack of nitrogen manifests itself in the stunted growth and
unhealthy colour and appearance of the plants.

It may be concluded from this experiment that no power of
nitrogen-fixation in the absence of external supplies of combined
nitrogen can be ascribed to the endophytic fungus of Lolium
perenne.

Conclusion.

It is difficult to decide what is the actual relationship between-
the fungus and tlie Loliun\ plant. It could, jierhaps, be regarded
as a case of symbiosis, the fungus helping in the plant economy
during the formation of the grain. In return for this it is housed
])y the grass, and its propagation is ensured by the admittauc? of
hyphae to the embryo, so that it is able to appear in each successive
generation without the intervention of a spore stage. It can only
be a matter of conjecture whether this stage is entirely lost to the
fungus or whether it is repressed, only as long as conditions are
favourable to its transmission in the usual way, but still retains
the power of sporing if in danger of extermination. The sporing^
stage may occur under such conditions, but up to the present it
has not been recognised as belonging to the fungus normally
found associated with at least two species of Lolium.

As opposed to this conjecture, Freeman (26), although he had not
demonstrated the intra-cellular nature of the fungus, advocated

Fuvgus oj Lolium. 291

the view that it was a smut. He was drawn to this conclusion by
the idea " of the probable progression of the evolution of para-
sitism in smuts/' from the loose smut of oats through the loose
smut of wheat to the Lolium fungus. The loose smut of wheat,
forming as it were, an intermediate stage l^etween the loose smut <; '
oat and the fungus of Lolium. It is well known that the spores c i
the loose smut of wheat infect the ovary at the flowering stage, and
there form a mycelium, which perennates in the embryo of the
grain, growing when it germinat-es in the manner of most smuts,
and forming its spores during the next flowering stage.

The Lolium fungus could be regarded as a development from a
type such as this, in which' the sporing stage has been entirely sup-
pressed, or at most occurs extremely rarely.

The points in the life-history of the fungus associated with
Lolium pere?me, which could be used to support this view, are : —
L The behaviour of the hyphae during the growth of the plant
up to the flowering stage, which closely resembles the
method adopted by the Ustilagineae.

2. The formation of knots in the tissue of the young ovary,
. which, however, I prefer to explain, not as an attempt

towards spore-formation, but as the preliminary to cell
infection.

3. The intra-cellular course of the hyphae.

These, at first sight, undoubtedly seem to weigh heavily as evi-
dence in favour of its relation to the smut family, the most sug-
gestive being the behaviour of the fungus during the vegetative-
period of the grass.

This mode of growth in the host plant, however, is not limited
to the Ustilagijieae. Rayner (20) describes a fungus associated
with Galluna vulgaris which grows in the tissues of the plant with-
out any external evidence of its presence or without disturbing the-
normal groAvth. of tlie host.

The greatest development of the fungus in this case takes place-
on the roots of the plants forming a mycorrhiza, endotrophic in
character, but unlike most other mycorrhizal plants, the fungus--
keeps pace with the growing point of the stem, and after the incep-
tion of the ovary it enters this organ, and forms a mycelium in
the ovary wall. The embryo remains sterile, but infection of the
seed-coat is accomplished by the hyphae, so that the production of
a mycorrhiza in the roots of the next generation of Calluna is not
left to chance. .

16

292 Etltel McLenvan :

The fungus in the seed-coat becomes active on gerniination,
infects the seedling, and produces the felt on the root; indeed the
association is so close that the symbiosis is an obligative one, the
seedlings not developing unless infected.

This is a very striking instance of symbiotic association, and, as
Kayner points out, the only other plant for wliich a like distribu-
tion of the fungus has l>een described is Loliiim temitltntum.
Since I have demonstrated the intra-cellular nature of the Lolium
fungus it falls even more in line with the Calluna tyjie. Although
it does not form a mycorrliiza, its use to the plant is certainly
demonstrated at the fruiting period. It is possible, therefore, to
regard it as a case parallel to the Calluna type, the similarity to
the Ustilagine mode of growth being accidental, and not of any
real importance in helping us to classify it and to grasp its affini-
ties. Since the Calluna fungus has yielded to artificial culture, and
can be classed definitely as a Plioma, every hope can l>e entertained
for success in this direction as regards the fungus of the Loliums.

The occasional penetrations of the endosperm, etc., already de-
scribed, do not, I tliink. point to vestigial traces of a former
parasitic habit. Even when present they do not evince any haj-ni-
ful results in the grain. They are probably to be explained as a
luxuriant development of the fungus, resulting perhaps from good
growth conditions. Ihe endosperm has proved unable to cope with
the large food supply represented by the fungus, and conse-
quently has failed to transform it all into the usual storage form —
starch and aleurone grains, so that some of the hyphae which had
penetrated the tissues of the embryo, and would normally have been
absorbed, remained intact. Any food-material they contained
would be yielded up on germination, just as the food-material of
the endosperm is changed into solu])le forms, and translocated to the
■seat of growth.

Although I have never examined a grain of Lolium ptren?ie
•either mature or in an embryonic condition without finding tlifo
fungus present (sometimes in minute amounts), it isi quite probable
that such occur.

It is conceivable that the hyphae, when growing in the young
inflorescence may miss a carpel and in tliat case the ovule would
not become infected. This would probably not prevent the forma-
tion of a fruit. Tlie grain so formed, however, would not be so
well equipped in its struggle for existence as its fungal-containing
neighbour, and eventually Avould tend to die out. It is, therefore,

F'tingus of Lolium. 293

unlikely that tw<5 races of both Lolium temulentum and Lolium
perenne exist, one with a symbiont, the other fungus free. An occa-
sional grain of either species may show the absence of hypliae, but
tliis would be accidental in character, so that instead of an ever-
increasing, number of the latter type, they would always tend to
.remain at a more or less stationary minimum.

Summary.

The foregoing investigation has led to the following, results : —

(1) The occurrence of the fungus in the genus Lolium is wider

and more constant than has hitherto been demonstrated.

(2) Colour of the grain cannot be regarded as a diagnostic

character in regard to the presence or absence of tlie
fungus.

(3) The fungus is intra-ct'llular or endophytic in nature.

.(4) Ihe distribution in the grain is not a result of any special
method of infection, but is a result of the function of
the fungus during the grain's development.

(5) It is present in the embryo-sac at or immediately after
fertilisation.

;(6) Ihe fungus increases in quantity at the expense of the
nucellus, and the cells of the carpel wall. This is only
a temporary phase. . On the formation of endosperm
the fungus is absorbed as a source of food-supply to the
developing embryo.

',(7) The endosperm is formed* by the division of its outer layer.
This layer functions as a kind of cambium. I have
termed it the endospermic camhium. The cells which
are cut off ahvays to the inner side, increase in size, re-
main thin-walled, and become packed Avith starch. This
outer meristematic layer is constantly receiving and
absorbing hyphae, which, if present in any quantitv,
are finally crushed into a layer around the periphery of
the endosperm. If the fungus does not keep pace with
the absorbing power of the endosperm, no hyphal layer
is formed in the ripe grain, but hyphae can then l>e
found in the scutellum and embryo.

((8) The endospermic cambium after it has ceased to divide
persists as the aleurone layei-, wIihIi, in tnrn, ri'i'L'ivcs
a supply of nutriiu'ut from tlie fungal >ystfni.

16a

294 Ethel McLennan :

(9) The ovum is infected before any divisions have taken place-
in it.

(lU) The hyphae aggregate at the proximal end of the develop-
ing grain. They are here used by the endospermic cells
in tlie embryonic pocket for food-supply for the develop-
ing embryo.

(11) The association of the fungus with Lolhim temidentum

and Lolium perenne. is probably a well-marked case of
symbiosis, comparable in many respects with that met
with in Callinia vulgaris.

(12) It has been suggested that niti'ogen fixation was the function

of the fungus, but an experiment has been performed,
and the result obtained showed that the fungus of
Lolium perenne is unable to fix nitrogen in the total
absence of external supplies of combined nitrogen.

The foregoing worlc was carried out in the Botanical Depart-
ment of the Melbourne University during the years 1917, 1918, and
1919. I have to thank Professor Seward, Cambridge; Mr. S. F.
Armstrong, Agricultural School, Cambridge; Dr. Stoward, Western
Australia; Mr. Burtt Davey, South Africa; Mr. Breakwell, Sydney;.
Vilmorin-Andrieux and Cie, Paris; and the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, for forwarding supplies of grain from different parts of the
world; also Mr. O'Brien, Assistant in the Botanical Department,
Melbourne University, for the help he has att'oided in assisting
with experiments and taking photographs. To Professor Ewart I
am indebted for the facilities provided for tlie work, and for much
helpful criticism during its progress.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

( ) V«gl, A. E. — Zeitschrift flir Nahrungsmitteluntersuchung,.

Hygiene und Vv^aarenkunde, Vol. XII., Jan., 1898.
( M Guerin, P. — " Sur la presence d'un Champignon dans

I'lvraie."— Journ. de Bot., Vol.. XII., Aug. 1898.

(3) Hanausek, T. F. — " Vorlaufige Mitteilung tiber den von A.

Vogel in der Frudit von Lolium temulentum entdeckten
Pilz."— Ber der Deut. Bot. Ges., Vol. XVI. 1898.

(4) Nestler, A. — " l^ber e:n?n in der Frucht von Lolium temulen-

•um, L en derkt-n Pilz." — Ber'. der Deut. Bot. Ges., Vol.
XVI. 1898.

Fungus of Lolium. 295

i(5) Hiltner, L. — " Uber die Assimilation des freien atiuosphario-

clieu Stickstoffs durch in ol)eriVdisohen, Pflanzeuteileu

lebende Mycelien." — Centralbl. f. Bakt. u. Parasiten, Vol.

v., 1899.
,(6) Micheletti, L. — " Sulla tossicita dei semi di Lolium tenmlen-

tum, L."— Bull. d. Soc. Ital., Vol. VI., 1901.
(7) l^'reeman, E. M. — " The seed-fungus of Lolium temulentum,

L., the Darnel. "--Phil. Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of London,

Series B., Vol. 196, 1903.
i(8) Nestler, A. — " Zur Kenntnis der Symbiose eines Pilzes mit dem

launiellolch." — Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie

der wissenschaften. Vol. CXIII., 1904.
(9) Fuchs, J. — " Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Lolium-pilzes." — Hed-

wigia 1911.
i(10) Buchet, Samuel. — " Le cas du Lolium temulentum et celui de

I'Althaea rosea." — Paris Bui. Soc, Bot. 59, 1912.
,(11) Brown, H. T., and Morris, G. H. — "Researches on the Ger-
mination of some, of the Gramineae. "— Journ. of the Chem.

Soc, Vol. LVIL, 1890. •
(12) Brown, H. T., and Escomlje, F. — "On the Depletion of the

Endosperm of Hordeum vuhjare during Germination." —
Pioc. of the Royal Soc of London, Vol. LXIIL, 1918.
■(1'3) Coulter and Chamberlain. — " Morphology of Angiosperms.'' —

University of Chicago P^jess, Chicago.
i(14) Cannon, W. A. — " A morphological Study of the Flowers and

Embryo of the Wild Oat, Arena faftia, L." — Proc of the

California Acad, of Sci., Third Serie«, Vol. I., No. 10,

1900.
'(15) Brenchley, Winifred.—" Tlie Development of the Grain of

Barley."— Annals of Botany, 1912.
(16) Peklo, Jaroslav. — " Tiber die Zusammenseizung der sogenann-

ten Aleuronschicht."— Ber. d. Deut. Bot. Ge«., Bd., XXXL,

1913.
'(17) Berthelot, M. — " Reclierclies nouvelles sur les micro-oi-ganismes

fixateurs de I'azote." — Compte-Rend, Acad. Sci., Paris, 116,

1S93.

(18) Puriewitsch, K. — " Ul>er die Stickstoffassimilation bei den

Schimmelpilzen." — Ber. der Deut. Bot. Ges. Vol. XIII., 1895.

(19) Latham, Marion E. — "Nitrogen assimilation of Sterigma-

tocystis nigra and the effect of Chemical Stinuilation." —
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 36, 1909.

(20) Rayner, M. C. — " Obligate Symbiosis in Calluna vulgaris." —

Annals of Botanv, Vol. XXIX., 1915.

296 Ethel McLennan:

(21) Duggar, B. M.. and Davivs, A. R. — " Studies in the Physiology

of the Fungi — I. Nitrogen Fixation." — Annals of the ^lis-
souri Botanical Gardens, Vol. III., 1916.

(22) Schramm. J. R. — " A Contribution to Our Knowledge of

the Relation of Certain Species of Grass Green Algae to
Elementary Nitrogen." — Annals of the Missouri Botanical.
Gardens, Vol. I., 1914.
(2:j) Koch, A.— "Handb. tech. Myk.," by Lafar, Vol. III.

(24) Goddard. H. N. — " Can P'ungi Living in Agricultural Soil

Assimilate Free Nitrogen?" — Botanical Gazette, Vol. LVI.,
1913.

(25) Ander.son, V. G. — " Tlie Detei'mination of Nitrites in Water.""

— Soc. of Chemical Ind. of Victoria, Vol. XIII., 1913.

(26) Freeman, E. Isl. — " The Affinitie»s of the Fungus of Lolium^

temulentum, L." — Annales Mycologici, Vol. IV., 1906.

(27) Freeman, E. M. — " Symbiosis in the genus Lolium." — Minne-

sota Botanical Studies, 19(34.

(28) Hartley, IL, Campbell, N. H., and Poole, R. H.— " The Pre-

paration of Conductivity Water." — Journ. of Chem. Soc.,.
Trans.. 19T)8. '

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

All figures have Ijeen drawn with the aid of the camera
lucida (Zeiss).

Pl.\te XVIII.

Figures 1-5 stained with aniline gentian violet, followed by
Gram's iodine wash. They illustrate the distribution of the fungus
in the grain, the position of the hyphae is indicated by the yellow
line shown in, the figures.

Fig. 1. — A semi-diagramm,atic representation of a transverse sec-
tion through the distal part of a grain of Lolium
perenne.

(a) aleurone layer; (b) cells of aleurone layer, which
stain differently fi'om the rest, probably ferment-contain-
ing cells; (e) starchy endosperm; (h) hyphal layer; (hi)
coloured portions of hyphae (the great bidk of the layer
is not stained with the gentian violet) ; (t) pericarp and
testa.
Fig. 2. — A transverse section of the proximal end of the same
grain. Letters as in Fig. 1, and (s) scutellum ; (el) epithe-
lial layer of scutellum.

Fungus of Lolium. ■ 297

Fig. 3. — A transverse section of the extreme proximal end of the
grain. Letters as before, and (r) radicle; (ht) hyphae in
fused pericarp and testa.

Fig. -4:. — A longitudinal section of a grain of Lolium perenne
taken in the coronal plane. Letters as in Figs. 1-3, and
(g) growing point of embryo; (1) sheathing leaf.

Fig. 5. — A longitudinal section of a grain of Lolium perenne
taken in the sagittal plane, (m) embryo; (v) vascular
bundle of scutellum; (i) ligule; (ht) hyphae in fused peri-
carp and testa.

Plate XIX.

The following figures have been drawn from sections of a grain
of Lolium perenne (South Africa). The fungus is especially
luxuriant, its intra-cellular nature being evident in the mature
grain.

Fig. 1. — A sagittal longitudinal section of a grain of Lolium
jjcrenyie, not passing through the median line. The
scutellum shows numerous hyphae, which have gained
entrance to this tissue from any point on its surface.

(e) stai'chy endosperm; (a) aleurone layer; (el) epithe-
lial layer ; (li) hyphae in scutellum ; (li^) hyphae round
periphery of the scutellum; (c) cells invaded by the
hyphae. x 250 diam.
Fig. 2. — Detail of the scutellum.

(h) hyphae passing through the scutellar cells; (c;
constriction of hypha during penetration of cell wall.
X 1700 diam.
Fig. 3. — Aleurone cells, showing- the intra-cellular cour.se of the
hyphae,

(a) aleurone cells; (w) wall of aleurone cell; (h) hypha

jiassing from one cell to the next; (h^) hypha lying at a

different level, but drawn in the same plane in figure.

X 1700 diam.

Fig. 4. — Detail of scutellum, showing the cells invaded by hyphae.

X 1100 diam.
Fig. 5. — Wall of aleurone cell, showing hypha entering into cell
through pit in its wall

(p) pit in wall; (h) hypha. x 1100 diam.

298 • Ethel McLennan:

Plate XX.

A longitudinal section of an ovary of Loliuni perenne, just prior
to fertilisation; stained with bismarek brown, then with gentian
Tiolet, followed by Gram's wash.

(c) carpel wall; (s) starch groups in cells of carpel wall; (i) in-
vaded cells at stalk end of section; (h) hyphae in stalk of ovai-y; (h^)
hyphae in distal part of wall; (h") hyphae in distal part of wall
not staining with gentian violet; (t) cells in stigmatic tract being
used by the fungus as food; (ov) ovule; (hy) hyphae distriliuted in
all parts of ovule; (ic) infected cells of ovule; (es) embryo-sac; {o)
ovum; (hyi) hyphae in embryo sac. x 103 diam.

Plate XXI.
Figures 1-6 show detail of ovule illustrated in Plate XX. (Stace A).
Fig. 1. — Three cells of nucellus, showing the intra-cellular nature
of the fungus. These cells react to tlie violet stain, the
rest of the nucellus staining with bisniarck brown.

(n) nucleus; (h) hyphae; (h^) fine ramifications of
hyphae in the cells, x 1100 diam.
Fig. 2. — A cell from the carpel wall which is being attacked by the
fungus and used as food-material for the fungal system,
(h) hyphae running between the cells; (h^) fine pene-
trating threads; (g) starch gi-ains being digested by
hyphae; (s) septum in hyphae. x 1100 diam.
Fig. 3. — " Knots " formed by the hyphae wrapping round the
cells as a preliminary to their entrance into them. The
lightly-shaded portions are lying at a lower level than
the darker sections of the hyphae. x 1100 diam.
Fig. 4. — A vascular element from the stalk end of the carpel
wall, showing the close association of the fungus.

