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AS

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY.

Vols LX

DUBLIN:
PRINTED BY MM. Ho G1,

PRINTER TO THE ACADEMY.

‘

MDCCCLXVII.

1 lo

Lt

«

es

es
“>

THE ACADEMY desire it to be understood, that they are not
answerable for any opinon, representation of facts, or train of
reasoning that may appear im the following Papers. The
Authors of the several Essays are alone responsible for their

contents.

CONTENTS.
VOLUME IX.

ee
7

1864-1866.

On the Anatomy of the Ostrich (Struthio camelus). By Alexander Macalister,
Ons. 1, AO ann:

On Ancient Galleys. By G. C. eae ae SAP ANI Se ula ie Noo ee Shen Cu

On Ancient Galleys, and the Arrangement of their Oars and Rovers By Lord
de Ros,

On a Bull of Pope Teen Iv. Be ae Rev. W. Ree D. D., ae

On Ancient Remains in the County of Meath. By E. A. Asma ae, aes

Notes on Animal Mechanics. By the Rey. Samuel Haughton, M.D., &. :—
No. 3. On the Muscular Mechanism of the Leg of the Ostrich,

No. 4. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Lion, :
No. 5. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Seal, . . . . ws «
~ No. 6. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Crocodile, . .
No. 7. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Macacus nemestrinus, .
No. 8. Further Comparison of the Hip Joint and Knee Joint Muscles in eee
Cercopithecus, Cynocephalus, and Macacus, . . . .

No. 9. On the Muscles of the Marsupials, as
No. 10. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Emu (bones Nera He ey,
No. 11. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Rhea (Struthio Rhea),
No. 12. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Irish Terrier, as compared with
that of the Australian Dingo, Bonn ey aerate
No. 13. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Bedeee SH CUE CENY RHE
No. 14. On the Muscles of the Virginian Bear, :
No. 15. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Otter (Lutra poy :
No. 16. On the Muscular Anatomy of the Rhinoceros,
No. 17. On the Comparative Myology of certain Birds,
No. 18. On the Comparative Myology of certain Ruminants,
On Armour-plated Ships of War. By G. C. Garnett, Esq.,
On the Antiquities and Human Remains found in the County of Down, in 1780,
and described by the Countess of Moira in the ‘‘ Archeologia,” vol. vii. By
sir William R. Wilde, M.D,

PAGE.

v1

On an Approximate Method, founded on Observation, of determining the Daily
Excretion of Ureain Health and Disease. By the Rev. 8. Haughton, M.D.,
On the Discovery of Neotinea intacta (Reichenbach) in Ireland. By D. Moore,

Le td BS Nei SEB ES iC
On Indian Musical Tae dmente cena by Calonal P. T. French. By ‘pies

Meadows Taylor, . . . gets ty PORE Rite aE. Sk
On the Evaporation of a Water aie at St. Helene By the Rey. Samuel

Haughton, Mo Dro ess : :
Catalogue of Drawings from Original Sketches of Anpaaniee in th es of

Westmeath, Longford, Meath, and King’s County. By George V. Du Noyer,
SOc as : ae :

Account of Ogham insenition! in the Gare at Rareecoouar! County. of Rove
mon. By Samuel Ferguson, LL. D., :

Notes on Crannoges in Ballin Lough. By G. H. Kinahat, age, is :

Notes on a Crannoge in Lough Nahinch. By H. B. Trench, Esq., and G. Hoes
Kinahan, Esq... . .« see

On Inscribed Monuments in the Cane of Konig: By the Ts Ree Charles
Graves, D. D., : Pits oo ie eee

On Two Irish MS. Tr acts a ae celewateA Duald Me Firbis. By D. H. Kelly,
IDRG yy Reine ide faut Alain aera aS. otis Me PY

On Ancient Remains in the pease of Madras. By Henry O’Hara, Esq,, .
On a Passage in the ‘‘ Historia Anglorum” of Henry of Huntingdon relative to
Stonehenge,- By Samuel Ferguson, Ul. Di) 2 2 ae ees
On the Antiquity of Man. By John Locke, Hsq., oe ae cae
On Manuscript Translations of a Portion of Virgil’s /Aneid, compiled before
1690. By W. H. Hardinge, Esq., :

Notes ou an Old Irish Canoe found in Lough Owel, nets of Wesmenne By
W. G. Brooke, Esq., : Na ie nea

On Changes and Corruptions in ah aPScosrapneal Nae By P. W.
Joyce, Esq., dh : ele

On Inscribed Stones at Killeen Cormac, near Daalenn ip the Rey. John
Bo Shearman; >, 2. oak) ee ie aeons e

On‘Hindustani-Syntax. “By John Morisy; Esq.) 2a) se ee

On the Various Years and Months in Use among the Egyptians. By the Rey.
Edward Hincks, D. D., S RRR Nee eer iat

On a Theorem relating to the ate Coefficients, By the Very Rey.
Charles Graves, D.D., . . bn eh

Note on the preceding Paper. By Sir Ww. R. irate, LL. D.,

On a New System of Two General Equations of Curvature. By Sir We ah: fe
milton, LL. D.,

On Ere rtoiieontstintend By W. ated Griffiths, BSG :

On the Meteoric Stone that fell at Dundrum, County of Tipperary, on the ath
August, 1865. By the Rev. Samuel Haughton, M.D., . . .

On the Curragh of Kildare. By W. M. Hennessy, Esgq.,

148

200

Vil

On Ancient Sepulchral Cairns on the Loughcrew Hills. By E. A. Conwell, Esq,

On the Equations and Properties—(1) of the System of Circles touching three
Circles in a Plane; (2) of the System of Spheres touching four Spheres in
Space ; (3) of the System of Circles touching three Circles on a Sphere ; (4) of
the System of Conics inscribed to a Conic, and touching three inscribed
Conies in a Plane. By John Casey, Esq., ith nk ee EN dice ar

On Early Irish and Pre-Norman Antiquities. By G. V. Du Noyer, Esq.,

Notes on Muscular Anomalies in Human Anatomy. By Alexander Macalister,
SOs ony. Me _ SEAR sauce er I

On two Tatceesteell Tenet in ane mine Bike By Alexander Macalis-
ter, Esq., 5

On a Fluid possessing Ga Ree y Pons for Rae at One Ends of
the Spectrum. By the Rev. J. H. Jellett, : : :

On Vestiges of Ancient Human Habitations in Poole’s Cae Dee fey By
Denis Crofton, Esq., ‘ ee

On the Lia Fail on Tara Hill. : Be E, h Cecalh a an stigh aes

On an Inscribed Cromleac near Rathkenny, Co. Meath. By E. A. Conw al, Beg. ss

On the Battle of Moytura. By Sir W. R. Wilde,

APPENDICES.

I. Account for the year ending 31st March, 1864,
II, Acount for the year ending 31st March, 1865, .
III. Abstract of the Account for the year ending 31st March, 1866,

Avpress to Lord Lieutenant,—page 170.
ANTIQUITIES BouGHT,—385.

% PRESENTED,—41, 106, 199, 215, 221, 223, 267, 306, 384.
ANTIQUITIES DEPOSITED,—41, 536.

ae GRANTS FOR PuRCHASE OF,—267, 545.

PAGE.
355

Books AnD MSS. PresENTED,—106, 182, 215, 223, 260, 262, 267, 306, 379, 386,

539, 546.
cee DEPOSITED, —306, 535.

Mars AND DRAWINGS PRESENTED,—148, 343, 379, 423.
EvEcrion oF Honorary Members,—389.

53 Council and Officers, —220, 388.

nF Members,—1, 42, 192, 209, 224, 325, 390, 580, 539, 546.
PRESIDENTS ADDRESSES,—307, 325, 390.
Rerorts or Councit,—215, 380.
ReEsoLuTiIons,—192, 225, 262, 306, 316, 376, 389, 395, 444, 530.
Letters READ, 224, 260, 262, 034.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,

——

MONDAY, APRIL 11, 1864.
Witiram Henry Harprnes, Esq., in the Chair.

Alexander M‘Donnell, Esq.; J. J. Lalor, Esq.; the Hon. Thomas
D’Arcy M‘Gee; and Sir Victor A. Brooke, Bart.; were elected mem-
bers of the Academy.

The Secretary read the following paper, by ALEXANDER MACALISTER,
L.R.C.8. I., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons: —

On tHE ANATOMY OF THE OsTRIcH (STRUTHIO CAMELUS).

THE science of comparative anatomy requires for its basis the records
of the careful and minute dissections of at least the typical forms of
the animal kingdom, in order that we may arrive at correct ideas re-
garding the proper homologies and relations of the various parts of
which the animate frame is made up; and though the subject of this
memoir has been examined very frequently, there does not exist, to my
knowledge, a complete or accurate account of its structural peculiarities.
M. Perrault has left on record the dissection of eight of these birds; but
in his description many interesting facts regarding the visceral anatomy
are not mentioned, and the muscular system is not at all described.
During the past year the splendid pair of ostriches belonging to the
Zoological Society of Dublin died—the femalein June, 1863, from the
constitutional disturbance consequent on a compound fracture of the
metatarsal bone of the left lez; the male in January, 1864, from the
effects of the severe and unexpected frost: both these animals have been
dissected with great care, and many novel points of anatomical and
. physiological importance have been ascertained in their structure.*

* The female ostrich was dissected in the Museum of the Royal Dublin Society, and
the male ostrich in the dissecting rooms of Trinity College. I am indebted to Dr. Carte
and to the Rev. Professor Haughton for the opportunities I had of assisting in their ana-
-tomical examination.

R. I. A. PROC, —VOL. IX. B

2

They were both full grown and in good condition, the male being rather
taller and fatter than the female. The integument, when removed,
does not present the remarkable series of cutaneous muscles seen in the
Apteryx; but a large number of superficial veins are discernible pass-
ing around the roots of the feathers. The skin varies in thickness in
several localities, but im general is strong and dense; on the neck it is
tough and thin; on the breast and pubis it presents two callosities of —
considerable size, on which the animal was in the habit of resting; on
the dorsal aspect the tegument is thick and strong, and clothing the
metatarsal bones it presents a series of large flat scales. Beneath, on
the sole of the foot, the surface of the skin presents a series of closely set
pristle-like processes, invested with a hard horny epithelium; these are
about one-fifth of an inch in length, and would seem to serve in facili-
tating the transit of the animal over the sandy soil of the desert.

Under the skin is a fatty superficial fascia of very great thickness
in some situations; over the abdomen in the female this adipose layer
was two and a half inches thick, diminishing in thickness over the thorax,
and ceasing altogether downwards on the thigh. The integuments and
fat are closely connected to the bone over the sternum, in the region of
the callosity, where the fatty matter has a granular appearance, similar
to that on the sole of the human foot. This fatty layer is permeated
by many very large veins, some of which can be traced to the pulp of
the feathers. A thin and distinct layer of fascia separates the adipose
structure from the muscles underneath, which were three in number—
external oblique, internal oblique, and transversalis. The former arises
from the lower borders of the ribs, and from a fascia which extends
upwards to the vertebral column, and backwards to the brim of the
pelvis; the fibres pass downwards and inwards to the mesial line, into
which they are inserted for its whole length. The internal oblique,
underneath the last, arises from the borders of the pelvis and lumbar
fascia, runs forwards and inwards to the same insertion. The transver-
salis commences by a strong flat aponeurosis from the spine and lower
border of the last two ribs. This structure becomes fleshy for about two
inches, and then forms an anterior tendon, which is inserted into the
linea alba as far down as the symphysis pubis. The expanded tendons
of these muscles attached to the spine form a strong lumbar fascia.

Beneath these muscles lies an enormous fatty cushion, an inch and a
half in thickness, and highly vascular; Perrault describes this as inter-
vening between the abdominal muscles, but in reality it les posterior
to them, and immediately over the peritoneum, which in our female
bore the marks of inflammatory action, and exhibited extensive subja-
cent ecchymosis.

On the wall of the thorax are found two layers of intercostal muscles,
separated by the intercostal vessels; the external run downwards and .
forwards, and cease at the spurs of the vertebral ribs; the internal pass
in a contrary direction, and only extend for three inches behind the spur
on the vertebral ribs. A series of triangular levatores costarum pass
from these spurs to the ribs below, extending as far forward as the arti-
culation between the sternal and vertebral ribs; these and the internal

3

intercostals are in contact with the serous membrane lining the thoracico-
abdominal cavity. The sternal ribs articulate with the vertebral by
means of arthrodial surfaces, united by capsular fibres and a central in-
ter-articular igament. On laying open the abdominal wall we disclose
the viscera. The stomach is continuous with the lower end of the
cesophagus, which exhibits at its lowest point a gradual dilatation, with
no distinct proventriculus: this organ is placed obliquely, so that the
cardiac orifice is on a plane inferior to the pyloric. The whole organ is
an elongated oval in shape, and is not constricted in the centre; the thick-
ness of its walls varies considerably,—the cardiac extremity being thin
and membranous, the pyloric an inch and a half thick, and made up of al-
ternating laminz of muscle and tendon: its epithelial lining is thick and
soft, very loosely attached, except in the vicinity of the pyloric orifice, and
much corrugated, the ruge being small, and arranged lineally in the long
axis of the organ at the cardia, but larger and more irregularly convoluted
at the pyloric extremity. This membrane has a decidedly acid reaction
with litmus paper. The succenturiate gland is dumbbell-shaped, one
broad extremity being placed at the cardia, and the other towards the
pylorus; it measures four inches at its widest part, two at its constriction,
and twelve in length; its orifices are arranged quincuncially, twenty-five
to the square inch, and each communicates with a racemose gland. The
pyloric orifice is much smaller than the cesophageal, and is semicircular in
shape, its straight border being formed inferiorly by the tendinous wall of
the gizzard ; the curve is formed of alternate firm ridges and grooves, the
former six in number, the latter seven, and by this apparatus the pas-
sage of undigested materials is retarded; this orifice is situated anteriorly,
and between two radiating tendinous lamine. All the substances con-
tained in the stomach, were of a dark green colour, as also was its epi-
thelial coat; its contents were vegetable matters and stones in large
quantities—the latter were rounded and worn.

In the outer coat of the stomach of the female, and in contact with
the gastric artery, a pin was found, enclosed in acyst. The intestinal
canal seems to vary much in length. Hunter records finding it 70 feet,
while Perrault, in his eight, states that it varied from 50 to 42, 33, and
even to 29 feet; in our female the intestine measured 42 feet, and in the
male 44 feet. The duodenum commences at the pylorus, is about three
feet long, and passes very nearly in the course described by Hunter,
first downwards, then turning and folding on itself, then passing from
left-to right, then ascending till it crosses the spine above the ovaries in
the female, and is retained in its place by piercing through the root of
the mesentery ; at first, about three inches from its beginning, it receives
the hepatic duct, and three feet lower the pancreatic. From the situa-
tion where it escapes from traversing the root of the mesentery it is ac-
companied downwards on cither side by a spiral-valved cecum, which
is enclosed in the same layer of peritoneum, and lies about an inch
distance from the gut; about 22 feet below, these caeca unite with the
intestine, and from thence the colon passes downward rather narrower
than the upper intestine ; its surface presents valvule conniventes like
those in the small intestine of man, which are arranged alternately on

4

each part of the intestine, and pass three-fourths round the tube, project-
ing half an inch inwards. These elongate the mucous ‘surface over
which the food passes. This portion of the intestine was filled with
hard fecal masses, containing whole corn and undigested food. The
lowest part of the rectum passes from the right side downwards, and
opens into the same side of the cloaca, inclining a little to the left; it
projects into this sac for about half an inch, and is surrounded by a
strong sphincter muscle embedded in its everted lip. The mucous
membrane is longitudinally plicated, and the anus can be dilated to a
considerable extent. The longitudinal fibres of the rectum are very
distinctly marked, especially near its termination. The folds of peri-
toneum which enclose the intestine are three in number: first, a short
process which holds the duodenum in its place; secondly, a mesentery,
in which is enclosed the intestine and ceca; and, thirdly, the portion
which surrounds the lower intestine ; this latter extends across the spine
obliquely from above, downwards, and to the right. In the second fold
the mesenteric artery is traceable, and the lacteals, which pass upwards
and backwards, and form a thoracic duct, which is seen to pass behind
the vene cayee, and internal to the upper part of the right kidney, and
to the right of the aorta; all these folds lie superior to the ovaries.

The cloaca in the female is a large sac, admitting readily the whole
hand; from its left side passes the oviduct, which is a large dilatable
tube, capable of receiving four fingers and exhibiting longitudinal plicee
on its mucous membrane; on the right side, and in a corresponding
position, is a small cecal depression, but no duct. To the right of this
and posteriorly the rectum opens at the top of the cavity, and between
this aperture and the oviduct the mucous membrane forms a large cres-
centic fold, its concavity looking downwards and backwards towards the
external orifice; this appears to be capable of shutting off the rectum
during the passage of an ovum, and wce versd. Behind the rectum and
oviduct, in a small posterior pouch, open the two ureters very obliquely,
one on either side, about an inch and a half apart, each admitting the
little finger at their opening, but diminishing rapidly as they ascend ; —
they are separated by a strong median ridge.

Into the outer margin of the cloaca a strong levator cloacze muscle is
inserted, which passes down from the posterior part of the sacrum and
from the ischiatic ramus. A strong sphincter, an inch in breadth, en-
circles the external opening. In the centre on the upper surface is a
small pendent of cellular and erectile tissue, or clitoris, which displays a
dorsal groove. The mucous membrane of the cloaca is arranged in
longitudinal plates, so as to facilitate distention.

In the lower part of the abdominal cavity in the female existed about
two dozen ova, each enclosed in a separate sac or calyx, and all attached
by a common pedicle about two inches thick to the posterior wall of the
abdomen; by this the vessels pass into the ova, and ramify on the sur-
face in a pectiniform manner, forming a vascular zone or girdle, the
stigma of the ova. One of these ovaria, that had emitted its egg a few
days before the animal’s death, appeared collapsed and dark coloured ;
the others were light and yellowish, and from the size of a pea to that

5

of a large teacup. To the left side, and attached by a long distinct fold
of peritoneum, in which are contained many arborescent vessels, lies the
oviduct, beginning above by a bilobate, soft, gelatinous orifice in the
peritoneal fold enveloping the ova, and descending and gradually widen-
ing into a large ovisac; the whole tube is 22 feet long and opens by a
narrow but dilatable orifice into the cloaca below. The interior of the
lowest part was very gritty in feel, from the particles of carbonate of
lime secreted there for the formation of the shell. The lowest part of
the ovisac has a strong, well-developed muscular coat, which diminishes
and almost ceases at the upper part.

The kidneys are elongated, flattened, glandular masses, thirteen inches
long, and an inch and a half wide, lying deeply seated, and extending
from the posterior edge of the diaphragm to the anterior extremity of the
pelvic cavity; they are brownish-red in colour, rough on the surface, and
the left is divided into two lobes ; each is bordered by a large vein, which
passes up to join the cava, posterior to which the ureter arises, at the
junction of the inferior and middle third, from a well-marked pelvis,
into which open several infundibula, which can be traced back to calyces.
The medullary matter is not arranged in pyramids, nor do its tubes con-
verge to papille. The ureter passes down approaching the mesial line,
is reddish-white in colour, and cylindrical in shape. The renal artery
is a branch of the aorta, and enters posterior to the ureter. The kidney
is enveloped in a fatty capsule, which is very dense in front, and binds
it down in its place, separating it from the ovaries. The supra-renal cap-
sule is at its upper part, flattish-oval in shape, three inches long, and deep
orange in colour; its inner angle passes considerably farther back than
its external, and its upper surface is in contact with the diaphragm,
There is no distinction of cortical and medullary matter in its structure.
Superior to the kidney, on the left side, lies the spleen, enclosed in a
layer of peritoneum derived from the stomach, and elliptical in shape,
narrower above than below, the long axis being directed downwards,
forwards, and to the right side; it is three inches and a halfin length by
one in breadth ; it is surrounded by a capsule of peritoneum, and by a
proper fibrous coat underneath ; it is supplied by a branch of the celiac
axis, and is made up of a soft, spongy, vascular tissue of a deep red
colour.

The generative organs of the male consist of two testes, placed above
and a little external to the kidneys, invested in a strong fibrous tunica
albuginea, about three inches long and 12 inches in width; from
the outer and back parts of these organs, the tubes pass to form a large
epididymis, which is prolonged for three inches below the testis, and nar-
rows into the reddish soft vas deferens, which runs down almost, parallel
to the ureter, and opens into the cloaca a little external and anterior to it ;
there is an elongated and pointed eminence, more than a quarter of an
inch long, seen on the mucous membrane of the cloaca, and at the apex
of it is the orifice of the vas; the opening of the ureter is much smaller
in the male than what itisin the female. The two vasa deferentia open
on either side of the groove in the intromittent organ, which com-
mences by two firm fibrous crura attached to the pubis, then turns

6

downwards and backwards; when retracted, this organ lies at the bottom
of the cloaca, curved; it has two muscles inserted into it, one at either
side, which would serve to compress its texture. The dorsal groove
terminates at its apex, where the investing membrane is red, and covered
with a large number of sentient papilla. There are inserted into the
cloaca a pair of long round muscles on either side, which do not appear
in the female, and which are attached to the rami of the pubis. A very
strong sphincter guards the orifice of the cloaca] sac.

The pancreas is about ten inches long, and is included between the
first two turns of the duodenum, and surrounded by peritoneum ; in
colour it is pink, and is very soft, loose, and granular in texture ; from
its centre passes the pancreatic duct, which commences in the gland by
two branches, which unite before it passes from the gland substance;
its duct opens into the second fold of duodenum, nearly three feet from
the hepatic.

The liver consists of two nearly equal lobes, the right being pro-
longed a little lower down than the left; these lobes are separated
above by the vena cava, which grooves the organ ; a falciform ligament
also exists on the upper surface. The right lobe in the female exhi-
bited an extravasation, and the capsule was very easily separated. No
gall bladder existed. A small quadrate lobe exists behind the notch for
the apex of the heart, and still farther back the outline of a Spigelian
lobe is visible, separated from the former by a short transverse fissure,
to which the lesser omentum is attached, and behind which is a large
oval opening or foramen of Winslow. Through the transverse fissure
the vena porta from the intestines passes upwards, and to the right a
small branch or lesser porta pierces the left lobe. In front and to the
left emerges the duct, which begins by three small branches, and passes
behind the duodenum to the right, opening, threeinches below thestomach,
into that intestine. The liver has two lateral ligaments, and many ves-
sels ramify between the layers of the left.

The large abdominal veins commence in the pelvic cayity, and
pass forwards, one on either side, along the kidneys, grooving them
as far as the middle of these glands, and lying about an inch apart; in
this situation they bend inwards and unite, and then separate
almost immediately, so as to form the figure of X; they still border
the kidney, and unite at the upper edge of these glands, where the
left one, the larger, passes over and joins the right; the vessels previous
to this union receive the external iliac veins, and the femorals, which
are separated from the femoral arteries by the kidneys, the latter vessel
lying posterior.

The cava ascends inclined a little to the right, comes in contact with
the lower border of the liver, and passes in the sulcus between the two
lobes, then receives the vense cavee hepaticee, and ends above in the right
auricle. :

In the thoracic portion of the somatic cavity the heart is seen in the
centre, contained in the pericardium, a conical sac, the apex of which is
very acute, and is directed downwards, and surrounded by the liver, be-
tween the lobes of which it lies. This fibro-serous membrane is con-

7

nected posteriorly to the diaphragm, but partially separated from it by
the cesophagus : on laying it open, the heart is exposed, with the great
vessels starting from it. On the surface of the organ are seen the
two coronary arteries, one arising behind the infundibulum of the
pulmonary artery, and passing first between the left auricle and ven-
tricle, then between the two ventricles anteriorly ; the other, arising
from the aorta, opposite the right side of the pulmonary artery, and pass-
ing in the posterior anriculo-ventricular sulcus, supplies the back of the
heart, anastomosing with the last at the apex.

The right auricle is a medium-sized cavity, with well-marked verti-
cal musculi pectinati in its wall, and no appendix. The inter-auricular
septum is thick, and separates the right from the smaller left auricle,
which also presents strong perpendicular muscular bands on its wall, and
is likewise devoid of an appendix. The two pulmonary veins unite
and open into this cavity, on its posterior wall, by one common aper-
ture, which is surrounded by a strong muscular band, which would be
competent to close the orifice in a valvular manner. To the outer sur-
face of the auricle several fatty masses are appended, like the appen-
dices epiploice of the intestines.

The right ventricle is a three-sided pyramid in shape when distended,
smooth inside except around its edge, where there are a series of mus-
cular trabecule ; its auricular orifice is oval, about 14 inch in its long
axis, and guarded by astrong muscular valve, 14 line thick, situated to the
rightof the foramen, and extending fortwo-thirdsaround it; astrong mus-
cular band unites this to the anterior wall of the cavity, and strengthens
its attachment. Numerous foramine Thebesiane exist on the inner sur-
face of thiscavity. The orifice of thepulmonary artery is about two inches
from the right auriculo-ventricular opening, and is guarded by three semi-
lunar valves with indistinct corpora Aranti, and haying large sinuses of
Valsalva behind them.

The left-ventricle is strong, its wall being thirteen lines thick in
several places, near the apex, however, it is extremely thin, in one spot
only measuring two lines. The left auriculo-ventricular opening has a
strong zona tendinosa and three membranous valves attached by cordee
tendineze, but without distinct musculi papilares connected to them:
carnese column are apparent near the apex of this cavity, but are not
connected to the valves. The corde tendinece are very numerous, and
pass transversely outwards from the walls of the cavity to the valves, the
curtains of which are situated right, left, and posterior; the first is the
largest, and is placed half an inch from the auricular opening. The aortic
orificepresents nothing peculiar, butisprotected by three semilunar valves.
Longitudinal rugze were visible in the liming membrane of the aorta in
the female ostrich, with patches of atheromatous deposit.

The aorta passes from its origin to the right side, and then curves
backwards and to the left; this arch ascends for avery short distance,
and about an inch above its origin from its convexity it gives off two
arterle innominate, right and left, the latter being on a plane anterior to
the former, and both lying on the trachea, in front of which and above
the aorta lies a large round air cavity, about two inches and a half in

8

diameter, lined by a smooth cellular membrane, invested with a layer of
epithelium, and presenting no distinct opening into it. The right inno-
minate artery is about two inches and a half in length, forming a curve
- concave to the right; it gives off the carotid and subclavian branches,
the latter being small and passing outwards, the former ascending.
~ In connexion with the carotid artery is a large, brownish, glandular
mass, about an inchin diameter, supplied by many arteries, and emitting a
large number of veins: this and its fellow of the left side are the lateral
lobes of the thyroid body without an isthmus. The left innominate is
similar to the right in most respects. From the commencement of the
subclavian a small cervical branch—the vertebral—passes upwards into
the posterior portion of the neck. The pulmonary artery arises from
the infundibulum of the right ventricle, is about two and a half inches
long; and one inch and a half in diameter; it passes upwards,
backwards, and to the left, and then divides into right and left
branches. The trunk lies in front of the aorta, and its bifurca-
tion corresponds to the front of the termination of the trachea. The right
branch passes through the grasp of the arch of the aorta, is rather smaller
than the left, runs downwards, backwards, and to the right side, lying
above the right bronchus. The cardiac nerves of the right side run pa-
rallel to its upper border as far as the anterior part of the root of the aorta,
where they end in forming the coronary plexuses to supply the muscu-
lar substance of the heart. The left pulmonary artery is larger, more an-
~ terior, and superior, than the right, but nothing of importance is discerni-
ble in its course. The great veins are three in number—two superior
cavee, and one inferior: the left superior cava is formed by the union of the
jugular and subclavian veins with several smaller vessels from the thoracic
parietes. This vessel lies posterior and external to the sterno-tracheal
muscle, and internal to the furculum. The length of this vein before it is
joined by the azygos is three inches, and this latter vessel unites with it
just as it is passing into the pericardium, and an inch and a half from
its entrance into the auricle. This vein runs downwards, backwards,
and to the right side. The left vena azygos begins in the abdomen,
at the upper border of the ovaries, passes over the diaphragm, and runs
obliquely on the side of the pericardium, behind the left lobe of the liver,
and terminates in the left superior cava. The right superior cava is
double the size of the left, with which it corresponds in many points,
its orifice being separated in the auricle from the inferior cava by a
membranous valve, the great Eustachian, which guards the mouth of
the latter: as this vessel is passing downwards, and to the left side, it
receives the right vena azygos, a very small vessel, scarcely admitting
an ordinary probe, which passes between the pleura and pericardium on
the right side, and passes behind, and to the right of the auricle. The
pulmonary veins are two in number, one on either side; the left is the
longest, and is placed below the bronchus, and was in the female
plugged up by a firm fibrinous coagulum. These-vessels coalesce as they
approach the auricle.
When these various organs are removed, a complex system of
septa is exposed; of these there are five portions—one transverse, a

|

9

fibrous structure, formed mainly of a fold of peritoneum, is placed
across between the liver and the heart above, and the stomach and
spleen below. ‘This fold is attached anteriorly and inferiorly to the
lower edge of the sternum, and it unites with the tendinous lamina of
the transversalis ; behind, this lamina is united to the diaphragm proper,
which we shall describe subsequently. This portion is not, however, a
complete septum. On removing the liver and heart, two large fibrous
laming are exposed, covering the very large air sacs, which.occupy a
large part of the thoracic cavity; these laminee send in four septa on
either side, so as thus to subdivide the lateral portions of the cavity into —
four compartments ; but the divisions are extremely loose and fibrous,
so that each compartment freely communicates with its neighbour. In
the centre of these compartments existed several peculiar oval bodies,
like lymphatic glands in appearance, and in structure composed of an
external rough, firm, fibro-cellular coating, with an internal yellowish-
brown matter of sebaceous consistence. These were about an inch long,
three-fourths broad, and one-fourth in thickness, and were arranged in a
line on each side, connected to the septa by ten or twelve threads, radiating
in all directions. Beneath these bodies and the air sacs, we find a true
muscular diaphragm, composed of a flat tendinous central lamina, and two
lateral fleshy portions, concave in front and below, convex above and
behind ; it is attached on either side by five fleshy slips to the five lower
vertebral ribs along their margins; the fibres run backwards and in-
wards to the tendons, and some. pass a little upwards, and are about 24
inches in length. The kidney reaches to its lower border, and the spleen
lies on its inferior and posterior surface. The cesophagus pierces it in front,
and lies below it for a considerable distance; the two lower muscular
fasciculi are separated from:the upper by a large aperture, looking down-
wards, forwards, and outwards, which led to the air sac from the bronchial
tube. Two other large openings exist, one on either side of the
cesophageal orifice, which pass downwards and backwards; and above,
and external to these, are two smaller holes, running in the same direc-
tion; the two lower slips of muscular fibres are broad and flat, and the
upper are round and thick. The aorta passes through the lower border
of this true diaphragmatic structure, and on either side of it passes down
a tendinous slip or crus, to be attached to the sides of the bodies of the
lumbar vertebree.

The lungs are exposed on removing the diaphragm, and appear
placed at the upper and back part of the cavity of the thorax, filling the
spaces around the heads of the ribs; into these organs pass the bronchial
tubes, one along the centre of each lung towards the base, the right
being more transverse and more curved than the left. These tubes are
membranous, and communicate with the air sacs by means of the open-
ings in the diaphragm ; allits branches come off mm a regular series from
its posterior surface, and the trunk ends below by communicating with a
large air sac, which lies on either side of the back of the abdominal
eavity; this latter is similar in structure to the thoracic series of air
cavities. The branches of the bronchus appear pinkish, and seem mus-

RB. I. A. PROC.—YVOL. IX. c

10

cular, and are arranged in a row of eight or nine large holes, with an |
alternate series of smaller holes externally ; a double row exists on the
right, but a single series on the left. The air sacs communicate with
these bronchi. The lungs are separated from each other by the aorta,
which passes down inclining to the right side, and pierces through the
diaphragm opposite the lowest border of the last thoracic rib; a tendi-
nous arch passes over it at this point, below which the cceliac axis
arises. This trunk is about 14 inch long, and gives off gastric, hepatic,
and splenic branches ; around it is arranged a sympathetic solar plexus,
and from its root start the diaphragmatic arteries. The superior mesen-
teric artery arises an inch below and to the right of the last, and supplies
the intestines. The femoral artery arises from the aorta, three inches
below the superior mesenteric; it is a small trunk, runs outwards, and
divides into a proper femoral and an external iliac, which passes along
the brim of the pubis as far as the symphysis; below the origin of
this vessel the aorta, or sacra media, continues downwards behind and
between the kidneys, and immediately behind the vena cava, from which
it is separated by a delicate fascia. A large sciatic branch passes off
through the sciatic notch, and accompanies the sciatic nerve, becoming
popliteeal behind the knee; still lower, a series of renal vessels arise on
either side, and from the anterior aspect of the aorta the ovarian vessels
of the female start. At the lower border of the kidney the aorta bifur-
cates; each lateral branch, about two inches lower down, again divides
into two, which again split in a similar manner, so as to form a series
of eight tertiary branches, which terminate, behind the cloaca, in the
pad of the tail, for the nutrition of the plumes.

