'i'
hJ
PROCEEDINGS
lomil <^0fktD of
VOL. XXXII. (Nkw Series).
PARTS T. AND II.
Edited under the Authority of the CoJincil.
ISSUED OCTOBER, igtg, and SEPTEMBER, ig20.
{^Containing Papers read before the Society during IQig).
THK AUTHORS OK TllK SEVKRAL PAPKRS ARK INDIVIDUALLY KESPONSIBLK FOR THK
SOUNDNKSS OF THK OPINIONS QIVKN AND FOR TllK ACCUIIACY OF THH
8TATBMENTS MADE THEREIN.
MELBOURNE: FORU & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STKKET, CARLTON.
1920.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII.
TAOB
Art. I. — The Origin oi the Volcanic Tuff of Pejark Marsh, Victoria.
By E. Henut Walcott ... ... ... ... 1
II. — New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the National Museum. (Part XXIV.— On a Fossil Tortoise in Iron- stone from Carapook, near Casterton). By Fredkrick Chapman, A.I;. S. (Plate I.) ... ... ... 11
III. — On the Essential Oil of Boronia pmnata, Sm., and the presence
of Eleuiicin. Hy Henry G. Smith, F.C.S. ... ... 14
IV. — On tlie "Clawing-" Action of Rain in Sub-Arid Western
Australia. By J. T. Jutson. (Plate II). ... .:. 20
v.— A Striking Example of Rock Expansion by Temperature ^ Variation in Sub- Arid Western Australia. By J. T.
JuTsoN. (Plate II.) ... ... ... ... 22
VI. — On an Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age from Boneo Swamp, West of Cape Schanck, Victoria. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates III. and IV.) ... 24
VII. — The Diabases and Associated Rocks of the Howqua River near Mansfield, with reference to the Heathcotian Problem in Victoria. By E. 0. Teale, D.Sc, F.G.S. (Plate v., 4 Text Figures and Map) ... ... 33
VIII. — A contribution to the Palaezoic Geology of Victoria, with special reference to the Districts of Mount Wellington and Nowa Nowa respectively. By E. O. Teale, D.Sc. (Plates VI.-IX.) ... ... ... ... ... 67
IX. — Note on the Correction for Chronometer Rate. By J. M.
Baldwin, M.A., D.Sc. ... ... ... ... 147
' X.— A New Method of Determining the Mechanical Equivalent
of Heat. By Profkssor T. H. Laby, M.A , aud J. K. Roberts, B.Sc. (Plates X. and XI. and 1 Text Figure) 148
XI. — The Design of an Induction Motor with large Air Gap and Rotating Field Magnets. By J. K. Roberts, B.Sc. (2 'I'ext Figures) ... _ ... ... ... ... 156
XII. — Australian Phlebotomic Dii>tera : — New Culicidae, Tabanidae
and Synonymy. By Frank H. Taylor, F.E.S. ... 164
XIII. — On the Synthesis of Sugar from Formaldehyde and its Poly- mers, its Quantitative Relations and its Exothermic Character. By Albeed J. Ev;akt, D.Sc, Ph.D. ... 1G8
XIV. ^Contributions to the Flora of Australia, No. 28. By Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., and J. R. Tovey. (Plate XII.) 189
PAGE
XV. — A revision of the genus Paltenaea, Pai-t 1. By H. B.
Williamson. (Plates XIII., XIV. and XV.) ... ... 210
XVI. — Notes on a Collection of Tertiary Fossils from Ooldea and Watson, South Australia. By Fredeeick Chapman, A.L.S. (Plates XVI., XVII. and Text Figure.) ... 225
XVII. — The Longevity of Cut Flowers. By Ellinoe Archee, M.Sc. 246
XVIII. — The Endophytic Fungus of Lolium, Part 1. By Ethel McLennan, B.Sc. (Plates XVIII. to XXVI. and 8 Text Figures.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 252
XIX. — On the Structure of a New Species of Earthworm from South Australia, Megascolex fletcheri. By Jean H. Shannon, B.Sc. (Plates XXVII. -XXXI.) ... ... ... 302
XX. — Notes on Dust Whirls in Sub-Arid Western Australia. By
J. T. Jut.son ... ... .. ... ... 314
XXI.— The I'hysiography and Geology of the Bulla-Sydenham Area By Albekt V. G. Jamks, B. A., M.Sc. (Plates XXXII.- XXXIV.) ...
XXII. — On the Seasoning of Hnrdwoods. By R. T. Patton, B.Sc
Index
3;^3 350 355
[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I.. 1919J.
Art. I. — Tlin Origin of the. Volcanic Tuff of Pejark Marsh
Victoria.
By R. henry WALCOTT (Curator, Technological Museum).
[Eead 8th May, 1919].
In view of the discovery of a native implement associated ■with, fragments of bones of extinct marsupials under volcanic tuff at Pejark Marsh, near Terang, by Mr. A. J. Merry, i increased interest is attached to the task of ascertaining the probable age- and origin of the tuff.
For this reason the opportunity was taken, while supervising^ some excavations being made at the Marsh, in 1909, in search of further evidence of man's antiquity, of paying a few hurried visits to various places in the neighbourhood likely to bear upon the subject. The following notes are principally the result of information so gained, but, as the time devoted to field investiga- tion was unavoidably very limited, they must of necessity be brief, and perhaps omit some matter of value in deciding the issue in question.
An account of the excavations referred to, and of the occur- rence of the tuff has already appeared. 2 It might be mentioned here, however, that the tuff is seen as a fine-grained bedded deposit, from 15 to 24 inches thick, along a drain made to carry the water away from the Pejark Marsh. The tuff has Ijeen laid down in an old swamp, now represented by a stiff, black clay bed, and abundant leaf impressions are present in the lower layers of the tuff. Rest- ing on the tuft' again, comes the heavy, black soil of the present marsh, some two or three feet in thickness.
The tuff is locally known as " sandstone," and is also called* " sandstone tuff," on the quarter sheet No. 8 N.E. (New Series),, of the Geological Survey of Victoria.
Previousi reference to the deposit has been made by Professor J. W. Gregory .3 when he states : " The broad down-shaped hill to the- south-west of Camperdown, and the plains between Terang and Noorat, are formed of re-deposited, bedded tuffs. The low cliffs
1. An account of this discovery has not yet been published. The implement
is in the possession of the National Museum, Melbourne.
2. Spencer and "Walcott, "The Origin of Cuts on Bones of Australian
Extinct Marsupials." Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., pt. I., 1911, pp. 92-123.
3. The Geography of Victoria, Melb., 1903, p. 192, and revised edition, 1912,.
p. 204.
2
2 R Henry Waleolt:
ai'ound Lake Teraiig, and a bank on the ruad leading to Gnotuk Park, near CaniperdoAvn, show the bedding, which indicat-es that the materials were laid down under water." If Professor ■Gregory's assertion be correct, that the tuff of the plains between Terang and Noorat, Avhere the Pejark Marsh is situated, has been re-deposited, then the underlying clay bed may be younger, and not older than the volcanic rocks of the neighbourhood. This is a point of very considerable moment concerning the age of the human relic found in tlie clay bed, under tlic tuff.
In regard to the bedding of volcanic tuff, a connuon enough character in South-East Australia, Dr. T. S. Hall,'* and Messrs. Mahony and Grayson^ have shoAvn, that it is by no means j)roof that the tuffs were laid down under water. On the contrary, the evidence indicates that they were mostly laid down on dry land, the exceptions being in those cases, such as at Pejark, where they may have been deposited in swamps or shallow lagoons. 6
The dirtH-'t deposition in these shallow and stagnant waters does noh in any way affect the age of the tuiTs; that question only arises where there is good and suflicient reason to believe that the tuffs have been, by the natural agency of wind or Avater, removed from their original places of deposition to others at a perhaps much lateir period.
The few facts gathered with regard to the Pejark tuff certainly ;seems to negative the idea that there has been any re-disposition of the material, and one of them is found in the numerous cavities it contains; a somewhat unusual feature in a, rock of its character.
These cavities are of varying size and form, some being extremely regular, more especially the smaller ones, which are also generally spherical, but others again most irregular in sliape. An •examination in situ shows that the cavities are not all due to one •cause. Some, the larger and mostly irregular ones, have a broAvnish coloured lining, and are found only near the bottom of the bed with the leaf impressions. These are undoubtedly the
4. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. Vol. XX., pt. I., 1909, pp. 20, 21.
5. Mem. Geol. Surv. of Vict.. No. 9, 1910, p. 13, Geology of the Camper- down and Mt. Elephant Districts.
<6. A specimen of tuff from Pejark Mar.sh, examined by F. Chapman, is stated by him to " show carbonized and iron-stained impressions of vegetable stems. When wax squeezes of these were taken they were seen to be triangular in section, and under the microscope show a struc- ture exactly matching that of the surface in the living Victorian Marsh- loving Cypei-HS hicidns. The tuff specimen referred to also show excel- lent cross bedding disposed at a high angle to the plant-stems, thus indicating the formation of this deposit from gentle showers of volcanic •dust."
Volcanic Tuff of Pfjark Marsh. 3
result of the decay, and removal of vegetable remains. Higher up in the bed, where there is no sign of those remains, the smaller .and more regular cavities occur in horizontal zones, and these likely enough have arisen through air entangled in the showers -of ashes being carried with them to the bottom of the swamp, and there unable to escape.
In neither kind of cavity is there the slightest indication that it was formed by the gases given off by the decomposition of vegeta- tion in the swamp in which the ashes fell. The presence of cavities due to air or other gases entangled in the shower of ashes, if it lie -a correct interpretation of the phenonienon, in itself sets at rest any doubts about the tuff not being in its original site, because such cavities could not have been retained during a re-distribution either by wind or water.
Mahony and Grayson, 7 in describing the microscopic characters of the Hampden tuffs, mention that a deposit at Blind Ci'eek, about which some uncertainty exists as to whether it has been re-deposited or not, is similar to the tuffs occuring elsewhere in their original position. The same may be said of the Pejark tuff, as its character does not seem to differ from that of tho bods of fine texture undoubtedly in situ. Tlie Pejark bed is also sharply defined from both the underlying and overlying deposits, and there has been no mingling with extraneous material in any part of it. There are, then, no features in connection with the occurrence which might be held to indicate that it was laid down under con- ditions inconsistent with primary deposition.
The facts as they are, point not only to a sudden change in the nature of the deposited material, but to great rai^idity of deposi- tion with slight intervals of rest, during which the fine sediment suspended in the water of the lagoon or swamp settled, forming thin, impalpable seams in the tuff.
The Avhole bed was no doubt laid down in a comparatively sliort time, then earlier conditions again prevailed, and the present alluvial soil was deposited.
Regarding the origin of the tuff in question, there are three possible sources within the immediate neighbourhood of tho place where the excavations were made, viz., Mt. Noorat, three miles to the north, Lake Keilambete, about two miles to the west, and Lake Terang, one mile due south.
The first of these sources and the most distant from the position mentioned, while leaving no question of its crater origin, has not
7. Loc. supra cit., p. 19.
2a
4 B- Henry Walcott :
yet supplied evidence of a sufficiently definite nature to prove that; the tuff emanated from it. Mahony and Grayson^ say that tuff was proved in Avells sunk through the basalt to the north of the Mount, and they verbaly informed the -writer that there was also evidence of tuff underlying the lavas in other directions.
This merely introduces the possibility of Mount Noorat having contributed to the Pejark tuff, but one of the other suggested places of origin' is accompanied by evidence quite sound enough to fix it as the main source.
Lakes Keilambete and Terang, although surrounded by accumu- lations of tuff, have not been generally accepted as the sites of old" volcanic vents.
Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn5 thought they were more probably acci- dental depressions due to other causes, and Professor J. W.. Gregoryio is confident that they, as well as Lakes BuUemerri and' Gnotuk, are not crater lakes, but occupy basins formed by sub- sidences in bedded volcanic tuff, which were probably caused by the- eruptions of neighbouring volcanoes.
Mahony and Grayson, i^ on the other hand, hold that all these lakes are directly due to volcanic explosions, and with this view the writer is in accord. Their paper is a most valuable one, not only on account of the interesting matter it contains, but also be- cause it is the only systematic account of the geology of the district yet published. As these notes must necessarily be brief, and only of a general nature, reference should be made to that paper.
The part of Lake Keilambete visited by the writer, like nearly the whole of its banks, was hidden by a luxurious growth of grass, with the exception of some outcrops of soft, tertiary, fossiliferous limestone underlying the superficial tuffs. ^^
S. Loc. supra cit., p. 6.
9. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melb., 1866.
10. The Geography of Victoria, Melb., 1903, p. 130. Revised Ed., 1913, pp. 131-136.
11. Loc. supra cit., p. 13.
12. Mr. P. Chapman, Palseontologist to the National Museum, who was good- enough to examine all the fossiliferous material collected, determined the Lake Keilambete forms from the limestone as follows : —
Foramnifera. — ■TruncaUMna lobatula, W. and J. sp. Also others indet.
Polyzoa. — Indet.
Echinldermata. — Echinocyamtis (SciiteUina) patella, Tate sp, Eupatagus (?) laubel, Dvmcan.
Brachlopoda. — Magellania insoUta, Tate sp., and M. (?) pectoralis- Tate sp.
Pelecypoda. — Pecten yahliensis, Tate.
Pisces. — Lamnu apiculata. Ag. s\).
Mr. Chapman places the limestone bed in the Janjukian series. Oyster shells of fossilized appearance occur on the beach of the lake, and it mav be useful to record the fact here given to the writer by Mr. H. Quiney, of Mortlake, that many years ago an attempt was made to acclimatize oysters in the lake, but without success. It is to this soui-ce that the "presence of the shells may be attributed.
Volcanic Tiiff of Pejark Mavslt. 5
The lake has an area of two square miles, ^^ and is' situated about two and a-half miles north-west of the township of Terang. Its circular form and low banks of volcanic tuff gently sloping into .the surrounding plains on all sides, are very suggestive of volcanic origin. The fact that the banks are raised at all, unless they are •of aeolian origin, makes it difficult to understand how they could .have been formed if thei lake is occupying a depression resulting .from the withdrawal of material from below through the activity of neighbouring volcanoes.
It seems more reasonable to expect a gradual slope towards the lake by a sagging of the strata, instead of the reverse. Again, the .fiymmetrical shape, which has been assumed, in place of one .more or less irregular, as in the case of lakes situated in areas w^here the evidence supports an origin by subsidence, is more con- sistent with a volcanic origin. There is no evidence that this lake basin was formed in a depression in volcanic tuff. The tuff appears to have been deposited on a comparatively level land sur- face, through which the volcanic forces burst an opening. Mahomy and Graysoni'^ point out with regard to Lake Bullenmerri, which has only an area of a little over two square miles, is bounded by steep sides, and has its floor lying 700 feet below the highest part of the rim, that the formation of such a basin by the sinking •of its floor has never been actually observed, but that there are instances of the production of similar depressions by paroxysmal .explosions.
If it can be jaroved that the accumulations of tuff round the lake in situ thinned out as they receded frofcn the lake itself, a strong piece of evidence would bet established in favour of the basin being .an explosion vent.
With regard to this, and several other points, Mr. A. J. ]\Ierry very kindly went to considerable trouble to ascertain what data ■were known from well sinkings in the neighbourhood. The result 'Of his inquiries went to show that the well sinkings near Lake Keilambete all indicated a gradual reduction in the thickness of the tuff away from the lake, thus supplying the important evidence 'required. It is not certain, however, if this tuff extends to, and is continuous with, the Pejark bed. On the geological quarter sheet, buckshot gravel is seen to be the superficial deposit interven- ing between the former and the Pejark Marsh, and the nature of the underlying Ijeds is not disclosed.
13. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melbourne, 1866.
14. Loc. supra cit., p. 13.
6 R. Henry Walcott:
While there may be certain characteristics absent from the for-- mation of Lake Keilambete, they do not put nearly such a barrier- in the way of ascribing its origin wholly, or in part to a volcanic explosion, as the presence of other characteristics do to the accept- ance of the explanation that the lake basin is a simple subsidence- in the land surface.
The site of Lake Keilambete may, therefore, be considered on good grounds the source from which the tuffs surounding it were derived, but evidence has not yet been collected to show that it has contributed to the Pejark Marsh tuff, although quite likely enough it has done so to some extent. Lake Terang has an area of one square mile, 15 or half that of Lake Keilambete, and, strangely enough, although it is without an apparent outlet, the water in it is fresh, unlike that of Keilambete. It also lacks the conspicuous circular form of Keilambete, and its irregularity, which is really nob by any means marked, is emphasised by the varying height of the surrounding hills. The township of Terang is situated along- the northern slope of these hills, but also spreads on to the level country, both eastward and northward. At the east end of the lake the hills are low, forming a gradual rise from the country beyond. Following along the township the elevation increases right to the west end of the lake, where the greatest prominence- is attained, and is deemed worthy of the title of Mount Terang.. From Mt. Terang, tapering hills extend further to the westward. Continuing round the lake the land rapidly falls away until a gap, forming the lowest part of the ring, is reached, and this is succeeded again on the south by somewhat prominent hills extend- ing to another gap at the east end.
The greatest depth of water, which is in the centre of the lake,, at the time of the Author's visit (1909) was said to be three feet. In this respect it differs much from Lake Keilambete, which, ac- cording to the geological quarter sheet, had a depth of 96 feet in the year 1888. It is also said that when the early settlers came to Terang there were 30 feet or more of water in Lake Terang, and' that it even flowed out through the gap on the south-west side. As the surface of the water has not been lowered to this extent, it is believed by local residents that the bottom has risen.
The growth of peaty vegetation has given some foundation for tliis belief, but it does not explain the reduction in the volume of water. This can only be accounted for by its draining away along-
15. Intercolonial Exhibition Essays, Melbourne, 1866.
Volcanic Tuff of Pejark Marsh. 7
some subterranean passage. As already mentioned the water is. fresh, and it would require a considerable access to bring the level up to the gap, which is said to have been reached in the past. There is no doubt that there has been a large diminution in the quantity of water in the lake Avithin recent years, and if this is caused by the supply, either superficial, or superficial and sub- terranean combined, as the case may be, being exceeded by the loss due to evaporation, it would be noticed in the salinity of the water. Keilambete has also been lowered in level to some extent during the same time, but the saltness of its Avaters is very marked.
A suggestion might here be made Avith regard to this difference in the Avater of the tAvo lakes Avhich in other respects seem to have much in conmion. It has been mentioned that in another paper^^ that at Pejark Marsh, in driving a croAvbar through the yelloAv clay, on the top of Avhich cut fragments of bone AA-ere found, the bar entered a softer stratum, and Avater floAved freely from the hole so made, shoAving that probably the Avater-bearing bed from Avhich the local residents obtain their supplies, had lieen tapped. It is also thought that this might be the porous fossiliferous limestone of Tertiary age exposed along tlie shores of Lake Keilamljetei for some feet above the present Avater level.
On the shores of this lake Avells have been sunk for some tAventy or thirty feet in the limestone, it is said, and fresh Avater obtained, although the lake Avater itself is so saline from the absence of an outlet that it is unfit for consumption by stock. It, therefore, seems evident that the limestone bed is a channel by Avhich the supply of Avater to Keilambete is augmented to some extent. Noav at Lake Terang conditions are apparently different, and the pro- cess is reversed. In this case the Avater is either being forced out through the porous stratum into the surrounding country, AA'here numerous AA'ells are draAving it away move rapidly than l>efore the stratum Avas tapped, and more rapidly than it can be naturally replenished, or else underground svipplies, which were sufficient to balance the loss by subterranean outlets, have been intercepted. Mahony and Grayson^^ mention this as a probable factor in tlie desiccation going on at Lake Te-ona:.
The sides of the lake, or ring of hills enclosing it, are composed principally of bedded tuffs. An extremely good exposure occurs
16. Spencer and Walcott, " The Origin of Cuts on Bones of Australian Ex- tinct Marsupials." Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Pt. I., 1911, p. 93.
17. Loc. supra cit., p. 10.
.:8 R. Henry WalcotI :
just at the back of the Mechanics' Institute, where they have been ■quarried for building stone, and a clean vertical fcae about ten feet in height has been left. The beds here are of much coarser texture than at Pejark Marsh, and scattered througii them are small lumps of white, indurated clay, which impart the effect pro- duced by splashes of whitewash. An interesting feature was noticed here near the top of the beds, giving evidence that a vol- canic vent was not far distant. This was the characteristic bend in the bedding of the tuff caused by impact of a falling body, and occurred under a cavity at one time occupied by a bomb or ejected block.
At Mt. Terang, where the tuff is lieing quarried just to the north of the summit, the beds are seen to be dipping, as far as can be made out, with the outward and northward slope of the hill. They are capped by a thin flow of scoriaceous basalt, which seems to form the cover of the hills extending to the west. Clay en- closures are also noticed here, but not so abundantly, and in one place the lava has intruded the tuff in the form of a small dyke now largely decomposed.
Just south of the summit of Mt. Terang, where a cutting for a road has been made, from what can be seen, the beds generally show a dip towards the lake, but as they have here been disturbed and become almost vertical within a short distance, Avhere they abut on a coarse agglomerate or mass of volcanic ejectamenta, it IS not quite certain whether this is the true direction of dip or not. It may be that this agglomerate is occupying a vent, and that the disturbance and rapid change in dip of the bedded tuffs has been caused by the downward drag of the volcanic material •during its settlement. Enclosed in the agglomerate are lumps of iiesh-coloured clay, reaching up to the size of a man's head. They are indurated by the heat to which they have been subjected, and mostly exhibit an imperfect prismatic structure from the same cause. These enclosures are of considerable interest on account of the fossils some of them contain, bearing witness of the presence of the marine tertiary beds underlying the volcanic deposits of the district, and from which they have been derived. Mr. F. Chap- man identified these fossilsi as belonging to two Polyzoan genera — - Adeona and Lepralia, and a brachiopod, doubtfully referred to the genus Cranicu. If then, we have here no evidence that the site of an old vent lies within the limits of Lake Terang, from wlienco came the various materials forming the mount and the surround-
Volcanic Tuff of Fejarh Marsh. 9
ing hills? The ejected lumps of the older underlying rocks alone testify to the presence of a not distant source. On the eastward •outward slope of the lake near the cemetery, a well put down passed through about 80 feet of tuff before striking water, but half .a mile or so further east, poor " buckshot " country is encountered resting on, it is said, a clay bed. Again, near the summit of Mount Terang, another well was sunk, and a still greater thick- ness of tuff was met with. Mr. Merry also says that to the west and south of the lake the good volcanic country is succeeded by " buckshot " and clay lands. The geological quarter sheet shows what is called the " older volcanic series," giving place to " buck- .:8hot " gravel to the west, but to the north extending to the limits •of the quarter sheet. The title given to this series is badly ■chosen, and misleading, as it does not refer to the older basalts, known as such since the time of the first geological survey of Vic- toria, but to a section of the newer volcanic rocks belonging to a much more recent period. Apart from the confusion occasioned thereby, " older " is an inappropriate term to employ, as the basalt it is applied to, is in, part superficial, and at Lake Terang mapped right up to its side, so that it must be younger than the tuffs there, and Mahony and Grayson state that the basalts belong to one cycle of activity, no sharp line of demarcation separating them. These authors^s have very properly in their paper substi- tuted the terms " earlier " and " later " for the older and newer •volcanic series of the quarter sheet. To the north of Lake Terang we know that at the Pejark drain, distant about a mile, there is at the most only two feet of tuff, and Mr. Merry ascertained that between the drain and the lake the tuff or " sandstone" had been ■ encountered in every well sinking and cellar excavation, increasing in thickness as the lake was approached. The actual thickness of the tuff bed on that side of the lake could not be found out. The section behind the Mechanics' Institute shows a face of 10 feet. This establishes the continuity of the Pejark and Lake Terang tuffs, and makes it probable enough that they originated from the same point, although of course, as already stated, they may have blended to some extent to the west and north with the tuffs which emanated from the site of Lake Keilambete and from Mt. Noorat.
As the tuffs of Lake Terang are unquestionably occuj^ying their ■original place of deposition, and are continuous with, and thin •out into, the Pejark loeds, there seems no reason to attribute the
18. Loc. supra cit., p. 4.
10 R. Henry Walcott: Volcanic Tuff.
occurrence of the latter to re-deposition. If Lake Terang does not represent an ancient centre of volcanic activity, it is inconceivable- how a mass of volcanic ashes and coarser ejectamenta, covered with lava for the greater part, and undoubtedly in situ, came to be piled up there where there is no evidence whatever to connect its. presence with any other possible source of origin.
It is possible, however, that the crater basin ocupied by the lake may have been enlarged by subsidence through the withdrawal of material from below.
In view of the facts given it may fairly safely be taken that any works of man discovered beneath the tuffsi of the areas under con- sideration would at least put his history back to the last great epoch of volcanic activity in south-west Victoria, and make himt the contemporary of our giant extinct marsupial fauna.
[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].
Art. II. — New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the- National Museum.
Part XXIV.— On a Fossil Tortoise in Ironstone from Carapook, near Casterton.
By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S. (Palaeontologist, National Museum, Melbourne.)
(With Plate I).
[Read 8th May, 1919].
Note on the Matrix.
Bog iron-ore, known mineralogically as a form of Limonite- (2Fet,03 +3HoO), is a common preservative of fossil plants and animals, in which their remains are usually found as casts and impressions. In Victoria we have numerous instances of such occurrences of beds of ironstone; as for example, the deposit on the Parwan Creek, and other exposures near Bacchus Marsh, which contain leaves of Laurel, Cinnamon and Beech.
Of terrestrial or freshwater (lacustrine) origin, these bog iron- ores contain the remains either of the organisms which were living in the swamps and lakes, as the ostracoda and shells ; or remains of animals as bones and feathers, which were washed into the deposit off the land.
In the case of the Swedish lake iron-ores, the higher baeteria have played a prominent part in separating the iron oxide from the water, and such may have been the case with the beds of iron- stone near Casterton in which the above fossil tortoise was found. The iron was in ail( probability derived from the vast outpourings of lava during late Tertiary times in Victoria, being dissolved out by meteoric Avaters and re-deposited in pans on the bottoms of swamps and lakes.
Description of Specimen.
The practically unique fossil now under consideration was found in a bed of ironstone at Carapook, north-east of Casterton. It represents a replacement in limonite of the greater part of the body cavity of a tortoise. On the dorsal surface the vertebral
12 Frederick CJtapman :
column is well-marked by a deep, interrupted groove. The sutures •of the costal plates are faintly visible. The impressions of the bones of the pelvic girdle are also seen. On the ventral side impressions of the bones of the plastron may be made out, and also those of the epidermal plates; of the latter the most strongly marked are the grooves between the pectoral and abdominal shields.
This fossil cast is referable to the genus Emydura, Bonaparte, ^ to which the Murray Mud-tortoise belongs. From all appearances the fossil may be referred, with some reservation, to the same species, Emydura niacquariae, Gray sp.2
The length of the fossil specimen when complete was about 28 cm., as against 27 cm. of a full-grown living specimen. 5 Breadth, about 15 cm. A living example from Wahgunyah, mentioned by McCoy, shows almost identical proportions. This fossil is slightly broaden in proportion, both across the carapace and plastron, than the living specimens, but this difference seems to be due to com- pression.
Observations. — The Murray Mud-tortoise is common in the River Murraj^ and its tributaries and branches, but is not found in Victoria in rivers flowing to the south. This curious point in its local distribution may indicate the once northern trend of the rivers in the Casterton district, which now join the Glenelg.
Anent the discovery of the specimen, the question arises whether this ironstone deposit bears any relationship to that occurring at Hedruth, which yielded Eiicah/pfus and Banksia leaves, and a 'bird's feather.'' Carapook is in the same district as Redruth, and
1. Arch. f. Naturgeschichte, 1S38, Vol. I., p. 140. ;2. Hydrasiiis macquarii, Gray, 1831, Syd. Rept., p. 40.
Platemys macquariae, Gray sp., Dumeril and Bibron, Erp. Gen., Vol. II.,
p. 438. Hydraspis victoriae, Gray 1842, Zool. Misc., p. 55. Chelymys macquaria (pars). Gray, 1844, Cat. Tort, p. 42 . Euchelymys sulcifera, Gray, 1871. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, Vol.
VIII., p. lis. Euchelymys sulcifera, Gray, 1872, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 508. Chelymys victoi-iae (pars). Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 506, pi.
XXVII. Chelymys macquaria, Cuvier sp. McCoy,, 1884, Prod. Zool. Vict. pp. 11-14,
pi LXXXII. and LXXXIII. Emydura macquariae. Gray sp. Boulenger, 1889, Cat. Chelonians,
Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in the Brit. Mus., p. 230,
Pig. 63. Emydura macqxiariae, L,ydekker, 1889, Cat. Poss, Rept. and Amphibia.
Brit. Mus., p. 169. ■Z. Prod. Zool. Vict., Vol. I., 1884, p. 12.
-4. See Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. I.. 1910. pp. 23-26, pis. IV., V.
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate I.
F.C. photo. ciyp_ J nat. siise.
Fossil Cast of Emydura, cf. Macquarle, Gray sp., Carapook.
Victorian Fossils, Fart XXIV. 13:
lies 20 miles to the N.W. The probable age of the Redruth iron- stone Avas, in my original description, put down as Miocene, but it is possible that it may be of later age. This can only be proved in conjunction with more precise field evidence than we have at present.
Occurrence. — In an ironstone bed, three feet from the surface^ at Carapook, N.W. of Casterton. Presented by Mr. James S.. Macpherson.
Age. — Probably Pleistocene.
Previous records of Fossil remains of Emtdura macquariae. —
R. Lydekker has recorded^ two fragmentary specimens of the above species from the collection at the British Museum (Natural. History), London. One of these is " An imperfect eighth marginal bone of the right side, belonging either to this or an allied species. "^ Its locality is doubtful, but " apparently from the Pleistocene cave- deposits of New South Wales.
The other is " An imperfect right tenth marginal, probably referable to the same species as the preceding; from the Pleistocene- cave-deposits of the Wellington Valley, New South Wales. This,, specimen appears to include part of the eighth costal."
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Fig. 1. — Emydura of. macquariae, Gray sp. Dorsal surface of cast in ironstone. Carapook, near Casterton. About half natural size.
Fig. 2 — Lower surface of the same specimen. x\bout half natural" size.
5. Cat. Foss. Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.J,. pt. III., 1889, p. 169.
[Peoc. Eot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].
AuT. III. — 0)1 the Essential Oil of Boronia pinnata, Sm. and the presence of Elemicin.
By henry G. smith, F.C.S.
(Sydney Technological Museum).
[Read 10th July, 1919].
The Boronias (N. O. Butaceae) are plentifully distributed in Australia, and constitute a genus the flowers of which are often strongly perfumed.
The essential oil. the subject of this communication, was distilled by Mr. P. R. H. St. John, in Melbourne, from material collected, .towards the end of the year 1917, in the Longwarry District of Victoria. The plant at that timei of the year was in full bloom.
Very few species of Boronia have so far been worked for their oil, and consequently little is at present known concerning the con- stitution of their odoriferous products.
In this case it is particularly interesting to know that almost three-fourths, of the oil consists of the trimethoxy-phenol ether, Elemicin.
This substance which is 4-allyl — 1.2,6, trimethoxy-benzol ; ■Cl2HlfiO;^, occurs in the higher boiling portion of the oil of Manila Elemi, and it was from this oil that it was first isolated, and its characters and composition determined.
The constants given for Elemicin are : — boiling point 144.147°C. at 10 millimetres pressure; density at 20°:= 1.06-3, re- fractive index 1.5284; also that it occurs in the fraction of the oil boiling at 277-2SO°C.
Ihe oil of Manila Elemi, di.stilled from the oleo-resin of Can- ari'um commune, L.. is thus derived from plants belonging to the Burseraceae, a natural order somewhat far removed, systematic- ally, from the Rutacea?, to which Boronia belongs, and it is thu.s interesting to find this rare plant constituent so widely distributed.
The slight fluorescence ol the oil is also worthy of remark, because it seems very probable that this was Avholly or partly due to the presence of a small quantity of the methyl-ester of an- thranilic acid, which constituent it was possible to extract from the oil by agitating with dilute sulphuric acid. As the plant was in flower at the time of distillation, it is probable that this ester
Essential Oil of Boronia plnnata. 15
was derived from the flowers, and it may ]ye found not to occur in rthe leaves. Although the fluorescence of the oil was apparently -considerably diminished after agitation with dilute acid, yet it was not entirely removed in this way.
A considerable amount of work has been carried out on elemicin, and iso-elemicin, by Semmler (Ber. 1908, 41, 1768, and other refer- ences in the same volume), the material worked upon having been • derived from Elemi oil.
This is the first time elemicin has been detected in the oils of .Australian plants.
My thanks are due to Mr. F. W. Byrne, of the Chemical Depart- :ment of the Museum, for assistance in this investigation.
Experimental.
The total yield of oil was equal to 0.383 per cent. The crude oil, which was heavier than water, was of a light amber colour, and had a mild aromatic odour, suggesting the presence of geraniol and geranyl-acetate. It also had a slight fluorescence. When dis- solved in absolute alcohol the secondary odour was pleasant, and it appears that the oil of thisi species of Boronia will be found a use- ful addition to the perfumery products of Australia. The crude oil had : —
Specific gravity at 15"C. = 1.0197. Rotation aD= +3.8°. Refractive index at 20°C = 1.5125. Soluble in 1 vol. 70 per cent, alcohol (by weight). The dextrorotation of the oil was due to the activity of a small •quantity of pinene; this is shown later.
The saponification number for the esters was determined both by boiling and in the cold.
(a) 1.5252 grams boiled for half-an-hour with alcoholic potasb, required 0.0-306 gram KOH. S.N. = 20.2.
(b) 1.528 grams treated witli alcoholic potash in tlie cold with two hours' contact required 0.028 gram KOH. S.N. = 18.3.
This result is important, and, together with the odour, indi- cates that the chief ester in the oil is geranyl-acetate, and that it occurs to the extent of 6.4 per cent.
That free geraniol was also present is suggested from the results of acetylation. A portion of the crude oil was boiled with acetic -anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate in the usual way.
1 6 Henry G. Smith :
(a) 1.5144 grams of this esterised oil, when boiled witb alcoholic potash, required 0.056 gram KOH. S.N.= 36.9.
(b) 1.5162 grams, when treated with alcoholic potash in the- cold, with two hours' contact, required, 0,042 gram KOH. S.N. = 27.7.
To confirm this result some cold saponified oil was steam dis- tilled. Besides the terpenes an aromatic alcohol came over, which: was strongly indicative of geraniol.
Although the chief alcohol may b© considered to be geraniol, yet it is evident that other alcohols were also present.
Determination of Combined Acids.
A portion of the crude oil was boiled for two hours with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The alkaline solution was separated and acidified Avith sulphuric acid. The clear filtered solution was distilled until volatile acids ceased to come over. The- distillate was neutralised with Barium hydrate solution, evapo- rated to dryness and treated in the ordinary way.
(a) 0.1868 gram Barium salt gave 0.1580 gram BaSO^ = 84.58 per cent.
(b) 0.2306 gram Barium salt gave 0.1958 gram BaS04 = 84.91 per cent.
On treating the Barium salt with sulphuric acid the odour of butyric acid was noticeable; it is thus assumed that butyric acid'
was also present. The results obtained are equal to 59.8 per cent, of Barium acetate, and 40.2 per cent. Barium butyrate. The acetic acid was evidently in combination with the geraniol as
geranyl-acetate.
The amount of free acid in the crude oil could not be satisfac- torily det-ermined for several reasons, and although a small amount of a solid acid was eventually isolated, yet the saponifica- tion number Avas under 2.
Phenol and Free Solid Acid.
A portion of the oil was shaken with dilute sodium hydroxide until extraction was complete. The aqueous solution was separated, shaken with ether to remove adhering oil, acidified, and again shaken with ether. The ether extract thus obtained was equal tO' 0.198 per cent., and was semi-crystalline, due to the presence of the- solid acid.
Essential OH of Boronia pinnata. 17
The product was dark coloured, and had a strong phenolic odour. It ■^\-as dissolved in ether, and the acid removed from the phenol by shaking with a solution of Sodium carbonate. The- small quantity of acid when finally purified, was crystalline, and melted at ISO-IGCC. It was not cinnamic acid, and perhaps con- sisted of trimethylgallic acid, which is formed by oxidation of elemicin.
The ether solution of the phenol after removal of the acid was evaporated to dryness. The residue had a strong phenolic or creosote-like odour, was not crystalline, and when dissolved in alcohol gave a purplish-brown colour with ferric chloride, which colour remained persistent.
Tests for some of the well-known phenols gave negative results, and as the amount was small, its identity could not be determined.
The oil, after the removal of the phenol and free acid, was re- peatedly shaken for some days, with a saturated solution of sodium bisulphite, but no combination took place. Aldehydes were thus absent.
Distillation of the Crude Oil.
100 c.c of the crude oil were submitted to distillation under atmospheric pressure. A few drops of an acid water with a little- oil came over below 160°C. (uncorrected). Between 160-250° only 16.5 c.c. came over as first fraction, 10 c.c. of which distilled below 180°.
Thes temperature rose rapidly to 259", and distillation then pro- ceeded as follows : — ■
259-265° = 18 c.c. 265-270° =50 c.c. 270-274° = 63 c.c. 274-280° = 70 c.c. This fraction was then separated, and although 3 c.c. of an oil came over on continued heating, yet the temperature did not rise- beyond 280°. The residue in the still was a dark hard pitch-like- substance, which powdered readily when cold. 71)6 first fractio7i gave the following results : — Specific gravity at 15°C. =0.8657. Rotation aD= +15.9°. Refractive index at 20° = 1.4639. Cineol was not present. The oil of this fraction was fluorescent. 15 c.c. of the first fraction were again distilled, when 7.5 c.c. came over below 158°C., and 5.5 c.c. between 158-190°. The
3
18 Henry G. Smith:
portion distilling below 158° had
Specific gravity at 15° =0.8596. Rotation aD= +21.2°. Refractive index at 20° = 1.4569. ;and formed a nitrosochloride, which melted at 104° C.
The lower boiling constituent in the oil was thus shown to be -dextrorotatory pinene.
Possibly limonene Avas also present in the intermediate portion, as the specific gravity was only 0.8590.
The second, or large fracfion, gave the following results : — Specific gravity at 15°C. = 1.0519. Rotation aD= +0.4°. Refractive index, at 20° = 1.5230. "Soluble in 0.5 volume of 70 per cent, alcohol, remaining clear on further addition.
After removal of any phenol which might be present in this fraction, it was again distilled under reduced pressure, the first 15 CO. being discarded. The remainder boiled fairly constant at 191 °C. under 47 millimetres pressure. The product gave the following results : —
Specific gravity at 20°C. = 1.0705. Inactive to polarised light. Refractive index at 24°C = 1.5283. It was thus considered that the bulk of the oil consisted of this -constituent. When freshly distilled, it was practically colourless, had a slight fluorescence, and a delicate aromatic odour, reminding somewhat of linalool. It darkened slightly on keeping. Analysis gave the following ; —
(a) 0.1688 gram gave 0.1196 HoO; and 0.4222 CO^ : H = 7.87
and C. 68.22 per cent.
(b) 0.1332 gram gave 0.0932 H.O; and 0.3362 CO;^ ;H = 7.8
and C. 68.85 per cent. CiaHiA requires H. 7.75 and C. 69.1.
Methoxy Detepmination.
(a) 0.2872 gram gave 0.9498 Agl equal to 43.6% OCH3.
(b) 0.3144 gram gave 0.9939 Agl equal to 41.8% OCH3.
It is thus evident that the molecule Cj^HihOj contains three methoxy groups.
That the molecule was unsaturated was shown by the action of Bromine, when the substance was dissolved in carbon tetrachloride.
Essential Oil of Boron ia pinnata. 19
.although a satisfactory bromide was not obtained. At first the bromine was absorbed without evolution of hydrobromic acid, but later the evolution of HBr. was pronounced, the solution becom- ing dark purple.
Formation of the Acid.
A portion was oxidised by Potassium permanganate in alkaline solution ; considerable heat was evolved. After comi^letion of the reaction, the remaining colour was removed by sulphurous acid, filtered, evaporated to small bulk, and acidified with dilute sul- j>huric acid. A solid acid separated at once. This was purified from boiling water, from which it crystallised in needles. It melted sharply at 169°C (corr.) without decomposition. The acid was titrated with decinormal sodium hydroxide; 0.13 gram dis- solved in absolute alcohol required 6.15 c.c. J^ NaOH to neutralise, thus 40 grams would neutralise 211.4 grams of acid, CmHiaOj^ 212.
It was thus evident that the acid was trimethylgallic acid Cj-pHiaOs, the characteristic acid formed by the oxidation of elemicin.
That a small quantity of iso-elemicin was also present was indicated by the formation of a minute quantity of acetic acid on oxidation by Potassium permanganate. This was shown by dis- tilling over the free acid and forming with it the Barium salt. This on ignition gave 91.6 per cent. BaSOj^ . Theory requires 91.37 per cent.
The above investigation shows that the principal constituent in the oil of Boronia pinnata is the trimethoxyphenol-ether, Elemicin, (4 allyl — 1,2,6 trimethoxybenzol) and that it occurs in the oil of ithis species to the extent of about 70 per cent.
3A
[Pboc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].
Art. IV. — On the ^' Claiving" Action of Rain in Sub-Arid Western Australia.
By J. T. JUTSON
(With Plate II.). [Read 10th July, 1919].
Introduction.
In sub-arid south-central Western Australia, which is portion' of the great plateau of that country, erosion presents results dif- ferent in many ways from those obtained in areas possessing a " normal " climate. Thia is partly due to the difference in degree,, and to some extent in kind, of the erosional agents, and partly to the surface alteration that rocks and soils have in many parts sustained. There are certain minor featui^es •which are peculiar to the area, and therefore of interest. Such are the miniature soil- terraces described in this paper, the formation of which is asso- ciated w'ith the "clawing" action of rain, and with the gravita-- tional drift of rock debris.
Summary.
The " clawing " action of rain on gentle soil-covered slopes with a firm surface produces terraces with tiny cliffs, which are termed " miniature soil-terraces," and at the same time gradually removes the soil to loAver ground. By the formation and recession of these terraces, drifting rock debris is undermined, and topples forward dow'n the slopes. Thus a decided aid is given to the slow, gravita- tional drift of rock debris from higher to lower parts.
Description of the Processes.
In sub-arid south-central "Western Australia there is a wide- spread tendency to form hard caps at the surface, owing to water- Ijeing drawn there by capillary attraction, and to evaporation then taking place with deposition of the contained salts.
Soils are no exception to this process, although the cap is in places but a mere film of slightly firmer material than that below. This film, however, is quite sufficient to influence the transporting action of the rain. On many gentle soil-covered slopes, especially
^' Clatvlng" Action of Rain. 21
those covered by a sandy loam, the rain passes over the fihw in thin . sheets or rills without furrowing the ground, despite the latter having many spaces bare of vegetation. Where the film becomes broken by any means, miniature waterfalls occur, due to the flow of water over the film to the softer soil beneath. Tiny cliffs are thus formed.
These tiny cliffs may be only from an inch to six inches in height, but they may extend laterally — that is, approximately at right angles to the direction of water-flow — for many yards, and thus form a miniature soil terrace on the slope. Other similar terraces may form alwve and below; and thus on a gentle slope several such terraces may be seen rising one above another, sepa- rated by varying distances, but usually fairly close together.
The actual outline of a terrace (see Plate II., Fig. 1) may be de- scribed as a series of gentle curves or scallops, mostly concave to the ground at the foot of the "cliffs," and each curve usually presents a minutely crenulated edge. This appearance suggests some force that has gently clawed away the soil, and hence the writer terms the rain action "clawing," Tiny furrows may run from the "clawed" edges, indicating the direc-tions of the minute rills. These furrows usually tend to unite Avithin a few feet from the edges into a larger one, but within a few more feet this larger furrow dies out, owing to the action of the water in depositing the transported fine sand and soil as a series of minute, flat alluvial fans or " lobes." The surface of the lower ground by reason of such deposit becomes levelled off, thus illustrating, on a very small scale, one result of rain action in this country. Another general result is the slow transportation by rain of soil from higher to lower ground.'
Extensive areas of rock fragments slowly drifting from higher to lower ground form one of the commonest surface features in sub-arid south-central Western Australia; but only the most resis- tant rocks, such as quartz, jasper and ironstone, travel any dis- tance. On the soil-covered terraces, such loose pieces of rock often occur; and, as "clawing" proceeds, these fragments are seen in course of being undermined. Eventually they topple over to the lower level, and by repetition of this process their migration down the slope is largely accomplished.
[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].
AuT. V. — A Striking Example of Rock Expansion by Teniper-- ature Variation in Sub-Arid Western Australia.
By J. T. JUTSON.
(With Plate II.).
[Read 10th July, 1919].
A rather remarkable example of rock expansion, due to tem- perature-variation, having come under the writer's notice in sub- arid Western Australia, its record may be of value. It occurs about ten miles to the north-north-Avest of Comet Vale, a niining township about sixty miles north of Kalgoorlie, on the Kalgoorlie- Laverton railway line. It is, therefore, situated well in the in- terior of Western Australia, in an area of low rainfall and of great temperature variations.
The rock is a biotite granite, which outcrops as a bare rounded hill rising to an inconsiderable height above the surrounding plain. This rock is, therefore, constantly exposed to the weather; and, owing to the great variations in daily and nightly tempera- ture, it peels off in layers or bands of various thickness, with the result that the rock assumes the well-known rounded appearance characteristic of granite. This peeling or flaking ofi is the " des- quamation " of Richthofen.i
The particular occurrence referred to is a surface slab of granite, on the lower slope of the hill, abutting a " gnamma," or natural rock-hole. This slab is 10 feet long, two feet six inches- Avide, and ranges from one and a half to four inches in thickness. It is separated from the parent mass, except at its ends (which' here mean the terminations roughly at right angles to its length). These ends pass into rock of similar character, but the slab rises in a gentle curve toAvards the centime, Avhere it is not resting on anything (except possibly at one point on a loose boulder that has drifted into the cavity). On the uphill and downhill sides of the slab, at the centres of the respective sides, the height of the lowe»- face of the slab from the surface of the solid rock below is seven inches and four and a-half inches respectively. The slab is cracked
1. Hume, y^. F., "Professor Walther's Erosion in the Desert Considered."' Geol. Mag., Decade VI., Vol. I., Nos. 595-6 (1914), p. 21.
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate II.
Fig. 1— The fiu-ure shows the tiny rain furrows ruuniiiy from the foot|of the "cliffs," uniting, and then dying out as "distributaries."
|
■■■IIIIIIPIIII |
V^^P |
|||
|
_^ |
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1 |
V |
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Wlm |
m- |
'.^ |
^^mMMMI |
^ ' |
|
m^^' |
M |
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. ,3 |
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Fig. 2.
Rock Expansion by Temjjeratitre Varidtion 23-
right through (vertically and horizontally) across the centre, and the portion on one side of the crack has sunk one half of an inch to an inch below the other portion.
This slab of rock has, therefore, been bent and raised to a maximum height of seven inches above the solid rock below; and its bending power was so great that it attained this height before breaking. Temperature variation appears to be the only cause of this phenomenon.
Tlie accompanying photograph (Plate II., Fig. 2), illustrates the features here described.
[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].
Art. VI. — On an Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age from Boneo Swamp, West of Cape Sehanck, Victoria.
By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.
(With Plates III. and IV).
[Eead lOtli July, 1919].
Description of Deposit.
The dried marl is of a -whitish-grey colour, but when wet is grey to smoke-brown. It is light in weight and cavernous in places, the holes being due to the roots and stems of plants, which -have been enclosed in the deposit.
The molluscan shells are mainly of freshwater types, belonging to the genera BuUiniis and Coxiella, but the marine genus, Erycina, is also well represented.
Ostracoda are chiefly of aquatic character, as Cirpris and Cando- nojjsis ; LiniTwcy there is a genus, which is' usually found in streams and lakes, draining high land, and in close proximity to the sea; Cythere (C . luhhockiana), though rare in this deposit, is a true .marine ostracod.
Under a high power of the microscope the fine washings are seen to consist of minute rounded particles mingled with fragments of ■ostracoda, and a few freshwater diatoms iCymhella). This genus of diatomaceae has been previously recorded from several Vic- torian localities of Pleistocene age, in deposits of a freshwater or lacustrine nature, as those of Mickleham (^det. by author), Eglin- ton, Amherst, Coralulup, Splitter's Creek, Rodborough, Belfast and Talbot. 1
The material is almost purely calcareous. On testing it for phosphoric acid, no reaction was obtained.
J. See Mahony, D. J. Bull, Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 26. 1912. pp. 12, 15 and 16.
Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 25
Description of Fauna.
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA.
Class PELECYPODA.
Earn. LEPTONIDAE.
Genus EKYCINA, Lamarck.
Erycina helmsi, Hedley. (Plate IlL, Figs. 1, 2.)
Erycina helmsi, Hedley, 1915, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales, vol. XXXIX., pt. IV., p. 701, pi. LXXX. Figs. 37-39. Chapman and Gabriel, 1917, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXX. (N.S.), pt. I., p. 6. Observations. — It is interesting to meet with thisi little bivalve in these sub-fossil deposits, in which the majority of forms are of freshwater habitat. The localities where it is found living are Dee Why Lagoon, New South Wales; and in Victoria, at Port Mel- bourne, Corio Bay, Altona Bay, Port Albert and Lakes Entrance. Mr. C. J. Gabriel and the author also recorded it (loc. supra cit.) from the Pleistocene deposits underlying volcanic tuft" near Warr- nambool, where it occurred abundantly in association with many marine shells and a few brackish water forms. Some specimens from Lake Connewarre, near Geelong, in the Dennant collection, labelled " Pisidium ether idgei," also belong to the above species. At first glance, this small form might easily be mistaken for the -aquatic genus, Pasidium, but an examination of the hinge-line is sufficient to show the difference.
Occurrence. — Common in the Boneo Swamp deposit.
Class GASTEROPODA.
Fam. TRUNCATELLIDAE.
Genus COXIELLA, E. A. Smith.
Coxiella striatula, Menke sp. (Plate III., Fig. 3.)
Truncattllm striatula, Menke, 1842, Moll. Nov. HoU., p. 9. Blnnfordia pyrrhostoma, Cox, 1868, Mon. Austr. Land
Shells, p. 95, pi. XV., Fig. U. Pomiatopsis striatula, Menke sp. Tenison Woods, 1876,
Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. for 1875, p. 78. Coxiflla striatida, Menke sp., E. A. Smith, 1898, Proc.
Malac. Soc, vol. III. p. 75. I Coxiella confusa, E. A Smith, 1898, Ibid. p. 76.
Coxiella striatula, Menke sp., Hedley, 1916, Prelim. Index.
Moll. W. Austr., p. 189.
26 Frederick CJiapmarh :
Observations. — Some of the shells of this freshwater or brackish lacustrine species have as many as six whorls. The periostracum. having been removed by natural decay, the ornament is clearly seen as a longitudinal striation with occasional stronger varicial striae, crossed by finer lineations. The young examples of about three whorls are not decollated, the protoconch showing as a smooth depressed spiral of about one and a-half whorls.
The cleaned surfaces of the shells point to a slight age for this deposit, although it should be borne in mind that the margins' of some swamps where this S23ecies abounds are covered with layers of the shells in this condition.
C. sfriatvla is a very widely distributed form in Australia.
Occurrence. — Common in the Boneo Swamp deposit.
Fain PLANORBIDAE.
Genus BULLINUS, Oken.
BiiUimis aci/flspira, Iryon, sp. Plate III., Fig. 4.
Physd ocut.ispira, Tryon, 1866, Amer. Journ. Concli. vol. II. p. 9, pi. II., Fig. 10. Tate and Brazier, 1881,. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. VI., p. 557. Smitli, 1882, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool., vol. XVI. p. 282, pi. VI., Fig. 16. Clessin, 1885, Conch. Cab., vol. L pt. 17, p. 242, pi. XXXIV., Fig. 1. Btdlinus acutispira Tryon sp., Hedley, 1917, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. XII., No. 1, p. 5, pi. I., Figs. 11-13. Observations. — The present speciments of these freshwater shells from Boneo Swamp are of thicker build than the var. yarraeiisis, T. Woods. 2 and are therefore referred to the type species.
BuUinus tasmanicns, T. Woods sp.^ closely resembles the alx)ve species, but the apex is not so acute, nor is the aperture so open. Tbe species and variety have been recorded from Horsham, Cape Grant, near Portland, Yan Yean Reservoir, Bunyip River, and Carrum Creek, Frankston. One of tlie Boneo Swamp specimens has an elongated spire, and resembles the figured specimen of Hedley's, from Horsham.
Occurrence. — This specimen is fairly numerous in the Boneo- Swamp material.
2. Phijsa yarraensis. T. Woods, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. Vol. XIV., 1S78, p. 64.
BulUnns acutispira, Tryon, sp., var. yarraensis T. Woods var. Hedley, 1917, Rec. Austr. Mus., Vol. XII., No. 1, p. 5, pi. II., Fig:. 16.
3. Physa tasmanica, T. Woods, Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania, for 1875 (176),
p. 74. BulHnits tasmanicns, T. Woods, sp. Chapman, Mem. Nat. Mus.,. Melbourne, No. 5, 1914, p. 58, pi. I., Figs. 5, 5a.
Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 27'
Ciass CRUSTACEA.
Super-order OSTRACOD A.
Fam. CYPRIDAE.
Genus CYPRIS, Miiller.
Cypris mytiloidts, G. S. Brady. (Plate III., Figs. 5, 5a.)
Cypris mytiloides, G. S. Brady, 1886, Proc. Zool Soc. Lond..
p. 89, pi. IX., Figs. 1-3.
Observations — This species was first described from Kangaroo
Island, S. Australia. It is a well known living form in Victorian.
swamps and lakes, and I have examples from the Yering Flats,.
near Lilydale.
The carapace of C. mytiloides, seen laterally, appears to be:' generally rather broader than in the majority of living specimens, but this difference is only sub-varietal. Average length of cara- pace, 3.2 mm.; breath, 1.4 mm.. The type specimen of Dr. Brady ,.- supplied by Prof. Tate, has a length of 5 mm.
Occurrence. — In the Boneo Swamp deposit this species is very- abundant.
Cypris sydneia, King. Plate IV., Figs. 6, 6a.
Cypris sydneia. King, 1855, Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania, vol..
III., pt. I. p. 65, pi. X. Fig. M. Cypris cilia4a, Thomson, 1879, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XL.
p. 253, pi. XI. Fig. A, la-^. Cypris sydneia, King, G. 0. Sars, 1894, Vidensk, Selsk,. Skrifter. I. Math. Nat. Kl. No. 5, p. 27, pi. IV., Figs,. 2a-c. Id., 1896, Freshwater Entom. from neighbour- hood of Sydney, Kristiania (Alb. Cammermeyers For- lag), p. 50. Observations. — C. sydneia was originally described from speci- mens taken in a swamp near Woolloomooloo Bay, Sydney, and Mr.. Whitelegge collected it from Bourke Street, Sydney. The New Zealand localities are — lagoons in the neighbourhood of Dunedin ;, a pond at Eyreton, North Canterbury district; ditches at Kaitaia,. N. Island.
The present examples are quit-e typical, and the shape and posi- tion of the muscle-spots agree with the figures given by Sars, of the- New Zealand specimens. The surface of the shell is sparsely punc- tate, and from each punctum there is a faint stria directed pos- teriorly.
:28 Frederick CJiapman :
Occurrence. — This fresh-water species is fairly abundant in the JBoneo Swamp deposit.
Vi/jjris tenulscidpta sp. nov. (Plate IV., Figs. 7, 7fl, h.)
Descrijytion. — Valve seen from the side, subreniform, highest in -front, narrowing slightly to the posterior. Edge view subovate, jnoderately tumid, more compressed anteriorly. Valves slightly .unequal. Dorsal margin roundly angulate near the middle, directly sloping to the extremity. Both ends evenly rounded. Ventral margin incurved at the middle, and curving outwards to meet the evenly rounded anterior border; the latter having a narrow depressed margin. Surface of shell finely but distinctly .sculptured with closely set longitudinal and anastomosing raised •lines.
Length, 1.3 mm.; greatest width, 0.77 mm.
Observations. — This species closely resembles Cypris laferaria, King, 4 especially in the figures given by G. 0. Sars^ from the ■ Sydney examples. The chief difference lies in the superficial sculp- ture, which in the present species is finely lineate, C. lateraria hav- ing a granulose surface with scattered tubercles.
Occurrence. — Common in the Boneo S^vamp deposit.
Cffiido/ioci/pris assimd/s, G. 0. Sars. Plate IV., Figs, 8, 8a.
Candonocypris assimdis, G. 0. Sars, 1894, Contrib. know- ledge Freshwater Entom. N, Zealand, Vidensk, Selsk, Skrifter, I. Math. Kl. No. 5, p. 36, pi. V., Figs. la-c. Ohservations. — In outline, seen from the side and above, the fossil specimens perfectly agree with Sars' New Zealand species, W'hich is a freshwater form. The valves are slightly unequal, as ■seein in at least one of the complete carapaces in the present col- lection, and the muscle-spots number 7, with 2 arranged slightly forward and below the others. The. surface of the shell is- marked with excessively fine, elongate reticulae and a few punctations.
The writer would be inclined to place under the above genus Brady's Cypris viridula,^ of which the above appears to be a fuscous varietv. Ihe straifrht dorsal border figured bv Dr. Bradv
4. Cypris lateraria. King, Proc. R. Soc, Tasmania, "Vol. III., pt. I., 1855, p.
65, pi. X.. G. G.
5. G. O. Sars, 1896. On Freshwater Entom., from the neighbourhood of
Sydney, partly raised from dried mud, Kristiania, p. 53, pi. VII., Figs. 'ia-c. •6. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1886, p. 88, pi. VIII. Figs 1, 2.
Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 29*
is not always represented, and in other ways, as in the thicker carapace, it seems to be distinct from Il>/odromns, in which genus G. 0. Sars has more recently placed it.
Sars' specimens were hatched from dried mud taken from lagoons in the neighbourhood of Dunedin. A female measures 1.6- mm. in length. The present examples have a length of about 1.4 mm.
Occurrence. — Abundant in the Boneo Swamp material.
Fam. CYTHERIDAE.
Genus CYTHERE, Muller.
Cythere lubhockiana , G. S. Brady. Plate IV., Fig. 9.
Cythert luhhockiana, G. S. Brady, 1880, Rep. Chall. vol. I. pt. III. Zool. p. 68, pi. XIV., Figs, &a-d. Chapman,. 1914, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXVII. (N.S.), pt. I. p- 36, pi. VII., Fig. 17.
Observations. — The present example of this marine ostracod appears to be typical in all essentials as form, outline and orna- ment, with a minor exception that the pittings are replaced by smaller punctuation, as in U. aciojiunctatd, Brady. 7 As a living species, it is recorded from Booby Island, Torres Strait, in 6-8 fathoms.
Fossil specimens have been recorded by the writer from the Miocene and Pliocene of the Mallee bores, the deepest being 542 feet from the surface; these Miocene deposits, by the way, have been formed m about 100 fathoms.
It is interesting to note the above species under such widely differing circumstances as to age, depth and geographical posi- tion. Altliough not yet recorded from coastal dredgings round Victoi-ia. C luhhoclxiania probably occurs in its shallow depths; and in times not far distant, this and its allies, along with the marine bivalve, Erycina helmsi, were washed in by tidal currents.
Occurrence. — One left valve found in the Boneo Swamp deposits.
Limnicythere sicula, sp. nov. PI. IV., Figs. 10, 11.
Description. — Valves very small; seen from the side, subrectan- gular, expanded anteriorly. Hinge-line long and straight; ven- tral border incurved in the middle. Anterior margin depressed,
7. Cythere acupunctata, Brady, Rep. Chall. Vol. I., Pt. III. Zool. 1-880, . p. 68, pi. XIV., Figs. la-h.
.•30 Frederick ChajJinaa:
with a broad border marked with radial lines; posterior with a narrow depressed margin. Seen from above, carapace ovate, compressed at the extremities, with a hooked process prominent in
.the median area. Rising from the middle of each valve, a little in front and towards the ventral margin, the hooked process is seen to curve towards the dorsal border. Below this, nearer the ventral margin, is a rounded prominence or tubercle, and near the dorsal margin, anteriorly and medially are two others, Superficial ornament consists of fine reticulae or pittings scattered
(Closely over the larger part of the valves.
Length, .3<S mm.; greatest width, .3 mm.; thickness of carapace, .27 mm.
Ohservafions. — None of the northern species very closely ap- proach the above form, the nearest being L. monsfrifica, Norman sp.,8 found living round England, and Pleistocene in the Lincoln- shire Fens. This has two large spinous processes, with several smaller spines and ridges. Undoubtedly the nearest allied species isi the Limnocythere morvhrayensis, Chapman, 9 which the writer recently described from Mowbray Swamp, near Smithton, N.W. Tasmania. In this species, the lateral processes are not so produced,
.the tubercles differently spaced, whilst the anterior border is not so deep nor broad. Moreover, it attains a larger size than the present
. species..
Occurrence. — This very minute species is excessively abundant in the Boneo Swamp deposit.
General Remarks and Summary.
An examination of the swamp deposit from this locality in the "Schanck Peninsula affords some interesting points for comment. Probably in late Pliocene times, and on to Pleistocene, this area was connected with Tasmania. The immediate progenitors of the freshwater mollusca and ostracoda found in the Boneo deposit must have been living in dune and SAvamp country, which no • doubt extended across Bass Strait. We can conceive this country then connected by way of a chain of swamps running from the
8. Cypris vionstrifica, Norman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. IX., 1862, p. 45,
pi. III., Figs. 4, 5. Limnicythere monstrifica. Norman sp. Brady, Men. Rec. Brit. Ostrac, 1S6S, p. 420, pi. XXIX., Figs. 9-12.
9. Mem. Nat. Mus., Melbourne, No. 5, 1914, p. 60, pi. II. Figs. 8a-c.
Ostracod and Shell Marl of Pleistocene Age. 31
N.W. corner of Tasmania passing northwards to the east of King Island, and joining with the Cape Schanck area.^o
That there is a slight antiquity to be ascribed to the Boneo deposit seems to be shown by the presence of marine shells, for the existing conditions would appear to preclude their penetration so far inland, unless perhaps by an abnormally high tide. No doubt the actual conditions at the time of deposition were those of tidal -swamps, such as may be seen in the coastal lakes of the Ninety Mile Beach in Gippsland.
This marl is not phosphatic, as might be supposed from the abundant remains of ostracoda. An explanation of this may be found in the fact that those forms wdiich do occur are all thin- shelled, and of the more purely calcareous type of freshwater -genera.
The organic remains found in this marl are : — Pelecypoda. Erycijia helmsi, Hedley. Gasteropoda. Coxiella sfn'afula, Menke sp.
Bidlinus ociitispira, Tryon sp. Ostracoda. Cypris mytiloides, G. S. Brady. ,, %ydneia. King. ,, temiisculpfa, sp. nov. Candonocypris assdmile, G. 0. Sars. Cythere luhhochiana, G. S. Brady. Limnicy there sicula, sp. nov.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate IIL
Fig. 1. — Erycvna helmsi, Hedley. Left valve. x 10.
,, 2.— £'. helmsi, Hedley. Interior of left valve of another
specimen, x 10. ,, 3. — Coxiella striatula, Menke sp. ,, 4. — Bidlinus acutispira, Tryon sp. x 5. ,, 5. — Cypris mytiloides. G. S. Brady. Right valve. 5o, ven- tral edo-e view of the same, x 26.
10. In Dr. F. Noetling's paper on the Antiquity of Man in Tasmania (Proc. R. Soc, Tasmania, 1910), that author, on plate I., Fig. 6, shows the Tasmania- Victorian coastal contours, as would appear from an uplift of 40 fathoms of the present sea bottom in the Strait. The tongue of land thus brought up -w'ould form a direct connection froi-n the Smithton (N.W. Tasmania) district to the Boneo (Cape Schanck) locality, and this view helps considerably to explain the theory here advanced, that the Boneo fluviatile faima was, in part at least, derived from a Tas- manian one.
o2 Frederick Cht.pman : Ostracod and Shell Marl.
Plate IV.,
l(''ig_ 6_ — Cypi'is sydneia, King. Right valve, showing muscle- spots, 6a, ventral edge view, x 26.
,, 7. — Cyjiris teiiuiscul'pta, sp. nov. Right valve, x 26. la, ventral edge view of carapace, x 26. 1h, magnified view of ornament, x 78.
,, 8. — Gandonocypris assimde, G. 0. Sars. Left valve, show- ing muscle-spots. 8a, ventral aspect of carapace. X 26.
,, 9. — Cythere luhhockiana, G. S. Brady. Left valve, x 52.
,, 10. — Limnicythere sicula, sp. nov. Right valve, x 52.
,, n. — L. sicvla, sp. nov. Edge view, dorsal aspect, x 52..
Proc. l^.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate III.
F.C. del, ad nat.
Pleistocene Fossils: Boneo Swamp, C. SchancK.
Pioc. E.S. Victoria, 1919. Plate IV.
F.C. del. ad nat.
Pleistocene Ostracoda: Boneo Swamp, C. Schanck.
[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victorta, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 1919].
Art. VII. — The Diabases and Associated Rocks of the Howqua River near Mansjield, witli reference to the Heathcotian Prohlemi in Victoria.
By E. O. TEALE, D.Sc, F.G.S.
With an account of the Petrography of the Diabases by Prof. E. W. Skeats.
(With Plate IV., 4 Text Figures and Map). [Read July 10th, 1919].
Contents.
1. Introdiiction.
2. Position and Access to the Howqua Re^uon.
3. Physiographical Features.
4. General Geology.
5. Lower Palaeozoic Rocks (Heathcotian to Silurian).
A. Diabases : —
(a) Normal Diabase.
(b) Soda Rich Diabase.
(c) Platy Diabase.
B. Tuffs and Agglomei-ates.
C. Alteration features of the Diabase : —
(a) Red Jasper.
(b) Siliceous — cax'bonate rocks.
(c) Talc rocks.
(d) Serpentine and Chrysotile.
(e) Mineralization of the Diabase— Auriferous sulphides, etc
D. The Sediments : —
(a) Tlieir Lithological features.
(b) Apparent structural relationships.
(c) Phosphatic Deposits.
E. Concerning the Age of the Diabase and Cherts — a comparative review.
6. The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks.
A. Devonian : —
(a) Dacite-porphyry. ^b) Grano-diorite. (c) Diorite.
B. Lower Carboniferous : —
(a) Basal conglomerates.
(b) Rhyolite.
(c) Conglomerate.
(d) Sandstones.
(e) Purple shales.
7. Summary and conclusions.
1
34 E. 0. Teale:
1.— Introduction.
llie existence of serpentine and associated basic igneous rocks in the Howqua River to the south-west of Mount BuUer was first referred to by Mr. A. M. Howitt,i in 1907, in the Records of the ■Geological Survey in a short note with an accompanying sketch map. Mr. Howitt's visit was an extremely short one, allowing only about a day in the field, and his main object was to report on the supposed occurrence of phosphate of alumina similar to that found near Mansfield. He, however, was able at the same time to note the outcrop of a considerable extent of basic igneous rocks and black cherts. Ihe latter he regarded as probably Heathcotian, on account of their resemblance to similar cherts at Heathcote, which had then been recently placed in that group by Professor Gregory. 2 The igneous rocks he described as amphibolites, which he regarded as intrusive into the Lower Palaeozoic and of Devonian age. He .also obtained a graptolite from the Palaeozoic slates which the late Dr. T. S. Hall referred to as a Monograptus,^ thus indicating Silurian strata. The amount of information collected by Mr. Howitt in a short time, and in such rough and mountainous •country, is remarkable. The writer having spent considerable time in the Mount Wellington district in Gippsland, examining the area where serpentine and associated Upper Cambrian limestones occur, came to the conclusion that an important axial line existed in the Wellington region. The extension of the line to the north passes through inliers of closely similar rocks on the How^qua, and •at Dookie.
When, therefore, Piofessor Skeats suggested that I should take up the study of the Howqua region, with the assistance of a Govern- ment Research Scholarship, I was very glad to avail myself of the opportunity. I would like at this stage to specially express my indebtedness to Professor Skeats for his interest and assistance in this work. He not only visited the out of the way region on the Howqua, spending about a week in the field Avith me, but very kindly conducted me over the Lancefield and Heathcote areas, which may be looked upon as the type occurrence of the much ■debated Heathcotian series.
This work has been invaluable for comparative purposes in deal- ing with the Howqua region. In the Geological Laboratory of the University, too, I have had advantage of full access to the numerous slides and hand specimens from these regions. It is very helpful
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Rocks of the Howqua River. 35
therefore to be able to treat the new, area in a comparative manner with the better known regions. While there are certain gaps and differences in the Howqua region, as compared with Lancefield. Heathcote and the Dolodrook, near Mount Wellington, many of the •comparisons are strikingly similar. It is possible to match many of the special rocks of Heathcote so closely that were the specimens not labelled, it would be impossible to distinguish them from each other.
The problems of the Heathcotian series and the controversial questions wherein Professor Skeats, Mr. E. J. Dunn, Professor J. W. Gregory, and the late Dr. A. W. Howitt either agreed with or differed from each other, have been ably set out by Professor Skeats ("* and ^), so that it will only be necessary to enumerate here in due place those special aspects which call for consideration in con- junction with the Howqua area. Many important features in the Lower Palaeozoic history and structure in Victoria are dependent on the elucidation and interpretation of the origin, age and rela- tionships of the various rocks in the scattered inliers of diabases and cherts, now generally included in the Heathcotian series. Re- garding this series, field work proves that the Heathcotian conform- ably underlies graptolite bearing Lower Ordovician rocks, and on field evidence therefore it might be Lower Ordovician or Cambrian. It is on the reconsideration of the Dinesus material on which the original claim for a Cambrian age, subsequently abandoned, is now reasserted, and appears to be established, that it becomes necessary to include the lowest beds generally known as Heath- ■cotian in the Cambrian.
2. — ^General Location of the Howqua Region.
The area under consideration lies to the south-east of Mans- field Just within the rough mountainous region of the central highlands of Victoria. It is distant by road from Mansfield about 22 miles. For 12 miles, as far as Merrijig, on the Delatite River, the road is good, thence the route follows an old track little used, and in a very poor state of repair. By this a steep ascent is made over the shoulder of a ridge overlooked by Mount Timbertop, to drop doAvn into the deep mountainous valley of the Howqua, a striking contrast in its rugged and almost uninhabited character from the open park-like grazing and farming district of Mansfield.
36
E. 0. Tecde
Mfc. Skene Howqua R.
The Governor Lick Hole Creek
Mt. Clear Eagle's Peaks
The Bluff
Howqua R.
Little Buller
Mt. Buller
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Rocks of the Hoivqua River. 37
3. — Physiogpaphical Features.
Physiographically, the Howqua area is in an interesting posi- tion. It lies near the northern edge of the great central highland belt of Victoria, close to the ^Yide and striking sunkland of the Mansfield district, the development which has had such a remarkable and interesting effect on the history of the river system of this region, the details of which have been ably discussed by Fenner.6
Standing on the commanding viewpoint of Mount Timbertop, at about 4500 feet, the general survey of the phys.iography is particularly interesting, and is scenically both grand and varied. (See Fig. 1.) To the south and east especially the view is most im- posing, looking out over the deep Howqua Valley, across the fretted .and dissected northern portion of the central plateau, the highest portions of which rise to close on 6000 feet. Mount BuUer, the nearest, about four miles to the east, at 5911 feet, present a pre-
■ cipitous front to the west, and forms, with its basalt capped summit, a striking remnant of the old plateau, with the valleys of the Dela- tite and the Howqua on either side 4000 feet deep. At Timbertop the observer is standing in a small outlier, of the flat lying Upper Palaeozoic strata, with the frequently associated rhyolite at the base. To the east and south-east he looks over a vast extent of deeply dissected country, from which the great overmantel of hard, almost horizontal, rocks has been removed, exposing the underlying highly inclined Lower Palaeozoic rocks, chiefly slate and sandstone. The central watershed of the State, known as the Main Divide, lies about 20 to 30 miles distant in this direc- tion, and presents a precipitous and ledged front, due to the same
.more or less horizontal strata as those on Timbertop. Mounts Magdala, Clear and Macdonald, are the most noteworthy points, while the Bluff of similar structure, distant about ten miles, adds to the rugged character ol the scene. Should these mountains be snow-covered, as they frequently are in the winter, the ledged character is generally emphasised.
The whole view in this direction, and as far round as Mount
■ T'orbreck to the south-west, about 25 miles away, overlooks the basin of the Upper Goulburn and its tributaries. It may be de- scribed as a mountainous region of high relief in an advanced stage of dissection. The original plateau character has been almost
■ obliterated, only restricted ridges within the basin, which rise to . about 5000 feet, remain to indicate its former features. The old
38
E. 0. Teale:
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Fig. 2.
Rods of the Hoivqua River. 39*
plateau is best preserved round the margin along the main Divide. These relatively flat, elevated areas at 5000 feet and over are locally known as snow-plain country. Iliey form summer feeding grounds for cattle during a few months of the year. The Howqua valley is one of the main cattle routes to these summer grazing areas from the low country. A bridle track follows its course towards the headwaters, where it rises to the open grassy plain near Mount Howdtt. Thei economic value of the region doesi not lie in its possi- bilities from a point, of view of settlement. Both from an. agricul- tural and pastoral point of view^ its capabilities are almost negli- gible, but it forms an important collecting ground and store-house for water supply. It is here that the Goulburn gathers its waters, the value of which for irrigating its fertile alluvial plains is now being widely recognised.
4. — General Geology.
The area specially considered from a geological point of view- lies on either side of' the Howqua River, with Mount BuUer in the north-eastern corner^ and comprises about 60 square miles of country. The diabases and associated rocks, which are specially referred to in this paper, cross the tract from north-west to south-east, which is the general trend or grain of the structure as a whole.
One great handicap to investigation in this region apart from itsf uninhabited and mountainous character wasi the absence of any map suitable for the work in hand. A surveyed traverse of the Howquai River was kindly supplied by the Lands Department, and with this as a basis, the re.st of the topography was sketched in by means of prismatic compassi methods, which was the best that could be done under the conditions.
The rocks of this region, with the exception of a small outlier of Kainozoic basalt on the summit of Mount Buller referred to by Fenner^ are entirely Palaeozoic, but they range in age, probably from Cambrian to LoAver Carboniferous, and include lx)th sedimen- tary and igneous rocks. They may be conveniently considered first in chronological order, starting with the oldest. (See Fig. 2.)
5. — Lower Palaeozoic.
This includes rocks which range from Cambrian to Silurian, covering more than three-fourths of the area under consideration, but the exact mapping of the boundaries is rendered very difficult
40 E. 0. Teak:
on acount of the intense folding and crushing to which the series as a. whole has been subjected, together with the sporadic and appar- ently erratic distribution of the fossils, which are mainly grapto- lites in poor state of preservation, and Protospongia. The only fossils obtained from the Cambrian in this region are Proto- spo7igta, and possibly radiolaria from black cherts similar to those of Heathcote.
Camhrian (Keathcotian Series).
The rocks of this series fall into two groups : —
1. Basic igneous rocks (diabases in part), and associated tuffs, with their alteration products.
2. Protospongia cherts.
A. — The Diabases.
1. The basic rocks referred to here form an important central occurrence in the area under consideration. There are two l>elts, more or less parallel, but of unequal size, both, however, Avith a general north-west to south-east direction. The largest and longest starts outside of the area at least a couple of miles to the north- Avest, and passes out of the map in the south-east, where its exten- sion has not been examined. Its greatest width ia about 1| miles; the outline is somewhat irregular along portion of its north- eastern side, where it comes in contact with the dacite jjorphyry, but otherwise the junction and trend conform closely with the general strike of the enclosing sediments.
The smaller belt is shorter and narrower, and ends bluntly on the Howqua, as shown on the map. It would appear to diverge somewhat in direction from the larger belt towards the south in the Cameron's Creek area, which has, hoAvever, been only imper- fectly traced.
In general, the boundary of these rocks is readily traced in the field, on account of the sharja soil change from the rich dark red of the diabase to the poorer slaty soil of the surrounding rocks. The open, park-like and grassy slopes of the diabase, too, are often in striking contrast to the closer forest Avith scrub undergrowth of the sedimentary rocks, so that from suitable vantage points the general bearing and limits of the tAvo formations can be distinctly observed from a considerable distance. This is quite analogous to the "clear country," of the serpentine area in the Dolodrook.
Rocks of tJie Huivqua River. 41
The Protospongia cherts bound the diabase along the eastern
iside of the main mass, forming a well-defined belt, about half a
.mile wide. Numerous specimens, showing the characteristic cruci- form spicular arrangement of Protospongia, were found in the
.field in these cherts, and a microscopic section. No. 78, from this belt of cherts, displays well the abundance of the sponge spicules
.embedded in a dark, largely chalcedonic ground mass. (See Micro-
,photo Plate I., Fig. 3.)
In the Heathcote area Dr. Howitt held that the silicification of
• corresponding rocks was a metamorphic effect, due to the intrusion
•of the diabase, an interpretation which is dissented from by Pro- fessor Skeats, who shows good reasons for regarding them in part
.as altered submarine tuffs, silicified by metasomatic action, the adjacent igneous rock being considered as mainly contemporaneous lava flows.
The features are closely analogous here, where the Protospongia
^cherts are found, lliese fossiliferous cherts have not been recog- nised along the western boundary nor along the contact of the
.smaller diabase occurrence. In general, the western junction of the main mass is marked by much crushing and shearing, wit^i
•other accompanying alterations in both the igneous and the sedi-
.mentary, but nothing attributable to contact alteration has been noted. Shistose talc rock is abundant in the valley of the Stock- yard Creek, and elsewhere, close to the junction. An important
.section is exposed in the bed of the Howqua at the foot bridge, where the old dray track from Merrijig ends. The diabase crosses the river in a north-west direction, just above the bridge, forming a bar, and an interesting series of intensely crushed rocks of some- what varied character can be traced more or less continuously from within a few yards of the contact down stream for about three
'Chains. A short break of about two chains intervenes, where the exposure isi masked, and then crushed black slate follows, forming
.a conspicuous cliff, at the bend of the river. The crush zone here is at least five to six chains wide. A noteworthy feature is that the rock adjoining the diabase shows not the slightest contact altera- tion at a distance of less than a yard from the junction. In- tensely crushed and contorted rocks are the general rule along the
•contact. Ihis feature, together with lithological and fossil differ- ences of this zone compared with that in the eastern edge are worthy of note, and will call for further comment later, when dealing with the sedimentary rocks and general structural con-
rsiderations.
42
E. 0. Teale
(a). Normal Diahase.
The diabasic rocks show some variation in character from a somewhat doleritic type to that of a dense basalt, the latter being the dominant type. The dense forms are abnost identical in. features with those of Heathcote.
Though the sections at the Howqua do not show so clearly the same interbedded succession, the character and occurrence of the- diabase, and that of the associated chert-s are so similar that the- assumption is reasonable that here, too, they represent similar- submarine lavas, and tuffs, or interbedded cherts.
Chemic.\l An.\i,yses of Diabases
l!v K. (). Teale
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Heathcote |
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No. IS |
No. 25 |
No. 630 |
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55.77 |
|
Al.,0., - |
15.7 1 |
- |
i;^.j5 |
11.23 |
|
Fe,03 . |
.53 |
- |
3.18 |
1.82 |
|
FeO |
11.21 |
- |
8.61 |
10.11 |
|
MgO - |
8.61 |
- |
0.91* |
7.94 |
|
CaO |
12.3 |
- |
6.7 |
4.64 |
|
Na^O - |
2.5 |
- |
7.00 |
4.91 |
|
K,,0 |
.21 |
- |
0.41 |
.73 |
|
H2O+ - |
.21 |
- |
0.33 |
.55 |
|
H2O- - |
2.54 |
- |
1.34 |
1.91 |
|
TiO^ |
- |
0.8 |
0.22 |
|
|
100.46 |
100.61 |
99.80 |
* Note low M{{0 content
|
No. 25.— S |
ODA, |
Rich Type. |
|||
|
Mineral. |
Norm. % |
Group. |
:: |
||
|
Quartz |
.72 |
- |
- Q- |
||
|
Orthoflase - |
- 2.22 |
- |
|||
|
Albite |
- 59.21 |
- |
F. 64.45 |
||
|
Aiiortliite |
- 3.07 |
) |
[;. |
■ Salic. 65. ir |
|
|
Diopside |
- 28.0 |
- |
1 |
||
|
Hyper.sthene |
- 3.56 |
- |
J |
P. 31.56 |
- i'emic 4.55 |
|
Magnetite - Ilmeuite |
- 4.4 .15 |
_ |
■ M. 4.55 |
Rocks of the Hotvqua River. 43'-
Class Ml. = ^^^ < ^ > - = Class 2. Dosalane. Fern. 31.56^1 3
O 72 1
Order ^' = < - = Order 5. Geimanare.
Fern. 64.45 7
Ranc. KaO + Na.^O ^ 117 < 5 3 ^ ^ Alkali Calcic. Ilmenose.
CaO 120 3 5
Sub-Ran.'-. = ^^^ =:— <- > = Sub-Rang. = Persodic. Beerbachose. " Na,,0 113 7
(6) r/ie i^etrography of the diabases, including soda-rich
tyjyes.
(By Professor E. W. Skeats.)
Reference to tlie chemical analyses shows that diabases of fairly normal composition are present. Ihe analysis of No. 15 shows that as regards the alkali content, it is normal, but has a high content of the alkaline earths, especially of lime. No. 25, however, on analysis proves to have a very high soda content, and is un- usually low in lime. It evidently has suffered albitization, and show's that the spilite type of magma is represented among the- Howqua diabases, and the analysis of a diabase from Heathcote is also relatively rich in soda.
The petrographic descriptions which follow show that albitiza- tion, silicification, chloritization, the production of secondary horn- blendes from augites, the formation of carbonates, and the develop- ment of the mineral lawsonite, are features of fairly common oc- currence among the Howqua diabases, which in hand specimen,. m,ay not appear to be specially altered.
The term diabase, usfd to describe these rocks, has been found' useful to retain, although it is now clear from their field relations- and principal petrographic characters that they are mainly subma- rine lava flows and ashes.
No. 11. — Diabase from the ridge between Howqua River and Lick Hole Creek. The rock consists of pale-coloured augite to the- intent of about 3-5th, and a very kaolinized felspar to the extent of about 2-5th of its volume. The augite is diallagic in part. Both- augite and felspar seem to have started crystallizing simultaneously, as each in places is porphyritic, and in other places is moulded on the other. The felspar is too cloudy for specific determination, a little ilmenite, altered to leucoxene and of chlorite after augite, is also present. Some secondary clear to cloudy chalcedpiLy:.^is also- present, partly replacing felspar. '''f\ V)^ '■-' •'i /
(uJ I L I B R A R Y j ::rtr
.44 E. 0 Teale:
No. 12. — Locality east of No. 11, but on the same ridge.
The rock is moderately coarse-grained; about t-wo-thirds consists
•of felspar, mostly as relatively large rectangular plienocrysts. with
.a small amount of later micro-spherulitic felspars moulded on
them. Ihe phenocrysts are mainly albite, or Ab,,^ AHio, baving
a refractive index as low as the mounting balsam, which is less than
1-53. Some felspars are untAvinned, possibly 010 sections, with
■ extinction angles, ranging from 3°-19°. Others show carlsbad or albite twinning, or both. Symmetrical extinction angles of 15°- 18° occur on the albite lamellae. Some of the felspar is saussuri- tized to granules of epiclote and zoisite. The bulk of the felspar
.slightly preceded the augite in crystallizing, but in one place augite and felspar are in micrographic intergrowth. A fair
.quantity of ilmenite occurs in elonga^ted crystals, and is more or less
.altered to leucoxene. Clusters of radiating, brown, green or bright red micaceous products occur. In one place crystals of a secondary red micaceous mineral product radiate from the ilmenite at right angles and granular epidote is also a^ociated with it. A little pleochroic aegirine-augite, with extinction angle of 29"^, is
..also jDresent. The rock may be described as an albite diabase.
No. 15. — Coanpact diabase, from Four Mile Creek (analysed). (See Plate I., Fig. 2.) There is very little felspar present, and this
■ consists of lath-shaped crystals and larger areas now altered to .zoisite and minute secondary mica flakes. The rock consists mainly
of granular augite, with some areas of chlorite, a fair quantity of ilmenite altered to leucoxene, and some granular pale brown • sphene.
This mineralogical content is in agreement with the high lime .and magnesia, and low alkali content of the analysis.
No. 16. — Spotted diabase from Four Mile Creek. In the hand .specimen light circular spots are noticeable, but are much less prominent under the microscope. However, slightly lighter areas <;an be seen, and appear to be due to the relative crowding of .minute more or less altered lath-shaped felspars, while a relatively .smaller amount of augite and chlorite occur in these areas than in the rest of tlie rock. One large phenocryst of plagioclase now •consisting mainly of chlorite and secondary felspar, Avas noticed, And minute granular oxide of iron, with a little carbonate, occurs. '.The augite is mostly granular in habit, with undulose extinction.
