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Publications of the Royal Society of Victoria, and es
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as Victorian INSTITUTE FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF ScIENCE.- a :
Transactions. Vol. Foe S082 7 ee
PuitosopHicaL Society or Vicrorta. |
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These two Societies then amalgamated and became :— c
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE or VICTORIA. _- “te Ke
Transactions. Vols. 1-4.. fa SES Se Be =
3 The Society then became -— Eriern<
RoYA Soormry OF Vicrorta, x ee = Ae A
‘Transactions and Proceedings (Vol. 5, entitled Transac- =
_ tions). (8vo), Vols. 5-24, — | x s
Transactions. (Ato). Vols. 1, 2, 3 (Pt. 1 only was 2 pub a .
| lished), £,°S,: 6-1 8, op ae
Procecdings (New Series). Gre). Vols. 1—1888—_. bey
=< ¢ iter ct 9 ©

Mioroscoricat Society | OF Viororta. |
Journal (Vol. 1, Pt. 1, entitled Quarterly Journal). Vol. it NS By:
(Pts. 1 to 4), 2 (Pt. 1) title page: and index latins ‘

_ published|. 1879-82. eee

[Te Society then shes with the Rovat Sociery OF Vicrorta].

a.

4

ts N oTE.—Most of the dt published before 1890 are out ae
of print. Ee r ie 3 oe .

RoC Te a ns

Aopyul Doctety of Victoria.

VOL. XXXIV. (New Serius).
PARTS I. anv II.

Edited under the Authority of the Council.

ISSUED 31st OCTOBER, 1921, and 31st MAY, 1922.

(Containing Papers read before the Society during 1921).

THK AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY KESPONSIBLK FOR THK
SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THK ACCURACY OF THE
STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:
FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON

1922.
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a

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV.

Arr I.—Blood and Shade Divisions of Australian ‘'ribes. By Sir
BaLpwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. oe

II.—The Age of the Ironstone Beds of the Mornington Peninsula,
as adduced from the Marine Fauna. By FrepErick
. Cuapman, A.L.S., F R.M,S. .. .

III.—The Specific Name of the Australian Aturia and its Distri-
bution. By Freperick Cuapman, A.L.S. ( With ‘Text
Figure) owe es aes a

IV.—Notes on Amycterides, with Descriptions of New Species,
Part III. By Eusrace M. Fereuson, M.B.,Ch.M. ...

V.—New Australian Coleoptera with Notes on some Previously
Described Species, Part I. By F. Erasmus Witson.
(With Text Figure)

VI.—The Australian Species of Carex in the National Herbarium

of Victoria. By J. R. ‘lovey

VII.—An Intercomparison of Important Standard Yard Measures.
By J. M. Batpwin, M.A., D.Sc.

VIIL.—The Petrology of the Ordovician Sediments of the Bendigo
District. By J. A. Dunn, B.Sc.

1X.—On an Inclusion of Ordovician Sandstone in the Granite of
Big Hill. By J. A. Dunn, B.Sc. (With Text Figure)

X.—-An Alphabetical List of Victorian Eucalypts. By J. H.
Marpen, I.8.0.. F.R.S., F.L.S. as i

XI.—The Rotifera of Australia and their Distribution. By J.
SHEPHARD ... sad sau us ‘i v

XII.—Local Rain Producing Influences under Human Control in
South Australia. By E. T. Quayuz, B.A. (With Map)

XIII.—The Development of Endosperm in Cereals. By Mary
Gorpon, B.Sc. (With 9 Text Figures)

XIV.—Present and Probable Future Distribution of Wheat, Sheep
and Cattle in Australia. By R. G. THomas, B.Ag.Se.
(With 3 Text Figures) ; ee

XV.—Additions to and Alterations in the Catalogue of Victorian
Marine Mollusca. By J. H. Gatuirr and C. J. GABRIEL

PAGE

12

LF

33

42

49

55

65

73

85

89

105

117

128

Art. XVI.—Gold Specimens from Bendigo and their Probable Modes
of Origin. By F. L. Svintweuu, D.Se. (Plate I.)

XVIT.— On a Fossil Filamentous Alga and Sponge-Spicules forming
Opal Nodules at Richmond River, N.S.W. By Frepx.
Cuapman, A.L.S. (With 2 Text Figures)

XVIII.—On the Changes of Volume in a Mixture of Dry Seeds and
Water. By Aurrep J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D.

XLX.—Further Researches into the Serological Diagnosis of Con-
tagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle. By G. G, Hxsuop,
D.8.0., D.V.Se., D.V.H.

XX.—High Frequency Spectra—K Series of Platinum. By
J. Stantey Rogers, B.A., B.Sc. [( With 3 ‘Text Figures)

XXI.—Contributious from the National Herbarium of Victoria.
—No. 1. By J. R. lovey and P. F. Morris. (With 2
‘Text Figures) , . zine “ Bt

ANNUAL Report AND FINANCIAL STATEMENT FoR 1921

OFFICE-BEARERS

_ COMMIITEES .

List or MEMBERS

INDEX

PAGE,

1a

180

196

207
213
219
220
221

231

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Aopul Poctety of Victoria.

VOL. XXXIV. (New Sertss).
PART I.

Lidited under the Authority of the Counctl.

ISSUED OCTOBER, 1921.

(Containing Papers read before the Society during the months
March to Fuly, 1921).

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THR
SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE
STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:

FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON.

1921.

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PERO) C Hee 1 LNiG'S

R opal Doctety of Victoria.

VOL. XXXIV. (New Seriks).
DA he

Edited under the Authority of the Council.

ISSUED 31st OCTOBER, 1021.

(Containing Papers read before the Society during the months of
March to Fuly, 1921).

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE
STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:

FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON.

1921.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV., PART

I.—Blood and Shade Divisions of Australian Tribes. By Sir
BALDWIN SPENCER, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. dee

IIl.—The Age of the Ironstone Beds of the Mornington Peninsula,
as adduced from the Marine Fauna. By FRepERICcK
CuHapmaNn, A.L.S., F R.M.S. ..

III.—The Specific Name of the Australian Aturia and its Distri-
bution. By FrepmeRick CHapMaAN, A.L.S. (With 'l'ext
Figure) ; aS

IV.—Notes on Amycterides, with Descriptions of New Species,
Part III. By Eusrace M. Frrauson, M.B.,Ch.M.

V.—New Australian Coleoptera with Notes on some Previously
Described Species, Part I. By F. Erasmus WItson.
(With Text Figure)

VI.—The Australian Species of Carex in the National Herbarium
of Victoria. By J. R. ‘lovey

VII.—An Intercomparison of Important Standard Yard Measures.
By J. M. Baupwin, M.A., D.Sc.

VIII.—The Petrology of the Ordovician Sediments of the Bendigo

District. By J. A. Dunn, B.Sc.

1X.—On an Inclusion of Ordivician Sandstone in the Granite of
Big Hill. By J. A. Dunn, B.Sc. (With Text Figure)

PAGE

“J

33

42

49

55

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i ae ne Pome, s- 8

[Proc. Rory. Soc. Vicroria, 34 (N:S.), Pu. 1 192hi,

Ar. 1—Blood and Shade Divisions of Australian Tribes.*
3y Sir BALDWIN SPENCER, K.C.M.G., F,R.S.
[Read 10th March, 1921).

Very much confusion and uncertainty exist in regard to what
have been described as the blood and shade divisions of Aus-
tralian tribes.

The first really definite allaatey to anything of the kind is prob-
ably that af Bunce in 1895.1 He says: ‘‘ The merest observer,
who has had the least experience travelling through the bush,
must have remarked that there exists a vast difference of com-
plexion in the different individuals comprising the various tribes.
It is this difference in complexion which constitutes the castes
spoken of by Dr. Leichardt. The tribe of aborigines, to which
my attention was first directed, in whom I observed this very
singular feature in crossing the blood, were a tribe inhabiting
a portion of the country on the Condamine River, called Ter-
reboo, now fully occupied by the squatters, among whom are
John Dangar and Richard Birrell, Esquires. It was.the latter
gentlemen who furnished me with many interesting particulars.
relating to the Terreboo tribes.

“ The two castes were distinguished by the words Cobbi, mas-
culine; and Cobbitha, feminine; Hippi, masculine; and Hippitha,
feminine.* The first, or Cobbi and Cobbitha, are those having
the blackest complexion, and the latter are those many shades.
lighter. In their unions, marriages between sexes of the same
castes are strictly prohibited, or in other words, a Cobbi must
join his fate with that of a Hippitha, and vice versa.”

The late Mr. R. H. Mathews? stated that a form of kinship
organisation existed which he described as “ Bloods and Shades,”

* Read at the Hobart meeting of the Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sc., held in Mel-
bourne, Jan., 1921.

’ 1. Bunce, “ Language of the Aborigines of the Colony of Victoria, etc,’
1859, p. 59.

2. Cobbi and Cobbitha are evidently the equivalents of the now well-
known Kubbi and Kubbitha; Hippai and Hippitha those of Ipai and Ipatha.
The existence of two other “castes” seems to have escaped the notice of
Mr. Bunce and his informant, as also that of the two moieties, Kupathin and
Dilbi. We may conclude that their knowledge of the natives was very im-
perfect and ‘unreliable.

3. Mathews, R. H. Proc. R.S., .N.S.W., 1905, p. 215°

2 Baldwin Spencer :

though he seems rather to have confused the words “ shade” of
blood, and “shadow” or “shade” cast by a tree. Mr. R. H.
Mathew’s account is very vague, and somewhat difficult to
understand, as it seems to refer to some form of organisation
running, as it were, across the ordinary, normal organisation,
lt.must also be remembered that he was dealing with very de-
cadent tribes, who had, for nearly half a century, been in contact
with white men, and whose numbers also were so depleted that, of
necessity, old marriage customs had become profoundly modified,
whilst more important still the beliefs of their ‘forefathers were
to them, for the most“part, only a matter cf past history in which
they tock practically no interest.

Recently Mrs. Langloh Parker? stated that the moiety names
of the Euahlayi tribe in. New South Wales indicated “ light
blooded” and ‘dark blooded” respectively. Mrs. Bates® in
regard to S.W. Australia states that two of the sub-class, but
not class or moiety, have in addition to their ordinary ones of
Tondaroop and Ballarook, names indicating fair- or dark-skinned
people, though it must be remembered that the earlier investi-
gators gave these names, respectively, as fish-hawk and opossum. |
Mrs. Bates also says that “the two class system, similar to that
of the Dieri, but with different names, obtains in the south-west
of Western Australia, and also bears on colours—white cockatoo
and crow, light and dark purple. . . . Somewhere south-east
of Coolgardie the four class system dies out and, as the natives
of the south-east say, ‘marriages and relations go by faces (pro-
bably light and dark colour).’”’

The Rev. J. Mathew® states that the well-known moiety names
in the Kamilroi tribe, Dilbi and Kupathin, indicate light and
dark blood and complexions, and that Kilpara and Mukwara,
two equally well-known moiety names, mean, not eagle-hawk
and crow, as he had previously told us when writing in support
of his bird-conflict theory, but really straight and curly hair.
He also states that in the Kabi and Wakka tribes, “the four
gradations of colour correspond to the four classes.”

One cannot help wondering whether these kaleidoscopic
changes and variations in the meaning of names of which, at

4. Parker, Mrs. Langloh. ‘The Euahlayi Tribe,’ 1905, p. 215.

5. Bates, Mrs. Daisy. ‘“ Social Organisation of Some West Australian
Tribes,’ Report A.A.A.S., Melbourne, 19138.

6. Mathew, Rev. J. “Two Queensland Tribes,” 1905, pp. 32, 35, 142.
Journal Anth. Inst. Great Britain, Vol. xl., 1910, pp. 35 and 166. ‘* Eagle-
hawk and Crow,” 1899:

Blood und Shade Divisions of Australian Tribes. 3

all events in certain cases, the natives:themselves have only a dim,
very unreliable and inconsistent knowledge, but are fitted in
to suit a theory either of the conflict of curly and straight haired
men, dark and light coloured, or sluggish and rapid blooded
peoples, are not due to the desire of the natives to explain the
long lost significance of the moiety names.

On philological grounds Mr. Mathew has attempted to show
the equivalence of various moiety names to one another, and
has attributed to them meanings, such as eagle-hawk and crow,
which, in certain cases, are either apparently quite unknown to
the natives who use them, or concerning the exact application
of which the natives themselves are uncertain.

Philological evidence derived from tribes that have no written
Janguage, amongst whom words are continually changing, and
‘amongst whom, further, the same word in different tribes may
have quite a different meaning, more especially when, in order
to homologise words in use in various tribes, such as the names
of moieties, the elision or insertion of consonants, and a change
of vowels is necessary, must be received with the greatest
caution. ;

Whilst fully realising that the question of ‘‘ Bloods and
Shades ” requires further investigation, more especially in view
of the fact that Dr. Rivers has drawn attention to a somewhat
similar feature in regard to the dual organisation in certain
parts of Melanesia, there are certain scrious difficulties that
arise on closer examination of the matter so far as the evidence
vas yet brought forward is concerned. I venture to suggest that
the reporters of such evidence as we possess, so far at least as
it relates to Australia, have scarcely recognised sufficiently what
it implies in regard.to the colour sense and knowledge, both
anatomical and physiological, possessed by the aboriginals. In
the first place, when we are told that the Australian aboriginal
actually distinguishes the shades of colour of skin and blood,
or the straightness or, curliness of hair, we may feel quite cer-
tain that we have not arrived at the true significance of the
matter. I have tested natives in many Australian tribes in re-
gard to their colour sense by means of the recognised colour
tests. So far as my’ experience goes they only differentiate
between, and have distinct names for, what we call black, white,
red and yellow. I am, of course, only speaking of the aboriginal
in his natural state. This’is to be associated with the fact that
charcoal, gypsum or pipeclay, red and yellow ochre are practically

2a

4 Baldwin Spencer :

the only colour materials available to him for use during the.
performance of his ceremonies, and therefore his appreciation
of colour has been limited to these few pigments. Just as in.
the development of colour amongst flowers, blue is the highest. .
and latest, so amongst human beings blue seems to have been
the latest pigment discovered and appreciated, and it was not,.
so far as | am aware, before the white man, most unfortunately,
introduced Reckitt’s Blue into Australia, Melanesia and Poly-.:
nesia, thereby spoiling aboriginal art, that the savage had any
distinct appreciation of this colour. In the Kakadu tribe, for
example, the same word is used for blue and green, and the.
natives do not discriminate between the two, nor do they between |
black, brown and grey. It is not a’case of having one word
to describe two or three colours which .in reality they differ-
entiate, but they do not, apparently, distinguish the one from the.
other.’ One day amongst the Kakadu tribe, on the Alligator
River in the far northern part of the Territory, I was sitting’:
under a grove of banana trees, and three natives, with whom I
was discussing the question of colour, told me that the green
leaves all around and above them were the same colour as the:
sky. It may be said in passing that the presence of a. blue
pigment on any Australian ornament or implement that finds.
its way into one or other of our museums is regarded by-all
Curators as clear proof that the tribe from which it comes has.
lost its primitive outlook on art.

It appears to me that the theories of Mr. Mathew and ohiaey
postulate a fine colour sense that at least our Australian:
aboriginal does not possess. Not only is this so, but, after
most careful examination, made again with the aid of standard.

-. colour tints, comparing these with the actual colour of the skin:

of very many natives in various tribes, I have not been able
to discriminate in any way between thé colours of the mem- ’
bers of the different moieties or classes of’ any tribe. In the”
southern Arunta the colour of the women was slightly, but only”

Led

.7. It is somewhat difficult to express this matter accurately... If shown:
black, brown and grey objects, such as skeins of wool, or coloured card-
board, they will apply the same term to each. On the other hand, if (a)
shown an object of a particular shade of colour such as their own skin, andi ©
(b) asked to match this with one of three or four shades of chocolate brown, .
they will, after consideration, ,usually pitch on the correct one. Black,
brown and grey are apparently, to them, onky what we should ¢all “ shades ”’
of the same colour, indistinguishable from one another unless placed side by
side. Tye ; fo."

Blood and Shade Divisions of Australian Tribes. 5

“very slightly, lighter than that of the men, but this had no
reference whatever to the moieties, and in all other tribes there
was no difference. One has to be very careful in regard to ques-
tions. of colour because, for example, women in mourning plaster
themselves all over with pipe clay, whilst men are continually
decorating themselves with charcoal, pipe clay or red and yellow
ochre. So far as children are concerned I could find no differ-
ence whatever. Every child at birth is copper-coloured, but in
the course of a: few days the skin darkens and assumes the
‘chocolate brown of. the adult.

The only way in which to judge accurately of the true colour
of the skin is to cut-a small square in a piece of white paper
and then compare this.isolated patch with a series of standard
tints, such as are given in Broca’s “ Instructions Anthropolo-
giques Générales.” Casual observations of writers who say that
they have noticed variations-in the colour of various aboriginals
are absolutely of no value and moreover are very misleading.
Bunce’s statement, quoted above, that “there exists a vast dif-
ference of complexion in the different individuals comprising
the various tribes” is a typical example, and also a most extra-
ordinary one. It is a-very careless, rash conclusion, formed by
a man with no idea of the need of scientific precision, but one
who would usually be described as a “highly inteliigent ob-
‘server ’—-a most: dangerous individual, at least so far as anthro-
pology is concerned.

The ‘‘ Blood and Shade.” theory assunies that one moiety is,
or was, originally dark, the other lighter, and that, whatever
these physical differences may be between the two moieties, they
are restricted, respectively, to the members of each of the latter.
This raises an insuperable difficulty from a biological point of
view, when it is remembered that in some tribes’ descent is
counted in the female, and in others in the male line. In a
female descent tribe the children of a “ dark-blooded ” father,
according to this theory, will all be “ light-blooded’”’; in a male
descent tribe they will all be “ dark-blooded.” That is, the father
er mother, as the case may be, hands on, without exception, and
exclusively, his or her dark or light blood, curly or straight hair,
or, in the Melanesian peoples, as described by Dr. Rivers, his or
her mental characters to all of his or her children. To put it
otherwise, in the case of a dark-blooded brother and sister: in
a male descent tribe all the children of the former will be “ dark-
blooded,” and all those of the latter will be “ light-blooded ”;

6 Baldwin Spencer: Blood und Shade Divisions.

in a female descent tribe all the children of the brother will be
“light-blooded,”’ and all those of his sister * dark-blooded.”

It is difficult to form any theory as to what the aboriginal
really means by this differentiation of “shade” and “blood,”
so far as actual colour is concerned, and yet the idea is so widely
spread that there must be something behind it, though this, I
feel sure, has nothing to do with actual “colour” or “ shade,”
in regard to which there is no difference so far as the members
of different moieties are concerned. In connection with this I
was much struck with the fact, when minutely examining one
day twenty men of the Arunta tribe, representing both moieties
and all sub-classes, that not only was I myself unable to detect
any difference in colour amongst them, but the natives themselves.
were equally unable to do so.

After a very careful, long and close examination of natives.
belonging to many tribes from Lake Eyre in the south. across.
the continent to Darwin in the north, and in the Territory from
Daly River on the west to the Gulf of Carpentaria on the east,
my experience has been that, though there are great variations
in physical measurements, yet, on the other hand, so far as
colour is concerned, there is an extraordinary uniformity, and
no indication whatever, physically or mentally, of the union of
two distinct races, such as is assumed to have taken place by
various writers. The extraordinary variations in regard to
physical structure, customs, beliefs and arts of Australian
aboriginals cannot possibly be accounted for, or explained by
such a theory. -

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorra, 34 (N.S Pr. I., 1921].

Arr. 11.—The Age of the Tronstone Beds of the Mornington
Pevinsula, as adduced from the Marine Fuuna.*

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.LS., F.R.M.S.

(Palaeontologist to the National Museum, and Lecturer on Palaeontology,
Melbourne University.)

[Read 14th April, 1921. ]

The Related Tertiary Beds.

This peninsula is bounded on the west by Port Phillip Bay
and on the east by Western Port. Owing to the dissection of
this area by faulting, and also through the complication of its
earlier structural features by local flows of basalt of the Older
_ Period, which partially obscures an undeveloped river system
of Miocene times, the geological succession of the various Ter-
tiary beds are here difficult to make out in true detail.

As regards the position of the Grice’s Creek and Balcombe
Bay fossiliferous marine marls, these fail into line with beds
in other areas, as at Muddy Creek (lower series) and the Jower
beds in the Altona Bay coal-shaft and the Sorrento Bore, all
of which are of Oligocene (Balcombian) age, and therefore
are at the base of the Tertiary system as developed in south-
eastern Australia.

But between these Balcombian and the Kalimnan beds of the
peninsula there should occur a series representative of the great
diastrophic movements on sea and land during the Miocene
period.. The question arises: Have these beds been recognised ?
In reply to this it may be remarked that geologists have for
many years been feeling their way to some kind of conclusion
which has a more or less direct reference to the subject matter
of this note, without reaching a definite concluston—hence this
present attempt.

Earlier References to the. Intermediate Series.

A. E. Kitson (1900), in his “ Report. on the Coastline and
Adjacent Country between Frankston, Mornington and Dro-
mana,’! shows, in his. accompanying map, the widely spread

*Read at the Hobart Meeting of the Aust. Assoc. Ady. Sc. held in
Melbourne, Jan., 1921.
1. Monthly Progress Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict., N.S. No. 121900, p. 12.

8 : Frederick Chapman :
nature of the deposit of ferruginous grits, sands and clays, to
which the fossiliferous ironstone undoubtedly belongs. He
remarks upon them as follows :—
“Eocene(?).—Forming the surface along the coast-line from
Frankston to a little below the mouth of Chechingurk Creek,
and extending far into the country at the back are thick deposits
of fine and coarse ferruginous and non-ferruginous sands,
quartz grits and clays. On the coast they show in high and
low clitfs and sloping banks, extend well up the flanks of the
granite and Silurian? areas of Mounts Eliza and Martha, and
stretch far out across the less elevated portions of the district.”

“Until the fossils fromn the new beds herein mentioned, ‘or
other beds that may yet be discovered, are thoroughly examinéd
and worked out, it is impossible to say definitely if all these
strata are Eocene; but, lithologically and stratigraphically con-
sidered, the ferruginous and other beds overlying the fossili-
ferous Eocene ciays may reasonably be referred to a much
earlier period than the Pliocene, the age to which they have
paraeue been assigned by the Survey.” :

“In some places there appears to be a distinct oe

metween these ferruginous beds and the fossiliferous clays, and
in others no such break is noticeable with certainty.
They probably belong to the same series that extends along the
coast northwards through Beaumaris and Brighton to Mel-
bourne, and which, on the evidence of the Beatimaris beds, are
regarded by Messrs. Tate and Dennant as of Se tog: age,
and by Messrs. Hall and Pritchard as of Miocene age.’

“The determination of the casts of fossils, which no doubt
exist in many other places besides those noticed, will prob-
ably prove of more material assistance eventually in this respect
than any attempt made on stratigraphical evidence.”

In the light of later discoveries of fossils, méritioned in the
sequel, not only’ from Landslip Point, but also from Watson’s
Creek, near Baxter, and which was to some extent prédicted
and their valueas, horizon, delgrminaatss emphasised, as ‘above,
by Mr. Kitson, the "i ?) Eocene ” is now relegated to the Miocene
or Janjukian. ‘ ,

The deposition of these beds against sloping banks’ and some-
times at angles up to 10° seems to ‘point to shore or marine
littoral conditions. . That these ferruginous beds are older than

Pe

2. =Lower:. Ordovician. ~*~ . be ese

Age of Ironstone Beds of the Mornington Peninsula. 9
.
the Beaumaris and Brighton series is proved by the faunal

aspect of the fossil casts; and so they underlie the Kalimnan
to the north. |

Kitson’s observations as to the ferruginous beds invariably
overlying the fossiliferous clays (Balcombian) are valuable, as
that alone fixes their approximate position in the Tertiary series.
And lastly, the prediction. that fossil evidence rather than the
-stratigraphical may settle the vexed question as to age and suc-
cession can be regarded as prophetic.

geds.-o.- Hall andG. B.) Pritchard,..g1901),.m.their paper on
“ Some Sections Illustrating Geological Structure of the Country
about Mornington’ refer to the ferruginous grits as follows :—

‘“Ferruginous sands and clays mantle over a great part of
the area, and their age is shown to be Eocene? by the fossils
obtained at Landslip Point. It is, of course, quite within the
‘bounds of possibility that further investigation. may show that
some of the beds are younger than this; but, in the meantime,
we seem justified in referring the -ferruginous grits of the dis-
trict all to the one age.”

An interesting point is here revealed, insomuch as the above
authors, believing that some of the ferruginous beds may be
younger than the “Eocene,” thus gave additional, proof, now
that they prove to be Janjukian, from field evidence, that the
Janjukian overlies the Balcombian, since the ferruginous grits
and accompanying fossils are superposed on the Balcombian
marls. " HA

Messrs. Hail and Pritchard also furnished a list of fossils
from Landslip Point; Frankston, which is as follows® :—

Placunanomia sella, Tate; Pecten dichotomalis, Tate; Amus- |

| sum zitteh, Hutton sp.; Lima bassi, T. Woods: L.

linguliformis, Tate; Spondylus pseudoradula, McCoy; .
Septifer fenestratus, ‘Tate; Nucula obliqua, Lamarck;
Leda vagans, Yate; Glycimeris maccoyi, Johnston sp.;
Arca (Barbatia) celleporacea, Tate sp.; Cucullaea
corioensis, McCoy ; Cardita delicatula, Tate; Chama lamel-
lifera, T. Woods; Cardium hemimeris, Tate; Venus
(Chione) cainosoicus,'T. Woods sp.; Corbula pyxidata

4

aaeroc. Hoy. Soc. Vict.,- Vel, xiv. (N.S:), opt. 1, 2801, p. 44,

4. The Landslip Point Fossils were later shown to be of Janjukian or
Miocene age. See Chapman, Mem, Nat. Mus., Melbourne, No, 5, 1914, pp.
29, 30.

me 2roc:' R. See. Viet. Voy xiv. (N-S.), pi i, 1001, pe 46-68, The
nomenclature is here corrected to date.

~

10 Frederick Chapman :

+

Tate; Argobuccinum pratti, Tate sp.; Lotorium tor-
tirostre, Tate sp.; Nassa tatei, T. Woods; Lyria harpu-
laria, Tate; Marginella propinqua, Tate; M. wentworthi,.
T. Woods; Turris (?)trilirata, Harris sp.; Bathytoma:
rhomboidalis, T. Woods sp.; Bela (Daphnobela) gracil-
lima, T. Woods sp.; Conus cuspidatus, Tate; Cypraea
subpyrulata, Tate; Trivia avellanoides, McCoy; Natica:
hamiltonensis, T. Woods; Solarium acutum, T. Woods;
Twrritella murrayand, Tate; Siliquaria occlusa, T. Woods.
sp.; Scaphander tenuis, Harris; Vaginella eligmostoma,.
Tate; Dentalium aratum, Tate.

The above list does not seem to include any species which:
are distinctive of either Balcombian or Janjukian, for they all!
have an extensive geological range.®

A further suite of fossils was recorded from the ironstone
band at Landslip Point by the present writer in 1914,’ the
result of an extended search made by Mr. R: A. Keble and him-
self. These fossils are :—°

Placotrochus sp.; Sphenotrochus emarciatus, Duncan; Ditrupa
cornea, L.sp., var. wormbetiensis, McCoy; Terebratula
(?)aldingae, Tate; Magellania garibaldiana, Davidson
sp.; Pecten foulcheri, T. Woods; P. cf. flindersi, Tate;
P. praecursor, Chapman; Limatula sp.; Cuspidaria sub-
rostrata, Tate; Dentalium mantelh, Zittel; Latirus (?)ac-
tinostephes, Tate sp.; Oliva sp.; Columbarium acantho-
stephes, Tate sp.

Among the above fossils, Ditrupa cornea, var. wormbetiensis
is especially typical of Janjukian beds. Terebratula aldingae is.
a restricted Janjukian form, as are also Pecten praecursor and
P. flindersi.

The writer has also (loc. supra cit.) compared these fer-
ruginous gravels with the “ older gold drifts” in Western Vic-
toria, where, at, Stawell,’ they contain a. fairly extensive series.
of Janjukian marine fossils.

6. See F. Chapman, Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 5, 1914, p. 29, par. 3.
7. Loe. supra cit., pp. 29, 30.
8. Vict. Naturalist, Vol. xxi., 1905, pp. 178-180.

Age of Ironstone Beds of the: Mornington Peninsula. 10

Further Evidence of the Miocene Age of the
Ferruginous Deposits.

A few months ago my friend, Mr. J. H. Young, of Meredith,
who is already known as an enthusiastic and successful collector
of fossils, paid a visit to Watson’s Creek, near the intersection.
of the Pearcedale and Somerville. Roads, half a mile west of.
Baxter railway station. He there found an ironstone band
crossing the creek, which contained fossil casts. Several clearly
identifiable specimens of Pecten praecursor were found there,.
a species which is typical of the Janjukian. |The matrix in
which the fossils occur is a fine-grained ironstone, with small
patches of limonite, minute flakes of micaceous iron-ore, and
also small, numerous wind-polished quartz grains; scattered.
throughout. Besides the Pectens there are numbers of. small
fragments of polyzoa present, but indeterminable. These
polyzoa are in such abundance as to lead one to. infer that the
ironstone is largely a replacement of a limestone comparable
with the polyzoal rock of Batesford and Grange Burn.. This.
replacement at a later stage, of calcareous by limonitic material
seems precisely similar to what has happened in some of the
“Gold Drifts” as at Stawell, referred to above, which are to
some extent re-sorted or remanié beds, the same characters.
being also borne by certain of the ferruginous beds. of the
Mornington Peninsula.

Conclusions.

(1) The lower part of the ferruginous series: of sandstone:
and fossiliferous ironstone on the Mornington Peninsula from:
Frankston southwards is without doubt of Janjukian. (Miocene)
age. “Ne

(2) The fossiliferous ironstone appears to have originated’
from a more decidedly calcareous rock, and in some cases equi-
valent to a polyzoal limestone in its included fossils: and original
chemical composition. _

(3) The change from limestone to ironstone has in some:
cases been brought about by a percolation of dissolved car--
bonate of iron, causing an interchange of bases, the: replaced!
carbonate of iron afterwards becoming oxidised.

i[Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. I, 1921].

Art. Il].—TZhe Specific Name of the Australian Aturia
and its Distribution.

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.LS.’

-(Palaeontologist to the National Museum, and Lecturer on Palaeontology
at the Melbourne University.)

(With Text Figure.)

[Read 12th May, 1921].

The Specific Name.

The unrivalied experience and wide acquaintance of the Ter-
tiary mollusca which my friend, Mr. R. Bullen Newton, pos-
sesses would naturally forbid me to question his decision that
dhe Australian Aturia australis is identical with the European
Aturia aturt, had it not happened that already | have shown,!
at least to my own satisfaction, that the species are entirely dis-
tinct. |

Mr. Newton has recently published? an account of a sand-
stone cast of an Aturia from’ Western Australia, lately acquired
by the British Museum, and bases upon this and a comparison
of presumably the two specimens recorded from the British
Museum collection,? a conclusion as to their identity. The dif-
ferences between these forms, the Australian and the European,
I have already pointed out,! though this seems to have been
pretium d by Mr. Newton. These differences are as follows :—

“(1) The Australian shells are more compressed.

( 2) The septa and growth-lines are more strongly recurved
towards the periphery.

"3 The siphuncular orifice is larger.’

In the same paper I also remarked as follows :—

“Tn view of the above-named characters, which are constant
‘so far as my own observations go, there are justifiable grounds
for keeping the Australian form as a distinct species, at the
same time bearing in mind that its relationship is nearest Aturia
we Oar Mee did the London Museum [ British ]

i ‘etoc R. Soc. , Vict., Vol. xxvil, (NS.), pt. ji, 1915, pp. 350-353, pl. iii,
ffigs. 1, .2. abt

2. Proc, Malac. ghar: Vol, il. Oct., 1919, pp. 160-167, pl. v.

3. Cat. Foss. Cephalopoda, Brit. Mus., pt. ii., 1891, p. 355.

4. Loc. supra cit., p. 352.

5. I find, however, that this is not an invariable character.

The Specific Name of the Australian Aturia. 13°.

possess a larger comparative series of the Australian form, that.
view® might undergo some modification, and it is to be regretted
that Mr. Newton did not have time to critically examine. the:
series of Aturia in the Melbourne National Museum.” .

From a re-examination of the Australian examples I: am.
satished that the forms are perfectly distinct, the compressed
sides and the generally narrower shell being marked characters.
of Balcombian, Janjukian and Kalimnan specimens. This fea-.
ture of the compressed shell.is very characteristic of all the-
southern specimens so far as I have seen, and in some specimens
it is developed to an extreme degree. On the other hard the
European A. aturi tends towards obesity, and an extreme ex--
ample of this is figured by Bronn.?

Hypothesis of Type Origin.

'

From the preceding note of the variations seen in the southern.
and northern forms it is highly probable that the early (? Lower
Oligocene or even Eocene*) shells which were ancestral to:

ORAL ASPECT oF NORTHERN ANO SOUTHERN TY PES.
Afuria aturt Basterot Aturia australis MeCoy.

6. Newton and Cricks’ agreement as to the identity of the two forms.

7. Lethaea Geognostica, Vol. iii, and pl. xlii., figs. 17a-c.

8. This earlier stage is suggested on account of the occurrence of large-
and well-developed shells in. the Balcombian of Muddy Creek, one example,.
found by my son, W. D. Chapman, and now in the National Museum, having: :
a diameter of nearly seven inches,

4 3 Frederick Chapman :

the already discovered fossils were intermediate in character,
and originated in moderately low latitudes, in the Indian Ocean
-geosynclinal area. The southern form probably radiating to
Patagonia, Australia and New Zealand, exhibits variants of
compression, whilst that found in Europe tends to inflation.
Further data bearing on this hypothesis are furnished in regard
‘to the ratio of shell measurement—umbilical width to diameter.
‘For example, one-of the oldest Australian specimens gave a
‘ratio of 1 : 2.91, as against the Bordeaux specimen, 1.2.2; whilst
“a younger (Janjukian) specimen from Torquay, Victoria gave
1 :3.26. The Kalimnan specimens are too fragmentary to
‘measure, but bear out this gradually decreasing width ratio.

Distribution of AvruRIA AUSTRALIS.

Mr. Newton has already given copious notes of the distribu-
‘tion of this fossil in the paper referred to, and it will therefore
‘be unnecessary to repeat them in extenso. In New Zealand,
“we may remark in passing, that Aturia australis, though com-
mon in the Lower Oamaruian, dies out before the upper beds
(Awamoan) are reached. Its geological range in that area seems
‘indeed to be restricted, as was that of Aturia aturi in France,
‘Egypt, and elsewhere. Mr. Newton has suggested that the
‘Southern Australian Tertiaries (Balcombian, Janjukian and
‘Kalimnan) represent the Lower, Middle and Upper Miocene,
‘having regard, amongst other data, to the co-extensive range
of Aturia therein. There are perhaps some points in favour of
linking up the lower beds, seeing that at Muddy Creek (Bal-
-combian), both large and small. Lepidocyclinae are found asso-
-ciated together, as they also are at Batesford (Janjukian), but
‘the evidence requires more support to warrant a re-adjustment
-of the time-scale,

Comparisons and Limitations of European Stages.

On the evidence derived from a study of the larger Foramini-
-fera, the Balcombian is clearly Aquitanian, so nearly as we can
arrive at a correlation of distant sediments. This stage was
included by Meyer-Eymar® in the Upper Oligocene. Since then
‘Dollfus has favoured the inclusion of the Aquitanian in the

Aquitanien Upper

‘9. Classification des Terrains tertiaires, iss4{ Tongrien ye } otigocene.
Ligurien ower

—

The Specific Name of the Australian Aturia. 15

Miocene.!° The American geologists, Osborne!! and Cham-
berlin, as well as Deperet,!2 advocate the position of the Aqui-
tanian.as Upper Oligocene. Mainly from the occurrence of the
Foraminifera, H. Douville and F. Sacco have in their numerous
papers before the Geological Society of France, regarded the
large discoidal Lepidocyclinae as of Aquitanian age, and the
smailer forms of Burdigalian. The genus itself they limit to
the Miocene, and therefore. they regard Aquitanian as Lower
Miocene. Haug, in his studies of geosynclinals also supports
these views, regarding the northern Miocene period as one
diastrophic whole. We may still hold to the view, however,
that great crustal niovements did not commence synchronously
at the Antipodes.

The sequence of the Lower Tertiary beds in Southern Aus-
tralia is very gradual, and the sedimentation in one area at least,
zs shown by the cores from the Sorrento Bore, was never
interrupted in that area, but was continuously marine. On
the other hand there is a marked unconformity between the
Janjukian and Kalimnan, which plainly demonstrates a con-
siderable time-break, and denoted usually by a nodule bed,
and we are perforced to mark its distinction from the Miocene
as a whole, although, as in Aturia, some gee range through
to the basement Kalimnan. :

Referring to the suggestion that the Kalimnan series of Vic-
toria represents the Upper Miocene (Messinian or Pontian)??
of Europe, by an argument based on the occurrence of Scaldi-
cetus, this idea is almost nullified by the fact that this cetacean
genus has been lately discovered anew!‘ in the Balcombian beds
of Muddy Creek (Scaldicetus lodgei). Further than this, the
presence of the Miocene sharks’ teeth in the Kalimnan is ac-
counted for by their occurrence in the basal bed which is often
tremanié in character.

Summary of Argument.

The writer finds no evidence to justify the identification of
Aturia aturi, Basterot, with Aturia australis, McCoy, and from

10. See “L’Aquitanien en Aquitania,” Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 4,
wol. xii., 1912, p. 472.

11. The Age of Mammals, 1919, p. 224.

12. Transformations of the Animal World. Inter. Sci. Ser., 1909, Table.

13, Newton, Loc. cit., p. 166.

14. Proc, Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol, xxx. (N.S.), pti) T9LT, py, 34, pl. iv., fig, 6.

16 Frederick Chapman: Australian Aturia.

a renewed examination concludes that they have distinctive
characters of their own which must be regarded as. specific.

The suggestion that the Balcombian to Kalimnan Tertiary
beds of Southern Australia comprise one period, the Miocene,.
seems to be untenable from the fact that the succession above
the Kalimnan passes upward in sequence, and a new arrange-
ment would mean either an unconformity or the intercalation
of a new horizon between the Kalimnan and the Werrikooian ©
to include a Lower Pliocene horizon, which speaking faunisti-
cally, is not possible.:

{Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorra, 34 (N:S.), Pr. I., 1921].

Art. LV.—Wotes on Amyeterides, with Descriptions of
New Species, Part IL.

By EUSTACE W. FERGUSON, M.B., Ch.M.
[Read 12th May, 1921]

The following paper contains the descriptions of a few species
that have been discovered within recent years. Most of the new
species belong to the genus Sclerorinus; the members of this
genus are often exceedingly difficult of identification, as many,
particularly those belonging to Section I., run extremely close
to each other, and a knowledge of both sexes is absolutely
essential in many cases for identification. For this reason
several species represented in my collection by the female sex
only are left undescribed.

Within the last two years the veteran entomologist, Dr. David
Sharp, has turned his attention to the Amycterides, and is now
working on the subdivision of the larger groups, such as
Phalidura, Talaurinus and Sclerorinus, into smaller genera,
according to the structure of the male genitalia. One paper
has already been published (Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine,
third series, vol. vi., Jan., 1920, pp. 1-7) dealing with the
genera constituting what Dr. Sharp characterises as the tribe
Phaladurines.. This tribe contains the old genus, Phalidura
(Psalidura), subdivided by Dr. Sharp into Phalidura and
Aphalidura, a new genus—Prophalidura—of which Talaurinus
riverinae is the type, and Eustatius, formed for a new species
E. fergusoni. <A table is given of the relation to each other of
these four genera. As the change of names affects many Vic-
torian species a few comments may not be out of place.

Phalidura. Genotype—P. reticulata, Boisd. (=P. mirabilis
(Macleay) Fischer, nec Kirby). In the name of this genus
Dr. Sharp has revived the original and certainly correct spell-
ing in preference to the emendation Psalidura made by Erickson
(Agassiz Nomencl. Zool. Col., p. 136), and not by Gemminger
and Harold, as stated by Dr. Sharp. In this revival of the
name Phalidura I am absolutely in accord with Dr. Sharp.
Under the genus as defined by Dr. Sharp are included groups

3

i

HD

H.. We Ferguson.

1 and 2 of my revision, and, according to Dr. Sharp, probably
most of the other species as far as group 6.

Aphalidura. Genotype—A. impressa, Boisd. Included with
this are P. sloanei, Ferg., and P. breviformis, Ferg..
F. sloanei, Ferg., is certainly congeneric with P. wiw-
pressa, Boisd., and if the genus Aphalidura is to be recognised
all the members of group 7 should be included. I am much
more doubtful abdut the species of group 9, of which P.
breviformis, Ferg., is a member, and there seem equally good
reasons for separating all the groups generically as for splitting
off groups 7 and 9. For the present, therefore, and until much
more work is done on the male genitalia and abdominal seg-
ments of the various groups, I think it would be better to restrict
the new genus to group 7. For this reason, in describing a
new species of group 9 in the present paper, I have thought it
better to place it under the old genus Phalidura. }

A further difficulty arises in connection with the name of the
genus. Phalidura impressa, Boisd., the type of Aphalidura, is
almost certainly the original Curculio mirabilis, Kirby, or as
Sharp says, possibly a close ally of it. The key to the solution
lies in the interpretation of the figure of the male sexual
mechanism given by Kirby. As Dr. Sharp points out, the
figure is not satisfactory for P. impressa, though the discrepan-
cies may be partially, if not wholly, due to foreshortening. I
believe that this is probably the case as in all the allied species
known to me the apices of the laminze are broadly rounded,
and not obtusely pointed as in P. impressa, and in the figure of
C. mirabilis. =

I have to thank Mr. Sloane for drawing my attention to the
fact that Erickson, as early as 1842 (Archiv. fur Natur., p. 113)
identified P. mirabilis, Kirby, with the only known Tasmanian
species, and in a footnote gives A. mirabundus, Gyll., as a
synonym, while drawing attention to (?)Schdnherr’s misidenti-
fication of P. mirabilis. A. mirabundus, Gyll. (1834) antedates—
A. impressus, Boisd. (1835), the type of which was also from
Tasmania.

If Curculio mirabilis, Kirby, is to be thus identified with
Amycterus impressus, Boisd., the further question arises as to
whether the name Amycterus should not be used in preference
to Aphalidura for this group. Amycterus was described in
Schonherr’s Curculionidum Dispositio Methodica, 1826, p. 202,
the type of the genus being given as follows :—

Notes on Amycterides. 19

Typus: Curc. mirabilis, Kirby, in Linn. Trans——Species unica
e nova Hollandia, magna, facie aliena, rostri forma insolita et
valde singulari.

This absolutely fixes the name Amycterus to the species
described by Kirby, and is not affected by the fact that Gyllenhal,
in 1834, in re-describing, from the Schonherr collection,
Amycterus mirabilis, described the gular-horned species previ-
ously described by Fischer (1823) as Phalidura mirabilis
(== P. reticulata, Boisd.).

If, therefore, group 7 is to be separated generically from
Phalidura, the name Amycterus, which I have, in an earlier
paper, placed as a synonym of Phalidura, must be revived and
used in preference to Aphalidura, Sharp.

I have gone into this question at some length, as the change
of names will affect most of the Victorian species now called
Psalidura. |

Prophalidura. The type species is Talaurinus riverinae,
Macl., and a second species, P. truncata, is described. This
I have not been able to identify. The limits of the genus are
‘somewhat uncertain, but, as characterised, would probably
exclude many species such as tomentosus, howitti, maculipennis,
etc., which show a decided resemblance to riverinae. One
species,—T. granulatus, Ferg—should, | think, be referred to
Prophalidura.

Eustatius fergusoni, Sharp. Both genus and species are un-
‘known to me; it is probably a good genus, but the distinction
as regards the short forceps is hardly sufficient to separate it
from Phalidura, as equally short forceps occur in several species
of that genus.

Boisduvalian Types of Amycterides.

In a previous paper (Proc, Linn. Soc., N.S. Wales, 1911,
xxxvi., p. 141), I re-described such of Boisduval’s types of
Amycterides as were in the Dejean*collection, now in the Brus-
sels Museum. <A few types described from other collections
were not seen, and while in Paris I endeavoured to trace the
whereabouts of these, and in particular of those belonging to
the collection Dupont. In the Museum National d’Histoire
‘Naturelle at Paris I examined the types of Talaurinus tomen-
tosus, Boisd., and Euomus scorpio, Boisd., both of which are
correctly identified in Australian collections.

3a

20 E. W. Ferguson.

A specimen of Acantholophus aureolus, Bohem., in the
museum, was marked as the type of Acantholophus echinatus,.
but whether it is the type of Guerin’s or Boisduval’s species of
that name I am uncertain. The question is fully discussed else-
where; it is to be noted, however, that none of the types of other
species described by Guerin are in the Museum.

At the time I could get no certain information in regard to.
the types from the Dupont collection, but later received a letter
from M. Lesne, of the Museum, from which the following:
passage is quoted :—

Pour ice: qui nest b désila aitamtbe Dupont, mes souvenirs.
étaient inexacts. Les Curculionides de cette collection avaient
été cédés & Jekel. Ils sont passés ensuite dans la collection.
Bowring qui est conservé aujourd’hui au British Museum.”

On receipt of this information I wrote to Mr. G. F. Arrow,
of the British Museum, and received the following reply: “We _
had no idea any of Boisduval’s weevils were in our collection,.
but have found specimens with “‘ Dup.” in Jekel’s writing, so:
no doubt Lesne is right. Jekel seems to have systematically
removed all original labels, replacing them only with a number,.
of which we have no explanation. There are Bowring speci-
mens of rugifer, basalis, etc., which are very likely types, but
I can find no positive evidence in any case. As it is more
than 50 years since the Bowring collection came here it is likely:
that some specimens have been parted with, or even destroyed.
as worthless.”

The species affected are as follow, placed in their proper
genera: Talaurinus rugifer, Sclerorinus tristis, Macramycterus
boisduvalu, Mythites basalis, and the species described as.
Amycterus posticus, which I am not able to place generically.
With the exception of the last, the names of these species have
been attached to well known species, which agree very well
with the original descriptions.

°
Types of Amycterides in the British Museum.

While in? London I was able to examine the types of
Amycterides contained in the British Museum collection. Notes.
on some of these have already been given, or they will be dealt
with in their places in the revision of the subfamily, this in par—
ticular applying to the Euomid genera. |

The following notes may be recorded here :—

Notes on Amycterides. 21

Talaurinus phrynos, Pase—This is certainly a female
Phalidura, and practically certainly the female of P.
forficulata, Macl., from the same locality—Rockhamp-
ton.

Talaurinus victor, Pase.—The type is a female of T. cavi-
ceps, Macl.

Talaurinus carbonarius, Pase—Good species; type is a
female.

Talaurinus imaequalis, Blackb. and Talaurinus strangulatus,
Blackb. Closely allied species, differing in the more
excavate rostrum of 7. strangulatus.

Talaurinus pustulatus, Pasc-—The common Western Aus-
tralian species—T. semispinosus, Bohem.

Talaurinus simulator, Pasc-—Type a &, with more acute
tubercles than in the specimens identified by Blair. Un-
fortunately none of these specimens were available for
comparison, but I think that probably they are correctly
placed.

Sclerorinus echinops, Pasc—As previously recorded (These
Proceedings, 1915, p. 243), this species belongs to

. Talaurinus (sens, lat.), and is closely allied to T. semi-
spinosus, but a distinct species; type is a female.

Talaurinus funereus, Pasc-—Type appears to be a somewhat
abnormal female of T. roei, Bohem, with tubercles
rather obsolete at base, and fewer than usual.

Talaurinus lemmus, Pasc. (Pseudonotonophes).—The head
of type is non-granulate.

Talaurinus pupa, Pasc. (Pseudonotonophes).—The head of
type is distinctly granulate. This species is the same
as P. dumosus, Macl. .

Sclerorinus molossus, Pasc.—Type is a female; tubercles
black, otherwise the same as specimens so identified in
my own collection.

Sclerorinus molestus, -Pasc.—Considerable variation exists
among specimens referred to this species; the follow-
ing brief notes made on the type are therefore repro-
duced: “Type ¢s. Ventral vitta tawny. Prothorax
broadly dilatate, set with small, rather depressed
granules, with granules on sides much smaller and obso-
lete towards coxe. FElytra with granules small, equal
in size on all the rows, 5, 16, 3, 16, 14 in number on ype ;
interstices of left side. ?

22 E. W. Ferguson.

Sclerorinus taeniatus, Pasc——Type is a male, and the same
as S. stewarti, Macl.
Opetiopteryx frigida, Blackb.—Vide infra.

Portion of the Amycterides of the Hope Collection (Oxford)
were at the British Museum, and I was able to examine the types
of the following species :—

Acantholophus hystrix, Bohem.—As identified in Australia.
Hyborrhynchus’ coenosus, Bohem.—As_ identified in Aus-
tealia 2
Cubicorrhynchus bohemanm, Bohem.—As identified in Aus-
tralian? -
Cubicorrhynchus scotobioides, Hope M.S.—C. bohemanni &
Talaurinus westwoodi, Bohem.= T. bucephalus, Oliv.
Talaurinus gyllenhali, Hope M.S.—T. bucephalus, Oliv.
Talaurinus excavatus, Bohem.= T. rugifer, Boisd.
Talaurinus semispinosus, Bohem.—As identified in Aus-
tralia. |
Talaurinus pastillarius, Bohem.—=T. semispinosus, Bohem.
It is doubtful whether this specimen is the type.
Talaurinus roei, Bohem.—T. funereus, Pasc. is a synonym.
Sclerorrhinella manglesi, Bohem.—As_ identified in Aus-
tralia.
OPETIOPTERYX FRIGIDA, Blackb.

Blackburn, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, vii.; 1892, pp. 125, 126:.

I am unable to follow Blackburn in placing this species among:
the Amycterides. The general facies is much more like Poly-
phradces, and the shape of the rostrum and scrobes quite unlike
any Amycterid. The tarsal joints are much more expanded than
in any Amycterid known to me, and the funicle is 7-jointed. |

The species must be rejected from the Amycterides, but its
position is doubtful. Possibly it is allied to Bothynorrhynchus,
which was placed by Lacordaire in the Somatodides.

PHALIDURA AFFINIS, f.Sp.

Closely allied to P. elongata, Macl., but with more widely:
separated fascicles.

3 Black; moderately densely clothed with minute yellowish-
brown subpubescence, feebly variegate with grey; sete yellowish-
brown.

Head and rostrum as in P. elongata; the internal dorsal rostral
ridges slightly more prominent, and the median area feebly car-

Notes on Amycterrdes. 23

inate. Prothorax and elytra as in P. elongata, except that the
intrastrial granules on the elytra are less evident.

Venter as in P. elongata; the apical excavation of the same
shape, but with the fascicles slightly larger, and distinctly far-
ther apart. Forceps apparently slightly shorter, the laminz
similar in shape.

Dimensions.—¢%¢ 228 mm. .

Hab.—Queensland. Type in Queensland Museum. This
species might be better regarded as a geographical race, or sub-
species of P. elongata. ‘The three males before me all agree in
the shape and position of the fascicles, which are constantly wider
apart than in P. elongata. I have seen numerous examples of
the latter species, and they all agree in the closely approximated
fascicles. It seems to me, therefore, that the Queensland form
is worthy of a distinguishing name. No locality labels are pre-
sent on the specimens.

Associated with the three males are seven females, which
probably belong to the same species, but the lack of locality labels
does not permit of absolute certainty, as the females of several
allied species are -praetically indistinguishable.

PHALIDURA HOPSONI, Nn.sp.

Allied to P. variolosa and P. wrasa, but differing in the geni-
talia of the male.
ég Black, sparseiy ciothed in depressions, with minute greyish
subpubescence; sete dark.

Head convex, setigeropunctate; with a median, longitudinal
impression anteriorly. Rostrum about as wide as head, width
across external ridges about one-half the total width; upper sur-
face deeply excavate anteriorly, with basal fovee narrow, tri-
angular but deep, and a median fovea separating the ends of the
internal ridges. Eyes ovate, rather larger and less deeply set
than in P. irrasa. Antenne with scape shorter and somewhat
stouter than in P. irrasa.

Prothorax as in P. variolosa; set with similar setigerous
granules; median impression most distinct posteriorly.

Elytra as in P. variolosa; punctures open foveiform ; interstices
set with. small setigerous granules, in single series, duplicated
on the third and fifth interstices.

Apical ventral excavation deep, praeanal fossa not very
sharply marked off from rest of excavation; fascicles black,

24 E. W. Ferguson.

rather widely separated; apical margin with a tringe of black
bristles, closely set with an intermediate row of similar bristles,
so that the two rows are hardly separable. Forceps short, stout
at base, ending in an obtuse point, apices not meeting; laminze
more strongly convex, and jess elongate than in P. irrasa and P.
variolosa, more or less concealed by a thick brush of hairs pro-
jecting between the bases of the forceps, and apparently arising
from the last dorsal*segment.

2 Resembles the females of the allied species, but antennal
scape shorter.

Dimensions.—¢ 17 x8 mm.—14.5x6 mm.; 2? 15x6 mm.

Hab.—New South Wales, Barrington Tops (H. J. Carter),
Eccleston (J. Hopson).