In the neighbourhood of the tail there exist the following muscles :—
Levator coceygis, which arises from the lower part of the sacrum, about
two inches in extent; the fibres pass downwards and backwards, form-
ing a series of roundish muscular fasciculi, which are inserted by round
tendons into the seven caudal vertebre as far as the last. Between this
pair of muscles are seven depressions, corresponding to the foramina in
the vertebree. Coccygzeus arises from the side of the lower half of the
coccygeeal vertebre, forms a triangular mass, running to be inserted into
the pad of the tail. There is no sign of an oil gland in this locality.
Depressor coccygis is a small muscle, passing from the bodies of the upper
to the last caudal vertebre.

The muscles of the back form a small and not very distinctly deve-
loped series. On raising the integument and fat, we bring into view
the first or latissimus dorsi, which arises tendinous from the spines of
the three or four upper dorsal vertebre. The fibres run downwards and
outwards, to be inserted into the inner edge of the upper third of the
humerus and fascia of the wing.

Rhomboideus major, beneath this, arises from the fascia at the upper
and back part of the thoracic wall, passes forward to be inserted into the
blade of the scapula along its posterior border.

Rhomboideus minor is above the last, and has a tendinous origin from
transverse process of the last cervical vertebra, from which it passes

11

downwards, and is inserted into the scapula above the last named. Be-
neath these rhomboids exists a deeper muscle, also of a rhomboid shape,
which is attached to the necks of the first and second ribs, and is inserted
near the point of the blade of the scapula.

Serratus is a small, thin, square muscle, arising by an aponeurotic
expansion from the lower edge of the upper ribs; the fibres pass down-
wards and backwards, and are inserted into the anterior border of the
scapula, below the origin of the teres minor.

Semispinalis dorsi, or sacrolumbalis, arises from the upper border of
the posterior portion of the crest and dorsum of the ilium, and from the
sides of the lower vertebre, by fleshy fibres, which pass forwards and
a little outwards, to be inserted into the angles of the five upper ribs by
tendinous and fleshy fasciculi. Lying internal to this we find the
longissimus dorsi, attached below to the posterior and inner half of the
crest of the ilium, and to the sides of the lumbar vertebrae; the muscle
runs upwards and forwards, and at the lower part of the neck divides
into several fasciculi, which run to be inserted into the sides of the
transverse processes of the four lower cervical vertebra : the most inter-
nal band continues upwards, to be attached to the five or six upper cervical
transverse processes, and to a pit above the foramen magnum on the
occipital bone. This muscle seems to consist of several portions which
in other animals are distinct.

Levatores costarum posteriores, seven in number, arise tendinous and
fleshy from the transverse process of the seven upper dorsal vertebree, and
run outwards and backwards, to be inserted into the outer surface of
the ribs as far as the angle; their action is to elevate or fix the vertebral
ribs. Spinalis dorsi passes from the lower to the upper dorsal spines,
but seems not to be attached to any regular number of vertebra.

Scalenus—a small triangular mass—arises from the posterior tubercle
of the transverse process of the last cervical vertebra, and is inserted
into the upper border of the first rib, close to its vertebral articulation.

Multifidus colli consist of many slips, which pass from the anterior
tubercles of the transverse processes on the sides of the cervical vertebrae
to be inserted into the prominent tubercle on the middle of the anterior
aspect of the body of the vertebra above. There is also a posterior set of
these muscles, which run from the posterior tubercle of the transverse
process of each vertebra to the spinous process of the vertebra above.

A thin biventer cervicis may be found, arising by an aponeurosis
from the dorsal vertebree, and inserted along with the longissimus dorsi.
On the front of the thorax, the great pectoral is seen—flat, thin, fleshy,
and triangular—arising from the outer edge of the sternum and the three
upper sternal ribs, aud passing outwards to be inserted into the ridge
on the upper and outer parts of the humerus below its head.

When the integument is removed from the face, a series of facial
muscles are exposed, principally connected with the eye, which is
suarded by two nearly equal lids, whose edges are beset with stiff,
everted hairs, longer on the upper than on the lower lid. Transverse fibres
run into the substance of the lower lid, like the remains of an orbicularis

12

palpebrarum, the use of which seems to be, to elevate the lower lid; pos-
terior and superficial to it is a venous plexus, formed of the veins of the
head and face uniting to form a single trunk, which passes to the jugular
vein. A strong palpebral ligament extends from the brim of the orbit all
round into the lid, to strengthen it. Levator palpebree superioris arises
within the orbit, from the bony surface forming the posterior portion
of the roof of the cavity ; the fibres run outwards, and are inserted into
the tarsal border of the lid. A small anterior bundle of muscular fibres
passes from the inner or anterior angle of the orbit to the inner can-
thus of the lids; this seems to be also an elevator of the upper lid.

The orbit contains the recti, obliqui, and the two muscles of the
membrana nictitans: the former arise around the border of the optic
foramen, united by a hgament of Zinn, stronger above than below. ‘The
muscles of the membrana nictitans are, as usual, quadrate and triangular ;
nothing of peculiarity is noticeable in their arrangement, except that
from their greater size they are better seen than in most birds. They
are supplied by the third nerve, and the tendon of the triangular muscle
grooves the sclerotic posterior to the bony plates. External to the trian-
gular muscle, and between the inferior and internal rectus, is placed a large
oval Harderian gland, embedded in cellular tissue, and compressed, pro-
bably by the triangular muscle when acting, so that its secretion 1s
forced out, and is conveyed by a duct to the inferior and inner border
of the attachment of the membrana nictitans. A peculiar gland is found
embedded in the depression on the side of the frontal bone, separated
from the nose by a strong membrane, through which its duct seems to
penetrate. All the parts in the orbit are surrounded by the layers of a
loose ocular fascia.

There are two elevators of the lower jaw, closely connected. Tem-
poral arises from the deep fossa behind the orbit, and is inserted into
the coronoid process of the lower jaw; the other lies more horizontally,
and arises posterior to the last from the hinder portion of the temporal
fossa, almost as far back as the occipital bone; from this origin it passes
downwards and forwards, to be inserted into the ramus of the lower jaw
in front of the coronoid process, here overlapping the last. A large
glandular mass fills up part of the interspace between these muscles, in
contact with the forementioned venous plexus.

In dissecting the neck, a large platysma is first seen, which below is
attached to the furculum, and above to the integument, as high as the
head ; its outer fibres are oblique, and the inner vertical; it is thicker
and stronger in front than behind ; beneath it, at the upper part of the
throat, is the larynx and its muscular apparatus, and in our dissection
we meet with the following :—

Mylo-hyoid—flat and triangular—arising from a ridge on the anterior
four-fifths of the lower maxilla, in contact with the mucous membrane
of the mouth; the fibres pass inwards, and are inserted along with the
opposite muscle into a median raphe; a few of the most posterior are
attached to the os hyoides.

Maxillo-keratic is a long flat slip, passing from the lower jaw a little

13

in front of its condyle, to be inserted into the concavity of the great cornu
of the os hyoides, round which it winds. A small muscular slip runs from
the great cornu of the os hyoides on one side to the opposite, probably
acting as anapproximator. Genio-hyoid—flat and straight—runs from
the lower surface of the centre of the lower jaw, passing backwards to
be inserted into the body and root of the great cornu of the os hyoides ;
beneath this pair is the upper quadrilateral projection of the os hyoides,
continued into the very short tongue. Hyoglossus, a very short muscle,
passes from the sides of the body of the os hyoides, as far forwards as to
the tip of the tongue.

Numerous small muscular slips exist on the anterior aspect of the
larynx: one—hyo-laryngeus—passes from the back of the os hyoides to
the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, and several small transverse
slips unite the cornua of the thyroid cartilage. Thyro-hyoid—small, trans-
verse—passes from the oblique line on the front of the thyroid cartilage, to
be inserted into the great cornu of the os hyoides. Sterno-tracheal—three
feet and a half in length—arises from the posterior surface of the top of
the sternum by around muscular slip, which is reflected inwards on the
side of the trachea, three inches above its bifurcation ; from this point
the muscle passes upwards, being adherent to the cartilaginous rings as
it ascends, the fibres expand, and finally are inserted into the lower
border of the thyroid cartilage, some passing as far as the os hyoides.
On the side of the thyroid cartilage a small muscular slip passes to the
back of the os hyoides. In the substance of the tongue a few longitudi-
nal muscular fibres or linguales can be traced on either side of the middle
line. The upper larynx exhibits two vocal cords, which are more than
half cartilaginous. There is no epiglottis; the muscles seated here are
prizcipally the proper arytenoids and posterior dilator muscles ; a pair of
thyro-arytenoids may also be seen. There is no lower larynx. The trachea
is made up of complete cartilaginous rings, forming a tube three feet
nine inches in length, behind which lies the cesophagus, with a plicated
lining membrane, which begins above in a dilatation or pharynx ; on
either side of the upper part of this sac les a large glandular mass or
tonsil, opening by several ducts, which communicate with racemose
gland cavities. The jugular vein, which lies in front of the carotid artery,
passes posterior and external to the cesophagus; the arteries lie close
together, but do not communicate.

In removing the upper portion of the skull, in order to expose the
brain, the bones are found extremely spongy, and united at the sutures.
When they are removed, the encephalon is brought into view, invested
with a dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. The former is strong, and
does not present more than the rudiment of a falx; and the latter is found
passing into the ventricles on either side, forming a choroid plexus. The
cerebrum exhibits no convolutions on its surface, and is made up of two
hemispheres and two tubercles or optic lobes. The cerebellum lies pos-
terior and inferior to the cerebrum; and the medulla oblongata is a central
prominence, exhibiting no secondary subdivisions, connecting the spinal
marrow below with the encephalon above. The cerebellum consists of

14

one large central lobe, marked out into a series of transverse lamelle by
fissures or involutions; to either side of it small lateral lobes are appended,
and in section it presents a distinct Arbor vite. No pons varolii seems
to exist even in rudiment. The carotid arteries ramify on the surface
of the organ, and the vertebrals pass on the side of the medulla oblon-
gata. From the base of the brain pass the cerebral nerves. The first, or
olfactory, runs to the nose, under a bony shelf, from the anterior and
inferior portion of the cerebrum, where a small conical eminence is
observable; it is extremely soft and somewhat greyish atits origin. The
second, or optic, arises from the optic lobes, curves downwards and for-
wards, and meets in front of the infundibular fold of pia mater with
its fellow of the opposite side; the decussating fibres are easily seen at
the commissure. The third and fourth nerves pass to the orbit, where
they supply the muscles; they arise between the medulla oblongata and
the posterior cerebral tubercles. The trifacial nerve is very small, and
has an extremely small supra-orbital branch. The eighth pair sends off
a large glosso-pharyngeal to the tongue, along with a glossal branch of
the pneumogastric. None of the other nerves display any points of
interest.

On removing the upper part of one of the cerebral hemispheres, the
large lateral ventricle is exhibited, closed internally from the median
fissure by a thin plate, white on the ventricular, and grey on the inter-
nal aspect. This plate is connected with the opposite side by a narrow
white band, easily torn, and situated far back, not far from the posterior
cerebral tubercles ; this seems to be similar to the band described by A.
Miiller as a rudimental corpus callosum. Lach lateral ventricle consists
of one part, and presents no cornua; it has two large grey masses on its
floor—one large, anterior, the corpus striatum; another smaller, posterior,
the optic thalamus, separated by a rudimentary tenia; overlapping the
thalamus is a large fold of pia mater, which gains entrance posteriorly ;
this is the choroid plexus.

Posterior to the cerebral hemispheres appear the optic lobes or tuber-
cles, which are covered by a layer of pia mater, enclosing a small oval
pineal gland ; these tubercles are hollow, and their cavities communicate
with the lateral ventricles ; in front of them passes a posterior commis-
sure, which overlaps a large iter ad quartum ventriculum, or Sylvian
aqueduct. The fourth ventricle is placed anterior and inferior to the
cerebellum, and presents a very well marked calamus scriptorius. The
spinal cord is fissured deeply in front and behind, and is enveloped in
three membranes; each spinal nerve arises by two roots, of which the
anterior is much the smaller; these pass separately through the dura
mater, and unite outside the foramina of conjugation of the vertebree, the
posterior forming a ganglion which the anterior crosses, and the two
roots are united immediately external; a branch of the sympathetic can
be traced to each ganglion. The roots of the spinal nerves are not sepa-
rated by a ligamentum denticulatum, but pass obliquely downward and
outward, converging. The sympathetic is a small cord, passing along
the spine, behind the aorta, and forming a solar plexus around the
cceliac axis.

15

The dissection of the extremities, both anterior and posterior, pre-
sents very many points of importance. Of late years, from the many
interesting questions arising out of the subject of the origin of species,
it has become a point of extreme importance that comparisons should be
instituted between the development of similar structures in different
animals, or diverse parts of the same animal, in order that we may
arrive at correct ideas of homology. Now, inthe ostrich we have a bird
with terrestrial habits, and bearing a resemblance in the arrangements
of its muscles to the mammalian class of animals; consequently it is of
immense importance to have a correct idea of the position and nature of
the muscles in his limbs. The branch of comparative anatomy which
treats of muscles has been very much neglected of late, although there
are as interesting considerations and as difficult problems involved in
myology as in neurology or osteology.

The upper extremity, or wing, in the ostrich is very small, and per-
fectly incapable of flight; the prolonged humerus forms a very large
portion of it. We find in this limb, however, the homologues of most
of those muscles which are of use in those birds which are fitted for
aérial locomotion. Coraco-brachialis forms an elongated fleshy muscle,
arising from the outer third of the inferior edge of the coracoid bone,
about two inches from its sternal articulation, it passes downwards and
backwards, to be inserted into an oblique line on the inner side of the
humerus, running downwards as far as about four inches below the
head.

Biceps—a long, thin band—arises, by a distinct round tendon, from
the coracoid bone, above the coraco-brachialis, and also by a distinct slip
from that muscle. The fibres pass down straight, and are inserted by
a tendon, which runs on the surface of the muscle for a short distance,
into the tubercle on the inner side of the radius. This muscle is covered
by a large cephalic vein, which runs from the outer side of the fore-arm
to the inner side of the axilla, and terminates in the axillary vein.

Covering the outer surface of the foramen which exists between the
coracoid and clavicular apophyses, is a triangular fleshy mass, with its
base inwards. This muscle Professor Haughton has suggested, and
apparently with good reason, to be the second pectoral of birds. Its
fibres arise from the borders of this aperture, which it blocks up, and
run outwards, becoming tendinous. The tendon passes in a groove over
the head of the humerus, winding round a trochlear surface, to be in-
serted into the outer part of the great tuberosity. The function per-
formed by this muscle evidently seems to be the elevation of the wing.

A hurried glance at the combined coracoid bone and clavicle cannot
fail to suggest to the mind the appearance of the anterior part of an os
innominatum, of which the former represents the ischiatic segment, and.
the latter, the pubis. The resemblance is extremely striking between
the obturator foramen and this aperture in the bones of the scapular
arch. May we not, then, consider the muscle closing this as the ho-
motype of the obturator, mm the anterior extremity, and thus conclude
that the second pectoral in the fore is homotypical with the obturator
externus in the hinder limb? :

16

The subscapular muscle is divided into two portions: a superior,

small, triangular, passes from the thoracic aspect of the coracoid bone,
and upper part of the scapula, to be inserted into the inner tubercle, at
the upper extremity of the humerus. The inferior portion arises from
the posterior border of the scapula; the fibres run outwards, to be in-
serted by a twisted tendon below the last.

Deltoid—a triangular muscle—arises from the posterior border of
the scapula, behind the humeral joint, by a flat tendon; it passes down-
wards and outwards, becoming fleshy, and is inserted into the ridge on
the back of the humerus, as far down as to within three inches of the
humero-cubital articulation.

Teres minor passes from the border of the blade of the scapula to
the lowest point of the tubercle of the humerus. Extensor cubiti con-
sists of two heads—one long, arising from the lower border of the sca-
pula, between teres and deltoid; the second, or inner, from a ridge on
the inner side of the humerus, as far down as an inch from the cubital
joint; the two heads unite low down, and clothe the back of the hu-
merus, and are inserted into the olecranon process of the ulna and fascia.
Brachialis anticus arises from the lower half of the anterior surface of
the humerus, passes under the pronator teres, to be inserted into an
oblique ridge on the front of the ulna. Pronator teres runs from the

internal condyle to the outer side of the radius, and passes over the

radial artery.

Flexor digitorum communis arises from the anterior surface of the
ulna, as far down as the lower extremity of that bone. The fibres end
in small tendons, which are inserted into the second phalanx of all the
digits.

” Flexor carpi ulnaris passes from the inner condyle of the humerus,
and the external part of the ulna, to the pisiform bone of the carpus.
Supinator longus arises from a ridge above the outer condyle, and is in-
serted into the metacarpal bone of the thumb. The musculo-spiral
nerve runs between this muscle and the brachialis anticus. Supinator
brevis, beneath the last, runs from the outer condyle and external la-
teral ligament, to be inserted into the upper and outer part of the
radius.

Extensor carpi radialis arises from the posterior surface of the
radius, and runs to be inserted into the outer metacarpal bone.

Extensor digitorum communis passes from the external condyle into
the last phalanges of the inner digits.

Extensor carpi ‘ulnaris arises from the back of the outer condyle,
and from the posterior surface of the ulna, for its whole length, and is
inserted into the base of the outer metacarpal bone.

Indicator passes from the interosseous space, and the side of the ulna,
and ends in a tendon which passes to the index finger. There are two
interossei on the front of the metacarpal bones, and one on the dorsal
aspect. A small abductor minimi digiti runs from the pisiform bone to
the metacarpal bone of the third finger; and a still smaller abductor
pollicis is attached to the outer bones of the carpus, and inserted into

Jaf

the first phalanx. The small subclavian artery, about the size of a crow-
quill, runs between the clavicle and first rib, and so passes down to
nourish the upper extremity.

But, as the great characteristic endowment of the ostrich is its
enormous power of running, we find that the muscles of its hinder limbs
are those which are pre-eminent in point of development; these are
exposed when the integument and the subjacent strong fascia are raised.
Under the skin in the thigh, two large veins, an external, and an inter-
nal saphena, are traceable. Covering the whole of the posterior part of
the hip and thigh, an enormous, triangular, flat, fleshy muscle is brought
into view, which seems to consist of three parts—the upper third, or
tensor vaginee femoris, the middle, or gluteus maximus; the inferior, or
the depressor caudee ; the whole mass arises from the posterior edge of the
uium as far forwards as the commencement of the symphysis iliaca,
and as far backwards as the side of the tail. The tensor vagine femoris
runs forwards, downwards, and outwards, converging to form a flat
tendon, which passes over the anterior and external surface of the knee,
where it unites with the anterior and lateral heads of the gastrocnemius,
and partly is inserted into the head of the tibia along its anterior edge;
the middle third, or gluteus, is inserted along with the last, and by a
small musculo-tendinous slip unites with the vastus externus beneath.
The depressor caudee is hardly separable from the posterior border of the
gluteus maximus, and is inserted into the lowest border of the tendons
of the two upper portions.

On removing this enormous covering, the deeper muscles are exposed.
Sartorius—a square, thick mass—arises from the outer side of the upper
and anterior part of the ilium, and from the spines of the lumbar verte-

| bre; the fibres run downwards, forwards, and outwards, to be inserted in-

to the side of the ligamentum patelle, and the upper portion of the inner
condyle of the tibia, and by a fascial expansion to the inner condyle of the
femur. Gluteus medius—a triangular fan-shaped muscle—arising from
a large space on the ilium, almost the whole of its external surface as
far back as the acetabulum; the fibres converge, and run outwards to
form a flat tendon, which is inserted into a pit on the upper and outer
part of the great trochanter. The tendon passes over a bursa on the
summit of the trochanter, and is attached to the origin of the vastus
externus. The tendon of this muscle commences between two planes of
muscular fibre. Gluteeus minimus is a small pear-shaped muscle, arising
from the upper and anterior portion of the illum, superior and anterior
to the acetabulum ; its fibres converge, run backwards and outwards, and
are inserted into the anterior ridge at the root of the great trochanter,
posterior and inferior to the gluteus medius, and beneath a tendinous
arch, formed by the origin of the vastus externus.

Opponens quadrato- ‘femoris, or ilio-capsular, is a remarkable, well-
marked, triangular, fleshy slip, arising from the ilium, anterior and infe-
rior to elutzeus medius, and superior and anterior to the eluteus minimus;
the fibres run outwards, to be inserted into the same line as the last named
muscle, and are united to it by a tendinous slip. The nature of the homo-

R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. D

18

logy of this muscle does not appear at first sight very distinct; but it
seems to agree with the muscle described by Harrison as the ilio-capsular,
which rarely though occasionally occurs in man; and Dr. Wilson has
suggested to me that it may be the homotype in the hinder limb of the
supraspinatus in the upper extremity.

The gluteal artery, nerve, and vein, separate it from the gluteus
minimus, and pass directly backwards to supply the muscles of the hip.

Thlacus is a triangular muscle, arising from the part of the iliac bone
directly under the gluteus medius, and between the gluteus minimus
and opponens muscles; it passes downwards and outwards to be inserted
into the lower part of the neck of the femur and lesser trochanter, un-
der the crureus. The sciatic artery passes along with the sciatic nerve
downwards to form the popliteal, as the femoral artery 1s small, and only
supplies the front of the thigh. The femoral vein and artery are separated
by the crural nerve. Crureus—a large oval muscle—arises tendinous
and fleshy from the point of the great trochanter, and from the lower
two-thirds of the anterior surface of the shaft of the femur; the fibres
run forwards, and are inserted fleshy into the upper border of the patella
on the inner side, and by a tendinous expansion into the anterior edge
of the head of the tibia. Vastus internus muscle is composed of two
parts, a superficial and a deeper seated; the former arises from the pos-
terior and internal side of the femur, and from the linea aspera as far as
to within two inches of the condyle; the second portion arises from the
anterior and inner side of the bone, andis distinct from the former part,
which overlaps it; the fibres of both muscles unite below to form a
twisted tendon, which is inserted into the inner side of the head of the
tibia, into the inner edge of the patella and the ligamentum patelle.

Vastus externus is likewise divisible into two planes of fibres: the
superficial, strong, oval, fleshy and tendinous, arises from the outer sur-
face of the great trochanter, and from the upper part of the external
division of the linea aspera and the rough surface at the upper and outer
part of the femur for two inches and a half from the point of the tro-
chanter; the fibres pass downwards and forwards to form a flat tendon
which is inserted into the capsule of the knee, into the upper border of
the patella, and by a tendinous expansion into the external side of the
tubercle of the tibia; this tendon is connected to the origin of the gas-
trocnemius, and overlaps the tendons of the glutzeus medius and minimus.
The deeper plane of fibres arise from the ridge on the external surface
of the femur, and forms a fan-shaped tendon, which is best developed
along the posterior edge; a flat tendinous band passes from its deep
surface to the outer edge of the tubercle of the tibia, ranning downwards,
backwards, and outwards, along with the external lateral ligament, and
connected to the outer origins of the flexor muscles; the rest of it is
inserted, with the superficial part of the vastus, into the patella and
tubercle of the tibia. ae

Rectus femoris arises fleshy from the anterior spine on the iliac bone,
three inches in front of the acetabulum; it forms a strong oval belly,
which ends in a flat tendon, which soon becomes rounded, and passes

—_

1S)

over the anterior surface of the patella in a deep groove, which is directed
downwards and outwards, underneath the outer head of the gastroc-
nemius; it then passes underneath the vastus externus and biceps tendons,
becomes fleshy, and forms one of the origins of the flexor digitorum
magnus: the length of this whole muscle, with its lower belly, is five feet.

On the back of the thigh are arranged the following muscles :—

Biceps—alarge fleshy muscle—arises from all that part of the prolonged
inferior spine of the ilium as far forward as the acetabulum, and separated
from the inferior edge of the bone by the origin of the semimembranosus.
In the female a small slip existed, attaching it to the posterior surface of
the femur, which did not appear in the male. The fibres converge to a
strong round tendon, which passes through a pulley, formed by the outer
head of the gastrocnemius, and lined by a synovial membrane, and is
inserted into the tubercle on the middle of the fibula: this muscle forms
the external boundary of the popliteal space.

Semitendinosus—long, flat, and triangular—arises by two fleshy slips
from the extremity of the posterior inferior spine of the ilium, and from
the tuber ischii and the great sciatic ligament; the fibres converge, and
are inserted into the upper and back part of the inner side of the tibia
and tibial fascia; an accessory muscular slip connects this tendon with
the insertion of the adductor magnus and the shaft of the femur.

Semimembranosus arises from the inferior border of the posterior in-
ferior spine of the ilium, and from the border of the great sciatic
hgament; the fibres are inserted into the lesser trochanter of the femur,
and into a fascial line as far as the inner condyle. A slip from its origin
in the female was attached to the side of the caudal vertebre.

On the inner side of the thigh are arranged the following muscles :—

Obturator—a large, ovoidal, tendinous, and fleshy mass—arises from
both the inner and outer surface of the rami of the pubis and ischium ;
communicating through the obturator foramen ; all the fibres pass in the
direction of the long axis of the pelvis, converging towards the lesser
sciatic notch, which is almost entirely osseous, and is placed at the
junction of the ischium and ilium ; here it becomes tendinous, and passes
outwards and a little backward to be inserted into the outer and upper
part of the great trochanter. Its action is determined from the trochlear
surface of the notch or foramen over which it winds, which is invested
with synovial membrane ; within the pelvis it lies along the border of
the kidney.

Gemellus superior—flattish, small—arises from the anterior edge of
the lesser sciatic notch, and is inserted by a thin flat tendon into the
great trochanter in front of the obturator.

Gemellus inferior—smaller than the last—passes from the hinder
margin of the lesser sciatic notch to the trochanter, behind the obturator
tendon. These three muscles run in contact with the synovial mem-
brane of the hip, as the capsule is very imperfect beneath.

Pectineus—a small flattish muscle—arises fleshy from the upper fifth

of the ramus of the pubis, and from the pectineal eminence; the fibres

run forwards, downwards, and outwards, becoming tendinous, to be in-

20

serted into the external part of the upper extremity of the tibia, imme:

diately below the knee.

Gracilis arises by a flat tendon, about five inches long, from the
ramus of the ischium and sciatic igament; the fibres converge, and are
inserted below the knee into the inner edge of the tibia, below the con-
dyle, and into the fascia of the leg.

Adductor magnus arises fleshy from the posterior border of the
ramus of the ischium, internal to the origin of the semitendinosus. The
fibres pass downwards, forwards, and inwards, to be inserted into the
upper part of the condyloid pit of the femur.

Gastrocnemius—an enormously large fleshy mass, investing the back,
front, and sides of the leg—arises by four heads: one from the external
side of the patella and ligamentum patelle, as far down as the tubercle
of the tibia; the second springs from the external condyle of the
femur and external lateral ligament; a tendinous pulley passes across from
the upper part of the outer condyle, looping round to the external head,
and around this winds the biceps; the third head is attached to the deep
pit over the internal condyle; and the fourth, or external or largest head,
arises from the anterior and lateral aspects of the tubercle of the tibia,
the ligamentum patelle, and both patelle, also from the fibula by fascia,
for its whole length. All these masses unite, and end in a large flat
strong tendon, nearly two inches wide, which is inserted into the edges
of the metatarsal bone as far down as its lower third; this tendon winds
over the trochlear surface at the end of the tibia, forming a sheath for
the deeper tendons on the back of the metatarsus.

Tibialis anticus—long and thick—arises by two heads: one internal
fleshy, from the outer surface of the groove on the outside of the tubercle
of the tibia; the outer by a very strong round tendon from the articular
surface of the outer condyle; this soon becomes fleshy, three inches below
its origin, and unites with the former. The tendon passes to the ankle
under a distinct annular hgament, and splits into two parts for the pas-
sage of the extensor ungualis, each part being inserted into the lateral
ridges on the anterior aspect of the metatarsal bone. The deep origin
of this muscle is sheathed by the synovial membrane of the knee joint,
which it strengthens very considerably. The anterior tibial vessels and
nerves pass through the same sheath of the annular ligament, and the
anterior tibial nerve passes through the splitting of the tendon.

Extensor digitorum communis arises fleshy from the sharp ridge of

the anterior aspect of the tibia to five inches below the tubercle, and —

from the bony surface external to it; the fibres run to a strong round
tendon, which passes in front of the ankle, internal to the last, and
separated from it by a strong second annular ligament which binds it
down; the tendon passes downwards, and ends in a flat expansion, which,
at the metatarso-phalangeal joint, sends a slip into the proximal ex-
tremity of each of the phalanges.

Extensor unguis—a very delicate muscle—commences by a thin round
tendon at the front of the trochlea, at the lower extremity of the tibia,
close to the internal malleolus ; this tendon passes through the insertion

21

of the tibialis anticus, and ends in an extremely fine muscle, lying in a
groove in front of the tibia; this belly ends in a tendon seventeen inches
long, which passes under the extensor of the outer toe along the tendon of
the last named, to be inserted into the last phalanx of the inner toe.
The action of extension or elevation of the last phalanx and nail is facili-
tated by the prolongation upwards of the synovial membrane on the dor-
sum of the third phalanx.

Flexor digiti interni, arises by two heads—one from the outside of
the tubercle of the tibia, the other from the external lateral ligament of
the knee, separated from each other by the rectus tendon; these unite,
and end in a tendon which passes in a groove in the sheath behind the
tibio-metatarsal joint, and is inserted by two slips into the base of the
third phalanx of the inner toe; the deep flexor perforates its last por-
tion, and the superficial flexor is perforated by it; a sesamoid bone ex-
ists in the back of the metatarso-phalangeal joint, to which the retinacula
are attached.

Flexor digitum magnus begins also by two heads—the upper, fleshy,
from a deep pit above the condyles of the femur, in common with several
other muscles; the lower from the tendon of ie rectus, and external
lateral ligament, and from the back of the fibula; these heads unite to
form two fleshy bellies, detached above, but united below and behind
the ankle by the junction of their tendons, which pass in the sheath
behind the jomt, and here the united tendons are perforated by the
flexor externi digiti tendon. In passing down to the foot, the flexor digi-
torum tendon receives a slip from that of the gastrocnemius, at the me-
tatarso-phalangeal joint, and sends a slip into the sesamoid tubercle of
the former tendon; the tendon forms a sheath on the plantar surface
of the toe, and is inserted into the base of the second phalanx by two
slips.

Spee profundus digitorum is the deepest tendon in the foot; it
commences by two distinct fleshy masses—one from the pit in the back
of the condyle of the femur, and the other from the posterior aspect of
the tibia for its upper two-thirds; the tendons of the two are separate
as far as near the metatarso-phalangeal joint, where they unite, and are
inserted into the last phalanx of the great toe, and by a fine slip into
the last phalanx of the outer toe.

Flexor perforatus externi digiti arises by two heads—one from the pitin
the back ofthe femur by a common muscular origin; and the second from
the external lateral ligament of the knee; the tendon passes down the com-
mon groove behind the metatarso-phalangeal joint, where it ends by
three slips—one into the proximal phalanx of the lower toe; the two
others are separated by the slip of the fiexor profundus; and the outer is
inserted into the base of the second phalanx, im common with the fore-
mentioned extensor slip of the little toe; the third passes to the base of
_ the third phalanx.

Interosseus—an extremely delicate muscle—arises from the whole
length of the interosseus groove, the two heads being separated at their
origin by the interosseus artery piercing the bone; the tendon is flat

22

and ribbonlike, and passes over the spur on the outer condyle of the
metatarsus, and is inserted into the outer side of the base of the first
phalanx of the outer toe; a few oblique fibres on the opposite side of the
bone represent the dorsal interosseus muscle.