No. 17. — Compact diabase from smaller diabase outcrop on the track to Ware's, and' south of Fry's.
Mocks of the Hoivqua River. 45'
In this rcMi'k muck recrystallisation under pressure has occurred. Most of the augite has recrystallized as fibrous secondary horn- blende, with light to dark green pleochroisni, and extinction angles- ranging from 11° to 21°. The felspar has recrystallized to water clear secondary felspar, "with enclosures of secondary hornblende- needles. Ilmenite in large skeleton rhombohedra altered to leuco- xene, is fairly abundant. Some interstitial secondary calcite is present. The extensive recrystallization of the rock is no doubt referable to its occurrence in a crushed zone, south of Fry's, and it resembles some of the recrystallized diabases of Heathcote and" Mt. William, near Lancefield, but is hardly so altered as the epidio- rites of Ceres, near Geelong, since some relic structures in the form- of original augite and felspar are still noticeable. No. 18. — Diabase, south-east of No. 17.
A. diabase which has suffered fairly complete recrystallization tO' fibrous hornblende, and secondary water clear felspar. In the process a considerable amount of granular and dusty magnetite has- separated out.
No. 22. — From main diabase mass. Lick Hole Creek, and east of isolated crushed diabase mass. A relatively coarse-grained type- with no signs of recrystallization under pressure. Coarse plates^ of augite and cloudy felspar form the bulk of the rock, with chlorite and clear felspar as secondary products.
No. 25. — Soda rich diabase (analysed), Lick Hole Creek, one- mile north of the Governor, and near the south-east end of the main diabase mass. (Micro. Photo., Plate I., Fig. 1.)
About 2-3rds of the rock consists of felspar in large and smalh prismatic, quadrate or irregular crystals. Simply twinned and untwinned crystals are abundant, and some show lamellar twin- ning. The loAv refractive index, positive sign, and biaxial figure- show that albite or albite-oligoclase predominates. All the felspars- are clear, and some contain secondary hornblende and chlorite, suggesting recrystallization. Some original augite remains, but much is altered, either to normal hornblende or green pleochroic- fibrous actinolite. Sphene, epidote and zoisite occur in granules. - Brown clustei's of radiating biotite crystals occur, and some calcite, a little quartz, and a few elongated prismsi of apatite are present. The high albite content of the rock is confirmed by the chemicaf analysis, but it is difficult to reconcile the relative abundance of ferro-magnesian minerals with the strikingly low magnesia content recorded in the analysis.
.46 E. 0. Teale:
No. 40. — Diabase on spur, east of Blackbird Creek, north of Howqua River, and about one mile E.N.E. of Fry's. A rock type in whicli augite and its alteration jDroduct chlorite predominate and felspar i'S in subordinate amount. Some of the felspar prob- . ably preceded the augite in crystallizing, and recrystallization of felspar, with resulting inclusion of chlorite has probably oc- curred. Ilmenite granules have changed to sphene.
No. 41. — Diabase from Castle Rock, Lick Hole Creek. A diabase whicli has suffered much secondary albitization. Augite is altered to pale and to brown secondary hornblende. The original felspar is noAv quite cloudy, chlorite is developed, and an irregular vein of secondary albite or albite-oligoclase traverses the section. It looks like quartz in ordinary light, but isi identifiedi by the pre- sence of some lamellar twinning, by its refractive index, which is less than 1-53 and by biaxial figures with positive signs. Ilmenite, more or less altered to sphene, and hematite, are present. The albite in the vein occurs in clear interlocking crystals, associated with calcite, and with fibrous secondary hornblende.
No. 42. — Diabase, near No. 41. A rock similar to No. 41, but with only a minute vein of secondary albite, traversing the section.
No. 72. — Silicified fine-grained diabase from Four Mile Creek, near the massive black bedded cherts at the north-east margin of the main diabase mass. In the fine-grained diabase area a little augite remains, but most of it is altered to chlorite and secondary hornblende. Lath-shaped, water clear felspars, with chlorite in- clusions occur. Sporadic secondary quartz occurs in granules in the mass of the diabase, but in over half the section the diabase has been completely replaced by a radial and granular aggregate of chalcedonic silica, with some coarser grained quartz crystals. The rock has a spotted appearance, due tn greater concentration of felspar laths in roughly circular areas.
No. 73. — Diabase from Four Mile Creek, near to 72. This rock is rather coarse grained. Brown unaltered augite and large lath- shaped albite or albite-oligoclase, many with chlorite inclusions, form the; bulk of the rock. Opaque iron oxide is fairly abundant, and large areas of chlorite, apparently not derived from augite, occur.
No. 107. — Diabase from spurs south of Barney Creek, at south- east end of main diabase mass. The rock may be described in its -present condition as a micrographic quartz-diabase. Some original
Rocks of the Hoirqua River. 47
;.augite remains, but most of it has changed to secondary horn- blende. Chlorite is abundant, ilmenite altered to sphene is prominent, porphyritic crystals of albite or albite-oligoclase. one ■or two prismatic crystals of apatite, and some relatively large irregular quartz crystals occur. The background is a l^eautiful micrographic intergrowth of quartz and albite, the latter showing lamellar twinning in places, and a refractive index lower than quartz. The micrographic background and the larger quartzes both appear to b© of secondary origin.
No. 108. — Diabase from spur south of Barney's Creek, Upper Lick Hole Creek Valley, at south-east end of main diabase mass. A diabase of moderate grain size, in which very complete secondary alterations of the original minerals, augite, felspar and ilmenite have occurred. A little original grey broAvn augite remains, but most of it has been changed to secondary hornblende, some of it prismatic to tabular, some to fibrous actinolite, some to vivid green chlorite in clusters of radiating fibres. Quartz occurs in scattered granules, and in micrograiDhic intergruwth with augite and with chlorite. This quartz may be primary or secondary. Much secondary quartz occurs, more or less completely replacing the lath-shaped felspars which, however, still show the outlines of the crystals and the positions of the twin lamellae in a remark- able way. An irregular vein, about ^ inch wide, traverses the rock, and consists partly of quartz, but mainly of colourless to cloudy prismatic and radiating crystals of lawsonite, a hydrated silicate of lime and almuminium. The mineral is recognised by its posi- tive sign, and biaxial character, its high refraction and polariza- tion colours up to second order, w^bereas the quartz shov.s low neutral tints. The lawsonite is a secondary mineral derived mainly from the alteration of the felspar, but in places is seen to develop from altering ferromagnesian minerals in the mass of the rock. Ilmenite is partially altered to leucoxene, and a little secondary calcite and epidote are also present. No secondary albite was recognised in the rock, and the original felspars are so altered either by becoming cloudy, through incipient saussuritization or replaced by quartz, that their original character is unrecognizable.
No'. 109. — Diabase from same locality as No. 108. A moderately coarse grained rock which is free from quartz, but otherwise has suffered much the same changes as has No. 108. The large platy albite or albite-oligoclase felspars have chlorite inclusions. Some ■augite has developed a diallagic structure, and there is a consider-
48 ^'. 0. Teale:
able development of secondary lawsonite, principally in clear to- cloudy minute radiating crystals.
No. 118. — Diabase from Upper Lick Hole Creek, one and a-half miles N.N.W. of The Governor.
A diabase in which albitization is a marked feature, resulting- in the formation ol clear secondary platy crystals, and raditaing^' lath-shaped crystals. The augite is mainly converted to secondary hornblende, some of which is normal, while some is fibrous, pleo-- chroic actinolite. A good deal of calcite occurs, but neither quartz, nor lawsonite have been recognised.
No. 119. — Diabase from same locality as No. 118. A coarse- grained type, with cloudy felspars, pale augite, partly replaced- by hornblende, and a little quartz.
No. 121. — Diabase fi-om Lick Hole Creek, quarter mile west of" No. 118. A rock similar to No. 119, but -n'ith an abundance of large opaque crystals of magnetite or ilmenite.
No. 122. — Diabase from same locality as No. 121. A rock almost identical in characters -with No. 118.
(c) Platy and Spliiitery Diabase.
Some forms of platy diabase appear to be due to a special . development of jointing in the diabase. This form w'as favoui-ed by the natives for making their stone axes, and several small, quarries occur close to the road, about half a mile north of the old road terminus. More often they appear to represent altered tuS' beds. Rocks of this nature occur at intervals throughout the area, but the outcrops are not readily traced. The most characteristic and tuft" like occur on Lick Hole Creek, about a mile above Mal- colm's Creek. Here they are somewhat banded, and suggest stratifi- cation. The rock is dark green, and of very fine texture in hand specimens, and under the microscope (section 24) shows a very fine- textured fragmental structure of minute angular fragments in a matrix which cannot be resolved. Section 23 is a basic platy roclc with coarse and fine banding, but is altered, and in parts serpen- tinized so that its original character is not recognisable, but the probability is that it represents a tuS. The splintery diabase is a fine-grained green variety, which sj^lits readily into long slender splinters, or pencils Avith angular edges. It is found in contact with massive diabase at the north-western extremity, of the small diabase area, a little less than a mile in a straight line south of Fry's..
Rucks of tlte Ho'ivqua River. 49
It can be matched exactly with a siiiiilur occurrence at Heathcote south of Photograph Knob, where Professor Skeats regards it as an altered tuff.
B. Agglomerate.
A well-marked breccia occurs on the east-west ridge between the Howqua and Fry's, and the Lick Hole Creek. It forms one of the prouiiiiLiit po.nts, and is marked Breccia Knob on the map. This rock is a typical breccia, made up largely of igneous frag- ments, but contains also some banded chert. Sections of the chert examined suggested strongly altered tuff, and were of coarser texture than the ProtosjJongia chert. Under the microscope a thin section of the breccia (Section 14) sho'ws it to be made of fragments so dense as to be almost opague, but small pyroxenes present indicate that the material is igneous and represents rapidly cooled lava. If the eruption were submarine, as it is believed the general evi- dence indicates, the rapid chilling of parts of the lava would be expected.
C. Alteration Features of the Diabase. (a) The Red Jasper.
The bright red colour of this rock together, with its hardness and durability make it rather a conspicuous and characteristc rock in the recent river gravels in the diabase region, and also an easily recognizable pebble in some of the Upper Palaeozoic conglomerates.
It occurs in situ in the diabase as apparent inclusions, 1 for which they have have been mistaken, but it is clear in the Howqua, as in the Heathcote region, as shown by Professor Skeats, that it represents one of the phases of metasomatic replacement of the diabase. A good' section can be studied in the bed of the Howqua River at low water, about one and a-half miles above Fry's, as shown on the map. The irregular shape is typical of patchy re- placement areas, and miscroscopic sections occasionally show relic structures of the original igneous rocks, though in general the action has gone so far that all that is seen is an aggregate of secondary quartz and iron oxide stain.
These jasj^ers occur at intervals along a definite line, bearing from north-west to south-east, that is, coinciding wnth the general trend of the diabase.
They vary from small aggregates of jasper patches to larger masses of perhaps 50 to 100 square yards in extent. Associated with the normal red jasper theie are) often other varieties of quartz varying both in colour and texture, miUcy quartz and granular quartzitic forms being frequently present.
50 E. 0. Teale:
Ihe linear arrangement of these outcrops suggests the occurrence of a shear or fracture zone along this line, which favoured at recur- ring intervals the access of silicifying solutions. The jasper which is a definite alteration product of the diabase is distinct in character from the black bedded cherts, which are altered stratified deposits.
(b) The Siliceous-Carbonate Rocks.
These rocks form a very striking and characteristic alteration product in the diabase area, and are identical in character with similar rocks occurring in Heathcote. In appearance the rock has a somewhat schistose structure due to fine and contorted banding. (Sec. 51.) It has a prevailing brown colour, with greenish streaks due to a substance allied to selwynite or green chalcedony, which .also occurs in lenticles and patches. Numerous sections examined by Professor Skeats from Heathcote indicate that this was origin- ally a diabase or diabase tuff which has suffered alteration in two stages. First it was subjected to a carbonating solution, which produced a mixture of iron, lime and magnesian carbonates, and, later, siliica bearing solutions invaded the rock, replacing in part the original carbonate.
Four separate outcrops of this rock have been noted. One is in i:he bed of the Howqua, at tlie pack horse bridge, near Fry's — (specs. 51-54); a second about a mile farther down the river, associated with the smaller diabase area ; the third is on the track to Cameron's Creek — (Spec. 44)— about a quarter of a mile south oa Lick Hole Creek; and the fourth is about half mile to the south-west of this «pot — (Spec. 113). The two lastnamed occurrences are in close proximity to a serpentine outcrop, and the first is on a fracture line leading to another serpentine area. It may be, therefore, that the concentration of carbonates in one place may be casually con- nected with mineral redistribution, which took place during ser- pent! nization.
C. The Talc Rocks.
These rocks vary from massive talc rock and talc schist, un- ■doubtedly altered diabase to talcose sediments, which may be altered tuff beds. The latter will be referred to again, when deal- ing with the lower Palaeozoic sediments. Talc rock is abundant at the north-western end of the diabase area, in the valley of Stock- yard Creek, and its greasy nature adds to the difficulty for horse ■traffic on the steep graded track to the Howqua from Timbertop
Rocks of the Hoivqua River. 51
■Gap, especially in' the present bad state of repair of the road. In .general it occurs at intervals alono; the western margin of the large diabase area, and round the edges of the smaller one. Though .son:ietimes massive it is generally schistose and iron-stained. Tlie ^crushed margins of the diabase appear to have been most favour- able for its development. At Cameron's Creek about a mile and a-half south of Lick Hole Creek, a schistose talc rock with very little iron stain appeared to be slightly auriferous. Some pros- pectors at work during the writer's examination obtained a fair prospect of very fine gold fro^m a trench entirely in this rock.
(d) Serpenti?ie and Chrysotile.
Three outcrops of serpentine, all of fairly limited extent, have been noted. The largest occurs on a ridge about half a mile south of Lick Hole Creek, in the track to Cameron's Creek. It isi of the usual dark green type, and varies from massive to schistose. Isolated grains of chromite have been detected in it, but no quan- tity of this mineral has yet been found, nor has any corundum been observed in this district, as in the case of the Dolodrook and Heathcote regions. A thin section shows the rock to be completely .serpentinized, and it possesses the platy structure of antigorite, and is, therefore, probably due to the alteration of a pyroxene rock.
The second outcrop is about a mile south-east of Fry's, on the western margin of the diabase; its extent is masked here by much surface soil and hill slip material..
This outcrop is noteworthy, because it contains chrysotile asbes- tos. The increased deanand for asbestos during the war, both locally and abroad, has induced much searching after local supplies, and this occurrence has been taken up by Mr. Fry Avitli a view to open- ing it up to prove its worth. At the timei of my visit only shallow 'hillside cuts had been made. These revealed thin veins of chryso- tile traversing the serpentine along numerous joints and slip planes forming a network which at some of the intersections deve- loped into knots or centres of chrysotile. All the material noted was of a slip fibre type — that is, it consisted of somewhat over- lapping fibres lying parallel to the joint and slickenside planes. None of the cross-fibre type was observed. With regard to tlie origin and development of chrysotile veins in serpentine, the sub- ject has been discussed by Graham in Economic Geology. ^ His inquiry leads him to favour the idea that the agents of change for the Canadian occurrences were magmatic siliceous Avaters derived "from neighbouring granitic intrusions.
5a
52 E. 0. Teale :
Twelvetrees,^" in describing the asbestos occurrence in serpen- tine at Anderson's Creek, near Beaconsfield, I'asmania, also pos- tulates a causal connection of the origin of the asbestos with a neighbouring granitic intrusion.
At Heathcote and Howqua the rocks have certainly been invaded by siliceous solutions, and in each case granitic intrusions are present in close proximity. It is reasonable, therefore, to suggest at any rate that the vicinity of an acid magna may have provided conditions which were favourable for the remarkable selective' metasomatic and other changes, which were wrought along favour- able lines and zones in both of tliese areas. At Howqua, grano-dio- rite occurs on the southern slopes of Mount Buller, and a mass of dacite porphyry of related age is actually in contact with the diabase between the Howqua and Timbertop.
{e) Mhieralizatioii of the Diabase.
Another phase in the alteration of the diabase is shown by the siliceous sulphide occurrence at the abandoned gold mine, about a mile south-east of Fry's. Ihe occurrence is an interesting one, and it has been known under different names during its chequered career as a mining venture, but perhaps its best known title is the Great Rand Mine. No accurate survey of this deposit has been i made so far as the writer is aware, but like many sulphide occur- rences its shape would appear to be irregularly lenticular, consist- ing of a metasamotic replacement in a fracture zone. The quartz is tough, and very finely granular, and the sulphides are abun- dantly distributed through it. Iron sulphides, pyrite and pyrrho- tite, predominate, but, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and ar- senopyrite were noted in small quantity. During my last visit to this region, the mine was being tested by a small syndicate, Avith the view to determining whether it was possible to treat the ore 2orofitably. The deposit was systematically sampled under the direction of Mr. W. A. T. Davis, of Melbourne, and through the courtesy of Mr. Cottingham, one of the syndicate, I was able to note hurriedly the character of the deposit, as far' asi the old work- ings would i>ermit. Ihese reveal a mineralized zone about 300 feet long, in a north and south direction, by nearly 200 feet from east to west.
The mineralization is irregular, and sulphides are found in varying quantities throughout the rock from considerable masses to a mere impregnation. The examination was too short to deter-
Rocks of the Hoivqua River. 53
.mine whether any definite system or plan of arrangement for the .mineral material could be recognised, but the observations sug- gested two sets of fracture lines, or planes, one set about east and west, another approximately at right angles. Along the former especially, mineral solutions have been very active, replacing the .original rock with sulphides associated with quartz or calcite. Two active processes accompanying the sulphide formation appear to have been silicification and carbonation. Much of the original rock in places appears to be almost completely carbonated, as is shown in a slide (No. 102), from the southern end of the working. From Mr. Cottingham I have since heard that the result of the . sampling indicated an average value for the deposit of about 8 • d-ft^. per ton, which they did not regard as sufficeintly encourag- ing under the circumstances to lead them to undertake further work.
It is interesting to note that if a north-west to south-west line through this mine be produced in either direction, it follows the : trend of the diabase and includes other auriferous occurrences at intervals. Ihe old alluvial workings in Stockyard Cieek lie at the north-western end. Another abandoned mine occurs to the south- > east, on Malcolmn's Creek, while still further in this direction -extensive alluvial workings, long since worked out, are found in the upper portion of Lick Hole Creek. Nothing to suggest a con- tinuous line of lode hasi been noted along this line, but a probable fracture zone is suggested which provided at intervals favourable .access to mineralizing solution. This is in conformity with another jjarallel line to the east previously referred to, along which siliceous replacements have taken place chiefly resulting in the formation of red jasper..
The Cameron's Creek gold occurrences appear to be of the more normal reef quartz type; at any rate, the adit examined in this
. area revealed a quartz lode with well defined walls, of decomposed diabase. This is on the southerly portion of the smaller diabase
.outcrop. A section of the igneous rock (No. 50) showed much chloritization, but traces of an original hornblende were recogniz- able by cleavage lines preserved in iron oxide; triclinic felspar was
< recognizable, and secondary calcite was moderately abundant.
A brief report on the mine was made by the late James Stirlingl^ in 1888, in which he described the Cameron's Creek reef as consist- ■ing of quartz segregations in intrusive diorite.
54 E. 0. Teale:
D. Lower Palaeozoic Sediments.
Ihese are found enclosing the diabase on all sides, except where later dacite porphyry or Upper Palaeozoic sediments overlie it at the- northern extremity. These rocks are mapj^ed as Silurian on the 8 inch Geological Map of Victoria, and until the Avriter's examina- tion the only fossil recorded from this region was a Monograptus obtained by Mr. A. M. Howitt, and indentified by the late Dr. T. S. Hall.
The present field Avork has brought to light other graptolites, ranging from Lower to Upper Ordovician and Protospongia in cherts identical with those of Heathcote now included in the Cam- brian, and j^ossibly also radiolaria in the same cherts. The fact that the graptolites are poorly preserved, and separated by large intervening barren areas, makes the working out of the correct stratigraphical succession in this area very difficult. In fact it would be unwise in the present state of our knowledge in this region to attempt to mark boundaries between the different mem- bers of the Lower Palaeozoic. We can only note that the succession probably ranges from Cambrian to Silurian, and no unconform- ability has with certainty yet been recognised in this region.
At Heathcote no certain line of division can be drawn between the lowest beds of the Ordovician and the uppermost of the Cam- brian. The Dinesus tribolite beds form ai bench marking the Cam- brian, but above them there is a great thickness of unfossiliferous sediments which seem to pass comformably into the Ordovician.
In the area above mentioned, and in the Howqua region, it would appear that there has been a continuous sedimentation from Cambrian, through Ordovician, and possibly, too, into Silurian in the last area. The fossil record is, however, unfortunately very im- perfect.
(a) LIthological Featurta of the Sediments and Apparent Relationships.
There are certain broad lithological distinctions which are apparent, and features also with regard to the general distribution which call for discussion.
First, there is a marked lithological contrast on either side of the main diabase area.
Rocks of thf' Hoivqua River. bb'
On the western side only Upper Ordovician and, possibly, Silu- rian graptolitesi have been noted, and these come from a very restricted area. Slaty rocks often somewhat talcose and chloritic prevail, sandstones and quaitzites being subordinate. The rocks, are frequently intensely contorted, particularly at the " Gover- nor," and a long line to the north west of this.
The unweathered slates v.ere often black, as at the outcrop below the pack-horse bridge at Fry's. By oxidation and leaching, how- ever, they are often almost white.
They only show slight local ehertification, and no Protosjjongia has been noted in these cherts.
On the eastern side, however, the black Protospongia cherts are- well developed, forming a continuous belt up to half a mile in width, directly in contact with the diabase. These cherts stop suddenly to the east and give place to a dark, micaceous and slightly felspathic sandstone, which' appears to be quite conformable and then follows a thick succession of olive green phyllitic slates, alternating with sandstone and quartzite. Traversing these rocks across the strike in a north-easterly direction tow^ards Mount Buller, at about one and a-half miles from the cherts, thin black slate bands begin to occur interbedded with the olive green slates and sandstone. Two of these bands have yielded Tetragraptus and Didymograptus, thus indicating a Lower Ordovician horizon. Continuing still further to the north-east, and approaching the Mount Buller grano-diorite, these sediments give place to belt of dark cherty slates, and fine grained quartzite, often veined with quartz. Microscopic sections of these rocks indicate contact phenomena attributable to the proximity of the plutonic intrusion. These indurated rocks form a very jagged outcrop, to which the rough outline O'f Little Buller is due.
Following up the valley of the Howqua, the direction is in general easterly, and, therefore, crosses the strike of the same series of sediments in an oblique direction. Ihe Lower Ordovician strata, yielding Tetragraptus and Didymograjittis, have not been noted, but at a few chains west of Eight Mile Creek, indistinct graptolites were found in black cherts. These were too poorly pre- served for certain identification, but they suggested B'>plograptus:
1. The writer has spent days searching along the restricted area where Mr. A. M. Howitt obtained a graptolite, identified by Dr. T. S. Hall as a Monoffraptns, but did not find a single specimen of this genus, though hundreds of specimens of less restricted range were obtained, chiefly Climacograptus and Diplograptns, with probably Glossorjraptus and other doubtful forms.
56
E. 0. Teale
^
K^ ^-.
J/ZJ, (///*L//
pup MpjQ/) (
,J^Voh'
Fig. 3.
Rods of the Hoivqua River. 57
and Climacograptus. If this is correct, they probably are of
Upper Ordovician age. These sporadic occurrences of imperfectly
preserved fossils are tantalizing, but they indicate that great
■ caution is' necessary in interpreting the stratigraphy of the region.
{h) Stritcture of the Lower Palaeozoic Area.
In general, the prevailing dip on the eastern side of the main • diabase, as far as observed, appears to be consistently easterly, while on the western side it is to the west. Ihe structure, however, is clearly not that of a simple anticline, for the evidence of the fossils on either side, together Avith the lithological discordance ex- 'Cludes the possibility of such a view.
A faulted anticline, with the fault approximating to the western margin of the main diabase, is suggested, but this requires an enormous down throw on the western side to bury the great thick- ness of Lower Palaeozoic sediments represented on the eastern side. 'The Upper Ordovician, and possibly Silurian fossils on the western side close to the diabase, would appear to demand this view, in the absence of any recognised unconformity to afford any other explanation. The presence of the second diabase occurrence to the west offers certain difficulties, however, in the way of this interpretion.
Another alternative would be to assume that the Upper Ordo- vician, with possibly Silurian, is but a small fragment that has been nipped in by the intense folding to which the area has been subjected. The fossiliferous area is very restricted, further search ;may extend it, but the writer has spent much time without success looking for fossils in the surrounding strata. It may, therefore, be that the bulk of the rocks which, so far, have proved unfossil- ferous, are very much older, and may be Lower Ordovician, or ■even Cambrian. With the present evidence at hand the matter must be left an open question. (See Fig. 3.)
(c) Phosph/ife Dejyosits.
While searching diligently to obtain graptolites to confirm, if possible, the presence of Silurian, as indicated by a reported Mono- graptns found by Mr. Ilowitt, Professor Skeats and the writer
■discovered a phosphatic breccia. This was of considerable interest, because it was the report of phosphatic rock from this district that
lied to Mr. A. M. Howitt's flying visit. The piece shown to Mr.
58 E. 0. Teale:
Howitt was a loose block, which had been brought to the old mine.. As no more could be found in the neighbourhood, it was suggested', that it might have come from Mansfield.
The position of the present occurrence is shown on the map. It. is onlv about a mile in a straight line, south-east from Fry's, and less than half a mile south-west from the old mine.
The rock is light-coloured, creamish, earthy fragments predomin-- ating, but dark, almost black pieces sometimes somewhat cherty, also occur. Rough stratification is noticeable, and the bed has a defined dip and strike conforming with the enclosing rocks, llie- outcrop is not continuously exposed at the surface, and has the- appearance of being broken and dislocated. The rocks in general, in this zone are much disturl^ed. The pliosphatic breccia, howevei', can be traced at intervals along a distance of aliout 1-30 yards, in a. north-west to south-east direction.
WavoUite is abundant in thin seams along some of the joint planes, and an analysis of the surface rocks shows that it is an* impure aluminous phosphate, containing only about 7% of ^2^5. This may represent leached material; at any rate, it would be un- wise to say that it represents the composition of this rock at a depth. Lithologically, the material does not resemble the Mans- field phosphate rock, which is not a breccia. The organic remains are imperfectly preserved crustaceans of the character of phyllopod- like forms, Avhile those of Mansfield have been referred to as prob- ably Salterella, thus differing also organically. An account of this, phosphate deposit has recently been published. 2
Since Tefrar/raptns has been recorded at Mansfield, it would' appear that both Lower and Upper Ordovician graptolite-bearing rocks are closely associated. At the Howqua, the only fossils in ther associated beds are graptolites and occasional brachipods, whichi may l>e either Upper Ordovician or Silurian, and the phosphate- deposits are definitely interbedded with these.
In order to test the relationship of the phosphate deposit to the surrounding sediments, the writer and his father spent a couple of days with pick and shovel putting a trench across the outcrop, the- result of which was to prove conclusively that the phosphate breccia is interbedded Avith the surrounding graptolite-bearing strata. The' accompanying section illustrates the relationship.
Ernest W. Skeats and E. O. Teale, Aust. Inst, of Mining Ensineer-s, Pron. New Series, No. 32, 1918, pp. 155-165. Fig. 4 is from a block lent bjr the Aust. Inst, of Mining Engineers.
Rocks of the Howqua River. 59'
S.W.
b c de f '/
Fig. 4. — Section across outcrop of phosphate breccia.
E. Concerning the Age of the Diahase and the Cherts. — A Comparative Revietv.
These rocks from stratigrapliical considerations appear to be the oldest rocks in this region, which necessarily places them low down in the older Palaeozoic series, but on the evidence available in this region alone it would be difficult to assign a definite horizon to them.
The view in this direction, however, is sti-engthened, and much uncertainty as to age is removed, when a comparative review is made oi other closely similar occurrences in the State. Various gaps in the evidence, which make any one area in itself incomplete disappear when all are taken in conjunction. The other areas which call for special consideration in this direction are : —
1. Heathcote.
2. Dolodrook River, near Mount Wellington, Gippsland.
The fossil evidence of the Dinesus beds with associated Proto- spongia cherts, at Heathcote, established the age of the rocks as Cambrian.
There would seem to he little doubt that the Howqua rocks are on an extension of the Dolodrook line, where the age is definitely fixed by the tribolite limestone. The absence of this evidence at the Howqua, however, is counterbalanced to some extent by the presence of Frofosjjongia cherts and overlying LoAver Ordovician rocks, con- taining such graptolites as Tetragraptvs and Didymograjitus. At the Dolodrook, Upper Ordovician rocks oome directly in contact with the Cambrian. Again, as an offset against the paucity of direct fossil evidence at the Howqua, we have the very complete lithological resemblances and mineral changes which match the- typical Heathcote occurrences. There would seem little doubt,.
^U E. 0. Teale:
therefore, that the diabases and cherts of the Howqua belong to the Heathcotian series, and must be regarded as Cambrian. Whether .also some of the adjoining sediments are to be included in this series must at present be left an open question.
6. — The Upper Palaeozoic Rocks.
Ihe present investigation was principally concerned with the relationships of the older rocks, but soine of the later geology is not without interest, and as rocks of this age are found in the northern portion of the area under consideration, where they come into contact with the diabase, a little time was devoted to roughly
• demarking their boundaries and noting their main features. The .rocks of this series fall into the following groups : —
A. — Devonian.
1. Dacite, porphyry,
2. Granodiorite.
3. Diorite.
B. — The Lower Carboniferous.
1. Basal conglomerates.
2. Rhyolite.
3. Conglomerates.
4. Sandstones.
5. Purple shales
1. Dacite Porphi/nj. — This rock covers a considerable tract of 'Counti-y between Mount Tirabertop and the Howqua, and extends
■ easterly towards the Buller Creek, where it gives place to Lower Palaeozoic strata. It is also found to the north outside the region
■ of this map on the fall towards Merrijig. Rock of this nature is widely distributed in the King River Valley, as indicated by Kitson.i2 In both localities it underlies the basal conglomerates
■ of the Lower Carboniferous beds, in which pebbles of the porphyry are not uncommon. In the Howqua area this feature was noted in the Timbertop conglomerates. Professor Skeats^ has referred to the King River porphyry as related to the Dacites. In hand specimens the rock has a general dark colour, on account of a dark, fine- grained base. It inclines to red, where oxidized and weathered. Phenocrysts of felspar and quartz are abundant, the former pre- dominating, and show up on the dark base, imparting a typical porphyritic appearance. Garnets are frequently recognizable. Under the microscope in thin sections chemical alteration in all the specimens examined has proceeded too far for satisfactory
• determination.
Rucls of tJie Hotuqua River. GT
The structure is typically porphyritic, the base is fine grained and feist ic, often showing flow phenomena. The phenocrysts in. order of abundance would appear to be, felsj^ar, ferroniagnesian mineral, quartz and occasional garnets. The felspars are more or less decomposed, but in general the twinning and cleavage can be recognised. There appears to be about an equal amount of repeated and untwinned forms, but undoubted orthoclase has not been recognised for the refractive index is invariably higher than that of the Canada balsam.
The quartz is often rounded, cracked and embayed. The ferro- niagnesian minerals have been almost completely chloritized, but their outlines are marked by black outlines due to iron oxides. Biotite is indicated, and hypersthene and hornblende are also suggested. The amount of ferromagnesian mineral indicates a rock related to the Dacites (Slides 29, 30, and 32.)
2. Granodiorite. — This rock is very abundant in the boulders of the Howqua, but it is only found in situ within the area mapped in the extreme north-eastern corner on the slopes of Mount Buller. Its intrusive character is shown by the contact alteration of the- adjoining Lower Palaeozoic strata. All the sections prepared were from boulders in the Howqua, as these were the freshest speci- mens obtainable, and their source was known with fair certainty. The prevailing rock has a tj-pical granitic structure, and is of a grey colour, but very fine grained varieties are not xmcommon,. showing a tendency to porphyritic structure.
It is worth recording that a small splash of molybdenite was noted in one of the boulders.
Hornblende, biotite and triclinic felspar ai'e readily recogniz- able in hand specimens. In thin sections, felspars appear to be slightly more abundant than quartz. Twinned and untwinned forms are about equal in amount. The repeated twinning is very minute, with occasional fine cross twinning, suggesting- anorthoclase.
Biotite and hornblende, both green in colour, are invariably present, but in varying quantities in the different slides. In the basic segregation patches, the hornblende predominates, and the nature of tlie rock approaches that of a normal diorite. In general^ tlie character of the rock compares closely with that of the normal granodiorites of the State, and its association with the rocks of a dacite type is also similar. Tbis intrusion, therefore, is probably to be correlated with the general and extensive one affecting eastern and south-eastern Australia, and regarded as Lower Devonian in as:e.
62 E. 0. Teale:
3. Diorite. — This rock has not been observed in situ yet, but fresh specimens are abundant in the river gravels, and, judging from the most basic segregation patches in the granodiorite. it is most probably that the diprite is magmatically related to the granodiorite, and is no doubt associated with it in its occurrences, The rock in hand specimens is medium grained, crystalline, of dark colour, showng abundant hornblende and felspar. In thin sections the structure is holccrystalline, inclining to panidiomor- phic, but the ferromagnesian minerals are imperfect in this direc- tion. The felspars are most abundant and appear to be almost entirely triclinic. Quartz is rare, being present only as odd grains. Fcri'omagnesian minerals are abundant, but bulk less than the felspars. They consist of typical green hornblende and greenish brown biotite.
B. Lower Carboniferous.
The age of these rocks is determined from the evidence of the fish remains found in the Mansfield area, with which these beds can be seen to be continuous. They form jDart of an extensive series of sediments extending from Mansfield south-easterly into Gipps- land.
1. Basal Conglomerates. — These are not largely developed within the area mapped, but small remnants are found directly overlying the dacite porphyry on the slopes between Timbertop and the Howqua, and one small outcrop, in the track near the top of Tim- Ijertop Gap rests in the decomposed diabasic rocks. It contains pebbles both of this rock and of the porphyry. Quartz and quartz- itic rocks are perhaps the most abundant generally, but porphyry, red jasper, and diabase can generally be recognised.
2. RhijoUte. — This is a w^ell-defined sheet of variable thickness w-liich at Timbertop amounts to about 600 feet. It generally rests on the conglomerate, but occasionally this bed appears to be absent, and it rests directly on the porphyry, as on the spur east of Black- bird Creek. Upon it is found almost invariably either conglome- rate or pebbly sandstone.
The rock is distinct from the porphyry. It is more felsitic, with fewer phenocrysts, which are entirely felspar and quartz. Flow structure is generally apparent. The colour is generally red and the rock is decidedly more siliceous than the porphyry.
Thin sections show it to be typical rhyolite, but the specimens examined are more ferruginous than those of Mount Wellington, and the felspar phenocrysts, all orthoclase, are more abundant than
Mocks of the Hoicqua River. 03
;the quartz. Secondary silicification is apparent in some sections. ;No ferromagnesian minerals were noted. (Slides 26, 28, and .'>4.)
3. Conglomerates. — This bed often passing into pebbly sand- . stones generally overlies the rh^-olite almost everywhere in this series. It is well developed at Blount Timtertop, where it passes
!up into the normal sandstone.
4. The sandstones are generally of a coarse texture, often flaggy and micaceous, and with a reddi.sh colour. They form as a rule thick beds which alternate with a purplish to chocolate coloured shale, which sometimes has the appearance of an oxidised ash bed. The shales generally provide good grazing country. The colour, texture and generally low angle of dip of these rocks render them readily distinguishable from' the older i"ocks in the field. Their influence on the topography, too, is distinct.
The alternation of hard and soft beds more or less horizontally 'disposed gives the hills in general a table topped and ledged ch.arac- ter, so well shown in the neighbourhood of Mansfield.
Summary and Conclusions.
The area examined covers about 60 square miles of mountainous • country, previously unmapped. It lies about 20 miles to the south- east of Mansfield, and forms a portion of the central highland region of Victoria. Physiographically it consists of an area of high relief in an advanced stage of deep dissection. The original plateau character is almoist completely obliterated. Deep valleys <^•ith permanent streams separated by steep narroAv ridges occupy the whole of the region. Small remnants of an overmantel of flat- lying rhyolite and sediments are preserved, provirling a topo- graphic contrast to the outline of the highly folded older rocks.
The area lies in the drainage basin of the Upper Goulburn, and the development of this river system as a whole is intimately con- nected with interesting tectonic and structural questions.
The main problem dealt with in the area concerns the occur- rence of diabasic rocks and cherts closely similar to those of Heath- cote, and their relations generally Avith reference to the Heath- cotian problem in Victoria.
The lithological resemblances are most striking, both with regard to the diabase and its alteration products. The cherts occiipy a similar relationship, and in each case contain Protoaiiongia. Con- tact alteration features are absent, and the rocks for the most part ■have the character of altered lavas and tuffsi of submarine origin.
64 E. 0. Teale:
The trilobite rocks which at the Dolodrook and Heathcote provide- evidence of the Cambrian age, are absent in the Howqua, but the field evidence shows that the diabases and cherts are low down in a series of sediments, in the higher portions of which Lower Ordo- vician fossils have been discovered.
At 'Heathcote the succession from Cambrian to Lower Ordovician. appears to be conformable, the diabases and cherts being on an undoubted Cambrian horizon. It appears reasonable here to in- clude the similar rocks of the Howqua in the same period.
With regard to the associated Lower Palaeozoic sediments, a- lithological and fossil discordance on the western and eastern sidea of the main diabase is noted and discussed. Upj^er Ordovician and possibly Silurian fossils are restricted to a small area on the western side, close to the diabase. The rest of the sediments on this side have so far yielded no fossils. They consist largely of" slates, sometimes black, often talcose and chloritic, and usually highly contorted. Chertification is slight. On the eastern side the Protospongia cherts appear to be conformably in contact with the diabase. They form a well defined zone, which is followed by a series of alternating sandstones and olive green phyllitic slates so far unfossiliferous over a great range of thickness. Higher in the series, thin bands of black slate carrying Lower Ordovician fossils are interbedded Avith strata of this type. No Silurian fossils have yet been obtained on this side. Some which are possibly Upper Ordovician occur.
The general structure of the area is somewhat obscure, but a faulted anticline with the Upper Ordovician or Silvirian included* as a small nipped-in piece, is suggested, as illustrated in the sketch; section.
The upper Palaeozoic rocks are briefly referred to :
The rocks of Devonian age are : —
1. Dacite Porj^hyry.
2. Granodiorite.
3. Diorit<>.
Those of LoAver Carboniferous age are : —
1. Conglomerates.
2. Phvolite.
3. Pebbly and flaggy sandstones.
4. Purplish shales.
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 19] 9. Plate V,
Fig. 1,
X 35 diaiii.
< 35 diam.
Fig. 3.
\
Rocks of the Howqua River. Go
Acknowledgements.
I have previously referred to willing help and criticism afforded by Professor Skeats, who has now come to the rescue at the eleventh liour by kindly offering to deal with the petrological description of the more typical forms of diaV)ase. This work was postponed pending the completion of chemical analyses by the author, but the necessity of leaving at sliort notice for West Africa would have meant leaving this section in a ver}^ incomplete form had it not been for this friendly offer. I am also greatly indebted to my father for constant companionship in the field, where the roughness and inaccessibility of the country would have added considerably to the difficulty of the work had it been necessary to do it alone.
Bibliography.
(1) Howitt. A. M. — Report on alleged Phosphate of Alumina, near Great Rand Mine, Howijua River, County of Wonnangatta. Rec. Geol. Surv. Victoria, Vol. II., Part 4, 1907.
(2) Gregory, J. W. — The Heathcotian, a Pre-Ordovician Series and its Distribution in Victoria, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XV. (New Series). Pt. 11, 1903.
(3) Hall, T. S.— Report on Graptolites. Rec. Geo!. Survey of Victoria, Vol. II.. Part 2.
(4) Skeats, E. W. — On tlie evidence of tlie origin, age and altera- tion of the rocks neai' Heatcliote, Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic- toria, Vol. XX., 1908.
(5) Skeats, E. W. — The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria. Presidential Address, Autialasian Assoc. Advancement of Science, Brisbane, 1909.
(0) Gregory, J. W. — Stanfoi-d's f'ompendium of Geography. Vol. I.. Australasia, 1907.
(7) Fennel'. C. — Physiography of the Mansfield District. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. Vol. XXVI. (N.S.) Pt. II.. 1914.
(8) Howitt, A. W, — "Notes on Diabase and Adjacent Forma- tions of the Heathcote District, Special Rep. Dep. Mines, Victoria, 1896,
(9) Graham, R. P. 0. — Origin of Massive Serpentine and rhrysotile Asbestos, Black Lake Thetford Area, Quel>ec. Economic Geology, Vol. XII., No. 2, Feb.-Mar., 1917.
(10) Twelvetrees, W. H. — Asbestos at Anderson's Creek. Min. Pesources No. 4. Geol. Surv. Dop. of Mines, Tasmania, 1917.
66 E. 0. Teale:
(11) Stirling, J. — Report on Examination of Reefs at Howqua Valley. Rep. of Mining Reg., Quarter ending 30th June, 1888.
(12) Kitson, A. E.— The King and Broken Rivers, County Dela- tite. Monthly Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv., Victoria, N.S., No. 11.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.
Fig. 1. — Rock section, No. 25. Soda-rich diahase from Lick Hole Creek, one mile north of the Governor, and near the south-east end of the main diabase mass. Section x 35 diameters. Polarized light. A large simple twin of albite is seen with smaller quadrate and irregular crystals. The dark areas are principally intei-locking fibres of actinolite with S,ugite.
Fig. 2. — Rock section. No. 15. Compact diabase from Four Mile Creek. Section x 35 diameters. Ordinary light. Abun- dant augite, showing its cleavages with a few radial penetrating felspar laths are seen. Black ilmenite is noticeable, and the clear areas are pale chlorite.
Fig. 3. — Rock section X'> 78 B(Mldpd Mnrk flievt. Howqua River, on north-east side of main diabase mass. Section X 24.5 diameters, ordinary light. The black background consists mainly of chalcedony. Numerous spicules of Proiospoi^gia either as straight rods or in triradiate or cruciform arrangements are seen in tlie field of view.
END OF VOLUME XXXIL, PART I
[Publish KD October, 1919].
[Piioc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.). Pt. II.. 192u].
Art. VIII. — A contrlbubtion to the Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria, with special reference to the Districts of Mount Wellington and Nowa Noiva respectively.
By E. O. TEALE, D.Sc.
(with Plates VIII., IX.).
[Eead ]4tli August, 1919.]
Contents.
I. — Introduction.
II. — Wellington District.
General Geology.
1. Pre-Ordoviciaii Series.
a. Serpentine — Pre-TTpper Cambrian.
b- Gaf^y ^^^y f "es "^ Upper Cambrian, c. Trilobite Limestone ) ^^
6 2. Upper Ordovician.
3. Silurian.
4. Upper Palaeozoic (Lower Carboniferous).
a. General succession and structure.
b. Breccias and Cfono'lomerates.
c. Rhyolite and associated rocks.
d. Sandstone and Shales.
e. Melaphyre.
III. — Hickey's Cp.eek District.
a. General Succession.
b. Special structural features.
IV^. — KowA Nowa District.
General scope of the work.
Brief account of Physical features.
General Geology.
1. Upper Ordovician.
2. Snowy lliver Porphyries.
a. Porphyroids.
b. Stratified Ash Beds.
c. Trachytic and Andesitic Rocks.
d. Quartz Porphyrites and Pyroclastic Rock.
e. Quartz Ceratophyres.
f. Granitic JRockjs.
g. Chemical Characters and Petrographical Rela-
tionships, h. Economic Minerals.
3. Middle Devonian — Limestones and Shales.
4. Kainozoic.
a. Marine deposits.
b. Fluviatile deposits.
c. Basalt.
68 E. 0. Teale:
T. — Palaeozoic Earth Histobt.
1. Successive Distribution of Land and Water.
2. Types of Earth Movements.
3. Granite Biatholiths and their Relation to Palaeozoic Struc-
ture.
4. Pitch along Ajiticlinal Lines.
5. Relation of Dyke Rocks and Quartz Reefs to General Struc-
ture and Earth Movements.
6. The Fracture Line of the Snowy River Porphyries.
TI. SUMMART
TIL BlBIilOORAPHY.
List of Illustrations.
Maps.
1. General Geological ajid Topographical Map of Wellington District.
2. Geological Map of a small area at the junction of Thiele'.s Creek, with
the Dolodrook River.
3. Geological Map of Hickey's Creek Region.
4. Geological Map of Nowa Nowa, and Buchan Districts.
5. Geological Map of small area at Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa Viaduct.
Sections and Diagrams.
1. Section .showing r<>lation of Cambrian Inlier to surrounding Rocks,
Dolodrook River.
2. General Section, Wellington District.
3. Section alcng Roan Horee Gully.
4. Generalised Section from East to West, from Mount Wellington to
Black River.
5. Section Hickey's Creek Region.
6. Section E, Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa. Section A, Boggy Creek.
Section C, Boggy Creek.
7. Section D, Ironstone Cr^ek.
8. Brogger Diagrams.
9. Sketch from Wallaby Hill. ,
10. Block Diagram of Buchan District.
11. Diagram of Successive Palaeozoic Basins.
Photographs. ,
1. Spheroidal Weathering of Garvey Gully Tuffs.
2. Overfolding of Silurian Strata, Dolodrook River.
3. Western Scarp of Mount Wellington. '4. Columnar Rhyolite, W^ellington Gorge.
5. Hickey's Creek Monolith.
6. Sketch from W^allaby Hill.
Photomicrographs.
1. Serpentinized Peridotite Pre-UppeT Cambrian, Mt. Wellington District.
2. Serpentinous Grit, Upper Cambrian, Dolodrook River.
Palaeozoic Geolo(jy of Victoria. 69
■3. SerpentinouE Grit, Upper Cambrian, Dolodrook Eiver.
4. Rhyolite Tuff, Upper Palaeozoic, Lake Karng, Mt. Wellington.
5. Melaphyre, Upper Palaeozoic, Wallaby Creek, Welliiifftxi District.
6. Porphyroid, Lower Devonian, Ironstone Creek, Nowa Nowa.
7. Porphyroid, Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa.
8. Altered Andegite. Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek, Nowa Nowa.
9. Tra<;liytic Andesite, Lower Dei\-oniain, Nowa Nowa.
10. Quartz-Porphyrite, Lower Devonian, Tara Range.
11. Quartz-Ceratophyre, Lower Devonian, Nowa Nowa.
12. Quartz-Ceratophyre, Lower Devonian, Nowa Nowa.
Description of Photomicrographs.
iFig. 1. — ^Sertientinized peridotite, showing some unalltered olivine. Pre- Upper-Cambrian, Serpentine area, Mt. Wellington District.
Slide No. 182. Ordinary light x 40.
.Fig. 2. — Serpentinous grit, showing much calcite and altered basic igneous fragments. Upper Cambrian. Dolodrook R., Loc. B.
Slide No. 39. Ordinary light x 40.
Fig^. 3. — Serpentinous grit, showing much caloite, one example twinned, also felspar and pyroxene fragments much altered. Upper Cam- briaji, Loc. B.
No. 41, Crossed Nicols x 40.
Fig. 4. — Rhyolite tuff, showing irregular tuib? structures set in felsitic ground-ma*6. Upper Palaeozoic, Lake Karng, Mt. Wellington.
No. 111. Crov-sed Nicols x 40.
Fig. 5. — Melaphyre, s^howing abundant laths of triclinic felspar, probably ol"'gocla.se, with .lome chlorite and magnetite. Upper PalaeoZv>ic, Wallaby Creek, Mt. Wellington District.
No. 177. Ordi'-iary light x 40-
Fig. 6. — Porphyroid. Sciiistoee structure indicated by lines of sericite ; some tricline felspar fragments are ."et in a schistose felsitic base. Lower Devonian. Ironstone Creek, Nowa-Nowa,
No. 27. Crossed Nicols x 40.
Fig. 7. — Porphyroid. Schistose structure indicated by lines of sericite; felspar fragments small and less abundant. Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek.
No. 2. Crossed Nicols x 40.
:Fig. 8. — Altered Andesitp. Phenocrysts of triclinic felspar of stout habit and chloritized ferro-magnesian minerals in a micrccrys- talline ground-mass. Lower Devonian, Bc^gy Creek.
No. 11, Ordinary light y 40.
Fig. 9. — Trachytic-Andesite, .showing abundant triclinic fel.spars of 2 generations and central felspar, showing secondary alteration. Lower Devonian, Boggy Creek.
No. 12. Ordinary light x 40.
"Fig. 10. — Quartz-porphyrite, showing eimbayed quartz phenocryst. Lower Devonian. Tara Range.
No. 105. Crossed Nicols x 40.
".Fig. 11. — Quartz-oeratophyre, showing triclinic fel«=T)ar phenocrysts, prob- ably andesine. Lower Devonian, Nowa-Nowa.
No. 68. Crossed Nicols x 40. Tig. 12. — Quartz ceratophyre (features as in Fig. 11).
No. 68. Croesed Nicols y 40.
70 E. 0. Teale:
. Notes on the Maps.
Wellington District, Map 1.
The area contained in Map 1 comprises about 9i) square miles of moun- tainous country in a region previously unmapped geologically, except for » sketch map by Reginald Murray, issued in 186i, scale, 2 miles to an inch. Though the topography was roughly sketched in by him from main vantage points, very little of the area included in thia map was examined geologically, hence as the margins of this region were mainly Upper Pailaeozoic, he assumed that these rocks probably covered the whole area. A land survey was made some years ago of a Uraited portion centring round the serpentine rocks. The blocks were not permanently taken up, and only about one boundary fence was ever put up, so that very few points or lines other than parts of the Wellington and Dolodrook river courses could be definitejly recogni.sed in the field: Tliese. however, were made use of, and formed the basis from which the existing map was constructed.
The important central portion, which includes the Cambrian and Ordo- vicia.n inliers, has been accurately traced and mapped. The outlying topo- graphy has been determined approximately bv a combination of rapid com- pass traverses, assisted by plane table methods from suitable vantage points.
Hichnjs Creek Rrgion, Map 3-
The only topographical basis for this map was the position and course of the Macallister River, obtained from the county map. The road was trar versed by myself, and tlie rest of the features sketched in — in part by plane table methods and rapid compass traverses. Murray's Sketch Map also included this district, but no details concerning important structural features were shown.
Noica-Nmva — BucJian District, Map 4.
This is another area little known geologically, with a very imperfect topographical basis to work upon. The main streams, such as Boggy Creek, Ti-Tree Creek, Yellow Water Holes Creek and Tara Creek, have been definitely located by Government sur\eys, and the roads and settler's blocks as indicated provide some fixed points from which to work, but practically tlie whole of the Tara Range, from its termination in the S.E., near Mt. Nowa-Nowa, to where it passes out of the map in the N.E., has only two fixed points shown in any of the existing maps, namely, the two trigonometrical stations of Mt. Nowa-Nowa and Mt. Tara.
The only other geological map which includes this area is the general ma,p of Victoria, 8 miles to an inch. I understand tliere are some unpub- lished sketch maps in the hands of the Geological Survey of Victoria, upon which this portion of the general map was based, but I have not seen them.
The author spent about five weeks in this district, which covers an area of about 2<X) square miles. It was traversed on foot, single handed, so that though the boundaries indicated are all my own, they are necessarily only very approximate.
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3
Palaeozoic Gfology of Victoria. 71
Introduction.
The foDowing observations and conclusions are the resnlt of field •work which was started in the vicinity of Mount Wellington, in North Gippsland, about fifteen years ago. It was the existence of a small, imperfectly known mountain lake, close to Mount Welling- ton, which fir.st attracted the writer to this region. Lake Karng, as it has been named, had been visited by the late Dr. Howitt about fourteen years previously, but the question of its origin was not •definitely settled. Of the two views discussed by Howitt (1 and 2), namely, glacial and landslip origin, the glacial was most favoured.
No other scientific observei' had visited the lake until the writer's examination in December, 1904. A report of the excursion ap- peared in the "Victorian Naturalist," 1905 (11). The landslip origin of the barrier which forms the lake is there upheld, and several subsequent visits by the writer have greatly strengthened this conviction.
Incidentally, the first excursion showed that the whole region was full of interest, both geologically and physiographically, and dur- ing tlie years 1904 to 1908 (11, 12, 13), four short vacation expedi- tions were made into various parts of this district. The most im- portant result of this preliminary work was to show that to the west of Mount Wellington there was an extensive and complex inlier of Lower Palaeozoic rocks in an area previously regarded as Upper Devonian. In tliis region, along the Wellington and Dolodrook Rivei-s, extensive outcrops of black cherty slates were discovered, yielding abundant and l>eautifnlly preserved Upper Ordovician graptolites. Serpentine containing Corundum and Chromite was also found to occur along a belt within the Ordovician area, but its age and relationship to the surrounding rocks had not yet been Avorked out. Sevei-al outcrops of grey crystalline limestone inti- mately associated with the slates and serpentine were next dis- covered, and these proved later to 1>? some of the most important and interesting rocks of tlie district. At first a small brachiopod was the only fossil obtained, which ]SIr. Chapman regarded as a Silurian form, but later another outcrop of limestone yielded abundant trilobites, which Mr. Chapman confidently recognised as Upper Cambrian (13 and 15). This came as a surprise, for tliough "the field observations were limited, they had not suggested the marked stratigraphical break which the palaeontological evidence now demanded. Shortly previously to this discovery, Mr. E. J. Dunn (16), late Director of the Geological Survey, in company with
72 E. 0. Teak:
Professor E. W. Skeats, made a flying visit to this region, spend- ing only about four days there. Mr. Dunn's attentions were speci- ally directed to the examination of the Serpentine, with the asso- icated occurrence of the Corundum and Chromite, but the observa-' tions of lx)th tlie«e geologists on the relations of the limestone to the surrounding rocks, though hurried, led them also to receive with some surprise the possibility of their being regarded as- Cambrian.
A -few years previously, in 1902, Professor Gregory, from a. study of several Lower Palaeozoic areas in Victoria, but particu- larly in the vicinity of Heuthcote, claimed that a Pre-Ordovician series of probable Cambrian age existed; and to which he gave the name Heathcotian. Professor Gregory's conclusion was not, however, accepted with full confidence by all the Victorian geologists, and later. Professor Skeats (18) examined carefully the Heathcote rocks, and in 1908 published a very comprehensive re- view of the situation, concluding that the evidence in favour of a Pre-Ordovician series at Heathcote was not conclusive. He there- fore for the time being favoured the inclusion of tlie doubtful rocks in the basal Ordovician.
The Cambrian problem in the Wellington district was therefore of mo)e than local interest since the existing knowledge concerning the occurrence of Cambrian generally in Victoria was in an unsatis- factory state. It was clearly the chief among many interesting and important quesitions awaiting solution in this region.
At this stage in May, 1908, the writer's departure to undertake- geological exploration in Africa under the direction of the Im- perial Institute, postponed indefinitely these interesting researches.
A paper was therefore written, embodying the conclusions arrived at. and stating also the more' important unsolved problems (L3).
Eaily in 1915, while in Melbourne, on a short holiday from Africa, the effect of the Avar led to the suspension of the African Exploration, and it was suggested by Professor Si;:eats and Dr.. Summers that I should resume in the meantime the Wellington researches. The University offered encouragement and assistance- in the form of a Government Research Scholarship, and the oppor- tunity, therefore, to renew the work was gladly availed of.
The foremost aim of the expedition was to endeavour by careful survey to m,ap and work out the relations of the various limestone outcrops to one another, and to the surrounding rocks. It was soon found, however, that the work grew in scope, for the mapping-
Palaeozoic Ge0logy of Victoria. 73
showed a succession of iuliers ranging from Cambrian to Silurian^ surrounded by a ring of Upper Palaetizoic sediments with associ- ated acid and basic lava flows. Important broad structural and tt;ctonic considerations involving palaeozoic geology generally there- fore, became involved.
On the first expedition of renewed exploration in April, 1915, L was accompanied by my father, Mr. A. 0. Thiele, who had been a constant helper throughout the numerous field trips to this area. Mr. Herman, Director of the Geological Survey, also kindly arranged for Mr. J. Caldwell, one of the officers of the Survey, tO' join the party as a field assistant, and I am greatly indebted ta the willing and able help rendered by both these persons.
Various unavoidable difficulties, due partly to the season and partly to the rough nature of the country, prevented the com- pletion of tlie work before the wet season set in, and as the district was unsuitable for winter field work, it was decided to choose another region in the meantime, offering unsolved problems likely to bear in some way with! those of the Wellington region.
The district, therefore, between Nowa Nowa at the head of Lake Tyers and Buchan, was chosen, for it included two occurrences believed by Mr. Dunn tu be of Heathcotian age, one in Boggy Creek and the other in the I'ara Range (19), south-east from Buchan.
In Boggy Creek, just north of Nowa Ni)wa, Mr. Dunn had stated that diabases associated with cherts occurred and in the Mount Tara goldfields he had recognised cherts. Both these occurrences, had been included in the Heathcotian on purely lithological grounds, but the relationship to the surrounding rocks had not been worked out. This district further offered an opportunity of studying a portion of the important belt of igneous rocks known as the " Snowy River Porphyries," thus affording scope to discuss the Palaeozoic volcanic history generally, of which the Wellington series form an important chapter.
These various journeys through Gippsland provided also some interesting physiographical studies, so that the extent of the work has gradually groAvn until it includes a number of distinct prob- lems wliich will now be considered in turn.
WELLINGTON DISTRICT.
Tlu Palaeozoic Geology. — Thn? Wellington region forms part of one of the important major tectonic and structural zones of Vic- toria, which may le conveniently termed the Mansfield-Welling-
74 E. 0. Teale:
ton zone. Tliis belt bears tlie record of a long succession of tectonic Tolcanic and sedimentary events ranging practically throughout the Palaeozoic period, starting with Cambrian and closing with Lower Carboniferous. There are probably three distinct periods of igneous activity represented, namely, Cambrian, Lower Devo- nian and Lower Carboniferous. A succession of powerful fold and fault movements along a line varying between N.N.W. and N.W. acting at intervals throughout this period, has impressed especially in the older formation, some marked structural features in the form of intense folding, crumpling and crushing. A general parallelism in strike as a rule exists between the different forma- tions, and the evidence of unconformities has to be considered very carefully. The problems of any portion of this extensive and mountainous belt should take note of the general features of the whole area as far as possible, but, unfortunately, much of the region is still veiy imperfectly known, and some of it has never been examined geologically. The Wellington area forms the south- ern end of the belt, and rises abruptly from the northern edge of the great Gippsland Plains, a little to the north of Heyfiold, and forms a part of the great Central Highlands of Victoria.
The Mansfield region lies neai-" the northern end, across the Main Divide, not far from the border of the Highlands with the northern plains. The length of the whole t>elt is about 100 miles, with a width up to about 40. Much of it is covered by Upper Palaeozoic sediments and igneous rock, but extensive denudation has in places stripped off this covering, and laid bare the older rocks, notably near Mansfield, in the Howqua Valley, and also in the Wellincfton and Dolodrook Kivers. The need for further work in the first and second localities will be explained later. The particular features of the Palaeozoic rocks of the Wellington aiea will now be taken in order and some reference made to i-elated occuri'ences elsewhere in Victoria.
Ppe-Ordovician Series (Heathcotian). — Under this division there are three distinct groups of rocks : —
(a) Serpentine Pre-Tpper Cambrian.
(b) Trilobite Lime>tone Upper Cambrian
(c) Garvey Gully series of Sediments
The general occurrence of this series is shown on the map of the "Wellington region, and the accompanying Sections (Map Xo. 1 and Sections 1 and 2). It will be seen tliat the rocks of this series occur as a long, narroAv curved inlier striking generally in a novtii- westerly direction, which is the grain or trend of the whole structure
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.
75
*of the area. A narrow, incomplete ring of black clierty graptolite slates of Upper Ordovician age almost surrounds the inlier, but on the northern side along a portion of the contact the Silurian sedi- ments rest directly against the Serpentine. The whole series is intensely crushed and contorted, and so are the Upper Ordovician
HOBIZllKTytl.
VfRTIC/lL C V 1
oeciion ^.
Secfior •ihowinqrcldhon of Cambrian In1ie»- To surrdundina Rocks Dolodrook Rivfr
rooks. As all the successive formations have been subjected to periods of folding and compression along a north-westerly direction, they have a similar strike, and small vertical sections of contacts do not yield conclusive evidence of unconformity. The mapping, however, of the boundaries gives more satisfactory information in this direction, and everywhere the lithological and palaeontological break is quite sudden.
The Serpentine. — The extent and general features of this rock with its associated minerals, Chromite and Corundum, were de- scribed in a previous paper (13), but the age and relationship to the surrounding rocks had not been definitely established. The Serpentine was then regarded by me as the oldest rock occurring in this region, and was put down as Pre-Upper Ordovician. This view is still upheld, but it is now possible to further restrict its age to Pre-Upper Cambrian. The Serpentine Avas shown previously (13) to be of the nature of an altered intrusive rock, originating from both pyroxenites and peridotites. Various rocks are found directly in contact with it, for example, serpentinous grits, con- glomerate and finer sediments derived from the denudation of the serpentine, also associated diabase tuffs in which there are defi- nitely interbedded lenticular limestone deposits of Upper Cambrian
7<3
E. 0. Teale.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 77
age; elsewhere Upper Ordovician slate or Silurian sandstone and shale directly overlie the Serpentine. Nowhere has there beea observed any rock showing contact alteration. The conclusion^ therefore, is clear that not only is the Serpentine the oldest rock but there is a stratigraphical break between it and the next oldest rock, the Upper Cambrian, sufficient to allow of considerable denu- dation previous to the deposition of the Upper Cambrian. The in- tense shearing and foliated character of much of the Serpentine has been previously referred to (13). It is generally recognised that a certain amount of such structure frequently found in Serpentine is due to intense expansional forces generated by the increase in volume, which accompanies the mineralogical change from pyroxene and olivine into Serpentine. Additional stresses, however, of an intense character due to general compressional earth movements have further deformed these rocks, and have largely contributed to their schistose character.
A very iisaful apd comprehensive summary of the state of our knowledge concerning the Heathcotian Series is given by Professor Skeats in the "Volcanic Rocks of Victoria" (18). It includes references to various Serpentines and associated rocks in Victoria, some of which have been doubtfully referred to by various gieologists as Pre-Ordovician. Further interesting information and statements concerning Cambrian occurrences generally in Aus- tralia are discussed by Professors David and Skeats in the Federal Handbook, in the section dealing with the, geology of the Common- wealth (20). Serpentine has been shown to occur in a number of widely-separated localities frequently associated with cherty and diabasic rocks, notably at Waratah Bay, near Casterton and the ■ Limestone River, Benambra. These rocks have been doubtfullj^ included by some authorities in the Pre-Ordovician Series, but though little is known concerning the relationship ta the surround- ing rocks, the definite fixing of the age of the Wellington Serpen- tine adds a little more weight to the conjecture that these other occurrences inay be correlated with the Pre-Ordovician.
It is interesting to note as previously referred to by Professor Skeats (18) that near Heathcote the diabase at its margin passes into a rock allied to Serpentine, known as Selwynite, containing" chromite and corundum, an association also found in the Welling- ton area.
The Garvei/ Gully Series. — These rocks were recognised in part in my previous paper (13), under the heading of " Sediments com- posed largely of Serpentine Detritus, and were doubtfully in-
-78 E. 0. Teale.-
eluded in the Upper Ordovician. A more extended examination, how- ever, has shown that they are distinct lithologically from the black slates; the junction is always a sharp one, and further the limestone deposits which have yielded definite Cambrian fossils are interbedded with them. Chemically, these rocks are distinct from the adjacent cherty graptolitic slates. Their analysis shoAvs a low silica percentage and lelatively high iron, lime and magnesia con- tent. The soil, therefore, derived from their weathering is of a noticeable red colour and clayey character, supporting a richer growth of grass and other vegetation than the rather stony and sterile isoil of the slates. The belt is further marked by a rather striking feature of the weathering of some of the fine grained sediments, which petrological examination proves to be tuffaceous. These rocks weather into striking elongate spheroids with a suc- cession of spheroidal shells similar to the well-known structure of partly decomposed basalt and other igneous rocks. Their field •occurrence and petrological examination, however, leave no doubt as to their sedimentary origin.
There are two separate occurrences of this series, both of limited extent. The largest and most important is a long narrow belt along the Dolodrook Valley. It starts about a quarter of a mile north- west of Garvey's hut, and extends south-easterly on the southern side of the Serpentine as far as Roan Horse Gully, a distance of three and a half miles. The greatest width is never more than a few chains. The other occurrence is a small outcrop^ of highly con- torted basic sediments exposed in the bed of the Wellington River, roughly on tlie line of strike, about a mile and a quarter north- west from the termination of the first-named inlier.
At its north-western extremity, the Dolodrook inlier passes out of sight under the Upper Palaeozoic rocks, but along its southern or south-western boundary it is directly in contact with the Upper Ordovician slates. The character of the sediments varies from ■coarse serpentinous conglomerate through grits to fine greenish •diabasic tuffs. Several sections merit special attention.
Localif// A, (Dolodrook River). — This position is shown on the map extending from the junction of the Black-Soil Gully, in a south-westerly direction, for alx>ut twenty chains. Tbe succession and relationship are represented in Section No. 1. At' the junction of Black-Soil Gully with the Dolodrook, there is a small inlier of Serpentine with contorted black cherty slates in contact on the north ■side. The junction appears to be a fault, and obscure but recognis- able tapper Ordovician graptolites can be traced in the cherts almost
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 79'
up to the junction. Following the river bed upstream, the Serpentine about one chain in width passed serpentinous and ferruginous shale of the Garvey Gully type, highly ferruginous here on account of weathering. The rock continues for about eight chains, when a hard cherty band of contorted slates is encountered. It is about two chains wide and delinitely Upper Ordovician, from which characteristic graptolites have been obtained. At first sight, the band has the appearance of being interbedded with the Cambrian sediments, but palaeontological evidence supported by petrological differences and coimparison with similar small outliers of Upper Ordovician in the vicinity, shows that the occurrence is due to intense folding which has nipped portions of the overlying Ordo- vician into the Cambrian. Continuing with the section, the cherts are followed' again by a belt of about 10 chains of typical greenisli basic tuffs with interbedded Cambrian limestone about one chain wide and beyond this to the south-west, these rocks are bounded by a belt of contorted Upper Ordovician cherts.
The contact between the two series is shown in a small gully which enters the Dolodrook at the limestone outcrop. It is situated about five and a half chains from the junction in a south-west direction. The passage from basic tuffs to cherty slates is sharp, with about two feet of gossany material in between, probably occupying a fault. The rocks are highly inclined and disturbed on either side.
A chemical analysis of the tuft' is appended, showing its basic character.
I. TT.
48.11
13.30
3.70
8.10
MnO 1.43
8.48
9.51
Loss on Ignition 4.21
1.96 1.57
|
SiO, - |
50.09 |
|
A1.A- |
12.69 |
|
Fe^O., - |
5.30 |
|
FeO - |
12.01 |
|
TiO, - |
2.12 |
|
CaO |
5.08 |
|
MgO - |
5.60 |
|
Hp- |
0.40 |
|
H,0 4- |
2.72 |
|
Na,0- |
2.54 |
|
KjO - |
1.32 |
|
CO, - |
0.80 |
100.67 100.37
S.G. 2.86 (I.) Green banded tuft' — Garvey Gully series Dolodrook River (Teale.)
.•80 E. 0. Teale:
((II.) Purple and green tuff between Pen-Maen-Melyn and Pen- -Maen-Foel, South Wales, Cambrian, (Wilson), British Petrography, Teali, page 22i{.
The principal differences to be noted in comparing the Dolodrook .tu2 with the Cambrian one of South Wales are the greater percen- tage of iron and smaller amount of lime and magnesia present in the former^ No other analyses have yet been made of similar rocks of supposed Heathcotian age in Victoria.
Thin sections of the fine grained tuff (No. 44), from the Dolo- drook, show a banded and somewhat schistosCi structure, with nume- rous small sub-prismatic and irregular grains of basic plagioclase .felspar, many of which are orientated with their longer axes paral- lel with the planes of schistosity, but many also lie at any angle, frequently across the plane* of foliation. Much chloritic and some serpentinous material is present between the felspar grains, but no fresh pyroxenes were distinguished. Magnetite is abundant, and several small grains of quartz were noted. Ihe fragmental structure, together Avith the chemical and mineralogical composition seems to indicate the nature of an altered subaqueous diabase tuff.
The secondary silicification, which is one of the marked features of the diabase tuffs and allied rocks at Heathcote, is absent.
Locality B. — The next section of importance is about two and a half miles in a south-easterly direction, at the junction of Thielc's Creek with the Dolodrook. Here within a relatively small area there are good exposures of the Serpentine, the basic sediments with interbedded limestone, the Upper Ordovician graptolite bearing slates; and the Silurian sand.stones and shales (Map 2).
Ihe actual contact of the Cambrian sediments and the Serpen- tine is shown in the bed of the Dolodrook River, at Thiele's Creek •Junction. Here the sediments are of the nature of serpentinous and chloritic conglomerates, grits and finer bands.
A section of this is given by Mr. Dunn (16), who descriljes the rocks as post-Ordovician, on account of the presence of dense darker rock fragments, Avhich he regarded as Ordovician slate, but which microscopic evidence shows to be a basic igneous rock. The fine dark bands described by Mr. Dunn as slate, prove to be tuffa- 'Coous, and similar in character with the basic sediments associated with the Cambrian limestone in every case.
In this vicinity there are two lime.stone outcrops associated with the basic sediments. Additional thin sections of both the coarse and fine material indicate their uiffaceous character, and supjiort the view also that they belong to the Garvey Gully Series.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.
81
The contact and section generally are important, as they show clearly that the Serpentine is a pre-Upper Cambrian rock, the denu- dation of which in part contributed to the Cambrian sediments.
Map ^.
and 5hdles. general 'v ?,rrike t{W.
Scale
J
ards
The remaining portion, consisting largely of diabasic pyroclastic material, indicates an Upper Cambrian volcanic phase.
This section shows also an interesting structural twist in the strike, post-Silurian in age, for the whole series, including the enveloping Ordovician and Silurian rocks, are locally bent round from a north-west strike to one varying between 80° and 100°. This continues for more than a mile easterly, the strike then gradu- ally swinging back to a more normal north-west direction.
Locality C . (Roan Horse Gully). — A traverse from a few chains on the north side of the Dolodrook, opposite the Roan Horse Gully junction, in a S.S.W. direction, across the Dolodrook, and along the bed of Roan Horse Gully, shows well the relative position of the various rocks, and illustrates the typical structure of the inlier.
The limestone is again associated with the same basic sediments, which rest against the south side of the Serpentine. The envelop-
82 E, 0. Teale:
in<i- Upper Ordovician rocks are found as a very thin belt on the- north side of the Serpentine, and repeated just to the south of the limestone. All the strata are highly inclined, being almost vei'ti- cal, but an overthrust from the north, or north-east, causing a fault in the vicinity of the Ordovician contact, has placed the lime- stone locally above the graptolite slate, as sliown in the sketch section. No. 3. This movement is probably to be correlated with the general overthrust of post-Silurian date, affecting a consider- able part of the Dolodrook area, for a fine example of overfolding of the Silurian rock is shown in thie Dolodrook, about one mile and. a quarter in a straight line below Thiele's Creek junction (Photo. 2).
The Silurian sandstones and shales outcrop at each end of the section forming the next enveloping zone of the complex inlier. The general ge-anticlinal structure is therefore complete along this, line.
The Dolodrool- Limestones. — These form one of the most impor- tant series, for they have provided the definite palaeontological evidence without which it would have been impossible to discover the complete key to the structure of this region.
Previous to resuming the field work in this region, the fossils, chiefly trilobites which Mr. Chapman had definitely concluded to be Cambrian, came from the limestone outcrop No. 1, at the north- west end of the belt.
The first fossil obtained in the district from the limestone, origin- ally regarded by Mr. Chapman as Silurian, came' from Roan Horse Gully outcrop, about three and a-half miles to the south-east, but no trilobites had yet Ixien found in this occurrence. The recent field work, however, has been successful in discovering similar trilo- bites in four separate outcrops, including i{\Q Roan Horse Gully limestone, and the mapping generally shows clearly that all the limestone outcrops, of which there are nine, belong to the same series. The additional fossils obtained, Mr. Chapman states, give further convincing evidence of the Cambrian age, and his supple- mentary palaeontological description will be given later.
Upper Camhrian Fossils. — The following are the fossils described by Mr. Chapman (15) from the Dolodrook : — Plantae —
Class, Algae. Girvanella Sp. Animalia — '
Class Crinoidea
Crinoid stems, joints and ossicles.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 8'S
Class Brachiopoda Lingulella
Orthis (Plectorthis) platystrophioides. (Originally confused with Platystrophia biforata.) Class Gasteropoda.
Scenella t^nuistriata, Chapman.
Related bo Stenotheca — Cambrian of South Australia,
Class Crustacea, Sub. Class Trilobita. Agnostus australiensis, Chapman. Ptychoparia thielei, Chapman. Ptychoparia minima, Chapman. Crepicephalus etheridgei, Chapman.
The limestone has a pleasing grey colour, is crystalline, and,, when polished, would make an attractive ornamental stone, but in its present inaccessible position there is no immediate prospect of it being available for use. No quantitative analysis of its compo- sition has been made, but a qualitative test sliowed that it was relatively pure, Avith only a small percentage of magnesium car- bonate. All the outcrops are of lenticular character and small extent, the two- largest being No. 1 Dolodrook, and that at Roan Horse Gully. The latter can be traced along the strike for about three hundred yards, and shows a good face towards Roan Horse Gully of about a chain in width.
Upper Ordovician. — These rocks, consisting of black slates, witL highly cherty bands frequently intensely contorted, have been re- ferred to in a previous paper (13), but their extent and relation- ship to the other rocks in the vicinity had not been fully traced- It had been recognised in general that they wrapped round the' central inlier of Serpentine and associated rocks, but the outer boundary had not been followed. The result of additional field work makes it now possible to indicate these features on the map presented; showing that the Ordovician rocks are in turn enveloped by an outer ring of later sediments, Avith a distinct lithological and palaeontological break. The slates are everywhere readily dis- tinguished in the field from the less indurated shales and sandstones' of the next series. Graptolites are abundant throughout even ini the most highly cherty representatives, but naturally the best pre- served specimens are obtained from the less altered bands. The' forms represented are uniformly Upper Ordovician types. The first graptolites were obtained by the writer in 1905, and were described by the late Dr. T. S. Hall (14). Since then other forms have been
3-
84 E. 0. Teale:
collected from various parts of this area, and numerous other col- lections have been made by various meml^ers of tlie geological sur- vey throughout Eastern Victoria.
Of these occurrences, tlie best colliections have come from (1) Mat- lock, (2) the Thomson-Jordan Valley. (3) the Black River Belt, and (4) the Wellin^jton area. Ihese four localities consist of paral- lel strips of Upper Ordovician rock, separated by belts of Silurian sandstone and shale. The fossils show that these outcrops, if not identical in horizon, are at any rate, very closely allied; and owe their reappearance to successive intense folding along lines of N.N.W. axes, resulting also in the folding of the overlying Silurian rocks in a similar way. Subsequent denudation during the present cycle of erosion has exposed some Ordovician as inliers. They are generally narrow, elliptical Ix'lts, conforming to the general strike, but disappearing along the strike under the Silurian, often to reappear, however, at varying intervals along tliis line. This is due mainly to a very general development of i^itch, some- times north and sometimes south. This structui'e, conmion through- out the older rocks of Victoria, has been clearly brought out in the Wood's Point and Walhalla district by the excellent field work of Mr. 0. A. L. Whit el aw and Mr. W. Baragwanath respectively.
Up to the present no definite graptolite zones have been recog- nised in the Upper Ordovician in Victoria. It is probable that the vertical range in the Upper Ordovician is not so great, but it is likely that systematc work would yield some definite results iu favourable areas.
The following is the complete lif^t of graptolites recorded from the Wellington region : —
Diplograptus foliaceus, Murchison.
Diplograptus thielei, T. S. Hall.
Diplograptus (Orthograptus) quadrimucronatus, J. Hall.
Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus, Lapworth.
Leptograptus flaccidus, J. Hall.
Cliniacograptus wellingtonehsis, 1'. S. Hall.
Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall.
Cliniacograptus bicoi'nis, var. tridentatus, Lapworth.
Cliniacograptus tubuliferus, Lapworth.
Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers. ^
Dicellograptus morrisi, Hopkins.
Dicellograptus gurleyi, Lapworth.
Cryptograptus tricornis, Carruthers.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 85
Dicranograptus nicholsoni, Hopkinson. Dicranograptus hians, T. S. Hall. Nemagraptus gracilis, J. Hall. Lasiograptus margaritatus, T. S. Hall. Most of the above species are widespread and abundant in their occurrence throughout the area, but Orthograptus calcaratus has only been found at one spot in the north-western extremity of the Ordovician, marked G, where it is associated with abundant Clima- ■cograptus bicornis and another rare form, C. tridentatus. The last-named species was also found at another locality, marked G.o. Splendidly preserved specimens were obtained, and it is the first undoubted record for Victoria, a doubtful instance has been re- corded from Cravensville.
Nemagraptus gracilis has only been found in Roan Horse Gully. Dicellograptus gurleyi is also rare, and has only been recorded irom the Wellington area.
See comparative table, showing general record of Ordovician graptolites in Victoria.
It is interesting to note that a siinall amount of turquoise was observed in several places, chiefly as very thin veinlets in, the joints of the cherty rocks and, occasionally, also associated with Avhite quartz.
The mineral is evidently widespread in its occurrence in the Upper Ordovician rocks in Victoria. The best known localities are Eyan's Creek, Myrrhee (31), and Mt. Avis, Edi, King Valley, Mr. Caldwell tells me that he found it in black slate on the Black River, and I found it myself in light-coloured chert in the Tara Jiange.
A certain amount of white powdery phosphatic material also -occurs irregularly distributed along joints and fractures. One sample of altered siliceous rock yielded an analysis 8% of Po^s-
Some phosphatic deposits of promise from an economic stand- point occur in the vicinity of Mansfield. They are associated with Ordovician rocks, but their true relation is still the subject of con- troversy.
The cherty nature of the Ordovician rocks of the Wellington •district is a noteworthy feature. Ihe prevailing colour is black, and the most completely altered bands are of the nature of lydianite or black jasper. All grades of silicification occur, and though in general the cherts run in bands witli intervening belts of more normal slate, instances are common showing slightly chertified' slate
3a
86 E. 0. Teak:
a feAv inches wide between beds of jasper. There has clearly*, been a selective action in the process of silicification, probably controlledi mainly by i^rimary differences in conijjosftion existing in the original strata. Thin sections, however, of the slates and cherts^ have sq far not revealed what these differences were.
The alteration is not attributable to the direct contact action of igneous intrusion, but would appear to be explained by a selective- metasomatic replacement due to aqueous solutions permeating the rock.
Instances of this type of chertification are found throughout the- Palaeozoic rocks. It is natural, therefore, to find cherts of very different ages resembling each other somewhat closely, and this has led to considerable confusion on account of some geologists having correlated numerous cherty outcrops with the " Heathcotian " on purely lithological grounds.
Professor Skeats (18") has discussed the origin and occurrence of the cherts of the Heathcote area, and has shown that they are largely due to metasomatic replacement of dialiase and diabase tuifs. Tlie age is left an open question, but their inclusion in^ the basal portion of the Ordovician was favoured on the then known palaeontological evidence.
Dr. Summers (21) has described cherts and associated rocks at Tatong, where they are interbedded with fairly normal sediments,, which he regards as Upper Ordovician.
In the Wellington area and in the Tara Range, near Buchan, I have found Upper Ordovician graptolites actually in the cherts. It is therefore clear, as Dr. Summers points out, that the occurrence of cherts as characteristic of the Heathcotian Series loses its significance.
Up to the present no radiolaria have been noted in thin sections- of the Wellington cherts which have been examined.
Reviewing the important structural points brought out by a study of the Lower Palaeozoic geology of the Wellington area, it is clear that the axis of this comjDlex inlier marks an important struc- tural line, the direction of which is parallel with the main Palaeozoic trend lines, along which a succession of important tectonic move- ments have ]>een renewed many times. We therefore find the zonal arrangement of successive formations l>earing in a prevailing N.N.W. to N.W. direction very marked, exposing in this case within a remarkably small area, narrow, parallel but unconformable belts from Cambrian to Silurian.
With this in mind, it is natural to look expectantly along the- continuation of the strike of this belt.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.
87
Upper Ordovician Graptolites.
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88 E. 0. Teale:
It may be of some significance, therefore, that we find in this, line other complex Lower Palaeozoic inliers, whose structural de- tails and relationship® are still a subject of controversy, and pro- vide promising scope for further work.
The phosphatic deposits at Flannery's, near Mansfield, and the- associated sedimentary rocks form one of the most interesting inliers in question.
Some very fragmentary fossils were obtained some years ago from the phosphatic material, consisting chiefly of Salterella, and obscure trilobite remains. The fossils were very unsatisfactory, but w-ere regarded by Professor Gregory as probably Cambrian. Pro- fessor Skeats and Dr. Summers have obtained both Upper and Lower Ordovician, and Mr. A. M. Howitt Lower Ordovician grapto- lites in such close proximity to the spot from which the trilobite- remains were found that the geology is clearly complex, and the re- sults of more detailed work should be of considerable interest.
Another area requiring further attention is in the Upper Howqua Valley, at; such a position that the extension of the Cambrian axis of the Wellington region might be expected to api>ear.
Mr. A. M. Howitt. (22) made a flying visit to this region about eleven years ago, and recorded the occurrence of cherts, which were regarded as Cambrian, phosphate rock, amphibolites and serpen- tine of undetermined age, also Silurian slates and sandstones.
The relationship of these rocks has recently been discussed by the- author in tlie Proc. Koy. Soc, Vic.
Silurian. — The rocks of this .series consist chieHy of alternating quartzitic sandstones and greenish sandy shales. Some of the latter have a marked rubbly to splintery mode of weathering, and by oxidation are frequently rusty brown near the surface. Ihey dip at high angles, and have teen folded along numerous axiall lines in a general N.N.W.. to N.W. direction. Though they have been sub- jected to much folding and even overfolding, as shown in the Dolodrook, below Thiele's Creek junction (Photo. 2), the intense contortion which is such a marked feature of the Ordovician is as a rule absent.
The actual contact between the Ordovician black slates can Iw seen at several outcrops. Three of these are Avorthy of mention. One is in Blyth's Gully (Loc. D.), about 20 chains N.N.W. from the Wellington-Dolodrook Junction. Another is in the bed of a steep tributary gully of the Wellington, about a mile N.W. of the above- named junction (Loc. E.), and the third is in Thiele's Creek, about
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 89
30 chains south from its junction witli the Dolodrook (Loc. F.). In all these instances, conformity of strike and similarity of dip are shown, but the horizontal extent of the exposure is limited, and when the general boundaries of the contiguous formations are traced the evidence in favour of an unconfonnity is more marked. The lithological break is a sharp one in every case, and the graptolites are abundant in the slates to the junction when they stop suddenly.
Unfortunately, no distinctive fossils definitely recognisable as Silurian were obtained, but a grit containing crinoid impressions was noted at Locality D, and a similar crinoid bearing grit Avas noted in the Dolodrook valley close to the outer boundary of the Ordovician, confirming the ge-anticlinal interpretation of the structure.
Mr. Chapman states that the material, though not conclusive, is lithologically similar to fossiliferous grits of Silurian age collected by Mr. Whitelaw in the Wood's Point Belt, where they bear a similar relation to the underlying slates.
This series is of great extent, wrapping round tlie Ordovician and older rocks, and forming a Avide area of hill country.
From its furthest limit, in the north of the Carey River, where it disappears under the Upper Palaeozoic rocks, soutliAvards to the vicinity of Glenmaggie, where it passes under the Tertiary plains, is a distance of more than thirty miles in a straight line.
It is the outer zone or ring of the complex Lower Palaeozoic inlier and the Upper Palaeozoic cover is found continuously along its eastern limits, approximating to the Avon watershed.
On the west denudation has been more effective, so that the Upper Palaeozoic over-mass is wanting between Hickey's Creek and the plains, a distance of about twelve miles.
The rocks, therefore, regarded as Silurian, can thus be traced continuously to the Macallister Valley to the south of Hickey's Creek, and thence westerly to the Wood's Point-Walhalla zone, in- cluded in tlie surveys of Messrs. Whitelaw and Baragwanath, re- spectively.
Within the area mapped several of the prominent elevated points ri.sing to well over .'50U0 feet, are due to the superior resistance to weathering of some of the hard quartzitic sandstone of this series. The three most conspicuous and noteworthy are Mts. Hump, Mar- garet and Ronald.