(r) thickenings on vessel; (h) hyphae. x 1100 diam.
Fig. 5. — Cells from the distal end of the carpel wall.

(g) starch groups; (h) large intra-cellular hyphae;
(hi) fine hyphal threads completely wrapping round
grains prior to digesting them, x 1 100 diam.
Fig. 6. — Ovum and synergidae; showing presence of hyphae in
ovum before any divisions have occurred in it.

(o) ovum; (s) synergidae; (n) nucleus (nuc) nucellus;
(h) hyphae. x 700 diam.

Proc. Jl.S. Victoria, I'.il'O. Plate XVIII.

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Proe. U.S. Victoria, l',)20. Plate XXVI.

Fig. I.

Fig. II.

Fungus of Loliuni. 299

Plate XXII.

Illustrates detail of ovary at Stage B. The sections were stained

-with Congo red, folloAved by gentian violet and Gram's iodine

-wash.

Pig. 1. — Detail of nucellus, showing network of hyphae.

(n) disorganising nuclei; (h) hyphae stained with
Congo red; (hi) hyphae stained with gentian violet;
(r) remnants of protoplasm of nucellar cells, x 1100 diam.

Fig. 2. — Mode of branching of hyphae in nucellus.

(n) nucleus; [v) vacuole; (b) origin of branch, x 1100
diam.

Fig. 3. — Young endosperm cells showing the hyphal threads enter-
ing and being absorbed by them.

(n) nucleus of endosperm cell; (p) protoplasm of endo-
sperm cell; (h) hyphae; (hi) hyphae in process of absorp-
tion. X 1100 diam.

Fig. 4. — Similar to Fig. 3, but section taken from another grain
and stained only with gentian violet. The protoplasm
remained unstained and the hyphae in the cells stained
brightly with the violet dye.

(n) nucleus of endosperm cell; (h) hyphae entering cell;
(hi) hyphae in protoplasm of endosperm cell in process of
absorption. x 1100 diam.

Fig. 5. — Same as 3 and 4, but shows the branches arising almost
at right angles to main hyphal thread, and entering the
endosperm cells. Lettering as before. x 1100 diam.

Plate XXIII.

A section of the endosperm taken from a grain at Stage C. It
was stained with congo red, gentian violet and Gram's iodine. The
•outer edge of this tissue is included in the figure. The cells in this
area are young, and more or less cubical, being formed by the div-
ision of the outermost layer; starch has not yet appeared in them.
The older cells of the endosperm are large, and thin-walled, and
starch is being deposited in tlie protoplasmic network. Hyphae are
being absorbed by the outer dividing layer, and serve as a source
of food-supply to the endosperm.

(h) nucellar hyphae; (hi) hyphae being used by the endosperm as
food; (c) young dividing layer; (e) older endosperm cells; (s) starch
•groups; (p) protoplasm. x 1100 diam.

300 Ethel McLennan:

Plate XXIV.

A portion of the endosperiu from a nearly mature grain. The-
oLiter layer is being transformed into the aleurone layer, but even
at this stage hyphae are entering the cells, and are being absorbed
by thein. The akurone layer is cut tangentially in the upper
part of the gram; the layer therefore, appears several cells-
thick at this point. The starchy endosperm cells immediately
underneath the nitrogenous containing ceils show well-marked
nuclei, but these will disappear as the grain reaches maturity.

(a) aleurone layer; (g) young aleurone grain; (p) protoplasmic
network in aleurone cells; (h) hyphae accumulating to form a
layer; (et) hypiiae entering aleurone cells; (n) nuclei of aleurone
layer; (s) starch groups; (ne) nuclei of endosperm cells, x 1100-
diam.

Plate XXV.

Figs. 1-5 illustrate the relation of the fungus and embryo at
different stages in; the development of the grain.

Fig. 1. — Endosperm cells from the embryonic pocket drawn from,
the same slide as Fig. 2. The fungus occurs in great
abundance in this region at this stage. It is being
used by the endosperm, which in turn 'hands on the food
material to the embryo.

(h) hyphae; (e) endosperm cells of embryonic pocket;,
(e^) ordinary endosperm cells, x 625 diam.
Fig. 2. — A young embryo.

(e) endosperm cells being used by the embryo as food;.
(h) hyphae; (s) suspensor end of embryo, x 625 diam.
Fig. 3. — An older embryo, the endosperm cells at the proximal
end of the pocket have disappeared.

(h) hyphae present in embryo. x 625 diam.
Fig. 4. — An embryo showing differentiation of scute;llum, and
growing point. Stained densely with congo red, so that
hyphae in growing point could not be seen.

(h) hyphae at suspensor end; (g) growing pt. ; (s)
scutellum. x 300 diam.
Fig. 5. — i]^e tip of the scutellum from a grain of Loliinn perenne
(not yet fully developed), which did not contain an extra
cellular hyphal layer in the usual position. Hyphae were-
present, however, in the scutellum and embryo.

(s) scutellum; (e) epithelial layer; (h) hyphae. x 500-
diam.

Fungus of Lollum. 301'

Plate XXVI.

Fig. 1. — A photograph of the apparatus used in the experiment

descriljed in the paper.
Fig. 2. — The two pots removed from the protecting shades at end
of experiment.

(A) Seedlings watered with a culture solution contain-
ing ammonium nitrate.

(B) Seedlings deprived of combined nitrogen, except
such as is stored in the seed. The stunted growth
is evident, but the photograph does not shew the
unhealthy colour and dying back exhibited by the-
seedlings, and which is so characteristic of nitro
sren starvation.

[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].

J^RT. XIX. — On the Structure of a New Species of Earthworm
from South Australia, Megascolex Jietcheri.

By jean H. shannon, B.Sc.

(Communicated by Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer).

[Read December 11th, 1919].
(With Plates XXVII.-XXXI.)

Up to the present time, though a large number of species of
earthworms has been described from Australia, more especially by
Dr. Michaelsen,! from South-West Australia, Prof. Spencer, 2 and
Mr. J. J. Fletcher, 3 from New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland
and Tasmania, there has, as yet, been published only one more or
less complete detailed account of one type of Australian earth-
Avorm — Megascolides australis. The species now descril)ed repre-
sents another type, differing in important respects from Megasco-
lides, and, on the suggestion of Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer, I
have attempted to describe its structure as completely as possible.
The work has been carried on in the Zoological Department of the
Melbourne University.

I have followed the classification suggested by Michaelsen.'* The
species evidently belongs to the genus Megascolex, as defined by
him, and I propose for it the name of Megascolex fletcheri, the
:specific name having reference to the first naturalist who made
a study of Australian earthworms.

Habit.

The material dealt with in this paper was collected in South
Australia at a spot about ten miles due east from Kapunda, the
latter being a town situated in an agricultural district.

1. Michaelsen. — " Die Fauna Sudwest-Australiens," erster Bund, 1907-1908,
pp, 117-2312.

2. Spencer. — " The Anatomy of Megascolides australis." Trans. Roy.
Soc. Vic, Vol. I., Part I., 1882. " Preliminary Notice of Tasmanian Earth-
worm," op. cit. 1894.

3. Fletcher. — A series of six papers, the first of which, " Notes on Aus-
tralian Earthworms, Part I.," was published in Proc. Linn. Soc, Vol. I., Series

:2, 1886, p. 523. The remaining five were published in the same Proceedings
in 1886, 1887, 1889, respectively.

4. Michaelsen. — op. cit. p. 160.

New Species of Earthworm. 30S-

The type of country is gently undulating, and mostly very rich-
clayey soil. The timbered land is isolated now, owing to culti-
vatijoni.

The climate is moderate, with occasional very dry seasons, and
generally a long summer with high temperatures.

Thesei particular earthworms seem to be very peculiar and
restricted in their habitat. Quite a large area of scrub land was
very carefully searched, and only two small spots were found to
shelter the worniiS. One was a somewhat low-lying, damp place
beside a dam, and the other a more or less elevated spot, less
timbered and sunny. In both cases the earth worms were concealed
underneath cut timber for fence posts, and during the wet winter
of last year were very plentiful.

Their habits were essentially moisture loving, and in the damp
earth, and even in the actual timber distinct, and large holes
or burrows Avere made, down winch the worms rapidly disappeared
when the post was overturned. A considerable amount of slimy,
glassy material was found Avherever the worms had passed,^ and the
earth all about their burrows was well worked and divided. In
some cases only a furrow was made in the earth, the lower surface-
of the post serving to roof it in.

When the specimens were dropped into spirit for preservation,
they definitely contracted, and, as is usual with earthworms, put
out a large quantity of slimy fluid through the dorsal pores all
along the body.

External Anotomy.

The freshly collected worms are of a pale pink colour, and 'vary
somewhat in size, but as a rule are from ten to twelve inches in
length, and between one quarter and a-half an inch in diameter.

The clitellum is very distinct in the mature animals, and is of
a paler shade than the rest of the body. It is situated about an
inch from the anterior end, and is not quite regularly cylindrical,
being pinched in on the ventral surface. It extends from just
after the eleventh segment to the end of the eighteenth. The sur-
face of the worm appears to be covered by a translucent and very
thin membrane, but in the spirit specimens the glassy appearance
is lost to a large extent, and the membrane l>ecomes rather more
conspicuous and tougher, hut looses its iridescence.

There is a ring of stetae in the middle of each segment, broken
at the mid-dorsal and ni'd-ventral lines. Ihe most median pair
on the ventral surface on ach side are somewhat larger than the-
reat.

..304 ' Jean Shannon •'

The segments themselves are quite distinctly marked, especially
in the spirit specimens. There is a distinct median furrow around
-each segment, and towards the ajiterior end of the worm two
smaller furrows may generally be found, one on either side of the
main furrow.

The prostomium is normally very nearly completely dove-tailed
into the peristominum.

The openings to the exterior of the dorsal pores and of the repro-
ductive organs are mostly quite distinct, and can be seen with
the naked eye.

On the dorsal surface the only openings that occur are the dorsal
j)ores. These are situated between the successive segments in the
median line, the first being between segments four and five.

On the ventral surface the most conspicuous openings are those
of the vasa deferentia, on the eighteenth -segment. Each is sur-
rounded by two swollen somewhat semi-circular lips, is situated
iiway from the median line between the third and fourth pairs of
setae, and is not included in the clitellar region. (Plate XXVIII.
Fig. 1. (?) (Plate XXYIl. Fig. 1. ^).

On the fourteenth segment ventrally is a single median raised
oval area, and in the, centre of this is the opening of the common
duct formed by the union of the right and left oviducts. (Plates
XXVIl and XXVII., Fig. 1 ^).

Between segments six and seven, seven and eight, and eight
and nine, are the three pairs of spermathecal pores, opening ven-
trally. It is very difficult to decide whether they open in line
with, the fourth or the fifth seta.

In one fresh specimen that I examined there seemed to be an
indication of two smaller openings, on either side of the main
pore. Subsequent dissection showed the presence of accessory glands
in this region in all instances.

Besides these more conspicuous openings there are certain small
glands associated wdth the spermiducal gland, and communicating
with the exterior on the ventral surface between segments sixteen
and seventeen, nineteen and twenty, twenty and twenty-one, and
twenty-one and twenty-two.

Internal Ar^atomy.

Alimentary Caval. — The living Avorm has very marked power of
evaginating the whole crop to the extent very often of one-quarter
■of an inch. Upon opening up the worm one finds that the front

New Species of Edrthivonii. ^ 305

•end of the gizzard is invaginated, and appears almost urn-shaped,
until the front end is pulled out. when it becomes oval.

The posterior end of the gizzard is between segments six and
.seven, and all the septa up to this region are considerably dis-
jDlaced, forming angles of about 22.5° ^vith the body wall.

The anterior end of the gizzard is very changeable, according
to the amount of evagination it has undergone.

Following on from the gizzard is a long, almost straight intes-
tine running the length of the body, and opening to the exterior
at the posterior end. It presents a bulbous expansion in each seg-
ment along its length. (Plate XXVII. Fig. 2.)

' Nervous System.
Ihere is a distinct nerve collar around the oesophageal region
in segment two, with a conspicuously swollen dorsal portion slightly
pinched in at the median line. On either side of the collar is
given off a large nerve, which runs forwards to supply the anterior
part of the oesophagus. A smaller branch supplies the crop behind
<on each side. After the union of the nerve ring ventrally. the
fibres are collected into a very conspicuous cord, which is slightly
swollen in each segment. A transverse section of the cord reveals
the rather a-typical fact that there is only one large giant fibre
present. (Plate XXVII. Fig 3.) (Plate XXX. Fig. 2.)

Nephridial System.

From dissection there does not appear to be a nephridial system
other than very numerous micronephridia forming a fringed ring
around each segment, especially towards the posterior end.

Microscopic examination of longitudinal sections taken from
about the last third of the worm, reveals very peculiar structures,
possibly represent a special form of nephridial organ. They are
perfectly regular in position, and segnientally arranged. Each is
somewhat club-shaped, and attached to the wall of the coelome by
a thin stalk. Even under the very high powered objective, there
appears to be little structure. The stalk is made up of almost
a single chain of nucleated cells, which gradually merge into those
of the outer peritoneum. Ihey appear to have no duct, and no
passage is visible from them through the muscle layers to the
exterior.

The head portion of the structure has different foi-ms, sometimes
l)eing long and regular, with a covering of small nucleated cells.

306 Jean Shannon :

and an internal longitudinal clear region, that may, perhaps,,
indicate the presence of a minute duct. Along the latter
at intervals are rounded patches of very numerous and clearly
nucleated cells. The rest of the structure seems to be almost non-
cellular. Sometimes the base of the "head" is distinctly broad-
ened, and a number of parallel ducts appear to traverse it. In
yet other cases the central duct seems to follow a spiral course. In
one instance the end of the structure appeared to bend towards
an opening through the septum, thus seeming to indicate a rela-
tionship to the successive segments typical of meganephridia.
(Plate XXIX. Fig. 4.)

The supposition that these organs are connected with the excre-
tary function is further borne out by the development as seen iij
very young specimens. At an early stage the whole structure is
hardh^ more than a chain of cells, with large nuclei, and at inter-
vals clusters of even more regular and oblong cells. An
arrangement that suggests tlie nephridial structure in some species
of Megascolides figured by Beddatd, page 51, fig. 13.

The marked similarities l>etwecn this worm and certain of the
Megascolides types again strengthens thp idea that the mega
nephridia which are generally well developed in the latter genus are
represented in this animal by the peculiar structures described
above. Besides this, the position of the organs at the posterior
end, their segmental arrangement, and their structure also bears
out the theory as to their function.

Blood Vascular System.

This system is very difficult to study, except in freshly killed
specimens. Extending along the mid-dorsal line of the main length
of the bodv is a large thin-walled dorsal vessel. Smaller lateral
vessels are given off on each side in segments five, two and nine.

Just ventral to this vessel ia a much smaller median one, extend-
ing between segments eight and fourteen.

A large thin-walled pair of hearts spring from either side of this-
vessel by a very small connection in segments ten, eleven, twelve
and thirteen. A very fine pair of vessels also spring from this,
longitudinal vessel in each segment just anterior to the hearts,
and probably are present in segments eight, nine and fourteen'
as well. (Plate XXVII. Fig. 2.)

There seems to be only a single median ventral vessel into which
open the large hearts, but just before doing so each heart gives:

Netv Species oj Earthworm. 307

off a very fine vessel from the outer side, supplying the body wall.
Microscopic examinatioa of this ventral blood vessel in transverse-
section showed that the thickness and structure of the walls were-
quite peculiar. (Plate XXX. Fig. 4.)

There is a quite definite endothelial lining, with large nucleated
cells, and a wall that seems to be largely composed of 'muscular
fibres, running mainly in a circular direc-tion. Besides these ele-
ments tliere are numerous very large clear nucleated cells in the-
walls of the vessel, and liere and there between these latter are
quite conspicuous spaces or holes.

Reproductive System.

Female Organs. — The paired ovaries are situated in the thir-
teenth segment and the two oviducts have very large funnel-shaped-
openings just below them. The ducts pass through the septum,
dividing segments thirteen and fourt«een, and then pass to the mid-
ventral line, and unite as tliey pass through the thick muscular
wall to open to ■ the exterior. The interior of each oviduct and
of the common duct is richly supplied with long cilia, the length of
which seems to be about equal to the radius of the passage. (Plate
XXVII. Fig. .3.) (Plate XXX. Figs. 1, 2, 3.)

Male Organs. — 'There are two pairs of testes, one in each of seg-
ments ten and eleven. These are peculiarly small, even in a well-
matured specimen. The vasa deferentia correspond in number
with the testes, and open by very conspicuous and much folded
rosettes just below the testes, and then continue quite separately
and sliglitly embedded in the ventral muscles of the body wall to the
eighteentli segment. Here, still paired, they enter the muscular
wall of the duct from the spermiducal gland of their own side, about
tlie middle of its length, and run parallel with the lumen for somie-
little distance before they enter separately.

Tlie structure and relation of these separate vasa deferentia
recalls that of the same parts in Megascolides australis. (Plate-
XXVII. Fig. 3.) (Plate XXXI. Figs. 1, 2, 3.) Plate XXVIII. Figs.
5. 9.)

The spermathecae are paired and situated in the seventh, eighth-
and ninth segments, decreasing in size from behind forwards.
Each consists of an oval sac, with an equally long but finger-like-
diverticulum, arising from just below the junction of the base
of the sac with its stalk. In the most mature worms this process;
often appeared to have become lobed at the tip. (Plate XXVIII.

17

308 Jean SJuivvuv :

Fig. 3.) The spevmathecal sac and its diverticulum open to the
exterior by a large duct through the stalk. In the last region this
passage seems to be furrowed transversely. (Plate XXIX. Fig 1.)
Associated with the spermathecae are other paired glandular
.structures. In the sixth segment is found the first pair one on each
side. Ihe seventh and eigth each contain two pairs and in the
ninth is again a single pair. Ducts from these glands open on
either side of the ducts from the spermathecae — i.e., between seg-
ments six and seven, seven and eight, and eight and nine. (Plate
XXVII. Fig. 3.) (Plate XXVIII. Fig. 2.) (Plate XXIX. Fig. 1.)