Popliteus—a small, triangular muscle, having the base at the tibia,
and the apex upwards and outwards—arises tendinous from the head of
the fibula; the fibres pass downwards and inwards, to be inserted into
the upper part of the tibia, as far as the internal lateral ligament. The
popliteeal vein separates it from the back of the fibula, and the artery
and nerve lie superficial.

The articulations of the lower extremity present many points of
mechanical importance. The first, or the hip, is an enarthrosis, sur-
rounded by a capsule, loose, expanding inferiorly ; the synovial mem-
brane spreads over the great trochanter; a strong transverse band passes
from the border of the lesser sciatic notch to the upper and posterior
edge of the acetabulum, under which the articular vessels pass to the
joint. An extremely strong ligamentum teres passes downwards, out-
wards, and forwards, from the lower border of the cotyloid cavity, and
is inserted into the upper part of a depression on the head of the femur,
near which it is cylindrical ; at its origin it is flattish and expanded ;
a cotyloid ligament protects the superior and anterior edge of the joint ;
thick and cartilaginous above, thin and membranous below and in
front. The bottom of the cavity is separated from the air cells by a
membrane consisting of fibres running downwards and forwards, and
some radiating.

The knee is a ginglymus, formed by the femur, patella, tibia, and
fibula.

The ligaments are: internal lateral, coffin-shaped, from the inner
condyle, running downwards and backwards to the inner side of the
popliteus. ‘The most posterior fibres arise entirely from the internal
semilunar cartilage, which they assist in fixing. The patella is large,
flattish, made of two parts, the external surface larger, the inner smaller
and more cartilaginous; the quadriceps is inserted into its upper border,
and from its lower edge passes off on its inner side a large flat ligament,
whose fibres, stretched over the Haversian masses of fat, converge, to be
inserted into the upper edge of the tibia on the inner edge of the
tubercle.

From the lower border of the true patella to the upper surface of
the tubercle of the tibia extends a long, prismatic, bony column, united
above to the patella by strong fibres, and resting below on the tubercle,
with which it articulates by a strong ligament and a small synovial
membrane. This seems to be properly an ossified ligamentum patelle
rather than a true second patella.

On the outer side. of the joint there is a superficial hgament, which
forms an origin for the long flexor muscles, and is attached above to the
front of the outer condyle of the femur, and below is united to the origin
of the before-named muscles. Some parts of it are inserted into the
semilunar cartilage, and others pass downward, and slightly backward,

23

to be inserted into a ridge on the side of the fibula. Beneath this a
deeper ligament runs from the posterior portion of the outer condyle,
downwards and backwards, to the anterior aspect of the head of the
fibula; and the most anterior fibres are attached to the external semi-
lunar cartilage. A synovial ligament, composed of synovial membrane,
and containing a few blood-vessels, runs from the Haversian mass of fat
to the front of the intercondyloid notch of the femur. Alar ligaments
are two thin folds of the same structure, which lie on either side of the
patella, and are inserted into the upper part of the middle ridge on that
bone. Their free borders are directed inwards, towards the mesial line
of the jot. The outer is much less distinct than the inner. ‘The an-
terior crucial ligament arises from the inner side of the outer condyle,
far back. It passes downwards, forwards, and inwards; and is inserted
by two slips into the anterior cornu of the internal semilunar cartilage,
and into the inner and anterior border of the internal condyle of the
tibia. The posterior crucial runs from the posterior and superior part
of the deep pit between the condyles of the femur, downwards and for-
wards, to be inserted into the spine of the tibia on the outer side of the
posterior cornu of the internal semicircular cartilage, sending a small
slip into the inner edge of the outer cartilage. There are two of these
latter bodies—one semilunar, internal, with a thick outer rim, attached
by its anterior cornu to the head of the tibia and transverse ligament,
and by its posterior to the back of the spine of the tibia, and by a strong
slip that passes behind the posterior crucial into the inner surface of the
outer condyle of the femur. The external is larger, and forms a com-
plete deep cup for the outer condyle. Its lower surface is irregular, to
suit the upper part of the tibia and fibula, especially in front; it is con-
nected to the internal by a broad and flat transverse ligament in front
of the anterior crucial, and behind the Haversian mass of fat. Beneath
the transverse ligament lies another broad flat band, from the front of
the internal condyle of the tibia to the lower surface of the external
semilunar cartilage. ‘This body is connected to the anterior edge of the
fibula by two small flat bands, one above the other, the lower being the
larger, and both running backwards and outwards; behind, it is con-
nected to the posterior edge of the head of the fibula by a small trans-
verse slip.

The superior tibio-peronzeal ligament passes from the outer and an-
terior part of the head of the tibia to the inner aspect of the head of the
fibula, underneath the outer semilunar cartilage. An inferior ligament
unites these bones below.

The chief agent in the joint to limit rotation consists of the strong
tendon of the long extensors, which, arising from the external condyle
of the femur, passes along the outer side of the tibial tubercle through
the joint, enclosed in a fold of synovial membrane. ‘The origin of the
flexors externally likewise is a strong protective to the articulation. If
the jomt be suspended, it naturally rotates outwards. ‘The anterior
erucial is far stronger than the posterior. The strong prismatic ossified
| ligamentum patelle anteriorly limits flexion forwards. This is con-

_

24

nected above to the true patella, is about two inches and a half long,
and below is articulated with the upper surface of the tubercle of the
tibia, a synovial sac intervening between the two bones. The Haversian
gland is large, and contains cells of fluid fat.

The tibio-metatarsal jot is also ginglymoid in structure, and the
two bones are united by the following ligaments :—

Internal lateral arises from the upper and back part of the promi-
nence on the inner side of the lower end of the tibia. It passes down-
wards and forwards, to be inserted into the internal lateral ridge on the
metatarsus for about four inches. The deep internal lateral is anterior
to the last, and passes from the deep pit on the inner side of the tibia,
downwards and forwards, to the ner edge of the front of the meta-
tarsus. This ligament is twisted in the extended position, and straight-
ened as the limb becomes flexed. As this band slips over a prominent
ridge on the edge of the inner side of the tibia, it gives a spring to the
joint. The superficial external lateral ligament runs from the upper and
anterior part of the outer side of the tibia, downwards and backwards,
expanding, to be inserted into the posterior part of the outer edge of the
metatarsus. The deep external lateral hgament arises in a deep pit on
the outer side of the external malleolus, an inch below the last. It
passes downwards and forwards, expanding, to be attached to the an-
terior part of the metatarsus. A distinct posterior ligament exists,
covered by the great tendons lying in their sheath, which is attached
to the upper border of the metatarsus by strong fibrous slips. In front,
a convex fibrocartilaginous anterior ligament covers the joint, running
from the tibia to the metatarsus, fibrous on either side, and cartilaginous
in the centre, where it sends septa in between the various tendons.

Posteriorly and externally a rhomboidal inter-articular cartilage is
observable, which is retained in its place by two bands—one anterior,
passing forwards, semilunar in shape, and attached to the front of the
metatarsus; another running backwards, shorter, and attached to the
posterior part of the notch between the condyles of the bone. This acts
in preventing over-extension of the jomt, and in increasing its elas-
ticity.

Respecting the osseous anatomy of the ostrich there are no novel
points of importance observable in either of our specimens. In the
pelvic arch the principal characteristic seems to be the prolongation into
lines of those parts which in most other animals are represented by
points, as is exemplified in the posterior inferior iliac spine, which is
described in the Appendix to ‘“‘'Todd’s Cyclopedia” as a separate sacro-
iliac element; also in the elongation of the rami of the ischium and
pubis. The lesser sciatic notch is also closed below and behind by a
bony connecting band between the ischiatic spine and tuberosity, so as
to be converted into a foramen through which the obturator tendon
winds.

25

G. C. Garnett, M. A., read the following paper on Ancient Galleys ;
and presented a collection of drawings and photographs to illustrate
his paper :—

On Ancrent GALLEYS.

Tue subject of ancient Galleys, which I have the honour to bring before
your notice this evening, is a theme, I believe, which has often engaged
the attention of many learned societies, both in our own country andin
those parts of the Continent which are most notable to us for their anti-
quarian and literary researches.

Indeed, to trace the subject from the infancy of naval art would, I
believe, be vain; for it is manifest that long before any detailed accounts
were written, or at least before our preserved records, a system of naval
architecture existed, which was far more complicated in its nature than
either the hollow boats from trees (uovcEv\a) or rafts joined with
leather thongs (axeécav).

The first vessel of any importance we read of is the Argo, which we
know had fifty oars, twenty-five on each side; and, taking a space of
four feet as a medium distance between the rowers, we have a length of
100 feet; but in addition to this was the curvature of the bow and
stern—a part of the vessel in which Trajan’s column exhibits no rowers
or ports—and which curve would most probably be not less than seven
feet, which would give a length of 114 feet, a size of vessel out of keep-
ing with the mechanical arts of the period.

In addition to this, we know that some were shaped sharp at both
ends—in other words, the bow and stern were alike; whence they
are called vies audirpupvor. Now, it seems highly probable that these
vessels were used only for the purpose of river navigation, as their great
length would be of inconvenience inturning. These, however, must not
be confounded with the true naves longe, a much more recent inven-
tion—vessels which had a true bow and stern. To Minerva, the happy
mother of the arts and sciences, is ascribed the origin of the naval art;
but at what period the idea first had birth is a question of much contro-
versy.

soe the Homeric poems seem a fit starting point for such an in-
quiry; yet no source should be disregarded which can afford any infor-
mation on the subject, and in the Archipelago many vessels are still
seen bearing many of the characteristics described by Homer. It was
after the Punic war, or 490 A. U. C., however, before the Romans can
be said to have possessed any ships of magnitude. They were divided
into two classes—merchantmen, ‘‘ é\«aées,” and “ vijes,”’ ships of war.
These ‘‘ vijes’’ were, it is calculated, atleast eight times their breadth in
length; they were at first ‘‘ uniremes,”’ but afterwards were ‘‘triremes”’—
to a great extent, no doubt, a generic appellation to all vessels of war,
just as we apply the term “‘liners” to vessels of 60, 78, 90, or 100 guns.

The exact form of the original triremes seems doubtful. Those on
the ‘‘Columna Rostrata” of Duilius are in a great measure, no doubt,
offsprings of the sculptor’s imagination. M. Dupuis Delome, the

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. E

26

‘constructor of the ‘‘ French Imperial Marine’’ investigated this subject,
in order to arrive at a correct model for the French Imperial Galley,
lately built at Clichy. M. Jal, the celebrated naval authority, is of
opinion that triremes were constructed principally with straight decks—
an innovation, certainly, on the more generally received idea of the decks
being considerably curved in form. The kinds of woods used were va-
rious. The ‘‘ornus,”’ a kind of wild ash, and the ilex, or wild oak, were
employed to a great extent; the fir was also used —

‘‘ Nascitur et casus abies visura marinos.”

The Romans were most particular in the wood being dry and seasoned
for the purpose. Oars were first used, and indeed used in almost all
cases, in the “triremes,” sails being left for vessels of mercantile use.
The ‘‘triremes’” possessed, indeed, according to Homer, a true deck;
for you cannot allow a hatchway unless you have a deck—

Nywy ixp’ exwxeTo pakpa BiBacOwv—
and again,

—eEls ix pla yn os eBawve

IIpwpys
Mr. Howell, indeed, holds these é«p/a vynos to have been the seats or
benches upon which the rowers sat; but in my opinion they were
merely the raised steps, or separate flights, seen in many models and
drawings, and existing in the Trinity College model. These flights were
invariably placed at the ends of the Galley, as we place the forecastle and
quarter-deck. Indeed, Thucydides says they had no decks—

999 io A lat ’ ¥
ove’ av Ta TOla KaTaPpaKta €XoVTAsS.

‘‘ Neither had they as yet any covered nor decked ships,” which clearly
shows the centre of the Galley to have been open. Indeed, unless this was
granted, it is impossible to find out how the men that were rowing could
have breathed, packed as they were in such numbers, the oar ports being
so small as to afford no benefit in that way to them.

The fitting of the ancient Galley which has changed least in form
from its original design is the ‘“‘anchor.”’ It was first one-fluked, é7epo-
zomos; but afterwards du@cBoros, or double-fluked, was used. In its
original form it possessed no upper bar or arm, but merely a shaft and
ring. But the most formidable of all the parts of the ancient triremes
was undoubtedly the prow, or beak, which was generally of brass. We
read, indeed, in the life of Themistocles, that when Ariamenes, ad-
miral to Xerxes—a good man—attacked Themistocles, both ships, meet-
ing stem to stem, and striking each other, their sharp stems, armed
with brass, pierced, so indeed that they were fastened together, and
could not be separated.

And again, in the Life of Lucullus, we read that, in the Bay of
Tenedos, Neoptolemus, the chief officer in command of the Galleys
belonging to Mithridates, was attacked by Lucullus, who was on board
a Galley of Rhodes, commanded by Demagoras, an expert seaman, whom

© 27

when Neoptolemus saw he commanded the master to bear down upon
him with all imaginable force; but Demagoras, fearing the beak and
massive stem of the admiral’s Galley, refused to meet him ahead ; where-
fore, tacking about, he received him astern, in which part, though in-
deed the shock was very great, he suffered no damage.

Now, this plainly shows that the curvature of the stern must have
been at a considerable angle to the water, and that the stem or beak ran
as if it were in and under the counter of the Galley. This hollow in
the stern was left, no doubt, for the action of the rudder.

The ancients seem to have had no limit to the size of these Galleys.
The largest we read of was that of Ptolemy Philopator. This enormous
- vessel was merely, it has been conjectured, built for show: she had 40
banks of oars ; she was 280 cubits in length, about 420 feet,—the length
of the iron-plated frigates, Minotaur and Achilles.

The subject of frequent dispute is, how these Galleys have been
rowed or put in motion. M. Le Roy, in his ‘Sur la Marine des An-
ciens” (Academie des Inscriptions), M. Jal, in his ‘‘ Archeologie Navale,”’
and others of a later period, have made investigations into this subject.

One of the chief obstacles to the settlement of this question is the
want of any accurate drawing or bronze existing by which the ¢nterior
of the hull could be seen, with the arrangement of the seats. Few
models, indeed, exist. There is one in the Museum of Trinity College,
which I consider a most important model. It is a monocrota, or uni-
reme; the boar’s head, the distinguishing feature of the Roman trieremes,
points to its Roman origin. Its length is 9 feet 7 inches ; breadth, 3 feet
4 inches; and depth, 1 foot 5 nches—of which the underneath is a repre-
sentation :—

———
————

iii <u

Witz

Wn hy egy
— RRS Se Seater se! }

How it came into the possession of Trinity College is amystery. Neither
in Dr. Stokes’ nor in Dr. Ball’s time (both Curators of the Museum), did
any circumstance arise to throw light on this most interesting model’s
origin.

There is another in the Campaggio at Rome, and some marbles at
Naples, in the Museo Borbonico, while a few solitary frescoes have been
discovered at Pompeii, in an injured state.—See Zahn and Ternité.

Before I proceed to state the various theories connected with the
rowing, I must acknowledge the great kindness of M. Auguste Jal, the
eminent historiographer of the French navy, who addressed the follow-
ing letter to me, through the Consul-General of France for Ireland,
Mons. George Livio. It is concerning the Galley lately constructed at

25: *

Clichy, on the Seine, for the Emperor of the French, and a photograph
of which will be found in the volume of “ Ancient Galleys from the
Antique,” presented by me to the Royal Irish Academy.

To G. G. Pattison, Esq., of the Edinburgh Academy, and George
Hill, Esq., of the Royal Antiquarian Society of Scotland, I beg to return
my best thanks.

The following is a copy of M. Jal’s letter :—
“ Paris, 24 Mars, 1864.

‘‘ Monsizur,—La galére impériale-triréme construite prés de Paris
est 2 Cherbourg d’ou elle ne sortira probablement point. L’Empereur
n’en a point fait graver les détails et il n’en existe pas de reproduction
photographique, qui au reste n’aurait point dintérét dans la question
dont il s’agit parce qu’elle montrerait seulement l’extérieur et que ce
sont les dispositions intérieures qu’1l importe de connaitre pour se faire
une idée exacte de la position et de organisation des rames.

‘« Mais si aucun portrait ne peut étre offert au savant Irlandais qui
veut s’occuper des navires a rames de l’antiquité, il existe un petit livre
ou toutes les questions qui touchent a la construction des galéres sont
traitées avec tout le soin dont lauteur est capable, livre qui fut publié
par ordre de |’Empereur et a ses frais. C’est celui qui a été consulté
lorsque sa Majesté a voulu que M* Dupuy de Lome construisit un
navire a trois rangs de Rames. II est intitulé :—

“« La flotte de César, §é¢. Par Auguste Jal.

“Tl a été publié en 1860 chez Didot, rue Jacob, 56. Je conseille au
membre de l Académie d’Ivlande qui fait son étude d’une question qui
m’a long-temps occupé et dont je ne me flatte point d’avoir résolu
toutes les difficultés, de se procurer le petit volume ou 11 trouvera mon
Virgilius nauticus a la suite du mémoire sur la flotte de César, et une
note sur un Bélier dont se servaient les anciens.

‘“‘ La connaissance que j’ai pu acquérir des choses de l’antiquité, je
la dois a la longue étude que j’ai faite des marines obscures du moyen
age, sur lesquelles j’ai publié en 1840 deux volumes intitulés: Arche-
ologie navale. Ce travail est bien connu en Angleterre ou plusieurs
auteurs l’ont cité et mis a profit.

‘“‘ Les questions qui intéressent les marines anciennes sont de celles
qui veulent de longues études; bien des systémes ont été proposés
qui venant d’hommes étrangers ala marine pratique ne sont point accep-
tables pour nous dont l’éducation a été celle du matelot et de lofficier.
Il faut se défier beaucoup des travaux des savans qui ont examiné
seulement les monumens et les textes, mais qui n’ont pu les voir avec
les lunettes du marin.

‘Si javais un exemplaire de Ja flotte de César jaurais Vhonneur
de vous l’adresser, mais je n’en ai plus. Les libraires de Dublin le feront
venir, et votre ami aura la tout ce que j’ai su de la marine antique, et

29

malheureusement c’est beaucoup moins considérable que je ne Vaurais
voulu.:
‘‘J’ai ’honneur d’ étre, Monsieur,
‘« Votre serviteur trés humble,
CA. JaL.

“< Le volume que j’ai V’honneur de vous signaler est orné de gravures,
et 4 la page 156 se trouve une coupe de la triréme avec ses avirons, qui
fera fort bien comprendre ce qui a été exécuté dans la construction de
la triréme impériale, et qui a trés bien réussi,—car la trireme marchait
trés bien, et elle eit marché mieux encore siles rameurs avaient été de
ces remiges Romains, des gens que l’habitude de vivre sous et au soleil,
et un long usage des rames rendaient si forts et si capables de longues
fatigues. Nos matelots de Cherbourg étaient bons et solides, mais quelle
différence avec ceux qui maniaient la rame sur la mer Ionienne et sur
les cotes de Carthage !”

By the kindness of a friend at Cherbourg, I was enabled to procure
a photograph of the French Galley for the Academy, an outline of which
is here given, and which has been engraved in the “ Illustrated London
News :’—

ty

77 l Wii

att,

pie
I
; wf yy

LORSTSSODCOOT See

yuye uve POUT 2 llalah

ue

Feeney

Up to the present time, no fewer than six theories concerning the
rowers have been put forward.
The first solution of the question has been founded on a passage from
the Emperor Leo, and quoted by Morisotus, in his ‘‘Orbis Maritimus :’’—
‘Every ship must have its due length,
Having two ranks of oars, the one higher than the other.”

The difficulty in this case is manifestly, assuming one range of oars
higher than the other, to have been one perpendicularly over the other—
a system totally impracticable.

30

The second theory has been maintained by Stewechius and Castilo-
nius, namely, that the oars were in a broken line—three together, and
then a space intervening, and then three again; yet all on the same
line. Now, this would entail a great loss of power, and gain no ad-
vantage.

The third is that of Sir Henry Saville:—That the oars rose at an
angle of 50° to the deck of the vessel, yet having only one bank of oars,
each series of steps containing a rower. The objection to this theory
seems to be the amount of beam not being in keeping with the term
‘‘naves longe,’’ which were eight times as long as broad.

Vossius’ theory is the fourth, that three men pulled at the same oar;
yet in a zevtyKov7opos, if this theory is held, 100 men must have stood
across the beam of the Galley ; and supposing only 50 stood so, and the
oars not to be in the same parts of the Galley on each side, we have 8
times 50 (giving each man a foot to stand on), 400 feet, as the extreme
length of the rowing part of the Galley, without counting bow and stern
curves—a length utterly absurd.

The fifth theory is that of Le Roy, and is certainly a step in the
right direction, viz. that the oars were in an oblique line, yet one above,
or higher than the other, in a checquer form, but only one man to each

oar—a fact irreconcileable with the length of the oars used, 57 feet in —

Ptolemy’s, for instance, and the weight of lead attached to it.

The sixth and last theory I hold to be the true one: it 1s that of
General Melville,—that the ancient Galleys had a gallery extending
round their sides, in which the rowers sat, at an angle of 45° or 50° to
the water’s edge. That this gallery exists to a great extent in the
Venetian Galleys we know; and that more than one used the oar we
learn from Suetonius, who says that the Liburne of Caligula had ten
men to the oar, and that of Caius five.

Montfaucon adds the following in defence of his theory of the Galleys
possessing three banks of oars:—‘‘ Supra majorum nauium carinam
latera in tres partes erant diuisa, quarum inferior, Oadauos, media
Cvy.a, Superior Opaves uocabatur; unde remiges quoque diuersa sortie-
bantur nomina. In inferiori enim gradu qui stabant, eos Thalamitas,
in medio Zygitas et in gradu superiori qui collocati erant eos Thranitas
uocabant.”’

Some indeed hold the word “‘ trireme” to have been a generic name
for war vessels of all sizes; that it is exceedingly improbable that more
than three rows of oars were ever in use; and that the words ‘‘ hexi-
remes,”’ ‘‘ quinqueremes,’’ &c., were more applied to the size of the vessel
than the number of oars; that no vessel of five ranks of oars, one over
the other, could be propelled, I believe certain ; that the number of men
to each oar varied with the size and weight of the oar, I think also to be
an indisputable fact.

Dr. Smith says that the thalamites were placed immediately under
the thranites, but covered by the platform or gangway on which the
thranites sat. That they did not interfere with each other is indeed
manifest from Dr. Smith’s experiment, designed by himself, which he

dl

explains in the following terms :—‘‘ I cut two oar-ports to represent the
row-locks of the zugites, at a distance of 3 feet 6 inches from centre to
centre, which is the distance allowed in the launches of a man of war,
which are pulled ‘ double-banked,’ or with two rowers on each bench, as
in the ancient Galleys; and I found that by cutting an oar-port fourteen
inches below those of the upper tier, and about one-third of their hori-
zontal distance, reckoning from bow and stern, a rower seated on the
deck, and rowing in the lower port, was not interfered with by the rowers
seated on benches nearer the centre of the vessel, and rowing in the
upper oar-ports.’’ Whether, indeed, the height of the thranites’ oars
was only five feet from the water, is still an open question. Dr. Smith,
it must be confessed, at least deserves the warm thanks of the anti-
quarian for taking such a deep interest as he has done in the subject,
and aided his great knowledge of these various theories by such a highly
interesting and valuable experiment.

The fact of the imperial trireme having been rowed with compa-
rative ease from Clichy to Cherbourg, I think, must also be a conclusive
argument against the theory of Sir H. Saville, of only one row of oars
existing.

Perhaps, of all the various theories concerning the manner of rowing
these Galleys, that of General Melville is open to the least objections;
the extended gallery would give facility for using the oars, and its
being inclined at an angle of 45° to the water’s edge would render the
height of the uppermost tier within the bounds of probability. That
more than one row, or tier of oars, existed, indeed is evident from the
fact, that when two Galleys met in conflict, the oars of the different tiers
could be suspended from the outside of the ports, which would have been
impossible if they reached within the Galley more than a certain dis-
tance, which a great number of hands or rowers would necessitate. Dr.
Leonhard Schmitz tells us, that more than three ranks of oars were not
in construction in Greece till about the year 400 B. C., when Dionysius,
the tyrant of Syracuse, who bestowed the greatest care upon his navy,
first built tetpipecs, the model of which class of Galley is ascribed to the
Carthaginians. The e£ypecs are ascribed by Polybius to the Syracusans—
a fact also mentioned by Aslan.

That when these vessels exceeded a certain size they were practi-
eally of novalue for war purposes, 1s indeed evident from their description.
Montfaucon, for instance, describes at length the great ship built for
Hiero by Archias, which consumed as much timber in her construction
as would have sufficed for sixty Galleys of the trireme class. This wood
was brought from Mount Etna, Italy, Sicily, Spain, and the Rhone.
It took three hundred skilled artizans six months to complete her; and,
in order to launch her, they had to invent a machine called a helix.
Yet, like Ptolemy’s great ship, she was considered a mere hulk upon the
water, that was indeed of but little use for any effective purpose.

In conclusion, the rate of these Galleys is not very accurately known.
Admiral Beecher, however, is of opinion that a speed of seven miles per
hour was the average ; and J. Smith, Esq., F. R. 8., in his ‘‘ Shipwreck of

o2

St. Paul,’’ mentions that Adrian set sail about daybreak, and at noon had
obtained a distance of 500 stadia,—xat yiOopev mpo THs peonpBplas
ortadiovs mielovas 4 wevtaxocdouvs, or more than fifty geographical
miles—a speed of at least eight miles per hour.

That, indeed, the subject of Ancient Galleys is of great interest, and
one fraught with many difficulties, I think will be acknowledged by
_ every classical student. In the various remarks concerning the manner
of rowing these ships, I have not pretended to solve the difficulties; but
rather to place in a concentrated form the various theories of the most
eminent writers on this subject.

The Secretary of the Academy read a paper, by Lord pr Ros (com-
municated through the President)—

On THE Construction oF ANCIENT GALLEYS, AND THE ARRANGEMENT
OF THEIR Oars AnD Rowers.

Tere are few subjects which have attracted more notice and discussion
among classical students, than the details of the navigation of the Greeks
and Romans; and this matter seems doubly interesting, from the proba-
bility that in any future naval warfare, we may see practised (though
with far more terrible and destructive effect) by the steam rams of late
invention, the very same manceuvre of charging ‘‘ prow to prow” which
we read of at Actium and other great sea fights of ancient times.

Propelling by steam, whether by the use of paddle-wheels or screws,
brings back, in truth, after the lapse of so many hundred years, the great
principles of naval warfare to several of the same conditions which arose
from the propulsion by oars; and, indeed, it is only of late years that
the speed of steam vessels has been brought to exceed so vastly that of
the row Galleys of former times.

tn that amusing book, Smollett’s “‘ Travels in Italy,” about the year
1760, he describes the mode of coasting from Spezzia to Nice by passage
boats, rowed with oars, as by no means a tedious way of travelling,
when favoured with tolerably smooth water ; and the writer of this Paper
recollects, when on a military mission to the Black Sea, in 1835, that
the ‘‘ Pluto,” aman-of-war paddle steamer, in which he traversed that sea
both from E.to W. and from N.toS., took six days for the former, and
three for the latter passage ; which is the very time mentioned by Strabo
as occupied by a Galley of his day in performing her z\ods of those very
same distances in the Black Sea.

It must be mentioned, however, that the ‘‘ Pluto’ was a gun brig con-
verted into a steamer, and of such inferior quality, that, when going
at her best speed, seven or eight knots was all she could accomplish.
Now, there is no doubt but a Greek or Roman Galley could fully
perform that rate, and even more, for short distances, and in smooth
water. But to attain any rapid speed with oars, it is scarce necessary
to say that the rowers must have good room, and scope for the stretch
of arm and play of every muscle. A cramped position, or an ill-balanced

oar, especially if heavy overboard, and without the proper proportion of
leverage from the handle to the vessel’s side, will very soon fatigue and
cripple the stoutest and most expert oarsman.

In accepting, therefore, any theory as to the arrangement of the
rowers and rowing benches of the ancient Galleys, we must never lose
sight of certain conditions, familiar to all who are accustomed to the
uses and application of the oar.

In the first place, we will consider the length of oar which can be
used with the best effect by a single individual.

The most approved length in the present day for rowing those nume-
rous matches which are daily occurring during the summer months in
every part of Great Britain (for there is hardly a creek large enough to
float a boat where you will not find a rowing match advertised once or
oftener every year), the most approved length of the oar is from 12 to
13 feet. In some sea-shore matches, oars may be found of 15 or 16 feet;
but that is quite the limit to which the length ofa ‘‘ match” oar is car-
ried in the present day.

The proportion overboard and inboard (being the leverage exercised
in drawing the oar through the water) is the next consideration ; and it
is generally held by good oarsmen that the oar should be about twice
and a half as long overboard as it is inboard—that is to say, if the oar
be 3 ft. 6 in. inboard, there should be a length beyond the rowlock of
8 ft. 9 in. outside the boat.

At the Great Exhibition, some oars, from America, were shown, of
about 40 feet in length, and we see oars nearly as long used in the Thames’
coal lighters; but these are only used in guiding the craftin the stream,
and the strongest man could not move them fast enough for propelling
even an empty lighter through the water faster than one mile an hour.
Gun brigs were formerly provided, by the regulations of the navy,
with a few sweeps, of 36 feet long; but these were only used for an
occasional effort to move the vessel a short distance, and in dead calms—
quite a different thing from regular “‘ rowing.” In fact, it may be safely
asserted that 16 feet is the very longest oar that can be applied to rapid
motion by a single rower. But if we admit the theory of the trireme
haying three men to each oar, there is no doubt but that oars of 26 or
28 feet long may have been used by them.

It is the manner in which these oars were placed that we have now
to consider, reconciling, if possible, the practical use of the oar with the
theories which have been set up as to the terms ‘‘ trireme,” “ quinque-
reme,” &c., so constantly occurring in the ancient historians, and so va-
riously explained by their translators and critics.

Many of these have, in their ignorance of maritime detail, adopted
the notion that a trireme had three rows of oars, worked each by one
rower, and that the transtra, or benches, were one over the other; in other
words, that a trireme was a sort of three-decker, only of oars instead of
guns.

Now, as the very lowest height in which a man could sit in a rowing
position is 4 ft. 6 in., and as the lowest height of the lowest range of oars

B. I. A. PROC.—-VOL. IX. F

34

ina sea-going Galley, must be about 2 feet from the water (see Diagram A),

a trireme, thus constructed, would present a side of 13 feet high, or there-
_ abouts, above the surface of the water,—far beyond what can be allowed,
with any probability, for any vessel impelled by oars. Indeed, this is as
high out of water as our old thirty-six-gun frigates, and such a vessel
could have no stability without such a draught of water and weight of
ballast as must entirely unfit her for propulsion by oars. To haul her
up on the shore (as we know they hauled up the Galleys), would have
been utterly impossible.

DIAGRAM A.

Height out of Water, 13 feet.

Scale, ~;th of an inch to a foot.

Here, it may be well to call attention to the remarkable fact, that
nowhere in the classical authors can any mention be found of the use of
ballast for their Galleys,—a fact which shows how entirely the ancients
considered sails as a mere adjunct to the use of the oars, ballast being as
obstructive to the requirements of a vessel propelled by oars as it is ne-
cessary to a vessel which depends upon sails for her propulsion, as well
as for her stability and safety.

It may be said, in answer to this, that Virgil, in the Fourth Georgic,
does allude, by the term ‘‘ saburra,”’ to ballast, when he describes the bee
as taking up a small weight to steady itself in its flight; but it is evident he
is alluding to light skiffs, used in fishing, which took sand on board to
steady them, and not to large war Galleys, which, if ballasted, could
neither row fast, nor be hauled up on the beach, as we know was their
frequent custom.

There is another point connected with the absence of ballast in the
ancient Galleys: it explains, what otherwise seems so strange, ‘that
they never attempted what is termed beating to windward,” but always
used oars to go against the wind, and only hoisted the sail to run before
it. In fact we find, both in Homer and Virgil’s description of sea
storms, that the approach of bad weather was the signal for striking
sail, and taking to the oars,—very different from the seamanship of
these days.