Uppei? Palaeozoic.' — Th« rocks here considered form a portion of
-90 E. 0. Teale:
the most extensive occurrence of this age found in Victoria. The .extent of the whole belt from its southern border, where it is oon^ tiguous with the Gippsland plains to the northern limit toward Benalla, is about 100 miles, and the greatest width is alx)ut forty miles. The general trend of the belt is about N.N.W. It is com- posed in part of sedimentary rocks, consisting chiefly of thick x::onglomerates, coarse sandstone and chocolate shales and mud- stones, with in places interbedded acid and basic lava flows. The sedimentary series in the vicinity of Mansfield contains fossil fish -of Lower Carboniferous types, associated with Lepidodendron.
The strata of the southern portion are very similar lithologically to those of the Mansfield area, but with the exception of an imper- fect fish scale, the only fossils obtained were those of Lepidodendron, found in widely separated localities in the Macallister valley, and also that of the Avon. The Geolo!T:ical Survey Map shows this iseries as Upper Devonian, and the Mansfield region as Carbon- iferous, but the evidence in favour of their separation is incon- clusive, and tliey are here all regarded tentatively as Lower Carbon- iferous.
In addition to the above group of rocks, there is a great develop- ment in the northern portion of the belt, and particularly in the valley of the King River, of acid porpliyritic rocks, which, accord-- ing to Professor Skeats (28), appear to be related to the dacites, suggesting their correlation with the dacites of the Strathbogies and -elsewhere, which are genei'ally regarded as of Lower Devonian age. illhis is in conformity also with the field evidence of A. E. Kitson (10), who interprets them as being uncoiiiformably overlaid by the Upper Palaeozoic sediments.
Along the western margin of the Upper Palaeozoic belt is the Barkly Valley, notably on Fullarton's Spur. O. A. L. Whitelaw shows in his map the occurrence of porphyritic rocks, some of which Professor Skeats lias recogni-scd as altered andesites, distinct from ..the acid lavas of the Wellington area, and comparable most probably with some of the Lower Devonian volcanics, typically known as the ■" Snowy River Porphyries."
Another interesting feature is brought out by a study of the geological map of Victoria, with reference to the eastern and west- ern adjoining formations. On the eastern side the older rocks are Upper Ordovician; no Silurian has yet been recognised.
To the west, and contintiing to the vicinity of tlie meridian of Melbourne, Silurian rocks, prevail, with only relatively narrow in- liers of Upper Ordovician.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 91
Should more detailed -work later fail to discover any Silurian rocks to the east of the Upper Palaeozoic belt, it would seem to point to the possibility of a.n old eastern shore line of the Silurian sea, which is now buried beneath the latter rocks of this area.
The whole Palaeozoic history of this belt, with its succession of •sedimentary and volcanic events emphasises that it has represented a major tectonic and structural zone throughout Palaeozoic times.
The two areas where the Upper Palaeozoic rocks have received most attention from me are the vicinity of INIt. Wellington and the Mac- allister valley, at Hickey's Creek. These two areas will be con- sidered separately.
W ellington Area. — The position and extent of these rocks within the area discussed is shown on the map, and their relationship to the underlying rocks is indicated in sections, numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4. It will 1 e seen that they rest unconformably on tlie Sihn-ian and older rocks, and in general the beds dip at low angles with a marked absence of the sharp rej^eated folds of the older series.
On the w'estern side of the map it is seen that the beds dip uni- formly westerly (W.S.W.), and on the Wellington side the dip is -easterly. These two directions have been proved to form part of a large anticlinal fold at least fifteen to twenty' miles in width. The •axis hasi a direction of about N.N.W. and lies between Mt. Tambo- ritha and Mt. Wellington. The southern portion has suffered much denudation, with the result that within the area examined, the crown of the fold has entirely gone, revealing the underlying older Tocks, Avhich have, in turn, been much dissected during the present cycle of erosion. The two limbs of the folds are preserved with their steep scarp slopes opposing one another, forming, especially in the case of Mt. Wellington, bold and precipitous cliffs. (Photo.
The rock succession is very constant over the w^hole area, though the thickness of the individual beds is subject to some variation,, and in general the observations of Murray (9) and Howitt (4) in other portions of this region, indicate the same succession and i'eatuiies.
lh.e basal beds almost everpvhere consist of reddish conglome- rates, breccias, or breccio-conglomerates, with pebbly sandstone and red shaly bands developed locally. The pebbles and boulders -consist chiefly of quartz and quartzite, with some indurated shale .and clierty slate.
One feature of importance) is the occu'rrence also of acid igneous
[lu LIBRA RYJgj
92
E. 0. Teale
fragments and boulders. Some of these are exactly similar to the rhyolites and rhyolitic porphyries of the Wellintjton series which, overlie these beds. Others are too decomposed for definite com- parison.
No outcrop of Lower Devonian igneous rock has been recognised in the area, but as indicated previously rocks probably of this age occur about ten miles to the N.N.W. at Fullarton's Spur and about forty miles to the N.N.W. in the King River District.
From a comparative microscopic examination of numerous thin sections of Lower Devonian povjihyries with those from the Welling- ton area, the details of which will be given later, it appears prob- able that a satisfactory distinction may l)e made m,icroscopically between the two series.
If this feature is proved by wider investigation to enable a generalisation to be made, it may be possible to recognise in these conglomerates and breccias, porphyries of two distinct periods re- presenting material derived from a Lower Devonian source, and also later rocks belonging to the first products of the outbreak of the Lower Carboniferous volcanic activity.
A considerable thickness of acid lavas and tuffs succeeds these basal l>eds over wide areas, and it seems likely that though the main outburst and effusion slightly succeeded the deposition of the- conglomerates, some of the earliest outbursts were practically con- temporaneous, contributing some of the admixed igneous material Avhich suggests the nature of volcanic ejectamenta.
Section 3 0 10
Roan Horse Gully
One of the best sections showing the basal beds where the- breccia character predominates is at Locality G, Wellington- River, about three-quarters of a mile below the Wellington-Dolo- drook junction. The beds are of a coarse nature, and contain both angular and water-worn rocks, consisting largely of black
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 93"
cherty slates, quartzites and qusirtz; stratification is visible, and the beds are here inclined at a miich higher angle than usual, dip- ping to the W.S.W. at about 70". They are seen to rest against the Upper Ordovician cherty slates, which are much contorted, and the- junction suggests a fault line, striking north-westerly. The same beds show a niarked disc-ordance in strike at another outcrop, about fifteen chains to the north-west, where there appears to be a short north and south fault. The strike on one side is about N.E., and on the other N.W .
The belt as a whole, however, is traceable almost continuously without any noteworthy break, below the overlying rhyolite sheet, and these disturbances in dip and strike, though striking, are only of limited extent.
Another deposit with some special features is exposed in the- bed of the Wellington River, still further to the north-west at Locality H. Its exact nature and relationship is not clearly under- stood, but it may be an extreme lithological variation of the basal beds under discussion. The extent is about 20 chains over alx»ut a width of one chain along the bed of the river.
Its character is that of a coarsely fragmental deposit, composed very largely of fine grained diabasic rock, the interstices being- filled up with granular quartz and calcite. A few angular inclusions of quartz porphyry similar to that of the Wellington series were noted.
A number of thin sections from various parts of this deposit were examined.
The diabasic material is fine grained, and much altered. Fine plagioclase laths and magnetite are recognisable, but there is much chlorite and calcite. The interstitial material is siliceous and calcareous, consisting of a coarse to fine grained mosaic of quartz and calcite.
Secondary silicification affecting both the diabase and the inter- stitial material is recognisable, but an original fragmental charac- ter can be recognised in some sections, showing altered fragments of shale and diabase, irregular grains of quartz, showing secondary growth and an occasional fragment of orthoclase.
The porphyry inclusion shows a fine microcrystalline siliceous base, with corroded and embayed orthoclase phenocrysts, showing- some kaolinization and secondary silicification.
These acid igneous inclusions suggest possibly a Lower Carbon- iferous source, and though the relationship of the deposit to the-
*.!94
E. 0. Teale
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Palaeozoic Geology of Vicloria. 9b"
surrounding rocks is not clear, the occoi'rence is included ten-- tatively with the basal beds of the Upper Palaeozoic.
The Rhyolites and Associated Tuffs. — These rocks occur as a well- defined sheet of great extent. They are readily traced in the field, consistently near the base of the series along either limb of tha- main anticlinal fold. They vary in tliickness from less than 1000 to over 2000 feet. In the thinnest portions they would appear to represent a single flow, but in Mt. Wellington where they form a bold escarpment on the western face, they are composed of suc- cessive beds of pyroclastic material and rhyolitic fiows.
These rocks, under the name of quartz-porphyries and felsites, were recognised by Howitt and Murray, in widely separated areas- in this region, and they were invariably fo4.in-d occupying a position towards the base of the series. Howitt recognised the volcanic nature of the rock, and that there were both effusive and pyroclas- tic representatives. One of the finest sections, that oi\ Snowy Bluff ' in the ]\[oroka Valley, to the north of Wellington, has been carefully described by both Murray (9) and Howitt (i).
The rhyolitic rocks there rest on conglomerates, and are estimated at alx)ut 100 feet in thickness. One of the striking features of much of the igneous material in the vicinity of Wellington is that. rocks of the outward appearance of quartz-porphyries, are often crowded with water-worn pebbles of quartz and quartzite, often producing quite a conglomeratic apj^earance. Numerous inclu-. sions of indurated slate and shale are also common.
Ihin sections of some of these rocks have show-n that the igneous material of which they are in part composed, is pyroclastic. One particularly fine example from the northern shore of Lake Karng,. Mt. Wellington, showed the tuff character remarkably well (micro- photo.). It contains angular and broken fragments of quartz and' felspar set at all angles in a fine microcrystalline base, containing beautifully preserved tubes of irregular outline so characteristic of tuffs, but seldom so Avell preserved, llieir bent and twisted shapes and broken cusp-like forms are particularly striking in the section.
The fact that material of this nature is often admixed with waterworn pebbles of the old rocks, points to the conclusion that explosive volcanic action was practically contemporaneous with the- deposition of part at any rate of the basal conglomerate beds.
Another section from the southern shore of the lake has been referred to in a previous paper (13). It has the character of a-- rapidly-cooled lava and shows very fine perlitic structure.
^96 E. 0. Teale:
The rock on the summit of the plateau is a typical banded rhyo- .lite, the flow lines being very conspicuous.
The detailed succession of igneous material building up the Wel- lington ma«s has not been worked out, but there is a noteworthy thickening in the vicinity of Lake Karng. In the southern bluff of Wellington the thickness is not more than IjQUO feet, but in the vicinity of the Lake it is more than double that amount. This is piobably accounted for mainly by the presence of marked irregu- larities of the Palaeozoic surface on which the volcanic beds were laid down.
It is perhaps strange that no undoubted vent or fissure by which the volcanic material reached the surface, has yet been definitely recognised, nor have any dykes, acid or basic, been noted in this region. Considering the high melting point of rhyolite, its viscous nature, the deep dissection of the rocks, and the wide extent of the lava flows in tliis region, it is perhaps reaiiarkable that some ■ channel by which it reaehed the surface has not yet been recognised.
No undoubted intrusive quartz-porphyries have yet been noted in this region.
A fine section of the rhyolite, showing its relations to the basal • conglomerates and over-lying sajidstones, is shown in the course of the Wellington, just north of ShaAv's Gap, or one mile and three- quarters in a straight line north-west from the Wellington Dolo- drook junction. (Loc. 1.) Here the river has cut a tortuous canyon for about half-a-mile through the rhyolite, forming pi-ecipitous cliffs, showing tine columnar structure. (Photo. 4.)
The remaining portion of the series, amounting to some thou- sands of feet in thickness, consists largely of alternating beds of conglomerate, passing into pebbly sandstone and normal gritty sandstone, separated by beds o^ varying thickness, of purple shales and mudstones, with, in places, interbedded sheets of altered basalt. (Melaphyre of Howitt.)
Fossils are rare throughout the series. The first obtained came from' the sandstones of the Avon River, and were descril^ed by Sir Frederick McCoy as Lepidodendron Australe. The writer has since noted Lepidodendron at four localities in the Macallister basin. 'They are as follow : —
( 1 ) Roadside cutting near Basin Flat.
(2) Roadside cutting, Macallister R. — Target Cr. Junction.
(3) Reid's Selection, near Barkly R.
( 4 ) Near Glencairn (Mr. Sweetapple's).
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 97
The oirly other fossil obtained was a fish scale, from near the Wellington-Dolodrook junction, regarded by Mr. Chapman as probably belonging to the rhizodont genus Strepsodus (23)
The general nature of the beds, together with the contained fossils, indicate a freshwater or lacustrine origin, and the shape of the basin appears to have been that of a long relatively narrow trough, at least a hundred miles in length, with a general N.N.W. direc- tion.
The MeUiphyrts. — These have Ijeen referred to briefly in a former paper (13;, and two analyses by G. Arnpt were included. Reference is also made to Hewitt's description of the melaphyres of Snowy Bluff, where at least eight distinct flows separated by beds of sand- stone and shale have been recognised, but they are never of any ^reat thickness (7).
Until last year, no melaphyre had been noted within the area under consideration, but one occurrence can now be recorded in Wallaby Gully, towards its head.
Ihe section forms a small fall in the channel of the creek, show- ing a hed of melaphyre twelve feet thick resting on red shaly jnudstones, with a thin band of mudstone on top followed by sand- stone. The flow^ is distinctly amygdaloidal at the top and bottom with the usual secondary quartz, calcite and epidote. The central portion is a dense fine grained rock. A thin section of this shows under the microscope a distinct flow structure due to the parallel arrangement of the felspar laths. These have a low extinction angle, and appear to be oligoclase; they are ophitically enclosed in chlorite into which all the augito has passed. Analyses of this rock are not very satisfactory on account of the great amount of altera- tion whicli has taken plac-e. The one here submitted is from the ■central portion. The low amount of lime and magnasia is probably due to secondary leaching, foi< calcite amygdales are common in the "upper and lower portion and. thin sections of these parts also- show calcite.
For compai-ison the two analyses by Ampt of samjiles from the basin of the Moroka are repeated. No. 2 was the freshest sample and, therefore, probably the most normal.
The Melaphyres are clearly subaqueous basic lava flows, and are always found considerably higher in the series than the Wellington Rhyolites.
98
|
E. 0. |
Teale: |
|||
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
||
|
SiO., |
- |
47.84 |
- 49.35 - |
43.88. |
|
A1.A |
- |
16.17 |
- 17.61 ■ |
16.58- |
|
Fe,0;, |
- |
9.28 |
1.50 - |
5.83 |
|
FeO |
- |
8.64 |
9.72 - |
9.11 |
|
CaO |
- |
4.70 |
7.71 - |
9.60' |
|
MgO |
- |
2.62 |
3.17 ■ |
5.77 |
|
Na,0 |
- |
4.47 |
3.10 ■ |
2.02 |
|
K,6 |
- |
0.08 |
1.56 - |
1.06 |
|
p.^o., |
- |
tr. |
tr. |
tr. |
|
H,0 |
- |
0.06 |
0.65 - |
0.64 |
|
H,0 |
- |
2.51 |
2.56 ■ |
2.22 |
|
TiO, |
- |
2.68 |
2.83 ■ |
3.52 |
|
MuO |
- |
0.:50 |
0.07 |
tr. |
|
Pyrite FeS., |
— |
0.34 |
99.35 100.17 100.23 S.G. 2.82 S.G. 2.918
1. Melaphyre (No. 177), Wallaby Creek, Wellington Valley.
— Anaayst E. O. Thiele.
2. Melaphyre, Moroka Snow Plain; fairly fresh sample.
— Analyst G. Ampt.
3. Melaphyre, Bad Spur, Mcroka Valley; altered specimen.
— Analyst G. Ampt.
HICKEY'S CREEK DISTRICl'.
This is a relatively small area on the eastern side of the Macal- lister valley, at Mickey's Creek junction, about twelve miles from Glenmaggie (see Map 3). It lies on the route from Heytield tO' Mount Wellington, via the Macallister Valley, and therefore had been frequently traversed during the journeys to and from the Wellington region.
Here particularly, as well as at other points further north in the Macallister Valley, the Upper Palaeozoic rocks had been noted to be very highly inclined, with dips ranging up to nearly vertical, and sometimes in the reverse direction to the normal one. It was therefore decided to give a little time to a more detailed study of tlie features, with the result that some interesting structural points are brought out, marking a powerful tectonic lin6 running approxi- mately N.N.W., and probably continuing for a great distance in this direction, coinciding very closely with the western boundary of the Upper Palaeozoic series. A new road for vehicvilar traffic in place of the old pack track has recently been made as far as the junction of Target Creek with the Macallister, about thirty miles- from Glenmaggie. At Hickey's Creek, this road leaves for a time
Falaeozic Geology of Victoria.
SO
MAP N° 3
the Macallister, and rises by a long sidling grade more or less parallel with the valley of the creek toi a saddle, thence descending to the Macallister again at Basin Flat by a .similar winding grade cut out of the steep hillside. Tliis part of the road affords a suc- cession of fine soct'ons of the highly inclined Upper Palaeozoic rocks,
100 E. 0. Teale:
including the basal beds, rliyolite, conglomerates, sandstones (in one ijlace containing Lepidodendron), purplish shales and mud- stones. The area mapped includes this paat uf the road, and the Hickey's Creek Basin essentially, most attention being given to the Upper Palaeozoic rocks, and their contact with the older rocks. The only other formations noted are the Silurian sandstones, phyllites and shales, and a small remnant of a Kainozoic basalt flow.
Silurian. — The usual alternation of quartzitic sandstones with phyllites and s'.iales is found in this area, but the phyllites and shales predoaninate over the sandstones. They are generally green- ish in colour, due to a certain amount of chlorite, and are fairly arenaceous. The whole series is inteuvsely folded and frequently crushed. Small quartz veins are very abundant either along joints, shear planes, bedding planes, oi*< fi'acture lines.
Upper Pdldcnzoic. — The rocks belonging to this series are identi- cal in character and succession with those described in the Welling- ton area, but their hiyh angle of inclination is a striking feature.
The prevalence of thick beds of conglomerates, and coarse pebbly sandstone, and the general red colour of most of the beds, espe- cially the shales, combine to form a striking contrast with the Silurian rocks. The boundaries as a rule are, therefore, readily traced in the field, and al?o certain characteristic beds within the series can be easily followed for considerable distances, and these are of great assistance in working out the structure. In this v>ay the rhyolite and associated conglomerates were found in following across the strike to be repeated on account of a marked synclinal structure, but as the mapping shows it is not of a simple character, for one limb is bent round in such a manner in the vicinity of Wal- laby Hill as to bring the strike of similar beds at right angles. This point is perhaps the most striking feature in this area, for it forms a precipitous rocky crag rising on the eastern side of Hickey's Creek. It is composed of l>eds of coa-rse conglomerates dip- ping at 50 degress) to the N.W. and striking N.E. The beds are cut through towards the southern end by a small tributary of Hickey's Creek causing a rocky cleft, which isolates another rock}' crag of slightly lower elevation, and composed of the same con- glomerate. Follow^ing these beds along the strike in a N.E. direction, they soon swing round to N.N.W.. and the same feature is noted with regard to the underlying rhyolite and basal conglomerate. The same rhyolite and tonglomerate can be noted on the western side of Hickey's Creek, dipping in the opposite
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.
101
V s I
.P S,A]>iJIH
■if ■:
^■■if'i^
I J s
LU q: o ^ -
rr';
11
iJ
\^^:^^
^
to
UJ
c 1- ^, ~ c
4a
102 E. 0. Tea/e:
direction at a high angle. Fine sections are shown in the road, cuttings, about two miles northerly from Hickey's Creek junction, (see 12). From about tliis point, also looking south-easterly across the deep valley of Hickey's Creek, there is an interesting view of Wallaby Hill, showing on the upper portion bare dip faces of the conglomerate striking at right angles to the direction of view. At the same time, in the lower slopes, there are consi)icuous out- standing ribs of conglomerate and sa,ndstone dipping at a high angle to the north-east, and whose strike therefore is at riglit angles to the rocky face forming the summit.
Faults. — Keference to Map 3 and Sec-tion 5 of this area shows- that an intense compressional movement at right angles to a N.N.W. axis has nipped in and folded a belt of the Upper Palaeozoic sedi- ments in a trough of older rocks. Along tlie western contact, at several places, the rocks are disturbed and often much crushed. A fine example of crushed rock is sieen in Hickey's Creek, close to the old pack track, and about three-quarters of a mile from the Mac- allister junction. Here a. portion outcrops as a conspicuous mono- lith, about tliirty feet high. It' consists of broken Silurian quartz- ite, forming a rough breccia, but distinct from the basal breccias, and conglomerates of tlie Upper Palaeozoic, Avhich are clearly of a detrital nature. Tracing the contact along in a north-north- westerly direction, it is found that in addition to the crush features a portion of the basal beds is cut out, the features in generjal therefore indicating a persistent fault along this line.
Transverse sections across the ^lacallister valley at intervals to- the north, beyond the area included in this map, would seem to indicate similar structural conditions. The western limb of the broad anticlinal fold has been bent back to form- a minor syncline, and faulted against the older rocks on the west. Tbis same feature is recognisable still further north along this line in the map, and section of Woods' Point sheet by 0. A. L. Whitelaw, and a gene- ralised section compiled fi'om that map and extended to the east from my own observations seems to provide a probable interpreta- tion of the structure (Section 4). A minor fault with a north- easterly direction intersects the major one, and corresponds in position Avith the lower portion of Hickey's Creek, but it is the other direction which is of greatest importance.
The age of this tectonic movement cannot be fixed closely. It is clearly post Lower Carboniferous, but may still be Palaeozoic, though it seems probable that renewed differential movement may have'
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.
103
itaken place along this line at successive intervals during the late Xainozoic uplift, which produced the existing highlands. The posi- tion and general direction of the Macallister valley coincides in _part with this line, and some of the jihysiographic features suggest at any rate that its course has been controlled to some extent by this feature.
Kainozoic Basalt. — The extent of this rock is small, it is but a remnant of an extensive flow -wiiiich once occupied the valley. It is ;about a thousand feet above the present stream bed, and was at one time clearly continuous with other more extensive fragments, which are to be found chiefly to the south iri tlie vicinity of Blanket Hills, where the basalt forms a striking shelf about 800 feet above the existing stream, which is now entrenched to that amount along the (eastern margin.
A fine view of this feature is seen from Wallaby Hill, showing also the sudden termination of the Highlands in the south, a portion -of the plains of the Great Valley of Victoria, and the Southern Highlands in the distance. (See Sketch A.) The basalt of Gipps- land generally is usually regarded as the Older Basalt, and may, therefore be at least pre-Mioceiie. There is no satisfactory petro- logical distinction, by which the various Kainozoic basalts can be recognised.
It is, therefore, often very difficult to correlate many of the lava flows in even adjacent areas. For instance, the high N. and S. ridge to the west of the Macallister, from Mount Useful in the south, where it forms the divide between the Thompson Valley, to •Connor's Plains in the north, where it is part of tliei Main Divide, is capped at intervals with basalt resting on river gravels. These
Sketch A
ThcCrcutValk CippslcinJ Pluini
I MatalU=lpr\/;ille\)
NoitliCirf.'laruiHiijKU BUirk Rn
104
E. 0. Teak
Map 4
U.OROOVICIAN
Sandi/Dn^phillitcihaketc
Ag Silver CuCoi
LOWER DEVONIAN
Snowy DiftrPorphyry Series'
MIDDLE DEVONIAN
UPPER KAINOZOiClIlo^iSaN'
Limestone msinlj mth calconeous Fluvis/ile ssndi cbyssndgrwels
jnd luhcecus shjies overlying Lower K^inoioic marine bedsm the sootty
UShsrts or other ^^^' QMrn-aloccvrrences %UpptrOrdowi3fiCr^ptolitei OSpecimen^ Scale - ^ |' ,2fnilea. excavations Fa iron l>ut noexcsvihons r -^ r MnMannanese BaBaryres
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 105
form some of the highest points of the surrounding highlands.
Tlie Mount Useful Basalt is only eight miles in a straight line to the west of the outcrop here described, and yet it is 3300 feet higher. It apparently marks the line of an old valley parallel with the present Macallister, and one question that at once suggests itself is to account for this great difference in altitude. The two alter- natives which seem to be most worthy of consideration are, first, that the two basalts rejiresent flows of totally distinct periods in Kainozoic times, and, second, that if of the same age, there has been most extensive differential movement parallel with this line in late Kainozoic times; which view is correct it is impossible to say, but on physiographic grounds I am inclined to favour at any rate a certain amount of differential movement. This will be referred to again later.
In this section the rock is seen to l>e a typical olivine dokrite. with a Avell- developed ophitic structure, violet brown titaniferous augite enclosing oligoclase. Olivine and magnetite are abundant. The section from the Rickey's Creek area is similar to that from Blanket Hills, but is of a slightlv finer grain. <^nd contains more olivine. The specific gravity of the latter is 2.81.
The District of Nowa Nowa. (xMap \.).
The region here described extends from Nowa Xowa, at the head of Lake lyers, northward to within about four mile;-:i of Buchan, a distance of about sixteen miles. It lies to the west of the Snowy River, and includes the southern termination of the great belt of volcanic rocks known as the '* Snowy lliver Porphyries."
As previously indicated, this region was chosen for examination mainly for two reasons : — (a) To examine certain outcrops of cherty rocks, Avhich had been briefly referred to by Dunn (24) as " Heathcotian," and (b) to study some of the features of the/ Lower Devonian volcanic rocks.
The late Dr. A. W. Howitt (3 and 5) described the latter series as consisting of accumulations of acid lavas and associated pyro- clastic deposits, built up round a line of ancient volcanoes occur- ring along a meridianal fissure. Certain quartz porphyry occur- rences were regarded as probably representing the stumps of some of these old volcanoes.
Since Howitt's contrihution, about forty years ago, giving a general description of this interesting and important belt of rocks, there have been no important additions to our knowledge of the reirion.
106 E. 0. Teale:
Later Held work by Murray (25), Ferguson (26), and 0. A. L. Whitelaw (27), has added a little to the details concerning tlie dis- tribution and boundaries in a few localities, but no further petro- logical work has been done, nor had any chemical analysis ever been made of rocks from the " Snow}' River Porphyries."
Profesisor E. W. Skeats (28), in his paiper on the Volcanic Rocks of Victoria, gives a summary of Howitt's description of the " Snowy River Porphyries," dealing with their distribution, geological rela- tions and petrological character. Briefly, they form a north and south belt up to about thirty miles in width, and extending south- wards for sixty miles from near the head waters of the Murray, where the highest points rise to over 6000 feet, to the head of Lake Tyers, where they pass under fluviatile and marine Kainozoic de- posita at less than thirty feet above sea level. Some doubt has V;een expressed as to the exact age of these rocks. It has l>een shown clearly that they are pre-Middle Devonian, but there is some uncertainty as to the lowest limits of the series. Mahony and Griffith Taylor (29), in dealing with the geology of the Federal Territory, compare certain quartz-porphyries of that region with the " Snowy River Series," but they claini that they represent in the Federal area, an Upper Silurian volcanic activity, which continued into the Lower Devonian. In Victoria, the beginning of this important volcanic outburst cannot yet be fixed so certainly, as Upper Ordovician graptolites are the only dehnite fossils obtained from the older sedi- ments, on which the volcanoes rest unconformably.
Howitt's petrological examination of this roc-k was of a prelim- inary nature, and lie describes them as quartz-porphyries (in which orthoclase prevails over plagioclase. a point to be referred to again later), felstones (acid lavas), ash and agglonjerates.
General Surface Feofiires. — The physiography fif tlie area under consideration will be discussed separately under the section devoted to that purpose. It will only be necessary here to mention a few salient points.
The southern portion is part of a low coastal plain of soft roc-ks, rising, as a rule, not more than several hundred feet above sea level. The uppermost beds consist of fluviatile grits, sands, gravels and boulder deposits, which, in the south, overlie marine Kainozoic limestones and marls, but further north than about tAvelve miles from the coast, thev rest directly on the older rocks.
The rest of tlie region forms a low portion of the Victorian Hirrli- lands, mo.st of Avhich is below 1000 feet in altitude, and its soutli-
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria.
107
iern boidtr is less sharply marked off from the coastal plain than usual. Hard roc-ks of a varied nature have controlled lar<j:ely the main irregularities of the present surface, and the principal feature is the lara Range, wliich runs ohli(iuely across the area in a N.N.E. direction. Starting towards the S.W. corner of the map, at Mount Nowa Nowa (about 1100 feet), the range continues as a rocky forest clad ridge to the N.N.E., rising in Mt. Tara to nearly 2000 feet. The rockii composing it consist of quartz porphyrite and Upper Ordovician slates and sandstones.
Th€| most important streams are Boggy Creek and its tributary. Yellow Water Holes Creek. Tlie former enters the liead of Lake Tyers at the township of Nowa Nowa, after passing for several miles Ihrough a rocky gorge entrenched in the Porphyry Series, and ex- posing some of the best sections to be seen in this area. A few of the gullies on eitlier slope of the Tara Range also provide some good exposures, but most of the area is covered with the scrub and forest, and the relationship and boundaries of the rock formations are rathei- difficult to follow. The task of mapping several portions Avas further hampered by the want of maps of any kind! The sketch
Map 5
iffvre/ dtpm
lU TERTIARY
HI LOWER DEVONIAN ESS23 UPPER ORDOVICIAN
Scale;
108
E. 0. Teale
map therefore acconipanying this paper is in many places only a very rough approximation. Most attention was given to the lower portion of the Boggy Creek, and the slopes and gullies of the Tara Ra<ng|e.
General Geology.
The following formations are included within the area, and will be dealt with in turn: —
1. Upper Ordovician. consisting chiefly of highly inclined
quartzitic sandstones and slates, the latter chertified in parts.
2. " Snowy River Porphyry Series " — probablv Lower Devo-
nian in age, and consisting of volcanic rocks, both- effusive and pyroclastic, ranging from andesites to acid lavas.
3. Middle Devonian, comprisiTig cr{v'stalline iimestone and"
calcareous shales.
4. Kainozoic, ranging from Lower Kainozoic to Pleistocene. Observation?, were confined mainly to tlie first two series. Upper* Ordovician. — This Series consists chiefly of alternating
thin bsds of quart-zitic sandstones, nuidstone, shale, phyllite and some cherty slate. There is a marked absence of the black grapto- lite slates, which are so characteristic a feature of the Ordovician rocks in the Wood's Point and Wellington districts.
Fossils are rare, and frequently imperfectly preserved, but all the recognisable forms have been Upper Oi-dovician graptolites.
The first record is due to 0. A. L. Whitelaw, who obtained' graptolites in a road cutting at 5 miles 50 chains from Nowa Nowa,. in the Buchan Road. These were examined by the late Dr. T. S. Hall (30), and the forms identified are tabulated in the list given elsewhere. (Table 1.) Three additional occurrences found by my- self are marked on the map.
LOWER DEVONIAN _^^ ' '^ UPPER ORDOVICIAN
Chlonficand sericilic porphyro'ids [!l!^J2!lL ^^•^'l^^.^^^^^^, (i^'^ (J usrtv tic sandstones
SC
SECTION L
Boggy Crelk Nowa Nowa
SmIc, 1° I" Mil
Palaeozoic Geolor/y of Victoria.
109-
Five separate areas have been observed within the region here discussed, wliere rocks regarded as Ordovician have been observed.
Three of these are quite small inliers, two occurring in the bed. of Boggy Creek (Sees. C. and E.), and the third in Ironstone Creek (Sec. D.) The relationship to the " Snowy River Porphyry Series "' can be studied at all these sections, but its best seen at Section E, Nowa Nowa railway bridge. (See Maps 4 and 5, and Section E.)
Though the strike and dip of the two series are similar in direc- tion, the junction is seen to be unconformable.
No fossils have been obtained from any of these inliers, but the- outcrops at both sections, E and D, appear to be on an extension of the strike of a larger belt to the north, where graptolites have- been obtained, and the" rocks are lithogically similar. All that can be said, therefore, with regard to the age of the succeeding igneous, series is that it is post Upper Ordovician.
The two remaining occurrences are of larger extent, and their- position will be seen by reference to Map 5. One occurs as a narrow strip about a mile in width, and nine miles long, with a. general bearing a few degrees east of north. It is almost sur- rounded by the " Snowy River Porphyries." Its southern continu- ation is maskedl by the Upper Kainozoic sands and gravels.
These deposits also border it for alout two miles along the north- western boundary.
About two-thirds of the length of the belt coincides with the- crest of the Tara IJanue, but at the northern end it lies a little* to the west of the watershed.
w
LOWtR DEVONIAN
,:^.7.7/f^V) MI.s-^j.
^mmlln
'^ b C d €
SLCTioN A. Boggy Creek.
a.Lifhr^reen chlonh'c shult. Jr. Purpk sUe wirh sericfhc markinos
c. Porphjrj hrewa , d. CfiocoUe shdie simi/cirto h. e. L'l^ht colourec/ ^hedred fe/si/e
HorizoTifal Scale i° ," v"-"
Verfical i°.... ^'° v""
BocGY Creek Region
110
E. 0. Teale
Mount Tara Gold field. — It is in the northern half of this Ordo- rician area, extending over a distance of about four miles, that the noAv abandoned Tara goldfield isi situated (24 and 25). Nume- rous old prospecting shafts and open trenches occur at intervals thiroughout the field, but most Avork has been done at the northern end, in the vicinity of Lady Ibrr Creek, where there are a number • of adits and shafts.
All the accessil)le adits wtre examined, and roughly sectioned. These observations, together with those above ground, show clearly that the rocks are very much disturbed, faulted and sheared. The line of crushing and'^ shearing lies between N. and S. and N.N.E., and coincides roughly with that oif the old mines. Though some quartz occurs, it does not appear to be in the form of a defined quartz reef, and the lode formation seems to be of the type of a fracture zone of crushed rock with some quartz and gossany mate- rial.
The strike of the rocks is generally X. to N.E., but at the north- ern end of the field there is much variation, north-westerly and even westerly strikes being observed close to the normal direction. This is well shown in some of the adits, where numerous faults with a generally northerly trend are revealed. Most mining appears to have been done at the " Orbost Tunnel " (Au. No. 9 on Map 4), where there are two adits and some stoping has been done along a fault line, striking 10 degrees east of north and dipping W.X.W. at about 65 degrees.
The auriferous occurrences are in general confined to the Ordo- •vician belt, but gold has also been obtained in the porphyry, about half a mile to the north of the termination O'f the Ordovician. This was at the " Tara Crown," (Au. No. 2 (ui Map 4), where it was associated with galena. This is probably a continuation of the "fracture zone, which intersects the Ordovician.
U ORDOVICIAN
Mill rn a tin a thin htih of sandslone and shale . ■ S/rike /o'Dipcirso'h^
LOWER DEVONIAN
fish heds , well hedged wifh dlternafintj coarse ^nd fine itc/s di/Ji3nd strike simiL^r fo U. Ordnv hi/t i/nronfnrmrible.
SECTION c. Boggy Creek
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. Ill'
The rocks tlirou<2:liout tlie gold field, iii\ addition to tli'-.'ir sheared' features, are frequently somewhat cherty, and on the whole are light-- coloured, varying from whitish to creamish, with some superficial ironstaining along tlie joints and bedding planes. This light colour may be due to extensive bleaching Avithin the zone of oxidation, for occasional loose fragments of black chert are to be ■ found, and there is one occurrence of black chert in situ in the bed . of Lady Torr Creek.
Special attention was given to the region of the old gold mines, tecause it was here that Mi-. E. J. Dunn described the occurrence- of " Heathcotian " (24), as well as Oi-dovician. Mr. Dunn observes that "the Tara Range is remarkable that within a mile of the Micawber lease there are three distinct series of rocks carrying auriferous vein-stones."
The three series referred to are Heathcotian, Ordovician and Lower Devonian, and the separation of the first two series appears to be based on lithological differences only, particularly the supposed > significance of cherts and jasperoid rocks as a distinctive character- istic of Heathcotian; but here again, as in the Wellington district and elsewhere, this feature loses its significance, for at locality 6, north of Lady Torr's Creek, the author found Upper Ordoviciap- graptolites in light coloured cherty rocks, and in general these • rocks are so intimately associated with the more normal sediments, which also yield Upper Ordovician graptolites (locality 18), that there is no valid reason for separating them.
Turquoise. — A little turquoise Avas found in an old adit in the ■ basin of Lady 1'orr's Creek. It occurs chieflv along the joints, irregularly distributed in a light-colored felspathic sandstone, and though of interest as another example of its wide distribution in the Ordovician, the specimens obtained did not afford much- promise from a commercial point of view.
Gossany Ironxtniie .- — Towards the northern end of the area under consideration (Fe 6 on map), there is an ironstone outcrop, consist- ing chiefly of limonite. It is roughly elliptical in shape, measur- ing about 3 chains in a north and south direction, and 1^ to 2' chains across. Much of the limonite is hard and massive, but some contains quartz, and broken up sedimentary rock. The limits are rather indefinite, the deposit passing out into ferruginous shale much crushed and jointed. The strike of the strata is about N.N.E., and the dip appears to be easterly at a high angle. Anotlier similar outcrop occurs about 30 chains to the S.S.W., on the fall to
112
E. 0. Teale
CD
<V
«e
Falaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 113
Xiady Torr Creek. These occurrences are distinct from the iron deposits in the porphyry, to be referred to later, the latter consist- ing largely of hematite, while the former appears to be the type of gossany cappings, which may develop into sulphides at a depth. No work, however, has been done with a vieAv to testing these -deposits.
Another Ordovician area still remains to be referred to. It forms part of a large region whicli extends to the Snowy River, and beyond into Croajingolong. Along its western boundary it is in contact with tlie Snowy River Porphyries. The line of junction has not been accurately traced, but it bears in a general N.N.E. direction. My own explorations here have been very limited, and were confined principally to the vicinity of the Orbost bridle tra^k, and to a rapid reconnaisance along the now disused track to Bete Bolong, on the Snowy River. Some obscure graptolites were found close to the western boundary, with the porphyry, and are probably Upper Ordovician. The general strike as far as observed lies be- tween N. and N.E., and it, is worthy of note that this direction is characteristic of nearly all the features in this region as a whole. It is not confined merely to the strike of the strata. The belts of Ordovician, of porphyry and Middle Devonian limestone, also the longer axes of many of the granite batholiths. the major faults, and the trend of the various ore deposits, all conform approximately in this direction. It is in contrast to a north-westerly trend, which is a marked feature over a wide area to the west, and it would appear to be a continuation of the important trend lines of this direction so well developed in New South Wales.
The Snowy River Porphyry Series. — The distribution of the rocks of the series within the area here considered is shown on the map in which the characteristic! N. and S. to N.N.E. trend is well shown.
Porphyritic rocks of an acid type and general pinkish to brown colour prevail on the rocky ridges, the highest point in the region culminating in Mt., Tara, about 1930 feet in height.
These rocks being of a relatively hard and resistant nature, natu- rally form exposures, while large intervening areas are so masked ■with soil that little idea can be obtained as to the nature of the un- derlying rock. The spoil heaps, however, of some of the now abandoned mining shafts and other excavations frequently suffsfest some types, sliowang considerable variation from the acid por- phyries, and allied rocks of the ridges, and the sections in Boggy
lU E. 0. Teale:
Creek reveal tlie existence of bands of altered andesitic and' trachytic rocks.
Ihe fragmental character of much of the rock is frequently- apparent niacroscopically, and thin sections shoAv clearly that much of the finer material too, though often much altered and silicified, is of a pyroclastic origin.
An alternation of coarse and finer-grained material, with slight indication of bedding, appears to be the general rule, definitely stratified beds being rare. Howitt (3) observes that he had only noted at one place, near Buchan, a section which -stiggested aqueous assortment and deposition, which he regarded as of limited extent a'o.d purely local. Though this appears to be true in the main, in the area under consideration, the outcrops in the southern extremity afford an exception, for at Section A, Boggy Creek, and Section D, Ironstone Creek, particularly, the character and regidarity of the bedding are such as to strongly suggest aque<^.ius deposition. In this region also two other exceptional features are worthy of note : the beds are highly inclined, and intensely sheared, the latter agency having converted the rocks into typical porphyroids. These are best developed at Section E, NoAva Nowa railway bridge. The schistof^-e character is marked along the Boggy Creek Gorge for nearly a mile- above the railway bridge, but gradually disappears beyond this. The direction of schistosity corresponds with that of the strike of the different beds, being in a general N. to N.N.E. direction. As the course of the stream bed is^ here about N.W., it is a favourable one for exposing a good line of Section. For general and petrologi- cal description, it wil be convenient to group the rocks as follow : —
(a) Poiphyroids.
(b) Stratified ash beds.
(c) I'rachytic and andesitic rocks.
(d) Acid poj-phyritic and pyroclastic rocks. (e)~ Ceratnphyres.
(f) Granitic rocks. 7'he Por2yhj/rnids. — Ihese rocks form a rather striking group, for their schistose structure, and often also a sheen or lustre due the development of sericite give them a distinct lithological character. Their junction with tlie Tinderlying sediments, presum- ably Upper Ordovician in age (Section E, Boggv Creek), is sharp and unconformable. They are again exposed in the bed of Iron- stone Creek (18-22), and still further to the X.E. to^vards the head of one of the branches cf Bill's Creek (belcw No. QtS).
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 115
In general these rocks are usually light in colour, varying from light cream to pale green. Sometimes their fragmental character can be recognised macroscopically. In Section A, No. 6 specimen represents a coarse crushed porphyry breccia, with red jasper shale and chloritic inclusions. The mechanical stresses have developed a considerable amount of sericite and thin sections show in addi- tion secondary silicitication. The red jasper has the' appearance of an altered igneous rock, possibly a diabase or andesite; traces of felspar can be recognised, and hematite is disseminated through it. Fragments of fine grained acid igneous rocks, are also present.
On the other hand, many of the rocks of this group have a very fine texture, with their original character so altered that even thin sec-tions may not give any satisfactory evidence concerning their primary nature, but, on the whole, the microscopic examination clearly points to the fact that they are dynamically altered acid porphyrites and ash beds.
Specimen 1, Boggy Creek, is a hard schistose rock, which in the thin section, shoAvs a distinctly fragmental character. There is a fine micro-crystalline base of quartz and felspar, in part sericitic,. and set with irregular fragments of plagioclase and quartz, the former predominating. The felspar is probably an oligoclase- albite. Vivid green chlorite is abundant as well as sericite.
No. 2 is a light grey porphyroid, the thin section showing abun- dant sericite and no chlorite. Small fragments of plagioclase fels- par are present.
No. 18, Ironstone Creek, is a sericitic rock of similar type, with recognisable granular quartz, but all trace of the felspar has been obliterated.
No. 19, Ironstone Creek, is a coarse-grained sericitic rock, with a definite schistose structure. Occasional plagioclase fragments are recognisable, and some chlorite is present. Among the inclusions one fragment may represent an altered andesite. The result of in- tense stress is well shown.
A belt of these porphyroids, 10-12 feet wide, in the bed of Boggv Creek (No. 63, Map 5), is highly pyritic, and micaceous hematite is widely distributed, frequently sparsely disseminated and associated Avith red jasper and ordinary quartz, but occasion- ally moderate outcrops of fairly piire hematite can be observed. More often, however, the ore is highly siliceous and lenticular in occurrence. The iron ores, however, are not restricted to the por- phyroids, but the micaceous variety appears to be the characteristic-
110 E. 0. Teale:
form occurring in these rocks, and the stresses to ■which they have been subjected may have been •favourable to the pmdnction of the micaceous form of the ferric cxide.
One feature worthy of some reference, and well fhown at Section E, is the fact that the porphyroids appear to have been more affected by dynamical stresses than the underlying older sediments, consist- ing of chloritic shales, slates and quartzitic sandstones. They therefore f re luently approach tyi^ical schists in character, while the adjoining older beds still preserve the appearance of normal sediments. It is probable, however, that the two sieries may have been subjected simultaneously to stresses of the same order of magnitude, but the nature of the mineral composition of the por- phyries and ash beds from which the porphyroids have be?n derived made them more susceptibls to the development of new structures and mineralogical rearrangement.
Stratified Ash Beds. — These beds are best studied at Section A and C, Boggy Creek, and at Section D, Ironstone Creek. ll;e stratification is regular, with an alternation of coarse and fine material, the dip being at a hiuh angle, westerly in sections A and D, and easterly at C. It is well known that a sub-aerial deposition of volcanic ash may result in remarkably regular deposition, and in the absence therefore of definitely aqueous sediments interbedded with the ash beds or of the ajssociation of fossils in sedimentary material with the pyroclastic, it may not be possible to decide whethei- the beds in c^uestion are really sub-aqueous or not. The fine," purple shales, beds b and d, Seiction A, however, resendjle very closely true sub-aqueous sediments, and may, in fact, be such. No. 16, Section C, may be taken as one typical example of the normal bedded ash beds, though the degree of coarseness naturally varies from bed to bed. This example is a light greenish grey granular rock. A thin section shows well the fragmental structure, with abundant chlorite, angular quartz, and some triclinic felspar and magnetite set in a micro-crystalline base of quartz and felspar, witli some secondary silicification.
At Siection D the beds are exposed more or less continuously for about 8 chains, and sometimes show a slight a:uount of schistosity. A good exposure is to be seen under the road bridge. The colour is in general grey, but darker and lighter bands with slight varia- tions in texture bring out the thin regular character of the bedding. Numerous thin sections (27-39) show a general similarity mineralo- gically. No. 2<S is a finely granular grey rock, with a little fels-
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 117
^ar recognisable luaoroscopically. In the thin section the base is seen to be slightly schistose, and micro-crystalline, consisting of felspar and quartz, and showing som^ secondary silicification. It is set with angular fragments of triclinic felspar, showing fine repeated twinning after the albite type, and occasionally tarls- bad twinning also. Extinction measurenaents on several of tlie most suitable sections indicate that the felspar is probably oligo- clase-albite. A little sericite and chlorite are also present. No. 38 is somewhat coarser in grain and of a light green colour. The frag- mental character and slightly i-chistose structure are revealed in .tha thin section; angular quartz fragments are abundant, also altered felspar, and probably some scapolite. Dark, green chlorite and calcite are present as alteration products, and some fine- grained fragments probably represent altered shale.
One feature worthy of mention in connection with the micro- scopic examination of the above rocks is that all the identifiable felspar fragments noted are triclinic.
Tracluific and Andesific Rochs. — In contrast to the liiiht coloured siliceous rocks just described, another group of darker and more basic types is met with in Bogg}^ Creek (Specimens 9-14), and so far they have not been traced or recognised' beyond the restricted area, in the region here examined. Tliey occur in definite bands, and appear to represent both effusive and pyroclastic beds. IMost of the rocks of this type are very much altered, and the original ferro-magnesian minerals are almost invariably altered to chlorite?.
J*fo. 11 is a fairly typical example of the andesitic type. It is a dark rock, with pink felspar phenocrysts.
Thin sections under the microscope show phenocrysts of triclinic felspar, slightly cloudy through decomposition, of stumpy habit and with broad twin lamellae. No very satisfactory extinction measure- ments were obtained, but it may be oligoclase. Ihe ferro-magnesian mineral was proba.bly augite, but it is completely decomposed to chlorite. Magnetit-e is common. The base is cloudy and altered, but small felspar laths are abundant in it. The rock is regarded as an altered augite-andesite. No. 9 is more altered, showing some -serpentinization, and much chlorite. The felspars are abundant and similar in habit to 11, but are kaolinizecl and carbonated.
No. 12 is a dark, denfe rock, slightly porphyritic, with patches -of red jasper. The thin section shows a distinct trachytic structure, Avith abundant felspar laths in a .brownish devi trifled base.
5 a
118 E. 0. Teale:
The largest felsj^ar phenocrysts are inclined to be of rather stout habit, showing somewhat broad twin lamellae, and generally low. extinctions, suggesting oligoclase.
The numerous felspar laths, which Ijulk most largely in tlie slide,.. and show simple twinning, are probably sanidine. as also are a. number of definitely prismatic form.s of intermediate size. Mag- netite is abundant, but almost all trace of the original ferro-mag- nesian mineral has disappeared. Veins and patches of secondar;v'^ quartz and chlorite are present, and one portion of the slide has been almost completely silicified, showing the quartz both as av mosaic and microcrystalline form stained by patches of hematite and some chlorite.
The rock appears to represent an interesting type of altered^ trachyte or trachytic andesite.
No. 14 is a dark grey, finely porphyritic rock macroscopically, but the thin section shows a distinct fragmental structure, with- abundant angular fragments of triclinic felspar (probably an- albite of the type Abjg An J. Smaller felspar laths are present,, some of which are triclinic, w^th low extinctions, and, maybe, oligo- clase, also m,agnetite and fragments of altered rocks similar to 12; much chloritized. The base is finely granular in part, due to second- ary silicification. There are no recognisable original ferro-mag- nesian minerals, but chlorite is abundant. The rock probably re- jDresents an altered andesitic ash.
Acid Porphyritic and Pi/roclasfic Boclis. — Rocks of this type- are very abundant, and show «_onsiderable variety of colour aiid texture. In general a prevailing red to brown colour is most com- mon, but various shades of green to grey are also found.
Flow structure is not common, and was only noted in one place, namely, in the ridge between Ti-Tree Creek and Yellow Water Holes- Creek, and W.N.W. fi-om Beecher's.
Quartz and felspar either as fragments or phenocrysts are usually appaz'ent macroscopically, and in thin sections the rocks of this- division can generally bei readily separated into two groups —
(1) Those definitely fragmental, representing altered pyro- clastic material. (2) Those €if the more normal quartz-porphyrite type, probably partly hypabassal. having solidified in the fissures, or vents, through which the more superficial materiaP reached the surface.
Roth these types are well represented along the Tara Range.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 119
(i.) Fragmental Tijpe. — Sections of this type show all the larger jniiierals and inclusions as broken/ and angular fragments, with no €mbayment. The base is siliceous and finely granular, and among the larger fragments felspar is often more abundant than quartz, and tl),e triclinic form distinctly predominates, orthoclase being rare.
The secondary minerals most abundant are chloritei, and occasion- ally calcite.
(ii.) Acid rorphi/rites (Xon-Frar//nefitaf). — The rocks of this type liave perhajDs a higher silica percentage than normal porphyrite, and this may in pai't be due to a certain amount of secondary silicification and alteration.
The fine grained base of the rock is generally affected to some extent in this way. All the recognisable felspars, however, are domi- nantly triclinic, orthoclas^e being more or less rare.
No. 100 is a medium grained porphyritic rock of a red brown •colour.
In the thin section the plienocrysts have rather irregulail outline, the quartz is partly rounded, and occasionally embayed. The fels- pars are more abundant than quartz, and occasionally have a regular prihinatic outline, but more often are broken and irregular. 'Twinning after the albite law prevails, but occasional pericline and ■ Carlsbad types are represented. The twin lamellae vary from mode- rately broad to fine bands. Different kinds of felspars appear there- fore to be represented. Only a few were satisfactory for deter- mination by extinction angle. These gave readings up to 20 ■degrees, and are probably therefore andesine.
The oj^tical features of several examples suggest anorthoclase, and the chemical analysis further points to some potash felspar, which, however, has not been definitely recognised microscopically. Magnetite is only moderately abundant. The base is micro- to crypto-crystalline, with some evidence of recrystallisation and sili- cification. Minute laths and fragments of felspars and quartz are scattered through it.
Chlorite is sparsely distributed through the rock, and calcite is present in moderate amount.
This rock is regarded as a quartz porpliyrite. No. 105 is a green- ish porphyritic rock, but the chemical analysis corresponds closely with that of the previous example.
The thin section is very similai-. Quartz plienocrysts are a little jnore abundant, and some are Ixautifully cml>ayei]. The felspars
120 E. 0. Teale:
show a similar range and variety. One example has very minute- pericline twinning, and may be anorthoelase.
Iron oxides are a little more plentiful; sume occur as very minute grains abundantly scattered tlirough the rock. Con-oded xenolitlis of both fine grained igneous and altered sedimentary rocks are moderately numerous. There is an occasional flake of muscovite, and little chlorite but no calcitt? was observed.
No. 93 may be portion of an agglomerate. It contains numerous xenoliths, apparently all of igneous origin. One is an altered ande- site, the others are red, fine grained felsitic rocks, stained with hematite, and showing small, partly kaolinised felspar phenocrysts. The rest of the rock is generally similar to the previous examples. Some of the quartz is rounded, but only slightly embayed.
No. 91 is a specimen from the Dominion! copper mine, now aban- doned. It is similar in grain, but lighter in colour than the other examples described, but on exposure suffers a superficial red dis- colouration, which appears to be due to the presence of some car- bonate of iron. Otherwise the minerals present are similar. A little copper pyrites is present in the dump, but as the shaft is full of water, nothing could be seen as to the occurrence of the copper.
(^) iifi rtz-C erntoph !J re . — No. 68. — This I'ock is of medium grain, porphyritic. but inclined to be granular in hand specimens, and has a general grey colour. The analysis show a silica percentage of 72.41, very similar to that of the acid rocks generally of this dis- trict, but in the alkalies there is a marked difference in that soda is 6.86 and potash only 0.13.
It is very closely comparable with certain rocks, described from Navigation Creek, Noyang, by Howitt (32), under the names of quartz-mica-porphyrite and quartz-porphyrite.
Reference to tlie table witli analysis will show the close resem- blance.
Professor Skeats, in reviewing the volcanic rocks of Victoria (28, p. 187). quotes Hewitt's analyses and gives some additional re- marks on these rocks, desci'ibing them as quartz-ceratophyres. Re- ferring to one example, he says, " This rock shoAvs a microcrystal- line granular ground mass of quartz and felspar, with minute microliths of chlorite, replacing probably ampliibole. The por- phyritic constituents are as follows: —
Oligoclas... of an acid variety, showing both all>ite and carlsbad" twinning. Quartz in corroded and fractured crystals and chlorite pseudomorphs after magnesia-iron-mica."
Palaeozoic Geologij of Victoria. 121
The above description also concisely describes the features of No. 68. The occurrence of this rock in shown in Map 4, near the head of one of the branches of Ii-onstone Creek. The outcrop, however, is very limited, being partly surrounded by late Kainozoic sands and graved.
The relationship to the igneous rocks of the district is not shown, l)ut it is almost certainly later than the earliest members of the Snowy liiver Series, which show here various stages of shearing Avith the development of porphyroids. Some of these outcrop in the stream bed a short distance below the ceratophyre.
From tJie chemical analysis of No. 68, applying the American Classification, it is interesting to note that it falls into the persodic Subrang, noyangose, of liparase, the per-alkalic Rang.(l) of britannare, the quardofelic Order (4) of persalane. Class 1.
Analysis and Molecular Ratios and Classification.
SiO., - 72.41 - 1.207 - - Quartz - 29.28
A1.A - 14.38 - 0.141 - - Orthocla.se - 0.55
Ff-A - 2.94 - 0.018 - - Albite - 58.16
FeO - 0.85 - 0.012 - - Anorthite, - 3.33
MgO - 1.18 - 0.029 - - Corundum - 2.84
CaO - 0.87 - 0.015 - - Hyperstheue 2.90
Na.,0 - 6.86 - 0.110 - - Magnetite - 2.32
K.,6 - 0.13 - - - - llmeiiite - 0.45
H^,0-t- - 0.67 - - - - Hematite - 1.28
H.^0 - - 0.04
CO., - - - - . Class - - 1
TiO'., - 0.26 - 0.003 - - Order - 4
P„Oj - 01 7 - 0.001 - - Rang - - 1
m\i6 - 0.09 - 0.001 - - Subrang - 5
Total 100.85 Magmatic Name, Noyangose.
S.G. 2.63
Granite Eocl-x. — Only one small occurrence of granite- has been noted in the area included in the map. It is limited to an exposure of a few chains extent along the bed of one of the branches of the Tara Creek, No. 98. On the west it is in contact with the frag- mental igneous roi'ks of the Snowy River Series. No evidence of contact alteration of these rocks was noted, nor . have any dykes or offshoots of granitic rocks into them been observed. It is prob- able, therefore, that the granite is the older rock. A much more extensive outcrop of granite closely similar macroscopically, and in thin sections also, occurs a few miles to the east of the Tambo River,
122 E. 0. Teale:
and th(e Bairnsdale-Orbost railway line intersects the southern end of the mass, showing some good sections in one of the cuttings a few miles east of Bruthen. The rock is of medium grain and pink colour, closely resembling the better known Gabo Island granite, with which it is most probably to be correlated genetically. At the locality east of Bruthen, the granite intrudes sedimentary rocks, presumably of Upper Ordovician age.
There is, therefore, no opportunity to study the relationship to the volcanic rocks of the Snowy River Series.
Another occurrence lies to the east of the Tara Range in the vicin- ity of the now deserted district of Bete Bolong. The granite here takes the form of two elongate elliptical masses more or less parallel, with their longer axes striking north easterly across the Snowy River. The surrounding rocks are entirely sedimentary, again pre- sumably Tapper Ordovician. This area was only very hurriedly visited, at one place on the western margin. Two type^ were noted, one a fine grained aplitic variety, and the other a distinctly horn- blendic form without the prevailing pink colour of the types previ- ously mentioned. Distinct contact alteration is shown in the sedi- ments in the vicinity, characteristic hornfels being common. As the area examined at Bete Bolong was very limited, it is impossible to say wliether or not the position seen is typical of the whole of the area.
Thin sections of the granite from all tlie above localities were erxammed.
No. 98, Tara. Range, and that from near Bruthen, most nearly resemble each other, but liornblende is most abundant in the Bete Bolong example.
.They all agree in having at least three types of felspar — ortho- clase and two triclinic forms; much of the felspar is partly kaolin- ised, and, therefore, unsuitable for determining accurately the rela- tive proportions, but approximately the monoclinic and tri- clinic forms aj^pear to be about equal in amount. One triclinic form is well zoned with moderately broad twinning, while a less common type has exceptionally fine twinning, often of the pericline type, and Avith undulose extinction, indicating probably anortho- clase. The ferro-magnesian mineral is sparsely represented in No. 98, and in the Bruthen type. It is partly chloritized. but in the former it is green hornblende, and in the latter it appears to 1>p a greenish brown biotite. No analyses have been made of tliese rocks, but it is probable that they would correspond fairly closely with
Palaeozoic Geologij of Victoria. 128
that of Gabo Island, falling therefore into the group of Victorian alkali granites in contrast to the more calcic type of the grano- diorites. An analysis of the Gabo Island granite is included in the table for general comparison with those of the quartz-porphyrites of the Tara Range, and the similarity chemically is vqry note- ■\vorthy.
With regard to the Snowy River Porphyries generally, much more field work combined with chemical and petrological research is necessary before any satisfactory coilclusions and generalisations can bei made concerning many interesting petrological problems in this area. It is a region which offers splendid scoj^e for future research, and it is perhaps remarkable, as Professor Skeats has already observed, that the late Dr. Howitt having done such valu- able preliminary work in this series, never returned to it. For- tunately, the collection of his rocks and thin slices, together with his field notes, are in the possession of the University of Melbourne, and it has been of considerable help in connection with certain petro- logical points, to be able to compare my own slides with some of those of Howitt's from adjacent areas.
It is clear, however, that compared with the very careful detailed work, both chemical and petrological, given by Howitt to such areas as Noyang, Swift's Creek, Omeo, etc., this region received very scanty petrological attention, and most of the slides would seem to be among some of his very earliest work in this direction, and are often too thick or too much altered for. very satisfactory deter- minatiion.
One of the most interesting j^oints, brought out as my own petro- logical study of these rocks proceeded, was the predominance of triclinic felspar among the phenocrysts of the acid porphyritic rocks, especially as Howitt had emphasised the reverse, namely, that monoclinic felspars prevailed. On referring, therefore, tq the par- ticular slides, which he had mentioned in this connection, it was clear that these early determinations of his required some correction and qualification for all the identifiable phenocrysts Avere certainly plagioclase. On account, however, of the decomposed state of the rock, some of the felspars were too kaolinized for determination. An important point, therefore, is raised, as to whether this feature con- cerning the felspars applies to the porphyries of this series as a whole. If so, then it may be possible to distinguisli petvologically between these and certain other porphyries, macroscopically similar, but belonging to the Upper Palaeozoic of the Wellington Series.
124
E. 0. Teale
Here again, however, many more sections require to be examined' in order to deterniine whether in their case, as it would seem to- be, the orthocbise felspar predominates.
Chemicfil Choracfern avd Pefro()ia pliical Heldfio/is/iijis. — Onlv a few analyses are available, and from a limited area. These are all of the acid rocks; none have yet been made of the andesitic types.
Makings use of the instructive variation tables given by Summers- (•33, Fi*r. 3, p. 270), it is seen that th.e important types of Devonian
N' 8.
Brogger Diagrams
Dacife, Brdemar House. Mac'cd on.
(^SWcits ^nd Summers) '
G ranodionre , Br,iem>ir House,Mjcedon..
(^SKwts.inJ Summers), N'i7.
Fiq 3.
Sfrinilc, GiSbo Island
(SiirnmerSj 33.)
Ffcj 4.
QudrL'-Porph^nte^Tfirji R<inqe ^^Spcc.ioo. ,/ln<il..Thielel
Fia 5.
Rhyohre, M'^Wellinofon ( Anal .Thicltr)
Qudrlz-Cerafophyrc , Nowj Now.^. (Spec,63.Awl-ThiEle)
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 125'
igneous rocks, phitonic and voluanic, confonii closely to the graplis with the Dacites at the least acid end, and the granites of Galx), Woolamai, etc., at tlie other end.
Tlie quartz porphyrites of the Tara Range are found to occupy a position corresponding very closely with that of the Gabo Island granite, and as has been shown petrographically, it is with a granite of this type that they appear to be associated.
It Avould appear, therefore, that the acid rocks of the Snowj' River Series belong to an acid alkali province, in contrast to the acid sub-alkali province, to which the dacites and grano-diorites belong, but all conforming to a normal variation curve.
It would be further interesting to consider the position and rela- tionshii^ of- the andesites, but these rocks are much altered and de- composed, and. so far, no specimens suitable for analysis have been obtJained.
It is worthy of note also that porphyries and rhyolites of the Wellington Series form again a more acid series than those of the Snowy River.
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
|
|
SiO., |
- 72.55 - |
73.41 - |
71.68 - |
70 51 - |
72.41 - |
72.39 - |
72.49- |
|
Al.,0., |
- 11.74 - |
12.30 - |
13 57 - |
14.36 - |
14.38 - |
14.42 - |
13 48 |
|
Fe,03 |
- 2.54 - |
209 - |
1.28 - |
0.33 - |
2.94 - |
0.56 - |
1.16- |
|
FeO |
- 0.46 - |
2.13 - |
1.94 - |
1.95 - |
0 85 - |
0.30 - |
2.09- |
|
MgO |
- 0.68 - |
0.14 - |
1.37 - |
1.08 - |
1.18 - |
1.85 - |
0.49- |
|
CaO |
- 1.85 - |
1.08 - |
1.88 - |
2.98 - |
0.87 - |
0 85 - |
1.31 |
|
Na^O |
- 3.46 - |
3.71 - |
2.22 - |
3.17 - |
6.86 - |
5,93 - |
3 38 |
|
K.,0 |
- 4.41 - |
4.04 - |
3.87 - |
3.15 - |
0.13 - |
1.23 - |
4.06 |
|
H..O-H |
- 0.41 - |
1.51 - |
1.24 - |
1.18 - |
0.67 - |
1.13 - |
0.76- |
|
H^O- |
- 0.06 - |
0.10 - |
0.29 - |
— |
0.04 - |
— - |
0.18 |
|
co.. |
- 1.80 - |
— |
0.08 - |
nil - |
nil - |
— |
tr. |
|
Tid, |
- 0.175- |
0.16 - |
0.33 - |
1.20 - |
0.26 - |
— |
0.46 |
|
PoP„ |
- 0.14 - |
tr. - |
0.03 - |
0.12 - |
0.17 - |
tr. |
— |
|
"NTiO |
0 08 - |
||||||
|
MnO |
— - |
— - |
0.13 - |
V/.Vy«j |
0.09 - |
0.01 - |
0.13 |
100.27 100.67 100.11 100.85 98.67 99.99-
1. Quartz Porphyrite, No. lOU, Mt. Tara Ramg^e.
— Analyst E. O. Teale.
2. Quartz Porphyritie, No. 105, Mt. Tara Rang-e.
—Analyst E. O. Teale. .3. Quartz Porphyry, Federal Territory.
—Analyst A. G. Hall.
4. Quartz Porphyrite, Violet Town, Strathbogie Eange.
— 'Analyst G. Ampt.
5. Quartz Ceratophyre, No. 68, Nowa Nowa.
— -Analyst E. 0. Teale.
6. Quartz Ceratophyre, Navig-ation Creek, Noyang.
— Analyst A. W. Howitt.
7. Granite, Gabo Island.
— -Analyf/t J. Watson.
1126 E. 0. Teale:
Economic Minerals. — The following minerals are known to occur in the rocks of this region : —
1. Gold.
2. Copper Pyrites.
3. Argentiferous Galena.
4. Iron minerals (Hematite andt Liraonite).
5. Manganese Minerals (Pyrolusite, etc.)
6. Barytes.
Most of the mining has been done in connection with gold. With most of the others only a few shallow excavations, with an occasional shaft have been opened up. Very little can be said with regard either to their geological occurrence or economic possibilities, for the reason that most of the shafts are inaccessible, and in other cases the opening up has been far too limited to enable any reliable ■opinion to be formed.
The position of these occurrences is shown on the map. Hematite would appear to be chiefly if not entirely restricted to the " Snowy River Porphyries." Two forms have been noted, a micaceous variety, widely distributed in the southern portions, and a mas- •sive hematite. 'J'he largest outcrop of this nature was: at locality Fe 20, about six and a quarter miles north from Nowa Nowa.
Analyses of some of these ores are given in some of the Annual Reports of the Mines Department, some of them indicating ore of good quality, but insufficient work appears to have been done to 'determine even approximately the quantity of ore available. The same observation holds with regard to the manganese ores. The.se •occur at the northern end of this region (Loc. M, Specimen 104), and are at the junction of the porphyry, with the overlying lime- stone series, and from the material exposed in the dump it would appear that they occur in the calcareous and ferruginous shales ;associated with that series.
Barytes is widely distributed in the poi'phyry, and is very com- ;mon in the hills close to Beechers, Canni Creek, where there are a few shallow excavations. Most of it is iron-stained, but some good white material can be seen at Ba II. (Specimens 13 and 74.) A small open cut here shows an irregular occurrence of Barite in thin veins and small masses replacing the decomposed porphyry.
Argentiferous galena occurs both in the limestone series and in
the porphyry. Some prospecting Avork was in progress at the
, ■" Tara Crown," during the time of my visit, where there appeared
to be a well-defined fissure lode traversing decomposed felsitic rocks
iin a N.N.E. direction.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 127'
Locality A, 19. — Yellow Water Holes Creek is the position of the long-abandoned " Good Hope Silver Mine." The shaft here pene- trates calcareous fossiliferous middle Devonian shales.
Middle Devonian. The Limestone Series. — Very little time was devoted to this series. An important area, however, composed of these rocks, occurs in the northern portion of this region, and is continuous with that in the vicinty of Buclian. The general' features of these rocks have been well described by Howitt (3, 4 and 5), and the age is definitely fixed by the fossils as Middle Devonian.
Associated with the limestones are calcareous shales, and the' whole series is in general gently folded, though some instances ot high dip are to be noted. Howitt described these limestones as being laid down in troughs and basins in the Snowy Eiver Porphvr ries, into which they have in many cases been further let down by trough faults. General erosion of the present cycle, and probably also that of an earlier period acting unequally on the limestones and surrounding porphyries has resulted partially in developing important basins, more or less conciding in position with some of those of Palaeozoic times in which the Middle Devonian limestones were laid down. Two basins of these types occur in this region. One is the wide, flat valley of the Ti Tree Creek, surrounded by ridges of porphyry and older rocks, save on the northern side, and the other is a narrower valley" to the west, that of the Yellow Water Holes Creek.
It is interesting to note that small residual Devonian limestone' occurrences outcrop in both these valleys partly buried beneath gravels sands and clay of late Kainozoic age. These are represented in Section 9. The trough faulting is assumed as probable from general considerations.
It is on the southern end of the large limestone area on a branch of the Tara Creek, in Mr. A. McRae's property, that the new Com- monwealth Marble Quarry is situated.
Kaiiiozoic. These deposits are of considerable interest in that they throw some light on physiographical cycles preceding the present one. Their features will only be briefly referred to here. They arc broadly divisable into three groups —
(a) A loAver series of marine beds.
(b) An upper series of fluviatile beds.
(c) Basalt.
128 E. 0. Teale :
Buth (a) and (b) are to be seen iu some fine sections in the cut- ting of the new Bairnsdale-Orbost railway line.
I he Marine beds so far noted consist of cream coloured sandy limestones and marls similar to the Baivnsdale Series, and j^robably Janjukian in age. These deposits can he traced from the coast to the head of Lake Tyers, where they are ferruginous, but further south along the lake cliffs the characteristic limestones are well developed. Several small outcrops are exposed in the railway line between Nowa Nowa and the Snowy Kiver. But it is at the latter locality along the cliffs overlooking the river flats from the western side, that the finest sections are exposed. The railway cuttings here reveal cream coloured horizontally l>e(lded limestones underlying heavy fluviatile gravels and beds of water-worn boulders.
The various sections have not l>een closely studied in order to determine whether or not the later marine beds of Kalimnan age are represented, but there are some coarsely bedded ferruginous grits, probably of shallow water marine origin, which may belong to this series. They appear to be unconformably overlaid by the later fluviatile beds.
So far as is known, all the marine beds in this region occur at less than 200 feet above sea level, and do not extend inland more than about twelve miles in a straight line from the coast. This limit approximately marks the position of the early Kainozoie coast line, and corresponds closely to the soutliern margin of the High- lands in this region.
Fluviatile Deposits. — Ihe.'^e overlie the uppei'inost marine Ijeds, and are therefore late Kainozoic. ])ut as no fossils have been found in them, their age cannot be definitely fixed. They are gene- rallv regarded, hoAvever, on pliysiographical giounds as represent- ing an important Pleistocene cycle of erosion. It is almost certain though, that some of these deposits are older, particularly those Avhich occupy ancient drainage lines in the Highlands, beneath lava flows of basalt. In general, hoAvever, most of these fluviatile deposits may probably safely be regarded as Pleistocene.
Ihey form an extensive superficial sheet of material, ranging from fine gravels and sandy clays to deposits of large water-worn boulders, the latter providing a very interesting miscellaneous col- lection of igneous and sedimentary rocks, among which various kinds of porphyries are abundant. They range in height from fifty to several hundred feet above the present river beds, and are found rising in the soutliern portion of the highlands to at least '800 feat above sea level.
Palaeozoic Geolog;/ of Victoria.
129
They are to Le correlated with a very general period of great fluviatile activitj' in Pleistocene times in Australia.
Immediately to the west of the Tara Range in the northern part of Maj3 4, there is an -extensive basin drained partly to tlie soutli by Ti-Tree Creek, and to the north into the Buclian River, by the Tara Creek. (See Block Diagram, No. 10.) Remains of a partly- denuded sheet of Upper Kainozoic sands, gritaf and gravels are here _preserved at altitudes rising to about SCO feet above sea level, and resting on a floor varying from Ordovician sediments to Devonian porphyry and limestone.
In general, however, they Avould appear to have filled in a basin corresponding in position to an ancient Devonian one, in which the Middle Devonian limestones were laid down, almost entirely burying them. Erosion of the present cycle has again partly laid bare the limestones, especially in the basin of the Tara Creek.
Basalt. — This rock has been observed only in the nortli- western corner of this region, in the vicinity of South Buchan, while passing along the coach road to Buchan, but its extent and character have not been observed. It is most probably to be corre- lated with tlie basalt referred to by Howitt, as occurring at Gelan- tipy and the Buchan River, further north, and classed by him as " Newer Volcanic."
Palaeozoic Earth History.
From the desiciiptive sections now concluded, dealing wdth two widely separated areas in Gippsland, Avhich, however, are but very small fragments of the whole region, it will be seen that the Palaeozoic history provides a long succession of events, full of interesting structural, petrological, and other problems about which, however,
M'M'Uori
Buchan R
130 E. 0. Teale:
our knowledge is so fragmentary that at the best, our ideas can only be largely conjectural. It may, nevertheless, be stimulating to fur- ther research to attempt to formulate some picture of the earth history of this ancient era.
It will be seen that the same area along the Mansfield-Wellington belt, marks the site successively of marine deposition in Upper Cambrian, Upper Ordovician and Silurian times, with probable intervening periods of sub-aerial denudation. The Cambrian rocks also indicate contemporaneous volcanic action of a basic nature, the extent of which is unknown. Devonian times were ushered in with the outbreak of great igneous activity, the greatest volcanic period of Palaeozoic times in this part of Australia. Rocks of this age, however, are better developed in certain other parts of Victoria. This region was then mainly a land area, for the volcanic accumu- lations appear to have been almost entirely sub-aerial. Whether marine conditions supervened here as they did along the Snowy River belt is not known, for no Middle Devonian limestones have yet been recognised, but in late Devonian or early Lower Carboniferous times, a large trough, at least 100 miles long and possibly fifty miles wide was developed and occupied by a fresh water lake. The early lacustrine sedimentation which was thus initiated was accom- panied in its early stage by energetic volcanic activity, both effusive and exi^losive, and of a highly acidic nature. Long after this rhyolitic outburst had ceased, and as deposition proceeded, there were successive outpourings of basic lavas, mostly of no great thick- ness, and these in turn became covered with later sediments l>elong- ing to the same period.
The succession along the Snowy River is less complete. No Cam- brian, Silurian, or Lower Carboniferous sediments are known, but the volcanic accumulations of Lower Devonian times indicate very great igneous activity, which was succeeded by marine invasion in Middle Devonian into basins and troughs in the " Snowy River Porphyries.''
The history recorded in these zones implies a sequence of powerful earth movements of various kinds to be discussed later. Even a casual look at the geological map of Victoria reveals a general sub- parallelism of the Palaeozoic formations,, with a prevailing northly trend, and a little clo?er investigation indicates that certain belts have had a more varied history, therefore implying zones of greater unrest or instability, along which movements, also in some cases,. igneous activities, have been periodically repeated. It has been-
. Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 131
shown that the Mansfield-Wellington belt has had a particularly varied history, and it contrasts strongly with the belt to the east,, whicli is almost entirely Ujiper Ordovician, and which we may call the Dargo-Ovens zone. To the west, on the other hand, the- rcK.-ks are chiefly Silurian, overlying Upper Ordovician. With regard to the eastern limits of this area, it is perhaps significant that it corresponds closely with the Cambrian outcrop in the Wel- lington district, and also the Howqua-Mansfield and Dookie locali- ties fartlier norih, in the vicinity of which rocks doubtfully re- ferred to as the Heathcotian Series occur; while on the western side forming the boundary in part, between a Lower Ordovician region to the west, there is the important Mt. William-Colbinabbin line of Heathcotian rocks. These boundaries, or geological frontiers, may, therefore, represent certain critical lines in the past earth, history, along which the struggle for mastery between conflicting^ earth forces has been repeatedly renewed and fought out.
Successive Distribution of Land and Water.
In considering the piobable distribution of land and water throughout Palaeozoic times, we c'an only be guided by the known outcrops of the various formations, and fresh discoveries at any time are liable to modify our views, but the sub-parallel arrange- ment and the restriction of particular formations to certain belts or areas strongly suggest a successive alternation of land and water, which might be brought about by a long continued progres- sive Avave-like undulation of the earth's crust.
If we consider a succession of east and west sections through Vic- toria during the Palaeozoic history, representing them diagram- matically to show the relative position of land and water, certain interesting features are brought out. (Diagram No. 11.)
With regard to the Cambrian times, our knowledge is far too- fragmentary to enable us to form any reliable conception of the area of the sea of that period, but the pre-Cambrian rocks of Western A'ictoria may have formed the western limit, while on the east it may have been the belt of crystalline rocks of thd Omeo zone, though there is some doubt as to whether these rocks are really Archaean or altered! Ordovician.
At any rate, a probable view that seems reasonable would repre- sent a wide Cambrian sea, occupying the greater part of the now dry land of Victoria, with ancient land masses in the east and the- west (Diagram No. 11, Fig. 1).
Practically all the Cambrian rocks of Victoria so far known repre- sent accumulations of submai'ine volcanic material of the nature of
132
E. 0. Teaie :
basic lavas and tuffs, the latter often admixed in part with fine normal sediment. The nature of the deposits, while not suggesting speciall}' deep-water conditions, would favour the view that they accumulated over a sea floor at some distance from a shore line. The cherts and tuffs are of a uniform and fine nature, possessing none of the special features expected in those deposited under lit-
MfLBDURNt'
Up[j£r "Cambrian Sta
Wellikciom
3NI1VVY niV£K
Lower Ordovician Sea
|
N° 3 _^ Siluridn Sea ^ |
yy/// |
|||
|
Z^//V///& |
y/y |
yy^T , |
||
|
'/PTTTy/,' |
N" 4
Lov/tr Devonian Land Arw in& Terrestrial Volc<\noes
N? 6.
Loner Carbomrtrous Lft(U5lrin< B<^sins
N^ 1i.
0 laqram of Successive Palaeozoic Bdsin^
toral conditions. The advent of OrdoYieiau time« does not appear to have been marked bv any break in deposition, but the sediments, still of a fine uniform nature, became more normal, for submarine volcanic activity had come to an end. The distribution of land and water remained much the same, and the succession on the whole, therefore, is probably a conformable one, but local gaps in the record appear to occur, notably in the Wellington area, where Upper Cambrian is in contact with Upper Ordovician. Elsewhere — as at Lancefield and Heathcote — it is impossible to determine •closely where Cambrian ends and O.dovician begins.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 133
The existing geological map of Victoria shows a striking restric- rtion of Lower Ordovician rocks to a region lying to the west of a line approximating to the meridian of Melbourne, which would sug- gest an important contraction of the sea at the close of Cambrian times. Later investigations, however, indicate that this is more apparent than real.
Prof. Skeats (40) has shown that a large area in the Mornington Peninsula, originally regarded as Silurian, must now be included in the Lower Ordovician.
Several inliers of Lower Ordo^^-ician rocks are now known in the Jieart of the Silurian region as far east as the Mansfield district, approximately ninety miles to the east of the Melbourne meridian, and as very large tracts of the mountainous country in the eastern highlands of Victoria are very imj^erfectly explored geologically, it is probable that other occurrences may be revealed in the future. It is unsafe, therefore, in the light of our imperfect knowledge to generalise too positively on the distribution of land and water in early/ Palaeozoic times. Li general, however, it would appear that there was a progressive restriction of the marine basin through Lower Palaeozoic to the close of Silurian.
In the sections therefore (Diagram. 11), the relative position and extent of the successive basins are merely represented tentatively, summarising our existing knowledge of the palaeogeography of this Ttegion.
In Upper Ordovician times a marked narrowing of the PaUi.eo- zoic basin appears to have taken jilace, for no Upper Ordovician rocks have yet been found to the west of the Melbourne meridian. 'The sea may have then occupied tw'o basins partly separated by the Omeo crystalline belt. (Diagram, 11, Fig. 3.)
The next event was again a considerable restriction of marine •area, di-'awing the Silurian Sea into a central basin corresponding to the western part of the Upper Ordovician Sea. It is not clear whether complete land conditions intervened before the Silurian Sea reoccupied the site of the western portion of that of the Upper 'Ordovician. The evidence of uncoformability is not conclusive everywhere. (Diagram 11, Fig. 4.) The advent of LoAver Devonian "times was marked by the disappearance of marine conditions alto- gether, and the outbreak of extensive terrestrial volcanic activitv, accompanied also by widespread plutonic disturbances and eartli movements. The dacites. porphyrites, granodiorites, and " Snowv River Series," and possibly also the normal granites belong to this
134 E. 0. Teale:
period. The sea never again transgressed in Palaeozoic times to- the extent of the early marine basins. (Diagram 11, Fig. 5.) In. Middle Devonian times, the last marine deposits were formed in the- restricted basins or troughs in Eastern Victoria, which were de- pressed below saa level, and were partly filled by limestone and cal- careous shales.
The region of the depression coincided closely with that occupied, by the volcanic zone of the Snowy River Series (Diagram 11, Fig. 6). The conditions of late Devonian and early Carboniferous were essentially terrestrial, but were accompanied by the development of several lacustrine basins, the greatest of which was the great Mans- field-Wellington trough, and as previously indicated, the early sedi- mentation was accompanied by rhyolitic effusions, and, later, by basic lava flows. (Diagram 11, Fig. 7.)
Ti/pes of Earth Movements.
The general trend of all these Palaeozoic basins appears to have- been northerly, and the type of crust movement which most reasou' ably explains the succession of basins, parallel, but lat-erally shifted or restricted, is the conception of a slow wave-like undulation of the earth's crust, the basin being reciprocal feature of the adjacent land mass. It is possible to pictui-e a prolonged progres- sive movement of tliis type to proceed with or without marked- compressional or tangential movement. In the first case, the beds of each successive formation would become highly folded, and in the latter only slightly so. The idea does not preclude the pos- sibility of psriods of a much augmented rate, with important fractures and displacements.
An alternative view would be to consider the formation of a suc- cession of basins such as here described, as being due mainly to the' differential movement of great blocks or earth segments along fault planes, certain areas being alternately lifted and lowered. The whole structure of the Palaeozoic rocks, however, favours the first view, but it does not exclude the possibility and even the probability of a certain amount of faulting and block movement as well, and it would seem that as the Palaeozoic era drew to a close, after the great Devonian convulsion, though the fold movement still pre- dominated, that of the block type became more pronounced, and' finally prevailed throughout Mesozoic and Kaino^oic. times.
If the regional distribution of calcic and alkali igneous rock is definitely related to fold and fault movement respectively as Harker has contended, then in areas where both these types may have actedl
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 135
leither successively or simultaneously, it ^vould be reasonable to ex- pect complex and apparently anomalous results with regard to the .associated igneous activity. Summers (33) has reviewed the rela- .tionships of igneous rocks tO' earth movements in Victoria, and has opened up an extremely interesting, but very debatable subject. He has, however, shown that it is impossible to apply Harker's .generalisation. It is practically certain that if the various geologists who are sufficiently familiar with the local geology were to attempt ±0 make out a picture of the Palaeozoic history with special refer- ence to the associated earth movements, they would differ consider- ably in important details. One or two events, however, stand out very clearly, and it is probable that all would agree with the view that the opening of the Devonian epoch was marked by most ener- getic earth folding, which intensely crumpled all the already folded pre-existing formations.
As Summers pointed out, the dominant movement was of tlie Ijacific type along north and south fold lines, but was it accom- panied by great volcanic and plutonic activity, as has generally been believed 1 It would i-ather aj^pear that the igneous phase, though related with this great crustal disturbance, lagged behind somewhat, otherwise, Ave might reasonably expect to find a definite linear arrangement or relationship of the igneous rocks, with some of the major fold lines. This is far from the general rule, how- lever, in fact it is only in the case of tho " Snowy River Porphyries " that a meridional arrangement is apparent. All the other occur- rences appear to be distributed in a very irregular manner. Fur- ther, the volcanic deposits would appear to rest unconformably on the upturned edges of the older rocks. It appears to be the except tion that the ash beds are intensely folded with the older l)eds.
Summers (33) has also discussed the question of the Heathcotian ■diabases and earth movement, and favours the idea that the basic -eruptions and submarine tuffs of the Heathcotian Series are more •easily explained as accompanying fault action rather than fold movement. It must be admitted, however, that the evidence is very scanty and indefinite, and is open to be interpreted in either way. The area exposed is far too limited, and the structure too imperfectly known to enable any satisfactory criticism to be made.
The Granite Batholiths and their Relation to Palaeozoic Structure. No account of Palaeozoic liistory would be complete without some special reference to tlie abundant granite masses which pene- trate the Lower Palaeozoic sediments.
136 E. 0. Teale :
Petrologically, they fall into two groups — (1) the sub-alkali group.- -of gjraiiodiQ^'i'tes, (2) ,the group oi alkaline granites. Regarding, their age, they are here on pstrological grounds all considered as Lower Doyoniaji, but the alkaline granites have been sometimes referred to as probably older, mainly because they have nowhere yet been noted intruding Silurian sediments. All attempts so far to correlate the occurrence and distribution of these rocks with definite structure lines have been unsatisfacftory.
The various masses are very irregular, both with regard to out- line and distribution. When elo.ngate or elliptical in shape, their longer axes just as often as not, are at right angles to the fold lines; of the ancient rocks. Their contacts have not been exhaustively examined, but in many of the important instances they truncate the strata they invade, and no satisfactory linear or other distribu- tion of the various outcrops has been recognised.
Professor Gregory, in his Geography of Victoria (34), attemjited to link up certain granite laasses to form the roots of what he- termed the .Primitive Mountain Chain, having a general east-north- east trend; and a still more fragmentary line to the south, more or less parallel, he named the Bunurong Range.
The gpoijiping of the granite areas in this way appears to have little to support it, even from a linear arrangement, and far less from any structural consideration, as T. S. Hart has already pointed out (35).
Howitt (3-2) long ago recognised the importance of the factor of the assimilajtion of sediment and other rt>cks by a plutonic magma, a view which has received spec-ial emphasis and elaboration more recently by Daly.
This idea has received some supjiort with regard to Victorian granite and allied rocks, from the observations of Howitt (32), Hart (35), Skeats and Summers (2'7), and Junner (38).