The — genitalia is similar to that of P. variolosa and P. irrasa,
but differs from both in some features. The bristles on what
I have previously termed the intermediate row, and on the apical
margin, are closely applied, and difficult to distinguish from one
another; they are obviously shorter than in P. variolosa and P.
irrasa, and apparently both sets cross the. middle line. The
bristles on the last dorsal segment form “a very conspicuous
brush, projecting between the blades of the forceps, which are
shorter, and do not meet at the apex. Type in author’s collection.

TALAURINUS ANTHRACOIDES, n.sp.

? Allied to T. tenebricosus, Ferg., but larger, with rougher
sculpture.

Black, practically dostitene of clothing; sete black.

Head convex, rather feebly depressed in front at base of
rostrum; eyes small, rotundate. Rostrum short, almost as wide
as head; external margins raised into subparallel ridges, run-
ning back to head, but not continued along forehead, moder-
ately closely setigero-punctate; upper surface excavate, internal
ridges distinct, little convergent, sublateral and basal fovee form-
ing a horse-shoe shaped impression at base. Antenne moderately
long, scape stout, funicle. with joints short, the first somewhat
longer than the second.

Prothorax rounded on sides, widest in front of middle, apex
with median and ocular lobes widely rounded and little promi-
nent; disc convex, without impressions, closely set with small,
round, subcontiguous granules; sides also granulate.

Notes on Amycterides. 25

Elytra evenly rounded on sides, apex hardly produced, widely
rounded; base feebly emarginate, humeral angles with a small
nodule; disc with punctures rather large, open, not distinctly
separated from one another; interstices hardly raised, closely
‘set with small round setigerous granules, in single series, occa-
sionally duplicated in middle of third and fifth, and extending
down declivity; sides granulate. Venter convex; apical seg-
ment with a median longitudinal impression in posterior half,
‘with a transverse sulcus at extreme apex. Legs simple. _

Dimensions—? 17x7 mm. | :

Hab.—Victoria, Trawool, Kerrisdale (J. E. Dixon).

Described from three females received from Mr. J. E. Dixon.
I have departed from my usual plan of describing only when the
‘male is known, as in this case it does not seem likely to be con-
fused with any other species.

I regard it as allied to T. tenebricosus, the rostral structure
and general appearance are similar, but the present species is
decidedly larger, and the granules much more evident. After the
description of the female was written, and when the manuscript
“was practically complete, I received a somewhat broken specimen
' of the male, taken by Mr. Dixon in the same locality.

Allotype ¢.—Similar to female, apex subtruncate, with rather
thick granulate flanges on each side, separated in the mid line by
a small notch. Legs simple. | Ventral segments flattened, the
antermediate ones rather short, the apical strongly concave, deep-
est along the posterior margin; ventral surface of apical dorsal
segment also concave; ends of forceps visible at sides of excava-
tion. Dimensions—¢ 16x6 mm.

I have endeavoured to dissect out the genitalia, but found that
unfortunately most of the internal structures had disappeared.
The eighth ventral segment was, however, represented by a pair
of well developed strongly chitinised forceps, the apices of which
project externally. The inner surface is curved inwards towards
the base to form a strong process extending almost to the mid
line, but apparently there is no fusion of the processes of the
two blades, though, as this portion is broken, it is impossible
to be sure, and it is likely that the gap was bridged by chitin,
as there is a small mass adhering at one side. In the allied
species 7. tenebricosus, the forceps are very similar in shape,
though smaller and the inner ends are connected by chitin, the
segment furthermore possessing another flat plate of chitin an-
terior to the bar between the inner processes of the forceps;

26 E. W. Ferguson.

there is however no vertical plate as in Prophalidura, and the
species can hardly be placed in that genus as at present defined.
lf the characters of the eighth ventral segment are to be regarded.
as of generic value many new genera will be necessary, at present
and until much more work can be done on the dissection of these
species, I think it inadvisable to erect isolated genera, and prefer
to place the species under Talaurinus in the Macleayan use of
the genus.

NOTONOPHES DILATATICEPS, Blackb.

Cubicorrhynchus dilataticeps, Blackb., Report Horn Exped.
Central Australia, 11., 1896, p. 293; Ferguson, Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S. Wales, 1914, xxxix., p. 224; Notonophes auriger, Ferg.,
loc. cit., p. 222. |

In my revision of the genus Notonophes I referred Cubi-
corrhynchus dilataticeps, Blackb., there. I have since examined.
the type in the British Museum, and it is certainly a species of
Notonophes, and evidently the same as WN. auriger, Ferg.,
although a specimen of the latter was not available for com-
parison.

SCLERORRHINELLA CRAWSHAWI, Sp. Nl.

Allied to S. granuliceps, Ferg., but larger, with smaller less.
regular granules.

? Biack; densely clothed with fine white decumbent pubes-
cence; head with a broad stripe of dark brown on each side
of median line; prothorax with an ovate brown patch on disc,.
not reaching apex and-bisected by a median white vitta, a fainter
brown stripe at lateral margins; elytra with scattered, irregular,
brown macules; venter more sparsely clothed, the basal segments:
practically without clothing except at sides; legs densely clothed.
with white.

Head convex, front somewhat flattened, and set with small,.
slightly depressed, separate granules, the vertex and sides not.
granulate. Rostrum short and broad; lateral margins not raised,.
slightly convergent to base, setigeropunctate; median area
leevigate, trianguliform, depressed in front; basal sulci rather
hroad; internal ridges absent. Antenne of moderate length,
funicular joints short, the first longer than the second.

Prothorax evenly rounded on the sides; apical margin with
rather feeble post-ocular sinuation; disc convex, closely set with
small, round granules, smaller on median vitta, the granules.

Notes on Amycterides. 27

completely clothed, and less conspicuous on the areas covered.
with white pubescence, but incompletely covered on the brown-
ish clothed areas; sides granulate.

Elytra robust; apex widely rounded; base gently emarginate,.
humeral angles noduliform; strial punctures shallow, open,.
transverse; interstices little raised, set with very fine granules,.
more or less concealed by the clothing, somewhat variable in.
size, set in rather irregular single series, duplicated in places,
absent on apical half of fourth interstice and on declivity;.
granules obsolete on lateral interstices. Venter convex, with
fine scattered setigerous punctures. Legs simple.

Dimensions.— ? 177 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia, Jandakot (W. Crawshaw). ;

Three specimens of this fine species are before me, all females,.
but I have had no hesitation in describing the species, as it is:
quite distinct from the other known members of the genus. The
species is apparently most closely allied to S. granuliceps, Ferg..,..
but differs in the finer, less regularly arranged, granules on both
prothorax and elytra. JI have much pleasure in naming this.
species after its discoverer.

Type in author’s collection.

SCLERORINUS DAVEYI, N.sp. .

3 Moderately large, elongate. Black; moderately densely
clothed with dark brown depressed pubescence; head and pro--
thorax rather feebly trivittate, with lighter creamy clothing,.
elytra with feeble traces of light clothing about shoulders.

Head flattened in front, in the same plane as, and not separated
from dorsal surface of rostrum. Rostrum with external mar-
gins parallel; median carina distinct, with a small puncture at.
junction with head; sublateral sulci broad, rather shallower than
in S. oblongatus. Mandibles with inner edge produced apically
into a somewhat obtuse point, variable in shape, or absent on.
one side.

Prothorax strongly rounded on the sides, apical margin with
strong postocular lobes, and feeble median lobe; disc with sub--
apical constriction moderately marked, and with median line
shallowly but distinctly impressed; rather remotely set with
elongate subobsolete setigerous granules, practically only dis-
tinct between median and sublateral vittz ; sides without granules.

Elytra elongate, subparallel; base gently emarginate; humeral.

"28 EL. W. Ferguson.

angles subtruncate; disc with punctures open, shallow, not very
distinct; interstices slightly raised, the third and fifth more so
‘than the others; with slight tuberculiform elevations at irregu-
lar intervals, the second interstice with 5; the third with 8-9
indicated, the basal ones hardly more elevated than the inter-
-stice, which is here subcostiform, the apical ones small, granuli-
form, but more distinct, extending half-way down declivity;
fourth with 3-4 small tubercles; fifth subcostiform the individual
‘tubercles only indicated by sete, somewhat more distinct pos-
-teriorly; sixth with a continuous row of small separate granuli-
form tubercles; seventh and lateral interstices with tubercles
-obsolete. Venter somewhat flattened along middle; apical seg-
“ment with posterior margin strongly bisinuate, the median por-
‘tion produced as a rounded lobe, somewhat depressed. The
last dorsal with undersurface emarginate to correspond with pro-
jection of apical ventral segment. Legs not notched; anterior
tarsal joints asymmetrical, but less markedly so than in some
-of the allied species.

? Agrees with male; elytra somewhat more ovate; venter
-convex, apical margin produced ventrally but not bisinuate, with
a small emargination at extreme apex, filled with a few stout
-setz.

Dimensions.— ¢ 166 mm.; 2 16X6 mm.

Hab.—Victoria, Portland District (H. W. Davey and J. E.
“Dixon). | cries

I am indebted to Mr. H. W. Davey for a series of this species.

A female given me by Mr. J. E. Dixon differs in being larger
(17x8 mm.), and im the much lighter clothing; the head and
-prothorax are conspicuously trivittate with white, while the
‘median line of elytra, and much of the lateral portions of the
disc are covered with similarly coloured clothing. The sculpture
‘is much as in the type, except that the tubercles are slightly
larger; the apical ventral segment is lightly impressed in the
‘median line, and the apex is as described.

S. daveyi belongs to a group of closely allied species, for
‘whose correct determination a knowledge of both sexes is neces-
-sary; thus the present species is close to S. inornatus, from the
8 of which it can only be distinguished by its less obliterate -
-sculpture, whereas the two females are abundantly distinct.

Notes on Amycterides. 29"

SCLERORINUS SLOANEI, N.sp.

3 Elongate, subparaliel. Black; sparsely clothed with minute.
brown subpubescence; sete dark brown.

Head convex, forehead somewhat flattened, in same plane with.
dorsal surface of rostrum; feebly longitudinally impressed on
each side of median line, with two small linear foveze in median.
line, one in centre, and one at junction with rostrum. Rostrum.
subparallel, the median carina as distinct as the external ridges,
all three carried back on to head; sublateral sulci moderately~
broad, deeper at base. Antennz comparatively short, moderately
stout, first funicular joint longer than second.

-Prothorax rounded on sides, broadest in front of middle;.
apical margin hardly produced above, feeble emarginate in.
middle, with fairly evident ocular lobes; subapical constriction.
moderately marked, median line lightly impressed; disc set with-
subdepressed, elongate, irregular sub-confluent granules, becom--
ing smaller and more rounded at sides; lateral surfaces with
small scattered obsolescent granules.

Elytra elongate, subparallel, apex rounded; base gently emar-
ginate, humeral angles not tuberculate; with rows of small, well
defined foveiform punctures, each subtended by a small seta;.
the first, third and fifth interstices raised, with elongate some-
what flattened tubercles, less elongate towards apex of elytra,
with small setz at‘the posterior end; second and fourth inter-
- stices neither raised nor tuberculate; sixth and seventh with less.-
elongate tubercles; lateral interstices without definite granules
or tubercles. Venter subnitid, set with black, decumbent setz;.
depressed at base, lightly transversely convex on intermediate~
segments; apical segment slightly depressed with a median:
longitudinal sulcus bounded posteriorly by a less defined trans--
verse impression, the lips of the median sulcus raised in a small
projection above junction with the transverse impression; apical:
margin evenly rounded, not bisinuate. Legs simple; anterior tarsv
symmetrical. |

? Similar to male; prothorax with granules more rounded...
less elongate; elytra more produced, the apex strongly bimucron-
ate, tubercules fewer and more spaced out on second interstice-.
Venter strongly convex, apex rounded, not bisinuate.

Dimensions.—¢ 17<X6 mm.; 2? 176.5 mm.

Hab.—N.S. Wales, Capertee (T. G. Sloane and H. J. Carter)— .

30 i. W. Ferguson.

Described from one male and three females, all of which
agree in having no tubercles on the second and fourth interstices.

Associated with these, and from the same locality, are four
males and a female, which differ in having elongate, spaced out
tubercles on the second and third interstices, the sutural inter-
stice is also less raised, except at base, while the punctures are
less regular. I can see no other difference except that the pro-
thoracic granules are less elongate.

I am undecided whether these represent a distinct species, or
are merely individual variations; 1 am inclined to the former
view, but have thought it better not to affix a name to the speci-.
mens while doubt exists as to their status.

The dimensions of these specimens with the number of
tubercles on the second and fourth interstices vary somewhat,
and are given in the following table :—

Sex - Dimensions, Second Interstice. Fourth Interstice.
3 16 4S. Snel af 6—8 z 5

g | Ean 4s) j _ 2 et 4—5

ee ac ee Li 4—5 0 5

S Bl 5th 101195 My, 2—3 2% 3

2 EA SOKH 0 5 aif 4 12 3—5

SCLERORINUS MELICEPS, Pasc.

Pascoe, Journ. Linn. Soc., 1873, p. 10; Ferguson, Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S. Wales, 1915, xl., p. 801.

When in London I had an opportunity of examining the type
3 of this species in the British Museum, and made the follow-
ing notes :—

“ Sclerorinus meliceps, Pasc. & (Type), belongs to subcostatus
group and allied to S. squalidus. Prothorax with small round
granules, abraded in centre. Elytra with depressions irregular,
transverse, not deep; granules prominent, about equal in size
to interstitial granules; these granuliform forming continuous
rows on the third, fifth_and sixth, at intervals on the seeond and
fourth, hardly distinguishable from the other granules. Median
vitta yellow. Middle tibiz notched. Sete yellow.”

Hab.—Queensland.

This species was unknown to me at the time I revised the
genus, and provisionally it was placed in group V. It should
~ however come into group IV., and next to S. squalidus, Macl.

Notes on Anvycterides, 31

SCLERORINUS BESTI, n.sp.

A small species in general appearance resembling the tubercu-
lesus-germari group, but with simple intermediate tibie.

3 Black; densely clothed with dark brown, minute, subsqua-
mose pubescence, vittate with creamy; head with a median vitta
bifurcate on rostrum; prothorax and elytra trivittate, the inner
surfaces of the tubercles also with lighter clothing; lower mar-
gins of elytra vittate with creamy; venter with yellowish brown
macules in mid line, and with black hairs on apical segment only.

Head convex, running into rostrum without any definite line
of demarcation. Rostrum with external ridges subparallel, run-
ning back on to head, somewhat broader posteriorly; median
area laevigate, raised, carinate; sublateral sulci elongate, deeper
posteriorly. Antennz rather short, scape stout, funicle with
joints short, first slightly longer than second. Eyes ovate.

Prothorax subangulate on sides, widest across middle; apical
margin rounded above, produced somewhat over head, with defi-
nite ocular lobes; subapical constriction rather strongly marked;
median line free from granules, but not definitely impressed; disc
set with comparatively large rounded granules, rather distantly
placed and absent along median and sublateral vitte; sides with

indications of granules in front. Elytra elongate, gradually wid- ~

ened to behind middle; apex widely rounded; base emarginate,
humeral angles with a large somewhat obtuse tubercle; punctures
small and obscure, except between second and third rows of
tubercles, where they are distinct; with three rows of strong
conical tubercles; first interstice with a row of granules, second
interstice with a row of 6-7 tubercles, elongate anteriorly, but not
extending to base, larger and more acute posteriorly, and extend-
ing half-way down declivity; third interstice with 6-8 similar
tubercles, but starting from base and ending on edge of declivity ;
fourth without tubercles; fifth with a short row of 4 small
tubercles, including humeral tubercle, followed almost in the
same line by 5 large tubercles on the sixth interstice; lateral
interstices, with a few depressed granules. Venter flattened;
apical segment concave, the sides produced ventrally, with an
acute angle, somewhat incurved posteriorly, the centre of the con-
cavity occupied by a brush of thickly set hairs, the lateral por-
tions more deeply excavate. Apex of last dorsal segment narrow,
but rather strongly setigerous. Legs simple, intermediate tibiz
not notched.

32 HE. W. Ferguson: Notes on Amycterides.

? Similar to ¢, but more rounded on elytra; elytral tubercles.
similar, but a subapical tubercle present on one side in the only
? before me. Ventral segments convex, apical segment not.
excavate, but with a small round depression at extreme apex.

Dimensions.— ¢ 124.5 mm.; 2? 125 mm.

Hab.—Victoria, Portland.(J. E. Dixcn).

Although undoubtedly a Sc/eroiiamus as that genus is at pre-
sent understood, [ am undecided to what group to assign the
present species.. It is referred to Section II. with some doubt
as the median vitta is incomplete, being practically only repre-
sented by the long hairs on the apical segment, this segment is-
however not channelled as in Section I. The tubercies of the.
fifth interstice would place it in Group V., and it has a re-
semblance to the tuberculosus-germari portion of the group, but:
the tibize are simple, and it bears little likeness to the rest of the
group. The structure of the apical ventral segment is quite
unlike that of any member of the fifth group, but is similar to:
that found in Group II., but the members of this group are other-
wise very. different.

I am indebted for four specimens (3d #, 12%) to Mr. J. E.
Dixon, and have much pleasure in naming the species after his-
friend and fellow-collector—Mr. D. Best, of Melbourne.

Types in author’s collection.

a
[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicroria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. I., 1921].

Arr. V.—New Australian Coleoptera with Notes on some
previously described Species, Part I.

By F. ERASMUS WILSON.
(Communicated by J. A. Kershaw.)
(With Text Figure.)

[Read 9th June, 1921}.

BYRRHIDAE.
PEDILOPHORUS VENUSTUS, N.sp.

Head and prothorax brassy, with a purplish tinge; elytra bright
metallic green, under surface reddish-fuscous; appendages paler.
Portions of upper surface glabrous, but in parts clothed with a
dense semi-decumbent golden pubescence, forming definite pat-
terns, this interspersed with much longer and moge erect dusky
hairs; under surface and all appendages with paler pubescence.

Head widely rounded in front, with dense and sharply defined
punctures. Antenne with joint 1 very stoyt, and darker than
the following ones; 3 thin, and a little longer than 2; 4, 5, 6 sub-
equal; 7 somewhat transverse; 8, 9, 10 strongly transverse, and
with 11 forming a stout club; 11 viewed from above pointed, and
about twice the length of 10; viewed from the side, however, it is
seen to be bluntly rounded. Prothorax strongly convex, sides
near base quite vertical; punctures as on head. Scutellum small,.
punctured. Elytra strongly convex, sub cordate, punctures very
much fewer and sparser than on prothorax. Epipleurae narrow,,.
terminating at hind coxae, with a few ill-defined punctures.
Under surface heavily punctured, except on disc of meta-
sternum, where they are much finer and sparser.

Length.—3, breadth 2, mm.

Habitat.—Victoria: Fern Tree Gully, Warburton (F. E.
Wilson).

Compared with a co-type of P. raucus, Blackb., the present.
species differs in being much smaller, colouration different, elytra,
disc of metasternum and legs, with very much finer and sparser

A

34 : F. BH. Walson -

punctures, and clothing forming distinct patterns. These pat-
terns however may easily lose their symmetry where a specimen
has become greasy. Four specimens were secured at Fern Tree
Gully, and six at Warburton by sieving damp moss collected from
treefern trunks and old logs.

Type in author’s collection.

PEDILOPHORUS GLOBOSUS, n.sp.

S Reddish-brown, becoming darker in places, glabrous, nitid.
Legs, palpi and two basal joints of antennz fuscous, rest of
antenne darker; antenne finely pubescent, clypeus with a few
longer hairs. Under surface and legs clothed with very short
pale pubescence, densest on apical ventral segment.

Head rather large, with somewhat sparse, but well-defined
punctures, fairly uniformly distributed; antennze moderately
long; joint 1 very stout; 2 thinner, and decreasing towards apex;
3 much thinner, and approximately equal to the three following
combined ; 4, 5, 6 slightly decreasing in length; 7 rounded; 8, 9,
10 transverse, and forming with 11, which is stout, and bluntly
pointed, a well defined club. Prothorax smooth, strongly con-
vex, almost twice as long as broad, rounded in front, and evenly
decreasing in width from base to apex; lateral margins narrow.
Seutellum apparent!y wanting. Elytra smooth, very convex,
almost continuous with outlines of prothorax; epipleurae very
broad to about hind coxae, then becoming abruptly, but evenly
narrowed down to their termination just beyond base of apical
ventral segment. Under a high power the abdominal segments
appear to have fairly numerous shallow transverse depressions
on their surface, this being not so noticeable on the apical seg-
ment. :

Length.—1.5 mm.

Hahitat.—Victoria: Warburton, near the summit of Mount
Donna Buang, Fernshaw (F. E. Wilson).

In the type and one other specimen the ¢ sexual organs are
well exserted, and consist of a fairly long, parallel-sided penis, on
either side of which are two acutely pointed horny processes.

When highly magnified a very obscure transverse row of’ dark
spots can be discerned on the prothorax, just above the basal
margin. One specimen of the twelve under examination
is almost quite black, the others being coloured as in the type.
This species comes nearest to P. atronitens, Lea, but may be’

New Australian Coleoptera, Part 1. 35

easily distinguished from that species by its glabrous. upper sur-
face, less distinct cephalic punctures, and in having a club com-
posed of 4 joints only as against 5 in atronitens. All my speci-
mens were secured from damp moss, collected from old logs
during the month of April.

Type in author’s collection.

PEDILOPHORUS RAUCUS, Blackb.

Byrrhus raucus, Blackb., Trans. and Proc., Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
sxiv., 1891, p. 133. |

{ am not aware of any previous record of members of the
genus Pedilophorus being associated with ants, practically all the
known species having been taken either in moss or in flood debris.
Whilst I also have taken P. rauéus in moss, I have to record
the finding of sixteen specimens in a single nest of a small ant
at Lakes’ Entrance. .

My friend, Mr. C. Oke, has also collected from ants’ nests at
Bacchus Marsh specimens of a Pedilophorus which I believe to
be this species, although I have not had an opportunity as yet
of carefully examining his material.

EROTYLIDAE.
EPIscAPHULA RUFOLINEATA, Nn. sp.

3 Black, nitid, all markings yellowish red; apex, sides and
about half base of prothorax margined by a moderately broad
hand; prothorax subequally divided into four zones by three
irregular longitudinal stripes starting from the front marginal

band, the centre one falling a little short of the basal margin,

the two outer ones joining the basal marginal band; each elytron
with a stripe bordering about half the base, and continuing
around the’scutellum a short distance down suture; an irregular
fascia beginning near suture at about one-third, and meeting
at outer edge a narrow marginal stripe starting from shoulder,
the latter passing a little beyond its juncture with fascia; a some-
what irregular stripe beginning near apex, passing up near
suture, then gently curved outwards, meeting margin at about
two-thirds, from whence becoming attenuated, it returns along
the margin to apex; all appendages castaneous except club of
antenne, which is black.

Head moderately distinctly punctured on clypeus, more
sparsely elsewhere; eyes widely separated from scape by a

4A

36 F. EH. Walson:

rounded outward projection of head. Prothorax about one-
third wider than long, lightly but frequently punctured, except
on the side margins, which are almost impunctate, and in the
shallow depressions on either side of base, where there are a
few well defined larger punctures. Elytra faintly punctured;
punctures tending to arrange themselves in series, this most pro-
nounced near suture. On the pale markings there are a few
black spots, which also suggest being placed in longitudinal series.
Scutellum strongly transverse. Prosternum with punctures
fairly numerous, except on intercoxal projection, on the outer
edge of which there are several shallow ‘longitudinal sulci.
Mesosternum lightly, metasternum more ‘heavily, punctured, the
latter also with a well defined longitudinal sulcus on disc.

Length.—/7.5; breadth, 3.5 mm.

Habitat.—Queensland: Mt. Tambourine (A. M. Lea and H.
Pottinger) ; Blackall Ranges (F. E. Wilson) ; National Park (H.
Fiacker ). |

The ? may be distinguished by its much shorter antenne and
legs, and its considerably less dilated front tarsi.

Some specimens are somewhat larger than the type, and the
elytral markings are more or less variable. Specimens from
Mount Tambourine are all very similar, but two from Blackall
Ranges, and one from the Queensland National Park, exhibit
the variation as shown in figure B; figure A representing the
markings of the type. |

Type in author’s collection.

New Australian Coleoptera, Part 1. 37

STAPH Viet NI DA
MEGALOPS MELBOURNENSIS, 0. Sp.

Upper surface, with the exception of elytra, and the flavous
apex of sixth visible abdominal segment, jet black; elytra red,
the whole highly polished; antennz with joints 1-8 testaceous,
9-11 black. Femora and tibize dark, but with their bases and
apices paler; tarsi and palpi flavous, mandibles becoming paler
at their apices. Under surface with mouth parts, gular, a bor-
der around metasternum, and trochanters testaceous, the rest
black, and the whole nitid.

Head subtriangularly produced in front, with very large
foveate punctures, except at apical margin and on disc; eyes
finely faceted; antennz with joint 1 cylindric, thick, 2 thinner
and nearly equal to the three following combined, 3-8 monoli-
form, 8 somewhat longer than the preceding one, 9-11 forming
a very conspicuous club, joints 1-8 with a few setae, 9-11 rather
strongly pubescent. Prothorax about as long as broad, sides
produced into a blunt tooth just above basal half, and again
between that point and apex, strongly convex, with irregular
punctures as on head, punctures tending to arrange themselves
in circular series; unpunctured spaces somewhat raised.
Scutellum small, truncate behind, with two large foveate de-
pressions in middle. Elytra about the length of prothorax, sub-
sutural striae well defined, disc of each elytron with two wide,
deep, obscurely punctate striae, which neither attain the base nor
apex of elytra; midway between these and the lateral border
are a few large irregular punctures arranged longitudinally ;
near apex of each elytron at sutural angle are a few irregular
indistinct striae. Abdomen narrower than elytra; arranged
across basal halves of each segment are a series of large shallow
depressions, these becoming less distinct on apical segments;
apical declivity of each segment with several transverse rows of
fine lines; lateral margins of abdomen with sparse decumbent
pubescence. Under surface with prosternum punctured as on
pronotum, metasternum with a few smaller setigerous punctures
on disc only, abdominal segments with somewhat similar punc-
tures arranged transversely. 3

Length, 3.75 mm.

Habitat—Victoria: Melbourne (F. E. Wilson and Ejnar
Fischer), Noble Park, Preston (F. E. Wilson).

38° FP. BE. Wilson:

This species may be readily distinguished from M. nodipennis,
Macl.,! by its different colouration, its much more even pro-
thoracic surface, and the absence of the nodular excressences on
the elytra, which is so characteristic a feature of that species.

My friend, Mr. Fischer, and myself first secured this species
from beneath the bark of red gums that had been recently flooded
by the overflow of the Yarra. Other specimens were found
by me later under a piece of bark lying on the ground, and be-
neath stones.

Type in author’s collection.

PSELA PHIDAE.
_ARTICERUS WILSONI, Lea.
(Trans. and. Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., xlin., 1919, "p- 1695)

This species, which was named by Mr. A. M. Lea from speci-
mens which I secured from nests of Iridiomermyx detectus, at
Eltham, near Melbourne, evidently is widely distributed, as a
3g example was found by me last October in a nest of the same
ant at Caboolture, some thirty miles north of Brisbane. Mr. Lea
tells me that Mr. Elston has also lately obtained a specimen
from a nest of J. detectus near Adelaide, so that probably wher-
ever this ant is located specimens of the Pselaphid will be found.
also. |

SCARABAEIDAE.
PANELUS BIDENTATA, Nl. Sp.

Upper surface generally black, but with sides of prothorax
towards apex, shoulders, and a spot on each elytron on outer
edge near apex, red; basal 2 and apical 3 joints of antenne darker
than the intermediate ones; legs with femora and tibiae dark
testaceous. Under surface with palpi and prosternum testaceous,
the rest blackish.

Head large, depressed in front, somewhat convex behind,
armed with two prominent prongs jutting out in front, space
between prongs evenly rounded, punctures numerous and well
defined, becoming slightly larger towards base. Prothorax about
one and a-half times broader than long, moderately convex, sides.
sub-parallel to within about one-third of apex, then strongly nar-
rowed; puncturation much as on head. Elytra at base slightly

1. Trans, Ent, Soc. N.S.W., vol. ii., pp. 150.

New Australian Coleoptera, Part J. 39

wider than prothorax, sides evenly rounded, rather strongly
convex, with seven striae on each elytron, arranged singly;
interstices flat, uniformly covered with a minute meshwork of
fine lines; on the centre of each interstice at extreme base there
is a minute nodule, but this would not be visible if the prothorax
and elytra were closely applied. Scutellum minute, rounded be-
‘hind. Under surface with metasternum moderately punctured,
abdominal segments with a transverse row of minute punctures
at their extreme base, but apical segment with a few extra punc-
tures scattered about.

Length.—3, breadth-2, mm.

Habitat—Victoria. Lakes Entrance (F. E. Wilson).

This interesting little Scarab was secured when sieving leaf
debris collected in a thickly scrubbed gully near the landing
stage at Kalimna, Lakes’ Entrance.

I have not seen a specimen of P. pygmaeus, Macl., but my
‘friend, Mr. A. M. Lea, to whom I showed this specimen, tells
me that in pygmaeus the elytral striae are arranged in geminate
series, and that the prothoracic punctures are less coarse.
P. pygmaeus also has no red markings.

Type unique in author’s collection.

CHRYSOMELIDAE.
OOMELA BICOLOR, N.sp.

Flavous, nitid; apical five joints of antenne, head, a large
basal marking on prothorax, a transverse marking on each ely-
tron, somewhat nearer base than apex; scutellum, tarsi, femora
and base and apex of the four anterior tibiae, black or darker.
Headgwith a sharply defined, sparsely punctate depression mid-
way between antenne, another very shallow, ill defined one be-
tween eyes, and two others leading from upper ocular margins
towards the infra antennal depression; antenne with joint 1
thick, 2 shorter and somewhat oval, 3-6 elongate, subequal, 7-11
much thicker, 11 considerably longer than 10, and pale at apex.
Joints 1-6 sparsely clothed with pale pubescence, 7-11 more
densely clothed with darker pubescence. Prothorax about three
and a-half times as wide as long, moderately convex, basal and
apical width subequal, front angles moderately rounded, hind
angles more acute, sparsely and very minutely punctured. Elytra
slightly wider than prothorax, sides evenly rounded, with regular

4.0 F. BE. Wilson :

rows of punctures, becoming almost obsolete on apical declivity ;
interstices with a few minute punctures.

Length.—3 mm.

Habitat—Queensland: Goodna (F. E. Wilson).

This species apparently comes closest to O. variabilis, Lea,*
but differs from the description of that species in the sculpture of
the head, shape of prothorax and markings. A pair of these
rather handsome little Chrysomelids were secured from beneath
the bark of a rotting log.

Type in author’s collection.

CHALCOLAMPRA PARVULA, 11. Sp.

Broadly ovate, very convex; head, sides of prothorax, base of
elytra and suture broadly, sides of elytra narrowly, reddish-
brown, the rest black, and the whole nitid. First four joints of
antenne testaceous, the rest darker; legs flavous. Upper surface
{with the exception of a few setae on front margin of clypeus)
glabrous. Under surface brownish-red. |

Head sparsely and rather indistinctly punctured, with a shal-
low depression just above each eye, clypeal suture broadly
‘v-shaped, reaching back a little beyond the points of ‘insertion
of antennz; about midway on each arm of the suture is a deep
‘circular depression, between which and the eye the cephalic sur-
face is somewhat raised; eyes very coarsely granulate; antenne
with joint 1 very stout, 2 thicker than 3, 3 nearly twice as long
as 4. Prothorax strongly depressed, about three times as broad
as long, sides narrowly margined and rounded, but slightly in-
curved towards middle, anterior angles a little produced, -pos-
terior rounded; with fairly large, though sparsely distrtbuted,
punctures, becoming less frequent at sides. Scutellum sub-
triangular, smooth, impunctuate. Elytra very convex, continuous
with sides of prothorax, widest about midway, with nine rows
of well defined punctures on each elytron, seventh and eighth
row starting from a common puncture somewhat distant from the
base of elytron, ninth row obsolete at about one-third; interstices
with sparse smaller punctures.

Under surface with a depression on disc of metasternum, meso-
sternum and metasternum with sparse setigerous punctures, ab-
dominal segments with scattered setigerous punctures and suf-

Zo rans. Rey. Soc, S:AuUst., “vol, x1, pp. “431

New Australian Coleoptera, Part I. 4]

face shragreened; elytral epipleurae rather wide, evenly decreas-
ing from about midway between intermediate and hind coxae.

Length.—2.75 mm.

‘Habitat.—Victoria: Belgrave (F. E. Wilson).

Looked at from the side this little species is seen to have an
outline forming a complete half circle. My unique specimen was
obtained when sieving leaf debris, gathered at the foot of a
treefern, growing in a very damp gully.

Type in author’s collection.

[Proc. Roy, Soc. Vicror1a, 34 (N.S.), Pr. L., 1921.]

Art. VI.—The Australian Species of Carex in the
Nutional Herbarium of Victoria.

By J.. BR, TOVURY.
{Communicated by Professor A. J. Ewart, Ph.D., D.Sc., &c.]

[Read 12th May, 1921.]

In his Monograph of the Cyperaceae—Caricoideae in Engler’s.
Pflanereich IV.-20 (1909)—Kukenthal has changed the nomen-
clature of several of the Australian species of Carex and his.
systematic arrangement is quite different from that given in
Mueller’s Census of Australian Plants.

As Engler’s Pflanzereich is not readily available to many
botanical workers, it was thought that the following notes giv-
ing the systematic arrangement according to Kukenthal, and
also the distribution of the species in the National Herbarium,
might be of some use to those interested in the above subject.

It will be noted that several species which were included by
Mueller and Bentham under well known European species have
been considered by Kukenthal to be distinct; and some that have
hitherto been recognised as valid, have been reduced to varieties,.
whilst others that have been looked upon previously as synonyms.
have been raised to specific rank. :

Genus CAREX.
Sub-genus 1. Primocarex.
C. ACICULARIS, Boott in Hook. f;) Fi. N.Z., 280 t. 63° (145372

Victoria. It is also recorded from New South Wales and
Tasmania, but there are no specimens from either of these States.
in this Herbarium.

C. RARA, Boott in Proc. Linn. Soc. i., 284 (1845).
Subspecies C. capILLAcEA, Boott. Illustr. Caric. i., 44 t. 110°
(1858. )
New South Wales.

C. pyRENAICA, Wahlenb, in Vet. Akad. Handl., Stockholm, xxiv.,.
p. 139 (1803.)
Var. CEPHALOTES, Kukenthal in Engl. Pflanzer, iv.-20, p.
106 (1909), (C. cePpHALorTEs, F.v.M.)
Victoria; New South Wales.

Australian Species of Carex. AZ;

Sub genus 2. Vignea.

C. CHLORANTHA, R. Br. Prodr. 242 (1810).

Victoria; New South Wales; Tasmania.

C. pECLINATA, Boott, Illustr. Caric. iv., 171, t. 58 (1867).
New South Wales; Queensland.

C. TERETICAULIS, F.v.M. Fragm. viii., 256 (1874).

Victoria; South Australia; West Australia; Tasmania.

C. appressa, R.Br. Prodr., 242 (1810). (C. paniculata, F.v.M.
non L.)
Victoria; New South Wales; Queensland; South Australia ;
West Australia; Tasmania. ©
Forma 1 bDIAPHANA, Kukenthal.
subdiaphana. )
Queensland and South Australia.

Forma 2 minor, Kukenthal (C. chlorantha, var. com-
posita, Benth.)
Victoria; New South Wales; Tasmania.
Var. vircaTa, Kukenth, in Engl. Pflanzr., iv.-20, p. 179
(1909).

New South Wales; Tasmania.

(C. paniculata, var.

C. 1nverSA, R.Br. Prodr., 242 (1810).

Victoria’; New South Wales; Queensland; South Australia ;.
Tasmania.

Forma 1 - parvuLa, Kukenth.
New South Wales.

Forma 2 Major, Boott.
Victoria; West Australia.

Var. LEICHHARDTII, Boeck.
New South Wales; Queensland.

as HYPANDRA, F.v.M. Fragm., viii., 259 (1874).
Victoria; New South Wales.

4 J. BR. Tovey:

«C. CANESCENS, L. Spec. Plant. i. 274 (1753).
Var. ROBUSTIOR, Blytt. ex Anderss. Cypr. Scand. 57
(1849). |
Victoria; New South Wales.
“C, STELLULATA, Good, in Trans. Linn. Soc., II., 144 (1794) (C.
echinata, Boeck non Murr.)

Victoria; New South Wales.

Sub-genus 3. Indocarex.
eC, 1npicA, L. Mant. II., 574 (1771) var. Fissttis, Kukenth. (C.
fissilis, Boott.).
Queensland.

Sub-genus 4. Eucarex.
‘C. GAUDICHAUDIANA, Kunth. Enum. II., 417 (1837) (C. vulgaris,

Fries. var. Gaudichaudiana, Boott.) (C. caespitosa, F.v.M.
non L.)

Victoria; New South Wales; Queensland; South Australia;
“Tasmania.

Var. HUMILIor, Kukenthal in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20 p. 313
(1909).

Tasmania. Kukenthal records this variety from New South
‘Wales, but there are no specimens from that State in this Her-
-barium. , :

Var. conTRACTA, Kukenthal in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20, p.
313: (1909). : | x
(Syn. C. contracta, F.v.M.)

New South Wales.

-C. PoLYANTHA, F.v.M. in Trans. Phil. Soc. Vict. i., 110 (1855).
(C. acuta, bv.M; noni.)
Victoria; New South Wales.

‘C. CERNUA, Boott. Illustr. Caric. iv., 171, t. 578 (1867).

Var. LOBELIPES, Kukenthal in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20, p.
354 (1909) (C. lobelipes, F.v.M.)

New South Wales.

~

Australian Species of Carex. 45-

C. BpuxBAuMII, Wahlenb. in Vet. Akad. Handl, Stockholm, xxiv..
163 (1803).

Victoria. This is also recorded from New South Wales, but
there are no specimens from that State in this Herbarium.

>: MACULATA, Boott, in Trans, Linn. Soc., xx., p. 128 (1846).
Var. NEUROCHLAMYS, Kukenth in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20,.
p. 428 (1909) (C. neurochlamys, F.v.M.).

New South Wales; Queensland.

C. BREVICULMIS, R.Br. Prodr., 242 (1810).

Victoria; New South Wales; South Australia; Tasmania.

C. BRUNNEA, Thunb. Fl. Jap., 38 (1784) (C. gracilis, R.Br.)
New South Wales; Queensland.

C. tacisTtoMA, R.Br., Prodr., 243 (1810).
Kukenthal records this species from New South Wales, but:
it is not represented in this Herbarium.

C. prowntl, Tuckerm. Enum. Meth. 21 (1843).
Victoria, New South Wales.

C. ALSOPHILA, F.v.M. Fragm. viii., 257 (1874).

Victoria.

C, Ltoneirotta, R.Br. Prodr., 242 (1810) (C. longibrachiata,.
Boeck).

Victoria; New South Wales; Queensland; Tasmania.

C. cunntana, Boott. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xx. 143 (1846).
Victoria; New South Wales, South Australia; and Tasmania..

Var. BARBATA, Kukenth. in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20 p. 663-
(1909) (C. barbata, Boott.).
Kukenthal records this variety from Tasmania, but it is not.
represented in this Herbarium.

Var. BREVIOR, Kukenth. in Engler’s Pflanzr. iv.-20 p. 663-
(1909).

This variety is recorded from Gippsland, Victoria, by Kuken--
thal, but it is not represented in this Herbarium.

46 J. BR. Tovey :

(C. OEDERI, Retz. Fl. Scand. Prodr. 179 (1779). Var. CATARACTAE,
Kukenth. in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20, p. 675 (1909), (C. cataractae,
R.Br.), (C. flava, Benth., non L.) .

Tasmania.

(C. TASMANICA, Kukenth. in Bull. Herb. Boiss, 2nd Ser. iv., 59
(1904).
Tasmania.
C. pretssi1, Nees in Lehm. Pl. Preiss ii. 94 (1846).

West Australia.

C. psEUDO-cyPERUS, L. Spec. Pl. ed. i. 97 (1753) var. FASCICU-
LARIS, Boott. (C. fascicularis, Soland).

Victoria; New South Wales; Queensland; South Australia;
‘West Australia; Tasmania.

-C, pumiLA, Thunb. Fl. Jap. 39 (1784).

Victoria; New South Wales; South Australia; Tasmania. It
is also recorded from Queensland, but there are no eat
from that State in this Herbarium.

Var. BICHENOVIANA, Kukenth. in Engl. Pflanzr. iv.-20, p.
740 (1909) (C. Bichenoviana, Boott.) (C. haemato-
stoma, Boeck. non Nees).

Victoria; New South Wales.

This variety is also recorded by Kukenthal from South Aus-
tralia and Tasmania, but it is not represented from either of
these States in this Herbarium.

°C. RICHMONDII (Boott. M.S.). Clarke in New Genera and Species
of Cyperaceae in Kew Bull. Ad. Ser. 8, p. 83 (1908).

This is recorded from Tasmania, but Kukenthal does not re-
-cord this species in his Monograph, and there are no specimens of
it in this Herbarium.

O

ee a. -

oe ee

. canescens,
. echinata (Murr.) Boech

Australian Species of Caren.

Systematic arrangement

according to Mueller.

cephalotes, F.v.M.

. acicularis, Boott.

C. capillacca, Boott.

. inversa, R.Br.

L.

non Murr.

. hypandra, F.v.M.
. chlorantha, R.Br.
Spaniculata (L), F.v.M.

non Linn.

. declinata, Boott.
. tereticaulis, F.v.M.

haematostoma (Nees),
Boech. non Nees

. fissilis, Boott.

. brunnea, Thunb.
. contracta, F.v.M.

. caespitosa (L.), F.v.M.

non Linn.

. acuta (L.), F.v.M. non
Linn,.

. lobolepis, F.v.M.

. flava (L.), Benth. non

Linn.

" Buxbaumii, Wahl.
. pumila, Thunb.
. breviculmis, R.Br.

47

Systematic arrangement
according to Kukenthal.

The numbers show the order of
sequence.
(3) C. pyrenaica, Wahl. var.
cephalotes, Kukenth.
C. acicularis, Boott.
Co. nara. Boot,
species, i+ C,
Boott. )
C. inversa, R.Br...

an

(sub-

capillacea,

canescens, L. ..

stellulata, Good.
hypandra, F.v.M.
chlorantha, R.Br.

C.
.
o;

C;
e.
(6 ye
(29a) C. pumila, var. Bicheno-
viana, Boott.
— (12) C, indica, L, war: tees;
Kukenth.

— (19) C. Drunnea, Thunb.

— (13a) C.Gaudichaudiana, Kunth.
var. contracta, Kukenth.

appressa, R.Br.
declinata, Boott. ©
tereticaulis, F.v.M.

= (13) C. Gaudichaudiana, Kunth.
— (14) C. polyantha, F.v.M.
= (15) C. cernua, Boott. var.
lobolepis, Kukenth.
(25) C. Oederi, Boott. var, cat-
= aractae, Kukenth.
(26) C. tasmanica, Kukenth.
= (16) C. Buxbaumii, Wahl.
= (29) C. pumila, Thunb.
= (18) C. breviculmis, R.Br.

A8 J. Rk. Tovey: Australian Species of Carex.

Systematic arrangement Systematic arrangement
according to Mueller. according to Kukenthal.,
' is j The numbers show the order of
C. Neesiana, Endl. This is sprains

from Norfolk Island only,
hence not Australian.

C. Preissii, Nees. c= (27) (Go Preissn,:"Wees:

C. Gunniana, Boott. = (24) C. Gunniana, Boott.

C. Bichenoviana, Boott. = (29a) C. pumila, var. Bicheno-
viana, Boott.

C. maculata, Boott. =(17) C. maculata, Boott.; var,
neurochlamys, Kukenth.

C. lacistoma?’ ROBr Cpartim)*’ (= 420), oC. ‘lacistoma Rear.

C. lacistoma, R.Br. (partim) =(21) C. Brownii, Tuckerm.

C. alsophila, F.v.M. = (22) °C: alsophila; Five:

C. longibrachiata, Boech. = €23)'C. longifolia; R.Br.

C. pseudo-cyperus (L.) = (28) C. pseudo-cyperus, L. var.

fascicularis, Boott.

[Proc. Roy.-Soc. Victoria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. IL, 1921].

Art. VIL—dAn /ntercomparison of Important Standard
Yard Measures.

By J. M. BALDWIN, M.A., D.Sc.
[Read 14th July, 1921.|

In the year 1843 a committee! was appointed to superintend
the re-establishment of the standards of length and of weight
with a view of replacing the standards destroyed by fire in 1834.
Forty similar bronze bars were cast in 1845, each bar 38 inches
long, and one inch square in cross section. Near each end a
cylindrical hole half an inch,in diameter, and half an inch deep
was sunk, the distance between the centres being 36 inches. At
the bottom of each hole is a gold plug about 0.1 inch in diameter
with three fine lines at intervals of about 0.01 inch transverse
to the axis, and two lines about 0.03 inch apart parallel to the
axis. The distance to be measured is that between the middle
transverse lines measured from mid-way between the longitudinal
lines. |
One of these bars was taken as a reference standard, and
each of the others was compared with this. At the close of the
comparisons the bars were numbered, and the temperature at
_which each was standard was engraved on the top surface, which
bore the following inscription :—

“Copper 16 oz. tin 24 zinc 1 Mr. Baily’s Metal No... .
Standard Yard at .... Fahrenheit. Cast in 1845. Trough-
tons & Simms, London.”

Bar No. 1, Standard Yard at 62.00°F. was chosen as the Im-
perial Standard for determining the length of the Imperial
Standard Yard,? and four others as Parliamentary copies. The
reference yard was preserved to serve as a standard for refer-
ence, while the remaining bars were distributed throughout the
world. One bar—No. 40, Standard Yard at 61.99°F.—is in the
possession of the Melbourne Observatory. It differs from the
ethers in that on the top surface “ Experimental Bar A” is
engraved instead of “Cast in 1845.” No special reference is

1. G. B. Airy, Account of the Construction of the New National Standard of Length, Phil.
Trans., Vol. 147. art I1I., 621—702, 1857.
9. 'W eights and M easures Act, 1578, First Schedule.

5G J. M. Baldwin:

made to this in the Committee’s report; presumably it was cast
shortly before the other bars. This bar is in good preservation
and the lines on the plugs are very good.

There is also at the Melbourne Observatory a second standard
yard of similar metal and of the same length and cross section.
The cylindrical holes are }4-inch in diameter, and only 0.1 inch
deep, with gold plugs as before, but the lines parallel to the axis
are d-inch apart. The lines are not good, the central one cn one
plug being distinctly curved, and on the other not of uniform
width. This bar was constructed in 1864, and is marked as
standard at 57° Faht. The certificate issued by the Exchequer
is dated 4th June, 1866. The bar will be referred to as (1383).

The expansion of 36 inches of the bronze used is given by
Airy as 0.000341 ins. per degree Fahr. (l.c., p. 681), so that, as-
suming the permanence of the bars, the original comparisons
would give (40)—(1383)= —.00170 inches when the bars are
the same temperature. In August, 1915, these two bars were
compared, and preliminary measures showed that (40)—(1383)
== +.002 inches... At this time the history of (40) was unknown
to me, but the workmanship gave evidence that it had been pre-
pared with much greater care than (1383). The temperature
at which the bars were standard was given.in the one case as
61.99° F., in the other as 57° F. This pointed to the work of
comparison of (40) having been more accurately carried out.
-The difference between the original and the later comparisons
was so marked that it was impossible from the evidence before
me to have any certainty of what the standard yard really was, -
and it was impossible at that time to send one of-the bars to
England to be re-investigated. In this difficulty, inquiries were
made of the Deputy Warden of the Standards as to the history
of bar (40), but before the receipt of his reply, it was identified
by means of the paper cited above as being one of the. original
forty standard yard bars, and it was found that similar standards
had been sent to Sydney and to Hobart. Further enquiries
showed that these standards were still in existence, and thus
a way was opened for an accurate determination of the yard
by means of an intercomparison of these three original bars,
each a replica of the British Imperial Standard Yard bar. After
considerable delay, I was authorised by the Victorian Govern-
ment to arrange for this intercomparison, and through the
courtesy of the Minister for Lands.of New South Wales, and

Important Standurd Yard Measwres. 51

the Treasurer of Tasmania, the bars were brought to Melbourne,
and the inter-comparison was carried out by me at the Mel-
bourne Observatory during the months, June-November, 1918.

The New South Wales bar, No. 18, Standard at 62.26° F.,
was found when examined at the Melbourne Observatory to be
in good condition, a few spots only appearing on the main por-
tion of the bar, and the lines on the gold pins were very good.
The Tasmanian bar, No. 37, Standard at 62.07° F., appeared
in good condition as regards the outer surface, but on examin-
ing the lines under the microscope, those on the left hand plug
were found to be fearfully scraped and utterly ruined; the_only
part for pointing on is at one end of the terminal line, outside the
longitudinal lines. In the comparisons, pointings on the other ter-
minal line were made at about the same distance outside the
longitudinal lines, but evidently the original comparison of the
bar cannot be used.

In the meantime the comparator to be used had been im-
proved and had been given its final form, the micrometer screws,
investigated, and revolution values determined. The two micro-
scopes used were supported in heavy cast iron stands which
rested on a massive slate slab on stone piers isolated from the
floor, the whole forming a most stable system. The microscopes
can be raised and lowered, and the optical axis made vertical by
three adjusting screws and lock nuts. The illumination is most
important. A small electric lamp was fixed to the microscope
tube a little above the objective. The light from it passed
through a-hole in the tube on to a cover glass inclined at 45°
to the vertical, and thus the light was thrown vertically through
the objective on to the line on the bar. This arrangement gave
‘a good illumination. It could be somewhat improved by inter-
posing a lens between the lamp and the hole in the tube, thus
enabling the lamp to be moved further away. The lamp was
‘switched on only while the pointing was being made. .

Two girders were bolted across from pier to pier, and on
these were supported the rails on which the heavy wooden
‘moving table ran. Cast iron tables, planed on the upper surface,
three ins. wide and 48 ins. long, were supported near the ends
‘by strong screws, fixed firmly into iron castings screwed to the
moving table. These screws served for raising and lowering the
east iron table through a range of three inches. There were
4two of these tables side by side separated by a space of one inch.

5A

Or

2 J. M. Baldwin:

Each of the two standard yards being compared was supported.
by a system of eight rollers, connected in groups of four, equi-
spaced as described on p. 629 of the Phil. Trans. Vol. 147, the

interval being 38/ ./63 inches. The main support of each system.
of four rollers was a casting resting on three screws, the points.
of the screws being fixed relative to the tables by a point slot
and plane arrangement.

With the limited means at my disposal it was impossible to:
have a constant temperature bath, but provision against rapid
change in temperature was made by enclosing the whole of the
supporting tables and the standards in a box, of which the moving:
table formed the bottom, the sides and top being wooden frames.
with panels of zinc outwards, and thick strawboard inside. The:
top was in three sections, to leave space for the microscopes:
to pass through. Two thermometers were supported horizon-
tally midway between the standard bars. Throughout the whole:
comparisons the greatest care was exercised to eliminate the
effect of any progressive change, and the bars were measured. —
in every arrangement. Thus in comparing two bars, A and B,,.
eight series were made. . .

North/South: A/B; A/gq, y/q, v/B, B/y, B/A, q/A, q/v,
so that any constant difference in temperature caused by the
presence of the observer, who always was to the north, should.
have no effect on the final result. A series consisted of eight
sets, the pointings in a set being in the order a, b, c, d, d, c, b, a.
where a, b, are the terminal lines on one bar, c, d those on the.
other bar. In the sets the first pointing was made on each line:
in turn. A series occupied about half an hour, and during this.
. time the temperature of the thermometers in the box rose about.
0.3°C. At the close of a series, the bars were placed in position.
for the next series, and a minimum time of about two hours.
elapsed before the next series was started. It is hoped that
with the precautions observed any difference in temperature is-
entirely eliminated from the final mean.

There were thus in all 64 comparisons between any pair of
bars, and in each comparison eight pointings were made, ar-
ranged symmetrically so as to eliminate any linear progressive:
change. There is no need to give full details of the readings;.
it will suffice to state that in no case did the difference between.
the extreme readings in the 32 comparisons of a group of four
series exceed .00020 inch, this including all sources of error

Important Standard Yard Measures. 53
except that arising from a constant difference in temperature
between the bars depending on which occupied the North posi-
tion.

The final mean from the comparisons are expressed by the
following equations of condition, the subscript numbers refer-
ring to the mean temperature of comparison, and the absolute
term being in inches.

Computed O-C.
G32) 55-4 ~ (40) . 5-4 = +°00018 + 00019 = 1 Da pst
Bhs y's5.5 - (87) 49-0 = -—-'00034 — ‘00035 +1
(37) age, — (1883) 4¢., =; + O0176 + 00173 +3
Me eas — (40) 55-5 = -—-'00016 — ‘00016 0
4{1383) 56-5 = (C1S7E5 = -'001386 — °00137 +1
(1383) 64-5 —- (40) 64-9 = -—'00152 — 00153 +1

The bars are all of the same alloy, and so the coefficients of
thermal expansion can be assumed equal, and the equations
solved for the three unknowns: (18)—(40), (37)—(40), and
(1383)—(40). Giving equal weight to each equation the solu-
tion is—

(18) = (40)—.00016 ins.
(37)=(40)+.00019 ins.
(1383) = (40)—.00153 ins.