/fneas, when narrating the storm in which his fleet had been caught,
and tossed in danger and darkness for three days, tells Dido, that on

35

getting a glimpse of land, ‘‘ remis incumbimus,”’ having previously low-
ered their sails,—showing that it was the oar, and not the sail, on which
they put their reliance in time of danger and difficulty.

Beautiful and picturesque as is Virgil in his descriptions of ves-
sels caught in a storm at sea, a very cursory comparison must show
the observant student, that Virgil possessed little of that practical
knowledge of vessels and seamanship, which we find in Homer. Virgil
describes his storm with all the fire and grandeur of poetry, but Ho-
mer adds considerable practical knowledge of maritime details to his
sublime powers of painting the “‘ wonders of the deep,” as seen and felt
by those ‘‘ who go down to the sea in ships ;”’ witness his admirable de-
scription in the ‘‘ Odyssey”’ of the way in which Ulysses managed to rig
up a sail, and contrive a steerage for his raft, when he escaped going to
the bottom with his vessel. It is just the account which a thorough
seaman of our time would give of such an adventure, and is as intelli-
gible to a Torbay fisherman as to an educated student, perhaps in many
cases much more so. And here occurs the consideration of a most im-
portant feature in ancient seamanship,—the invariable use of a steering
oar or paddle instead of the rudder, which last contrivance we can trace
back to the ships of the Norman and Danish sea kings, but not to clas-
sical times,

It is clear that the ‘‘ steering oar,’’ or ‘“‘ gubernaculum,”’ was not
attached to the vessel’s stern, but independent of it... . . ‘‘ Guberna-
clum multa vi forte revulsum precipitans traxi mecum’’ is the descrip-
tion (and most animated and spirited it is) of the means by which
Palinurus tells ANneas, in the Shades, that he escaped drowning, when
knocked overboard by the fraud of Somnus—showing that he was
steering exactly as the coxswain of a whale boat does at the present
time, which is done by a skilful turn and pressure of the oar on the
quarter of the boat, and not by any fixed machine of the nature of a
modern rudder.

The number of rowers for a trireme in the Punic wars was estimated
at 300. Now, taking the length of the Galley to be about 120 feet,
and allowing some space forward and aft, as would be of course neces-
sary, we shall find there would be length for about 25 transtra, at 4 feet
apart; and, placing six men on each transtrum, three to each oar, we
shall just arrive at a complement of 300 rowers in a trireme Galley—a
few feet longer than one of the Thames steam-boats—while the width
of 13 feet would give each rower a lateral space of full 2 feet, which is
enough for the free use of his arms, and shoulders.

Montfaucon, with his usual accuracy, gives a précis of the different
views taken by the commentators and critics of the arrangement of the
rowers and oars on board the Greek and Roman Galleys; but, being
himself unacquainted with such matters, he contents himself, wisely,
with placing the different theories before his readers, and leaving them

_ to form their own judgment.

No doubt there are many medals and sculptures which represent
Galleys with more than one range of oars; but, if examined closely, it will

36

be found that from almost entire absence of proportion, and little regard to
perspective, no reliance can be placed on such delineations, for elucidat-
_ Ing and explaining the details, of the rowing arrangements of the Galleys
of the ancients. In several medals we see the oars simply projecting
through small round orifices—a thing manifestly inconsistent with the
necessary power of letting the oar swing alongside, or even stowing it
on board, when at anchor, or under sail; besides, we have many proofs
that the ancients worked their oars on a peg, ‘‘scalmus,”’ with a loop,
or grommet, through which the oar was passed. The term “‘ colligere
arma’’ was applied to the operation of stowing the oars, as well as to strik-
ing and stewing the mast and sail. (See Diagram D.)

DIAGRAM D.

In that elaborate work, ‘‘The Antiquities of Herculaneum,” com-
piled by some of the most learned of the Italian Academicians of the last
century, there are (among many preposterous representations of ancient
Galleys) one or two, which greatly favour the opinion, that there was but
one range or deck of oars, and that the terms of trireme and quinquereme
applied to the number of men who handled each oar,—the only theory
which can be reconciled with practical results, and which was exempli- _
fied in the French, Maltese, and Spanish Galleys of the seventeenth, and
early years of the eighteenth centuries.

Having endeavoured in short compass, and we fear in a very imper-
fect manner, to expose the difficulties which attend any attempt to
reconcile the theory of banks of oars, one above the other, with the
practical use and requirements of the oar, we now proceed to the question
whether a solution may not be arrived at, by adopting the proposition (see
Diagram C) that the terms “ trireme,’’ ‘‘quinquereme,” &c., meant
simply the number of men who handled each oar, and not a number of
banks or decks, one over the other, with one man to every oar.

DIAGRAM C.

Scale, 1th of an inch to a foot.

In the first place (taking the case of a trireme), an oar which would

37

rest on a fulerum eleven feet above the water level (see Diagram B), as
must be the case with the top row of oars, if the theory be admitted of
the rowers being one above the other, in tiers or decks, could not even
reach the water, unless it were thirty-two feet overboard, to balance which
you cannot allow less than twelve feet :nboard. Now, such a long oar as
forty-four feet would be quite beyond any man’s handling, even if he stood
up, as you see the London lightermen doing; besides, Virgil uses the
expression ‘‘ considunt transtris ;’’ and a standing attitude would be far
too fatiguing for rowing any long distance, or at any rapid rate, no matter
whether in a large Galley or asmall boat. Then, to use oars of any such
length, you must suppose a Galley to be twenty-six feet wide, which is
entirely inconsistent with any degree of speed under oars.

DIAGRAM B.

FIRST DECK
= uy
A)
7)

SECOND — y
u
n
by

Scale, 3th of an inch to a foot.

Sir Walter Raleigh, as thorough a seaman as he was an able and
gallant soldier, observes, in a note to chapter 1., book v., of his ‘‘ His-
tory of the World,” that ‘‘Some have thought that quinqueremes had
5 ranks of oars, one over the other, and the triremes 38; but had this been
so, they must then have had 5 decks, each over other, which hath
seldom been seen in ships over 1000 tons; neither could the 8rd, 4th,
and 5th ranks have reached unto the water with their oars.”

But, as we are met by so many difficulties in endeavouring to discover
the arrangement of the oars in the Galleys of the Greeks and Romans,
will it be deemed unreasonable to suggest, that, after all, the Maltese
Galley of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth centuries was
probably a sample of the vessels of that class which had for hundreds of
years been the common war vessel of the Mediterranean ? No doubt, many
improvements may have been madeupon those of the Greeks and Romans ;
but it certainly is the universal opinion of scientific and experienced
seamen who have frequented Malta, that, with all our present skill in
construction, it would be impossible to produce a swifter or better vessel
for propulsion with oars than the Maltese Galley, a very elaborate model
of which was transferred some years back from that island to the United
Service Museum in London. She is twelve feet long, and every detail is so
accurately executed, that the most fastidious naval critic can discover
nothing faulty in her construction. The form of the hull is exqui-
sitely moulded for speed; and it is curious how closely it resembles,

38

though in more delicate lines, and with less proportional width, the .
shape of those fast and beautiful little steamboats which ply daily
between London-bridge and Chelsea. Remove their paddles and ma-
chinery, and equip them as triremes, and you would probably turn out a
Galley with which a Greek or Roman shipwright could have found few
faults.

The dimensions of these steamboats (which have been ascertained in
reference to this discussion) are as follows :—

Ft. In
GOT OETA ces tae pte aecarceet ep aa weirs oe cane haiay ies de eee tra a Mi ere xt)
Waidthy oribeamsoncctesena yy) olbe \rrtiuet ete spe Sete IES CaNett)
Draughtlotsvaters, icp te ts. ele. oe eos) ten eee 7 seme |)
Height of deck from surface of water,. . ... .... 3 10

It is the great merit of these vessels that their draught of water is |
so very little, im regard to their size and stability—an element of no
small consequence in the construction of any vessel impelled by oars.

Those who are familar with that delightful work of the immortal
Cervantes, will remember the picturesque and lively description of Don
Quixote and Sancho’s visit to the admiral’s Galley at Barcelona, where
the author (himself an accomplished seaman, who mentions, with honest
pride, the loss of his own hand at the great sea fight of Lepanto) gives
a spirited and graphic account of the manceuyres of a Spanish Galley,
renowned for speed and beauty, in her rapid chace of a corsair. Any
one who will peruse this narrative, and then inspect the Maltese model,
before alluded to, will hardly entertain a doubt of the identity, in general
form and arrangement, of this kind of vessel with the Galley of Greece
and Rome. |

In one respect (but in reference to the rowers, and not the vessel), a
wide difference is to be remarked. The art of rowing, which was esti-
mated so highly by the ancients, had degenerated in latter times into a
labour for slaves, and was considered the vilest of toil :—

“Some, plunged in mines, forget the sun was made;
While others, deathless as their haughty lords,
Are hammered to the galling oar, for life,

To plough the winter wave, and reap despair !”

To show how differently the Greeks viewed the skilful handling of the
oar, we have the curious story in the ‘‘ Odyssey” of Elpenor, who fell
down drunk from a tower, and broke his neck. So proud does he
seem to have been of his ‘‘ rowing,’”’ that, when his shade is represented
entreating for funeral honours to his corse, he specially requests that an
oar may be the distinguishing emblem upon his tomb! Pope’s transla-
tion of the passage is too graceful to be omitted :—

“Then, high in air, memorial of my name
Raise the smooth oar, and bid me live to fame.”

This paper has now, itis feared, exceeded due bounds, but there is one
point, in regard to ancient navigation, too remarkable to be passed over,

39

and which does not seem to have attracted much critical observation.
The anchor is one of the most valuable and necessary equipments of a
vessel, from the three-decker to the fishing smack ; it is the simplest and
most effective of contrivances ; it has taken a place’ in poetry, in painting,
and in sculpture ; it is become an emblem introduced in allegory, and
in metaphor, as well as in our every-day conversation. Is it not most
| strange, then, that we cannot trace the form of an anchor in any sculp-
ture, or description by classic authors?

The d\/60s tpyres and the edva’ were just heavy stones, DIAGRAM E.
used, as we see even now in fishing skiffs, for mooring ;
but they were not anchors. Virgil’s expressions of ‘‘ dente
tenaci, et unco morsu,” prove that the ancients had some
sort of curved hooks for mooring their vessels; but it is
very doubtful whether the form was at all like that of
our anchor; it seems rather to have been a sort of grap-
ple, such as a man-of-war’s boats are usually provided
with (Diagram E), but which has been quite superseded
in our times by the ‘‘ anchor’ for vessels of any burthen.

With one more observation we shall now conclude.
Much stress has been laid by some critics on certain tech-
nical terms, which they hold to bear upon the arrange-
ment of the oars of ancient Galleys, especially the three
designations of Oahamiat, Cevytzar, and Opavirar

Now, there is no profession or art more remarkable for all manner of
misapplication of terms than that of the seaman. What will the student
or professor of five hundred years hence be able to make of the term
“‘forecastle 2’? Will he ever guess that in a small merchant vessel it
means, not even an elevation, or turret, but a low, dark place, forward,
more like a dog kennel than a castle, where the seamen hang their
hammocks for sleeping ? Will he ever guess that a ‘“‘ messenger’ means a
piece of chain? or that a ‘‘sheepshank” is a peculiar knot for shorten-
ing a rope, and has no sort of connexion with a leg of mutton? Will
he discover that the ‘‘ boatswain” has charge of the ship’s sails, ropes,
and spars, but has little to do with the boats? And, above all, will he
ever imagine what is meant by the term commonly applied to our large
class of frigates, about twenty years ago, of “double-banked frigates ?”’ —
a term which was solely applied to vessels with guns placed along the
whole upper deck, and without the smallest relation to banks or benches
of any kind ? And if these i incongruous terms puzzle him, what in the
world will he think of a class of vessels, common in our navy about
thirty years ago, and called by the name of “ donkey frigates ?’’*

* Since the above was laid before the Royal Irish Academy, it has come to the know-
ledge of the writer, that a very similar question having been recently raised among the
learned in Paris, it was resolved by the Emperor, with his usual practical acuteness, to
test the matter by actual experiment. The savans were accordingly placed in commu-

40

MONDAY, APRIL 25, 1864.

The Very Rev. Cuarres Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The Secretary exhibited an original Bull of Pope Innocent IV., with
the leaden seal attached, belonging to the Public Library of Armagh, the
tenor of which is as follows :—

‘< Innocentius episcopus servus servorum Dei dilectis filiis Archidi-
acono Glindelacensi, Priori Sancti Johannis de Tristeldermod, Dublinensis
diocesis, salutem et apostolicam benedictionem. Conquesti sunt nobis
Prior et Conventus Sancte Trinitatis Dublinensis ordinis Sancti Augustin,
quod Prior et fratres Hospitalis Sancti Johannes extra novam Portami
et quidam alii clerici Dublinensis Casselensis et Darensis civitatum et
diocesium super decimis terris possessionibus et rebus aliis minantur
eisdem. Ideoque discretioni vestre per apostolica scripta mandamus
quatinus partibus convocatis audiatis causam, et, appellatione dempta,
fine debito terminetis, facientes quod decreveritis per censuram ecclesias-
ticam firmiter observari, Testes qui fuerint nominati, si se gratia odio
vel amore subtraxerint, censura simili, appellatione cessante, cogatis
veritati testimonium perhibere. Datum Laterani 11. Nonas Marti, pon-
tificatus nostri anno primo.”’

Innocent IV., whose name was Sinibaldo di Fiesco, was elected
Pope on the 24th of June, 1243, so that this document is of the date
1244. |

The Rey. Professor Haughton read a paper ‘‘ On the Semi-diurnal
Tides of Cahirciveen.”’

nication with the ablest shipwrights of the French dockyards; and a trireme was built
upon the principles maintained by the former, with a single rower to each oar, and three dis-
tinct levels of rowlocks, or portholes, for each range of oars. After spending infinite pains
and much expense in the endeavour to reconcile the three ranges of oars with the real
requirements of a vessel propelled by oars, the model trireme was launched, and tried
upon the Seine. It proved a signal failure; no exertion could drive the vessel above
three miles an hour against a sluggish stream, and the labour of the huge oars soon ex-
hausted the rowers. But the Emperor was not content with a river trial; he insisted on
her being tried at sea; and here the failure was far greater than in the smooth water of
the Seine. The trireme proved quite unmanageable, and it was not without much risk
and difficulty that she was towed back into harbour by the steamer prudently sent out to
attend the experiment.

:
-
|
;
:
*
|
|
t

4]

Sir W. R. Wilde exhibited, on the age of Marcus Keane, Esq., and
deposited on loan in the Museum, the reliquary known as the Clog Oir,
or Golden Bell of St. Senan.

The Rev. Dr. Todd presented the following collection of antiquities,
on the part of Mrs. Ogilby, of Kilcattan :—

A wooden chopping-block.

Two wooden blocks, shaped like human heads, Sate used as
butts by stone throwers, or parties using slings.

The upper part of a circular wooden vessel, made out of one piece,
ornamented with two carved bands, resembling hoops.

Three four-sided methers.

A wooden cup.

Three cinerary urns, found at Altahony and Dring.

A stone cup, similar to one represented in Wilde’s ‘‘Catalogue,”’
vol. 1., p. 87, Fig. 87.

Two flat circular stones, resembling weights.

Portion of a stone handle of a stamp or seal.

A touchstone, dug out of an old fort at Teononey, county of Derry.

Six stone Coie. we different sizes.

One stone celt, the surface curiously stained and weathered; found
in the county of Derry.

Ten Irish flint arrow heads, of different forms.

A bronze spear head, with lateral loops.

Four bronze hatchet-shaped celts, different patterns.

A bronze pocket celt.

A bronze pin, with lateral shield-shaped ornamented head.

Fragment of a bronze cross, with crystal setting.

A brass seal, with arms and crest—a reaper holding a sickle in one
hand, and a head of wheat in the other. The letters §. M.I. are in the
upper part of the field.

Two iron ploughshares.

A specimen, parched oats, found when sinking Kilcattan cellar.

A specimen of bog butter, in a bottle.

Upper stone of a quern, with driving hole at the side.

Upper stone of a quern. In neither of these specimens was there
any contrivance for centering the stone.

Lower stone of a pot quern. It is broken at the side, and the
central hole has been carefully closed with lead.

A portion of blue flag, with an ancient Irish cross and circle, in
relief, carved on it,

The following articles were also presented :—

A fragment of Roman mosaic, from Pompeii.

Seven fragments of enamel, probably Roman.

A small globular urn, very highly burned, ornamented with small
dots and four raised points.

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. G

42

Two Indian stone hatchets, with grooves for aoe handles, found
in Somerset County, New Jersey.

Eight Indian stone arrow heads, of different forms:

A very perfect stone Indian celt, from Yona Mountain, in Georgia,
C.8

An ornamented bronze ring.

A brass celt, with an iron “rivet on it, apparently a modern forgery.

A stone with differently shaped hollows on its surface, like moulds.

A modern spring spur, of a peculiar form.

Two large lateral circular brass buttons, with appendages like ear-
rings, probably Indian ornaments.

A large clay tobacco pipe, with stand.

A small pipe of the kind commonly called Danish.

The thanks of the Academy were given to the donor.

MONDAY, MAY 9, 1864.
The Very Rev. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

Charles Philip Cotton, Esq., C. E., was elected a member of the
Academy.

Professor Downing read a paper ‘‘ On the recent Failure of the Brad-
field Reservoir, near Sheffield.”

MONDAY, MAY 23, 1864.
The Very Rev. Coartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.
Mr. E. A. ConweEtt read a paper—

On AncIENT REMAINS, HITHERTO UNDESCRIBED, IN THE COUNTY OF
Meat.

My object in bringing this paper before the Academy is to direct
the attention of antiquaries to a great field for observation which has
hitherto passed unnoticed, and the thorough and systematic exploration
of which will, I feel assur ed, do good service to the cause of antiquarian
research.

In the extreme north-west angle of the cou of Meath, about
two miles south-east of the village of Oldcastle, and in the direction
of the town of Kells, the hill of Shabh-na-Caillighe, rising to the height
of 904 feet, and being the only eminence in the county assuming the
name or character of a mountain, makes a prominent feature in the
landscape. It is forced out of the Lower Silurian rocks, which occupy
a large extent of the country to the northwards, from Drumlish, in the
county of Longford, to Donaghadee, in the county of Down, including
the range of the Mourne Mountains.

e

43

The longest axis of Sliabh-na-Caillighe is from west to east, and its
extent about two miles.

To the south and west of the hill he the comparatively low, undu-
lating, limestone plains of Meath and Westmeath, and on the north the
slate rocks occupy the low grounds around Lough Ramor. In form the
hill consists of three main peaks, two of these still crowned with large
tumuli and smaller cairns ; while on the third the work of demolition is
going on even at the present time—Mr. Hdward Rotheram, of Crossdrum,
having had men engaged for years past in carting away the stones of a
large tumulus, for the construction of adjoining fences. There are, besides
the three principal peaks, two minor hills, extending from the middle
in the direction of the western peak, each also crowned with the remains
of ancient cairns.

The prospect from the summit of any of these peaks is not to be sur-
passed for pastoral beauty by any other locality in Ireland; and it would
be impossible to select a more fitting and commanding site for the necro-
polis of a tribe than that which has been chosen—on the very confines of
Leinster and Ulster—by the cairn and cromlech builders who inhabited
the prairies of central Ireland.

For years these great cairns—composed of dry, loose stones, and the
massive, rude, stone chambers which I am about to describe—have
found no better interpretation in the eyes of the peasantry than what is
contained in the local legend :—That ‘‘an old hag (name and date not
given), with her apron filled with stones, jumped from one peak to ano-
ther, scattering a few on each peak, and leaving her chair on the middle
one.”

Some years since, passing in the neighbourhood, and observing from
the plain one of these cairns, I inquired what it was ; when I was at once
informed that it was an erection on which the officers of the Ordnance
Triangulation Survey had placed their flag. But it at once occurred to
me that such immense piles of stones as I observed on the summits of the
peaks of Sliabh-na-Caillighe could scarcely have been erected by the Ord -
nance Survey officers, as the labour and cost of making them would be
more than commensurate with the advantage to be derived. I therefore
examined the place; and although, during the first two attempts, I was
driven from the mountain by storms of hail and rain, I persevered, and
was gratified by the discoveries which I now lay before the Academy.

I may just mention, that, on consulting the Ordnance Survey Town-
land Maps, I find that the only notice taken of these very interesting
remains of antiquity is indicated by a mere dot or two, with the words
‘“ stones’ appended; and this may have caused the place to be passed
by and neglected, even by such accurate observers as Sir W. R. Wilde,
who must have been looking at these cairns, from no great distance, when
he commenced to write his graphic description of the Blackwater, where
it issues from Lough Ramor.

I only trust that future explorations may turn up some curious de-
tails for an additional chapter in the next edition of that interesting
book.

44

My friend, Mr. Du Noyer, to whose quick and accurate pencil this
Academy owes so much, but for whose contributions posterity will yet
feel a still deeper debt of gratitude,—inasmuch as he has recorded the
present appearances of many places and objects of great interest, fast
disappearing,—accompanied me on a hurried visit to the place; and I
have to thank him for the field plans and the enlarged sketches of the
sepulchral chambers, accurately drawn from measurements, according
to the scales appended to each, now before the Academy. On the 16th
and 80th of April last, I visited the place, and took rubbings of four
engraved stones found in the chambers of cairns already laid open, the
curious devices on which I have the honour to submit to the judgment
of the Academy.

Commencing on the western peak, I have adopted letters, on the
general plan, to denote the cairns.

A—Is twenty-seven paces in circumference, and sixty-three from D.
Nearly all the stones which formed this cairn have been removed.
Four large stones still remain, standing on the circumference of the
base.

B—Is twenty-four feet in diameter, and thirty-eight yards from D.
The upper portion of the structure has been removed, laying bare in
the centre a long chamber, formed of large flagstones, laid on edge,
and pointing in the direction of EH. 20° S.

C—lIs also about twenty-seven paces round the base, and thirty-five
from D. Nearly all the stones have been taken away from the
margin and the interior, leaving four large stones standing in the
centre.

D—Is entirely composed of dry small stones. The original circle of fifty-
four large stones round the base is still perfect, and is 182 yards in
circumference. The height of the cairn, in its present state, is about
twenty-eight yards from base to summit. The interior of this, the
largest of all the tumuli, has yet to be explored. The north and east
sides have been left untouched; but on the south and west, for
nearly 100 yards round the base, the stones have been almost en-
tirely taken away, extending to a distance of twenty-four yards
from the circumference towards the centre. A curve inwards in the
circumference of twelve paces in length, indicating the entrance
(as shown in those cairns whose chambers now lie exposed), has the
direction of E. 20° 8.

E—This cairn has been nearly altogether cleared away; about half
a dozen of the large stones, apparently used in forming the cham-
bers, stillremain. The diameter of the base of the cairn is twenty-
one feet. i

F—Is about fourteen yards from E, and is fifty feet in diameter; the

upper portion removed, leaving exposed the long chamber which .

formed the grave.

45

G—Is fifty-four feet in diameter, and forty-three yards from D.
Eight large stones remain in the margin, but the upper portion of
the pile is gone, leaving exposed in the interior a long grave, hay-
ing the direction of EH. 10° N. Its distance from F is only one

ard.

H_Is forty-nine feet in diameter, and 1s forty yards from I. The
long chamber in the centre of this is also exposed.

1——This is the most curious and perfect of all those whose interior
chambers now lie partially open. Itis forty-two yards from L, and
has eight large stones round the base. The direction of the entrance
is due east. The interior is circular, as represented in Dia-
gram I., thirteen feet in diameter, and is divided into seven niches
by flagstones standing out like radii of a circle; depth not ascer-
tained, as the place would first require to be cleared out. The
passage leading in is eight feet six inches in length, and four feet
six inches wide, having a stone, nine feet in length, lying opposite
to it, and forming part of the circumference of the cairn, which is
fifty-five feet in diameter. The terminal supporting stone of the
passage on the right hand is in form arude prism of three sides,
standing about four feet high, the face hollowed, and beautifully
inscribed with stars, &c., as seen in rubbing.

J—Is thirty-eight feet in diameter, and only four yards from L.
Twelve of the large stones which formed its margin still remain.
It has been considerably excavated from the top downwards.

K—Is seven yards from L, and forty-two feet in diameter. Thirteen
of the marginal stones still remain, and the interior is excavated in
top, as in J.

L—Is 186 yards in circumference, surrounded by forty-two large
stones, laid lengthwise on their edges. Great quantities of the
stones have been removed, but the interior has evidently yet to
be laid open. A curve inwards in the circumference, of twenty
yards in length, indicates the entrance, which has a direction of
E.20°8. The distance from L to D, the two largest cairns, is 185
yards.

|
|

We pass from the western summit ; and at the base of the first knoll,
before ascending the middle peak, and at the head of a beautiful sloping
valley, with several large stones in a line, as if indicating the course of
the burial procession as it advanced from the plains, are the remains of
three stone circles, close together—fifteen, twenty-two, and twenty-five
paces in diameter, respectively,—and evidently the bases of three cairns,
whose stones have been found ready at hand for the construction of ad-
joining walls. Several of the large stones in the circumference have
been recently broken up, and carried away.

M—Crowning the first knoll are the remains of a cairn, twenty yards
in diameter, at present only about four feet high, and without the
usual boundary ring of large stones.

N—On the top of the second knoll are the remains of a cairn, twenty-

46

two yards in diameter, with four large stones standing outside, and
marking a passage, pointing due east, of sixteen yards long, seven
yards wide at the entrance, and diminishing to four yards as it ap-
proaches the cairn.

O—In the valley, below the two knolls, are the remains of a cairn,
nine and a half yards in diameter. One upright stone, inscribed
with circular hollows, stands in the interior.

P and Q—Are the remains of two cairns, each about seven yards in
diameter, placed close together, on the side of the central peak.
R—Is forty-two yards from T; its present remains are only about
two feet high, thirty-eight paces round, and contain an exposed

circular chamber in the centre, seven feet in diameter.

S—lIs seven yards from T ; diameter thirty-three feet six inches, and is
surrounded by thirty-six large stones placed on their ends. A cham-
ber of six feet long, and four feet wide, lies open in the centre. On
the top of one of the marginal stones, about five feet high, a rude
cross has been carved, 8 x 8 inches, which tradition in the locality
asserts was the work of the men engaged i in the Ordnance Survey,
as well as the cross 9 inches high by 8 inches broad, carved on the
centre of the seat of ‘‘ The Hag’s Chair.’’

T—Though not the largest of all the cairns, is the one of greatest
magnitude on the central summit, and, from its position, is the
most conspicuous, at a distance, of all the cairns. Noattempthas
yet been made to open or deface this noble monument. It is 126
yards in circumference, twenty-one yards from base to summit, and
is surrounded by thirty-seven stones, laid on edge, and varying in
length from six to twelve feet. The length of the curve indicating
the entrance is seventeen yards. Hxactly facing the north, and set
about four feet inwards from the circumference, 1s a stone, nine
feet long, three feet high, and two feet thick, having a rude seat
hollowed out of the centre. The ends are elevated nine inches
above the seat, and the back appears to have fallen away. This is
ealled ‘“‘ The Hag?’s Chair.”’

U—Is about seventeen yards from T, and is forty-nine yards in cir-
cumference. There ‘are sixteen lar ge stones still in the base;
and nearly two feet inside the circumference, a stone, seven
feet long, lies facing the entrance. The upper portion of the
cairn has been entirely removed, exposing four chambers, ac-
curately represented in Diagram No.2 A. The direction of the
passage to these chambers points E.30°S. The chambers are formed
of rude flagstones, set upon their edges, and when I visited the
place were filled up with small stones. These I cleared away, in
order to get rubbings of the upright stones. I did not clear the
entire chambers; but, after the small stones had been removed
round the bases of the upright stones, I had to dig through about
eight inches deep of earth, thickly mixed with charred bones, most
of them broken into small splinters. I submit some specimens,
together with the curious rubbings of the stones alluded to. On the

AT

narrow horizontal face of the northern stone, which slopes down-
wards, and in an eastern direction, is a serpentine engraving, which
I have taken separately, as weil as in conjunction with the engrav-
ings on the face of the same stone.

V—lIs thirty-eight yards from T, and about as many in circumference.
The large stones forming the chambers of this cairn are laid quite
bare, and present the appearance in Diagram No.2 C. About a
yard outside the circumference, on the north-western side, stands
an upright pillar stone, five feet above ground, six feet broad, and
one foot thick. Digging at the base of this, in a fruitless search
for engravings, I turned up the long, rounded, white pebble which
I submit, and which may have been used as a sling stone, or a
hammer.

W—lIs represented in Diagram No. 2 B, and is at present nearly level
with the ground. It is about fifteen feet in diameter, and 120
yards from T. In the centre, a very curious, well-lke chamber,
six feet six inches in diameter, 1s laid bare to the depth of four feet,
and is formed by seven flags, placed on ends, fitting closely toge-
ther, except in two instances, and all having an inclination inwards
at the bottom. An eighth stone now stands a httle inwards, but
this has evidently been misplaced from the close-fitting boundary.

X—Passing from the middle, and midway up the eastern peak, are
found, close together, the remains of three stone circles. One of these
circles, consisting of nine stones, and one about the centre of the in-
closure, is still perfect. The second circle has now remaining only
seven stones in its circumference, with two flat stones inside the in-
closure. On the face of the largest of these two stones, and about the
middle of it, is cut, with perfect precision, to the depth of three
inches, a circular hole, six and a half inches in diameter. The
third circle is more imperfect than the second, containing in its
present circumference only six stones.

Y—Has been 101 paces in circumference. Nearly the entire of this
once very conspicuous cairn, as it crowned the peak, has been taken
away by Mr. Rotheram, and used up in building the adjoining
fences. A few cart loads of the stones only now remain.

Z—At the base of the eastern peak, on the south side, stands the
Moat of Patrickstown. It measures 115 paces round the base,
forty-five feet in slant height, and forty paces round the circumfe-
rence at the top, which is flattened. This tumulus is situated on
the top of a small sloping eminence, in a green field, and is crowned
by a mutilated whitethorn tree, growing on the eastern border. It
is covered with earth and grass; but is said to consist of stone
chambers in the interior.

I have now exhausted the alphabet, and, I fear, your patience ; but
not by any means the subject. A short distance south of the Moat of
Patrickstown, in what is now called the townland of Thomastown, have
stood, until the spring of this year, twenty-one tumuli, each from six to

48

ten feet high, and ranging from fourteen to thirty paces in circumference,
about ten yards distant from one another, on an average, and grouped in
a circle. They have been constructed of stones in the centre, covered
by about two feet of earth. Fourteen of these only now remain, the
others having been torn up for the sake of the stones they contained,
and have been used in the construction of an adjoining new fence, running
through the sites of some of them, by Mr. W. Stowell Garnet, the owner
of the soil. This piece of wanton destruction is much to be regretted,
as nothing could be more picturesque than the position of these tumuli,
on elevated ground, gradually sloping down to the centre of the circle
formed by them, and ending in a round pool of water, sixty paces in cir-
eumference. Looking from this spot, are to be seen in every direction
numerous raths.

About a mile and a half from Sliabh-na-Caillighe, on the north, stands
an engraved stone (see Rubbing 5), in the middle of a large pasture field.
The elevation on which it stands is called the King’s Mountain; and
there is a tradition in the locality that a king was buried under the
stone. Being at present used as a rubbing stone for cattle, it could not
be expected that the stone should still preserve its original complete-
ness—some pieces are broken off its sides and top. It is seven feet
six inches high, three feet broad, and about six inches thick. On its
present site, up to a few years ago, stood a tumulus, which the proprie-
tor of the field caused to be carried away for top-dressing. In the centre
of the mound was found a chamber filled with bones, and constructed of
smaller engraved flagstones, supporting the present upright stone. Itis
not known what has become of the other carved stones.

The large moats of Diamor, Balgree, Dervor, and Girley are not far
distant.

There are also several ancient caves in the immediate neighbourhood.
Not far from the base of the eastern peak is that of Belview. The width
of the passage at the entrance (see Diagram) is three feet five inches,
the height four feet four inches, and the length forty-four feet six inches.
The cave then widens out in the form of a circle, whose diameter is
thirteen feet ten inches; height of the wall, eight feet up to where the
beehive-shaped arched roof commences,—all formed of dry stones, with-
out any cement, and terminating with a large flag on top.