The petrolngical evidence in support of the idea is still very scanty, but structurally and othei'wise it seems to 25i"Ovide tlie best conception o-f the great development of gi'anite batholiths and tlieir distribution in Victoria.
Pitch Along Anticliunl Lhies.
This structural feature is one of great importance in the con- sideratian of Palaeozoic geology in Victoria. E-very area that has been closely studied has emphasised the importance of its bearing on the general structure, and it frequently also demands carefid consideration in connection with the development of mining opera- tions on the gold fields. The systematic Avork of the Geological Sur- vey has added much to our knowledsfe concerning this feature iir
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 187
practically all the important goldfields, but little is known with re- gard to it in most other regions.
There are various questions which arise when it is made a subject for careful consideration, and two of these perhaps, stand upper- most—
(1) Ihe age or geological epoch, when it was impressed upon
the Palaeozoic formation.
(2) The dominant factor or factors contributing to its develop-
ment. Very few opinions have been expressed concerning this subject.
The late Dr. T. S. Hall (39) apparently associated its development witix the movements which led to the uplifting of the existing high- Lands and formation of the Main Divide. This would imply a veiy late Kainozoic age. Its direction, however, appears to be too in- consistent and variable to be associated fundamentally Avith a move- ment which was essentially that of block movement.
T.S. Hart (35) has discussed the question and suggests a number of probable causes which are worth tabulating : —
(1) The making and dying away of individual folds.
(2) Local disturbances as a fault affecting a small area.
(3) Varying intensity of folding from place to place.
(4.) Transverse folding, simultaneous or subsequent to the main folding.
(5) Settlement of an imperfectly supported area over an invad-
ing granite.
(6) Subsequent tilting or transverse warping of folded blocks. The above factors are all clearly competent to produce the results
tinder discussion, and when it is considered that they may all have repeatedly contributed towards this end through past geological his- tory, it becomes a com23l'ex problem to endeavour to apply anything approaching a definite statement with regard to its age and origin.
Hart, however, would apparently restrict the main period of development to Palaeozoic times, and this is a view; most consistent with general tectonic considerations. It is unsafe to lay down any hard and fast conclusions with regard to this feature generally; each area will have to be considered carefully in detail wdth due regard to local and general tectonic disturbances, but one cannot help being impressed with tlie possible favourable conditions produced by the great batholithic disturbances of Devonian times, especially if Daly's conception of magmatic stoping and associated down-
138 E. 0. Tnde:
warping of ovei'lying areas be regarded, as tlie most favourable ex- planation oi' the mechanism of such an important petrogenic phase in earth history.
The Relation of the Di/he Rocks and Quartz Reefs to Structure and Earth Mo re me tits.
It has long been recognised in Victoria that many of the impor- tant gold-bearing reefs can be grouped along certain more or less parallel zones, with a northerly trend, and separated by other belts of non-productive reefs or marked by the absence of reefs alto- gether. Most of the Victorian reefs (excepting the Bendigo and Castlemaine fi<^lds) occupy definite fissures, or are associated with igneous dykes which have intriided fracture lines. The bearing of these occurrences in general is northerly, parallel with axial lines of folding.
The age of the great reef formation is generally believed to have been Devonian, and genetically associated with the granitic intru- sions of that epoch.
One belt in particular, is worthy of mention, illustrating very well the features above mentioned ; najnely, the Walhalla-Woods Point Zone. Tlie prevalence of dykes, frequently of a diorite type, and auriferous reefs along this zone, is in contrast to their absence in the country to the west and east. Other such instances might be mentioned. There are also non-auriferfius zones, where fractures, faults or dykes are common, about wliich, however, little is known with regard to their age and distribution. Many of these may not be Palaeozoic, and these are therefore not included in the present •disicussi'on.
It would appear from the consideration of the above that one phase of the i^reat Devonian tectonic and igneous disturliance found expression in the development of lines of fracture, with a ■definite northerly trend along certain zones, and their infilling with igneous dykes and quartz reefs. The geological study ofi' these ■areas has so far not revealed anything to suggest that these frac- ture lines can be regarded as planes of great differential movement on either side of which important earth blocks or segments were dis- located. They would appear rather to indicate zones of tension due to crustal adjustment, accompanying the folding and l)atho- lithic intrusion/ of that period".
The Fracture Line of the S/iovi/ R'ver Porjj/ii/ries.
As indicated previously, this zone is the only one where the occur- rence of certain igneous rocks other than dykes of the Devonian
Falaeozoic Geology oj Victoria. 139
period corresiDends closely with the general direction of the Palaeo- zoic trend lines. This arrangement led Howitt to postulate the idea that the volcanoes of this epoch were disposed along a meri- dional fissure, and though the actual position of the sites of these ancient volcanic vents still remains to be located, the view certainly offers the most- probable explanation of the features as a whole.
This zone would appear also to have been successively fractured at later periods. .The occurrence of the iron ores appears to be asso- ciated with one of these lines. The marked shearing re- sulting in the production of porphyroids is another phase, and the origin of the basins in which the limestones occur, though per- haps referable mainly to warping and erosion, may possibly be asso- ciated also with some trough faulting. Howitt has also referred to certain persistent features along the eastern side of the Snowy River Porphyries, coinciding with the valley of the Snowy River, suggesting the existence of a powerful meridional fault. Other parallel faults coinciding with the Limestone Creek and Buchan River are also suggested. (3, p. 1S9.)
The age, however, of these fault and fracture lines, and, in fact, their exact position also, is very indefinite. Some may be post- Palaeozoic, and it is even probable that if not originating in Kaino- zoic times, the plateau building period that produced the existing highlands has caused' renewed movement along some of these major fauJbs.
The undulations a.nd' gentle folding of the Middle Devonian lime- stones show that tho fold movement, though less intense than in earlier times, still continued, and the same feature is shown by the structure of the Upper Palaeozoic rocks of the Wellington region.
Summary.
The principal features to be emphasised as a result of the con- sideration of the areas under discussion may be briefly/ enumerated .as follows. — 1. WdliJKjton District.
(1) The general structure of the Wellington-Dolodrook region
is anticlinal, passing from a broad, simple fold in the case of the uppermost rocks to' complex repeated folding in the case of the underlying old rocks.
(2) The periods of folding have been renewed from time to time,
possibly on four successive occasions, but the trend of all the fold lines has persisted in a tolerably constant direc- tion, varying between north-west and north-north-west.
140 E. O. Teecle:
(3) Denudation of the existing cycle has developed to such an
extent that a complex inlier is exposed, consisting of a core of Cambrian rocks enveloped successively by Upper lOrdovician, Silurian and Upper Palaeozoic sedi- ments.
(4) The Upper Palaeozoic strata are of lacustrine origin, and
those of the other periods are marine. The Cambrian limestones liave yfelded a definite series of trilobites, and a-re i.nterbedded in basic tuffs. The Upper Ordovician rocks are black slates, chertified in part, and they con- tain aibundant typical graptolites. The Silurian rocks- have so far only yielded crinoid remains.
(5) Igneous activity is represented in two and probably three,
distinct periods if we consider the district as a whole, in- cluding the Upper Palaeozoic rocks as far as Mansfield. 'The Cambrian series contains a pre-Upper Cambrian ser- pentine, with chromite and corundum derived from peri' dotite and pyroxenite rocks, and the Upper Cambriart •contains bas.ic tuffs. Volcanic rocks of the nature of ]X)r- phyrites allied to dacites occur in the King River Valley, and others, mainly of an andesitic nature, on Fullarton's 'Spur, in the IMacallister Valley. These are probably Lower Devonian. The basal portions of the Upper Palaeozoic (Lower Carboniferous), contain thick beds of rhyolite, and acid pyroclastic deposits. Higher up in the series there is a succession of basaltic flows (mela- phyres) interbedded with the sediments.
(6) Special structural features are noted along the Macallister
valley, where the Uj^per Palaeozoic rocks, normally dip- ping at a low ,a,ngle, are here frequently highly inclined, and an important fault line is recognised, appi'oximating in position to that of the Macallister Valley, and bear- ing, therefore, in a N.N.W. direction. 2. The District of Xova Xou/t.
(1) The cherts and jaspers of the region have been examined with regard to age and the origin. All the cherts ob- served are altered slates, and are regarded as Upper Ordovician. Definite graptolites have been found in . some of them. The red jaspers are often associated with micaceous hematite, and are found chiefly in the porphyroid belt of the " Snowy River Series," and are-
Palaeozoic Geilogy oj Victoria. 141
therefore Lower Devonian. They appear to be metaso- maticallv altered igneous rocks, varying from andesitic to more acid types. Tliough widespread in their dis- tribution, each occurrence appears to be small in ex- tent.
(2) The oldest sediments in this region are regarded as Upper
Ordovician. Definite graptolites were found in four distinct localities, and there does not appear to be any valid reason, structural or lithological, to justify the separation of any of the non-fossiliferous portions from, those yielding graptolites.
(3) Ihe igneous series known as the Snowy River Porphyries,
is regarded as Lower Devonian, and rests uncomform- ably on the Upper Ordovician sediments. The chief additions to previous knowledge concerning this exten- sive igneous belt are : —
(a) Tlie recognition of porphyroids.
(b) Finely stratified ash beds.
(c) The occurrence of tracliytic and andesitic rocks.
(d) The fact that the so-called quartz-porphyries are
really quartz-porphyrites, triclinic felspar pre- dominating. Two analyses of this type are given, (c) A soda rich tyjie is described as a quartz-cerato- phyre. Both microscopically and chemically it is shown to be closely similar to certain rocks described by Howitt from Xoyang, as quartz- porphyrites, and later referred to by Skeats as ceratophyres. (f) The chemical characters and petrographical re- lationships of the igneous rocks are discussed, and it is shown that the porphyi-ites are genetic- ally related to the alkali granites, which are characteristic of this part of Victoria. Making use of a variation diagram to compare tiie various acid igneous rocks of Victoria, it is seen that the quartz-porphyrites of the Tara Range, and the alka- line granite of Gabo Island, etc., conform closely to the graphs occupying the opposite end to that of the dacites and granodiorites. It would appear, therefore, that the acid rocks of the Snowy River Series belonfr tc
142 E. 0. Teale:
an acid alkali province, in contrast to the acid sub-alkali province to which the dacites and grano-diorites belong, but conforming to a normal variation curve. ■3. Under the heading of Palaeozoic Earth History, the following '.featuresi are discussed : —
(1) Successive distribution of Land and Water.
(2) Types of Earth Movements.
,(3) Granite Batholiths and their Relation to Palaeozoic Struc- ture.
(4) Pitch along Anticlinal Lines.
(5) Relation' of Dyke Rocks and Quartz Reefs to general struc-
ture and Eartli Movements.
(6) The Fractui-e line of tlie " Snowy River Porphyries."
A succession of Palaeozoic basins of sedimentation, with a gene- ral northerly trend appears to be recognisable.' These have varied in position and extent from period to period.
They have overlapped in certain instances, while in others they appeal' to have been laterally shifted, a land area taking the place ■of the basin of an earlier period, and vices versa.
The resultant formations have nevertlieless a general parallel arrangement.
This succession of basins, jiaralU'l, but laterally shifted or re- stricted, is thought to be best explained by the conception of a slow wave-like undulation of the earth's crust, the basins being the reciprocal feature of the adjacent land mass. The basin would, therefore, be regarded as of the type of a geo-syncline. Block movement, though not excluded entirely, is regarded of minor im- portance during this era. The most intense folding was pre- Devonian. The great granite batholiths, though belonging to the active Devonian period of tectonic and igneous disturbances, show much irregularity of shape and distribution, and also a discordance with strike and fold lines. It is considered tliat their features generally are best explained by the conception of " magmatic 'Stopmg."
The consequent disturbance; of surrounding and over-lying blocks of sediments may have been one of the most important agencies in- ducing the features of " pitch,"' so coiimion throughout the Lower Palaeozoic formations. Certain zones appear to have been subjected more frequently during Palaeozoic times to tectonic and volcanic disturbance than other regions.
The Wellington-Mansfield Belt is one of these areas, the zone of the Snowy River Porphyries represent-s another.
Palaeozoic Geology of Victoria. 143 ■
The general trend of both fracture and fold lines throughout the Palaeozoic era appears to have been betwei^n north-west and. northerly.
Acknowledgments.
In conclusion I wish to express my indebtedness to the following persons : — The late Dr. T. S. Hall for the careful examination of numerous Upper Ordovician graptolites ; Mr. F. Chapman, A.L.S., for the identification and description of the Upper Cambrian fossils from, tiie Dolodrook limestone ; Mr. H. Herman, Director of the Cxeological Survey, for the loan of an able held assistant in the person of Mr. J. Caldwell, who accompanied me to the Wellington region on one of my extended excursions ; Professor Skeats and Dr. H. S. Summers of the Geology School of the Melbourne University for useful criticism and advice in tlie laboratory ; Mr. W. Thorn, Chief Mining Surveyor, lor access to certain mining surveys of assistance for held work ; Mr. J. Dunn, of the Lands Department, for frequent advice concerning maps and plans concerning some of the I'egions included in the field work. Last but not least I wish to include my father, whose untiring and sympathetic help in the held has been extended over many years on numerous excursions in this region.
Bibliography. L HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on Lake Karng. Rep. Mining Depart- ment, Victoria, September, 1891, p. 28.
2. MESSRS. DENDY, LUCAS AND HOWITT.— A Visit to Lake
Karng, Victorian Naturalist, Vol. VIII., p. 17.
3. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Devonian Rocks of North Gipps-
land, Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. III., 1876.
4. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Geological Structure of North.
Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. IV., 1877.
5. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Physical Geography and Geology
of North Gippsland, Victoria (Q.J.G.S.; Vol. XXXV., 1879, pp. 1-41).
6. HOWITT, A. W.— Remarks on Rock Samples collected by Mr.
R. A. F. Murray. Avon River, Mount Wellington, etc. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. No. V., 1878.
7. HOWITT, A. W.— Notes on the Devonian Rocks of North
Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep. V., 1878, pp. 117-147.
8. MURRAY, R. A. F.— Geological Sketch Map, No. 2, S.E.
Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria. Prog. Rep. No. V.,. 1878, pp. 44-70.
144 E. 0. Teale:
9. MURRAY, R. A. F.— Geology and Physical Geography of Vic- toria, 1895.
10. KITSON, A. E.— Ihe King and Broken Rivers, County Delatite
(Monthly Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv., Victoria, N.S., No. 11).
11. TIIIELE, E. 0.— A Trip to Lake Karng and Mount Welling-
ton, N. Gippsland. ("Victorian Naturalist," Vol. XXII. , 1905.)
12. THIELE, E. 0.— Notes on the Upper Macallister Valley, N.
Gippsland. ("Victorian Naturalist," Vol. XXIII., 1906.)
13. THIELE, E. 0. — Notes on the Dolodrook Serpentine Area and
the Mount Wellington Rhyolites, North Gippsland. Appen- dix. Preliminary Notes and Collection of Trilobite remains fi'om the Dolodrook River, North Gippsland. By F. Chap- man, A.L.S. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXI. (N.S.) Pfc. 1.)
14. HALL, T. S. — Victorian Graptolites, Part III., from near ^It.
Wellington. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, (N.S.), Vol. XVIII., Part 1., 1905.)
15. CHAPMAN. F.— On a Trilobite Fauna of Upper Cambrian Age
(Olenus Series), in N.E. Gippsland, Victoria. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXIII. (N.S.) Part II., 1911.)
16. DUNN, E. J. — The Serpentine Area, Wellington River, Gipps-
land. (Rec. Geol. Surv. Victoria, Vol. III., Part I., 1909.)
17. GREGORY, J. W.— The Heathcotian, a Pre-Ordovician Series,
and its Distribution in Victoria. (Proc Roy. Soc, Vic, Vol. XV. (N.S.), Part II., 1903.)
18. SKEATS, E. W.— On the Evidence of the Origin, Age and
Alteration of the rocks near Heathcote, Victoria. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria. Vol. XXL, 1908.)
19. DUNN, E. J.— The Mount Tara Goldfield, E. Gippsland. (Rec.
Geol. Surv., Victoria, Vol. II. Part II.. 1907.)
20. DAVID, T. W. E., & SKEATS, E. W.— Geology of the Com-
monwealth; Federal Handbook on Australia; British Associa- tion s Visit to Australia, 1914.
21. SUMMERS, H. S.— The Cherts and Diabase Roiks of Tatong.
(Proc Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXL, 1908.)
22. HOWITT, A. M.— Report on Alleged Discovery of Phosphate of
Alumina- near the Great Rand Mine, Howqua River, County of Wonnangatta. (Rec. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Vol. IT., Part IV.)
Palaeuzoic Geology of Victoria. ^46
•23. THIELE. E. 0.— Physiographical and Geological Notes on the Mount VVelling-ton District, North Gippsland. (" Victorian Naturalist," Vol. XXIV., No. 2, June. 1907.)
:24. DUNN, E. J.— Mount Tara Goldfield, Eastern Gippsland. (Rec. Geol. Surv., Vol. II., 1907-8.)
25. MURRAY, R. A. F.— Report on Mount Tara, etc. (Geol. Surv..
Victoria. Prog. . Rep. No. IX., 1898.)
26. FERGUSON, W. H.— Report on Geological Survey of Snowy
River Valley, (Geol. Surv., Victoria, Prog. Rep., No. XL, 1899.)
27. WHITELAW, 0. A. L.— Notes on the Devonian Hocks of
Gippsland. Geol. Surv., Victoria, Month. Prog. Rep. (New Series), No. 2, 1899.)
28. SKEATS, E. W.— The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria Pres. Ad-
dress Sec. C, Australian Association Adv. Sc, Brisbane, 1909.
■29. MAHONY, D. J., ct TAYLOR, T. G.— Report on a Geological Reconnaissance of the Federal Territory, etc. ; Common- wealth of Australia, 1913.
30. HALL, T. S.— Nowa Nowa Graptolites. (Rec. Geol. Surv.,
Victoria, Vol. II., Part 2.)
31. HOWITT, A. ^L— Report on the Edi-Myrrhee Turquoise Belt,
and the Chert and Jasper Beds neai- Tatong, County of Dela- tite. (Rec. Geol. Surv., Victoria,, Vol. I., Part 4.)
32. HOWITT, A. W.— The Rocks of Noyang. (Trans. Roy. Soc,
Vic, Vol. XVIII.)
33. SUMMERS, H. S.— On the Origin and Relationship of Some
Victorian Igneous Rocks. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XXVI. {N.S.). Part II., 1914.)
34. GREGORY, J. W.— The Geography of Victoria. (Whitcombe
and Tombs Ltd., Melbourne, etc., 1903.)
35. HART, T. S.— The Highlands and Main Divide of Western
Victoria. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, Vol. XX. (New Series), Pt. II., 1908.)
36. DALY, R. A. — Igneous Rocks and their Origin, (New York,
1914.)
37. SKEATS. E. W.. (t SUMMERS, H. S.— The Geology and Petro-
logy of the Macedon District. (Bull. Geol. Surv., Victoria, No. 24, 1912.)
146 E. C. Teale:
38. JUNKER, X. 1\. — The Petrology of the igneous rocks near-
Healesville and Narbethong. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria,.
Vol. XXVII. (X.S.), Pt. II.. 19U.) 39. — HALL, T. S. — Geology of Victoria; Victorian Year Book\.
1905-6. 40. SKEATS, E. W. — Xotes on the Geology of Moorooduc, Morn-
ington PeninsTila. (Proc. Roy. Soc, Vic.,. Vol. XX. (N.S.),.
Pt. II., 1907.)
Proc. U.S. Victoria, 1920. tlate VI.
Columnar Rhyolite, Wellington Gorge, and weathered Garvey Gully Tuffs
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plato VII.
Overfolding of Silurian, Doiodrook R., and Colunnnar Rhyolite, Mt. Wellington
Proc. R.S. Victoria. I!t2(». Plate VIII.
it.4"irr:. .,
Rocks of Mt. Wellington and Nowa Nowa
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate IX.
Rocks of Nowa Nowa and of Mt. Tara (l<>).
[Pkoc. lioY. Soc. VicTOKiA, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].
Art. IX. — Note on the Correction for Chronometer Rate. By J. M. BALDWir^, M.A., D.Sc.
[Read Itth August, 1919.]
The following very easy way of applying the correction for chiononieter rate has been in use at the Melbourne Observatory for some years. As \ find tiiat many who have often to use the correction are unaware of the method, it seems worth while, although the method is probably not new, to call attention to it.
Let T be tlie period of a vibrating system in seconds T' the period as shown by a chronometer r the daily rate of the chronometer, + if losing, so that the chronometer indicates (SG-lOO - /•) seconds in a day,
A ^ u , 1 86400
and 1 chronometer secon(l = -— — seconds.
ob400 - r
T = T' ^^*°°
a„dlogT=l„g.T'-log.(l--^)
8(5400 ■ 86400>
= log.T' + .43429x I— ^ + Af-^^ V4----)
" lS6400^2V86400/ + )
The value of the right iiand side is nearly
log.T' + ^XlO"'
so that, to obtain log. T, add half the daily ratt in seconds to the fifth decimal place of log. T. The value of T so obtained will be within one part in a million for values of r up to 15 seconds. If a siderial chronometer is used, r^-236-.56, and even in this case the accuracy attained is 1 part in 100,000. The expression
log.T = log.T' + ^"xlO--'+i^/-xlO- =
gives a value of T correct to one part in a million, provided r is not greater than 120, while^the addition of the extra term
'■ 1 '■ 1 - 5
"^900- lyO' 2^ gives more than^sufficient accuracy in every case.
[Proc. Eot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S ). Ft. II., 1920].
Akt. .X. — A New Metliod of Detentiinhig the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.
BY
Professor T. H. LABY, IM.A.
AND
J. K. ROBERTS, B Sc.
(Natural Pliilosopliy Depaitineiit, University of Melbourne).
(With Plates X. and XI. and 1 Text Figure.) [Read 11th September, 1919.]
Introduction.
It appeared to tlie writers that an additional dir<_'(.t determina- tion of the mechanical equivalent of heat would he of valuf, and might, in view of tlie progress of precise measurement, attain higher accuracy than that previously realised, and, incidentally, information might be (djtained as to the accuracy of the electrical units.
After a long series of preliminary expci-iments, a method, in Avhich a copper cylinder is heated by a rotating magnetic field, has been devised, possessintr the characteristics — (1) of accurately stationary temperatures, and (2) that a small fraction of the heat •developed is lost. This method is being carried out so as to attain, if possible, an accuracy of 1 in 10,000 in J, the mechanical equiva- lent of heat.
Previous Determinations.
Theru have been five determinations^ of the mechanical equivalent of heat, to which it is neceissary to refer — namely, those made by Joule, Rowland, Misculescu, Reynolds and iNIoorby and Rispail. Of these exiDeriments only those of Rowland and of l»eynolds and Moorby appear to possess high accuracy, and they are not imme- <iiately comparable, a,s the values of J, which they give, are in terms of different heat units. Several determinations have been made of what may be called the electrical equivalent of heat. If the mechanical equivalent, J, were known to an accuracy of 1 in 10,000 (which should not be lieyond attainment), the degree of its
1. Joule, Phil. Trans., Vol. CXL. p. 61 (1850) ; Rowland. Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. XV., p. 75 (1879) ; Micule.scu. Journ. de Phys., Vol. I,, p. 104 <1892) ; Reynolds and Moorby, Phil. Tran. Vol. CXC, p. 301 (1S97); Ris- j.ail, Aim. Chim. Phys,, Vol. XX., p. 417, fl910).
MecJtanical Equivalent of Heat.
149
.-agreement with the eleetrical equivalent would be an indicatidu of .the accuracy with which the practical electrical units realise their intended values.
Principle of the Experiment.
The method to be described,! we believe, has not, been previously -applied. Bailie and Fery^ proposed to generate heat, not by stir- ring Avater, but by placing a copper cylinder in a rotating mag- netic field produced by polyplwise currents. Their proposal is open to the objection that the lines of magnetic force would prob- ably have a component of motion in tlie direction of the axis of the copper cylinder. Heat would then be generated to which there was no corresponding couple. We have obtained a rotating mag- netic field Avith a known and fixed axis, A, by the rotation of an electro-magnet. A copper cylinder is mounted (see Figs. 1 and 2) .so as to be capable of rotation about a vertical axis, B, and is
2. Comptes Rendus., Vol. CXXVI., p. 1494 (1S9S).
Fig. 1
S
150 Laby and Roberts:
placed in the rotating field. The axes A and B are brought into' coincidence. The determination of J then becomes a question ■©£ finding the work done on the copper cylinder, and the heat deve- loped in it. The "work is found as in RoAvland's experiment. The copper cylinder is attached to a vertical axle and wheel (diameter, D cm); and the whole is suspended by a torsion wire. Two wires pass round the circumference oif the wheel over pulleys to two masses of m gni. The couple mgD dyne. cm. produced by these weights balances the couple arising from the rotating magnetic field. The torsion wire gives stability to the system.
The heat developed is measured by a continuous flow method. Water' flows past a platinum thermometer, then it circulates round the copper cylinder and out past a second platinum thermometer. The heat developed is M{6., — 0i) calorie, where M gni. is the quantity of water flowing in an exijeriment, and (O.^ — Oi) degree is the rise of temperature. To eliminate the heat losses, L calorie, from the expression- for J, two experiments are made — a heavy and a light one — in which the inlet and outlet temperatures' 6i and 6., are the same. The heat developed in, the former is about ten times that in the latter. We then have for the heavy experiment
and for the light
7TD7im.,y = J{6,- 0,)M, + L and therefore
J =^j)u</{n,, - ,„,)i -; (M, - ^\,){e, - 6,) ]-
where n is the number of revolutions of the field magnets for the period of an experiment, which is the same for the light and heavy experiments.
The heat developed in the light experiment is made less than in the heavy exiDeriment by reducing the strength of the magnetic field.
In the above relation it is assumed that the loss of heat, L, is constant for a given value of the inlet and outlet water tempera- tures. The text-book accounts of Callendar and Barnes' experiments'* lay inadequate stress on the conditions which those observers showed must he fulfilled for this assumption to be justified. In our preliminary experiments the loss of heat, L, bore little relation to the inlet and outlet water temperatures, B^ and 6.,. With 6^ and ^., fixed, L would vary widely with the rate of flow of the water through the copper, which was then in the form of a hollow copper ring. After the factors which determined the heat losses in this- form of the apparatus had been determined by a number of experi-
3. Callendar, Phil. Trans., Vol. CXCIX., 1902, pp. 112, 114. 115, 122,. Bnrnes. Phil. Trans., Vol. CXCIX., 1902, pp. 224-228.
Meclumical Equivalent of Heat. 151
anents, the api^aratus now beinp; described was desi<:ned so that the inlet and outlet water temperatures would determine the surface temperatures of the calorimeter, and so for a given temperature of the surroundings of the calorimeter, determine the loss of heat, L, independently of the rate of development of heat in the calori- meter.
The equation we have given assumes that three axes are parallel, namely, the axis of rotation of the magnetic field, the axis aljout which the copper cylinder is free to rotate, and the axis of the couple produced b}^ the two masses m. This condition is fulfilled to tha required accuracy in the apparatus as we are using it.
In another paper,'' the theory of the electrical device, which we have used in these experiments, is given. It is there shown that the couple i// dyne. cm. acting on the stator is given by the ex- pression
where N revolution per sec. is the speed of the rotoi-, ()> maxwell is the flux crossing the copper cylinder, p is proportional to the resistance from end to end of the cylinder, and X cm. is a certain inductance.
Design and Operation of the Apparatus.
It will be convenient to call tlie rotating field magnets, the rotor, and the copper cylinder and the iron cylinder which it encloses, the isliator.
The rotor (see Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4) is mounted on ball bearings, with its axis vertical. The field magnet windings are connected through slip rings to a lead .storage battery. The rotor is belt- driven by a shunt motor, and the speed of the former is deter- mined by means of a worm gear, which, at the completion of every 100 revolutions (that is, about every four seconds), moves a pen Tvriting on a chronograph ; the pen also indicates seconds, asi given by a standard clock. In thi.si' way, the rate of rotation and number of revolutions is recorded.
The rotor, is pierced with eight sighting holes (see Figs. 3 and 4) for adjusting the axis of the stator parallel to that of the rotor. These holes, if fully open, thoroughly ventilate and cool the field magnets.
The lower bearing of the rotor is rigidly held by an iron l>ed plate bolted to a brick foundation. In order to prevent vibration in the plate, which carries the upper bearing of the rotor and the
4. J. K. Roberts. The Design of a Motor with Large Air Gap and Rotat- g Field Magnets. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.. XXXII., h>io, \<. i.-)6.
152 Lahy and Roberts:
bearing of the stator, the rotor was balanced. Suitably illuniinated" points situated on the plate in quevstion were observed with a- naicrosoope, carried by a support free from vibration, and the rotor was balanced until the amplitude (i.e., diameter of circum- scribing circle) of the vibration of the plate was reduced to .001 cnii.
The; field magnets have two j^oles, and there are two windings on each pole. These windings can be connected in series so that the- turns reinforce one another, and the niaxinuim flux for a given current produced. They are so connected for the heavy experiment. The windings can also be connected in series so as to oppose one- another in their magnetising effect. They are so connected for the light experiment. In this way the flux can be reduced to one-tenth witliout changing the current in the windings and, therefore, with- out changing tlie temi^erature of the rotor in the light and heavy experiments.
l^he Stator and Calorimeter. — The con.struction of the stator is shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. Fig. 5 shows copper and iron cylinders. The iron cylinder increases the magnetic flux, and supports the copper cylinder. The channels on the external surface of the iron, and the axial hole, carry the water in it« circulation througii the apparatus. Ilie iron cylinder is attached t-o a glass tube (see Fig. 6) tilled with eider dow'n, in order to reduce loss of heat by con- duction. The glass, tube in turn is attached to a steel shaft which passes through a ball-bearing, and, at its upper end, is suspended by a steel torsion wire. The wire supports the whole weight of the- shaft and calorimeter.
A thin sheet cylinder encloses the copper cylinder, and a Dewar flask encloses the steel, copper, and iion cylinders, which to pre- vent corrosion are all silver plated.
The water enters the calorimeter (see Figs. 5, 6 and 7) through a rubber tube, flows downwards ];etween the inside wall of the Dewar flask and the thin steel cylinder, turns upwards and flows be- tween the steel and the copper, then down between the copper and iron, and finally out of the calorimeter through the axial hole in the iron armature. The object of this somewhat elaborate circulation is — (1) to bring the water into thorough contact wdtli the copper and iron in which the heat is generated, (2) to break up stream lines, and so ensure that the inlet and outlet water tenqieratures determine the heat k)sses of the calorimeter.
The ball bearing which maintains the shaft vertical was very carefully made, and is used without oil lubrication, which w^as found to increase the friction. Ihe angular amplitude of the stator
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. 153
when set in torsional oscillation decreases by 10 per cent, per vibration, from which it can be shown that the friction is very small. A mirror is attached to the shaft of the stator, and its movement observed by lamp and scale. With the apparatus arranged for a determination of the mechanical equivalent, the stator oscillations are not critically damped; frictional resistance arising from the viscosity of water is added, till the damping is critical.
Couple. — Two thin wires (see Fig. 1) pass from the circujiiference of the wheel over two other wheels (see Fig. 2), and then to the x\''eights. With the axis of the stator vertical (which it is to within 12' of angle) these wires should l;e parallel and horizontal, con- ditions which are readily fulfilled.
The design, construction and testing of the wheels shown in Fig*. 8 has requii'ed a great deal of attention. Ball, i-oller, and cone bearings were tested, and found to po.ssess far too much friction to be suitable for these wheels, and so a knife edge was used. While this bearing is quite free from friction, and practical in use, it is necessary to locate the position of the knife edge relative to the centre of the wheel, a test which is not so eaisily made as might be expected.
Measurements.
The relation
J = ^J)nyim, - m,)/ -{ (M, - M,)(^, - 0,) |- indicates what degree of accuracy is necessary in the various quantities in the right hand niendier, if J is to be correct to 1 in 10,000.
D, the diameter of the wheel, is 20 cm., and can be measured to the necessary accuracy. The revolutions, n, are counted. The acceleration of gravit;^, g, is accurately known for Melbourne. The masses, ?»i and tHo gm., are readily found to the required preci- sion.
With O., — 0i = lO°C. it is necessary to determine this difference to 1/1000'C, which is about the limit of accuracy obtainable with a platinum, or, in fact, any thermometer. The water flows past the platinum thermometers contained in Dewar flasks, as shown in Fig. 2.
The water, after passing through the calorimeter is collected in a copper can. A two-way tap turns it into this can at the begin- ning of the experiment, and at the same time starts the clirono- graph record; at the end of the experiment turning the tap causes the water to flow to a different vessel, and also stops the chronograph record. The water collected is weighed.
154 Laby and Roberts:
Distilled Avater contained in two thermally insulated tanks, so arranged as to give a constant head of about 240 cm. (8 feet) is used ill the exper'iments.
The precision of the experiments will be limited (1) by the steadi- ness in the rate of generation of heat, and (2) by constancy of the loss of the heat, L, in the heavy and light experiments. Ihe first of these has been satisfactory in the preliminary experiments, and if necessary, could be improved. The principal loss of heat, no doubt, occurs through the Avails of the vacuum jacket of the calori- meter, and is proportional to the excess of the temperature of the inner wall (that is, the temperature of the inlet Avater 8^) above the outer Avail (that is, the aii- tenii^erature 0^). This difference (^i"~^^) degree can be determined, it is expected, Avith sufficient accuracy to attain the desired precision.
Only preliminary determinations of J have so far been made, further experiments are noAv in progress.
We have to thank Mr. R. Berryman fnr the care he has taken and the success he has achieved in constructing the apparatus shoAvn in the figures.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Pl.\te X. Fig. 2.- General vieAv of apparatus. ,, 3. — Rotor with top removed, shoAving pole j^ieces and wind- ings. ,, 4. — Rotor mountcMl.
Platk XI.
,, 5. — The tAYo parts of the stator, on the left the iron cylinder in the channels for Avater, on the right the copper cylinder fitting over it. Fig. 6. — Stator attached to torsion Avheel with Hask removed. ,, 7. — Stator witli liask attached, shoAving plate Avitli levelling
screAv.s resting on the top plate of Fig. 5. ,, 8. — Knife edge bearings.
[Note added lObh March, 1 920 : — Inipiovenient in the brush con- tacts on tlie rotor has led to greater steadiness in the rotor field magnet current and therefore in the couple; this has made the Avater damping device mentioned in the text unnecessary.
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate X.
|
1^ |
||
|
''Mm |
\^ |
|
|
. ~\|--; |
||
|
W^: |
H |
1 |
|
ifc^^^^^^^?*^ J |
||
|
ttgkw-'^tSa^' :_,■ ' |
||
|
^W |
r |
h. |
Fig. 2. Guntnil \icu ut ApiMiatus
Fig. 3. Rotor with top removed, showing pole pieces and windings.
»..i!,i. 1 . ^ J
Fig. 4. Kotor n ounted.
Proc. E.S. ^ictoiia, 1921). Plate XI.
Fig. 5. The two parts of the stator, on the left the iron (-■vUnder in the channels for water, on the ri^'ht the copper cylinder fitting over it.
Fig 6. Stator attached to tiirsion wheel witli flask re- moved.
Fig. 7. Stator with flask attached,
showinjr plate with levelling screws
resting- on the top plate of Fig. 5.
Fig. 8. Knife edge bearinj;
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. | 55
It has also beeii shewn that the heat losses take place mainly from 'the tubes which lead the water into the flask and not fiom the flask itself. For a tixed rate of generating heat the loss of heat is proportional to the excess of the mean of the inlet and outlet water temperatures over the air temperature. The rate of loss of heat varies with the rate of generation of heat for flxed temperatures and iias (^een shewn to be a linear function of it. This will enable the heat Josses to be allowed for. J.K.R. I
[Proc. Ror. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 19201.
Art. XL — Tlie Design of an Induction Motor with large Air- Gap and Rotating Field Magnets.
By J. K. ROBERTS, B.Sc.
(Natural Philosophy Department, University of Melbourne).
(With 2 Text Figures,)
[Read 11th September, 1919.]
It will easily be seen that the apparatus described in another' paf^eri in these Proceedings is an induction motor, with the follow- ing peculiarities : — •
1. The field niMgiiets are magnetised by direct current, and are- rotated to produce the rotating magnetic field. This is necessary in order that the axis of rotation of the magnetic field may be accu- rately determined, and that there may be no movement of the ma!g- netic field along the axis of i-otation.
2. The armature consists of a hollow cylinder of solid copper witli a soft iron core.
3. The machine works at 100% slip, i.e., the armature remains at rest.
4. The air gap is very much larger than usual to permit of tlie insertion of the Dewar fiask.
The problem of designing the instrument was similar to that of designing an induction motor. A first approximation' to the behaviour of the instrument may be made by supposing the copper armature replaced by another armature of the same size, consist- ing of very narrow strips of conducting material insulated from each other, the resistance of all the strips in parallel being eipial to that of the copper cylinder from end to end. and each strip- being connected at either end with that diametrically opposite to it by a perfect conductor.
If this armature be placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength H, which rotates at the rate of N revolutions per second, the usual theory of the induction motor gives the torque as : —
,/.=7rNH-/VR7*(R-^ + 47r'^N^L-) ~ '
where ^cni. is the length of the armature, c.cni. is the diameter of armature. 1\. E.M. units is the resistance of each of the cir- cuits (i.e., twice the resistance of one strip), n total number of
1. Laby and Roberts. A New Method cf Determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, paste 148.
Induction Motor. 157'
circuits (i.e., one-half the number of. strips), and L.cm. the induct- ance of each of the circuits.
The quantity Hlc is the magnetic flux threading the armature, and is denoted by <^. Thus we have
We may write R—fju where p is a constant depending on the- resistance of the original copper cylinder. Thus
Let L=An where A is a constant
It should be noticed that writing L/n=X (a constant) takes into' account the mutual action of the induced currents on one another. For suppose that Ave replace the original copper armature first by one consisting of n circuits and second by one consisting of 2?i circuits where n is large. The currents flowing in adjacent cir- cuits will be nearly the same both in magnitude and in phase, and since the circuits are near together the mutual inductance of two adjacent circuits will be practically equal to the self-inductance- of either of them. Thus the flux threading a circuit when a certain current flows in it will, in the case of the armature of 2n circuits,-. Ije approximately twice what it is for the same current in the arma- ture of n circuits. Writing L = »\ we assume that it is exactly twice the value.
In order to determine p and A. for particular cases, the fol- lowing experiments wei'e carried out :—
Experiment (a). — A U-shaped permanent magnet was weighed and suspended by means of a bifilar suspension so^ that the poles hung downwards. An armature, consisting of a cylinder of copper with an iron core was placed midway between the poles and at- tached to a spindle, by means of which it could be rotated, a revolu- tion cotmter was attached to the spindle. The couple acting when the spindle was rotated was measured by observing the deflection of a spot of light, which was reflected from a mirror attached to the magnet. The couple was measured for different rates of rotation of the armature. The value of ^ was determined by winding the- exploring coil of a Grassot fluxmeter around the armature and rotating it through 180°. This of course gives twice the value of 2.<^ The result obtained was <^ = 6.2.3 x 10'^/2 Maxwell. Mass of magnet, 2870 gm. Distance from mirror to scale, 54.5 cm. Length: of suspending Avires, 44.2 cm. Distance lietween suspending Avires,. 2 cm.
:i58
./. K. Roberts:
llie couples obtained were the following
Revolutions per second.
43.96 -
33.48 -
21. 9S -
13.G -
Deflection of liffht on rever- sing' direction of rotation of copper.
- 97.7 cm. -
- 94.5 cm. -
- 76.2 cm. -
- 49.35 cm. -
Couple (absolute)
2.69 X 10" 2.26 X 10* 1 .93 X 10* 1.35 X 10*
Tliese result.s are plotted in Figure 1.
Using the values at tAvo points we may determine p and X from •equation (1). From the graph when
N = 42, i// = 2-6 X 10^ and wlien N = 15, «/^=l-5x 10*, We liave therefore
= 2-772 xlO-* E.M.U.) ,.., = 92-5 cm. / ^''>
Substituting these values in equation (1) we calculate the -couples \lf for difftrcnt values of N, Avith tlie following results : —
N = 20, ./, = l-87x 10 N = 30, ./. = 2-36x 10*
liuiuct'ioih Motor 159'
These values are plotted in Fi<;iire 1, in the "calculated" curve.
Experiment (b). — Further experiments of the same nature were carried out by removing the armature from a series wound " Im- misch " motor, and replacing it by a hollow copper cylinder with an iron core. The pole pieces were built up with cast iron so as to clear the copper by about one millimetre. The whole was- mounted on a cradle dynamometer, and arranged so that the copper cylinder could be rotated at different speecLs by means of a belt and pulleys of different sizes.
Current was passed through the field coils and the torque pro- duced on rotating the copper measured in the usual way.
The value of </> was measured by making and breaking the cur-^ rent in the field coils, and noting the deflection of a fluxmeter with an exploring coil, wound around the copper. In each case the- couple with zero flux was measured to eliminate the frictional couple. The following results were obtained : —
_ , ,. v„\„a rst JIass of Distance of Couple due to Couple corrected
Revolution \alueof ^,,^\^,,^- Hderfrom Eddv ."^ to
per second. 2<^ rider. Centre. Currents. ^=2-79xl05/2
6-6^ 2.72 xlO« 200 52.5 cm.) '•45xl0« /.84x10B
11 /^ 0 100 10 cm. ^ 1 r.O 1A7 1 TO 1 AT
11-0 2.74x10= 200 60 cm. ) 1-08x10^ 1.12x10^
16.1 o-n ,n5 onn -n """ ' 1.23x10^ 1.23 X 10^ 2.79 xlO^ 200 70 cm. )
20.2 ^.Q ^^, ]^^ i?^'"- - 1.27 xlOT 1.27x10^ 2.79x10= 200 73 cm. )
n^ A 0 100 10 cm. I 1 o- 1A7 1 OT 1A7
24-0 2.79x10= 200 70 cm. , 1-2/ x 10^ 1.27x10^
In order to correct the observed couples for variations in the value - of <^ ib was assumed that the couple is proportioned to <^'^. To verify this, two experiments were carried out at the same rate of rotation with values of <^ in the ratio of 1 to 2. The couples were measured as before. The values of the ratio Couple :^'^ were found to be
6.07x108 and 6.04 Xl0«.
This justifies the assumption made.
The values of the couples corrected in this way are given in the last column of the table, and are plotted against revolutions per- second in Fig. 2.
160
J. K. Roberts:
111 order to compute the values of p and \ of Equation (1) for this case two points on the graph are used.
When N=10, ^}/=lOA x 10«, and when N = 20, ./.= 12.7 x 10"
In the same way as before we get
p = 4.63xl0^ E.M.U.\ ,<.>
X = 382cm. / ^'
Using these values of A and p the couples which sliould correspond to •different values of N can be calculated from formula (1) to be : — N = 15, i/.= 12-33 X 10''' and N = 25, ./.^ 12-29 x 10« These are plotted in Fig. 2 in the calculated curve.
In order to apply these results to the design of a new apparatus, it is necessary to compare the values of p as calculated al)ove with the values of the resistances from end to end of the two cylinders which were used. If we do this we get the following : —
P/Kesistance of copper cylinder =(a) 17-6 and (b) 24-2 (4)
Tiie values of X obtained were A = (a) 92-5 and (b) 382 (5)
llie reason for the fact that p is about twenty times the resist- ance of the copper from end to end, which we may call a, is thai if r is thf resistance of each of the 2.n strips by which the copper is replaced,
R^2«o- .
Induction Motor. 161
The resistance R of each of the circuits formed by joining' a pair 'of strips in series by two perfect conductors will be
R = 2/=4«cr But R=:?t/) ;uid .'. /3=4a-
That is, if the ends of the conducting strips were joined by per- fect conductors, we would have p equal to four times the resist- ance of the copper from end to end. The remaining factor of five is due to tlie fact that the effective resistance of the paths joining the strijis is not zero.
The large increase in the value of A. in the experiments with the ■Cradle dynamometer is probably due to the fact that in these ..experiments the air gap between the copper and the pole pieces was .smaller than in the case of the permanent magnet.
Another point, which must be determined, before it is possible to ■design a new apparatus, is the* extent to which the magnetic resist- ance of a magnetic circuit can be inferred from the dimensions of 'the apparatus.
To do this, the " Immisch " motor was used, and the flux thread- ing the iron core Avas measuied for different diameters of the core, .and different magneto-motive forces, with the following results : —
|
Average area of air ^ap. |
Length of air jrap (botli side.^). |
Magnetic resistance of air j,'ap. |
llagneto ilotive force. |
Jlayneto Motive force. Resultant Flux. |
|
60.43 |
0.73 |
0.0121 |
3.47 X 103 6.01 X 103 |
0.0251 0.0301 |
|
39.4 |
1.03 |
0.0261 |
3.70 X 103 6.61 X 103 |
0.0380 0.0418 |
|
28.8 |
1.87 |
0.0650 |
3.71 X 103 6.84 X 103 |
0.0o95 0.0630 |
The numbers in the last column give the effective magnetic resist- :ance of the Circuit.
Comparing these values with the values of the resistance as cal- culated from the dimensions, it will be noticed that for small air gaps, the effective resistance is larger than the calculated, and also that the value increases with increasing flux density. This means a higher magnetic leakage at higher flux densities. But Avhen the .air gap is 2. cm. long, the calculated and effective magnetic resist- ances are practically the same, and also the value of the effective a-esistance is almost independent of the flux density.
Certain dimensions in the new apparatus are fixed : —
(i.) The external diameter of the rotor is limited to 30 cm. (ii.) The internal diameter of the pole pieces must he not less
than 7.3 cm. .(iii.) The external diameter of the armature must not exceed 5.5 cm.
162 J- K. Roberts:
(iv.) The length of the armature nuist not exceed 13 cm. (v.) Eough calculations shewed that the thickness of the copper- should be 3 or 4 mm. The copper was made 3.3 mm. thick, and 5.45 cm. in external diameter.
This makes the electrical resistance from end to end 4.46x10^ E.M. unit.
From eciuation (4) we multiply this by 20 to obtain the value of p = 20x 4.46x10^^
Calculating the magnetic resistance from the dimensions we obtain. the value
Magnetic resistance = 0.040.
Since the air gap is 1.9 cm. long it can be inferred from the experiments carried out that this will lio the effective value of the- magnetic resistance.
The flux obtainable is therefore given by
</, = .47r('ui)/0.04 = 107r(m)
whei'e ni is the number of ampere turns.
It is proposed to run the apparatus at 1500 revolutions per' mintite, i.e., N — 25.
Power = 27rNi//
= 277-N7)0-(/;- + 47r-N'''/V-^) " '
Since i-Horse Power is required we have
3.73 X 10" = 1-086 X 10'"-(7ti)"(7.95 x 10" + 2.47 x 10^\-)r.'...(6) If /\=r92 and 382 as in Equation (5) we obtain respectively 7a = 5.38 X 10'^ and 5.86 x 10'' (7)
The inductance term should not be greater than 356, as the air gap is nearly ten times as large as in the Experiment (b).
The heat generated in a winding of given size depends on the number of ampere ttirns.
It is, therefore, necessary to discover whether it is possible to dis- sipate the energy which would be generated in a winding of the size required by the dimensions of the apparatus. In making cal- culations it can be safely assumed that .05 watt can be dissipated per square cm. of the area of winding. With this assumption the- possible number of ampere turns on each coil comes out to be 4500 — that is, a total of 9000, which 'is more than is required. As only a limited voltage is available it is necessary to choose wire of such a gauge that the resistance will be low enough to allow the requisite- number of ampere turns.
The poles were wound with 4720 turns of 24 gauge copper wire-.
Induction Motor. 163
An experiment Avas cari'ied out to determine the power of the apparatus so designed. It was found that when the apparatus was generating one half horse-power the current in the field winding Avas .575 amperes; since there are altogether 9440 turns this gives- for magnetising current,
5.43 X 10'' ampere turns.
This value lies between the predicted limits, viz.,
5.38 > lO^""' and 5.86 x lO-'' as in equation (7).
The rise of temperature of the winding was found from its resist- ance, the temperature coeflicient of a sample of the wire having been measured. The temperature rose 47° with all the vents in the apparatus closed. Thus the apparatus realised the power for which it was designed. The ventilation caused by the vents was large,, and with them open the rise was much smaller.
[Pboo. Rot. Soc. Victokia, 32 (N.S.) Pt. 11., 1920,].
Art. mil.— Austridian Phlehotomiic Diptera: — Neiv Calicidac Tahanidae and Sjinuxymy.
By. frank H. TAYLOR, F.E S
Communicated by J. A. Kersliaw.
[Read November 6th. 1919.]
The following paper contains descriptions of three new species of Diptera, which are contained in the genera Uranotaenia, Sdviiis and T aha mix.
rhibaloini/ia is sulistituted for the generic nanie Elapliromyia, as the latter is preoccupied, and two species of Tabanidae are sunk as synonyms.
Family CULICIDAE.
Uranotaenia albofasciata, sp.n.
Head clothed Avith bluish-white scales; antennae brown, plumes brown; palpi and proljoscis brown.
Thorax brown, witli blackish-brown, narrow scales. There is a broad band of white, small, flat scales on the lateral and anterior margins; piothoracic lobes white scaled; scutellum pale with black flat scales.
Abdomen covered with dusky scales, first segment white .scaled, remaining segments, except the apical, with prominent white apical bands; venter apparently pale scaled.
Legs brown, femora pale beneath, last three tarsi of hind legs pale seal eld.
Wings black scaled, base of wings white scaled, also apex of c'osta and the sulx'ostal vein above the cross-veins, anterior basal cross-vein longer than and about twice its length from the anterior cross-vein, first fork-cell slightly narroAver and shorter than the second fork-cell, base of latter nearer the base of the Aving.
Length, 2.5 mm.
Hahitat. — Northern Territory, near Darwin (G. F. Hill).
Abundantly distinct from other Australian species, and a well- defined member of the genus.
Type in Coll. Hill.
PIdebotomic Dlptera. 165
Family— TABANIDAE.
Sub-Family — Pangoninae.
Phibalomyia, nom. nov. Elajyhroinyia, Taylor, ntc Bigot.
Pioc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales, 1916, XLI., p. 749 (1917), op. <cit., XLIL, p. 517 (1917).
I am indebted to J*rof. Dr. Bezzi for informing me that the name Elaphrom/yia has already been used by Bigot in 1859 (Dipt. Trypaneidae), thus invalidating its use in the Tabanidae. I there- fore propose the above alteration.
Pseudotabanus queenslandi, Ricardu. Corizoneura kurandae, Taylor.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.. (8), XVI., p. 273 (1915); Taylor, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales, 1916. XL!., p. 748 (1917).
I am indebted to Mr. Kershaw, Curator, National Museum, Mel- bourne, for the courtesy of examining the Tabanidae contained in the Museum Collections, where there is a specimen of this species named by Miss Ricardo, thus establishing the identity of the two namee.
Silvius distinctus, sp. nov.
Length, 10-13; length of wing, 9-11; width of head, 2.5-4 mm. J Head. — Face and cheeks black, tomentum dirty grey, pubes- cence grey; beard grey; palpi black, slender; antennae black, base of third joint with a shallow angle, pubescence black on first two joints; front narrow, parallel, pubescence grey, black round the ocellar triangle, frontal callus as broad as the front; eyes black, bare.
Thorax chocolate-brown, pubescence black, prominent on sides; scutellum black with black pubescence; pleurae black with grey pubescence.
Abdomen, black, segmentations creamy, very broad on first seg- ment, absent on penultimate and apical segments, segmentations narrowed in the median line, giving the abdomen the appearance of having a median black stripe; first two segments of venter with pale pubescence, penultimate and apical black, reanainder with creamy segmentations.
-IQQ F. H. Taylor :
Legs black, pubescence black.
Wings. — Basal half grey, rest clouded with black; veins black;; stigma black; no api^endix.
Habitat. — Northern Territory, Bathurst Island (G. F. Hill),
A very distinct and easily recognised species l>elonging to the ■uigrapenms-ferf/usoiii group.
Type in Coll. Hill, paratype in Coll. Taylor.
Sub-Family Tabaninae. Genus Tabanus.
Group VII. Abdomen, witli one or more stripes, usually con- tinuous.
Tabanus geraldi, sp. nov.
Length, 17; length of wing, 14; width of head, 5.75. $ Head. — Face and lower half of cheeks covered with grey tomentum, upper half of cheeks and subcallus, with dull golden tomentum; beard gi'ey ; front parallel with creamy tomentum and pubescence; vertex dusky; frontal callus small, pear-shaped, lineal extension reaching the, middle of the front; first joint of antennae- reddish-brown, pubescence grey, long, second joint black, very short, third joint black, base with a small, prominent tooth; palpi creamy-yellow, stout, ending in a blunt point, pubescence short,, black mixed with pale at the base.
Thorax black, tomentum dirty grey, grey above wing roots, pubescence black and golden, grey above wing roots, black on sides; scutelum black, pubescence black, grey on posterior border; pleurae grey with grey pubescence.
Ahd07nen black, with dense black pubescence, with a median grey stripe terminating on the penultimate segment, lateral margin with dense, grey pubescence, sides of segments three to five yel- lowish ; venter slate coloured with grey puliescence.
Legs black, basal third of fore tibiae reddish, mid and hind tibiae, except the apices, pale reddish-brown, pubescence grey on femora and tibiae, black on tarsi and apex of tibiae.
Wings clouded with yellowish on the veins except on the marginal cells; veins black, stigma reddish; no appendix.
Habitat. — Northern Territory, Batliurst Island (G. F. Hill). A beautiful and very distinct species, quite unlike any other Rnown Australian Tabanns.
Type unique in Coll. Hill, to whom it is dedicated.
Phlebotomic Dlptera. 167
Tabanus stpangmanni, Ricardo. Tahanns mastersi, Taylor,
Ann. Mag. Xat. Hist., (8), XIV., p. 393 (1914); Taylor, Proc. Linn. See, N.S. Wales, 1916, XLL, p. 754 (1917).
This appears to be a variable species, as both names refer to ithe same species.
[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victokia, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].
Art. XIII. — On the Synthesis of Sugar froon Formaldehyde- and its Folymers, its QvMntitative Relations and its- Exothermic Character.
By ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D.
(Professor of Botanj and Plant Physiology in Melbourne University, and Government Botanist).
[Eead 6tli November, 1919].
la 1861 Butlerow found that on treating trioxymethyleue tri- molecular formaldehyde) with hot liuie water, a sweet yellow, unfer- mentable syrup, "methylenitan," was obtained. Loeb^ obtained an unfermentable " formose '"' syrup by the prolonged action of lime water on dilute formaldehyde, and by using magnesia obtained a " methose " syrup containing fermentable sugar. Fischer2 showed that all three syrups were complex mixtures, containing a acrose and obtained this sugar, and (^ acrose from Barium hydrate and acrolein bromide. The « acrose is optically inactive fructose, and the yS acrose is inactive sorbose.
The methods used for the preparation of sugar are mostly slow ones, involving incomplete reactions, and no attempts appear to have been made to determine any precise quantitative relations of the reacting materials.
In a previous paper ^ a method was described of rapidly polymeri- sing formaldehyde to sugar by running dilute caustic soda into a boiling weak solution of formaldehyde, containing calcium for- mate. The advantages of this method are that there is a definite end reaction, so that quantitative estimations are possible, that the process is very rapid, requiring only a few minutes for com- pletion, and that the amount of formaldehyde polymerised is very large, llie residual products are calcium and sodium formates, and sugars, mainly pentoses and hexoses, any methyl alcohol formed boiling off.
At low temperatures the reaction is extremely slow, and but little sugar is formed, while when strong caustic soda (35-40%) is
1. Loeh, Ber. D. Chem. Ges. 1887, Vol. 20, 142, 3039; 1888, Vol. 21, 270 ; 1880, Vol. 22, p. 470.
2. Fisher, Ber. d. Cheni. Ges. 1894, seq.
S. Ewai-t, Proc. Roy. Soc. of Vict., 1019, Vol. XXXI., p. 379.
Synthesis of Sugar 169
boiled with concentrated fornialdeh\de mainly sodium formate and methyl alcohol are produced.
The purpose of the following investigation was to detei'mine more closely the conditions determining the reaction, and bringing about the maximum polymerisation. The nature of the reaction appears to be as follows : — The s diiim hydrate first reacts with the calcium formate, producing calcium hydrate, and sodium formate. The calcium hydrate has a more energetic polymerising action than sodium hydrate, and as this action takes place, it is converted into calcium formate, and methyl alcohol is produced. The amount of free alkali present at any given moment is, therefore, small in pro- portion to the amount of formaldehyde. If any free caustic al- kali is present the sugar produced is caramelised on boiling, and the liquid turns brown. A drop or two of free alkali added in 6xces.s produces this change at the end of the reaction.
The polymerising action of an alkali appears to depend partly upon its valency. Thus the divalent Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba, hydrates appear to produee more polymerisation than the monovalent Na. and K, hydrates, the relative order being Ca, Sr, Ba, Mg, K, Na. Hence in the presence of a calcium salt, much more polymerisation takes place than if sodium hydrate is added\ directly to the boilinf^ formaldehyde solution. We might y^icture the reaction with formal- dehyde when no polymerisation takes place as follows : —
H H
Na CrnO
1 +
O-H C = 0
|
S^a-C=:0 |
-H |
|
+ |
|
|
H-C-0- |
-H |
|
H H |
H H
The sodium displaces hydrogen in the first CHj^O molecule, which together with. the HO radicle of the sodium hydrate, displaces oxygen from the 2nd molecule. This is transferred to the first one, producing sodium formate and leaving- methyl- alcohol.
With calcium hydrate the reaction would ' take place similarly,, but with four molecules of formaldehvde.
170
|
A. |
J. Eivart : |
||
|
H H \/ C=0 H H |
H \ H-C-0- / |
-H |
|
|
0-H 1 |
c=o H H |
O-H / C^O |
|
|
Ca + |
c=o = |
^ |
/ Ca |
|
1 0-H |
0=0 /\ H H |
\ c = o \ 0-H |
|
|
C-0- |
H |
||
|
h/i\h |
It is not easy at first to- see why under any conditions this reac- tion sliould lead to a prodnction of .sugar, nor woidd it in all probability if it were a simple matter of a reaction between for- maldehyde and an alkali. Bearing in mind the fact that when a previously measured quantity of dilute alkali is run into lx)iling dilute fornialdeliyde, the reaction is completed, and sugar is jjro- duced Avithin two or three minutes, or even more rapidly if an excess* of soda is used, whereas tlie same solutions kept at 12 to 15°C. for two months or more develop little or no sugar, it seems probable that this differenxie can liardly be due wholly to the influence of tem- perature on the rate of chemical reaction.
If a strong solution of formaldehyde is Iwiled down to 1 or \ its bulk, and cooled, it solidifies to a wliite waxy mass of the poly- hydrate of formaldehyde. None appears Avhile the liquid is boil- ing, because of its low melting point. When a litre of 1 or of 2% formaldehyde is boiled nearly to dryness, and then cooled, it leaves a considerable solid residue of the polyhydrate of formaldehyde. Hence, in spite of the loss of formaldehyde vapour, a dilute solution can be concentrated by boiling. If the solution is evaporated at a lower temperature, or under reduced pressure all, or nearly all the formaldehyde escapes, and no residue is left. Presumably therefore, in boiling water, the substance exists mainly as the poly- drate of formaldehyde, or as paraformaldehyde, which, on cooling, partially dissolves and partially dissociates to formaldehyde, so long as it has not separated out in mass. Hot water poured into paraformaldehyde or the solid polyhydrate soon acquires a smell of
Synthesis of Sugar 171
'CHi)0, and the solid slowly disappears in excess of hot water. In ■cold water a large part is still present, .undissociated, after three "d a,y s .
Paraformaldehyde, or the polyhydrate, dissolves in a few hours in excess of cold 2% NaHO, the liquid smelling of CHoO, but also •containing a little sugar. In cold, strong 35% NaHO, solid para- formaldehyde at once dissolves, forming a yellow liquid smelling of CH2O, and containing sugar. It blackens and gives a caramel smell, with sulphuric acid, gives Molisch's test (a naphthol) for carbo- hydrates, and yields furfural on boiling with hydrochloric acid.
Hence, paraformaldehyde and the polyhydrate yield sugar immediately in contact with cold, concentrated soda, whereas for- maldehyde does not.
If hot, 35% XaHO is added in slight excess to nielttd parafor- maldehyde, there is a sudden evolution of methyl alcoliol, and the resulting brown liquid contains sodium formate and reducing sugar.
Hence it may be concluded that in boiling watei' the formaldehyde •exists mainly as paraformaldehyde or the polyhydrate, and that the alkali produces sugar, methyl alcohol and sodium formate, when it reacts with paraformaldehyde or the polyhydrate, but only or mainly sodium formate and iwethyl alcohol when it reacts directly with formaldehyde.
Suppose three molecules of di-molecular formaldehyde react with ■ one of Barium or calcium hydrate, as folloAvs : —
C,HA CH,OH
nnn ,. HO ,. COOH CHO U^ti.u.-F t5a^o"" COOH "^ CH^HO C^HA CH.OH
The upper and lower molecules may be supposed to separate into 'CO and CH5OH, the latter sepai-ating as methyl alcohol and the former combining with the BaHo02 to form barium forjnate. In some manner not understood one of hydrogen is by a kind of enzy- matic action transferred from one portion to the otiier of the cen- tral dimolecular formaldehyde
CH.,0_CHO CH.,0~Cir,HO
yielding biose or glycollic aldehyde. This would represent a maximum percentage polymerisation to sugar of 33%, and if
172 A. J.' Eivart:
tetroses or hexoses were formed directly from biose produced in this- «vay, the percentage polymerization by weight would be the same. If, however, pentoses and hexoses were formed by the direct linking of formaldehyde to the glycollic aldehyde, without further xjroduction of formates and methyl alcohol, the pohonerisation ratio for pentose would be 9 :5 (45%), and for glucose would be 10 :6 (60%). If a dissaccharide were produced, the maximum ratio would be 16: 12, i.e., 75%.
A monovalent alkali such as sodium hydrate can react with single molecules of C^,H^Oo, pi-oducing sodium formate and methyl alcohol, and will only produce a liiose when 2 of sodium hydrate react' with 2 of CgHjO,, with a third molecule interpolated. The chance for this grouping is not more than lialf what it is in the case of a diva- lent alkali, wliei'e a single molecule react)? with not less than 2 mole- cules of C,H_,0,.
Methods. — The same result is not produced wlien the licjuids are- mixed cold, and then heated, as when the sodium hydrate is run into the boiling liquid. Ihus 250 c.c. of water, with 5 c.c. of 10% calcium formate and 4 c.c. of 25.2% formaldehyde, after raising to the boiling point required, 7.2 c.c. of 3.5% NaHO to complete- the reaction. If mixed cold with 7 c.c. of sodium hydrate, on rais- ing to the boiling point a further addition of 0.4 c.c. of NaHO was required to complete the reaction. If mixed cold with 7 c.c. NaHO, and kept for 15 days at 15° L., on raising to the boiling point, the addition of a further 1.2 c.c. of NaHO is required to complete the reaction , And remove all CH^O. Hence at low temperatures more formate is produced and less formaldehyde is polymerised to sugar, so that more soda is required to remove all the formaldehyde.
In carrying out estimations, a preliminary test was in each case- carried out in an open beaker. The amount of sodium hydrate re- quired was less than the full amount by the amount of CH^O lost during the boiling. The same amounts of CH.,0; water and cal- cium, formate, were then placed in a flask fitted with a condensing apparatus, so that the condensed steam washed back the escaping formaldehyde. Tlie amount of sodium hydrate previously noted was tlien run in from a burette fitted to the cork, as i-apidly as was possible without causing too violent ebullition.
The yellow tinge which indicates the completion of tlie reaction appears slowly with very dilute solutions, and the preliminary test must be checked by smell as well as colour. With strong solutions the yellow colour is produced before the reaction is completed, if
S}/ntliesis of Sugar 173-
the soda is added more rapidly than the formic acid is pro- duced. With a little practice these two sources of error are easily avoided.
A solution containing 250 c.c. of water, 5 c.c. of 10% calcium- formate, and 5 c.c. of 31.5% of formaldehyde required 9.6 c.c. of 3.5% sodium hydrate, and required 25.8 c.c. of soda when no- calcium formate was present. If no polymerisation had taken place, then; the equation would be —
2 CH20 + 2NaHO =CH.,HO + Na CO OH
i.e., 60 grams of formaldehyde are required to neutralise 40 grams- of sodium hvdrate (or 38 grams of calcium hydrate).
3 crams of CH^O ;ire contained in ., , ^ c-C- o^ '■^^■^% solution.
3x100 TL5
|
Water |
CO. of 10' CaCOo |
|
250 C.C. |
5.0 |
|
2.50 c.c. |
0.0 |
2 X 100 3 grams of NaHO are contained in -^ c.c. of 3.5 solution. ^ 6.0
.-.Ice. of 31.5%CH,0 = 6c.c. of 3.5%NaHO.
In the experiment 9.6 c.c. of soda were required, whicli represents; 1.6 c.c. of CHoO. Hence of the 5 c.c. of formaldehyde used 3.4 c.c. were theoretically polymerised to sugar. In this way, the appar- ent percentage polymerisation can be calculated under varying con- ditions, and with various concenti-ations, as thus : —
c.c of 31. .V: c.c. of 3.5":; Per cent, of CHqO
OH 0 NaHO required polyuierizerl
.5.0 - 9.6 C.C. - 6S
5.0 - 27.8 c.c. - 8
In addition to sugar, however, small amounts of by-products; may appear. Thus perceptible amounts of dihydroxyacetone are produced when formaldehyde is polymerised to sugar by boiling- with calcium carbonate.^ Allowing for this possibility, the per- centage polymerisation to sugar is between the theoretical maximum of 75% for the disaceharide and 60% for hexose.
The influence of the concentration of calcium formate present was found by varying the amount added, while keeping the Avater and formaldehyde constant. Five c.c. of 31.5%, CH2O were added' to 250 c.c of calcium formate and water.
The soda first reacts with the calcium formate, forming calciunv hydrate and sodium formate. The calcium hydrate reacts with the-
4. H. and A. Culer, Ber.d. D. Bot. Ges. 1905, 39, pp. 36, 39.
|
A. J. |
Eivart |
•■ |
' |
|
|
c.c. of 10 '„ Oil CO ^ |
Na |
c.c. of 3.5/„ HO requii'ed |
Per |
cent, of formaldehyde polymerized |
|
0.0 |
- |
27.7 |
- |
8 |
|
0.1 |
- |
23.9 |
- |
20 |
|
0.2 |
- |
19.8 |
- |
34 |
|
0.5 |
- |
17.5 |
- |
42 |
|
1.0 |
- |
14.1 |
- |
54 |
|
2.0 |
- |
11.6 |
- |
62 |
|
2.5 |
- |
11.2 |
- |
&2 |
|
3.5 |
- |
10.1 |
- |
66 |
|
5.0 |
- |
9.8 |
- |
68 |
|
10.0 |
- |
9.8 |
- |
68 |
|
15.U |
- |
9.8 |
- |
68 |
|
20.0 |
- |
9.7 |
- |
68 |
|
40.0 |
- |
9.7 |
- |
68 |
174
Water 250 250 250 249.5 219 248 247.5 246.5 245 240 235 230 210
formaldehyde, forming calcium formate and polymerising a por- tion to sugar. No sugar condensation is produced by boiling for- jnaldehyde with either calcium or, sodium formates.
From the equation 2 NaHO + ra(C00H)2 =CaHo02 + 2 NaCOOH • 80 grams of soda = 130 grams of calcium formate ., 10 c.c. of 3.5% NaHO = o.7 c.c. of 10% calcium formate or 9.8 c.c.% of NaHO = r>.5 c.c. of 10% calcium formate. Hence maximum polymerisa- tion is reached at a point where the soda and calcium formate are approximately equivalent. After that point an excess of calcium formate causes no increase in the percentage polymerisation. When still less calcium formate is present, the amount of soda re- quired rises, more sodium formate being produced and less sugar.
An addition of 20 c.c. of 10% calcium formate causes an appreci- able rise of the boiling point, and may be responsible for a slight loss of formaldehyde either as vapour or in the form of by-products other than sugar, and not involving any reaction with the calcium hydrate. Hence the slight decrease in the amount of soda required, which is in fact easily within the limits of error of the method used. In a further series of tests, the percentage of calcium for- mate was kept constant, and the amount of formaldehyde varied, 245 c.c. of water and 5 c.c. of 10% CaC'O^ were used in each experi- ^.ment.
|
c.c. of 31.. 1 per CHaO |
cent. |
c.c. of 3.5 per cent. N.aHO required |
Percent, of CH.jO polymerized |
||
|
1 |
. |
4.8 |
- |
20 |
|
|
2 |
. |
5.3 |
- |
55 |
|
|
3 |
. |
3.7 |
- |
68 |
|
|
4 |
. |
7.9 |
- |
67.5 |
|
|
5 |
- |
9.8 |
- |
68 |
|
|
5.5 |
. |
14.3 |
- |
56 |
|
|
6 |
. |
IS.O |
- |
50 |
|
|
7 |
. |
29.0 |
- |
31 |
SyntJtesis of Sugar
175.
Apparently an excess of calcium formate interferes with polymeri- sation, when the formaldehyde is very dilute, while with the strong- solutions since the 5 c.c. of 10% calcium formate requires 8.9 c.c. of 3.5% to convert it all into CaH202, portion of the 5.5, 6 and T c.c. of CHjO has to be neutralised directly by the soda, and hence the percentage polymerization decreas.es.
Starting with 0.25 c.c. of 10% CaCO. and 0.5. c.c. of 31.5%. CHoO. and increasing or decreasing each proportionately, the fol- lowing results were ol)tained : —
Water
2J,9.55 c.c. 248.75 c.c. 247.5 c.c. 245.5 c.c. 242.5
c-.o. of 10
per cent.
Ca(C0OH)j
0.62
1.25
2.5
5.0
7.5
c.c of 31.5 per cent. CH.2(>
1.25
2.5
5.0 10.0 15. t»
c.c. of 3..5 Per cent
per cent. poh nierization
NaHO required of CH.iO
5.1
6.4
13.()
27.9
49.0
32 56
58 54 46
On the basis that 1 molecule of CaHjO, reacts with 9 molecules of CH^O, then 1 c.c. of 10% Ca(C00H)2 represents 0.66 c.c. of 31.5 tH,0.
Hence the amount of calcium formate present is l>elow that theoretically lequired, and a large portion of the CH^O reacts- diiectly with the soda, giving a low percentage polymerisation. Further, two standards were taken, namely, (A) 5 c.c. of 10% CaCO, to 3 c.c. of 31.5% CH^O, and (B) 5 c.c. of 10%, CaCO^ to
c.c. of 31.5% CHjO. The amounts of each were increased or de- creased proportionately to one another in the tv^•o sets of tests, A and B, and added to 250 c.c. of water.
|
c.c. of 10 per cent. Ca(COOH)2 |
c.c. cf 31.5 per cent. CH.2O |
c.c. of 3.5 per cent. NaHO required |
Pt:r |
cent, polymerization, of CHjO |
|
1.6 |
1.0 |
4.8 |
- |
20 |
|
3.3 |
2.0 |
6.2 |
- |
50 |
|
5.0 |
3.0 |
6.5 |
- |
63 |
|
6.6 |
4.0 |
8.6 |
- |
65 |
|
8.2. |
50 |
lO.l |
- |
66 |
|
9.8 |
6.0 |
13.2 |
- |
63 |
|
11.4 |
70 |
J 5.6 |
- |
63 |
|
13.1 |
8.0 B |
19.2 |
" |
60 |
|
c.c. of 10 per cent. Ca (COOH2) |
c.c. of 31. .T per cent. CH2O |
c.c. of 3.5 per cent. NaHO re<iuired |
Per |
cent, polvmerizatior* of CH2O |
|
1.88 |
1.0 |
7.1 |
- |
20 |
|
2.5 |
2.0 |
6.4 |
- |
45 |
|
3.75 |
3.0 |
7.4 |
- |
60 |
|
5.0 |
4.0 |
8.2 |
- |
62 |
|
6.25 |
5.0 |
9.4 |
. |
68 |
|
7.5 |
6.0 |
11.0 |
. |
70 |
|
8.75 |
7.0 |
16.1 |
- |
61' |
|
10.0 |
8.2 |
18.5 |
- |
61 |
U76 A. J. Etvart:
A. contains very nearly the theoretical amount of Ca formate .required for the production of pentose sugar (1 mol. Ca formate = 9 molecules CHoO). If any hexose or disaccharide is formed, less calcium formate would be required for optimal polymerisation. The higher polymerization in B indicates that some hexose or di- . saccharide is produced. With the intermediate concentrations, the results are very consistent, varying less than 1 % in duplicate tests. At the extremes, however, the results obtained particularly at the lower extreme are apt to vary somewhat, however, carefully the .tests are performed.
Evidently, too great an excess of calcium formate interferes slightly Avith polymerisation at the higher concentrations, whereas in lower concentrations the opposite effect appears to be exercised. The maximum polymerisation is given with concentrations corre- sponding to 0.62% to 0.75% solutions of formaldehyde.
When strong solutions of alkali are used , or when the formalde- hyde is concentrated, portion of the alkali is apt to attack the ■sugar produced, decreasing the apparent polymerisation.
When calcium formats is present, however, and the soda is added ■gradually, the percentage polymerisation decreases less rapidly with increasing concentration.
Thus, adding 10% c.c. of 31.5% CHvrO to 50 c.c. of 10% CaCOv, (6.3% CH.O), 28.8 c.c. of 3.5% Na HO was required to complete the reaction, and an abundance of sugan was formed. In this case 52% of the 6% CH-^^O was polymerised. Using a mixture of 50 ■ CO. of 10% CaCOtj, and 20 c.c. of 31.5% CHoO, and running in 35% NaHO, it is necessary to obtain an approximately accurate result to keep the temperature below boiling point, and to shake vigorously after each addition of soda until the precipitated lime dissolves as formate. Even then the liquid becomes distinctly brown before all the formaldehyde lias been removed. The amount of soda averaged 6.6 c.c, and 1 c.c. of CH^O equalling 0.6 c.c. of soda, the percentage polymerisation was 45.
Polymerisation by other divalent alkaline metals
In the previous paper it was found that the presence of neutral barium, strontium or magnesium salts in boiling formaldehyde, to which caustic soda was added, increased the amount of polymerisa- tion, and decreased the amount of soda required to neutralise the formaldehyde. Barium and strontium Avere not quite so effective as calcium, and magnesium had comparatively small effect. In these preliminary tests the importance of having a slight excess of
Synthesis of Sugar 771
-the neutral formate present was not realised, and hence further .estimations were carried out in the same manner as for calcium.
It is, however, difficult to obtain exact quantitative determ^.na- -tions owing to the delay in the completion of the reaction after each addition of soda. If the latter is added too rapidly, so that any precijjilate forms, this only dissolves very slowly, and any un- dissolved precipitate represents so much neutralised caustic soda. If, however, the boiling is very prolonged, the li([uid turns yellow, while still containing formaldehyde, and when the reaetioii is com- j)leted the liquid appears to contain more by-products other than sugar. At least the liquid from a reaction completed in two hours boiling contained from 5 to 10% ]nore reducing sugar, as deter- mined by the Pavy method, than one completed by six hours' boil- ing, and the latter required slightly less caustic soda, although all -other conditions and quantities were the same.
For these tests it was found best to use a simple type of con- -densing flask, with the burette passing through the cork, and with an open upright tube 4 ft. long as the condensing column. Of the SOU c.c. of water used 100 c.c. was allowed to trickle slowly down this tube during the two-hour period over which the boiling, and cT,ddition of soda, were spread when strontium and barium salts were used. As the soda burette becomes slightly warmed during the boiling, its final reading must be checked after it has cooled to the original temperature.
SfronfiiiDi. — Crystallised s-trontium formate was used as a 10% solution. The jiroportions used were 20 c.c. of strontium formate, 500 c.c. water, and 70 c.c. of 31.5 formaldehyde. The amounts of 3.5% sodium hydrate required varied from 20.8 c.c. to 21.2, representing an apparent polymerisation' of formaldehyde of 65%.
Barium.— \\\ the presence of barium formate, using similar quantities, the reaction was slighly more rapid. The amounts of soda required to neutralise all the formaldehyde varied from 20.4 to 20.9, representing a percentage polymerisation of formaldehyde of 65 to 66%.
Magnesium. — Owing to the liighly insoluble character of the hydrate, its polymerising action is extremely slow, and quantita- tive estimations are difficult to obtain. A preliminary estimation was made, using an excess of the hydrate precipitated in the liquid by caustic soda. In this case the only advantage of using caustic soda is that the hydrate is precipitated in a more bulky and flocculent form than if the dry livdrate is used. From the amoimt
178 A. J. Ewavt:
of magnesium hydrate, remaining after all the fonialdehyde had been polymerised, the appro/ximate amount required was esti- mated'.
Using these proportions more exact estimations were made. The condensing flask was provided with a condensing tube 4 ft. long, which was sealed at the upper end as soon as the liquid had been brought to boiling point, and allowed to blow out to a thin safety bulb. The liquid was then kept just at the boiling point for several days. The liquid l>ecame brown before the end of each experi- ment.
In the presence of magnesium formate, 500 c.c. of water and 10 c.c. of 31.5% formaldehyde, after the addition of 23 c.c. of 3.5% sodium hydrate, a small ansount of a white insoluble solid still remained after several days. This was not Mg HjO,, and was insoluble in dilute acid, the liquid was faintly acid, and still con- tained a small amount of CHjO.
Using 750 c.c. of water, 15 c.c. of 31.5% CK^O, a slight excess of magnesium formate and 40 c.c. of 3.5% NaHO, all the formal- dehyde wa.s removed, after boiling for 22 hours, the liquid ^^as faintly acid, and contained a small amount of white solid, incon- spicuous when suspended, but not consisting of Mg HjO,. This represents a percentage polymerisation of 58. A further test gave a polymerisation value of 57. As a small amount of the magne- sium hydrate appears to form an insoluble compound, and as during prolonged boiling a trace of the formaldehyde is oxidised directly to formic acid, which represents a further direct removal of magnesium hydrate without producing any polymerisation, the polymerisation value of 57 to 58 for the divalent Mg corresponds fairly well with that of 65-68 for the divalent Ca. Ba. Sr, and con- trasts sharply with the values for the monovalent K and Na of 8 to 14%.
Potassium. — On the basis of the conclusions given above, that the relative efficiency of calcium and sodium as polymerising agents depends upon the former being divalent, and the later monovalent, we should expect to find equivalent solutions of the monovalent metals, sodium and potassium, exercising a very much inferior polymerising action, and. that in the presence of calcium formate it should be a matter of indifference whether sodium hydrate or an equi-molecular solution of potassium hydrate was used to bring about polymerisation.
As a matter of fact the correspondence is even more exact than
Synthesis of Sugar 179*
miglit liave been expected. Thus, using 250 c.c. of water to the- proportions given the following were the results : —
|
c.c. of 10 per ceiit. calcium formute |
c.c. of 31. !i per CH.^O |
cent. |
c.c. of 3.5 per cent. NaHO required |
Per cent, polj'iiierizatioii |
|
|
]0.0 |
5 |
. |
9.8 |
68 |
|
|
0.0 |
5 |
- |
27.7 |
8 |
|
|
U.O |
4 |
22.6 c.c. of 4.9 per cent. KIIO required |
6 |
||
|
10.0 |
5 |
- |
9.6 |
68 |
|
|
0.0 |
ij |
- |
26.1 |
14 |
|
|
0.0 |
4. |
- |
20.9 |
12 |
y on -reducing sugar.
In order to determine whether any non-reducing sugar was- fornied, to 50 c.c. of calcium sugar concentrated to a thick syrup, BaH^O^ solution was added. A small amount o^ white precipitate Avas formed. This was filtered, washed, and treated with CO2. The filtrate contained a non-reducing sugar, giving reduction after boiling with a drop of H^SO^, and pink with resorcin and HCL, but no reaction with phenylhydrazin. Hence a small amount of disaccharide resembling cane sugar is formed, but the percentage is much less than 1%, and is greater if the boiling is prolonged during the production of sugar.
In sugar synthesis by Ba and Sr, a small amount of ppt. always forms, which does not dissolve even if boiled with excess of CH^O. It yields sugar after treatment with CO^, and is apparently a com- pound of a disaccharide with BaH„0.,, or Sr HoO^. The amount is always small if the sugar condensation is carried out under proper conditions.
Fischer has shown that in the presence of acids condensation of disaccharides from mono-saccharides, particularly from levulose, is: possible, and it seems probable that any disaccharides formed are not produced by directly polymerisation from CHgO, but indirectly from the monosaccharides. Hence their appearance Avould not neces- sarily increase the apparent polymerising action of the alkali.
Reducing power of sugar si/rup.
Although the synthetic syrup contains a mixture of sugars, it is of some interest to determine its reducing power in glucose equiva- lents.
The syrups were formed l>y running 4.9% potassium hydrate into boiling formaldehyde, containing calcium formate.
9
180 A. J. Etvart:
10 per cent. 31.5 per cent. Aniount req.
Water Ca formate CHqO of 4.!) per cent. KHO
A — 750 - 15 c.c. - 15 c c. - 27.0 c.c.
B— 750' - 25 c.c. - ] 5 c.c. - 29.5 c.c.
10 c.c. of A were diluted to 50 c.c. with 10% NHJ^O. and titrated :against 50 c.c. of Pavy's solution (8.316 grams copper sulphate -per litre).
34.7 c.c. neutralised 50 c.c. of Pavy. There was no increase in the reducing power after boiling with citric acid.
After heating with 1 drop of HCl., S^.o c.c. reduced 50 c.c. of Pavy
After heating with 5 drop.s of HCl., 35.-4 c.c. = 50 of Pavy.
After heating with 10 drops, 44.5 c.c. decolorised 50 c.c. of Pavy.
Hence a trace of non-reducing sugar may be present capable of inversion by HCl, but excess of HCl causes the decomposition of some of the sugar.
Repeating A and B several times, the maximal reducing action •obtained was 33.5 c.c. =50 c.c. Pavy = 0.025 gram glucose, and, therefore, the total bulk of 805 c.c. of syrup had a total reducing power equivalent to 1.348 gram of glucose. Since 15c.c. of 51.5% CH::0 were used ; in? terms of glucose this would represent a sugar polymerisation of 29%.
In a test with caustic soda alone, 35% caustic soda was run into boiling 31.5% CH^O. A yellow tinge appeared at once, but to neutralise all the formaldehyde 25 c.c. of 31.5% CHoO required 14.8 c.c. of 35% NaHO. As 14.8 c.c. are equivalent to 23 c.c. of CH5O, this represents a theoretical polymerisation of 8%. The liquid contained reducing sugar equivalent to 0.13 gram of glucose, which represents a polymerisation in terms of glucose of 2%. Owing to tlie strength of the alkali used, however, much of the «ugar formed is caramelised.
21ie action of alkali'- s on the polymers of formal dthyde.
The concentrated aqneous solution of CH.^O is supposed not only to
C) _ Y\
C(mtain volatile CH.^0, but also hydrates such ms CH.^_.j_tt, and
(CH/,/^0(0H)2. The latter is a non-volatile polyhydrate which leaves a waxy' solid on complete evaporation, supposed to be difor- maldehyde, " paraformaldeliyde " (CHoO)^. The better known Iriformaldehyde or metaformaldehyde (CHoO)g is stated to be dis- "tinffuished from diformaldehvde by its subliming just over 100°C., whereas its M.P. is 171-172 "C.. and by its insolubility in water, alcohol and ether.
Synthesis of Sugar 181
Jii contact with peroxides of Ba or Sr, and water, polymerised .formaldehydes are catalytically changed into- the simple form, and .much heat evolved.
Tliere appears to be some uncertainty as to the real nature of "paraformaldehyde," and as to how best to obtain it in pure form.
If a saturated solution of formaldehyde is evaporated by rapid boiling to i its bulk, or a 30°/ to i its bulk, and then allowed to
f 5 I '"6
cool, it sets as a white waxy solid. A solution containing 175 90°C., then giving off water and CH^O, recondensing as a solution grams of CIIo'O yielded 122 grams of this solid. It melt.s at of CHjO. or escaping as gases. In a desiccator or in air it slowlj" loses water and CHjO ; after three weeks in a desiccator, losing 36% of its weight. If heated to just over 100° c.c. it boils, and .after all the water has been driven off the residue sets to a harder waxy solid, Avith a specific gravity slightly greater than the hydrate {1.2). Ihis gives off CH^O vapour when heated.
Apparently the first solid obtained is the polyhydrate. This is, however, unstable. After two to three weeks in a dessicator, fre- quently exhausted by a Geryck pump, a considerable loss of water and CH^O takes place (nearly 40%), and the residue sublimes on heating. The solid lost on the average 0.8% of its weight daily, until 38% has been lost, by which time the daily loss liad' fallen to 0.2O//.