The minute structure of these glands is very dii^cult to deter-
mine. Each is decidedly floccular in nature, and the surface cells
are large, nucleated, and more or less regular. Internally the
cells l^CKi'ome less granular, smaller and very irregular, but some
still possess very large nuclei, converging to the base of the striic-
ture there appears to l:e clear channel-like spaces between the
•cells, and these open to the interior of the "stalk." Tliere is no
definite duct running from the cell mass, but the whole of the istalk
appears to become split longitudinally in an irregular and com-
plex manner. Finally we get a widening of the passage to form
a very conspicuous flask-like opening to the exterior. The sur-
rounding epidermal cells become greatly elongated and lx)W-shaped
to surround tliis structure. In most casep; the cuticle is not rup-
tured, and this seems to show tliat an opening is formed only at
intervals, as the duct. Ijecomes full of secretion. Plate III., Figs.
•2, 3.)

The vfsiculae seminales are large, and occupy most of segments
■eleven and twelve.

In the eighteenth segment lying tranversely are found two very
large organs, the spermiducjil glands. Eacli is flattened dorso-
ventrally, and is an elongated oval shape. Passing fiom the inner
end of each is a very stout duct, which is practically coiled upon
itself on its way to the exterior. The vasa deferentia enter this
duct separately about mid-way along its upper surface. The pros-
tate itself seems to be made up of lobes in close apposition to one
another.

Microscopic examination shows little definite structure other than
the clusters of cells in a less dense matrix, and transverse sections
reveal the fact that the wliole gland is traversed by one laige duct
lined by conspicuously nucleated and very regular cells.

Netv Species of Earthworm. 309

In segments seventeen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one and twenty-
two, there are additional glandular structures associated with
which are even smaller glands. The detailed structure of these
inasses of cells is difficult to determine, but apparently each con-
sists of a large number of very granulated, irregularly-shaped and
large cells, collected together. Here and there are smaller and
non-granular cells arranged in groups.

There does not appear to be a definite duct, but passing from
the grandular swelling are numerous small darker cells ui'ranged in
'dusters, and these follow a disjointed passage tlirough the thick
muscular wall.

rrohJematic Gland in the Thirteenth Segment.

Still anotlier peculiar structure is to be found from dissection,
although no indication of its presence is given upon external
examination.. Attached to the anterior septum of segment thirteen,
somewhat ventrally, is a pair of club-shaped organs, each slightly
smaller than the smallest spermathecea.

In the less matured specimens examined there Avere three pairs
of these glands — one in each of segments thirteen, twelve and
'.eleven.

At this early stage tliere is practically no development of the
reproductive system, and this fact seems to render it difficult to
.state definitely, whether these organs are or are not connected with
reproduction. From longitudinal and transverse sec-tions of the
whole structure there appears to be no definite duct. The most
striking features about the organ is the very abundant blood
.supply, the presence of definitely radiating groups of elements,
.and the occurrence of numerous spaces in the interior.

Beyond these points, there seems to be little else to notice, and
it is difficult to suggest what is the function of these organs.

In conclusion, I wish to thank both Professor Sir Baldwin Spen-
cer and Doctor Georgina Sweet for their valuable assistance and
many helpful suggestions during the progress of my work.

EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE LETTERS.

Ace. Glds. - - - - Accessory glands.

Ace. Op. - - . - Opening of accessory glands.

Bid. - - - - - Blood.

Tl.V. - - - - - Blood vessel.

B.W. ----- Bodv wall.

310 Jean SJtannon :

C. - - - - - Cuticle.

C. iV ^2 - - - ' - Cell and Cellj.

Clit. ----- Clitellum.

CM. - - - - - Circular muscle.

C. Op. O.D. - - - Common opening of oviduct..

C. Ovd. - - - - Common oviduct.
Cr. ----- Crop.

D. - '- - - - Duct.

D.B.A-". - - - - Dorsal blood vessel.

Div. ----- Diverticulum.

D. of Sp. - - - - Duct of spermiducal gland..
D.P. - - - - - Dorsal pore.

E. - - - - - Epidermis.

F.G. - - - - - Opening to oviduct.

G. - - - - - Giant fibre.

G.C. ----- Granular cell.

Gb. ----- Goblet, or slime cell.

Gld. ----- Gland.

Gz. ----- Gizzard.

H. - - - - - Heart.

I. - - - - - Intestine.

Inv. ----- Invaginated gizzard.

K. - - - - - Nucleus.

L.M. - - - - Longitudinal muscle.

M. - - - - - Tissue supporting V.B. vessel.

N. - - - - - Nerve cord.

N.C. ----- Nerve collar.

Op. ----- Opening.

Op. Gld. - -. - - Opening of gland.

Op. Ovd. - - - - Opening of oviduct.

Op. P. - - - - Opening of spermiducal gland'

Op. S. - - - - Opening of spermatheca.

Ov. - - - - ■ - Ovary.

Ovd. - - - - - Oviduct.

P. - - - - . - Peritoneal cells.

Peri - - . . - Peristomium.

P. Gld. - - - -. Problem,atic gland.

Pr. - - - - - Spermiducal gland.

Pro. ----- Prostomium.

Ps. ----- lis.sue supporting nerve cord..

Px. ----- Smaller less grranular cells.

Neiv Species of Earthivorin. 311

51. - - - - - Rosettes cif vasa deferentia.

Jlng. - - '- - - Median furroAv in segment.

Rs. ----- Large nuclfated cells on surface of

possible nepliridial organs.
S! - - - - - Setae.

Sac. ----- Sac of spermatheca.
';S.C. ----- Spinal cord.
.'Sept. ----- Septum.
Sg. ----- Large granular cell.
Sk. ----- Sickle-shaped cells.
■Spth. ----- Spermatheca.
Spth. Op. - - - - Opening of spermathec-a.

,St. ----- Stalk part of gland.
T. - - - - - Testes.

Tas. D. - - - - Vasa deferentia.

Y.B.V. - - ' - - Ventral blood vessel.

V.D. op. P.D. - - - Vas deferens opening into duct from

spenniducal gland.
V.D. - - - - - Vas deferens.

v. Sem. - - - - Vesicula seminalis.

X.H.P. - _ . - Position of region shown in Fig 4,

under the high powered objective.
X.S. ----- Radiating cells.

X.T. ----- Glandular structure on segment nine

(as found in one specimen exam-
ined).
Y. - - - - - Apparent duct.
Y.C. - - - - - Space between cells.

T.N. - - - - - Possible opening of supposed nephri-

dal structure into adjacent seg-
ment.
Y.Z.. ----- Interior of stalk from accessory gland

in segment six, splitting to form
apparent duct.

812 Jean Shannon

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XXVIL

Fig. 1. — Anterior end of eartlnvorm, to show external features'-
(cliagramatic).

Fig. 2. — Diagran^ of anterior end of worm, to show alimentary
canal and dorsal blood vessels.

Fig. 3. — Diagram of anterior end of worm, to show reproductive-
organs, nervous system, and accessory glands.

Plate XXVIII.

Fig. 1 . — Ant-erior end of worm, ventral view, to show maim

external features.
Fig. 2. — Diagram of longitudinal section through region of sper-

pnathecae.
Fig. 3. — Types of spermathecae.
Fig. i. — Diagram of segment thirteen, to show relative position!

of associated parts.
Fig. 5. — Sketch of spermiducal gland of right side, to show

general features.
Fig. 6. — Drawing of longitudinal horizontal section of problematic

gland, in thirteenth segment under the low-powered

objective.
Fig. 7. — Part of problematic gland from thirteenth segment, under

the high-powered objective.
Fig. 8. — Tranverse section of tliic spermiducal gland, to show

main duct.
Fig. 9. — Diagram of longitudinal vertical section of spermiducal

gland, to show mode of entrance off the vasa deferentia.

Plate XXIX.

Fig. 1. — Longitudinal section of spermathecal region:.

Fig. 2. — Drawing under the high-powered objet-tive of the last

pait of the duct from a glandular structure associated

with the spermathecae.
Fig. 3. — Drawing under the high-powered objective of a section^

through one of the glandular structures associated witln

the spermathecae.
Fig. 4. — Longitudinal section in the region of the possible nepliri-

dial organs.

Proc. U.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXVII.

-..9^ C** ^ ij% .^

«^ «^ *^ G^ «i «^ CS

^Lo^r^Cs O-Ss; t^trj-d-'j^

O O \)

<> t t>

t , C' «'

c* CO -* •« ^* -i* ""* *^ O '•

Megascolex Fletcheri, n. sp.

<^ ?{ Si

•4 «i «%

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXVIII.

Megascolex Fletcher!

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXIX.

Megascolex Fletcher!

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXX.

Megascolex Fletcheri

Pioc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXXI.

H JP.

Megascolex Fletcher!

New Species of Earthworm. 313

Plate XXX.

Fig. I. — Transverse section of earthworm in region of common

opening of ovidnct^s.
Fig. 2. — Portion ofl body wall, with common oviduct passing

throiigli it.
Fig. 3. — Drawing under high-powered objective of common ovi-

•■ duct.
Fig. 4. — Transverse section of ventrhl blood vessel. *

Plate XXXI.

Fig. 1. — Transverse section in region of opening to vasa defer-

entia.
Fig. 2. — Transverse section in ssegment eighteen, to show opening

of ducts from sperniiducal gla^nds to exterior.
Fig. 3. — Transverse section of duct from spermiducal gland,.

showing opening of vas deferens into it.
Fig. 4. — Part of gland associated Avith spermiducal gland, under

high-powered objective.
Fig. 5. — I'ransverse section cf body wall to show gland associated

with sperniiducal gland in section.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt, I., 1920.;^

Art. XX. — Notes on Dust Whirls in Sub-Arid Western

Australia.

By J. T. JUTSON

'(Formeily a Senior Field Geologist, Geological Survey of Western Australia;
late Acting Lecturer in Geology, University of Western Australia),

[Read December 11th, 1919.]

Introduction.

Dust whirls are well known phenomena in arid and sul)-arid
'Countries. lliey are ascending spiral air currents, which also
move in a linear direction, and which carry varying amounts of
■dust and fine sand with them.

Dust whirls have been well described by W. M. Davisl and by
E. E. Free. 2 Davis points out^ that an inflow of air is Ijegun
towards the place of ascent, but as the various inflowing currents
move for too short a distance to be systematically influenced by
the earth's lotation, and as their irregular flow does not allow
them to meet precisely at a centre, they turn a little to one side
•or the other., according as the stronger inflow decides, and a little
whirl is then developed rotating indifferently one way or the
•other. Free also states^ that the rotation seems to be indiscrimin-
ately clockwise, or contra-clockwise, as frequently one as the other.

Dust whirls are recognised to be due to overheating of particular
portions of the land surface, with the result that equilibrium is
•disturbed, and the air rushes upwards. Tlie surrounding air then
flows inwards, and a whirl is caused. ^

Dust whirls have been recorded fi-om various countries, and a
valuable list of the literature has Ix^en given by Free in the work
already cited.

Dust whirls may reach a considerable height. Thus Davis^
states thev mav reach a height of several hundred, or even a thou-

1. " Elementary Meteorology," 1S94 p. 201.

2. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, Bulletin No. 68,
1911, p. 38, et. seq.

3. Loo. cit.

4. LiOc. cit.

5. See Free, loc. cit.
«6. L/OC. cit.

Dust Whirls. 315

isand, feet; and Free^ mentiions that they are from a few feet to
hundreds of feet in height. I. C. Russell remarks^ that these

■cohnnns of dust are often 2000 or 3000 feet, or even more, high. At
various lieights, according to atmospheric conditions, the dust
tends to spread out horizontally, and so becomes invisible.

Dust columns are slender. Free remarks that they are a few-
inches to several feet in diamet^er.^ Various observers have
pointed out that when seen at a distance, they resemble water-

.spouts, and that they mostly occur in calm summer weather.

Previous Australian Literature.

Of Australian occurrences, the writer lias found few" records.

D. W. Carnegieio briefly refel-s to the occurrence of "willy-
willies " in arid Western Australia, and states they are sometimes
of great violence. J. W. Gregory, with regard to Central Aus-
tralia, refers to the " dark w^hirling pillars of sand Avhick slowly
travelled up the valley"; also to "three tall columns of dust
Avhich were travelling straight towards us"; and again, to "the
•dust travelling chiefly in two whirlwinds. "^i D. Mawson has
.descril>edi2 the " willy-willy " of the Broken Hill district,
pointing out that they are of the nature of small cyclones, like
water-spouts in outline, and that they are columns usually alx)ut
20 feet in diameter, rising to a height of several thousand feet.
A. ^Montgomery has remarked^^ in connection with the Western
Australian goldfields country, that "on any fine day in summer
it is quite usual to be able to see several whirlwind clouds of dust
'dancing over the landscape at one time."

These are the only Australian rec-ords that the writer is aware
•of.

In sub-arid Western Australia duMt whirls are locally known as
"willy-willies." They are a matter of comnxon knoAvledge, but no
precise description has, so far as the writer is aware, ever been
given of them, and still less is there any record of their mode
■of rotation, their height and other characters. Even in Australia

T. l^oc. cit.

8. Monograph XI., U.S. Geol. Surv., Washington. 1885, pp. 9 and 154.

9. See also Mawson's estimate mentioned below.

10. " Spinifex and Sand," London, 1898, pp. 254 and 274.

11. "The Dead Heart of Australia," London. 1906, pp. 26. 120, 121.

12. "Geological Investigations in the Broken Hill Area," Mem. Roy. Soc.
; South Aust., Vol. II., Part 4. 1912, p. 227.

13. "The Significance of Some Physiographical Characteristics of Western
_j\.ustralia." Journ. Roy Soc. W. Aust., Vol. II., 1915-16, p. 83.

olO J. T. Jutsoii:

as a whole, the records, as noticed above, are scanty. Under'
these circumstances, some details, which were noted by the writer
whilst engaged in gei»logical work in the Niagara-Kookynie dis-
trict, .and, later, in the IComeit VaLe-Gx^ongarrie districts!'* may
be worthy of record. The following notes are, therefore, based
on such observations, and relate only to the districts mentioned : —

General Description.

In the districts just mentioned, the climate is sub-arid, and
the average rainfall is aboutli 10 inches, or slightly less, per an-
num. Except on the surfaces of the " dry " lakes, there is gen-
erally some vegetation, but there is much bare ground between the-
individual plants.

The dust whirls; vary much in height, and peidiaps in diameter.
Many are but a few feet in height and in diameter, whilst others
are hundreds, and probably thousands, of feet high, and per-
haps of considerable diameter. The writer, however, has no
criteria as to the diameter of the high whirls, but in all in-
stances, the diameter is small compared with the height. The-
dust whirls are essentially moving columns or pillars. The whirls
(as the table below .shows) rotate clockwise (tliat is, in the direction
north, thence east, thence south, and thence west), and anti- or
counter-clockwise. The anti-clockwise direction predominates on
the records obtained. A change from one mode of rotation to the
other in the samei dust whirl has been noticed, and such change-
has taken place more than once in the same whirl.

High dust whirls may be jiractically vertical, or curved, or l)ent
at a liigh angle to the ground. The curving, or lending, doul)t-
less indicates varying wind velocity at different altitudes.

The dust whirls travel in different linear directions across the-
country. This linear movement is usually rapid in whirls that
are- close to the observer. It is difficult to form an opinion about
the velocity of distant whirls, and no estimate has been made by
the writer as to the actual velocity of near-by whirls. A low
whirl, as a rule, dies out within a minute or two, but a high
whirl may be visible many minutes, or possibly some hours.

A dust wliirl, >jven a very small one, is quite violent in its
action. Dust, sand, grit, and old tins and other rubbish are lifted'
from, or driven along the ground with great force. When taken^

14. The Niagara-Kookynie area is about 115 miles, and the Comet "Vale-
Goongarrie area about 60 n-iiles north of Kalgoorlie.

Dust WJtirls,

317

unawares by a small dust -whirl, one at first receives the impres-
sion of the sudden and violent rising of a great wind.

Red is the predominating colour of dust whirls, owing to red
being the predominating colour of the soils.

The whirls are commonest in summer, on calm days, or on:
days Avith only a gentle breeze. These facts agree with the obser-
vations of investigators in other countries. After midday is the
most favourable period for the occurrence of dust whirls.

Tahle of Observed Dust Whirls.
The following list comprises the dust whirls recorded by tha
Avriter in the Niagara-Kookynie and Comet Vale-Goongarrie dis-
tricts, with the dates of occurrence, the direction of rotation, and
general remarks. Where it was impossible — mainly on account of '
distance — to determine the direction of rotation,* a blank has been-
left. In some cases, the direction given is not quite certain,
hence a query has ]>een added so as to express this doubt. One
gigantic whirl has been separately described below on account of
its special interest. The writer is well aware that the remarks as
to height and other characters of individual whii'ls are vague, but
the phenomena do not readih' lend themselves to accurate measure-
ments, and opportunity did not always permit of more definite
statements : —

Direction of

G-eneral Remarks.

These occurred in the Niag'ara-
Kookvnie district.

No details, except direction of
rotation were noted.

Distant. In front of a ridpe.
From probable lieisfht of lat-
ter, the dust whirl was esti-
mated to be 1000 feet high at
the least. East of Kookynie.

Distant.
Distant.
Low. 15 On ironstone country.

Direction of

Date.

Rotation .

1914.

Dec. 18.

Anticlockwise

., 18

Clock nise

,, 21

• Anticlockwise

1915.

Jan. 8

Anticlockwise

Feb. 10

Clockwise

>, 13

Anticlockwise

., 23

Anticlockwis'e

Mar. 29

Anticlockwise

,, 15

1916.
Sept. 22
,, 22
„ 25

Anticlockwise (?)

15. " Low " means that the dust whirl as seen by the naked eye reached to
only a small height from the surface of the ground, in some instances, not:
more than 20 feet, and even less.

:-318

J. T, Jutson :

Date.

niiection of
Rotation.

General Ueniarks.

Nov. 11

-

-

Anticlockwise

Low.