Near the base of the western peak is a still more remarkable double
cave (see Diagram). It was discovered about 1824, in the garden be-
longing to Loughcrew House, by a labourer who was trenching the
ground, and came upon one of the large flags on top. The entrance is
seven feet below the entrance of the garden, and the common passage
from the entrance to the place where it branches right and left is forty-
seven yards long, from three to four and a half feet high, and has a
slope of two and a half feet for the first nineteen yards; it then rises ab-
ruptly two and a half feet, and has a slope of two and a half feet to the
end. The continued passage then branches right and left ; that on the
right being four feet broad, from three and a half to four feet high, with
a slope upwards of two and a half feet for ten feet in length, until it

49

turns into a similar passage, fourteen feet long, having a slope or eleva-
tion of four feet, and then enters a circular beehive-like chamber, fifteen
feet in diameter, eight feet the perpendicular height of walls, and twelve
feet in the centre of the cave.

The passage leading to the cave on the left of the common entrance
is fifty feet long, goes down on a slope of five feet, is five feet wide,
and from two feet nine inches to five and a half feet high. The diame-
ter of the circular cave then entered is twenty feet ; perpendicular height
of walls, ten feet, and height in the centre of the chamber fourteen feet.

Two similar caves, one on each side of the public road, are to be
found near Ballinlough chapel, and one at Balgree.

A little further on, at Clonsilla, are the remnants of three stone
cairns, out of which I have been sent some bones, which I submit.

It is very probable that the cairns briefly described form but avery
small portion of the number that were once here. The miles upon miles
of stone walls, dividing the pasture lands adjoining, bear patent testi-
mony to the use which has been made of these great collections of stones,
Even in the lowest part of the valley, between the western and middle
peaks, the remains of one (QO) are still visible, evidencing the great pro-
bability that not only the sides, but even the valleys between the peaks,
have been once thickly studded with cairns, similar to those which still
remain. I attribute the better state of preservation of those which
remain on the western peak to the greater difficulty of removing the
stones, owing to the precipitous character of the hill.

Our President has already brought under observation the fact of the
raths in Ireland being foundrunning in groups of three. On the western
peak, where the cairns are most perfect, there is a striking analogy

Perhaps the most unique feature in all the cairns of aoa on
Slabh-na-Caillighe is, that the entrances to the interior are distinctly
marked by a curving inwards of the basement circle of large stones;
while at New Gianse the entrance would appear to have been carefully
concealed, as its discovery is said to be the result of mere accident; and
the bearing of these entrances, indicating as it were the very period of
the year when the burial took place, at least the first one—for the many
chambers would seem to imply that each was intended for a distinct
individual.

In submitting the foregoing particulars, I would urge that some
steps be taken to have these very interesting remains preserved from
further destruction ; and that a systematic and careful exploration of this
wonderful place should be undertaken by the Academy, asking the co-
operation and assistance of the lord of the soil, J. W. L. Naper, Esq.,
D.L., Lougherew, whose beautiful residence these interesting relics of
antiquity overhang; and whose character for wealth, kindheartedness,
and a wish to promote every good object, 1s well known in the county.

I think, too, that an application should be made to the Ordnance
Department to have the entire locality, so fully dotted over with rem-
nants of antiquarian interest, resurveyed, correcting the meagre details
they have already supphed and published, and giving on a lar se scale

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX.

50

an accurate mapping of the surrounding neighbourhood, at the same time
supplying full particulars.*

A discussion having taken place relating to the locality of the ancient
remains described by Mr. Conwell, it was—

Resotvep,—That it be recommended to the Council to make an ap-
plication to Government to have the hitherto undescribed monuments
near Oldcastle surveyed, measured, and mapped.

The Rev. Samvet Haveuton, M. D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dub-
lin, read the following paper :—

Nores on AnrimMAL MeEcHAnics.
No. I11.—On toe Muscutar MecHanism oF THE LEG oF THE OSTRICH.

Own the occasion of the death of a fine male Ostrich, during the month
of January last, in the Zoological Gardens of this city, I secured the
body for dissection in Trinity College, and requested Mr. Macalister, of
the Royal College of Surgeons, to avail himself of the opportunity thus
afforded of completing the anatomical investigations he had previously
commenced in the Royal Dublin Society, by the dissection of a fe-
male Ostrich, in the summer of 1863. Mr. Macalister availed him-
self of the opportunity, and has laid before the Academy such results
of his dissections as seemed to him most worthy of record. My own
attention was directed especially to the investigation of the muscular
mechanism of the leg of the Ostrich, which I have long regarded as
one of the most interesting pieces of mechanism in the animal king-
dom, and I was fortunate enough to discover, in the digastric rectus fe-
moris mauscle, what I believe to be the key to the explanation of the
complicated muscular apparatus of the Ostrich’s leg.

The leg of the Ostrich is to be regarded as a long rod bent at four
distinct points, which attains its greatest amount of shortening or bend-
ing at the moment the foot touches the ground, and which is suddenly
straightened or elongated by the simultaneous contraction of all the
muscles. The effect of the sudden elongation of the leg is, to throw
the whole body of the bird forward, as if from a catapult, from the
point of support of the foot; and while the body of the animal is thus
projected through the air, the antagonist muscles that flex the several
joints come into play, and are assisted in their action by some very re-
markable contrivances in the heel joint, which I shall describe and
figure.

It is necessary to the perfection of the mechanism, that the greatest
possible amount of muscular force shall be expended in straightening
or unbending the legs, alternately projecting the animal from foot to
foot along the ground, the leg bemg at its maximum of flexure at the
moment of touching the ground, and at its maximum of elongation at

* The references in the above paper are to drawings preserved in the Library of the
Royal trish Academy.—Ep.

ol

the moment of leaving it; and also, that the minimum possible amount
of force shall be expended in flexing each leg, preparatory to its next
spring, which must take place on touching the ground.

I shall show that the leg of the Ostrich fulfils these two conditions
of perfect mechanism ; but, before doing so, I shall describe in detail
the muscles employed in the act of running by the Ostrich.

Part J.—DeEscrIPTion oF THE MUSCLES.

1. A muscle, which must be regarded as a combined tensor vagine
femoris, gluteus maximus, and agitator caude, takes its origin from the
whole length of the posterior edge of the ium (and first two caudal
vertebre) forwards to the commencement of the symphysis aliaca, a, a, a
(Fig. 6), and is inserted as follows :—

(a). The tensor vagine portion is inserted into a broad tendon, pass-
ing over the outer side of the knee; this*tendon forming also one of
the origins of the gastrocnemius.

(8). The gluteal portion of the muscle is inserted, partly like (a),
and partly by a muscular slip, into the middle of the vastus externus.

(7). The caudal portion of this muscle is inserted into the posterior
border of the tendon (a), near the knee: the weight of the whole
eee MEE Se. ay MN oe cp eed eel tre gone AO62002.

2. If. gluteus medius has the origin marked 6, 6, in Fig. 6, on the
surface of the ilium, and is inserted in the small pit, on the outside
of the head of the femur (Fig. 7), and rather behind ; its weight
iterate Sale Melons Ll bea ay ak Soh on:

DM VY vec

ds

LEFT SIDE OF PELVIS OF OSTRICH.

a,a,a, Ovigin of tensor vagine’ femoris, g,- . Origin of sartorius.
gluteus maximus, and 1 ise aadear ne biceps femoris.
agitator caude, OREOAD EE os semimembranosus.
Dee ex -s ae gluteus medius. aun a a semitendinosus.
era bs gluteus minimus. Westlaw inert Fe adductor magnus.
Bea os tsk a iliacus. Pas Mares igee ‘5 pectinceus.
abet ss. Zs ie rectus femoris. m,m, . Obturator foramen.
12 eee ae opponens quadrato femo- | n, . . Ischiadic foramen.

ris (or iliocapsularis). | 0,0, . . Origin of gemelli.

d2

3. M. gluteus minimus in the Ostrich is correctly so named, for it

‘is a very small muscle; it arises from a thin line on the ilium, an inch
and three-quarters in length, shown at ¢, ¢, Fig. 6, just behind the origin :
of the z/vacus, and is inserted, with the opponens quadrato femoris, be-
low the great trochanter, on the front of the femur (Fig. 7); its weight
1S. sid 04
4. M. biceps femoris has a bony origin, below that of the gluteus ,
maximus on the ilium, and les along the entire surface of the bone, be- .
tween that muscle and the semimembranosus, h, h (¥ig. 6); it is inverted |
into the tubercle in the middle of the fibula; its weight is . . . 414 oz. |
5. I. semitendinosus takes its origin from the bony prominence of
the posterior extremity of the ilium, from the tuber ischii, and the
membrane that joins these two points, , 7 (Fig. 6), and is inserted into
the inner margin of the upper and posterior surface of the tibia; its
weight is Us le Du ee 0 es iat

A remarkable accessory muscle arises from
the insertion of the adductor magnus (Fig. 7) in
the femur, and is fastened into the tendon of
the semitendinosus, near its insertion into the
tibia. This accessory muscle weighs 1 oz., and
runs nearly at right angles to the tendon of the
semitendinosus. Its action is to lift and guide
the tendon, so as to increase the force of the
semitendinosus in propelling the body forwards
when the foot is fixed. The mechanical use
of this muscle is similar to that of the acces-
sorius fiexort digitorum longo in the sole of the
human foot.

6. M. semimembranosus has its origin on the
ilium, below the biceps, as shown at 7, 7, Fig. 6;
and is inserted in a line commencing at the top OUTER SIDE OF LEFT FEMUR
of the linea aspera of the femur (Figs. 7, 8), and io oar

a, Insertion of obturator.
extending to the fascia of the thigh loca aS} Origin. of castus calernus,

far as the inner side of the knee; its weight No. 1
Pema AL é i OM Moa eG: TassHier of gluteus me-
The similarity of its use to that of the glu- 4 ee aie
teus (1) is shown by the circumstance that it 7 MUS.
sends a slip (14 oz.) backwards to the sides of % » quadratus femo-
the first two or three caudal vertebrae, which f Tee
must be regarded as an additional agitator 4, bl aanonenbrane-
caude. ee ae tk o
7, 8. M. vastus externusis composed of two.’ No.9, |
parts— k, Insertion of adductor
MM. v.e. 1. Having an inverted T-shaped ied

Bae 1, Origin (A, 4) of flexores
7 yr : 4 ) ° y) C 3
origin from the great trochanter, between the Grgitonin.

insertions of the gluteus medius and minimus m, 4, (7), gastrocnemius.
(Fig. 7); it is inserted on the outer side ofthe ™ » (4:2) flesores di-

aitorum.
capsule of the knee joint; 1ts weight is2540z. 4 . (4) gastrocnemius.

Dd

Its action is to the outside of the plane that coincides with the greatest
| diameter of the highly elliptical cross section of the femur.
M.»v. e. 2. Arisesfrom the whole outer surface of the femur (Fig. 7) ;
it has an insertion similar to that of WZ. v. e. 1; its weight is . . . 50z.
9,10. M. vastus internus, like the preceding, i is composed of two
parts, whose origins are shown in Fig. 8—

M. v. 7.1. Arises from the upper and inner
surface of the femur, and is inserted into the
inner side of the head of the tibia, into the inner

edge of the patella and of the ligamentum pa-
- telle; its weight is . 135 oz.

M. v.14. 2. ‘Arises from the lower portion of
the inner surface of the femur, and is inserted
into the tendon of the former (I. Ds eat Ik) 8 Ris
Welehtis...\. . 8202.

The resultant plane of anes two muscles
lies as much to the inside of the plane of maxi-
mum strength of the femur, as that of the vasti
externt lies to the outer side of the same plane.

11. AL crureus.—Its origin, which lies al-
together on the inner side of the femur, is
shown in Fig. 8; it is inserted without a ten-

EAs
——>
7m

°° p

INNER SIDE OF LEFT FEMUR

don into the patella; its weight is... 7402.

tts plane of moment coincides very nearly
with that of the vasti imternt, just described ;
and it is almost impossible to avoid coming to
the conclusion, that the peculiar elliptical cross
section of the femur, and its longitudinal plane
of maximum strength, are contrived with refe-
rence to the strain of these muscles, so as to
enable the slight and delicate structure of the

OF OSTRICH,

a, Insertion of ligamentum
teres.
BS iliacus.
C, Origin of vastus internus,
0.1.
d, Insertion of semimembra-
NOSUS.
e, Origin of crureus.
fi rs vastus internus,
No. 2.

femur (peculiar to all birds), to resist the action 9% +» — tibialis anticus.
of the forces brought to bear upon it, and which
exceed in magnitude those acting on the limbs of most quadrupeds.

12. M. rectus femoris is not correctly described in any book that
T have seen; and its true nature, and connexion with the muscles
of the calf, were discovered by me quite accidentally. I had taken for
granted, asa matter of course, that the rectus femoris terminated in the
patella; but, as there were two patellas, I wished to know in which of
them the muscle terminated: on dissection, to my surprise, I found that
instead of ending in either patella, its tendon passed in a groove over
and between them both, and, turning outwards and backwards into the
calf of the leg, became provided with a second muscular belly, which
formed one of the portions of the flexor digitorum magnus, the con-
joined tendon of which passed under the heel, and terminated in the
plantar surface of the toe.

The rectus femoris, with its tendon, is therefore truly a digastric
muscle, upwards of five feet in length (Fig. 9), and has its origin in the

54

anterior bony prominence of the ium, e, (Fig. 6), which is well marked
on every pelvis of the Ostrich that I have seen. The tendon of this
digastric muscle is united to that of the gastrocnemido-soleus, by a slip
shown at a, Fig. 9

The weight of the fleshy belly of the rectus femoris proper is 7+ oz.

13. M. sartorius.—This impor tant and remarkable muscle arises from
the anterior portion of the ilium, g, (Fig. 6), and from some of the spines
of the lumbar vertebre ; and, passing in the usual manner across the
inner aspect of the thigh, is inserted into the inner side of the liga-
mentum patelle and into the top of the tibia; its weightis. . 180z.

14. MW. tacus—Has a lozenge-shaped origin on the anterior portion
of the ilium, between the opponens quadrato femoris and gluteus minimus,
d, (Fig. 6). Its insertion into the femur is shown in Fig. 8, at a point
which must be ee to represent the lesser trochanter; its weight
is . Loz.

15. U. gracilis arises, like the semitendinosus, from the tuber ischii,
and from the lower half of the ligament joining it to the posterior spine
of the ium; and is inserted into the fascia of the inner side of the knee
joint ; its weight i Sia eee - 4d oz.

16. MU. adductor magnus ATISES from the anterior half of the ischial
line, k, & (Fig. 6), and is inserted into the upper margin of the condy-
loid pit at the back and inner side of the femur (Fig. 7); its weight
is . 4202.

Its fibres were pale and fatty i in the specimen dissected by me.

17. MZ. pectineus arises from the pectineal point, /, (Fig. 6), and is in-
serted into the tibia on the inner side of the knee, and is intimately
connected by muscular fibres with vastus internus (2); its weight is 4 oz.

DIGASTRIC MUSCLE,

- Composed of rectus femoris and part of the flexor digitorum magnus.

a, Tendinous slip, uniting the tendon of Digastric muscle with that of the Gastro-
cnemido-solzeus.
b, Fleshy line of union with main body of the Fleaor digitorum communis.

The blending of the fibres of pectineus with those of the vastus in-
termus, a portion of which, like this muscle, terminates directly in the
tibia, is not to be forgotten in considering the mechanical action of the
muscles of the hip and knee joints.

18. LM. quadratus femoris has an origin on the ischial line, just below
that of the MM. adductor magnus, and an insertion of a linear shape in the
back of the sess Les of the femur, shown in Fig. 7; its weight
is . 2207.

19. M. oponens quadrato femoris. —This muscle if have so named,
because it is met with in many animals as the direct opponent of the

ES ee ee ee Se

“ D9

guadratus femoris. In the muscular system of the Ostrich and Lion
this antagonism between the muscles 1s very striking. It is found oc-
easionally in human subjects, and is described by Harrison under the
name of MM. ilio-capsuiaris. While we had the Ostrich in the Dissecting
Room of Trinity College, a human subject was brought in, which had
the ilio-capsular muscle fully developed; and my attention was called
to it by Dr. Bennett. I have occasionally found the ilio-capsular muscle
in dissecting Monkeys.

In the Ostrich, the JZ. opponens has an origin on the anterior sur-
face of the ilium, between those of the Mm. sartorius, rectus, tliacus,
and gluteus medius, as shown at f, (Fig.6); and is inserted in the anterior
ridge at the base of the great trochanter, with the J. gluteus minimus
(Fig. 7), with the fibres of which it is connected; it weighs. . . 12o0z.

20. M. obturator.—In the Ostrich, asin most nea. the eae ‘ond
external obturator muscles are united, arising from both the inside and
outside of the bony circumference of the obturator foramen, and from
both sides of the obturator membrane; their common tendon passes
through the ischiadic notch, n, (Fig. 6), which forms a pulley, changing
the eon of the force through 90°, and receives, on emerging from
the notch, the fibres of the little , gemell, placed at each side, anterior and
posterior, to guide the obturator tendon to its insertion (Fig. 7) on the
outer part of the top of the femur; it weighs . . .. . lig OZ.

21, 22.—Mm. gemelli weigh. ; + 02.

23.—M. coraco-cluvicularis.—In the wing of the Ostrich there is a
very remarkable muscle, which arises from the bony margin of the co-
raco-clavicular foramen ; this foramen corresponds in the upper extremity
with the ischiado- pubic or obturator foramen of the lower extremity ;
and the muscle, passing under a strap hgament on the shoulder to be
inserted in the outer part of the great tuberosity of the humerus, cor-
responds with the obturator muscle of the leg.

I consider this muscle to be the second pectoral of ordinary birds,
and to be the proper levator humert. It is usually placed between the
first and third pectorals, on the sternum, and lifts the wing by means
of a pulley, which changes its direction through 135°. This contrivance
is necessary in birds of flight, in which it is of as much importance to
stow the weight aft, as 1t is in ships to place the foremast well forward ;
but, as the Ostrich is a running bird, the Divine Contriver has left
the second pectoral to lift the humerus by a direct pull, without ex-
pending any ingenuity on pulleys to change its direction, as is absolutely
necessary in birds of powerful flight such as the Falcon, in which the
pulley of the second pectoral is as remarkable a contrivance as the pul-
ley of the obturator muscle in the Ostrich.

In fact, throughout the whole range of the muscular mechanism of
various animals, every pulley changing the direction of an original force
presents a problem to be solved ; and tells us of a contriving mind, which
has deviated, for some purpose discoverable by us, from the simple con-
trivance of muscular fibres pulling directly from their origin to their in-
sertion.

2)

56

24. M. gastrocnemido-soleus.—This great muscle has four distinct

‘heads—

(a). From the outer side of the patella and of the ligamentum pa-

tellee.

(8). From the external condyle of the femur (Fig. 7.)

(y). From the condyloid pit of the inner
condyle, between the Adductor magnus and
Hexor digitorum (Fig. 7).

(6). From the tubercle of the tibia at
both sides, and from the surface of the
lower patella, and by means of fascia, to
the upper part of the fibula.

Altogether it weighs . . 1154 oz.

This enormous mass of muscles repre-
sents the gastrocnemius and soleus, inti-
mately connected in their fleshy portion,
but distinct both in origin and insertion.
It is inserted, as shown in Fig. 10, by
means of two powerful tendons into the
upper and back part of the metatarsus, the
tendon of the soleus being a little above
that of the gastrocnemius.

It may be regarded as acting from the
circumference of a ring placed all round
the knee joint, to the tendo Achillis; and
its resultant pull is nearly in the axis of
the leg.

95. UM. frexores digitorum.—These
important muscles may, in the Ostrich,
be divided into two distinct groups :—

A.—This group arises from a triple ori-
gin :—

(2). The condyloid pit of the femur,
below the origin of the Gastrocnemius
(Hig. 7).

(8). From the outer side of the outer
condyle of the femur (Fig. 7).

(y). A fleshy slip connects these flexors
with the belly of the digastric rectus
femoris in the calf of the leg. ‘This
slip is represented, cut vo at the point
b, in Fig. 9.

Their total weight is 16 oz.

B.—This group has a double origin :—
(a). From the condyloid pit of the femur.

(8). From the whole back of the fibula

which is covered by the popliteus.

LEFT THIGH, LEG, AND FOOT OF THE

OSTRICH.
a, Femur.
6, Fibula.
ce, Insertion of biceps.
d, Tibia.
e, Tendon of soleus.
re rectus femoris.

4, Tendons of flexores digitorum.
h, Tendon of gastrocnemius.
i = tibialis anticus.

on extensor digitorum.
my Metatarsus, or cannon bone.

and tibia, except that part

12 Rakion eee

us Ea a a a Ta

pie a Re ee

4
5
.
;

8

i 57

Their total weightis %... OVA,
26. M. tibialis anticus. This is a flexor of the metacar pus, “and
arises from the two anterior tubercles of the tibia, and from the front of
the external condyle of the femur (Fig. 8). tis inserted below the
heel joint, by means of a spht tendon, into the front of the metatarsal
bone, two inches below the joint (Fig. 10). Its weightis. ... 820z.
27. Mf. extensor digitorum communis (Fig. 10).—This muscle takes a

| fleshy origin from the tubercles of the tibia, and from the crest in front

of the tibia. It is inserted into the toes, and into the annular ligament

_ of the phalangeal joints. It has no action in flexing the metatarsal

bone, ii perhaps in some unusual positions of the foot. Its weight

is 5h O%.
28, MM. popliteus. —Well marked, and rotates the fibula on the
tibia. eet, i aiey : a ceca a) ee cOZ,

Part I].—<Action oF tHe Muscies.

In the act of running, the leg of the Ostrich is to be regarded as a

| jointed lever, having four joints, viz., the hip, the knee, the heel, and the

metatarsal joints. As the animal springs from foot to foot, the whole limb
on reaching the ground is bent as far as possible at each of the articu-
lations; and when the spring is made, the muscles proper to each joint

_ increase the angle made by the bones meeting at the joint, so that the
effect of the whole is to unbend the limb, and give it a maximum of

extension at the moment of leaving the ground. During the spring,
the antagonist muscles again bend the joints, so that on next touching

_ the ground it is at its maximum of flexion, again waiting to be unbent
_ by the muscles that open the angles of the joint; and so on for ever,
' as the animal runs, it is thrown alternately from each foot in contact

with the ground, as from a catapult, and advances by successive leaps or
springs from foot to foot.

To take mathematical account of the moments of the muscular forces
round each joint, it would be necessary to make the following measure-
ments :-—

Let O and J be the origin and insertion of any muscle, and 4
the centre of motion of the joint. The effect of the contraction of
the muscle is to develope a moment or couple round the point A,
acting in the plane OAJ, and proportional to the weight of the given
muscle, as already shown in Note I. If it be required to find the total
effect of the muscles acting on a given joint with respect to any line,
A X, we should have to find the angle made by each plane of moment,
OAT, with the line 4X ; and so calculate by the usual rule of compo-
sition of moments the total effect of all the forces acting, and tending

to produce rotation. Without going into minute detail, and taking

only the muscles that act perpendicularly, or nearly so, to the transverse
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. I

58

horizontal axis, we find the following muscles to represent the moment
of the spring forwards :—

I.—Wuseles extending the Thigh on the Axis of the Body.

1. Tensor vagine femoris, . aot Stine te ans

2. Glutzusimaximuser 2 yas es ete oe et ee

3. Agitator caude, . . caine

A BICEPS TEMOLIS, LN eel eh oats Nene Sine ene ena eee ED

5. Sentimembranosus!S .03017 QR! tO. esi Qiao AT Sil? One “0

6. 1Semitendingsus, jis lis bao old oles Baty si ple08

A GTAGHIS As reir Pee ee Ae vee ete Ad ho eee 4°50

S.rAddneter maomus.. toe ere ee ce ieee) tee ee

G-SPeCtMeUS, feacG tye ee Ree ees he ttey 20) 6 poe ea 4°00
132°25

T1.—Muscles tending the ae on the ieee

10. Rectus femoris, . 7°25
11. Vastus externas Ml yas ap. yard — 1s oe . 25-25
Tone ee RNC) er en eee Nei R01
13. Vastus internus: (1). . gai aa a ee eg anlen lo oe en Reno
Fes ea apes) 3°75
15. Crureeus, é Ti2o
62°00

TIl.—Museles extending the Metatarsus on the Leg.
16, Gastrocnémido-soteus, .-- .0s, se fe ee eee
17>"F lexores-dipitorunt GA)3* ye Ae OF Bt Ae GOO
18. Flexores digitorum (B), 9:75
141:°25

The total combined effect of these muscles projecting the body for-
wards is therefore approximately represented by 335°50 oz. of Ostrich
muscle. *

After the foot of the Ostrich has left the ground, and during his

* If we knew the weight of the Ostrich, and the length to which it can spring in a
single maximum stride, we could easily calculate the work done in a single effort by a
given weight of Ostrich muscle. I do not know how far an Ostrich in a state of nature
can spring, nor how high, and am therefore unable to make the required calculation ;
but I give here two corresponding problems for man, which ney be interesting to the
physiologist.

Problem 1.—A cricket ball, weighing 5% oz., is thrown a distance of 91 yards; find
the work done by the muscles.

The thrower, by practice, finds the angle of maximum range, or 45°; and as

£=Y%A sin 2e

for the maximum range, # the height due to the velocity of projection is found to be _

136°5 ft. This is the height to which 54 oz. are raised, and therefore the work done is
found to be 46-92 Ibs. lifted through one “toot.

Problem 2.—A young man, weighing 120 lbs., leaps horizontally 20 ft. ; what is the
work done? By the same method of calculating, we find the work done in this case
to be 1200 Ibs. lifted through one foot. This large amount of work is not given out in
a single spring ; for it represents the sum total of the single spring and of the velocity

1

- cannon bone, are so formed, that it is easier

a9

spring through the air, the following muscles are employed in flexing
the several joints, so as to have them in readiness for another spring as
soon as the foot touches the ground.
I.— Muscles flexing the Thigh upon the Amis of the Body.
1. Sartorius, ita ya aS ME ER ES . 18:00
PeMcns: Hee ogee ee ce eye Oe ee AO
IIl.—The flexure of the leg upon the thigh seems to be effected
by the vis inertia of the former, when the latter is drawn up towards

_ the body in the spring.

Ill. —Wuscles flexing the Metatarsus upon the Leg.

Bey TibighSAanticuses ofa. ot. ce * rturbacte eetece SUS ae 8°75
4. Extensor digitorum communis, .-.- - ++ -+.+-s 5°25
14°00

“From this it would appear that the mo-
ments of the muscles flexing the joints
of the limb, during the spring, are repre-
sented by 33°75 oz.

This is a small amount of force com-
pared with that employed in extension,
and in propelling the body forwards; but
the flexor muscles are aided by enertza, and
by a special contrivance in the heel joint,
that remains to be described.

The articulating surfaces of the bottom
of the tibia and top of the metatarsus, or

to flex the joint forwards than backwards.
This is effected by making the anterior
curvature more rapid than the posterior
curvature, which produces what connois-
seurs in horses would call a beautiful
‘‘ oie action ;’’ and this natural disposition
of the joint is further aided by two ad-
mirably contrived check ligaments, shown
in Figs. 11, 12, which render the motion

forwards. much. easier. than ‘that--back-: 20°" "Cement
wards. @ a, Tendon of tibialis anticus.
_ In Fig. 11 I have shown the tendons § 4, 3 — eaxtensor digitorum
of UZ. gastrocnemius and JZ. soleus; and doom

Cs a gastrocnemius.

in Fig. 12, the tendons of the jlewores di- @, soleus.

acquired in running up to the point of starting ; and the whole art of long jumps re-
solves itself into jumping vertically with a velocity equal to the acquired horizontal
velocity, and making both quantities a maximum.

60

_ gitorum communes, passing under and through the tendon of M. gastie-
cnemius.

In Fig. 11 are also shown the tendons
of If. tibialis anticus, and MM. extensor di-
gitorum comnunis, passing through a com-
mon ‘‘dead eye’’ bolt—a contrivance ne-
cessary to keep them in their place on the
flexure of the heel joint, and corresponding
with the annular ligament of the human
foot. In consequence of the arrangements
just described, the foot of the Ostrich 1s
jerked forward suddenly, after passing a po-
sition of unstable equilibrium, or ‘‘ dead
point,”’ as it.is called by mechanical engi-
neers; and is slowly drawn backwards be-
yond that point by the action of the powerful
extensors of the jomt, when they are em-
ployed in making a spring.

Any observer who examines the gait of
the Ostrich, Emu, Cassiowary, or Rhea, in
confinement, cannot fail to be struck with
the ungainly effect produced on the appear-
ance of the animal, when walking slowly,
by the abrupt and odd- -looking lifting of the
foot caused by the structure of the heel joint,
giving an effect like that of string halt in

5 . g : . OUTER SIDE OF LEFT HEEL OF
horses ; but. this unpleasing impression see ae
would be rapidly converted into admiration, — a, Tendon of flexor digitorum
if he could see the bird in rapid motion over communis.
b, a. gastrocnenido=

rough ground, springing from foot to foot,
and bending the foot as it left the ground
with the rapidity of lightning, avoiding skilfully, without an apparent
effort, the dangers of the rough soil. Ihave been informed by eye-
witnesses, that under such circumstances the Ostrich in South Africa
almost touches the ground alternately on each side with its body, in
every successive spring, and leaps with ease over rocks and shrubs of
considerable dimensions that lie in its onward path.

I have shown in the preceding part of this paper, that the force ex-
pended in propelling the body of the ostrich forward is ten times the
force employed in restoring the legs of the animal, preparatory to its
next spring; more exactly, as 335°5 to 33°75. This enormous force
acts upon bony supports, which are required by the necessities of a
bird’s existence to be as delicate and light as possible; and it is,
moreover, exerted almost instantaneously, so as to give the fullest
effect to the bird’s spring. The question naturally arises, how is this
force to be suddenly applied, without breaking | or dislocating the ani-
mal’s legs ?

The answer to this question is to be found in the peculiar structure

soleus.

EASON PO ENE AP RIE EE

)

61

of the rectus femoris muscle, which binds down the patelle, straps up
the heel, and brings the whole machine into harmony at the moment
that the spring is about to take place.

The admirable mechanical economy of the leg of the ostrich may be
illustrated by the parallel case of the Cornish pumping engine. Let us
suppose a 100-inch cylinder engine about to commence its downward
stroke, and to lift the pump rods, weighing many tons, by means of a
force of steam which commences at a maximum, and is gradually let off
by expansion to asafe and manageable quantity. It has been found by
experience that 1t is necessary to cause a minute vibration of the beam

~ before letting on the full force of the steam—such vibration shaking all

the nuts and pins into their proper positions before the great and
sudden action of all the parts takes place; andif such a precaution were
to be omitted, it is well known that the sudden impulse of the steam
would break the engine.

In the leg of the ostrich, the W/. rectus femoris supplies the place of
the preliminary vibration; it acts before the extensor muscles come into
full play ; it binds down the two patelle, braces up the heel joint, and
gives the signal for the MZ. gastrocnemido-soleus and other associated
muscles to contract, and thus produces what may be regarded as one of
the most striking phenomena in nature, viz., that the delicate bones and
ligaments of a bird’s leg, acted on by muscles equal to those influencing
the hind leg of a horse, shall remain uninjured under the sudden
action of forces, the slightest error in the application of which would
break to pieces the machine on which they act.

I can admire, though I do not envy, the reasoning powers of those
Naturalists who believe that a mechanism such as this grew out of pre-
existing forms without the interposition of an intelligent mind; and
for myself I must declare, that I could as easily believe that the modern
Cornish engine had developed itself from its clumsy predecessors by the
way of Natural Law, and without the interposition of intelligent engi-
neers, as that the leg of the Ostrich was produced by Natural Selection
from the commonplace legs of its less perfect ancestors.

62

MONDAY, JUNE 13, 1864.
The Very Rey. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.
G. C. GARNETT, M. A., read the following paper :—

On ARMOUR-PLATED SuHIPs oF WAR.