Botli the polyhydrate and the " paraformaldehyde," when in mass, remain incompletely dissolved in cold ether, alcohol or water, even after three days, but in hot water or alcohol dissolve rapidly. On cooling the alcoholic solution, a larger proportion of white solid separates out, which blackens and gives a smell of ether, with warm strong HflSO^, and decomposes on heating. It is apparently a compound of CH|,0, with alcohol.
In the intermediate condition between hydrate and C.^H'^O.,. changes to CH^O when heated in water to 130°C. Samples of CjHeOa prepared in various ways, were all found to dissolve slowly, after prolonged heating in excess of boiling water,, when in the form of a fine powder. Large pieces, however, give for a con- siderable time the appearance of being insoluble.
In the intermediate condition between hydrate and CjHgOg. it dissolves more readily in hot water than CjHgOg. melts partiallv before subliming, and sublimes into oily drops, which set to a white wax on cooling. When conversion is complete the C3H^0, sublimes without melting, and deposits as a white solid. Xcs'^^^A/
i^
^ ^m^
4
I LU LIBRARY
182 A. J. Ewart:
The i>roduction of sugar from solids.
If dry (CHjOjj is mixed with crystalline Barium hydrate (Ba HoOo 8 H2O) and ground intimately in a mortar, a pasty mass is- obtained, smelling of CHoO. If this is gently warmed at one point a sudden and violent exothermic reaction spreads through the mass, CHoO, water vapour and n)ethyl alcohol are given off, and the teimperature rises, to lOCC. oi-* llO'C. if a large mass is used, witk, an excess of barium hydrate. The resulting brown, gummy residue- contains no formaldehyde, but reducing sugar appears.
Similar reactions are given with strontium hydrate, but with dry calcium hydrate tlie reaction is imperfect. " Paraformalde- hyde" and the solid polyhydrate may be used instead of metafor- maldehyde. In the latter case the temperature does not rise beyond' lOO^C owing to the large escape of steam.
Metaformaldehyde and alkali.
The solid was ground with dry barium liydrate in varying mole- cular proportions, and the j^asty mass weighed out to contain in each case 0.45 gram (CH20)3, After warming, the residue was dis- solved in Avarm Avater, the Barium formate and any excess of Barium hydrate precipitated as sulphate, and the filtrate tested by the Pavy method. Any (CHjO), remaining is filtered off with the Barium sulphate, and if any CH,-0 is present, the ammonia used' the Pavy method. (Any (CHiO)^ remaining filtered off witli tlie affect the tests for reducing sugar. Similarly the formic acid is converted into ammonium formate. As a matter of fact the reaction is a very complete one, and with the proper proportion of barium hydrate every trace of formaldehyde is removed.
Tlie following proportions were used : —
A and B. 1 Barium hydrate (0 80 otmiii) to 1.8 (CH.,0)3 (0.45 gram) C 1 „ „ (0.42 „ ) to 3.6 (CH2O), (0.45 gram)
D and E. 1 „ „ (0.28 „ ) to 5.4 (CH,,0)3 (0.45 gram)
with the foUowinsx results —
|
I" |
roportion |
Final reaction |
T/Oss of weiu-ht after warmiii;,' |
Mass |
Reducing equivalent in fflncose |
|
|
A. |
1 : 1.8 |
Strongly alk. |
0.21 |
Brown |
0.075 |
gram |
|
B. |
1 : 1.8 |
,, ,, |
0.23 |
,, |
0 074 |
,, |
|
C. |
1 : 3.6 |
Less |
0.23 |
Yellow |
0.073 |
,, . |
|
D. |
1 : 5.4 |
Weakly alk. |
0.17 |
White or |
0.061 |
,, |
5.4 „ „ U.14 pale yellow 0.0G6
Synthesis of Sugar 183
In B and E the separated ground solids were mixed liglitly but thoroughly, and then Avarmed. In E the mass was mixed and .ground with a glass pestle, while the reaction was taking place.
Further investigation showed, however, that to obtain maximum polymerisation, with a minimum loss, quantities totalling not less than 2 grams must be used. Otherwise the reaction is not so com- plete, and hence the low production of sugar above. The results of three tests ares given, the second with a sample of (CH20)3 oh- tained from thel Chemistry School, the first and third with samples prepared from a bulk sample supplied by Cuming, Smith's, and purified by sublimation. The proportions used) were approxi- mately 4 of (CHoO).-. to V Ba H2O2. In all three cases the residue was brown, contained no formaldehyde, and was weakly alkaline.
Reduction equivalent of residue in CH2O3 BaHoO.2 I.ogs of weight terms of glucose
1.25 gram - 0.78 gram - 0.38 gi'ara - 0.37 gram
1.25 „ - 0.78 „ - 0.33 „ - 0.39 „
2.5 „ - 1.56 „ - 0.78 „ - 0.72 ,,
Ihis represents a polymerisation ecpiivalent in terms of glucose fO'f 30 to 32%. Tlie maximum polymerisation in terms of glucose obtained when using boiling dilute formaldehyde was 29 to 30%. That is, in spite of the loss of ifoimaldehyde vapour, more sugar i» obtained from solid metaformaldehyde and crystalline barium liydrate than wlien the reaction is carried out with dilute solutions in water.
The last experiment (with 2.5 grams) Avas carried out in a small distilling flask. The distillate^ weighed 0.45 gram, so that appar- ently at least J of the formaldehyde is lost as vapour. This Avould increase the actual polymerisation value in terms of glucose to '36o/o.
Even if an e^ccess of Barium hydrate is used, so that no trace of formaldehyde^ remains in the residue, the filtered extract gives dis- tinct aldehyde reactions, and lience presumal)ly contains the biose 'Sugar, glycollic aldehyde.
Paraformdldeltydf. and the, polyli ydrate.
Tlie former Avas prepared by melting the latter and heating till Avater vapour ceased to escape. Similar results Avere obtained, but "the production of sugar Avas less, and the hydrate gave off more ^water va2:)our during the strongly exothermic reaction.
]84 A. J. Ewart :
Glucose equivalent Per cent.
Lo.s3 of ol: reducing polymerization >
(CHoO).2H.,0 Alkali weiijht sugar in terms of glucose-
2.09 gram SrH ,0.^ 0.8 gram 0.63 gram 0.35 17%
1.53 „ BaH.,02=l „ 0.55 „ 0.34 22%
1.69 „ NaHO 0.5 ,. 0.74 „ 0.08 5%
(CHaOa
1.25 „ BaH^Oa 1 „ 0.41 ., 0.33 26^^
In each case the amount of alkali was sufficient to remove alh the formaldehyde. When sodium hydrate and the polyhydrate are- pounded together, the reaction starts spontaneously, and is very violent. There is a heavy loss of formaldehyde vapour, and much: of the sugar is caramelised. For this reason the percentage poly- merisation is less than when a boiling dilute solution of formalde- hyde is neutralised with dilute sodiimi hydrate.
If tlie reaction is started by locally warming several grams of the mixture in a small distilling flask, a large amount of distillate is obtained witliout applying further heat. This consists in the case of the polyhydrate (and crystalline Ba H.^Oo) of water, methyl" alcohol and formaldehyde.
If a slight excess of the polydrate is used, the whole of the BaH202 is converted into barium formate. Tliis can be obtained by dissolving the residue in a little water, and adding an equal bulk of alcohol. A large part of the sugar slowly settles out with some barium formate. On filtering after 48 hours standing, and doubling the bulk in the alcohol, a second ppt., mainly of barium formate, is produced, which, can <'asily be washed and purified.
A point worth noting is that if the finely ground polyhydrate is mixed thoroughly Avith finely ground crystalline barium hydrate, the mixture smells strongly of formaldehyde, and its temperature falls 15°C. for some time. The temj^erature then slowly rises, Vmt not appreciably above that of the room. The mixture slowly develops traces of reducing sugar, but does not undergo any com- plete reaction even after days in contact, until this is started by heating one j^oint of the mixture.
A similar preliminary fall of temperature is show^n with di- and tri-ninlecular formaldehyde. If, however, these are mixed witli freshly slaked dry quicklime, or with powdered calcined barium or strontium hydrates, the mixtuie remains dry, the fall" of temperature is hardly noticeable, and on heating the mixture locally the reaction does not spread. Only the parts heated turn brown, and methyl alcohol distils over (yielding methyl iodide with Iodine and red phosphorus). The residue contains an abundance
Sijn thesis of Sugar ISS-
of reducing sugar, but tlie reaction is imperfect, and is difficult to comi^lete without overheating portion of the mixture, or volati- lising much of the formaldehyde.
It is the presence of water of crystallisation in the crystalline- barium hydrate which enables its reaction with solid polymers of formaldehyde to progress, and be completed throughout the whole mixture. Some of this water of crystallisation is liberated by mere- contact with solid formaldehyde.
Summary of Results.
Cold dilute solutions of formaldehyde yield with alkalies, format.<^s- and methyl alcohol, sugar polymerisation being inappreciable. The reaction is incomplete after months in contact.
Maximum sugar production is given with boiling liquids, and the reaction is completed almost instantaneously.
The maximum sugar polymerisation varies from 68% (Ca), 60%. Ba, 65% 8r. to 58% Mg. for divalent alkalies, and from 14% (K) to 8% (Na) for monovalent alkalies. The high polymerisation value- (68%) estimated from the amount of alkali required for neutralisa- tion indicates either that tlie pentoses and hexoses are produced directly, or that glycollic aldehyde is produced by the reaction yielding formates, an^l 3 or 4 of formaldehyde added to it without further decomposition of formaldeliyde. Tliis is also indicated by the appearance of pentoses. Polymerisation of biose Avould yield tetroses or hexoses, but not pentoses.
The greatly increased polymerisation when soda is run into a solution of formaldehyde containing calcium' formate is merely due to the fact that calcium hydrate becomes the polymerising agent,, and as a divalent metal exercises a greater polymerising action. There is no evidence of any katalytic action, as was formerly sup- posed.
In terms of glucose, the reducing sugars produced represented a polymerisation of 29% for calcium, and 2% for sodium. Appar- ently the sugars have half the reducing power of glucose.
The solid polymers of formaldehyde yield sugar readily, and abundantly, Avhen in contact with solid alkalies. The most com- plete reaction its shown with the powdered crystalline hydrates of Ba and Sr. A feeble endothermic reaction precedes the violent exothermic one. The production of sugar is greater than with solu- tions, the polymerisation equivalent in terms of glucose being 30-32%.
In all cases the sugar is a by-prodiict in a reaction, yielding for-
186 A. J. Eiuart:
mates and methyl alcoliol. The alkali is used up and the amount of sugar formed is proportionate to the amount of alkali consumed. The reaction is, therefore, widely different from an enzymatic one. No mode of enzymatically polymerising formaldehyde to sugar is known, such as might occur in plants.
Conclusions.
The foregoing research was undertaken in order to elucidate cer- tain points of interest to the plant physiologist concerning the possible modes in which plants could synthesize sugar from formal- dehyde, which the purely chemical researches available did not appear to answer. It has led me to the conclusion tliat a produc- tion of formaldehyde does not form a stage in tlie synthesis of «ugar by plants, and that it would be a very wasteful, indirect way of producing sugar.
The reasons on which this conclusion are based are as follow : —
(1) In 1908 I showed that when chlorophyll was oxidised in the presence of light, and in the absence of carbon-dioxide, one of its decomposition products Avas formaldehyde, and that tliis was the explanation of the appearance of traces of formaldehyde in green leaves exposed to light. This result has been confirniel by Schryver .and by Jorgensen and Kidd.* Schryver stated tliat more t'ormal- idehyde was produced when carbon dioxide was present, but as the results of experiments extending now over ten years, there can he
-no doubt that the process is purely one of photo-chemical oxidation, and is not increased by the presence of COo.
(2) There are strong reasons for concluding that alkalies do not polymerise formaldehyde to sugar, oi- only to a very .slight extent, but inst?ad produce methyl alcohol an>\ formates. Pronounced su^ar formation only takes place when the alkali acts on a polymer, such as parafornuildehyde, the polyhydrate, or metaformaldeliyde. The production of sugar from a solution of formaldehyde mainly depends on the presence of the polyhydrate in tlie solution. With cold dilute solutions the production of sugar is almost negligible. For a complete reaction and higli polymerisation a temperature of OCC. to lOO'^C. is necessary. Even then tlie polymerisation is only partial, and formates and methyl alcohol are formed in large .amount. These are not known to accompany photosynthesis in plants.
* Ewart, Proc. Royal Soc. Loud., B 1908, Vol. SO, p. 30; Schryver, ibid. 1910, 82, \\ 226; Jorgcnson and Kidd, ibid. 1917, 89, p. 342.
Synthesis of Sugar 187
(3) Evtn-y method of polymerising formaldehyde to sugar yields * mixture of sugars, in which pentoses are included, and often form the main yield. Pentoses are not direct products of photo- gynthcsis in plants, but instead hexoses and their 6 or 12 carbon derivatives, starch and polysaccharides.
(4) It is as easy for the plant to produce sugar directly as to produce formaldehyde. Tlius taking the process in three stages —
/ CO,, + H,0 = C H O + HO + 0
) C0, + H0 + H,0 = CH,H0 + 30
j CHO + CH.HO =^J^^(). Biose sugar, -or in one stage : —
2CO, + 3H.O=°20jjO + 20,
The. equation could also be represented as in 1, 2, 3.
/H
(1) 2CO, + 2H.,0=C=0 + HA + 02
(2)
|
0=0 |
||
|
\h |
||
|
2C0,+ |
HA=C-H +30 |
|
|
\0-H |
||
|
( I |
:;-o-H N IH |
|
|
0=0 |
HH C-O-H 0=0 |
|
|
1 |
+ 1 =2 \ |
|
|
0=0 |
0-0- li 0-0 |
|
|
\H |
K K H |
l\ H H |
(3) I +1 =2 I Biose.
" H
^5) This Biose sugar (glycoUic aldehyde) is readily polymerised •oy sodium carbonate to acrose, a hexose.sugai'.
(6) This mode of producing sugar -would be endothermic, as in the plant. The production of sugar from the polymers of formaldehyde involves an exothermic reaction which, under appropriate condi- tions, is very violent.
(7) Magnesium hydrate has a slowcj- polymerising action on for- maldehyde than' any other metallic alkali. Since the presence of magnesium in chloro^jhyll is hardly accidental, its relations to
^glycoUic aldehyde when it is in organic combination merit future
188 A. J. Etvart:
investigation. For it to be able to act as a polymeriser in the* plant, it must act in ferment fashion without itself being altered or brought permanently into different combination. That is the- polymerising action must differ Midely from that of alkalies on for- maldehyde and its polymers.
(8) If photosynthesis involves an actual combination of chloro- phyll and carbon dioxide, which combination is distintegrated by light into chlorophyll and carbohydrate, hexoses would be formed as readily directly as through the intervention of biose and the- chlorophyll would act as a lytase or carboxidase enzyme.* Its mode of action in producing glycollic aldehyde would also be that of ara enzyme.
* Proc. Royal Soc. of Vict. 191S, Vol. xxx. p. 20S.
[Proo. Eot. Sqc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), P'f- H-, 1920].
Art. XIV. — Contributions to the Flora of Australia, No. ^8'..
BY
ALFRED J. EWART, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.
(Govorniiient Botanist of Victoria and Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the Melbourne University).
AND
J. R. TOVEY,
(Assistant, National Harbarium, Melbourne).
(With Plate XII.) [Read October 9th, 1919.]
Acacia dawsoni, R. T. Baker. (Leguniinosae). Mi,tta Mitta, Mr. Clinton, Nov., 1918. New for Victoria.
Acacia lkprosa, Sieb. "Leper Acacia." (Leguniinosae). Between Eaglehawk and Sydney Flat, Victoria, David J. Paton,. August 23rd, 1919. An unrecorded locality in Victoria for this; plant.
Adriaxa, Gaud. (Euphorbiaceae). Pax in Engler's Pflanzenreich, IV., 147-11., pp. IT to 21 (1910) practically agrees with Bemtliam's arrangement of th© genus- Adriana . Maiden, in his Census of New South Wales Plants, fol- lows them.
Bistrihution of Adriana.
A. glabkata. Gaud. V., N.S.W., Q., N.A.
A. GLABKATA, var. acerifolla, Pax. (A. acerifolia, Hook). v., N.S.W., Q.
A. GLABRATA, var. Cunnirighamii, Mill. Arg. V.
A. GLABRATA, heteropliylla, Miill. Arg. V.
A. TOMKNTOSA, Gaud. W. A., N.A.
A. HooKKRi, Miill. Arg. (inch 2 varieties). V.
A. Q u A* Ri PARTITA, (Lab.) Gaud. W.A., T., V.
A. Klqtzschii, (F. v. M.) JNIiill. Arg. S.A., V.
190 Eivart and Tovey :
In Mueller's Second Census, the foregoing species are reduced to two, but as they are all readily distinguished from one another :they must l^e kept separate.
Agkostis lachnantha, Nees. (Gramineae).
Dookie, Victoria, W. D. Wilson. February, 1911. Canterbury and Mitchani, Victoria, R. Ardagh, December, 1918.
Ihis useful pasture grass, a native of South Africa, is now apparently establishing itself as a naturalised alien in Victoria.
AizooN ZYGOPHYLLOIDES, F. V. M. (Aizoaccae).
This species was recorded in the Victorian Naturalist, Vol. XVII., p. 203 (1901), as being new for Victoria. This was evi- dently an error, as the specimens from Corio Bay, Geelong, Jan., 1901. on which the lecord was founded, proved on examination to be Mesembryanthemum angulatum, Thunb., a native of South Africa, which has Ijeen recorded as an introduction at Coode Island, in Victoria. (Collected by J. R. Tovey, 1908.) Aizoon zygophyl- loides is only found in West and South Australia. New South Wales and Queensland.
Alhagi camelorum, Fisch. " Camel Thorn " (Leguminosae).
Tongala Irrigation District, Victoria. E. Kendall, 13/1/1920.
This plant, a native of Central Asia and the Orient, was pre- viously recorded as growing wild in Victoria from the North- •eastern district. It is now evidently spreading westward.
Amakanthus deflkxus, L. (Amarantaceae).
Elwood, Victoria, E. J. Semmens, November, 1917.
Another locality in Victoria for this weed. It is a native of Europe, and is now apparently in the process of naturalisation in this State.
Akundo Phragmites, L. (Pliragmites communis., Trin.) "Common Reed." (Gramineae).
Daly River, Northern Territory, May, 1919.
Probably fairly common in the Northern Territory, but only previously recorded from Port Darwin, M. Holtze, 1889. It may possibly in some casep be included under the name Arundo Rox- burghii, F. v. M. The plant is used for thatching hay ricks and :sheds in Victoria. It has a certain fodder value V'hen young, .-and mav have other economic uses.
Flora of Australia. 19 K
Bassia quinquecuspis, F. v. M. var. villosa, Bentli. (Anisncantlui
inuricata, Moq.) var. villosa, Benth. "Spear-fruited Saltbusli".
(Chenopodiaceae).
SedgAvick, near Bendigo, E. J. Semmens. 24/10/1919; Numur- kah Shire, per Department of Agriculture, Nov., 1919.
This plant is now evidently spreading eastward in Victoria, hav-- ing been previously recorded from the North-West District only.
Brachycomi': microcaupa, F. v. M. (Conipositae). Ti-tree Creek to Orbost, Mr. Sayer. 1887, Cann River. H. B'. Williamson, Jan., 1918, New for Victoria.
Bromus Cebadilla, Steud. "Chilian Brorae Glass" (Gramineae).
East Caulfield, G^o. Seymour, 17/12/1919.
This grass, a native of Chili, may be classed as an exotic not yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised.
Buchanania oblongifolia, W.V. Fitzg. Royal Society of W.A., III., p. 65, 1918. (Anacardiaceae).
A specimen from Robinson River, King's Sound, 1888, G. Poulton, was identified by Mr. Fitzgerald as B. oblongifolia before this species was published. It agrees with the specimens quoted in the Flora of the Northern Territory, pp. 171-172, as Buchanania Muelli var pilosa. The specimens hardly appear to be suffi- ciently distinct from the forms of Buchanania Muelleri to justify raising a new species, B. oblongifolia, W. v. F.
Caleana minor, R. Br. "Small Duck Orchid" (Orchidaceae).
Sperm-whale Head, South-east of Lake Victoria, Gippsland, T. S. Hart, 12/12/1919.
This orchid has not been previously recorded so far east in Victoria.
Calochilus cuprkus, R. S. Rogers. "Copper Beard." (Orchidaceae)
A new orchid from South Australia, described by Dr. Rogers in the Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. of South Australia, col- lected for the first time in Victoria near Boronia Peak, Grampians,, bv J. W. Audas, 2/11/1918.
192 Eivart and Tovey :
Calostkmma purpureum, R.Br. " Garland Lily." (Hydrocharitaceae).
Lake Hattah, J. E. Dixon, April, 1910.
A definite locality in Victoria for this plant.
Cassytha. (Lauraceae).
In regard to the germination of seed of Cassytha, Mr, C. C. -Brittlebank writes as follows : —
" About eleven or twelve years ago, at Myrniong, I obtained numbers of young seedling plants in all stages of growth from seeds just sprouting, rooted seedlings, and even plants, which had become fixed to young gum twigs. In several seedlings, which had reached this stage, the lower part had withered, but in some cases the plant .had broken at the base. As to the conditions prevailing prior to and during the observations. A bush fire had passed through the stunted gum scrub, which was heavily loaded with Cassytha. Both host and parasite had been destroyed by the fire. Heavy rain fell shortly after, and continued to do so at intervals. The burnt gums sent out sprouts from their bases, and it was upon these young suckers that the more mature seedlings had become attached. This was the only time that I ever saw the seedlings of this plant, and it was due to this that I so carefully observed them." Evidently the germination of Cassytha is rare, owing to its hard seeds, and in this case the heat of the bush fire softened the seed coats and hence caused the absorption of water and germination of the seeds. The duration of the seeds in the" ."^oil is not known, but some buried in the soil of a pot for three years were found to be capable of ger- :minating after being filed.
Mr. T. S. Hart has also forwarded me seedlings of C.melantha, found growing wild near Bairnsdale, in Octolier, and apparently germinating naturally. It is possible that the difficulty of finding seedlings may be due to the fact that germination only takes place naturally during one month in the year, and that the rooted attach- ment is soon lost.
Casuarixa Helmsii. Ewart and Gordon, n.sp. (Casuarinaceae).
Gnarlbine, W. Australia, R. Helms, 12/11/91. Eucla, W. Aus- tralia, J. D. Batt, 1886. (See Plate XII.).
This plant was named C. humilis by Helms, but has terete instead • of angular branches. The following is the description : —
Flora oj Australia. 193
A small tree from 5-8 feet in height. Branchlets are from 4-4^ in., and branches slender. The sheath-teeth vary from six to seven in number.
Fruit cones are cylindrical, and very regular, about J-in. in -diameter, and 1-in. long. The valves do not protrude beyond the surface, which is nearly smooth, and quite glabrous.
The seeds are small and red. TheV are much more pointed than 'those of C. humilis, and smaller.
Deviations from C. humilis.
(1) Branches. — Ihese are much more slender, and the branchlets -are about twice as long, though with shorter internodes and smaller
diameter; they are also less angular than C. humilis. The colour ■ of the branchlets is more greenish than grey.
(2) Fruits. — The cones are shorter and less rugose, the valves and markings are more regularly arranged, and the valves do not open as widely. The seeds are small, red and pointed, while those of 'C. humilis are larger, black and blunt.
CoLLOMiA cocciNEA, Lehm. ex Benth. "Scarlet-flowered Collonda."
(Polemoniaceae).
Mandurang, Hintiraecku (without date), Bendigo, E. J. Sem- .mens, Nov., 1919.
This plant, a native of Chili, is an exotic, found growing wild, hnt not yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised.
Ckkpis sktosa, Hall, f. "Hairy Crepis." (Compositae).
Ballarat, Victoria, E. J. Seimnens, March, 1913.
This plant, a native of Europe and Asia Minor, may be classed .as an exotic, not yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised. It is a weed of cultivated and waste places, and takes up the place of useful vegetation, and should be suppressed.
Crowea saligna, Andr. (Rutaceae).
Pine Mountain, Upper Murray Kiver, Vic, C. Walker, Oct., 11891.
Cytisus linifolius, Lam. "Flax Broom." (Leguuiinosae),
Ruadsides, at Ararat, E. J. Semmens, October, 1918. Anothei Ideality in Victoria for this inti-f)duced plant.
194 Ewart and Tovey :
EcHiUM vioLACEUM, L., Of Echiuui plaiitagiueum, L. "Paterson's Curse." (Boragiiiaceae).
Aftfi- the last visit of the British Association some doubt was- raised as to the correct name for the above plant, and it was even suggested that it might be Echium italicum. The latter suggestion, was, however, naerely due to the plant having been seen in fruit only. To decide the former question specimens were submitted to Dr. Lacaita, who has been specialising on the genus Echium. In his reply given beneath, the decision is made that the name given to the plant by Bentham in 1869, and under which the plant was proclaimed, is not correct, and that the name should be Echium plantagineum. As the point is one of some importance. Dr. Lacaita's reasons are given in full : —
" As to Echium plantagineum and Echium violaceum, the plant often called violaceum, especially by English botanists, is, as you rightly say, identical with E. plantagineum, but it is not E. viola- ceum,L. The violaceum of Sp. PI. is a muddle of two species, quite unlike each otiiev, neither of which is E.jjlantagineum. The synonyms all refer to E.rubrum, Jacq., a' very distinct species. It is the only Echium with a clubbed instead of a trifid stigma. The definition of the genus lx)th in Bentham and Hooker, and in Engler, requires modification in that respect. But the observation describes a plant cultivated in Hort. Uppslana, which is represented by the specimen in the Linnean Herbarium. This plant is neither rubrum, nor, as pointed out by Moris in his Flora Sardoa long ago, is it E. plantagineum (E. violaceum auctt, plur.). Moris says it is very like tlie Sardinian (and Italian) plant known as E. pustulatum S. and S. It is very like it, but as far as I can form an opinion with- out dissection of the corolla, Avhich is inadmissable in Linnean type- specimen.><, it is more probably the Pcu'tuguese and Spanish E. rnsu- latum, Lange, which, to this day, is grown at Kew, and taken under the misnomer of " E. plantagineum," or " E. creticum."
It is curious that Linneaus should never have recognised E. rubrum, for there are three fine examples of it in his herbariimi,. two sheets being loose, l)ut the third is pinned to the sheet of E. italicum. None of these three sheets bears any writing of Linneus,. who left them undetermined.
E. plantagineum is always easilv recognised by — - 1. Plantain-like basal leaves. .
2. Amplexicaul upper leaves.
3. Peculiar thin texture of corolla in dried plant.
Flora of Australia. 195
4. Corolla glabrous, with long hairs on the nerves and
ciliate, not velvety pubeseent all over, as in all species for which it could be mistaken.
5. Leaf indumentum homogeneous; the tubercle at base of
hairs conspicuous or inconspicuous, but no carpet of
close short pubescence l^eneath them. It appears, therefore, that the name E. violaceum, under which Paterson"s Curse was originally proclaimed, must now revert to E. plantagineum L.
Eucalyptus Mitchklliana. Cambage. Willow Gum. (Myrtaceae).
Near Chalet, Buffalo Mountains. An addition to the Flora of Victoria. The j^lant was originally named E. Mitchelli, but this name is already pre-empted for a fossil Eucalyptus (Journ. Royal Soc. of N.S. Wales, Vol. LIL, p. 57, 1919.)
Eucalyptus Woollsiana, R. T. Baker. (Myrtaceae).
About seventeen miles east of Nowingi Railway Station, North- West Victoria. (L. G. Chandler, 24/9/1919.)
Ibis Eucalypt has not been previously recorded as growing indi- genously in Victoria.
Ficus MACROPHYLLA, Desf. "MoretoH Bay Fig." (Moraceae).
From the base of a large tree in the University grounds, in November, 1914, the bark was removed, and two inches of the outer wood. The tree attempted to send down roots from the cut surface ait one point. These were cut off. During the first two seasons the foliage of the tree was quite normal. Later the leaves began to fall more rapidly than new ones were produced, and branch after branch died. During the first season the amount of latex increased markedly, after the second season it steadily de- creased. The tree was not entirely dead until the declaration of Peace in May, 1919. It, therefore, lasted four and a-half years after being rung. During this time the wood remained moist and sappy to the heart of the tree, and it continued to grow on the upper part of the tree, above the ringing, but ceased to grow on the basal portion of the trunk. At the end of the four and a-half years the roots were- found to be entirelv dead, whereas above the ringing, the bark at one or two points still shewed signs of life. On examining the wood it was found that although the apparent rings
10
196 Ewart and Tovey :
are regular and well defined, they are not annual rings. The tree could not have been planted more than fifty-five years ago, probably not more than fifty years ago. On some of the projecting buttresses the rings totalled from 220 to 263. The smallest number between the buttresses was 121. The tree can. therefore, form two to four rings in one year. These narrow rings are formed of alternate layers of wood fibres mixed with vessels, and of thin walled, rounded, almost parenchymatous cells resembling somewhat tan- gential medullary rays. If the cross section is examined from a distance sufficient to obscure the narrow rings, the broader annual rings can be distinguished. The nuinl>er of these was 46, and in the buttresses they were broader and included more of the narrower ri ngss.
The death of the tree Avas due not to any interruption of the water supply, but to the starvation and death of the roots. The wood of the Moreton Bay fig apparently retains the power of con- ducting water indefinitely, or at least, up to an age of 40 or more years.
Gleichenia Hermanni, R. Br. = G. linearis, Clarke. (Filicales).
As there are no Victorian specimens of this plant, it cannot be retained in the Flora of Victoria.
GLEiciitiNiA laevigata (Willd), Hook. (Filicales).
There appears to have been some confusion legarding the nomen- clature of this fern. In " Hooker's Synopsis Filicum," G. laevi- gata is given as a synonym to G. iiagellaris, Sprengl., but in Chris- tensen's " Index Filicum," they are kept distinct. See also " Domin. Prod. Farnfl. Qld. 205, Rosenburgh, in his Handbook of Malayan Ferns, adoptsi G. laevigata, Hook, for the Malayan specimens. The typical G. flagellaris, Spreng. is a native of Mauri- tius only, whilst G. laevigata is a Malayan fern extending to Aus- tralia. Some specimens of G. laevigata have also been confused with G. flatellata, R. Br. — those labelled G. flaWlata and given in Bentham's Flora Australiensis, Vol. VII., p. 698 (1878) under Victorian localities, proved to be G. laevigata, Hooker.
The distribution of G. laevigata. Hook, and G. flabellata, R. Br., in Australia, appears to be limited to the Eastern and Northern portion — i.e., Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and Northern Australia.
Flora oi Australia. 197
Gnaphalium indicum, L. "Indian Cudweed." (Compositae).
Near Station Peak, Victoria, without collector's name or date. This species has not been recorded previously for Victoria.
•OooDENiA ARTHROTRicHA, F. V. M., ex Benth. Fl. Austr. IV. 62 (1869)
= G. Bonneyana, F. v. M., Fiagm. VI. 226 (1868), t. LI II..
(Goodeniaceae).
The above is given by Krause in Engler's Pflanzenreich IV., 277, p. 63 (1912).
The description of G. Bonneyana was published a year earlier than that of G. arthrotricha, hence G. Bonneyana has priority, and is therefore a valid species, with G. arthrotricha as a synonyrn.
Distribution. — Western Australia.
GooDENiA GENicuLATA, R.Bf. (Goodeniaceae).
. K. Krause. in his Monograph of the Goodeniaceae, in Engler's Pflanzenreich IV., 277, pp. 52, 3, I (1912), divides the above species into five different species, i.e., G. geniculata, R. Br., G. priniulacea, .Schlechtd., G. robusta, Krause, G. affinis, De Vriese, G. lanata, R. Br. Of these some of the forms of G. primulacea cannot Ije readily distinguished from some of those of G. geniculata, hence G. primulacea can only he considered to be a variety of G. genicu- lata, i.e., G. geniculata, R. Br. var. primulacea, Benth, as given in Benth, Fl. Aust. IV., p. 6.3 (1869).
Krause gives the distribution of G. primulacea from South Aus- tralian localities only, but we have specimens from Victorian and New South Wales localities, which agree exactly with the alx)ve, and must be placed under the variety primulacea.
The distribution of the foregoing species are : — G. geniculata, R. Br., South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland.
G. geniculata, var. primulacea, Benth, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales.
G. geniculata, var. heterophylla, F. M. Reader, Victoria.
G. robusta, Krause, South Australia, Victoria.
G. affinis, De Vriese, Western Australia.
G. lanata, R. Br., Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales.
GooDKNiA GRANDiFLORA, Sims. (Goodeniaceac). In Engler's Pflanzenreich IV., 277, p. 75 (1912), Krause reduces ■G. albiflora, Schl., G. Cliambersii, F.v.M., G. Macmillanii, F.v.M.,
198 Eivavt and Tovey :
an«l G. Nicholsonii, F.v.M., to varieties of G. grandiflora, Sims.
G. albitlora and G. Chauibersii seem to be fairly distinct, and? may for the present be classed as valid species.
G. Macmillanii and G. Nicholsonii may be placed as varieties of. G. grandiflora, thus adding this species to the list of Victorian- Flora..
Distribution.
G. grandiflora, Sims, Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, Northern Australia.
G. grandiflora, var. Macmillanii, Krause, Victoria.
G. grandiflora, vai'. Nicholsonii, Krause, South Australia.
Grevillka ramosissima, Meisn. " Branched Grevillea." (Proteaceae)
Buchan. East Gippsland, Miss Margaret McRae, 15/12/1919. This plant has only been previously recorded from the North- Eastern districts.
Grevillka rosmarinifolia, Cunn. "Rosemary Grevillea."
(Proteacea<>)-
Whipstick Scrub, Neilborough Road, north of Eaglehawk, Vic- 'toria, David J. Baton, 7/9/1919.
This species has usually reddish flowers, but the flowers of the- above specimen were of a greenish yellow colour, but turned a dark colour when drying.
Hakra flexilis, F. v. M. "Flexile Hakea " (Proteaceae). This is a valid species, and is a native of Victoria, New South' Wales and South Australia.
Hakea sericea, Schrad. (1795). (H. acicularis, R.Br., 1809). Hence H. sericea has priority over H. acicularis.
Helipterum microglossum, Maiden and Betche. (Conipositae).
As there are no Victorian specimens of this species, the name must be deleted from the Flora of Victoria.
Hybanthus filiformis, F. v. M. "Slender Violet." (Violaceae). Mitta Mitta, S. F. Clinton, Octol>er, 1919.
Not previously recorded for the North-Eastern district of Vic- toria.
Flora of Australia. 199
Hypolkpis tknuifolia, Benih. "Soft Hypolepia." (Filicales.)
Raymond Creek, near bridge of Old Cann Road, East Gippsland, (George E. Harrison, 1/1/1917.
This is a definite locality in Victoria for this plant.
Inula gravkolens, Desf. "Stinkwort." (Compositae).
NoAva Nowa, Gippsland, Victoria, Hon. James Cameron, April, 1919. This proclaimed pest is gradually extending eastward in thisi State.
IsoPOGON ANKMONlFOLius, Knight. "Tall Conebusli." (Proteaceae).
Near Providence Ponds, West of Fernbank Railway Station, Gippsland, Victoria, T. S. Hart, 15/11/1919.
A definite locality in Victoria for this plant. Although the plant is given in F. v. Mueller's Census, there were no specimens in the Herbarium, and Bentham gives it as from Xew South Wales only.
Jasminum lineahe, R.Br. " Desert Jasmin." (Oleaeeae).
North-east of Lake Hattah, Vic, J. E. Dixon, April, 1919. A .definite locality in Victoria foi- tjiis plant.
Lasiospekmum RAuiATUM, Trev. "Royal Down Flower." (Coinpo.sitae).
Near Ballarat, H. B. Williamson, Feb., 1914. This plant, a native of South Africa, has now apparently estab- lished itself as a naturalised alien in the above district.
LoRANTHUs (Lorantliaceae).
Hill's Northern Territory specimens No. 303 and 421, which ^ere labelled Loraiithus dictyophlebus, are considered by !Mv. Maiden to be Loranthus Exocarpi, Behr, var. spathulata, Blakely; also Hill's No. 539, labelled L. longiflorus, Desr., he considers to be L. 'Odontocalyx, F. v. M.
Loranthus longiflorus, Desr. "Long-flower Mistletoe." (Lorantliaceae).
Genoa, Victoria, Rev. A. J. Maher, Nov., 1918.
New for Victoria.
LoLiuM SUBULATUM, Vis. " Wimmera Rye Grass." (Gramineae). Nhill, January, 1919, A. J. Mullett. This is a new record as a naturalised alien in Victoria. It is
200 Ewavt and Tovey :
stated to have spread from a patcli planted near a dam t\Yenty- three years ago at xMinyip, and now covers several hundred acres. Il7 has been found at various localities in the Winimera, including Nhill, Warracknabeal, and has apparently been confused with some of the numerous forms of English Rye Grass. Italian Rye Grass, Western Wolths, etc.
It is a native of South Europe, but it does not apjDear to be common, or to have been investigated economically. Mr. MuUett informs me that it has a high carrying capacity for stock, main- tains itself readily by seed, but is injurious to wheat cultivation. The grass appears to be more vigorous and larger in the Wimmera than in its native home. Hence specimens were sent to Professor Hitchcock, United States Agrostologist, who confirms the above identification.
It is possible that forms might be raised from this grass suitable for Central Australian regions, as a drought resistant grass. In- formation in regard to the properties of this grass is given by Mr. ]\Iullett in the May number of the " Agricultural Journal of Victoria," 1919.
LONICEKA .TAPONICA, Thunb. (Caprifoliaceae). Ararat Creek, Narnargoon, Victoria. J. W. Audas, Nov., 1919 A garden escape spreading along the creek and possibly in the- process of naturalisation.
MiCROCAr.A FiMFORMS, HofF. and Link. " Slender Microcala." Langwarrin, Victoria, Ed. E. Pescott, Oct., 1919. A native of Europe, previously recorded as naturalised in the Western District of Victoria only.
IVIiCROCYBF, PAUciFLOTiA, Tiircz. (Rutaceae).
Localities.— Western Australia, Druumiond, 5th Cullection, n 209, South Coast, R. Brown, East Mount Barren, G. Maxwell.
South Australia. — Near Lake Hamilton, C. Wilhelmi ; Port Lin- coln, C. Wilhemi; Port Lincoln, S. S. Browne; Venus Bay, Col. Warburton; Kangaroo Island, 0. Tepper.
Victoria. — N.W. of Lake Albacutya. C. French, senr. ; Murray- ville, H. B. Williamson.
MiCROCVBK MLLTiFLOKA, Turcz. (Rutaceae). Localities. — Western Australia, Drununond 5tli Collection n. 211^ North of Sterling Range, and west of Blackwood River, Muir; be-
Flora of Australia. 201
tweeii Dundas Hills and Lake Lefroy, J. D. Batt; between Eucla and Fowler's Bay, Miss S. Brooke; Eucla. W. Webb, also J. D. Batt.
South Australia. — Moonta, Beythieri, Kangaroo Island, 0. Tep- per; Sedan, Rotlie.
Victoria. — Nhill. St. Eloy D'Alton; N.W. of Lake Albacutya and beyond Lake Hindmarsh, C. French; Malice, C. Walter; Wimmera, C. S. Sutton, C. French, junr.
M. MULTIFLOUA, var. baccliarioides. Near Fowler's Bay, W.A. E. Giles; near Port Eucla, W.A., For- rest; Gawler Ranges, S.A., Dr. Sullivan.
MicKOCYBE ALBiFLORA, Turcz. (Rutaceae).
Locality. — Western Australia; Drumanond, 5th Collection, n. 210.
The foregoing species were associated together by Baron von Mueller, under the lieading of Eriqstemon capitatus. The distinc- tion of Microcybe from Eriostemon is not only a convenient one, but ii» based upon clear and definite scientific distinctions. Of the three forms included by Baron von Mueller under E. capitatus, all are valid as distinct sipecies under Microcybe.
MuRALTiA Hkistkkia, D.C. "African Furze." (Polygalaceae).
Norton's Summit, about eight or nine miles from Adelaide, Sth. Australia, per A. G. Edquist, July, 1019.
This hardy evergreen shrub, native of South Africa, is evidently a garden escape, and may become a pest if allowed to spread.
MvosoTis AUSriiALis, R.Br. " Austral Forget-me-not." (Boraginaceae).
Wedderburn, Victoria, W. W. Watts, October, 1918. A new locality in Victoria for this plant.
NoTnoscoHDiiM FUAGRANs, Kuuth. "Wild Onion or Scented Nothoscordmu." (Liliaoeae. ) Cawley's Creek, Timboon, per W. A. N. Robertson, 23/10/1919. This plant, a ative of North America, recorded as a garden
202 Ewart avd Tovey :
escape in the Vict. Nat., XXIV., p. 193 (1905), may now be con- sidered to be established as a naturalised alien in this State.
OxAMS PURPURATA, Jacp. (Oxalidaceae).
Drouin, Victoria, Nov. 1919, C. French, Junr.
Recorded previously as a garden escape, and now reported as common at Drouin. This plant, a native of South Africa, is evi- dently in process of naturalisation.
Panicum parviflorum, R.Br. (Grainineae). , As there are no Victorian specimens of this plant, it must be deleted from the Flora of Victoria. Its original admission was due to an error. (See Vict. Nat. XXIV., p. 87, 1907.)
Phebalium obcokdatu.m, Cuiin. (Rutaceae).
Whipstick Scrub, Neilborough Road, North of Eaglehawk, Vic- toria, David J. Paton, 7/9/1919.
This species has only previously been recorded from New South* Wales. There is a specimen in the National Herbarium labelled in the late Baron von Mueller's handwriting as Eriostemon Mor- toni, from Sandhurst, Victoria, September, 1877, without collec- tor's name. E. Mortoni, F.v.M., is a synonym to Phebalium obcor- datum, Cunn. The Baron apparently neglected to record it for Victoria.
Phormujm tkn\x, Forster. "New Zealand Flav." (Liliaceae). Cawley's Creek, Timboon, per W. A. N. Robertson, 23/10/1919. This plant, a native of New Zealand, which is often cultivated in gardens, is stated to l>e growing wild at the above locality.
PiMKLKA FLAVA, R. Bi'. (Thy melaeaceae). Bentham gives the flowers as being male and female. In Moore's Flora of New South Wales, this character is used in diagnosis in the Keys. In a large number of specimens recently examined in class it was noticed uniformly that each head contained a numl)er of male flowers, and a few fruiting flowers, but that all the latter contained two well developed and apparently fertile stamens. The flowers ma}', therefore, be either male or hermaphrodite. Ihere appears, however, always to l>e a largt-r number of male flowers in the head than of the " female," or hermaphrodite, flowers.
Flora of Australia. 203
Plagianthus monoica (R. HeliMS M.S.). Ewart, n.sp. (Malvaceae). Near Lake Deboiali, We^t Australia. Collector, R. Helms, 1891.
This uiulescrilied plant had the above MS. name, without any author, attached. It is a shrubby plant, covered with a pale, close, short tonientum, easily rubbed off or scraped off, leaving a brown surface on the branches. The leaves are long, narrow, sessile, nearly linear, with ventrally inrolled edges, 3-5 centimetres long, averaging about 2 mms. broad. The flowers are in terminal leafy cymes, usually of 3-6 flowers. Carpels, 3, rarely 2, one- seeded. Styles 3 (or 2) forking dichotomously into 6 (or 4) (Ureneae). Flowers male and female. Staminal column bearing anthers to the summit (Malveae). In the female flowers the petals are stiff, scarious scales covered with liairs. In the male flowers the petals are normal.
Although the character of the styles is peculiar, the plant appears to behtng to Plagianthus. and it may be placed next to P. squamatus.
PoLYPO(;oN i.ittoralis, Sni. " Perennial Beardgrass." ((iSramineae). Fisherman's Bend, Port Melbourne, Victoria, A. O'Brien, 18/11/1919.
This species is a native of Europe; has been recorded as intro-
iluced in Queensland and West Australia. It has now made its
appearance in Victoria for the first time. In its native home it
grows 'n salt marshes along the sea coast. It is not likely to prove
•of much value as a pasture grass.
PuLTENAEA POLIFOMA, Cuun. "Dusky Bush Pea" (Leguuiinosae).
Mitta Mitta. S. F. Clinton, Nov., 1918. New for Victoria.
PuLTENAEA PROCUMBENS, Cunn. "Curl-leaf Bush Pea." (Leguniinosae).
Mitta Mitta. S. F. Clinton. Nov.. 1918. New for Victoria.
Ranunculus Muellkri, Benth. "Felted Buttercup." (Ranunculaceae).
"Flourbag." Bright-Oineo Road. 4600 ft., Nov. 20, 1918, D. J. Paton.
204 Ewart and Tovey :
In Ml-. Williamson's paper on doubtful Victorian Plant records,, it was pointed out that Ranunculus Muelleri \Yas only represented in the Herbarium from the doubtful locality, Munyang Mts., which might mean a New South Wales locality., VLv. D. J. Paton for- wards sjjecimens collected on the Onxeo side of Mt. Hothaui, which belong to Ranunculus Muelleri, and, therefore, give an undoubted Victorian record for this plant.
Setosa krecta, Ewart and Cookson. (Flora of the Northern Territory, lUlT, p. 33) =:Setos\ hoiidkace.\, Ewart. (Chamaeraphis
hordeacea, K.Br.)
The characters on which the distinction from Chamaeraphis are based are : —
Setosa :
Inflorescence a spike
Spikelets single to each a-.Tn
Glumes rigid
" Awn " very long and rigid
Styles fi'ee to the base
Staminodia .'3 in female flower.
Outermost small glume callous and truncate
Chaniaerapliis :
Inflorescence a panicle.
Spikelets two or more to each awn. very rarely one.
Glumes lax.
" Awn " short and soft.
Stj-les shortly united at the base.
Staminodia 2 in female flower.
Outermost small glume thin and membranous. Setosa represents the highest development of the peculiar mode of developing an aAvned spikelet, of which the beginnings are shown in Chamaeraphis, and in Setosa the spikelet, with its basal branch " awn," disarticulates very readily aind in one piece. In Chamae- raphis the spikelets disarticulate less readily and separately.
Setosa is strongly xerophilous. though usually growing near water.. Chamaeraphis is semi-aquatic.
Sor-ANUM vioL\CKUM, 11. Br. " Violet Nightslinde." (Solanaceae).
East Gippsland. Rev. A. J. Maher.
New for Victoria.
Flora of Australia. 205-
TjacHiNiuM ALOPECUROiDKUM, iiiiidl. "LongTiiils." (Aiiiariintaceae). .
" Lorquon " received from State School, No. 2590. 5/5/1919. A definite locality in Victoria for this plant.
Trichomanes PAitvuLtJM, Pojr. (Filicales). There are no Victorian specimens of this fern. The plants on which the original record was made proved on examination by the- Rev. W. W. Watts to be Umhrncuhtm- flahdlatum, Gottsche (Hepa- ticae) the two plants liaving an extraordinary external resembl- ance. T. parvuluiii must be deleted from the list of tlie Flora of Victoria.
TuiGLOCHiN CENTHOCAKPA (Hook) var. lonjt(icarpa. (Naiadaeeae).
Watlieroo Rabbit Fence, W.A., M. Koch, Septem]>er, 1905.
According to Ostenfeld, in Dansk Botanist, Arkiv. Bd. 2, page- 35, 1918, the above was included under I'riglochin centrocarpa. Hooker, in the collection by Max Koch.
Ulmis CAMPKSTRi.'!, L. "Conimon Elm." (Ulmaceae).
(Rate of growth.)
In the last number of the Contributions to the Flora of Australia,, some data were given in regaixl to the growth of this tree. One curious feature was an apparent contraction taking place during autumn and winter, after the cessation of growtli in circumference, followed by an expansion during a wet winter period (June-July). In these observations the bark was left untrimmed around the measurement line, and the tape used was standardised only at the commencement and close of the obseii'vations. According to Trowbridge and Weil (Science N. Series 48, 191S, pp. 348-550), trees vary both in length and in breadth according to the tempera- ture. Thus stems of Tilia europaea and Platanus orientalis in- crease in diameter slightly with a rise of temperature above 32 deg. F., but undergo marked transverse contraction with a fall of tem- perature below 32 deg. F. They conclude that the diameter of a tree is less when frost cracks are open than when they are closed, and that the cracks are due to this contraction and not to the ex- pansion of the fi'ozen water. The (juestion naturally arises whether' full precautions were taken to ensui-e that the measurements taken were ad'^^quately standardised. Trowbridge and Weil mention tliat
•206 Ewart and Tovey :
.the changes in circumference lag six to twenty-four hours behind the changes of temperature. Ihe temperature at the centre of the trunk of a large leafless tree is not, however, affected api^reciably by daily variations of temperature, and only responds slowly to a change in the average mean temperature.
In the measurements of the Elm taken in 1917-18, it was found that an apparent growth contraction took place in winter, and
vthat slight variations in circumference Avere shown fi'om time to time during the non-growing period. These measurements were taken with' a tape around a partially smoothed line.
To obtain moie accurate measurements a girdle of bark was re- moved, leaving a smooth surface close to the cork cambium. A standard length of 6 ft. 9 in. was marked by Dr. Baldwin, Govern-
jnent Astronomer, on the stone basement. After each measurement with a waxed tape it was extended over tlie standard, the increase over the standard giving the actual increment of growth. The tape was thus merely used to transfer the circumference of the stem to
■'the standard length, and not to measui-e it.
Ihe tape was kept in a dry room, and frt)m Novendx?r, 1918. to April, 1919, 6 ft. 9 in. on the tape corresponded to 6 ft. 9 in. on
:the standard. The tape then began to shorten, and most rapidly during May, until 6 ft. 9_V on the tape covered 6 ft. 9 in. on the standard, and on June IHth, 6 ft. 9y''^. By July 2nd the tape had
^shortened a further ^V of an inch. A similar tape kept in a damp cellar for a month shoi'tened ^ inch per 8ft. in this time, although the temperature was fairly constant. The effect is, therefore, due
•to the gradual absorption of moisture, the humidity of the air in-
kCreasing greatly in Melbourne during winter.
The deepening of the girdle on the tree reduced the circumference from 6 ft. 11| in. to 6 ft. 8f in.
In the previous year's measurements growth did not become per-
'ceptible until tlie first week in November, but here it began during the first week of Octolier. This was the same time as wlien the cambium began to divide in the previous years measurements, so that the removal of the cork ring allows the actual growth to become
■sooner perceptible externally. In 1918 growth ceased at the end of February, ]>ut in 1919 it continued until the middle of March.
'This w-as probably, however, the result of the exceptionally mild and favouiable autumn expeiienced in 1919. The total growth in 1917-1918 was 11 in., and in 1918-1919 U in.
|
Cor |
rectc'd t |
iirtli. |
Rate of Growth per month of 3U^ da.v.<! in |
|
Ft. |
in. |
t's''!- |
TS '"• |
|
6 |
8 |
12 |
nil. |
|
() |
8 |
13 |
nil. |
|
6 |
8 |
13 |
nil. |
|
6 |
8 |
u. |
- |
|
6 |
8 |
14 |
1.5 |
|
6 |
8 |
15 |
Z.o |
|
6 |
9 |
1 |
7.0 |
|
6 |
9 |
5 |
G.a |
|
6 |
9 |
7 |
8.6 |
|
6 |
9 |
9 |
5.5 |
|
6 |
9 |
11 |
5.0 |
|
6 |
9 |
14 |
4.3 |
|
6 |
10 |
0 |
4.6 |
|
6 |
10 |
■3 |
4.3 |
|
H |
10 |
5 |
2.9 |
|
6 |
10 |
5 |
nil. |
|
6 |
10 |
5 |
nil. |
|
6 |
10 |
5 |
nil. |
|
6 |
10 |
o |
nil. |
Flora of Australia. 20T
July 2(j, 1918 Aiiyust 16, 1918 September 21, 1918 - October 10, 1918 October 18, 1918 October 30, 1918 November 7, 1918 November 26, 1918 December 3, 1918 December 14, 1918 December 26, 1918 January 17, 1919 January 30, 1919 February 20, 1919 March 13, 1919 March 28, 1919 April 25, 1919 May 21, 1919 August 1 1919
Throughout the autuiun and winter there was no evidence of any expansion or contraction with changes of temperature within sl range of 45°F., (34'F.-79°F.), the static measurement being 6 ft. iOj-f in. On several occasions after rain had fallen and saturated the bark, corrected readings of 6.10 ^^were given (May 23rd, June 2nd, June 15th, June 3€th, etc.), but between these times the mea- surement reverted to 6 ft. 10_5_ in. It would be of interest to< know in detail the method of standardization adopted by Trow- bridge and Weil, and also what precautions were taken to dis- tinguish between variations' of girth due to moisture and those- supposed to be due to temperature. A variation of ^V in. in 6 ft. lOy^ in. is approximately 0.07%, and if it were due to tempera- ture, with a range of 45°F., it would represent 0.0017% per 1°F., which would in any case be negligable in dealing with a material like the trunk of tree. The view put forward by Trowbridge and Weil that frost cracks are due to the pronounced contraction of the- diameter of the tree and not to the expansion of frozen water merits further investigation.
Vkrbascum Blattakia, L. Spurious or Twiggy Mullein. (Scrophulariaceae).
In J. M. Black's Naturalised Flora of South Australia Ver-
In J. M. Black's Naturalised Floi-a of South Australia, Ver-
ralised aliens in South Australia, whereas in Victoria the only two-
,208 Eivart and Tovey.
recognised are V. Thapsus and V. Blattaria. There has always been some confusion between V. Blattaria and V. virgatuni. Thus Verbascum virgatum, Spreng. (Syst. 1, 621) = V. Blattaria. Verbascuni Blattaria, Veil =V. virgatum.
The true V. Blattaiia is that of Linnaeus Sp. PI. 178, a native of Europe and Asia, whereas V. virgatum was described by Stokes .(With. Bot. Arr. Brit, PI. ed. 11, 227), and appears to l>e originally a native of Europe only.
In Bentham's British Flora, V. vii-gatum is distinguished from V. Blattaria by (1) the more abundant glandular hairs, (2) the pedicels of the flowers ai-e shorter than the calyx, whereas in V. Blattaria they are longer; (3} there are usually 2-6 flowers to each bract.
If the Victorian specimens of V. Blattaria are sorted out into those with long and those with short pedicels, it will be found that the glandular pubescence varies in Ijoth series, and that there are .as many specimens of " V, virgatum," with one flower to each bract, as with two or more floAvers. If the specimens are sorted into " 1 flowered," and 2, or more, flowered specimens, the long stalked .and short stalked characters are completely mixed in both sets. Although V. virgatum is called the " Twiggy ^lullein," branching .specimens otherwise typical of V. Blattaria are quite common.
The only satisfactory conclusion is to regard V. virgatum as a variety of V. Blattaria, differing in one constant feature, the length • of the pedicel, as thus —
V. Blattaria, L. V. Blattaria, L. var. virgatum.
Flowers 1 to each bract Flowers 1 or 2 rarely up to 6 to
Pedicels longer than calyx or each bract.
bracts. Pedicels usually shorter than calyx
or bracts. Ihe variety virgatum is the commoner form in Victoria, but in ''Europe is of more restricted range than the typical V. Blattaria.
ViciA SEPiUM, L. " Busli Vetch." (Leguminosae).
Alston's Farm, S. Wychepronf, Vic, W. W. Watts, Sept., 1918.
Not previously recorded as a naturalised alien in Victoria, but probably often confused with Vicia sativa. Vicia sepium is natu- ralised in South Australia.
ZvGOPHYLi.UM BiLLARDiKRr, D.C. " Coast Twin Leaf." (Zygophyllaceae).
Wahgunyah. Murray River, G. H. Adcock, Sept. 11, 1919.
In the preparation of phylloxera resistant vines by grafting on
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XII.
Casuarina Helmsil, n sp
Flora of Australia. 209
.to resistant stocks, the grafts are at one stage packed in seaweed trucked from the coast, and washed at Wahgunyah. This has caused the appearance of several coastal plants at this inland locality, including tlie above, as well as Melilotus parviflorus and Salsola Kali.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII.
Casuarina Helmsii, Ewart and Gordon.
(a) Portion of branch.
(b) Branchlet with leaf-sheaths.
(c) Fruiting cone.
^d) Portion of same, magnified, ^e) Seeds.
[Pkoc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S ), Pt. 11., 1920.]
Art. X\'. — A revision of the genus Fultenaea, Fart 1.
BY. H. B. WILLIAMSON.
(With Plates XIII., XlV. aud XV.). [Keacl November 6th, 1919J.
It is only uatui'al that in large genera more confusion is likely to occur than in small ones, and some time ago Professor Ewart advised me that a general revision of the genus Pultenaea would probably yield protitable results, and was indeed urgently neces- sary. Ihe results of the first part of this investigation, based on the examination of the material at the National Herbarium. Mel- bourne, and of specimens received from the Government Botanists of the other States, are here given.
The genus Pultenaea is confined to Australia, and comprisenS 92 acknowledged species. Seventy-five species are described in Ben- tham's Flora Australiensis, two of which have been transferred to other genera, and one reduced to a variety. The species since described number 20, comprising those set up by Mueller (3). Tate (2), Black (2), Maiden (3), Maiden and Betche (2). Bailey (1), Baker (2), Scott (I), Andrews (1), Pritzel (1). and Hegel (1). No labelled, specimen of either of the last three is in the Herbarium.
The approximate distribution is — Queensland, 11 species; New South Wales, 45; Victoria, 37; Tasmania, 13; South Australia, 22;. and Western Australia, 22.
About half of the species are confined to one State; about 20 are recorded for two States, 10 for three States, and 6 species are widely spread — -four States. As with other genera,, few of the Western Australian species — two — occur east of the limits of that State, one of which extends to South-West Victoi'ia. It is worthy of note that in the Flora of the Northern Teri-itory, Ewart and Davies, 1017, the genus is not mentioned, and that very few records of Pultenaea exist for Western Australia outside the south-western district of tliat State.
While attenq^ting a revision of the genus in which, judging by evidence of labelled and unlabelled specimens in the National Herbarium, much confusion exists, it is not claimed that finality can now be reached with regard to certain groups, for the occur- rence of forms that seem to connect the members of those groups presents mucli difficulty. Considering the varying forms for example, of tht group known under Eupultenaea, an advocate for
Genus Pultenaea. 211
reduction of species could place five or six, including P. stricta^ P. retusa, P. Gunnii, under one species name, and cultural experi- ments may yet prove that they are not all valid species, but few Avould he bold enough to make such a drastic reduction.
Even if it were proposed to unite, say, the three mentioned,, which certainly are very close as regards floral structures, the work of the great systematists, Bentham, Smith, Hooker, Mueller and others, would be discredited, and their ideas of what constitute a species set at naught. Wliile recognising most of the species set up by these great workers, one's aim must be to realise their system, and to follow it in the light of later discoveries of forms unknown to thein. At the same time it is inevitable that in all such revisions of large genera, additional sj^ecies must be set up, consisting for the greater part of certain forms which have in error or for con- venience been placed as varieties, but which, if they liad been more- fully considered by the jiioneers of systematic botany, would have been given specific rank. Tlie author, recognising the fallacy of multiplying species unnecessarily, has in doubtful cases allowed' the varietal rank to stand. It is known that species may show varia- tions according to climatic and soil conditions, and it may be con ceded that the variations will be greatest or most likely to occur in the first named, and least in the last-named of the following : — Habit; colour of flower; size, shape and texture of leaf; size and shape of stipules ; arrangement of flowers ; size and -shape of bracts, bracteoles, calyx, ovary and seeds. So that in the case of Pultenaea a variation of ovary, whether stipitate or sessile, villous or glab- rous, shape of calyx, position and shape of bracteoles and bracts, are of more importance in determining a species than the habit, the shape aiul size of the leaves, or the colour or size of the corolla. In other words, if ovary, calyx, bracteoles and bracts are similar, a good deal of variation in habit or in leaf can be allowed wdthin the limits of a species, wh'^reas if habit, leaves, corolla and stipules are similar, a marked difference in the reproductive organs just named will justify the i-etting up of a species.
In the diagnostic drawings this has been kept in view, and they include besides sketches showing shape and size of leaves and stipules, drawings showing only the shape, size and relative posi- tion of calyx, bracteoles and bracts. No attempt is made to show the marginal curving of the leaf, or the nature of the indumentum. Regarding the corolla, one has only to read in descriptions the- oft-repeated " Standard twice as long as calyx," or " nearly
11
212 H. B. Williamson:
twice," " lower petals shorter " — tliis, by the way, is included in the description of the genus — " keel dark cohmred," etc., to feel iiow unimportant these parts are in determining a species of the ^enus. The fact that so many species of Pultenaea have been described in, the absence of pods seems to show that these are non- essential, though in the case of a plant without stipules, and with the bracteoles well away from the calyx tube, the examination of ripe seeds would be necessai-y to determine the genus.
Section EUPULTENAEA. Pultenaea e/aphnoieles, Wendl.
Varies much in foliage, the normal plant having leaves cuneate- •oblong, Avith a fine straight joint. Flowers in dense terminal heads, and bracteoles well up on the calyx
var. ohcordata Bth. has truncate leaves witli a prominent point. Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia.
var. parvi flora, n.v.
This has been placed under daplmoides and retusa, and among doubtful forms. It differs from the type in having cuneate-oblong leaves 4 to 6 lines long without a point, margins fiat or slightly incurved, mid-i ib obscure alwve.
Upper Murray district, C. French, Junr., 1886. Wildflower Show, 1919, no loc.
Pultenaea sfricfa, Sims.
A smaller shrub than P. daplmoides. witli smaller leaves, ovate- oblong, with recurved margins, and a small recurved point. Bracts numerous, glabrous, deciduous, with rounded point, outer ones bifid and shorter. Bracteoles high on the calyx, usually glabrous. I can find no constant variation from the type in var. incurvata, Ewart, from Frankston.
Pultenaea Maiden ii. Header. This differs from P. stricta in its long-pointed hairy bracteoles, fixed near the base of the calyx. The lower lobes are narroAv, longer than the tube, and almost setular pointed. The leaves are cuneate, thin and often conduplicate. Its nearest affinity is P. largifloreiis, F.v.M. — the broad-leaved form from South Australia — from "which it differs in having narrower cuneate leaves and a very dif- ferent calyx. It should retain specific rank.
Genus Pultenaea. 213
Pipe Head Watei-Avoiks, Hamilton, Vic, Collec-ted by the writer, 11/1904.
Pultenaea capitdlata, Sieb.
A species bearing a remarkable general resemblance to* P. pycno- .cepliala, F.v.M., and variously placed Avith that species, or with P. stricta, in which latter Beutham wrongly, included it.
Its minute stipules and high-adnate bracteoles place it right away from Mueller's specieti, although there is a specimen labelled by him " P. pyciiocephala F.v.M." From P. stricta it can be separated by its floAver heads, solid and almost globular, and very persistent bracts, broadly; ovate, densely covered with silky hairs, •except at the margin, bifid, with a narrow median point. Calyx lobes and bracteoles are setaceous. Leaves cuneate, slightly pointed. The specimen, "Port Jackson, Sieb, n. 313," Fl. Aust., p. 113. is this species, and not the plant figured by Sims, Bot. Mag. Sieber's name should be retained for it.
Braidwood District, Twofold Bay, N.S.W., and East Gippsland, Tic.
Pultenaea pycuocephala, F. v. M.
A remarkable species, with broadly-ovate coriaceous leaves, silky below, and with fiowei'S in dense globular heads, covered with imbricate, silky villous, persistent bracts. The bracteoles are long, Tery silky, villous, and are fixed quite under the calyx.
Bluff Mount, Poverty Point, Tenterfield, N.S.W.
Pultenaea refusa. Smith.
A species with calyx and bracteoles like those of P. stricta, but with shorter bracts, jnore falcate upper calyx lobes, and leaves linear to cuneate, sometimes emarginate.
Var. linophylla, Bentli. with longer leaves and longer calyx. Port Jackson 4
Var. longifolia, F.v.M., with leaves up to 1^ inches.
Specimens from E. Gippsland, with cuneate leaves, almost bi- lobed, 2 or 3 lines long, seam to Ix; included under the description in Bentham.
Specijmens from Hazelbrook. N.S.W. , Hamilton, and from Two- fold Bay, show leaves cuneate-oblong to obovate.
Queensland, XeAv South Wales and Eastern Victoria.
lU
214 H. B. Williamson :
I'uUtnata Benfhami , F.v.M.
Recorded only from tlie Grampians, Vic, with calyx, bracts and: bracteoles like those of P. daphnoides, but with rigid, almost linear, acute, or pungent leaves.
P alt en (It a Millari, Bailey.
A species with silky cuneate-ovate leaves, and flowers solitary in. the upper axils.
Stannary Hills, Herberton, Qld. var. auf/iisf /folia, n.v.
From Eidsvold, Qld., Dr. Bancroft, are specimens, wliich differ only from the type in having leaves narrow-lanceolate, with a more prominent point.
Pulfenaea myrtouhx, Cunn.
With leaves like those of P. Millari, but nearly glabrous. Flowers are in dense terminal, globular heads, with boat-shaped, bracteoles fixed }-ather low on the calyx.
New South Wales, Queensland.
I'ldteiKica i)oli./nJia, Cunn.
A Queensland species, with hairy linear leaves, and remarkably long petioles, and with bracteoles linear-subulate, fixed about the middle of the calyx tube. Flowers in dense teiminal heads.
Pultenaea peliolaris, Cunn.
A species with leaves linear to lanceolate, with a point sliglitly recurved. Its calyx lobes are fringed with silky hairs, as are also, the keeled bracteoles fixed well up on the calyx tube.
Pulfenaea mucroiiafd, F.v.M. = P. poll folia, Cunn, var. nmcronafa. This plant was described from specimens from Ovens River, Vic, and differs from P. jjolifolia only in having broader leaves, more villous branchlets, and less keeled bracteoles set rather lower on the calyx tul>e. Bentham says, "This may possibly prove to be a broad-leaved form of P. polifolia." In the light of evidence of intiermediate forms, including those from BatloAv and Nungatta, N.S.W., the species name, mucronata, can be suppi'essed, and all the forms included under P. polifolia.
Genus FiiUenaea. 215
Specimens from Blaeklieatli, N.S.W., witli cuneate mucroiiate leaves, and setaceous bracts, stipules and calyx loljes, can provi- ;sionally remain under var. mucronata.
Pultenaea Git/i/ii/, Bentli.
Although very variable in foliage, the small size of the calyx, bracts and bracteoles, and the constantly recurved edges of the leaves, keep it quite distinct fi'om P. stricta. " The larger leaved forms can always be distinguished from P. striata (stricta?) by the very much smaller bracts," (Bentham). These are scarcely ever longer than the very short pedicels, and the bracteoles are minute, of a dark colour, and set well up on the calyx. As regards flowers, it is nearest to P. microphylla. but that species has cuneate to linear- vcuneate leaves.
var. plani folia, F.v.M., a broad leaved form from Badger Head, las.
var. flava, Ewart, from Wandin, Vic, has light yellow flowers.
One or two forms which seem to connect this with P. stricta remain for further study,
Pulteiiaea microphi/IJa ^ Sieb.
A species from New South' Wales, with linear-cuneate leaves, and a smaller calyx than the last-named species. Tenterfield specimens have almost linear leaves, with lower face almost closed.
var. cuneata, Benth ; leaves are cuneatCTtruncate, '5 to 4 lines long, b'earing some resemblance to P. largiflorens, F.v.M., which latter may be distinguished by the large upper lip of its calyx.
New South Wales, Queensland.
Pultenaea ci/ierriftceits. Maiden and. Betche. = P. tnicropJu/lln var. cinerasceiis. As the only difference between this plant and P. microphylla, Sieb. is that of habit and foliage, it should not have received specific rank. Specimens of P. microphylla from Tenterfield show almost linear leaves. In Proc. Roy. Soc, N.S.W., XXXIII. 310, the authors admit that there is no marked difference of flowers or inflorescence, and that Gilgandra and Scone specimens arc liid\S -connecting the two alleged spec-ies. All these foims can n,ow w^'ll be grouped Tinder Sieber's species name. Warialda, X.S.W.
216 H. G. Williamson:
Fultenaea Draminondii , Meiss. A Western Australian species, with sliining yellowish scarious; bracts, and a peculiar calyx, Avith upper lol^es rounded, and united into a broad eniarginate lip.
Fultenaea Skinneri, F.v.M. A West<irn Australian species, with recurved mucronate leaves, reversed on the stem, and witli a large calyx 4 lines long, witli, bracteoles nearly as long, fixed well Ijelow the calyx tube.
Fultenaea //artmainii \ F.v.M.
A Queensland species, Mith leaves between those of P. scabra and P. retusa, but with minute stipules, remarkably small bracteoles- fixed at the base of the caly.\, and with longer calyx lobes than- those of P. retusa.
FulteiKtea pi/nfol/a, Meiss.
A Western Australian species, with narrow linear leaves, spreading stipules, and very deciduous bracts and bracteoles, tho latter being long, and fixed well below the calyx tul>e.
Fultenaea jjeduncnlafa, HK.
A prostrate shrub often matted, with flowers on filiform pedicels, often half inch long — in some Port Lincoln specimens one inch long. The calyx is almost glal)rous. with actiminate lobes, and the bracteoles are nearly as long, linear and below the calyx tube.
South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania.
[As there is .some discrepancy between the description of this species in Bentham's Flora, and that given in the Botanical Maga- zine, the matter will be discussed when dealing witli Pidtenaea Ausfieldii, Kegel, one of the forms that appear to have been in- cluded under P. pedunculata].
Prilfenaea cotiferta, Benth.
A Western Australian species, with short, linear, crowded leaves, and a remarkable calyx, with the upper lobes larsfe and free, and the loAvei' ones very much smaller.
Fultenaea pauc i flora , Scott.
A Western Australia species, with long white hairs on the young- foliage, and with incurved leaves linear-lanceolate, flat, but with
Genufi Pidtenuea. 217
thickened or sliglitly recurved margins, with mid-rib scarcely prominent below, tine pointed. The calyx has equal lol^es, and the bracteoles are free from the calyx. It belongs to section Empul- tenaea, near P. Drummondii. Narrogin Exp. Farm. Steward.
I'lilteiiafa scabra, K.Br.
Three very divergent forms have been united by Bentham in this sptvies : —
(a) 11. Brown's P. scabra. from the Blue Mountains (Sieb, n-
28G). with narrow-cuneate, truncate leaves, Avith a fine seta terminating the mid-rib, and with setaceous, spreading stipules, sometimes 'i lines long.
(b) Lindley's P. montana — P. scabra var. montana Bth. — the
common Victorian form, with minute stipules, and leaves obcordate or obvate, with no point, often with much recurved margins.
(c) R. Brown's P. biloba — P. scabra var. biloba, Bth. — with
leaves dilated and two lobed. with a short recurved
point. Brown's scabra and Lindley's plant are very distinct, but as- there is no marked difference in the flowers they may be kept under P. scabra, especially as the varying forms of the var. biloba present graduated intermediates.
Section ACTPHYLLUM.
This section — 3 species — is confined to Western Australia, and is- distinguished by peculiar transversely reticulate leaves.
['ulfcnaen aciphylJa, Benth — (P. recticulata Bth.) — with leaves ovate to linear-lanceolate, pungent. Pultenaea aspalafhnides, Meiss, witli leaves narrower than those of P. aciphylla, with a smaller calyx, larger bracteoles, and flowers crowded round with leaves.
Pultenaea ochreata. Meiss, distinguished from the two former by having shorter and broader leaves, with no point, and nearly orl)iculnr bracteoles.
Section EUCHILUS.
This section contains those species which have ternate or opposite leaves.
Pultenaea ohcordata, Benth.
A West Australian species, with obcordate, ternate, or opposite leaves, and a remarkable calyx, with its upper lobes almost orbicu- lar, and its lower lobes linear and much shorter.
!218 H. B, Williamson:
Pulfenaea rot inidi folia, Benth.
A West Australian species, with minute opposite leaves, rarely ■crowded, and flowers like those of P. olx-ordate, but on filiform pedicels often half-inch long.
Pidtenaea califcina, Benth.
A West Australian species, with opposite or ternate leaves, like those of P. retusa, and witli a calyx resembling that of P. obcor- •data, but witli larger, more separated upper lobes.
Pultenaea acuinindfa , \\. T. Baker.
■ A New South Wales species, Avith opposite leaves resembling those of P. Gunnii, with a very large calyx— about 4 lines — with a short tube, and long linear bracteoles fixed below the calyx tube. Byalong Creek, N.8.W.
PiiJluKica spniiihsa, Bentli.
A West Australian species, with opposite, ci'owded pungent leaves, reticulate below, and with a calyx having large, almost free, upper lobes, having subulate points, and with very narrow lower lobesj.
Pulfenaea fenelJa, Benth.
An Alpine species, with the habit and appearance of P. jialeacea Tar. sericea, but having ternate, concave leaves, and a long calyx ■with lobes longer than the tul>e.
Alp^; of Victoria.
Pulteiiaed Lxtelimatini , Maiden.
A slender trailing plant, remarkable for its filiform, opposite b)ranchlets, and distant leaves. Its terminal, head-like inflorescence •distinguishe..^ it fi'om all other species of the section. Its nearest affinity is P. tenella, but that species has axillary flowers, and a larger and a differently sliaped calyx.
Pipe Head. Hamilton Waterworks, Vic. Collected by the writer, Ts^ov., 1904.
Pultennea ci/mhifoHa, J. M. Black.
A Soutli Australian species, witli small, decussate, convex mucro- nate leaves, ratlier crowded, and a silky calyx like that of P. •calycina, with large upper lobes, united V>elow the middle, and Terv small subulate lower lolies.
Genus Pidtei\aea. ' 219
Kangaroo I., Andrews. A specimen was sent to the Herbarium in I880 by Miss Brookes, Mt. Kiigged to Victoria Springs, but was set aside bv Mueller for determination later.
Section COELOPH.YIXUM.
This section includes those species with alternate leaves, flattened, concave or terete.
Pultnuiea jler'dh^ Smith.
An almost glabious shrub with flat, or slightly concave leaves, glabrous calyx, with scarcely pointed lo])es shorter than the tube, flowers axillary on rather long pedicels, with lanceolate, pointed bracteoles lixed on the tube at the base, and ovary glabrous with a few long hairs at the top.
Victoria, New South Wales.
Specimens from Clarence River, Beckler, are labelled "P. flexllis var. mucronata," p. 135, Fl. Aust. They exactly match specimens from Giggo Range, and the Dandenongs, Vic, since determined by Muellei' as a variety of P. juniperina. These, as well as specimens from Pine Mount, N.E. District, Walter, having pubescent ovary, and bracts and Ijracteoles cf P. juniperina, must be referred to that rspecies.
Pulfenaca alfisslnw, F.v.M.
A species which has been wrongly united with P. flexilis, from which it differs in having its bracteoles ovate and free from the
•calyx, in which characters it agrees with P. obovata Benth.. its nearest affinity. It has also its flowers in terminal und:»el-like racemes, not axillary as in P. flexilis, and its leaves are linear- cuneate without points, and rarely over half-inch long. From P.
■obovata it differs in having a much smaller calyx with shorter lobes, and leaves' nariower. We should follow Bentham in keeping it a distinct sjiecies.
New South Wales, Twofold Bay, and Upper Genoa River; prob- ably occurs in East Gippsland.
Fidtenaea nhnvaftt, Benth.
A New Soutli Wales species, like P. flexilis, but with broad-ovate or broadly-cuneate leaves, tMo or three lines long, on rather long petioles, concave, light green above. Calyx, with lobes longer
220 H. B. Williamson :
than the tute. which distinguishes it from P. altissinia. and withi small ovate-orbicular bracteoles fixed below the calyx. Moona Eiver, Walcha, N.S.W.
Vulienaea paleacen Willd.
A species with linear leaves, long, scarious stipules, and dense terminal heads much covered witli long imbricate bracts. The calyx is silky, and bracteoles are ovate, and are fixed on the calyr tube. Port Jackson, var. obtusata, Benth, has broader cuneate, leaves; var. sericea, Benth, the form connnon near Melbourne, has- long, silky, white, scarious stipules and bracts.
Var. robusta, n.v. from Queensland (Gympie, Wellington Point), is a robust plant, differing only from var. sericea in hav- ing much larger leaves and flowers.
I'tiUcudKi W iUianisonI , Maiden. = P. paleacen, var. W iUiamsoni.
lliis plant must now be referred to P. paleacea. It is of stronger and more robust growth, though of the same habit. Tlie bracteoles are certainly wider and longer than in P. paleacea, but they are not constantly fixed at the very liase of the calyx, being often just above the base. There ai-e specimens from Wellington Point, Q..^ J. Wedd, which match the Victorian specimens in every respect, ex- cejjt that the bracteoles are smaller, and are fixed rather higher on the calyx tulje.
From P. stricta this plant is far removed by its habit, its re- markably large stipules, its large leaves, its large persistent bracts^ and the shape and position of its bracteoles.
Strathbogie, Vic, A. W. Vroland, Nov., 1904.
Wellington Point, Q., J. Wedd.
Pultenaea sf/piilaris. Smith.
A showy New South Wales species, easily distinguished by its^ straight, linear leaves, and very long stipules, calyx lobes, bracts, and bracteoles, tlie two last-named being hirsute with long hairs.
Port Jackson. Blue Mountains, N.S.W.
Pultenaea c/lahra, Benth.
A New South Wales species, with leaves like those of P. dentata,, and with few bracts. It can readily be distinguished by its pecul- lia.r calyx, and the absence of all hairs. The calyx has nearly equal!
Genus Pulteiiaea- 221'
lobes, acute and spreading, as long as the tube. Bracteoles broad- lanceolate fixed at the middle of the calyx tuln?. Blue Mountains, N.S.W.
Pxiltetiaea dentata, Labill.
A widespread species, with narrow-lanceolate concave leaves, and imbricate bracts, covering the dense heads in bud. The species- is easily determined by its bracteoles, which are ovate or oblontr. bifid, with a central subulate lobe, giving the summit a dentate- appearance.
New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania.
Piilftnaeo. suhiimhcllata , HK.
A specie.s Avith heads more capitate than subund>ellate, and flat, or slightly concave leaves, and a small hairy calyx, with hairy bracteoles well under the calyx. This last character, along with the- absence of stipules, makes it a connecting link between Pultenaea' and Latrobea diosmifolia, Bth. It has. however, strophiolate seeds.
New South Wales. Victoria, Tasmania.
Pultenaea iiicnrv(U<i, (_!unn.
Like P. subumbellata in the absence of stipules, and the position of bracteoles. but distinguished from that species by its generally larger leaves, incurved at the tips often wrinkled below. Its bracts- and bracteoles also are larger. Bi'own's specimens from Port' Jack- son are not incurvata. as lal>elled. Ijut subumbellata.
New South Wales only.
Pultenaea selaf/inoides, F.v.M.
A Tasmanian species allied to P. subumbellata. having very minute stipules, shorter, thicker, and more concave leaves, almost imbricate. The calyx is small and glabrous, with blunt and almost equal lobes. Bracteoles are lanceolate, concave, fixed under the- calyx. Flowers axillary, not capitate, as in P. subumbellata.
St. Paul's River, Tasmania..
Pultenaea euchila, D.C.
A plant that looks like a large form of P. flexilis, having larger flowers and leaves, and longer pedicels. It differs from P. flexilis in bracteoles. and calyx, the former l>eing linear-subulate, and
:222 H. B. Williamson:
inserted close under the calyx, and the latter being larger, with lobes longer than the tube, with the upper ones falcate.
Port; Jackson, Hunter River, Clarence River, N.S.W.
Brisbane, IpsAvich, Qld.
Pultenaea densi folia, F.v.M.
A Soutli Australian species, with very small, ol>ovate concave leaves, with recurved tips, and flowers in axillary, sessile tufts, near the summit of the' branches. Broad scarious bracts and brac- teoles conceal the calyx, which is nearly three lines long, and has pungent-pointed lobes.
South Australia, Port Lincoln, Encounter Bay; doubtful from Tictoria, " Murray Desert, F. Mueller."
Pulftnaen Camphelli, Maiden and Betche.
A New South Wales species, near P. glabra, but with smaller and istraighter leaves, and a slight pubescence on the small bi-anches. It is easily distingxiished from P. glabra, l>y its very small stipular bracteoles, fixed at the base of the calyx tube. These being all red- dish brown, have the aspect of trifid bracteoles.
Walcha, N.S.W. , J. F. Campbell. October. 1898.
Piilienaca ar/Ktafd, Sieb. A New South Wales specit's, with calyx and bracteoles like those tof P. humilis, but its leaves are narrowei", more concave, and are armed with a straight bristlet. The floAvers are in /lense tei-minal heads, unlike those of P. Iiumilis, and are surrounded by reddish bifid bracts. The general aspect is tlint of P. plumosa. Port Jackson, Appin, N.S.W.
Pulteuaefi plinnom, Sieb.
A species witli narrow, concave leaves, without a bristle point. The broader leaved forms resemble P. Iiumilis in foliage, and floAAer structure. The flowers are, however, in terminal heads, and the bracteoles are provided with broad stipules, are longer and broader, and are set under the calyx tube.
Port Jackson, Clarence River, Blackheath, N.S.W.
Pultenaea Bfenerleni, F.v.M.
A New South Wales species, near P. aristata, but with leaves "filiform, channelled above, granular rough, and vvith no bristle point.
Genus Pultevaca. 22^'
The petioles are cun.^pieuous, ami tlie stipules are long, appressed, and somewhat dovvnv. Upper calyx lobes are much united, and and bracteoles are larger, oblong, mucronate, and fixed below the- calyx tube.
Braidwood District, N.S.W., Banierlen.
Pultenaea eU'rpfica, Smith.
A New South Wales species, with leaves elliptical to ovate, the- upper ones being long-petiolate. Stipules broad, apj^ressed, the iijjljer ones being ciliate with long hairs. Flowers are crowded in tipper axils like those of P. humilis, iiaving bracteoles under the- calyx, reddish, scarious with small pt)int ; var. thymifolia, Bth. has leaves smaller and narrower, and slightly smaller flowers.
Pulttnaea rosea, F.v.M.
A sj^ecies with terete leaves, and linear lanceolate bracteoles fixed tinder the calyx tube. It is, however, quite uniqtie among its congeners in having j^inkish or mauve-coloured flowers. Stimmits of Grampians (Mt. William).
Pultenaea largifjoreu'i, F.v.M.
xA. plant with obovate to linear-cuneate leaves, more or less con- cave or folded, and recurved at the ends, silky below, with flowers with a silky calyx with much falcate upper lobes, which give the buds a hooked aspect. Bracteoles are lanceolate to ovate, slightly hairy on the back, and are fixed well up on the calyx tube.
Grampians and North-Western District, Vic.
var. latifolia, n.v. To this may be referred the South Austra-- lian forms, which have much wider leaves, generally ovate-oblong, . flat or slightly folded, and sometimes obcordate emarginate (Clare, S.A., Tate). In some of these, where the leaves are crowded, they appear almost ternate.
From Wedderbtirn. W. W. Watts, and from New South Wales, per W. Baker, comes a form differing from the normal only in having calyx, bracts and bracteoles larger, the last-named being fixed rather lower on the calyx tube, near its base. It is exactly similar in habit and general appearance to the Wimmera forms of" P. largiflorens, and can scarcelv i-ank as a variety.
;^224< H. B. Williamson :
EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIIL, XIV., AND XV.
All drawings of leaves are natural size. Where the calyx is .shown without reference letter it is natural size. a. Upper and lower calyx lobes x 2. h. Bract X 2.
c. Bracteole x 2.
d. Ovary and style x 2.
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate Xfll.
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Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XIV.
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Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XV.
P cal/umlellata Hk P incurvata Cu
P stihularis 5m.
,^
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a V ^c
PCam/>yii M^B P3(BterleTn Fv/i^ P selaoinoidei Hk
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[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920.]
Art XVI. — Notes on a Collection of Tertiary Fossils from Ooldea and Watson, South Australia.
BY
FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S.
Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne ; Hon. Palaeont. Geol. Surv. Vict.
(With Plates XVI., XVII. and Text Figure.)
[Read 11th December, 1919.]
Introductory.
On account of the scarcity of iuforniation regarding fossils occur- j-ing in the area traversed by the construction of the Iransconti- nental Railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie, it seems advis- able to put on record some notes of the specimens now in the National Museum.
The fossils under consideration were collected by Messrs. F. A. Cudmore, K. C. Chandler and Dr. T. Griffith Taylor, B.E., B.A., F.G.S. Mr. Cudmore obtained a large collection of Miocene fos- sils, mainly as casts and moulds, in his recent trip to Ooldea and Watson, and a selection of these he has given to the Museum. I am also indebted to him for tlie pliotographs here reproduced, and for detailed infoi'iiiation of the various fossiliferous exposures north and south cxf the raihvay.
Mr. R. ('. Chandler was successful in obtaining a number of fos- sils in this locality during the early history of the line's construc- .tion, when engaged in acquiring natural history specimens for the Museum .
Dr. Griffith Taylor also collected a few fossils during his rec-nt journey to Central South Australia, and has kindly donated the cora-1 specimens — one of which is here figured — to the State cnllfjc- tion.
Localities of Collection.