Dec. 5

-

-

Anticlockwise (?)

Distant. Fairly hi^li,

,. 6

-

-

Anticlockiivise

Fairly high.

,, 9

-

-

Anticlockwicie

Low.

1917.

Jan. 26

Distant. Hundreds of

Feb. 6

12
15

.Anticlockwise ( r)

Auticlockwij^e ( ?)

Anticlockwise

Anticlockwise
Clockwise

16

-

Anticlockwise

16

-

Anticlockwise

17

.

Clockwise

17

-

Anticlockwise

17

19

-

Clockwise

19

-

Clockwise

19

-

Clockwise and
Anticlockwise

Thin, sandy-coloured coliiuiu.
Rapidly chang-ed its form and
density. Quickly liecame in-
visible. Noted at 3 p.m. on
very oalm day.

Hundreds of feet hig-h. Soon be-
came invisible. Day calm and
hot. Noted at 1 p.m.

Hundreds of feet high. Bent in
the centre. Visible for a few
minutes. Gradually faded

away. Noted at 2.30 p.m.

Distant. Very hiofh. Very dis-
tinct, so must have been carry-
ing much dust.

Ditto.

Low. Raised considerable quan-
tity of dust. Soon died out.

Low. Soonjdied out.

Low. Passed through camp.
Lifted fine sand very strongly.
Soon died out. About six feet
in diameter.

Each raised much dust, but .soon
died out.

Diameter of eiach probably only
a few feet.

Low. A few feet in diameter.

Lo'w. A ^ew feet in diameter.
Soon died out.

Some distance away. Probably
at leaist 100 to 200 feet high.

Low. OnJy about two feet in
diameter.

Low. Only about four feet in
diameter.

Somewhat higher than last two.
Rotated both clockwise and
antiolockwise, the change tak-
ing place more than once in a
distance travelled of 50 or 60
yards. Diameter about 15 feet.

Dust Whirls.

319'

Date.
Feb. 19

Direction of
Rotation.

Feb. 20
,, 26

Mar.

AiiticJockwise

General Reinaiks.

A 'g-igaintic dust whirl. Described*
aepaxafcely below. Note. — The-
19th February was a typical
day for dust whirls, bein^ hot
and sultry, with a gentle N.
to N.W. breeze. Those record-
ed »ere all in the afternoon.

Low.

A igig'antic distant whirl. Must
have been hundreds, or per--
haps thousands, of feet high.
Very dark-coloured and dense--
looking. Visible for about five
minutes, and appeared to be
moving slowly southwards. The-
siimjnit of the column of dust
was clearly seeta to be spread-
ing out horizontally, as such
columns do.

Low.

Some miles distant. High, with
apparently a fairlv large dia-
meter. Travelling southwards. .

A very high thin column.

Low. On samphire flat.

Low. On samphire flat.

Low.

Low.

Rather low. Raised much dust. .
Travelling northwiards. Tra-
velled for a ditance of a.bout.
half a mile while visible.
Direction of rotation almost:
certainly changed from clock- -
wise to anticlockwi.se, and vice-
versa.

Note. — The dust whirls recorded from 22nd September, 1916, onwards,,
occurred in the Comet Vale-Goongarrie district.

Summarising the above table records a total of 43 dust whirls^.
Of these 15 have no record a.s to direction of rotation, 15 are anti-
clockwise, four are anti -clockwise with a query, six are clockwise,
one is and twH) probably are both clockwise and anti-clockwise.
The anti-clockwase rotation, therefore, preduminates. This result
could hardly be exj^ected, for if, as appears to be the case, the-
whirls are of the nature of small cyclones, then in the southern'
hemispheres, the predominant rotation would be expected to follow

„ 1

„ 29

Clockwise and

Anticlockwise (?)

„ 29

,, 29

, 29

May 8

Cllockwise and

Anticlockwise (?)

1320 J. T. Jutson:

that of the normal cyclones, that is, clockwise. Further observa-
tions, however, are required, as the records in this paper are too
few to come to a definite conclusion on the point raised,.

A Gigantic Dust Whirl.

Ihe whirl now to be described has been noted in tlie above list,
but its occurrence was so striking that a separate description
is warranted.

This dust whirl was observe<l on 19th February, 1917, at about
1.30 p.m., in tlie Comet Vale-Coongariie district, when the sun
had not passed a great distance beyond the zenith. The day waa
hot and sultry, with a gentle north to north-west Avind. The
conditions were, therefore, favourable for dust whirls. This \is.y-
ticular wliirl formed a great column of dust, the top of which
was above two clouds, which were at different levels in the atmo-
sphere, the difference of level apparently Ijeing cnnsiderable.
These clouds were of the cumulus type, and were such as may be
conunonly observed in the area after midday under the conditions
mentioned. The dust column was broken by these two clouds. The
column was travelling southward, or south-westwards, at a
fairly rapid rate, but the rate of motion could not be deter-
mined, and in doing so, passed beyond the clouds, and showed
itself as one unbroken, gigantic column, with a pronounced liend
forward (i.e., in the direction of its linear movement) at the top.
Otherwise it appeared to be approximately vertical. The dust
whirl was close to the path of the sun's rays, and as the sun was
•obscurcil by the upper cloud, tlie phenonema could l)e closely
Avatched. The dust was dull, red in coloui-, and between the
two clouds dense masses of dust coiild be seen by the naked eye
whirling about and springing upwards. As it moved in the
direction mentioned, the columu became invisible within a few
minutes. The direction of rotation could not be ascertained, nor
could any idea be formed of its diameter, although the diameter
appeared to l>e about the same through the wholjo length of the
<'olumn.

The angle of elevation of the top of the column was guessed to
be about 80°, but the horizontal distance of the column from the
point of obsiervation could not be ascertained, so that it is impos-
sible to state its height, even very approximately. Judging by ob-
servation, it would certainly not be less than one mile distant, and
probably much more; but if it hi assumed th;;t tlie dist^uKe was

Dust W Juris. 321

• one mile, that the column was approximately vertical, and that
the angle of elevation was 80°, the dust whirl would be not far
short of six miles in height; and if it were only half a mile awav
(which, however, seemed altogether too short a distance), tlie
height would approximate towa^rds three miles.

These figures, are probably far too high, due, perhaps, to the

.assumption that tlie dust column was approximately vertical.
The column might appear to be vertical, and yet could perhaps be
much bent towards the observer. This would materially reduce
the figures.

Another means of checking the height is to ascertain the height of

•either of the two clouds associated with the dust columns, but no
data have been obtained fpr this. These clouds were two of many
similar scattered over, all ai:)parently of moderate height. Again,
if the general average height that these clouds form at Avere known,
an idea of the height of the dust whirl would be obtained, but
there appears to be hardly any information available as to such
■clouds in Austi-alia in this connection. Records of other countries

.show that the upper surfaces of cumulus clouds may be over 3000
feet high. 16 There can be no doubt, howevei'. that this particular
<lust whirl was of great height, reaching probably to several thou-
sands of feet above the earth's surface, and the quantity of dust
raised must have been enormous. When first viewed close to tlie

.sun's rays, the dust whirls presented a majestic spectacle.

The writer is indebted to Dr. Griffith Taylor for a reference to
Mr. Quayle's ISIemoir on Clouds, and for some information con-.

'Cerning clouds, whicli lie kindly obtained from Mr. (^)uayle.

Diifif Whirls i/i Felaf/oii to Erosion.
Dust whirls must play an important part in the erosion of sub-

.arid Western Australia. From the prece<liug table it will be
recognised that they are fairly numerous, even in a small area,
and that they include columns of dust of great height. It must
also be remembered that, unless high, numerous whirls, even com-
paratively close to an observer, are not seen hy liini. If the whole

■ of the sub-arid portions^ of the State be considei'ed, a vast amount
of fine sand, and dust must be displaced even in the course of one
favourable day. The m^iterial is either lifted well into the air, (u-
is dragged along or kept close tx) the surface of the ground. In

-.the former case the material is chiefly fine dust, and in the latter

16. Davis. Op. cit., pp. 179 and ISO.

322 Dust Whirls.

case, wliich has been described as a saltatory action, fine sand..
The fine dust tends to rise high into the air, and it may be soinje-
time before it settles down to the ground again. During this-
period it may travel far. and there can be no doubt that a con-
siderable portion of it is carried .beyond, or "exported" from
the sub-arid areas.

In this way the general surface of these areas as a M'hole tends--
to be lowered. 17 The dust which falls in other portions of these sub-
arid areas, tends to increase the thickness of soils locally, and also
to make these soils of a more heterogeneous character. ^^ Such
soils are of course subject to removal by dust whirl and other
aeolian action, as well as by rain action, but certain areas may
receive more wind-blown material than they lose by the same-
agency.

The fine sand removed by saltatory action immediately settles'
again when the dust whirl dies out, but during its journey it would"
tend to collect and to remain in hollows. There is thus probably
a general drift from the higher to the lower country (with some-
exce^^tions), which aids in keeping the general surface level, and
thus in the formation of a vast high level plain — the " new
plateau " of the Avi-iter.^^

An interesting account of a dust-stonn in soutli-western North
America, and an estimate of the amount of dust precipitated have-
been recently given. 20 It has been concluded that owing to strong
convectional air currents, " an enormous quantity of dust must
have been eroded from these arid regions — (New Mexico and
Arizona) — lifted into the upper atmosphere, and carried with
the storm a thousand miles or more to the north-east, where it was
brought doAvn by the snow and sleet, which had formed at a great
altitude in the air." It was calculated that not less than a million
tons of organic and inorganic material fell, and probably many
times that amount. I'he dust whirls discussed in this paper cannot
of course be compared, from an erosional point of view, with such-
a storm, but nevertheless, the difference is but one of degree.

17. This idea of "exportation" has of course been brought forward by
earlier writers, such as von Richthofen and Davis.

18. The mixed character of soils owing to the action of the wind gene-
rally has been fully described by Free. Op. cit.»p. 109.

19. Bull. 61, Geol. Surv. W. Austral.. Perth, 1914, p. 525.

20. See "Geographical Review," December, 1918, pp. 514 and 515.

[Proc. Kot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].

Art. XXf. — Tlie Physiography and Geology of the Bulla-
Sydenhani Area.

ALBERT V. G. JAMES, B.A., M.Sc.

[Read 11th December, 1920].
(With Plates XXXII.-XXXIV.)

Contents.

1. Cartography.

2. Physiography.

3. Palaeozoic Rocks.

(a) Ordoviciaii .-jediments.

(b) Silurian sediments.

(c) Metamorphic rocks.

(d) Granodiorite.

(e) Kaolinized granodiorite.

4. Kaiuozoic Rocks.

(a) OLder-basalt.

(b) Pre-older basaltic river valley.

(c) Basic hypabyssal rocks.

5. Kaiuozbic Sediments.

(a) Normal Kainozoic grits.

(b) Eucalyptus leaf beds.

(c) Newer-basalt' — Lower Series.

(d) Inter-newer-basaltic grits and conglomerates.

(e) Newer-basalt' — Upper Series.

(f) Po)st-newer-ba.saltic- grit.-^ aad conglomerates.

6. Acknowledgments.

7. References.

Cartography.

The area examined covers 20 square miles, and takes in the
eastern half of quarter-sheet 7 S.E., and the western portion of
quarter-sheet 2 S.W. There are neither dates nor compass points
on these sheets.

The date of one edition of the quarter-sheet was probably 1863,.
but the dates of the other two editions could not be obtained.
Two different copies can be seen at the Melbourne Public Library,
and a third at the Geological Survey Department. One of the three
editions has the Silurian conglomerate south-west of Hanging
Valley (Plate XXXIL) wrongly coloured as Kainozoic.

The dips and strikes of the palaeozoic rocks on the quarter-sheet
are inaccurate.

• 18

324

Albert V. James:

In the three editions of quarter-sheet 7 S.E.. a large heart-
shaped area of tree covered granite, south of BuUa, is wrnngly
coloured as basaltic.

In the military contour map of Sunbury two errors in road
marking occur. In the extreme N.E. of the area the formed road
L M (Plate XXXII.) is omitted, while the road N O in tht- centre
west is shown as continuous across the^gorge, which is called in this
paper, "Column Gully."

Tlie granodiorite boundaries in the N.E. eannot ])e accurately
placed, owing to the gravitation of granitic detritus from the lulls.
It covers the lower lying basalt, and liides the junction.

Owing to the great accumulation of hill wasli along the streams
many outcrops are completely covered. Ihis is probahly the
reason why two conglomerates marked on quarter sheet 7 S.E. are
not now visible.

Attention is drawn to tlie names of the streams in this ai-ea,
and a study of the geological quarter-sheets, the military contour
maps, and tlie paidsli plans shows liow loose the nomenclature has
been. The names of the streams in the parish plans of 1901 differ
from those of 191G, and as the names of the latter agree with those
given by the local residents, the writer has acce23ted them for
this paper. The eastern branch is Deep Creek, the western branch
Jackson's Creek, and the Maril)yi'nong Kiver (formerly 8alt-
w^ater River),* the stream from the junction of the creeks to the
Yarra. The following is a table of tlie names given to thci streams
in this area in old and recent publications : —

• Publication.

•Geol'K^ical quarter

sheet, 1863
Parish Plans, 1901
1616

Military T'ontour

map, 1917
Donald Mac^lonald
in Argus, 22/4/ 19

Residents and no-
menclature fol-
lowed by writer
1919

Western Branch.
Macedon or Salt-
water River
Saltwater Eiv»^r
Jackson's Creek

Jackson's Creek

Jackson's Creek

Eastern Branch.
Deep Creek

Deep Creek
Deep Creek

Maribyrnon^-

Eiver
Deep Creek

Jackson's Creek

Deep Creek

Combined Creeks.
Saltwater River

Saltwater River
Maribj'rnong

River
Maribyrnong

River
Deejj Creek

above tidal

water.
Maribyrnong

River below

tidal water.
Maribyrnong

River.

I
Physiography of Bulla Area. 825

Physiography.

Gemral Survey. — The dominating feature of the area is the
great basalt shfet which slopes gently from the north-west to the
south-east, with a slope of 60 ft. jjer mile, descending from 600
ft. to 300 ft. in five miles. The Deep Creek, Jackson's Creek, and
the Maribvrnong River have entrenched themselves in this low
plateau to a depth of 300 ft., and they are vigorous young
streams, cutting deeper and deeper into a plain that is also very
youthful in character. Two granodiorite masses rise 100 feet
above the lava surface.

Meanders. — Deep Creek, Jackson's Creek, and the Maribyrnong
River meander in a trench about 300 ft. in depth. These sti-eams
originally tlowfd on the surface of the basalt plain, and the slight
curves in their old courses became more and more pronounced as
the streams deepened their beds. While lateral erosion was at
work deepening the curves, vertical corrosion was deepening the
valley, and this combined action has resulted in an alternating
series of spurs and river cliffs along each stream. Waterworn
pebbles of basalt, quartz, quartzite, etc., along each spur, afford
evidence of the former position of the stream, lliis type of
meander is in sharp contrast to the flood-plain meander, where
•only lateral erosion is active.

Several writers (1) describe an entrenched meander as one where
tlw? original meander has been preserved, and where the opposite
banks of the stream make approximately equal angles with the
surface of the ground. According to these geographers, the spurred
meanders of Bulla and Sydenham would not be entrenched mean-
ders. W. M. Davis, however, refers to tlie spurred character of the
entrenched meanders of the Meuse and Seine. (2b) It is imjior-
tant to note that the present meanders of Deep Creek are not
simply the preserved meanders of the old stream, as indicated by
J. W. Gregory (3). The length of the present curves is very much
greater than that of the old cui-ves, owing to the lateral swinging
of the streams, but the radii of the curves have remained approxi-
mately the same, (2a).

Down-vnlJey Sweep of Meanders. — Tliis sweeping movement is
not so pronounced as in streams flowing through soft rock, but the
effect can be definitely seen in most f>f the spurs along either creek
and in the position of tlie small fiooil plains. Tlie spurs are not
igymmetrical in section, tlie steeper side always pointing up-

326 Albert V. James.-

valley. This also has the effect of sharpening the spur, and the-
placing iof the flood plain, not at the end of the spur, but on the-
down-valley side of it. (2a.)

Meander Belt.- — In youthful streams, such as Deep Creek, the
belt of Avandering and the meander belt coincide wi.th one another.
The stream by lateral swinging widens its meander belt, but this
tendency is checked by (a) the down-valley sweep of the meanders
(which would eventually cut through the spurs), and by (b) the
formation of new channels at flood time across low spurs.

Reldtion httwetn Radius of Meander and Volume of Water. —
W. M. Davis has sliown (2a and 9), that the radius of a meander,
where slope and load are equal, is proportional to the volume of
Avater. This is exemplified in Jackson's Creek, Deep Creek and the
Maribyrnong River. Jackson's Creek has a sliglitly smaller-
volume than Deep Creek, and the radii of its meanders are slightly
smaller than those of Deep Creek. Similarly the radii of the Mari-
byrnong meanders are considerably larger than those of the-
creeks.

Hanging Valleys. — Excellent examples of hanging valleys are'
found along l>oth Jackson's Creek and Deep Creek. In every case-
these tributary streams flow only after heayA' rain. The best
example is that to the south-Avest of the main granodiorite out-
crcip. This small stream has been formed/ along the junction of
the basalt, and the granodiorite. At its junction Avith Deep Creek
there is a fall 80 ft. in height. OAA'ing to their poor supply of
Avater the tributary streams are unal^le to corrode their beds as
rapidly as the main streams. This is the chief cause of the lack
of adjustment betAveen the tributaries and the main streams in
this area. At Hanging Valley (see Z, Plate XXXII.), this lack of •
adjustment is increased by the hard compact hornfels in its lower-
course.

Deserted Bed of Jachsons Creek. — An old accumulation of
boulders can be seen in the right bank of the Maribyrnong River,
a quarter of a mile south of the junction of the creeks. Some of
the boulders are huge, some small, some of basalt, some of con-
glomerate, and others of sandstone, but none of granodiorite.
It Avas the old bed of Jackson's Creek Avhich deserted it Avhen it
floAved 6 ft. above its present level. If Deep Creek had contri-
buted boulders to the conglomerate, granodiorite also Avould have-
been represented.