(37) is so badly injured that the original determination can-
not be used for fixing its length, while for (1383) it is almost
certain that some error has been made in the reductions of the
original comparisons. Hence only (18) and (40) remain for
establishing the yard. The original comparisons give the tem-
peratures at which they are standard as 62.26°F. and 61.99°F.
respectively, from which it follows— :

Original comparison, (18)—(40)——.00009 ins.
Present comparison, (18)—-(40)——.00016 ins..

so that a relative change of .00007 inches between the two
standards is indicated. This is of the order of changes shown
between the similar bars which serve as Parliamentary Copies
(see Report by the Board of Trade (Weights and Measures),
1912, p. 11). To distribute this change, assume that (18) has
diminished by half the amount, while (40) has increased by
half the amount. This change of .000035 inch corresponds to
a change in the standard -temperature of 0.10°F.
The final results are given in the following table :—

54 J. M. Baldwin: Standard Yard Measures.

Standard at Length at 62° F. Difference.
SSS CNTs ae FE

Bar. Original. Present. Original Present. P—O..

in. in. in.
18 62°26° F. 62°36 F. 1 yd. — :00009 1 yd. -— 00012 — ‘00003
40 61°99 61°89 “2 0 it 4 a: 4.
pee 62°07 61°32 - 2 + 23 4+ 25
1383 57 66°4 ate 171 — 1590 = 321

The changes shown in bars (18) and (40) are quite prob-
able. The change in bar. (37) can be explained by the fact
that pointings in the present series had to be made on a small
part near the end of one of the terminal lines, instead of mid-
way between the two longitudinal lines. The difference in bar
(1383) is altogether too large to be explained by a change in
the length of the bar. The most probable explanation is that in
the original comparison a mistake was made in the sign of the
correction—that the bar, instead of being too long, as shown
on the certificate, was in reality too short. This would assume
that the temperature of comparison was 61.7°F., a quite likely
temperature.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicroria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. L, 1921.]

Arr. VIIL—The Petrology of the Ordovician Sediments
of the Bendigo District.

By J. A. DUNN, B.Sc.
(Howitt Natural History Research Scholar, 1920).

[Read 14th July, 1921.]

l. Introduction.

The Ordovician sediments form practically the only rocks
actually represented in Bendigo, and outcrop over almost the
whole area except where occasionally covered by shallow allu-
vium. The structure of the series has been so thoroughly
described by numerous geological workers in the past, particu-
larly E. J. Dunn! and F. L. Stillwell,? that no description is
here needed. One or two points may however be noted.

An exhaustive examination of the graptolites obtained from
different parts of the field has shown that the Lancefield, Bendigo
and Castlemaine zones of the Lower Ordovician are represented
here, but there is, however, no lithological difference in the re-
presentatives of these three zones. There is every gradation
between a typical sandstone and a typical slate, and these are
the only representatives of the original sediments. The fresh
slate has a dark to light bluish-grey colour, the sand-
stone a dark to light grey shade. On weathering this
is altered to a butf colour in both cases, the slates being
generally darker than the sandstone, except where the latter
have been almost entirely replaced by limonite. The limonite
staining is derived from the decomposition by meteoric waters
of the pyrite contained in the fresh rock, and replaces the clayey
material, and constitutes the more important cement of the
weathered rock. Where, however, the importance of the limonite
as a cementing medium is small, the sandstone becomes a soit,
porous, crumbly sandstone, and the slate a fine greasy fissile
material.

2. ‘* Report on the Bendigo Goldfield,” Nos land 2. E. J. Dunn, Geol. Surv. Vict. 1896.
2. ‘*Gold Deposition in the Bendigo Goldfield,” Parts I., If., and III. F. L. Stillwell. Bull 4.8
and 16. Adv. Council Se. and Industry.

56 J. A. Dunn :.

2. Composition of the Sediments.

Secondary silica has, in many cases, altered the character of
the original sediments, but it is quite apparent that as a whole
both the sandstones and slates were highly aluminous. ‘The
principal minerals identified microscopically are quartz, felspar,
muscovite, and biotite (generally altered to chlorite). The
accessories detected are tourmaline, zircon, rutile, ilmenite (often
altering to leucoxene), magnetite, apatite and sphene. A small
pale-bluish isotropic mineral with very high refractive index |
was detected in one section of sandstone—this is probably blue
spinel. Secondary minerals present are quartz, pyrite, arseno-
pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chlorite and a carbonate probably
ankerite. Sericite constitutes practically the whole of the
ground-mass of the slates, leucoxene often appears secondary
to ilmenite, whilst chlorite generally occurs after biotite. In
a number of the slates, particularly those found on the “ backs,”
black. carbonaceous matter constitutes an integral part of the
rock, and generally occurs in thin lamellae.

(a) Essential Minerals examined in thin sections.—The
detrital quartz and felspars range to about .7 mm. as a maxi-
mum in the standstones and mica often occurs in long, thin
tagged plates up to 1 mm. in length.

The quartz is rounded to sub-angular in habit generally, but
often where secondary it becomes sharply angular. Only in
very rare instances does it show crystal boundaries. Strain
polarisation is rarely evident except in some of the secondary
quartz. The characteristic serial arrangement of inclusions is
often noticeable, and apatite, zircon and rutile are occasionally
found as inclusions. Thin veins of quartz often traverse both
sandstones and slates—these veins are in part the result of re-
placement, and in part of growth by force of crystailisation.

The felspar is in much less quantity than the quartz, and on
the whole the individual grains are smaller. Occasionally the
felspars are in very turbid grey patches, but generally they are
rather fresh and represented by both orthoclase and plagioclase.
The plagioclase ranges from andesine to oligoclase as shown by
the angle of extinction, and is not so abundant as the orthoclase.
The felspars are almost universally rounded in habit, but where
they are probably secondary, they become quite angular, as in
the case of quartz. The’ alteration of the felspars is.as a rule
to sericite, but occasionally it goes to calcite.

Ordovician Sediments. 57

Both detrital and secondary mica occurs, the former as long,
ragged, cleaved fragments of muscovite up to 1 mm. in length,
and as rounded and ragged plates. Although for the most part
‘quite clear and colourless, it occasionally alters to a pale green
chlorite. The muscovite is often found bent and nipped between
the quartz grains, and this is characteristic of every section
examined. Biotite occurs in one or two of the sandstones, but
is practically all altered to a greenish and brownish chlorite.

The secondary mica is generally represented by sericite, occur-
ring throughout the ground-mass of all the rocks, and making
up practically the whole of the slates. ‘The sericite constitutes
most of the original clayey matter of the ground-mass of the
sandstones, and at times is the result of alteration of the felspars.
Some of the plates of muscovite may possibly be secondary.

(b) Accessory Minerals——Tourmaline is the dominant acces-
sory, and was detected in every section of sandstone. Both the
blue and brown pleochroic varieties are represented in grains
up to .2 mm. diameter. Generally it occurs as rounded detrital
grains, but occasionally it shows traces of crystal boundaries.
‘Only in one case was tourmaline found to occur in slate, and in
that instance it was included in secondary arsenopyrite.

Zircon occurs in all of the sections, never exceeding more
than .25°mm. diameter. It is always clear and colourless, and
generally slightly rounded, though still showing crystal boun-
~daries. It is not so abundant in the slates as in the sandstones.

Rutile occurs in a number of the sections, but rarely exceeds
more than .1 mm. diameter. Generally the*grains are some-
what rounded, brown and violet pleochroic tints being common.

Apatite is a rather constant accessory in many of the sections
in grains up to .3 mm. maximum. Although sometimes
rounded, it always shows traces of crystal boundaries.

The determination of sphene in some of the sections is doubt-
ful, owing to the difficulty of distinguishing it from zircon in
small grains. But one or two boat-shaped crystals, with oblique
extinction appear rather definite.

IIlmenite is quite a common accessory in all the rocks, occur-
ring as irregular grains generally altering to leucoxene. Mag-
netite also occurs in irregular grains, rarely in minute octahedra.

Carbonaceous material occurs especially in the slates, and is
probably the result of the decay.of some form of life in the
sediments during their deposition.

58 J AX Dame: >

(c) Secondary Minerals—Quartz is the chief secondary
mineral. Practically all the Bendigo rocks are silicified to a
greater or less extent. This secondary silica occurs either in the
ground-mass, or at times it forms small angular grains of quartz
which have grown from definite points by force of crystallisa-
tion; this often gives the appearance of a sandstone to what was.
originally a slate. At other times the quartz acts as a border
to secondary cubes of pyrite, generally bordering the quartz
only in the direction of the cleavage of the slates. |

Chlorite is an important secondary mineral. In part this ap-
pears to have been brought in with the secondary siliceous solu-
tions, but occasionally it is secondary to muscovite, biotite and.
tourmaline.

Mineral carbonates, probably ankerite, are common as second-
ary minerals, generally replacing the ground-mass of both slates
and sandstones, and occasionally replacing grains of felspar.
These carbonates also appear to have accompanied the secondary
siliceous solutions.

Pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, and galena occur
distributed throughout’ the whole - series. They. “occur
both irregularly, and with definite crystal boundaries, and are:
probably contemporaneous with the siliceous solutions.

Leucoxene is secondary after ilmenite. The greater part of.
the sericite is also secondary, particularly in the slates and’
ground-mass of the sandstones—it is evidently the alteration.
product of the clayey material of the original sediments.

Heavy ‘Liquid Separation of Minerals.

By means of heavy liquids, the minerals occurring in small
quantity in a sample of sandstone were isolated and examined.
as grains under the microscope. A typical sandstone from the
2400 feet level of the Sea Mine was crushed, then ground im
a disc crusher, and passed first through an 80-mesh sieve, then
part through a 100-mesh, thus giving two grades of fineness..
These were then weighed :—

2817 grams through 100-mesh.
438 grams through 80 mesh, and over 100-mesh.

3255 grams total.

These grades were each panned off separately to ensure cleaner
panning. Residues were panned three times to have a minimum

Ordovician Sediments. : 5

loss of heavier minerals. By this means all slimes were got rid
of, as well as a large proportion of the quartz. Concentrates.
dried, then passed under electro-magnet to separate any mag-
netic minerals. The magnetic minerals on examination con-
sisted entirely of magnetite. This was also weighed :—

9130 grams magnetite through 100-mesh.
.2889 grams magnetite through 80-mesh and over 100.

1.2019 grams magnetite total.

Magnetite in sandstone: .0307 per cent.

The demagnetised samples were each separated into a lighter
and heavier portion, by means of flotation in bromoform 5.G.
2.90, on the lines indicated by T. Crook, A.R.C.Sce. (Dubiin),
F.G.S., in “ The Petrology of the Sedimentary Rocks,” Hatch
and Rastall. The concentrates obtained, i.e., the heavier por-
tions, were weighed—

8.301 grams through 100-mesh.
3.756 grams between 80 and 100-mesh.

12.057 grams total concentrate.

These concentrates were seen to be heavily charged with sul-
phides, as pyrite and arsenopyrite. They were therefore first:
roasted to oxide, then again passed under electromagnet to elim-
inate pyritic matter, but a good deal of Fe Os still remained.
Hence the only recourse left was to take it into-solution with.
weak Hydrochloric acid, the leached residues being then filtered,
dried and weighed—

2.7368 grams through 100-mesh.
0.4520 grams between 80 and 100-mesh.

3.1888 grams total.

Substracting this from the above 12.057 zrams we find there
was a total of 8.868 grams of sulphides in the sandstone, mainly
pyrite.

Sulphide in sandstone—.2730 per cent.

The acid solution was tested for phosphate, as apatite appeared
to be the only likely soluble mineral present. Presence of phos-
phate confirmed.

The filtered residues were noted to contain quite a large amount
of quartz, hence a:-further heavy- solution separation was under-

60 J. A. Dunn

taken. Bromoform being now unobtainable, methylene iodide,
diluted to S.G. 3.133 was used for the purpose. This would also
eliminate the large amount of muscovite which the rock sections
had shown to be present. The final concentrates obtained were
weighed :—

0658 grams heavy minerals through 100-mesh.
.0091 grams heavy minerals between 80 and 100-mesh.

.0749 grams heavy minerals total.

Heavy minerals in sandstone—.0023 per cenc.

The heavy minerals were then examined under the microscope
in media of different refractive indices, the following minerals
being detected: Zircon, tourmaline, ilmenite, rutile, topaz, sphene,
magnetite, spinel, apatite, biotite, corundum, pyrrhotite, arseno-
pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, gold; some quartz, chlorite, and mus-
covite, probably brought down with other minerals during flota- |
tion ; and perhaps monazite.

Zircon is, with tourmaline, the most abundant. The crystals
almost always show perfect prismatic and pyramidal faces, and
in many cases are zoned.

Tourmaline occurs abundantly as both the brown and bluish
varieties, generally in irregular grains, although a crystal face
can be occasionally detected.

Ilmenite is generally altered to white leucoxene, showing in
many cases a.black, unaltered core.

Rutile occurs in well-formed prisms, sometimes dark brown in
colour, sometimes violet tinted.

Topaz occurs generally in irregular grains, but occasionally
shows prismatic outlines. The colours vary from colourless,
through straw yellow to light greenish yellow.

Sphene is present in angular and rounded brown grains, gener-
ally not so clear as zircon and rutile. The determination is rather
doubtful.

Pleonaste, an almost opaque form of spinel, was represented by
two or three octahedra. Practically black, but greenish tint de-
tected on edges.

Apatite showing rounded boundaries, owing to the leaching in
HCI occurs in colorless and pale-bluish grains.

Corundum, or sapphire, occurs, but only three irregular grains
noted, deep blue in colour, and rather pleochroic. :

Ordovician Sedimearrts. 61

One or two round grains with very high refractive index and
birefringence were noted, possessing a strong honey-yellow colour,.
are probably monazite, although the distinction from rutile 1s.
doubtful.

Pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and gold were
detected. The first four were evidently unacted on by the acid.
for some reason. The gold occurs in two or three irregular
grains, and is quite evidently not detrital. Even after the grind—
ing which the gold would have received during crushing, it
appears quite crystalline, while one grain is thin and skeleton-
like, as if it had occurred in a mineral which had been disso!ved
by acid. This inclines the writer to the view that the gold was.
included in pyrite, and on solution of this latter, was left as the.
minute grains noted—the largest is not greater than .2 mm..
diameter. It is a well-known fact that throughout Bendigo-
pyrite carries gold often in considerable quantities. It may be.
here noted that this gold could not have been included during:
crushing, sieving or panning, as the disc crusher was first thor-
oughly cleaned with pure silica, the sieves and pans also thor--
oughly cleaned. The writer is convinced the gold was inherent.
in the sample. ¢

Magnetite was detected in. minute grains, evidently having.
escaped separation by the electro-magnet by reason of its small
size. 3

Ragged plates of deep brown biotite, colourless muscovite, and.
greenish chlorite were detected, and were probably brought down.
by some of the heavy minerals during flotation.

3. Structural Alterations and Metamorphism.

The structural alterations of the Bendigo rocks are wholly-
dynamic—the development of cleavage in the more argillaceous-
sediments with the production of slates. No shales or mud-
stones are represented, all having been converted into slates. As.
these become more arenaceous, however, the cleavage is less.
developed, until in the true sandstone there is no evidence of it
whatever. These structttral changes are certainly a result of the-
same intense forces that brought into existence the peculiar
regular and acute folding so typical of the area. Although
the Ordovician is intruded by numerous monchiquite dykes (gen--
erally in the neighbourhood of the anticlinal axes), there has-
been no alteration of the walls of country rock. This is prob--

2 J. A. Dunn:

ably accounted for by the almost instantaneous intrusion of the
molten material, the magmatic heat being quickly conducted away
from the walls.

Some eight miles south of Bendigo, at Big Hill, the Ordo-
vician, at the contact with the Harcourt granitic mass, has been
somewhat metamorphosed.* Typically the sandstones have been
altered to a mica hornfels, and the argillaceous sediments to
spotted and andalusite slates. For the most part, however, the
alteration is rather an induration than an absolute change in
the mineral content of the rocks.

4. Deposition of the Sediments.

By numerous writers in the past, some of the Ordovician beds
of the Bendigo goldfields have been referred to as deposited in
shallow water, owing to the common occurrence of ripple-mark-
ing.* It was first thought by Dr. Hail, and later confirmed by
T. S. Hart®.that the origin of these pseudo ripple markings is
due to the intense compressive forces to which the rocks have
been subjected. It appears probable that during the process of
folding, the resultant stresses along the bedding planes caused
movement of the beds over each other, with the concomitant pro-
duction of minute puckers in the more plastic beds. This may
be the explanation of the more common occurrence of this
pseudo ripple-marking in the slates than in the sandstones of
Bendigo. Hence, this evidence of apparent ripple-marking can-
not be accepted as a criterion of the shallow-water deposition of
the sediments. ze

The general fineness in grain of the rocks rather points to the
deposition of the sediments some distance from the shore, prob-
ably in the relatively deep-water of a continental shelf. The
often rapid succession of exceedingly minute bands of. slate
and sandstone, with the admixture of occasional quite coarse
sandstones, suggests that the sediments were laid down under
variable currents, probably a result of tremendous floods wash-
ing the material from various sources.

3. ‘* Report on the Bendigo Goldfield,” No. 1.. E. J. Dunn, page 7.
4. “Report on the Bendigo Goldffeld,” No. 1. E. J. Dunn, page 6.
_ 5. On some Features of the Ordovician Rocks at Daylesford, with a Comparison with Similar
“Occurrences elsewhere.” T. 8S. Hart, M.A., B.C.E., Proc. Roy.:Soc. Vic... 1901, page 175.

Ordovician Sediments. 63

5. Origin of the Mineral Contents.

W. G. Langford,® in his discussion of the constitution and
origin of the Melbourne Silurian Sediments, pointed out that
there were two possible sources of the material for the silurian
sediments. So also there are two possible sources of the Ordo-
vician sediments :—

(a) They may have been derived from a pre-Ordovi-
cian igneous rock.. :

(b) They may have been derived from a pre-Ordovician
sedimentary rock.

The presence of such minerals as muscovite, tourmaline, zir-
con, rutile, ilmenite, magnetite, apatite, topaz, and sphene would
perhaps point to an igneous rock as the origin of the sediments,
but being stable minerals they may easily undergo transporta-
tion from the sediments of one period to a later.

Biotite is very rare, and is generally altered to chlorite, but
its presence would indicate either an igneous or a metamorphic
origin, as would also the fresh felspars which are occasionally
met with. In the sandstones, felspar grains are very few in
number compared with the quartz, and are sometimes repre-
sented by turbid patches. The slates and the fine sericitic
ground-mass of the sandstones, however, are purely argillaceous,
and must have originally been of the nature of clay, which in
its turn, must have come into being through the prolonged
breakdown of felspars. The extreme fineness of this clayey
material would rather point to an older sediment as the deriva-
tion of the greater part of it. The clear unaltered felspars,
though few in number, would tend to show that at least part
of the constituent mineral content was derived from an old ig-
neous or metamorphic rock.

The gradual transition from Heathcotian to Lower Ordovi-
cian throughout Victoria eliminates the possibility of the Heath-
cotian being the source of the material, whilst any possible Pre-
Cambrian outcrops are quite unknown anywhere within 100
miles of Bendigo.

The writer pictures, then, in the Lower Ordovician period,
a gradually sinking landmass, probably to the east, over which
outcropped Pre-Cambrian metamorphic sediments, intruded per-
haps by occasional igneous masses. The denudation of this land

6. “The Petrology of the Silurian Sediments near Melbourne.” WW. G. Langford, B.Sc., Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vic., Vol. XXIX., n.s., Part I., 1916.

64. J. A. Dunn: Ordovician Sediments.

mass provided the material for the Ordovician sediment. These:
in many cases had to be transported over long distances, so that
felspars would be rarely preserved—only those derived from.
close at hand would remain as clear grains.

This work was undertaken at the suggestion of Professor E..
W. Skeats, in order to attempt an examination of the Ordovi-
cian sediments as W. G. Langford’ had done of the Silurian..
In order to bring the two works on to a comparative descriptive
basis, the writer has set his work out on as similar lines to those:
of Langford as space would allow.

Mineralogicaily, W. G. Langford’s inference that the Ordo-
vician and Silurian would contain somewhat similar constituents®
is borne out, but it may be noted that the occurrence of strain.
polarisation in the quartz grains is not by any means common:
as Langford inferred may be the case. It is perhaps possible
that the Melbourne Silurian sediments have been derived from
an area where the Ordovician has been subjected to even still
greater compressive forces than in the Bendigo area. Minera--.
logically, the only difference between the constituents of the two:
series appears to be the relative absence of sapphire and unaltered.
biotite in the Ordovician.

In conclusion the writer wishes to natishetpicihee his diduales to»
the Bendigo School of Mines’ officials for the use of their assay
laboratory; to Dr. F. L. Stillwell for the invaluable use of his.
rock sections; and to Professor E. W. Skeats and Dr. H. S.
Summers for their occasional excellent advice.

7. Op. cit.
8. Op. cit., page 49.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorra 34 (N.S.), Pr. I., 1921.]

Arr, 1IX.—On an Inclusion of Ordovician Sandstone in
. the Granite of Big Hill.

Byd ) :ALSDUNN, B:8c.,
(Howitt Natural History Research Scholar, 1920).

[Read 14th July, 1920. ]

1— Foreword.

Big Hill lies some eight miles S.W. of Bendigo, overlooking
the wide expanse of undulating plain extending southwards to
Harcourt, Castlemaine and Maldon. Big Hill is one of a series
of ranges surrounding the saucer-shaped Harcourt granitic area,
all being in the nature of residuals, owing their existence. to
the metamorphism and induration of the Lower Ordovician at
the contact of the granitic intrusion. The origina! sediments
near Big Hill have been altered in places to quartzite and mica
hornfels, chiastolite often showing in the slates. Well preserved
specimens of the altered Ordovician are practically unobtain-
‘able, the rocks having been weathered and leached to a consider-

able depth, in some places below 490 feet.

The exact line of contact between granitic intrusion ‘ai Ordo-
vician is, at Big Hill, rather indeterminate owing to the accumu-
lation of hill wash and alluvium on the hill slopes, and at the
foot of the hills. However, in places large granitic boulders are
found protruding above the surface,.and by closely following
the beds of the small creeks, the limits of the granitic mass may
be very closely delineated.

2.—Ordovician.

The Ordovician of Big Hill forms the southern extension of
the Bendigo Goldfields, and there are probably three hori-
zons of the Lower Ordovician represented here—Lance-
field, Bendigo and Castlemaine. The well-formed anticlines
and synclines so typical of Bendigo extend south-west, right up
to the Harcourt granitic mass at Big Hill, remaining undisturbed
both in dip and strike at the contact. In fact, the Big Hill range
may be looked upon as the southern limit of the Bendigo Gold-
fields, for the slopes of the range have been costeened and

6

66 J. A. Dunn:

scratched for gold in the past, although in rather a spasmodic
manner, °

The sediments are represented by sandstones and slates of
varying composition and texture, there being every gradation
between the normal sandstone and normal slate. In Bendigo
these have been mineralised to some considerable extent by the
impregnation of quite a high percentage of pyrite, with lesser
amounts of arsenopyrite, galena and sphalerite. At Big Hill
these sulphides are pvactically absent, but the Ordovician has
been metamorphosed fairly extensively with the formation of
micaceous sandstone (in some places the mica is in quite
coarse plates), whilst the occurrence of chiastolite in the slates
is common throughout the metamorphic aureole.

Inclusion of Country Rock (A), surrounded by Basic
Seeregation (B), in Granite (C).

3.—The Harcourt Granite Intrusion.

The granitic mass of Hareourt has never been critically exam-
ined, but it has generally been looked upon as a granodiorite
similar to that of Macedon, Dandenong; Mount Eliza and Mount
Martha. The high percentage of SiO, and the possibility that

Ordovician Sandstone. 67
many of the twinned felspars may be anorthoclase, as will be
indicated later, point to the probability of the rock being a soda-
rich granite similar to that at Station Peak. In fact, it 1s
remarkably like this latter, often containing large phenocrysts
of felspars although perhaps not as large as the You Yangs
specimens.

Numerous veins of aplite and tourmaline aplite traverse the
granitic mass, and also run out into the Ordovician at the con-
-tact. It is, however, with the method of intrusion and the dif-
ferentiation of the Harcourt plutonic magma that this paper is
-more directly concerned.

The accompanying photograph is of an inclusion of country
rock in the granite near Big Hill. This specimen occurs on the
south slope of Big Hill, in the bed of a small tributary to Bullock
Creek, and is situated at least 200 yards from the contact of
the intrusion with the Ordovician. At this point the tributary
has exposed the bare surface of the granite over an area of
a few square feet, and has rounded and smoothed the rock sur-
face considerably. As will be noted from the photograph, the
inclusion (A) stands up in relief from the granite surface (C).
Surrounding the inclusion, except for two inches on the right-
hand side, is what appears to be a basic segregation (B) from
the hand specimen, and this latter, in contrast to both Ordovican
inclusion and surrounding granite has been eroded to a maxi-
mum depth of three inches below the granite surface. Two
very thin, light-coloured veins or threads cut through both the
country rock and segregation, and apparently run into the granite
at the side where the granite is in actual contact with the sand-
stone inclusion. The original sandstone has been altered to a
considerable extent.

Description of specimens :—

Granite, Big Hill—A light grey apparently normal granite
of quartz, felspar and biotite, often containing fairly large crystals
of felspar. Under the microscope shows typical granitic texture.
Abundant quartz and orthoclase in large allotriomorphic crystals,
twimned and zoned felspars ranging from oligoclase to albite
in smaller crystals, but relatively abundant and approximately
equalling orthoclase in amount. Owing to the extremely minute
twinning of some of the felspars, they may be possibly anortho-
clase. In two or three of the large orthoclase crystals extremely
thin lamellae can be just barely detected, pointing to a possible

6A

68 J. A. Dunn:

soda variety. Microperthitic intergrowth of albite in orthoclase
is common. Brown biotite altering in places to chlorite is an
essential constituent. Accessories are apatite (occasionally in
large crystals), zircon, and rarely sphene.

A determination of the silica percentage gave a result closely
approximating Daly’s average of 69.92 for true granites—this
result is given later. The silica percentage is rather high for a
eranodiorite, and it is thus very possible that some of the ap-
parent plagioclase felspars may be anorthoclase.

Basic Segregation around Inclusion, Big Hill—A dark-grey,
fine to medium-grained holocrystalline rock, consisting in the
hand-specimen of quartz, felspar, and abundant biotite. Both in
texture and appearance, it is quite distinct from the surround-
ing granite.

Microscopically the rock is seen to be much finer in texture
than the granite. There is a large increase in plagioclase, de-
crease in percentage of quartz, whilst orthoclase is not at all
common. There is also a slight increase in biotite, whilst apatite,
though still relatively abundant, never occurs other than as small
crystals. Other accessories are zircon, sphene, and a little
magnetite in biotite. Biotite altered in part to chlorite.

This rock is the equivalent of a typical granodiorite, the silica
percentage (see later) approximating closely to Daly’s average
of 65.15 for granodiorites.

Inclusion of Altered Sandstone, Big Hill—A fine-grained,
light-buff coloured rock, containing a good deal of mica.

Microscopically the section shows a granular quartz mosaic,
with occasional sub-angular grains of orthoclase and plagioclase.
Abundant biotite, generally occupying interstices between quartz
grains. Detrital zircon and apatite, whilst needles of apatite are
often included in the quartz grains.

The rock is evidently a re-crystallized sandstone.

There are two possible modes of formation of the basic
segregation open to discussion, explained by each of the two
hypotheses of magmatic differentiation postulated by Daly and
Bowen respectively.

4.—Mechanics of Intrusion.

(a) Accepting’ first Daly’s hypothesis of magmatic stoping
combined with marginal assimilation, we would picture the molten
igneous mass intruding its way up through the Ordovician by

Ordovician Sandstone. 69

magmatic stoping, assimilating the country rock as it progresses.
The particular inclusion at Big Hill would be looked upon as a
fragment of Ordovician which had not been entirely digested,
whilst the surrounding basic segregation would be explained as
eranite which in the immediate neighbourhood of the Ordovician
had its composition altered by solution of the sedimentary rock.
Under normal circumstances of slow diffusion, the alteration of
composition of the granite would be a gradual and progressive
one, from a maximum at the surface of the country rock out-
wards to the normal granite. The acute change of composition
of this segregation at the margins would, however, be explained
by picturing the fragment as being localised to a certain definite
neighbourhood until a state of equilibrium was reached so far
as slow diffusion was concerned. For some short distance around
the fragment of sandstone, the granite magma would now be
of an approximately similar composition throughout. If now
further movement of the magma took place, so that the position
‘of the fragment were altered—as, for instance, if the sandstone
commenced to sink—then this equilibrium would be immediately
disturbed. A certain amount of the surrounding altered magma
would be carried with the inclusion and corroded by the magma
to some extent, until finally, the whole granitic intrusion crystal-
lized out.

On this hypothesis of magmatic stoping and marginal assimi-
lation it would, as a necessary corollary, be presupposed that the
segregation immediately surrounding the fragment would be of
a composition intermediate between that of the granite, and in-
cluded country rock, ie., an inclusion of higher SiO, content
than the granite should give a surrounding segregation of more

acid composition than the granite, while a more basic inclusion

would give a segregation of less acid composition. The uphold-
ing of this supposition by chemical analysis: would go a long way
towards the acceptance of the hypothesis, whilst a negative result
from chemical analysis would mean the absolute rejection of the
hypothesis of marginal assimilation so far as this occurrence is
concerned. The following are the average silica contents of the
three rock types as shown by analyses kindly undertaken by
Miss McInerny, of the Geology School, University of Mel-
_ bourne :—

Country rock (sandstone) .. .. 78.30 per cent. SiO},
mepregation «. °°... Seah Gsee per cent. SiO;
Ea AED. (iat AR RII 3 Sy 2 per: cent, SiO,

70 J. A. Dunn: Ordovician Sandstone.

The segregation is thus not of an intermediate composition,
the SiO, content being lower than either of the other two; hence
the hypothesis of marginal assimilation as applied to the ex-
planation of the origin of the segregation surrounding the Big
Hill inclusion of country rock must be rejected.

(b) The theory of magmatic differentiation upheld by Bowed
affords an excellent explanation of the origin of the _ basic
“aureole” to the inclusion. This “aureole’”’ would represent
a portion of the chilled border facies attached to the roof, and
subsequently broken off with some of the country rock, to be
incorporated in the parent magma. At the intrusion of the
molten magma, the cooling at the marginal walls would be
ahead of the cooling of the main mass, and here there would
probably crystallize out a rock of the same composition as the
molten magma at that instant. The main mass of the magma
would remain still liquid, and as cooling progressed differentia-
tion by sinking of crystals would continue, the liquid magma. be-
coming more and more acid until, ultimately, the whole would’
crystallize out, producing as an ideal result an acid alkalic
magma with a less acid and more calcic border (the chilled bor-
der facies). But prior to the crystallization of the main liquid
magma, picture a rejuvenation in the mechanical activity of ‘the
magma brought about perhaps by earth movement, so that mag-
matic stoping commenced afresh. Picture also a small roof
pendant of country rock projecting into the magma, and around
which a “chilled border facies” has crystallized. With the
renewal of magmatie stoping this roof pendant and its attached
basic granitic border. will break away from the main country
rock, and sink into the liquid magma to be perhaps slightly
corroded, but finally isolated in the granite on solidification of
the magma. This will also explain the curious shape of this
particular inclusion of Big Hill—a fragment of country rock
(about six mches wide and two feet long), surrounded by a
basic segregation except on that side which may be pictured as
the area of attachment to Ordovician roof.

This, then, is quite an acceptable explanation of the origin
of this inclusion, and considered as such, the Big Hill inclusion
affords excellent evidence of the possibilities of both Daly’s
hypothesis of magmatic stoping, and Bowen’s research on ‘the
differentiation of rock magmas, particularly as applied to the
origin of “ chilled border facies.”

Estimation of Acidity. 71

By @& M.DEWIS,: D. Dise.) Melb,
Art. XV., Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 33 (N.S.), 1921].

Owing to a number of errors having escaped correction by the
author, the Council has agreed to its separate issue with alterations
and certain additions. ‘Those specially interested in the subject may
obtain a copy on application to the author, Dental College, Melbourne.

ENDVOP VOLUME XXXIV, PART EL

[Issurp 81st OcrosEr, 1921].

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VOL. XXXIV. (New SeErtgs).
PART II. |

Edited under the Authority of the Counctl.

ISSUED 31st MAY, 1922. “ ,

(Containing Papers read before the Society during the months of
August to December, 1921).

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THR
SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE
STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:

FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON

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VOL. XXXIV. (New Seriss).
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Lidited under the Authority of the Council.

ISSUERD 31st MAY, 1922.

(Containing Papers read before the Society during the months of
August to December, 1921).

THE AUTHORS OF THE SEVERAL PAPERS ARE INDIVIDUALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THK
SOUNDNESS OF THE OPINIONS GIVEN AND FOR THE ACCURACY OF THE
STATEMENTS MADE THEREIN.

MELBOURNE:
FORD & SON, PRINTERS, DRUMMOND STREET, CARLTON

1922.

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[Proc. Roy. Scc. Vicroria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. II., 1922.]
Arr. X.—An Alphabetical List of Victorian Hucalypts.

By J. H. MAIDEN, 1.8.0., FV. RS, F.LS.

(Government Botanist, and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney.)
[Read llth August, 1921.]

This is a supplement to a paper, ‘““A Census of Victorian
Eucalypts and Their Economics,” Rep. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
XIV., 294 (1913), by R. T. Baker.

The letters C.R. and F.F. indicate my ‘ Critical Revision of
the Genus Eucalyptus” and “Forest Flora of New South
Wales” respectively. In these works I have, as a rule, indi-
cated the references to Victorian localities.

It seems to me that we have 62 species proved to be indigenous
to Victoria.

1. E. avprna, Lindl.

See C.R., Part IX., p. 259, Plate 41 (1907).

2. E. BAvERIANA, Schauer. (Synonym £. Fletcheri, R. T.
Baker ). |

mee.C.R., Part XII[}¢p).'120, Plate 59) (1911) ; also F.F., Part
Eyl... p..149, Plate 215 (1916),

The Metung, Victoria, specimens were collected by A. W.
Howitt, and also by myself, following his directions. In C.R.,
Part XLII., I have enumerated some other Victorian specimens ;
these are in the Melbourne Herbarium, and were included in
E. polyanthemos by Mueller. I have lately received the species
with smaller leaves, simulating in that respect E. populifolia to
some extent, from Mr. Harry Hopkins, from Orbost and the
Tambo River. |

3. E. Beuriana, F. v. M.

mee CR. Part X.; p. 335, Plate 48 (1909) * also FF, Pare
MW.) p., 111, Plate 172 (1912).
4. E. srcotor, A. Cunn.

(Quoted by Mr. Baker as E. pendula, A. Cunn., at p. 298,
and as FE. pendula, F.v.M., at p. 302).

74 J. H. Maiden:

See C.R., Part XI., p. 6, Plate 49 (1910); also F.F., Part
XLIV., p. 76, Plate 164 (1911).

There is no such species as E. pendula, F.v.M., so far as I am
aware, but notes on E. pendula, Page, and E. pendula, A. Cunn.,
will be found at pp. 7 and 8 of Part XI. of my C.R. (1910).
They are nomina nuda and synonyms of E. bicolor, A. Cunn.;
see p. 6 of that Part, and Plate 49. For some Victorian localities
of E. bicolor, see p. 10.

5. E. Braxianpr, Maiden and Cambage.
See E. capitellata, at p. 83 below.

6. E. BoststoaNna, F.v.M.

See C.R., Part XI., p. 1, with Plate 49 (1910); also F.F.,
Part XLIII., p. 58, Plate 160 (1911). —

7. E. BoTRYOIDES, Sm.

See C.R., Part XXIII., p. 51, Plates 98, 99 (1915).

&. E. CALYCOGONA, Tufez.

see C.R., Part IIT.; p: 83, Plate 9 (1903).

9, E. CINEREA, Fiv.M.

(Synonyms FE. pulverulenta, F.v.M., non Sims; E. Stuartiana,
F.v.M., var. cordata, Baker and Smith.)
mee CU. XALL p, 2, 4.1 1914).

10. E. cLrapocatyx, F.v.M.

The fact that Mueller suppressed this (1852) name in favour
of his own, later described, E. corynocalyx (1860) is historical.
I have explained the facts in C.R., Part XXXVL, p. 163 (1919),
with the evidence as to the Victorian locality, and elsewhere,
e.g., Proc. Roy. Soc. S.A., xli., 341 (1917), and they appear to
admit of no controversy.

11. E. ConsmpENIANA, Maiden.

See C.R., Part X., p. 312, Plate 46 (1908); F.F., Part
XXXVI, p. 90, Plate 136 (1909).

List of Victorian Eucalypts. 75

12. E. cortacea, A. Cunn.

See C.R., Part V., p. 133, Plates 26-28 (1904); F.F., Part
XV., p. 116, Plate 58 (1905).

13. E. corymMsBosa, Sm.

This was recorded as a Victorian plant by Mueller in his
“Eucalyptographia.” See C.R., Part XXXIX., p. 246 (1919).
See also F.F., Part XII., Plate 45 (1904).

14. E. piversiFoLia, Bonpl.

E. santalifolia, F.v.M., is a synonym of E. diversifolia, Bonpl.
See C.R., Part XXXIIL., p. 84 (1917), together with Part VII.,
8.997, Pilate ‘36’ (1905).

15. E. pives, Schauer.

pee C:R’, Part VII., p. 190, Plate’35 (1905) ;/F 4 Part AIX;
p. 176, Plate 75 (1906).

16. E. pumosa, A. Cunn.

I agree with Mr. Baker that this had better stand as a species
as distinct from FE. incrassata. The matter is not free from
difficulty, owing to the absence of the type of E. incrassata, and
I have tried to make the position clear in C.R., Part XXXVIIL.,
p. 223 (1919). For figures see Plate 19, Part IV. (1904). Vic-
_torian localities are quoted in both Parts. It is also figured
at Plate 245, Part LXV. of F.F., now in the press.

17. E. ELAEoPHORA, F.v.M.
mee C.R., Part XIX., p. 275, Platés 82 and 83 (1913).

18. E. EUGENIOIDES, Sieb.

Dealt with in C.R., Part VIII., p. 232, Plates 39 and 40 (1907).
See also F.F., Part XXIX., p. 153, Plate 110 (1908).

E. eugenioides, Sieb., var. nana, Deane and Maiden, I have
identified with E. ligustrina, DC.; see C.R., Part XL., p. 332,
with Plate 167. I only know it from New South Wales, at no
great distance west and south of Sydney, but Mr. Baker quotes
Mr. P. R. H. St. John as having found it at Orbost, Victoria.
Mr. St. John writes to me recently that he was under the impres-
sion that he had sent me one of his Orbost specimens at the

2a

76 J. H. Maiden:

time, but he is under a misapprehension, although he wrote to
me about it. I therefore hold E. ligustrina, DC., in suspense
as a Victorian plant for the present.

19. E. rruTICETORUM, F.v.M., Fragm. ii., 58 (1860-1).
This was subsequently redescribed by Mr. Baker under the
name E. polybractec. (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., XXV., 692,
1900). The history of the synonymy is given in C.R., Part XL.,
figs. 6-8, Plate 52 (1910), with a full plate of a specimen named
by Mueller himself, in F.F., Part, XLII., p. 27, Plate 156 (1911).
See also a paper by me, “Is Eucalyptus fruticetorum, F.v.M..,
identical with E. polybractea, R. T. Baker?” in Journ. Roy. Soc.
Vict., XXVI., 298 (1913). Mr. Baker quotes them as separate

species at pages 302 and 307 of his paper. |

20. E. GIGANTEA, Hook. (Synonym, E. delegatensis, R. T.
| Baker).

The confusion that has gathered around this species is ex-
plained in C.R., Part XX.;‘p./29% Plate 8} (1914). See also
F.F., Part LI., p. 7, Plate 198 (1913), (with photographs).

21. E. crosutus, Labill.

See C.R., Part XVIII., p. 249, Plate 79 (1913); also F.F.,.
Part LXVII., Plate 253, now in the press.

22. E. GONIOCALYX, F.v.M.

See GR, Part KIX., p. 267, Plate 81. (1913); F-F., Part Vag
p. 119, Plate 19 (1903).

20: 2 GRACICES, I'v.BL.

See C.R., Part XXXIX., p. 265 (1919), as to Victorian locali-
ties. See also Part III., p. 81, Plate 12 (1903), as a variety of
E. calycogona, Turcz. . :

24. E. Gunnut, Hook. f.
See C.R., Part XXVI., p. 108, Plate 108 (1916).

25. E. HEMIPHLOIA, F.v.M.

See C.R., Part XI., with plate 50 (1910) for discussion of the
question as to whether E. hemiphloia has for varieties albens

Inst of Victorian Eucalypts. 77

and microcarpa or not. Both these varieties are common in
Victoria, while the typical form does not appear to occur there.
For a figure of the normal form, see F.F., Part VI. p. 134,
Plate 22 (1904).

26. E. 1ncrassaTa, Labill.

As to whether typical £. incrassata, originally described from
Western Australia, has been found in Victoria as distinct from
the named varieties of this-species, I am not prepared to say,
in view of the uncertainty which has gathered around E. incras-
sata, The matter is discussed in my C.R., Part XXXVIIIL., pp.
220 and 223 (1919).

E. 1ncrASSATA, Labill., var. ANGUSTIFOLIA, Maiden.

I have described no such variety. It is probably a slip of
Mr. Baker’s pen for var. angulosa, Benth. See C.R., Part IV.,
p. 101, Plate 14 (1904), which occurs in Victoria, see p. 108.

27. E. Kitsonriana, Maiden.
See C.R., Part XXVIII., p. 165, with Plate 117 (1916).

28. E. LEUCOXYLON, F.v.M.
eee tc K., ‘Part Alt yp. So,” Pilate 56° (TOTO.

29. E. LonGcIFOLIA, Otto et Link.

pee C.R., Part XX; p. 295, Plate 86: (1914); F.F., Partie.
p. 37, Plate 5 (1903).

30. E. MACRORRHYNCHA, F.v.M.

Gee 1C.R., Part) VII.,°p..225, Plate:39. (1907):;) B.A Mart
MXVIL., p. 120, Plate’ 102. (1907).

31. E. macutata, Hook.

This occurs in Gippsland, Victoria, and notes on the localities
will be found in C.R., Part XLIII., Plate 178, now in the press.
See also F.F., Part VII., p. 164, Plate 27 (1904).

32. E. macutosa, R. T. Baker.
See C.R., Part XXVII., p. 127, with Plate 112 (1916).

33. E. Marmpent, F.v.M.
See C.R., Part XVIII., p. 256, Plates 79 and 80 (1913).

78 J. H. Maiden:

34. E. MELLIopoRA, A. Cunn.

see_C.R., Part; XIV; p,.135,, Plate. 61,.(1912) ; F.F.,..Part DX,
p. 19/7, Plate 35 (1904).

35. E. MiTcHELLIANA, Cambage.

In Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., LII., 457 (1918), with a plate.
Summit of Mt. Buffalo.

36. E. MuELLERIANA, Howitt.
See C.R., Part VIIL., p. 219, with Plate 2; Part \1/(1903).

37. E. NEGLECTA, Maiden.
See C.R., Part XXVIL., p. 151, with Plate 115 (1916).

38. E. niTeNns, Maiden.
See C.R., Part XIX.,p. 272, Plate-81 (1913).

39. E. NUMEROSA, Maiden.

For Victorian localities see C.R., Part XXXVIII., p. 233
(1919). For earlier views of the relations of this species, see
Part VI., pp. 155, 161, with fig. 1, Plate 30 (1905), and. F.F.,
Part XVII., p. 147, Plate 66 (1905).

40. E. oprtigua, L’Herit.

See C.R., Patt I1,p.-5l, (Plates: 5 and6 (1903) ; FE Pee
XXIL., p. 20, Plate 83 (1907).

41. E. oporata, Behr.

See C.R., Part XI., p. 34, Plate 51 (1910), for some Victorian
localities.
42. E. oveosa, F.v.M.
See C.R., Part XV., p. 171, Plates 65 and 66 (1912) ; modified
by Part XXXIX., p. 277 (1919). See also F.F., Part LX., p.
2/1, Plate 226 (1917).

43. E. ovata, Labill.

I have stated that this includes E. paludosa, R. T. Baker, in
Part XXVIL., p. 140, figs. 6a-6d, Plate 114 (1916). I have re-
examined (1920) E. paludosa with additional material received

Iist of Victorian EHucalypts. 79

from Mr. Baker, which material more closely approximates to the
type of E. ovata than any I had previously received from him.
I have been unable to alter my carefully considered opinion of
1916. (1920).

Concerning E. camphora, R. T. Baker, in C.R., Part XXVIL.,
p. 148, with Plate 115 (1916), I have suggested that this may
be a variety (camphora) of E. ovata, Labill. I have (1920)
again carefully gone over the ovata-camphora material, with the
view of re-establishing E. camphora if I could do so. [I find,
however, that additional experience and specimens confirm the
opinions I expressed at p. 149 (Joc. cit.). I find long petioles
in both E. ovata and E. camphora, and think I have fairly stated
the position for and against species and variety. I know the
tree well, not only having observed it carefully in my Victorian
tour in 1900, but in New South Wales before and since. The
“dwarf variety ” of Gunnu of Howitt is stated by Mr. Baker to
be his E. camphora. At p. 150 (loc. cit.) I have stated that
Howitt’s ‘‘ dwarf variety (b) ” is E. Kitsoni, Maiden, and that
the “ Dwarf Highland form (d) ” is E. neglecta, Maiden. No
other “ dwarf variety ” is mentioned by Howitt so far as I know,
but the “tall mountain form (c) ” is E. camphora, R. T. Baker,
as stated by me.

44. E. Perriniana, F.v.M., non R.T.B. et H.GS.

I have stated the case in C.R., Part XXVI,. p. 103, with plate
108 (1916).

45. E. piILuvaris, Sm.

mewn, Lari, p, 36, Plate 1 (1903)5 PAR Parteve nak,”
Plate 116 (1908).

Having re-examined the Victorian specimen that Mr. Baker
quotes on my authority (C.R., L, 38) I withdraw it, believing
it to be E. Muelleriana, Howitt. It is, however, not quite satis-
factory. Professor Ewart informs me, on Mr. St. John’s auth-
ority, that the specimen attributed to that gentleman was taken
from a tree growing in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens. But
Professor Ewart also sends me, for examination, a specimen of
E. pilularis collected at National Park, Sealer’s Cove, Wilson’s
Promontory (J. W. Audas and P. R.H. St. John, 22nd October,
1909), which, although incomplete, is in my view sufficient to
validate record of the species as Victorian. Professor Ewart

80 JL Maiden :

also thinks that the McAlister River record, Mueller (B.FL, iii.,
208), is probably correct, although the specimen has disappeared
from the Melbourne Herbarium. The most southern New
South Wales record for E. pilularis known to me is Mogo, near
Moruya, and it is hoped that specimens will be collected to con-
nect this with the Victorian one.

46. E. poLyANTHEMOS, Schauer.

See C.R., Part XIII., p. 109, with Plate 58 (1911); also F.F.,
Part LIX., p. 250, Plate 223 (in both these works lanceolate
leaves are not shown). In Part XLII., C.R., will be found addi-
tional Victorian localities for the species, including some speci-
mens seen by Mueller.

47. E. RADIATA, Sieb.

See C.R., Part XXXVIII., p. 230 (1919) for Victorian locali-
ties. For an earlier view as to E. radiata, see Part VI. of the
same work. See also F.F. (as E. amygdalina), Part XVII., Plate
62 (1903).

Concerning E. amygdalina, Labill., and var. australiana, Baker
and Smith, my latest views in regard to E. amygdalina and some
of its allies will be found in C.R. Part XXXVIII., pp. 227, 229,
233. I agree with Messrs. Baker and Smith that the presence
of the Tasmanian FE. amygdalina has not yet been proved on the
mainland. But both E. radiata, Sieber (E. amygdalina, var. aus-
traliana), and E. numerosa, Maiden, species formerly looked
upon as synonyms of E. amygdalina, not only occur on the main-
land, but are by no means rare in Victoria.

The E. radiata, Sieb., referred to by Mr. Baker at p.305 of
his paper, is that tree (a “‘ White Gum”) confused with it by
Bentham, Woolls, others and myself, but which I subsequently
showed to be another species under the name of E. numerosa
(see Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., XXIX., 752, 1904).

48. E. REGNANS, F.v.M.

See C.R,,,.:-Part. VII.,..p..,183,)Plate 33.,(1905) ;..F.F., Pare
XVIIL, p..165, Plate 71(..1905).

49. E. rostrata, Schlecht.

See C.R., Part XXXIIL., p. 68, Plates 136-8 (1917); F.F,,
Part LXII., p. 49, Plate 223 (1918).

List ot Victorian Eucalypts. 8]

50. E. rupipa, Deane and Maiden.

See C.R., Part. XXVI., p. 110, Plates 109-111 (1916). Also
F.F., Part LXIII., p. 87, Plate 237 (1920). I concur in Mr.
Baker’s view that this is E. viminalis variety (b) of Howitt, but
he has overlooked my same record in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
XXVI., 578 (1901), 12 years earlier.

51. E. stpzroxyton, A. Cunn.

pee C.R., Part ally p82, Plate 55 (1910); FB Part oeMt.,
p. 70, Plate 49 (1904).

52. E. SrepertAna, F.v.M.

See C.R., Part X., p. 306, with Plate 45 (1908); also F-F.,
Part XXXIV., p. 49, Plate 128 (1909). As regards the con-
fusion with E. virgata, Sieb., see p. 82 below.

53. E. Smirum,’ R. T. Baker.

See C.R., XII., p. 76, Plate 55 (1910), but without a Victorian
locality.
54. E. sTELLULATA, Sieb.
pee C.R.,. Part V., pidZ/.,, Plate Zh (1904); F.F., Pare XIV,
p. 94, Plate 54 (1905).

55. E. Sruartriana, F.v.M.

In C.R., Part XXI., pp. 4 and 6, I have explained that Mueller
mixed up his Stwartiana very much, including no less than three
distinct species under that name. FE. Bridgesiana, R. T. Baker,
is the third of these three, and I have pointed out (op. cit.,
XXIV., p. 68) that the description of a species under another
name does not remove the difficulties.

E. Stuartiana (E. Bridgesiana) is described at Part XXIV.,
p. 68, and Plates 101 and 102 (1915). Victorian localities at p.
69.

E. Stuartiana, F.v.M., as understood by Mr. Baker, is synony-
mous with E. cinerea, F.v.M. See my C.R., Part XXI., pp. 1
and 2, and Plate 89.

As regards E. Stuartiana, F.v.M., var. cordata, Baker and -
Smith, see my C.R., Part XXI., p. 5 (1914), where I state that
it is synonymous with E. cinerea, F.v.M. (var. multiflora,
Maiden). See Part XXI., p. 7, Plates 89 and 90.

82 J. H. Maiden:

56. E. TERETICORNIS, Sm.

See C.R., Part XXXI., p. 5, Plate 128 (1917).

57. E. TRANSCONTINENTALIS, Maiden,

As to Victorian localities, see C.R., Part XXXIX., p. 270
(1919) with the localities indicated at Part XV., p. 171.

58. E. uncinata, Turcz.
See C.R., Part XIV., p. 143, Plate 62 (1912).

59. E. vim1na is, Labill.
See C.R., Part XXVIII. p. 167, Plates 117-119 (1916).

E. VIMINALIS, var. PLURIFLORA, J.H.M. (Maiden).

Although I cannot trace this reputed variety attributed to me
at the moment of writing, attention may be invited to my note
of another variety, viz., racemosa, F.v.M., in Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas.,
p. 90 (1918). The type appears to have come from Port Phillip,
and I have given a number of Victorian localities in Part 64
of F.F.

60. E. vrrcata, Sieb.

Synonymous with E. Luehmanniana, F.v.M. For a history
of the confusion of this shrub (or very small tree) with E.
Steberiana, F.v.M., see C.R., Part XXXIX., p. 283 (1919) ; with
C.R., Part IX., figs. 1 and 2, Plate 43; also Plate 44 (as E.
Luehmanniana).

61.. E. .viripis, R.. T., Baker,

This will be found figured and described as E. acacioides, A.
Cunn., in C.R., XI., 45, figs. 9-12, Plate 52 (1910), and in my
F.F., Part XLVIII., Plate 180 (whole plate), but I have since
satisfied myself that Cunningham’s material is mixed.

62. E. virreA, R. T. Baker.

See C.R., Part VI., pp. 150 and 164, and Part VIL., p. 189,
with Plate 34 (1905); F.F., Part XXIII., p. 39, with Plate 86
(1906). See also Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., LIL, 516 (1918),
in which I try to clear up its relations to E. vitellina, Naudin.

For notes on Victorian localities see a paper by myself in
Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., LIL, 517 (1918).

List of Victorian Eucalypts. 83

Excluded Species.

In some cases it may be almost confidently predicted that they
will be found to occur in Victoria, but it is best, in a list like
this, to admit none without absolute proof.

E. AMYGDALINA, Labill.

See C.R., Part XXXVIIL, p. 227 (1919), where I agree with
Messrs.. Baker. and Smith that the original species appears to
be confined to Tasmania. At the same time it should be looked
for on the Victorian coast. For the E. amygdalina as understood
by Bentham, Mueller, and other botanists, see C.R., Part VI.

E. CAPITELLATA, Sm.

For many years I concurred in the general opinion that this
species, originally described from Port Jackson, extended to
Victoria. See my C.R., Part VIII., p. 211, with Plate 37, in part
(1907). I am now of opinion, as expressed in Part XLV.,p.147,
that it does not extend to Victoria,and that some of the Victorian
specimens are referable to E. Blaxlandi, Maiden and Cambage,
Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., LII., 495 (1918).