The Ooldea Soaki has been known to travellers from Fowler's Bay for many A-ears. It is situated on the Nullaboor Plains, wesr of the sand-hill country, about 100 miles N.W. of Fowler's Bay, and about three miles north of the railway line. Various outcrops of
1. See S. A. White. The Kinu, Jan. 1919, ]\ 189.
22 (3 Frederick Chapman :
granite appear in this area, having a general nortli-we.sterly trend. and there are indications of the superimposed Tertiary beds having: been displaced in tliat direction. This, indeed, may account tor the occurrence of the Soak in this desert country, far away from, any other visible water-hole, except some salt lakes, as Lake TalUi- cootra, to the south, and which are evidently due to a similar cause. It is just possible that sub-artesian water is tapped here, and re- mains held up by the heavier or impervious shell-marls of the Plei- stocene deposit.
Ilie collection made by Mr. Chandler comprises both Janjukian, or Miocene fossils (mainly as casts), and some Older Pleistocene material, cemented together or in loose specimens.
The small but interesting collection made by Dr. Griffith Taylor WHS from Janjukian beds. The specimens include a hard lime- stone Avith (7ihf»ii/s cf. murraijauiis, Tate sp., and two examples of a Janjukian coral, Orhicelh (olim Heliastraea) tasmanie?isis. Dun- can sp., which had rarely before been found outside of Tasmania. This Orhicella, Mr. Cudmore informs me is abundantly siattered over various parts of the Plains.
llie collection made by Mr. Cudmore comprises more than a hundred specimens. They are chiefly pi'eserved in a hard ochreous and white limestone, generally as casts and moulds, although some still retain the shell structures, as Chlamys^ viiirrai/anits. Mr. Cud. more's specimens came principally from the Ooldea Well (not used), 300 yards west and 200 yards south of Ooldea railway station, though a few of similar kinds were obtained from the half-mile cutting at Watson, next to Ooldea, on the road to West Australia. The limestone country is Avell shown by photographs here reproduced, taken l)y Mr. Cudmore.
On glancing at the geological map of this district, one sees that Ooldea is situated on the later Tertiary bed, but close to the boun- dary of outcrop of the Miocene series. From the disposition of the two Tertiary beds, as mapped, it would appear probable that the Pleistocene deposit represents a fairly shallow marine bed laid down upon, and flanking a Miocene limestone, which extended south-eastward as a promontory, as far as long. 133°30' at the present time, as now seen exposed in tlie elevated plains. From the fact that the Ooldea Soak is fresh, it is highly probable that the water is deep-seated, and has its origin in or below the mass of Miocene limestone, which must here be faulted, as seems to be indicated by the sporadic Init linear arrangement of inliers of deep-seated rocks, and is not an ordinary soak in an impervious
Tertiary Fossils.
227
bed. In fact, this tlieory of the presence of faults along this par- ticular trend line is supported bv the parallel system of fractures re-entrant along the coast, stepped in the same direction from the Head of the Bight to Anxious Bay, and even bevond.
,4
lo"' <-•
O vdf-
^4
5ft.if LA5«».»a
Ter t-i a-ry
QT-ll^cool-ro
r\o<Mr>-<e Rock
t^^la.ry
Fig. 1. Sketch Map of South Australian area inchidin^ Fowler's Bay ancF the Ooldea Soak. M.iin details taken from the geological map of South Australia, by H. Y. L. Brown, 18U9.
This shows the trend, in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction, of probable fracture zones, involving the Miocene and Pleistocene rocks. The direction of sand-ridges are also seen to be influenced by the underlying- structure, since, as Mr. Henry Deaue, M.A., informs me, they generally run in a similar way. These fracture lines would also appear to have a considerable- bearing on the disposition of water holes, lagoons and soaks in this part of the country.
Areas in this map marked Granite may also include Metamorphic rocks, as- Gneiss, Hornblende and Mii a Schists ; also Diabase dykes and mineral veins.
The Older Tertiary can be referred to the Miocene, to which the older fossiliferous beds of the Ooldea Soak belong.
The late Tertiary includes the Older Pleistocene of the Ooldea Soak and all siib.sequent stages, as Sand-dune rock and Concretionary limestone.
12
228 Frederick CJia/nnaii :
OLDER PLEISTOCENE FOSSILS FROM THE OOLDEA DISTRICT.
Order FORAMINIFERA.
Genus Orbitolites, Lamarck.
Orhitolites complanata, Lamarck.
Orhitolites comjjldnata, Lamarck, 1801, Syst. Anim. sans Vert., p. 376. Carpenter, 1856, Phil. Trans., p. 224, pis. IV-IX. Chap man, 1913, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXVI. N.S. pt. I. p. 170.
This species ranges from the Balcombian (Muddy Creek), through Janjukian (Mallee Bores) to Werrikooian and Pleistocene (Well borings, Murray Flats, and Croydon Bore, near Adelaide).
A fine sample of limestone, largely composed of the above fossil, together with mollusca (Clancnhis and ]irach)/n(Jonfes) was pre- ssnted to the National Museum by Mr. R. H. Matthews, who obtained it from Yorke Peninsula, six miles N.W. of Yorketown.
0. coinplanata occurred in the Croydon Boic as far down as 450 feet, and was there associated with Lat/auiim and (Tli/cimeris. At 395-415 feet tlie associated fauna was Ostrea an(/asi\ Glycimeris obliquys, G. conve.vus, Limopsis fen/so/ii (recorded as L. hrlcheri), CrassattUitfs ohlonga, Mesalia provisi and Cassis fimhriatus, This fauna contains some archaic forms, as Mtftalin prorisi and Glycimtris cnnve.rus, and the age of the deposit is certainly Werri- kooian or Upper Pliocene. In the present sample, as in the raised beach at Yorke Peninsula, the beds are slightly younger, and may be referred to, the older raised beach stage, or Lower Pleistocene.
Chandler Collection.
Class PELECYPODA. Fam. ARCIDAE.
Genus Area, Lamarck. Subgenus AnadaPa, Gray. Area (A/if/ara) trapezia, Deshayes.
Area trapezia, Deshayes, 1840. Mag. Zool., p. 21, 3 figs.
The shell attains a large size in this bed, and vies with similar large specimens in the Pleistocene of the West ]\Ielbourne Swamp. They reach a length of 104 mm., and a height of 81 mm. ; the shells are embedded in a fine calcareous mud. Although the abundance of this species might suggest estuarine influence, the remainder of the associated mollusca are of the ordinary open water type.
Chandler Collection.
Tertiary Fossils. 229
Faia. PINNIDAE. Genus Pinna, Linne.
■Flnna intermis, Tate.
Pinna zeylnnica, Angas (non Gray), 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc, p. <65o.
Pinna inermis, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX., p. 71, pi. IV., Fig. 5.
Prof. Tate records this species from St. Vincent's Gulf, and generally from Eucla to the south-east coast of South Australia. It is found '•'partially buried vertically in mud or sand in a few fathoms water."
In some respects the fossil shell resembles the earlier portion of P. virgata. Menke, a West Australian living form, but is distin- guished by the feeble radial ridges, which in the living species are •very distinct.
Chandler Collection. .
Fam. PECIINIDAE.
Genus Chlamys, Bolten.
Chlamys hifrons, Lamarck, sp.
Pecten hifrons, Lamarck, 1819, Anim. sans. Vert., vol. VI. pt. !I., p. 164, No. 4.
Chlamys hifrons, Hedley, 1914, Biol. Results Endeavour, vol. II.,
p. ra.
This species is recorded from the shores of New South Wales, Vic- toria and South Australia. The related form, Chlamys undidatus, Sow. sp., is noted as living in Western Australia. The fossil speci- .mens are typical of C . hifrons.
Chandler Collection.
Fam. MYTILIDAE.
Genus Brachyodontes, Swainson.
Brachyodontes hirsutus, Lamarck, sp.
Mytilus hirf(ii*us, Lamarck, 1818, Anim. sans Vert., vol. VI. pt. 1. p. 120, No. 5.
Brachyodontes hirsutus, Lam. sp., Hedley, 1917, Journ. R. Soc. New South Wales, vol. LI. Suppl. p. 11.
230 Frederick Chapvian :
Thiai species is abundant on the South Australian, Victorian and. New South Wales coasts, but seems to be unrecorded from Western. Australia.
Chandler Collection.
Fam. VENERIDAE.
Genus Marcia, H. and A. Adams. Subgenus Katelysia, Homer
Mftrcia [Katelysia) strigosa, Lamarck, sp.
Venus strigosa, Lamarck, 1818, Anim. sans Vert., vol. V., p.. 6U5.
This common shell is found on muddy and sandy beaches at low tide.
Chandler Collection.
Class GASTEROPODA. Fam. TKOCHIDAE. Genus Clanculus, Montfort. Chniciiliis dunkeri, Koch sp.
Trochus du/tkeri', Koch, 18-13, in Philippi, Abbild, und Besclir.. neuer Conch., vol. 1, pt. III. p. 67, pi. II. F'\\x. 5.
Clanculus dunkeri, Koch sp., Pritchard and Gatliff, 1902, Proc. R. Soc, Vict. vol. XIV. (N.S.), pt. II., p. 121.
This species is found living in South Australia and Western- Australia, and is recorded from Wester nport, Victoria.
Chandler Collection.
Fam. T'URRITELLIDAE. Genus Tuppitella, Lamarck.
Turritella clathrata, Kiener. Turrittlla clathrata., Kiener, 1843. Icon. Coq. Viv., p. 33, pL XIV., Fig. 1, Reeve. 1849, Conch, Icon., vol. V.. pi. VIII., Fig. 37. Pritchard and Gatliff. 1900, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XII. (X.S.) pt. II., p. 202.
This is a ■well known South Australian species, and is also re- corded from the south-w&st coast of Victoria. Chandler Collection.
Fam. CERITHIIDAE. Genus Bittium, Leach. Bittium cerithium, tihioy and Gaimard sp. Turritella ceritJiiuni, Quoy and Gaimard, 1834, Voyage Astro- Inb', vcl. TIT. p. 130. pi. LV. Fiffs. 27. 28.
Tertiary Fossils. 231
A common form in Victorian waters; apparently absent from lists of other States. Chandler Collection.
Fam. COLUMBELLTDAE. Genus Columbella, Lamarck.
Colli mbella aff. nemiconvexa, Lamarck sp.
BucciniDH semiconvexa, Lamarck, 1822, Anim. sans Vert., vol. VII. p. 272.
rijrene semiconvexa. Lam. sp., Heciley, 1917, Journ. R. Soc. New South Wales, vol. LI. Supp. p. 90.
This is a common shell, frequent in most shallow sands round the Southern Australian coasts.
Chandler Collection.
Fam. FUSIDAE.
Genus FUSUS, Lamarck.
FiisNs ousfralis, Quoy and Gaimard.
Fusus ausfralis, Quoy and Gaimard, 1833, Voy. Astrolabe, vol. 11. p. 495, pi. XXXIV. Figs. 9-14. Tryon, 1881, Man. Conch, vd. illL, p. 55, pi. XXXIV., Figs. 113, 116, 118.
A common shore-living shell in South Australia and Victoria.
CliRndler Collection.
Genu's Fasciolaifia, Lamarck. Fasciolaria ausfralax/a. Perry sp.
Pijrula nitstralasia. Perry, 1811, Conchology, pi. LIV., Fig. 4.
Fasciolaria ausfralasia. Perry sp., Hedley, 1903, Mem. Austr. "Mus., vol. IV., p. 373.
A well-knoAvn south coastal species. Recorded from the Western Bight in 100' fathoms; the species also ranges to shallower depths.
Chandler Collection.
Fam. VOLUTIDAE.
Genus IVIitr»a, Lamarck.
Mifra pica. Reeve.
Mifra pica. Reeve, 1845, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 49, Idem, 1845, Conch. Icon., vol. 11.. pi. XXXI. Fig. 247. Pritchard and X?atliff, 1899. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XT. (N.S.) pt. II. p. 188.
232 Frederick Chapman :
This species is found living in South Australia, and it also occurS' along the Victorian coast from Wester nport to Warrnambool. Chandler Collection.
Fam. BULLARIIDAE. Genus Bullaria, Rafinesque. Bullaria hotanica (Hedley). Bidlu aiisfralis. Gray, 1825, Annals of Phil., N.S. vol. XXV. p. 408.
Bullaria botani^a, Hedley, 1918, Journ. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol. LI. Suppl. p. 104 (nom. mut. for B. atistraUs, Gray non Ferussac). A well distributed species in littoral waters round the southern, parts of Australia. Chandler Collection.
MIOCENE FOSSILS FROM THE OOLDEA DISTRICT. Order FORAMINIFERA.
Orhitolifes complanata, Lamarck.
Genus Orbitolites, Lamarck.
This discoidal foraminifer, here also recorded from the Older Pleistocene (see antea page 228) reaches a diameter of \l, inches. The- present occurrence of this large variety is interesting, since the older, Oligocene form in Australia is much smaller, and the younger, early and late Pleistocene, specimens are not quite so large. It is fairly common here.
Cudmore Collection.
Class ANTHOZOA. Fam. TURBIXOLTIDAE. Genus PlaCOtrochus, Edwards and Haime. Placotrochtis deltoidei(s, Duncan. Placotrochvs deltoidemt, Duncan, 1864, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. XIV., p. 164, pi. V. Fig. 5. Casts only. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. STYLOPHORIDAE. Genus Stylophoi^a, Schweigg. Sfi/lophora sp. nov. ? Numerous moulds and casts of a branching form. Cudmore- Collection.
Tertiary Fossils. 2S^
Fam. ASTRAEIDAE. Genus Monti ivaltia, Lamaroux. cf. MontUvaltia, sp. A species with a large discoidal, depressed calyx. Cuduiore Collection.
Genus Orbicella, Dana.
Orbicella tasmaniejisis, Duncan sp. Plate I. Fig. 1.
Ileliastraea tasinanlensis, Duncan, 1876, Quart. Jouru. GeoL See. vol. XXXII. p. 342,j pi. XXII., Figs. 1-3.
Astrangia tahulosa, Tate, 1893, Journ. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol. XXVII. p. 145, pi. Xlll. Fig. 2.
Two species of the above named coral were presented by Dr. Griffith Taylor. They occur in the hard, reddish limestone of the Tertiary series, and were found on the surface of a salt lake east of Ooldea. One of them is preserved in hard, semi-crystalline limestone, in Avhich the coral structure is much obscured; whilst the other is weathered and whitened, so that it has the appearance of a living coral. The structure of the weathered specimen is, how- ever, none the less perfect, for this process has simply picked out the calcareous infilling. A large number of wind-worn pieces of this coral was also secured by Mr. Cudmore. who states that ther occur scattered over the limestone plains. By their blackened and! polished surfaces the fragments appear to have been exposed to the weather for a long time.
The species, living and fossil, formerly referred to the genus- Ileliatitraea, are now relegated to Orhicella by Verrill and Quelch" by reason of priority.
There is a close agreement of these specimens from Ooldea with those from Tasmania, though the former have the calices rather larger in diameter (9 :iS). The weathered specimen shows that, although tlie dissepiments are, as a rule, curved downwards, this is by no means invariable. This specimen has the mesenteric pouches filled with a pale glauconite, thus showing, in common with other organic marine bodies, a tendency for the body cavity to act as a receptacle for the deposition of the hydrous silicate of iron, alumina and potash to form that mineral.
Orhicella tasmaniensis has, up to the present, been unknown from any locality outside Tasmania, excepting Flemington, Victoria.
Taylor and Cudmore Collections.
2. Rep. Chall., Vol. XVI., Zool. 1SS6, p. 106.
23'4 Frederick Chapnnan :
Class ECHINOIDEA. . Fam. CLYPEASTRIDAE.
Genus Laganum, Gmy. ILaganum sp.
A fragmentary test shows a portion of the sub-angulately con- toured ambitus and internal supporting pillars. The genus was previously recorded by Tate from the Tertiary of St. Vincent Gulf, South Australia. (L. platymofhs.)
Cudniore Collection.
Class PELECYPODA. Fam. PARALLELODONTIDAE.
Genus Cucullaea, Lamarck.
CvxuUnea corioensis, McCoy.
iJucullaea corioensu, McCoy, 1876, Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. III. p. 32, pi. XXVII. Figs. 3-56. Tate, 1886, Trans. R.S.S. Austr., vol. VIII. p. 144. Harris, 1897, Cat. Tert. Moll. pt. I. Australasia. <Brit. Mus.) p, 336.
Numerous casts of this widely ranging species (Oligocene to Werrikooian), occur here.
Cudmore Collection.-
Fam. ARGIDAE.
Genus Glycimeris, Da Costa.
Glycimcris niaccoyi, Johnston sp.
Pectunculus laticostafus, McCoy non Quoy and Gaimard, 1875, Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. II. p. 26, pi. XIX. Figs. 10-14.
Pectunculus maccoyi, Johnson, 1884, Papers and Proc. R. Soc. Tas., p. 199, Id., 1888, Geol. Tas, p. 225, pi. XXX. Fgs, 1. Id.
Casts and moulds of this common Tertiary species occur in the hard limestone.
Cudmore Collection.
Fam. PECTINIDAE.
Genus Chlamys, Bolten.
Chlamys inurrayanus, Tate sp.
Fecten murrayanas, Tate, 1886, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Australia, vol. VIII., p. 105, PI. VII., Figs. 5, a, h.
Tertiary Fossils. 2B5
One of the specimens found four miles west of Ooklea by Dr. 'Griffith laylor, is a cast in hard cream coloured limestone. Others 'Collected fiom near the same locality (Watson cutting), by Mr. Cud- more, show a denuded shell, the riblets being devoid of ornament except in one case, where the structure is seen to be that of C. murrayanus ; the appearance is misleading, and the shell might easily be mistaken for one of the Amusium type, like A. ijahliensis, T. Woods sp.
In the Miocene seas C. murrayanus attained a large size, some examples measuring as much as 3^ inches in length.
Previously recorded from South Australia in Miocene beds of the Lower Murray River.
Taylor, Chandler and Cudmore Collections.
Chhnnys n/dingeiisis, Tate sp.
Pecfen aldingensis, Tate, 1886, Trans. R.S.S. Austr., vol. VIII., p. 109, pi. VII., Figs. \a-c. Chapman, 1912, Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 4, p. 48.
Previously recorded from South Australia in the Miocene glau- ■conitic limestone of Aldinga Bay. Dennant notes it from Stans- bury. South Australia, and the piTsent Avriter from the polyzoal limestone of Seal River, King Island. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. SPONDYLIDAE. Gemis Spondylus, Linne. Spondylus cf. gaederopoides, McCoy. Spo7idylus gaderopoides:, McCoy, 1876, Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. .p. 27, pi. XXXVIII. Figs. 1-lr/.
Spondylus gaederojjoides, McCoy, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. VIII. p. 121.
Two casts of united valves occur here. They are solidly built, and of the general formj of the above species, which, by the way, is a restricted Miocene fossil. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. LIMIDAE. Genus Lima, Biuguieie. Subgenus Limatula, Wood. ' Lima (JAmatida) jfffrtysiana, late.
Lima. (LAmafuhi) jeffreysiana, Tate, 1886, Trans. R.S.S. Austr. ^vol. VIII. p. 119, pi. IV., Fig. 8.
A well preserved shell is found here. Cudmore (,'ollection.
236 Frederick CJtap'man :
Fam. CRASSATELLITIDAE. Genus Crassate Mites, Kruger. Crassatellites cf. oblonga, T. Woods sp. Crassatella ohlonya, T. Woods, 1875. Papers and Proc. R. Soc Tasmania (1876), p. 25, pi. II., Fig. 11.
This internal cast closely resembles the Table Cape form specified^ above, especially in the anterior position of the umbones. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. CARDITIDAE. Genus Cardita, Bruguiere. Cardita cf. tasmanica. Tate. Cardita tosmanica, I'ate, 1886. Trans. R. Soc. South Austr. vol. VIII. p. 154, pi. XII. Fig. 13.
The species appears, to be represented here by an internal cast, judging by the shape and number of riblets. with impressions of some still preserved, it is in all probability referable to the above Cudmore Collection.
Cardita scaJirosa, Tate. Cardita xrahrosa, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. South Australia,. vol. VIII., p. 152. pi. II., Fig. 4.
A good internal mould of this species occurs hero. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. LUCINIDAE. Genus Lucina, Ibuguiere. Lucina pUinatella, Tate, 1886, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.. VOL, pi. XII. Fig. 11, Idem, 1887. ibid. vol. IX. p. 146.
Both moulds and casts, showing ornament and internal form are' found in some frequency. The species was originally described as a Table Cape fossil. I have since identified it amongst fossils from' Maude.
Cudmore Collection.
Fam, CARDIIDAE. Genus Cardium Linne. Cardium victoriae, Tate. Cardium victoriae, Tate. 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr. vol. IX.. p. 151, pi. XIV. Figs. Iff, h. Harris, 1897, Cat. Tert. Moll. Aus- tralasia (Brit. Mus.), p. 367.
Tertiary Fossils. 237"
Several examples showing typical surface ornament are found here.
Cudmore Collection.
Subgenus Ppotocardium, Beyrich.
Cardium (Protocardium) antisemigraniilotum , McCoy.
Cardium {Protocardium) aiitisemigraindatum., McCoy, 1877,. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. p. 16, pi. XLIV. Figs. 2, 3. Represented here by an internal cast. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. VENERIDAE.
G«nus Venus. Subgenus Chione, Megerle.
Venus (Chione) caitiozoicris. T. Woods sp.
Venus {Chione) cainozoico, T. Woods, 1877, Papers and Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1876, p. 11.3.
Chione cainozoicus, T. Woods sp., Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr. vol. IX. p. 156, pi. XVI. Figs. 3«, h.
Two examples. Cudmore Collection.
Venus [Chione) ? hormophora, Tate, sp.
Chione hormophora, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX., p. 155, pi. XV. Figs, k/, h.
A cast and also an impressed mould of the shell was found. The former shows the straight ventral region, and the latter the orna- mentation, of the al)ove typical Table Cape species.
Cudmore Collection. ,
Genus Dosinea, Scopoli. Dosinca joinislmii, Tate.
Dosinea johnstoni, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust., vol. IX. p. 161, pi. XIV. Figs. 9 and 12.
A mould of a shell of a Dosinea in white limestone shows by a wax squeeze the characteristic costation of the alx)ve species. The- concentric ridges measure 20 in a breadth of 10 mm. and are ele- vated rather than depressed and rolled over to become almost con- fluent, as in D. densilineata , Pritchard.^ The length of the present example, if complete, would measure a]x)ut 50 mm. D. johnstoui has a long vertical range, from Balcombian to Kalimnan (Balcombe Bay, Table Cape, Upper Muddy Creek).
Chandler and Cudmore Collections.
3. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. VIII., 1S96, p. 135, pi. IV.. Figs. o-7.
■SW Frederick Chwpmmi :
Fam. TELLINIDAE,
Genus Tellina, Linne.
Tellina, aff. olhinelloides, Tate
Tellina albinelloi'des, Tate, 1887, 1 rans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. 'IX. p. 164, pi. XVI. Figs, in, h.
A large shell-impression was found here, which agrees in the main characters with the above species. T . alhinelloides is a Kalim-- nan form, so that this occurrence, if it be correctly assigned, is unique as a Miocene fossil.
Cudmore Collection.
Tdlina, cf. cainozoica, T. Woods. Tellina cainozoica, T. Woods, 1877, Papers and Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1876, p. 113. Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. 7X.. p. 164, pi. XVIII. Fig. 5.
A solitary specimen, doubtfully referred to the above species •occurs here.
Cudmore Collection.
Fam. CORBULIDAE.
Genus CoPbula, Lamarck.
Corhula py.riflata.
Corhida pi/xidafa, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX. 117, pi. XVII. Figs, 12fl, h.
A well defined cast in white limestone occurs here Cudmore Collection.
Corhida ephamiUa, Tate. Corhula fphamilla, Tate, 1887, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. IX. p. 176, pi. XVII., Figs. 1.3rt, h. 14.
A mould of this widely distriljuted species was found here. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. TEREDINIDAE.
Genus Teredo, Linn^.
Teredo di recta, Hutton, sp.
Cladopoda directa, Hutton, 1877, Trans. N.Z. Inst.^ vol. IX. p. ■597, pi. XVI. Fig. 1:1
Teredo directa, Hutton, sp.. Suter, 1914, Rev. Tert. Moll. N. .Zealand, pt. I. (Pal. Bull, 2, N.Z. Geol. Surv.), p. 54.
Tertiary Fossils. 239'
Two casts of Teretlo tubes found here correspond with the ahaost straight small tulx>s of the above species which came from the- Miocene of Canterbury, N.- Zealand.
Cudmore Collection.
Class GASTEROPODA. Fam. TROCHIDAE.
Genus Astele, Lwainson. Asfele sp.
Several casta and moulds of a form referable to the above genus; occur in the white limestone. It has rather smooth, flat whorls, and a thread-like ornament round the base. It resembles an unde- scribed species from the Miocene of Victoria.
Cudmore Collection.
Fam. NATICIDAE.
Genus Natica, Scopoli. Nafica substol/c/a, Tate, var. fji'dndis, nov.
Description. — Shell of the type of Xatico suhsiolida , Tate,^ but of much larger dimensions and heavier build, the length being more than twice that of the specific form (54 mm., as compared with 25 mm. in the species).
A large specimen of Natica, somewhat deformed, but evidently belonging to the new variety, has been figured by Mr. C. J. Gabriel and the writer from the Mallee Bores, under the name of N. suhin- fundihuhun, var. crassa, Tate.^
Ihis large variety is fairly common in the limestone of the Ooldea district, and its large size (over 2 inches in length), makes it a conspicuous fossil.
Cudmore Collection.
Natica cf. Jiamiltonensis, Tate.
Nafica Iia/uiltonensif, Tate, 1893, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol.. XVIII. pt. 2, p. .319, pi. X. Fig. 6.
A cast referred with slight doubt to this common Tertiary fossil' was found here.
Cudmore Collection.
4. Natica (Ncverita) substolida, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., Vol. XVII., p. II, 1893, p. 323, pi. VI. Fig. 3.
5. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. XL, 1.914, p. 321, pi. XXV,. Figs, 15a, b.
:240 Frederick Chapvian:
Genus Euspira, Agassiz. Euspira cf. effusa, Tate sp.
AmpuUlna tffum, Tate, 1893, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XVII. pt. 2, p. 327, pi. X. Figs. 2, 2«.
A cast of a' glolwsely whorled naticoid sliell -was found, of whicli there is very little doubt as to its relationship. E. tffusa was re- . corded by Tate from the Miocene glauconite sands of the Adelaide Bore, whilst Dennant notes it from Brown's and Hamilton Creeks, in Victoria, in beds of Miocene age.
Cudmore Collection.
Fam. CEBITHIIDAE. Genus Ceifithium, Bruguiere. Cerithiuin pritchardi, Harris.
I'otamides se/nicostatiim, late (non Deshayes), 1885, Papers and .Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1884, p. 226.
Cerithiuin pritchwfdi, Harris, 1897, Cat. Tert. Moll. Australasia (Brit. Mus.) p. 225, pi. VII.sFig. 3.
Numerous pieces of this strongly built shell are included in the collection, some of which had been weathered. They were found accompanied by Orbicella in the exposed rubble of the plains. It is a .restricted Miocene fossil.
Cudmore Collection.
Genus Newtoniella, Cossman.
Newtoiiiella sp.
A hollow mould of a shell referable to this genus, and probably .new, occurs here. Cudmore Collection.
Fam. CYPRAEDIAE.
Genus Cypraea, Linne.
Cypi'aea spp.
These are casts, fairly common, related to the typical forms C. suhsidua, Tate, and C. murraviana, Tate. Cudmore Collection.
Tertiary Fimiia. 241
Fam. VOLUTIDAE.
Genus, Lyria, Gray.
Lyna acuticustata, sjj. nov.
Description. — Shell long-ovate, volutifoym; apically pointed, -anteriorly truncated; whorls moderately high, entirely costate, the acute riblets numbering about 18 on the body whorl. Proto- conch small, as compared with L. stiiiiacuticostata, Prichard,! and consisting of two volutions.
The above description is completed from an example in the Dennant collection, from Bird Rock, Torquay, Victoria.
Dimensions. — The limestone specimen measured when complete, circ. GO mm. ; the Torquay marl specimen, 42 mm.
Coinparifioii. — In general shape and acute apex this species is related to L. semiacuficosfate from Table Cape, but differs essen- tially in having continuous costation. It is clearly an ancestor .of the living Lyria mitraeformis,' from which it differs in the more numerous costae and slightly narrower shell.
Cudmore Collection.
Genus Voluta, Linne. Valuta valiflirnafata. Tate.
Valuta alficastata, Tate, 1889, Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XI. p. 122, pi. V. Fig. 7.
Valuta valid icastata, Tate (nom. mut.), vide Dennant and Kitson, ■Cat. Cain Foss., 190:j, p. 100.
Several casts of young and median grown sh,ells are found here. Although occurring in the Balcombian, in Victoria, it is more typical of Janjukian strata, both tliere and in South Australia.
Cudmore Collection .
Valuta cf. oncillaides, Tate.
Voluta ancilloides, Tate, 1889, Trans. R. Soc, S. Austr., vol. XI. p. 126, pi. III., Fig. 7.
A cast of a shell of the above specific type occurs in the hard limestone from Ooldea. V. ancilloides is a well-known Table Cape fossil.
Chandler Collection.
242 Frederick Chapman :
Fam. OLIVIDAE.
Genus Anciila, Lamarck.
An cilia sp.
A cast of a sliell occurs in the limestone, of the type of an- Ancilla found at Spring Creek and Table Cape (Nat. Mus. Coll.), but of very large dimensions. It must have attained a length of about 50 mm. when complete, whereas the Spring Creek specimens- rarely measure more than 20 mm., a difference accounted for by the variation in sedimentation.
Fam. TrRRIIIDAE.
Genus Clavatula, Lamarck.
1 Clavatula sp.
This is an internal cast of the apical portion of a large conical species, with the earlier whorls faintly costate and medially ridged.
Cudmore Collection. . •
Fam. COXIDAE.
Genus Con us, Linne. Conns spj).
Probably several species are represented here, but they are all', internal casts. So far as can be seen, the commonest form is- related to Conns lie/at us, Tate.^
Chandler and Cudmore Collections.
Class CEPHALOPODA. Fam. NAUTILIDAE.
Genus, Nautilus, Linne. Xatttilus sp. cf. geelo7igensis, Foord.
Xaufilus (jtelongensis, Foord, 1891, Cat. Foss. Cephalopoda (Brit. Mus. pt. II. p. 332, woodcut. Fig. 69. Chapman, 1915, Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXVII (X.S.), pt. II. p. 354. pi. IV. Figs. , 7-9).
The present exam,ple is a large spcL-imen (a fragmentary cast), having an approximate diameter of about 6 inches when com-
6. Trans. Rov Soc. S. Austr.. Vol. XIII., pt. 2, 1890, p. 196, pi. VII. Figs, 4, 4a, b; pi. VIII.. Fig. 9.
Tertiary Fossils. 243
plete. In its broad contour it is nearest to 3'. geelongensis, a Janjukian species fi"om the polyzoal rock generally. Cudniore Collection.
FOSSIL LISTS.— OOLDExV DISTRICT.
Older Pleistocene. Orbitolifts com 1^1(111 at a, Lam. Turritdla daUirata, Kiener.
Area (Anadara) trapezia, Desh. Bittium cerithium, Q. and G. sp. Pinna inermis, late. Colunihella aff. semicoiivexa, Lam.
Chlamys hifrons. Lam. sp. sp.
Brack yodontes hirsufus. Lam. s.p. /''/*'(/s ausfralis, Q. and G. Mareia {Katelysia) strigosa. Lain. Fasciolaria australasia, Perry sp.
sp. Mitra pica, Reeve.
Cla/icidiis dunkeri, Koch sj). BuUaria hotanica, Hedley.
Miocene.
Orhitolites complanafa. Lam. Venus (Chione) Ihormophora, Plai'ofroc/tus deltoideus. Dune. Tate.
Stylophora, sp. nov. Dosinea johnstoni, Tate.
of. Monilivaltia, sp. Tellina aff. alhinelloides, Tate.
Orhicella tasmaniensis, Dune. Tellina cf. cainozoica, T. Woods.
sp. Corhiila 2^.'/J^idata, Tate.
iLagatium sp. Corluhi epJiamilkt , Tate.
Cucidlaea corioensis, McCoy. Teredo direcia, Hutton sp.
Glycimeris niaccoyi, Johnst. sp. Astele sp.
Chlamys murrayanus. Tate, sp. Natica siihstolida, Tate, var. Chlamys aldingensis, Tate sp. grandis, nov.
Spondylus cf. gaedtropoides, Natica cf. hamiltonensis, Tate,
McCoy. Euspira cf. effusa, Tate sp.
IJma (Limafula) jeffreysiana, Cerithium pritchardi, Harris.
Tate. Newtoniella sp.
CrassateUites cf. ohlonga. T. Cypraea spp.
Woods sp. Lyria acuticostata, sp. nov.
Cardita cf. tasmanica, Tate. Voluta validicostata, Tate.
Cardita scabrosn, Tate. Vohtfa cf. ancilloides, Tate.
Lucina planatella, Tate. Ancilla sp.
Cardium victoriae, Tate. Clavatula sp.
Cardium (Profocardium) antise- Conus spp.
migranulatum, McCoy. Xautdus geelongensis, Foord. Venus {Chione) cai7iozoicus, T.
Woods sp.
IS
244 Frederick Cltcqyman :
Episodes in the Formation of the Beds of the Great Biylit Area.
In i^re-Mioceiie times the area abutting on the Cretaceous of the Lake Eyre district to tlie north-west, to Charh)tte Waters on the north, to Albany, on the west, and to the Adehiide Ph\ins on the east,. and far to the soutli on what is now the Southern Ocean, was probably dominated, by an estuarine or generally base-levelled country. This area also extended through the Riverina as far as Wagga, in Xew South Wales, and occupied a large part of the Wimmera and Mallee districts of A'ictoria. The underlying (fundamental) I'ocks of this area consist mainly of granite," chloritic slate, felspathic quartzites, slaty rocks and sandstones, .all excepting the granite jJossibly referable either to the Ordo- vician, Cambrian or metamorphic series, including Algonkian. Tlie deposits laid down on these basal rocks were river, estuarine, swamp and lake accumulations, consisting of sands and clays with carbonaceous and lignitic material.
Following the deposition of these ]>eds, whicli, by the way. were "not uniformly spread over the entire area mentioned, there were occasional oscillations which brought them below sea-level, causing an interstratification of marine beds with the terrestrial. Later, the oscillations ended in a steady to (|uick downward movement until a depth of at least 100 fathoms l>elow sea-level was reached. In this sea-bed a rich deposit of calcareous mud was formed, filled with debris of polyzoa. echinoids, mollusca and foraminifera. These beds can lie referred to the Janjukian series of Victoria, and are honiotaxial with the Miocene of Europe.
In Lower Pliocene times (Kalimnan series) the sea-bed ro.'-e to witliin a few fathoms of the suiface. with fine sandy deposits, upon which flourished molluscs as Ostrea. Xafiea, Tvrritella and the sea-urchin. TMganvm, amongst many otlier organisms. In places there were huge oyster banks, and in the more rocky parts vast deposits of mollusca peculiar to such conditions, as Mi/tihis, Borneo, Veriernp's, Area, CneidJaea and GJi/cimeris, a few species of which facies are still living. Possijjly a part of tlie Miocene limestone of which the fauna is here discussed, may have per- sisted into the Lower Pliocene, as evidently a few forms, such as TelUno cf. olhinelloides and Loqonnm. seem to indicate.
In the later period of the Pliocene this sea-bed again deepened, and a shell deposit with many existing species was laid down.
7 Tn the All)any district these older limestones = Plaiitanenet Beds) liave been sliowii "by J. T. .Intsoii and E. S. Simpson (Journ. and Proo. Hoy. Soc. W. Australia, Vol. II., 1917, p. 48) to have been laid down on the fjranite.
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XVT.
Fossils of Ooldea
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XVII.
Tertiary Limestone Plains near Ooldea
Tertiary Fossils. 245
'This deposit can be referred to the Werrikooian, as it is geologi- •cally comijarable with the Gleiielg upraised marine beds. It also -occurs in the upper part of the Croydon Boi-e, near Adelaide, to about 400 feet. One of the connuone.st fossils in this l>ed is Orbi- tolites coinploiiatu . This foraniinifer is now living on the Aus- traiiac coast, but at lower latitudes. For example, on the west coasc, at Shark's Bay (lat. 25' S.), and on the east coast at the Barrier Reef (from about lat. 23'S.). The occurrence of Orhito- litts at the higher latitude of 32'^S. denotes a wai'mer climate in Werrikooian and Older Pleistocene times. During the Wceri- kooian a number of the m,olluscan species became extinct, whilst others, along' with Orbifohfes, persisted.
In the next period, the Older Pleistocene, the bed of shells and foraminifera emerged from the sea, and was raised to a height of about 381 feet between that time and the present; it is found to-day overlying the Janjukian limestones at the Ooldea Soak. 100 miles inland. Upon the present coast line, in late Pleistocene times there was laid down an ordinary beach deposit with shells, and this is now found forming ledges and raised beaches at pro- tected places along the southern coast, denoting the continuance of the uplift along the shores of the Great Bight even to the present time.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Platk XVI.
Fig. 1. — OrbiceUa fasmatiicnsis. Duncan sp. Miocene (Janjukian), From surface of Salt Lake, W. of Ooldea, South Aus- tralia. Circ. nat. size. ,, 2. — Fragment of Raised Beach, of Older Pleistocene age; showing Pinna iiiermis, Tate (shell at base), BulJaria bofanica, Hedley, and Bitfium cerithium, Q. and G. sp. Ooldea district. South Australia. Three-fifths nat. size.
Plate XVII.
Pig. 1. — Cutting with fossiliferous Tertiary limestone (Miocene); half mile east of Watson. ,, 2. — Blowhole in Miocene limestone, near Ooldea. (Plmto- graphs on this plate by Mr. F. A. Cudmore.)
13a
[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. 11., 1920].
Anr. XVII. — The Longevity of Cut Flowers.
By ELLINOR ARCHER, M.Sc,
(Secretary of the Seed Improvement Committee).
[Read 11th December, 19ly.J
This work was carried out in the Botanical Department of Melbourne Uuiversity, as Government Research Scholar.
Ill studying the question of the longevity of cut flowers, the first thing to be taken into account is the reason or reasons which cause cut ffower.s to die, or to lose their characters as flowers by passing into the fruiting condition.
That is, flowers may undergo either : —
(1) Withering of the sepals and petals due to passage from the
flowering to the fruiting stage. (2j Falling of the sepals and petals due to the same cause. (3) Abnormal premature withering. The last cause is naturally the only one to be considered when dealing witli the longevity of cut flowers.
Abnormal M'ithering may be caused in various ways : —
(1) By the blocking of the vessels preventing the rise of sap
and. as transpiratioai continues, resulting in a loss of turgor, followed by drooping.
(2) tiy self-poisoning, owing to an exudation of poison from cells near the cut surface.
In the work that has been done up to date no actual case of premature withering due to poisoning has been proved. The man- ner in which cases of possible poisoning were tested was as fol- lows : — Some of the suspected material was thoroughly ground and squeezed, and an extract made, in one case by boiling in water, and in the other by soaking for a considerable period in cold water. Fresh flowers were then placed in the extract, which should contain the poison in concentrated form, but in every case the material in the extract lasted just as well as the control, proving that there cannot have been much, if any, . poison present in the extract.
The most frequent cause of abnormal withering is, therefore, some form of blocking of' the vessels with a resultant loss of turgor. That blocking does actually take place can easily be seen by section- ing the stem at short distances from the cut ends, and examining the vessels under a microscope.
Longevity of Cut Flowers. 247
This blocking may be caused by external factors, or by factors within the plant itself. The most connnon external cause is the development of bacteria in the water surrounding the stem. This is especially likely to happen if flowers are placed in dirty vessels, or vessels, in which the water has been left standing for some time. The bacteria enter the vessels of the stem at the cut end, the sap being an attraction, and after a time form a complete block, pre- venting the ascent of water. This may happen to practically any plant, and the most effectual remedy is to cliange the water fre- quently, and by so doing the accumulation of bacteiia is checked.
Internal causes of blocking are a gi-eat deal more difficult to •discover and define. There may be ;in exudation of wound gum into the vessels, or the parenchyma cells surrounding tlie vessels may develop outgrowths which push their way into the lumina, and finally form a parenchymatous tissue completely blocking the vessels, and very effectively retarding the ascent of sap. This con- dition is known as tlie formation of a tylosis.
In order to prevent withering in these cases, it will be necessary to keep the vessels clear, either by preventing the exudation or the abnormal growtii taking place, or by dissolving it as rapidly as it is formed. This will have to be done by placing the stem in some solution which will perform the required action witliout at the same time having any harmful effect on the living tissues of the plant.
The work was commenced with any plants that happened to be blooming at the time, and various well knoAvn household methods for preserving flowers were tested. Placing the stems in boiling water, removing the bark for some distance up the stems, and char- ring the stems, all proved equally unsuccessful with the flowers used. The only one found to l>e of the slightest use was in the case of dahlias, which, if inclined to droop, would when placed in boiling water, very often completely revive.
Chrysantliemums and wattles are very inclined to show sudden abnormal droojiing, and in one or two cases this Avas proved to be due to the present of masses of bacteria blockins: the vessels, while in others what seemed to be a gununy precipitate could be seen in the vessels by examining a section of the stem. Since the block- ing and consequent withering take place very rapidly, it is most probably caused by an internal secretion of a gummy nature. If this i.s the case it should be able to be prevented by placing the •stems, either in a solution which will cause a precipitation on the
248 Ellincrr Archer :
walls of the vessels of the gummy substance directly it is formed and so liievent further exudation, or in a solution which will dissolve the exudation as fast at it enters the vessels.
Various tests were att-empted to try and discover the solubility of the blocking nuaterial, but without success. If the material should be wound gum, which appears most likely, it ought to be able to be detected by testing with phlorogluciii and hydrochloric acid, with which it should give a bright red colour, but no colour change was observable. A special stain for wound gum which should stain it in contrast to the surrounding tissues known as Hanstein's mixture, compo-sed of equal parts of concentrated alco- holic solution of Fuschin and IMethyl Violet, a'lso gave no result.
Xunierous tests for showing the presence of tannin were also attempted, especially on sections of Acacias, but although the pre- sence of extensive tannin was shown in the cortex, medullary rays, and pith, tlie actual blocking substance in the vessels gave no defi- nite tannin reaction.
The exact nature of the substance exuded from the surrounding cells into the vessels and causing blocking, therefore, remains doubtful, although it is most probably a form of wound gum Avhich will not react to the colour tests.
Although the chemical nature of the substance exuded into the vessels remains undiscoveied, an effective means was found of pre- venting the blocking in Acacias. It was found that if fresh speci- mens of Acacias, soon after being taken from the trees, are placed in a dilute solution of the non-poisonous heavy metals, no blocking occurs, and the flowers remain nearly perfect for a considerable period. The metal Avhich proved most successful was lead, the nitrate, and the acetate being the salts most used, as they are the only two lead compounds easily soluble in water. Silver nitrate in dilute solution also proved fairly effective, l>ut owing to its power of rapid decomposition it is somewhat unsuitable. Soluble mercury salts, presumably owing to their poisonotis properties, proved i-apidly harmful, while the othei- members of the group were not suitable for use.
The following tables give some idea of the effect that immersion of the stems in a weak solution of lead nitrate has on various species of wattle. It would be diffieult to say exactly which day a certain mass of wattle flower actually died, therefore in the fol- lowing tables the condition of the flowers at intei'vals of two, six, and fourteen davs was noted. In a good many cases the flowers-
Longevity of Cat Flowers. 249''
did not shrivel and droop at all; apparently, if it had not been, for other causes, they would have kept indefinitely, but in every case, after from ten to fourteen daj-s, the specimens Avould become discoloui-ed. Ihis discolouring would commence "svith the {^art of the stalk actually innnersed in lead nitrate, and gradually spread until it affected tlie v/hole stalk, leaves, and, lastly flowers, so that in no case could tlie flowers really be called fresh for more than fourteen days.
In many cases the articulation between the jiedicels of the capi- tula and the stems become loosened, with the consequence that the capitula fall off very easily, although remaining tjuite fresh.
It will be seen that the exact effect of the lead nitrate varies with the different sj^ecies; for example, no experiments with Acacia arniata succeeded, and the effect on other markedly xerophytic siDecies, such as juniperina and verticillata, was very slight. A good deal o£ variation is noticeable in the effect of the lead nitrate on different specimens of the same variety. In some experiments the control and the specimens in lead nitrate ha\e lasted for an equally short period, whereas another experiment with the same variety will give a good, result. In all cases where rapid withering has taken place detailed sectioning and examination of the stem shows blocking. There is presumaldy some undetermined factor which controls the extent of the exudation, and the effect which immersion of the stem in lead nitrate will have on this. It is jjos- sible that the length of time intervening between the time that the blossom is picked, and the time that it is placed in the solution will have a considerable influence on its longevity. Accurate ex- periments to determine this point liave not yet been carried out; but it was noticed that in any case where the blossom liad been kept for some time, and had begun to wither, the lead nitrate did not exert a reviving effect, but the specimen would remain in a drooping condition for a long time, whereas the control would com- pletely wither. That is, the lead nitrate does not dissolve block- ing already formed, but prevents any furtlier exudation taking place. Another possible factor influencing the amount of block- ing shown in tlie stem might be tlie age of the wood forming the vessels at the cut part. Ihis point w^as also undetermined.
Tables to show rhe influence of raryimj strenr/fhs of lead and silver salts on the lonr/e\vifi/ of the blossoms of varying species af Acacias.
[The number of days quoted under each column indicates the number of days that the specimens remain fresh.]
250
Ellinor Archer :
|
Species. |
Control. |
|
Days. |
|
|
A. saligna - |
2 |
|
A. salicinia - |
2 |
|
A. montana - |
2 |
|
A. prominens |
2 |
|
A. strict a |
2 |
|
A. fiinbriata |
2 |
|
A. diffusa |
2 |
|
A. neriifolia |
6 |
|
A. lepi-osa |
6 |
|
A. loii'rifolia |
6 |
|
A. |
rubida |
- |
|
A. |
pycnantha |
- |
|
A. |
1 on i;i folia, vai". |
, sophora |
|
A. |
dL'Currens var. |
norinalis |
|
A. |
cultiiformis |
- |
|
A. |
myrtifolia |
- |
|
A. |
dodonaeifolia |
Control. 1 )ays. |
|
A. |
sclorophylla |
2 |
|
A. |
venulosa |
2 |
|
A. |
spectabilis |
2 |
|
A. |
saligua |
2 Control. Da.vs. |
|
A. |
. retiuodes |
6 |
|
A. |
lophantba |
6 |
|
A. |
ariuata |
2 |
|
A. |
juuiperina |
2 |
|
A. |
verticilliita |
2 |
|
A. |
acinacea |
2 |
|
A. |
, neriifolia |
2 |
|
A. |
, melanoxylou |
2 |
|
Lead nitrate |
Lead nitrate 1°^ |
|
Diiys. |
Days. |
|
6 |
6 |
|
2 |
2 |
|
6 |
6 |
|
6 |
6 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
Control. |
Lead nitrate 1% |
|
Days. |
Days. |
|
6 |
14 |
|
2 |
14 |
|
2 |
14 |
|
2 |
G |
|
2 |
14 |
|
() |
14 |
|
6 |
14 |
|
Sihcr nitrate Days. |
I>ead nitrate 1 . Days. |
|
6 |
(! |
|
(i |
14 |
|
('. |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
Lead nitrate IV. Days. |
Lead acetate 17, Days. |
|
14 |
14 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
2 |
2 |
|
») |
6 |
|
6 |
6 |
|
2 |
2 |
|
14 |
14 |
|
6 |
6 |
In order to prove that the solution of lead nitrate did actually prevent blocking in the vessels, and allowed a freer passage through the stems the following experiment was performed.
Two short stems of as nearly as possible the same length and ■diameter were fixed in a perpendicular position. To the upper end of each was attached a small rubber tul>e connected with a small reservoir, while to the lower end a small graduated flask was also connected by a rubber tube.
Reservoir A, attached to Stem A, was filled witli water, and Ue.servoir B, attached to Stem B, was filled witl) a 1% solution of
Longevity of Cut Flowers. 2.51
lead nitrate. The reservoirs, which were the same size, provided .an equal pressure on each stem, and should force an equal amount of liquid through the stems into the graduated flasks. The stems being of equal diameter, they should have approximately the same xiumber of vessels, and unless blocking occurred in one and not in the other, the same amount of water and lead nitrate should pass tthrough ii^ the same time.
Experiment 1. — Time, one hour.
Stem A, water only, amount collected -5 ccs.
Stem B, lead nitrate, amount collected 5 ccs.
Experiment 2. — Time. 4.5 minutes.
Stem A, water only, amount collected 5 ccs.
Stem B, lead nitrate, amount collected 5 ccs.
Experiment .3 (with same stem as Experiment 2). — Time, one ihour 15 minutes.
Stem. A, amount collected 7 ccs.
Stem B. amount collected 7 ccs.
"Experiment! 4. — Time, twn hours.
Stem A, water only, amount collected 5 ccs.
Stem B. lead nitrate, amount collected 3.5 ccs.
"Experiment 5. — Time, three hours.
Stem A. water only, amount collected :.. .5 ccs.
Stem B. lead nitrate, amount collected 5 ccs.
These experiments show that the vessels are more open to the 'passage of lead nitrate solution tliau water. The viscosity of the lead nitrate solution is slightly greater than that of water, but its density is greater, and the greater head balances the higher vis- cosity largely. Neither facror Avould cause more tlian a 5 to 10% difference in the rate of flow, whereas the differences observed amount to 700 to 1000%. and this fact can only be explained by presuming that some form of blocking of the vessels intervenes to prevent the passage of water, but this is not developed when lead ■nitrate is passed through instead of water. This is proved by microscope examination of sections of the stems which have been used in the experiments. Stem A showed extensive blocking, whereas the vessels in Stem B were quite empty and with open lumina.
This method of preserving wattle blossom could be quite easily carried out in the household. A few crystals of lead nitrate to a quart of water should make a solution of a sufficient strength to ■preserve the blooms without having any harmful effect.
[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. 11., 1920J. Art. XVII I. — TJie Eiulophytic Fungus of Lolhiin, Part L.
BY
ETHEL McLennan, b.sc,
(Lecturer on Botany in the Melbourne University.)
(With Plates XVI II. to XXVI. and 8 Text Figures.)
[Read Dec. 11 tb, 1019.]
Historical Introduction.
llie fact, that grains of Lol/u/n ttinulentvm, L. (Darnel) con- tain a layer of fungal liyphae, situated between the aleurone layer and the fruit and seed coat, was demonstrated by Vogl (1) in 1898. In tlie same year Guerin (2), Hanausek (o), and Nestler (-1). pub- lished jDapers dealing with this subject.
These earlier workers drew attention to the fact that the presence of the fungus in tlie grain is a fairly constant feature. Guerin examined samples of l.oJiuin tcinuhuit inn from South America, Asia, Africa, and Europe, and recorded that only three showed the absence of hyphae. He failed to note their presence in the embryo, although they were observed in the ovary before tlie fertilisation of the ovum. Loliinn arrense. With., and Loliiu/i Jiinrolum. Sond., were also found to ))e fungal-containing, l>ut he reported only one cxamide of LoJimu pcrciiiie, L., witli the fungus. He sug- gested that the presence of tlie fungus in the Darnel grains is pipbaljly an example of symliiosis rather tliaii one of actual para- sitism.
Hanausek's results confii'med those of Guerin, and, in addition, he noted tlie presence of the hpyhae in the nucellus of the young ovary, where, he stated, it produced knots. This fact, he suggested, indicates a possible athnity of the fungus in (luestion with the- U><f ihu/i iieae.
Hanausek never examined a Dai-nel grain witliout finding hyphae in the usual position, but all samples of L. peremie, L. examined showed the al>sence of liyphae.
Nestler working along the same lines traced the distribution of the fungus in the seedling, and in the growing plant right up to the formation of the grain. He, in addition, tried to cultivate the- fungus in artificial media with negative results. Only a few grains were found to be devoid of the fungus. He examined several
Fungus of Lolium. 253-
of the species of Lolium, including Lolium peremie, L., but found that the hyphae Avere absent in all cases. It was suggested that pos- sibly Woionin's " Taunielroggen "' and the fungus of Darnel bore some relation one to the otlier, on account of their somewhat simi- lar iDhysiological action. At the same time, however, he called attention to the many differences which might be cited between the- two.
Hiltner's (5) attention was drawn to tlie work of Hanausek and Nestler, and in 1899 he pul>lished a paper dealing with the func- tion of the fungus found associated with Darnel. This he stated to be of a nitrogen fixing nature, and proceeded to verify the state- ment by experiment. He recorded that Lolium femuhnfum grew equally well in nitrogen-free and nitrogen-containing sand, and he- was thus drawn to the conclusion that the above statement as regards its function is the correct one. The methods employed by Hiltnor are open to criticism, and I shall refer to his work in a later part of this paper (pp. 284-285.)
Micheletti (6), 1901, worked mainly on the chemical side of the- question. A paper, " The Seed Fungus of Lolium trmuhntum, L., the Darnel," by Freeman (7), appeared in 1902. Freeman found that samjjles of Darnel from various localities showed wide differ- ences in the proportion between fungal containing and fungal free seeds. He correlated the absence of the fungus with certain morpho- logical characteristics, vi/.. colour and shape, although he indi- cated that in a few cases this coi'relation was not evident. Perhaps the chief point in his paper deals with the mode of entry of the fungus into the embi-yo. He described an isolated patch of hyphae- at the base of the groove on the inner side of the grain. Tins patch he railed the " infection layer " and he stated that it was from this layer tliat infection of the end^ryo took place. The course of the hyphae, according to his observations, was always intercel- lular, and penetration of the aleurone layer by tlie infecting- hyphae took place at the junction of several cells. In all grains examined where hyphae were present in the end>ryo they were also found in the grain, and all the evidence Avas negative as to the pos- silulity of their presence in tlie embryo and absence in the grain. However,, he cited one doubtful case as regards this converse state- ment.
The disti-ibution of the fungus in the growing plant was noted,, and in dealing Avith the inflorescence and ovary he described in; detail the development of his "infection layer."
:254 Ethel McLennan :
All attempts to cultivate the fungus in artificial media were un- successful.
In conclusion he pointed out that Guerin considered the relation between the two organisms, one of true symbiosis; he agreed with this idea, but added, " the large hvplial layer of the grain, and .the occasional penetrations of the endosperm, suggest vestigial indi- . cations that the action of the fungus is, or has been, at times injurious to the endosperm of the plant. Otherwise the fungus seems ordinarily to exert an almost stimulating influence on the host."
Freeman examined 30 grains of Loliuin perenne L., and found •only 5 contained the fungus. Of 59 grains of Lolium itaUcum. Braun, 2 alone s-howed tlie second organism, while of 25 grains -of Lolium JinicoJuin, Br., the full number gave positive results.
Another paper by Nestler (8) appeared in 1904, but it throws little further light on the problem. Fuclis (9), 1911, viewed the subject from the chemical standpoint, ami hTially, in 1912. a re- :>jearch by Buchet (10) was published, but. unfortunately, I have been unable to obtain this paper in Australia.
The erratic occurrence of the fungus in both Lolium temuh^iifii m and Lolium perenne recorded by these investigators does not tend to support the idea of a symbiotic association, but rather stresses the pi'obability of its parasitic nature, llie investigations described in the following paper wei-e carried out in order to test these results for those grasses grown in Australia, andj also to attempt to eluci- date the actual relation between the two organisms. In attempting to furtlier our knowledge of the relation between the grass and its associated fungus, I have limited myself mainly to a study of Lolium perenne, as practically no work has been done on this grass, and, in addition, it is a much more convenient form for obtaining •embryological material. As far as time permitted I have compared this form Avith Lolium femulenfuin, and the results recorded in this paper are true for lx)th forms. Perhaps a few minor differ- ences may l>e determined later, but the main points are undoubt- edly true for both grasses.
Methods.
Microtome sections were employed in the examination of the mature grains. The grains were soaked in distilled Avater for several hours, and tlien placed in a fixing fluid. During the early -part of this work, Carnoy's fixing solution was used. Owing to the :starchy nature of the endosperm, it was difficult to get good results.
Fungus of Loliuvi. 255*
but if a paraffin Avith a fairly low melting point be used, it was found quite possible to obtain good and serial sections, after using, this fixing reagent. At a later stage Bouin's fixative was employed, more particularly when dealing with the later stages in the develop- ment of the grain. It was quite easy to obtain absolutely entire sections after the specimens have been fixed in this way. The disad- vantage lies in the fact that the starch in the endosperm was not- well preserved, and also after this fixative the staining reactions, with the stains employed, do not seem to be as brilliant as they are following upon Carnoy's fixative.
The ether-freezing microtome was not satisfactory, owing to^ the difficulty in obtaining serial sections, and it was generally necessary to do this. Again, it was impossible to obtain as thin sections in this manner as with the paraffin method.
Hand sections were practically useless. They can only confirm the presence of the hypliae in the grain, but evidence as to their absence cannot be drawn from them.
The stain most generally employed, in fact, solely, as regards the- mature grain, was aniline gentian violet. i In using this stain care- must be taken to see that it is always fresh, as it does not keep well. Its staining cai3acity diminishes rajiidly after several days. This- stain was washed out with Gram's iodine water, then with absolute alcohol. Sections were next cleared in clove oil, and mounted in balsam.
Excellent results were obtained with this stain, the hyphae for the most part being stained a brilliant bluish purple, and the endo- sperm reacting to the iodine. 2 It far exceeded any other stain T have tried, among them being Haidenhain's haematoxylin, aniline- safranin, erythrosin, aniline blue, etc. The aleurone cells for the most part and the cells of the scutellum and embryo do not stain,, so that the hyphae present in these tissues stand out in striking ■ contrast to the colourless cells around them.
This stain, used by itself, was only useful when dealing with the mature grain. In studying the embryology of the grasses in ques- tion it was necessary to counter-stain. Sections of the ovary iDefore, and at the time of fertilisation, wore stained with Bismarck
1. One Soloid tabloid of gentian violet dissolved in 7 ccs. of abs, ale, and' 63 CCS. of water containing 2.S ccs. of aniline solution.
2. The colourisation of the endosperm by the iodine is, of course, not per- manent, although the hyphae retain the violet stain well. This is certainly - a drawback to the method, but it is more than compensated for by the excel- ■ lent results obtained, which, indeed, are not approached by any other method.',
256 Ethel McLennan :
brown, followed by aniline gentian violet ;• later stages were also treated in the same way. In addition, some of the later sections were stained with eongo red. These were first stained with aniline gentian violet, followed by Gram's iodine water, and finally by Congo red. This stain washes out very readily in the alcohols, so it was found necessary to use a watery solution of congo red. and to wash away excess with water, then to drain off as much of the water as possible, and transfer immediately to clove oil. If the sections be left on the water oven at a temperature of -1:5 -50° C they will clear perfectly well in from 1-2 Ins., and they can tlien be mounted in balsam and juove to be quite permanent.
llie mature (jraiti.
Mv aim at fiist was to make a record of the grains of both J.olium te/?iulf/ifiii/i, and Loliuin perciint examined, and to note the number of fungus-containing and fungus-free seeds.
After examining a large number of grains, I have been forced to the conclusion that it is impossible to distinguish macroscopic- ally grains containing the fungus from those devoid of it (if any). The colour difference cited by Freeman cannot be regarded as a distinguishing feature.
Nine grains were chosen from a sample of Darnel obtained from Northam, Western Australia. Of these 4 were very dark in colour, 2 more or less intermediate, and 3 a pale straw yellow, but all of the nine showed a dense hyphal layer situated between the aleurone layer and the outer testa and pericarp. This is but a single example of many similar series. As the work proceeded it became more and more evident that both colour and size of grain were quite indejiendent of the fungal constituent.
When commencing this record hand sections Avere used, as it was possible to handle a large number of fruits in a comparatively short time, by this means. Sometimes these hand sections revealed a grain apparently fungus-free — i.e., no definite layer of hyphae could be seen in the usual position in the grain. Ihese, when ob- tained, were frequently microtomed, and fine but distinct fungal hyphae were found penetrating the scutellum, so it seemed impos- sible to decide whether a particular grain was devoid of the fungus unless serial sections were obtained sufficiently thin to enable these fine threads to be demonstrated. Although hand sections are use- ful in demonstrating the presence of the fungus, they cannot be .accepted as evidence in regard to its absence.
Ftiiigtii^ of LolliLim.
257
The follo-\ving I'esults show tliat Loliiim lierenne is just as strik- ing' an example of a t'ungus-iontainiiig frviit as Jj>hiiiii temiihti- hnn, and that the number of eirliei- grains devoid of tlie fungus is remarkahly small. In fact, they suggest that prQbably all grains ■of Darnel and, Englisli rye grass contain this second organism, and failure to discern it in some grains is due to the fact tliat it is present in such minute quantities in the mature grain that it needs .special care and staining to bring the hyphae out, or, as this paper proceeds, a second alternative will be considered (p. 293).
Loll Kill tciniil( iifii/n, L.
|
Locality |
No. of grrains e.xamined |
Fung-, pres. |
Fiui^'. abs. |
|
|
Victoria |
- |
93 |
93 |
— |
|
Northam, W. Aust. |
- |
9 |
9 |
— |
|
Katanning-, W. Aust. |
- |
27 |
27 |
— |
|
Kew, England |
- |
31 |
31 |
— |
|
■Cambridge, England^ |
- |
9 |
9 |
— |
'I'otal
169
169
Locality
Victoria Cowra, N.S.W. New Zealand South Africa Scotland Ireland
Total
Lolium pereune, L.
|
No. of Rr.aiiis |
|||
|
e.Kainiiied |
Fun |
tf. pres. |
|
|
53 |
- |
53 |
|
|
12 |
- |
12 |
|
|
4 |
- ■ |
4 |
|
|
18 |
- |
18 |
|
|
11 |
- |
11 |
|
|
17 |
- |
17 |
115
115
Fung. abs.
Although former workers have recorded the presence of the fungus in Lolium 'perenne, previously it has been thought to be very sj^ar- ingly distributed in this species. The above results show that this is not actually so. It has also been suggested that the toxicity of Darnel is due to its fungal component, but since English' rye grass shows a regularly occurring hyj^hal layer as well as Darnel, this suggestion
3. The " seeds " of this Cambridge sample were much smaller than those of any of the Australian samples. Frequently also on hand-sectioning no liyphal layer was evident, but several of the grains were microtomed, and further examination then showed distinct hyphae in the scutellum and embryo. Possibly the plants yielding the grain were grown under condi- tions which did not favour the luxuriant development of the fungus, so that the absence of the extra-cellular hyphal layer was more common in this sample than is usually the case. Only these grains which were actually microtomed are included in the above list.
258 Ethel McLennan :
does not seem to be a feasible one. Of course it niiglit be argued that the two grasses contain different species of fungi, one of which, might be toxic, the other liarmless. Ihe actual identity of the fungi obtained ,from the grains can only be established when they are grown artihcially, and the sporing stage obtained, but as far as one can judge by comparing the two forms, they are very simi- lar, and are certainly very closely related if not actually identical. Seemingly the explanation of the cause of the poisonous nature 'if Darnel must be looked for elsewhere, and is not to be furthered by a study of the fungus found inhabiting it.
Freeman, when discussing the fungus in the embryo of the grain, records some experiments which were undertaken in order to inves- tigate the function of the nucellar layer of hyphae, although it is not quite clear what bearing they have on this point. He grafted embryos of Loliinn ttiiuihiitiim on endosperms of Lolivm 'perenne, and vice versa, the grains having previously been sterilised, and all manipulations carried out under sterile conditions. Thirty- four grafts of Loliinn perenne embryos on IJ>Jliiin teniulentitm endosperms were made, and of this number eighteen germinated. He examined two of these seedlings, and found both contained hypliae, from this lie argued it was very probable that " liypliae from the infection layer of the />. terniilentmn grains were able to gain entrance to the embryos of Loliiim perenne/'' These experi- ments really lead nowhere, for the hyphae are already in the rye grass end)ryos before grafting on any foreign endosperm, and their jjresence cannot possibly be due to infection from the nucellar hyphal layer or from his loialised infection area.
Disfrihiition of tJie fi/nr/iis in the f/rain^
Many grains of Loliinn jterenne were sectioned with a view to determining the distribution of the fungus in the fruit. Transverse sections taken at different levels are shown in Plate XVIII., Figs. 1-3. The yellow line illustrates the distribution of the fungus. A transverse section at the distal end of the grain, Fig. 1, shows the hyphal distribution to be co-extensive with the aleurone layer. A
4. Following upon Brown and Morris (11), I have adopted the follow- ing terminologj- in describing the grain. The furrowed side of the grain is the ventra} STirface, the side opposite to this the dorsal. The embryonic end is called proximal, while the stigmatic end, or that portion remote from the embryo, is distal. A section passing through the ventral and dorsal sur- face is a sagittal section, while the longitudinal section at right angles to this is a coronal section. The sagittal plane which divides the grain into two equal halves is the median sagittal plane. A section at right angles to both sagittal and coronal planes is tra^isveisc.
Fungim of Lolium. 259
transverse section nearer the proximal end of the grain, as is- shown in Fig. 2, would cut- through the scutelluni. Such a section shows that the hyphae occur Ijetween the endosperiu and the scutel- luni wherever the tissues are in contact, and hyphal 2^t?iit?trations into the scutelluni may and do take place at any point over this area. Tlie hyphae in addition extend even past the limits of the aleurone layer, and penetrate the scutelluni on its outer exposed dorsal surface. A transverse section at the extreme proximal end of the grain. Fig. -S, passes through the embryo, l)Ut the starchy endosperm is no longer included in the section. Even at this level the hyphae surround the scutelluni, as is indicated by the yellow line in tlie Hgure. The coronal plane is perhaps the best for demon- strating the distribution of the fungus in any one section (Plate XVIII. Fig. 4), the occurrence of the fungal layer between the scutelluni and endosperm at all points of contact and the extension of the fungal tissue on the dorsal proximal surface is clearly seen.
Plate XVIII. Fig. 5, shows a median sagittal section illustrating the same points and, in addition both of these latter sections shew the distriltution of the hyphae in the embryonic area. The scutellum is often very richly traversed by tine fungal threads, and they are not restricted to any special area, but occur more or less uniformly right through the tissue. Some grains show these threads more readily than others, but a study of the embryology of the grain will suggest that this might often be the case. Ihe hyphae are readily discernil)le in the growing cone; their presence here has been pointed out by the earlier workers. (Text-figure 1.). The alx)ve facts are also true of Lohuin tenudentuin, but it is much rarer in this case to obtain a scutellum so markedly inliabited as in Loliiiiu pcrenne, and in any case the threads are generally finer. In several examples of Lolium iierenne I have found hyphae present in tlie railicle, but they are not generally evident in this region.
Freeman raises the question — How does the fungus obtain en- trance to the embryo? As an answer, he devoted a large part of his paper to a description of a localised patch of liyphae, which he termed " ihe infection layer-,''' and to its mode of origin. He says that on the ventral proximal end of the grain there occurs an iso- lated patch of hyphae which penetrates between the aleurone cells? and cells of the scutellum, and tliereby gain entrance to the embryo when it is fairly advanced in its development. He states that- on the dorsal surface of tlie grain the hyjahae do not extend to the end of the aleurone layer. To
14
260
Ethel McLennan
Text-Figure 1.
<jrowing point of an embryo from a Loliuin perenne grain. The section was cut obliquely and includes only the growing point — Si young leaves = l ; and scutellum = s ; hyphae = h. X 850 dinni.
Fungus of Lolium. 261
• fluote directly: "It is not impossible perhaps that infection .may, in exceptional cases, take place from this side of the scutellum (dorsal); but, if so, it occurs very seldom. I have seen no evidence either in the mature grain or in the developing ovary to indicate that such an infection is ever accomplished."
My observations permit of a different answer to this c[uestion. Hyphae occur at the junction of the scutellum and endosperm, not only near the ventral surface (Freeman's infection layer), but wherever these tissues are in contact I was unable to demonstrate the existence of an isolated patch as described by Freeman, Fur- thermore, it is impossible to agree with the statement that the hyphal layer does not reach the end of the aleurone layer on the dursal side of the grain. As is shown in Plate XVIII. Figs. 2-5, hyjjhae can and do occur right round the periphery of the embryonic area. These facts in themselves are interesting, but they do not answer our question. At a later stage, in this paper, it will be shown that infection of the embryo t^iikes place at a very early stage in develop- ment, and that the distrilnition of hyphae in the mature grain has no bearing on this point, but is a result of the special function carried out by this partner in the development of the grain.
It is only fair to emphasise the fact that Freeman dealt only with LoJiuni temulentum when working out his idea of an infection layer, and that this criticism is based mainly on work done on Lolium perennt. However, if the facts ciemonstrated in the embryo- logical section (pp. 267-281) are true, they apply equally well to botli forms, and it becomes abundantly clear that the distribution in the adult grain is not associated especially with the infection of the embryo as Freeman suggests.
Previous workers have descritecl the hyphal layer itself in detail. Australian grown grains of either grass seem to shew a very rich growth of hyphal tissue. Some grains of Darnel grown in the University grounds, Melbourne, had an average layer of 31.6 u. Grains of English rye in many cases showed a layer quite as broad as that shown by an average Darnel, but in both the width or extent of the layer is extremely variable, depending largely on
-the activity of the fungus during the period between fertilisation and formation of the seed. Aniline gentian violet, followed by Gram's iodine water, was used solely for staining the adult grains. The hyphal layer does not stain uniformly, however, with this stain,
•some portions of the hyphal threads reacting to the violet colour,
•other parts remaining colourless. This variation in the staining
14.\
262 Ethel McLennan:
properties was displayed by different parts of the same hvphae, the coloured portions being interrupted bv colourless, in a very irregu- lar manner. In order to ascertain whether these unstained seg- ments contained protoplasm or were devoid of contents, and thus remained unaltered by the stain, sections were submitted to a second stain following upon gentian violet. Congo red was chosen, as it stains the cell Avails, and also the protoplasm The result wag- that the former uncoloured sections were stained with the red, and displayed dense contents just as is the case with the coloured seg- ments The difference in the staining capacity is probal)ly due to the presence of ferments in certain parts of the hyphal network wherever the ferment is pre.sent in any quancity, then will the "blue" stain be evident. Colour is lent to this idea by the fact that the aleurone layer shows the same staining reactions as the hyphal layer. Ihe majority of the cells do not react to the violet stain, but certain of them stand out markedly from the rest, for they stain densely and form very striking portions of the section. The number of such coloured cells varies in each individual grain. In addition, the scutellum repeats the above phenomenon. In this case, tlie "blue" cells are generally restricted to the epithelial layer of this tissue.
Brown and Morris (11) liave shown that in Uordtiim rulgare the secretion of diastase is located in tlie aljsorptive epithelium, and in a later paper Brown and Escombe (12) that in addition, the aleurone layer is capable of bringing about marked changes in the endosperm when this is separated from its embryo, and placed under favourable conditions.
Ihe distribution of tlie active ferment-secreting cells tlierefore, agrees with the staining reactions described above, and supports the view that the coloured segments of the hyphae contain either an enzyme or its fore-runner, and this conjecture is further strength- ened by the later embryological work.
When examining a sample of English rye grass from Ireland, a specimen was occasionally found showing hyphae (which for the most part stained with gentian violet) invading the starchy endo- sperm. Freeman records a similar distribution for grains of Loliimi temulenfiini from Ghent. A careful examination of the aleurone layer of such a grain showed that the hyphae were also running riot here. Instead of the usual inter-cellular course, many hyphae could be made out actually passing into the cells, and in many cases a single hypha could be traced entering and leaving
Fungus of Lollmn. 2 60
.as many as three cells. As is well known, the cell walls of this layer are thick, and also pitted. The hy^shae enter through these j)its, and thereby gain access to the cell (Plate XIX. Fig 5). Sonie- tinies the opening in the M'all of the aleurone cell was smaller in diameter than the penetrating hypha ; when this was the case a conspicuous narrowing was noticed at the point of entrance, but on the far .side of the pit the hypha again attained its previous size. In addition the scutellum showed an extraordinarily large amount of tlie fungus. Here the intra-cellular course was also verv evi- dent (Plate XIX. Fig. 4). Many of the scutellar cells stained vividly; such cells were seen to be fungal containing. The entrance to the cells was gained through jjitted walls, as is the case in the .aleurone layer. The remaining cells of the scutellum Avere normal, and the grains did not seem to be any the worse for tliis excep- tiimal behaviour on the part of the fungus. In such abnormal grains the hyphal layer was present as usiial. There is no doubt that the hypliae invading tlie cells are the same as those composing the extra cellular layer.
These phenomena were not confined to the sample from Ireland, one of English rye grass from Soutli Africa also contained certain grains showing an extraordinary distribution and growth of the fungus. As before, both the aleurone layer and the scutellum were permeated by intra-cellular hyphae. In one jjarticular case +he scutellum, which normally is packed with aleurone grains, appeared to consist of a dense sclerotial-like mass of threads. The ])ulk remained colourless, and they resembled " ghosts," or casts, of former more virile hyphae (Text figure 2). They are represented in the text figure as dotted lines, and they completely filled the whole of the scutellar tissue, although the cells composing it were not distorted or enlarged in any way. lliis section cut in the coronal plane) and the others accompanying it, wei'e later stained witli Congo red; it was then easier to decipher the.se ghost-like contents of the scutellum. Many were cut transversely, but owing to a large amount of twisting some were seen running lengthwise through the tissue for a short distance. They probably represent fungal hyphae, which were numerous at certain stages in the development of the grain, carrying a, special food supply to special ■parts, and in giving this up to the host-plant theyhave undergone a partial dissolution, which was not completely carried out in "these few excejDtional cases by the time the grain reached maturity.
264
Ethel McLen^Kcn .-
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Text-Figure 2.
A longitudinal section through the radicle, and a portion of the- scutellum of a gram of Lolium j)erenne (Ireland). This was- an abnormal grain. r = radicle, rh = hyphae iu radicle, s = Scntelliim, gh = ghost-like hyphae forming a sclerotial like growth in the scutellum which was nevertheless perfectly formed; h= hyphae staining with gentian violet. x 103- diam.
Fangus of Lolium.
265
Text-figure 3 illustrates the stigmatic end of the same grain (a coronal section not cut in the median line shows portion of the
Text-Figure 3.
A section of the stigmjitic end of the same grain as text fig. 2. a = aleurone cells, tlie outlines of which are distorted by abnormally hirge intercellular hypliae ; h = intercellular hyplme, h = intra-cellular hyphae, w = wall of aleurone cell. X 10C)0 diam.
2.66 Ethel McLennan :
aleurone layer at this end of the grain cut tangentially. and there- fore it does not appear as a single layer of cells.) Interpolated be- tween the aleurone cells, lying in the inter-cellular spaces, alter- ing their whole contour, are outlines of hyphae, whicli seem to be swollen, somewhat gelatinised, and in a state of disorganisation. Similar bodies were also visible in the matrix of the Cflls them- selves.
These occurrences lead me to believe that at some stage in the life of the grain tlie hyphae were intra-cellular, and that in the few aberrant cases met witli this embryohigical condition persisted in the mature grain.
JJevelopi/ienf of tJie Orart/ from the Flotri r'uKj to the Fruiting
St (I fie .
It is convenient to divide this portion of the paper into sections, and to consider the i-elation of the fungus to tlie grain, at certain definite stages in its formation. This relation becomes very pro- nounced and charactei-istic, either just about the fertilisation period or inmiediately afterwards, and from here to the final stages is most intimately associated with the changes taking place, result- ing in the formation of the endosperm, witli its aleurone layer, and the various parts of tlie embryo.
St(i!/f^ A.
Text-figure 4 illustrates the external appearance c>f the ovary at the flowering stage just prior to fertilisatioti. It is drawn from the ventral surface, and shows tlie stigmas arising from the dorsal side, the bi-carpellai-y nature of the fruit is indicated in the figure. The ovum lies directed towards tliy proximal end of the ovary. I have designated this period Stage A.
Hyphae are present in the carpels from their earliest inception, but it is only at about tjiis stage that theii- intimate relation with the ovarian tissues of the grass is evident. They enter the ovary at the stalk end, and branch through the carpellary wall. They are generally nioi-f abundant during the eai'lier stages at this end than at the distal stigmatic end. These hyphae characteristically accompany tlie vascular tissue of the stalk, and are to be seen in very close liroximity to the annular and spiral vessels running m this area. (Plate XXI. Fig. 4.) In many of the sections numerous small lateral buds on the hyphae suggested haustoria, but thev may be minute lateral liranches just lieing caught in tlie section. The
Fungus of Loliwni.
267
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External appeaiance of the ovary of Lolium pcrenne at Stage A. X 15 diam.
268 Ethel McLennan:
cells of the carpellary stalk do not contain starch, and many of them stained deeply with the gentian violet after counter-staining- the sections with bismarck brown. These blue cells were always- plentiful in this region; such cells have been invaded by the fungus, and their contents probably used for its own nutrition. They always stain deeply, and the hyphae in their vicinity do likewise. If the cells do not stain too darkly, it is possible to observe fung.al threads forming a network in the lumen of the cells, many of the- threads being exceedingly fine. The position of these cells is shown in Plate XX. The cells are not enlarged, and apparently only differ from those around them by their different staining properties. The cell walls in this area are pitted ; whether this is the normal' condition or whether the pit has resulted from a secretion of the- fungus is a debatal)le point.
The lateral walls of the carpel are packed with small compound starch grains, and in tliis region the hyphae only occur between the oells. They run in all dii-cctions, but are, as far as I have- observed, strictly inter-cellular in this position, at this stage. However, Avhen the stigmatic region is reached they seem to get the- upper hand, and a large number of cells become their prey. These cells are also starch-containing, and when so intruded upon they immediately react to the violet stain. Sometimes the whole of this area will aj^peav a dense violet colour, for the great majority of the cells in this part are attacked at this period. When the cell is first invaded, the starch is seen to become swollen and disorganised, and loses its ])Ower of reacting to the iodini' wash used in prepar- ing the sections (Plate XXI., Figs. 2 and 5). The fine hyplial threads wrap round the starch groups, and even enter between each individual grain (Plate XXI. Fig. 5), apparentlv digesting them. There is no doubt that these cells are suffering at the hands of tlie fungus, and that their contents are being transferred to tliis fungal system. Some of the cells show an entire absence of starch; they appear to be practically empty, and somewhat collapsed. These have l>cen invaded at an earlier stage, and yielded their con- tents in a similar way. The stigmatic tracts present in the carpel wall generally show hyphae in abundance; they extend right into- the stigmas, and even here become intra-cellular, but do so proliably only arcer fertilisation has taken place, wlien the function of the- stigmas has been completed.
Occasionally, the base of a staminal filament remained attaclied' to the uvarv during sectioning, and hyphae were found to extend;
Fungus of Lolium.
269'
into this region. One or two examples were obtained, showing such hvphae in a much convoluted condition. Parts of the thread were swollen and bladder-like, with sharp constrictions at intervals.. The contents, however, were the same throughout the length of the- thread, showing no signs of spore formation. (Text-figure 5.)
Text-Figure 5.
Hyphae from a staminal filament shewin<| sharp constrictions- occurring at intervals along tbeir length, x 1700 diam.
-^70 Et.ltel McLennan .-
While these changes ano proeeeding in the carpel wall, the hyphae in the developing ovule are not quiescent. Ihey keep pace with the growth of the ovuLe, and until the embryo-sac is at the 8-celled stage they simply run between the cells of the nucellus, ramifying in ever}' direction. They exten<l right through the nuciellar tissue
^completely surrounding the end>ryo-sac. Freeman, when discuss- ing the ovary of Lol/ian femulenfu in at this stage, states that hyphae are comjiletely wanting on the outer dorsal surface towards the embryo-sac end, stopping at about tlie level of the antipodal group. If this is so, it is difficult to see how hyphae come to be present in this position in tlie mature grain. As far as I have observed they
.are uniforndy distrilnited through the inner layers of tlie nucellus, Init do not generally extend into the very outer layers until later in development. The dual staining properties are sliown by these hyphae, but the great majority of them will pick up thie purple stain.
The first indication of any change in the relation between the fungus and the cells of the ovule at this stage is the tendency for tlie hyphae to form knots (Plate XXI. Fig. •'}). These ai'e especiallv striking if the sections are cut rather thicker than those to be used for detailed high power examination. Hanausek described the occurrence of knots (Kniiuel) in the ovary of Darnel, and figured them. I liave been unable to o])tain his original paper, only
.■al)stracts withtnit figui'es being availaljle. He offered the occur- rence of these knots as evidence in favour of the fungus being related to tlie (^stihufi neae . Freeman says : " I have found no
;such knotting of hyphae to indicate the commencement of Ustilagine
rspore formation." These knots undoubtedly do occur, but are rather to be regarded as the first stages in the penetration of the nucellus cells. The hyphae arch round all sides of the cell before entering it, and as they generally invade two or three adjacent
•cells simultaneously, this arching gives the knot-like formations above described. 1 do not think they afford any clue to the actual systematic position of the fungus in question. Since they are just on the point of attacking a cell th^y ore rich in ferments and always stain vividly.
Cells showinof a later stage of invasion are also ])resK.'nt in sucli an ovule. Lateral branches ari.se from these enfolding hyphae, which penetrate the cell wall and pass into the substance of the cell itself. It soon becomes filled with a dense network of •threads, and in this condition forms a most striking part of the
FiDigus of Lolium. 271'
section, for such cells are the only members of all the nucellar tissue, Avhich will stain in tlie same way as the fungal system. (Plate XXI. Fig. 1). They stand out in contrast to tlie l)ackgri)und of normal, unattacked nucellar cells.
It is difficult to determine whether the hyphae actually apply themselves to the nuclei, but it is readily seen that the nuclei dO' undergo a definite change, l>ecoming large and somewhat distorttd, and at this stage will stain uniformly with the violet dye. These fungal-containing cells may occur in any position in the nucellus, but at this stage they are few in number, and are generally to be found at the end of the ovule furthest from the micropyle. They become more abundant after fertilisation occurring in any part of the nucellar tissue.
The embryo-sac at this stage is ready for fertilisation, and it ■agrees with the rest of the ovule in containing the fungus. The protoplasmic lining of the sac carries the hyphae. They run rather sparingly along tlie sides, and at the distal end of the embryo-sac, but are more abundant at the proximal end in the vicinity of the ovum. Ihey are in close connection with both the synergidae and the egg-cell, and enter into tlie substance of the latter at this early point in the development of the grain. (Plate XXI., Fig. 0.) Previously it has been thought that " infection " took place at a much later stage, after tlie differentiation of the gi-owing cone, Avhen the formation of the embryo was fairly ad- vanced. It has l>een suggested that the entrance of the fungus into the embryo was due to tlie chemotactic influence of the growing ajDex. My observations show that the fungal constituent is present in the ovum before any divisions have taken place, and that the formation of a special layer in the grain for the purpose of infect- ing the embryo at any specified/ period is not necessary.
Sfar/e B.
Text-figure 6 illustrates the external appearance of the ovary after fertilisation, and at the commencement of endosperm forma- tion. Ihe elongation of the ovary which accompanies this change is beginning to be apparent. As in Stage A, it is drawn from the ventral surface, and shows the same features as before.
If an ovary be sectioned at approximatelT this stage, our know- ledge of the relation of the fungus to the grass is considerably augmented.
The hyphae are still active in the carpel wall. The cells com- posing: the distal area of this wall are attacked by the fundus, their
i272 Etliel McLennan
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Text-Figure 6.
The external appearance of the ovary of Lolium j^erenne at Stage B. X 15 diam.
starchy contents are disorganised and absorbed into the hyphal system. The collapse of these cells enables the ovule to encroach on the space formerly occupied by them, and elongation of -the developing grain thereby results. At this period the ovule does not increase markedly in breadth, and so the cells composing the side walls of the carpel are not yet invaded, the activity of the fungus is, as in Stage A, more evident in the distal region.
The most noticeable change occurs in the ovule itself. Tlie r'fungus is responsible for the disorganisation of the nucellus.
Fungus of Lolium. 273
Thriving on the nutriment obtained from these cells, and also on that obtained from tlie carijellary wall, it increases tremendously in amount, invading and attacking every portion of this tissue. (Plate XXII. Fig. 1.) This figure represents the hyphae massed together in this area. For the most part it is difficult to discern the outlines of the disorganising cells, except at the edge of the ■ovule, where they are still intact, although, unlike the previous stage, the hyphae have spread now into these outer layers. The nuclei of the cells of the nucellus persist for some little time after invasion, but they become enlarged, and stain uniformly, as shown in the figure.
The type of branching of the hyphae is very characteristic. (Plate XXII. Fig. 2.) The branches are given off almost at right angles to the main thread, and at their point of origin a slight swelling generally occurs. They are strongly septate, and rich in proto- plasmic contents, and they show numerous vacuoles and well marked nuclei. If the sections are stained only with gentian violet, fol- lowed by Gram's iodine solution, the majority of the hyphae in these regions stain deeply, but the colourless portions noticed both in the adult grain and in the ovary prior to fertilisation are still present. In order to stain these segments sections at this stage were subjected to congo red, after staining in the abuve manner. Such treatment made the study of the endosperm much simpler.