Physiograpky of Bulla Area. 827

Corrosion. — A study of the effect of tlie volcanoes on that sec-
.tion of Jackson's Creek north of Sunbury would provide interesting
anatt-er, for it is evident that the Sunbury volcanoes in late Kaino-
jzoic times, formed an immensei bar across the old Jackson's Creek,
and overwhelmed the valleys to the south beneath a flood of lava.

It will be noticed that Deep Creek flows close to the boundary of
the granodiorite, and the basalt. Originally it flowed along the
junction. As DeeiJ Creek deej^ened its bed, the granodiorite be-
came exposed on both banks. It is probable that streams such as
the Yarra and Deep Creek tend to flow at the junction of basalt
.and older rock because hill drainage helps to form a valley at the
junction of the bedrock, and the lava sheet, and because the lava
flow is probably depressed at the edges, and thus directs the drain-
age of the area to the line of junction.

By meandering and deepening the streams have reduced the
-slope from 60 ft. per mile to 18 ft. per mile. From the creek
junction to tiie most northerly point of Deep Creek, marked on
the map, is 7 miles. In this distance it falls from 280 ft. to 150
ft., -giving a slope of 18 ft. per mile. It is remarkable that Jack-
son's Cre-ek from thej north-west boundary on the map to the creek
junction flows 11 miles, and falls from 350 ft. to 150 ft., giving
again a slope of 18 ft. per mile. The slopes are interesting when
Hjompared with that of the sluggish Mississippi, which has a fall of
less than 1 ft. per mile. At the Bulla School the creeks are o.'^ ly
half a mile apart, but, owing to the short distance along Deep
Creek to the junction as compared with that along Jackson's
Creek, the bed of Deep Creek is 60 ft. lower than that of Jackson's
Creek. This illustrates the fact that in river capture the more
vigorous stream may be captured by the less vigorous. Jackson's
Creek and Deep Creek 'having the same slope, are of equal vigour,
but if their valleysj met Deep Creek would capture the head waters
•of Jackson's Creek.

Deep Creek has been superimposed along the whole of its course
on the older rocks beneatli. Jackson's Creek is still cutting into
basalt, though it frequently carves its way across the tops of the
•old Ordovician and Silurian hills.

Basalt bars of greater density retard its rate of deepening by
checking its velocity. In several parts Jackson's Creek resembles
a series of small lakes separated from one another by basalt bars
(Over which the water tumbles in miniature rapids.

328 Albert V. James:

Headuard Erosion. — The extremely youthful tributary streams
frequently become gorge-like, and tend to cut. back across the
fields. Farmers in this locality meet the problem by piling boul-
ders at the head of the tril>utary and planting hardy shrubs
around them in order to cheek tlie velocity of the water, and thus
retard the transport of material. llie early neglect to check
the headward erosion of youthful streams has led elsewhere tO'
great loss of land. A large area at G'oburg has been rendered un-
fit for habitation within the last thirty years, and the same will
occur at Aberfeldie, near the Essendon sand pits, if preventive^
measures aie not taken soon. ,

Near the school at Bulla an extremely young active tributary
has cut back from Deep Creek and formed a canyon in decomposed'
granodioritc and Ijasalt. Apparently no effort has been made to
check the licadward erosion, and now it is completely out of hand,
and threatens the roads north of Bulla. The canyon is about
60 ft. in depth. It is not likely to deeq^en further for many years
as its floor is nearly adjusted to the present level of Deep Creek.
Lateral erosion is now rapidly increasing the area of destruc-
tion.

Basalt Outliers. — A small outlier is see*!! in the south of the-
large granodiorite outcrop, and another in the extreme centre-
nortli in Ordovician sediments. They represent small basalt
tongues that have been cut off from the main lava sheet by river-
action.

Palaeozoic Rocks.

General Description. — The Ijedrock of the area so far as is
known consists of Upper Ordovician and LoAver Silurian sedi-
ments in the form of shales, sandstones, conglomerates, quartzites,
.slates and hornfels. These have been strongly folded by approxi-
mately east and west pressure, and the prevalence of easterly dips:
sugge.sts overfolding to the west. The folds pitch to 'the north,
and this pitch makes the strike of the strata somewhat irregular.

Throughout the district these palaeozoic rocks have been highly
fractured and faulted, most of the faults being reverse strike-
faults. On the left baidv of Deep Creek, at the mouth of Hanging
Valley, is a fault ])reccia altered to hornfels by the granodiorite
intrusion.

If the conglomerate (C;^), near Hanging Valley, and conglom-
erate Ci or C.J on Jackson's Creek, be parts of the same stratum,.

PhysiograjiJiy of Bulla Area. 329

lateral displacement must have taken place, and. though this is the
pi'dhable explanation, yet local lenticular accumulations of con-
glomerate may be the reason why these bands do not appear on the
same line of strike. Owing to intense pressure, well defined joint
planes have been set uj? which tend to break the strata into small
rliombohedra. Ihese joint planes give difficulty in the taking of
dips and strikes, as they closely simulate the bedding planes.

Palaeozoic Fossih. — Previous to 1918, l^pper Ordovician grap-
tolites had been found in the extreme north-west of this area (4),
while Lower Silurian graptolites had been found in the extreme
south-east (5), but none had been found between these localities.

In 1917 and 1918 the writer came across several fossil beds whose
position is indicated on Plate XXXII. The paucity of fossils in this
locality is probably due partly to dynamic and thermal meta-
morphism, which prevent the rock splitting along the bedding plane,
and partly to the sandy nature of the sediments.

It has been Kuggested that the conglomerate C, 's of glacial
origin, and tlie absence of fossils in this neighlx)urhood is due
to the severe climatic conditions that prevailed during their
deposition. (6.) Fossils have, however, now been found in the
following localities : —

(a) On the left bank of Jackson's Creek. 50 yards north of

tho mouth of Column Gully. (See Plate XXXII.) In a
Very narrow band Upper Ordovician graptolites can be
obtained in abundance, Coenograptus and Diplograptus
being the commonest genera. The fossils are well pre-
served, but are rapidly obliterated on exposure to the air.

(b) On the left bank of Jackson's Creek, half a mile south-

east of the Organ Pipes. For nearly a mile along lx)th
banks of the creek, the rocks contain enormous numbers
of worm impressions. On the rock face a few yards south-
east of dyke D .^ tiie markings strongly suggest worm
burrows, but Mr. F. Chapman says that they are probably
the remains of the soft part of the worms. The impres-
sions are quite different from those of Trachyderma (7).
From the graptolite bed referred to in (a) to the con-
glomerate C these impressions occur in varying num-
bers. The upper part of each stratum has more im-
pressions than the lower part, and many of the most
pi-ominent markings are perpendicular to the l>edding-
plane, and increase in diameter fi-om b>elow upwards.

330 Albert V. James:

Mr. F. Chapman lias not been able to determine the age
of these worms, but as there is field evidence that they are
of Ordovician age, they will be called tentatively in this
paper the " Ordovician worm beds."

(c) On the right bank of Jackson's Creek, at the mouth of a

small gully, 30 yards east of conglomerate Cj. Jlere
impressions of the gill jDlumes of the worm Trachyderma
* sp. occur in two very narrow bands.

(d) The best imjDressions of Trachyderma were found on the

right bank, about 300 yards down stream from the con-
glomerate C . At this spot Tracliyderma and Monograp-
tus were obtained on the same slal>. Many of the strata
here yield the tubes and gill plumes of tliis worm, which
Mr. F. Chapman has connected with the gill plumes
found at South Yarra in Lower Silurian rocks. (7).

(e) On the right l)ank of Jackson's Creek, 30 yai'ds north-

east of the dyke D.^ (Plate XXXII). llie writer found
three or four species <if Silurian graptolites. Graptnlites
from localities (d) and (e) were sent to Mr. F. Chapman.
They have not been named yet. but were pronounced to Ije
definitely Silurian.

(f) At the point x (Plate XXXII.), fossils were found alxnit

1862 (4), by members of the Geological Survey. Mr. F.

Chapman has stated that tliese fossils are definitely

Silurian.
Junction of tJit Upper Ordorician oii<] J.nuer -Silurian. —
Previous to 1918 the junction between the Silurian and the Ordo-
vician rocks had been placed one mile S.S.E. of the junction of
the creeks (6). As neither unconformity nor fossils had been
found, geologists were forced to rely on the study of dips and
strikes, and on this evidence alone the placing of the junction
there seems to have been justified, for there the dips become lower
and the direction of the strike is slightly altered. In this aiea it
is not safe to put too much reliance on v'ariation in strike and dip,
because these are much disturbed by faulting, pitehing and hill
creep.

Two of the three editions of the geological quarter sheet No. 7
S.E., show the Ordovician rocks extending to the S.E. margin,
Avhile quarter-sht-et No. 2 S.W. shows Silurian extending to the
S.W. margin, thus making the edges of the sheets coincide with the
junction between the Ordovician and, Silurian sediments. A third

Physiography of Bulla Area. 331

^edition of the quarter sheet 7 S.E., places the junction one-eighth
of a mile to the west of this, and this is approximately the line
found independently by T. S. Hart (6).

The presence of Siluiian graptolites in tAvo localities one and
a-half miles west of this junction, and in another one and a-half
miles N.N.W., strongly suggests that the junction shown in the
•quarter sheets is incorrect. There is of course the possibility tliat
the later Silurian rocks occuj^y an infolded pocket of the Ordo-
vician. In either case we are forced to look for the junction fur-
ther upstream. It seems to the writer probable that the western
face of conglomerate C' is the junction. The reasons for putting
it there are as follow :— -

(a) The junction is necessarily between dyke D and Column

Gully, for at the former, Silurian graptolites and worms'
are found, and at the latter, Ordovician graptolites.
These two places are approximately one and a-half miles
apart. No conclusive evidence is given by the dips and
strikes, for though slight variations occur, up-stream and
down-stream similar variations can l)e noted. In the
Ordovician graptolite bed the dip is <S4 E, and the strike
exactly north and soutli, while in the Silurian graptolite
beds the dip is 77 'E, and the strike 8° west of north.
Between the^^e two l:)eds there is no stidden change of dip
or strike.

(b) The Silurian worm Trachyderma can be found in many

of the strata east of C bxit not west of it,
'(c) "Ordovician worm impressions" are found in enormous
numbers, ,from the Ordovician graptolite beds, where
they are associated with Diplograptus, right up to the
conglomerate C , but neither in it nor on the east side.
The f-act that tliese marks suddenly cease at the con-
glomerate strongly suggests discontinuity of conditions.
■(d) The conglomerate itself is strictly conformable- with the
strata on the eastern side, but on the western the con-
tact is very irregular. The one drawback to the plac-
ing of the junction at (\ is the presence of a few pebbles
in the strata on the up-stream side of the conglomerate.
This suggests similarity of conditions, and though their
presence is not fatal, yet it makes one hesitate to accept
Cj^ as a basal conglomerate.

332 ■ Albert V. James:

Palaeozoic C'o/if/Ioitir/afes-.—'r\[e four palaeozoic conglomerates
in this area have been carefully described by T. S. Hart (5). C^,
the most nortlierly, is wrongly coloured tertiary in one of the three
quarter sheets. It has Ijeen pointed out (6) that this conglomerate
has been so indurated by thermal nLetamphorism that the matrix
is as hard as the old quartzite pebbles, and thus the pebbles do not
weather out.

Ihe southern exposure C.^ can be picked up in a runnel on the-
cliff about 80 ft. above the stream. It is not altered to the extent
that d is.

Cj shows the clay bands much distorted by differential pressure,
as they are in the Italian Cutting, Daylesford (8).

Q is the largest of the four conglomerates.

T. S. Hart (6) puts forward various reasons for considering it
an Ordovician glacial conglomerate. His conclusions appear in-
correct. The following is a summary of the reasons given on which
he based his conclusion : —

(1) A part of the conglomerate is a mixture of pebbles and

fine clay.

(2) The strata are much disturl;ed in places.

(3) The matrix is angular.

(4) Some pebbles are facetted and striated.

(5) Fossils are absent on account of severity of the climate-

at that period.

The writer carefully weighed these points, l)ut was forced tO'
discard the theory of the glacial origin. A mixture of pebbles and
clay can be formed in other ways than by glacial action, and the-
disturbance of the strata appears to be the unconformable junction
of the Ordovician and Silurian. The presence of the striations on
an insignificant percentage of the pebbles can be accounted for"
by the fact that when conglomerate bands are folded under pres-
sure, the hard pebbles grind against and scratch one another.
Facetted pebl)les were not common in this congl'omerate, and
there was quite as large a percentage in the river conglomerate-
as in the ancient collection. On examining under the miscroscope,
the matrix from conglomerate C. and comparing it with material
taken from other strata, it did not appear to be more angular
than the latter. It has been shoAvn' already that life was abundant-
in the seas in that age.

The direct evidence against this glacial theory is : —
(a) Ihe general linear arrangement of the pebbles.

Physiography of Butlu Area. 333 ■

(b) 111 C. tlie jjebbles lie regularly on their flat faces.

(c) Pebbly, sandy and clay bands alternate.

(d) Most of the stones are sanall. Not one large stone is seen.

If it were glacial you would expect to find some boulders.

(e) Facetted and striated pebbles are extremely rare.

(f) Many strata contain pebbles of only one size.

(g) The conglomerate is almost certainly of Silurian age, and

no other evidence of Silurian glaciation has l>een reported
in Australia.

For the reasons above it seems more likely that the conglomerate
Ci is the basal conglomerate of; the Silurian rather than an Ordo-
vician glacial deposit.

The material of which the pebbles are composed is similar to that
of the Kei-ri conglomerate found along Conglomerate Creek, near
Macedon (10). There are quartz, quartzite, black chert, quartz,
porphyry, greisen and diabase pebbles. The Kerri conglomerate
contains a large percentage of dimpled and squeezed pebbles, whose
state it has been shown is probably due to solution under pressure
(10). Many similar pebbles are found in C but most of the-
dimples have not been made in situ, for ' frequently the dimples
are opposed not to a pebble, but to the clay matrix. A few of
the dimples may have been made in situ.

Metamoiphic Rods.

These are exposed along Deep Creek to the north, west, and
south of the granodiorite. At and near the junction the sediments
have been converted into hoinfels, while further away they occur
as spotted shales, or as indurated sandstones or shales. The
width of the aureole varies considerably, probably owing to the
irregular junction of the granodiorite, with the sediments beneath
tho surface. As fai' as can be judged from the bedrock exposed
along the creeks the iioinfels belt on the average appears to be
about a quarter of a mile wide, and it gradually merges into
spotted slate, which is not uniform in its disti-ibution. Ihe indu-
rated sediments have abundant secondary mica.

In the hand hornfels is a hard, dense, dark rock, in which indi-
vidual crystals cannot be seen with the naked eye. Under the
miscroscope, however, it is seen to have abundant secondary brown
biotite. Near the contact there is a considerable amount of cordie-
rite produced, but further away andalusite, biotite, and secondary
quartz predominate. The cordierite can be distinguished frojpcu

uj library]^

;334. Albert V. James:

the quartz by its cleavage, ■which is easily picked out, and by
the numerous and characteristic inclusions. A little tourmaline
is found in a f&\\ sections, but secondary quartz is present in
abundance in all.

The hornfels close to the contact is very much coarser than that
some distance away.

Owing to the quantity of sandstone which characterises the palaeo-
zoic rocks of this area, a considerable amount of quartzite has been
formed, much of it being tliermal metamorphic in type.

It is interesting to note the difference between the action of run-
ning water and the weather on these metamorphosed sediments.
They appear to be highly resistant to the latter, but readily suc-
cumb to the former, owing to the presence of three sets of joint
planes, which divide the^ rocks into variously shaped rliombohedra.
The result is that the stream in flood can break out the rhombs
and thus deepen its bed, whereas the ordinary atmosi^heric agents
are not so succes-^ful. The importance of jointing is shown near
Hanging Valley, where a metamorphosed fault rock of the same
material as the hornfels around it has more sucessfuUy resisted
•destruction by Deep Creek. The fault rock is not jointed, and the
normal hornfels is, thus enabling the stream to remove it block by
block.

Granod/orite.

Six outci-ops are mapped, three large and three small, and they
roughly form a ring round Bulla. 'Ihe boundary of the north-
-east outcrop is hidden ])y later detritus, that has gravitated down
h-om the east. The five outcrops to the north stood out as islands
in t])e lava flood, but the most southerly Avas overwhelmed by it.

(liemical Character. — The material for analysis was obtained
from fresh rock that had been " plug and>-feathered " on the main
^outcrop soutliwest of Bulla.

It was analysed by Mr. F. Watson, and the analysis is given
in the following table, together with analyses of other similar
vTOcks for comparison : —

Physiograplnj of Bulla Area. 3 3i

.2 "S
"5 -S

.2 £

E 5

0

"2

2 2

■5 H

5 B

z —

z, -

— ^

s s

11

a —

5 ■-

•OE-

|-o

0

■5 rt

u ^

0

0

< —

<

<^

SiOo

-

68.92 -

71.65 -

70-91

- 66.13 -

71.57 -

69.19 -

67.75

AI..O3

-

15.26 -

14.56 -

13.99

- 16.83 -

13.58 -

13.45 -

16.11

Fe,03

-

.80 -

].13 -

.35

- 1.11 -

1.18 -

2.71 -

.50

FeO

-

3.30 -

].5(j -

3.02

- 417 -

2.19 -

2.78 -

4.00

.MgO

-

1.64 -

.81 -

.80

- 1.83 -

1.07 -

1.06 -

.79

CaO

-

3.01. -

1.27 -

2.35

- 326 -

1.72 -

2.04 -

2.68

Na^O

-

2.71 -

2.76 -

3.94

- 2 25 -

2.79 -

2.89 -

2.60

K,0

-

2.93 -

4.14 -

3.66

- 3.14 -

4.36 -

3 94 -

3.42

H,0 +

110

l.Oi -

.15 -

.21

- 1.68 -

.69 -

.77

.96

HoO -

110

.22 -

1.20 -

.11

- .23 -

.11 -

.16 -

.20

CO.,

-

Nil -

Nil -

Nil

- Tr

.29 -

.07 -

Nil

Tip „

-

.70 -

.35 -

.58

- Tr. -

.4() -

.51 -

.85

p.o;

-

.19 -

.12 -

Tr.