E. DEALBATA, A. Cunn.

See C.R., Part XXXII., p. 48, Plates 134, 135 (1917). At
p. 49 I have stated that it has been recorded from Albury, but
the specimens are not quite satisfactory, nor are the Tumbar-
umba ones normal. Although these localities (especially the
former) are close to Victoria, they make one pause before in-
ferring that, on this evidence, the species occurs in Victoria.
Professor Ewart tells me that he cannot find any trace of this
specimen (quoted by Mr. Baker; C. Walter was an old collector
of Mueller’s); ‘all our records for dealbata are from New
South Wales localities only.” I cannot therefore accept it as a
Victorian plant at present.

E. FASCICULOSA, F.v.M.

The history of the confusion of this species with E. paniculata,
Sm., is given at C.R., Part XIV. p. 140, with Plate 61 (1912).
It is not a Victorian plant, so far as we know.

E. paniculata, Sm., is not a Victorian plant, in spite of my
reference to it in C.R., XIII., 106, following Mueller. Mueller’s

84 J. H. Maiden: List of Victorian Eucalypts.

record is from Gippsland, a very unlikely locality for E. fascicu-
losa, F.v.M., which see.

Those who desire to see a figure of this species will find it in
F.F., Part VIII., Plate 30 (1904).

E. HAEMASTOMA, Sm.

I do not know of a Victorian locality. |

E. PIPERITA, Sm.

See C.R., Part X., p. 299, Plate 45 (1908). As regards its
claim to be a Victorian species, see pp, 300, 302, 304, I think
it is a doubtful Victorian plant at present. See also F.F., Part
XXXIIL., p. 38, Plate 124 (1909).

E. POPULIFOLIA, Hook.

An excellent Victorian Eucalyptus observer, Mr. Harry Hop-
kins, says in “ Advance Australia,” for October, 1909: “ An-
other species not common in Victoria, but which extends east-
ward through New South Wales and to Queensland, according
to von Mueller, is Eucalyptus populifolia—the poplar-leaved or
shining box tree. I have not seen it west of the Tambo River.”
He has sent me specimens from Orbost and the Tambo River,
whose foliage simulates that of E. Baueriana a good deal. Al-
though I reject it as a Victorian plant on the evidence, I some-
what confidently look forward to its collection in the Mallee
country, or north-west.

For a figure of E. populifolia see my F.F., Part XLVII., Plate
17601912).

E. sTRICTA, Sieb.

See C.R., Part XL., p. 336 (1920). It has not been proved
to be a Victorian species so far.

E. WootLsiAna, R. T. Baker.

The Seymour plant is, I am satisfied, E. hemiphloia, var. micro-
carpa. As I am of opinion, already expressed in C.R., Part XI.,
under E. odorata and E. hemiphloia, that E. Woollsiana is a mix-
ture of species, and as a full explanation requires additional
figures, it cannot be fully dealt with at this place. It will be
dealt with in Part XLVII., C.R.

(Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicror1a 34 (N.S.), Pr. II,, 1922.]

Arr. XIl.—The Rotifera of Australia and thew Distribution.

By J. SHEPHARD.
[Read 8th September, 1921.]

Investigation into the Rotiferon Fauna of Australia has so far
been carried on by but few observers, but at widely separated
points. The neighbourhood of Melbourne has probably received
most attention. About Sydney, Brisbane and Adelaide collecting
has been done, and outside these capitals scattered districts in
Victoria and New South Wales have been worked, the most
remote contribution being a colonial form obtained by Sir Bald-
win Spencer when with the Horne Expedition to Central Aus-
tralia.

It is quite true that the number of species of rotifers attributed
to any country are so far proportionate to the amount of search
that has.gone on. It appears that much more work should be
done before a full comparison can be made with the rotiferon
fauna of other countries.

The time when an extensive investigation into this group of
animals will be completed appears so remote that it may be useful
to report progress in the hope that further enquiry may be stimu-
lated. Adhesion to the classification of Hudson and Gosse, as
the generally accepted one up to the present, seems desirable in
spite of a recent proposed alteration. It may be well to point
out that a departure from this system and of the accompanying
understanding not to go back beyond Ehrenberg in the search
for priority, will certainly retard work in this group in the
outlying parts of the world, although such course may be in
accordance with a strict interpretation of the rules relating to
priority of names.

The records which may be regarded as reliable give a result
in numbers as follows :—

Rhizota,.... jie, esiovhi vidoes - Yo SQhspeciesofy Oy genena.
BQNOID tsa «voleabaaw Bf » es dddGoveh
Ploima—
Bank blocicata ora 4-45 ee ett hee Woda
ery Leracate, cy" ahd sy Ae widl xia 5
Scirtopoda 1 a » Ll genus.

In all there are 230 species.

86 J. Shephard :

Many more species have been seen, but the above can be re-
garded as the total number of certain identifications, and is the
work of some seven or eight observers.

The habitat and occurrence of rotifers in Australia present
features differing from those of Europe and America. The
dryness of the country in the summer months obliterates nearly
all the pools in the early spring, so that the summer is the
quiescent period for rotifers. The so-called “winter egg”
which in Europe carries the species over the cold season. is
here a “resting egg” bridging over the warm weather. In
the district south of Melbourne, known to botanists as the
““heath country,” there is an area with a surface largely formed
of blown sand, in the hollows of which numbers of pools exist
in winter and disappear entirely every summer, yet they yield
a varied collection of these animals. Among the forms occurring
in this way are a few species of unique characteristics which
so far are unknown elsewhere. These all belong to the genus
Lacinularia.

In the main part of Hudson and Gosse’s “ Rotifera”’ only one
species of this genus was mentioned—L. socialis, a world-wide
form—and in the supplement to the work there was a brief
description of L. pedunculata, an Australian animal. Since the
appearance of that work, eight more species of Lacinularia have
been described, and of these seven, L. elliptica, L. elongata, L.
megalotrocha, L. pedunculata, L. racemovata, L. reticulata, and
L. striolata are from specimens found in Australia, and the re-
maining one, L. natans, Mr. Rousselet states, was found near
London once only. This species is, however, extremely plenti-
ful in Victoria, and has been found plentifully near Brisbane.
Of these species two, L. elliptica and L. elongata, were recorded
later from South Africa and France respectively. This still
leaves five species unknown outside Australia. All these eight
species of Lacinularia are colonial forms, and are therefore con-
spicuous and easily found, the smallest clusters being discover-
able by the naked eye, while two, L. pedunculata and L. striolata,
form clusters of thousands of individuals, and are objects as
readily discernible as a fallen wattle flower, and a third, L. reti-
culata, occurring as it does in colonies on the surface of the
mud, has been seen in masses over a square inch in area.

Mr. Rousselet in his paper on the ‘‘ Geographical Distribution
of the Rotifera” states that “it is not possible to speak of any

Rotijera of Australia. 87

typical or peculiar Rototorian fauna for any continent, zone or
region.” I submit that in view of the facts now stated in regard
to the genus Lacinularia and its mode of occurrence, this decision
is premature. There can be no doubt that man’s activities are
efficient agencies for the distribution of rotifers, and may largely
account for the wide diffusion of species now observed, but, if
isolated occurrences of the five species described and recorded
solely from Australia should be discovered, it seems reasonable
to regard them as most probably due to those agencies.

As above stated, the forms are conspicuous, and besides all
appear in enormous numbers at times. The free swimming
colonies fill the pools, it being impossible to dip an ounce of
water free from them. The method of development indicates
adaptation to the peculiar climatic conditions. The resting eggs,
having lain dormant throughout the summer in the dried mud
in hollows, on the fall of rain in early winter develop simul-
taneously with the eggs of other animal and vegetable organisms.
Generally, the plant forms are the first to mature, and thus a
supply of food is ready for the swarms of minute animals which
follow. The early part of the wet season is the time when in
a given pool a particular species often predominates.almost to
the exclusion of all others. This is specially noticeable in the
five species, L: elliptica, L. elongata, L. striolata, L. natans, and
L. reticulata.

L. striolata practises a unique method of multiplication of
-colonies, which strongly suggests a special adaptation to the
environment. The clusters are sedentary, being attached by a
peduncle to aquatic plants, and a single colony may consist of
thousands of individuals. The growth of the colonies in this
species is not due to successive generations of individuals taking
their places in the colonies alongside their parents. The method
is as follows: After the rain forms a pool the resting eggs of
the previous season germinate, and give rise to free swimming
individuals, which come together and form small colonies. Im-
mediately in these colonies, the individual members of which are
all females, parthogenetic eggs appear, and hatching out in the
gelatinous nidus, the newborn rotifers swim away and combine
with similar forms from other colonies to form a new cluster;
thus a colony consists only of the animals which initiate it, and
the colonies become successively larger as the increase in number
goes on. This swarming process goes on until the food supply

88 J. Shephard: Rotifera of Australia.

is exhausted, and at this stage males appear, followed by the
formation of resting and presumably sexual ova, these latter
being destined to endure throughout the summer until another
rainy season again originates the process.

In view of these facts of adaptation to the special conditions
of the Australian climate, the so-far exclusive occurrence of the
majority of species of one genus, and the methods of multiplica-
tion of so peculiar a character, it seems too hasty to assume that
rotifers are entirely cosmopolitan in their distribution. At least
it must be granted that there are indications of an approach to
an indigenous character such as strongly marks the general
flora and fauna of this’ continent.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorta 34 (N.S.), Pr. II., 1922].

ArT, XII.—Local Rain Producing Influences under Human
Control in South Australia.

By E. T. QUAYLE, B.A.
(With Map.)

[Read 8th September, 1921].

In a previous paper the author has brought several lines of
proof to show that various influences in Victoria were having a
marked effect upon the rainfall. The chief of these were the
substitution in the Mallee of crops and grass for the drought-
resistant forest covering, and irrigation, both natural and
artificial, One of the proofs relied upon was a map showing
for all stations available the departures of the mean rainfall for
the decade 1910-1919 from that of a standard 30-year period,
1885-1914. This appeared to show remarkably well the effects
looked for, that is, all areas in lee of, or S.E. from one with
increased cultivation or irrigation, showed a marked increase in
the rainfall, up to 15 per cent. in the most favoured cases. But
there were increases just beyond the Victorian border in South
Australia for which no explanation was available. In order
to see if any light might be thrown upon this, I undertook the
task of analysing the South Australian rainfalls in the same way
as I had already done those of Victoria and the southern and
western parts of New South Wales. This revealed an area of
marked rainfall improvement, lying south-east from Lake
Torrens, and embracing more especially the eastern portions
of the Upper North, where it ranged as high as 20 per cent.
This area seems to be continuous with the Victorian areas of
improvement, in which case we have a long strip lying north-
west and south-east, stretching from the sources of the Murray
to Lake Torrens, or at least to the highlands of the Upper
North, giving a total length of over 600 miles. It was found too,
that as in New South Wales, north from this area the rainfall
had markedly decreased, deficiencies of 14 per cent. being
common, and that to south-west, as in Victoria, the areas

3°

90 E. T. Quayle:

dependent mainly upon “southern” disturbances for their rains
showed a very definite decrease. We therefore have in South
Australia and New South Wales a belt of country some 250
miles long and 70 miles wide which has had during the decade,
in spite of a general downward tendency elsewhere, a decided
increase in its rainfall.

Another improved strip, again lying N.W. and S.E., and there-
fore parallel to that just defined, begins on the west side of
Spencer Gulf at Waratta Vale, some 40 miles north of Port Lin-
coln, and includes the foot of Yorke Peninsula and the eastern
half of Kangaroo Island.

In looking for causes for these rainfall improvements, it is
evident that irrigation can be disregarded. No serious attempts
at irrigation have been made in South Australia, excepting, of
course, those now in progress on the Murray, which in any case
could only help Victoria.

We have to consider, therefore, only the alteration in the
surface; the substitution of crops or grass for Mallee scrub or
other drought-resistant vegetation, and the variations in the
water supplies of the great inland lakes. The settlement of the
country has brought about considerable changes in these
tespects. Unfortunately I have so far been able to get but little
direct information more than that contained in the Statistical
Registers, which deal only with production,

It is interesting to note that in general where throughout the
30-year period, 1885-1914, land occupation was complete and
but little progress shown in cultivation and stock raising, there
is also no improvement in the rainfall in lee of the area. This
applies to the southern half of the country between St. Vincent’s
Gulf and the Murray River. County Adelaide, for example, has
been practically stationary from 1884 to 1918 as regards horses,
cattle, sheep and the area under cultivation.

Going northward, we find Counties Gawler and Light have
made only very trifling increases in stock, though the years
1909-18 show a 35 per cent, increase in the area under culti-
vation. The Lower North (lat. 33-34) also shows an almost
stationary condition as regards stock, but considerable progress
‘in agriculture, the increase in area amounting to nearly 60 per
cent. There is a definite rainfall improvement of up to 9 or 10
per cent. in lee of these areas, or over a N.-S. strip of 120 miles
Jong, and about 20 miles wide.

Rain Producing Influences in South Australia 91

The Upper North (lat. 314 to 33) was so badly hit by the
droughts of 1895-1902, that its cultivated area declined from
800,000 to about 500,000 acres, or by nearly 4o per cent., and it
also suffered stock losses from which it took many years to re-
cover. Even yet this division, though showing rapid increase
of late, carries scarcely more stock than in those early years,
1885 to 1890, and less than in 1891 and 1892. As regards the
effects from growing crops, it 1s evident that this cannot be
great, at all events in the Upper North, unless we take into
account the greatly increased vigour of growth due to recently
improved cultivation methods, and the use of fertilisers. These

certainly tend to produce far more vigorous growth during the
spring months, and favour later sowing.

A not improbable factor is, however, the clearing of the
country, which improves convectional action, and therefore makes
thunder-showers of more likely occurrence. In spite of the
stationary or retrograde conditions of agriculture, the needs of
stock have probably made progress in ring-barking and scrub-
clearing continuous so that the area of cleared hilly country
should be steadily increasing.

Influence of the Lakes,

The foregoing are probable contributory factors, but the lie
of the area of greatest rainfall improvement points distinctly to
Lake Torrens as its chief origin. With regard to the state of
this Lake or of L. Frome, which should share the same fortune,
I have been able so far to get little definite information, though
various people, some with 40 or 50 years’ experience of the
interior, most of whom were interviewed by Mr. Bromley, the
State Meteorologist, have contributed their impressions. All
agree that Lakes Torrens and Frome are rather immense salt
pans than true lakes, and only rarely show any extensive areas
of water surfaces. Mr. Price, of Frome Downs, writes as follows:
“There are about 20 big creeks which, after rain in Flinders
Range, empty into Lake Frome. This water all disappears in a
few hours after the creeks cease running. The Lake is always
very boggy, and no animal can cross it.” Lake Torrens appears
to behave much in the same way.

It would seem then that the water discharged from time to
time into these depressions goes to dilute a semi-liquid mass,
the water constituent of which being intensely salt and of high

3a

92 E. T. Quayle:

specific gravity, is capable of holding in suspension, and also
preserving much of what the creeks, when flooded, bring down.
The rate of evaporation would naturally be influenced by the
amount of dilution. The lake beds could hardly remain at all
porous, and owing to the absence of vegetation and animal life,
either within the lake area or on the shores, the choking of the
pores must be permanent. That is, the fine muddy particles have
brought about the condition aimed at by the Mallee farmer who
“puddles” his dam. Lake Eyre, being fed from such vast areas,
is more truly a lake, and, according to Mr. Allen, of Warrina
Station, is now fairly full, but that happens only rarely. Mr. T.
Hogarth, who has had 50 years’ experience of the district, has
only seen the Lake filled twice during that time. It also forms
such a boggy environment as to make the water unapproach-
able under ordinary conditions. This and mirage effects make
it hard to ascertain the state of this or any of these lakes.

Run-off Improving.

It seems highly probable on various grounds that both
Torrens and Frome are now impounding much more water than
formerly. Experiences in Victoria go to show that settlement
is effecting great changes in the run-off from the various river
drainages. The clearing off or killing of the timber has made
the springs better water providers, and the destruction of the
trees, coarse grasses, reeds, etc., on the stream banks has caused.
the channels to deepen. Forty or fifty years ago the upper
portions of the Avoca River and its tributaries consisted of
shallow, and often grassy, channels, connecting large, deep water
holes, providing permanent reservoirs, and through their large
total capacity presumably holding back very considerable quan-
tities of water which otherwise would have been poured on to
the lower plain country. These water holes provided a paradise
for anglers, especially school boys. They now hardly exist.
Deep gutters have been cut from pool to pool, and the final
result is a thread of water, almost constant in volume, with
scarcely a pool of sufficient magnitude to shelter a decent sized
fish. There is, of course, some compensation in the fact that the
more permanent flow of the springs, the better protection from

the sun, and the lessened demands of riverside vegetation cause

more water to reach the river’s final destination, and I anticipate

Rain Producing Influences in South Australia. 93

that these factors are ee in connection with the lakes of
South Australia.

Mr. W. E. Abbott, of Wingen, New South Wales, in various
papers read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, has
given many emphatic proofs of the effects of ring-barking in
increasing the flow from springs, and making permanent the
flow of streams previously only intermittent.

The Willochra Creek.

The chief source of water supply for Lake Torrens seems to
be the Willochra Creek, which drains a belt of country extending
south as far as Booleroo, and north as far as Hawker, two
stations about 70 miles apart. The area of this can hardly be
less than 2000 square miles. It is, of course, rather a dry area,
the average annual rainfall ranging from 12 inches at Hawker,
to 16 inches about Booleroo, but is liable to have quite a wet
climate for months at a time. For instance, at Booleroo periods
of six months’ duration in 1916 and 1917 gave 174 and 15
inches respectively; 5 months gave 12 inches in 1920, and 13
inches in 1921 ; 4 months in 1909 gave 13 inches; 3 months gave,
in 1889, 124 inches; in 1893, 11.6 inches; in 1908, 10 inches,
and so on. Hawker has similar records: 14 inches in 3 months
in 1889; 13 inches in 4 months in 1892; 15.2 inches in 5 months
im 1916; 13.3 inches in 4 months in 1917; 20.4 inches in 6
months in 1920; and 14 inches in the first 5 months of Iga.
‘These are quite sufficient to turn the creek into a very con-
siderable river during these periods.

“Run-off” Rains. ,

Failing actual data, I ventured on an estimate of the variations
in the water supply of Lake Torrens, based upon the probable
run-off from the Willochra Creek basin, using the rain stations
Booleroo, Quorn and Hawker. This required some assumptions
of a very general character. The basin being well drained, I
adopted as “run-off” falls in winter, anything over 2 inches for
the first month, and 14 for each consecutive month following,
and in summer 3 inches for the first month, and 2 inches for
each following month. This probably errs on the side of
moderation, for falls of 2 or 3 inches are not uncommon in one
day, but at all events it provides a fairly definite scale by which
to compare the periods. The first really wet period was from

94, LE. T. Quayle :

1889 to 1893, giving a total “run-off” rain of 31.0 inches. This
was followed by a long dry spell of 12 years, 1894 to 1905, giving
only 154 inches altogether. The drought ended in 1902, but the
“run-off” rains for 1903 to 1905 were small, only totalling 6.0.
inches. From 1906 to 1910, a wet period, the “run-off” was.
214 inches; from IgII to 1915, a very dry five-year period, only
2.4 inches; from 1916 to 1917, two very wet years, 15.7 inches;
from 1918-1919, only 1.4 inches, and during 1920, and up till
May, 1921, a very wet period, 17.0 inches. The lake should,
therefore, have been large in 1894, and, say, 1895, in 1911 and
1912, and in 1918 and 1919. At the present time it should contain
more water than at any time “within the memory of the oldest
inhabitant.”

Droughts Minimised by Evaporation from Lakes.

In order to see if the records tend to confirm the theory that
the evaporation from Lake Torrens is a large factor in bringing
about the improved rainfall to south-east, or in lee of it, and
between the lake and, say, Wentworth and Mildura, I tabulated
the annual rainfalls at ten of the principal stations in this area,
as well as at five to southwards, where no improvement is
evident, and of five to northwards beyond the influence of Lakes
Torrens and Frome as rain producers. The first (Group A)
consists of Hawker, Warcowie, Holowiliena, Wilson, Belton,
Paratoo, Yunta, Cavenagh, Johnburgh and Waukaringa; the
second (Group B) of Port Augusta, Quorn, Wilmington, Ardem
Vale and Port Germein; the third (Group C) of Blinman, Bel-
tana, Mt. Lyndhurst, Leigh’s Creek and Wooltana. The per--
centage departures from the average rainfall during the years
following periods of lake water accumulation were as tollow:

1894 1895 1911 1912 1918 1919

Group A. - +19 - - 4 2 + 7 2. +13 - +2 - +12
e B...- + 2 - -18 - -23 ~ +10 - -19 - - 8
te ee gE Ie eo i 8 A ee ere

These figures show the apparent advantage to Group A from
lake evaporation to be very marked, and they also show that the
gain so striking during the decade 1910-1919 could not be
attributed to the accidental excesses of wet years. The fact that
owing to its position, Group B should have the most reliable
rainfall gives the comparison additional significance.

Rain Producing Influences in South Australia. 95

Lake Frome.

This lake, when full, perhaps does not cover more than half
the area.of Lake Torrens. It is, nevertheless, then a very large
body of water with a surface of greater extent even than Port
Phillip Bay. It is filled from practically the same drainage area
as Lake Torrens, and, therefore, should behave in much the
same way. Unfortunately, there are no stations at all near it
on the south-eastern side. About twelve miles due south from
it, however, there is Frome Downs Head Station, which shows
an increase of 27 per cent. for the decade 1910-19, over its
average rainfall of 5% inches. At a radius of about 100 miles in
a south-easterly direction are Boolcoomatta, Cockburn, Thacke-
ringa, Broken Hill, Purnamoota, Poolamacca and Corona. These
stations had in only two cases complete records for the period
reviewed, but these records were capable of being “patched”
without any large probability of error. All but one show marked
improvements in the last ten years’ rainfall, the percentages
being respectively: +9, +11, —5, +13, +4, +3,and +23. The
minus result was the most doubtful; but taking a mean of the
lot, we get an average increase of 8 per cent.

Other Systems.

As regards the probable water accumulation in Lakes Eyre
and Gairdner, or in the numerous minor lake beds of South
Australia, nothing can at present be said. Lake Gairdner is
probably under somewhat similar influences, but Lake Eyre
derives its supplies from sources too remote, and an area too
vast to permit of any hasty generalisation. It may be noted,
however, that in connection with all these lakes there are indica-
tions of benefit during the decade 1910-1919 for all stations.
within areas south-east from them, and to some extent to south
and south-west from them also. This, of course, is in accord-
ance with results already shown by the analyses of the rainfalls
on the eastern and western shores of the head of Spencer Gulf.
Both gained from the waters between, but only in the case of
the former could any great inland gain be expected, the general
drift of the atmosphere being eastward.

The Cultivation of Eyre Peninsula.
Reference has been made to the improved rainfall over the
eastern half of Kangaroo Island, the southern half of Yorke

96 BE. T. Quayle :

Peninsula, and at Waratta Vale, in the east of Eyre Peninsula.
In view of the expanses of sea included, it might seem absurd to
connect these areas and to attribute the rainfall increases to
any land improvements, but it is nevertheless true that such
would be quite in accordance with what has been already
described for other regions. Waratta Vale lies south-east from
an area which has undergone rapid improvement during the last
decade, In 1890 the counties Flinders and Jervois could only
show 23,000 acres under cultivation, and it was only in 1906 that
100,000 was reached, but from 1910 to 1918 the average cultiva-
tion acreage was over 320,000 acres. This means much clearing
of Mallee scrub, In Yorke Peninsula, too, the increase was very
marked, amounting to more than 200,000 over the average acre-
age from 1890 to 1900, or from’ about 130,000 to 350,000 acres.
This latter has recently become, owing to the use of fertilisers
and improved methods generally, one of the most important
granaries of South Australia.

Cultivation in the South-East and East.

The most rapid development in South Australian cultivation
during recent years is in the counties Albert, Alfred, Chandos
and Buccleuch, south of the Murray, and adjoining Victoria.
Prior to 1908 the cultivation was almost negligible, less than
100,000 acres altogether. In 1916 their total was over 670,000
acres. Any rainfall improvement due to this would, however,
mainly affect the adjacent Victorian Mallee areas, most of which
are at present quite undeveloped. It is more than probable,
however, that the improved rainfall shown about and south from
Lake Hindmarsh is due to that. Moreover, in the recently de-
veloped Mallee areas along the Murrayvale-Ouyen line, the
tainfall has proved better than was expected.

Explanatory Notes.

The objection might be raised that the great length of the
rain improvement strip S.E. from Lake Torrens is out of all
proportion to the area of the lake. This may be met by remem-
bering that there may be many re-evaporations and re-descents
as rain of the moisture obtained from the lake. Every moistening
of any area helps the rain prospects for that in lee of it. Another
point is that the hours of most active evaporation and precipi-
tation are not the same. Thunderstorm rains are heaviest and

Rain Producing Influences in South Australia. 97

most frequent towards evening, and widespread rains of tropical
origin seem to be helped by the atmospheric cooling during
night-hours. Thus the effects of lake evaporation might be post-
poned for several hours, and be first felt one or two hundred
miles away.

Map showing percentage departures of the mean rainfall of the last
10 years, 1910-1919, from that of the 30 year period, 1885-1914.

Rainfall Incongruities.

The apparently haphazard mixing of small plus and minus
departures may often be due to difference in elevation and
aspect of the rain stations used. For example, south from Lake
Torrens and west from the Willochra valley is some fairly moun-
tainous country on which the bulk of the rain would be caused
by “southern” disturbances and accompanied by wind, whereas
on the lower ground or in lee of the ranges, the rains would be
more of “monsoonal” type. The latter would show the influence
of the lakes, the former might not. Then, of course, we have
to put up with the occasional neglect of the rain guage,
observers’ carelessness, varying faults in the exposure of the
Pauge, etc.

98 LE. T. Quayle:

Evidences from Decennial Rainfall Maps.

In order that the decade 1910-1919 should not have to carry
the whole burden of proof that rainfall is affected by changes in
the surface of the country, I plotted the rainfall departure in
similar fashion for each of the three decades, making up the
standard period. The results are most interesting and quite in
accordance with the theory.

1885-1894. Over the inland areas of South-eastern Australia,
or east from a line joining Spencer Gulf, Lake Torrens and Lake
Eyre, this was a remarkably wet decade. While this helped to
fill the lakes in South Australia, and increased the floodings of
the Murray and its tributaries, thus producing evaporation areas
and increasing the rainfall in the favoured areas, the generality
of the abundant rainfall, which was largely of direct tropical
origin, tended to obliterate these local preferences. We can
look, therefore, for smaller percentage gains over the areas
usually favoured. This shows up quite well on the map. The
following strips of country showed less gain than the country
on either side: (1) Along the Murrumbidgee from its junction
with the Lachlan, almost up to Narrandera; (2) From Yarra-
wonga to Deniliquin and Piangil, or along the upper Murray
and Edwards; (3) From Shepparton, along the Murray to Went-
worth; (4) From Wentworth to Lake Torrens. As regards the
river areas, this tends to confirm the reality of the rainfall
increases shown by the isohyets on the average annual rainfall
map to obtain along the Murray and the principal streams
through the Western Riverina. When the map was constructed,
in 1910, this was regarded as a freak result. The actual percent-
age departures from average are as follows. Beginning with the
plain country north of the Murrumbidgee, and ending with the
Victorian plain country south from the Murray River we get:
Plains (northern) +28, Murrumbidgee River +19, Plain +24,
Edwards and Murray River (upper) +20, Plains +23, Murray
River (lower) +17, Plains (Victoria) +24.

For the decade the greatest percentage increases are over the
north-west and central plain country of New South Wales, where
some reach 40 per cent. The dominantly tropical origin of the
rains is obvious. )

Stations along the Darling from Pooncarie to Wilcannia show
very consistent increases of over 30 per cent., which may have

Rain Producing Influences rn South Australia. 99

been partly due to the filling of the rarely filled lake system along
the Darling. |

1895-1904. Drought was predominant during this decade,
and tropical influences on the whole ineffective. The very severe
three years’ drought which began in July, 1895, must have dried
up the moisture in the lake beds, and there was no appreciable
run-off to renew it until 1903. This being so, we should look
for the area partially dependent upon the lakes for its rainfall
to show the greatest deficiencies during this period. This is
shown very well, the minus isopleths for this decade showing
much the same contouring as the plus for 1910-1919. This.
reversal is even shown along the southern and south-eastern
borders of the Mallee, which is at it ought to be, the Mallee still
being largely wilderness or unimproved.

1905-1914. This being a transition period, both for agricul-
tura! development and lake storage, its isopleths do not stand
out as those for 1910-1919, but similar tendencies are strikingly
shown. The agricultural progress of Eyre Peninsula is.
apparently reflected in rising rainfall to south-east of the areas,
that is, on the foot of Yorke Peninsula and the eastern end ot
Kangaroo Island; the Western Wimmera is gaining by the clear-
ing and cultivation of the South Australian Mallee across the
border; and the rainfall from Wentworth to Lake Torrens is.
distinctly on the up grade. .

It supplies, moreover, another exceedingly neat proof of the
_ effectiveness of the floodings from the Murray River system in
increasing the rainfall on the river flats, the rainfall isopleths over
the Riverina and northern Victoria, which were minus, giving an
almost exact copy of those for the wet decade, 1885-1894, which
of course were plus.

All three decades thus bring their evidence to support in
various ways the theory that the rainfall is largely affected by
local influences. The coincidences in areas affected are very
striking.

Another point made clear is that the decennial rainfall oscilla-
tions are far greater east from the South Australian lake system
than west of it, which is itself fairly strong evidence that the
variation in the lake supplies is a large disturbing factor. The
figures also suggest for inland New South Wales a rainfall
dependence upon previous downpours in Queensland, and
especially those tending to fill Lake Eyre.

100 E. T. Quayle :

The following table shows the decennial rainfall variations
at two groups of stations, one on the western, the other on
the eastern side of the lake system :—

1885 1895 1905 1910
WESTERN GROUP. to to to to

1894. 1904. 1914. 1919.

Oodnadatta - - +65 : —] - —4 - —15
Anna Creek - - +0 - —8 - +9 - —9
William Creek - —10 - +2 - +8 . —12
Stuart’s Creek = +5 - —14 - +8 - —l1
Arcoona - - +5 - —3 - —2 : —5
Coondambo - - +1 - —9 - +8 - +2
Means - +1 - —6 - +4 - —7

1885 1895 1905 1910

EASTERN GROUP. to to to to

1894. 1904. 1914. 1919.

Warcowie - : +11 - —19 - +8 - +11
Holowiliena_ - - +13 - —25 - +13 - +23
Belton . . +14 : — 24 - +10 - +11
Paratoo - - +19 - —32 - +13 - +20
Frome Downs - +14 oh). TL - +18 - +27
Cockburn - - +21 - —20 - =] - +11
Means - +15 - — 25 - +10 - +17

Seasonal Forecasting.

The effect on this cannot be ignored, since well-filled lakes
are a guarantee that for a few years, two at least, the climate of
the areas south-east from them will be greatly ameliorated—
this can be taken account of by farmers and pastoralists, the
latter more especially. For example, whatever the severity of
any general drought over south-eastern Australia during the
next two years, its effects should be distinctly alleviated over a
large area south-east from Lakes Torrens and Frome, as well
as over all northern Victoria, and some of the Riverina.

General Deductions.

The strength of the preceding reasoning lies, of course, in the
general and striking accordance of the results obtained. Taken
in conjunction with Victorian experience, these are so numerous
that the case for definite rainfall improvements due to local
sources may be regarded as definitely proved. It is the evidence
we accept to demonstrate the rainfall effects of rising ground
proximity to the ocean, prevailing winds, etc., for which we do
not need many years’ records. This solves the problem of what

Rain Producing Influences in South Australia. 101

should be done to revive the “dead heart of Australia.” Without.
any far-seeing policy or consciously-directed effort on our part,
it is probable that the great inland lakes will gradually store
more and more water; but surely the process is worth hastening.
For example, it might even be worth while to keep Lake Torrens
at least partially supplied from Spencer Gulf. An improvement.
of 20 per cent. in the rainfall of 20,000 square miles of country
is worth much money, a practical example of which is to hand.
The counties Granville, Hanson, Herbert and Lytton, which
form only a part of the improved rainfall area under discussion,
in 1918 carried 387,000 sheep and nearly 11,000 cattle and 4000
horses, numbers practically equal to those of 1891, the record
stock year for Australia.

Storage Gains from Clearing.

The preceding study teaches two important lessons. One is
that the clearing away of the forest covering from the whole of
our hilly areas, at all events, of those portions of the inland
foothills and mountain slopes in any way suitable for pasturage,
is distinctly beneficial, not only to its stock-carrying capacity,
but to inland climatic conditions as well, inasmuch as it greatly
increases the amount and constancy of the flow of the rivers. It
thus releases from day to day for storage in inland lakes and
reservoirs vast quantities of water which otherwise would be
thrown into the mountain, atmosphere, and to a large extent
cross the hills, eastwards and southwards, without condensation,
and so escape. A reason for thinking this is that the transpira-
tion and evaporation from the leaves of the upland trees must be
little or none during the times of atmospheric saturation, but
are probably most vigorous during the bright sunshine and
drier air of the anticyclonic periods. This seems contrary to the
behaviour of the drought-resistant vegetation of the plains, which
has to adapt itself to extreme conditions, but it is not really so.
By mountain vegetation, more especially that of Victoria and
New South Wales, the strain of drought and heat is rarely felt
and so definite drought resistance is not often called for; whereas
saturated air is a rare experience to the Mallee eucalypts and
their fellow strugglers, and heat and aridity so often have to be
endured that transpiration, if not checked, would exceed the
powers of their roots to make good. From the former, evapora-
tion is inopportune, both in time and place—from the latter in
time.

102 EZ. T. Quayle:

Need for a National Policy.

The other is that every facility should be given to settlers to
make payable use of our remoter inland areas, even to the extent
of national financial, and other sacrifices, recognising that this
occupation of the interior is a sure way of ameliorating the
climate for the rest of the continent or, at all events, for all those
areas in lee of the outpost belt. Obvious methods are, of course,
the adoption of some zone system for railway fares and freights,
and the establishment of the greatest water schemes the conti-
net is capable of. The addition of four or five inches of rain to
the average annual rainfall of our dry areas, especially if the
addition were maintained during drought periods, would mean
multiplying their value by 20 at least.

It is evident, too, that the further inland the water can be
stored or utilised, the more extensive will the area benefited
climatically be.

Tropical Origin of Inland Rains.

Keeping Lake Torrens full would evidently help to keep Lake
Frome full also, the latter draining a very large proportion of
the country benefiting. If we consider the origin of these inland
rains, and the processes at work in their production, this state-
ment will prove not so extravagant as it seems at first sight.
The mapping of the daily departure from normal of the minimum
temperatures at all stations over the northern half of the con-
tinent shows that practically all the inland rains are of tropical
origin. That is, rain never falls, say, in the neighborhood of
Lake Frome without previous evidence of a drift towards this
region of a body of relatively warm, moist air from some
northerly point, most often, presumably, from the north-west.
Condensation is usually the result of latitudinal cooling, and may
take place without the assistance of any storm developments,
though it most often occurs in the north-eastern front of “south-
erm” disturbances which naturally accelerate the southward
drift of the air in front of their troughs. It is occasionally helped
too by what appears to be displacement upwards of this warm
air by the cold, dry air of an anticyclonic system moving inland
from some point south of west. But whatever the outside
accelerating influences, it is certain that evaporation from any
considerable body of water in the path of this southward-moving
air will have a powerful effect in deciding where and when
precipitation shall begin. Assuming, say, that we have, as these

Rain Producing Influences in South Australia. 103

minimum temperature departures so often show, a wide flow of
air coming inland from the neighborhood of Wyndham or Port
Darwin, this may carry its water vapour without much addition
from the dry plains beneath for perhaps 2000 miles before it
shows by its cloud production that through gradual cooling
the limit of its moisture-holding capacity is nearly reached.
Precipitation may not begin till the Murray is reached, or even
the highlands of the Divide, but it might begin considerably
earlier, and perhaps two or three hundred miles further inland if
it encountered the disturbing effect of buoyant, moist air rising
from such a source as L. Eyre or L. Torrens. That is, for
large inland areas, the influence of the lake evaporation helps
to determine not only the amount of rain, but perhaps more often
whether there shall be some rain or none. In a sense it may be
partly a question as to when and where “the tap is to be turned

”

on.

Australia’s Increasing Aridity—a Partial Cause.

In these papers, reference has already been made to
the different ways in which vegetation may affect rain-
fall. It has first been shown that the substitution of growing
cereal crops or grass for Mallee scrub causes a marked increase
in the rainfall of the districts in lee of the improved area,
especially in spring. Then irrigation was proved to show some
similar effects. And now I have been able to show greater
effects still, from the recently increased water storages in the
great lakes of South Australia, the benefits being almost on a
continental scale. For the increasing lake water storage, the
changing character of the natural drainage channels, and the
lessening of the water demands of the forest covering under
pastoral occupation have been shown to be important factors.
We may now logically apply these results to the solution of a
larger problem.

The early settlers in the eastern interior of this continent
found inland perennial vegetation to consist first of a belt of
vigorous growing trees with abundant foliage occupying the
more elevated upland regions; next on the foothills and adjacent
plains the hardier types of the same with smaller leaf surface;
then further inland stunted and distinctly drought-resistant
types, such as Mallee eucalypts, bull-oaks (casuarinas), etc. ; and
further inland still, under severer conditions, salt bush, blue
bush, etc.

104 E. T. Quayle: Rain Producing Influences.

Now it is more than probable that in the struggle for existence
our perennial vegetation has been its own undoing. The very
means it has been compelled to take for its own protection
have made the climatic environment progressively worse.
Whether distinctly drought-resistant or not, it must regulate
transpiration so that it is never unduly accelerated with the result
that the hot spells ‘eading up to rainy conditions find inadequate
response in evaporation from the country beneath, while the
comparative coolness of the shaded land surface helps to prevent
convectional action and lessen the frequency of thunder-showers.
Moreover, the blocking of the water channels and the prevention
of erosion, the drying of the subsoil, and consequent lessened
flow from springs owing to the large moisture requirements of
the trees all tend to hold the water up against the eastern moun-
tain slopes, where its evaporation is comparatively ineffective in
rain production, and away from the depressions in the interior
where its evaporation would be most effective in rain production,
Hence the increasing dryness of the interior and the gradual
contraction of the belt of perennial vegetation towards the inland.
slopes and foothills.

It therefore follows that pastoral occupation must be assisting
to reverse the process of dessication. The destruction of the
forest trees in the more favoured belts, and the substitution of
grass and annuals for the more drought-resistant trees, and even
for the scrub and herbage perennial growths inland, are aids in
the local production cf rain, while the firming of the surface soil
and the formation-of tracks to water by stock help to make
surface drainage better. Then the tapping of artesian and sub-
artesian water supplies, though probably only a minor influence,.
must help to increase atmospheric vapour supplies and tend to
rain production. Much injury is in parts unfortunately being .
done to the fine surface soil covering of the plains, but where the
plough is used this is arrested. |

The filling of Lake Eyre though a most attractive proposition,
is perhaps an impracticable one, but water storage and irrigation
for large portions of the north-western and western divisions of
New South Wales seem possible, and if carried out whole-
heartedly, would surely have beneficial results to the inland
climate of that State almost incalculably great. The addition of
two inches of rain annually seems quite possible, and that would
carry wheat cultivation westwards to the Darling River.

Proc. Ror. Soc. Vicrorta 34 (N.S.), Pr. IL., 1922].

Ant. XIII.—The Development of Endosperm in Cereals.

By MARY GORDON, B.Sc.
(Caroline Kay Scholar).

(With 9 Text Figures.)

[Read 13th October, 1921].

The early stages of endosperm development are accurately
described in the text-books and other publications dealing with
the subject; but it is assumed that the process of free cell-
formation, by which the first layer of endosperm arises, is.
continued throughout the development of the seed, and that
all the endosperm cells are formed by the development of cell-
walls around the nuclei that lie freely in the protoplasm of the
embryo-sac. The earlier stages in the development of the
endosperm of Burmannia—a monocotyledon comparable with:
the cereals in endosperm development—have been described by
Ernst and Bernard (1). They have shown that the nuclei formed
by the division of the first endosperm nucleus, do not become
immediately enclosed in cell-walls, but they line the embryo-sac,
and later cell-walls develop between them. From this stage
Ernst and Bernard did not trace the method of endosperm.
development any further; they apparently took for granted
that all the endosperm was formed in a similar manner.

The mature grains of cereals agree in the main points of
structure, having the bulk of the endosperm composed of large
cells filled with starch grains, and a peripheral layer, or layers.
in the case of barley, containing no starch, but protein materiak
in the form of aleurone grains. These cells also contain large
nuclei, whereas the nuclei of the inner cells are much dis-
organised.

In a paper—The Endophytic Fungus of Lolium—published
in the proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Dr.
McLennan (2) has described the outer layer of the endosperm
of Lolium temulentum as an endospermic cambium, which is.
active only on its inner surface, where it cuts off brick-shaped
cells which assume an approximately spherical form as they
attain their adult size. They remain thin-walled and constitute
the starchy endosperm. As the grain approaches maturity, the

4

106 Mary Gordon :

outer layer ceases to divide, but it persists in the seed as the
aleurone layer. Even when the cells of this layer are resting,
and have become filled with reserve food, their nuclei remain
large and intact. At this stage the walls of the aleurone cells
become considerably thickened, and this supports the cambium
theory, since cambial cells entering on a period of rest show
thickenings on their walls which are either partly or wholly
removed when such a layer recommences its activities.

I have attempted here to trace the development of the
aleurone laver and the starchy endosperm in the more common
cereals, and to show whether the starchy endosperm is
developed from the aleurone layer or not; that is, to prove
whether the aleurone layer is really an endospermic cambium
or not.

The ovules of barley, wheat and oats were taken at various
stages of development, and fixed in either Carnoy’s or Bouin’s
fixing solutions. Considerable difficulty was experienced in
fixing the oat grains, owing to the hairy nature of the pericarp,
which prevented the fixing solution from penetrating the seed.
An attempt to fix some seeds under reduced atmospheric
pressure was not any more successful, since the more volatile
constituents of the fixing solutions tended to vaporise under
the reduced pressure, and so pass out of the solution. The
only way to ensure rapid and complete penetration of the fixing
solution is to pierce the seed-coat, and even then the inner
endosperm of ripe grains generally breaks in cutting. Micro-
tome sections were cut of the grains embedded in paraffin, and
the sections were stained with Haidenhain’s Iron Haematoxylin
as it rendered the nuclei in mitosis very distinct. In all three
cases the development was found to be practically identical,
except that the ripe barley grain has—as is well-known—an
aleurone layer several cells deep, whereas wheat and oats have
a single layer only. In the “Annals of Botany,” Miss Brenchley
has published two papers describing the earlier stages in the
development of the grains of wheat and barley (3) and (4), They
show how the first endospermic nuclei are formed by the
division of the secondary nucleus of the embryo-sac, but the
later stages in the endosperm development are not described.

A longitudinal section of a young ovary is shown in Text
Fig. I.; it is not cut directly through the centre of the seed so
that. the embryo does not appear in the section. In the centre

107

The Development of Endosperm in Cereals.

1,

ic nucle

-sac are the first-formed endosperm

which have been formed from the secondary nucleus after fertili-

-

of the embryo

A’
- B
é
D

oreeee

the

ing in

This, according to Goebel,

- %
i oe

Pts. AY
1"

These appear as a group of free nuclei ly
protoplasm of the embryo-sac.

sation.

‘ :

Text Ficore I.

Longitudinal section of young ovary of barley after fertilisation.

A—First endospermic nuclei.

B—Nucellus.

C—Ovular integuments.

4a

D—Wall of ovary—later pericarp.

108 Mary Gordon :

occurs in all monocotyledons‘and most of the dicotyledons.
Some of the nuclei later pass to the walls of the embryo-sac,.
where they form a single lining layer (Text Fig. II.). Portions
of the protoplasm around the walls, each containing a nucleus,
are cut off by cell walls, so that the embryo-sac becomes lined
by a single layer of cells. This section is also cut to one side of
the ovary, so that the embryo is not showing.

ms eo cmeew mwas + eeeerneees*

Text Figure II.

Contents of embryo-sac of barley soon after fertilisation.

A—Group of large vacuolate nuclei in embryo-sac.
B—Wall of sac lined by protoplasm and nuclei.

A typical section through an oat grain in a later stage of
development than the preceding sections is shown in Text Fig.
III. One nucleus of the outer layer of endosperm cells is
undergoing mitosis, and there are also two resting nuclei of
the same layer apparent. After the nuclei divide, transverse
cell-walls are formed between them, and the inner cells do not
as a rule divide again, but they enlarge considerably and become
filled with starch. The nucleus of the outer cell remains large

The Development of Endosperm in Cereals. 109

and retains its power of dividing until the grain is almost
mature. Aleurone grains then appear in the cells of the outer

ve

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;

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whe,

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Lave cee storee 2 OSS.
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83 ge?

Text Figure III.

Transverse section of oat grain.

B—Endospermic cambium shows two resting nuclei and one in mitosis.
A—Degenerating cells of walls of ovary.

layer. The starch of the endosperm of oats is not in the form
of grains as in wheat and barley, but appears as rounded groups.
Each group is made up of a number of centres, of which there
appear to be more in the older than in the younger groups; but

110 Mary Gordon :;

it is possible that the number of centres is the same in all of
the groups and o1ily show up clearly when starch is deposited in
them. j

Occasionally nuclei are to be found dividing in the endosperm
two or three cells below the actively dividing surface layer
(Text Fig. IV.). This is not inconsistent with the idea of a
cambium, as cells formed from a cambium frequently divide

smote

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Text Figure IV.

Transverse section of young oat grain showing nuclei of first and second
layers in mitosis.

again. In the endosperm of barley binucleate cells sometimes
occur (Text Fig. V.), and it is possible that after the original
nucleus divided the two daughter-nuclei lie close together in the
cell, and are prevented from separating by the presence of
starch which soon becomes deposited in the cell. This also
would prevent the formation of a new cell wall, thus giving a
single binucleate cell.

The Development of Endosperm in Cereals. 111

Text Fieurer V.
Binucleate endosperm cell.

A later stage in the development of the barley grain is
illustrated by Text Fig. VI.; it shows the transition of the surface

£
a
A"
enters... + ptt
Pe oe
PL gst: =

* Litre Pete a a ee

Text Fiaure VI.

Transverse section of barley grain.
A— Outer dividing layers of endosperm,
B—Starchy endosperm cells. D—Testa.
C—Pericarp. E—Remains of nucellus.

112 Mary Gordon :

layers of the endosperm from a dividing cambium to the resting
condition of the adult grain, when the cambial cells become
packed with aleurone grains to form the aleurone layer. Another
section of a barley grain at about the same stage of development

Text Fieurer VII.

Oblique section of barley grain.

A—Degenerating wall of ovary.

B—Remains of nucellus.

C—Dividing nucleus.
as Text Fig. VI., but which has been cut obliquely, and is more
highly magnified, is shown in Text Fig. VII. The distinction

The Development of Endosperm in Cereals. 1138

between the dividing cambial layer and the general endosperm is
not so well marked, but the details of cell-division are clear
in the outer layer, which appears several cells deep owing to
the obliqueness of the section.

Surrounding the endosperm there is a single layer of large
cells, the contents of which have practically disappeared; this
is the remains of the nucellus (5), which has been displaced and
absorbed by the developing endosperm. It appears as a layer of
disorganising cells in the young grain, but has disappeared when
the grain is ripe. Beyond this there is a layer of silica, which

Text Fiaure VIII.

Transverse section of ripe oat grain.

A—Single aleurone layer.
B—Endosperm.

‘was probably deposited in the outer wall of the embryo-sac—
this forms the so-called testa which is not really a seed-coat,
since it is devoid of any cellular structure.

The ovary wall contained starch which was absorbed by the
embryo during its development (Text Fig. VI). As the starch
is used the cells become empty, and the nuclei can be seen in
process of degeneration. Later the cell-walls thicken and
‘develop into the pericarp of the ripe grain. ‘The final stages,
where the resting cambium appears as the aleurone layer, are
shown in a transverse section of an oat grain (Text Fig. VIII),

114 Mary Gordon :

and of a barley grain (Text Fig. IX.). With the exception of
occasional cases in which dividing nuclei occur just beneath the
superficial cambial: layer, no cell divisions take place in the
starchy portion of the endosperm, which is entirely derived
from segment cells cut off from the cambium.

--+-2+2-. D

Text Figure IX.

Transverse section of ripe barley grain.

A—Pericarp.

B—Testa.

C—Aleurone layer several cells deep.
D—Endosperm (starch).

The fact that the aleurone layer differs from the starchy
endosperm in being a resting layer, enables us to understand
several of its peculiarities. Thus Stoward (6) has shown that
the removal of the aleurone layer from the endosperm leads
to a marked fall in the output of carbon dioxide by the grain,
and indicates approximately the comparatively large share of
the total respiratory output that is due to the aleurone layer.
Injury to the seed alone would tend to cause an increased
respiratory activity manifested as a wound reaction. Although

~

The Development of Endosperm in Cereals. 115

the cells of this layer are packed with aleurone grains, they
also contain large, well-defined nuclei and a quantity of proto-
plasm. The nuclei of the starch-containing cells of the endosperm
are partly disorganised and the cells contain very little proto-
plasm. The greater respiratory activity of the aleurone layer
may be accounted for if it is to be regarded as a resting cambial
layer.

It has also been demonstrated that there is present in the
outer layers of the endosperm of wheat, rice and other cereals, a
substance the deficiency of which causes polyneuritis in birds
and Beri-Beri in man (7). Funk gave to this substance the
name vitamine, and supposed it to be contained in cells rich
in protein. It is found in the tissue of the embryo of cereals,
as well as in the aleurone layer, but it is deficient in the starchy
endosperm. Since vitamines are usually especially associated
with growing tissues, it is not surprising to find that in this
layer—a resting cambial layer—they should be especially abun-
dant, whereas in endosperm cells derived from it, which degen-
erate into starchy receptacles, vitamines should be deficient or
absent.

Brown and Morris (8) advanced the view, from their experi-
ments, that the amylaceous endosperm of Granineae represented
a “dead storehouse of reserve material.” This conclusion does
not refer to the endosperm as a whole, but only to the amylifer-
‘ous cells, the possibility of the aleurone cells possessing vitality
being left open. Haberlandt (9) regarded the aleurone layer as
a glandular digestive organ.

The following table, taken from the report of a committee of
the Royal Society of London, indicates that there are vitamines
present in the whole grain of the cereals, but the flour which
is obtained after milling contains no vitamines, as they are re-
moved with the aleurone layer.

VITAMINES IN PLANTs.

Fat-soluble B
see (Anéirehiti) ———_(ANHIneNTIe | antiscoebutis
Wheat and whole grain - - + 4 0
of cereals
White wheat flour - - 0) - 0 - 0
Cornflour - - 0 2 8) 3 fa)
Polished rice - - 0 - ) . )
Malted barley - + - + +. - ae ae

116 Mary Gordon: Endosperm in Cereals.

Summary.

(1) The first formed endospermic cells of cereals are derived
from the secondary nucleus of the embryo-sac. 3

(2) The nuclei so formed pass to the walls of the embryo-
sac, when they form a lining layer. Later the nuclei become
enclosed by cell walls, so that the embryo-sac is lined by a
single layer of cells.

(3) The lining layer of the embryo-sac assumes the character
of a cambium, which produces segment cells only on its inner
-surface.

(4) The segment cells formed by the division of the cambial
cells enlarge, remain thin-walled, and become packed with
starch, to form the starchy endosperm.

(5) After the cells of the endospermic cambium have ceased
‘to divide, they become filled with aleurone grains and the cell-
‘walls thicken. It then forms the aleurone layer.

(6) The greater respiratory activity of the aleurone layer and
‘the presence of vitamines in it are the natural results of its
‘being a resting cambium.

(7) Whether it can be awakened to further activity during
‘germination remains for future investigation.

The foregoing research was carried out in the Botanical
Department of Melbourne University, under the direction of
Professor Ewart, and represents the work done as Caroline
‘Kay Scholar.

References.

(1) Ernst and Bernard—Annales du Jardin Botanique de Buit-
enzorg (Ser. 2) 10, 1912.

(2) McLennan, E.—Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. xxxii.,
1920, p. 252. “

(3) Brenchley, W.—Annals of Botany, vol. xxiii., 1909, p. 117.

(4) Brenchley, W.—Annals of Botany, vol. xxvi., 1912, p. 903.

(5) Collins, E. J—Annals of Botany, vol. xxxil., 1918, p. 381.

(6) Stoward—Annals of Botany, vol. xxii., 1908, p. 415.

(7) Chick and Hume—Royal Society of London, 1917, vol.
903, Pp. 44.

(8) Brown and Morris—Journal of the Chemical Society, vol.
Ivii., 1890, p. 458.

(9) Haberlandt—Physiological Plant Anatomy.

Proc. Ror. Soc. Vicrorra 34 (NS,), Pr. II., 1922].

Art. X1V.—Present and Probable Future Distribution of
Wheat, Sheep and Cattle in Australia.

By R. G. THOMAS, B.Ag.Sc., Dept. of Agriculture, Victoria.
(Communicated by A. E. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc.)

(With 3 Text Figures.)

[Read 10th November, 1921].