The embryo-sac as a result of the stimulus of fertilisation lias enlarged considerably, the enlargement being accompanied by the appearance of endosperm. The formation of this tissue is at first most active at the proximal end of the sac, in the vicinity of the ovum. On the dorsal proximal surface it forms a complete plate of tissue, the distal extremities of which are separate and considerably narrowed. These dip towards the ventral surface, and in section appear as two bands of tissue, from one to two cells in width, each being surrounded by nucellus.
The cells of which the endosperm is composed are highly proto- plasmic, and contain large nuclei. Starch has not, as yet, been laid down in them. The endosperm is formed at first by a process of free cell formation. This soon ceases, and further growth takes place by the repeated division of the outer layer of cells, and thus the tissue grows, and gradually assumes its mature condition. This mode of growth is more easily followed at a later stage, so fur- ther reference will be made to it when dealing with Stage C.
27-i Ethel McLentian :
Until the endosperm commences to be formed, the fundus has- been increasin<^' in amount at the expense of tlie nucellus, etc. This increase is only a temporary one, for tlie hyphae now grow in close contact with the endosperm cells. They enter them when the cells are young and not fully formed, and are here seen to be- come disorganised. The food material thus gained by the grass is used in tlie preparation of the reserve store of fnod, which is later to be deposited in this tissue. Plate XXII., Fig ."5, shows a portion of the endosj^erm and the accompanying hyphae. lliis fjectidu Avas stained with congo red, and the hyphae and proto- plasm stain in the same way. Plate XXII. Fig. 4, also shows the close union betAveen the fungus and tlie grass. This section was stained oidy Avith gentian violet, and tlie hyphae could /je traced more readily in tlie cell itself. Many of the disorganising tlireads running in the host cells stained blue, and are shown in the figure, the cells themselves lemaining unstained. Plate XXII., Fig. 5, re- peats the structure shoAvn in the tAvo previous figures, but in addi- tion it shows extremely Avell, lateral bi-anches, Avhich arise from a hyplia I'unning parallel to the length of the endosperm, ami Avhich enter adjacent cells of this tissue, yielding up their food to the- embryo grass plant.
The fungus is most al)undant in the region of the ovum, due prob'ably to the fact that the lumen of the emliryo-sac begins to fill first around the embryo. In this region the cells are long and crescent shaped, and have very dense contents.
The synergidae are still present, and tlieir alisorption is no doubt the result of the activity of the fungus, a fact which may help to explain the pronounced growth of hyphae always present in this position.
The ovum is Still undivided, although it has increased in size- and the cytoplasm has become vacuolai-.
In the intermediate stages betAveen B and f, the division of the ovum and the subsequent groAvth of the embryo are points of interest. The first di\'ision of tlie egg is generalh' transverse, at right angles to the j^i'o-embryo, and each cell usually contains a AA'ell-marked vacuole. The fungus ramifying in the nucellus in this part of the sac comes into direct contact Avith the endosperm, which forms a lining to the pocket in Avhicli tlie end^ryo groAvs. The hyphae are unusually abundant, and are actively ti'ausferring food- material from the various parts of the carpel to the endosperm in this area. (Plate XXV., Fig. ].) These cells are later absorbed
Fung as oj Loliuin. 275
• by the growing eiiibrvo, which, therefore, ultimately benefits by this concentration of hyphae. The cells of the pro-embryo also receive hyphae directly. Plate XXV., Fig. 3, shows a more advanced eml^ryo. Tlie dermatooen has just been cut off, and the hyphae are seen to enter right into the substance of the embryo. The endos- perm cells at the extreme micropylar end are disorganising as a result of the presence of the fungus, and are also included in the figure.
Stage G .
Text-figure T illustrates the external appearance of the ovarj^ when it is approaching maturity. A considerable amount of endosperm has been formed; the shadowed portion of the diagram indicates the extent and distribution of this tissue. As in the two previous stages, the ovary is drawn from the ventral surface. The furrow is noticeable at the proximal end, but as yet, is not well developed at the distal extremity. The dorsal proximal end projects beyond the rest of the ovary in the form of a pocket, in which the embryo develops.
Sections taken at this -stage emphasise the facts already disclosed. The great bulk of the nucellus has disappeared, whilst the endo- aperm has increa-sed in a well-marked and definite manner. The hyphao are still abundant, but owing to their absorption by the endosperm they are not as plentiful as in Stage B. The disorgani- sation which takes place all round the periphery of this layer keeps the growth of the hyphae in check, and, consequently, they never over-run the developing grain, but tend to decrease in amount after the first appearance of endosperm. (Plate XXIII.) The food-supply made available to the grass by the digestion of the hyphae is utilised by the young actively growing endosperm cells. This is rendered possible, foi- the growth in size of this tissue takes place from the outer surface. The outermost layer of the endosperm may^ be regarded as a cambium, wliich is active only on its inner sur- face. This meristematic layer divides in the usual manner, and the cells so formed are at first more or less brick-shaped, but gradu- ally assume an approximately spherical form, and attain their adult size. Gi^wtli is carried on in this manner until the fruit is practically mature, then this outermost dividing layer ceases its activity, but persists in the grain as the aleurone layer, the cells of which serve as a store of nitrogenous material. This idea of an endosperm ic camhium is supported by the fact that the nuclei of this layer remain large and intact, even when the cells are
276
Ethel McLennan
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Text- Figure 7.
The external appearance of the ovary of Lolivm pevenne at Stage 0. X 15 diam.
Fungus of Lolium. 2 77
packed with reserved food, and also the walls of the aleuroiie cells become thickened, showing pits or points of communication at intervals. It is a well-known fact that cambial cells embarking on a period of rest show considerably thickened cell walls. The thicken- ings are usually removed wholly or in part, wlien such a layer recommences its activities.
If the stamens, before they ripen, are removed from a spikelet and cross-pollination is also prevented, the ovary remains small, but the fungus will gi-ow rapidly in the nucellus, and ultimately forms a sclerotial-like mass of hyphae, occupying the main part of the ovule. Freeman records this fact for Darnel, arid I have had similar results with English rye grass. Since, by preventing pol- lination, endosperm formation does not take place, this dense growth is only to be expected, for even in a fertilised ovary the fungus is parasitic on the nucellus, and for a short period tends to increase in amount. The prohibiting factor is the endosperm, which destroys the hyphae as fast, or faster, than they are being formed, hence removal or absence of this factor favours the develop- ment of the fungal organism, and the attempt towards sclerote formation is the result.
The primary tissues have been cut off in the embryo. It lias elongated considerably in length at the expense of the endosperm cells adjacent to it. (Plate XXV., Fig. 3). These no longer foi-m a close investment to the embryo, but have disappeared at the micropylar end, and the embryo now lies free in the embryo-sac. The attachment of the suspensor to the microple is broken at this stage. Hyphae still run in close association with the embryo, and in section it shows the hyphae running in its tissues.
Transition from Stage G to the Mature Grain.
Extci-nally, the only changes which are evident during this tran- sition are tlie elongation of the; ovary, accompanied by an increase in breadth, and the development of the embryonic area, which becomes more pronounced as the scutellum develops and the embryo reaches maturity.
Sections taken at ' any stage during this period show features common to the earlier stages. The increase of endosperm, resulting from the continued activity of its outer layer, tends to crush the hyphae.^ which are ramifying in the remnants of the nucellus, into a layer running round the periphery of the seed. This layer becomes more pronounced as the endosperm reaches its adult size, and tills
15a
278 Etltel McLennan :
the space formerly occupied by tlie nucellus, the outer parts of which are the last to disappear. Starch cells continue to be formed until the seed is almost ripe, and the hyphae nourish these young- starch cells, just as they did the inner, now mature, starch cells, in the younger stages already described.
When the endosperm attains its full size, the outer dividing layer ceases to function, and becomes the young aleurone layer. The cells, which constitute it, retain their embryonic form, as. regards both their size and shape, in their adult condition. They eventually thicken their walls considerably, and their contents be- come packed with aleurone grains, so that finally the nitrogenous layer characteristic of the endosperm of cereals is formed.
Plate XXIV. illustrates a section of the endosperm taken at the stigmatic end of a grain, at a stage Avhen the aleurone layer is not yet adult. The hyphae, which by this time are in the form of a layer, take jjart in the nourisliment of the aleurone cells. Just, as in the case of the starch cells, they actually enter into the cell cavity by penetrating the cell-wall, and become absorbed by the protoplasm which converts the nourishment so obtained into the aleurone grains^ which are present in great abundance in the adult layer. Ihis plate shows several hyphae passing through the walls and disap- pearing into the cell-contents.
The aleurone cells figured are young. They show a well-marked nucleus, and are filled with protoplasm, in the mes.hes of which aleurone grains are being formed. The absorption of the hyphae continues until the cells are packed with grains, and the seed is nearly ready for ripening. A section of a fully mature noi-mal endosperm shoAvs, however, no signs of the endophytic nature of the- fungus.
It is interesting to note that Peklo (16) suggested that the aleurone layer was probably fungal in origin in all cereals. The suggestion arose as a result of an incidental examination of some Loliian temulentiim grains. In order to carry tue investigation further he decided to examine grains of Triticum, Secale, and Hordeum. He recognised the necessity of examining rust-resistant types, and stated fully in his paper tlie varieties he proposed to- examine. AVith the forms chosen he obtained negative results. Not deterred, he next examined material he already had embedded in paralhn, but he did not state its origin, or given any information; regarding its rust-resistant capacities.
Fang US of Lolium. 279
Examination of siu-li material revealed funiral liypliae occupying the lumen of the aleurone cells, from which densely stained Imdies "were budded olf. Peklo l>elieved tliem to be aleurone grains. It seems highly probable that the grains used for sectioning -were mouldy, and that tlie aleurone gi-ains figured are in the process of digestion. Ihis is accentuated l)y tlie fact that some grains were found actually embedded in the hyphae themselves, and also by the fact that Peklo suggests that the fungal threads found bear a resemblance to tliose of Mucor Eouxianus (Amyloinyces Rou.rii), although the actual identity of the two was not established. The point of interest as far as tliis paper is concerned lies in the fact that Peklo [irobably found the fungus in the aleurone cells of young Lohitm tenndenium grains, and fi'om this isolated case he attempted to generalise, stating that such was the oi-igin of the layer for all cereals.
The breadth of the hyphal layer found in the grain is dependent on two factors —
(a) The activity of the fungus,
(b) The absorbing power of the endosperm.
If the fungus is strong and luxuriant in its growth, and can keep pace with the activity of the endosperm, a thick hyphal layer would result, for even at maturity the endospei'm will not have used, as food-material for itself, all the available hyphae.
If, howeveJ", the growth of the mycelium is inclined to be weak, the absorbing power of the endosperm will be greater than the growing power of the fungus, and the result will be a very small layer in the mature grain, or even perhaps the complete absence of ■such a layer.
In the earlier part of this paper (p. 256) I emphasised the fact that absence of tlie fungus in hand-sections, or in any individual microtome section could not be taken as evidence of the total absence of the fungus in the grain. Tlie reason for this statement should noAv he clear. The presence or absence of a definite layer in the grain is dependent on the activity of the fungus, and the absorb- ing power of the endosperm. Even if a grain does not exhibit a ■definite layer, hyphae may still be present in the embryo in sufficient amount to ensure the appearance of the fungus in quantity at the desired stage in the development of tlie next generation of Lolivim.
We are also in a position to discuss the significance of tlie dis- tribution of the fungus in the grain. Freeman attributed it mainlv to the result of the method of infection of the embryo, but I
280 Ethel McLennan:
am led to the conclusion that it is a result of the part played by the fungus during tlie development of its host. The grass so con- trols and subjugates the mycelium during the changes which take place after fertilisation, that the erabryo-sac, as its increases in size,, pushes the fungus closer and closer to the periphery, until the mature condition is reached. Not only is the hyphal layer found between the endosperm and the testa, but, if the fung'us is active, remnants may be found all round the periphery of the embryonic- area, in fact, in any position occupied by them during the later embryological stages. (Plate XVIII. Figs. 1-5.)
The embryo during this period follows the usual course of development. At Stage C it was an undifferentiated club-shaped body, and hyphae were in close association with its micropylar end.
The next marked i>eriod of growth results in the appearance of the stem apex (Plate XXV., Fig. 4.) This is followed by differen- tiation of the radicle and elongation of the cotyledon. Wlien all the parts of the embryo are thus marked off from one another, growth continues until thf embryo is fully develoj^ed. The fungus,, in the meantime, can generally be seen at both the micropylar end, and also, between the developing scutellum and endosperm. It is generally pronounced in the region of the plerome cells of the cotyledon.
Further investigations of the development of the embryo have been commenced in order to determine more exactly the relation of the fungus to its later development, as it is possible that the fungus plays a role in the formation of the scutellum comparable to the one it plays in the formation of the endosperm.
The hyphae, already in the very young embry^o, follow the development of the stem-apex, and remain localised in their growth until germination takes place.
Tlie Fungxs in the I'lant.
The growtli of the fungus keejjs pace with that of the plant, the hypliae, however, are mainly restricted to the growing apex, but can be seen extending for a short distance down the stem. Ihey show the dual staining property already described (pg.
Even at this stage the intra-cellular nature of the fungus can be demonstrated. Some of the parenchymatous cells of the grass are invaded, and used as a food supply by the hyphae. Such cells always stain with gentian violet, and they show a dense network of
Fivngtis of Lolium. 281
hyphae. They may occur near the vascular tissue, and also towards the periphery of the stem.
When the inflorescence is formed, they ai-e especially abundant at the base of the carpels. The cells so affected do not increase in size, and are only to be distinguished from a normal unaffected cell by their different staining properties. It is not till the ovule is well advanced that any great increase in the fungal partner takes place, when the phenomena already detailed follow in their natural sequence.
Ctdtivatiou of tlie Fungus in Artificial Media.
All attempts by previous workers to obtain a pure culture of The fungus have been unsuccessful. Their work lias been limited mainly to the nucellar hyphae. So far I have been no more suc- cessful than Xestler and Freeman in endeavouring to get the fungus to grow outside its host. As further work is being done in this direction, it has been thought advisable to give a short account of the methods employed^ and the results so far gained.
Since hyphae isolated from the hyphal layer of the grain had not yielded any result, and as they represent the dormant stage of the fungus, I thought greater success might be attained if the cultures were made from a more active stage in its life-history. Accord- ingly, the ovary was thought to be a suitable stai'ting point, and stages ranging from A-C in the development of the grass have been used for infecting the culture media.
For the most part the culture medium has been made up in the following way : —
A decoction of Lolium iierennt in water was autoclaved, then filtered and cleared with egg albumen. The liquid so obtained was made into a 1% agar solution, and autoclaved. It was subsequently filtered, titrated, tubed and sterilised.
Other media have been tried, e.g., honey agar, starch agar, etc., but with no better results.
The ovaries were treated in various ways, before using them for infecting the plates.
(1) Some were washed for one minute in equal parts of a 1%
mercuric chloride solution and 45% alcohol, followed by a thorough washing in sterile distilled water.
(2) Others were washed in ether for varying lengtlis of time,
from five minutes to one minute.
(3) Others, again, were shaken for some time in sterile dis-
tilled water.
282 Ethel McLennan :
After this preliminary treatment tliey were cruslied with sterile forceps and introduced into the mouth of the agar tube, and then immediately plated. A drop of lactic acid solution being intro- duced to eliminate the growth of bacteria.
(Crushing the ovaries brings the fungal hypliae into direct con- tact with the medium used, and it wa.s though that this might induce growth).
Some of the plates were left at room temperature, others were incubated at 2'3^-25T. As a rule the plates were found to remain remarkably free from external contamination, and exhibited no growth at all. Occasionally, some superficial fungus, mostly Peni- ctUium. developed from the surface of the ovary, more especialy from the stigmas.
Probably the preliminary trcatnient to which the ovaries were subjected may have acted detrimentally on the fungus, even kill- ing it. Further work, however, requires to be done to decide this point.
One plate infected with an ovary, which had previotisly Ijeen immersed in ether for four minutes, exhibited a fungal growth whicli seemed to arise from the ovary as a centre and which could not be attributed to any of the commoner superficial forms.
The first signs of growth appeared on the third day after infec- tion. Ihe liyphae were extremely septate, and their tips seemed to divide into two. the resulting branches growing equally. At this time there were no signs of spore formation. On the thir- teenth day signs of fruiting bodies were noticed. When young they appeared salmon pink in C(>lour, becoming very dark when •old. They were irregular in size and shape, and appeared to be of the nature of pycnidia.
I have to thank Mr. C. C. Brittlebank (Government Plant Patho- logist) for identifying the growth so obtained. He had no hesita- tion in placing it as a Conioflij/rnini. probal)ly closely related to C. olivdceuni, Bon. Tlie ovary from which the felt Avas obtained was fixed, along with a portion of the felt, in Fleming's weak solu- tion, and afterwards microtomed. The sections showed tliat the tissues of the ovary remained intact during tlie growth of the myce- lium, and hyphae similar to those composing the felt were found running in its tiissues.
This may or may not be the fungus found in the Loliums, but its close affinity to Phoma is rather suggestive, for many mycorrhizal forms have been found to belong to this latter genus.
Fungus of Loliwni. 283
The ovax'v used in this plate was obtained from a plant growing in the Mellouine University grounds. It ■was apparently the pro- <duct of a second flowering resulting from heavy early autumn rains. Since all attempts t) obtain this form again have l>een -unsuccessful, it might be argued that it cannot be the fungus found associated with Loliuiu pereune. lliis may be so, but it is just probable that since the ovary represented a second flowering the fungus may be growing more actively than the developing grain, the grass being naturally weakened by its previous flowering, so that the fungus may have been in a suitable condition to grow ■on the artificial medium provided.
Concerning the Function of the Funr/us.
It has been suggested that the fungus associated with Darnel grass possesses the power of nitrogen-fixation. Hiltner (5) was the first to formulate this idea, and after testing it by experiment, he concluded that Loliuni frni>ile?i,tum grew as well in nitrogen-free sand, as in sand to which nitrogen, in the form of potassium nitrate, had been added as a fertiliser. As a control he grew Loliuui italicum under similar conditions. This species, at the time of Hiltner's work (1899), was regarded as being fungus free. Later, Freeman (1903) found in a sample of 59 grains two -contained the fungus and 57 were devoid of it. This, although it is a low percentage of infected grains, could introduce a serious error into such work when using this species as a control.
The experimental methods employed by Hiltner are also open to •criticism. He planted grains of both species in pots, which were •completely nitrogen-free, but he watered one set of two with tap- water, whicli contained 0.84 nig. of nitrogen per litre. To the •other set of two he gave in addition 50 mg. of nitrogen in the form of potassium nitrate. These pots were appai-ently left exposed to the air, and so were subject to many sources of external nitrogen contaminatitm, the most formidable perhaps being nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
An experiment can-ied out in this manner could not aim at deter- mining whether the fungus is capable of fixing free atmospheric nitrogen in the coinpelett absence of comhiiied nitror/en. How- ever, as several investigators have shown. Berthelot (17), Purie- witsch (18), and Latham (19), that certain fungi can fix free nitrogen if supplied with a small amount of this element in a com- bined form, the results given by Hiltner might have some bearing • on the latter point.
284 Ethel McLennan :
The following figures are extracted from his paper : — I. — Without nitrogen mounre.
Nitrogen
Dry Weight .—
tfr. absolute nig. per cent.-
Lolium temiilentum - - 5.173 - 30.35 - 0.59 Lolium italiciun - - 0.974 - 6.69 - 0.69
Eoot mixture - - 3.619 - 7.78 - 0.22
'i'otal - -. 9.766^rr. - 44.S2nig - 0.46% II. — Manured with 50 mg. of nitrogen.
Nitrogen
|
Dry \\ eight |
al)Solnte nig. |
per cent. |
|
|
Lolium temulentum - |
5.867 |
72.87 |
1.24 |
|
Lolium italicum |
2.329 |
40.70 |
1.75 |
|
Boot mixture |
3.3S1 |
12.60 |
0.37 |
|
Total - |
- 11.577gr. |
- 126.l7mg. - |
1.09% |
The nitrogen content of Lolixtm temulentum plants, when fer- tilised with potassium nitrate, is seen by the above figures to in- crease markedly as compared with that obtained for unfertilised' plants, i.e., plants watered with tap water only. Not only is this; so, but the increase is nearly as great as that obtained for Lolium italicum. The small difference between the percentage results for both species is not outside the limit of experimental error, especi- ally when the sources of such error are as gi-eat as in tlie experi- ment in question.
Kayner (20) wlien dealing with the symbiotic relatiun of an asso- ciated fungus in Calluna I'ldgari-^t, refers to the case of Darnel grass, and says: " Some degree of symbiosis has been inferred, but the experiments of Hiltner to establish nitrogen fixation for this fungus are inconclusive."
In describing the distril)ution of the fungus (a peculiar mycor- rhizal form) found in Calluna vulgaris,. Rayner draws attention tO' the fact that in many points it resembles the fungus in Darnel. The fungus from Calluna was isolated and grown in pure culture, and was found to be closely related to the genu? I'hnma: nitrogen- fixation was suggested as its function. Duggar and Davis (21) showed that Phoma Beiae, when grown on mangel or sugar beet decoction, produced a nitrogen gain of from 3.022 — 7.752 mg., pointing definitely to nitrogen fixation for this particular fungal' species. In fact, it Avas the only definite positive result obtained' from all the forms experimented with.
Fungus of Lolium. 285'
Although many mycorrhizal fungi are thought tn aid their host 23lant in this way, consideralile luicertainty exists cimcerning the determination of the species producing mycorrhiza and their actual function.
These facts suggest that it is not improbable that the fungus associated with Darnel or English rye grass might act as a nitro- gen-fixer, so an experiment was devised to try .and establish a defi- nite answer to this suggestion as regards Lolium perenne.
Materiah and Apparatus.
(1) Method of rreparing Sand.
Sand cultures were chosen, as they supply a rather more natural condition for the plant roots than water cultures, and sand has the additional advantage of being practically insoluble, and it does not interact with the nutritive compounds used in the water- ing solutions. In order to obtain it free from all traces of nitrogen, it was subjected to the treatment recommended by Schramm (22), A good sample of fine quartz sand was chosen. This was thoroughly washed for about two hours in running tap-water. It was next boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for about one hour, and then washed with distilled water until chlorides could no longer be detected on the addition of silver nitrate. The sand was then heated to a red heat in a furnace for eight hours. This effectively removes any organic material which may be j^resent. The ash formed in this way and any remaining traces of nitrogen were removed by a second boiling in pure strong hydrochloric acid. A second washing with distilled water ensued, and was carried on until the sand was free from chlorides. Finally it was washed a dozen times with nitrogen free water, and then dried in a drying oven. After this treatment, on testing for ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, onlv nesative results were obtained. ^
.5. Nessler's reagent wns used in testing for ammonia. The Lunge test (Dlplienvlamine) was used in testing for nitric acid. A modification of the Peter-Griess method was used in testing for nitrous acid. This test is^ extremely delicate, according to Anderson (25). One-thousandth ot a milligram can be detected with certainty. The Griess-Ilosvay method is as follows : — ■
(1) Dissolve 0.5 gm. of sulphanilic acid in 150 cc. of 2-normal acetic acid.
(2) Boil 0.2 gm. of a naphythylamine in 20 ccs. of water. Pour off the colourless solution from the violet residue, and add to the solution 150 cc. of 2-normal acetic acid. Mix the two solutions^ (This mixture must be kept in a dark place.) Take 50 cc. ot the material to be tested with 2 cc. of above reagent, and allow it to stand 5 or 10 minutes; it will be coloured red if a trace of nitrous acid is present.
In using this test, the flask should be plugged with cotton wool, to prevent dust from entering the solution and disturbing the result.
:286
Etltel McLennan
(3) JjJtv coii(hictirit y water.
I have to rhaiik Dr. llivett. of the Chemistry Department, Mel-
. bourne University, for tlie use of a still, the pattern of which was
first described by Hartley, Poole and Campbell (28), and which
readily yields water of conductivity as low as 0.4x10—6 mhos.
The method eniployed is briefly as follows : —
Ordinary distilled water is boiled for about 10 mins. in a 10 ^litre copper vessel, open to the air, and this is connected to the apparatus shown in text-figure 8.
"^
Wslir
'goiter
r
T
c
3
I
Text-Figure 8.
.A diasfram of the condenser used in preparin*:^ low eondctivity water, A>{ = condensing tuba; E = collecting funnel ; € and D = Copper sheet baffles; Gr = tin flap welded to AB to prevent condensate from soldered junction running down A.B.
Fungus of Lolium. 287'
The essential part is the condeiisiiit; tubes A B, which is of pure tin. Before the entering steam can reach the condenser, it must travel round two copper-sheet batHes C and D, which effectively retain liquid particles projected from the boiler. The condensate drips into the tin-funnel E, and is collected in a 3-litre Jena glass flask, wit-h the usual guard tubes of soda lime. It is removed from the flask by siphoning. The outer cylinder is of copper, and is protected by asbestos sheeting on the outside. No water whit-h condenses on the cylinder or the copper batfles-plates can enter the funnel E; it is drained away at F. To prevent tlie coaidensate running down A B from the soldered junction of the tube with the top of the cylinder, a tin flap is welded on, as shown at G. The drippings from this fall outside the funnel E. The middle fraction of 3 litres is the purest.
Apparatus.
Two large glass shades, fitted into a groove round the peri- phery of wooden stands, were used for covering the pots, in which the grains were planted. Ihese were carefully cleaned with acid-dichromate cleaning mixture. In each case a long glass tul^e bent at right angles to itself was inserted through tlie stand into the cylinder. These were connected in turn to a series of wash-bottles. The first of these contained chemically pure sulphuric acid, giving no nitrogen reactions. This acid bottle was connected to two series of water-wash bottles, one set belonging to each cylinder. The con- nections were made with glass and rubljer tubing. Between the last wash-bottle and each shade, a tube of wider diameter, was inserted, containing a germ-proof cotton plug. A second tube of smaller length, also bent at right angles and fitted through the wooden base into the other side of the cylinder functioned as an exit tube. These in turn were connected each to a wash-bottle, and then to a water pump. By this means a slow current of air could be kept drawn through the cylinders. Before reaching them, the air had to pass through the acid, two wash-bottles containing nitrogen- free water, and finally through the cotton plug, so all combined nitrogen in the form of dust, etc., was removed before the air reached the pots. This treatment also reduced to a minimum the chance of nitrogen fixing bacteria, present in the atmosphere, gaining access to the sand.
After the experiment had been running for some little time, it was evident that a larije amount of water was being carried over-
;288 Ethel McLennan :
by the air and condensing on the sides of the glass cylinders. In order to prevent the air from being too moist, U-tubes containing pure calcium chloride were inserted betweeen the last wash-bottle and the cotton plug.
Watering with the nutritive solutions was carried out by a siphon arrangement. A glass tube bent at an angle over each pot was connected by rubber tubing to a separating flask. This was tightly stoppered, and tlie stopper coveied by a small inverted beaker to prevent dust from falling on it. B\ raising or lowering this flash the solutions flowed freely on to the pots and the quantities given could be altered at will.
The pots themselves had, glazed surfaces, and were quite nitrogen free.
Before setting up the experiment, all the glass bottles and tubing were washed with the cleaning mixture, and then several times with nitrogen-free Avater. The open ends were plugged with cotton wool and sterilised, in a steam steriliser, on three successive days. The rubber stoppers and tubing were boiled in dilute alkali, then in dilute acid, and subsequently Avashed with nitrogen free Avater. Connections AA-ere made as soon as possible after removing the jplugs.
The slot in the stand into which the cylinders fitted Avas sealed Avith putty, all the other joints Avere sealed Avith paraffin. There Avas every indication that the connections were air-tight.
"The grains before planting Avere treated with a 2% formalin solu- tion for 8 minutes, then Avashed thoroughly in nitrogen-free Avater. By previous trial it was found that this treatment did not afiect the germination capacity of the seeds, and rendered them as sterile as possible.
The sand, being prepared in the manner already described, Avas sterilised, left to cool, moistened with nitrogen-free] distilled Avater, and the grains planted. The shades were immediately fitted into place, the connections made, and the experiment commenced run- ning on August 18th, 1919. It Avas so arranged that an equal amount of illumination Avas receiA^ed by lx)th. pots.
The drying tubes soon became saturated with water, and it Avas found necessary to change tliem every second day. The U-tubes Avhen not in use Avere kept sterilised and plugged, so that the sterility of the system Avas not affected by this factor. Ihe sul- phuric acid and water in the Avash bottles Avas also changed occa- sionally, so as to prevent any traces of nitrogen accumulating in
Fungus of Lolium. 289
■.the last wash bottles, and thereby reaching the cylinders. During the i^rocess of changing the bottles, the rubber connections with the cylinders were clamped, so that air could not reach them.
(^) Nutritive solutions.
The control pot was watered with a nutritive solution, made up .according to the following formula : — Annnonium nitrate, 0.5 gram. Potassium di-hydrogen jjhosphate, 0.2 gram. Calcium sulphate, 0.1 gram. Magnesium sulphate, 0.1 gram. Sodium chloride, 0.1 gram. P'erric chloride, 0.04 gram. Nitrogen-free water, 1000 ccs. The second pot was watered with a similar solution, excluding the ammonium nitrate.
The chemicals used were the purest that could be obtained. The watering solutions when ready for use gave negative results, with the nitrogen tests already described.
Results.
August 18th. — Experiment commenced.
August 27th. — Grains were germinating freely in both pots.
September 15th. — The seedlings in the control pot were taller and were showing a better colour than those deprived of nitrogen.
September 16th. — First signs of yellowing at tips of leaf in nitrogen-free seedlings.
.September 19th. — All the seedlings in the nitrogen-free cylin- der showed their first leaf distinctly yellow at tip, and the yellow colour was extending back along the edges of the lamina. The seedlings were all in the two leaf stage. The second leaf was quite green. The seedlings in the control cylinder looked very healthy. No signs of dis- colouration were evident in them.
September 30th. — The nitrogen-free seedlings were about one- third the height of the control seedlings. The first leaf was very much discoloured and withered. The second leaf was still green, showing no signs of yellowing. The third leaf just visible. The control seedlings were healthy, and of a good green colour; they showed 5-6 leaves.
290 Etltel McLennan :
October 13th. — Ihe nitrogen-free seedlings were very un- healthy. The second leaves showed discolouration, and' were dying from the tip downwards. Very much behind, the control. October 20th. — The nitrogen-free seedlings were beginning to' die out. The control seedlings were exceedingly vigorous and normal. October 30th. — The experiment was dismantled for photo- graphic purposes, as the remaining nitrogen-free seed- lings were failing rapidly. The phenomena noted during the course of the experiment are typically those resulting from nitrogen starvation. The yellowing' of the older leaves always conmiencing at the tip indicates that these members are being sacrificed in order that any nitrogen they pos- sess (i.e., niti-ogen obtained from the seed) may be made available- for transference to the young devehiping leaves. This transference' of nitrogen from the first-formed leaves to the actively growing centre enables the j^lant to exist for a certain period of time, but the lack of nitrogen manifests itself in the stunted growth and unhealthy colour and appearance of the plants.
It may be concluded from this experiment that no power of nitrogen-fixation in the absence of external supplies of combined nitrogen can be ascribed to the endophytic fungus of Lolium perenne.
Conclusion.
It is difficult to decide what is the actual relationship between- the fungus and tlie Loliun\ plant. It could, jierhaps, be regarded as a case of symbiosis, the fungus helping in the plant economy during the formation of the grain. In return for this it is housed ])y the grass, and its propagation is ensured by the admittauc? of hyphae to the embryo, so that it is able to appear in each successive generation without the intervention of a spore stage. It can only be a matter of conjecture whether this stage is entirely lost to the fungus or whether it is repressed, only as long as conditions are favourable to its transmission in the usual way, but still retains the power of sporing if in danger of extermination. The sporing^ stage may occur under such conditions, but up to the present it has not been recognised as belonging to the fungus normally found associated with at least two species of Lolium.
As opposed to this conjecture, Freeman (26), although he had not demonstrated the intra-cellular nature of the fungus, advocated
Fuvgus oj Lolium. 291
the view that it was a smut. He was drawn to this conclusion by the idea " of the probable progression of the evolution of para- sitism in smuts/' from the loose smut of oats through the loose smut of wheat to the Lolium fungus. The loose smut of wheat, forming as it were, an intermediate stage l^etween the loose smut <; ' oat and the fungus of Lolium. It is well known that the spores c i the loose smut of wheat infect the ovary at the flowering stage, and there form a mycelium, which perennates in the embryo of the grain, growing when it germinat-es in the manner of most smuts, and forming its spores during the next flowering stage.
The Lolium fungus could be regarded as a development from a type such as this, in which' the sporing stage has been entirely sup- pressed, or at most occurs extremely rarely.
The points in the life-history of the fungus associated with Lolium pere?me, which could be used to support this view, are : — L The behaviour of the hyphae during the growth of the plant up to the flowering stage, which closely resembles the method adopted by the Ustilagineae.
2. The formation of knots in the tissue of the young ovary, . which, however, I prefer to explain, not as an attempt
towards spore-formation, but as the preliminary to cell infection.
3. The intra-cellular course of the hyphae.
These, at first sight, undoubtedly seem to weigh heavily as evi- dence in favour of its relation to the smut family, the most sug- gestive being the behaviour of the fungus during the vegetative- period of the grass.
This mode of growth in the host plant, however, is not limited to the Ustilagijieae. Rayner (20) describes a fungus associated with Galluna vulgaris which grows in the tissues of the plant with- out any external evidence of its presence or without disturbing the- normal groAvth. of tlie host.
The greatest development of the fungus in this case takes place- on the roots of the plants forming a mycorrhiza, endotrophic in character, but unlike most other mycorrhizal plants, the fungus-- keeps pace with the growing point of the stem, and after the incep- tion of the ovary it enters this organ, and forms a mycelium in the ovary wall. The embryo remains sterile, but infection of the seed-coat is accomplished by the hyphae, so that the production of a mycorrhiza in the roots of the next generation of Calluna is not left to chance. .
16
292 Etltel McLenvan :
The fungus in the seed-coat becomes active on gerniination, infects the seedling, and produces the felt on the root; indeed the association is so close that the symbiosis is an obligative one, the seedlings not developing unless infected.
This is a very striking instance of symbiotic association, and, as Kayner points out, the only other plant for wliich a like distribu- tion of the fungus has l>een described is Loliiim temitltntum. Since I have demonstrated the intra-cellular nature of the Lolium fungus it falls even more in line with the Calluna tyjie. Although it does not form a mycorrliiza, its use to the plant is certainly demonstrated at the fruiting period. It is possible, therefore, to regard it as a case parallel to the Calluna type, the similarity to the Ustilagine mode of growth being accidental, and not of any real importance in helping us to classify it and to grasp its affini- ties. Since the Calluna fungus has yielded to artificial culture, and can be classed definitely as a Plioma, every hope can l>e entertained for success in this direction as regards the fungus of the Loliums.
The occasional penetrations of the endosperm, etc., already de- scribed, do not, I tliink. point to vestigial traces of a former parasitic habit. Even when present they do not evince any haj-ni- ful results in the grain. They are probably to be explained as a luxuriant development of the fungus, resulting perhaps from good growth conditions. Ihe endosperm has proved unable to cope with the large food supply represented by the fungus, and conse- quently has failed to transform it all into the usual storage form — starch and aleurone grains, so that some of the hyphae which had penetrated the tissues of the embryo, and would normally have been absorbed, remained intact. Any food-material they contained would be yielded up on germination, just as the food-material of the endosperm is changed into solu])le forms, and translocated to the ■seat of growth.
Although I have never examined a grain of Lolium ptren?ie •either mature or in an embryonic condition without finding tlifo fungus present (sometimes in minute amounts), it isi quite probable that such occur.
It is conceivable that the hyphae, when growing in the young inflorescence may miss a carpel and in tliat case the ovule would not become infected. This would probably not prevent the forma- tion of a fruit. Tlie grain so formed, however, would not be so well equipped in its struggle for existence as its fungal-containing neighbour, and eventually Avould tend to die out. It is, therefore,
F'tingus of Lolium. 293
unlikely that tw<5 races of both Lolium temulentum and Lolium perenne exist, one with a symbiont, the other fungus free. An occa- sional grain of either species may show the absence of hypliae, but tliis would be accidental in character, so that instead of an ever- increasing, number of the latter type, they would always tend to .remain at a more or less stationary minimum.
Summary.
The foregoing investigation has led to the following, results : —
(1) The occurrence of the fungus in the genus Lolium is wider
and more constant than has hitherto been demonstrated.
(2) Colour of the grain cannot be regarded as a diagnostic
character in regard to the presence or absence of tlie fungus.
(3) The fungus is intra-ct'llular or endophytic in nature.
.(4) Ihe distribution in the grain is not a result of any special method of infection, but is a result of the function of the fungus during the grain's development.
(5) It is present in the embryo-sac at or immediately after fertilisation.
;(6) Ihe fungus increases in quantity at the expense of the nucellus, and the cells of the carpel wall. This is only a temporary phase. . On the formation of endosperm the fungus is absorbed as a source of food-supply to the developing embryo.
',(7) The endosperm is formed* by the division of its outer layer. This layer functions as a kind of cambium. I have termed it the endospermic camhium. The cells which are cut off ahvays to the inner side, increase in size, re- main thin-walled, and become packed Avith starch. This outer meristematic layer is constantly receiving and absorbing hyphae, which, if present in any quantitv, are finally crushed into a layer around the periphery of the endosperm. If the fungus does not keep pace with the absorbing power of the endosperm, no hyphal layer is formed in the ripe grain, but hyphae can then l>e found in the scutellum and embryo.
((8) The endospermic cambium after it has ceased to divide persists as the aleurone layei-, wIihIi, in tnrn, ri'i'L'ivcs a supply of nutriiu'ut from tlie fungal >ystfni.
16a
294 Ethel McLennan :
(9) The ovum is infected before any divisions have taken place- in it.
(lU) The hyphae aggregate at the proximal end of the develop- ing grain. They are here used by the endospermic cells in tlie embryonic pocket for food-supply for the develop- ing embryo.
(11) The association of the fungus with Lolhim temidentum
and Lolium perenne. is probably a well-marked case of symbiosis, comparable in many respects with that met with in Callinia vulgaris.
(12) It has been suggested that niti'ogen fixation was the function
of the fungus, but an experiment has been performed, and the result obtained showed that the fungus of Lolium perenne is unable to fix nitrogen in the total absence of external supplies of combined nitrogen.
The foregoing worlc was carried out in the Botanical Depart- ment of the Melbourne University during the years 1917, 1918, and 1919. I have to thank Professor Seward, Cambridge; Mr. S. F. Armstrong, Agricultural School, Cambridge; Dr. Stoward, Western Australia; Mr. Burtt Davey, South Africa; Mr. Breakwell, Sydney;. Vilmorin-Andrieux and Cie, Paris; and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for forwarding supplies of grain from different parts of the world; also Mr. O'Brien, Assistant in the Botanical Department, Melbourne University, for the help he has att'oided in assisting with experiments and taking photographs. To Professor Ewart I am indebted for the facilities provided for tlie work, and for much helpful criticism during its progress.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
( ) V«gl, A. E. — Zeitschrift flir Nahrungsmitteluntersuchung,.
Hygiene und Vv^aarenkunde, Vol. XII., Jan., 1898. ( M Guerin, P. — " Sur la presence d'un Champignon dans
I'lvraie."— Journ. de Bot., Vol.. XII., Aug. 1898.
(3) Hanausek, T. F. — " Vorlaufige Mitteilung tiber den von A.
Vogel in der Frudit von Lolium temulentum entdeckten Pilz."— Ber der Deut. Bot. Ges., Vol. XVI. 1898.
(4) Nestler, A. — " l^ber e:n?n in der Frucht von Lolium temulen-
•um, L en derkt-n Pilz." — Ber'. der Deut. Bot. Ges., Vol. XVI. 1898.
Fungus of Lolium. 295
i(5) Hiltner, L. — " Uber die Assimilation des freien atiuosphario-
clieu Stickstoffs durch in ol)eriVdisohen, Pflanzeuteileu
lebende Mycelien." — Centralbl. f. Bakt. u. Parasiten, Vol.
v., 1899. ,(6) Micheletti, L. — " Sulla tossicita dei semi di Lolium tenmlen-
tum, L."— Bull. d. Soc. Ital., Vol. VI., 1901. (7) l^'reeman, E. M. — " The seed-fungus of Lolium temulentum,
L., the Darnel. "--Phil. Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of London,
Series B., Vol. 196, 1903. i(8) Nestler, A. — " Zur Kenntnis der Symbiose eines Pilzes mit dem
launiellolch." — Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der wissenschaften. Vol. CXIII., 1904. (9) Fuchs, J. — " Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Lolium-pilzes." — Hed-
wigia 1911. i(10) Buchet, Samuel. — " Le cas du Lolium temulentum et celui de
I'Althaea rosea." — Paris Bui. Soc, Bot. 59, 1912. ,(11) Brown, H. T., and Morris, G. H. — "Researches on the Ger- mination of some, of the Gramineae. "— Journ. of the Chem.
Soc, Vol. LVIL, 1890. • (12) Brown, H. T., and Escomlje, F. — "On the Depletion of the
Endosperm of Hordeum vuhjare during Germination." — Pioc. of the Royal Soc of London, Vol. LXIIL, 1918. ■(1'3) Coulter and Chamberlain. — " Morphology of Angiosperms.'' —
University of Chicago P^jess, Chicago. i(14) Cannon, W. A. — " A morphological Study of the Flowers and
Embryo of the Wild Oat, Arena faftia, L." — Proc of the
California Acad, of Sci., Third Serie«, Vol. I., No. 10,
1900. '(15) Brenchley, Winifred.—" Tlie Development of the Grain of
Barley."— Annals of Botany, 1912. (16) Peklo, Jaroslav. — " Tiber die Zusammenseizung der sogenann-
ten Aleuronschicht."— Ber. d. Deut. Bot. Ge«., Bd., XXXL,
1913. '(17) Berthelot, M. — " Reclierclies nouvelles sur les micro-oi-ganismes
fixateurs de I'azote." — Compte-Rend, Acad. Sci., Paris, 116,
1S93.
(18) Puriewitsch, K. — " Ul>er die Stickstoffassimilation bei den
Schimmelpilzen." — Ber. der Deut. Bot. Ges. Vol. XIII., 1895.
(19) Latham, Marion E. — "Nitrogen assimilation of Sterigma-
tocystis nigra and the effect of Chemical Stinuilation." — Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 36, 1909.
(20) Rayner, M. C. — " Obligate Symbiosis in Calluna vulgaris." —
Annals of Botanv, Vol. XXIX., 1915.
296 Ethel McLennan:
(21) Duggar, B. M.. and Davivs, A. R. — " Studies in the Physiology
of the Fungi — I. Nitrogen Fixation." — Annals of the ^lis- souri Botanical Gardens, Vol. III., 1916.
(22) Schramm. J. R. — " A Contribution to Our Knowledge of
the Relation of Certain Species of Grass Green Algae to Elementary Nitrogen." — Annals of the Missouri Botanical. Gardens, Vol. I., 1914. (2:j) Koch, A.— "Handb. tech. Myk.," by Lafar, Vol. III.
(24) Goddard. H. N. — " Can P'ungi Living in Agricultural Soil
Assimilate Free Nitrogen?" — Botanical Gazette, Vol. LVI., 1913.
(25) Ander.son, V. G. — " Tlie Detei'mination of Nitrites in Water.""
— Soc. of Chemical Ind. of Victoria, Vol. XIII., 1913.
(26) Freeman, E. Isl. — " The Affinitie»s of the Fungus of Lolium^
temulentum, L." — Annales Mycologici, Vol. IV., 1906.
(27) Freeman, E. M. — " Symbiosis in the genus Lolium." — Minne-
sota Botanical Studies, 19(34.
(28) Hartley, IL, Campbell, N. H., and Poole, R. H.— " The Pre-
paration of Conductivity Water." — Journ. of Chem. Soc.,. Trans.. 19T)8. '
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
All figures have Ijeen drawn with the aid of the camera lucida (Zeiss).
Pl.\te XVIII.
Figures 1-5 stained with aniline gentian violet, followed by Gram's iodine wash. They illustrate the distribution of the fungus in the grain, the position of the hyphae is indicated by the yellow line shown in, the figures.
Fig. 1. — A semi-diagramm,atic representation of a transverse sec- tion through the distal part of a grain of Lolium perenne.
(a) aleurone layer; (b) cells of aleurone layer, which stain differently fi'om the rest, probably ferment-contain- ing cells; (e) starchy endosperm; (h) hyphal layer; (hi) coloured portions of hyphae (the great bidk of the layer is not stained with the gentian violet) ; (t) pericarp and testa. Fig. 2. — A transverse section of the proximal end of the same grain. Letters as in Fig. 1, and (s) scutellum ; (el) epithe- lial layer of scutellum.
Fungus of Lolium. ■ 297
Fig. 3. — A transverse section of the extreme proximal end of the grain. Letters as before, and (r) radicle; (ht) hyphae in fused pericarp and testa.
Fig. -4:. — A longitudinal section of a grain of Lolium perenne taken in the coronal plane. Letters as in Figs. 1-3, and (g) growing point of embryo; (1) sheathing leaf.
Fig. 5. — A longitudinal section of a grain of Lolium perenne taken in the sagittal plane, (m) embryo; (v) vascular bundle of scutellum; (i) ligule; (ht) hyphae in fused peri- carp and testa.
Plate XIX.
The following figures have been drawn from sections of a grain of Lolium perenne (South Africa). The fungus is especially luxuriant, its intra-cellular nature being evident in the mature grain.
Fig. 1. — A sagittal longitudinal section of a grain of Lolium jjcrenyie, not passing through the median line. The scutellum shows numerous hyphae, which have gained entrance to this tissue from any point on its surface.
(e) stai'chy endosperm; (a) aleurone layer; (el) epithe- lial layer ; (li) hyphae in scutellum ; (li^) hyphae round periphery of the scutellum; (c) cells invaded by the hyphae. x 250 diam. Fig. 2. — Detail of the scutellum.
(h) hyphae passing through the scutellar cells; (c; constriction of hypha during penetration of cell wall. X 1700 diam. Fig. 3. — Aleurone cells, showing- the intra-cellular cour.se of the hyphae,
(a) aleurone cells; (w) wall of aleurone cell; (h) hypha
jiassing from one cell to the next; (h^) hypha lying at a
different level, but drawn in the same plane in figure.
X 1700 diam.
Fig. 4. — Detail of scutellum, showing the cells invaded by hyphae.
X 1100 diam. Fig. 5. — Wall of aleurone cell, showing hypha entering into cell through pit in its wall
(p) pit in wall; (h) hypha. x 1100 diam.
298 • Ethel McLennan:
Plate XX.
A longitudinal section of an ovary of Loliuni perenne, just prior to fertilisation; stained with bismarek brown, then with gentian Tiolet, followed by Gram's wash.
(c) carpel wall; (s) starch groups in cells of carpel wall; (i) in- vaded cells at stalk end of section; (h) hyphae in stalk of ovai-y; (h^) hyphae in distal part of wall; (h") hyphae in distal part of wall not staining with gentian violet; (t) cells in stigmatic tract being used by the fungus as food; (ov) ovule; (hy) hyphae distriliuted in all parts of ovule; (ic) infected cells of ovule; (es) embryo-sac; {o) ovum; (hyi) hyphae in embryo sac. x 103 diam.
Plate XXI. Figures 1-6 show detail of ovule illustrated in Plate XX. (Stace A). Fig. 1. — Three cells of nucellus, showing the intra-cellular nature of the fungus. These cells react to tlie violet stain, the rest of the nucellus staining with bisniarck brown.
(n) nucleus; (h) hyphae; (h^) fine ramifications of hyphae in the cells, x 1100 diam. Fig. 2. — A cell from the carpel wall which is being attacked by the fungus and used as food-material for the fungal system, (h) hyphae running between the cells; (h^) fine pene- trating threads; (g) starch gi-ains being digested by hyphae; (s) septum in hyphae. x 1100 diam. Fig. 3. — " Knots " formed by the hyphae wrapping round the cells as a preliminary to their entrance into them. The lightly-shaded portions are lying at a lower level than the darker sections of the hyphae. x 1100 diam. Fig. 4. — A vascular element from the stalk end of the carpel wall, showing the close association of the fungus.
(r) thickenings on vessel; (h) hyphae. x 1100 diam. Fig. 5. — Cells from the distal end of the carpel wall.
(g) starch groups; (h) large intra-cellular hyphae; (hi) fine hyphal threads completely wrapping round grains prior to digesting them, x 1 100 diam. Fig. 6. — Ovum and synergidae; showing presence of hyphae in ovum before any divisions have occurred in it.
(o) ovum; (s) synergidae; (n) nucleus (nuc) nucellus; (h) hyphae. x 700 diam.
Proc. Jl.S. Victoria, I'.il'O. Plate XVIII.
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Fig. I.
Fig. II.
Fungus of Loliuni. 299
Plate XXII.
Illustrates detail of ovary at Stage B. The sections were stained
-with Congo red, folloAved by gentian violet and Gram's iodine
-wash.
Pig. 1. — Detail of nucellus, showing network of hyphae.
(n) disorganising nuclei; (h) hyphae stained with Congo red; (hi) hyphae stained with gentian violet; (r) remnants of protoplasm of nucellar cells, x 1100 diam.
Fig. 2. — Mode of branching of hyphae in nucellus.
(n) nucleus; [v) vacuole; (b) origin of branch, x 1100 diam.
Fig. 3. — Young endosperm cells showing the hyphal threads enter- ing and being absorbed by them.
(n) nucleus of endosperm cell; (p) protoplasm of endo- sperm cell; (h) hyphae; (hi) hyphae in process of absorp- tion. X 1100 diam.
Fig. 4. — Similar to Fig. 3, but section taken from another grain and stained only with gentian violet. The protoplasm remained unstained and the hyphae in the cells stained brightly with the violet dye.
(n) nucleus of endosperm cell; (h) hyphae entering cell; (hi) hyphae in protoplasm of endosperm cell in process of absorption. x 1100 diam.
Fig. 5. — Same as 3 and 4, but shows the branches arising almost at right angles to main hyphal thread, and entering the endosperm cells. Lettering as before. x 1100 diam.
Plate XXIII.
A section of the endosperm taken from a grain at Stage C. It was stained with congo red, gentian violet and Gram's iodine. The •outer edge of this tissue is included in the figure. The cells in this area are young, and more or less cubical, being formed by the div- ision of the outermost layer; starch has not yet appeared in them. The older cells of the endosperm are large, and thin-walled, and starch is being deposited in tlie protoplasmic network. Hyphae are being absorbed by the outer dividing layer, and serve as a source of food-supply to the endosperm.
(h) nucellar hyphae; (hi) hyphae being used by the endosperm as food; (c) young dividing layer; (e) older endosperm cells; (s) starch •groups; (p) protoplasm. x 1100 diam.
300 Ethel McLennan:
Plate XXIV.
A portion of the endosperiu from a nearly mature grain. The- oLiter layer is being transformed into the aleurone layer, but even at this stage hyphae are entering the cells, and are being absorbed by thein. The akurone layer is cut tangentially in the upper part of the gram; the layer therefore, appears several cells- thick at this point. The starchy endosperm cells immediately underneath the nitrogenous containing ceils show well-marked nuclei, but these will disappear as the grain reaches maturity.
(a) aleurone layer; (g) young aleurone grain; (p) protoplasmic network in aleurone cells; (h) hyphae accumulating to form a layer; (et) hypiiae entering aleurone cells; (n) nuclei of aleurone layer; (s) starch groups; (ne) nuclei of endosperm cells, x 1100- diam.
Plate XXV.
Figs. 1-5 illustrate the relation of the fungus and embryo at different stages in; the development of the grain.
Fig. 1. — Endosperm cells from the embryonic pocket drawn from, the same slide as Fig. 2. The fungus occurs in great abundance in this region at this stage. It is being used by the endosperm, which in turn 'hands on the food material to the embryo.
(h) hyphae; (e) endosperm cells of embryonic pocket;, (e^) ordinary endosperm cells, x 625 diam. Fig. 2. — A young embryo.
(e) endosperm cells being used by the embryo as food;. (h) hyphae; (s) suspensor end of embryo, x 625 diam. Fig. 3. — An older embryo, the endosperm cells at the proximal end of the pocket have disappeared.
(h) hyphae present in embryo. x 625 diam. Fig. 4. — An embryo showing differentiation of scute;llum, and growing point. Stained densely with congo red, so that hyphae in growing point could not be seen.
(h) hyphae at suspensor end; (g) growing pt. ; (s) scutellum. x 300 diam. Fig. 5. — i]^e tip of the scutellum from a grain of Loliinn perenne (not yet fully developed), which did not contain an extra cellular hyphal layer in the usual position. Hyphae were- present, however, in the scutellum and embryo.
(s) scutellum; (e) epithelial layer; (h) hyphae. x 500- diam.
Fungus of Lollum. 301'
Plate XXVI.
Fig. 1. — A photograph of the apparatus used in the experiment
descriljed in the paper. Fig. 2. — The two pots removed from the protecting shades at end of experiment.
(A) Seedlings watered with a culture solution contain- ing ammonium nitrate.
(B) Seedlings deprived of combined nitrogen, except such as is stored in the seed. The stunted growth is evident, but the photograph does not shew the unhealthy colour and dying back exhibited by the- seedlings, and which is so characteristic of nitro sren starvation.
[Proc. Eoy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].
J^RT. XIX. — On the Structure of a New Species of Earthworm from South Australia, Megascolex Jietcheri.
By jean H. shannon, B.Sc.
(Communicated by Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer).
[Read December 11th, 1919]. (With Plates XXVII.-XXXI.)
Up to the present time, though a large number of species of earthworms has been described from Australia, more especially by Dr. Michaelsen,! from South-West Australia, Prof. Spencer, 2 and Mr. J. J. Fletcher, 3 from New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Tasmania, there has, as yet, been published only one more or less complete detailed account of one type of Australian earth- Avorm — Megascolides australis. The species now descril)ed repre- sents another type, differing in important respects from Megasco- lides, and, on the suggestion of Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer, I have attempted to describe its structure as completely as possible. The work has been carried on in the Zoological Department of the Melbourne University.
I have followed the classification suggested by Michaelsen.'* The species evidently belongs to the genus Megascolex, as defined by him, and I propose for it the name of Megascolex fletcheri, the :specific name having reference to the first naturalist who made a study of Australian earthworms.
Habit.
The material dealt with in this paper was collected in South Australia at a spot about ten miles due east from Kapunda, the latter being a town situated in an agricultural district.
1. Michaelsen. — " Die Fauna Sudwest-Australiens," erster Bund, 1907-1908, pp, 117-2312.
2. Spencer. — " The Anatomy of Megascolides australis." Trans. Roy. Soc. Vic, Vol. I., Part I., 1882. " Preliminary Notice of Tasmanian Earth- worm," op. cit. 1894.
3. Fletcher. — A series of six papers, the first of which, " Notes on Aus- tralian Earthworms, Part I.," was published in Proc. Linn. Soc, Vol. I., Series
:2, 1886, p. 523. The remaining five were published in the same Proceedings in 1886, 1887, 1889, respectively.
4. Michaelsen. — op. cit. p. 160.
New Species of Earthworm. 30S-
The type of country is gently undulating, and mostly very rich- clayey soil. The timbered land is isolated now, owing to culti- vatijoni.
The climate is moderate, with occasional very dry seasons, and generally a long summer with high temperatures.
Thesei particular earthworms seem to be very peculiar and restricted in their habitat. Quite a large area of scrub land was very carefully searched, and only two small spots were found to shelter the worniiS. One was a somewhat low-lying, damp place beside a dam, and the other a more or less elevated spot, less timbered and sunny. In both cases the earth worms were concealed underneath cut timber for fence posts, and during the wet winter of last year were very plentiful.
Their habits were essentially moisture loving, and in the damp earth, and even in the actual timber distinct, and large holes or burrows Avere made, down winch the worms rapidly disappeared when the post was overturned. A considerable amount of slimy, glassy material was found Avherever the worms had passed,^ and the earth all about their burrows was well worked and divided. In some cases only a furrow was made in the earth, the lower surface- of the post serving to roof it in.
When the specimens were dropped into spirit for preservation, they definitely contracted, and, as is usual with earthworms, put out a large quantity of slimy fluid through the dorsal pores all along the body.
External Anotomy.
The freshly collected worms are of a pale pink colour, and 'vary somewhat in size, but as a rule are from ten to twelve inches in length, and between one quarter and a-half an inch in diameter.
The clitellum is very distinct in the mature animals, and is of a paler shade than the rest of the body. It is situated about an inch from the anterior end, and is not quite regularly cylindrical, being pinched in on the ventral surface. It extends from just after the eleventh segment to the end of the eighteenth. The sur- face of the worm appears to be covered by a translucent and very thin membrane, but in the spirit specimens the glassy appearance is lost to a large extent, and the membrane l>ecomes rather more conspicuous and tougher, hut looses its iridescence.
There is a ring of stetae in the middle of each segment, broken at the mid-dorsal and ni'd-ventral lines. Ihe most median pair on the ventral surface on ach side are somewhat larger than the- reat.
..304 ' Jean Shannon •'
The segments themselves are quite distinctly marked, especially in the spirit specimens. There is a distinct median furrow around -each segment, and towards the ajiterior end of the worm two smaller furrows may generally be found, one on either side of the main furrow.
The prostomium is normally very nearly completely dove-tailed into the peristominum.
The openings to the exterior of the dorsal pores and of the repro- ductive organs are mostly quite distinct, and can be seen with the naked eye.
On the dorsal surface the only openings that occur are the dorsal j)ores. These are situated between the successive segments in the median line, the first being between segments four and five.
On the ventral surface the most conspicuous openings are those of the vasa deferentia, on the eighteenth -segment. Each is sur- rounded by two swollen somewhat semi-circular lips, is situated iiway from the median line between the third and fourth pairs of setae, and is not included in the clitellar region. (Plate XXVIII. Fig. 1. (?) (Plate XXYIl. Fig. 1. ^).
On the fourteenth segment ventrally is a single median raised oval area, and in the, centre of this is the opening of the common duct formed by the union of the right and left oviducts. (Plates XXVIl and XXVII., Fig. 1 ^).
Between segments six and seven, seven and eight, and eight and nine, are the three pairs of spermathecal pores, opening ven- trally. It is very difficult to decide whether they open in line with, the fourth or the fifth seta.
In one fresh specimen that I examined there seemed to be an indication of two smaller openings, on either side of the main pore. Subsequent dissection showed the presence of accessory glands in this region in all instances.
Besides these more conspicuous openings there are certain small glands associated wdth the spermiducal gland, and communicating with the exterior on the ventral surface between segments sixteen and seventeen, nineteen and twenty, twenty and twenty-one, and twenty-one and twenty-two.
Internal Ar^atomy.
Alimentary Caval. — The living Avorm has very marked power of evaginating the whole crop to the extent very often of one-quarter ■of an inch. Upon opening up the worm one finds that the front
New Species of Edrthivonii. ^ 305
•end of the gizzard is invaginated, and appears almost urn-shaped, until the front end is pulled out. when it becomes oval.
The posterior end of the gizzard is between segments six and .seven, and all the septa up to this region are considerably dis- jDlaced, forming angles of about 22.5° ^vith the body wall.
The anterior end of the gizzard is very changeable, according to the amount of evagination it has undergone.
Following on from the gizzard is a long, almost straight intes- tine running the length of the body, and opening to the exterior at the posterior end. It presents a bulbous expansion in each seg- ment along its length. (Plate XXVII. Fig. 2.)
' Nervous System. Ihere is a distinct nerve collar around the oesophageal region in segment two, with a conspicuously swollen dorsal portion slightly pinched in at the median line. On either side of the collar is given off a large nerve, which runs forwards to supply the anterior part of the oesophagus. A smaller branch supplies the crop behind <on each side. After the union of the nerve ring ventrally. the fibres are collected into a very conspicuous cord, which is slightly swollen in each segment. A transverse section of the cord reveals the rather a-typical fact that there is only one large giant fibre present. (Plate XXVII. Fig 3.) (Plate XXX. Fig. 2.)
Nephridial System.
From dissection there does not appear to be a nephridial system other than very numerous micronephridia forming a fringed ring around each segment, especially towards the posterior end.
Microscopic examination of longitudinal sections taken from about the last third of the worm, reveals very peculiar structures, possibly represent a special form of nephridial organ. They are perfectly regular in position, and segnientally arranged. Each is somewhat club-shaped, and attached to the wall of the coelome by a thin stalk. Even under the very high powered objective, there appears to be little structure. The stalk is made up of almost a single chain of nucleated cells, which gradually merge into those of the outer peritoneum. Ihey appear to have no duct, and no passage is visible from them through the muscle layers to the exterior.
The head portion of the structure has different foi-ms, sometimes l)eing long and regular, with a covering of small nucleated cells.
306 Jean Shannon :
and an internal longitudinal clear region, that may, perhaps,, indicate the presence of a minute duct. Along the latter at intervals are rounded patches of very numerous and clearly nucleated cells. The rest of the structure seems to be almost non- cellular. Sometimes the base of the "head" is distinctly broad- ened, and a number of parallel ducts appear to traverse it. In yet other cases the central duct seems to follow a spiral course. In one instance the end of the structure appeared to bend towards an opening through the septum, thus seeming to indicate a rela- tionship to the successive segments typical of meganephridia. (Plate XXIX. Fig. 4.)
The supposition that these organs are connected with the excre- tary function is further borne out by the development as seen iij very young specimens. At an early stage the whole structure is hardh^ more than a chain of cells, with large nuclei, and at inter- vals clusters of even more regular and oblong cells. An arrangement that suggests tlie nephridial structure in some species of Megascolides figured by Beddatd, page 51, fig. 13.
The marked similarities l>etwecn this worm and certain of the Megascolides types again strengthens thp idea that the mega nephridia which are generally well developed in the latter genus are represented in this animal by the peculiar structures described above. Besides this, the position of the organs at the posterior end, their segmental arrangement, and their structure also bears out the theory as to their function.
Blood Vascular System.
This system is very difficult to study, except in freshly killed specimens. Extending along the mid-dorsal line of the main length of the bodv is a large thin-walled dorsal vessel. Smaller lateral vessels are given off on each side in segments five, two and nine.
Just ventral to this vessel ia a much smaller median one, extend- ing between segments eight and fourteen.
A large thin-walled pair of hearts spring from either side of this- vessel by a very small connection in segments ten, eleven, twelve and thirteen. A very fine pair of vessels also spring from this, longitudinal vessel in each segment just anterior to the hearts, and probably are present in segments eight, nine and fourteen' as well. (Plate XXVII. Fig. 2.)
There seems to be only a single median ventral vessel into which open the large hearts, but just before doing so each heart gives:
Netv Species oj Earthworm. 307
off a very fine vessel from the outer side, supplying the body wall. Microscopic examinatioa of this ventral blood vessel in transverse- section showed that the thickness and structure of the walls were- quite peculiar. (Plate XXX. Fig. 4.)
There is a quite definite endothelial lining, with large nucleated cells, and a wall that seems to be largely composed of 'muscular fibres, running mainly in a circular direc-tion. Besides these ele- ments tliere are numerous very large clear nucleated cells in the- walls of the vessel, and liere and there between these latter are quite conspicuous spaces or holes.
Reproductive System.
Female Organs. — The paired ovaries are situated in the thir- teenth segment and the two oviducts have very large funnel-shaped- openings just below them. The ducts pass through the septum, dividing segments thirteen and fourt«een, and then pass to the mid- ventral line, and unite as tliey pass through the thick muscular wall to open to ■ the exterior. The interior of each oviduct and of the common duct is richly supplied with long cilia, the length of which seems to be about equal to the radius of the passage. (Plate XXVII. Fig. .3.) (Plate XXX. Figs. 1, 2, 3.)
Male Organs. — 'There are two pairs of testes, one in each of seg- ments ten and eleven. These are peculiarly small, even in a well- matured specimen. The vasa deferentia correspond in number with the testes, and open by very conspicuous and much folded rosettes just below the testes, and then continue quite separately and sliglitly embedded in the ventral muscles of the body wall to the eighteentli segment. Here, still paired, they enter the muscular wall of the duct from the spermiducal gland of their own side, about tlie middle of its length, and run parallel with the lumen for somie- little distance before they enter separately.
Tlie structure and relation of these separate vasa deferentia recalls that of the same parts in Megascolides australis. (Plate- XXVII. Fig. 3.) (Plate XXXI. Figs. 1, 2, 3.) Plate XXVIII. Figs. 5. 9.)
The spermathecae are paired and situated in the seventh, eighth- and ninth segments, decreasing in size from behind forwards. Each consists of an oval sac, with an equally long but finger-like- diverticulum, arising from just below the junction of the base of the sac with its stalk. In the most mature worms this process; often appeared to have become lobed at the tip. (Plate XXVIII.
17
308 Jean SJuivvuv :
Fig. 3.) The spevmathecal sac and its diverticulum open to the exterior by a large duct through the stalk. In the last region this passage seems to be furrowed transversely. (Plate XXIX. Fig 1.) Associated with the spermathecae are other paired glandular .structures. In the sixth segment is found the first pair one on each side. Ihe seventh and eigth each contain two pairs and in the ninth is again a single pair. Ducts from these glands open on either side of the ducts from the spermathecae — i.e., between seg- ments six and seven, seven and eight, and eight and nine. (Plate XXVII. Fig. 3.) (Plate XXVIII. Fig. 2.) (Plate XXIX. Fig. 1.)
The minute structure of these glands is very dii^cult to deter- mine. Each is decidedly floccular in nature, and the surface cells are large, nucleated, and more or less regular. Internally the cells l^CKi'ome less granular, smaller and very irregular, but some still possess very large nuclei, converging to the base of the striic- ture there appears to l:e clear channel-like spaces between the •cells, and these open to the interior of the "stalk." Tliere is no definite duct running from the cell mass, but the whole of the istalk appears to become split longitudinally in an irregular and com- plex manner. Finally we get a widening of the passage to form a very conspicuous flask-like opening to the exterior. The sur- rounding epidermal cells become greatly elongated and lx)W-shaped to surround tliis structure. In most casep; the cuticle is not rup- tured, and this seems to show tliat an opening is formed only at intervals, as the duct. Ijecomes full of secretion. Plate III., Figs. •2, 3.)
The vfsiculae seminales are large, and occupy most of segments ■eleven and twelve.
In the eighteenth segment lying tranversely are found two very large organs, the spermiducjil glands. Eacli is flattened dorso- ventrally, and is an elongated oval shape. Passing fiom the inner end of each is a very stout duct, which is practically coiled upon itself on its way to the exterior. The vasa deferentia enter this duct separately about mid-way along its upper surface. The pros- tate itself seems to be made up of lobes in close apposition to one another.
Microscopic examination shows little definite structure other than the clusters of cells in a less dense matrix, and transverse sections reveal the fact that the wliole gland is traversed by one laige duct lined by conspicuously nucleated and very regular cells.
Netv Species of Earthworm. 309
In segments seventeen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one and twenty- two, there are additional glandular structures associated with which are even smaller glands. The detailed structure of these inasses of cells is difficult to determine, but apparently each con- sists of a large number of very granulated, irregularly-shaped and large cells, collected together. Here and there are smaller and non-granular cells arranged in groups.
There does not appear to be a definite duct, but passing from the grandular swelling are numerous small darker cells ui'ranged in 'dusters, and these follow a disjointed passage tlirough the thick muscular wall.
rrohJematic Gland in the Thirteenth Segment.
Still anotlier peculiar structure is to be found from dissection, although no indication of its presence is given upon external examination.. Attached to the anterior septum of segment thirteen, somewhat ventrally, is a pair of club-shaped organs, each slightly smaller than the smallest spermathecea.
In the less matured specimens examined there Avere three pairs of these glands — one in each of segments thirteen, twelve and '.eleven.
At this early stage tliere is practically no development of the reproductive system, and this fact seems to render it difficult to .state definitely, whether these organs are or are not connected with reproduction. From longitudinal and transverse sec-tions of the whole structure there appears to be no definite duct. The most striking features about the organ is the very abundant blood .supply, the presence of definitely radiating groups of elements, .and the occurrence of numerous spaces in the interior.
Beyond these points, there seems to be little else to notice, and it is difficult to suggest what is the function of these organs.
In conclusion, I wish to thank both Professor Sir Baldwin Spen- cer and Doctor Georgina Sweet for their valuable assistance and many helpful suggestions during the progress of my work.
EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE LETTERS.
Ace. Glds. - - - - Accessory glands.
Ace. Op. - - . - Opening of accessory glands.
Bid. - - - - - Blood.
Tl.V. - - - - - Blood vessel.
B.W. ----- Bodv wall.
310 Jean SJtannon :
C. - - - - - Cuticle.
C. iV ^2 - - - ' - Cell and Cellj.
Clit. ----- Clitellum.
CM. - - - - - Circular muscle.
C. Op. O.D. - - - Common opening of oviduct..
C. Ovd. - - - - Common oviduct. Cr. ----- Crop.
D. - '- - - - Duct.
D.B.A-". - - - - Dorsal blood vessel.
Div. ----- Diverticulum.
D. of Sp. - - - - Duct of spermiducal gland.. D.P. - - - - - Dorsal pore.
E. - - - - - Epidermis.
F.G. - - - - - Opening to oviduct.
G. - - - - - Giant fibre.
G.C. ----- Granular cell.
Gb. ----- Goblet, or slime cell.
Gld. ----- Gland.
Gz. ----- Gizzard.
H. - - - - - Heart.
I. - - - - - Intestine.
Inv. ----- Invaginated gizzard.
K. - - - - - Nucleus.
L.M. - - - - Longitudinal muscle.
M. - - - - - Tissue supporting V.B. vessel.
N. - - - - - Nerve cord.
N.C. ----- Nerve collar.
Op. ----- Opening.
Op. Gld. - -. - - Opening of gland.
Op. Ovd. - - - - Opening of oviduct.
Op. P. - - - - Opening of spermiducal gland'
Op. S. - - - - Opening of spermatheca.
Ov. - - - - ■ - Ovary.
Ovd. - - - - - Oviduct.
P. - - - - . - Peritoneal cells.
Peri - - . . - Peristomium.
P. Gld. - - - -. Problem,atic gland.
Pr. - - - - - Spermiducal gland.
Pro. ----- Prostomium.
Ps. ----- lis.sue supporting nerve cord..
Px. ----- Smaller less grranular cells.
Neiv Species of Earthivorin. 311
51. - - - - - Rosettes cif vasa deferentia.
Jlng. - - '- - - Median furroAv in segment.
Rs. ----- Large nuclfated cells on surface of
possible nepliridial organs. S! - - - - - Setae.
Sac. ----- Sac of spermatheca. ';S.C. ----- Spinal cord. .'Sept. ----- Septum. Sg. ----- Large granular cell. Sk. ----- Sickle-shaped cells. ■Spth. ----- Spermatheca. Spth. Op. - - - - Opening of spermathec-a.
,St. ----- Stalk part of gland. T. - - - - - Testes.
Tas. D. - - - - Vasa deferentia.
Y.B.V. - - ' - - Ventral blood vessel.
V.D. op. P.D. - - - Vas deferens opening into duct from
spenniducal gland. V.D. - - - - - Vas deferens.
v. Sem. - - - - Vesicula seminalis.
X.H.P. - _ . - Position of region shown in Fig 4,
under the high powered objective. X.S. ----- Radiating cells.
X.T. ----- Glandular structure on segment nine
(as found in one specimen exam- ined). Y. - - - - - Apparent duct. Y.C. - - - - - Space between cells.
T.N. - - - - - Possible opening of supposed nephri-
dal structure into adjacent seg- ment. Y.Z.. ----- Interior of stalk from accessory gland
in segment six, splitting to form apparent duct.
812 Jean Shannon
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate XXVIL
Fig. 1. — Anterior end of eartlnvorm, to show external features'- (cliagramatic).
Fig. 2. — Diagran^ of anterior end of worm, to show alimentary canal and dorsal blood vessels.
Fig. 3. — Diagram of anterior end of worm, to show reproductive- organs, nervous system, and accessory glands.
Plate XXVIII.
Fig. 1 . — Ant-erior end of worm, ventral view, to show maim
external features. Fig. 2. — Diagram of longitudinal section through region of sper-
pnathecae. Fig. 3. — Types of spermathecae. Fig. i. — Diagram of segment thirteen, to show relative position!
of associated parts. Fig. 5. — Sketch of spermiducal gland of right side, to show
general features. Fig. 6. — Drawing of longitudinal horizontal section of problematic
gland, in thirteenth segment under the low-powered
objective. Fig. 7. — Part of problematic gland from thirteenth segment, under
the high-powered objective. Fig. 8. — Tranverse section of tliic spermiducal gland, to show
main duct. Fig. 9. — Diagram of longitudinal vertical section of spermiducal
gland, to show mode of entrance off the vasa deferentia.
Plate XXIX.
Fig. 1. — Longitudinal section of spermathecal region:.
Fig. 2. — Drawing under the high-powered objet-tive of the last
pait of the duct from a glandular structure associated
with the spermathecae. Fig. 3. — Drawing under the high-powered objective of a section^
through one of the glandular structures associated witln
the spermathecae. Fig. 4. — Longitudinal section in the region of the possible nepliri-
dial organs.
Proc. U.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXVII.
-..9^ C** ^ ij% .^
«^ «^ *^ G^ «i «^ CS
^Lo^r^Cs O-Ss; t^trj-d-'j^
O O \)
<> t t>
t , C' «'
c* CO -* •« ^* -i* ""* *^ O '•
Megascolex Fletcheri, n. sp.
<^ ?{ Si
•4 «i «%
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXVIII.
Megascolex Fletcher!
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXIX.
Megascolex Fletcher!
Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXX.
Megascolex Fletcheri
Pioc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXXI.
H JP.
Megascolex Fletcher!
New Species of Earthworm. 313
Plate XXX.
Fig. I. — Transverse section of earthworm in region of common
opening of ovidnct^s. Fig. 2. — Portion ofl body wall, with common oviduct passing
throiigli it. Fig. 3. — Drawing under high-powered objective of common ovi-
•■ duct. Fig. 4. — Transverse section of ventrhl blood vessel. *
Plate XXXI.
Fig. 1. — Transverse section in region of opening to vasa defer-
entia. Fig. 2. — Transverse section in ssegment eighteen, to show opening
of ducts from sperniiducal gla^nds to exterior. Fig. 3. — Transverse section of duct from spermiducal gland,.
showing opening of vas deferens into it. Fig. 4. — Part of gland associated Avith spermiducal gland, under
high-powered objective. Fig. 5. — I'ransverse section cf body wall to show gland associated
with sperniiducal gland in section.
[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt, I., 1920.;^
Art. XX. — Notes on Dust Whirls in Sub-Arid Western
Australia.
By J. T. JUTSON
'(Formeily a Senior Field Geologist, Geological Survey of Western Australia; late Acting Lecturer in Geology, University of Western Australia),
[Read December 11th, 1919.]
Introduction.
Dust whirls are well known phenomena in arid and sul)-arid 'Countries. lliey are ascending spiral air currents, which also move in a linear direction, and which carry varying amounts of ■dust and fine sand with them.
Dust whirls have been well described by W. M. Davisl and by E. E. Free. 2 Davis points out^ that an inflow of air is Ijegun towards the place of ascent, but as the various inflowing currents move for too short a distance to be systematically influenced by the earth's lotation, and as their irregular flow does not allow them to meet precisely at a centre, they turn a little to one side •or the other., according as the stronger inflow decides, and a little whirl is then developed rotating indifferently one way or the •other. Free also states^ that the rotation seems to be indiscrimin- ately clockwise, or contra-clockwise, as frequently one as the other.
Dust whirls are recognised to be due to overheating of particular portions of the land surface, with the result that equilibrium is •disturbed, and the air rushes upwards. Tlie surrounding air then flows inwards, and a whirl is caused. ^
Dust whirls have been recorded fi-om various countries, and a valuable list of the literature has Ix^en given by Free in the work already cited.
Dust whirls may reach a considerable height. Thus Davis^ states thev mav reach a height of several hundred, or even a thou-
1. " Elementary Meteorology," 1S94 p. 201.
2. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, Bulletin No. 68, 1911, p. 38, et. seq.
3. Loo. cit.
4. LiOc. cit.
5. See Free, loc. cit. «6. L/OC. cit.
Dust Whirls. 315
isand, feet; and Free^ mentiions that they are from a few feet to hundreds of feet in height. I. C. Russell remarks^ that these
■cohnnns of dust are often 2000 or 3000 feet, or even more, high. At various lieights, according to atmospheric conditions, the dust tends to spread out horizontally, and so becomes invisible.
Dust columns are slender. Free remarks that they are a few- inches to several feet in diamet^er.^ Various observers have pointed out that when seen at a distance, they resemble water-
.spouts, and that they mostly occur in calm summer weather.
Previous Australian Literature.
Of Australian occurrences, the writer lias found few" records.
D. W. Carnegieio briefly refel-s to the occurrence of "willy- willies " in arid Western Australia, and states they are sometimes of great violence. J. W. Gregory, with regard to Central Aus- tralia, refers to the " dark w^hirling pillars of sand Avhick slowly travelled up the valley"; also to "three tall columns of dust Avhich were travelling straight towards us"; and again, to "the •dust travelling chiefly in two whirlwinds. "^i D. Mawson has .descril>edi2 the " willy-willy " of the Broken Hill district, pointing out that they are of the nature of small cyclones, like water-spouts in outline, and that they are columns usually alx)ut 20 feet in diameter, rising to a height of several thousand feet. A. ^Montgomery has remarked^^ in connection with the Western Australian goldfields country, that "on any fine day in summer it is quite usual to be able to see several whirlwind clouds of dust 'dancing over the landscape at one time."
These are the only Australian rec-ords that the writer is aware •of.
In sub-arid Western Australia duMt whirls are locally known as "willy-willies." They are a matter of comnxon knoAvledge, but no precise description has, so far as the writer is aware, ever been given of them, and still less is there any record of their mode ■of rotation, their height and other characters. Even in Australia
T. l^oc. cit.
8. Monograph XI., U.S. Geol. Surv., Washington. 1885, pp. 9 and 154.
9. See also Mawson's estimate mentioned below.
10. " Spinifex and Sand," London, 1898, pp. 254 and 274.
11. "The Dead Heart of Australia," London. 1906, pp. 26. 120, 121.
12. "Geological Investigations in the Broken Hill Area," Mem. Roy. Soc. ; South Aust., Vol. II., Part 4. 1912, p. 227.
13. "The Significance of Some Physiographical Characteristics of Western _j\.ustralia." Journ. Roy Soc. W. Aust., Vol. II., 1915-16, p. 83.
olO J. T. Jutsoii:
as a whole, the records, as noticed above, are scanty. Under' these circumstances, some details, which were noted by the writer whilst engaged in gei»logical work in the Niagara-Kookynie dis- trict, .and, later, in the IComeit VaLe-Gx^ongarrie districts!'* may be worthy of record. The following notes are, therefore, based on such observations, and relate only to the districts mentioned : —
General Description.
In the districts just mentioned, the climate is sub-arid, and the average rainfall is aboutli 10 inches, or slightly less, per an- num. Except on the surfaces of the " dry " lakes, there is gen- erally some vegetation, but there is much bare ground between the- individual plants.
The dust whirls; vary much in height, and peidiaps in diameter. Many are but a few feet in height and in diameter, whilst others are hundreds, and probably thousands, of feet high, and per- haps of considerable diameter. The writer, however, has no criteria as to the diameter of the high whirls, but in all in- stances, the diameter is small compared with the height. The- dust whirls are essentially moving columns or pillars. The whirls (as the table below .shows) rotate clockwise (tliat is, in the direction north, thence east, thence south, and thence west), and anti- or counter-clockwise. The anti-clockwise direction predominates on the records obtained. A change from one mode of rotation to the other in the samei dust whirl has been noticed, and such change- has taken place more than once in the same whirl.
High dust whirls may be jiractically vertical, or curved, or l)ent at a liigh angle to the ground. The curving, or lending, doul)t- less indicates varying wind velocity at different altitudes.
The dust whirls travel in different linear directions across the- country. This linear movement is usually rapid in whirls that are- close to the observer. It is difficult to form an opinion about the velocity of distant whirls, and no estimate has been made by the writer as to the actual velocity of near-by whirls. A low whirl, as a rule, dies out within a minute or two, but a high whirl may be visible many minutes, or possibly some hours.
A dust wliirl, >jven a very small one, is quite violent in its action. Dust, sand, grit, and old tins and other rubbish are lifted' from, or driven along the ground with great force. When taken^
14. The Niagara-Kookynie area is about 115 miles, and the Comet "Vale- Goongarrie area about 60 n-iiles north of Kalgoorlie.
Dust WJtirls,
317
unawares by a small dust -whirl, one at first receives the impres- sion of the sudden and violent rising of a great wind.
Red is the predominating colour of dust whirls, owing to red being the predominating colour of the soils.
The whirls are commonest in summer, on calm days, or on: days Avith only a gentle breeze. These facts agree with the obser- vations of investigators in other countries. After midday is the most favourable period for the occurrence of dust whirls.
Tahle of Observed Dust Whirls. The following list comprises the dust whirls recorded by tha Avriter in the Niagara-Kookynie and Comet Vale-Goongarrie dis- tricts, with the dates of occurrence, the direction of rotation, and general remarks. Where it was impossible — mainly on account of ' distance — to determine the direction of rotation,* a blank has been- left. In some cases, the direction given is not quite certain, hence a query has ]>een added so as to express this doubt. One gigantic whirl has been separately described below on account of its special interest. The writer is well aware that the remarks as to height and other characters of individual whii'ls are vague, but the phenomena do not readih' lend themselves to accurate measure- ments, and opportunity did not always permit of more definite statements : —
Direction of
G-eneral Remarks.
These occurred in the Niag'ara- Kookvnie district.
No details, except direction of rotation were noted.
Distant. In front of a ridpe. From probable lieisfht of lat- ter, the dust whirl was esti- mated to be 1000 feet high at the least. East of Kookynie.
Distant. Distant. Low. 15 On ironstone country.
|
Direction of |
|
|
Date. |
Rotation . |
|
1914. |
|
|
Dec. 18. |
Anticlockwise |
|
., 18 |
Clock nise |
|
,, 21 |
• Anticlockwise |
|
1915. |
|
|
Jan. 8 |
Anticlockwise |
|
Feb. 10 |
Clockwise |
|
>, 13 |
Anticlockwise |
|
., 23 |
Anticlockwis'e |
|
Mar. 29 |
Anticlockwise |
|
,, 15 |
1916. Sept. 22 ,, 22 „ 25
Anticlockwise (?)
15. " Low " means that the dust whirl as seen by the naked eye reached to only a small height from the surface of the ground, in some instances, not: more than 20 feet, and even less.
:-318
J. T, Jutson :
|
Date. |
niiection of Rotation. |
General Ueniarks. |
||
|
Nov. 11 |
- |
- |
Anticlockwise |
Low. |
|
Dec. 5 |
- |
- |
Anticlockwise (?) |
Distant. Fairly hi^li, |
|
,. 6 |
- |
- |
Anticlockiivise |
Fairly high. |
|
,, 9 |
- |
- |
Anticlockwicie |
Low. |
|
1917. |
||||
|
Jan. 26 |
Distant. Hundreds of |
Feb. 6
12 15
.Anticlockwise ( r)
Auticlockwij^e ( ?)
Anticlockwise
Anticlockwise Clockwise
|
16 |
- |
Anticlockwise |
|
16 |
- |
Anticlockwise |
|
17 |
. |
Clockwise |
|
17 |
- |
Anticlockwise |
|
17 |
||
|
19 |
- |
Clockwise |
|
19 |
- |
Clockwise |
|
19 |
- |
Clockwise and Anticlockwise |
Thin, sandy-coloured coliiuiu. Rapidly chang-ed its form and density. Quickly liecame in- visible. Noted at 3 p.m. on very oalm day.
Hundreds of feet hig-h. Soon be- came invisible. Day calm and hot. Noted at 1 p.m.
Hundreds of feet high. Bent in the centre. Visible for a few minutes. Gradually faded
away. Noted at 2.30 p.m.
Distant. Very hiofh. Very dis- tinct, so must have been carry- ing much dust.
Ditto.
Low. Raised considerable quan- tity of dust. Soon died out.
Low. Soonjdied out.
Low. Passed through camp. Lifted fine sand very strongly. Soon died out. About six feet in diameter.
Each raised much dust, but .soon died out.
Diameter of eiach probably only a few feet.
Low. A few feet in diameter.
Lo'w. A ^ew feet in diameter. Soon died out.
Some distance away. Probably at leaist 100 to 200 feet high.
Low. OnJy about two feet in diameter.
Low. Only about four feet in diameter.
Somewhat higher than last two. Rotated both clockwise and antiolockwise, the change tak- ing place more than once in a distance travelled of 50 or 60 yards. Diameter about 15 feet.
Dust Whirls.
319'
Date. Feb. 19
Direction of Rotation.
Feb. 20 ,, 26
Mar.