Tue first ships of war that were plated with iron were designed and
constructed in America. Mr. Stephens, the designer and builder of some
of the fleetest and most beautiful ships and steamers in the American
marine, made, in 1845, a series of experiments at the expense of the
American Government, to ascertain the resistance of iron plates to shot
and shell. The result then arrived at was, that plates less than an inch
in thickness would resist the impact of any shell then known ; and that a
thickness of six inches of tron was impenetrable to every projectile that was
brought against it, no matter how great the velocity, or how short the dis-
tance at which vt was fired. These results were duly communicated to
the learned societies in both London and Paris. Here indeed they fell,
as Sir Howard Douglas observes, on stony ground. In France, how-
ever, the result was different; for the powerful and energetic mind of the
Emperor Napoleon was not long in perceiving the immense advantage of
these results. Accordingly the French Government proposed, at the
commencement of the Crimean war, that a class of vessels should be

jointly constructed by the two governments: of these six were builtin

France, and six in England. These were of the class known as floating
batteries. Ours, indeed, were not ready until the Russian war was con-
cluded, and have never seen service, if we except the “‘ Trusty,” against
whose sides we are daily trying the force of spherical and conical pro-
jectiles, and as yet without having obtained any settled result. They
are, however, a class of vessels little suited for their intended purpose,
being wall-sided, and presenting at both bow and stern a flat surface for
shell and shot, but, as far as the English batteries are concerned, must
for sea going purposes be deemed a failure.

“La Gloire’ is built of wood, and is much stronger than is usual
in our corvettes, or evén in our frigates, being built, as Scott Russell,
Esq., F. R.8., observes, on the model of the French line of battle ships,
‘‘Algesiras” and ‘‘Napoleon,” each of 90 guns, whereas ‘‘La Gloire”
only carries 40; her tonnage registers 3000 tons, and her actual displace-
ment is 5000 or 6000 ; the dimensions are as follows :—Length, 250 feet;
beam, 55; her maximum speed 1s 13°375 knots; and she is coated from
three feet below the water line with 44inch good hammered iron. But
perhaps the most curious circumstance connected with “‘ La Gloire’ is,
that when she was building it was predicted that she would never be able
to carry In a seaway her armour plating, much less her heavy ordnance.

63

Being constructed by Mons. Dupuis Délome, one of the most intelligent
naval architects of the age, it seemed rather surprising indeed, to
some, that he should have made so gross a miscalculation; and indeed
experience verified their belief, for she was found to answer when at
sea all that was required of her, even in the worst weather. Yet, as
Mr. Russell observes, she must not be viewed as her builder’s ‘‘ chef
d’ceuvre :”’ she was no doubt built to suit the capabilities of the French
dockyards—an abundance of wood, and but littleiron. Had her build-
ers possessed the resources of England, the probability 1s, her construc-
tion would have been at least modified. The following is a true
representation of this fine frigate, taken expressly for this paper, by
Lieutenant Peile, R. N. R.

—_—_—_—_—_SSS=S=_S——SE== == ———— ————
SS SSS —_ —_— SSSSSSSS= ==
= SS = ——_—_—_ SSS =

—

No doubt a great part of the stability depends on the materials of
the hull being composed of the same or of different materials. In my
opinion all iron is by far the most serviceable, yet I know that to this
theory I have many opponents. General Sir Howard Douglas says, in
support of iron bottoms :—“ In spite of their horror of iron, the Admi-
- ¥alty ought to have discovered before this time that, even if the top sides
of a man of war should be of wood, the bottom or water portion should
be of iron; for it has been found in almost every case where one of
our screw liners was driven at even the moderate speed of 1045 or 11
knots, the seams opened and the caulking escaped, and this indeed
seems to be one of the strongest objections to converting old wooden vessels
into demi-iron ships of war, such as the ‘RoyalOak.’”’ From a Parliamen-
tary return, dated 4th of May, 1863, in reply to a motion of Sir James
Elphinstone, it appears that there were built, and building, eleven iron

and ten wooden iron-clad ships of war, and the seven floating batteries,
of which three have never been commissioned ; and two, though sent on
foreign service in a supposed efficient state, have cost the nation £3571
for repairs to the hulls, which expense indeed is not to be wondered at,
when we find the ‘“‘ Thunderbolt,’ one of the batteries, has never been

64

commissioned, though launched on the 22nd of April, 1856, yet has cost
no less a sum than £1291 for repairs to the hull. Vede Return to the
Honorable House of Commons in reply to Sir James Elphinstone, dated
May 5, 1863, No. 237.

In reference to the cost of these iron-cased frigates, we find that in.

the return made on the motion of Captain Jervis the total cost of the
‘¢ Black Prince’ was £373,899, of which the engines cost £74,449, the
hull and rigging, £272,729, the balance being for alterations; while for
adopting Griffith’s screw propeller a sum of £156 1s acknowledged. The
“¢ Resistance’ and ‘‘ Defence’”’ have cost £257,848, and £252,898 ; while
the ‘‘ Warrior’ even exceeded these charges, large though they seem, her
total cost, according to these dockyard returns, being £377,373—a sum
that in “‘ the days of old” would have been amply sufficient for two three-
deckers and a 36 gun frigate.* Yet the question is not one of mere money:
if the article contracted for was supplied, then there would be little cause
for complaint, but in nine cases out of ten this is not the case. It isa
matter of extreme difficulty to produce a ship of 400 feet in length with
sufficient strength to stand heavy diagonal and transverse strains. Mr.
Fairbairn, indeed, has investigated the relative strength of iron bars and
plates ; and he shows that the cohesive power or strength of bar iron may

fairly be taken at 25 tons, or 56,000 lbs. per square inch of section ;

with bars of +inch each of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and
Staffordshire iron, he obtained a mean breaking weight across the fibre
of 21:350 tons per square inch. The Shropshire plates were the best,
breaking under a strain of 22°826, while the rest barely averaged
19°5638.

The cost of all iron vessels is greatly increased by the corrosion, or
rust, of the material; to counteract this fatal tendency various means have
been employed. There are two materials or paints in use in the British
navy—one known as Hayes’, and the otber as M‘Innes’, composition—
their object being, in company with a number of others, to limit as far as
possible the tendency to ‘‘oxidation.”” Monsieur Jean Pierre Jouvin, Pro-
fessor of Chemistry to the French Navy, has patented an invention of a
somewhat novel description. It consists of laying sheets of zinc against
the ship’s sides, and between the hull and frame; and in case of the vessel
being already built, coating the frame, and what portion of the hull can be
reached, with a strong solution of zine paint. The zinc shects vary from
zzinch to #5 inch thick, while the ribs, keelsons, clamps, transversal bulk-
heads and all other parts not covered with these zinc.sheets, are coated
with a powerful solution of the metallic zine paint. For the outside of

* Mr. Bidder, one of our most eminent engineers, has pronounced the “‘ Warrior” in
every respect a failure, save one—that she, under certain circumstances, is a fast vessel.
Admiral Sir George Sartorius has also borne similar testimony—the vessel steering badly,
and when she took a sheer, no action of the helm could stop her. She is also very lee-
wardly, and rolled more than any line-of-battle ship.

59

the hull, however, this provision would hardly answer, therefore Mons.
Jouvin coats it with composition composed of the following: Turbith
mineral (SO;3HgO), mixed with Prussian blue (3Fe Cy + 2Fe? Cy°),
producing by its contact with the “ alkaline chlorides’ of sea-water one
of the most violent poisons known to mineral chemistry, viz., the
cyanide of mercury (HyCy) in the shape of chloro-cyanide of mercury
and sodium. He therefore first mixes 55 parts of turbith mineral and
45 parts Prussian blue, and composes the paint as follows :—Boiled
linseed oil, 250 parts; red lead, 679 parts; and the aforesaid mixture,
100 parts; but this mixture must not be applied to the bare hull, which

~ on the contrary must first receive a coating of zinc paint of not less

than 3 inch in thickness. I believe, of all the various compositions
invented for the purpose, this of M. Jouvin to be the best.

The metal Mr. Whitworth uses in the construction of his ordnance
is known as homogeneous iron, very much of the same nature as mild
steel. It is chiefly composed of bars of Swedish iron, cut into short
lengths, melted in crucibles, and cast into a large cylindrical ingot,
which is subsequently forged under a tilt hammer into the required
form. The guns are forged solid, bored out in the usual manner, and
rifled uniformly throughout their length, without leaving any chamber
at the breech end. The pitch in the rifling of a 12 pounder is one turn
in 60inches. Mr. Whitworth’s favourite projectile is a ‘ flat-headed’’*
hexagonal bolt. To give an idea of its force, it may be stated, that when

| it was fired at the “ Alfred” target ship at Portsmouth, the gun being
laid at 450 yards, the shot passed through 30 feet of water diagonally,
_ and eight inches of oak, piercing the timber three fect below the surface

of the water ; when spherical shot, or long projectiles with rounded fronts,

_ are fired in the water, they do not penetrate below the surface, but
_ turn and come back again; the flat-fronted shot seems the best for
_ traversing iron plates. If the round-fronted form of shot is fired

against a thick wrought iron plate, it displaces the particles of the iron

_ plate in a lateral direction, and has to overcome the great lateral resis-
_ tance they offered to its passage. In the case of the flat-fronted shot
_ the resistance is confined to the exact spot on which the flat front of
| the shot strikes, the resistance then becomes direct, and not lateral; and

if the ‘‘momentum”’ of the shot is sufficient, it displaces the particles of

the iron plate, and forms a vacuum in the shape of around punched hole.

With regard to the question of rifling the bores of guns, which seems to

| be generally assumed as an indispensable theory in these days, there
| are many opinions. Mr. Adams regards it as simply a contrivance for cor-
recting the defects of badly constructed projectiles at a considerable

waste of propelling power. If the centre of gravity of a conical shot is

not placed at the junction of the major and minor axes, the resultant of

* This kind of shot is said to have been used with great success by the captain of a

| whaling ship, to kill seals, many years ago.

R.A, PROC.—-VOL. IX. © K

66

the curve will be in a waved form. Andasit isa mere matter of chance
where the dzas of a projectile may be in a gun, it is uncertain where the
shot may fly to. The spinning motion in a great measure counteracts
this; and with elongated shot, as commonly made, not only might the

centre of gravity be out of the line of the central axis, but almost in- ~

variably, when made with its sides parallel, and with a conical point,
it would, when placed in the gun, have the centre of gravity behind the
middle of the length; therefore, on leaving the gun, it would try to turn
over, to get the heavy end foremost, and it isin a great measure to coun-
teract this that rifling is an advantage.

One of the chief obstacles to high angle firing (in the case of conical
shot), is the fact of the major axis of the cone always keeping a constant
angle in all the points of its trajectory. In the diagram given below,
it will be seen that both in the case of an angle of 85° and 15° the axis
(major) remains parallel to its original elevation. This is of the utmost

importance in ‘target practice;”’ for if the angle became, say 45°, the

axes would become parallel to the face of the target. The impact would

then become oblique, and the resistance of course greater in the ratio
of the axis of the cone to the axes of the common round shot; this
impact, in several of its properties, is but mdifferently known. The

flame at the moment of concussion, now so generally observed, is the

subject of great controversy. Is it the destruction of force? or is it the
carbon evolved at impact by condensation of the molecules, which, mix-
ing in the atmospheric oxygen, are fused by the heat generated by the
concussion? It is true that the experiment of letting fall balls of iron
from a great height into a well has had the effect of visibly raising the
mercury in the thermometer; yet this heat is incapable of combustion,
being at too low a temperature. Some think it to be the compression
of the atmosphere to such a degree as to produce solidity, and im that
state to evolve electrical properties. One thing remains certain, its ap-
pearance in almost every case where steel shot, or shell, is fired against
a resisting substance of iron. Would it not be possible to measure its
intensity by means of a thermetrical index attached to the target? Pro-
fessor Tyndall, F. R.8., has shown that heat generated by impact
increases as the square of the velocity, so that the heat of impact in-
creases in the same ratio as velocity is augmented. Now, the velocity

REAM i OTS Ra WT a0 Ne ache eli Se ag AD

Ss

67

imparted by gravity to a body falling through a space of 772 feet is
223 feet per second ; six times this, or 13838 feet per second, would not be
an inordinate velocity for a rifle ball; but if this ball was composed of
lead, this velocity would raise its temperature 30°; with six times this
velocity, its temperature would increase about 36 times, or 1080°, with
a velocity 1338 feet per second, quite sufficient to fuse the lead if con-
centrated in the ballitself; but the fact is, itis divided between the target
and the projectile, and in the case of the iron projectiles only one-fourth
of this amount, or 320°, would represent the heat. Mr. Joule, of Manches-
- ter, has shown that if indeed all this heat in the target, after concussion,
and in the projectile, and latent in the gun itself, were combined, the
force represented would be sufficient to propel it back along the pro-
jected trajectory into the gun again. The concussion produced by these
heavy pieces of ordnance is very great; and the lateral and longitudi-
nal strains on the timber of the ship, such as to render the stability of
the vessel a fact of the greatest importance: the vertical line being in
a state of fluctuation produces an immersion, and consequent emersion,
greater or less according to the stability of the vessel. Mr. Peake has
shown that the height of the metacentre above the centre of gravity of
displacement of the immersed portion of the body may be represented
by the following formule* :—

GE _ , 2(y?xsin Ox dz 1 (yx dx
from which we deduce
2 (y3 dx
oi) Ds

a formula of great practical benefit in calculating the relative stability of
floating bodies.

Baron Sané and M. Tupinier used the following formule for the
relative values of the contents of the parallelepipeds of his famous
18-pounder frigates and ‘“‘ La Guerriére,” an old 36-gun French fri-
gate :—in ‘‘ La Guerriére,”’

* This determines the height of the metacentric point (m) above the centre of gravity
(G) of the displacement.

and finding means for x. y.2. (length, breadth moulded, and depth), of
immersed body, we get

M.r Myr! r.r

= LL: "— Zea
y { Na NTR Lit ey
Yo anne Aan Bee Coe Des ia /. Fe
R.V.V

fees /
ed fF ° ° ° > ° ° ° ® ° hy es Pore Pr. ue
RV .Ve

ZL = length on water line ; }

1 = breadth, moulded ; ‘La Guerricre.”
h = mean depth of immersed body ;

xL

y | = ditto, 18-gun frigate.
z

V and WM, solids immersed.

N, content of the parallelepiped described about the immersed
body.

Ratio between these last two solids = == R,

M and R being the only variable quantities.

On the 11th of December, 1863, Sir William Armstrong’s “ Big
Will” was fired at Shoeburyness, and with what results will be seen.
This piece of ordnance weighs 224 tons. Itis what is technically termed
a built gun, being composed of eight coils of metal. “It is rifled with
ten grooves on the shunt principle, and the shot is made to rotate by
means of ten rows of gun metal fitting into these grooves; each row
contains five stems, and these stems, being made of softer metal than the
grooves, do not injure it; the gun is fifteen feet in length, and the
internal diameter is 135%, inches, and the external diameter at the
muzzle one foot nine inches. At ten degrees elevation, the range is no
less than 4000 yards. The average weight of the shot is 600 lbs., and

eae

69

these are divided into three kinds—the first solid, 510 lbs.; the second
hollow, for a bursting charge; and the third, a segment weighing 600 lbs.
This is composed of a thin case, similar in form to that of a common
shell; inside this case is built up a series of loose pieces of iron, so con-
structed as to form a series of rings from bottom to top; these seg-
ments number 510 pieces, each weighing six ounces; a time fuze is set
on the top of the shell, which communicates with the bursting charge,
fifteen pounds of powder inside the shell. After ‘‘ Big Bill’s” trial
against the. ‘‘ Warrior target,’ the target itself underwent a strict
scrutiny. The target was found fractured in every direction in radia-
tions from the oblong aperture or rent, which was two feet long, and
one foot eight inches wide in front, a couple of inches from the circular
white sight, as shown in the accompanying engraving. The three-
fourth inch iron backing was found torn away in long slips: the sight,
indeed, when the target was struck by the shell, is said to have been
very grand. The shell is said, from its enormous size, to have been dis-
tinctly seen during its entire flight of 1000 yards; and at the moment
of impact volumes of smoke burst from the target, accompanied with
sheets of flame.

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE ‘‘ Warrior” Tarcet.—The experiments at
Shoeburyness have done much to elicit the respective merits of the
various guns, and the different constructions of targets. In these
trials, the breech-loader was withdrawn by Sir W. Armstrong. Ex-
cellent, no doubt, as a shell gun against wood, it does not possess that
penetrating power to become a formidable antagonist against armour-
plating. Originally intended to be fired with-14lbs. powder, this charge
was further reduced to 12 lbs., and again reduced to 10 lbs., which is
about what the weight of the gun, 60 cwt., isable to bear. The weight,
and bore, and charge of the two competing 70-pounder guns were as
follows :—

70

TABLE a.

Description of Gun. Bore. Weight. Charge. Bursting Charge of Shell. |

|
|

Armstrong shunt a
70-pounder, 4 } 6:5 in. 75 ewt. 141bs. | 2 Ibs.
Whitworth 70-pr., .| 5: , 76, 12,, | 11b. 14 oz.
Range—800) En eee
yards : i

{ 1st Round.— Whitworth
hit middle part of ar-
mour plate (‘* War-

- rior,” 43in.) and 18in.

ee teak, and Leet

pes its own depth (13 in.).

Rear end of shot broke

off, and flew out. Shunt
missed.

2nd Round.— Whitworth,

penetration as before.
Shunt drove in 43 in.,
burying, but not quite
penetrating. Shunt

i
[
|
l
<
|
{ missed.
[
|
|
l

ist round,.}.

|

|

2nd Round, | . { Solid steel

shot, .

3rd Round (Shell).—
Whitworth drove in
44 in. Shell exploded,
scattering fragments
in front of the target.
Shunt gun indented
24 inches, and burst.* |
Pieces not found.

|

3rd Round,|. . . . | Steel shell,.

|
Range— 50
yards :

Whitworth 70-pr.
(with iescieonsd Penetrated 10in.; head
shot) : solid steel ; } a 0 oe ieceme 97) Men Bre;a ce aig ay gel me) -ve { of shot split.

12 lbs. powder, .

Ame Ons gay 70) :
pounder; spheri- Rear end of shot about
cal steel solid 3 in. below surface of
shots t.. Freleng a Se ers iis ane ets ABRs ae plate, which was pene-
34lbs.; fired a trated, and broke up.
wooden sabot, and
18 lbs. powder, . J

* The pieces of this shot were found next day 500 yards in front of the target,
and almost in a line with the battery. This happened more than once; and it becomes
evident that steel shells which divide in two parts annularly, instead of shattering into
fragments, may become highly dangerous to the parties firing them, in cases where they
do not penetrate.

(el

TABLE 8.

Bore. Charge.

|
—

|
14 Ibs, eee

Description of Gun. Weight.

qO-pontder. . 5 in. 75 cwt.

Whitworth
70-pounder, .

Armstrong shunt, I] e-em,
) 12 9
§

Range—600
yards :

ist Round, Steel shell,

[
|
{
|
'

ee) |

| 2nd Round, Steel shot,

|
| Fange—d0
| yards :

1st Round, Steel shot,

|

|

2nd Round, .| Steel shell, | 7
L

2nd Round.—

Bursting Charge of Shell.

2 Ibs.

1 Ib.

1st Round.—W hitworth

lodged in the middle of
plate, leaving rear pro-
truding 4inches; pene-
tration 94 inches, in an
oblique line. Shunt
gun tore face of plate,
and lodged.

Whitworth
entered plateand burst,
destroying the teak
backing. Shunt in-
dented target 1% in.
Shell exploded, and
pieces retrograded ina
line to the battery, toa

| distance of 350 yards.

(1st Round.—Whitworth

penetrated 6 inches.
Head of shot split.
Shunt gun imbedded,
slightly tearing the
surface of iron.

2nd Round.—Shunt drove

in plate 10 inches, and
rebounded 17 yards
(not burst). Whit-
worth entered 43 in.,
then burst, driving out
teak backing, and

tearing away the bolts. |

pe

The shell appears to have exploded jusé as it entered the timber
backing, and it made a hole four times greater in the rear than in front.
The upper plate was driven out from its supports, and the rivets broken.

The bursting charge was 24 lbs., and the gun charge 70 Ibs.

lowing is a table of the firing :-—

The fol-

TABLE y.
Z i (eewrer lane oe
Round. | Charge. | Elevation. Projectile. Range. Lateral Deviation.
y :
Pood | 70lbs. | 1°. oa ee, 748° | 1 yard left.
| 2 6 5 e 785 On line of fire.
| 3 54 45 a 789 12°5 yards left.
4, a 2 a | 1160 1°5 yards left.
5 ne _ i 1148 On line of fire.
6 of 5 a 2400 4 yards right.
a us Dine 3 2338 2°5 yards left.
3 a ay Wu 2308 On line of fire.
9 x se Re 4080 2 yards right.
10 i | LOR: Pe 4176 On line of fire.
bt 3 “A 4187 4 yards left.
| 12 ins A 5 4189 24 yards right.
600 lbs. hol- oe
ee, GUM ae \ 1880 | 2 yards left.
14 3 | i 3 1898 33°95 yards left.
Le | a | e Be Not taken.
16 4A | 56 Hs Not taken.

Mean result of 600-pounder firing, at Shoeburyness, 18th July,
1864 :—

Weight of shot (cast iron). Charge. Elevation. Range.
513 lbs. AO ibs. alr 20° 944% 7372 yds. 15 ft.

The above Tables have been kindly sent to me by an officer who was
present.

The Marquis of Hartington, Under Secretary of War, has stated in
the House of Commons that the Armstrong 600-pounder is the best gun
the country has as yet got from any inventor, which has been proved by
the wonderful accuracy of range and great power exhibited by this gun.
Undoubtedly it is the best of a// the Armstrong guns, their principal
faults arising In a great measure from the fact of their being breech-
loaders—a species of gun not to be depended on with any degree of
confidence.

Whether, indeed, such a gun as the 600-pounder could be used on
board the ‘‘ Royal Sovereign’”’ or ‘‘ Warrior” is doubtful, the ship roll-
ing at an angle, say of 17°, would render the weight on the vertical line
of oscillation so great as to strain the ship, and affect her stability in a
most dangerous degree. In such a case forts would possess a manifest
advantage over ships if armed with such guns; while if seaports pos-
sessed flat-bottomed barges, propelled by a screw, carrymmg even one
600-pounder, any part of the coast could be easily reached, and rendered
secure against an enemy, from the extreme range and power of the
gun.

73

TABLE 6.
Se |
| Bore. a Projectile. Mee
| ee oe aes Range. Velocity
Dia- - Fowder)| >) . Capa- Maevene _ PEL
operon Area Weight. city. Second,
a & ie Inches. | Inches. | Ibs. ozs.| lbs. ozs. | Ibs. ozs.|Degrees.| Yards, Feet.
ifled 9-pounder
: 4°2 13°] 14 0 6 0 5 2000 not
ae ct | ae - iG si Fal tet aa 10 | 8000 taken.
iron, 17 cwt.,
Rifled 32-pounder G41 32 "2 6 0 | 49 0 3 12 3 1600 1220
42 | 2100 | 1016
service gun, cast 1
iron, 5 cwt eae z | 3100 930
; i oe Rae bua Des 8 BUEN MRM sett ts fated 10 8600 900
Sunilar can, 5...) 6757 | 81°9 |. 5 0 | 41 0-| solid, 3700 740
|Rifled 68-pounder )
service gun, cast} | 8°12 | 51°7 | 6 8|900;, 78; 10 | 8150 850
iron, 95 cwt.,
Rifled 32. “pounder, oe) : by ae
aa 6-371 31°9| 701560] 20 3700 | 955
Rifled 18-pounder,
Bed bBoce ‘| 5°29 | 22 Gestion. 4 3900 | 948
Smooth bore, 68- Ste) ol 7) 1601268" 0 solid 3 340 2040
pounder service 1 640 1280
gun, cast iron, : 5 1960 939
95 cwt., Re Pa | ee Bago 714
§} 3)
Armstrong breech- Ee we 2 : £200 see
loader field gun : 2 fee oop
a ee WN ORe iAH S080 | 826
Ditto, large gun, . 8 +2 | 9 0 | 80 0 | solid 10 3900
Whitworth atl solid 1250 | | riccity ©
breech-loader 5 | 2300 | ee
field gun, Seek iets eee Adal 10 780 aeaaces
Diez 21 12 0 | 80 0 5 2600
~ ae mo 7 | 3490 | ditto
Baie gy Be ee Siig te IPN Sh ues ) cal: A400 |
Initial Ve-
| locity.
Armstrong gun, {| 12-0 |111°6 | solid, 1124 °7
100-pounder, Se E20 103178 ie Shel eine. ea Od Lt
EMEA ume eh a Ue
TABLE €.
| vanial
Elevatio Actual | Paraboli Witter= pice Awe
reat manees Range. ence. peeuney
ne Yds. Yds.
Armstrong } ds 2480 2940 460 1080
12-pounder 8° 2797 3349 552 1080
gun, N90) 3000 | 3755 755 | 1080
ee Be | 2942, |, 3057 |. gis. |. 1800
| ee - 10° 4120 | 6020 1900 | 1300
| “stun |) 2604 losd5g | 458 | 1300
ae i ee 4730020) | 4290 _ 1800
fi. L

» A. PROC.—-VOL. IX.

74

Ihave been informed by an officer of the Royal Horse Artillery that _

at 24° the range of the Armstrong 9-pounder with 1 lb. 2 ozs. powder
(charge) has a mean velocity of 955 feet per second.

The above are some of the results of the experiments made with the
Armstrong and Whitworth guns, by J. A. Longridge, Esq., C.E. In
all these cases the actual range is far below the range im vacuo, or the
parabolic range.

Mr. Whitworth’s shell is well known to have high penetrating
power. A series of experiments are detailed in Sir James Emerson
Tennent’s ‘‘Story of the Guns.’ Its possessing no fuse has, indeed,
been deemed a novelty; yet so far back as 1848 the French frigate
‘‘ Psyche” possessed sheils of a similar nature, invented by Capt. Bil-
lette, of the French navy. They were fired from the ordinary service guns
of a large calibre (84-pounder). It is said to have been used with
disastrous effect by the French at Mogador, in 1844, and subsequently
at Algiers. If let fall from the upper to the lower deck, no accident is
said to have resulted. Its combustion was, it is said, caused by the heat
generated in its passage through the atmosphere, after attaining a given
velocity. The following is a table of comparison between the Whit-
worsh and Armstrong 12-pounder :—

TABLE Z.

Description of Gun.* Elevation. | nee: Pen peceren, ae
| | hE
| Deg. Min. | ~=-Yas.
| Whitworth 12-pounder, ..{| 2 0 | 1252 1300
| Armstrong 12-pounder, . . 1.150) 5-840 1080

This would give the difference in the parabolic range, allowance
being made for the inequality of level, of

Yds.
AWihitworthve mi fey so seen asa crea tes 1260
Armstrone Pune ce ons. ea see ae tat pean 717

For tensile strain no doubt exists as to the Whitworth gun being by
far the best, the metal used being homogeneous iron, having the tough-
ness and ductility of wrought iron, with the hardness and tenacity of
steel,—a metal which is so much used in all parts of the Continent, and
for the production of which the immense factory of M. Krupp, of Essen,
in Rhenish Prussia, has been designed. Mr. Whitworth’s large 80 cwt.
gun, with a charge of 123 |bs., obtained an initial velocity of 1313 feet
per second with a projectile weighing 80 lbs., and obtaining a range of
4400 yards. What we want for all our guns is comparative lightness

* Vide “ Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Enginecrs,” vol. xix., p. 442.

ed z :
eee

79

and durability, combined with a2 moderate amount of wear. That the
breech-loaders are most properly abandoned is now an admitted fact.
The cost of the old 8-inch cast iron guns was about £100, while the
cost of a similar breech-loader is about £800, while the initial velocity
has been proved by H. M.S. ‘‘ Excellent’s” practice to be very inferior
to that of the muzzle-loaders. The mean velocity of a 491b. shell,
fired from a 32-pounder rifled service gun was shown to be 1120 feet
per second, with a range of 1600 yards, while 826 feet per second is
the mean initial velocity of a breech-loading field service gun. Guns,
it must be admitted on all sides, will have an advantage over ships, as
there is 20 absolute restriction to the size of the gun, though there 1s to
the size and weight of the armour-plates of the ships. That great
desideratum—“ stability’’—seriously affects all our iron-clads, and is a
fault that can only be rectified by the loss of a great portion of that
armour plate that renders them ‘‘ invulnerable’’ (?).

In the calculation of the effect of any explosive agent, due regard
Mr. Longridge observes, must be given to the evolution of the perma-
nent gases. Captain Boxer, R. A., in his valuable treatise on Artillery,
computes the gases evolved from one cubic foot of gunpowder when re-
duced to ordinary temperature to be

WNatrogens Vi. tn (9-4 cubic feet,
Carbonic acid, . . « 2388°0 ‘

er, according to Mariotte’s law, a pressure of 317°4 atmospheres. This
pressure may indeed be estimated by this law, represented by the equa-
tion to an adiabatic curve—

1 \ i
1 p [v

Here p and y’ are the pressures before and after compression; v and v’,
the volumes corresponding ; 4, the ratio of the specific heat at constant
volume to that at constant pressure. In the case of air, /=1°41; and
if this be the same for carbonic acid and nitrogen, the pressure "after
compression = 317°4 atmospheres,

= 3367 .

= 22°17 tons per square inch.

In estimating the initial force of gunpowder from the velocity as ascer-
tained by the ballistic pendulum, the usual method is that of Dr. Hutton,
to find the value of » in the formula :—

/ nh a? b
=r prw Oe,
from which we obtain
| n=(p+w)v

b
47-4Phd? Log -

16

Now, Dr. Hutton obtained from this formula the value of () = 2-400
atmospheres, or 15$ tons per square inch. The result, as Mr, Longridge
observes, 1s far from accurate: as the variation of pressure must be
allowed for Mariotte’s law, by adopting the true thermo-dynamical law,
we have

(pt w)v
a Coe eek Dy Me?
AT: 47-4 \2q2 Gai a

=

or, applying it to Mr. Whitworth’s 80-pounder, with a velocity of
1300 feet per second, a pressure of 24:58 tons per square inch.

For the different equations for the velocity of the centre of oscilla-
tion, Dr. Hutton deduced the formula—

bw 567276 J pgo + bie

pgs be Oe pg + bi”
from which equation we get
5°6727
Us regen = (pgoriBiiine nS

the true expression for the original velocity of the ball, before it strikes
the pendulum, by extracting the root of the compound factor,

(pgo + bir) x (pg + be),
we have

pg + bv. — aS / 9,

a formula within the zgG555 of the true value, from: which the value
can be estimated.

pt+b ,-
= : y) ei \eviea pile apart °
v = 56727 ge 7 Vo

The speed of most iron-clads, strange to say, is, notwithstanding the
immense weight of their superincumbent armour, superior to the ex-
pectations of their designers. The greatest speed yet obtained has been
that of the ‘‘ Achilles ;”’ this vessel obtained a speed at full boiler power
of sixteen knots. The ‘‘ Warrior’ obtained a speed of 134 knots at
a mean draught of 264 feet, completing her circle in eight minutes and
thirty seconds, while the ‘‘ Mersey” took forty minutes ; one of our crack
3000 ton frigates took no less than eleven minutes and fifteen seconds
to do the same. The length of the ‘‘ Mersey” is 287 feet 153% inches,
and that of the ‘‘ Warrior’’ 383 feet 22 inches, which makes ie se War-
rior’s’’ superiority the more remarkable, and proves that a long ship
can answer the wheel as well as a short one ; but in stability little can
be said for vessels of the ‘‘ Warrior’ class. ‘The index pendulum on the

ie

wheel standard gave a registered immersion and emersion of 15° star-
board, and 12° port; and there is little doubt but that in a gale of wind
the deflection will be considerably more, as when the above deflections
were registered the weather was moderate. No doubt exists of the
want of stability in vessels of the ‘‘ Royal Sovereign” class,when the
weight of the turrets is considered—130 tons, and the 54 inch armour
plate. The plan adopted, also, of transforming old wooden liners into iron
cupola ships, is evidently erroneous,—the timbers of these ships not be-
ing able to withstand the strain of the increased weights; their ponder-
ous turrets also are most objectionable,—liable, on the one hand, to get
out of order, from failure or injury of the revolving machinery; and,
on the other, to become rapidly choked with smoke. They oxidize to a
great extent, and once strained out of the vertical line are incapable of
rotation. In order to substantiate the above theories we have many
American testimonies. I cannot but state a few of the most remarka-
ble here, quoted from authentic sources.