Australia being essentially an agricultural and pastoral
country, it was thought that considerable interest would attach.
to any method which would graphically and accurately represent.
_ the distribution throughout the continent of the units of the main
primary industries; further, that such might give some insight
into the possibilities of extending the various industries beyond.
their present boundaries, and the direction. in which such exten-
sion is likely to take place. With this object in view the accom-
panying maps were prepared, showing the distribution of the
units of the three principal primary industries—viz., sheep, cattle:
and wheat—in Australia (referring here and in all statistics to:
the continent of Australia, excluding Tasmania). The method.
adopted has been to represent a certain number of head of stock,
or acres of wheat, by a dot placed on the map as near as possible
to their situation, as indicated by official statistics; this gives a.
more accurate representation of the distribution than can be ob-
tained by differential shading or coloring. Each dot represents.
respectively 5000 acres of wheat, 10,000 head of sheep, and 1000:
head of cattle; these quotas are small enough to show a rela-
tively sparse distribution, yet without showing too great an area.
where the dots run together, and no differentiation can be shown
in the areas of concentration of the respective units. The statis-.
tics used were those for the year 1918-19, being the latest typical
season for which details of all the States were available at the
time the work was commenced. Similar maps have been pre-
pared by the United States Department of Agriculture, but it is’
hoped that so far as Australia is concerned those now published
are not only based on later records, but more accurately repre--
sent the actual distribution of the units throughout the country.

118 R. G. Thomas :

Embodied in the maps is also meteorological data relating to
rainfall and temperature, which is necessary for adequate con-
sideration of the factors affecting the present distribution and
probable extension of the industries. The data given consist of
various isotherms (i.e., lines of equal average mean annual tem-
perature) with the 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60 inch isohyets (1.e.,
lines of average annual rainfall), in the case of the two stock
maps; and for the wheat map, the 5, 7.5, 10, 15 and 20 inch lines
of winter rainfall, or more strictly the rainfall during the growing
period of the crop, i.e., April to October, inclusive.

Acknowledgment is here made to the Government Statists of
the various States and the Department of Home and Territories
for the furnishing of the statistics necessary to the work, and to
the Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau for meteorological
data used.

Wheat.

The total area sown to wheat for grain and hay in Australia,
for the season 1918-19, was 9,647,433 acres, and of this total New
South Wales contributed 3,227,374, South. Australia 2,571,208,
Victoria 2,488,810, Western Australia 1,336,502, and Queensland
23,539 acres. This area represented approximately 3.5 per cent.
of the total area that year sown to wheat throughout the world.
Until the last four seasons, which have shown a decline due to
abnormal labour and marketing conditions, there had been a
steady expansion of wheat-growing in Australia, her production
increasing from 1.6 per cent. of that of the world in 1906-07,
to 4.8 per cent. in 1916-17, and it is hoped to show that there
is ample room for this extension to continue.

Considering the distribution of the area shown by the map
(Plate I.), the most striking feature is the very limited extent of
the wheat-growing country. There is, indeed, a distinct wheat
belt forming a crescent-shaped area some distance inland from,
and approximately parallel to, the south-eastern coast line,
approaching and broken by the coast line as the latter turns
northwards along South Australia, and continued again as a
similar belt back from the south-western coast of Western
Australia,

The factors limiting the distribution of the wheat acreage may
be classed under two heads—natural and political or economic.
The chief natural factors are the soil and climatic conditions of
rainfall and temperature. The soil within any climatic region

iy

Each dot represents 5,000 acres.
Lines of average “winter rainfall” shown thus
Lines of average mean annual temperature shown thus — — — —

Lines showing “probable inland limit of wheat belt as indicated by climatic conditions

furthest inland areas under crop, shown thus x-x-x

|
.

Fic 1.—Distripution or WHEAT ACREAGE IN AUSTRALI

i
i.
[

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vA
P I
5°
04°C
Ss
! 0"
U
‘lawrence 15"
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: | \ he Darling
| on / Downs
|

Ldeowre

ie na Gttiontad: by obbas

Distribution of Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in Australia. 119

will vary widely in fertility, but it is safe to say that, within the
regions to be indicated as suitable, and not yet used for wheat
production, though there are areas of low soil fertility, there are
many thousands of acres of which the soil is eminently suited to
the growth of wheat. As regards the other two factors, rainfall
and temperature, the rainfall both in its total amount and
incidence in respect to the growing period of wheat, is far the
more important. Temperature, in fact, can be almost disregarded
as a limiting factor; there is no extensive area of cultivable land
in Australia which is actually too cold for the growth of wheat,
though in our colder districts other conditions combine to make it
less profitable to grow wheat than other crops. Similarly, though
wheat is not grown north of the 70 deg. isotherm, there is a
considerable area north of this line climatically similar to the
wheat-growing areas of India.1 Here, again, it is the question
of the degree of profitableness as compared with other agricul-
tural and pastoral pursuits under our present conditions of
development, rather than temperature, which limits the exten-
sion of the wheat area ina northerly direction. At the same time
there is evidently an optium condition of temperature for wheat
in Australia, for practically the whole of the area sown to wheat
is situated between the 60 and 65 deg. F. isotherms, there being
a marked coincidence between the 60 deg. isotherm and the
southern limit of the wheat belt.

Considering the distribution of acreage in relation to the
more important factor of rainfall, the rain of importance to
wheat is that falling during the growing period of the crop, i.e.,
April-October, inclusive, the rain falling during the summer
being largely lost by evaporation, and also sometimes tending
to reduce the wheat yield by causing lodging of the crop and the
spread of rust. Therefore the lines of rainfall shown are those
for this period. It is seen that practically all our wheat is now
grown between the lines of 7.5 and 15 inches of winter rainfall.
In Western Australia there is certainly a considerable area
between the 15 and 20 inch lines, but here settlement is so sparse
that more intensive agriculture has not yet pushed the wheat
belt back into its true sphere in the dry farming regions. In
South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, the 15-inch line
corresponds very closely with the southern boundary of the
wheat belt, this line approximately separating the dry farming

LVide Griffith Taylor, ‘‘The Australian Environment.’’

120 R. G. Thomas :

area from the closer settlement country where more intensive
farming is possible. The 10-inch line of winter rainfall has.
usually been regarded as the safe limit for wheat growing, but
in South Australia and Victoria wheat is grown over a very
considerable area inside this line, extending to, and even passing
the 7.5-inch line. The wheat-growing districts about Edeowie
and Morgan in South Australia, and immediately south of
Mildura in Victoria, are beyond the 7.5-inch line of winter
rainfall; while between the 10 and 7.5-inch lines are the older
settled Mallee districts of Veitch, Ouyen and Swan Hill, where
wheat growing has been an established and successful industry
for over 10 years. It can be fairly assumed then that country
having a winter rainfall of somewhat under 7.5 inches, of relia-
bility equal to that in the areas indicated, and an average tem-
perature not greatly above that of these areas, is capable of
growing wheat under our present methods of cultivation and
economic conditions of price of wheat, land and labour. In New
South Wales the 1o-inch line has not yet been passed, and it
would seem that in the northern portion of the State it does.
indicate the probable limit of the wheat belt. The greater varia-
bility of the rainfall, and the higher temperature, causing
increased loss by evaporation, make a given average rainfall less
efficient in crop production here than a similar amount in the
cooler and more reliable rainfall areas in the southern portion
of the State.

It is difficult, indeed, to indicate the ultimate inland limits.
of the wheat belt in Australia, for with improved, drought-

resistant varieties, and better methods of cultivation, new areas
- are being brought under crop which but a few years previously
it was thought impossible to successfully cultivate. This in-
creasing efficiency will, it is hoped, continue. But even with our
present knowledge there is ample room for expansion before
what may be termed the probable limits of the wheat belt in the
more immediate future are reached, The line shown thus:
—x—x—, is an arbitrary line, indicating what appears, from
climatic considerations, to be such probable limit, and it is seen
to enclose immense tracts beyond the present limits of develop-
ment. Commencing on the 10-inch winter rainfall line, south
of Shark’s Bay, W.A., where the variability of the rainfall, is too
great to warrant an extension of the 7.5-inch line, it passes west
beyond the 7.5 line, as the more reliable rainfall along the

Distribution of Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in Australia. 121

southern coast is reached. In this State alone we see a vast
area of country awaiting exploitation, the greater portion of it
having a winter rainfall equal in reliability and total amount to
the well-developed wheat belt in Victoria. Along the. west coast
of South Australia this reliability of rainfall still holds, and here
again might be expected a development beyond the 7.5-inch
line, as has already occurred in the regions of less reliable rainfall
about Edeowie. Passing over the extension of the belt north of
Spencer’s ‘Gulf, the line turns southwards and runs somewhat
north of the Murray, and approximately parallel to the 7.5-inch.
line to about Ivanhoe, N.S.W., enclosing the immense tract of
fertile Riverina. country. Thence the line passes north-east
beyond the 10-inch line, and, north to St. Lawrence on the
Queensland coast. As previously stated, the greater variability
and higher temperature make the actual rainfall less. effective
than in the southern areas; hence this marked departure from the
7.5-inch line. As to the probable northerly limits of the belt,
although there is a considerable area shown with a sufficient
winter rainfall, and where wheat can doubtless be grown, yet:
it seems unlikely that any considerable amount will be grown
north of the Darling Downs, the high temperature, ample
rainfall, and its summer incidence earbining to. make wheat less.
profitable than: other crops.

The present wheat belt, as shown, anita over an area of
some 124 million acres, of which only one acre in fifteen, or a
total of nearly eight million acres was under wheat in 1918-19..
Since none of this is mountainous country, and wheat is every-
where the principal crop, it might be expected that the area at:
present sown will be about trebled before this belt is utilised to
anything like its full capacity.. But, apart from this area, there
is in the probable wheat belt indicated further inland an area
of some 138 million acres. Assuming that this area can be
developed only to the same extent as at present obtains in the
Victorian Mallee, which is indeed a reasonable assumption. wher
it is remembered that 20 years ago the advisability of abandon-
ing the Mallee for settlement was seriously considered, and that
even now but a relatively small portion of it is developed to any
extent, this area would then carry a population of some 570,000,
or 24 people per square mile.

Aggregating the two areas, we have a wheat belt of over om
million acres. Of this we might ultimately expect at least 40°

5

122 R. G. Thomas:

million acres under crop each year ; this, with an average yield of
10 bushels per acre, would give at least 400 million bushels
annually, which, at the present Australian rate of consumption
per head of population, and deducting the necessary quantity
required for seed, would supply flour sufficient for the require-
ments of over 50 millions of people. It is not to be thought that
even this is considered the limit of our possibilities as a wheat-
producing country. It is a conservative estimate of the possible
production from this area only, based on a low proportion of
land under crop and a low average yield per acre. In the closer
settlement country, wheat can be grown in rotation with other
crops under conditions of intensive agriculture; the acreage
sown in these areas would not approach that of the wheat belt,
but with a higher average yield per acre the production would
be appreciable.

It is clearly evident that the factors determining the present
actual limits of the wheat belt are economic and not natural ones,
The limits on the coastal side of the belt are determined by
questions of profit in competition with other crop and live stock
industries ; inland, practically in all cases by transport facilities.
The most striking instance of this is in the undeveloped areas
of Mallee land on either side of the Ouyen-Murrayville railway
line. Again, the decided boundary in South Australia and New
South Wales where the wheat belt stops at the Murray River,
coincident with the limits of railway facilities. We have a long
way to go in extending this, the chief present economic limit to
the development of the wheat industry, before we approach the
natural boundaries indicated above.

Sheep.

In the year under consideration, the sheep population of Aus-
tralia numbered some 85,194,503, and of these New South Wales
claims 37,381,874, Queensland 18,220,985, Victoria 15,773,902,
Western Australia 7,183,747, South Australia 6,625,184, and
Northern Territory 8,811 head. This number represents approxi-
mately 16 per cent. of the world’s sheep, emphasising Australia’s
position as a leading sheep and wool-producing country.

Examining the distribution of the sheep throughout the con-
tinent (Plate II.), it is seen that the belt of maximum concen-
tration is in South-eastern Australia, and that it coincides
toughly with the wheat belt, the main departure being in the

B ‘southern Cross

Fic. 2.—Distrispution oF SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA,

ines of average annual rainfall shown this ——e |
Lines of average mean annual temperature shown thus — — ©

Kach dot represents 10,000 sheep.

L

é

~~

Cloncurry

Q

o é

. J , ded me
aah @
I pA
; ul w ¢ .
ah eee | 4

‘

94

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ee ©

poe rei xt.
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: 07% ~ten 4
, -
j
'
;

Distribution of Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in Australia. 1238

famous sheep country of the Western District of Victoria. The
sheep-carrying country, however, extends much further inland
and northwards than does the wheat belt. The area of maximum
concentration commences in New South Wales, somewhat above
the 65 deg. F. isotherm, and runs south-west through that State
and Victoria on either side of the 20-inch line of annual rainfall.
Such conditions of rainfall and temperature below 65 deg. F.
are, given suitable soil, evidently the optimum conditions for
sheep in Australia. From this region of maximum concentration
there is a wide belt of decreasing sheep concentration extending
inland beyond Oodnadatta, and including the South Australian
sheep country. The most noticeable breaks in this passage
from the maximum to the minimum concentration are: (1) the
low concentration areas of the Victorian and South Australian
Mallee, where grazing to any extent is only possible after the
land has been cleared and cultivated; and (2) the area of higher
concentration, where the rainfall isohyets run northwards of the
Mt. Lofty Ranges. It is worthy of note that along the moister
eastern side of the continent there are no appreciable numbers
of sheep close to the coast line; not, in fact, until the belt of
maximum cattle concentration is passed. The distribution of
sheep is apparently limited here by the high rainfall, practically
no sheep being found beyond the 40-inch line of rainfall. The
liability to such troubles as foot-rot, liver-fluke, and other para-
_ sitic diseases is evidently one of the factors making the keeping
of sheep in such districts less profitable than cattle raising.

Appreciable numbers of sheep are found as far north as Clon-
curry and beyond in Queensland, and around Derby in Western
Australia, both being about latitude 18 deg. S.; while, however,
in Queensland the sheep do not extend appreciably beyond the
75 deg. F. isotherm, in Western Australia, the isotherms dipping
south, they appear considerably above the 80 deg. F. isotherm.
The temperature range of sheep is therefore considerable, as in
the south-eastern corner of the continent they are found in
country having a mean annual temperature below 55 deg. F.

In Queensland the greatest concentration of sheep is about
Longreach, where, it is to be noted, there is a relatively sparse
distribution of cattle. Over the rest of the State, inside the high
rainfall coastal belt, and south of the 75 deg. F. isotherm, the
distribution is fairly uniform and comparatively dense. Western

Australia has a small percentage of her total area as sheep-
5a

124 R. G. Thomas:

carrying country, and no region where the distribution can claim
to be dense. The sheep belt is along the coast; here, however,
except in the extreme south-western corner, a coastal region of
low rainfall. ; ;

Considering the possible extension of the sheep-carrying areas.
This extension, it may be noted, has not been very rapid over the
last 20 years, the numbers of sheep in Australia in 1900 and 1918
being respectively: 70,602,995 and 85,194,503, or an increase
of 20 per cent. as compared with an increase of 33 per cent in
human population. There is no reason why the numbers should
not be considerably increased, both by the better management
oi present pasture lands, and the opening up of new country. The
areas suggesting themselves as potential sheep country are: (1)
the Victorian and South Australian Mallee lands, where the
stocking of the country does not, as is usual, precede, but follows.
on after, the clearing and cultivation of the land. At present few
of the Mallee settlers keep sheep, but with the passing of the
pioneering stages of settlement, the number of small flocks:
kept is gradually increasing. Better transport facilities, more
than anything else, would greatly aid the development of this.
section. (2) There is a considerable stretch of country along
the southern coast of Western Australia, bounded roughly by
Southern Cross, Albany and Eucla, which is practically devoid of
sheep population. ‘This is all within the 10-inch line of rainfall,
and from climatic considerations above it should have a carrying
capacity at least equal to the South Australian west coast, and
other 10-15-inch rainfall areas. Indeed, compared with South
Australia, where there is the greatest development of the arid
country, we might look for an extension still further inland than
the area indicated. Even allowing for a considerable proportion
of inferior soil, there seems every reason to believe that this.
area is capable of supporting a population of sheep, certainly
sparse, but aggregating many thousands of head. (3) In Queens-
land, the limits of the present distribution show a fairly sharp
line, both along the northern and western boundaries. Allowing
that the high temperature and heavy rainfall combine to make a
northern extension of the sheep belt unlikely, there remains
between the Queensland western boundary of the present distri-
bution and the sheep-carrying areas of the north-west coast
an immense tract of country still to be exploited: The population
in Queensland between the 10 and 20-inch lines of rainfall, and:

ap)

UE

\

|
a
Fic. 3.—Disrripution oF CartLe IN AUSTRALIA. |
“Each dot represents 1,000 head. |
Lines of average annual rainfall shown thus

Lines of average mean annual temperature shown thus — —

Cape York
range lye

9

ee

-

oe De ¥
one nS =
a a S
eG oo0 oS
gretestie: rol y
ee 20? ae ) ah
wont el . w%
Soe DS CACC - ly

.
4 A z
wy © %e%o ee ate 208 e*.%e
4 @eetee ewite eo fea pe fe oore
PS ecees . . over ors
e e e e °
ef ,eep re e e.%e @ e
© @6°8 eee
° ° e*,e¢ @ * ee
ee" rig Og ei ee e
eo, ec eee® e 4 we e tes 86
eo*%* ee? srs? «st. -
ae e of. /0,. oe” ~@iee s
ee? oe e € ee %e6 ee? e
eeee ®% 6 «6 Pel Bea . oe
e e 6 ee
eve e ee
ee ee e eg. 6 le ole
= © - . * e .
ae ee ° a ee . e «6
‘ee ° e a
e . em
6 ees « Pe teas ere
e eje @ ® 6 is e
. e e °
e <o o/* « 2 . e
6 e ° ee
e ee e s
° .
® 7 oe o °
e es ee
°
° epg ie o °
e e ° %
. ° e . e
° se =
. e%e ¢
e
ed °

V2

Yeaoa ny

Me
e

_
*
=
*
*
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-
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4 - S : ne
ae: Z =. o. — ==
‘cS _ a ee a ee ee 6

Distribution of Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in Australia. 125

close to the 75 deg. F. isotherm, is seen to be comparatively
dense, and it can be fairly assumed that such conditions of
rainfall and temperature are quite favorable to the sheep
industry. Between these lines of rainfall and approximating to
the same temperature is a vast tract of country stretching across
the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Large areas oi
this land are doubtless of a more or less barren nature, but it
seems likely that, with increased population and improved com-
munication and transport facilities, this area will contribute
appreciably to Australia’s sheep products.

Cattle.

There was in 1918-19 a total of 12,576,842 cattle in Australia,
of which number Queensland possessed 5,786,744, New South
Wales 3,280,676, Victoria 1,601,544, Western Australia 943,847,
the Northern Territory 621,163, and South Australia 342,768.
These figures show an increase of approximately 46 per cent. on
the total of 8,640,225 for the year 1900, being a much more rapid
increase than that shown by sheep over the same period.

Examining the map of cattle distribution (Plate III.), the most
noticeable feature is the very general nature of such distribution,
cattle being found under very diverse conditions of rainfall and
temperature, right from Darwin and Cape York Peninsula to
the southern coast. The rainfall range is from 5 inches in the
arid interior to over 60 inches on coastal Queensland and New
South Wales, and the temperature range from over 85 deg. F. in
the far north-west to below 55 deg. F. in the south-eastern
corner. The ability of cattle to withstand both cold and heat,
and their great travelling capacity, making them invaluable in
the pioneering stages of a country’s development, are here
emphasised. Compared with the distribution of sheep, they not
only show this wider range, proving their greater adaptability
to varying conditions, but also the regions of maximum concen-
tration differ markedly from those of sheep. The areas of maxi-
mum concentration are found along the coasts of New South
Wales and Queensland, commencing just outside the sheep
country, and in districts having a rainfall of 40 inches and over.
Under such conditions cattle-raising and dairying, as compared
with sheep, are evidently so much more profitable as to prac-
tically totally exclude the latter. The next greatest concen-
tration is found in Gippsland and the Western District: of

126 | R. G. Thomas :

Victoria, with temperate climate and rainfall of 30 inches and
upwards, but in these areas sheep also are found.

The influence of the big capital cities in increasing the cattle
population (for dairying and fattening purposes) is clearly shown
in the comparatively poor country north of Melbourne, and to a
lesser extent around Sydney and Brisbane. The irrigation of
the drier areas has a like effect, as shown by the relatively dense
population in ‘the county of Gunbower, Victoria, where the
annual rainfall is under 15 inches, The effect of varying soil
fertility and topography is strikingly shown in Queensland,
where between Dalby and Gayndah, within a relatively short
distance, and under much the same conditions of temperature
and rainfall (about the 30-inch line), we pass through a region of
maximum concentration to one of very sparse distribution, and
again through a maximum concentration area.

What may be called the inverse distribution of sheep and
cattle holds throughout, for it will be seen that in Central
Queensland and New South Wales, and in Western Australia,
where cattle are relatively sparsely distributed, sheep are
relatively dense, and vice versa.

As regards the possible extension of the present boundaries
of cattle distribution, it is seen that the eastern half of the
continent is practically totally inhabited, and development is
here limited to the closer population of already inhabited areas.
In the western portion, however, there are vast unoccupied areas,
a large proportion of which show promise of in the future carry-
ing a considerable number of cattle. Climatically, there seems
no reason why the cattle population of Queensland inside the
20-inch line of rainfall should not extend across the similar belt
through the Northern Territory and Western Australia. The
regularity of the rainfall over most of this area is quite as great
as in some of the well-populated country of Queensland, with
a similar annual total. Artesian and sub-artesian water has
helped greatly in the latter region, and there seems every
prospect of this being obtainable over much of the country
indicated.. Then there is the south-western portion of the con-
tinent, having a rainfall of over 10 inches, and here of great
regularity, to be regarded as the potential carrier of a sparse
cattle population, with the possibility of a concentration in the
extreme south-west corner where the rainfall is over 30 inches.
Here there are now, relative to the rainfall, very few cattle, the

a

——— Se era Oe - a aN

<>

=<

i
3
i
}

Distribution of Wheat, Sheep, and Cattle in Australia. 127

country in its natural state being unsuited to grazing; but with
the progress of agriculture there is every reason to expect a
rapid increase in the numbers of cattle maintained in this well-
watered region.

A word as to the agricultural potentialities of Australia as
indicated by this cattle distribution map. It is an axiom among
stockmen that “cattle country is good country’; and when we
consider not only the great concentration along the fertile coastal
belt of the, continent, but also the vast areas of New South
Wales, north-west Australia, and particularly Queensland,
carrying relative to their human population and stage of develop-
ment, a dense and uniform stock population (for it must be re-
membered that sheep largely fill up what appear to be the blanks
in the cattle map), we can see room for a tremendous increase
in Australia’s population, her stock and agricultural industries,
before there is need to seriously consider how we are to support
her excess population in that arid interior of which we are fre-
quently reminded. Even in this arid interior we find, along the
only long-established line of communication, viz., the Oodna-
datta railway line and telegraph line to Darwin, some cattle;
and it seems evident that, as our knowledge of the country and
facilities for communication and transport improve, much of this
country will carry stock in numbers quite sufficient to repudiate
the name of desert.

| Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. II., 1922.]

Art. XV.—Additions to and Alterations in the Catalogue
of Victorian Marine Mollusca.

By J. H. GATLIFF anp C. J. GABRIEL.

[Read 10th November, 1921. ]

Of recent years very many changes have been made in the
nomenclature of the Mollusca, not only in the generic and specific
names, but also in some instances a consequential alteration in
the name of the family. But as these changes have been adopted,
more or less, by the British Museum, the United States National
Museum; in the several States of this Commonwealth; and New
Zealand, we have set out those which are necessary. |

In addition to the alterations, 43 more species have been added.
These include six in the Class Cephalopoda, obtained by the ill-
fated trawler Endeavour, and six in the Polyplacophora,

At our request the Molluscan material collected by Mr. Joseph
Gabriel, in 1910, for the National Museum from the cable ex-
tending from the Victorian coast to Tasmania, which was then
being raised, was submitted to us for examination at the end
of last year. A list of the shells thus obtained was made out and
is included in the following catalogue.

As indicated herein, it provides 13 additional species; that of
the genus Daphnobela, sp.? being of special interest, as there
is no record of its previous existence. The genotype was ob-
tained in the Eocene at Muddy Creek, Victoria.

We have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Mr. C. Hedley,
Sydney; Sir Joseph Verco, and Mr. E. Ashby,-Adelaide; and
Mr. W. L. May, of Tasmania.

In Vol. IV., Part 5, of the Biological Results of the Common-
wealth trawler Endeavour, Professor S. S. Berry gives a full and
excellent Report of the Cephalopoda obtained by that vessel, and
from his work we are enabled to-make the following additions
to, and alterations in, the naming of our Mollusca.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 129

Class CEPHALOPODA.
Order DIBRANCHIATA.

Suborder DEcAPODA.

Family ENOPLOTEUTHIDAE.
Genus Enoploteuthis, d’Orbigny 1844.

ENOPLOTEUTHIS GALAXIAS, Berry.

1918. Enoploteuthis galaxis, Berry. loc. cit. pp. 211-221,
pl. 59-60. |
Hab.—200-250 fathoms, Gabo Island, to region of Cape
Everard, Victoria. .

Family HISTIOTEUTHIDAE.
Genus Calliteuthis, Verrill 1880o.

CALLITEUTHIS MIRANDA, Berry.

1918. Calliteuthis miranda, Berry. loc. cit. pp. 221-228,
pl. 61-62.
Hab.—270 fathoms, S.E. x S. of Gabo Island, Victoria.

Family OMMASTREPHIDAE.

Genus Nototodarus, Pfeffer 1912.
NotorToparus Goutpi, McCoy.
1897. Ommatostrephes gouldi, McCoy. Pritchard and
Gatliff, these Proc., v. X., p. 243 .
1918. Nototodarus gouldi, McCoy. Berry. loc. cit. p.
228, pl. 63-66.
Hab.—60-220 fathoms, Bass Strait.

Family LOLIGINIDAE.

Genus Loligo, Schneider 1784.
LoLico ETHERIDGEI, Berry.
1918. Loligo etheridgei, Berry. loc. cit. pp. 243-249, pl.
_ 67-68, pl. 69, f. 1, 2.
Hab.—S.E. Australia.

130 Gatliff and Gabriel :

Family SEPIOLIDAE.

Genus Rossia, Owen 1834.
Ross1A (AUSTROROSSIA) AUSTRALIS, Berry.

1918. Rissoa (Austrorossia) australis, Berry. loc. cit.
pp. 252-258, pl. 69, f. 3, 4, and pl. 70.

Hab.—200-250 fathoms, Gabo Island to Everard grounds, Vic-
toria. |

Family CIRROTEUTHIDAE.
Genus Opisthoteuthis, Verrill 1883.

OPISTHOTEUTHIS PERSEPHONE, Berry.

1918. Opisthoteuthis persephone, Berry. loc. cit. pp. 290-

293, pl. 81, f. 6, 7; pl. 82, f£. 9, 10, and pl. 85-88.

Hab.—200 fathoms, 42 miles south and east of Genoa Bank,,.
Victoria.

Suborder OctTopopa.
Family POLYPODIDAE.

Genus Polypus, Schneider 1784.
POLYPUS VARIOLATUS, Blainville.

? 1821. Sepia boscti, Lesueur. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.
v. IL, p. 101 (nomen nudum).
? 1826. Octopus variolatus, Bl. Dict. Sci. Nat., v. XLIILI.,.
p. 186.
1897. Octopus boscti, Lesueur, Pritchard and Gatliff,.
these Proc., v. X., p. 241.
1918. Polypus variolatus, Bl. Berry. loc. cit. p. 278, pl..
79, 80, pl. 81, f. 2, 3, and pl. 82, f. 1-4.
Hab.—Eastern slopes of Bass Strait.

PoLyPuS AUSTRALIS, Hoyle.

1897. Octopus australis, Hoyle. Prit. and Gat., these
PEOC... Vuithen De ade
1918. Polypus australis, Hoyle. Berry. Joc. cit. pp. 276-
278, pl»78, i Hoz,iandoph) 81, f. 1.
Hab.—200 fathoms, off Gabo Island.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 132

Genus Murex, Linne 1758.
MuREX PLANILIRATUS, Reeve.

1898. Murex planiliratus, Rve. Prit. and Gat., these
Proc., v. X., pe254.

1916. Murex fimbriatus, Lk., not of Solander, Iredale,
P. Mal. Soc. Lond., v. XII., p. 93.

1917. Murex fimbriatus, Lk., Gatliff and Gabriel, these
Proc., v. XX Sacpil Zk.

Genus Typhis, Montfort 1810.
TYPHIS PHILIPPENSIS, Watson.

Typhis cleryi, Sowb. not of Petit. Prit. and Gat.,.
these “Prods ¥.°%.;'p. 255:

Genus Lepsiella, Iredale r1ogr12.
LEPSIELLA VINOSA, Lamarck.
1917. Kalydon vinosus, Lk., Gat. and Gab., these Proc.,
v. XXX., p. 22.
The following species are also transferred to this genus:

Sistrum reticulatum, Quoy and G., and Trophon flindersi, Ad.
and Ang.

Genus Xymene, Iredale 1915.
XYMENE PAIVAE, Crosse.

1898. Trophon paivae, Crosse, Prit. and Gat., these
Pree y, Kop. 257

Genus Neothais, Iredale. 1912.

This is another genus erected for Australasian forms, and will
include those already listed as Purpura succincta, Martyn; and
P. baileyana, Ten.-Woods.

Genus Agnewia, Tenison-Woods 1878.
AGNEWIA TRITONIFORMIS, Blainville.

1906. Purpura tritoniformis, Bl., Prit. and Gat., these
Proc., v. XVIII., for 1905, p. 44.

Genus Drupa, Bolten 17098.
DrRuPA ASPERA, Lamarck.

1898. Sistrum asperum, Lk.,. Prit. and Gat., these Proc.,
v. X., p. 261.

132 E. T. Quayle: Modifying Climate.

increases in surface moisture. The clearing of the land, and the
substitution of cultivation or pastures for the scrub forests on
the inland plains cause, according to the evidence, some im-
provement of the rainfall, especially during the spring months,
when the green growth results in vigorous evaporation. A more
general improvement results from irrigation, which ensures.
growth of vegetation throughout the year. It is through this
means that the greatest effects are possible. The extension of
irrigation along the Murray between Echuca and Renmark, and
in New South Wales, about the junction of the Darling with
the Murray, it is evident, will have a not inconsiderable effect
in ameliorating the climate of Northern Victoria, including the
Mallee. It should also increase the rainfall on the mountains.
from which the irrigation water are derived. And if in con-
nection with these, large storages of water are made from the:
lower Murray and Darling, say, by impounding flood waters in
banked-up lakes in the same way as those of the Goulburn are
impounded in the Waranga basin, the possibilities, if not almost:
limitless, are at least very great. I see no reason why the im-
provement should not be equal to what would happen if an arm:
of the sea like Spencer’s Gulf, say, up to Menindie. It has al-
ready been shown that a reasonable result of this would be an
increased rainfall of from 3 to 5 inches in the neighbourhood,
even as far as 170 miles inland.

If such a result could be brought about by increasing our
irrigated areas, and the necessary increase in the area of land
fully irrigated can surely be made, it would be hard to put any
limit upon the climatic benefits which Northern Victoria and the
Riverina would derive from it. Hann has shown that in-New
South Wales a square mile of country carries 22 more sheep:
per annum with a 12-inch than with an 11-inch rainfall, and
that the carrying capacity increases at a more rapid rate per inch
of rain as the rainfall increases, a 17-inch rainfall, for example,.
enabling 70 more sheep per square mile to be carried than a 16-
inch one. |

Such an increase in our irrigated areas is likely, therefore, not
only to be worth while in its direct effects upon the country’s.
production, but by making further irrigation possible, to have
indirect effects of very appreciable magnitude.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorta, 33 (N.S.), 1921]
Art. X.—A Revision of the Genus Pultenaea, Part Il.

By H. B. WILLIAMSON.

(With Plates VI. and VII.)

[Read 9th September, 1920. ]

PULTENAEA HUMILIS, BENTH.
(Hook,, f )Bl,sTasni., 1. OL).

A shrub with flowers like those of P. plumosa, from which
species it differs in having bracteoles with broad stipules, and
flowers axillary in short leafy spikes at or near the ends of
the branches, not in terminal heads. The common Victorian
form is low and diffuse, with large flowers, the calyx lobes being
much longer than the tube, lower ones much narrower than the
upper, all hirsute with long hairs. Bracteoles are linear-lanceolate,
-ciliate, as long as the calyx lobes, and fixed at the base of the
tube. The ovary is glabrous, with a brush of long white hairs
-at the top, and the style is much dilated. Grampians, Geelong,
Ballarat, etc., Vic.

It appears to be confined to the southern half of Victoria.

Pp. HUMILIS, var. GLABRESGENS, var. NOVA.

Variat folius fere glabris, floribus paulo minoribus saepe
-glabris.

From the normal this differs in having almost glabrous leaves,
and somewhat smaller flowers often quite glabrous. Specimens
from Grampians and Creswick, with narrow leaves have fallen
wrongly under var. angustifolia of P. parviflora, Sieber, p. 132,
Fl., Aust. The Grampians specimens are scantily invested with
long-hairs on the calyx and bracteoles, while those from Creswick
‘have hairs only on the branchlets and pedicels. Goulburn River
specimens (W. F. Gates), have larger, glabrous leaves and hairy
‘branchlets and pedicels. Those from Sale, Vic., (T. A. Robin-
son), and Bairnsdale (T. S. Hart), have shorter leaves, broader
towards the summit, and smaller flowers. All the specimens

134 Gatliff and Gabriel -

This is the species already listed in these Proceedings as Nassa
glans, of which it was considered to be a variety. Under this
genus will also be included all of our species hitherto listed as
Nassa.

Genus Pterospira, Harris 1897.

PTEROSPIRA ROADKNIGHTAE, McCoy.

1898. Voluta roadknightae, McCoy. Prit. and Gat., these
Proc.) V. 2p. 2a

We have examined the type of Voluta hannafordi, McCoy, a
fossil the genotype.of Pterospira, Harris, and consider it to be a
progenitor of V. roadknightae. We asked the opinion of Mr. F.
Chapman, Palaeontologist of the National Museum, Melbourne,
as to whether he agreed with our generic classification; he de-

cidedly coincided with us.

Genus Livonia, Gray 1855.
LiIvonIA MAMILLA, Gray.
1908. Voluta mamilla, Gray. Gat. and Gab., these Proc.
v. XXI., p. 371. |
1909. Voluta mamilla, Gray. Gat. and Gab., Vic. Nat.,
v. XXVI., p. 117, pl. 2, 3.

Genus Scaphella, Swainson 1840.

ScCAPHELLA MAGNIFICA, Lamarck.

1804. Voluta magnifica, Lamarck (Ch.) Ann. du Mus.
Hist. Nat., vol. V., p. 156.

1840. Scaphella magnifica, Swainson. Treatise Malac.,
pp. 103-115, 118 and 120.

1914. Voluta magnifica, Chemnitz (not binomial). Gat.
and Gab., these Proc., v. XXVIL., p. 99.

Genus Amoria, Gray 1855.

AMORIA UNDULATA, Lamarck.
1898. Voluta undulata, Lk. Prit. and Gat., these Proc:
v. X., p. 280.

AMORIA ZEBRA, Leach.

1898. Voluta zebra, Leach. Prit. and Gat., these Proc.
v. X., pj i282.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 135

Genus Ericusa, H. and A. Adam 1858.
ERICUSA SOWERBYI, Kiener.

1839. Voluta sowerbyi, Kr. Coq. Viv., p. 47, pl. 50.
1898. Voluta fusiformis, Swainson. Prit. and Gat., these
ERG Yaoi Dury sDe i oor

ERIcuSA PAPILLOSA, Swainson.

1898. Voluta papillosa, Sw. Prit. and Gat., these Proc.
Vey HumiDi eo

Genus Mitra, Martyn, 1784.
MiITRA ANALOGICA, Reeve, var. vincTa, A. Adams,

1854. Volutomitra vincta, A. Ad, P.Z.S., Lond., p. 134.

1874. Mitra vincta, A. Ad. Sowb. Thes. Con., v. IV.,
p25, pil ao, o20, 52K.

1876. Mitra teresiae, Ten.-Wds. P.R.S., Tas., p. 140.

1901. Turris vincta, A.Ad. Tate and May, P.LS.,
N.S.W., v. XXVL., p. 361.

Hab.—Coast generally.

Obs.—Our identification was confirmed on comparison with
specimens in the British Museum. This variety and the following
species are closely allied, but M. vincta may be distinguished by
the absence of the longitudinal ribs on the later whorls.

MITRA TATEI, Angas.

1878. Mitra tatei, Ang. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 861, pl. 54,
f. 8.

1879. Mitra weldii, Ten.-Woods. P.R.S., Tas. for 1877,

p. 93. . |

1899. Turricula tasmanica, Ten.-Wds. Prit. and Gat.,
these Proc., v. XI., for 1898, p. 188.

1902. Mitra tasmanica, Ten.-Wds. var. May. P.R.S. Tas.,
p.109, 1. 2.

Hab.—Coast generally.

Obs—We have been kindly favoured by the Tasmanian
Museum with the loan, for examination, of the card on which are
four shells, in the form of a square; the upper one on the right
is what has been decided upon as the type of Mitra tasmanica, the
upper one on the left is the shell Tenison-Woods alludes to as
variety a. This is a very distinct species, and is figured by May,

136 Gatliff and Gabriel :

loc. cit., and is the same as that listed by Prit. and Gat. as M.
tasmanica, T.-Wds. Similar specimens have been sent to us from
South Australia as M. rufocincta, A. Ad., but that species is
described as impressed with transverse lines between the ribs,
a character lacking in the shells sent, as also in M. tatet.
Tenison-Woods loc. cit. says his species is “* Small banded orange
and dark brown; translucent with faint ribs on upper whorls.
Long. 10, lat. 4 mm. Rather common. Long Bay and Black-
man’s Bay, and S.E.A.” Upon examination of a very numerous
series we find considerable variation, and that the ribs usually
extend to the upper portion of the body-whorl, also that the colour
is often blackish-brown bands on a white ground.

Under the genus Mitra will also be placed the shells listed as
Turricula :scalariformis, Ten.-Woods; and Turris cinnamomea,
A. Adams.

Genus Marginella, Lamarck 1799.
MARGINELLA MUSTELINA, Angas.

1871. Hyalina (Volvarina) mustelina, Ang. P.ZS.,
Lond., p. 14, pl. 1, f.°5. |

1877. Marginella stanislas, Ten.-Wds. P.R.S. Tas. for
1876, p. 133. | |

1899. Marginella albida, Tate. Prit. and Gat., these
Proc., v. XI., for 1898, p. 192.

1910. Marginella stanislas, Ten.-Wds. Gat. and Gab.
Id. v. XXIII, p. 88.

Angas described the species as brown banded. Ten.-Woods
states of M. stanislas: “ Pellucid white, or marked with four
zones of variously interrupted brown spots.” ‘Tate’s species, M.
albida, is white. The white variety may therefore be called M.
mustelina, Ang. var. stanislas, Ten.-Woods, and Tate’s name
M. albida becomes a synonym.

MARGINELLA CRATERICULA, Tate and May.

1900. Marginella cratericula, Tate and May. J.R.S.S. rhs,
v. XXIV., p. 91.
1901. Marginella cratericula, J. and M. P.LS. N.S.W.,
v. XXVI., p. 363, pl. 26, f. 74.
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.
Obs.—Size of type: Length 2.3, breadth 1.5 mm.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 137

MARGINELLA COLUMNARIA, Hedley and May.

Marginella columnaria, Hed. and May. Rec. Austr. Mus.,
p.,120, pl. 23,4, 19;
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.
Obs.—Size of type: Length 7.5, breadth 3.5 mm. Shell white,
sub-cylindrical, triplicate.

MARGINELLA PULCHELLA, Kiener,

1830. Marginella pulchella, Kr. Coq. Viv., p. 27, pl. 9, f.
41 (not 40, as in text). |

1911. Marginella fulgurata, Hed. Zool. Commonwealth
trawler Endeavour, v. I., p. 110, pl. 7, fig. 31
only.

Hab.—Portland.

Obs.—This species has many axial undulating lines; these are
thickened centrally, and near to each end, giving the appearance
of encircling bands.

We also have the species from N.S. Wales, South Austr., and
West Austr., and it has been sent to us from those States with
the name of M. sagittata, Hinds, which species it resembles; we
have the latter from Bahama Isls.

MARGINELLA GEMINATA, Hedley.

1903. Marginella laevigata, Hed., not of Braz. Mem.
Aust. Mus., v. IV., p. 364, f. 89.
1912. Marginella geminata, Hed. Rec. Aust. Mus., v.
VIIL., p. 145, pl. 42, f. 28.
Hab.—Dredged in 7-8 fathoms, Western Port.
Obs.—Mr. Hedley states he mistakenly figured another shell as
being M. laevigata, and later he described it as M. geminata. The
earlier figure represents the shell we find, the later figure is prob-
ably drawn from an immature specimen. Mr. Hedley kindly
sent us for examination and return co-types of the two species;
they are very similar.

Family PYRENIDAE, replaces Columbellidae.

This change is necessary owing to Pyrene, Bolten 1798, being
prior to Columbella, Lamarck 1799. Pyrene being a montypical
genus represented by P. rhombiferum, Bolt., a new name he gave
to Buccinum punctatum, Bruguiere 1789, and to the figure of

6

138 Gatliff und Gabriel -

which species he referred, we only adopt his generic name as
applicable to similar forms. Columbella mercatoria being recog-
nised as the type of Lamarck’s genus, there being no forms simi-
lar to these two in our waters, and as.it has been decided to
split up the great assemblage of species hitherto classed as
Columbellidae, we have adopted the following generic names
for our species.

Genus Mitrella, Risso 1826.
MITRELLA SACCHARATA, Reeve.

1859. Columbella saccharata, Rve. Conch. Icon., pl.
29, f. 187.
1901. Columbella (Mitrella) saccharata, Rve, Tate and
. May, P.DS.) NSW.) XXVR, oh SOG

Hab.—Dredged Western Port; taken off cable to Tasmania,
Bass Strait.

Obs.—lIts nearest congener is C. semiconvexa, Lk., from which
it may be distinguished by its narrower form and smaller size;
the type is in the British Museum; locality, “Van Diemen’s
Lana.

Others listed as Columbella now included in Mitrella are C.
semiconvexa, Lk.; C. austrina, Gask.; C. menkeana, Rve.; C. lin-
colnensis, Rve.; C. angasi, Braz.; C. tenisoni, Tryon; C. tenuis,
Gask.; C. tenebrica, Rve.; C. nubeculata, Rve.; C. beddomei, Pet-
terd; C. legrandi, Ten.-Wds.; C. lurida, Hed.; and C. frank-
linensis, Gat. and Gab.

Genus Aesopus, Gould 1860.
AESOPUS CASSANDRA, Hedley. |

1909. Daphnella cassandra, Hed. Gat. and Gab., these
Proc... Vo MAD. OL.

1918. Aesopus cassandra, Hed. Jour.. R.S., N.S.W., v.
LI. ‘tor 191/,. p; 90; No. Sana.

AESOPUS PALLIDULUS, Hedley.

1907. Mitromorpha pallidula, Hed. Gat., these Proc., v.
XK EXT Oh vf
1918. Aesopus pallidulus, Hed. Id. No. 948b.
We follow Mr. Hedley in his transference to this genus of the
two foregoing species. And also transfer to it Columbella
plurisulcata, Rve., previously listed by us.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 139

The species listed as Mangilia gatliffi, Verco, will also be in-
cluded in the genus Aesopus.

Genus Zafra, A. Adams 1860.

This contains the small axially plicate species, which we have
already listed as Columbella atkinsoni, Ten.-Wds.; C. smith,
Ang.; C. cominellaeformis, Tate; and C. remoensis, Gat. and
Gab. The last-named species is not a typical form, but at pre-
sent we place it in this genus.

Genus Retizafra, Hedley 1918.

RETIZAFRA CALVA, Verco.

1911. Columbella cclva, Verco. Gat. and Gab., these
, Proc., v. XXIV., p. 194.
1913. Retizafra calua,\Vereo... Hed., P.L.S., N.S.W.,
v. XXXVIII., p. 326.
This genus comprises small forms with clathrate sculpture,
and includes Columbella gemmulifera, Hed., already listed.

Genus Conorbis, Swainson 1840.
CONORBIS SARCINULA, Hedley.

1905. Bathytoma sarcinula, Hed. Rec. Austr. Mus., v.
Vip sap fP BE! ° | :

1918. Apaturris sarcinula, Hed. Jour. R.S., N.S.W., v.
ba. ior 1917, p. 80, No. 831.

Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.

Obs.—Size of type: Length 7, breadth 4 mm.

Mr. Hedley’s excellent description and figure of the species,
readily enabled the identification of our shell; his single speci-
men was dredged in 111 fathoms 12} miles due east of Cape
Byron. Mr. Hedley and one of us compared the single speci-
men got off the cable with the type; they were absolutely the
same in size, colour and sculpture, and both fresh shells. We
do not agree in the classing of it in either of the genera named,
and place it in the genus Conorbis.

Family TURRIDAE, replaces Pleurotomidae.

Genus Hemipleurotoma, Cossmann 1889.

This includes the shell listed as Drillia quoyi, Desmoulins.
6a

140 Gatliff and Gabrvel -

Genus Glyphostoma, Gabb 1872.

GLYPHOSTOMA WALCOTAE, Sowerby.
1893. Drillia walcotae, Sowb. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 487, pl.
38, f. 7-8.
1909. Clathurella walcotae, Sowb. Verco, T.R.S., S.A.,
v. XXXIIL, p. 307.
Hab.—Portland.
Obs.—This is the largest of the species of this genus found
in our waters, and may be recognised by its broad and robust
form. The size of our shell is: Length 15, breadth 8 mm.

GLYPHOSTOMA NASSOIDES, Reeve.
1845. Pleurotoma nassoides, Rve. Conch. Icon., v. L,
pie29,. £9259.
1884. Clathurella nassoides, Rve. Tryon, Man. Conch.,
ViOVE., p.296, “pl. 15)"f, 2.
1900. Clathurella zonulata, Ang. Prit. and Gat., these
Proc., v. XII., p. 178.
Under the genus Glyphostoma will also be included the species
listed as Clathurella bicolor, Ang.; C. denseplicata, Dkr.; and
C. kymatoessa, Watson.

Genus Macteola, Hedley 1918.

This includes the species listed as Mangilia anomala, Ang.,
and it is selected by Hedley as his genotype.

Genus Daphnella, Hinds 1844.
DAPHNELLA CREBRIPLICATA, Reeve.

1846. Pleurotoma crebriplicata, Rve., P.Z.S., Lond., p. 3.
1846. Pleurotoma crebriplicata, Rve. Conch. Icon, v. L.,
pl. 34, f. 313.
1906. Daphnella fragilis, Rve. Prit. and Gat., these
9'Pros., V.' AVIA, p. OL.

Genus Syntagma, Iredale 1918.
This includes the species listed as Donovania fenestrata, Tate
and May.
Genus Exomilus, Hedley 1913.

This includes the species listed as Drillia telescopialis, Verco;
and Mangilia hilum, Hed.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 141

Genus Mitromorpha, A. Adams 1865.
MITROMORPHA INCERTA, Pritchard and Gatliff.

1906. Mangilia (?) incerta, Prit. and Gat., these Proc.,
Ma eV els De. aU.

Genus Nepotilla, Hedley 1918.

This includes the species listed as Daphnella excavata, Gatliff ;
and D. microscopica, May.

Genus Taranis, Jeffreys 1870.

This includes the species listed as Daphnella lamellosa, Sowb.;
D. triseriata, Verco; and D. mayi, Verco.

Genus Pseudodaphnella, Boettger 1895. _

This includes the species listed as Clathurella tincta, Rve.;
C. modesta, Ang.; C. sexdentata, Prit. and Gat.; C. albocincta,
Ang.; C. legrandi, Bedd.; and Daphnella bitorquata, Sowb.

Genus Daphnobela, Cossmann 1896.
DAPHNOBELA sp.?

A single specimen was obtained off the cable to Tasmania,
Bass Strait; it has not yet been described or figured.

Genus Cypraea, Linnaeus 1758.
CYPRAEA ALBA, Cox.

1879. Cypraea umbilicata, Sowb. var. alba, Cox. P.L.S.,
N.S.W., v. IV., p. 386.

1885. Cypraea umbilicata, Sowb. var. alba, Cox. Tryon,
Man. Conch., v. VII., p. 181.

1888. Cypraea wmbilicata, Sowb. var. alba,-Cox. Melvill,
Proc. Manchester, Lit. and Phil. Soc., p. 58.

1907. Cypraea umbilicata, Sowb. var. alba, Cox. Hidalgo,
Monog. Viv. Cypraea, pp. 548 and 579.

Hab.—Bass Strait.

CYPRAEA ALBA, Cox, var. HESITATA, Iredale.

1900. Cypraea umbilicata, Sowb. Prit. and Gat., these
Proc., v. XII., for 1899, p. 187.

1912. Cypraea umbilicata, Sowb. Verco, T.R.S., S.A., v.
ARV, ‘ps 218,

142 Gatliff and Gabriel -

1916. Cypraea hesitata, Ire. P. Mal. Soc. Lond., v. XII.,
p. 93. |

1918. Cypraea armenaiaca, iat: not of Verco. J.R.S.,
N.S. W,,,... LIuafor 1917, p. 70, No. 709.

Mr. Iredale loc. cit. proves that the name of C. umbilicata is
pre-occupied by Dillwyn. As a new name had to be found for
C. umbilicata, Sowb., the varietal name alba, Cox, P.L.S., N.S.W.,
vol. IV., 1879, is entitled to become the species name, and that
of C. hesitata may be substituted as a varietal name.

Sir Joseph Verco loc. cit. fully gave the history of this species,
and also named, what he thought might be a variety only, a shell
with apricot colouration, as Cypraea umbilicata, Sowb., var.
armeniaca. The description is full, and the figure excellent.
Upon comparison with Tasmanian forms of C. umbilicata, Sowb.
he remarks: “ Mine differs in shape, being more globular, higher,
and wider, not only relatively, but absolutely. . . . We will
hope other specimens may be secured which will determine its
right to be called a good species.”

Of the specimens we have seen, including those in the Aus-
tralian Museum, Sydney, none could be regarded as intergrading
with C. wmbilicata, Sowb., of which we have specimens from
Tasmania, also dredged off Cape Everard (living), and Lakes
Entrance, Victoria, and we have seen many others.

We therefore establish Cypraea armentaca, Verco, as a species.

Genus Natica, Scopoli 1777-

NATICA SCHOUTANICA, May.
1912. Natica schoutanica, May. P.R.S., Tas., p. 45, pl.
2, i*o.
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.
Obs.—Size of type: “ Diameter, major 5.5, minor 4.5, height
5mm.” “ Yellowish white, irregularly netted with broken zigzag
lines of chestnut.”

Genus Polinices, Montfort 1810.

This comprises species listed as Natica plumbea, Lk.; N.
didyma, Ch.; N. conica, Lk.; N. incet, Phil.; and N. beadouee.
Johnston.

Genus Sinum, Bolten 1798, replaces Sigaretus, Lamarck 1799.

Genus Marseniopsis, Bergh, replaces Lamellaria, Montagu.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 143

Genus Merria, Gray, 1839, replaces Vanikoro, Quoy and
Gaimard.

Genus Siliquaria, Bruguiere 1789, replaces. Tenagodes,
Guettard.

Genus Architectonica, Bolten 1798, replaces Solarium,
Lamarck 1799:

Genus Naricava, Hedley 1913.

The species of Adeorbis we have listed have been transferred
to the above genus; they are 4. vincentiana, Ang.; A. angast, A.
Adams, and A. kimberi, Verco.

Genus Epitonium, Bolten 1798, replaces Scala, Klein 1753
(pre Linn.).
EPITONIUM ACULEATUM, Sowerby. 7
1844. Scalaria aculeata, Sowb. Thes. Conch., v. I., p.
8b SRE 32 is: 33" 56:
1901. Scalaria aculeata, Sowb. Tate and May, P.L.S.,
N.S.W., v. XXVI., p. 379.
1906. _Scate' acalente,-/Sowb."'Wercos°T.R.S., 5.A., v-
XXX., p. 143.
Hab.—Dredged in 6-8 fathoms, living, off Phillip Isl., Western
Port.
We have dredged specimens 32 mm. in length by 11 mm. in
breadth. :
This genus will also include S. jukesiana, Forbes; S. australis,
Lk.; S. granosa, Q. and G.; S. tenella, Hutt.; S. morchi, Ang. ;
S. acanthopleura, Verco; and S. platypleura, Verco.

Genus Phalium, Rostock 1807.
PHALIUM SINUOSUM, Verco.

1904. Casstdea sinuosa, Verco, T.R.S.,S.A.,v. XXVIIL.,
p. 141, pl. 26, f. 7-10.

Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.

Obs.—Size of type: Length 24, breadth 15 mm.; differs from
its nearest relative C. adcocki, in not having nodules on the last
whorl, and the labrum is not thickened, but sinuous.

Under the genus Phalium are included the shells listed as
Cassis pyrum, Lk.; C. achatina, Lk.; C. semigranosa, Lk.; C.
adcocki, Sowb.; and C. achatina, Lk., var. stadialis, Hed.

144 Gatliff and Gabriel :

Family STROMBIFORMIDAE, replaces Eulimidae.

Genus Melanella, Bowditch 1822, replaces Eudima, Risso 1826.

This includes species already listed as Eulima indiscreta, Tate;
E. commensalis, Tate; E. augur, Ang.; E. inflata, Tate and May;
E. tryoni, Tate and May; E. immaculata, Prit. and Gat.; E.
tenisont, Tryon; E. orthep erg, Tate ; and E. victoriae, Gat.
and Gab.