AiiticJockwise
General Reinaiks.
A 'g-igaintic dust whirl. Described* aepaxafcely below. Note. — The- 19th February was a typical day for dust whirls, bein^ hot and sultry, with a gentle N. to N.W. breeze. Those record- ed »ere all in the afternoon.
Low.
A igig'antic distant whirl. Must have been hundreds, or per-- haps thousands, of feet high. Very dark-coloured and dense-- looking. Visible for about five minutes, and appeared to be moving slowly southwards. The- siimjnit of the column of dust was clearly seeta to be spread- ing out horizontally, as such columns do.
Low.
Some miles distant. High, with apparently a fairlv large dia- meter. Travelling southwards. .
A very high thin column.
Low. On samphire flat.
Low. On samphire flat.
Low.
Low.
Rather low. Raised much dust. . Travelling northwiards. Tra- velled for a ditance of a.bout. half a mile while visible. Direction of rotation almost: certainly changed from clock- - wise to anticlockwi.se, and vice- versa.
Note. — The dust whirls recorded from 22nd September, 1916, onwards,, occurred in the Comet Vale-Goongarrie district.
Summarising the above table records a total of 43 dust whirls^. Of these 15 have no record a.s to direction of rotation, 15 are anti- clockwise, four are anti -clockwise with a query, six are clockwise, one is and twH) probably are both clockwise and anti-clockwise. The anti-clockwase rotation, therefore, preduminates. This result could hardly be exj^ected, for if, as appears to be the case, the- whirls are of the nature of small cyclones, then in the southern' hemispheres, the predominant rotation would be expected to follow
|
„ 1 |
|
|
„ 29 |
Clockwise and |
|
Anticlockwise (?) |
|
|
„ 29 |
|
|
,, 29 |
|
|
, 29 |
|
|
May 8 |
Cllockwise and |
|
Anticlockwise (?) |
1320 J. T. Jutson:
that of the normal cyclones, that is, clockwise. Further observa- tions, however, are required, as the records in this paper are too few to come to a definite conclusion on the point raised,.
A Gigantic Dust Whirl.
Ihe whirl now to be described has been noted in tlie above list, but its occurrence was so striking that a separate description is warranted.
This dust whirl was observe<l on 19th February, 1917, at about 1.30 p.m., in tlie Comet Vale-Coongariie district, when the sun had not passed a great distance beyond the zenith. The day waa hot and sultry, with a gentle north to north-west Avind. The conditions were, therefore, favourable for dust whirls. This \is.y- ticular wliirl formed a great column of dust, the top of which was above two clouds, which were at different levels in the atmo- sphere, the difference of level apparently Ijeing cnnsiderable. These clouds were of the cumulus type, and were such as may be conunonly observed in the area after midday under the conditions mentioned. The dust column was broken by these two clouds. The column was travelling southward, or south-westwards, at a fairly rapid rate, but the rate of motion could not be deter- mined, and in doing so, passed beyond the clouds, and showed itself as one unbroken, gigantic column, with a pronounced liend forward (i.e., in the direction of its linear movement) at the top. Otherwise it appeared to be approximately vertical. The dust whirl was close to the path of the sun's rays, and as the sun was •obscurcil by the upper cloud, tlie phenonema could l)e closely Avatched. The dust was dull, red in coloui-, and between the two clouds dense masses of dust coiild be seen by the naked eye whirling about and springing upwards. As it moved in the direction mentioned, the columu became invisible within a few minutes. The direction of rotation could not be ascertained, nor could any idea be formed of its diameter, although the diameter appeared to l>e about the same through the wholjo length of the <'olumn.
The angle of elevation of the top of the column was guessed to be about 80°, but the horizontal distance of the column from the point of obsiervation could not be ascertained, so that it is impos- sible to state its height, even very approximately. Judging by ob- servation, it would certainly not be less than one mile distant, and probably much more; but if it hi assumed th;;t tlie dist^uKe was
Dust W Juris. 321
• one mile, that the column was approximately vertical, and that the angle of elevation was 80°, the dust whirl would be not far short of six miles in height; and if it were only half a mile awav (which, however, seemed altogether too short a distance), tlie height would approximate towa^rds three miles.
These figures, are probably far too high, due, perhaps, to the
.assumption that tlie dust column was approximately vertical. The column might appear to be vertical, and yet could perhaps be much bent towards the observer. This would materially reduce the figures.
Another means of checking the height is to ascertain the height of
•either of the two clouds associated with the dust columns, but no data have been obtained fpr this. These clouds were two of many similar scattered over, all ai:)parently of moderate height. Again, if the general average height that these clouds form at Avere known, an idea of the height of the dust whirl would be obtained, but there appears to be hardly any information available as to such ■clouds in Austi-alia in this connection. Records of other countries
.show that the upper surfaces of cumulus clouds may be over 3000 feet high. 16 There can be no doubt, howevei'. that this particular <lust whirl was of great height, reaching probably to several thou- sands of feet above the earth's surface, and the quantity of dust raised must have been enormous. When first viewed close to tlie
.sun's rays, the dust whirls presented a majestic spectacle.
The writer is indebted to Dr. Griffith Taylor for a reference to Mr. Quayle's ISIemoir on Clouds, and for some information con-.
'Cerning clouds, whicli lie kindly obtained from Mr. (^)uayle.
Diifif Whirls i/i Felaf/oii to Erosion. Dust whirls must play an important part in the erosion of sub-
.arid Western Australia. From the prece<liug table it will be recognised that they are fairly numerous, even in a small area, and that they include columns of dust of great height. It must also be remembered that, unless high, numerous whirls, even com- paratively close to an observer, are not seen hy liini. If the whole
■ of the sub-arid portions^ of the State be considei'ed, a vast amount of fine sand, and dust must be displaced even in the course of one favourable day. The m^iterial is either lifted well into the air, (u- is dragged along or kept close tx) the surface of the ground. In
-.the former case the material is chiefly fine dust, and in the latter
16. Davis. Op. cit., pp. 179 and ISO.
322 Dust Whirls.
case, wliich has been described as a saltatory action, fine sand.. The fine dust tends to rise high into the air, and it may be soinje- time before it settles down to the ground again. During this- period it may travel far. and there can be no doubt that a con- siderable portion of it is carried .beyond, or "exported" from the sub-arid areas.
In this way the general surface of these areas as a M'hole tends-- to be lowered. 17 The dust which falls in other portions of these sub- arid areas, tends to increase the thickness of soils locally, and also to make these soils of a more heterogeneous character. ^^ Such soils are of course subject to removal by dust whirl and other aeolian action, as well as by rain action, but certain areas may receive more wind-blown material than they lose by the same- agency.
The fine sand removed by saltatory action immediately settles' again when the dust whirl dies out, but during its journey it would" tend to collect and to remain in hollows. There is thus probably a general drift from the higher to the lower country (with some- exce^^tions), which aids in keeping the general surface level, and thus in the formation of a vast high level plain — the " new plateau " of the Avi-iter.^^
An interesting account of a dust-stonn in soutli-western North America, and an estimate of the amount of dust precipitated have- been recently given. 20 It has been concluded that owing to strong convectional air currents, " an enormous quantity of dust must have been eroded from these arid regions — (New Mexico and Arizona) — lifted into the upper atmosphere, and carried with the storm a thousand miles or more to the north-east, where it was brought doAvn by the snow and sleet, which had formed at a great altitude in the air." It was calculated that not less than a million tons of organic and inorganic material fell, and probably many times that amount. I'he dust whirls discussed in this paper cannot of course be compared, from an erosional point of view, with such- a storm, but nevertheless, the difference is but one of degree.
17. This idea of "exportation" has of course been brought forward by earlier writers, such as von Richthofen and Davis.
18. The mixed character of soils owing to the action of the wind gene- rally has been fully described by Free. Op. cit.»p. 109.
19. Bull. 61, Geol. Surv. W. Austral.. Perth, 1914, p. 525.
20. See "Geographical Review," December, 1918, pp. 514 and 515.
[Proc. Kot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. II., 1920].
Art. XXf. — Tlie Physiography and Geology of the Bulla- Sydenhani Area.
ALBERT V. G. JAMES, B.A., M.Sc.
[Read 11th December, 1920]. (With Plates XXXII.-XXXIV.)
Contents.
1. Cartography.
2. Physiography.
3. Palaeozoic Rocks.
(a) Ordoviciaii .-jediments.
(b) Silurian sediments.
(c) Metamorphic rocks.
(d) Granodiorite.
(e) Kaolinized granodiorite.
4. Kaiuozoic Rocks.
(a) OLder-basalt.
(b) Pre-older basaltic river valley.
(c) Basic hypabyssal rocks.
5. Kaiuozbic Sediments.
(a) Normal Kainozoic grits.
(b) Eucalyptus leaf beds.
(c) Newer-basalt' — Lower Series.
(d) Inter-newer-basaltic grits and conglomerates.
(e) Newer-basalt' — Upper Series.
(f) Po)st-newer-ba.saltic- grit.-^ aad conglomerates.
6. Acknowledgments.
7. References.
Cartography.
The area examined covers 20 square miles, and takes in the eastern half of quarter-sheet 7 S.E., and the western portion of quarter-sheet 2 S.W. There are neither dates nor compass points on these sheets.
The date of one edition of the quarter-sheet was probably 1863,. but the dates of the other two editions could not be obtained. Two different copies can be seen at the Melbourne Public Library, and a third at the Geological Survey Department. One of the three editions has the Silurian conglomerate south-west of Hanging Valley (Plate XXXIL) wrongly coloured as Kainozoic.
The dips and strikes of the palaeozoic rocks on the quarter-sheet are inaccurate.
• 18
324
Albert V. James:
In the three editions of quarter-sheet 7 S.E.. a large heart- shaped area of tree covered granite, south of BuUa, is wrnngly coloured as basaltic.
In the military contour map of Sunbury two errors in road marking occur. In the extreme N.E. of the area the formed road L M (Plate XXXII.) is omitted, while the road N O in tht- centre west is shown as continuous across the^gorge, which is called in this paper, "Column Gully."
Tlie granodiorite boundaries in the N.E. eannot ])e accurately placed, owing to the gravitation of granitic detritus from the lulls. It covers the lower lying basalt, and liides the junction.
Owing to the great accumulation of hill wasli along the streams many outcrops are completely covered. Ihis is probahly the reason why two conglomerates marked on quarter sheet 7 S.E. are not now visible.
Attention is drawn to tlie names of the streams in this ai-ea, and a study of the geological quarter-sheets, the military contour maps, and tlie paidsli plans shows liow loose the nomenclature has been. The names of the streams in the parish plans of 1901 differ from those of 191G, and as the names of the latter agree with those given by the local residents, the writer has acce23ted them for this paper. The eastern branch is Deep Creek, the western branch Jackson's Creek, and the Maril)yi'nong Kiver (formerly 8alt- w^ater River),* the stream from the junction of the creeks to the Yarra. The following is a table of tlie names given to thci streams in this area in old and recent publications : —
• Publication.
•Geol'K^ical quarter
sheet, 1863 Parish Plans, 1901 1616
Military T'ontour
map, 1917 Donald Mac^lonald in Argus, 22/4/ 19
Residents and no- menclature fol- lowed by writer 1919
Western Branch. Macedon or Salt- water River Saltwater Eiv»^r Jackson's Creek
Jackson's Creek
Jackson's Creek
Eastern Branch. Deep Creek
Deep Creek Deep Creek
Maribyrnon^-
Eiver Deep Creek
Jackson's Creek
Deep Creek
Combined Creeks. Saltwater River
Saltwater River Maribj'rnong
River Maribyrnong
River Deejj Creek
above tidal
water. Maribyrnong
River below
tidal water. Maribyrnong
River.
I Physiography of Bulla Area. 825
Physiography.
Gemral Survey. — The dominating feature of the area is the great basalt shfet which slopes gently from the north-west to the south-east, with a slope of 60 ft. jjer mile, descending from 600 ft. to 300 ft. in five miles. The Deep Creek, Jackson's Creek, and the Maribvrnong River have entrenched themselves in this low plateau to a depth of 300 ft., and they are vigorous young streams, cutting deeper and deeper into a plain that is also very youthful in character. Two granodiorite masses rise 100 feet above the lava surface.
Meanders. — Deep Creek, Jackson's Creek, and the Maribyrnong River meander in a trench about 300 ft. in depth. These sti-eams originally tlowfd on the surface of the basalt plain, and the slight curves in their old courses became more and more pronounced as the streams deepened their beds. While lateral erosion was at work deepening the curves, vertical corrosion was deepening the valley, and this combined action has resulted in an alternating series of spurs and river cliffs along each stream. Waterworn pebbles of basalt, quartz, quartzite, etc., along each spur, afford evidence of the former position of the stream, lliis type of meander is in sharp contrast to the flood-plain meander, where •only lateral erosion is active.
Several writers (1) describe an entrenched meander as one where tlw? original meander has been preserved, and where the opposite banks of the stream make approximately equal angles with the surface of the ground. According to these geographers, the spurred meanders of Bulla and Sydenham would not be entrenched mean- ders. W. M. Davis, however, refers to tlie spurred character of the entrenched meanders of the Meuse and Seine. (2b) It is imjior- tant to note that the present meanders of Deep Creek are not simply the preserved meanders of the old stream, as indicated by J. W. Gregory (3). The length of the present curves is very much greater than that of the old cui-ves, owing to the lateral swinging of the streams, but the radii of the curves have remained approxi- mately the same, (2a).
Down-vnlJey Sweep of Meanders. — Tliis sweeping movement is not so pronounced as in streams flowing through soft rock, but the effect can be definitely seen in most f>f the spurs along either creek and in the position of tlie small fiooil plains. Tlie spurs are not igymmetrical in section, tlie steeper side always pointing up-
326 Albert V. James.-
valley. This also has the effect of sharpening the spur, and the- placing iof the flood plain, not at the end of the spur, but on the- down-valley side of it. (2a.)
Meander Belt.- — In youthful streams, such as Deep Creek, the belt of Avandering and the meander belt coincide wi.th one another. The stream by lateral swinging widens its meander belt, but this tendency is checked by (a) the down-valley sweep of the meanders (which would eventually cut through the spurs), and by (b) the formation of new channels at flood time across low spurs.
Reldtion httwetn Radius of Meander and Volume of Water. — W. M. Davis has sliown (2a and 9), that the radius of a meander, where slope and load are equal, is proportional to the volume of Avater. This is exemplified in Jackson's Creek, Deep Creek and the Maribyrnong River. Jackson's Creek has a sliglitly smaller- volume than Deep Creek, and the radii of its meanders are slightly smaller than those of Deep Creek. Similarly the radii of the Mari- byrnong meanders are considerably larger than those of the- creeks.
Hanging Valleys. — Excellent examples of hanging valleys are' found along l>oth Jackson's Creek and Deep Creek. In every case- these tributary streams flow only after heayA' rain. The best example is that to the south-Avest of the main granodiorite out- crcip. This small stream has been formed/ along the junction of the basalt, and the granodiorite. At its junction Avith Deep Creek there is a fall 80 ft. in height. OAA'ing to their poor supply of Avater the tributary streams are unal^le to corrode their beds as rapidly as the main streams. This is the chief cause of the lack of adjustment betAveen the tributaries and the main streams in this area. At Hanging Valley (see Z, Plate XXXII.), this lack of • adjustment is increased by the hard compact hornfels in its lower- course.
Deserted Bed of Jachsons Creek. — An old accumulation of boulders can be seen in the right bank of the Maribyrnong River, a quarter of a mile south of the junction of the creeks. Some of the boulders are huge, some small, some of basalt, some of con- glomerate, and others of sandstone, but none of granodiorite. It Avas the old bed of Jackson's Creek Avhich deserted it Avhen it floAved 6 ft. above its present level. If Deep Creek had contri- buted boulders to the conglomerate, granodiorite also Avould have- been represented.
Physiograpky of Bulla Area. 827
Corrosion. — A study of the effect of tlie volcanoes on that sec- .tion of Jackson's Creek north of Sunbury would provide interesting anatt-er, for it is evident that the Sunbury volcanoes in late Kaino- jzoic times, formed an immensei bar across the old Jackson's Creek, and overwhelmed the valleys to the south beneath a flood of lava.
It will be noticed that Deep Creek flows close to the boundary of the granodiorite, and the basalt. Originally it flowed along the junction. As DeeiJ Creek deej^ened its bed, the granodiorite be- came exposed on both banks. It is probable that streams such as the Yarra and Deep Creek tend to flow at the junction of basalt .and older rock because hill drainage helps to form a valley at the junction of the bedrock, and the lava sheet, and because the lava flow is probably depressed at the edges, and thus directs the drain- age of the area to the line of junction.
By meandering and deepening the streams have reduced the -slope from 60 ft. per mile to 18 ft. per mile. From the creek junction to tiie most northerly point of Deep Creek, marked on the map, is 7 miles. In this distance it falls from 280 ft. to 150 ft., -giving a slope of 18 ft. per mile. It is remarkable that Jack- son's Cre-ek from thej north-west boundary on the map to the creek junction flows 11 miles, and falls from 350 ft. to 150 ft., giving again a slope of 18 ft. per mile. The slopes are interesting when Hjompared with that of the sluggish Mississippi, which has a fall of less than 1 ft. per mile. At the Bulla School the creeks are o.'^ ly half a mile apart, but, owing to the short distance along Deep Creek to the junction as compared with that along Jackson's Creek, the bed of Deep Creek is 60 ft. lower than that of Jackson's Creek. This illustrates the fact that in river capture the more vigorous stream may be captured by the less vigorous. Jackson's Creek and Deep Creek 'having the same slope, are of equal vigour, but if their valleysj met Deep Creek would capture the head waters •of Jackson's Creek.
Deep Creek has been superimposed along the whole of its course on the older rocks beneatli. Jackson's Creek is still cutting into basalt, though it frequently carves its way across the tops of the •old Ordovician and Silurian hills.
Basalt bars of greater density retard its rate of deepening by checking its velocity. In several parts Jackson's Creek resembles a series of small lakes separated from one another by basalt bars (Over which the water tumbles in miniature rapids.
328 Albert V. James:
Headuard Erosion. — The extremely youthful tributary streams frequently become gorge-like, and tend to cut. back across the fields. Farmers in this locality meet the problem by piling boul- ders at the head of the tril>utary and planting hardy shrubs around them in order to cheek tlie velocity of the water, and thus retard the transport of material. llie early neglect to check the headward erosion of youthful streams has led elsewhere tO' great loss of land. A large area at G'oburg has been rendered un- fit for habitation within the last thirty years, and the same will occur at Aberfeldie, near the Essendon sand pits, if preventive^ measures aie not taken soon. ,
Near the school at Bulla an extremely young active tributary has cut back from Deep Creek and formed a canyon in decomposed' granodioritc and Ijasalt. Apparently no effort has been made to check the licadward erosion, and now it is completely out of hand, and threatens the roads north of Bulla. The canyon is about 60 ft. in depth. It is not likely to deeq^en further for many years as its floor is nearly adjusted to the present level of Deep Creek. Lateral erosion is now rapidly increasing the area of destruc- tion.
Basalt Outliers. — A small outlier is see*!! in the south of the- large granodiorite outcrop, and another in the extreme centre- nortli in Ordovician sediments. They represent small basalt tongues that have been cut off from the main lava sheet by river- action.
Palaeozoic Rocks.
General Description. — The Ijedrock of the area so far as is known consists of Upper Ordovician and LoAver Silurian sedi- ments in the form of shales, sandstones, conglomerates, quartzites, .slates and hornfels. These have been strongly folded by approxi- mately east and west pressure, and the prevalence of easterly dips: sugge.sts overfolding to the west. The folds pitch to 'the north, and this pitch makes the strike of the strata somewhat irregular.
Throughout the district these palaeozoic rocks have been highly fractured and faulted, most of the faults being reverse strike- faults. On the left baidv of Deep Creek, at the mouth of Hanging Valley, is a fault ])reccia altered to hornfels by the granodiorite intrusion.
If the conglomerate (C;^), near Hanging Valley, and conglom- erate Ci or C.J on Jackson's Creek, be parts of the same stratum,.
PhysiograjiJiy of Bulla Area. 329
lateral displacement must have taken place, and. though this is the pi'dhable explanation, yet local lenticular accumulations of con- glomerate may be the reason why these bands do not appear on the same line of strike. Owing to intense pressure, well defined joint planes have been set uj? which tend to break the strata into small rliombohedra. Ihese joint planes give difficulty in the taking of dips and strikes, as they closely simulate the bedding planes.
Palaeozoic Fossih. — Previous to 1918, l^pper Ordovician grap- tolites had been found in the extreme north-west of this area (4), while Lower Silurian graptolites had been found in the extreme south-east (5), but none had been found between these localities.
In 1917 and 1918 the writer came across several fossil beds whose position is indicated on Plate XXXII. The paucity of fossils in this locality is probably due partly to dynamic and thermal meta- morphism, which prevent the rock splitting along the bedding plane, and partly to the sandy nature of the sediments.
It has been Kuggested that the conglomerate C, 's of glacial origin, and tlie absence of fossils in this neighlx)urhood is due to the severe climatic conditions that prevailed during their deposition. (6.) Fossils have, however, now been found in the following localities : —
(a) On the left bank of Jackson's Creek. 50 yards north of
tho mouth of Column Gully. (See Plate XXXII.) In a Very narrow band Upper Ordovician graptolites can be obtained in abundance, Coenograptus and Diplograptus being the commonest genera. The fossils are well pre- served, but are rapidly obliterated on exposure to the air.
(b) On the left bank of Jackson's Creek, half a mile south-
east of the Organ Pipes. For nearly a mile along lx)th banks of the creek, the rocks contain enormous numbers of worm impressions. On the rock face a few yards south- east of dyke D .^ tiie markings strongly suggest worm burrows, but Mr. F. Chapman says that they are probably the remains of the soft part of the worms. The impres- sions are quite different from those of Trachyderma (7). From the graptolite bed referred to in (a) to the con- glomerate C these impressions occur in varying num- bers. The upper part of each stratum has more im- pressions than the lower part, and many of the most pi-ominent markings are perpendicular to the l>edding- plane, and increase in diameter fi-om b>elow upwards.
330 Albert V. James:
Mr. F. Chapman lias not been able to determine the age of these worms, but as there is field evidence that they are of Ordovician age, they will be called tentatively in this paper the " Ordovician worm beds."
(c) On the right bank of Jackson's Creek, at the mouth of a
small gully, 30 yards east of conglomerate Cj. Jlere impressions of the gill jDlumes of the worm Trachyderma * sp. occur in two very narrow bands.
(d) The best imjDressions of Trachyderma were found on the
right bank, about 300 yards down stream from the con- glomerate C . At this spot Tracliyderma and Monograp- tus were obtained on the same slal>. Many of the strata here yield the tubes and gill plumes of tliis worm, which Mr. F. Chapman has connected with the gill plumes found at South Yarra in Lower Silurian rocks. (7).
(e) On the right l)ank of Jackson's Creek, 30 yai'ds north-
east of the dyke D.^ (Plate XXXII). llie writer found three or four species <if Silurian graptolites. Graptnlites from localities (d) and (e) were sent to Mr. F. Chapman. They have not been named yet. but were pronounced to Ije definitely Silurian.
(f) At the point x (Plate XXXII.), fossils were found alxnit
1862 (4), by members of the Geological Survey. Mr. F.
Chapman has stated that tliese fossils are definitely
Silurian. Junction of tJit Upper Ordorician oii<] J.nuer -Silurian. — Previous to 1918 the junction between the Silurian and the Ordo- vician rocks had been placed one mile S.S.E. of the junction of the creeks (6). As neither unconformity nor fossils had been found, geologists were forced to rely on the study of dips and strikes, and on this evidence alone the placing of the junction there seems to have been justified, for there the dips become lower and the direction of the strike is slightly altered. In this aiea it is not safe to put too much reliance on v'ariation in strike and dip, because these are much disturbed by faulting, pitehing and hill creep.
Two of the three editions of the geological quarter sheet No. 7 S.E., show the Ordovician rocks extending to the S.E. margin, Avhile quarter-sht-et No. 2 S.W. shows Silurian extending to the S.W. margin, thus making the edges of the sheets coincide with the junction between the Ordovician and, Silurian sediments. A third
Physiography of Bulla Area. 331
^edition of the quarter sheet 7 S.E., places the junction one-eighth of a mile to the west of this, and this is approximately the line found independently by T. S. Hart (6).
The presence of Siluiian graptolites in tAvo localities one and a-half miles west of this junction, and in another one and a-half miles N.N.W., strongly suggests that the junction shown in the •quarter sheets is incorrect. There is of course the possibility tliat the later Silurian rocks occuj^y an infolded pocket of the Ordo- vician. In either case we are forced to look for the junction fur- ther upstream. It seems to the writer probable that the western face of conglomerate C' is the junction. The reasons for putting it there are as follow :— -
(a) The junction is necessarily between dyke D and Column
Gully, for at the former, Silurian graptolites and worms' are found, and at the latter, Ordovician graptolites. These two places are approximately one and a-half miles apart. No conclusive evidence is given by the dips and strikes, for though slight variations occur, up-stream and down-stream similar variations can l)e noted. In the Ordovician graptolite bed the dip is <S4 E, and the strike exactly north and soutli, while in the Silurian graptolite beds the dip is 77 'E, and the strike 8° west of north. Between the^^e two l:)eds there is no stidden change of dip or strike.
(b) The Silurian worm Trachyderma can be found in many
of the strata east of C bxit not west of it, '(c) "Ordovician worm impressions" are found in enormous numbers, ,from the Ordovician graptolite beds, where they are associated with Diplograptus, right up to the conglomerate C , but neither in it nor on the east side. The f-act that tliese marks suddenly cease at the con- glomerate strongly suggests discontinuity of conditions. ■(d) The conglomerate itself is strictly conformable- with the strata on the eastern side, but on the western the con- tact is very irregular. The one drawback to the plac- ing of the junction at (\ is the presence of a few pebbles in the strata on the up-stream side of the conglomerate. This suggests similarity of conditions, and though their presence is not fatal, yet it makes one hesitate to accept Cj^ as a basal conglomerate.
332 ■ Albert V. James:
Palaeozoic C'o/if/Ioitir/afes-.—'r\[e four palaeozoic conglomerates in this area have been carefully described by T. S. Hart (5). C^, the most nortlierly, is wrongly coloured tertiary in one of the three quarter sheets. It has Ijeen pointed out (6) that this conglomerate has been so indurated by thermal nLetamphorism that the matrix is as hard as the old quartzite pebbles, and thus the pebbles do not weather out.
Ihe southern exposure C.^ can be picked up in a runnel on the- cliff about 80 ft. above the stream. It is not altered to the extent that d is.
Cj shows the clay bands much distorted by differential pressure, as they are in the Italian Cutting, Daylesford (8).
Q is the largest of the four conglomerates.
T. S. Hart (6) puts forward various reasons for considering it an Ordovician glacial conglomerate. His conclusions appear in- correct. The following is a summary of the reasons given on which he based his conclusion : —
(1) A part of the conglomerate is a mixture of pebbles and
fine clay.
(2) The strata are much disturl;ed in places.
(3) The matrix is angular.
(4) Some pebbles are facetted and striated.
(5) Fossils are absent on account of severity of the climate-
at that period.
The writer carefully weighed these points, l)ut was forced tO' discard the theory of the glacial origin. A mixture of pebbles and clay can be formed in other ways than by glacial action, and the- disturbance of the strata appears to be the unconformable junction of the Ordovician and Silurian. The presence of the striations on an insignificant percentage of the pebbles can be accounted for" by the fact that when conglomerate bands are folded under pres- sure, the hard pebbles grind against and scratch one another. Facetted pebl)les were not common in this congl'omerate, and there was quite as large a percentage in the river conglomerate- as in the ancient collection. On examining under the miscroscope, the matrix from conglomerate C. and comparing it with material taken from other strata, it did not appear to be more angular than the latter. It has been shoAvn' already that life was abundant- in the seas in that age.
The direct evidence against this glacial theory is : — (a) Ihe general linear arrangement of the pebbles.
Physiography of Butlu Area. 333 ■
(b) 111 C. tlie jjebbles lie regularly on their flat faces.
(c) Pebbly, sandy and clay bands alternate.
(d) Most of the stones are sanall. Not one large stone is seen.
If it were glacial you would expect to find some boulders.
(e) Facetted and striated pebbles are extremely rare.
(f) Many strata contain pebbles of only one size.
(g) The conglomerate is almost certainly of Silurian age, and
no other evidence of Silurian glaciation has l>een reported in Australia.
For the reasons above it seems more likely that the conglomerate Ci is the basal conglomerate of; the Silurian rather than an Ordo- vician glacial deposit.
The material of which the pebbles are composed is similar to that of the Kei-ri conglomerate found along Conglomerate Creek, near Macedon (10). There are quartz, quartzite, black chert, quartz, porphyry, greisen and diabase pebbles. The Kerri conglomerate contains a large percentage of dimpled and squeezed pebbles, whose state it has been shown is probably due to solution under pressure (10). Many similar pebbles are found in C but most of the- dimples have not been made in situ, for ' frequently the dimples are opposed not to a pebble, but to the clay matrix. A few of the dimples may have been made in situ.
Metamoiphic Rods.
These are exposed along Deep Creek to the north, west, and south of the granodiorite. At and near the junction the sediments have been converted into hoinfels, while further away they occur as spotted shales, or as indurated sandstones or shales. The width of the aureole varies considerably, probably owing to the irregular junction of the granodiorite, with the sediments beneath tho surface. As fai' as can be judged from the bedrock exposed along the creeks the iioinfels belt on the average appears to be about a quarter of a mile wide, and it gradually merges into spotted slate, which is not uniform in its disti-ibution. Ihe indu- rated sediments have abundant secondary mica.
In the hand hornfels is a hard, dense, dark rock, in which indi- vidual crystals cannot be seen with the naked eye. Under the miscroscope, however, it is seen to have abundant secondary brown biotite. Near the contact there is a considerable amount of cordie- rite produced, but further away andalusite, biotite, and secondary quartz predominate. The cordierite can be distinguished frojpcu
uj library]^
;334. Albert V. James:
the quartz by its cleavage, ■which is easily picked out, and by the numerous and characteristic inclusions. A little tourmaline is found in a f&\\ sections, but secondary quartz is present in abundance in all.
The hornfels close to the contact is very much coarser than that some distance away.
Owing to the quantity of sandstone which characterises the palaeo- zoic rocks of this area, a considerable amount of quartzite has been formed, much of it being tliermal metamorphic in type.
It is interesting to note the difference between the action of run- ning water and the weather on these metamorphosed sediments. They appear to be highly resistant to the latter, but readily suc- cumb to the former, owing to the presence of three sets of joint planes, which divide the^ rocks into variously shaped rliombohedra. The result is that the stream in flood can break out the rhombs and thus deepen its bed, whereas the ordinary atmosi^heric agents are not so succes-^ful. The importance of jointing is shown near Hanging Valley, where a metamorphosed fault rock of the same material as the hornfels around it has more sucessfuUy resisted •destruction by Deep Creek. The fault rock is not jointed, and the normal hornfels is, thus enabling the stream to remove it block by block.
Granod/orite.
Six outci-ops are mapped, three large and three small, and they roughly form a ring round Bulla. 'Ihe boundary of the north- -east outcrop is hidden ])y later detritus, that has gravitated down h-om the east. The five outcrops to the north stood out as islands in t])e lava flood, but the most southerly Avas overwhelmed by it.
(liemical Character. — The material for analysis was obtained from fresh rock that had been " plug and>-feathered " on the main ^outcrop soutliwest of Bulla.
It was analysed by Mr. F. Watson, and the analysis is given in the following table, together with analyses of other similar vTOcks for comparison : —
Physiograplnj of Bulla Area. 3 3i
|
.2 "S "5 -S |
.2 £ |
E 5 |
0 |
"2 |
||||
|
2 2 |
■5 H |
5 B |
z — |
z, - |
— ^ |
|||
|
s s |
11 |
a — |
5 ■- •OE- |
|-o |
||||
|
0 |
■5 rt |
u ^ 0 |
0 |
< — |
< |
<^ |
||
|
SiOo |
- |
68.92 - |
71.65 - |
70-91 |
- 66.13 - |
71.57 - |
69.19 - |
67.75 |
|
AI..O3 |
- |
15.26 - |
14.56 - |
13.99 |
- 16.83 - |
13.58 - |
13.45 - |
16.11 |
|
Fe,03 |
- |
.80 - |
].13 - |
.35 |
- 1.11 - |
1.18 - |
2.71 - |
.50 |
|
FeO |
- |
3.30 - |
].5(j - |
3.02 |
- 417 - |
2.19 - |
2.78 - |
4.00 |
|
.MgO |
- |
1.64 - |
.81 - |
.80 |
- 1.83 - |
1.07 - |
1.06 - |
.79 |
|
CaO |
- |
3.01. - |
1.27 - |
2.35 |
- 326 - |
1.72 - |
2.04 - |
2.68 |
|
Na^O |
- |
2.71 - |
2.76 - |
3.94 |
- 2 25 - |
2.79 - |
2.89 - |
2.60 |
|
K,0 |
- |
2.93 - |
4.14 - |
3.66 |
- 3.14 - |
4.36 - |
3 94 - |
3.42 |
|
H,0 + |
110 |
l.Oi - |
.15 - |
.21 |
- 1.68 - |
.69 - |
.77 |
.96 |
|
HoO - |
110 |
.22 - |
1.20 - |
.11 |
- .23 - |
.11 - |
.16 - |
.20 |
|
CO., |
- |
Nil - |
Nil - |
Nil |
- Tr |
.29 - |
.07 - |
Nil |
|
Tip „ |
- |
.70 - |
.35 - |
.58 |
- Tr. - |
.4() - |
.51 - |
.85 |
|
p.o; |
- |
.19 - |
.12 - |
Tr. |
- Tr. - |
.11 - |
.18 - |
.09 |
|
MnO |
- |
Tr. - |
.04 - |
Nil |
- .07 - |
.09 - |
.14 - |
Tr |
|
Li.^O |
- |
Tr. - |
Tr. - |
— |
— |
Tr. |
'I'r. |
— |
|
CI |
- |
Nil - |
Tr. - |
— |
Tr. - |
Tr. - |
Ti-. - |
— |
|
Total |
- |
100.75 - |
99.77 - |
99.95 |
100.70 - |
100.21 - |
99:89 - |
99.95 |
|
S.G. |
- |
2.688 - |
2.630 - |
— |
2.677 - |
2.655 - |
2.666 - |
2.68 |
|
1 |
||||||||
|
CJ |
p. 4) |
^ |
. 0 |
•^ |
r. |
2 1 |
||
|
c |
0 |
g |
« CO |
s |
ffi |
y |
||
|
D |
V |
< |
$ s |
d |
d |
'^ |
||
|
_C |
s |
6 |
u.' |
■< |
<;' |
d 33 |
The rather high CaO content, and the relatively low K^O content, of the Bulla rock favours granodiorite rather than adamellite, and the miscroscopical examination confirms this determination.
Megascopic Character . — It is a rather coarse grained, grey rock with many crystals, 10 mm. in diameter. Quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, biotite and a little pyrite can be seen. Ihe quartz has a greasy lustre, and the felspar tends to be greenish. The rock takes a fine polish, though the coarse biotite is inclined to give the surface a chipped appearance. Basic segregations with their rounded outlines are very common. Ibe specific gravity of fresh rock is 2.677, and thus in keeping with its determination as granodiorite.
Microscopic Character. — It is a non-porphyritic, hypidiomor- phic, holocrystalline rock with crystals of various 'sizes. It is medium to coarse in grain, with a rich assortment of minerals..
Sd6 ' Albert V. James :
'J'lie following are jjroseiit in order of decreasing abundance : — • Andesine, quartz, orthoclase, biotite. chlorite, sericite, niuscovite, apatite, pyrite, magnetite, arsenopyrite, calcite and zircon. The chlorite, sericite, pyrite, calcite, and arsenopyrite are secondary.
The extinction angles of the carlsbad and the lamellar twins dis- close the fact tliat the plagioclase is basic andesine. Zoned crystals are very abundant, andj" the zones are seen to be more basic as the centre is approached. Certain bands of the zoned felspai's were sericitized before the others, showing that felspars of that Mcomposition were not so stable in the presence of sericitizing agents. Generally sericitization took place from the centre outwards, i.e., from the basic to the acid plagioclases. In tlie sections studied sericite in its turn tends to be kaolinized.
Simimarif. — The rock from its chemical and mineral composition and its physical properties is a sliglitly altered granotliorite. In the hand it appears fresh, and ^shows no vsign of weathering.
In the field it undoubtedly appears to be linked to the Gelli- i)raud mass, which has been described bv Dr. F. Stillwell as a'da,ni- ellite (] 1). Both are 500 ft. high, and have the same mineral com- position, and approximately the same chemical coanposition. It differs from the Gellibrand stock in having a slightly higher lime content, and slightly lower silica content.
Dr. F. Stillwell found that the proportion of jdagioclase to ortho- clase was less than 2:1 in the Gellibrand stock, but the writer by the Rosival method found the proportion distinctly more than 2 :1 in the Bulla .stock, which is adjacent to it. Slight differences in mineral and chemical composition are probably local, for the two rocks are similar in all other important characters.
Granitic Intrusions. — Near Hanging Valley is a granitic dyke 20 feet wide, intruding the hornfels. Near the southern edge of the main granitic mass there are several small dykes of microgranite intruding granodiorite, while north of Bulla bridge there is a dyke of aplite and a small one of quartz, both in granodiorite.
The dyke near Hanging Valley is evidently a tongue from the main mass, but the microgranite, aplite and quartz tongues appear to have been derived from the acid residue of the magma after the outside portion had cooled and hardened. The magma •evidently sloped the palaeozoic sediments so quietly that the dip and the .strike are not only unaltered up to the southern contact, but are continued at the northern junction. Ilie sediments to the west also arc undisturbed.
FJii/singraphy of Bulla Area. 337
A large number' of aii^mlar and irregular rock blocks are found embedded in the granodiorite along Deep Creek, 8.W. of Bulla. That they were originally blocks of sedimeiit that were displaced by the st'oping, and then sank into tlie molten magma, might l3e in- ferred by tlie angularity of the blocks, and by their close similarity to hornfels. If tliey were basic segregations, you would expect the •outlines to Ije rounded.
Economics. — Ihe best granodiorite for building purposes lies between the deep trenches of Jackson's Creek and Deep Creek, at the 500 ft. level. 1 lie expense of liauling blocks of granodiorite across these deep trenches and thence to Melbourne practically prohibits the use of this rock as a building stone.
The granodiorite. in striking contrast to the ]>asalt of this area, is always tree-covered, and witli the exception of the trees in the -deep creek trenches, is the only local source of timber.
Kaalinized Grnnodlorite.
Locaf ion .—^The granodiorite at several places round Bulla and Br-oadmeadows has l^een kaolinized. In the area under discussion tliere are four extensive masses of kaolinized granodiorite, and several smaller outcrops. Two of the large outcrops are being MX)rked by Cornwells for their Brunswick pottery. The others have not yet been opened up.
De.^cr ipf ion. —A.t the quarry Q' (Plate XXXII.) one can trace the change from hard granodiorite, through the partly decomposed to the thoroughly decomposed and whitened rock. Decomposed basic segregations can also be seen in the face. Much of the mass is left the purest Avhite by the leaching out of the iron oxide derived from the magnetite, pyrite, biotite and chlorite. In other parts the decomposed rock is deeply stained and cemented by the concentra- tion of iron! oxide.
In the smaller quari-y (Qo-) near the Bulla school, there is a well- marked vein one inch thick, of bluish tourmaline and granular quartz, in a joint plane of the kaolinized granodiorite. Another vein 1| inches thick has lately Ijeen cut out of tlie kaolin in Qi.
The quartz granules of the original granodiorite persist, appar- ently unaltered, throughout tlie kaolinized mass.
Microscopic Exami nation. — Angular quartz is surrounde>d by crystallised kaolin, which appears chiefly as twinned lamellae, though often in the form of scales and aggregates. A considerable •amount of sericite is still present, Avith earthy calcite and zircons.
o88 Albert V. James:
Origin of tht Bulla Kaolin. — Graiiodiorite may be kaolinized by the action of meteoric water carrying carbon dioxide in solution, ■which penetrating the granodiorite decomposes the biotite and. felspars. Kaolin in Fiji ami the Dublin Mts (Ireland) is stated by Prof. SoUas to have been formed in this way (12).
Probably a conmioner process of kaolinization and the proved origin of the vasi; kadlin masses of England and Unified States (12 and 13) is that of pneumatolysis, where emanations of carbon dioxide, boron, fluorine, or chlorine, probably with steam, have- decomposed the felspars and l^iotite of tlie plutouic rock.
Three investigators, E. J. Dunn, 1899 (15), R. W. Armitage, 1911 (U), and F. Stillwell, 1911 (11.), have briefly discussed the Bulla kaoliir. While both Mr. Armitage and Dr. Stillwell nefer tO' the possibility of either surface water or pneumatolysis being the- cause of the kaolinization of the Bulla granodiorite, the former favoui's the meteoric origin and the latter the pneumatolytic origin.
For the following reasons, it seems probable that pneumatolysis and not meteoric Avater is responsible for tlie kaolin of this area.
Evidence Against the Meteoric Theory.
(a) Only Isolated Outcrops Occur in Victoria. -^lliis is stroiigly against the meteoric theory, for if the water and carbon dioxide were subaerial one would expert kaolin to be found in all parts of Victoria, where the old granitic surface is protected from denuda- tion.
(b) Only Isolated Outcrops Occur at Bulla. — There are about ten outcrops at Bulla, and these are separated from one another by solid, unaltered granodiorite. Generally the surface of the grano- diorite is protected by basalt and gritstone, and yet only rela- tively sniall outcrops of kaolin are found.
(c) Relation of Kaolin to the Sites of Old Valleys. — It has been stated (14) that the Bulla kaolin always underlies basalt which is situated in the sites of old pre-basaltic valleys, and that the- drainage beneath and through the basalt would thus tend to be gathered along lines whei'e it could attack the granodiorite vigorously.
In reply to this it can be stated that kaolin does not always underlie the basalt. In the largest Bulla quarry, Q .^ the kaolin is overlain by a considerable thickness of grits. The presence gener- ally of basalt oyer kaolin is only what one would expect. Suppose-
Physiography of Bulla Area. 339
a granodiorite mass had been converted into kaolin at various^ places by pneumatolysis long before the lava floods. At these places. the weathering would be ^niich more rapid than where the rock was unattacked. Depressions would be made, and, later, occupied bv the lava, whil^ the fresh and less denuded rock would stand up as a monadnock above tlie molten basalt.
(d() Fresh Granodiorite -under Basalt. — In two places fresh,, hard granodiorite was seen directly beneath basalt at a low level, while the granodiorite to the side of it had been kaolinized. At another place granodiorite was seen under basalt that had flowed into an old valley. There was no sign of kaolinization.
(e) Shape of the Outcrops. — In this area the shape of the outcrops is not very definite, but where it is shown it agrees with type (a), (Fig. 1. Plate XXXIII.) If the kiuilin were of meteoric origin, it Avould be of type (b) (Fig. 2, Plate XXXIII.').
(f) Relation of Kaolin to Depth. — In every case the rock near the bottom of an outcrop is as much altered as that higher up the face. If the decomposition were due to surface water and carbon dioxide, then decomposition should decrease as the depth increased, for the solid rock deep under the surface stream would suffer very little from downward drainage.
(g) Xo Evidence of Stream Beds above the Kaolin. — If 'the- kaolin weiie formed by water in old valleys draining through grano- diorite, some trace of stream material above the kaolin would very likely be found. No trace of river gravels, silt or conglomerate was found above any of the kaolin masses.
(h) Kaolin Found at Many Levels. — Kaolin can be found right from the level of the stream to 200 ft. above it. One would not expect such differences in level in separated outcrops if old valley floors determined the point, of attack on the granodiorite by the stream water with carbon dioxide in solution.
(i) No Evidence of Kaolin Being Formed in Present Stream. — The granodiorite along Deep Creek and on the hill sides is not kaolinized. If kaolinization be due to subaerialj agencies, why has not the granodiorite in this stream bed been kaolinized?
(j) Accompanying Minerals. — Kaolinization by pneumatolysis is generally accompanied by the production of tourmaline, fluor, cassi- terite or topaz, which cannot be produced by subaerial agents. A vein of tourmaline in Q and another in Q., (Plate XXXII.) give valuable positive evidence that magmatic vapours have been pre- sent to some extent at least.
19
340 Albert V. James :
Sum mar I/. —The inicroscopic examination of the kaolin gives no definite evidence in favour of either theory, but the field evidence, Avhile producing little positive evidence in support of pneuma- tolysis, strongly discounts the meteoric theory. The fact that no fiuor, cassiterite, or topaz is found in the kaolinized rock, and only a small amount of tourmaline, rather suggests that we must turn to magmatic water and carbon dioxide as the agents causing Jcaolinization, as in Cornwall and in. the United States (12). The earthy calcite in the sections of the kaolin supports this conclusion.
Economics. — -Fifty years ago a company was formed to export this material to England, Avhere it wa.s bought at 18/- per ton. ■Owing to the lieavy transport cost the company failed.
At present the kaolin in Q^ and Qo is being worked by Corn- "vvells, who use it for making fire bricks and other articles used at higli temperatures. There is a growing export trade in these manufactured articles.
On account of the trace of iron in the Bulla kaolin, it has not, up to the present, been used for chinaware. The quantity of kaolin ;appears to be uidimited.
Kainozoic Rocks.
Older Basalt. — In the south-east of the area three lenticular out- -crops were found. The most northerly is vesicular, and rests <lirectly on Silurian sediments, and underlies a very thick cap of stratified Kainozoic grits. The best section, however, is seen in a -cliff face in the extreme south-east, where very decomposed older basalt overlies a pre-older basaltic river conglomerate, about 8 ft. in thickness, wliich merges into sands at the sides. This sand and the sandstone conglomerate beneath the basalt are strictly local in origin, and remind one very much of the sands underlying and overlying the leaf beds two and a-lialf miles to tlie N.N.W.
In this decomposed basalt there are. in situ, several undecom- posed basaltic nodules. These remove all doul)t as to the identity of the outcrop. The basalt thins out at the edges, and here the under- lying sand has in part been altered to quartzite, and the overlying sandy clay to a rock resemVjling red brick. Newer basalt more tlian 100 feet in tliickness rests on these beds.
Pre-oldcr-hasalf Hirer Val/ei/. — Tlie alignment of the tliree southern outcrops is indicative of an old. river valley, and this
Physiography oj Bulla Area. 341
.conclusion is upheld by the presence of a conglomerate in the .southern exposure.
No evidence of stream action in the two patches to the north was found, but this may have been hidden by the talus, which masks -the surface. The northern outcrops are at a lower level than the soutliern one, and this suggests that the stream in this locality flowed to the N.N.E. \ Basic Hypahyssal Rocks.
Along Jackson's Creek, in the south of the area, there occur at least seven basic to ultrabasic dykes. D^ between D, and D.^ can be seen only when the creek is very low. In places it is sill-like. T)j is 22 ft. wide, and is found directly beneath the " Organ Pipes," but sejiarated from them by Kainozoic grits. D^ contains •nodules of relatively fresh material, the only unaltered mineral being ajDatite, though abundant augite and olivine can be recog- nised by the shape of the old crystals and their alteration pi'odvicts. «Oblong outlines which may have been plagioclase laths are fairly numerous. The apatite has a vitreous to subresinous lustre. It.s shape is remarkable, for it resembles a miniature torpedo. Fre- quently the crystals are long, but flattened. They can be obtained up to 1;!^ in. in length, and down to the smallest needles. All have smooth rounded outlines, but some have small smooth depressions. The smooth outlines and depressions are evidently due to corrosion by the magma. Owing to the extreme brittleness of these crystals, it is difficult to obtain complete specimens. From carefully chosen fragments the S.G. was found to be 3.104, and the P-oO^ content 40.3 %. A brisk effervescence is set up on dissolving the mineral in hot HCl.
Phenocrysta of olivine, augite, apatite, and felspar were set in a fine groundmass. Of these apatite is the only survivor.
The seven dykes appear to be of the same age, and of the same material, though apatite was found only in D^. All have the same brownish yellow appearance, the same greasy feeling, the same <legree of decomposition, and the same rich iron content, as shown "by the iron oxide on the footwalls.
Age of the Dykes. — From their field appearance the basic dykes •are all of the same age. The fact that the dykes (D^and D^) are not intrusive into the overlying stratified Kainozoic grits, shows that they are older than either the NeAver Basalt or the Kainozoic grits. The fact that they are intrusive into the Silurian sedi- ments, and were not affected bv the folding agencies of Lr. Devo-
842 Albert V. James :
niaii times (16), stamps them as post Lr. Devonian. In one- dyke (Dg) a few nodules of partly decomposed rock were found, and this tells us tliat the dykes are not very ancient. It is, there- fore, reasonable to jjlace them with the older basalt, because rocks, of this age also occasionally show undecomposed nodules, and it was at this period that vast quantities of basic magma were forced, to the surface.
Kainozoic Sediments.
These will l)e briefly described under the following heads: —
(a) Pre-olcler-basaltic river conglomerates.
(b) Pre-newer-basaltic grits (Normal " Tertiary Grits.").
(c) Eucalptus leaf beds.
(d) Pre-nef\ver-basaltic river sediments.
(e) Inter-newer-basaltic grits, conglomerates, etc.
(f) Post-newer-basaltic grits, conglomerates and alluvium.
(a) Pre-older-hasaltic river coiKjloinerate. — This is found in the- extreme S.E. of the area, and has been described a1>ove.
No fossils were found. Part of this deposit has been altered to- quartzite, evidently by the older basalt.
(b) Pre -newer -hamliiv grits and sands. — These are cenerally stratified. Near Keilor, about two miles to the south, the grits- are stratified, and marine fossils are abundant, but no fossils have been found in the grits of this locality, with the exception of the leaf beds descril)ed in the following paragraph. A close study leaves little doubt that all these sandy deposits have been derive^l from the Bulla granodiorite, the stratified and unstratified de- posits apparently merging into one another.
(c) Eucoli/pfus Leaf Beds.—Ow the left bank of Deep C'reek (See* Plate XXXII.) a deposit of fine sands and very fine clay bands rests above sands, which in turn rest on the upturned edges of the Silu- rian sediments. These clay bands are overlain l)y other saiuly layers. Ihe whole deposit is about 30 ft. in thickness, and is cov<?red by more than lOO feet of basalt. The clay bands consist of two sheets. a]x)ut 8 ft. in thickness, light blue resting on dark brown. Both are fossiliferous, but the brown ai-e especially rich. The fossils are- leaves of eucalypts, acacias, ferns, and other plants, together with stems and fruits of unrecognised plants. The Eucalyptus leaves have been described by Mr. V\. Patton (IT). From the delicately even strata and the fineness of the clay, the deposit is evidently a lake deposit. The old surface of the Silurian rocks rises to greater- heights on all visible sides of the leaf beds, and this, together with- the lithological character of the sediments, is strong evidence in?
Physiography of Bulla Area. 343
favour of their lacusti-ine origin. There is no evidence as to whether these sands are pre-older-basaltic or post-older-basaltic'; The examination of the eucalypt leaves by Mr. R. Patton threw no light on the problem of (heir age. Fnmi their position among the other sandy layers, with wliicli they are conformable, it is probable that they are post-older-basaltic, like the normal Kainozoic grits.
The beds have a decided tilt to the S.E. Ihis may be due to the compression of the loose porous sands by the great overload of new- basalt, which here is about 140 ft. in thickness.
(d) I're-newer basaltic river sedi/nrnts. — These are shovrn on the map (Plate XXXII.), as areas where plant stems are very abundant. That they are river deposits is shown by their lenticular shape, by the small conglomerate that rests on the valley floor, and by the earthy nature of the matrix. They indicate the sites of pre-newer basaltic valleys.
(e) Inter-newer basaltic grits and con r/lome rates. — The lava flows of the newer basalt in this district are divided into two series — Upper and Lower. This will be explained later. Between the two series is the old soil surface of weathered rock, and in places tliick deposits of grit have gravitated from the higher grano- ■diorite in the locality into the valleys corroded in the LoAver Series of the newer basalt. These grits, etc., are not stratified. They act as a simple division between the two series of newer basalt. The best occurrences are at points marked F on the map. At Column Gully a heavy conglomerate of quartz and basalt pebbles separates the two series, while in the ]-oad cutting north of Bulla an old land surface separates them.
(f) Post-newer basaltic grits, conglomerate and alliiviinn. — All these should Ije placed as Recent, but as they form only a later stage in the same destructive and constructive process that has l>een going ■on right through the Kainozoic, they have l>een placed under this head. In the neighbourhood of the heart-shaped granodiorite out- »crop, unstratified grits can be seen both above and l^elow the newer
basalt. The grits' have been shed from the hill. This process went on before tlie older basalt, before the newer, basalt, and it is being continued after it. Grit covers or mixes with the basalt soil.
In addition to the massive conglomerates that are now being formed in the stream beds, there are conglomerates of much earlier age formed along the river spurs, especially those of Jackson's Creek, where the deposits are sometimes at least -30 feet in thick- ness. Generally, they are chiefly rounded quartz and l)asalt pebbles, and can thus be distinguished from the normal Kaiudzoic pel.ble
344 Albert V. James :
beds which coiitain no basalt. Tliese deposits have been dropped by tlie stream as it deepened its bed, but yet the fact should be noted that the great mass of this conglomerate occurs about 100 feet above the present stream level, i.e., when the stream had sunk its bed a little more than 100 feet below the surface. This shows that at that depth the stream cut into an old Kainozoic pebble deposit to tho north, and distributed the pebbles on the convex bank of its meanders. The pebbles lower than 100 feet have probably been, derived partly fiom the old pebble beds, and pa,rtly from the recent deposits higher up the spurs.
Kiver alluvium, as already described under Physiography, is- poorly represented in this area. It is found chiefly on the down- valley side of the spurs, and it usually passes into and overlies a- heavy river conglomerate. Ihe best deposit is found on Jackson's, Creek, near its junction with Deep Creek.
Newer Basalt.
Newer basalt covei's more than nine-tenths of the area maiDped.. It appears to consist of about seven Hows that havei come from Red Hill, Sunbury Hill and Bald Hill. This is sliown by the contour lines on tlie military map, by the dominating position of these vol- canoes, and by the sliape and direction of the vesicles in the basalt.. The points of origin of the earlier flows have not been determined. In many places the basalt has a depth of over 300 ft., but it cannot be said from this that each flow is 43 ft. in thickness, for the earlieir flows are by far the deepest, since they levelled the old denuded surface. In tlie neighbourhood of Column Gully excellent col- umnar structure has been produced in the earlier flows. A de- scription of these columns (14) and the factors producing them (18) may be found in other puUications.
Upper and Lower Series. — The various flows of newer basalt in this area are divided into Upper and Lower Series by sandstone, bands, river conglomerates, or thick surface soil. • The places where a good junction of the Upper and Lovrer Series can be seen is marked F on the map. Tliat a considerable time interval elapsed between the two series is shown by the denuded surface of the Lower, by its older appearance aiid more decomposed state, and by the thickness of surface soil on the Lower Series. Generally the tliick scree on the valley sides masks the division line of the tAvo series, but excellent junctions are common, especially in the N.\\^. of the area.
Physiography of Bulla Area.
345
JiJ-
v^gdasQ
sursp..
346 , Albert V. James :
It might be thought that the Lower Series belongs to the Older Basalt, but there is strong evidence against this : —
(1) The Lower Series rests in places on thick deposits of sand,
which appear to be the normal Kainozoic grits.
(2) The river conglomerates between the two series frequently
contain basalt pebbles derived from the lower series, lliese peljbles are only slightly decomposed. If they were older basaltic they would be thoroughly decomposed.
(3) Older basalt, three miles to the E.S.E., is thoroughly de-
comjDosed, while the lower series described above is only slightly weathered.
Scoria Cone. — Near the junction (if Column Gully and Jackson's Creek is a scoria cone which was almost submerged by the youngest lava flows. A study of the\ sections shows that at first efiusive and explosive eruptions alternated, and then gave place to a prolonged discharge of scoria and agglomerate. The uppermost of the four layers of scoria is still about 100 feet thick. Proljably denudation has reduced ita thickness. At one point a wall of dense basalt pierces the scoria. It is evidently a. l>locked up vent, or dyke.
The scoria is of the same age as the " Organ Pijies," and the columns in Column Gully, and, thei"efore, belongs to tlie Lower Series of Newer Basalt. At one point on Jackson's Creek scoria overlies and underlies the columnar basalt.
Microscopic Examinatioii of U pper Xeirtr 73axalf. — Sections were made of very tough basalt from the small quarry on Deep Creek, north of the Leaf Beds. It proved to be a hypocrystalline rock, in which some glass was present. Lai-ge phenocrysts of olivine were i^et in matrix of fairly coarse labradorite. Augite and magnetite were very abundant, while iddingsite frequently replaced the olivine. The sectionsi gave good examples of ophitic structure, for augite commonly included the labradorite laths. Flow structure was illustrated by the orientation of the labradorites, and tlie man- ner in which they " floAved " round the olivines. The rock was a eoarse grained basalt.
Porphyritic Basalt. — In the triangle between Redstone Hill, Bulla and tlie Organ Pipes, there is a peculiar flow of dense por- phyritic Ijasalt that belongs to the Uppe\- Series. Near the Red- •stone Hill, a volcano on Jackson's Creek, it is found resting directly •on the sands that separate it from the Lower Series. In several places in Deep Creek and Jackson's Creek it is found in a perfectly fresh state, but above the Organ Pipes it appears in a more weathered and vesicular state. Boulders of this porphyritic basalt
Physiography oj Bulla Area. 347
in the stream can readily be identified by the sniootli light-brown .surface spotted with black augite crystals. Under the microscope sections show that the rock contains perfectly fresh plagioclase, augite, and olivine phenocrysts up to ^ in. in diameter, set in a finer paste. The rock closely resembles the Tweed Head basalt of Queensland.
Acknowledgments.
The writer is deeply indebted to Prof. E. Skeats for the interest and encouragement always given, and for the help, advice and sug- gestions which have acted us a guide to the matter in this paper.
Thanks are also due to Mr. F. Watson for the chemical analysis of the Bulla granodiorite.
The writer desires to acknowledge his great indebtedness to Dr. H. S. Summers for his valuable criticism of the method of pre- sentation and of the matter g:iven here.
REFERENCES.
1. T. S. Tarr and L. Martin. College Physiograpliy, p. 188,
fig. Hi. P. Lake. Physical Geography, p. 250.
2. W. M. Davis, (a) River Terraces in New England, Geogra-
phical Essays, (b) The Seine, Meuse and Moselle. Geo- graphical BiSsays.
3. J. "W. Gregory. The Geography of Victoria, figs, 75 and 76,
p. 158.
4. Quarter-Sheet, 7 S.E.
5. Quarter-Sheet, 1 N.W
6. T. S. Hart. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xvi.. N.S.. Pt. 1.
7. F. Chapman. Proc. Roy Soc. Victoria, vol. xxxi.. N.S., Pt.
II., 1919.
8. T. S. Hart. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xiv. N.S., Pt. II.
9. W. M. Davis. Physical Geography.
lU. E. W. Skeats and H. S. Summers. Geology and Petrology of the Macedon district. Bulletin of the Geol. Survey, No. 24, 1912.
11. F. L. Stilhvell. Proc. Roy. Soc. A^ictoria, vol. xxiv., N.S.,
Pt. I.
12. F. X. Butler. Min. Mag., Nov., 1908, vol. xv.. No. 69. 1.3. .1. H. Collins. Q.J.G.S.. vol Ixv. No. 258.
14. R. W. Avmitage. Vict. Nat., vol. xxviii,, July, 1911.
348 Albert V. James:
15. E. J. Dunn. Mon. Prog. Kept. Gfeol. Surv. Vic, Nos. 8 and
9.
16. H. S. Summers. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xxvi., N.S. Pt..
II., 1914.
17. R. T. Patton. Proc. Roy. Soc, Victoria, vol. xxxi., N.S., Pt.
II., 1919.
18. A. V. G. James. Columnar Structure in Basalt and the
Factors Producing it. Jour. Geol., 1920.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
Plate XXXII.
Geological map of the Bulla-Sydenham Area.
Plate XXXIII .
Fig. 1. — Type of kaolin deposit due to pneumatolysis.
Fig. 2. — Type of kaolin deposit formed by the action of atmos- pheric water and gases.
Fig. 3. — Meanders of Deep Creek. The heavy line sliows the present course of the stream; the dotted line indicates the original course of Deep Creek.
Fig. 4:. — Primary and secondary meanders of Jackson's Creek. Ihe heavy line shows the present course of Jackson's Creek, with both primary and secondary meanders, while the dotted line indicates part of the original course of the stream on the surface of the basalt (with primary meanders). The large curves are primary, and are pro- duced by the inequalities in the original land surface, but the small meanders are secondary, and are due to subsequent stream development.
Fig. 5. — This diagram shows how the bed of a stream in the spuri'ed type of entrenched meander moves both horizon- tally and vertically.
Plate XXXIV.
Fig. 1. — Photograph of a spurred entrenched meander on Deep^ Creek. Water-worn pebbles are found along the crest of the spur. The flood plain on the down-valley side of the- spur has been caused by the down-valley sweep of the- meander. At the point x are the Eucalyptus Leaf Beds.
Proc. E.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXXTII.
FiQ. 1
Fi5.2
Ja.ckt.on'i*^
f;^.3
F.q U
Fiq.6
Kaolin deposits and river [meanders
Proe. R.S. Victoria, 1920. Plate XXXIV.
|
^^■T^^ ''^^"fflPfHP"")"^ '^ ""^W '' '''"""'Hi^^^^^^^m |
■ : - ' ' |
^ |
■ |
|
|
■V |
||||
|
iL J . |
- •^'••M9fe |
J |
||
|
^iflrft^ |
■J^^Il "^^ |
2r |
Wf ^i-jiBtei'^ |
|
|
Hj^^^^^t^ipra |
1 |
H |
Spurred Meander and Junction of Upper and Lower Basalt
Physiography of Bulla Area.
34f>
'^^Z- 2. — Photograph of the junction of the Uppei- and Lower Series of Newer Basalt, near the Canyon, Bulla. The Lower Series is resting on grit«, which show slight step-faulting. The Upper Series is seen resting on the weathered surface of the Lower Series. The junction of the two basalts is indicated by xx on the photograph.
t>, O T1 O Cb O .^ & r O f, <
Retent Alluvium
Kaihozoic ConQ,loniera.te Reduslributed on Spurs
Gi-aiiod I'orite Detritus on Newer Bisa-lt
Upper Series of Newer Ba-sa/lt
Grits etc between Upper O/iid Lower Serial ■ Lowev Series oF Newer Basa-lt
Eucal^cptus Leaf 3ecis
Pre- newer- ba.sa-1 tic l^iver Silt/
Strditifi&d Kaiinozoic Grits
Older Bi.salt and fieosic Djlfes Pre-older-bajsa-ltic KiverSilt a-nd CoM^tomeyeotei Lower Situriin Pediments
UppevOrdovicici/n 5edlment& GraLnodiorite a-nd Acid I)yke^ (iDevonia/nY
Rocks of the Bulla-S\(denViam Area Arranged m (J-onolo^ical Column.
[Proc. Rot. Soc. Victoria, 32 (N.S.), Pt. I., 19191.
Art, XXII. — On the Seasoning of Hardwoods.
By R. T. PATTON, B.Sc. [Read 11th September, 1919].
The results given in this paper do not claim to settle, in any way, the question of seasoning, but are ratlier a record of accu- rate observations made on our timber when treated in various ways. In tlie discussions on seasoning, opinion is more often quoted than -observation.
Steaming of timber, prior to .seasoning, has many advocates, and this process has been given a good deal of attention. In the Botani- cal Laboiatory, we have only been able to use 2 ft. lengths, but I do not think that this has any marked effect on the result. It may, however, since the wood vessels in the tall eucalypts are very long, and hence the steam may find its way riglit. into the wood. If the wood be saturated with moisture, when it is put into the steam bath, it is difficult to see how the wood could dry, since the air is also saturated. On the other hand, if the wood l)e partly sea- soned, then it ought to take up moisture. The latter case was not investigated. In the former case, however, all specimens weighed approximately the same when taken out as when put in. Steaming may, as Tiemann points out, prove a leady means of heating the wood, but the same result could probably be secured in another way. In the former experiments, the results of which are pub- lished in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans) was. niaiidy Vised, but in this series Messmate (E. obliqua) was mainly used. The general results are the same. In the firgt place there is no acceleration of drying after steaming. Typical examples are given below. The weights are given as peicentages ■of original weight. The boards were 6 in. x 1 in. Messmate, and ^vere all cut from the same lengfth of timber.
|
Treatment. |
||||
|
Diite |
In air % |
24 hrs. in steam % |
Air /o |
48 hrs. in steam % |
|
4/11/18 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
|
9/11/18 |
91.5 |
87.5 |
90.9 |
89.3 |
|
19/11/18 |
82.8 |
82.7 |
83.8 |
80.8 |
|
29/11/18 |
77.4 |
75.8 |
76.7 |
75.5 |
|
16/12/18 |
68.8 |
69.0 |
69.7 |
68.1 |
|
8/1/19 |
65.6 |
65.5 |
66.7 |
63.8 |
|
28/1/19 |
64.5 |
64 4 |
65.6 |
62.8 |
|
14/2/19 |
64.5 |
64.4 |
64.7 |
63.8 |
On the Seasoning of Hardwoods. 351
It will \ye seen that the specimen steamed for 48 hours has lost sliglitly more than, the others. This is often the case, as tannin and kino are dissolved out of the wood.
While the drying rate is not affected, the amount of shrinkage is seriously affected. Two typical cases are given. The timber wa.s 6 in. X 1 in. messmate. The first specimen was steamed for six hours, and then put out in the air to dry. Ihe corresjionding piece was left in the air.
steamed Unsteamed
c, • 1 f Breadth - l^in. - ^iin.
Shrinkage ^ -^^ ''-
<. Depth - a^jUi- - g'si^-
The second specimen was steamed for 12 hours.
Steamed Unsteamed
ei • 1 ( Breadth - ^Sii- - ^Jin.
ShriuKage ] Y
<- Depth - Aiii- - 3^2 in.
It will be seen that the steaming has greatly increased the amount of shrinkage. The cause of this extra shrinkage is not yet known, but it may be due either to the steam affecting the union of the cells or the constitution of the cell wall may l>e affected.
A very interesting result was obtained by cutting a length of 6 in. X 1 in. tim1>er into 10 in. lengths, and subjecting each piece to a different mode of treatment before putting it out in the air to dry.
The result of one experiment is as follows : —
Treatment
7/11/18
9/11/18
19/11/18
29/11/18
16/12/18
8/1/19
28/1/19
14/219
The weights are given as percentages of the original weights. It will be noticed that the piece treated at 10 lbs. pressure of steam is the lightest. This is due to various substances being dis- solved out of the wood. The interesting feature of the experiment lies in the fact that all the pieces have dried approximately at the same rate. With the exception of the second weighing, the diffei-- ence lietween any pair of weights never exceeds 3% at any weighing, and in this 3% diff'erence must bo included the loss of
|
In air o/ |
2 hrs. in steam at 10 lbs. pres. o/ |
2 hrs. in steam at atmos. p. |
In oven at llO'c |
|
|
% 100 |
% 100 |
% 100 |
. |
100 |
|
97.4 |
95.4 |
96.8 |
- |
93.1 |
|
89.9 |
88.5 |
89.2 |
- |
88.6 |
|
86 |
83 |
84.3 |
- |
84.7 |
|
80.8 |
78.3 |
79.5 |
- |
79.7 |
|
78.6 |
76 |
77.6 |
- |
77.4 |
|
77.8 |
752 |
77.9 |
- |
76.6 |
|
77.7 |
74.9 |
7G.9 |
- |
76.4 |
-352 B. T. Patten:
■tannin and kino. The difference between the un-treated specimen and the oven-treated specimen is very small. Other experiments gave the same results. Hence we may conclude that sudden drying of the surface does not affect the ultimate rate of drying.
The amount of shrinkage in breadth of these specimens is also of interest : — .
Treatment
In Air 10 lbs. steam Steam at atmos. p. Oven at 110 Shrinkage - U - i^ - J5 - M
These results are similar to those of other experiments. It will •be seen that the suddenly dried specimen gives the least shrinkage.
Ibe amount of shrinkage that takes place when our timber is seasoning, is highly important. The measurements taken are not •extensive, but they should prove a guide for future work.
Measurements were made on lx)th Messmate and Mountain Ash. In length the shrinkage is very small, and averaged 1/32 in. for 6 ft. Lengths from 2 ft. to 6 ft. were used.
For shrinkage in radial and tangential direction, 6 in. x 1 in. boards were used mainly. The shrinkage in a tangential direction is generally supposed to be much greater than in a radial direc- tion, but the difference was not as great as expected. The results -for Mountain Ash (E. regnans) are as follows : —
In the radial direction the shrinkage averaged — ^§in. for 6in. or about 5%.
In the tangential direction the shrinkage averaged — * Jin. for 6in. or about 8%.
For Messmate the results were as follows : —
In the radial direction the shrinkage averaged — J|in for 6iu. or about 6%.
In the tangential direction the average was — J§ for 6in. or about 8%.
It is still a, debated question as to how long it takes our timlx-r "to season in the open air. Apparently no accurate observations liave been made, and hence doubt exists. In my former paper I .gave some observations on the drying of a stack of timber. Anotliei- stack Avas made in January of this year. The boards were € in. X 1 in., and were placed horizontally with 1 in. fillets between Ihem. Laterally there was a 3 in. space between boards. There -were 30 boards in the stack, each 6 ft. The stack was not in the
On the Seasoning of Hardwoods. 353
.most favourable position for drying, since it was shut in by walls on three sides, and was beneath an elm tree. The lowest humidity recorded was 13%, and this was on the day of the disastrous fires in the Otway Ranges. All the boards dried in about four weeks. The percenta'ge of moisture remaining was alx)ut 12 %, this
.being the average of three boards.
The actual and percentage weights of the boards that lost most
.are as follow : — •
|
Date |
Weij<ht |
% |
Weight |
% |
|
18/1/19 |
16.6 |
100 |
16 |
100 |
|
25/1/19 |
13.3 |
80.6 |
12.5 |
76.9 |
|
1/2/19 |
11.14 - |
72.5 |
10.15 - |
68.4 |
|
8/2/19 |
10.15 - |
66.8 |
10.1 |
62.9 |
|
15/2/19 |
10.6 |
63.4 |
9.12 - |
60.9 |
|
22/2/19 |
10.5 |
63.0 |
9.14 - |
61.7 |
|
1 3/19 |
lO.A |
62.6 |
9.14 - |
61.7 |
It will be noticed tliat the latter one began to weigh more. This is always the case with dry boards, for they vary with the iiumidity of the atmosphere. The result of this experiment indi- •cates the need for, more extensive observations on the natural dry- ing of timber in our climate, especially during the summer. If inch boards can be seasoned by a month's air drying in summer time, to kiln-dry such boards would be quite unnecessary and would hardly save any time. I desire to thank the manager of the Vic- .torian Hardwood and Milling Co., and also Messrs. R. Grundy and Co., for their care and promptness in supplying the timl>er for .these experiments.
INDEX.
The names of new genera and species are printed in italics.
Acacias, effect of lead nitrate on,
duration of flowers of, 251 Acacia Daw.soni, 189
leprosa, 189 Acid porpliyrites, 119 Adeuna 8 Adriana, 189 Agglomerate, 49 Ag-nostus australieusis, 83 Agrostis lacliuautha, 190 Aizoon zygophylloides, 190 Aleurone layer, 266, fig. 3 Alhagi camelorum, 190 Amarantlms deflexus, 190 Ancilla, 242 Andesitic rocks, 117 Area trai>ezia, 228 Archer, Ellinor, 247 Argentiferous galena, 126 Arundo Phragmites, 190 Astele, 239 Baldwin, J. M., 147 Barytes, 126 Basal conglomerates, 62 Basait, 129
Basic liypabyssal rocks, 342 Bassia .quinquecuspis, 191 Biose, production of. in photosyn- thesis, 187 Bittium oerithium, 230 Boggy creek, map of, 108, 109, 110 Boneo' Swamp, 24 Boronia pinnata,
essential oil of, 14
compos'ition of, 15, 16
distillatian of, 17 Brachyoome microcarpa, 191 Brachyodontes hirsutus, 229 Brogger diagrams. 124 Bromus (Jeljadilla, 191 Biichanania oblongifolia, 191 Bulla-Sydenham area, 324
Physiography of, 326 Bullaria botnnica, 232 BuUinus acutispira, 26 Caleana minor, 191 Cailochilus cupreus 191 Calorimeter, 152 Calostemma purpureum, 192 Canarium commune, 14 Candanocypris assiinills, 28 C'arapook, fossil tortoise of, 11 Cardita, 236
scabrosa, 236 Cardium antisemigramulatum, 237
victoriae. 236 Cassytha, 192 Casuarina Helmsil, 192 Cerithium pritchardi, 240 Chapman, F., 11, 24, 225
Cherts, 59
Chlamys aldiugensis, 235
bifrone, 229
murrayamiis, 234 Chronometer rates, correction for, 147 Chrysotile, 51 clanculus dunkeri, 230 Clavatula, 242 Clawing action of rain, 20 Climacograptvis, 55
bicornis, 84 tubuliferous, 84
wellingtoniensis, 84 Oollomia coccinea, 193 Columbella semiconvexa, 231 Coniothyrium, 283 Conglomerates, 63 Conns, 242 Copper pyrites, 126 Corbula ephamilla, 238
pyxidata, 238 Coxiella striatula, 25 Crania, 8 Crassatelites, 236 Crepicephalus etheridgei, 83 Crepis setosa, 193 Crowea saligna, 193 ^
Crypograptus trioornis, 84 CucuUaea corioeJisis, 234 Culicidae, 164 Cyperus lucidus, 2 Cypraea., 240 Cypris mytileides, 27
tsnuiscidpta, n.sp., 28, Plate IV. C,ythere luhhockiana, 29 Cytisus linifolius, 193 Dacite porphyry, 60 Darnel, 253, 262, 278
supposed nitrogen fixation by, 286 Diabases of the Howqua E., 33, 40
mineralization of, 52
petrography of, 33, 43
platy and splintery, 48 Dicellograptus elegans, 84
gurleyi, 84, 85
morissii, 84 Dicranograptus hians, 85
nicholsoni, 85 Didymograptus, 55, 59 Diorite, 62 Diplograptus, 55, 56 Diplograptus calcaratus, 84
foliaceus, 84
quadrimucronatus, 84
thielei, 84 Dolodrook limestones, 82 Dolodrook R., map of, 81
map of rocks of, 75 Doisinea johnstoni, 237 Dust whirls, 315
erosion by, 322
20
856
Index.
Dust whirls, table of, 318, 319, 320 Dyke rocks, 138 Echium violaceum, 194
plantagiueum, 194-5 Eoonomic minerals of Mt, Welliug-
tou area, 126 Elemicin, 14, 19 Elm, growth of, 205, 206, 207 Ernydura, 12
macquuriac, 12, 13, Plate I. Endopliytic fungus of Lolium, 253
cultures of, 270, fig. 5, 282
function of, 284 Endospermic cambium, 276, 294 Erosion by dust wliirls, 322, 323 Eryciua lielmsi, 25 Essential oil of Boronia, 14
composition of, 15, 16
distillation of, 17 Eucalyjjtus Mitchelliana, 195
Woollsiana, 195
obliqua, seasoning of, 351
shrinkage of, 353
regnans, shrinkage of, 353 Eucalyptus leaf-beds, 343 Euspira, 240 Ewart, A. J., 168. 189 Fasciolaria australasia, 231 Faults, 102, 103 Picus macrophylla, 195 Flora of Australia, 189 Flowers, longevity of, 247
Hickey's Creek, 98 '
map of, 79, 99, 101 Howqua region, gemeral geology of, 39
general location of, 35
physiographical features of, 37
lower Palaeozoic of, 139 Hybantlius tilitorniis, 198 Hypolepis tenuitolia, 199 Induction motor, design of, -156
experiments with, 157, 159 Infection layer, 259, 26U Inula graveolens, 199 Ironstone Creek, section of, 112 isopogon auemonifolius, 199 James, A. V. G., 324 Jasniinum linear e, 199 Jutsou, J. T., 20, 315 Kainozoic Basalt, 104
deposits, 127
rocks, 341
sediments, 343 Kaolinized granodiorite, 338 Laby, T. H., 148 Lagauiuni, 234
Lake Keilambete, character of, 6 Lasiograptus margaritatus, 85 Lasiospermum radiatum, 199 Lead nitrate, influence of in blocking
of Acacia vessels, 252 Lepidodendron, 9o LepraVia, 8
Formaldehyde, polymerisation of, 168 Leptograptvis flaccidus, 84
polydrates of, 168, 171, Fluviatile deposits, 128 Fusus australis, 231 Garvey Gully series, 77 Girvauella, 82 Gleichenia Hermann!, 196
laevigata, 196 Glossograptiis, 55 Glycimeris maccoyi, 234 Gnaphalium indicum, 197 Gold, 126 Goodenia arthrotricha, 197
geniculata, 197
grandiflora, 197-8 Gossany Ironstone, 111 Granite batholiths, 135 Granite rocks, 121 Granodiorite, 61, 335
composition and charactsr of, 336 Graptolites, table of. 87 Great Bight, formation cf beds of,
244 Grevillea ramosissima, 198
rosmarinifolia, 198 Hakea flexilis, 198
sericca, 198 Hampden tuffs, 3 Hardwooals, seasoning of. 351 Heat, mechanical equivalent of, 148 Heathcotian diabases. 135 Helipterum microglossum, 198 Hematite. 126
Lima jefirey-siana, 235
Limestone series, 127
Limuicythere sicula, n. sp. 29, Plate
IV. Limonite, 11, 126 Lingulella, 82
Lolium, endophytic fungus of, 253 distribution of, 259 arvense, 253 italicum, 255, 285 linicolum, 253, 255 perenne, 253, 255, 257, 258, 259,
262 growing point of. 261, fig. 1 radicle of, 265, fig. 2 ovary of, 268, fig. 4, 273, fig. 6,
277, fig. 7. 292. 293, 295 subiulatum, 199-200 temulentum, 253, 255, 257, 258, 259, 262, 263, 271, 279, 280, 235, 293, 295 Longevity of cut flowers, 247 Lonicera japonica, 200 Loranthus longiflorus, 199 Lower carboniferous. 62 Lower palaeozoic area, structure 57 sediments, 54 lithological features of, 54 Lucina planatella, 236 Lyria acuticostata, 241 Macallister Valley, map of, 104
of,
Index.
357
Manganese, 126 Manila Elemi, 14 Marcia strigota, 230 McLennan, Ethel, 253 Meander belts, 327 Mechanical equivalent of heat, method of determining, 148
apparatus for, 149
operation of, 151 Megascolex fletcheri, 303
anatomy of. 304, 305
gland of, 309 Melaphyres, 97, 98 Messmate, seasoning of, 351
shrinkage of, 353 Metaformaldehyde, action of alkali
on, 182 Metamorphic rocks, 34 Microcala filiformis, 200 Microcyl)e pauciflora. 200
multiflora, 200-201
albiflora, 201 Mitra pica, 231 Monograptus, 55 Montivaltia, 233 Moreton Bay Fig, effect of ringing
on, 195 Mountain ash shrinkage of, 353 Mt. Tara goldfield, 110 Mt. Terang, 8, 9
Mt. Wellington, Geology of, 67-146 Miicor Rouxianus, 280 Muraltia Heisteria, 201 Myosotis australis, 201 Natica substolida, var. qrandis, 239 Nautilus, 242
Nephridia, of Megascolex, 306, 307 Nemagraptiis gracilis, 85 Newer basalt, 345 Newtoniellia, 24') Nitrogen fixation, tests of. in Lolium
perenne, 286-291 Non-reducing sugar, production of,
in polymerisation, 179 Nothoscordum fragrans, 201 Nowa Nowa, 105
map of, 107, 140
geology of, 67-146
map of, 70 Noyangose, 121 Ooldea, fossils of, 225
sketch map of, 227 Orbicella, 226
Orbicella tasmaniensis, 233 Orbitolites complanata 228. 232 Orthis platystrophioides, 83 Ostracod and shell marl, 24 Ostrea, 244
Oxalis purpurata, 202 Palaeozoic earth basins, 132
history, 129 Palaeozoic Geolog-y, 67-146
rocks, upper, 60
sediments, 328 Panicum parviflorum, 202
Paraformaldehyde, 170, 171
action of alkali on, 183 Paterson's Curse, 194 Patton, R. T., 351 Pejark Marsh, volcanic tuff of, 1, 3 seq. Phebalium obcordatum, 202 Phibalomyia, 164, 165 Phormium tenax, 203 Phosphate deposits, 57 Photosynthesis, nature of changes in,
187, 188 Pinfelea flava, 202 Pinna inermis, 229 Platotrochus deltoideus, 232 Plagianthns monoica, 203 Po'lyhydrate of form aid ehyde, ao- tioin of alkali on, 183
thermic changes during, 184, 185 Polymerization ratios of formalde- hyde, 172
investigation of. 173
for calcium. 174-6
for strontium, barium, magne- sium, 177
for potassium, 178 Polymers of formaldehyde, action of
alkalies on, 180-185 Polypogon littoralis, 203 Porphyritic rocks, 118, 125 I'orphyroids, 114 Protospongia, 55, 59, 64 Pseudotabanuis queenslandi, 165 Ptychoparia minima, 83
'thielei, 83 Pultenaea. 210
aciphyllum, sect., 217
euchilus sect., 217
euphultenaea sect., 212
coelophyllum sect., 219
acuminata, 218
altissima, 219
aristata, 222
Baeuerleni, 222
Benthami, 214
biloba, 217
calycina, 218
Gampbelli, 222
capitellata. 213
cinerasoens, 215
oonferta, 216
cymbifolia, 218
daphnoides. 212
densifolia, 222 ■>
dentata, 221
Drummomdii. 216
elliptica, 223
euchila, 221
flexilis, 219
glabra, 220
Gvmnii, 215
Hartmanni, 216
incurvata, 221
largiflorens, 223
Luehmanni, 218 •
Maidenii, 212
358
Index.
Pultenaea microphylla, 215
Millari, 214
var. angustifolia, 214
montana, 217
mucronata^ 214
myrtoides, 214
obcordata, 217
obovata, 219
paleacea, 220
var. robiista, 220
I)auciflora, 216
pedunculata, 216
petiolaris, 214
pinifolia, 216
plumosa, 222
polifolia, 203, 214
procumbens, 203
pycnocephala, 213
retusa, 213
rosea, 223
rotundifolia, 218
scabra, 217
selag-iiioides, 221
Skinneri, 216
spiniilosa, 218
stipularis, 220
etricta, 212
subumbellata, 221
tenella, 218
Williamsoni, 220 Pyroclastic rocks, 118 Quartz-ceratophyre, 120, 125 Quartz porphyry, 125
reefs, 138 Raniinculus Mixelleri, 203 Red Jasper, 49 Reduciji,w power of artificial
179, 180 Rhyolite, 62, 95 Roan horse g'ully, map of, 92 Roberts, J. K., 148, 156 Rock expansion, 22 Seasoning- of hardwoods, 351 Serpentine, 51, 75 Setosa ereota, 204
hordeacea, 204 Soenella tenuistriata, 83 Shannon, Jean H., 303 Siliceous carbonate rocks, 50 Silurian, 88, 100 Silvius distinctus, 165 Skeats, E, W., 33, 43
Smith, H. G., 14
Snowy, R., jjorphyry, 113, 123
fracture line of, 138
summary of, 141 Solanum violaceum, 204 Spoudylus, 235 Stator, 152 Stenotheca, 83 Stratified ash beds, 116 Stylophora, 232 Sugar, synthesis of, 168 * Tabanidae, 164, 165
Tabanus qeraldi, 166
strangmanni, 167 Talc rocks, 50
Tape, variations in length of, 206 Taylor, F. H., 164 Teale, E. O., 33, 67-146
Summary of paper bv, 139 Tellina, 238
Temperature, effect on rock expan- sion, 22, Plate 2 Teredo directa, 238 Tertiary Fossils, 225 Tetragraptus, 55, 59 Tortoise, fossil, 11 Tovey, J. R., 189 Trachytic rocks, 117 Trichinium alopecuroideum, 205 Trichoinanes parvulum, 205 Triglochin centrocarpa, 205 Tuffs, 95 Turquoise, 111 Turritella clathrata, 230 Ulmus campestris, growth of, 205 Upper ordovician, 83, 108, sugar. Upper palaeozoic, 89. 100
Uranataenia alhofasrxata, 164 Venus cainozoicus, 237 Verbascum Blattaria, 207 Vicia sepium. 20-^ Volcanic Tuff, origin of, 1, 2 Voluta validicostata, 241 Walcott, R. H., 1 Watson, fossils of. 225 Wellington area, 91
district, map of, 70, 71, 76, 94
geology of, 73 Western Austra.lia, clawing action of
rain in, 20 Williamson, H. B.. 210 Zygophyllum Billardieri, 208
END OF VOLUME XXXII., PART II.
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