The official reports of the commanders of the Monitors, or turret-ships,
made immediately after the failure of the attack upon Fort Sumter in
April, 1863, tend to show that these vessels are incapable of resisting the
concentrated fire of heavy rified ordnance. Capt. Drayton, of the ‘“‘ Pas-
sive,’ says:—‘‘The ship was struck in quick succession in the lower part
of the turret by two heavy shots, which bulged in its platesand beams,
and, forcing together the rails on which the carriage of the 11-inch
gun revolved, rendered it wholly useless for the remainder of the action.
A little after a very heavy rifled shot struck the upper edge of the
turret, broke all its eleven plates, and then, glancing upwards, struck
the pilot house with such force as to send it over, open the plates, and
squeeze out the top, exposing the inside of the pilot house, and render-
ing it useless.’ Capt. Rogers, of the turret-ship ‘‘ Weehawken,” says :—
‘““'wo or three heavy shots struck the side armour near the same place;
they so broke the iron that it only remained in splintered fragments,
much of which could be picked off by the hand, and the wood exposed ;
the iron was five inches thick. The ‘ Petapsco’ was disabled, and the
‘Nantuck’ and the ‘ Nahant’ had the iron stripped from the wood,
their sides bulged in many places, and several holes in the turrets.
Their armour plates on the cupolas were disconnected, and the rivets
broken ; and before the close of the action the ‘Weehawken’ had shot-
holes in her sides so low down, that the water ran into the ship in
streams.’ Such is the published American account of their iron-clad
cupolas in action, and it can hardly be hoped that our turret ships
are by any means capable of performing with more satisfactory results.

There seems every probability that gun-cotton will in a great mea-
sure take the place of gunpowder in iron-cased ships. In Austria it has
already done so. It has, no doubt, disadvantages, yet from recent ex-
periments it would seem that these were counterbalanced by certain
properties of most beneficial tendency. Xyloidine, first discovered by
M. Braconnot, bears a certain affinity to the pyroxyloidine of Professor
Scheenbein ; yet the former is essentially different in its composition, and

18

has been proved to be unsuitable for firearms. John Hall Gladstone,
Esq., of University College, London, has shown that by combustion
with oxide of copper in a stream of oxygen, the following results were
obtained :—

* Grains.

Cotton employed 5 vee Saal see ome
Carbonic/acid) produced, 295 (45 (8.9 senso ls

Water produced, 207i) 0, ose heineny pies ane

These proportions are :—

Carbonsy sie OA ae aS a Ge a Ao

Fy drogen cretion hig Bare RCs es een ee ae 7°24

OXY Seni: Ares eet hed leet eevee ncoayy Wart LOO

100°00

Lignine, calculated from the formula, C4 H2) O29 :—

Garbony a2 5) Wage 25 oh oe eae ie nea ea
Fiydrogen, Uso. sen ener akas Moet) ole pO mmIed
ORV GEN, Soren iE oP eer eek eNO RENO)

100°00

Now, this cotton, which may, observes Mr. Gladstone, be considered
as a pure lignine, was steeped in nitric acid, spec. gray. 1:502, with nearly
an equal bulk of strong sulphuric acid, and dried at a temperature not
exceeding 212°. This composition exploded at a temperature of 370°,
producing no smoke, and leaving no residue. Acetic acid at once de-
stroys its fibre ; chloroform apparently does so to a certain degree ; yet,
if the collodion formed is viewed microscopically, the disentegrated
fibre will be seen to reunite atomically, a fact first mentioned to me by
Dr. Carte, Curator of the Museum, Royal Dublin Society. Professor
Barker has also informed me that he found it to explode, over a hot

water bath, at 212°.* The formula C., oe \ O. gives carbon 26°23;
4

hydrogen, 2°73; nitrogen, 12°75; oxygen, 58:29. If henine be treated
with nitric acid, combined with more than one equivalent of water,
another compound is produced, containing a smaller amount of “nitric

acid,” most probably C., eae \ O.,, and, as Mr. Gladstone observes,
4

closely resembling pyroxyline,
(s,HnOn + 3(NO, 2H0 ]= Cn. {545 } On +9 HO.
4

Again, if pyroxyline be treated with nitric acid containing three equi-
valents of water, the same compound results :—

* This oceurred at the Laboratory of Trinity College, Dublin.

ES Det ee iy

adi ny Ri

BE ae ee

<r

12% aka ey

@

0, {Be} 0, +2 (NO, 8H0)= 0,84, }04+4(NO, HO)"

It seems the greatest care is necessary for the purification of the cot-
ton fibres. General Baron Von Leuk has invented a system, known as
thé ‘‘ Austrian Method.” Mr. Haddon’s compound, C,H», (9 NO,) Ox, is
identical with that of the Anstrian trinitrocellulose, C,,H, (3 NO,) O,;
it is not of any use in the preparation of collodion, but, as Mr. Glad-
stone observes, it is Baron Von Leuk’s gun-cotton. It has been kept
unaltered for fifteen years; it is but slightly hygroscopic, and when
exploded in a confined space is free from ash ; its explosive temperature
is 136°C. (277°F.). Baron Von Leuk treats his gun-cotton with a solu-
tion of the silicate of potash (water gas). The amount of silica set free
on the cotton by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere is really of service
in retarding combustion. Neither nitrous fumes nor prussic acid are
among the gases evolyved—the one an animal poison, the other a corro-
sive agent. Karolys found it to contain neither of them, but to consist
of nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, water, a small quantity of
hydrogen, and light carburetted hydrogen, and these are comparatively
harmless; and it is distinctly in evidence that practically the gun is less
injured by repeated charges of gun-cotton than of gunpowder, and that
the men in casemates suffer less from its fumes. It is almost impossi-
ble for it to explode during the process of manufacture, since the cotton
is always immersed in liquid unless during the final drying. Again,
it may be submerged in water, and only used according as wanted, as it
is most easily dried; its destruction in the act of combustion is com-
plete, being wholly resolved into its component gases, and no residuum
left in the gun ; it produces no recoil, and does not heat the bore in the
slightest degree, even under the action of repeated discharges. Scott
Russell, Esq., F. R.S., has shown that the waste in gunpowder (average)
is sixty-eight per cent. its own weight, only thirty-two per cent. being
useful. General Von Leuk has succeeded in timing the velocity of the
explosion. In his hands it possesses either one foot per second, or one
foot in x50 of a second. The General uses it in the proportion of one-
fourth to one-third weight of powder, occupying Ivo of the length of
the powder cartridge. Experiments made by the Austrian Committee
show that 100 rounds could be fired of gun-cotton against thirty rounds
of gunpowder: 100 rounds of gun-cotton were fired from a 6-pounder
in thirty-four minutes, the gun being raised to 122° F., while in the
case of gunpowder an equal number of rounds raised the gun to such a
temperature that water easily evaporated. The comparative advantages
of gun-cotton and gunpowder for producing high velocities may be shown
from the following table :—With a Krupp’s cast-steel gun (6-pounder),
the ordinary charge of 80 ounces of powder produced a velocity of
1-338 feet per second; and with 133 ounces of gun-cotton a velocity

* See Edin. Phil. Mag., vol. xxxi,, p. 519.

80

of 1-563 feet per second was obtained; with a 12-pounder the results
were—

Calibres. Charge. Velocity, feet per second.
Cotton, lengthy. cel Oy se. arenes VO VOLO. are ie arin ue ee 1426
LEGO 5 es Bh pg 133 49 (normal powder charge) 1400
Cotton ieee cee De aa Rech Lr Cua ipen sr pute eat arid 8..0 1402*

Captain Maury, U.S. N., says that iron-clads at Charleston have re- |

mained for several hours under fire, the decks not becoming in any way
foul, from the entire absence of smoke. I think the foregoing evidence
of some of the leading men of science will show that, while it possesses the
disadvantage of ignition at a comparatively low temperature, it has the
advantages of lightness, freedom from damp, lessening of recoil, not heat-
ing or fouling, cheapness of production, and great diminution in weight ;
and, to sum up all, can be submerged in water, and dried for use accord-
ing as wanted; for cupola-ships it seems to be especially adapted, as it
would to a great extent obviate the fouling in the turrets. Sir W.
Armstrong, indeed, is of opinion that where there is no heat in the gases,
there can be no projectile force: the initial velocity, however, has been
proved to be greater than in the case of powder. Mr. Siemens, having
considered the question, 1s of opinion that the greater heat imparted to the
gun by gunpowder is owing to the greater amount of solid matter, which,
involving the heat of the gases under a pressure of some 400 atmo-
spheres, imparts a portion of the same by radiation to the side of the
‘gun, while in the case of gun-cotton gases only are produced, which
could only impart heat by the slower process of conduction, and leave a
larger margin of heat to be developed in force by expansion; while Ad-
miral Sir Edward Belcher supposes it to be owing to the greater rapidity
of the explosion, and the absence of fouling matter, which contains and
retains the heat. And it is to be hoped that the requisition of the Bri-
tish Association for a Government Commission to inquire into the de-
tails of this interesting subject will be granted. In the recent duel
between the ‘‘ Alabama” and ‘‘ Kearsage,’’ great stress has been laid on
the chain armour with which her sides were in a measure protected.
William Rowan, Ksq., C. E., of Belfast, claims the merit of its inven-
tion; he laid, some years ago, a table of results obtained from a target
composed of suspended chains, before the government. Now, no doubt,
under certain circumstances it may be of benefit—for instance, as Cap-
tain Blakely observes, in the case of cast iron shot. Strange to say, it
was known well in the reign of Elizabeth: a Captain John Yonge, an
officer of, we are told, forty years’ experience, suspended chains round

* Professor Abel, F. R. S., has shown that the formation of SOO may be
represented by the equation : ae

Cotton. Nitric Acid. Gun Cotton. Water.

81

the sides of his ships, which, he says, rendered them invulnerable to
shot and shell.* Captain Winslow, U.S. N., of the ‘‘ Kearsage,” indeed,
has replied that the chains were not so much for defence as for protect-
ing the boilers and engines of the ship. This I can readily understand,
that it was a kind of “‘impromptu” defence; but that in the case of
steel shot or shell driven from the Whitworth hexagonal, or Armstrong
110-pounder, these chains would withstand its concussion, cannot be for
a moment believed. The law of continuity of substance forbids such a
theory ; for, granting the chain netting to be formed of (7) links, then, if
one of the series of (v) were destroyed, the law of continuity would
perish, and therefore the defensive force. Again, being open, the bursting
charges of shells would readily penetrate, even supposing the fragment
of the shell to fall outside the ship.

In America it was discovered nineteen years ago that one-fourth inch
iron would withstand cast iron shell, and of course, then, chains of say
three-fourth inch would act even better; but we know thatthe ‘‘Warrior”’
target of four one-half inch rolled iron plate is no defence against steel
shells; neither did the ‘“‘ Agincourt”’ target, five one-half inch, withstand
the immense impact of the Mackay Gun; and it is highly probable that
Six or seven inches of iron would offer but slight resistance to these im-
proved pieces of ordnance. What we really want, in my opinion, is a
resisting substance outside the armour plating, for we know that the
shghtest thickness of an elastic medium increases visibly the resistance.
The Rey. Professor Haughton, M. D., F. R.$., has shown in his Table, in
connexion with armour-plated frigates, that the value of ¢?, the square of
the dynamical coefficient of elasticity produced by the collision of bodies,
is not constant, but diminishes according to some unknown law, as the
velocity of the collision increases, thus :—

Steel falling on iron with a velocity of 16 feet per sec.,
The value of ¢?= 0°2952 ;
but when the velocity increased to 40 feet per sec.,
~The value of & diminished to 0°2245.t

Hence it is apparent that, in rifled guns, the greater the initial velocity,
the less the value of rebound. In order to break the force thus aug-
mented, some intervening substance should, I think, be substituted. Cork
steeped in some alkali might be beneficial, as the lightness of the cork
and its known elastic force, with its imperviousness to flame, would ren-
der it of much advantage in deadening the force of impact. Soft metal
all along has been more successful than hard,—rigidity of substance be-
ing, it would seem, of rather detrimental tendency. In America cotton
bales are used with much advantage, being placed as we place our
hammocks round the gunwales,—their elastic force retarding the ve-
locity, and therefore decreasing the force of concussion.

* See “ Notes and Queries,” August, 1862.

+ These experiments were made by dropping spherical balls of steel, iron, and brass,
2} in. diam., and measuring the height of the rebound: in this instance the weight was
merely influenced by gravity.

RB. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. os

82

APPENDIX TO THE FOREGOING PAPER.

EXTRACTS FROM THE Report OF THE ORDNANCE COMMITTEE OF THE ~
HonorartE House or Commons, 1864.

Kxanunation of Captain the Hon. Arthur Cochrane, R. N.,
HT, M. 8.** Warrior.”

Quest. (2237).— Which is the most efficient weapon against an iron-
plated ship, at short range—the Armstrong 110-pounder, or the old
68 pounder ?

Ans.—I have understood, there is no doubt, that the 68-pounder, at
short ranges, having a higher initial velocity, would be the more da-
maging of the two.

Quest. (2240).—Do you suppose that in action these sights (the
Armstrong) could be easily brought into action ?

Ans.—No; and when at sea with the squadron, last summer, we had
to abstain from firing, even when firing slowly, on account of the dense
smoke caused by the Armstrong guns, which created more smoke, and
of a worse character, than all the rest of the guns.

Colonel W. B. Gardiner, R. A.

Quest. (by the Right Hon. W. Monsell, Chairman).— Were you pre-
sent at the experiments which were tried, both in November and again
very recently, with the Armstrong and Whitworth guns against the
iron target ?

Ans.—Yes; I was.

Quest_—What was the impression produced upon your mind with
regard to the power of penetrating with the Armstrong ? Which of the
two guns was the more successful on these two occasions ?

Ans.—I think, as regards the Warrior target, the Whitworth was
by far the more successful. I know the Whitworth got through, and
the other did not; that was at a range of 800 yards.

Captain A. T. Blakely, R.A.

Quest.— What is the armament of “ La Gloire ?”’

Ans.—She has 64 inch rifled guns, of a weight of 5 tons.

Quest.— What is the weight of the shot?

Ans.—The guns throw bolts of 99 lbs.

Quest.—Do you think the Armstrong 110-pounder, at 400 yards,
would have the same effect on ‘‘ La Gloire” as a French gun ?

Ans.—I think not.

Quest—Then you think the French guns are superior to the Arm-
strong gun ?

Ans.—I am sure of if.

83

The weight of the Armstrong 110-pounder is 83 cwt.
» the old 68-pounder, 95 ewt.
Whitworth 12-pounder (breech-loader), 34 CIgan SDS --
Weight of shot, 14,3,8; Ibs.
Initial velocity, 121 feet per sec.
By multiplying the weight ofthe shot by the square of the velocity,
the result is 22,813,000 lbs. work done.

Comparison between the ‘‘ Royal George’ and ‘‘ Glatton.”

|
]
|
|

H. M.S. “ Royal George,” 78 Guns. H.M.S. ‘‘Glatton”’ (iron-cased), Battery, 14 Guns.
Tonnage, 2616. Tonnage, 1535. |
Speed, 9°375 knots. Speed, 4°5 knots. |
Length between perpendiculars, 205 ft. Length between perpendiculars, 172 ft.

7 in. eee uty
Breadth, extreme, 54 ft. 63 in. Breadth, extreme, 45 ft. 25 in.
Draught forward, 22 ft. 10 in. Draught forward, 8 ft. 4 in.
3». aft, 23 ft. 10 in. yp eealt, Olt. S ID.
Displacement, 4110. Displacement, 1640.
Rate in knots per hour, 10°397. Rate in knots, 14°539.
Length to breadth, 3°77. |
Nominal horse power, 400. | Nominal horse power, 150.
Speed, ° x mid. sec. indicated power,| Ditto, 49-8.
543°5.
Speed, * x displacement 2, indic. power. | Ditto, 18 °3.
aed 302;

The greatest sea speed yet obtained is that of the ESD and
Holyhead R. M.S. ‘‘ Connaught,” 2056 tons, 8. m.; length, 3482 feet ;
17:797 knots (mean) = 20°502 statute miles ; nominal horse power, 720;
indicated horse power, 4200.

Result of official Trial of H. M. Armour-cased Steam Sloop, “ Enterprise”
(designed by Mr, Reed, Constructor of the Royal Navy).
Guns. Draught forward. Draught aft.
4 | 11 ft. 10 in. 15 ft. 8 in.

Horse Power.
160

Tonnage.
990

|
| FULL BOILER POWER. |
Speed at measured Mile.

]
ae gee Pee | tee | vera. |), Sooo |
Ss Ibs. |

Mea... | 7 40) «(98 (a8 | Dee 26 56
meeond run,” .-. . bo 13 — 19-027 224 26 99 2
idan. . : 2 | 6 82] 98 To2600| 22 264 Da
Fourth run,. . 5 3 | 100 | 11°881 23 27 We
Fifth run, 7 26: 97 | 8-072 | 22 CO A ake ae
Sixth run, 518 | 100 | 117681 | 223 262 ee

84

Taking the first of the above runs, we get—

First means, . . . | 9°913 | 9-982 | 9°923 | 9-976 | 9-880 |
Second means,. . . 9-880 | 9:952 | 9:949 | 9-928 a |

¢

giving the true mean speed of the ship 9°227 knots, or about 10 statute
mile per hour.

HALF BOILER POWER.
Speed at measured Mile.

Time. Speed. Revol. Engine. | Press. Steam. | Vacuum.
m. s§s Ibs.
HirsG cul yes eee Oree ot 8°022 80 19 26
Second run,. . .'.-. 8 54 | 9:363 81 19 264
Third run, . 8 56 6°716 81 19 26
Bourth run, . Co AS) 9-409 82 19 264

|

Average speed at half boiler power, 8°105 knots.
In all these runs the force of wind was 5.

STEERING QUALITIES.

Angle of Rudder.| Time of Full Circle.

Degrees. m. s.
30 4 14 Port, Ault speed
29 4 18 Starboard, ae
27 4 3 Port,
28 Ae aol Starboard, AE SESBU

89

The Rey. Samuvez Havenrox, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on AnrmAL Mecwanics,
No. 1V.—On tHe Muscurar ANATOMY oF THE LION.

Durine the month of January last a fine Lion died of fever in the
Zoological Gardens of this city, which had lived there for upwards of
twelve years. I purchased his body for the use of the Anatomical
School of Trinity College, in which the dissections were made which
are used in this paper. Iam indebted to Mr. Little, Medical Scholar
of Trinity College, for the drawings from which two of the woodcuts
were copied. The animal was in fine condition; both fat and muscle
being well developed, which was to be expected, as he died after a short
illness, which commenced on the 27th of December, 1863, and terminated
fatally on the morning of the 12th of January, 1864. The Lion died of
fever, and his chance of recovery was destroyed by the occurrence of
three days’ frost during his illness. We had no means of protecting
him from the cold, and from the still more deadly damp that followed
it during the thaw; and notwithstanding that he rallied for one day,
under the influence of stimulants, he ultimately succumbed to the dis-
ease, and died with all the symptoms of a human being in fever. The
only pathological appearances found after death were—a small circum-
scribed patch of consolidation in the right lung, and traces of chronic
rheumatic arthritis in the right shoulder joint.

Part I.—Mouscrzs oF THE Hip anp Kner Jornts.

1. M. biceps femoris weighs . . - . 272 02.

This muscle is shown in Fig. 13, and forms a massive triangular
sheet, having for its origin the highest point of the tuber ischit; and is
inserted by strong fascia continuously from the middle of the femur
covering the vastus externus, down the entire length of the outer side of
the leg, as far as the tendo Achillis, round which it is fastened. The
total length of the muscular fibres from tuber ischit to tendo Achillis is
227, inches, and from tuber aschw to highest insertion on femur 83
inches ; and when the leg is extended, the third side of the musthlar
triangle j is 17i inches. If the whole sheet of muscle be supposed of
uniform thickness (which was nearly the case), the simultaneous contrac-
tion of all its fibres will draw the base of the muscular triangle towards
its origin, parallel to itself; and the resultant of all the forces will lie
in the bisector of the vertical angle. This resultant must therefore
divide the base in the proportion of 224 to 82 inches. On making the
calculation, it is found that the resultant intersects the base at a point
12°38 inches above the tendo Achillis. This point corresponds with the
knee joint, and the effect of the whole muscle is the same as that of a

Single linear muscle from the ¢uber aschit to the top of the fibula.

2. M. bicipiti accessorius.*
This muscle is represented by
a long slender slip, intimately
associated with the biceps, two
feet in length, passing from the
os caleis to the posterior point
of the sacrum. It is shown at
x, Fig. 14.

3. M. agitator caude weighs

64 02.

Origin from Ist, 2nd, and
part of 3rd caudal vertebree.

Insertion, by a long tendon
into the outer side of the patella.
This muscle is shown at c, Fig.
14. Its use is to wag the tail
in a feline, not canine fashion ;
and also to secure the proper
action of the patella preparatory
to aspring. This seems to be
the final cause of the violent
agitation of the tail, vibrated
from its first and second ver-
tebree, that forms so remarkable
a characteristic of all the Felines.
Considered from this mechanical
point of view, the function of
the agitator caude in the Lion
is similar to that of the rectus
femoris in the Ostrich.

4. 0. semitendinosus (4, Fig.
14) AWelshs., see pe e LOlOZ
Origin from tuber ischir.

Insertion, at upper point of
trisection of the tibza.

5. I. semimembranosus (x,
Fig. 14), weighs . . 264 oz.
Origin, from tuber ischi.

Insertion, into head of tzbza,
with a broad fascial insertion
above and below the knee joint.

LEFT LEG OF LION.

(with skin removed, showing superficial layer of
muscles). ‘

A, M. agitator caude.

B, UM. biceps femoris.

c, Crest of the iliwm.

D, Tendinous insertion of posterior fibres of bi-
ceps, round tendo Achillis.

E, Tuber ischii.

F, Patella.

G, MW. semitendinosus.

H, Great trochanter.

* It was suggested to me by Mr. Little that this muscle was the representative of the __
plantaris ; aud as I had found it to occur in the Dog and Badger, I was disposed to
regard it as the representative of this muscle in the Carnivores. I am compeiled to
abandon this view from the observation of the fact, that in the Otter, in which animal
also it is found, there is a well-marked plantaris occupying its usual position in the calf

of the leg.
+ For details, ode Fig. 15.

The diceps and se-
mimembranosus act in
planes parallel to the
plane of motion of the
knee joint, and from
their mode of action
must both have result-
ants passing through
the junction of the
thigh and leg, so that
they must be regarded
as principally exten-
sors of the thigh, and
not as flexors of the
leg. The semetendino-
sus, on the other hand,
acts as a flexor of the
leg, and seems to ab-
duct by the same angle
that gracilis adducts;
so that, considering
that their weights are
nearly equal, the re-
sultant of gracilis and
semitendinosus will
also lie in the plane of

motion of the knee

joint.
6. I. gracilis weighs
9 02.
7. I.* adductor
magnus weighs 27+ oz.
Origin, inner border

of symphysis pubis, and

round the edge of the

MM. obturator externus,
as far as the tuber

:
|
|
|

aschit.
Insertion, along the

linea aspera, through
entire length of the
back of the femur.

8. Wf. adductor lon-

gus weighs. . 22 oz.

A,
B,
Cc,
D,
E,
F,
G,
H,
K,
L,
M,
N,

Oo,
P,
Q,
R,

LEFT LEG OF LION.

(with biceps femoris reflected, to show the dee per muscles).

M. biceps femoris, reflected.

MM. gluteus maximus.

M. agitator caude.

M. gluteus medius, its lower border reflected, to show,

M. gluteus minimus.

s, M. vastus eaternus.

M. semitendinosus.

M. semimembranosus.

M. bicipiti accessorius.

Tuber ischit.

M. gastrocnemius.

Portion of gastrocnemius, sending a separate tendon to
the patella.

Lateral ligament of knee.

Patella.

M, iliocapsularis.

M. rectus femoris.

* The action of the adductor magnus is one of the most complicated in animal mecha-
nics—for its origin is a curve, and its insertion a line, and these lie in different planes.

Probably, in the Lion, half its muscular force is expended in simple extension of the
femur, and the remaining portion, as in man, opposes the gluteus medius.

88

9. If, pectineus passes over lesser trochanter, and weighs . 2 oz.

10. M. gluteus maximus (8, Fig.14) weighs. . . . . 84 oz.

Origin, from last sacral vertebre.

Insertion, into gluteal trochanteric ridge, for 24 inches.

11. M. gluteus medius (pv, Fig.14) weighs . . . 144 02.

These gluter divide the interval from the first caudal vertebra to the
crest of the ilium, equally.

12. M. gluteus minimus (z, Fig. 14) weighs . . . . . 22 o2.

Origin, from the dorsum of the ilium.

Insertion, at inner side of great trochanter.

13. MU. tensor vagine femoris* weighs. . . . . . . G6hoz.
14. M. sartorius weighs . pe eee LT some
15. M. rectus femoris (R, Fig. 14), weighs oS eee a) eOze
16. MM. vasti et crureus, . . ee tees cin, | ek ROE
VU. MS PSOds ParvUs, ee) Mano ae eae rae
18. 00 Psoadivacusy se Fei oe a eee Ooze
19.07. guadratus femoris, i Os i a eS One

Origin, from tuber ischi.

Insertion, into posterior intertrochanter ridge.

This muscle acts in the plane of the knee joint.

20. M. thocapsularis (a, Fig.14), weighs. . . . . . 0°58 02.

Origin, from eum, behind the origin of rectus femoris.

Insertion, into the front of the femur, on the line below the great
trochanter.

Ot. AL, pyriformisiwelghs or ee an) cae
22. M. obturator externus weighs. . . . . 2 2. , 2-600”
23. M. obturator internus weighs. . . 2. 1} 2) (Above

It has been well observed by Cuvier, that man is remarkably dis-
tinguished from the Quadrumans, by the preponderance of the gluteus
maximus over the other gluter. This is essentially a bipedal character-
istic, as is shown in the following comparative Tables :—

Comparison of Gluteal Muscles in Man.

Man.
12) Gluteeus) maximus, 6 coy ae) erat ye Si 9 ate toe ce een ee
23) Gluteous: mediusyo 306.04 veut. oye ean’ are aiek | her ct UR
Se/Gluteous MIMTM WSs 8) irate | osha Wane ae ie ete eee ec}

109 parts.

Comparison of Gluteal Muscles in the Macaque, the Lion, and the Ostrich.

. Macaque. Lion. Ostrich.
1. Gluteeus maximus, Agitator caude, and Tensor vagina, 5
combined, . AY Cipemnavoran aig aus oad cate ue “ ub
2. Gluteeus: mediuss ere Bie ia een Nye Aoi 61 43 21
oO. GlutesusMiIniMUs, eee, eke WO alee Aa setts coro il 8 3

oy —
eee

100 100 100

* The tensor vagine and sartorius, when acting in conjunction to flex the thigh,
give a resultant in the plane of the knee joint.

89

Judged by the preceding. comparative Tables, Man possesses the
characteristic referred to, in a lesser degree than the Ostrich, in a greater.
degree than the Lion, and in a very much greater degree than the /a-
cacus Nemestrinus. Strictly speaking, the Macaque is neither a biped
like the Ostrich or Man, nor a quadruped like the Lion, but is a climber,
and has relations of forces among the muscles of the posterior limb
suited to that mode of locomotion.

The following figure, which shows the arrangement of the tendons

_at the inner side of the knee joint, was drawn from nature by my son,

and will serve to explain any obscurity in the preceding descriptions
of the muscles and their attachments :—

Fig. 15.

y

i]
y

THT UA WY pti, Lf 3
MW AGMA Mr

{ Ve)
LW,

HR SQQQQ Gg SST SS
: EN =

INNER SIDE OF LEFT KNEE OF LION.

F, Femur. Q, E, 1, M. quadriceps extensor internus.
a, Tibia. | m1, and m 2, Insertions of M. semimem-
s, M. sartorius, reflected. branosus into the tibia, femur, and patella.
P, M. popliteus. Cc, T, Aponeurosis.

G, M. gastrocnemius. L, L, Lateral ligament of knee joint.

Part I1.—Action or tHe Mvscies oF THE Hip anp Kneze Jornrts.

The most important of the muscles just enumerated exert their
action in extending or flexing the thigh upon the body in the plane of
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. N

J0

motion of the knee joint, which is parallel to the brim of the acetabulum
in ordinary positions of the leg.
They may be classed as follows :—

1. Extensors of Thigh.

Ozs.
1. Biceps femoris, 0 Sh5 eee, SOL a ee ied egy
2. Semitendinosus):) 2 oF 0k ss co seh ae) pale ee eae
2. Semimembranosus,-.. 3) Dy eae yee ee
A Gracilis res, ir cee ar rane ten oo he Ue CR ee ee 9-00
5. Adductor marnis;* . 200s <0 a ioe ta ee te bone
6: Adductor-longis;s ens. 7s Wort ess es a ee 2°75
7,-Quadratus femoris. so secu sug thoes oe Re eee 1°58

Total moment of Extension of Thigh, . . . . 90°95 oz.
2. Flexors of Thigh.

Ozs.
1. Tensor vagina femoris, 3 ess ee ee eo
2): SAKGOVims, <2) 531.4 rer ote stele ion) otra atl PenLcemeay to cee 11°75
3: Fs0adilacus, 7718s oo bee Se! Cerra LCE

Total moment of Flexion of Thigh, , . . .. 29:00 oz.

From the preceding it appears that the total moment of extension ex-
ceeds that of flexion in the proportion of 91 to 29, nearly, or more than
three times.

Let us now suppose the thigh flexed on the body at an angle of 45°,
as it would be preparatory to a spring, and consider the action of the
remaining muscles of the hip joint. They all tend to turn the femur in
planes perpendicular to the plane already considered, and which all pass
through the axis perpendicular to the brim of the acetabulum.

T examined carefully the azimuths of the planes of motion of these
muscles on the rim of the acetabulum, in the position of the thigh
described, and found them to be as follows, counting from right to left,
on the left leg of the Lion:—

Rotators of Thigh.

Muscles. Azimuth. moment
ZS.

1; Obturatorexternuss: 5 255°, 22857 se Urner eee ers 28742 00)
2. RECLIBUCUS fcit oa ores te) oe eee eh a 00) Sickie eee cMe
5. Mligjecapsularis, Saat eehas ae heris eel as BAG oa ueee 0°53
4.,Glutzus minimus: 5) 2 soo... OH Berea ae eee OO
5s Gloteus medits,: i sm2) a y.0 (6 et, sha pat BOO ee oe
GAP yriornisjer sis je: eae os 2-0) - ins se OO a aa mE
7. Gloteus MaxXimusy i) jse<s isa ehedo a OG eee 3°50
8. Obturator infernus, \c2) 2m: 4... been 2 Fe
9. Agitator canday Fass Nes ee ee DET Wee) pote eee DO
10. AdJduetor magnus, 25250. ie 60) cues aie gees eae

——

Total moment of Muscles rotating the Thigh,. . 51:00 oz.

* Half the force of the adductor magnus is here supposed to act in the plane of mo-
tion of the knee joint.

91

It is probable that the muscles here given as rotators never act together
in one leg only, for the Lion never attempts to stand on one leg; but
it may be useful to calculate what would be the direction and magnitude
of their total resultant. Assuming the plane of the component couple
X to be that of the muscles obturator externus and adductor magnus, we
find—

AX = 16°22 + 0°75 cos 60° — 0°53 cos 31° — 17 cos 13° — 6 cos 86°
+10°5 cos 83°= 0:29 oz.

Y=0+ 0°75 sin 60° + 0°53 sin 31° — 12 sin 13°— 6 sin 86°
— 10°5 sin 83° = — 18°18 oz.

Y
cae tan (89° 5’)

f ¥2 + X2 = 18°180z.

The resultant moment of all the muscles causing rotation lies, therefore,
in a plane nearly perpendicular to the plane of the obturator externus,
and is represented by a weight of lion flesh of 18°18 oz. acting towards
the body.

When the Lion crouches on his haunches, with his feet somewhat
apart, and knees approximated, acting as fulcra, the origins and inser-
tions of the rotator muscles are converted, and they all become avail-
able to assist in his spring, which is thus aided by the propulsion of the
haunch upwards by the joint action of the rotator muscles of both legs;
and his body is at the same time propelled forward by the action of all
the extensors of the thigh, leg, and foot of both sides.