Genus Mucronalia, A. Adams. 1862.

This includes our species listed as Eulima mucronata, Sowb.,
and £. coxi, Pilsbry.

Genus Strombiformis, Da Costa 1778.

This includes our species listed as Leiostraca acutissima, Sowb. ;
L. lodderae, Hed.; L. kilcundae, Gat. and Gab.; L. styliformis,
Gat. and Gab.; L. joshuana, Gat. and Gab.; Rissoa perexigua,
Tate and May; Eulima topaziaca, Hed.; and E. marginata, Ten.-
Woods.

Genus Syrnola, A. Adams 1860.

This includes our species listed as Pyramidella bifasciata, Ten.-

Wds.; P. tincta, Ang.; and P. jonesiana, Tate.

Genus Leucotina, A. Adams 1860.
This includes our species listed as Turbonilla (Ondina)
micra, Prit. and Gat.; T. (Ondina) casta, A. Ad.; and T, (On-
dina) harrissoni, Tate-and May.

Genus Cingulina, A. Adams 1860.
CINGULINA SPINA, Crosse and Fischer.
Now classed as Cingulina, instead of Turbonilla spina, as for-
merly listed. ,
Genus Oscilla, A. Adams 1867.
OSCILLA TASMANICA, Tenison-Woods.

1906. Oscilla ligata, Ang. Prit. and Gat., these Proc., v.
XVIII, for 1905, p. 59.
Both these names were published in the same year; it has
now been ascertained that T.-Wds. has priority. Angas was ; the
first to figure it. O. ligata, Ang., becomes a synonym.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 145

Genus Cerithiopsis, Forbes and Hanley 1853.
CERITHIOPSIS cCESsiIcus, Hedley.

1906. Bittium minimum, Ten.-Woods. Prit. and Gat.,
these Proc., v. XVIII., for 1905, p. 59, not of

Brusina, 1864. .
1906. Cerithiopsis cessicus, Hed. P.LS., N.S.W,
Vi ees. OLY

Genus Batillaria, Benson 1842.

This includes our shell listed as Potamides australis, Quoy and
‘Gaim.
Genus Diala, A. Adams 1861.

DIALA SEMISTRIATA, Philippi.

The shell previously listed as Diala varia, A. Adams, becomes
a synonym, as it had already been named as above (fide Melvill
and Standen, also Suter).

Genus Melarhaphe, Menke 1828.
MELARHAPHE UNIFASCIATA, Gray.

1827. Littorina unifasciata, Gray. King’s Survey of
Australia, v. II., App. p. 483.

1902. Littorina. mauritiana, Lk. Prit. and Gat., these
Free, v LV, for 7901, p. 90.

Our shell is very similar to mauritiana, Lk., and the brief
original description of it, as far as it goes, covers both species,
but the clear and ample description by Gray enables their separa-
tion; unifasciata is found all round the coast of Australia; Tas-
mania; also in New Zealand.

Included in the genus is the species listed as Littorina novae
zealandiae, Rve. ,

Genus Liotia, Gray 1842. | (Pseudoliotia, Tate 1898 is a
synonym.)

Our shell listed as Pseudoliotia micans, A. Ad., is now called
a Liotia. ae
Genus Liotina, Fischer 1885.

The shells previously listed as Liotia australis, Kr.; L. sub-
quadrata, Ten.-Woods; L. tasmanica, Ten.-Wds.; L. hedleyi,
Prit. and Gat.; and L. mayana, Tate, are now classed as Liotina.

146 Gatliff and Gabriel :

Genus Liotella, Iredale 1915.

In this genus are included Liotia annulata, Ten.-Woods, and
Liotia petalifera, Hed. and May.

Genus Cyclostrema, Marryat 1818.

This genus has been greatly split up, and some new genera
erected. We class ours already listed as follow :—

Genus Elachorbis, Iredale 1915.

This includes the shells already listed as Cyclostrema capera-
tum, Tate; C. delectabile, Tate; C. aariete 8 Tate; C. harriettae,
Petterd; and C. homalon, Verco.

Genus Brookula, Iredale 1912.

This includes the shells listed as Cyclostrema angeli, Ten.-
Wads.; C. johnstoni, Beddome; C. denseplicata, Verco; and Scala
nepeanensis, Gatliff.

Genus Cirsonella, Angas 1877.

This includes the shells listed as Cyclostrema weldu, Ten.-Wds. ;
and C. microscopica, Gat. and Gab.

Genus Lissotesta, Iredale 1915.

This includes the shells listed as Cyclostrema micra, Ten.-Wds.
(Iredale’s genotype) ; C. porcellana, Tate and May; and C. con-
tabulatum, Tate, var.

Genus Orbitestella, Iredale 1917.

This includes the shells listed as Cyclostrema bastowt, Gatliff
(Iredale’s genotype) ; and C. may, Tate.

Genus Microdiscula, Thiele 1912.
This includes the shell listed as Cyclostrema charopa, Tate.

Genus Skenella, Pfeffer 1886.
SKENELLA BRUNNIENSIS, Beddome.

1902. Cyclostrema bruniensis, Bedd. Prit. and Gat.,
these Proc., v. XIV., for 1901, p. 99.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 147

The genus Fissoa, Fréminville, 1814, has also been greatly
split up; we class ours already listed as follow :—

Genus Haurakia, Iredale 1915.
This includes the following species :—
HAURAKIA DESCREPANS, Tate and May.
1900. Rissoa descrepans, Tate and May. T.R.S., S.A.,
‘v. XXIV., p. 99.
1901. Rissoa descrepans, Tate and May. P.L.S., N.S.W.,
vol. A XV1,.9(391; pt. 26,°f. 65.
1909. Rissoa incompleta, Hed. Gat. and Gab., these
Proc., ¥,. LL, p, PF.
1918. Haurakia descrepans, Tate and May. Hed., Jour.
RIS) NUS. WA, Vode, for Por? psi Ne 4e8.
,R. liddeliana, Hed., is also included in the genus Haurakia.

Genus Merelina, Iredale 1915.

This includes the shells. listed as Rissoa cheilostoma, Ten.-
Wds. (Iredale’s genotype) ; R. strangei, Braz.; R. hulliana, Tate;
R. gracilis, Ang.; R. australiae, Frauenf.; R. agnewt, Ten.-
Wds.; and R. filocincta, Hed. and May.

Genus Lironoba, Iredale 1915.
This includes shells listed as Rissoa tenisoni, Tate; R. imbrex,.
Hed.; R. schoutanica, May; R. iravadioides, Gat. and Gab.; and.
R. wilsonensis, Gat. and Gab.

Genus Estea, Iredale 1915.

This includes the shells listed as Rissoa subfusca, Hutt. (Ire-
dale’s genotype) ; R. incidata, Frauenf.; R. janjucensis, Gat. and
Gab.; R. frenchiensis, Gat. and Gab.; R. woodsi, Prit. and Gat. ;
R. flammea, Frauenf.; R. pyramidata, Hed.; R. rubicunda, Tate
and May; R. dubatabilis, Tate; R. bicolor, Petterd; R. erratica,
May; R. salebrosa, Frauenf.; R. columnaria, Hed. and May;
R. olivacea, Dunker; R. aurantiocincta, May; R. obeliscus, May ;
also— |
EsTEA TUMIDA, Tenison-Woods.

1876. Diala tumida, Ten.-Wds., P.R.S., Tas., p. 147.
1919. Estea tumida, Ten.-Wds. May, Id, p. 60, pl. 15,
Fg.
Hab.—Western Port. Ad
Obs.—Size of type: Length 2.50, breadth 1 mm.

148 Gatliff and Gabriel :

EsTEA KERSHAWI, Tenison-Woods.
1877. Rissoina kershawi, Ten.-Wds., these Proc., v. XIV.,
pe 57:
1919. Estea kershawi, Ten.-Wds. May, P.R.S., Tas.,
p. 60, ply kb; {11
Hab.—Dredged in about 8 fathoms, off Rhyll, Western Port.
Obs.—Size of type: Length 3, breadth 1.33 mm.

EstTEA MicrocosTa, May.
1919. Estea microcosta, May. P.R.S., Tas., p. 61, pl.
15, £. 12.

Hab.—Off Wilson’s Promontory.

Obs.—Identification endorsed by the author, who remarks:
“* This is closely related to E. kershawi. It differs principally in
the much more numerous and fine ribs, and rounder mouth and
its rather more cylindrical form.” Size of type: Length 2.5,
‘breadth 1.2 mm.

Genus Amphithalamus, Carpenter 1863.

This includes our shells listed:as Rissoa approxima, Petterd;
R. jacksoni, Braz.; and R. petterdi, Braz.

Genus Anabathron, Frauenfeld 1867.

This includes the species listed as Rissoa contabulata, Frauenf.

Genus Epigrus, Hedley 1903.

This includes our shells listed as Rissoa verconis, Tate; R.
verconis, Tate, var. apicilata, Gat. and Gab.; R. dissimilis,
‘Watson.

Genus Notosetia, Iredale 1915.

This includes our shells listed as Rissoa atropurpurea, Dkr.;
R. atkinsoni, Ten.-Wds.; R. nitens, Dkr.; R. simillima, May;
R. pellucida, Tate and May; R. pertranslucida, May; and R.
amelanochroma, Tate.

Genus Subonoba, Iredale rors.

‘This includes our shell listed as Rissoa bassiana, Hed.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 149

Genus Rissopsis, Garrett 1873.

RISSOPSIS BREVIS, May.
1919. Rissopsis brevis, May. P.R.S., Tas., p. 63, pl. 16,
f. 19.
Hab.—Bass Strait. 7
Obs.—Size of type: Length 2, breadth .8 mm.; a very smalli
white shell.
Genus Rissoina, d’Orbigny 18 40.
RISSOINA LINTEA, Hedley and May.
1908. Rissoina lintea, Hed. and May. Rec. Aust. Mus.,.
y.. Vil. p. I7, plideiere.
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.
Obs.—Size of type: Length 7, breadth 2.5 mm.

Genus Rissolina, Gould 1861.
RISSOLINA ANGASI, Pease.

This species was listed as a synonym of Rissoina flexuosa,
Gould, owing to its wrongful identification by Prof. Tate. R.
flexuosa is not a Rissolina, and according to Mr. Hedley is a
synonym of Rissoina fasciata, Adams. R. crassa, Ang., is also
included in the above genus.

Genus Phasianella, Lamarck 1804.

PHASIANELLA PERDIX, Wood.

1914. Phasianella perdix, Wood. Gat. and Gab., Vic. -
Nat., v. XXXL, p. 82.

Genus Gabrielona, Iredale 1917.
GABRIELONA NEPEANENS!S, Gatliff and Gabriel.

1908. Phasianella nepeanensis, Gat. and Gab., these Proc..
v. XXI., pp. 366 and 379, pl. 21, £.9, 10.
Iredale has selected this species as the genotype.

Genus Astraea, Bolten 1798, replaces Astralium, Link 1807.
ASTRAEA FIMBRIATA, Lamarck.
1822. Trochus fimbriatus, Lk. Anim. S. Vert., v. VILI.,
B.. Be.
1902. Astralium squamiferum, Koch. Prit. and Gat.,
these Proc., v. XIV., for 1901, p. 117.

150 Gatliff and Gubriel -

The forms described.under the two above names have been
considered by some to be varying forms of one species; ours is
that described by Lamarck.

Genus Cantharidus, Montfort 1810. (Phasianotrochus,
Fischer 1885, is a synonym.)

‘CANTHARIDUS EXJMIUS, Perry.

This name replaces that listed as Phasianotrochus carinatus,
Perry, who called it a Bulimus, and the name B. carinatus had
been previously used by Bruguiere.

CCANTHARIDUS NITIDULUS, Philippi.

1849. Trochus nitidulus, Phil. Conch. Cab., p. 295, No.
383, pl. 43, £. 10:
Hab.—Portland, and off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.

Genus Calliostoma, Swainson 1840.
(CALLIOSTOMA ARMILLATUM, Wood.

1828. Trochus armillatus, Wood. Index Test. Supple-
ment, ples, f. 5. m
1901. Calliostoma meyeri, Phil. Prit. and Gat., these
Proc,, v.. A1V., p.-1os.

Wood’s name was not previously adopted, because there was
no description of the shell. The rules of the International Con-
gress now allow a binomial name, accompanied by a figure to be
sufficient.

CALLIOSTOMA COMPTUM, A. Adams.

1913. Calliostoma comptum, A. Ad. Hed, P.LS.,
N.S.W., v. XXXVIIL., p. 279.
This species was listed as C. poupineli, Montr., from New
Caledonia. Upon consulting the original description of that
species we find that it is distinct from ours.

Genus Cantharidella, Pilsbry 1880.

This genus includes the shell listed as Gibbula tiberiana, Crosse.

Genus Calliotrochus, Fischer 1880.

This includes the shells listed as Gibbula tasmanica, Petterd;
and G. legrandi, Petterd.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 1a

Genus Haliotis, Linnaeus 1758.
HALIOTIS ROEI, Gray. |
1826. Haliotis roei, Gray. King’s Survey of Australia,
pp. 157 and 493.

1846. Haliotis roei, Gray. Rve., Conch. Icon., v. III.,
pl. 4, f. 10.
1859. Haliotis roei, Gray... Chenu, Man. Conch., v. I., p.

367, f. 2739 and 2740.
Hab—Portland.

Genus Megatebennus, Pilsbry 1890.
MEGATEBENNUS JAVANICENSIS, Lamarck.

1914. Megatebennus javanicensis, Lk. Gat. and Gab.,
Vic. Nat., v. XXXI., p. 82.

Genus Diodora, Gray 1821, replaces Fissuridea, Swainson
1840.

Genus Montfortula, Iredale 1915.

This includes the species listed as Subemarginula emarginata,
Bl.; and S. rugosa, Quoy and Gaim.

Genus Scutus, Montfort 1810.
ScUTUS ANTIPODES, Montfort.

1810. Scutus antipodes, Montf. Conch, Syst., v. IL, p.
35, pl4 19.

1902. Scutus anatinus, Donovan. Prit. and Gat., these
FOG.) Veta, Po LBB.

1917. Scutus antipodes, Montf. Hed., P.L.S., N.S.W.,
v. XLI., for 1916, p. 704, pl. 47, f. 7-9.

Genus Tugalia, Gray 1843.
TUGALIA CICATRICOSA, A. Adams.

1852. Tugali cicatricosa, A. Ad. P.Z.S., Lond. for 1851,
-p. 89.

1863. Tugalia cicatrosa, A: Ad. Sowb., Thes. Con., v.
III., p. 222, pl. 14, f. 14.

1865. Tugalia cicatricosa, A. Ad. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 185.

1870. Tugalia cicatrosa, A. Ad., Rve. Conch. Icon., v.
RVibsopled He. “ve

152 Gatliff and Gabriel -

1890. Tugalia cicatricosa, A. Ad. Tryon, Man. Conch.,
v. XII., p. 285, f£. 86, not 85.

1917. Tugalia cicatricosa, A. Ad. Hed., P.L.S., N.S.W.,
v. XLL., p. 698, for 1916.

Hab.—Dredged with the animal, Half Moon Bay, Port Phillip,
also Western Port. |

Obs.—Tryon’s fig. 86 loc. cit. is a copy of that in Thes. Conch.,
and is referred to in the text and table of the plate as 86, but
on the plate is wrongly numbered 85, and that of T. carinata
86, evidently a reversal, in error. Hedley’s fig. 26, plate 52 loc.
cit. does not represent the species. He states: “ A scar on the
summit, which suggested the name, was an individual and acci-
dental feature of the type shell. It is by chance repeated in a
specimen before me, and was probably caused by adherence of
a Capulus, or some such associate.”

We have obtained over 20 specimens, some of them dredged
with the animal, all with the summit free from any encumbrance,
and we also have similar specimens from South Australia, and
cannot agree with Hedley’s surmise.

The habitat of the type is given as Philippine Islands; it is
more coarsely sculptured than as we find it.

Genus Cellana, H. Adams 1869, replaces Helcioniscus,
Dall 1871. ?
CELLANA VARIEGATA, Blainville.

1825. Patella variegata, Bl. Dict. Sci. Nat.,. v.
XXXVIII., p. 100.

1908. Helcioniscus diemenensis, Phil. Gat. and Gab.,
these Proc., v. XXI., p. 382.

1915. Helcioniscus variegatus, Bl. Hed., P.L.S., N.S.W.,
v. XXXIX., for 1914, p. 714.

Genus Patella, Linnaeus 1758.

PATELLA VICTORIAE, Gatliff and Gabriel, nom. mut.

1902. Patella hepatica, Prit. and Gat., not of Gmelin,
these Proc., v. XV., p. 194.

PATELLA SQUAMIFERA, Reeve.
4902. Patella aculeata, Rve., not of Gmelin, Prit. and
Gat. Id., p. 193.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 153

Genus Nacella, Schumacher 1817.

NACELLA PARVA, Angas.

1878. Nacella parva, Ang. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 862, pl. 54,
ft. BZ,

1912. Nacella parva, Ang. Verco, T.R.S., S.A., v.
XXXVI., p. 183.

Hab.—Portland.

Obs.—Found living on the seaweed Cymodocea antarctica,
associated with Nacella stowae, Verco, and Stenochiton cymo-
docealis, Ashby. A rather constant feature is: “A single row
of pale blue spots and crescent-shaped opaque markings extend-
ing from the apex centrally, more or less along the outer arc
of the shell.” Size of type: Diam. maj. 6, min. 3, alt. 2mm.

Genus Patelloida, Quoy and Gaim. 1834, replaces (Acmae
Eschscholtz, 1828, not of. Hartman 182r.

Genus Callochiton, Gray 1847.

CALLOCHITON MAYI, Torr.

1912. Callochiton mayi, Torr. P.R.S., Tas., p. 1.

1912. Callochiton mayi, Torr. May and Torr, Id. p. 28,
a let, O47.

1912. Callochiton mayi, Torr. T.R.S., S.A., v. KXXVI.,
p. 164, pl. 5, f. la-f.

Hab.—Portland.

Obs.—Size of type: Length 15, breadth 8 mm. A beauti-
fully ornate little species. The girdle, with its dense microscopic
diamond-shaped scales, longitudinally-sulcate pleural areas, and
dots on the lateral areas, serve as useful recognition marks.

CALLOCHITON RUFUS, Ashby.

1900. Callochiton rufus, Ashby. T.R.S., S.A., p. 87, pl.
i. 2g
1921. Callochiton rufus, Ashby, these Proc., v. XXXIIL.,
for 1920, p. 150.
Hab.—Port Phillip Heads (J. B. Wilson).
Obs.—Size of type: Length 16, breadth 10 mm. Ashby Joc.
cit. says this was misidentified by Sykes as C. platessa, Gould.
7

154 Gatliff and Gubriel :

Genus Stenochiton, Adams and Angas 1864.
STENOCHITON CYMODOCEALIS, Ashby.

1918. Stenochiton cymodocealis, Ashby. T.R.S., S.A,
Vo RL pore) pi tome ad, 4; 5,01, 12:
Hab.—Portland.
Obs.—Size of type: Length 10, breadth 3.5 mm.; found on
the seaweed Cymodocea antarctica.

Genus Ischnochiton, Gray 1847.
ISCHNOCHITON DECUSSATUS, Reeve.

1847. Chiton decussatus, Rve. Conch. Icon., sp. 107, pl.
18, f. 107, also pl. of ‘‘ Details of sculpture,”
£107,

Hab.—Portland.

Obs.—Dr. Torr has erroneously placed this species as a syno-
nym of Chiton sulcatus, Q. and G. They differ distinctly. Quoy
and Gaimard’s name is not available, as in 1815, in General
Conchology, p. 16, pl. 3, f. 1, Wood described and figured a
different shell under that name, and it is quoted by Dillwyn in his
Cat. Recent Shells, p. 8. |

IsCHNOCHITON IREDALEI, Dupuis.

1917. Ischnochiton lineolatus, Iredale and May; not of
Blainville, Gat. and Gab., these Proc., v. XXX.,
p. 26.

1918. Ischnochiton iredalei, Dup. Bull. Mus. Hist., Nat.,
No. 7.

1921. Ischnochiton iredalei, Dup. Ashby, these Proc.,
v. XXXIII., for 1920, p. 151.

1921. Ischnochiton iredalei, Dup. Ashby, T.R.S., S.A., v.
XLIV., for 1920, p. 284.

Obs.—This is J. contractus, auct. not of Reeve.

Genus Plaxiphora, Gray 1847.
PLAXIPHORA BEDNALLI, Thiele.
1909. Plaxiphora glauca, Quoy and Gaim. Gat. and
Gab., these Proc., v. XXIL., p. 42.
1909. Plaxiphora bednalli, Thiele. Revision des Sys-
tems des Chitonen, p. 25, pl. 3, f. 27-31.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 155

Obs.—This species was identified by Bednall as P. glauca, Q.
and G., and he sent a specimen to Thiele, who said it was not
that species, and named it P. bednalli.

PLAXIPHORA COSTATA, Blainville.
1825. Chiton costata, Bl. Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. XXXVI,
p. 548.
1893. Chiton costatus, Bl. Pilsbry, Man. Conch., v. XV.,
p. 105.
1902. Plaxiphora petholata, Sowerby. Prit. and Gat.,
these Proc., v. XV., p. 204.

Genus Acanthochitona, Gray 1821, replaces Acanthochites,
Risso 1826.

ACANTHOCHITONA COSTATA, Adams and Angas.

1864. Acanthochites costatus, Ad. and Ang. P.ZS.,
Lond., p. 194.

1893. Acanthochites costatus, Ad. and Ang. Pilsbry,

Man. Conch., v. XV., p. 40, pl. 3, £. 74.
Hab.—Portland.

Obs.—Size of type. Length 18, breadth 7 mm. This was ob-

tained in New South Wales; it is also recorded in Queensland;
South Australia; and Tasmania.

_ ACANTHOCHITONA GATLIFFI, Ashby.

1919. Acanthochiton gatlifi, Ashby. T.R.S., S.A, v.
XLIII., p. 398, pl. 42, f, 2-5.
1921. Acanthochiton gatlifi, Ashby. These Proc., v.
XXI., for 1920, p. 152.
Hab.—Dredged off Point Cook, Port Phillip, in 8 fathoms.
Obs.—Size: Length 6, breadth 3 mm.

AACANTHOCHITONA TATEI, Torr and Ashby.

This proves to be a synonym of A. granostriatus, Pilsbry.

Genus Rhyssoplax, Thiele 1893.

Under this new genus are now classed the species listed as
‘Chiton bednalli, Pilsbry; C. tricostalis, Pilsbry; C. jugosus,
Gould; C. exoptanda, Bednall; C. verconis, Torr and Ashby; and

C. calliozona, Pilsbry.
7a

156 Gatlif’ and Gabriel :

CHITON LIMANS, Sykes.

This name drops, and must be deleted from our list. It had
been revived by Sykes, but as Ashby has pointed out in his report
on the Bracebridge Wilson collection of Chitons in the National
Museum, dealt with by Sykes, the shells there to which the name
of C. limans was given proved to be C. tricostalis, Pilsbry.

There will be other alterations made in the nomenclature of the
Polyplacophora not yet definitely decided upon. Ashby and
other workers are dealing with the subject.

Genus Rhizorus, Montfort 1810, replaces Volvulella, Newton
189g1.

Genus Cylichnella, Gabb 1873, replaces Bullinella, Newton
1891.

Genus Bullaria, Rafinesque, replaces Bulla, Linne 1767.

Genus Ringicula, Deshayes 1838.
RINGICULA GRANDINOSA, Hinds.
1844. Ringicula grandinosa, Hinds. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 96
1878. Ringicula grandinosa, Hinds. Braz. P.LS.,
N.S W:, wel ype 78.
1893. Ringicula grandinosa, Hinds. Pilsbry, Man.
Conch., v. XV., p. 409, pl. 47, f£. 72.
Hab.—Port Albert (Worcester). :
Obs.—A stout shell, whorls rounded. “ The last large, sub-
quadrate, rotund.”

Genus Tethys, Linné 1758, replaces Aplysia, Linne 1767.

Genus Kerguelenia, Mabille and Rochebrune 1887.

This genus includes Siphonaria \stowae, Verco, previously
listed.

Genus Gadinia, Gray 1824.

GADINIA CONICA, Angas. |
1867. Gadinia conica, Ang. P.Z.S., Lond., pp. 115 and
220; ‘pl..13, £., 27,

This name replaces that for the shell listed as G. angasi, Dall.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. P57

Genus Dentalium, Linnaeus 1758.

DENTALIUM ERECTUM, Sowerby.
1860. Dentalium erectum, Sowb. Thes. Conch., v. IIL,
a 09, gl. 132° SR
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.

Genus Dacosta, Gray 1858.

This includes the species listed as Clavagella australis, Lk.

Family LATERNULIDAE replaces Anatinidae.

Genus Laternula, Bolten 1798, replaces Anatina, Lamarck
1809. |
Genus Myodora, Gray 1840.
Myopora ANTIPODUM, E. A. Smith.
1880. Myodora antipodum, E. A. Smith. P.Z.S., Lond.,
Pilomo op) dont. 7,(/a.
1913. Myodora antipodum, E. A. Smith. Suter, Man.
NiZ. Moll. p. 102/, pi.o0, t..1Ua.
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.
Obs.—Size of type: Length 9, width 13.33, diam. 2mm. Smith
compares it with M. pandoriformis, Stutch.

Genus Thraciopsis, Tate and May 1900.

THRACIOPSIS SPECIOSA, Angas.
1869. Thracia speciosa, Ang. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 48, pl. 2,
£..12.
Hab.—Frankston, Port Phillip. Dredged Western Port.
Obs.—Size of type: Long. 23, alt., 12, lat. 6 mm.

Genus Anapella, Dall 1895.

ANAPELLA TRIQUETRA, Hanley.
1914. Anapella triquetra, Han. Gat. and Gab., Vic. Nat.,
v. XXXI., p. 82. |

158 Gatliff and Gabriel :

Genus Syndesmya, Recluz 1843.

SYNDESMYA ExiIGuA, H. Adams.
1903. Semele exigua, H. Ad. Prit. and Gat., these Proc.,
vV..2VL, pol bs.
1914. Syndesmya exigua, H. Ad. Lamy, Jour. de Conch.
for 1913, v. LXL., p. 294, pl. 8, f. 4-6.

Genus Gari, Schumacher 1817.

GARI Livipa, Lamarck.

1818. Psammobia livida, Lk. Anim. S. Vert., v. V.,
pol. :

1818. Psammotea zonalis, Lk. Id. p. 517.

1903. Gari zonalis, Lk. Prit. and Gat., these Proc., v.
XV, pe 113:

1914. Psammobia, livida, Lk. Dautz. and Fisch., Jour.
de Conch, for 1913, -v. LXI., p. 224,-ploy-
f. 4-6; and they state that P. zonalis is a
synonym.

Genus Pseudoarcopagia, Bertin 1878

PSEUDOARCOPAGIA VICTORIAE, Gatliff and Gabriel.
1914. Tellina (Arcopagia) victoriae, Gat. and Gab., Vic.
Nat., v. XXXI., p. 83.

Genus Hemidonax, Morch 1870.

HEMIDONAX AUSTRALIENSE, Reeve.
1914. Hemidonax australiense, Rve. Gat. and Gab., Vic.
Nat., v. XXXL, p. 83.

Genus Donax, Linnaeus 1758.

DoNAx sorDIDUS, Reeve.
1845. Donax sordidus, Rve. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

v. XVL., p. 59.

1848. Donax sordida, Rve. Krauss Sudafr. Moll., p. 6,
ae es BaF

1854. Donax sordidus, Rve. Conch. Icon., v. VIII., pl.
9, to oe.

Hab.—Portland.
Obs.—Size of our shell: Antero-posterior diameter 23, umbo-

ventral diam. 16 mm.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 159

Genus Lioconcha, Morch 1883.
This includes the species listed as Circe angasi, E. A. Smith.

Genus Callanaitis, Iredale 1917.

CALLANAITIS DISJECTA, Perry.

1903. Chione disjecta, Perry. Prit. and Gat., these aac
Yo vee De tee.

1913. Chione disjecta, Perry. Suter, Man, N.Z. Moll,
p. 989,"pl. 61, £.°5.

Genus Katelysia, Romer 1857.

This includes the species listed as Chione ‘strigosa, Lk.; C-
scalarina, Lk.; and C. peroni, Lk.

Genus Clausinella, Gray 1851.

This includes the species listed as Chione placida, Phil.

Genus Gomphina, Morch 1853.

GOMPHINA UNDULOSA, Lamarck.

1914. Gomphina undulosa, Lk. Gat. and Gab., Vic. Nat.,
v. XXX.) p83)

Genus Macrocallista, Meek 1876.

This includes the species listed as Meretrix disrupta, Sowb.;
_M. planatella, Lk.; M. kingit, Gray; and M. regularis, Smith.

Genus Bassina, Jukes-Browne 1914.

This includes the species listed as Meretrix paucilamellata,
Dkr., and Jukes-Browne selects it as the genotype.

Genus Pullastra, Sowerby 1826.

This includes the species listed as Tapes fabagella, Desh., and
Tapes galactites, Lk.

Genus Myrtaea, Turton 1822.

MyrTAEA BOTANICA, Hedley.
1903. Lucina brazieri, Sowb. (as Tellina), Prit. and Gat.,
these Proc., v. XVI., p. 138, not T. brazieri,
Sowb., 1869.

160 Gatliff and Gabriel :

1918. Myrtaea botanica, Hed. nom. mut. J.RS.,
N.S.W.,.-v. LL, for .1917, -p. 18, No, 177,

This genus also includes the species listed as Lucina mayt, Gat.
and Gab.

Genus Codakia, Scopoli 17.

This includes the species listed as Lucina minima, Ten.-Wds.;
L. paupera, Tate; and L. tatei, Ang.

Genus Divaricella, Von Martens 1880.
DIVARICELLA CUMINGI, A. Adams and Angas.

1863. Lucina (Cyclas) cumingi, Ad. and Ang., P.ZS.,
Lond., p. 426, pl. 37, £. 20.

1903. Lucina (Divaricella) huttoniana, Vanatta. Prit.
and Gat? these Proc., v. XVI, ‘p.° 139;

1913. Divaricella cumingi, A. Ad. and Ang. Suter, Man.
N.Z. Moll., p. 913, pl. 58, f. 18.

This is the species listed by Tenison-Woods in his Tasmanian
Census of Marine Shells as Lucina divaricata, L.

Genus Cyamiomactra, Bernard 1897.
CYAMIOMACTRA BALAUSTINA, Gould. r
1861. Kellia balaustina, Gould. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat.
Hist,-v. Vill. p. oo. fon
1909. Cyamiomactra nitida, Hed. Gat. and Gab., these
Proc., v. XXII., p. 45. ,
1914. Cyamiomactra balaustina, Gould. Gat. and Gab.,
Vit. Nat, v AAML Dp. OF.
1915. Cyamiomactra balaustina, Gould. Hed., P.LS.,
N:S:W.,' p. 699; ph: 77, £..2; 3; |

Genus Coriareus, Hedley 1907.

This includes the shell listed as Montacuta semiradiata, Tate.

Genus Condylocardia, Bernard 1896.
CONDYLOCARDIA SUBRADIATA, Tate.
1888. Carditella subradiata, Tate, T.R.S., S.A., v. XI, p.
62, pl. 11, f. 7.
1908. Condylocardia subradiata, Tate. Id. v. XXXIL.,
p. 358, pl. 17, £. 25-28.

Victorian Marine Mollusca. 161

Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.
Obs.—Size of type: Antero-posterior diam. 13, umbo-ven-
tral diam. 12.5 mm.

Genus Venericardia, Lamarck 1801.
“VENERICARDIA ROSULENTA, Tate.

1887. Cardita rosulenta, Tate. T.R:S., SiA. v. TX, p.
69, pl. 5, £. 3. |

1911. Venericardia rosulenta, Tate. Hed. Zool. Com-
monwealth trawler Endeavour, v. I., p. 97,
pl. 17, £. 4. )

Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.

Obs.—Size of type: Antero-posterior diam. 21, umbo-ventral
diam. 17 mm. Hedley records, loc. cit., a specimen 45 mm. in
length.

The shells listed as Cardita are now classed as Venericardia,
-and the genus Cardita is now used for those species previously
listed as Mytilicardia.

Genus Neotrigonia, Cossmann 1918.

This includes the shell listed as Trigonia margaritacea, Lk.

Genus Nuculana, Link 1807, replaces Leda, Schumacher
1817.
_ NUCULANA DOHRNI, Hanley.
1861. Leda dohrni, Han. P.Z.S., Lond., p. 242.
1871. Leda dohrnii, Han. Sowb., Conch, Icon, v.
XVIIL., pl. 9, £. 54.
Hab.—Taken off cable to Tasmania, Bass Strait.

The genus Nuculana includes the species already listed as
Leda. |
Genus Modiolus, Lamarck 1799.

This replaces Modiola, Lk., and the species listed as such will
be changed accordingly.

Genus Musculus, Bolten 1798, replaces Modio/aria Loven 1846,

Genus Pinctada, Bolten 1708.

This includes the shell listed as Meleagrina margaritifera, L.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicroria, 34 (N.S.), Pr. IIL., 1921].

Art. XVI.—Gold Specimens from Bendigo and their
Probable Modes of Origin.

By F. L. STILLWELL, D.Sc.

(Plate I.)

[Read November 10th, 1921].

The gold in the Bendigo quartz reefs occurs as particles of
bright, yellow, free gold, of high quality, containing about 30
parts per 1000 of silver. Its occurrence can be divided into two
general types—

(a) As particles associated with the dark laminated seams

traversing the quartz;

(b) as particles embedded in white quartz.
While these two general types are not confined to any particular
form of reef, it can be said that the first type is more charac-
teristic of saddle reefs and leg reefs, and that the second type is
more characteristic of “* spurs,’ which are veins cutting across the
strata. The gold particles in the spurs are, on an average, larger
than the gold particles associated with the carbonaceous seams,
but the latter may be more numerous, and have formed the main.
factor in the richest saddle reefs of Bendigo. Such particles
are occasionally so numerous as to form a sheet of gold along
the lamina.} |

The particles of gold embedded in white quartz appear as.
shotty specks, or as sheeted interlacings with quartz, and some-
times ankerite. The gold particles, like quartz, are allotriomor-
phic, and do not assume their crystalline form except in rare cases.
in vugs. The tendency of the gold towards its crystalline form is,
however, often sufficient to produce more or less rounded, shotty
particles, unless there exist obstructing or modifying circum-
stances. The shotty particles sometimes are readily loosened
and detached from the quartz, and are then spoken of as “ loose
gold.” The modifying circumstances may develop during the
later stages of growth of a vein if the quartz crystals grow at
a more rapid rate than the gold crystals, or if the growth of the

1. Gold Deposition in the Bendigo Goldfield, F, L. Stillwell, Bull, 4, Com--
monwealth Adv. Council of Sci. and Ind., plate III., fig. 2.

Gold Specimens from Bendigo. 163:

quartz crystals continues for a longer period than required for
the gold crystals. The tremendous crystallising pressure of the
quartz, which is sufficient to force apart the walls of the vein,
may then be partially directed against the growing crystals of
gold, modifying them in the same way that gold is hammered
in the production of gold leaf. In this case the final result is a
sheeted interlacing of gold with quartz, ankerite, and other
minerals, with an appearance that has often suggested the in-
filtration of secondary gold in cracks in a quartz vein.

The specimen illustrated in Fig. 1 came from the Consteila-
tion saddle reef above the 622 feet level. It shows a black slaty
seam, partly mixed with ankerite, pursuing its normal tortuous.
track through the quartz. Several particles of gold, pyrite and
galena occur in this specimen along this carbonaceous seam,
including a well-formed cube of pyrite. Particles of gold are
embedded in the cube of pyrite, and appear to have formed the
nucleus of the crystal.

Another specimen, occurring near this cube in the same saddle
reef, shows an intimate mixture of gold, galena and pyrite. The
mixture borders upon a carbonaceous lamina, visible on the side
of the specimen, but which is not revealed in the photograph
(fig. 2). The photograph illustrates a sliced surface of the
specimen on which only a few fragments of carbonaceous matter
are showing, but pyrite (P), gold (white), and galena (Ga)
are distinguishable. The mass of pyrite is embedded in quartz,
but at the same time it is broken by veins of quartz, galena
and gold. The gold appears not only as nuclei of some of the
pyrite, but also as a network of veins in the pyrite, and in the
galena.

Without consideration of the process of formation of the
vein, the petrographical relations of the quartz and pyrite in
these two specimens would indicate that—(1) pyrite crystal-
lised before gold, and (2) that gold crystallised before pyrite.
The apparently contradictory character of these conclusions
appears to me to disappear when the vein is viewed as a slow
and steady growth, in which the quartz and each other mineral
are slowly and continuously deposited from the initial stages
up to the final stages of the formation of the vein. The gold,
pyrite and galena are localised in the quartz in these instances,
partly by the precipitating action of the slaty residues, and, in
a growing mixture of gold and pyrite, some of the pyrite may

164 FP. L. Stallwell :

be precipitated before some of the gold, and some of the gold
before some of the pyrite. The mutual relationships of the
solubilities and concentrations of the different vein minerals,
which might have been expected to’ produce a more or less
characteristic order of deposition have been disturbed by the
presence of foreign precipitating matter.

A specimen of a different and rare type at Bendigo is illus-
trated in Fig. 3. It consists of a thin plate of gold, with a small
fragment of attached quartz, terminating in a crystal of gold.
‘The specimen is 3 cm. long, weighs 2 dwts. 14 grs., and is shown
in the photograph with a magnification of 2. It was found in a
quartz spur in sandstone about two feet wide in the stopes on
the Victory spurs, 580 feet south, 1235 feet level, in the Carlisle
mine. The gold crystal occurred in a vug, terminating the: plate
of gold in the same way as the associated quartz crystals in the
same vug grew out from the mass of quartz. The dominating
faces of the crystal are those of the octahedron. The solid
angles of the octahedron are replaced by small faces of the
cube, and the edges of the octahedron are replaced by. faces of
the rhombicdodecahedron. For nearly lcm. behind the ter-
minating crystal, crystalline faces. of gold can be seen on the
plate of gold. It is quite clear that this small nugget of gold
is as essential and primary a part of the vein as the quartz
‘crystals that form the bulk of the vein. Had the gold not
assumed the platy and crystalline form, the occurrence might
have been similar to the gold wire. whose occurrence in a quartz
vug has previously been recorded.”

Another rare specimen obtained from the same stopes, at the
1235 feet level, in the Carlisle mine, is illustrated in Fig. 4. This
is a fragment of a very small, but very rich, spur, which traversed
a thick bed of slates on the eastern side of the stopes. The
thickest part of the vein in the specimen is 5 mm., in which are
embedded two isolated crystals of sphalerite, with a little ad-
mixed pyrite. A few small specks of gold are embedded in
the quartz, but the main mass of gold in the specimen occurs
as a thin film, bounding the quartz and the slate. The gold film
shows irregularities, but is fairly continuous, and, when the
slate is broken away, has the appearance of gold paint on: the
wall of the vein. Towards one end of the specimen the thick-

Factors influencing the Deposition of Gold in the Bendigo Gold-

2. The
ie. * L. Stillwell, Bull. No. 8, Adv. Council of Sci. and Industry, plate
+» Ng. 2,

Gold Specomens strom Bendigo. 165

ness of the quartz vein diminishes, and becomes almost pure:
gold. An interesting feature of the specimen is shown in the
illustration, and consists of a number of gold platy riffles stand-
ing out from the vein at right angles to the wall. These riffles.
are on the whole parallel to the cleavage of the slate, and repre-
sent gold that has been deposited in the cleavage cracks from.
solutions traversing the course of the vein. The feature exists.
on both sides of the vein. It is very clear from this specimen
that the slate has been a precipitating agent for the gold.

Another specimen from the same gold shoot, and the same
mine, can also be recorded, though it does not lend itself to
illustration. It was obtained from the 1264 feet level, adjoining
the plane of a small west dipping fault. A spur, which varies.
in thickness from 4 inch to 14 inches, butts against the fault
plane, and contains pyrite and colours of gold. Projecting from:
the wall of a small branching spur, which forms the fault plane,.
is a nest of pyrite cubes, and the wall of the fault and spur is
mostly covered with a film of gold, which also extends into the
fractures of the associated slate. These two specimens are rare,.
and at first glance the films of gold paint suggest the occurrence
of secondary gold, ie., gold which has been leached from the
gold-bearing spurs, and precipitated by the slate. The small.
fault is believed to have existed prior to the vein formation, and
gold might have been precipitated from the primary solutions.
circulating along it, or from subsequent secondary solutions. The
_ great depth of the occurrence of 1264 feet below the surface
is a fact in strong opposition to a theory of downward secondary
enrichment, while the association of the gold with the sulphides:
is more consistent with its being of primary origin. Even if it
were claimed that these occurrences indicate the presence of
secondary gold, it must be remembered that they are rare. Fre-
quent inspections of mining operations on this gold shoot in the
Carlisle mine, which, during the fourteen months preceding Sep--
tember, 1921, produced 15,712 ounces of gold, valued at £84,761,
failed to yield any evidence recognisable as being characteristic
of secondary enrichment. It may therefore be fairly concluded
that the gold in the spurs is primary, and that the existence
of the gold shoot is dependent on primary causes.

166) F. L. Stillwell: Gold Specimens from Bendigo.

SPLAT Ene.

Fig. 1. Quartz, showing gold (dark), embedded in a cube of
pyrite. From saddle reef above 622 feet level, Con-
stellation mine. Mag. 2.

Fig. 2. Quartz carrying pyrite gold and galena. The ‘aie
(P) issintersected by veins of quartz, galena (Ga)
and gold’ (white). From saddle reef above 622 feet
level, Constellation mine. Mag. 2.

Pipes 3. Thin plate of gold terminating in a crystal of gold.
Stopes 580 feet south, 1235 feel level, Carlisle mine.
Mag. 2.

Pig. 4. Rich spur in inte showing a number of pak platy
_.. riffes standing out from the vein at right angles to
the wall of the spur. The dark area (B) is a crystal
of zine blende embedded in the vein, and the hackly
appearance of the edge of the vein is due to gold.
Eastern side of stopes, 580 feet south, 1235 feet level,

Carlisle mine. Mag. 2.

Plate I.

Fic. 4,

Proc. R.S. Victoria, 1922.

Fig, 3.

ns ETE T ON SSRN AY
2 ‘ ;

teens

~

+ Ror

hee Meaars

7 ¥ “ 7 ’ ciclo <s D : A fi wt e oe StS Soe Fw

alee

(Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorta, 34 (N.S.), Pr. IL, 1922.]

Art, XVII.—On a Fossil Filamentous Alga and Sponge-
Spicules forming Opal Nodules at Richmond River, N.S. W.

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.LS., F.R.M.S.
(With Two Text Figures.)
[Read 10th November, 1921.]

Source of Specimens.

The samples of common opal from the diatomaceous deposits
of the Richmond River at Tintenbar, New South Wales, now
described, were handed over to the National Museum Collection
by Mr. R. H. Walcott, Curator of the Technological Museum,
Melbourne. They were received by Mr. Walcott from Mr. G.
N. Milne, of the Salvation Army, at Bayswater, on the 18th of
December, 1919. »

In response to Mr. Walcott’s desire to know something of the
microscopic nature of these samples, I took thin slices from
two of the pieces, which gave different results; in the one case
a spicule-rock being revealed, originating from freshwater
sponges, and in the other the matted thalli of a confervoid fresh-
water weed, probably of the genus Cladophora, and now silicified.

Literary Notes on the Deposit.

Professor Liversidge, writing on the siliceous deposits from
the Richmond River, New South Wales,’ refers to this rock
as resembling ‘“‘the deposits thrown down by hot springs or
geysers.” He records the presence of wood opal and remains
of ferns (Pteris) and seeds, one of the latter being named by
von Mueller, Liversidgea oxyspora,? to which is also referred
a leaf fragment.

J. Milne Curran, in writing on precious stones in New South
Wales,*® on p. 258 of the reference quoted, says, “I have more
than once received specimens of diatomite from the Richmond
River, which were in part converted into a true opal.”

"1. Journ, and Proc. R. Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. X, (1876), 1877, pp. 237-240.

2. Loc. cit., p. 239, plate.
3. Journ. and Proc. R. Soc., N.S. Wales, vol, XXX (1896), 1897.

168 F, Chapman:

The most important contribution on the diatom deposit of the
Richmond River is that by Messrs. G. W. Card and W..S. Dun.*
A copious quotation bearing on the present work is as follows :-—

“ Wyrallah—The deposits on the Richmond River appear to
be typically developed at Wyrallah, nine miles from Lismore.
Here there seems to be a number of scattered deposits on either
side of the Richmond River. They are surrounded and over-
lain by scoriaceous basalt, and occur in depressions in the same
rock. Probably large areas of the diatomaceous earth have been.
washed away. It has been stated at various times that consider-
able thicknesses of the earth exist in private lands, but this
requires confirmation. The physical character of the diato-
maceous earth from these. deposits is peculiar. It is hard and
stony, requiring considerable pressure to.crush it, and it is of a
dirty white colour. The percentage of silica is high—over 90
per cent., and the lower portion of the deposit merges into a
band of yellowish common opal, about a foot thick. Pieces of
the opaline rock are marginally earthy, due,probably to the re-
moval by solution of the secondary silica, as in the case of chalk
flints. The rock is isotropic, and marked with parallel. bands,.
coloured by splashes of yellow and brown.®, With a high magni-
fying power the base is seen to be made up of hazy wisps and
shreds, and numerous indistinct fragments of Melosira. This.
has been remarked on by the Rev. J. Milne Curran.’®

Some interesting ‘“‘ Notes on a Plant-bearing Common Black
Opal from Tweed Heads, N.S.W.”? have been published by Prof.
E. W. Skeats. The opal occurs associated with basalt flows,
and, although the age of the basalt is left open by Prof. Skeats,
yet the occurrence of the freshwater algae in the opal at any
rate points to similar conditions of deposition that we infer from
the opal of the Richmond River now under discussion. It will
be here appropriate to quote part of the remarks of Prof. Ewart
upon the structures found in the opal, recorded on p. 21 of Prof.
Skeats’ paper: ‘‘Some of the structures appeared to represent
sections of fresh-water algae, others of various plants, including
the spore of a fungus, a transverse section of a leaf, and, possibly,
a section of a small petiole.”

4. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales, vol. V., pt. 3, 1897, pp. 143 and 144.

5. This description applies to the present specimens,

6. “This” refers to the opal, and not to its contents, as a reference to
Mr. Curran’s paper will show.

7. Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland, vol, XXVI., 1914, pp. 18-22, pls, I. and II.

Opal Nodules at Richmond River. 169

Description of Thallophyte.

The appearance of this organism in a thin section under a
moderate magnification (1 inch obj.) is that of a matted, fila-
mentous weed, reminding one of the threadlike conferva of lakes.
and streams. The filaments are usually cylindrical, and

Fig. 1 Cladophora richmondiensis, sp. nov.

constricted at the nodes or partitions. The partitions are spaced
at fairly long intervals, varying from about three to six times
the diameter of the filament. The cell-walls show a well marked
outline of the exterior and interior, which character distinguishes.
them at once from any spicular body, in which there is a strong
surface refraction.

Small rounded bodies in aggregates are seen in the matrix,
which may be referable to tetraspores. The average diameter
of the cells of the thallus measure 46 p.

That this fossil form is of the confervoid type of cell-struc-
ture, and not referable to the blue-green algae, is very clear
from the distinctness of the cell-walls, which are sharply out-
lined and not hazy as in the encrusted cells of the Cyanophyceae.

170 F. Chapman :

The occurrence of this fossil confervoid is of especial interest
on account of the rarity of fossil remains of this character. Im-
pressions of confervoid-like structures in rocks were named Con-
fervites by Brongniart in 1828.

Bornemann also described a Cambrian fossil from Sardinia,
to which he gave the name of Confervites chantransioides ; the
filaments of this fossil have a diameter of 6-7 ,.8

Dr. C. D. Walcott has lately described a genus of algae, Mar-
polia,? from the Middle Cambrian shale of the Burgess Pass |
Quarry, British Columbia. This form closely resembles the habit
of growth in Cladophora, though no actual structure of the
thallus was determinable. It is relatively larger in size than the
form here described from the opal. Dr. Walcott refers the
genus Marpolia to the Cyanophyceae, but a comparison is made
with Cladophora (Chlorophyceae ).

Some forms of the Codiaceae are also filamentous and branch-
ing, and are not unknown in fossil deposits, but these appear to
be of marine habitat.

Age.—Late Cainozoic; probably Pleistocene.

Description of Spicules in Opal (Fig. 2).

The majority of the spicules found in one specimen examined
are of the typical Spongilla type, being straight, curved or slender
fusiform; some are nearly cylindrical and pointed at the ex-
tremities, whilst others are arcuate and much thicker in the
middle. A few extremely slender needle-like forms are present.
The surfaces are apparently all more or less spinulose. These
appear to belong to the genus Spongilla, whilst a few smooth
forms may belong to Meyenia. Very few traces of amphidiscs
occur, but those seen are of the type of Spongilla capewelli, a
species named by Bowerbank from specimens occurring at Lake
Hindmarsh, Victoria.1° A portion of what appears to be the
head of a birotulate spicule, with a denticulate margin shows
some resemblance to the form described by Prof. Haswell as
Mevyenia ramsayi.'*

Regarding a similar diatomaceous and sponge spicular deposit,
from the Warrumbungle Mountains, Mr. R. Etheridge (junr.)

8. Kais. Leop.-Carol Deutsche Akad. Naturforscher, vol, LI., 1887.
9. Smithsonian Mise, Coll. vol. LXVII., No. 5, 1919 p. 2338.

10. Proc. Zool. Spc. Lond., 1863, p, 447, pl. XXXVIIIL., fig. 3.

11. Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. VII., 1888, p. 210.

Opal .Nodules at Richmond River. U7

recognised in it’® Spongilla sp., and this was confirmed by Dr.
Hinde, who also determined the presence of amphidiscs, belonging
the genus Meyenia.** The diatomaceous deposits of the War-
rumbungle Mountains are, however, of greater age than those

’ Fig. 2 Spicules in Opal.

described above, for Prof. David has shown" that they are inter-

‘bedded with a trachytic tuff, which has yielded leaves of Cin-
namomum Leichhardti, Ett.

12. Ann. Rep. Dept. Mines, N.S. Wales for 1887 (1888), pp. 165, 166.
13. See Card and Dun, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales, vol. V., 1897, p. 148.
14. Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, vol. XXI., 1896, pt. 2, p. 265.

8A

[Proc. Ror. Soc. Vicroria 34 (N.S.), Pr, Il., 1922].

Arr. XVIII.—On the Changes of Volume in a Mixture of
Dry Seeds and Water.

By ALFRED J, EWART, D.Sc. Ph.D. F.RS.
(Professor of Botany and Plant Physiology in the University of Melbourne).

[Read 8th December, 1921].

If a quantity of dry peas is placed in a bottle filled with
water, and provided with an open upright tube, it will be noticed
that as the seeds swell the level of water in the tube rises, indi-
cating a total increase of volume, and that after several hours.
the level of liquid in the tube falls again. The following obser-
vations illustrate this: The bottle used had a capacity of 1050
c.c., and 10 cms. of the erect tube contained 2.4 ‘cc. Peas.
were dried at 80°C., and the bottle two-thirds filled with them,,.
and then filled up with water. The temperature of the peas was.
20°C., and of the water 13.6. The increase or decrease of volume
was measured from the height of liquid in the tube. The total

Total Increase or

Temperature. Time. Decrease of Volume.
16*3°C: - 12 a.m. 2 0: 0c.c.

— - 12.30 p.m. - +0-36 c.c.
16-3°C. - 3 p.m. - +5-6ce.c.
16-4°C. — - 3.50 p.m. - 0-0c.c.
15-8°C. - 10 p.m. - —18-7e.c.
13-8°C. . 10 a.m. : —10-8c.c.

volume therefore first increases, then decreases by a still greater’
amount, and finally increases again. The final increase is appar-
ent only, and is due to the production of small bubbles of gas
by anaerobic respiration. It begins, however, before the bubbles.
actually appear.

This simple observation has long been known, and has been.
variously explained. It has even been stated to be a good way
of demonstrating the expansion of seeds in water, ignoring the
fact that the expansion of the seeds should be proportional to-
the amount of water they absorb, leaving the total volume un-
altered.

Changes of Volume in Dry Seeds and Water. 173

The variation in the total volume might in fact be due to a
variety of causes, and since seeds have specific structure, it
need not follow the same course for all seeds. In regard to the
first increase of total volume, this might be the result of the
slight rise of temperature when dry seeds absorb water. Hence
the experiment was repeated with the peas and water at the
same original temperature (13.6°C.), the mixture be-
ing well stirred to remove any adhering air bubbles.

Total Increase or

Temperature. Time. Decrease of Volume.
la*7°C. - 10 a.m. - 0-0Oc.c.
14-3°C. - 12.10 p.m. - +6-9c.e.

14-8°C. 3.20 p.m. - +3:9c.c.

In this case a pronounced contraction of volume took place,
while the temperature was still rising. The fact that the altera-
tions of volume are far greater than any fluctuations due to
changes of temperature can also be shown by direct estimation.

Using a bottle of 1050 c.c. capacity, with a tube attached, of
which 10 cms.—2.4 c.c., the actual expansion of the water can
be calculated from the formula—

v,=U,(1 +a?)
where a=15x10~ between 10°C. and 20°C.

The increases of volume per 1°C. at various temperatures are
given.