- Tr. -

.11 -

.18 -

.09

MnO

-

Tr. -

.04 -

Nil

- .07 -

.09 -

.14 -

Tr

Li.^O

-

Tr. -

Tr. -

—

—

Tr.

'I'r.

—

CI

-

Nil -

Tr. -

—

Tr. -

Tr. -

Ti-. -

—

Total

-

100.75 -

99.77 -

99.95

100.70 -

100.21 -

99:89 -

99.95

S.G.

-

2.688 -

2.630 -

—

2.677 -

2.655 -

2.666 -

2.68

1

CJ

p.

4)

^

. 0

•^

r.

2 1

c

0

g

« CO

s

ffi

y

D

V

<

$ s

d

d

'^

_C

s

6

u.'

■<

<;'

d

33

The rather high CaO content, and the relatively low K^O content,
of the Bulla rock favours granodiorite rather than adamellite, and
the miscroscopical examination confirms this determination.

Megascopic Character . — It is a rather coarse grained, grey rock
with many crystals, 10 mm. in diameter. Quartz, plagioclase,
orthoclase, biotite and a little pyrite can be seen. Ihe quartz has
a greasy lustre, and the felspar tends to be greenish. The rock
takes a fine polish, though the coarse biotite is inclined to give the
surface a chipped appearance. Basic segregations with their
rounded outlines are very common. Ibe specific gravity of fresh
rock is 2.677, and thus in keeping with its determination as
granodiorite.

Microscopic Character. — It is a non-porphyritic, hypidiomor-
phic, holocrystalline rock with crystals of various 'sizes. It is
medium to coarse in grain, with a rich assortment of minerals..

Sd6 ' Albert V. James :

'J'lie following are jjroseiit in order of decreasing abundance : — •
Andesine, quartz, orthoclase, biotite. chlorite, sericite, niuscovite,
apatite, pyrite, magnetite, arsenopyrite, calcite and zircon. The
chlorite, sericite, pyrite, calcite, and arsenopyrite are secondary.

The extinction angles of the carlsbad and the lamellar twins dis-
close the fact tliat the plagioclase is basic andesine. Zoned crystals
are very abundant, andj" the zones are seen to be more basic as the
centre is approached. Certain bands of the zoned felspai's were
sericitized before the others, showing that felspars of that
Mcomposition were not so stable in the presence of sericitizing agents.
Generally sericitization took place from the centre outwards, i.e.,
from the basic to the acid plagioclases. In tlie sections studied
sericite in its turn tends to be kaolinized.

Simimarif. — The rock from its chemical and mineral composition
and its physical properties is a sliglitly altered granotliorite. In
the hand it appears fresh, and ^shows no vsign of weathering.

In the field it undoubtedly appears to be linked to the Gelli-
i)raud mass, which has been described bv Dr. F. Stillwell as a'da,ni-
ellite (] 1). Both are 500 ft. high, and have the same mineral com-
position, and approximately the same chemical coanposition. It
differs from the Gellibrand stock in having a slightly higher
lime content, and slightly lower silica content.

Dr. F. Stillwell found that the proportion of jdagioclase to ortho-
clase was less than 2:1 in the Gellibrand stock, but the writer by
the Rosival method found the proportion distinctly more than 2 :1
in the Bulla .stock, which is adjacent to it. Slight differences in
mineral and chemical composition are probably local, for the two
rocks are similar in all other important characters.

Granitic Intrusions. — Near Hanging Valley is a granitic dyke
20 feet wide, intruding the hornfels. Near the southern edge of
the main granitic mass there are several small dykes of microgranite
intruding granodiorite, while north of Bulla bridge there is a
dyke of aplite and a small one of quartz, both in granodiorite.

The dyke near Hanging Valley is evidently a tongue from the
main mass, but the microgranite, aplite and quartz tongues
appear to have been derived from the acid residue of the magma
after the outside portion had cooled and hardened. The magma
•evidently sloped the palaeozoic sediments so quietly that the dip
and the .strike are not only unaltered up to the southern contact,
but are continued at the northern junction. Ilie sediments to the
west also arc undisturbed.

FJii/singraphy of Bulla Area. 337

A large number' of aii^mlar and irregular rock blocks are found
embedded in the granodiorite along Deep Creek, 8.W. of Bulla.
That they were originally blocks of sedimeiit that were displaced
by the st'oping, and then sank into tlie molten magma, might l3e in-
ferred by tlie angularity of the blocks, and by their close similarity
to hornfels. If tliey were basic segregations, you would expect the
•outlines to Ije rounded.

Economics. — Ihe best granodiorite for building purposes lies
between the deep trenches of Jackson's Creek and Deep Creek, at
the 500 ft. level. 1 lie expense of liauling blocks of granodiorite
across these deep trenches and thence to Melbourne practically
prohibits the use of this rock as a building stone.

The granodiorite. in striking contrast to the ]>asalt of this area,
is always tree-covered, and witli the exception of the trees in the
-deep creek trenches, is the only local source of timber.

Kaalinized Grnnodlorite.

Locaf ion .—^The granodiorite at several places round Bulla and
Br-oadmeadows has l^een kaolinized. In the area under discussion
tliere are four extensive masses of kaolinized granodiorite, and
several smaller outcrops. Two of the large outcrops are being
MX)rked by Cornwells for their Brunswick pottery. The others have
not yet been opened up.

De.^cr ipf ion. —A.t the quarry Q' (Plate XXXII.) one can trace the
change from hard granodiorite, through the partly decomposed to
the thoroughly decomposed and whitened rock. Decomposed basic
segregations can also be seen in the face. Much of the mass is left
the purest Avhite by the leaching out of the iron oxide derived from
the magnetite, pyrite, biotite and chlorite. In other parts the
decomposed rock is deeply stained and cemented by the concentra-
tion of iron! oxide.

In the smaller quari-y (Qo-) near the Bulla school, there is a well-
marked vein one inch thick, of bluish tourmaline and granular
quartz, in a joint plane of the kaolinized granodiorite. Another
vein 1| inches thick has lately Ijeen cut out of tlie kaolin in Qi.

The quartz granules of the original granodiorite persist, appar-
ently unaltered, throughout tlie kaolinized mass.

Microscopic Exami nation. — Angular quartz is surrounde>d by
crystallised kaolin, which appears chiefly as twinned lamellae,
though often in the form of scales and aggregates. A considerable
•amount of sericite is still present, Avith earthy calcite and zircons.

o88 Albert V. James:

Origin of tht Bulla Kaolin. — Graiiodiorite may be kaolinized by
the action of meteoric water carrying carbon dioxide in solution,
■which penetrating the granodiorite decomposes the biotite and.
felspars. Kaolin in Fiji ami the Dublin Mts (Ireland) is stated
by Prof. SoUas to have been formed in this way (12).

Probably a conmioner process of kaolinization and the proved
origin of the vasi; kadlin masses of England and Unified States
(12 and 13) is that of pneumatolysis, where emanations of carbon
dioxide, boron, fluorine, or chlorine, probably with steam, have-
decomposed the felspars and l^iotite of tlie plutouic rock.

Three investigators, E. J. Dunn, 1899 (15), R. W. Armitage,
1911 (U), and F. Stillwell, 1911 (11.), have briefly discussed the
Bulla kaoliir. While both Mr. Armitage and Dr. Stillwell nefer tO'
the possibility of either surface water or pneumatolysis being the-
cause of the kaolinization of the Bulla granodiorite, the former
favoui's the meteoric origin and the latter the pneumatolytic origin.

For the following reasons, it seems probable that pneumatolysis
and not meteoric Avater is responsible for tlie kaolin of this area.

Evidence Against the Meteoric Theory.

(a) Only Isolated Outcrops Occur in Victoria. -^lliis is stroiigly
against the meteoric theory, for if the water and carbon dioxide
were subaerial one would expert kaolin to be found in all parts of
Victoria, where the old granitic surface is protected from denuda-
tion.

(b) Only Isolated Outcrops Occur at Bulla. — There are about
ten outcrops at Bulla, and these are separated from one another by
solid, unaltered granodiorite. Generally the surface of the grano-
diorite is protected by basalt and gritstone, and yet only rela-
tively sniall outcrops of kaolin are found.

(c) Relation of Kaolin to the Sites of Old Valleys. — It has been
stated (14) that the Bulla kaolin always underlies basalt which is
situated in the sites of old pre-basaltic valleys, and that the-
drainage beneath and through the basalt would thus tend to be
gathered along lines whei'e it could attack the granodiorite
vigorously.

In reply to this it can be stated that kaolin does not always
underlie the basalt. In the largest Bulla quarry, Q .^ the kaolin is
overlain by a considerable thickness of grits. The presence gener-
ally of basalt oyer kaolin is only what one would expect. Suppose-

Physiography of Bulla Area. 339

a granodiorite mass had been converted into kaolin at various^
places by pneumatolysis long before the lava floods. At these places.
the weathering would be ^niich more rapid than where the rock
was unattacked. Depressions would be made, and, later, occupied
bv the lava, whil^ the fresh and less denuded rock would stand up
as a monadnock above tlie molten basalt.

(d() Fresh Granodiorite -under Basalt. — In two places fresh,,
hard granodiorite was seen directly beneath basalt at a low level,
while the granodiorite to the side of it had been kaolinized. At
another place granodiorite was seen under basalt that had flowed
into an old valley. There was no sign of kaolinization.

(e) Shape of the Outcrops. — In this area the shape of the outcrops
is not very definite, but where it is shown it agrees with type (a),
(Fig. 1. Plate XXXIII.) If the kiuilin were of meteoric origin, it
Avould be of type (b) (Fig. 2, Plate XXXIII.').

(f) Relation of Kaolin to Depth. — In every case the rock near
the bottom of an outcrop is as much altered as that higher up the
face. If the decomposition were due to surface water and carbon
dioxide, then decomposition should decrease as the depth increased,
for the solid rock deep under the surface stream would suffer very
little from downward drainage.

(g) Xo Evidence of Stream Beds above the Kaolin. — If 'the-
kaolin weiie formed by water in old valleys draining through grano-
diorite, some trace of stream material above the kaolin would very
likely be found. No trace of river gravels, silt or conglomerate was
found above any of the kaolin masses.

(h) Kaolin Found at Many Levels. — Kaolin can be found right
from the level of the stream to 200 ft. above it. One would not
expect such differences in level in separated outcrops if old valley
floors determined the point, of attack on the granodiorite by the
stream water with carbon dioxide in solution.

(i) No Evidence of Kaolin Being Formed in Present Stream. —
The granodiorite along Deep Creek and on the hill sides is not
kaolinized. If kaolinization be due to subaerialj agencies, why has
not the granodiorite in this stream bed been kaolinized?

(j) Accompanying Minerals. — Kaolinization by pneumatolysis is
generally accompanied by the production of tourmaline, fluor, cassi-
terite or topaz, which cannot be produced by subaerial agents. A
vein of tourmaline in Q and another in Q., (Plate XXXII.) give
valuable positive evidence that magmatic vapours have been pre-
sent to some extent at least.

19

340 Albert V. James :

Sum mar I/. —The inicroscopic examination of the kaolin gives no
definite evidence in favour of either theory, but the field evidence,
Avhile producing little positive evidence in support of pneuma-
tolysis, strongly discounts the meteoric theory. The fact that no
fiuor, cassiterite, or topaz is found in the kaolinized rock, and only
a small amount of tourmaline, rather suggests that we must turn
to magmatic water and carbon dioxide as the agents causing
Jcaolinization, as in Cornwall and in. the United States (12). The earthy
calcite in the sections of the kaolin supports this conclusion.

Economics. — -Fifty years ago a company was formed to export
this material to England, Avhere it wa.s bought at 18/- per ton.
■Owing to the lieavy transport cost the company failed.

At present the kaolin in Q^ and Qo is being worked by Corn-
"vvells, who use it for making fire bricks and other articles used at
higli temperatures. There is a growing export trade in these
manufactured articles.

On account of the trace of iron in the Bulla kaolin, it has not, up
to the present, been used for chinaware. The quantity of kaolin
;appears to be uidimited.

Kainozoic Rocks.

Older Basalt. — In the south-east of the area three lenticular out-
-crops were found. The most northerly is vesicular, and rests
<lirectly on Silurian sediments, and underlies a very thick cap of
stratified Kainozoic grits. The best section, however, is seen in a
-cliff face in the extreme south-east, where very decomposed older
basalt overlies a pre-older basaltic river conglomerate, about 8 ft. in
thickness, wliich merges into sands at the sides. This sand and the
sandstone conglomerate beneath the basalt are strictly local in
origin, and remind one very much of the sands underlying and
overlying the leaf beds two and a-lialf miles to tlie N.N.W.

In this decomposed basalt there are. in situ, several undecom-
posed basaltic nodules. These remove all doul)t as to the identity of
the outcrop. The basalt thins out at the edges, and here the under-
lying sand has in part been altered to quartzite, and the overlying
sandy clay to a rock resemVjling red brick. Newer basalt more tlian
100 feet in tliickness rests on these beds.

Pre-oldcr-hasalf Hirer Val/ei/. — Tlie alignment of the tliree
southern outcrops is indicative of an old. river valley, and this

Physiography oj Bulla Area. 341

.conclusion is upheld by the presence of a conglomerate in the
.southern exposure.

No evidence of stream action in the two patches to the north was
found, but this may have been hidden by the talus, which masks
-the surface. The northern outcrops are at a lower level than the
soutliern one, and this suggests that the stream in this locality
flowed to the N.N.E.
\
Basic Hypahyssal Rocks.

Along Jackson's Creek, in the south of the area, there occur at
least seven basic to ultrabasic dykes. D^ between D, and D.^ can
be seen only when the creek is very low. In places it is sill-like.
T)j is 22 ft. wide, and is found directly beneath the " Organ
Pipes," but sejiarated from them by Kainozoic grits. D^ contains
•nodules of relatively fresh material, the only unaltered mineral
being ajDatite, though abundant augite and olivine can be recog-
nised by the shape of the old crystals and their alteration pi'odvicts.
«Oblong outlines which may have been plagioclase laths are fairly
numerous. The apatite has a vitreous to subresinous lustre. It.s
shape is remarkable, for it resembles a miniature torpedo. Fre-
quently the crystals are long, but flattened. They can be obtained
up to 1;!^ in. in length, and down to the smallest needles. All have
smooth rounded outlines, but some have small smooth depressions.
The smooth outlines and depressions are evidently due to corrosion
by the magma. Owing to the extreme brittleness of these crystals,
it is difficult to obtain complete specimens. From carefully chosen
fragments the S.G. was found to be 3.104, and the P-oO^ content
40.3 %. A brisk effervescence is set up on dissolving the mineral
in hot HCl.

Phenocrysta of olivine, augite, apatite, and felspar were set in a
fine groundmass. Of these apatite is the only survivor.

The seven dykes appear to be of the same age, and of the same
material, though apatite was found only in D^. All have the same
brownish yellow appearance, the same greasy feeling, the same
<legree of decomposition, and the same rich iron content, as shown
"by the iron oxide on the footwalls.

Age of the Dykes. — From their field appearance the basic dykes
•are all of the same age. The fact that the dykes (D^and D^) are
not intrusive into the overlying stratified Kainozoic grits, shows
that they are older than either the NeAver Basalt or the Kainozoic
grits. The fact that they are intrusive into the Silurian sedi-
ments, and were not affected bv the folding agencies of Lr. Devo-

842 Albert V. James :

niaii times (16), stamps them as post Lr. Devonian. In one-
dyke (Dg) a few nodules of partly decomposed rock were found,
and this tells us tliat the dykes are not very ancient. It is, there-
fore, reasonable to jjlace them with the older basalt, because rocks,
of this age also occasionally show undecomposed nodules, and it
was at this period that vast quantities of basic magma were forced,
to the surface.

Kainozoic Sediments.

These will l)e briefly described under the following heads: —

(a) Pre-olcler-basaltic river conglomerates.

(b) Pre-newer-basaltic grits (Normal " Tertiary Grits.").

(c) Eucalptus leaf beds.

(d) Pre-nef\ver-basaltic river sediments.

(e) Inter-newer-basaltic grits, conglomerates, etc.

(f) Post-newer-basaltic grits, conglomerates and alluvium.

(a) Pre-older-hasaltic river coiKjloinerate. — This is found in the-
extreme S.E. of the area, and has been described a1>ove.

No fossils were found. Part of this deposit has been altered to-
quartzite, evidently by the older basalt.

(b) Pre -newer -hamliiv grits and sands. — These are cenerally
stratified. Near Keilor, about two miles to the south, the grits-
are stratified, and marine fossils are abundant, but no fossils
have been found in the grits of this locality, with the exception of
the leaf beds descril)ed in the following paragraph. A close study
leaves little doubt that all these sandy deposits have been derive^l
from the Bulla granodiorite, the stratified and unstratified de-
posits apparently merging into one another.

(c) Eucoli/pfus Leaf Beds.—Ow the left bank of Deep C'reek (See*
Plate XXXII.) a deposit of fine sands and very fine clay bands rests
above sands, which in turn rest on the upturned edges of the Silu-
rian sediments. These clay bands are overlain l)y other saiuly layers.
Ihe whole deposit is about 30 ft. in thickness, and is cov<?red by
more than lOO feet of basalt. The clay bands consist of two sheets.
a]x)ut 8 ft. in thickness, light blue resting on dark brown. Both
are fossiliferous, but the brown ai-e especially rich. The fossils are-
leaves of eucalypts, acacias, ferns, and other plants, together with
stems and fruits of unrecognised plants. The Eucalyptus leaves
have been described by Mr. V\. Patton (IT). From the delicately
even strata and the fineness of the clay, the deposit is evidently a
lake deposit. The old surface of the Silurian rocks rises to greater-
heights on all visible sides of the leaf beds, and this, together with-
the lithological character of the sediments, is strong evidence in?