Estimated Increase Observed Ris e
of Volume. in Tube.
Between 10-12°C. - 0: 1056c.c. =0-44cems. -
12-14°C. - 0-1416c.c. =0-59cms.
14-16°C. - 0: 1512¢c.c. =0-63cems. : 0-68cms.
16-18°C. - 0-1824c.c. =0:76cms. - ? Pee
18—20°C. - 0-1920c.c. =0-80cms. - J 4

In spite of the fact that the observed rise only gives the ap-
parent expansion, it is greater than the theoretically calculated
absolute expansion, but the methods used were not very re-
fined, and were merely intended to show that the fluctuations of
volume due to slight changes of temperature are small compared
with those caused by the swelling seeds.

The increase of total volume with swelling peas is most pro-
nounced when the seed coat has become markedly wrinkled, sug-

174 Alfred J. Ewart:

gesting that the increase of volume is connected with wrinkling
of the seed coat. This is easily proved by using split peas, in
which case the total volume does not undergo any preliminary
increase, but decreases from the outset until the final rise due
to the production of gas. The first experiment was carried out
with air-dry material, the second with material oven-dried at
80°C. The original total volume was 1050 c.c., and the receiver
was two-thirds filled with the split peas. It will be seen that the
contraction is much less with the air-dry material which already
contained 16 per cent. of water.

Air Dry Spruit Pras.

Total Increase or

Temperature. Time. Decrease of Volume.
he GH - 10 a.m. - 0:0c.c.
11-5°C. - 12.30 p.m. - —1-5c.c.
12*1°C. - 11.30 p.m. - +0-77e.c.

Oven Drizp Spuir Pras.
13° 7°C, - 11 a.m. - 0-0Oc.c.
15-6°C. - 1 p.m. - —6-le.c.
13-3°C. - 10.30 p.m. - +0:53c.c.

Similar results were obtained with split lentils, the material
being first washed with spirit, and then rapidly with water to
remove adherent air bubbles.

Spuit Lenvrits Arr DRieEpD.

Total Increase or

Temperature. Time. Decrease of Volume.
13-3°C. - 10.50 a.m. ccs 0-0c.c.
igs c. : 2.30" p.m! *') - —3-55e.c.
14-3°C. - 6 p.m. . —3-15e.ce.
Serir Lenrits Driep at 80° C.
13-4°C. - 11.55 a.m. - 0-0c.c.
13-4°C. : 7.40 p.m. - —6-5ce.c.
13-3°C. - 5 a.m. : —5-66c.c.

The observations were discontinued as soon as a distinct in-
crease of volume begins, for this is merely due to the appearance
of gas bubbles, and proceeds rapidly once it has commenced.

Since the first increase of total volume shown with whole
peas is due to the wrinkling of the seed coat, the suggestion
may be made that the wrinkles are due to local regions of the

Changes of Volume in Dry Seeds and Water. 175

skin absorbing water, and expanding more rapidly than others.
This would result in a tendency to a partial vacuum beneath each
wrinkle, and this would hasten the drawing in of water, and at
the same time increase the total volume of the mixture of seeds
and water. If this were so, then under pressure the first ex-
pansion should be either greatly decreased or suppressed.

For this purpose a stout separating funnel was used. Peas
and water were introduced at the top, which was then sealed.
To the lower end a long-armed U tube was attached. This
contained a water column continuous with that in the funnel.
Mercury was then poured into the open arm of the U tube until
the difference of level was 76 cms. After each reading the mer-
cury was brought up to the original level if contraction had taken
place, or reduced to the same level with the aid of a pipette if
expansion had occurred. The temperature varied within 1°C.
during the experiment, a maximum rise of 1°C. being shown
after three hours, when the total volume had begun to decrease.
The total initial volume was 1080 c.c. and a two-thirds charge
of oven-dried peas was used.

Time. Total Increase or Decrease of Volume.

3 p-m. - [0-Oe.e.Je.o. - 0.. 0c.
3.35 p.m. : [+2:-3c.c. ] - —0-10e.c.

4 p.m. - [+4:-7c.c. ] - +0: 28c.c.*
4.40 p.m. - [+6-3c.c. ] - +0-:76c.c.

5 p.m. - [+2-le.e.] - 0:0c.c.

8 p.m. - [ —2-4c.c. ] - —2-0c.c.

9 p.m. . [—3-0c.c.] - —4-8c.c.

9 a.m. - {[—1-le.c. |* - —5-6ce.c.T
10 a.m. - — - —5-6c.c.

* Seeds beginning to wrinkle.
+ Seeds fully swollen.

Owing to the pressure the final expansion due to the libera-
tion of gas bubbles is long delayed. The figures in brackets give
the expansion and contractions of a similar volume of peas and
water not under pressure. At * gas production began preventing
the full contraction of volume.

It will be noticed that under pressure there is a slight con-
traction of volume before the expansion due to the wrinkling
of the seed coat begins. This is probably the result of the pres-
sure on air in the intercellular spaces of the cotyledons. These
are not entirely obliterated on drying, as can be. seen by. exam-

176 Alfred J. Ewart:

ining sections of dry peas in pure glycerine. A large receiver
‘with a manometer attached showed an unchanged pressure of
-—76 cms. for an hour after exhaustion with a double Geryck
pump. It was then filled with dry peas, and again rapidly ex-
hausted. The exhaustion required a few more strokes, and on
standing for an hour the pressure increased from —-76 cms.
to —72 cms., then remaining stationary. This shows that the
dry peas do actually contain a little air.

In the case of all seeds in which the seed coat wrinkles more
or less during absorption, the total volume shows a preliminary
increase, followed by a decrease, as in the case of peas, and a
final increase of volume, which is only apparent, and is due to
the production of gas. It usually begins before any actual gas
appears, but is then due to gas forming in the intercellular spaces
of the seed, and driving out some of the water contained in
them.

Tick (Horst) Beans. Toran Votume 1065 cc. 2% CHARGE oF BEANS.

Total Increase or

Temperature. Time. Decrease of Volume.
11:-4°C. - 10.40 a.m. - 0-0c.c.
12ra°e: : 5 p.m. : +-9-98c.c.
12-5°C. - 7.30 p.m. - +9>+28e.c¢.
L]l-7°C. - 10.15 a.m. - —2-54e.e.
12-0°C. - 10 p.m. . —4-39c.c.
11-6°C. - 10 a.m. - +2:5e.e.

Haricor Beans. Toran VotumE 1055 cc. 4% CHARGE OF BEANS.

Total Increase or

Temperature. — Time. Decrease of Volume.
12-5°C. - 3 p-m. - 0-0c.c.
12-65°C. . 3.40 p.m. . +2:-5e.c.
13-3°C. : 7.45 p.m. . —4-6c.c.
11-8°C. - 10 a.m. | - —10-08c.c.
12-6°C. - 5.15 p.m. - —14:6e.c.
12-6°C, - 7pm. | - —1]1-2e.c.*

* No bubbles of gas as yet formed.

In the case of barley and cereal grains in which the integu-
ments do not wrinkle while absorbing water, the total volume
contracts from the commencement until the rise due to gas pro-
duction begins.

The following tests give the contractions obtained with air-
dried and oven-dried barley. The total volume was 1056 and

nr es!

4

Changes of Volume in Dry Seeds and Water. 177

1060 c.c. respectively. The receiver was two-thirds filled with
barley, after this had been rapidly washed with spirit to remove
air, and with water to remove light grain.

Baruey (AIR DRIED).

Temperature. Time. Total Contraction.
13 a ecw. s zero * 0 A Oc.¢.
132 5°C. : 24 hours : —2-38c.c.

BaRLeEY (Oven Driep).
12-4°C. - zero - 0)- 0e.c.
12-4°C, - 6 hours . —3-02c.c.

It is of interest to compare these contractions with those of
agar and gelatine when swelling in water. Ordinary flake or
strip agar or leaf gelatine cannot be used, as it is impossible to
obtain a mixture with water free from air, and they swell too
rapidly. Nelson’s strip gelatine gave good results, and granu-
lated agar was used, the granules swelling to the size of kidney
‘beans or broad beans in water. In both cases a rise of tempera-
ture of 0.5 to 1°C. takes place, but the final readings were taken
when the temperature had fallen approximately to the calori-
meter level again. The contraction of volume is small, and it
takes place almost wholly in the first hour with the gelatine, and
in the first seven hours with the agar, i.e., long before either
are fully swollen.

GELATINE. 150 @rams. Toran Vo.tumsg, 1050 cc.

Temperature. Time. Contraction of Volume.
Lb -3°O. - zero - 0-0c.c.
15-5°C, < 70 minutes - 0-912c.e.

Aa@arR. 50 Grams. '‘l'oTaAL Votums, 1056 cc.
15-°2°C. - zero - 0-0c.c.
15-1°C. . 7 hours - 0-65c.¢.

At a temperature of 15°C., 1000 c.c. of water would undergo
a decrease of volume of 0.495 c.c. under an increased pressure
of 10 atmospheres. Hence a decrease of 0.912 c.c. indicates an
increased pressure of 20 atmospheres. This is exercised on the
water by the gelatine in the process of swelling. The pressure
is probably much greater than this at first, and lessens as the
gelatine swells throughout, but on the other hand, more water

178 Alfred J. Ewart:

is under compression. The maximal total contraction will be
given at some intermediate point between commencing absorp-
tion and complete absorption and swelling.

There may be two reasons for the greater contraction of
volume with swelling seeds as compared with the gelatine. Using:
equal volumes of barley, haricot beans and peas, the maximal
contraction obtained varied from 2.5 to 6 c.c., but in all cases
were greater than with gelatine. This would indicate absorption.
pressures of 50 to 120 atmospheres. An organised colloid, like:
cellulose, may be capable of showing a higher absorption pres-
sure than an unorganised one like gelatine. In addition a certain.
amount of solution may take place in the seed as water is ab-
sorbed. Tamman! has shown that a volume of a solution under
one atmosphere pressure expands when heated like a similar
volume of water under a constantly higher pressure, i.e., a solu-
tion has a high internal pressure due to the solute. This action
is a general one, independently of whether the solute is am
electrolyte or a non-electrolyte. In other words, the minimum
volume temperature of water is lowered by the presence of a
solute. It follows, therefore, that as some of the food consti-
tuents of the seed begin to dissolve, the total volume may tend
to undergo a slight decrease as the result of the action of the
solute. There are, however, certain exceptions to this rule. For
instance, a mixture of ammonium chloride and water expands
on solution, so that a 6.85 per cent. solution has an increased’
volume of 0.266 c.c. (100.266 c.c. instead of 100 c.c.).2 Hence
it is impossible to say exactly what part may be played by dis-
solving solids in producing a contraction of the total volume.

In addition, if cellulose obtained from a colloidal solution has-
the same composition as that in the cell-wall, the fact that it has.
a higher density may indicate that in penetrating the cell-wall
the water molecules may partly enter empty intermicellar spaces,.
thus producing a contraction of total volume. It is at least evi-
dent that the changes of volume in a mixture of dry seeds and’
water are by no means simple phenomena, but are due to vari-
ous interacting, and in some cases antagonistic factors.

1G. Tamman, Ueber die Beziehungen Zwischen den inneren Kriiften and Eigenshaften der
Lésungen, Voss, Hamburg and Leipzig, 1907.
2: Happart, Bulletin Inst. Lieye, 1903.

‘ed

Changes of Volume in Dry Seeds and Water. 179

=

Summary.

Marked changes of the total volume are shown when dry
seeds absorb water.

If the seed coat wrinkles, there is first an expansion, then a.
contraction, and then a final rise which is due to the production
of gas in the seed. The changes are not the result of alterations.
of temperature. The wrinkling is due to unequally rapid ab-
sorption, partial vacuums forming under the wrinkles, which
hasten the indrawal of water. If the seed coat does not wrinkle
there is no preliminary expansion, and the contraction is due
as in gelatine to the compression of the absorbed water.

Using similar methods as with the seeds, the contraction ob-
tained with gelatine indicated a pressure of 20 atmospheres, but
with seeds as much as 50 to 120 atmospheres pressure was in-
dicated. This may be due partly to the greater imbibition pres-
sure of organised cellulose as compared with gelatine, and partly
to the influence of solutes increasing the internal pressure of
the water within the seeds.

(Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorta 34 (N.S.), Pr. II., 1922.]

Art. X1X.—Further Researches into the Serological
Diagnosis of Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle.*

By G. G. HESLOP, D.S.0O., D.V.Sc., D.V.H.
(Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow).

(Communicated by Professor H. A. Woodruff.)

[Read 18th December, 1921. ]

Introduction.

In a former publication by the writer on the Serological Diag-
mosis of Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia of Cattle (1),1 a descrip-
tion was given of research work carried out at the Veterinary
Research Institute, Melbourne University, under the terms of
the Walter and Eliza Hall Research Fellowship in Veterinary
Science. The main object of the research was to endeavour to
elaborate a sero-diagnostic method for the detection of Con-
tagious Pleuro-pneumonia in affected cattle. '

Agglutination tests, using both the macroscopic and micro-
scopic methods of testing for agglutinins, were tried, but failed
to reveal the presence of agglutinins in the sera of animals
naturally affected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia.

Agglutinins however were demonstrated macroscopically in
the serum of an experimental animal (calf) which had been
injected subcutaneously in the tail with active pleuro-pneumonia
virus, and which subsequently received two further injections
‘subcutaneously behind the shoulders at intervals of 10 to 12
‘days; one injection being of pleuro-pneumonia virus, the other
of pure culture.2 Agglutination tests, using the microscopic
‘method with dark ground illumination, were not carried out,
and it has been considered desirable to carry out further exam-
inations of culture and various test sera under the microscope
with dark ground illumination so as to determine whether, by
using that method, the presence of agglutinins could be detected
in the sera of naturally affected cattle.

(* Being the Final contribution in a Thesis approved for the degree of Doctor of Veterinary
‘Science in the University of Melbourne.)

1. Reference is made by number to “ Literature Cited,” p. 195.
2. lee, cit,.'p. 177. Ft

|
:
/

Contugious Plewro-Pneumonia of Cattle. 18?

Complement fixation tests were carried out, and a description.
was given of a complement fixation test which has been applied
for the diagnosis of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. The
technique of this test, however, is considered to be too intricate
and laborious to allow of its adoption as a routine diagnostic:
method. Further, it was found that the test was only appro-
ximately accurate in its results, for, on testing the sera of 63
different animals (cattle) a positive result was obtained with the
serum of one animal which, on subsequent post-mortem examina-
tion, showed no lesions of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in the
lungs. Two other animals gave reactions which could not be
definitely interpreted either as negative or positive. On sub-
mitting these two animals to post mortem examination, no lesions.
of contagious pleuro-pneumonia were discovered.

The results of the tests of these 63 serum samples can be:
conveniently tabulated as follow :—

Number of serum samples tested—63
Gave positive reaction to test and showed lesions of C.P.P.

on P.M. - - - . - - 13
Gave positive reaction to test and showed no lesions of

CE ke OU... ie - - - - - 1
Gave negative reaction to test and showed lesions of

CiP.Pi on! PM. - - - - - 0
Gave negative reaction to test and showed no lesions of

C.P.P. on, PM. - - - - - 47
Gave border line reaction to test and showed lesions of

Cres On © ae. - - - - - 0
Gave border line reaction to test and showed no lesions of

C.P.P. on P.M. . - - - - 2

At first sight this tabulation appears to show that the test:
has been fairly accurate in differentiating between animals which.
were and which were not affected with contagious pleuro-pneu-.
monia, but if the figures are analysed carefully, it is found that
the percentage of error is an unduly large one. Sixty-three-
serum samples were tested, and of the reactions obtained, 60:
were verified by the post-mortem findings, while the other three:
were not. Ina total of 50 negative sera tested, 47 reacted nega--
tively, and three gave reactions which were not negative, an error
of 6 per cent. Fourteen serum samples gave positive reactions;
13 of these were verified by the post-mortem findings, one was.
not; an error of approximately 7.14 per cent. If we add to these:

182 G.. G. Heslop -

14 positive reactions the two “ doubtful” reacting sera, we have
a total error of three in 16, or 18.75 per cent., which is a very
high percentage of error in a diagnostic test.

As it could not be claimed that the complement fixation test
described was sufficiently accurate to warrant its general appli-
cation as a diagnostic method for contagious pleuro-pneumonia,
further research work was considered desirable in order to ascer-
tain—

1. Whether the test could be rendered more accurate in
its results.

2. Whether the technique for the test could be simplified
without reducing the accuracy of the reaction.

3. Whether certain extracts of tissue and of culture pos-
sessed greater value as antigens for the test than the
antigen previously used.

The present paper deals with this further research work which
has been carried out in the laboratories of the Veterinary Re-
search Institute during the current year. I desire to express
my grateful appreciation and thanks to Dr. S. S. Cameron, Direc-
tor of Agriculture, Victoria; Professor H. A. Woodruff, Director
of the Veterinary Research Institute, Melbourne University;
W. A. N. Robertson, Esq., B.V.Sc., Chief Veterinary Officer,
Department of Agriculture, Victoria; Dr. L. B. Bull, Deputy
Director South Australian Laboratory of Pathology and Bac-
teriology; Dr. W. J. Penfold, Director of the Commonwealth
Serum Laboratories; and the Staff of the Live Stock Division,
Department of Agriculture, Victoria, for the assistance they
have rendered me during the course of this research.

Fermentation Reactions of the Organism or
Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia.,

With reference to the fermentation reactions of the organism
of contagious pleuro-pneumonia, previous work had shown that
the organism would grow in Martin’s broth plus ox serum to
which either saccharose, glucose, maltose, or lactose had been
added, but would not grow in similar media to which the alcohol
derivatives mannite and dulcite had been added. As the man-
nite and dulcite used was laboratory stock several years old it
was decided to repeat the experiment, using new samples of
mannite and dulcite.

3. Loc. cit., p.'170.

Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle. 183

Experiments have accordingly been made with mannite and
dulcite (Gurr), using adequate controls, and it has been found
that growth of the organism occurs in both mannite and dulcite
Martin’s broth, but no acid or gas is developed in the medium
as a result of the growth which takes place. Andrade’s indicator
has been used as the indicator for the experiments. The mannite
and dulcite were added to the broth media in the proportion of
2 per cent. in each case. Growth was apparent in from four to
five days after incubation at 37°C.

‘The fermentation reactions of the organism of contagious
pleuro-pneumonia are therefore as follow :—

Saccharose Glucose Maltose Lactose Mannite Dulcite
Acid = = = Gir ;: ei = = = == - =
Gas - - = ~ - = - = - - - -
Growth takes place with each reagent.
+ = Acid. ++ = Strongly acid. — = No reaction.

Complement Fixation.

Attempts have been made to simplify the technique for the
complement fixation test, but it has been found that with each
attempted modification of the technique already laid down fur-
ther inaccuracies have occurred in the results. As a result of
the further experiments carried out it is now apparent that the
best results with the complement fixation test are obtained when
the technique set out in detail in the writer’s previous article is
carefully followed.

Various new preparations have been tested as antigens for
the complement fixation test. Certain of the preparations tested
have shown some ability to fix complement in the presence of a
positive serum, while with others no visible fixation of comple-
ment has occurred at all. In all cases the new preparations tested
have been proved to be inferior in antigenic value to the alcoholic.
extract of subepidermal tumour tissue used in the experiments
reported fully in the writer’s previous article.

The new preparations tested as antigens were as follow :—

Antigen 1.—An alcoholic extract of the dried residue after
tapid evaporation of a seven days’ old culture of the organism
of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Martin’s broth ox serum.
‘On testing, this extract was found to possess no demonstrable
antigenic value.

184. G. G. Heslop:

Antigen 2.—An alcoholic extract of three months’ old culture
of the organism of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Martin’s
broth horse serum. On testing, this extract was found to possess
no demonstrable antigenic value.

Antigen 3.—An alcoholic extract of normal ox heart muscle.
On testing, this extract was found to possess no demonstrable
antigenic value.

Antigen 4.—An alcoholic extract of guinea-pig’s heart muscle.
On testing, this extract was found to possess only slight antigenic
value. No fixation of complement occurred with known negative
sera, while, with known positive sera, in three out of ten samples
tested there was slight inhibition of haemolysis. The remaining
seven positive samples gave negative reactions.

Antigen 5.—An alcoholic extract of diseased lung taken from
an active case of contagious pleuro-pneumonia. On testing, this
extract was found to possess no demonstrable antigenic value.

Antigen 6.—An alcoholic extract of fresh sub-epidermal
tumour tissue removed from behind the shoulder of calf 10
after an experimental subcutaneous inoculation of pure virus
in that region. On testing, this extract was found to possess
a fairly high antigenic value. No fixation of complement oc-
curred when it was tested with 10 different samples of known
negative sera, while with 10 different samples of known positive
sera, nine showed fixation of complement varying from partial
to complete fixation, the other known positive serum reacted
negatively. This extract was unsatisfactory in that it was highly
anti-complementary in any quantity tested of a 1 in 10 dilution
with saline. Even in a 1 in 20 dilution it was anticomplementary
excepting in the smallest amounts. 0.05 c.c. of 1 in 20 dilution
was the unit used for the tests already referred to.

Antigen 7.—An alcoholic extract of the dried residue of eva-
porated culture (Antigen 1), to which was added 0.4 per cent.
chlosterin. :

Antigen 8.—An alcoholic extract of three months’ old culture
in Martin’s broth horse serum (Antigen 2) to which was added
0.4 per cent. chlosterin.

Antigen 9.—An alcoholic extract of ox heart muscle (Antigen
3) to which was added 0.4 per cent. chlosterin.

Antigen t0.—An alcoholic extract of guinea-pig’s heart muscle
(Antigen 4) to which was added 0.4 per cent. chlosterin.

Contagious Plewro-Pneumoinia of Cattle. 185

Antigen rz—An alcoholic extract of fresh subepidermal
tumour tissue from experimental Calf 10 (Antigen 6) to which
was added 0.4 per cent. chlosterin.

Antigen 12.—An alcoholic extract of dried subepidermal
tumour tissue from Calf 10, to which was added 0.4 per cent.
chlosterin.

The chlosterin used in the preparation of Antigens 7, 8, 9, 10,
11 and 12 was a sample freshly prepared in the Physiological
laboratories of the Melbourne University. The extracts to which
chlosterin was added were found to be so highly anticomplemen-
tary that they were useless for testing purposes. Antigens 11
and 12 were again made up, but with only half the quantity of
chlosterin added, i.e., 0.2 per cent. They were found on testing
to be still too anticomplementary for use in a complement fixa-
tion test.

Agglutination Tests.

A number of blood samples were obtained from animals which
were found to be infected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia at
the time of slaughter and post-mortem examination. Blood
samples were also obtained from a number of animals who were
known not to be affected, or to have been in contact with the
disease. In this manner a large number of “ known positive ”
and “known negative” serum samples have been acquired, and.
these sera have been used as test sera in the agglutination tests.

Microscopic Agglutination.

Agglutination tests with known positive and known negative
sera, using the microscopic method with dark ground illumina-
tion, have been carried out with very unsatisfactory results. With
a known positive serum, agglutination can be observed invari-
ably in a dilution of 1 in 20 in about three and a-half hours
after mixing. Unfortunately, however, the majority of known
negative sera tested also showed agglutination in the same dilu-
tion in the same time. In dilutions of 1 in 30, only five out of
eight positive sera tested showed agglutination, while two out of
8 negative sera tested also showed agglutination in the same
dilution. In dilutions of 1 in 35, two positive sera out of eight
tested showed agglutination, while none of the eight negative sera
tested showed agglutination in that dilution. No serum, either

positive or negative, showed agglutination in a dilution of 1
in 40.

186 | G. G. Heslop:

It is worthy of note that the positive sera which showed agglu-
tination in three and a-half hours in dilutions of 1 in 30, and
1 in 35, were sera taken from animals affected with the disease
in an acute form.

The results of agglutination tests under the microscope with
dark ground illumination can be conveniently tabulated as
follow :—

Dilutions.

NUMBER OF CASES SHOWING AGGLUTINATION IN ANY DEGREE,

lin65 JinlO linl5 1in20 1in25 lin30 lin35 lin 40

Known positive sera- 8 - 8 - 8 - 8 - 7 - 8&8 - 2B - O
(total tested = 8)
Known negativesera- 8 - 8 - 7 - 6 oe en eee

(total tested =8)

No recognisable agglutination takes place under the micro-
scope at room temperature until-at least one hour after the mix-
ture of culture and serum has been made. The agglutination is
apparently completed in approximately three and a-half hours
after mixing, and the results tabulated above were obtained from
readings made three and a-half hours after the mixture of cul-
ture and serum had been made.

The cultures used in these tests had been grown in Martin’s
broth ox serum (Reaction PH=8.4 approximately), and sub-
cultured every seven to eight days until the eighteenth to
twentieth subculture stages had been reached. Each subculture
at the time it was used in a test was from six to eight days old.

A live culture was used in each case.

There is a considerable amount of technical difficulty in the
conduct of microscopic agglutination tests in which dark ground
illumination is an essential factor. The fact that the organism
of contagious pleuro-pneumonia is of such minute size adds to
the difficulty of successfully carrying out such tests.

Altogether the results of these microscopic agglutination tests
are disappointing in that they do not offer a solution of the
problem of diagnosing the disease in the living animal. They
are of very great interest, however, in that they furnish the first
instance in which agglutinins have been demonstrated to occur
in the sera of animals naturally infected with contagious pleuro-
pneumonia.

—— a ae =

Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonra of Cattle. 137

Macroscopic Agglutination.

The results of a considerable amount of work on the macro-
scopic agglutination test for contagious pleuro-pneumonia have
already been published by the writer, who was able to demon-
strate the presence of agglutinins in the serum of a hyper-immun-
ised calf (Calf 1), but could not demonstrate them in the sera
of animals infected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia naturally
acquired. Calf 1 had reacted to a primary subcutaneous inocu-
lation of active pleuro-pneumonia virus in the tail, and subse-
quently received two further subcutaneous inoculations of viru-
lent material (one of active pleuro-pneumonia virus, the other
of pure culture) behind the shoulders at intervals of 10 to 12
days. Serum from Calf 1 in dilutions up to 1 in 70 caused
‘macroscopic agglutination of a culture of the organism of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia, while the sera of non-immunised
animals used as controls had no agglutining effect upon a similar
quantity of the same culture.*

The presence of agglutinins in the sera of hyper-immunised
‘bovines has been confirmed by Titze and Seelemann, (2) who
have recently published the results of their experiments in which
they were able to demonstrate the presence of specific agglutinins
‘in the serum of a hyper-immunised heifer and of a hyper-im-
‘munised bull.

While specific agglutinins can be demonstrated in the sera of
hyper-immunised cattle, all attempts by the writer to demon-
strate the presence of agglutinins in the sera of animals natur-
ally infected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia have, until re-
cently, been unsuccessful; the conclusion arrived at by the writer
in his previous publication being as follows :—

“ Agglutinins could not be demonstrated, in the sera taken
from bovines known to be affected with contagious pleuro-
‘pneumonia, by the usual macroscopic and microscopic methods
of testing for agglutinins. Therefore an agglutination test ap-
parently has no value as a means of differentiating between
animals which are, and which are not, affected with the
disease.’””®

4. Loc, cit., p. 183.
5. Loc. cit., p. 209.

yy

188 G. G. Heslop:

This conclusion has now to be considerably modified and
amended when viewed in the light of the results obtained in the
further experiments carried out during the present year.

If a first or second subculture of the organism of contagious.
pleuro-pneumonia is used in an agglutination test with the serum
of an animal known to be affected with contagious pleuro-pneu-
monia, agglutination of the culture cannot be observed macro-
scopically at any tine up to 40 hours after mixing the culture
and serum together. This fact has been repeatedly established
by experiments conducted by the writer, and it was upon the:
results of those experiments that the above quoted conclusion.
was arrived at. Further experimentation has demonstrated, how-
ever, that agglutination of a culture of the organism of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia by such a serum will occur, provided.
the culture used is an old laboratory strain which has been sub-
jected to repeated cultivation through several generations of sub-
cultures, the subcultures being made at intervals of from six to-
eight days.

If, for instance, an eighteenth or twentieth subculture, six to
eight days old, is taken, and to it is added various dilutions.
of a known positive serum, agglutination and sedimentation of
the culture will occur, and the supernatent fluid will lose its.
opalescence and become clear. In the lower dilutions agglu-
tination can also be observed with the same culture and a known.
negative serum, but, while agglutination takes place with a known:
positive serum in a dilution as high as 1 in 400, which dilution
contains only 0.005 c.c. of pure serum, no dilution of a known.
negative serum higher than 1 in 80, which dilution contains 0.025
c.c. of pure serum, has been found capable of producing agglu--
tination of the same amount of culture. Thus there is a con-
siderable difference in the end point values of positive and nega-.
tive sera respectively, the difference being sufficiently great to
preclude any possibility of errors in reading and recording the
results of the reactions.

The agglutination reaction in contagious pleuro-pneumonia.
proceeds slowly at incubator temperature, and apparently it is-
complete only after 48 hours in the incubator at 37°C. After
24 hours’ incubation little, if any, agglutination is apparent with
any dilution from 1 in 20 upwards of a known positive serum
taken from an acute case of contagious pleuro-pneumonia,
whereas after 48 hours, marked agglutination can usually be
observed in a dilution of 1 in 400 or even higher.

a

re

Contagious Plewro-Pnewmonia of Catile. 189

Attempts to expedite the reaction by heating the tubes in a
water bath at various temperatures between 45°C. and 55°C.
have not been successful, and the reactions obtained after incu-
bation at such temperatures have not been so satisfactory, even
at the end of 48 hours, as the reactions obtained with the same
sera heated at 37°C. Incubation for 48 hours at room tempera-
ture does not give as satisfactory results as incubation for 48
hours at 37°C.

To prevent the growth of contaminating micro-organisms in
the tubes during the 48 hours’ incubation period required for
the test, carbol saline solution was used as the diluting fluid.
This solution, which consists of 0.5 per cent. carbolic acid in 0.9
per cent. saline solution, has been found to be effective for the
purpose intended, while at the same time it does not appear to
exert any unfavourable action in the test.

The cultures used in these macroscopic agglutination tests
were cultures of the organism of contagious pleuro-pneumonia,
grown in Martin’s broth ox serum.® (Reaction PH=8.4 approxi-
mately), and subcultured every 7-8 days, until at least the
eighteenth subculture stage had been reached. Each subculture
at the time it was used in a test was from six to eight days old.
In each test the culture used was a live culture which showed
a uniform though faint opalescence.

One c.c. of culture (which quantity was taken as the standard
amount) was measured into each of a series of agglutination
tubes. To each tube there was added a graded quantity of serum
diluted with carbol saline so that the combined amounts of serum
and carbol saline in each tube was equal to the amount of culture
contained in the same tube. Each tube therefore contained 2
c.c.s. of fluid. |

In this manner, serum dilutions of 1 in 20, 1 in 40, 1 in 80,
1 in 100, 1 in 133, 1 in 200, and 1 in 400 were prepared and tested.

The following table will explain the method of setting up the
test ;:—

Tube. Culture. Saline. Serum. Contents. Dilution.
1 - le.c. : “9 - -] J 2c.c¢. : 1 in 20
2 - le.c. - -95 2105 : 2c.¢. - 1 in 40
3 - lec. - -975 - -025 : 2¢.¢. - 1 in 80

4 . le.c. “ -98 - -02 - 2c.c. - 1 in 100

5 : le.c. - -985 - -015 : 2c.c. - 1 in 133

6 - le.c. - -99 - “Ol - 2e.c. 1 in 200

ay - le.e. - 7995 - -005 - Zee. - 1 in 400
=s — - 1:9 Sar ee - 2e.0. oo
*9 - le.c. = le.c. - — - 2e.c. : —

6. Martin’s peptone broth to which has been added 7.5 per cent. fresh un-
heated ox serum sterilised by filtration.
* Controls.

190 G. G. Heslop :

- Twenty-three different sera obtained from animals affected
with pulmonary lesions of contagious pleuro-pneumonia, the
presence of the disease being verified by post-mortem examina-
tion at the time that the blood samples were taken, have been
submitted to agglutination tests set up in the above manner, and
in each instance marked agglutination has been the result.

On comparing the results of the agglutination tests of these
23 positive sera with the post-mortem findings of the animals
supplying them, it has been found that the more acute cases of
contagious pleuro-pneumonia yield a serum which has a higher
agglutination titre than that from cases in which the disease has
become chronic and where encapsulation of the lung lesion has
taken place more or less completely. Even in these latter chronic
cases, in no instance in this series of tests had there been failure
to produce agglutination in dilutions of 1 in 133. In the more
acute cases, with one exception, agglutination occurred in dilu-
tions of 1 in 400, while in two such cases agglutination occurred
in dilutions of 1 in 750. The one exception referred to above was
Number 143, the serum of an animal affected with the disease
in an acute form, but which serum had a final agglutination titre
of 1 in 133 only. It would therefore appear that a serum with
a high agglutination titre points to an acute infection, but, in view
of the one exception quoted above this cannot be stated as an in-
variable fact, but only as a general rule.

In addition to the agglutination tests of 23 different known
positive sera, tests have been made with 18 different sera ob-
tained from animals. which were found on post-mortem exam-
ination to be free from lesions of contagious pleuro-pneumonia.
These known negative sera all showed agglutination in dilutions
of 1 in 20. Thirteen of them showed agglutination in dilutions
of 1 in 40, while five of them showed slight agglutination in
dilutions of 1 in 80. None of them showed any recognisable
agglutination in dilutions of 1 in 100. :

A complete list of the sera tested and a table of the reactions
obtained with each is appended, together with an indication of
the post mortem findings on slaughter of the animals supplying
the test sera. |

191

Contagious Plewro-Pneumonia of Cattle.

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G. G. Heslop:

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Contugious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle. 193

Compared with the complement fixation test in contagious
pleuro-pneumonia, the agglutination test appears to possess a
reliability and accuracy in reaction which is at least equal to, if
not greater, than that of complement fixation.

Agglutination reactions are not affected by the presence of
conglutinin in bovine sera, whereas that same substance is always
liable to affect the result of complement fixation reactions, and
may be responsible for a large number of false reactions.

To prevent the action of conglutinin interfering with the ac-
curacy of the complement fixation test, an exceedingly intricate
and laborious technique has to be followed in each detail by the
operator. In these successive manipulations the possibility of
personal error on the part of the operator is very largely in-
creased. By reason of its simpler technique the agglutination
test is not so liable to errors on the part of the worker.

So far as it has been tested, the agglutination reaction in con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia appears to provide us with a simple
means for determining the presence of the disease, at least in
the acute form, in the living animal. Although the number of
positive sera tested is not very large, being only 18 from animals
in which the disease was acute, and five from animals in which
the disease was chronic, it would appear that the possibility of
error in acute cases of the disease is not very great owing to
the well marked differences in the end point values of sera taken
from acute cases, and those taken from animals free from the
disease. In the case of animals in which the disease is chronic,
diagnosis by means of the agglutination test does not appear to
be so certain, although there is still a fairly wide difference in
the end point values of such sera when compared with the values
of known negative sera. |

Application of the test to a large number of cases showing
chronic lesions is necessary to justify any firm conclusions on
this point. |

Specificity of the Complement Fixation and Agglu-
tination Reactions in Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia.

Since the publication of the results of the examination of 63
different. serum samples for complement fixation and the sub-
sequent post-mortem findings when the animals were slaugh-
tered, experiments have been conducted to ascertain whether,
when a positive complement fixation result is obtained, the reac-

194. G. G. Heslop:

tion has been induced solely by the fact that the animal is affected
with contagious pleuro-pneumonia. In one of the cases quoted
a positive complement fixation result was obtained, but no lesions
of the disease could be discovered in the lungs when the animal
supplying the test serum was subsequently submitted to a post-
mortem examination. That the reaction might be a group reaction
for filterable viruses in general, and not absolutely specific for the
filterable virus causing contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle
seemed possible. Of the diseases in cattle due to filterable
viruses, only two, e.g., contagious pleuro-pneumonia and cow
pox (Variola) are present in Australia, so that tests for com-
parative purposes have of necessity been confined to tests of
sera from animals known to be affected with cow pox.

Samples of sera taken from a cow at the Veterinary School
which was affected with extensive cow pox vesicles and pustules
on the mammary gland, were tested and were found to give
positive complement fixation results with the contagious pleuro-
pneumonia antigen. The possibility of the same animal being
affected with contagious pleuro-pneumonia as well as with cow
pox was negatived by the general appearance of the wegen and
her previous history.

Through the courtesy of Dr. W. J. Penfold, Director of the
Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, I have been able to obtain
serum samples from 11 calves, which had been vaccinated with
the virus of cow pox in the manufacture of vaccine lymph for
human vaccination. Each of the calves had ave a typical re-
action to the vaccination.

On submitting the ‘samples to complement fixation tests with
_the contagious pleuro-pneumonia antigen, it has been found

that they all show some ability to inhibit haemolysis. :

It is apparent therefore, that in carrying out tests with sera
from an unknown source, the serum of an animal affected only
with cow pox may cause sufficient inhibition of haemolysis in
a complement fixation test for contagious pleuro-pneumonia to
give rise to the assumption on the part of the person carrying out
the test that the animal supplying the test serum is affected with
contagious pleuro-pneumonia.

Serum from the cow affected with cow pox at the Veterinary
School, which serum gave a positive complement fixation reaction,
and the three samples of calf serum, which showed the greatest
amount of inhibition of haemolysis in the complement fixation

Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle. 195:

test, were next submitted to the macroscopic agglutination test.
They are numbers 111, 121, 122, and 123 respectively in the
chart of agglutination reactions forming portion of this paper.
Their reactions to the agglutination test were negative in each
case, although with numbers 111 and 122, agglutination took
place in dilutions as high as 1 in 80.

Literature Cited.

1. Heslop (1921) ‘** Researches into the Serological Diagnosis of
Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia of Cattle.” Proceedings
Royal Society Victoria. Vol. xxxiii., pp. 160-211.

2. Titze and Seelemann (1921) ‘“‘ Weitere Untersuchungen uber
die Lungenseuche des Rindes und uber die Differenzierung
sogenannter ultramikroskopischer Seuchenerreger,” Ber-
liner tier, Woch, 1921, Jan. 20th, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 29-31.
Original not seen. Abstract in Tropical Veterinary Bulle-
tin, 1921, August 30th, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 164-165.

[Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicrorra 34 (N.S.), Pr. II., 1922].

Art. XX.—High Frequency Spectra—K Series of Platinum.
By J. STANLEY ROGERS, B.A., B.Se.
(Communicated by Professor T. H. Laby, M.A., Sc.D., F.Inst.P.)
(With Text) Figs. 1a; 1, and 2.)

[Read 8th December, 1921.]

Introduction.

The purpose of this paper is to describe a precise method of
“measuring the wave lengths of the high frequency spectrum of
platinum. | |

The method employed is one in which a rotating crystal spec-
trometer is used, and the platinum lines, together with those of
tungsten, are recorded on the same film. The wave lengths of
the platinum lines are deduced by inter- and extra-polation from
the tungsten lines, the wave lengths of which are known with
great accuracy, having been measured recently with great pre-
‘cision by Siegbahn,* and by Duane and Stenstrom.?

The investigation of the K lines of platinum, in common with
those of other heavy elements, is beset with certain difficulties,
which have prevented the spectra of these elements being deter-
‘mined.

In order to excite efficiently the K spectrum of an element of
high atomic number, it is necessary to use the substance as target
in an X-ray tube. A very high potential difference must then
‘be applied to the tube, since a minimum pressure of 78,000. volt
is required to obtain the K series of platinum. Under such high
pressures there is always the risk that the tube will fail. Again,
a very high vacuum must be present in the tube. In the case
of a gas-filled tube this became a source of considerable diffi-
culty, for, even when the requisite vacuum is obtained, the tube
‘becomes very uncertain in operation, and, under the very
best conditions, only a small current can be _ passed
through the tube. In consequence, the X-rays produced possess

1. Phil, Mag. XXXVIII., Nov., 1919.
2. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., VI., 1920, p. 477.

High Frequency Spectra. 197

but a small amount of energy, and have very little photographic:
effect. It is thus essential to have long exposures.

The photography of the lines is complicated still further by:
the photographic fog produced by the rays scattered by various:
parts of the apparatus (slits, crystal, etc.). Since the lines occur
on the film very close to where the direct rays fall, the scattered.
Tays are most intense just at the region where the lines are
to be observed.

The one heavy element, the high frequency spectrum of which
has been carefully investigated, is tungsten. Since this element
has been used as the material of the target in the Coolidge type
of tube, it is a comparatively easy matter to excite its K series:
spectrum. As there was no Coolidge type of tube with a plati-
num target available for this research, a gas-filled tube, made
by Gundelach, was used.

The K series of platinum has been measured once previously
—by Lilienfeld and Seeman,* who employed a Lilienfeld tube
with a target of platinum-iridium. The values obtained by these
authors are given in Table II.

The Spectrometer.

The whole of X-ray spectroscopy is based on the fact that a
crystal acts as a space grating to X-rays. W. L. Bragg? showed
that if a parallel beam of X-rays of wave-length \ was directed
on a crystal face at an angle 9 so that A=2dsind, there
would be an interference maximum at an angle 06, and other
maxima at values of 6 given by »A=2dsin 6; »# is here an.
integer and @ is the lattice constant of the crystal, i.e., the dis--
tance between successive planes of atoms, parallel to the reflect-
ing face. If, then, it is desired to resolve a beam of X-rays into
its component parts, it is necessary that the crystal should be
placed at different angles with respect to the incident beam. This.
is done most efficiently by rotating the crystal slowly and uni-
formly.

Further, W. H. Bragg® established that if a diverging beam of
X-rays issued from a narrow slit S, (fig. 1(b)), and fell on a
crystal face which was rotating about a point O (axis of rota-
tion), and if a photographic film was placed round the circle:

3. Phy. Zeit., XIX., 1918, p. 269.

4, X-Rays and Crystal Structure, p. 16.
5. X-Rays and Crystal Structure, p. 31,

198 J. Stanley Rogers :

FF’, which has O as centre, and OS, as radius, all the X-rays
of a certain wave length 4» would be reflected to a particular
vertical line on the film, If there is present in the incident beam
X-rays of a definite wave length, carrying more energy than those
of adjacent longer and shorter wave legths, then its presence will
be shown by a line on the film.

An additional advantage of a rotating crystal is that it gives
much sharper lines than a stationary one, since the effect on the
lines of surface defects of the crystal is thus considerably les-
.sened.

No spectrometer being available, a Dancer theodolite was
modified to have the movements of a spectrometer, and to fulfil
the requirements of the focussing condition. It may be men-
tioned that a theodolite can be adapted to form a spectrometer,
which is both accurate and convenient.

The circle carrying the scale was fixed by shrinking a brass
ring on to its under surface at AA’ (fig. la). This ring was
supported by a tripod mounted on the ring BB’, through which
passed three levelling screws bearing on a stone table. The
crystal holder was mounted on the vernier circle at D. The
film holder was carried by an arm which screwed into the theodo-
lite at E. Both crystal holder and film holder turned on conical
bearings. The slits S, and S, were supported by 3 a brass tube
which screwed into dhe ring BB’,

The crystal was a large calcite one. The reflecting face
(5.cm. x 2.cm.) was a ground cleavage one. As W. L. Bragg,
James and Bosanquet® have shown, ground faces are more eff-
cient reflectors than natural cleavage faces.

The crystal holder was so designed that the reflecting face of
the crystal could be made vertical, and could be brought into the
axis of rotation of the spectrometer.

The film holder was cut from a brass ring, the inside edge of
which was accurately turned, its radius being 10.001 + .001.cm.
‘The film, in its paper casette, was tightly pressed against this
by means of two curved strips of red fibre and clamping screws.

Slits —The slit S,, the tube slit, was made of an alloy of lead
-and antimony (75 per cent. lead), such an alloy being more dur-
able than pure lead. The inside faces of this slit were carefully
ground, and the slit width could be adjusted by a screw to 0.005.
‘mm. The slit S, was made of lead, and was carried by the

6. Fhil. Mag., XLI., 1921, p. 309,

High Frequency Spectra. 199

same holder as S,. This holder was constructed to allow the
following adjustments: (a) It could be moved towards the axis
of rotation of the spectrometer; (b) S,; could be made vertical ;

/

Ficure. la. F

DIAGRAM OF THE SPECTROMETER

(c) the line joining the centres of the slits could be made to pass
through the axis of rotation.

Rotation Apparatus—The vernier circle was rotated - means
of.a tangent screw. By means of a reduction gear, this was
turned at 1/10,000th of the speed of a small motor, In the ex-
periments, the rate of rotation of the crystal was about 2° per
hour.

200 J. Stanley Rogers :

Adjustments.

The following are the essential requirements of a spectro-
meter of this type: The tube slit, the axis of rotation of the spec-
trometer and the axis of the film holder should all be parallel, and,
in this case, vertical; the tube slit and the curved portion of the
film holder should be equidistant from the axis of rotation; the
ground face of the crystal should be so placed that the axis of
rotation lies in it; the central ray from the “ focal spot” of the
target should pass through the centres of the slits S, and S,,,
through the axis of rotation, and at right angles to it.

After the vernier circle had been levelled, the axis of rotation
was found by so placing a vertical needle that its point, when
viewed from above by a long focus microscope, remained sta-
tionary when the circle was rotated: The tube slit was then ad-
justed 10.cm. distant from the needle point, and was placed.
vertical. The axis of the film holder was next made vertical by
means of the screws h (fig. la); and with the use of a centre
tester, it was brought into coincidence with the axis of rotation
of the spectrometer.

The crystal face was brought into the axis of rotation by so
placing it, that the position of the edge, as viewed in a low
power miscroscope, with its axis vertical, was in the same position
both before and after the crystal had been rotated through 180°.
The adjustment was carried out finallyso that the distance of the
face from the axis of rotation was less than .01.mm.

An optical method was used to test if the crystal face was
vertical. By illuminating the slit S, it was possible to view,
in a telescope, both the slit itself and its image reflected in the
crystal face. When the face was vertical, the slit and its image
were parallel for all positions of the crystal.

The slit S, was then so turned, and the crystal face was so placed
that the light from the slit passed along the crystal face both
before and after the crystal was rotated through 180°. This
adjustment was carried out by means of a telescope, and it en+
sured that the ray from the centre of S, passed through the
axis of rotation. The sides of the slit S, were then placed sym-
metrically with respect to those of S,.. In the experiments the
widths of the slits were: S,, 0.08. to 0.1.mm.; S,, 0.6.mm.

The focal spots on the targets of both tubes were clearly
marked. The focal spot in the case of the Coolidge tube was illu-

High Frequency Spectra. 201

minated by lighting the filament, but for the Gundelach tube,
light from a lamp was focussed on the target. The focal spot
was viewed through a horizontal telescope, placed at the same
height above the table as the centre of the crystal face, and the
necessary adjustments for the central ray were easily carried
out.

In the experiments described below it was necessary to adjust
the focal spot of the Coolidge tube when it was not possible to
use a telescope. In this case a mirror was used, and the images
of the focus, slit and crystal face were viewed from above.

Experiment.

Tube.—The target of the Gundelach tube consisted of a plati-
num button attached to a stout copper rod, on the external end
of which was a brass radiator. The potential difference applied
to the tube was produced by a Snook-Victor high tension rectifier.

At the beginning of the research, the tube was too soft to excite
the K series of platinum. The maximum pressure that could
be applied to the tube was 60,000.volt. If the switches on the
high tension rectifier were turned to increase the pressure, the
only result was an increase in the current passing through the
tube. It was found, however, that by keeping the current low
—less than 0.5.m.a—that the tube gradually hardened. After
a fortnight’s running, for several hours a day, a pressure of
85,000. volt could be applied to the tube. It was found diffi-
cult to maintain this potential difference, because fluctuations
in the current became very big, and, with the increase in cur-
rent there was the consequent drop in pressure.

After a considerable amount of experiment the following pro-
cedure was adopted. The tube was allowed to harden, so that
there was practically no current, when a pressure of 95,000.
volt was applied. Then, to begin an experiment, the tube was
slightly softened, so that a current of 0.6.m.a. was obtained
at 85,000.volt. If the current became less, the pressure was
raised, and usually this gave an increase in current. The usual
experience was, however, that the current, with the attendant
fluctuations, increased after about 15.min., so that the corres-
ponding falls in pressure were less than 80,000 volt. This was
probably due to the target, as it became heated, giving off occluded
gas. The pressure was then cut off from the tube for between

10

202 J. Stanley Rogers:

5. and 19 min., and, at the end of this time, the tube would be
again in a condition suitable for use. To obtain lines sufficiently
intense to measure, an exposure of 10,800 milliampere sec. was
necessary. Since the average current through the tube was be-
tween .7, and .8.m.a., such an exposure required an experiment of
at least six hours. The greater intensity of the radiation from
a Coolidge tube was shown by the fact that more intense lines
were obtainable from it in 5.min.

The film used was Eastman Dulpli-tized (photographic emul-
sion on both sides) which was placed between two Patterson
intensifying screens. It has been stated that sharply defined lines
cannot be obtained when intensifying screens are used. How-
ever, quite satisfactory lines were obtained, since under these
conditions the a doublet of tungsten was resolved with a slit
width of 0.12.mm. One great advantage of the doubly-coated
film is its rigidity—there is no tendency to buckle during drying.
Had intensifying screens not been used, the exposures would
have been so long as to be practically impossible.

Protection from Scattered Radiation—A sheet of aluminium
(0.6.mm. thick was placed in front of the film to absorb the soft
scattered radiation. In addition the rays reflected from. the crys-
tal were made to pass along a channel the sides of which were
constructed of lead 3.mm. thick. This channel converged on all
sides towards the crystal where its opening was a rectangle 2.cm.
x 6.mm. This was large enough to allow both the direct rays
and the lines to fall on the film.

Reference Lines.—The Pt. lines were photographed on the top
half of each film, the lower part being covered with a lead screen.
‘The Coolidge tube was then substituted for the Gundelach, and
the W lines were photographed on the lower portion of the
film. Since the film was held by the red fibre strips (vide
‘page 198),there was no opportunity for it to slip during an ex-
periment. The lines appeared as shown in figure 2. It will be
‘seen that the a doublet of platinum falls between the « and B
lines of tungsten. (The thickness of lines in the figure indicates
relative intensities. )

Measurement of Lines——The film was projected by a lan-
tern, and a magnification up to 10 was obtained. The lines on
each film were measured at three different magnifications, and
the mean of the values so obtained was taken as the wave lengths
of the lines given by the film.

High Frequency Spectra. 203

-A dividing engine, with a very accurate screw, was adapted for
measuring the distance between the lines. A vertical board was
carried by the moving platform of this engine. Two vertical
lines 1.5.mm. apart were drawn on this board, and each line on

d increasing

eos

Pra, Pra Pte Pry

FIGURE.2.

the film was brought in turn exactly between these lines, and
the reading of the engine noted. Table I. shows a set of such
readings.

TaBLe I. (Distances in mm.).

Ber Wiasl| Wea, | Bta, | Ptaj. | W.6. || Wey. Pt.g. | Pty.
0 113 5°87 7:10 | :7-25 851 | 12:46 | 13°66
0 1:18 584 714 | :7-30 8:48 | 1223 | 13-46
0 115 5:90 7:18 7-29 8:50 | 12:38 | 13°47
0 1:14 5:90 7-10 7-29 8:42 | 12:36 | 13-41
0 115 5°88 7-22 733 | 841 | 12:29 | 13°50
Mean -| 0 1:15 5878 | 7144| 7296! 8-472 | 12:34 | 13°50
{ !

It will be seen that, for the fainter lines, e.g., the B and y
lines of Pt., there is much greater variation in setting than for the
more intense lines. To evaluate the wave lengths the mean of

10a

204 J. Stanley Rogers:

Siegbahn’s and Duane and Stenstrom’s values were assumed.
These are as follow :-—
r for. Wa,g='21347 x 10%cm
Wa,='20873 ere
WB='18428 ,,_,,

The value in Angstrom units per mm. of the projection was
found from the mean of the distances between the Wa, and
WB lines, and the Wa, and WB lines. The wave lengths of the
other lines were then calculated proportionally. As a test of
the accuracy of the method, the value of the wave length of
the Wy line was obtained. The mean value is given below.
The mean of the values obtained for this line by the above
authors is .17921.A.U.

The method employed rests on the assumption that the wave
lengths of the lines on the film are proportional to the angles at
which they are reflected at the crystal. According to Bragg’s
formula, A=2d sin 0, these wave lengths are proportional to the
sine of the angle. No error was introduced in the values given.
below since @ for Ka,=2°(g.g.) and @ for Pt.y=1°30'(¢.z.)

Results and Discussion.

In Table II. are given the values obtained. The wave lengths
were calculated to five decimal places, and the final values are
given to four places, with the probable error.

TaBLeE II. (X in Angstrom Units).
Wave Lengths of K Series of Platinum.

Film No. Pt.a,. Pt.a,. Pt.f. Pty, W.y.
P.14 *18939 ‘18496 °16455 "15955 *17952
P.15 "18926 °18536 16427 *15968 "17905
P.16 *18998 ‘18502 "16429 "15942 "17973

Mean - - "18954 18511 *16437 *15955 "17943
Final - : *1895+2 °1851+1 164442 "159642 179442
Lilienfeld

and Seeman °1907 *1853 "1642 "1593 —

In the last line of the table the values obtained by Lilienfeld
and Seeman are inserted for comparison. The agreement is good

High Frequency Spectra. 205

except for the Pt.a, line. The apparent discrepancy can be ex-
plained by the fact that these authors were unable to distinguish
between the Pt.a, line and the Ir.a, line. The writer has found
that if the K spectra of Pt. and W are photographed on the
same portion of a film, it is impossible to recognise as separate
lines, the WB (A=1843) and Pt.a,(A="1851)

Theory of Lines——The K series of an element is excited when
an electron is ejected from the K ring of the atom. li this
electron is replaced from the L ring of the atom, the energy so
freed gives rise to the «a, line. If it is replaced from an electron
from the L’ ring (an elliptical orbit), the a, line is excited. Re-
placements from the M and N rings give rise to the g and y
lines respectively.

Moseley’s formula, 5 (N — 1)?(1/1?— 1/27), for the wave number v

of the Ka, line, which accurately represents the observed values
for low values of N, fails for elements of higher-atomic number.
(R is here Rydberg’s constant, N the atomic number of the
element.) The value of the wave length of the Pt.a, line from
this formula would be .2049 x 10-8 cm.

Sommerfeld has developed a formula for the wave number
v(=1/A), by considering the effective nuclear charge for the
K and L rings as (N-1.6) and (N-3.5) resp. and by taking into
account the relative masses of the electrons in consequence of
their velocity. The formula is:—

aR = 2( 4/12 en 35) 4/1 (N15)

2are? ;
where a= e, c, h being the charge on the electron, the

velocity of light and Planck’s constant respectively. Hence
a* = 5.3088 x 10-5.

This formula gives X for Ka, of Pt.=:1837 x 10.%cm.

A formula due to Kroo and Sommerfeld fits the observed
value more accurately still. In this, before the passage of the
atom, which gives rise to the Ke, line, the K ring is considered
as a 1 quantum ring with 2 electrons, the L ring as a 2 quanta
ring with 9 electrons. After the passage of the electron, the
K ring is a 1 quantum ring with 3 electrons, and the L ring
as a 2 quanta ring with 8 electrons. By calculating the energy

206 J. Stanley Rogers : High Frequency Spectra.

difference between the two configurations, the following formula
is obtained :—

He 1} a(fa-71 Re ge
som gee Lara 7 NaN HBicscer Vl thE

PPOGa 1
i> ee V1 a a’F,
where k=3, /=8, F\=(N—S,,)?, F,x=2(N — 4+ 1—S,,,)3, F=(N—S,)*,

F,=1(N—-2-S,)?
and the S terms are obtained from

. - 77
1 Sin § —

For Pt. this gives the values of \.Ka, as :1841x10*%cm. The
agreement with the observed value is remarkable, as the formula
is a rational relation. This lends additional support to the Bohr-
Sommerfeld theory of the atom.

Sommerfeld has also obtained the following formula for the
difference in wave number Av for the lines of the Ke doublet:—
5a®.(N — 3:5) 53a! (N — 3°5)*

Birt ge :

Av

(N= soy APall +

: Ra?
where Avyg=frequency difference for hydrogen= ae

From the results of the experiment, given in Table II., Av x 10”

='126+:008, while the above formula gives Av x 10°=:135+ ‘002.

It will be seen that the agreement is again fairly good.

In conclusion, the author wishes to express his indebtedness
to Prof. T. H. Laby, M.A., Sc.D., F. Inst. P., for his invaluable
guidance and advice throughout the whole of the research, and
in the writing of this paper.

The Gundelach tube used in these experiments was presented
to the Natural Philosophy Department, Melbourne University by
W. Watson and Sons.

|Proc. Roy. Soc. Vicroria, 34 (N.S.) Parr II., 1922.]

Art. XXI.—Contributions from the National Herbarium
of Victoria.— No. 1.

By J. R., TOVEY anv P. F. MORRIS.
(With 2 Text Figures.)
(Communicated by Wm. Laidlaw, B.Sc.)

[Read 8th December, 1921. ]

The present paper contains the descriptions of two species
new to science, both from Western Australian localities. A
new variety has also been established, a native of the alpine
regions of Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania. Three
foreign plants have been recorded for the first time, whilst the
orchid Corysanthes bicalcarata, a native of New South Wales,
Queensland and Tasmania, has been added to the Victorian
Flora. In addition several new records of the regional distribu-
tion of native and introduced plants are given.

It is proposed to continue these contributions as material be-
comes available and opportunity offers.

_ APONOGETON DISTACHYUM, Thunb. “Cape Pond Lily”

( Naiadaceae).

- Stony Creek, Lorne, Victoria, Rev. A. C. F. Gates, November,
1921.

This South African plant has escaped from cultivation, and is
now spreading in several parts of the above-named creek, where
it will no doubt become naturalised. |

BossIAEA LAIDLAWIANA, sp. nov. (Leguminosae).

Frutex arbuscula concinna, alta quindecim ad viginti pedes,
rami tomentosi. Folia longa dimidiam partem unciae; lata cir-
citer tres partes unciae, adversa, pedunculi breves, serrata, haud
pungenter acuta aut alte sinuata codem modo quo B. Aquifolium.
Nonnulla foliorum superiorum hirsuta infra. Flores, soli, axil-
larii, vexillum et alae flava, carina purpurea, flores in pediculis
plerumque tam longi quam calyx, bracteae interiores et bracteolae

208 J. R. Tovey and P. F. Morris:

persistentiores quam B. Aquifolium. Calyx longa unum ad unum
et dimidium lignum, lobae duae superiores late truncatae tres
inferiores, breviores, sed acutae. Vexillum ter tam longa quam

Fig. 1.—Boss1aka LAIDLAWIANA, N.SP.
(1) Portion of plant in flower and fruit. (2) Flower dissected.
(3) Legume. (4) Leaf. (5) Leaf of B.aquifolium.

calyx; petala inferiora, paulum breviora, oyarium cum. tribus
ovulis. Legumen longa circiter tres partes unciae et lata unam
partem unciae,

An elegant shrub, 15. to 20 feet high, branches ‘tomentose.
Leaves half inch long, about three-quarters inch broad opposite,

National Herbarium of Victoria. 209

shortly pedunculate, serrated, not pungently pointed or deeply
sinuate as in B. Aquifolium. Some of the upper leaves hairy
beneath. Flowers, solitary, axillary, standard and wings yellow,
keel purplish red; flowers on pedicels usually as long as the
calyx. Inner bracts and bracteoles more persistent than B. Aqui-
folium. Calyx, 1-14 lines long; lobes, two upper ones broadly
truncate, lower 3 shorter, but pointed. Standard 3 times as long
as calyx, lower petals slightly shorter. Ovary, 3 ovules. Pod
about # inch long, and 4 inch broad.

Pemberton and Manjimup, Warren district, West Australia,
Max Koch, No. 2244 Oct., Dec., 1918; Western Australia (in
National Herbarium, Melbourne, without collector’s name or
‘precise locality ).

Its nearest affinity is B. Aquifoliwm, from which it differs in
being a tomentose shrub of 15-20 feet, colour and size of flowers,
shape of leaf, calyx and standard.

Named in honour of Wm. Laidlaw, B.Sc., Government Botan-
ist for Victoria.

BroMus TEcTORUM, L. “ Wall or Downy Brome-Grass ”
(Gramineae ).

Parkville, near Melbourne, A. O’Brien, Nov., 1921.

This grass, a native of Europe and Asia, is introduced and
‘widely spread in United States, America, where it is looked upon
-as a very objectionable grass, but it has not been previously re-
-corded as growing wild in Victoria.

CALADENIA ANGUSTATA, Lindl. ‘“ Slender Caladenia ”
(Orchidaceae).

Hurst Bridge, Victoria, Miss S. Llewelyn, Oct., 1921.
A new locality in Victoria for this orchid.

CHORETRUM PENDULUM, sp, nov.
(Santalaceae).

Pendens aut frutex arbuscula lacrimosa alta circiter sex pedes;
folia redacta ad crustas minutas, satis persistentia, paulum curva
-ad apices acutas. Rami inferiores interstincti aut striati; ramus-
culi angulares exacute. Flores parvi (sed maiores quam C.
lateriflorum), soli, pedunculi breves, corolla alba. Flores sparsi
et cum longioribus intervallis quam in C. lateriflorum; quisque
‘flos circumplexus ovi forma pravis bracteis et bracteolis. Ovarium

210 J. R. Tovey and P. F. Morris:

inferius, stigma cum quinque lobis; fructus drupae- aridae et
flavae, et coronatae cum quinque lobis perianthialibus.
A pendant or weeping shrub about six feet high; leaves re-

Fig. 2.—CHORETRUM PENDULUM, N.SP.

(1) Portion of plant in flower and in fruit. (2) Flower (enlarged).
(3) Fruit with bracts and bracteoles. (4) t.s. of stem.

duced to minute scales, fairly persistent, slightly curved at the
pointed tips. Lower branches streaked or grooved, the branch-
lets acutely angular. Flowers small (but larger than in the type
of C. lateriflorum), solitary very shortly pedunculate, corolla.

National Herbarium of Victoria. 211

white. Flowers scattered and further apart than in C. lateri-
florum,; each flower surrounded by small oval bracts and brac-
teoles. Ovary inferior, stigma five lobed; fruit a dry globular
drupe, yellow, and crowned with five perianth lobes.

Pemberton, Warren district, West Australia, Max Koch, No.
2409 (Oct., 1919), and No. 2537 (Jan., 1921).

Its nearest affinity is ‘C. lateriflorum from which it differs in
having larger flowers, height, the shape of branches, pendulous
habit, fruit and stigma lobes, the bracts and bracteoles being
more rounded, and the fruit on a shorter peduncle.

Mr. Spencer le Moore, of the British Museum, to whom a
specimen was submitted for comparison with Brown’s type of
C. lateriflorum, says: “ We received this some three years ago
from Dr. Stoward, who met with it in the ‘ Albany District.’
The specimens were in fruit only, and I was unable to name them.
Now that the flowers have been found, there is apparently no
doubt as to the plant’s novelty.”

CoRYSANTHES BICALCARATA, R.Br., (Orchidaceae).

Healesville, Victoria, Miss D. Coleman, July, 1921.
Previously recorded from New South Wales, Queensland and
Tasmania.

ERAGROSTIS CURVULA, Nees, var. VALIDA, Stapf.
“ African Love Grass.”

_ Government House Domain, Melbourne, Miss A. M. Tovey,
Nov., 1921.

This South African grass was previously recorded from
Drouin, Gippsland. The grass becomes too wiry to be of much
use for fodder.

EuryYoPS ABROTANIFOLIUS, D.C. “ Southern wood-leaf Euryops ”
(Compositae).
Near Menzies’ Creek, Paradise, Victoria, J. W. Audas, August,
1921.
This South African plant, may be regarded as an exotic not
yet sufficiently established to be considered naturalised.

HELICHRYSUM ROSMARINIFOLIUM, Less, var. LEDIFOLIUM, comb.
nov. (Syn. Helichrysum ledifolium, Benth.) Compositae.
Victoria: Mt. Hotham, C. Walter (no date), Mt. Hotham,

6000 feet, A. J.” Tadgell, Dec., 1914; also found in New South

212 J. R. Tovey and P. F. Morris: National Herbarium.

Wales and Tasmania. The branches of this variety are rather
-stouter, the leaves are more crowded and thicker; the flower
heads are larger, but otherwise the inflorescence, involucres,
florets, achenes and pappus quite as in H. rosmarinifolium.

LUZULA CAMPESTRIS, D.C., var. AUSTRALASICA, Buch.
(syn. L. Oldfieldii, Hook, f.) (Juncaceae).

Bennison’s Plain, Gippsland, A. W. Howitt, 1887, Hawkesdale,
H. B. Williamson, May, 1899; Lorne, Rev. A. C. F. Gates, Nov.,
1921.

This variety, a native of New South Wales and Tasmania,
has now to be recorded for Victoria.

MELALEUCA ERICIFOLIA, Sm. ‘“ Swamp Paper-Bark ”
(Myrtaceae).

Epsom, near Bendigo, D. J. Paton, Nov., 1921.
A new locality in Victoria for this plant.

MOoENCHIA ERECTA, Sm. “ Upright Moenchia.”
(Caryophyllaceae. )

This plant, a native of Europe, was recorded under the name
of Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzt., im -Vict., Nat. 26ingn 145
(1893) as a naturalised alien in Victoria. The genus Moenchia
was then placed as a subgenus of Cerastium, but as Moenchia is
now considered to be a valid genus, the specimens hitherto known
in Victoria as Cerastium quaternellum have to be changed to
Moenchia erecta, Sm. .

This plant is also-found in Tasmania.

NOTHOLAENA DISTANS, R.Br. “ Bristly Cloak Fern.” (Filices.)

Granite Rocks on Big Hill, near Bendigo. David J. Paton,
January and May, 1921.
A new locality in Victoria for this fern.

ZIERIA ASPALATHOIDES, A. Cunn. “ Hairy Zieria.” (Rutaceae.)

Mt. Tarrangower, about 1300 feet, Maldon, Victoria, Rev. W.
C. Tippett, Oct., 1921.

A. new locality for this plant. It was previously recorded from
the Grampians, A. Cunningham; and Barren ridges neat Goul-
burn River, F. v. Mueller. It is also found in New South Wales
and Queensland.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

For THE YEAR 1921.

—_—_—_—} om (5 —__—_—_—_

The Council herewith presents to Members of the Society
the Annual Report and Statement of Receipts and Expenditure
for the past year.

The following meetings were held :—

March 1o—Annual Meeting.

The following office-bearers retired by effluxion of time:
President, Professor Ewart, D.Sc.; Vice-Presidents, F. Wise-
would, Professor Laby; Hon. Treasurer, W. A. Hartnell; Hon.
Librarian, ; Hon. Secretary, J. A. Kershaw; Members
of Council, Professor Osborne, Dr. Summers, Dr. Baldwin,
Messrs. Dunn, Richardson, Picken.

The following were elected: President, Professor Ewart,
D.Sc.; Vice-Presidents, F. Wisewould, Professor Laby; Hon.
Treasurer, W. A. Hartnell; Hon. Librarian, A. S. Kenyon;
Hon. Secretary, J. A. Kershaw; Members of Council, Professor
Osborne, Dr. Summers, Dr. Baldwin, Messrs. Dunn, Richard-
son, Picken. |

The Annual Report of the Council and Financial Statement
were read and adopted.

At the close of the annual meeting an ordinary meeting was.
held. The following paper was read: (1) “Blood and Shade
Divisions of Australian Tribes,” by Sir Baldwin Spencer,
K-C.M.G., F.R:SyD.Se. Exhibit: Extracts from Mach’s.
“Science of Mechanics,’ as bearing upon the Theory of Rela-
tivity, by Mr. D. K. Picken. |. Dr. J. M. Lewis was elected a
member.

April 14th:—Paper: “The Age of the Ironstone Beds of
the Mornington Peninsula,” by Frederick Chapman, A.L.S.
Professor W. E. Agar delivered a lecture on “Physical Basis of
Heredity.”

Mr. Studley Miller and Captain Edward Kidson, O.B.E., M.Sc.,
were elected members; Captain R. E. Trebilcock, M.C., a coun-

214 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria. |

try member; and Dr. Gwynneth Buchanan, Mr. Aubrey Reader,
and Mr. Alister Burns, associates.

May 12th:—Papers: (1) “The Australian Species of Carex
in the National Herbarium; Victoria,” by J. R. Tovey; (2)
“Notes on Amycterides, with Descriptions of New Species,”
Part III., by Eustace W. Ferguson, M.B., Ch.M.; (3) “The
Specific Name of the Australian Aturia and Its Distribution,”
by Frederick Chapman, A.L.S.

Mr. Howard R. Archer, B.Sc. was elected an associate.

_ July 9th:--Paper: “New Australian: Coleoptera,*with Notes
on Some Previously Described Species,” Part I., by F. Erasmus
Wilson (communicated by J. A. Kershaw). A lecture was de-
livered by Professor Orme Masson on “The Structure of the
Atom,” |

July 14th:—Papers: (1) “An Intercomparison of Important
Standard Yard Measures,” by J. M. Baldwin, M.A., D.Sc.; (2)
“The Petrology of the Ordovician Sediments of the Bendigo Dis-
trict,” by J. A. Dunn, B.Sc. (Howitt Natural History Research
Scholar in Geology); (3) “On an Inclusion of Ordovician Sand-
stone in the Granite of Big Hill, South of Bendigo,” by J. A.
Dunn, B.Sc. (Howitt Natural History Research Scholar in
Geology); (4) “The Euclidean Geometry of Angle,” by D. K.
Picken, M.A.

Messrs. F. E. Wilson, J. Cronin, and N. Rosenthal were
elected associates.

August I1th:—Paper: “An Alphabetical List of Victorian
Eucalypts,” by J. H. Maiden, 1.8.0., F.R.S., F.L.S.: A lecture
on “The Development of Horticultural Varieties of Various
Plants,” was given by Mr. J. Cronin. A series of botanical
specimens were exhibited to illustrate the lecture.

Mr. Stanley S. Addison was elected a member.

September 8th:—Papers: (1) “The Rotifera of Australia
and Their Distribution,” by J. Shephard; (2) “Local Rain Pro-
ducing Influences in South Australia,” by E. T. Quayle, B.A.;
(3) “On a New Type of Barometer,” by T. H. Laby, M.A.; (4)
“On a Gravity Metre,” by T. H. Laby, M.A. ‘Mr. F. Chap-
man delivered a lecture on “The Importance of Fossils in
Regard to Oil-Finding in Australia.” The lecture was illus-
trated by a series of lantern slides. Exhibits: Professor T.
H. Laby showed, (1) “Standard Nickel Metre, which has been

Proceedinys of the Royal Society of Victoria. 215

compared with the International Prototype Metre;”’ and (2)
“A Set of Slip Gauges.”

October 13th:—Paper: “Development of Endosperms in
Cereals,” by M. Gordon, B.Sc. Mr. J. A. Smith delivered a lec-
ture on “Genesis of Energy,” illustrated by lantern slides and
exhibits. Mr. E. T. Quayle, B.A., was elected a member.

November 1oth:-—Papers: (1) “Present and Probable Dis-
tribution of Wheat, Sheep and Cattle in Australia,” by G.
Thomas, B.Ag.Sc. (communicated by A. E. V. Richardson,
M.A., B.Sc.); (2) “Additions and Alterations to the Catalogue
of Victorian Marine Mollusca,’ by J. H. Gatliff and C. J.
Gabriel; (3) “Gold Specimens from Bendigo, and Their Prob-
able Modes of Origin,” by F. L. Stillwell, D.Sc.; (4) “On a
Fossil Filamentous Alga and Sponge-Spicules Forming Opal
Nodules at Richmond River, New South Wales,” by Frederick
Chapman, A.L.S. Exhibit: “Variation in Some _ Fossil
Species,” by F. Chapman.

December 8th:—Messrs. J. E. Gilbert and A. E. VY.
Richardson, M.A., B.Sc., were elected Honorary Auditors.
Papers: (1) “On the Changes of Volume in a Mixture of Dry
Seeds and Water,” by Alfred J. Ewart, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S. ; (2)
“Further Researches into the Serological Diagnosis of Pleuro-
Pneumonia of Cattle,” by G. G. Heslop, M.V.Sc., D.V.H.»; (3)
“The High Frequency K Series Emission Spectra of Platinum,”
by Je S.. Rogers, B.A.,, B.So.3) (4) “Lhe ,dligh., Hrequency,, K
Series Emission Spectra cf Tantalum,” by H. C. J. Asche,
B.C.E., B.Sc.; (5) “Separation. of Mercury into Fractions of
Different Densities,” by W. G. Mepham, B.Sc.; (6) “The
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat: Preliminary Determinations,”
Pete t. Laby, M.A., Sc D., F.Inst.P., and , O,:Hereus, MSc.:
(7) “Contributions from the National Herbarium of Victoria,
No. 1,” by J. R. Tovey and P. F. Morris (communicated by W.
Laidlaw, B.Sc.).

Exhibit: Mr. J. A. Kershaw, on behalf of the National
Museum, showed a meteorite from the Roper River, N. Terri-
tory. The specimen, which weighs about 14 lbs., was found
by an aborigine in open forest country, while mustering cattle.

During the year five members, one country member, and
seven associates were elected, including one associate elected as
a member. |

216 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.

The Council regrets to record the loss by death of Mr. M. O.
Copland, B.M.E., of the Ballarat School of Mines, and Captain
Kenneth Aubrey Mickle, D.S.O.

Maurice Osric Copland, who died August Ist, 1920, was a
Country Member of this Society, having been elected in 1917.
At the time of his decease he was Principal of the Ballarat
School of Mines. He was a native of Victoria, educated at
Wesley College, and graduated B.M.E. at Melbourne Univer-
sity. He had a varied experience in Victoria, South Africa,
Queensland, and Western Australia. In South Africa he was
Petrologist under Dr. Hatch, and was also engaged in work
connected with gold, coal, and diamond mining in that coun-
try. His breakdown in health was attributed to his whole-
hearted zeal in working out repatriation and vocational training
schemes after the war, whilst at Ballarat. Mr. Copland left
behind a remarkably good record of unselfish work in his par-
ticular sphere, and much of the success of the research on the
white earthenware industry is due to him, the Bureau of Science
and Industry at his suggestion providing a scholarship for the
investigation of this subject.

In 1905, Mr. Copland published a bulletin on the Monazite
Deposit of the Borang District, E. Gippsland, for the Geolo-
gical Survey of Victoria.

Kenneth Aubrey Mickle (Capt.), D.S.O., add on 30th July,
1919, at 30 Marine Parade, St. Kilda, an a long illness from
the effects of gas received in action in France. Capt. Mickle
was the son of Clara and the late David Mickle, and was 33
years of age. He was educated at Queen’s College, and, after
qualifying as a metallurgist, conducted research work at Mel-
bourne University for three years. There he won the Grim-
wade prize and other distinctions. On the outbreak of war
he was chief chemist at the Burma Mines Ltd., Upper Burma.
He enlisted in England in the Royal Garrison Artillery, and
received a commission, being promoted to captain for bravery
in the field. He had command of the gth Division Trench
Mortar Brigade, and was decorated with the Distinguished
Service Order. He saw much fighting on the Somme and at
Arras. ‘ He was an Associate of our Society. His death cut
short ari exceptionally promising career, pan he leaves i
friends to mourn their loss.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria. 217

The interest in the work of the Society is evidenced by the
satisfactory attendances at the usual monthly meetings. The
papers submitted were well up to the usual standard, and the
subjects dealt with covered a wide field of research.

The attendances at the Council meetings were as follow :—
Professor Ewart, 9; Professor Skeats, 9; Dr. Summers, 9; Mr.
Richardson, 9; Mr. Kershaw, 9; Dr. Baldwin, 8; Mr. Wise-
would, 8; Mr. Chapman, 8; Mr. Shephard, 7; Mr. Dunn, 7;
Professor Agar, 5; Professor Osborne, 5; Dr. Green, 5; Pro-
fessor Laby, 3; *Mr. Hartnell, 3; Mr. Picken, 3; *Mr. Herman,
2; Mr. Kenyon, 2. §

Owing to serious illness, Mr. Hartnell, who has occupied
the position of Hon. Treasurer continuously for the past thir-
teen years, was compelled to relinquish the duties of the posi-
tion, which Mr. Shephard kindly undertook to carry on for the
remainder of the year. Mr. Hartnell has taken a very keen
interest in the work of the Society, and carried out the duties
of Treasurer in a particularly conscientious manner. His re-
signation was received with great regret, and the Council’s
appreciation of his valued services has been placed on record.

The Librarian reports that 1463 volumes and parts were
added to the Library during the year. The work of revising
the card catalogue has been continued, and by a re-arrange-
ment of the books on the shelves an appreciable amount of —
space has been gained. It is to be regretted that want of
funds will not allow of much necessary binding.

Volume XXXIII. of the Proceedings was issued on the
oth May, and Part I. of Volume XXXIV. on the 31st
October. Part II. of the same Volume is now well advanced,
and should be available for issue at an early date. i

During the year the delivery of short popular lectures on
subjects of general interest was continued. .These were given
by Professor W. E. Agar, Professor Orme Masson, and Messrs.
J. Cronin, F. Chapman, and J. A. Smith, and were well attended.

* Absent on leave and through illness.
11

Proceedings of the Royal Suciety of Victoria.

218

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Royal Soctety of Wictoria.
1924.

Patror :

HK EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF STRADBROKE, K.C.M.G.
C.B., C.V.O., C.B.E,

President :
Pror. A. J. EWART, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.L.S

Bice-Presidents :
_F. WISEWOULD.
Pror. T. H. LABY, M.A. , Sc.D., F.INst.P.

Sion, Treasurer :
W. A. HARTNELL.

Sjon. Wibrarian :
A. S. KENYON, G.E.

Sjon. Secretary :
J. A, KERSHAW.

Council : .

£. J. DUNN, F.G.S. | W. HEBER GREEN, D.Sc.
Assoc. Pror. H. S. SUMMERS, D.Sc. A. E, V. RICHARDSON, M.A., B.Sc.
J. SHEPHARD. H. HERMAN, B.C.E., M.M.E., F.G.S.
F. CHAPMAN, A.1.S. Pror. W. A. OSBORNE, M.B., B.Cu.,
D. K. PICKEN, M.A. D.Sc.
Pror. E. W. SKEATS, D.Sc., AR.C.S., J. M. BALDWIN, D.Se.

F.G.S.

11a

Committees of the Council

House Committee :

THE HON. TREASURER, (CoNnvENER)
F. WISEWOULD.
J. SHEPHARD.

Printing Committee :

THE PRESIDENT.

THE HON. TREASURER.
THE HON. SECRETARY.
Pror. E. W. SKEATS.

Bonorary Auditors:
J. E. GILBERT.
A. E. V. RICHARDSON, M.A., B.Sc.

Wonorary Architect :
Ww. A. M, BLACKETT. .

Trustees:

P. BARACCHI, F.R.A.S.

PROF. SIR W. BALDWIN SPENCER, K.C.M.G., M.A. F.R.S-
F, WISEWOULD.

1921.

LIST OF MEMBERS

WITH THEIR YEAR OF JOINING.

[Members and Associates are requested to send immediate notice of any

change of address to the Hon. Secretary.} “©

—___~» 4 e

PATRON.
His Excellency The Right Hon. The Earl of Stradbroke

_ Honorary MemMBErs,
Liversidge, Professor A., LL.D., F.R.S., ‘‘ Field-
head,’’ George-road, Coombe Warren, Kings-
ton, Surrey, England.

Verbeek, Dr. R. D. M., Speelmanstraat, 19, s’Graven-
hage, Holland.
Lire MEMBERS.
Fowler, Thos. W., M.C.E., Duncan’s-road, via Werribee

Gilbert, J. E., 13 Edward-street, Kew, Vic. ... ... ... ...
Gregory, Prof. J. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Univer-
sity, Glasgow.

Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Moreland Grove,
Moreland.

Selby, G. W., ‘‘ Lindisfarne” Scott-grove, E. Malvern.

Smith, W. Howard, “ Moreton,” Esplanade, St. Kilda ...

Sticht, Rt., B.Sc., M.Am.Inst.M.E., Mt. Lyell Mine,
Queenstown, Tasmania.

OrpINARY MEMBERS.
Addison, Stanley, University, Melbourne ... ... ... ......
Agar, Prof. W. E., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sec., University
Melbourne.

Baker, Thomas, Bond-street, Abbotsford ... ... ... 00.5...
Bale, W. M., F.R.M.S., Walpolé-street, Kew .

1892

1886

1879
1872
1900

1888

188)
1911
1913

1921
1920

1889
1887

222 List of Members.

Baldwin, J. M., D.Sc., Observatory, South Yarra ... ...

Balfour, Lewis, B.A., M.B., B.S., adi: aaa Haw-
thorn.

Baracchi, Pietro, F.R.A.S. ay Hotel, St. Kilda ...

Barrett, A. O., 25 Orrong- ciak: Armadale .z .: ...

Barrett, Sir J. W., BBE... CAG. M.D., M.S.,
Collins-street. Melb,

Boys, R. D., B.A., Public Library, Melb. uP

Brittlebank, C. C., ‘‘ Queensgate,’’ St. Castaen S- rnd,
inter hiek.

Chapman, F., A.L.S., National Museum, Melb. ... ...
Cudmore, F. A., 17 Murphy-street, South Yarra

Cee were

Davis, Captain John King, ‘‘ Tasma,’’ Parliament-
place, Melbourne.

Deane, H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., 14 Mercer-road, Malvern

Dunn, E. J., F.G.S., “ Roseneath,” Pakington-street, Kew.

Dyason, E. C., B.Sc., B.M.E., 60 Queen-street, Melb.

Ewart, Prof. A. J., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S., University,
Melb.

Garran, Sir R. R., St. George’s-road, Toorak ... ... ...

Gault, E. L., M.A., M.B., B.S., Collins-street, Melb.

Gilruth, J.) A... D.V.Se:,9 McR:C.V.S:, F/R.S.E.5°'520
Munro-street, South Yarra.

Goodwin, W. W., Esq., Commonwealth Lands and
Survey Branch, Melbourne.

Gray, Wm., M.A., B.Sc., Presbyterian Ladies’ Col-
lege, East Melb.

Green, W. Heber, D.Sc., University, Melbourne ... ...

Grimwade, W. Russell, B.Sc., 335 Spencer-street, Melb.

Grut, P. de Jersey, F.R.Met.S., 103 Mathoura-road,
Toorak.

Hartnell, W. A., Burke-road, Camberwell wou

Herman, H., B.C.E., M.M.E., F.G.8., “Albany,” 8
Redan-street, St. Kilda.

Higgin, A. J., F.L.C., University, Melb.

Horne, Dr. G., i iss House, Collins-street, liek

Kendall, W. T., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., 36 Park-street,
Brunswick, Vic.
Kenyon, A. 8., C.E., Lower Plenty-road, Heidelberg ...

1911

1901

List. of Members.

Kelly, Bowes, Glenferrie-road, Malvern. ’

Kernot, W. N., B.C.E., University, Melb. ... ... “

Kershaw, J. A., F.E.S., National Museum, Melb. ... ...

Kidson, E., O.B.E., M.Sc., Meteorological Bureau,
Melb.

Laby, Prof. T. H., M.A., Sc.D., F.Inst.P., University,
Melb.

Laidlaw, W., B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Melb.

Lewis, J. M., D.D.Sc., ‘‘ Whitethorn,’’ Boundary-road,
Burwood. .

Littlejohn, W. S., M.A., Scotch College, Melb. ... ... ...

Lyle, Prof. T. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Irving-road;
Toorak.

Loughrey, B., M.A., M.B., B.S., M.C.E., 1 Elgin- street,
ee

Mackay, A. D., M.M.E., B.Sc., 4 Fawkner-street,
South Yarra. .

MacKenzie, Colin W., M.D., B.S., F.R.C.S., 88 Col-
lins-street, Melb.

McPherson, The Hon. W. M., M.L.A., Coppin-grove,
St. James’ Park, Hawthorn. 4

Mahony, D. J., M.Sc., “Lister House,” Collins-street,
Melb.

Masson, Prof. Orme, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.S., Uni-
versity, Melb.

Merfield, C. J. , Observatory, South Yarra... ... .

Michell, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., 52 Prospect. Hill- pad
Cdaberwall.

Millen, The Hon. J. D., Batman House, 103 William-
street, Melb. )

Miller, Leo., Melbourne Mansions; Collins-street, Melb.

Miller, E. Studley, ‘‘ Glynn,’’ Kooyong-road,: Malvern »

Monash, Lieutenant-General Sir John, G.C.B., M.C.E.,
B.A., LL.B., 360 Collins-street, “Melb. —

Nanson, Prof. E. J., ae p Fics was he a:

Oliver, C. E., M.C.E., Métrbpalited Board of Weare
Spencer-street, Melb.

223

1919
1906

1900
1921

1915

1911
1921

1920
1889

1880

1920

1910

1913

1904

1887

1913
1900

1920

1920
1921
1913

1875

- 1878

224 List of Members.

Osborne, Prof. W. A., M.B., B.Ch., D. Bes} University, 1910

Melb.
Owen, W. J., ‘‘Gaergybi,” 935 Rathdown-street, Nth. 1919
Carlton. |
Payne, A. T., ‘Scotsburn,” Toorak .. 1911
Payne, Prof. H., M.Inst.C.E., M. L M. E., Univesity, 1910
Melb.
Picken, D. K., M.A., Ormond College, Parkville ... ... 1916
Pratt, Ambrose, M.A., 376 Flinders-lane, Melb. ... .... 1918
Quayle, E. T., B.A., Meteorological Bureau, Melb. ... 1920

Richardson, A. E. V., M.A., B.Sc., Agricultural De- 1912
partment, Melb.

Schlapp, H. H., 31 Queen-street, Melb. sa le 1906

Shephard, John, ‘‘ Norwood,’’ South- soul Birtohtn 1894
Beach.

Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S., Univer- 1905
sity, Melb.

Spencer, Prof. Sir W. Baldwin, K.C.M.G. M.A., 1887
D.Se., F.R.S., “Darley,” Upper Fern Tree Gully.
Summers, Associate Prof. H. S., D.Sc., University, 1902
Melb. |

Sutton, Harvey, M.D., B.S., Dept. Public Instruction, 1913
Sydney, N.S.W.

Sweet, Associate Prof. Georgina, D.Sc., University, 1906
Carlton.

Swinburne, Hon. G:, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E., ‘‘Shen- 1905
ton,’’ Kinkora-road, Hawthorn.

Syme, G. A., M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S., 19 Collins-street, 1913
Melb.

Syme, Geoffrey, ‘‘ Banool,’’ Studley Park-road, Kew... 1913

Taylor, R., 31 Queen-street, Melb. rts 1907

Taylor, Assoc. Prof. Griffith, ee BE, DSc, Uni- 1918
versity, Sydney, N.S.W.

Thom, L. N., B.Sc., Patent Office, Melbourne ... ... ... 1910

Walcott, R. H., Technological Museum, Melb. ... ... .... 1897

Wisewould, F., 408 Collins-street, Melb. he 1902

Woodruff, Prof. H. A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.V.S., 1913
Veterinary School, Gaiver nies Melb.

List of Members.

CountRY MEMBERS.

Allen, G. M., F.R.M.S., Stribling’s Buildings, Euroa.
Armitage, R. W., MSc, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 95 Foam
Street, Elwood.

Bowclay, W., ‘‘ Rawson,’’ 34 Newcastle-street, Rose
Bay, Sydney, N.S.W.

Collyer, W. J., M.Sc., 115 Raglan-street, Ballarat
Crawford, W., Gisborne ... sl TERRI acy «discs

Dare, J. H., B.Se., Elementary High School, Warrack-
Patel

Drevermann, J., Longerenong Agricultural College,
Dooen.

Easton, J. G., Geological Survey, Corryong ...

Ferguson, E. W., M.B., Ch.M., ‘‘ Timbrebongie,”’
Gordon-road, Roseville, Sydney, N.S.W.

Harris, W. J., B.A., High School, Kyneton ... ... ..

Hogg, H. R., 7 St. ‘Helen’ s Place, London, E.C.

Hope, G. B. ., B.M.E., Gordon Technical College,
Geelong.

James, A., B.A., B.Sc., High School, St. Arnaud ... ...

Kewish, P. D., B.A., B.Sc., Commonwealth Transcon-
tinental Railway, South Australia.

Kitson, A. E., F.G.S., 109 Worple-road, Wimbledon,
London 8.W., England.

Langford, W. G., M.Sc., B.M.E., Vailala Oilfields,
Papua.

Lea, A. M., F.E.S., Museum, Adelaide, S.A. ... 2... 0... 0...

Richards, Prof. H. C., D.Sc., University, Brisbane,
Queensland.

Roberts, J. K., Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge,
England.

Trebilcock, Captain, R. E., M.C., Wellington-street,
Kerang.

Whitelaw, H. S., Geological Survey Office, Bendigo,

225

1913
1907

1919

1919
1920

1917

1914

1913

1913

1914

1918

ES 7

1919

1894

1918

1909
1909

rons

1921

1914

226 List of Members.

CoRRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Dendy, Professor Arthur, D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec. L.S.,
King’s College, London.

Lucas, A. H. S., M.A., B.Sc., Sydney Grammar School,
Sydney, N.S.W.

Merrel, F. P., Rhodesian Museum, Buluwayo, iit

Africa.
ASSOCIATES.
Allen, Miss N. C. B., B.Sc., Physics Dept., University,
Melb.

Archer, Miss E., M.Sc., 140 Park-street, Parkville ...

Archer, Howard R., B.Sc., Geology School, University

Ashton, H., ‘The Sun,” Castlereagh-street, Sydney,
N.S. W.

Bage, Mrs. Edward, “Cranford,” Fulton-street, St. Kilda,

Bage, Miss F., M.Sc., Women’s College, Kangaroo
Point, tia. Queensland. |

Baker, F. H., 167 Hoddle-street, Bishmendy.

Barkley, H., Meteorological Bureau, Melb. ban

Bordeaux, E. Wr. 3., GM.Y.C., B. ésL., ‘427 "Mount
Alexander-road, Moonee Ponds.

Brake, J., B.Sc., Yering ..

Breidahl, H., M.Sc. ae os, ‘B. g_. 36 Ronse strest’ ‘Port

Melb.
Brodribb, N. K. S:, Cordite Factory, Maribyrnong ......
Bryce, Miss L. M., B.Sc., Biology School, University,
Melb. | a}
Buchanan, G., D.Sc., University, i a eee
Burns, A., c/o Miss Stirling, ‘‘ Roslyn,’ Salisbury-
road, Rose Bay, Sydney, N.S. Wales.

Carton, M., M.A. , University, Melb.

Chapple, Reg E. => The Manse, Warrigal- vont ‘Oak:
leigh.

Clendinnen, F. W. J., ‘‘ Haven,’’ Hawksburn ... ... ...

Clinton, H. F., Produce Office, 605 Flinders-street,
Melb.

Cook, G., M.Sc., B.M., Elphin-grove, Hawthorn ... ...

Cookson, Miss I. C., B.Sc., 154 Power-street, Hawthorn

188
1895:

isi?

191&

1917
1921

1911

1906:
1906-

1911
1910:
1913-

1913-

To

191i
1918-

1921
1921

1913
1919

1918:
1920

1919
1916

List of Members.

Coulson, A. L., M.Sc., ‘‘ Finchley,’’ King-street,
Elsternwick.

Crespin, Miss R., Geology School, University, Melb. ...

Cronin, J., Botanical Gardens, South Yarra

ott “tea “ove

Danks, A. T., 391 Bourke-street West, Melb. ... ... ... ...

Fenner, C. A., D.Sc., Education Department, Flinders-
street, Adelaide, S.A.

Fenton, J. J., 20 Northcote-road, Armadale ...... ...

Ferguson, W. H., 37 Brinsley-road, E. Camberwell ...

Finney, W. H., 40 Merton-street, Albert Park

is ees eon

Gabriel, C. J., 293 Victoria-street, Abbotsford ... ... ...

Get. J: H., 6 Fawkner-street,.S.. Yarra ... ...<.. 2.

Gordon, Miss M., B.Sc., Botany School, University,
Melb.

Hardy, A. D., F.L.S., Forest Department, Melb. ... ...

ers. >., M.A... B.C.E., F.G.5., Scoresby’ ..:°... ...

Hauser, H. B., B.Sc., Geology School, University,
Melb.

Hoadley, C. A., M.Sc., B.M.E., c/o Richardson Gears,
Footscray.

Holmes, W. M., M.A., B.Sc., University, Melb. .

Howitt, A. M., Department of Mines, Melb. ... ... ...

Hunter, Stanley B., Department of Mines, Melb. ... ...

Jack, A. K., M.Sc., ‘‘ Kilkerran,’’ Williams-street,

Brighton.

Jobbins, G. G., Electric Lighting and Traction Co.,
Geelong.

Jona, J. Leon, M.D., B.S., D.Sc., 16 Collins-street,
Melb.

Junner, N., M.Sc., M.C., Gold Coast Geol. Survey,
London.

Jutson, J. T., B.Sce., ‘‘ Oakworth,’’ 2 Austin-avenue,
St. Kilda.

Keartland, Miss B., B.Sc., Cramer-street, Preston ...
Keble, R. A., Department of Mines, Melb. ... ... ...

Lambert, C. A., Bank of N.S.W., Melbourne ... ... ...
Luher, R. E., B.A., 101 Hickford-street, E. Brunswick
Luly, W. H., Department of Lands, Public Offices, Melb.

227
1919

1919
1921

1883
1913

1910
1894

1881

1908
1898
He

1903

1894
1919

1910
1913

1910
1908

1913

1902

1914

1912

1902

1919
191]

1919
1919
1896

228 List of Members.

McInerney, Miss K., M.Sc., Geology School, Univer-
sity, Melb.

Macdonald, B., Meteorological Bureau, Melbourne

Mackenzie, G., 1 High-street, Prahran

Maclean, C. W., ‘* Devon,’’ Merton-avenue, Blaster Rick

Malcolm, L. W. G., c/o Royal Colonial Institute, North-
umberland-avenue, London, W.

McLennan, Ethel, D.Sc., Botany School, University,
Melb.

Melhuish, T. D. A., B.A., Port Pirie, South Australia

Mollison, Miss E., M.Sc., Royal Crescent, Camberwell

Montgomery, J. N. haope Oilfield, Papua ... :

Moore, F. E., M.B. E., 4 Mont aha: road West, East
Kew.

Morris, M., M.Sc., Langwarrin ....... .

Nicholson, Miss Margaret G., 59 Murray-street, Elstern-
| wick.

O’Neill, W. J., Lands Dept., Melb. :
Osborne, Miss A., B.Sc., Biology School, Usivensbane
Melb.

Patton, R. T., B.S.. M.F., Biology School, University,
Melb.

Pern, Dr. Sydney, 16 Collins-street, Melb.

Peterson, Miss K., B.Sc., Biology School, ‘Wniveney,
Melb. 5!

Piesse, E. L., Prime Minister’s Dept., Melb. ... ... ...

Raff, Miss J., M.Sc., University, Melb.

Reader, aabirey, fesbrAbng: road, Pathog id) a ee

Ritchie, E. G., M.Inst.C.E., Met. Board of Works,
Spencer-street, Melb.

Rivett, Assoc. Prof. A.C. D., M.A., D.Sc., University,
Melb.

Rosenthal, Newman H., 427 Cardigan-street, Carlton

Rossiter, Captain A. L., M.Sc., University, Melb. ... .

Rossiter, Mrs. A. L., M.Sc., University, Melb. ... ... .

Scott, T. F., M.A., High School, Warragul ... ....... ...
Sharman, P. J., M.Sc., ‘‘ Glenalvie,’’? 9 Daphne-street,
Canterbury.

1918
1920
1907
1879
1915
1919
1915
1912
1920
1912
1920

1903
1918:

1917
1916

List of Member's.

Singleton, F. A., M.Sce., Geology School, University,
Melb.

Smith, J. A., 15 Collins-place, Melb. eis

Stickland, W., Thomas-street, Black Rock , sec

Stillman, Hiss G., Botany School, University, Melb.

Stillwell, F... 1... D. Se., 44 Siphin. -grove, Hawthorn

Sutton, C. S., MB. BS. Rathdown-street, N. Carlton

Teale, E. O., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., ‘* Coleraines,”’
34 Plough-lane, Lutley, Surrey, England

Thorn, Wm., Mines Department, Melb. .

Tovell, C. M., M.Sc., Scotch College, bavnecinn, en

Praih; J: C.; Ba: B.C.E., 630 St. Kilda-road..

Triidinger, W., the ed Murrumbeena ... ... ...

Weatherburn, C. E., D.Sc., M.A., Ormond College,
Parkville.

Webster, R., M.D., ‘‘ The Eyrie,’’ Eaglemont, Heidel-
berg.

White, R. A., B.Sc., School of Mines, Bendigo

Whitelaw, O. A. L., Geological Survey, Melb. ... ... ...

Williamson, H. B., ‘‘ The Grange,’’ Corner Waverley-
road, East Caulfield.

Wilson, F. E., ‘‘ Jacana,’’ Darling-road, E. Malvern

Woodward, J. H., Queen’s Buildings, Rathdown-street,
Carlton.

ase @66 See

229

1917

1905
1914
1919
1910
1908

1898
1907
1913

1903
1918

1914

1918

1918
1913
1919

1921
1903

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INDEX.

The nanes of new genera and species are printed in italics.

Acantholophus aureolus, 20.
echinatus, 20. ;
hystrix, 22.

Additions to Catalogue

Mollusca, 128.

Age of Ironstone Beds, 7.

Amussium zitteli, 9.

Amycterides, Notes on, 17.
new species, 17.
types of, 19, 20.

Amycterus impressus, 18, 19,
posticus, 20.

Aphalidura impressa, 18.

Aponogeton distachyum, 207.

Arca (Barbatia) celleporacea, 9.

Argobuccinum, pratti, 10.

Articerus wilsoni, 38.

Aturia aturi, 12, 13, 14, 15.
australis, 12, 13, 14, 15.
specific name of, 12.
its distribution, 12

Australian species of Carex, 42.

Australian Tribes, Bloods and

Shades of, 1.

Baldwin, J. M., 49.

Bathytoma rhomboidalis, 10.

Bela (Daphnobela), gracillima,

10

Bossiaea, Laidlawiana, 207, 208.

Bromus tectorum, 209.

Byrrhidae, 33. }

Dentalium ‘aratum, 10.

mantelli, 10.

Development of Endosperm in
Caaebis, 105,

Ditrupa cornea,
tiensis, 10.

Dry Seeds and Water, 172.

Dunn, J. A., 55, 65.

‘Caladenia angustata, 209.

Cardita delicatula, 9.

Cardium hemimeris, 9.

‘Carex, Australian species, 42.

systematic arrangement, 47,

48.

Cattle, distribution of, 117,

‘Chalcolampra parvula, 40.

‘Chama lamellifera,

Changes of Volume in Seeds and
Water, 172.

Ohapman, Frederick, 7, 12,

Choretrum pendulum, 209,

Chrysomelidae, 39.

Cladophora richmondiensis,

Coleoptera, new Australian, 33.

worm be-

var.

125.

167.
210.

Columbarium acanthostephes, 10.

ontagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of
Cattle, 180.

Contributions from
Herbarium, 207.

National

169.

Conus cuspidatus, 10.
Corbula pyxidata, 9. .
Corysanthes bicalarata, 211.

of Cubicorrhynchus bohemanni, 22.

dilaticeps, 26,
scotobioides, 22.
Cucullaea corioensis, 9.
Curculio mirabilis, 18, 19.
Cuspidaria subrostata, 10.
Cyperaceae, —, 42.
Cypraea subpyrulata, 10,
Endosperm in Cereals, 105.
Kpiscaphula rufolineata, 35.
reer curvula, var, valida, »
211.
Erotylidae, 35.
Eucalypts, List of, 73.
Eucalptus alpina, 73,
amygdalina, 83.
Baueriana, 73.
Behriana, 73.
bicolor, 73.
Blaxlandi, 74.
Bosistoana, 74.
Botryoides, 74.
calycogona, 74,
capitellata, 83.
cinerea, 74.
cladocalyx, 74.
consideniana, 74,
coriacea, 75.
corymbosa, 75.
dealbata, 83.
diversifolia, 75.
dives, 75.
dumosa, 75.
elaeophora, 75.
eugenioides, 75,
fasciculosa, 83.
fruticetorum, 76.
gigantea, 76.
globulus, 76.
goniocalyx, 76.
gracilis, 76.
Gunnii, 76.
haemastoma, 84,
hemipholia, 76.
incrassata, 77.
incrassata, var.
folia, 77.
Kitsoniana, 77.
leucoxylon, 77.
longifolia, 77.
macrorrhyncha, 77.
maculata, 77.
maculosa, 77, .
Maideni, 77.
melliodora, 78.
Mitchelliana, 78.
Muelleriana, 78.
neglecta, 78.

angusti-

232 Index.

Eucalyptus nitens, 78.
numerosa, 78.
obliqua, 78.
odorata, 78.
oleosa, 78.
ovata, 78.
perriniana, 79.
pilularis, 79.
piperita, 84.
polyanthemos, 80.
populifolia, 84.
radiata, 80.
regnans, 80,
rostrata, 80.
rubida, 81.
sideroxylon, 81.
sieberiana, 81.
Smithii, 81.
stellulata, 81.
stricta, 84.
Stuartiana, 81.
tereticornis, 82.
transcontinentalis, 82.
uncinata, 82.
viminalis, 82.
viminalis var. pluriflora, 82.
virgata, 82.
viridis, 82.
vitrea, 82.
Woolsiana, 84.
Euomus scorpio, 19. :
Euryops abrotanifolius, 211.
Eustatius fergusoni, 17, 19.
Ewart, Alfred J., 172.
Ferguson, Eustace W., 17.
Fossil, Alga, 167.
Gabriel, C. J., 128.
Gatliff, J. H., 128.
Glycimeris maccoyi, 9
Gold, from Bendigo, 162.
Gold specimens, Modes of
origin, 162.—
Gordon, Mary, 105.
Helichrysum rosmarinifolium,
var. ledifolium, 211.
Heslop, G. G., 180. .
High Frequency Spectra, 196.
Hyborrhynchus coenosus, 22,
Important Standard Yard Mea-
sures, 49.
Ironstone Beds of Mornington
Peninsula, 7.
Lacinularia elliptica, 86, 87.
elongata, 86, 87.
megalotrocha, 86.
natans, 86, 87.
pedunculata, 86.
racemovata, 86.
reticulata, 86, 87.
socialis, 86.
striolata, 86, 87. :
Latirus (?) actinostephes, 10.
Leda vagans, 9.
Lewis, J. M., 71.

Lima bassi, 9.
linguliformis, 9.
Lotorium. tortirostre, 10,
Luzula campestris, var. austral-
asica, 212.
Lyria harpularia, 10.
Macramycterus boieduvali, 20..
Magellania oot ieaeamits 10.
Maiden, J.. He
Marginella propingua, 10.
wentworthi,
ise 2 heliarnetiatl 37.
nodipennis, 38.
Melaleuca ericifolia, 212.
Moenchia erecta, 212.
Mollusca, Victorian marine,
128,
Morris, P. F., 207.
Mythites basalis, 20.
Nassa tatei, 10.
Natica hamiltonensis, 10. .
New Australian Coleoptera, 33.
Northolaena distans, 212.
Notonophes auriger, 26.
dilataticeps, 26.
Nucula obliqua, 9.
Oomela bicolor, 39.
variabilis, 40,
Opal nodules, 167.
Opetiopteryx frigida, 22.
Ordovician sandstone in granite,
65.
Harcourt granite intrisiad,
66.
mechanics of intrusion, 68.
sediments, 55.
composition, 56.
structural alterations, 61.
metamorphism, 61.
deposition, 62.
mineral contents, 63.
Panelus bidentata, 38.
pygmaeus, 39.
Pecten dichotomalis, 9
foulcheri, 10.
ef. flindersi, 10.
praecursor, 10, 11.
Pedilophorus atronitens, 34, 35.
globosus, 34,
raucus, 33, 35.
venustus, 33.
Petrology of Ordovician Sedi-
ments, 55.
Phalidura affinis, 22.
breviformis, 18.
elongata, 22, 23.
hopsoni, 23.
impressa, 18.
irrasa, 23, 24.
mirabilis, 17, 19,
reticulata, 17, 19.
sloanei, 18.
variolosa, 23, 24.
Placunanomia sella, 9.

/

Index.

Platinum, high frequency spec-
trum of, 196.
the spectrometer, 197.
adjustments, 200,
experiment, 201.
results and discussion, 204.
Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle,

fermentation reactions, 182.
complement fixation, 183.
agglutination tests, 185.
microscopic agglutination,
185.
dilutions, 186.
macroscopic agglutination,
187.
Prophalidura truncata,
Pselaphidae, 38.
Quayle, E. T., 89.
Rain Producing Influences, 89.
Rainfall incongruities, 97,
Rogers, J. Stanley, 196.
Rotifera of Australia, 85.
Scaldicetus lodgei, 15.
Scaphander tenuis, 10.
Scarabaeidae, 38.
Sclerorinus besti, 31.
crawshawi, 26.
dareyi, 27, 28.
echinops, 21.
granuliceps, 26, 27.
inornatus, 28.
meliceps, 30.
molestus, 21.
molossus, 21,
oblongatus, 27.
sloanei, 29.
squalidus, 30.
stewarti, 22.
taeniatus, 22.
tristis, 20.
Sclerorrhinella manglesi, 22.
Sediments of Bendigo District,
55.
Septifer fenestratus, 9.
Sheep, Distribution of, 117, 122.
Shephard, J., 85.
Siliquaria occlusa, 10.

19.

233

Solarium acutum, 10.
Spencer, Sir Baldwin, 1.
Sphenotrochus emarciatus, 10.
Spicules in Opal, 170, 171.
Spondylus pseudoradula, 9.
Sponge spicules, fossil, 167.
Standard Yard Measures, 49.
Staphylinidae, 37.
Stillwell, F. L., 162.
Talaurinus anthracoides, 24.
bucephalus, 22.
carbonarius, 21,
excavatus, 22.
funereus, 21, 22,
granulatus, 19.
gyllenhalli, 22.
inaequalis, 21.
lemmus, 21.
pastillarius, 22.
phrynos, 21.

pupa, 21.
pustulatus, 21.
riverinae, 17, 19.

roei, 21, 22.

rugifer, 20, 22.

semispinosus, 21, 22.

simulator, 21.

strangulatus, 21.

tenebricosus, 24, 25.

tomentosus, 19.

victor, 21.

westwoodi, 22.
Terebratula (?) aldingae, 10.
Thomas, R. 'G., 117,
Tovey, J. R., 42, 207.
Trivia avellanoides, 10.
Turris (?) trilirata, 10.
Turritella murrayana, 10.
Vaginella eligmostoma, 10.
Venus (Chione) cainozoicus, 9.
Victorian Eucalypts, 73,
Victorian Mollusca, 128.
Wheat, Sheep and Cattle in Aus-

tralia, 117.

distribution of, 117.
Wilson, F. Erasmus, 33.
Zieria, aspalathoides, 212.

END OF VOLUME XXXIV,

[Parr II.

PUBLISHED May 3})st, 1922].

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