Physiography of Bulla Area. 343

favour of their lacusti-ine origin. There is no evidence as to
whether these sands are pre-older-basaltic or post-older-basaltic';
The examination of the eucalypt leaves by Mr. R. Patton threw no
light on the problem of (heir age. Fnmi their position among the
other sandy layers, with wliicli they are conformable, it is probable
that they are post-older-basaltic, like the normal Kainozoic grits.

The beds have a decided tilt to the S.E. Ihis may be due to the
compression of the loose porous sands by the great overload of new-
basalt, which here is about 140 ft. in thickness.

(d) I're-newer basaltic river sedi/nrnts. — These are shovrn on
the map (Plate XXXII.), as areas where plant stems are very
abundant. That they are river deposits is shown by their lenticular
shape, by the small conglomerate that rests on the valley floor, and
by the earthy nature of the matrix. They indicate the sites of
pre-newer basaltic valleys.

(e) Inter-newer basaltic grits and con r/lome rates. — The lava
flows of the newer basalt in this district are divided into two
series — Upper and Lower. This will be explained later. Between
the two series is the old soil surface of weathered rock, and in
places tliick deposits of grit have gravitated from the higher grano-
■diorite in the locality into the valleys corroded in the LoAver Series
of the newer basalt. These grits, etc., are not stratified. They act
as a simple division between the two series of newer basalt. The
best occurrences are at points marked F on the map. At Column
Gully a heavy conglomerate of quartz and basalt pebbles separates
the two series, while in the ]-oad cutting north of Bulla an old land
surface separates them.

(f) Post-newer basaltic grits, conglomerate and alliiviinn. — All
these should Ije placed as Recent, but as they form only a later stage
in the same destructive and constructive process that has l>een going
■on right through the Kainozoic, they have l>een placed under this
head. In the neighbourhood of the heart-shaped granodiorite out-
»crop, unstratified grits can be seen both above and l^elow the newer

basalt. The grits' have been shed from the hill. This process went
on before tlie older basalt, before the newer, basalt, and it is being
continued after it. Grit covers or mixes with the basalt soil.

In addition to the massive conglomerates that are now being
formed in the stream beds, there are conglomerates of much earlier
age formed along the river spurs, especially those of Jackson's
Creek, where the deposits are sometimes at least -30 feet in thick-
ness. Generally, they are chiefly rounded quartz and l)asalt pebbles,
and can thus be distinguished from the normal Kaiudzoic pel.ble

344 Albert V. James :

beds which coiitain no basalt. Tliese deposits have been dropped
by tlie stream as it deepened its bed, but yet the fact should be
noted that the great mass of this conglomerate occurs about 100 feet
above the present stream level, i.e., when the stream had sunk its
bed a little more than 100 feet below the surface. This shows that
at that depth the stream cut into an old Kainozoic pebble deposit
to tho north, and distributed the pebbles on the convex bank of its
meanders. The pebbles lower than 100 feet have probably been,
derived partly fiom the old pebble beds, and pa,rtly from the recent
deposits higher up the spurs.

Kiver alluvium, as already described under Physiography, is-
poorly represented in this area. It is found chiefly on the down-
valley side of the spurs, and it usually passes into and overlies a-
heavy river conglomerate. Ihe best deposit is found on Jackson's,
Creek, near its junction with Deep Creek.

Newer Basalt.

Newer basalt covei's more than nine-tenths of the area maiDped..
It appears to consist of about seven Hows that havei come from Red
Hill, Sunbury Hill and Bald Hill. This is sliown by the contour
lines on tlie military map, by the dominating position of these vol-
canoes, and by the sliape and direction of the vesicles in the basalt..
The points of origin of the earlier flows have not been determined.
In many places the basalt has a depth of over 300 ft., but it cannot
be said from this that each flow is 43 ft. in thickness, for the earlieir
flows are by far the deepest, since they levelled the old denuded
surface. In tlie neighbourhood of Column Gully excellent col-
umnar structure has been produced in the earlier flows. A de-
scription of these columns (14) and the factors producing them (18)
may be found in other puUications.

Upper and Lower Series. — The various flows of newer basalt in
this area are divided into Upper and Lower Series by sandstone,
bands, river conglomerates, or thick surface soil. • The places where
a good junction of the Upper and Lovrer Series can be seen is
marked F on the map. Tliat a considerable time interval elapsed
between the two series is shown by the denuded surface of the
Lower, by its older appearance aiid more decomposed state, and
by the thickness of surface soil on the Lower Series. Generally the
tliick scree on the valley sides masks the division line of the tAvo
series, but excellent junctions are common, especially in the N.\\^.
of the area.

Physiography of Bulla Area.

345

JiJ-

v^gdasQ

sursp..

346 , Albert V. James :

It might be thought that the Lower Series belongs to the Older
Basalt, but there is strong evidence against this : —

(1) The Lower Series rests in places on thick deposits of sand,

which appear to be the normal Kainozoic grits.

(2) The river conglomerates between the two series frequently

contain basalt pebbles derived from the lower series,
lliese peljbles are only slightly decomposed. If they were
older basaltic they would be thoroughly decomposed.

(3) Older basalt, three miles to the E.S.E., is thoroughly de-

comjDosed, while the lower series described above is only
slightly weathered.

Scoria Cone. — Near the junction (if Column Gully and Jackson's
Creek is a scoria cone which was almost submerged by the youngest
lava flows. A study of the\ sections shows that at first efiusive and
explosive eruptions alternated, and then gave place to a prolonged
discharge of scoria and agglomerate. The uppermost of the four
layers of scoria is still about 100 feet thick. Proljably denudation
has reduced ita thickness. At one point a wall of dense basalt
pierces the scoria. It is evidently a. l>locked up vent, or dyke.

The scoria is of the same age as the " Organ Pijies," and the
columns in Column Gully, and, thei"efore, belongs to tlie Lower
Series of Newer Basalt. At one point on Jackson's Creek scoria
overlies and underlies the columnar basalt.

Microscopic Examinatioii of U pper Xeirtr 73axalf. — Sections were
made of very tough basalt from the small quarry on Deep Creek,
north of the Leaf Beds. It proved to be a hypocrystalline rock, in
which some glass was present. Lai-ge phenocrysts of olivine were
i^et in matrix of fairly coarse labradorite. Augite and magnetite
were very abundant, while iddingsite frequently replaced the
olivine. The sectionsi gave good examples of ophitic structure, for
augite commonly included the labradorite laths. Flow structure
was illustrated by the orientation of the labradorites, and tlie man-
ner in which they " floAved " round the olivines. The rock was a
eoarse grained basalt.

Porphyritic Basalt. — In the triangle between Redstone Hill,
Bulla and tlie Organ Pipes, there is a peculiar flow of dense por-
phyritic Ijasalt that belongs to the Uppe\- Series. Near the Red-
•stone Hill, a volcano on Jackson's Creek, it is found resting directly
•on the sands that separate it from the Lower Series. In several
places in Deep Creek and Jackson's Creek it is found in a perfectly
fresh state, but above the Organ Pipes it appears in a more
weathered and vesicular state. Boulders of this porphyritic basalt

Physiography oj Bulla Area. 347

in the stream can readily be identified by the sniootli light-brown
.surface spotted with black augite crystals. Under the microscope
sections show that the rock contains perfectly fresh plagioclase,
augite, and olivine phenocrysts up to ^ in. in diameter, set in a
finer paste. The rock closely resembles the Tweed Head basalt of
Queensland.

Acknowledgments.

The writer is deeply indebted to Prof. E. Skeats for the interest
and encouragement always given, and for the help, advice and sug-
gestions which have acted us a guide to the matter in this paper.

Thanks are also due to Mr. F. Watson for the chemical analysis
of the Bulla granodiorite.

The writer desires to acknowledge his great indebtedness to
Dr. H. S. Summers for his valuable criticism of the method of pre-
sentation and of the matter g:iven here.

REFERENCES.

1. T. S. Tarr and L. Martin. College Physiograpliy, p. 188,

fig. Hi. P. Lake. Physical Geography, p. 250.

2. W. M. Davis, (a) River Terraces in New England, Geogra-

phical Essays, (b) The Seine, Meuse and Moselle. Geo-
graphical BiSsays.

3. J. "W. Gregory. The Geography of Victoria, figs, 75 and 76,

p. 158.

4. Quarter-Sheet, 7 S.E.

5. Quarter-Sheet, 1 N.W

6. T. S. Hart. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xvi.. N.S.. Pt. 1.

7. F. Chapman. Proc. Roy Soc. Victoria, vol. xxxi.. N.S., Pt.

II., 1919.

8. T. S. Hart. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xiv. N.S., Pt. II.

9. W. M. Davis. Physical Geography.

lU. E. W. Skeats and H. S. Summers. Geology and Petrology
of the Macedon district. Bulletin of the Geol. Survey, No.
24, 1912.

11. F. L. Stilhvell. Proc. Roy. Soc. A^ictoria, vol. xxiv., N.S.,

Pt. I.

12. F. X. Butler. Min. Mag., Nov., 1908, vol. xv.. No. 69.
1.3. .1. H. Collins. Q.J.G.S.. vol Ixv. No. 258.

14. R. W. Avmitage. Vict. Nat., vol. xxviii,, July, 1911.

348 Albert V. James:

15. E. J. Dunn. Mon. Prog. Kept. Gfeol. Surv. Vic, Nos. 8 and

9.

16. H. S. Summers. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xxvi., N.S. Pt..

II., 1914.

17. R. T. Patton. Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, vol. xxxi., N.S., Pt.

II., 1919.

18. A. V. G. James. Columnar Structure in Basalt and the

Factors Producing it. Jour. Geol., 1920.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate XXXII.

Geological map of the Bulla-Sydenham Area.

Plate XXXIII .

Fig. 1. — Type of kaolin deposit due to pneumatolysis.

Fig. 2. — Type of kaolin deposit formed by the action of atmos-
pheric water and gases.

Fig. 3. — Meanders of Deep Creek. The heavy line sliows the
present course of the stream; the dotted line indicates
the original course of Deep Creek.

Fig. 4:. — Primary and secondary meanders of Jackson's Creek.
Ihe heavy line shows the present course of Jackson's
Creek, with both primary and secondary meanders, while
the dotted line indicates part of the original course of the
stream on the surface of the basalt (with primary
meanders). The large curves are primary, and are pro-
duced by the inequalities in the original land surface,
but the small meanders are secondary, and are due to
subsequent stream development.

Fig. 5. — This diagram shows how the bed of a stream in the
spuri'ed type of entrenched meander moves both horizon-
tally and vertically.

Plate XXXIV.

Fig. 1. — Photograph of a spurred entrenched meander on Deep^
Creek. Water-worn pebbles are found along the crest of
the spur. The flood plain on the down-valley side of the-
spur has been caused by the down-valley sweep of the-
meander. At the point x are the Eucalyptus Leaf Beds.

Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXXTII.

FiQ. 1

Fi5.2

Ja.ckt.on'i*^

f;^.3

F.q U

Fiq.6

Kaolin deposits and river [meanders

Proe. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXXIV.

^^■T^^ ''^^"fflPfHP"")"^ '^ ""^W '' '''"""'Hi^^^^^^^m

■ : - ' '

^

■

■V

iL J .

- •^'••M9fe

J

^iflrft^

■J^^Il "^^

2r

Wf ^i-jiBtei'^

Hj^^^^^t^ipra

1

H

Spurred Meander and Junction of Upper and Lower Basalt

Physiography of Bulla Area.

34f>

'^^Z- 2. — Photograph of the junction of the Uppei- and Lower Series
of Newer Basalt, near the Canyon, Bulla. The Lower
Series is resting on grit«, which show slight step-faulting.
The Upper Series is seen resting on the weathered surface
of the Lower Series. The junction of the two basalts is
indicated by xx on the photograph.

t>, O T1 O Cb O .^ & r O f, <

Retent Alluvium

Kaihozoic ConQ,loniera.te Reduslributed on Spurs

Gi-aiiod I'orite Detritus on Newer Bisa-lt

Upper Series of Newer Ba-sa/lt

Grits etc between Upper O/iid Lower Serial
■ Lowev Series oF Newer Basa-lt

Eucal^cptus Leaf 3ecis

Pre- newer- ba.sa-1 tic l^iver Silt/

Strditifi&d Kaiinozoic Grits

Older Bi.salt and fieosic Djlfes
Pre-older-bajsa-ltic KiverSilt a-nd CoM^tomeyeotei
Lower Situriin Pediments

UppevOrdovicici/n 5edlment&
GraLnodiorite a-nd Acid I)yke^ (iDevonia/nY

Rocks of the Bulla-S\(denViam Area Arranged m (J-onolo^ical Column.

[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 19191.

Art, XXII. — On the Seasoning of Hardwoods.

By R. T. PATTON, B.Sc.
[Read 11th September, 1919].

The results given in this paper do not claim to settle, in any
way, the question of seasoning, but are ratlier a record of accu-
rate observations made on our timber when treated in various ways.
In tlie discussions on seasoning, opinion is more often quoted than
-observation.

Steaming of timber, prior to .seasoning, has many advocates, and
this process has been given a good deal of attention. In the Botani-
cal Laboiatory, we have only been able to use 2 ft. lengths, but I
do not think that this has any marked effect on the result. It may,
however, since the wood vessels in the tall eucalypts are very long,
and hence the steam may find its way riglit. into the wood. If the
wood be saturated with moisture, when it is put into the steam
bath, it is difficult to see how the wood could dry, since the air
is also saturated. On the other hand, if the wood l)e partly sea-
soned, then it ought to take up moisture. The latter case was not
investigated. In the former case, however, all specimens weighed
approximately the same when taken out as when put in. Steaming
may, as Tiemann points out, prove a leady means of heating the
wood, but the same result could probably be secured in another
way. In the former experiments, the results of which are pub-
lished in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus
regnans) was. niaiidy Vised, but in this series Messmate (E. obliqua)
was mainly used. The general results are the same. In the firgt
place there is no acceleration of drying after steaming. Typical
examples are given below. The weights are given as peicentages
■of original weight. The boards were 6 in. x 1 in. Messmate, and
^vere all cut from the same lengfth of timber.

Treatment.

Diite

In air

%

24 hrs. in steam

%

Air

/o

48 hrs. in steam
%

4/11/18

100

100

100

100

9/11/18

91.5

87.5

90.9

89.3

19/11/18

82.8

82.7

83.8

80.8

29/11/18

77.4

75.8

76.7

75.5

16/12/18

68.8

69.0

69.7

68.1

8/1/19

65.6

65.5

66.7

63.8

28/1/19

64.5

64 4

65.6

62.8

14/2/19

64.5

64.4

64.7

63.8

On the Seasoning of Hardwoods. 351

It will \ye seen that the specimen steamed for 48 hours has lost
sliglitly more than, the others. This is often the case, as tannin
and kino are dissolved out of the wood.

While the drying rate is not affected, the amount of shrinkage is
seriously affected. Two typical cases are given. The timber wa.s
6 in. X 1 in. messmate. The first specimen was steamed for six
hours, and then put out in the air to dry. Ihe corresjionding
piece was left in the air.

steamed Unsteamed

c, • 1 f Breadth - l^in. - ^iin.

Shrinkage ^ -^^ ''-

<. Depth - a^jUi- - g'si^-

The second specimen was steamed for 12 hours.

Steamed Unsteamed

ei • 1 ( Breadth - ^Sii- - ^Jin.

ShriuKage ] Y

<- Depth - Aiii- - 3^2 in.

It will be seen that the steaming has greatly increased the amount
of shrinkage. The cause of this extra shrinkage is not yet known,
but it may be due either to the steam affecting the union of the
cells or the constitution of the cell wall may l>e affected.

A very interesting result was obtained by cutting a length of 6
in. X 1 in. tim1>er into 10 in. lengths, and subjecting each piece
to a different mode of treatment before putting it out in the air
to dry.

The result of one experiment is as follows : —

Treatment

7/11/18

9/11/18

19/11/18

29/11/18

16/12/18

8/1/19

28/1/19

14/219

The weights are given as percentages of the original weights.
It will be noticed that the piece treated at 10 lbs. pressure of
steam is the lightest. This is due to various substances being dis-
solved out of the wood. The interesting feature of the experiment
lies in the fact that all the pieces have dried approximately at the
same rate. With the exception of the second weighing, the diffei--
ence lietween any pair of weights never exceeds 3% at any
weighing, and in this 3% diff'erence must bo included the loss of

In air

o/

2 hrs. in steam
at 10 lbs. pres.

o/

2 hrs. in steam
at atmos. p.

In oven at
llO'c

%
100

%
100

%
100

.

100

97.4

95.4

96.8

-

93.1

89.9

88.5

89.2

-

88.6

86

83

84.3

-

84.7

80.8

78.3

79.5

-

79.7

78.6

76

77.6

-

77.4

77.8

752

77.9

-

76.6

77.7

74.9

7G.9

-

76.4

-352 B. T. Patten:

■tannin and kino. The difference between the un-treated specimen
and the oven-treated specimen is very small. Other experiments
gave the same results. Hence we may conclude that sudden drying
of the surface does not affect the ultimate rate of drying.

The amount of shrinkage in breadth of these specimens is also
of interest : — .

Treatment

In Air 10 lbs. steam Steam at atmos. p. Oven at 110
Shrinkage - U - i^ - J5 - M

These results are similar to those of other experiments. It will
•be seen that the suddenly dried specimen gives the least shrinkage.

Ibe amount of shrinkage that takes place when our timber is
seasoning, is highly important. The measurements taken are not
•extensive, but they should prove a guide for future work.

Measurements were made on lx)th Messmate and Mountain
Ash. In length the shrinkage is very small, and averaged 1/32 in.
for 6 ft. Lengths from 2 ft. to 6 ft. were used.

For shrinkage in radial and tangential direction, 6 in. x 1 in.
boards were used mainly. The shrinkage in a tangential direction
is generally supposed to be much greater than in a radial direc-
tion, but the difference was not as great as expected. The results
-for Mountain Ash (E. regnans) are as follows : —

In the radial direction the shrinkage averaged —
^§in. for 6in. or about 5%.

In the tangential direction the shrinkage averaged — *
Jin. for 6in. or about 8%.

For Messmate the results were as follows : —

In the radial direction the shrinkage averaged —
J|in for 6iu. or about 6%.

In the tangential direction the average was —
J§ for 6in. or about 8%.

It is still a, debated question as to how long it takes our timlx-r
"to season in the open air. Apparently no accurate observations
liave been made, and hence doubt exists. In my former paper I
.gave some observations on the drying of a stack of timber.
Anotliei- stack Avas made in January of this year. The boards were
€ in. X 1 in., and were placed horizontally with 1 in. fillets between
Ihem. Laterally there was a 3 in. space between boards. There
-were 30 boards in the stack, each 6 ft. The stack was not in the

On the Seasoning of Hardwoods. 353

.most favourable position for drying, since it was shut in by walls
on three sides, and was beneath an elm tree. The lowest humidity
recorded was 13%, and this was on the day of the disastrous
fires in the Otway Ranges. All the boards dried in about four
weeks. The percenta'ge of moisture remaining was alx)ut 12 %, this

.being the average of three boards.

The actual and percentage weights of the boards that lost most

.are as follow : — •

Date

Weij<ht

%

Weight

%

18/1/19

16.6

100

16

100

25/1/19

13.3

80.6

12.5

76.9

1/2/19

11.14 -

72.5

10.15 -

68.4

8/2/19

10.15 -

66.8

10.1

62.9

15/2/19

10.6

63.4

9.12 -

60.9

22/2/19

10.5

63.0

9.14 -

61.7

1 3/19

lO.A

62.6

9.14 -

61.7

It will be noticed tliat the latter one began to weigh more.
This is always the case with dry boards, for they vary with the
iiumidity of the atmosphere. The result of this experiment indi-
•cates the need for, more extensive observations on the natural dry-
ing of timber in our climate, especially during the summer. If
inch boards can be seasoned by a month's air drying in summer time,
to kiln-dry such boards would be quite unnecessary and would
hardly save any time. I desire to thank the manager of the Vic-
.torian Hardwood and Milling Co., and also Messrs. R. Grundy and
Co., for their care and promptness in supplying the timl>er for
.these experiments.

INDEX.

The names of new genera and species are printed in italics.

Acacias, effect of lead nitrate on,

duration of flowers of, 251
Acacia Daw.soni, 189

leprosa, 189
Acid porpliyrites, 119
Adeuna 8
Adriana, 189
Agglomerate, 49
Ag-nostus australieusis, 83
Agrostis lacliuautha, 190
Aizoon zygophylloides, 190
Aleurone layer, 266, fig. 3
Alhagi camelorum, 190
Amarantlms deflexus, 190
Ancilla, 242
Andesitic rocks, 117
Area trai>ezia, 228
Archer, Ellinor, 247
Argentiferous galena, 126
Arundo Phragmites, 190
Astele, 239
Baldwin, J. M., 147
Barytes, 126
Basal conglomerates, 62
Basait, 129

Basic liypabyssal rocks, 342
Bassia .quinquecuspis, 191
Biose, production of. in photosyn-
thesis, 187
Bittium oerithium, 230
Boggy creek, map of, 108, 109, 110
Boneo' Swamp, 24
Boronia pinnata,

essential oil of, 14

compos'ition of, 15, 16

distillatian of, 17
Brachyoome microcarpa, 191
Brachyodontes hirsutus, 229
Brogger diagrams. 124
Bromus (Jeljadilla, 191
Biichanania oblongifolia, 191
Bulla-Sydenham area, 324

Physiography of, 326
Bullaria botnnica, 232
BuUinus acutispira, 26
Caleana minor, 191
Cailochilus cupreus 191
Calorimeter, 152
Calostemma purpureum, 192
Canarium commune, 14
Candanocypris assiinills, 28
C'arapook, fossil tortoise of, 11
Cardita, 236

scabrosa, 236
Cardium antisemigramulatum, 237

victoriae. 236
Cassytha, 192
Casuarina Helmsil, 192
Cerithium pritchardi, 240
Chapman, F., 11, 24, 225

Cherts, 59

Chlamys aldiugensis, 235

bifrone, 229

murrayamiis, 234
Chronometer rates, correction for, 147
Chrysotile, 51
clanculus dunkeri, 230
Clavatula, 242
Clawing action of rain, 20
Climacograptvis, 55

bicornis, 84
tubuliferous, 84

wellingtoniensis, 84
Oollomia coccinea, 193
Columbella semiconvexa, 231
Coniothyrium, 283
Conglomerates, 63
Conns, 242
Copper pyrites, 126
Corbula ephamilla, 238

pyxidata, 238
Coxiella striatula, 25
Crania, 8
Crassatelites, 236
Crepicephalus etheridgei, 83
Crepis setosa, 193
Crowea saligna, 193 ^

Crypograptus trioornis, 84
CucuUaea corioeJisis, 234
Culicidae, 164
Cyperus lucidus, 2
Cypraea., 240
Cypris mytileides, 27

tsnuiscidpta, n.sp., 28, Plate IV.
C,ythere luhhockiana, 29
Cytisus linifolius, 193
Dacite porphyry, 60
Darnel, 253, 262, 278

supposed nitrogen fixation by, 286
Diabases of the Howqua E., 33, 40

mineralization of, 52

petrography of, 33, 43

platy and splintery, 48
Dicellograptus elegans, 84

gurleyi, 84, 85

morissii, 84
Dicranograptus hians, 85

nicholsoni, 85
Didymograptus, 55, 59
Diorite, 62
Diplograptus, 55, 56
Diplograptus calcaratus, 84

foliaceus, 84

quadrimucronatus, 84

thielei, 84
Dolodrook limestones, 82
Dolodrook R., map of, 81

map of rocks of, 75
Doisinea johnstoni, 237
Dust whirls, 315

erosion by, 322

20

856

Index.

Dust whirls, table of, 318, 319, 320
Dyke rocks, 138
Echium violaceum, 194

plantagiueum, 194-5
Eoonomic minerals of Mt, Welliug-

tou area, 126
Elemicin, 14, 19
Elm, growth of, 205, 206, 207
Ernydura, 12

macquuriac, 12, 13, Plate I.
Endopliytic fungus of Lolium, 253

cultures of, 270, fig. 5, 282

function of, 284
Endospermic cambium, 276, 294
Erosion by dust wliirls, 322, 323
Eryciua lielmsi, 25
Essential oil of Boronia, 14

composition of, 15, 16

distillation of, 17
Eucalyjjtus Mitchelliana, 195

Woollsiana, 195

obliqua, seasoning of, 351

shrinkage of, 353

regnans, shrinkage of, 353
Eucalyptus leaf-beds, 343
Euspira, 240
Ewart, A. J., 168. 189
Fasciolaria australasia, 231
Faults, 102, 103
Picus macrophylla, 195
Flora of Australia, 189
Flowers, longevity of, 247

Hickey's Creek, 98 '

map of, 79, 99, 101
Howqua region, gemeral geology of,
39

general location of, 35

physiographical features of, 37

lower Palaeozoic of, 139
Hybantlius tilitorniis, 198
Hypolepis tenuitolia, 199
Induction motor, design of, -156

experiments with, 157, 159
Infection layer, 259, 26U
Inula graveolens, 199
Ironstone Creek, section of, 112
isopogon auemonifolius, 199
James, A. V. G., 324
Jasniinum linear e, 199
Jutsou, J. T., 20, 315
Kainozoic Basalt, 104

deposits, 127

rocks, 341

sediments, 343
Kaolinized granodiorite, 338
Laby, T. H., 148
Lagauiuni, 234

Lake Keilambete, character of, 6
Lasiograptus margaritatus, 85
Lasiospermum radiatum, 199
Lead nitrate, influence of in blocking

of Acacia vessels, 252
Lepidodendron, 9o
LepraVia, 8

Formaldehyde, polymerisation of, 168 Leptograptvis flaccidus, 84

polydrates of, 168, 171,
Fluviatile deposits, 128
Fusus australis, 231
Garvey Gully series, 77
Girvauella, 82
Gleichenia Hermann!, 196

laevigata, 196
Glossograptiis, 55
Glycimeris maccoyi, 234
Gnaphalium indicum, 197
Gold, 126
Goodenia arthrotricha, 197

geniculata, 197

grandiflora, 197-8
Gossany Ironstone, 111
Granite batholiths, 135
Granite rocks, 121
Granodiorite, 61, 335

composition and charactsr of, 336
Graptolites, table of. 87
Great Bight, formation cf beds of,

244
Grevillea ramosissima, 198

rosmarinifolia, 198
Hakea flexilis, 198

sericca, 198
Hampden tuffs, 3
Hardwooals, seasoning of. 351
Heat, mechanical equivalent of, 148
Heathcotian diabases. 135
Helipterum microglossum, 198
Hematite. 126

Lima jefirey-siana, 235

Limestone series, 127

Limuicythere sicula, n. sp. 29, Plate

IV.
Limonite, 11, 126
Lingulella, 82

Lolium, endophytic fungus of, 253
distribution of, 259
arvense, 253
italicum, 255, 285
linicolum, 253, 255
perenne, 253, 255, 257, 258, 259,

262
growing point of. 261, fig. 1
radicle of, 265, fig. 2
ovary of, 268, fig. 4, 273, fig. 6,

277, fig. 7. 292. 293, 295
subiulatum, 199-200
temulentum, 253, 255, 257, 258,
259, 262, 263, 271, 279, 280,
235, 293, 295
Longevity of cut flowers, 247
Lonicera japonica, 200
Loranthus longiflorus, 199
Lower carboniferous. 62
Lower palaeozoic area, structure
57
sediments, 54
lithological features of, 54
Lucina planatella, 236
Lyria acuticostata, 241
Macallister Valley, map of, 104

of,

Index.

357

Manganese, 126
Manila Elemi, 14
Marcia strigota, 230
McLennan, Ethel, 253
Meander belts, 327
Mechanical equivalent of heat,
method of determining, 148

apparatus for, 149

operation of, 151
Megascolex fletcheri, 303

anatomy of. 304, 305

gland of, 309
Melaphyres, 97, 98
Messmate, seasoning of, 351

shrinkage of, 353
Metaformaldehyde, action of alkali

on, 182
Metamorphic rocks, 34
Microcala filiformis, 200
Microcyl)e pauciflora. 200

multiflora, 200-201

albiflora, 201
Mitra pica, 231
Monograptus, 55
Montivaltia, 233
Moreton Bay Fig, effect of ringing

on, 195
Mountain ash shrinkage of, 353
Mt. Tara goldfield, 110
Mt. Terang, 8, 9

Mt. Wellington, Geology of, 67-146
Miicor Rouxianus, 280
Muraltia Heisteria, 201
Myosotis australis, 201
Natica substolida, var. qrandis, 239
Nautilus, 242

Nephridia, of Megascolex, 306, 307
Nemagraptiis gracilis, 85
Newer basalt, 345
Newtoniellia, 24')
Nitrogen fixation, tests of. in Lolium

perenne, 286-291
Non-reducing sugar, production of,

in polymerisation, 179
Nothoscordum fragrans, 201
Nowa Nowa, 105

map of, 107, 140

geology of, 67-146

map of, 70
Noyangose, 121
Ooldea, fossils of, 225

sketch map of, 227
Orbicella, 226

Orbicella tasmaniensis, 233
Orbitolites complanata 228. 232
Orthis platystrophioides, 83
Ostracod and shell marl, 24
Ostrea, 244

Oxalis purpurata, 202
Palaeozoic earth basins, 132

history, 129
Palaeozoic Geolog-y, 67-146

rocks, upper, 60

sediments, 328
Panicum parviflorum, 202

Paraformaldehyde, 170, 171

action of alkali on, 183
Paterson's Curse, 194
Patton, R. T., 351
Pejark Marsh, volcanic tuff of, 1, 3 seq.
Phebalium obcordatum, 202
Phibalomyia, 164, 165
Phormium tenax, 203
Phosphate deposits, 57
Photosynthesis, nature of changes in,

187, 188
Pinfelea flava, 202
Pinna inermis, 229
Platotrochus deltoideus, 232
Plagianthns monoica, 203
Po'lyhydrate of form aid ehyde, ao-
tioin of alkali on, 183

thermic changes during, 184, 185
Polymerization ratios of formalde-
hyde, 172

investigation of. 173

for calcium. 174-6

for strontium, barium, magne-
sium, 177

for potassium, 178
Polymers of formaldehyde, action of

alkalies on, 180-185
Polypogon littoralis, 203
Porphyritic rocks, 118, 125
I'orphyroids, 114
Protospongia, 55, 59, 64
Pseudotabanuis queenslandi, 165
Ptychoparia minima, 83

'thielei, 83
Pultenaea. 210

aciphyllum, sect., 217

euchilus sect., 217

euphultenaea sect., 212

coelophyllum sect., 219

acuminata, 218

altissima, 219

aristata, 222

Baeuerleni, 222

Benthami, 214

biloba, 217

calycina, 218

Gampbelli, 222

capitellata. 213

cinerasoens, 215

oonferta, 216

cymbifolia, 218

daphnoides. 212

densifolia, 222 ■>

dentata, 221

Drummomdii. 216

elliptica, 223

euchila, 221

flexilis, 219

glabra, 220

Gvmnii, 215

Hartmanni, 216

incurvata, 221

largiflorens, 223

Luehmanni, 218 •

Maidenii, 212

358

Index.

Pultenaea microphylla, 215

Millari, 214

var. angustifolia, 214

montana, 217

mucronata^ 214

myrtoides, 214

obcordata, 217

obovata, 219

paleacea, 220

var. robiista, 220

I)auciflora, 216

pedunculata, 216

petiolaris, 214

pinifolia, 216

plumosa, 222

polifolia, 203, 214

procumbens, 203

pycnocephala, 213

retusa, 213

rosea, 223

rotundifolia, 218

scabra, 217

selag-iiioides, 221

Skinneri, 216

spiniilosa, 218

stipularis, 220

etricta, 212

subumbellata, 221

tenella, 218

Williamsoni, 220
Pyroclastic rocks, 118
Quartz-ceratophyre, 120, 125
Quartz porphyry, 125

reefs, 138
Raniinculus Mixelleri, 203
Red Jasper, 49
Reduciji,w power of artificial

179, 180
Rhyolite, 62, 95
Roan horse g'ully, map of, 92
Roberts, J. K., 148, 156
Rock expansion, 22
Seasoning- of hardwoods, 351
Serpentine, 51, 75
Setosa ereota, 204

hordeacea, 204
Soenella tenuistriata, 83
Shannon, Jean H., 303
Siliceous carbonate rocks, 50
Silurian, 88, 100
Silvius distinctus, 165
Skeats, E, W., 33, 43

Smith, H. G., 14

Snowy, R., jjorphyry, 113, 123

fracture line of, 138

summary of, 141
Solanum violaceum, 204
Spoudylus, 235
Stator, 152
Stenotheca, 83
Stratified ash beds, 116
Stylophora, 232
Sugar, synthesis of, 168
* Tabanidae, 164, 165

Tabanus qeraldi, 166

strangmanni, 167
Talc rocks, 50

Tape, variations in length of, 206
Taylor, F. H., 164
Teale, E. O., 33, 67-146

Summary of paper bv, 139
Tellina, 238

Temperature, effect on rock expan-
sion, 22, Plate 2
Teredo directa, 238
Tertiary Fossils, 225
Tetragraptus, 55, 59
Tortoise, fossil, 11
Tovey, J. R., 189
Trachytic rocks, 117
Trichinium alopecuroideum, 205
Trichoinanes parvulum, 205
Triglochin centrocarpa, 205
Tuffs, 95
Turquoise, 111
Turritella clathrata, 230
Ulmus campestris, growth of, 205
Upper ordovician, 83, 108,
sugar. Upper palaeozoic, 89. 100

Uranataenia alhofasrxata, 164
Venus cainozoicus, 237
Verbascum Blattaria, 207
Vicia sepium. 20-^
Volcanic Tuff, origin of, 1, 2
Voluta validicostata, 241
Walcott, R. H., 1
Watson, fossils of. 225
Wellington area, 91

district, map of, 70, 71, 76, 94

geology of, 73
Western Austra.lia, clawing action of

rain in, 20
Williamson, H. B.. 210
Zygophyllum Billardieri, 208

END OF VOLUME XXXII., PART II.

[Published September, 1920.]

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PROCEEDINGS

apl ^mt\^ of l^irtoria.

VOL. XXXII. (New Sbrie^).,
PART II.

Edited under the Authority of the CounH^py

ISSUED SEPTEMBER, ig20.

(Containing Papers read before the Society during the months of
August to December, IQIQ)-

THB AUTHORS OK THE SKVERAli PAPERS ARK INDIVIDUALLY RBSPOKBIBLK FOR THE

SOUNDNESS OK THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE

STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:
FORD & SON. PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON.

1920.

Publications of the Royal Society of Victoria, and
of the Societies amalgamated with it.

Victorian Institutr for the Advancement of Sciencb.
Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855.

Philosophical Society of Victoria.
Transactions. Vol. 1. 1855.

These /wo Societies theii amalgamated a/td became: —

Philosophical Institute of Victoria.
Transactions, Vols. 1-4.

The Society then became : —

Royal Society of Victoria.

Transactions and Proceedings (Vol. 5, entitled Transac-
tions). (8vo). Vols. 5-24.

Transactions. (4to). Vols. 1, 2, 3 (Pt. 1 only was pub-
lished), 4, 5, 6 1888 .

Proceedings (New Series). (8vo). Vols. 1 1888 .

Microscopical Society of Victoria.

Journal (Vol. 1, Pt. 1, entitled Quarterly Journal). Vol. 1
(Pts. 1 to 4), 2 (Pt. 1), title page and index [a//
published]. 1879-82.

[The Society then combined with the Royal Society of Victoria].

Note. — Most of the volumes published before i8go are out
of print.

WHSE 00610

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