Part JIT.—Muscies or SHOULDER AND ExBow Jornts.
1. M. pectoralis mayor, . . 34+ oz.
Origin, from whole length of sternum.
Insertion, into whole length of pectoral ridge of humerus, with a
slip joining the deltovdo-trapezius as it passes on to be inserted in
the radius.
MPCs INOT, 5 sw le sew Se ge te LE OF.
3. M. deltoido-trapezius, . . i 153 OZ.
This conjoined muscle forms a 1 large sheet, covering the scapula
and head of humerus, and flowing freely over them in the rapid
actions of the arm; it is inserted partly into the moveable
clavicle, and partly into the inner side of the ulna, one inch
below the elbow joint.
4, M. deltoideus proprius, . . °
Origin, anterior third of spine of scapula.
Insertion, deltoid ridge on outer side of humerus.

(5. MW. cleido- mastoideus, Ae - 42 oz.
This muscle has a double « origin, “from the mastoid process and from

the transverse process of the dentatus ; it is inserted into the float-
ing clavicle.

3
45 OZ.

92

6. I. levator anguli scapula, . ay:
Origin, from the fascia in the upper part of side of neck,
Insertion, into the anterior extremity of the vertebral edge of the

scapula.
7. M. serratus magnus, . . 6 1 6 ee ew ew we 20F 07.
8. M. rhombordeus mayor, . : 72 OZ.

This muscle is inserted into the vertebral edge ‘of the scapula, and
rotates it in a direction opposite to that of the serratus magnus.

9. M. rhomboideus minor,’ . «teats tine OZ
This muscle, though rudimentary, 1S distinct.
10. M. supraspinatus, . . pe ie 2 eee es bas Oza

Ll. Mownfraspinatis, Sa ee eS ee oe lik Oz
12... subscapularis, <6. a. eee a ee ee
13: Mo triceps,. es ee a ee
14. UW. teres myor, . aii eee Oe
Origin, whole posterior edge of the scapula.
Insertion, into the middle third of the humerus, by means of a flat
tendon.
15. M. latissimus dorsi, . . . oe. 20s OZe
This vast sheet of muscle is inserted into the middle of the tendon of
the teres major, at four inches distant from the humerus.

16. 4. biceps,.--.- =. sf Piste Goss: sqpaeomenet aise mtemesnels INCOM
17. M. brachialis ontornus, 5 eee ete esheets ali ot ae cal ee gam ge 2 OZ.
18. WU. coraco- brachial, wee + 02.

This muscle is rudimentary, but regular, and ] possesses | a, long tendon,
also rudimentary.

Part 1V.—Muscizs of Masricatton.
1. YW. masseter.

This muscle is divided into two distinct portions; one external, with
fan-shaped fibres radiating from the angle of the jaw, and more or less
horizontal; and the other internal, with vertical fibres, arising from
the whole internal surface of the zygoma, and inserted into the masse-
teric cavity of the ramus.

The external, or horizontal portion, weighs . . . . . Illoz

The internal, or vertical portion . . . 64

The second portion of the masseter is a direct closer of the mouth.

2. M. temporals.

The temporal muscle is also divided into two; one superficial,
arising partly from the superficial fascia, and partly from the margin of
the temporal fossa, behind the ear, and from the back of the orbit; this
portion, in passing downwards to the coronoid process, becomes blended
with the internal portion of the masseter on the outer side, and with the
second portion of the temporalon the inner side.*

* This superficial portion of the temporal muscle is well seen in the Otter, in which
animal it is better separated from the masseter, and from the true temporal, than in
the Lion.

93

The second part of the temporal muscle has the usual origin and
insertion.

The superficial temporal WMCISHS 8 ieee Ts 0,1) Sea on:

The true temporal, . . . 16202.

The vertical fibres of the masseter close the jaw ‘directly without
producing any pressure on the joint; but the fan-shaped fibres of this
muscle cause a powerful pressure on the condyle of the lower jaw,
forcing it backwards into its socket. Such seems to be also the function
of the superficial fibres of the temporal muscle, which press the condyle
into its socket, as well as close the mouth. This pressure seems to be
necessary, In consequence of the habit the Lion has of carrying his prey
in his mouth for a long time before he devours it; for the weight so car-
ried would inevitably dislocate the jaw, if there were not a special pro-
vision made in the action of the masticating muscles to guard against it.

3. MM. piterygoider.

The first part of these (externus) weighs . . 2 07.

Its origin is the posterior portion of the pterygoid plate, and it is
inserted into the masseter muscle at the angle of the jaw. Its action
is to draw the fibres of the masseter forward, and give them a longer
leverage.

The second portion of the pterygoid muscle (internus) weighs 2 oz.

It arises from the anterior portion of the pterygoid plate, with an
extensive origin also from the floor of the orbit, and is inserted two
inches from the angle of the jaw.

Its action is to close the jaw, and draw it forward.

4, M. digastricus, . . - 22 02.

This is the proper muscle ‘for opening the mouth in all the car-
nivora.

Its origin is the mastoid process.

Its insertion is into a line 34 inches in length backwards from the
symphysis of the jaw, along the mylo-hyoid ridge.

The Rey. Samvrn Haventoy, M. D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dub-
lin, read the following Paper :—

Nores on AnrmAt MecHANICS.

No. V.—TIae Mouscunar ANATOMY OF THE SEAL.*

Tue muscular anatomy of the Seal differs in many important particu-
lars from that of the other Carnivores; and this difference seems to be
occasioned principally by its aquatic habits, which render it better
_ adapted for locomotion in the water than on dry land. In the anterior

-* The drawings from which the woodcuts were made were taken from nature by my
son.

94

limbs, everything is sacrificed to the swimming action of the arms,
- which seem to be placed in the centre of elliptical masses of muscles
converging to a common centre, the fibres of which, by their successive
contraction, produce the monotonous circular motion requisite for swim-
ming; while the feathering action of the hand is provided for by power-
ful supinators. In the posterior extremity the swimming action is more
like that of the tail of the fish, and consequently the feet are blended
with the tail, and their swimming action is effected chiefly by lowering
the insertions of all the muscles, thus sacrificing the delicate motions of |
the thigh to the coarser action of the whole leg, considered rather as a
portion of the tail than as a distinct member of the body.
Notwithstanding this subordination of the function of the muscles in
both extremities to the purposes of a single and simple action, it is
wonderful to observe how perfectly each muscle retains its indivi-
duality ; so much so, indeed, that there are few animals whose muscles
in both limbs are more perfectly developed than are those of the Seal.

Part I.—Muscuies oF THE ANTERIOR LIMBS.

1. ML. pectoralis myor, . ~) UlOcoz
This muscle arises from the whole length of the sternum (14
inches), and is inserted into the well-marked pectoral ridge of
the humerus; its fibres are succeeded at the xiphoid cartilage by
the converging fibres of the next muscle, which forms the lower
half of the superficial muscular ellipse, having its centre at the
head of the humerus.
2. M. latissimus dorsi superficialis, . . oot) el Siom
Origin; usual origin from posterior aspects of posterior ribs and
back, in front blending with the panniculus carnosus, it takes
an origin from the anterior line of the pelvis and mesian line of
the abdomen, completing its semielliptical origin at the xiphoid
cartilage, where it is succeeded by the great pectoral.
Insertion; by means of a tendon common to it and great pectoral
into pectoral ridge.
3. MW. Trapezius, . oo, 4h 0%
Origin ; from all the cervical and dorsal vertebrae.
Insertion; into the outer side of head of humerus, and into the
spine of the scapula.
This muscle continues through another quadrant the elliptical
circuit of muscles commenced by Nos. | and 2.

4, M. humero-occipitalis, . . 4 07.
Origin ; from posterior line of the aponeurotic origin of the tempo-
ral muscle.

Insertion ; pectoral ridge of humerus, inner side.

This muscle 1s continuous with the trapezius behind, and with
the pectoralis mayor in front, and completes the elliptical circuit
of superficial muscles, which may be regarded as an essential
characteristic of aquatic quadrupeds. It corresponds to the su-

95

-perior part of the human trapezius, which is inserted in the
clavicle.
M. Sternomastoideus.
The sternal portion of the mastoid muscle is represented in the Seal
by two distinct muscles—

(a)—The first having its origin inside the top of the sternum, and
its insertion, by a fine ye into the mastoid portion of the
temporal bone, . . : 1 oz.

(4)—The second having its origin from the whole length of the
first rib ; and its insertion into the under part of the lower jaw,
near the symphysis.

6. UL. Omo-atlanticus, . . Se ear io LOZ.

Origin ; from transverse process of the atlas.

Insertion ; into the top of the pectoral ridge of the humerus, on the
outer side.

This is the muscle which I have described in Note 2, as occurring
in Cercopithecus and Macacus, under the name of trachelo-
acromius, of Cuvier. In the Seal, its insertion is shifted from
the spine of the scapula to the humerus, where it assists the
general swimming or rotatory action of the limb.

. I. levator anguli anterioris scapula, . cheers 2 oz.

Origin; from the transverse process of the atlas.

Insertion; into the vertebral edge of the scapula, at the end of the
scapular ridge.

This is the levator angult scapule of anthropotomists, with origin
and insertion somewhat shifted ; it is really a portion of the J/.
serratus magnus.

8. LW. serratus magnus,. . . . . not recorded.

Origin ; from the transverse processes ‘of the cervical vertebrae
from the 2nd to the 7th.

Insertion ; into the vertebral edge of the oe behind its spine.

9. WM. levator anguli posterioris scapule, . » . mee le -0n:

Origin ; central portion of occipital ridge.

Insertion ; posterior exterior angle of “vertebral edge of scapula;
marked d, Fig. 17.

The Sa cal action of both levators is similar.

10%. latissimus dorst proprius, . 5g SEO,

The true latissomus dorst underlies the superficial, “already noticed,
and consists of two parts, quite distinct, viz.—

Mieesummiero-dorsalis; 5) we ee 2 02.

(2) Scapulo-costalis, . . . . Po ees 3 oz.

The first of these muscles (1), or haere dorsalis, represents the

latissimus dorsi of anthropotomists; its origin is from the spinous pro-

cesses of the posterior dorsal vertebree and from their ribs ; and its inser-

tion is by means of a tendon common to it and the M. teres imfervor into

the inner side of the upper part of the humerus, at the line marked (4)
in Fig. 16.

By

“I

96

Tts action is to rotate the arm inwards, and extend it upon the body ;
and it also serves mechanically, to keep the posterior angle of the

scapula close to the ribs, for in

passing to its insertion in the hu-

merus, it overlaps the scapula over

the space marked (a) in Fig. 17,

which also represents the origin of

the teres inferior muscle.

The second part of the true /a-
tissimus dorse muscle, (2) called
scapulo-costalis, has an abdominal
origin (with indigitations), corre-
sponding to the dorsal origin of the
humero-dorsalis, beneath which it
passes to be inserted on the inner
face of the cartilaginous prolonga-
tion of the vertebral edge of the
scapula marked ain Fig. 16. These
two muscles form a portion of an
inner elliptical plane of converg-
ing fibres, corresponding to the
outer plane of the superficial latis-
simus dorst, whose function- as a
swimming muscle has been already
noticed.

11. M. teres inferior, . . 402,
Origin; marked a in Fig. 17.
Insertion ; by tendon common
to it and latissimus dorsi hu-
mero-dorsalis into line marked
6, in Fig. 16.

12. M. teres supertor, . 1°47 oz.
Origin; triangular space on
outer side of scapula, marked
ce, Fig. 17, and from spine of
scapula.

Insertion; outer side of pec-
toral ridge, along line marked
Des Vee Ne

13. MM. supraspinatus, . 1°85 oz.

14. Infraspinatus, . . 0°47 oz.
Inserted just above the teres
supervor, on the humerus.

15. MW. subscapularis,. . 5°5 oz.

16: DL. triceps, ss 3 250 07,

This muscle has two scapular

scapular heads is marked 6, Fig. 17, the other is near the glenoid cavity,

Fig. 16.

NS ANRENS ON
i " \ i AN Aan

fae

\S

6 ame

INNER SIDE OF LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF SEAL,

a, Insertion of M. latissimus dofsi scapulo-
costalis.
b, = M, latissimus dorsi humero-
dorsalis, and M. tares infe-
7101".

and one humeral head; one of the

and the humeral head is as usual in all mammals.

ee

——

17. M. tricipity accessorius, . . Dice nana) OO O2%
This muscle is superficial, aud has its origin in the fascia underlying

the skin of the back of the arm—it aids the trzceps, and also braces up
the skin of the back of the arm.
18. J. anconeus, . . 0°23 oz. Fig. 17.
Origin ; back of inner con-
dyle.
Insertion ; inner side of
olecranon process.
19. M. biceps humeri, . 1°20 oz.
20. M. brachialis externus = Su-

pinator radi longus,
0°20 oz.

Origin ; line on humerus
in continuation of that
of the insertion of teres
superior. "

Insertion ; anterior supe- ‘ G ys i
rior crest of radius (sty- :
loid process), by means
of strong twisted ten-
dinous fascia.

21. UW. brachialis anticus,
0°35 grs.

Origin ; whole outer sur-
face of humerus, below
the insertion of teres su-
pertor (Fig. 17, e), and
origin of brachialis ex-
ternus.

Insertion ; upper and back
side of ulna, on a line
level with the insertion
of the biceps into the tu-
bercle of the radius.

2. Pronators, . . . 1°55 oz.
viz., 1. Pronator radii teres,
2. Llexor carpi radiahs,
3. Flexor communis, dr-
lice ha & ed Sripin Rane OUTER SIDE OF LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE SEAL.
the inner condyle of the , Oncot ata ee ft
) pular origins of triceps.
humerus. ce, Origin of teres superior.
Bae Hierors. of wrist, Thapctin g ee Insertion of tees Coe ae scapule =
their origin from the olecranon ’ j
DEOGEES) 45. ye
viz.
R, I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 0

a
=

J}

\

Ria)
_ \

Eee Een en ia LOE

98

1. Flexor carpi ulnaris,
2. Hlexor digitorum communis,
3. LVatatorvus cuticularis.
24. Supinators having origin from external condyleof humerus, 0°85 oz.
viz.
1. Extensor carpi radials,
2. Supinator levis.

25. Supinators having origin from olecranon process . . . 0°55 0z.
Viz. :
1. Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.
2. Extensor promi pollicis internodi.

26. Hxtensors of wrist, having origin from the external condyle of the
humerus, 3776 7 A 1 ee ORO KOz
Viz.,
1. Hxtensor carpi ulnaris.
2. Extensor digitorum communis.
3. Extensor minima digite.

Parr [].—Muvsctres or tne Posterior Limes.

POU MGS tC Ah eM OD Come ook NIMS.
Origin ; from symphysis pubis (vide Fig. 18, 5).
Insertion ; whole length of side of tibia.

Fig. 18. .
—_——F i
nh iy BN :

“>,
-

omnes

RIGHT SIDE OF THE PELVIS OF THE SEAL,

a, Origin of the adductor solus. e, Origin of the rectus femoris.

b, 3 gracilis. ae “ sartorius.

Cy abe pectineus. q) Hl gluteus medius.
d, 5 iliacus. ! h, ss gluteus minimus.

99

2. M. adductor solus, . . « 0°45 oz.

Origin ; from 2 in. behind symphysis pubis, for one inch along the
ramus of the ischium (vide Fig. 18, a).

Insertion ; if the tibia be divided into sixths, the insertion of this,

the only adductor, is into the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th sixths reckoned

from the top.
3. IL. pectineus,. . Sei em ea ero eK OOOKOZ
The origin is shown it in Fig. 18, C
4, M.tlacus, . WAN Netter oa OOO OZe

Origin ; marked in Fie. 18, de
Insertion ; the inner condyle of the femur.

5. A. quadriceps extensor femoris, . . 1°15 oz.
Origin; the origin of the rectus is shown i In 1 Fig. 18, es
6. I. sartorius, . . beers teat Rt) ake’ oi counter MOND OZ,

Origin ; shown in Fie. 18 oe
Insertion ; inner side of the patella, and overlying the rectus femo-
ris.
7. WI. tensor vagine femoris, . . - not recorded.
Origin ; from the fascia covering the crest of the ilium, and overly-
ing the gluteus medvus.
Insertion ; outer side of the patella.
8. WT. gluteus maximus, . . 2°34 oz.
Insertion, into the great trochanter, whole outer side of femur, and
top of fibula.

9. M. gluteus medius, including pyriformis, . . . . . « 0°48 02.
Origin ; marked at g, Fig. 18. .

10. I. gluteus minimus, . joer lllsst eiente al eten O4On0Z,
Origin; marked at ‘h, Fig. 18.

11. M. agitator caudea, . . s/ Mahheen Ce SOA eee OOS 107),

Origin ; first five caudal vertebrae.

Insertion ; upper half of the tibia.

12. Ul. obturator CLECTNUSH 2) Bere ia seit Aenean sel OD" OZ,
amIMICCBS (ONOIIS, 5 Se). OPO EO aS a 0°45 on.

Origin ; tuber aschir.

Insertion ; into the fascia covering the whole outer side of the leg,
asin the Lion and other Carnivores; it is a triangular muscle.

14, MM. semimembranosus et tendinosus, . . fo oe 0°3 5-02,

These muscles conjoined are represented by a ‘single muscle, hav-
ing its origin from the first caudal vertebra, and its insertion into
the lower third of the fibula.*

Before describing the muscles of the leg, it is worth while to sum
up the evidence for the assertion made at the commencement of
this Paper, that the muscles of the posterior limb in the Seal
differ from those of other Carnivores, principally in the shifting
of their insertions to lower points on the leg.

* It is to be observed that this muscle is inserted into the fibula, and not into the
tibia.

100

Comparison of Insertion of Muscles in the Seal and Lion.

| Point of Insertion.
Muscle. Pada tee Ub Ws Ve ELAN Pe SURE yea Oe

Seal. Lion.

Upper 2nd, 3rd, and 4th |} Whole length of back of

1. Adductor magnus, vette a fee, be } femur. :
De LtaCUs, Te ee eae) re Inner condyle of femur, . Lesser trochanter,
BGT eis minis Outer side of femur and top Along glutzal intertro-

} ae of ibulay es eae ae chanteric ridge.
‘4. Agitator caude,. . . | Upperhalf oftibia,. . . Outer side of patella.
5. Semimembranosus et : Inner side of knee, and

tendinosus, . . IOUS eho BOHIE upper third of tibia.

15. M. gastrocnemius, . suun2i 21 Of
Origin; from the back of both ‘condyles, and by 1 means of fascia,
from the heads of tibia and fibula, all round.
Insertion ; tendo Achillis.
16. MW. tibsalrs ‘posticus, : s4 45020-0278
Origin ; from the back of the tibia, below the popliteal line, and
from the interosseous membrane.
Insertion ; into the scaphoid bone, by tendon round inner ankle.
17. M. flexor digitorum communis, . . 2°03 oz.
Origin ; from the whole length of the back of the fibula and inter-
osseous membrane.
Insertion; by tendon passing round inner ankle, and afterwards
distributed to toes.

18. M. flexor hallucis, . . . 0°48 oz.
Origin ; from the oblique popliteal line on back of tibia and from
the head of fibula.

Insertion ; by tendon passing round inner ankle, into the tendon of
the last ; and dividing into branches to the toes which inosculate
with those of the common flexor.

19. Ms poplit@usy:) 58 wa wail er, ee Oras

20. M. trbvalis anticus, . . as, 0: 70s076
Insertion ; by tendon in front of ankle, into the base and back of

metatarsal of hallux.

21. M. extensor hallucis, . . . . 0°13 oz.
Origin ; interosseous membrane, and i inner edge of fibula.

Insertion ; by tendon in front of ankle, into outer side of base of
metatarsal of hallux.

22. IM. extensor digitorum communis = extensor medi digitt, . 0°55 oz.
Origin ; head of tibia, and head and upper third of fibula.
Insertion ; by a tendon in front of ankle, into the distal end of the

metatarsal of the middle toe.

[There is also a rudimentary extensor brevis. |

101

23. M. peroneus longus, . . eel a0 OS Om,

Origin ; from external condy le of the femur, ‘and by means of fascia,
from the head of the fibula.

Insertion ; by a tendon passing over the outer groove on the upper
surface of the os calcis, and thence outwards, downwards, and
inwards to the under sides of the tarsal ends of the 1st and 5th
metatarsal bones.

This muscle assists the flexors in the feathering action of the great
toe In swimming.

24. M. peroneus brevis, . Greed. NWN feet NOOO LOZ

Origin; outer side of fibula.

Insertion ; by means of a tendon passing over the inner groove on
the upper surface of the os calcis, and thence outwards and
downwards to the outer side of the tarsal end of the 5th meta-
tarsal bone.

The fibres of this muscle are blended with those of the flexor digi-
torum communis ; and it acts as a pure abductor of the little toe,
in the plane of the tibia and fibula.

Parr IIlI.—Muscrizs or MAsriIcaTiIon,

1. M. digastricus, -. . CR HEN Weenie suec) Sun pour ie. (woh: Onde OZ

2. M. massetericus externus, suits ae ated SLO,
The external fibres are directed upwards and forwards,

3. MM. temporalis et massetericus internus,. . . . 1°83 oz.

The temporal muscle cannot be separated from the internal fibres of
the masseter, which are directed downwards, and somewhat

backwards.
4. M. pterygoideus internus, . . 0°33 oz,
The fibres of this muscle are > parallel to those of the ‘external mas-
seter.
DeemmIcrygOlcUs CxtCrnus, . » . «© = « «-« + «+ 0°03 .02

MONDAY, JUNE 27, 1864.
The Rev. Joun H. Jexzertr, A. M., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Sir Wittram WILpg, read a paper

On tHE ANTIQUITIES AND Human REMAINS FOUND IN THE CouNnTY oF
Down, rn 1780, AND DESCRIBED BY THE CountTEss oF Morra IN THE
“‘ ARCH HOLOGIA,’? VOL. VII.

In the autumn of 1780, the body of a female, clothed in antique woollen
costume, was discovered in a bog, at the eastern foot of Drumkeragh

Mountain, in the barony of Kinalearty, and county of Down, the cir-

- cumstances attending which, as well as the character of the costume,

:
|
:
|
|
|

' have been described by the distinguished Countess of Moira, in a letter,
' forwarded to the Society of Antiquaries in London, in 1783. That com-

102

munication has been long known to Irish antiquarians, and appreciated
for its learning and patriotism; and I myself and others have often re-
gretted that that remarkable discovery had not taken place in our own
times, so that an opportunity might have been afforded us of examining
the costume, or procuring it for the Museum of the Academy. Owing,
however, to the liberality of one of our members, the Earl of Granard,
the great-grandson* of the original describer of these remains, I am
now enabled to present to the Museum of the Academy the great bulk
of the articles which came into the possession of Lady Moira nearly
eighty-four years ago. From an examination of some of these speci-
mens, it is manifest that a series of ‘‘ Warp lifts,”’ supposed to be a com-
paratively modern invention, was in use in Ireland when these articles
were manufactured.

In the memoir in the “ Archeologia” it is said that the human
figure referred to was found buried in hard gravel, beneath 44 feet of
bog, ‘‘and that upon and about the bones there were many garments.”
It was also stated that the cireumstances under which the body was
found showed evidences of burial; and also that the bog had been some
years previously nearly eleven feet deep inthat spot. { have, however,
been by long experience so accustomed to receive with great caution all
accounts of such matters afforded by the peasantry, even where a shorter
interval has existed between the discovery and the’recital than that re-
corded by Lady Moira, that I think we must receive with caution details
of that nature.

The hair of the individual was long, silky, and of a deep chestnut
colour; but how far this brownish-auburn tint is the original shade of
the hair, or the result of the bog colouring, is questionable.
Its present hue would be much coveted in our own day.
The plait was formed of three strands, interwoven after
the manner depicted in the adjoiming woodcut, and
closely resembles the mode of wearing the hair in vogue
among children and young girls a few years ago. The
entire plait is now fourteen inches long.

All the articles of costume described by Lady Moira
were woollen—thus indicating that at the period to which
they refer there was no linen or other vegetable fabric
employed in that part of the country. What their origi-
nal colours may have been it is now difficult to determine ;
but at present they present several varieties of brown, from a dark
orange, through the various shades of russet and sienna, to a colour
almost black. More, however, may be gleaned from the texture, and
manufacture, and pattern of the fabrics, than from the colour. All the
seams and hems are made good with woollen thread of the same colour

* Lady Elizabeth Hastings, Baroness Hastings and Hungerford, &c., in her own
right, and Countess of Moira, was mother to Lady Selina Rawdon Hastings, Countess of
Granard, from whom the present Earl inherited those portions of costume and hair referred
to in the text.

A ~~ eas re ee
oe ee ee OF ee Be

| 5 aac

na” ea hy Ps eS

SP ea aie. Se ree

of
4)
et
es
a3
if
%
-
t
ae

103

as the texture which they joined; and as there are some evidences of
patching and mending, we must conjecture either that the materials
were obtained with difficulty, or that the person was of inferior rank.
In fineness, as well as quality and pattern, they vary exceedingly. Ten
specimens have been preserved, and each differs from the other in colour,
erist of thread, and arrangement in weaving. Some of them were evi-
dently the chief garments of the person, and were intended for warmth
and protection, while others appear to have been of a decorative cha-
racter. The accompanying illustrations represent the most remarkable
_ of these patterns.

ESI —ISEESG OS
=| ate Gib qi
a iba
=e =: es aH
)) i WAY) Seat
yy iV i voy fi 4) li Us = lS ales

No. 2, accurately figured in this engraving, is a coarse camlet, pro-
bably the petticoat, in which the threads of the weft are hard and well
twisted, but those of the warp are much thicker and softer. They in-
termingle, not as in a homogeneous piece of weaving, like modern cloth
or linen, but having the warp standing in high relief, so as to present
a corded surface, like that which is known in modern phraseology as
“rep,” and which is not unlike coarse Egyptian linen.

No. 3 is of a finer quality, but nearly of the same colour and close-
ness. The pattern is what is termed herringbone, and the weaving
superior in quality to the foregoing. The portion under consideration
has been much patched, and a piece of the same manufacture forms a
patch upon the long strip of the following.

No. 4,
Me UMEEE DY eeeresd esp eet seats race]
Serer ear
Pi | bret oO Pe
Helis ali Tal fil eed
eae feet

mt |
ig To fit i Tn
eon (hivres itt i TCT uaa wa
“Tyco TIMI [ae LTD
HH ne at iH
i
i
all

rcp MU ery fo
i| an We |

{ ] Di n {
} i) TA
MY WUT prs t

4 iN) } Oo

Thi
TAT) PU Ta
VT h

|
i) (ia
in cf ea
Tau
i 1 |
ren | Perea ata
PU

VICI py

No. 4 is a thin, loosely woven, and open huckaback, as shown in the

104

foregoing cut; it has a broad thick hem running along the edge; in
colour it is nearly of a tint with the two preceding patterns.

Somewhat like No. 2, is a beautiful soft fragment, with a diaper
twill, and of a light warm colour, partaking of a shade of orange. It
probably formed a part of the cloak or mantle. Ofthe same colour, but
of a light serge texture, there is a small fragment of woollen stuff still
remaining; likewise some portion of cording, apparently used in tieing
or confining the dress.

The two remaining articles are of extreme interest. One of these,
No. 5, is evidently a fragment of a light gauzy woollen veil, of the most
delicate texture, and which it was believed
by Lady Moira was of a greenish colour
when first brought to light. The other,
No. 6, is a piece of very closely woven hard
firm thick mohair camlet of hair, not wool,
and haying on its outer surface rows of ele-
vations, from each knob of which depended
a small black tab, so that originally the cloth
must have presented an ermine appearance.
The colour is now a reddish-brown, but the oj
remains of the tabs are quite black. This
may have been part of the tunic. Even ¢
during the present century ladies’ cloaks,
tippets, and pellerines, and gentlemen’s dressing gowns, were ornamented
with ermine-like appendages of this nature.

The Rev. Samurn Haventon, M. D., F.R.8., Fellow of Trinity
College, Dublin, read a paper—

On an APPROXIMATE METHOD, FOUNDED ON OBSERVATION, OF DETERMIN-
ING THE Datty Excretion oF UREA In HEALTH AND DISEASE.

Tuer researches of chemists and physiologists, in recent times, have
demonstrated that all the nitrogen received by the body in food is eli-
minated by the kidneys; and that the supposition that the skin or lungs
contribute, except in very small proportions, to this elimination, is erro-
neous. ‘This important fact, based upon very accurate experiments,
would seem to render more necessary than it is considered usually to be
the determination of the amount of Urea excreted in health and dis-
ease.

To find the Urea in a given liquid, requires a combination of qua-
lities and circumstances that can only rarely occur to the practical
physician.

1. He must be a good chemist.

2. He must have a chemical laboratory at his disposal.

3. He must have thirty-five minutes to spare on each case in which
he determines the Urea by Liebig’s nitrate of mercury process.

= ee

Ck ah

Saeed We Ee Wie a

105

These conditions, the coexistence of which in practice is impossible,
have prevented practising physicians in modern times from paying that
minute attention to the urine of their patients that was customary in the
éarliest times of medicine.

__ Inthe accompanying Table, which is founded on many observations of

urine, both of health and disease, of specific gravities from 1003 to 1028,
I have given what I believe will prove a very useful approximation to
the daily excretion of Urea in all cases in which sugar is absent, and
albumin either absent, or only present in small quantities.

The Table is one of double entry, to be used in finding the daily
excretions of urine in fluid ounces, and its specific gravity determined
by a carefully graduated urinometer.

T submit it with confidence to the test of practical experience, as I
have so often tested it myself in fever, in pneumonia, in dyspepsia, and
in kidney diseases, that I believe it will be found a most valuable aid to
the physician, both in the prognosis and in the treatment of these and
other diseases.

D. Moons, Ph. D., read the following paper :—

Discovery or NrorrngEa rntTacta (REICHENBACH) IN [RELAND.
Natvurat Orper—ORcHIDACER.
TrIsBE—OPHRYDINER.

Section—LoroeLossum.
Genus—Neotinga (Reichenbach).

Species—intacta.

Synonyms.—Aceras intacta (Reich.). Ic. 13, p. 2.
Orchis ntacta (Link.), in ‘“‘Schrader Diar.”’ p.11 (1799).
Satyrium maculatum (Desf.), ‘‘ Fl. Atlantica,” 2, 319.
Orchis Atlantica (Willd. Sp.), 4, 442.
Aceras secundiflora (Lindley), ‘‘ Bot. Reg.,” t. 1525.
Perystylus densiflorus (Lindley), ‘‘ Orchid.’’ 298.

Habitat.—This highly interesting addition to the British and Irish
Floras was discovered, in May, 1864, growing on the dry calcareous
pastures of Castle Taylor, county of Galway, by Miss More.

OzsERVATIONS.— When Dr. Lindley described and figured this plant
in the ‘‘ Botanical Register,’ he remarked that it had an unusually
extensive geographical range for an Orchis; the present discovery, how-
_ ever, extends the range very considerably, and is highly interesting,
| geographically, when viewed in connexion with some other plants
_ which occur in the neighbouring counties of Kerry and Mayo. In those
| counties it is well known that several plants which are typical of the
| south of Europe Flora, and also of the Flora of North America, appear,
R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 1g

106

though not found elsewhere in the British Isles: they seem to form the
solitary outlying posts of the geographical distribution of the plants
belonging to those Floras.

In Cork, the pretty Orchid, Neottva gemmipara (Smith) grows,
which at one time was considered to be confined to Ireland, but
has since been found to be a North American species. Again, in the
county of Galway, the pretty aquatic plant, Navas flexilis, another plant
of the North American Flora, occurs. In Kerry several of the Saxifrage
of the Pyrenees appear, and several of the Pyrenean Hricaceous plants
extend from Kerry, through Galway, to Mayo; but stop there, and are
not found further to the east, south, or north of this island.

Sir W. R. Hamitron, LL. D., read a paper *‘ On some recent Geo-
metrical Results of the Quaternion Calculus,”’ including some which he
had mentioned within the last year and a half to the Academy, but of
which he had not yet supplied sufficient abstracts to the ‘‘ Proceedings.”

The following donations were received :—

‘<The History of Dundalk and its Environs,”’ by John D’ Alton, and
—— (0’Flanagan, Esqrs., presented by the authors.

“The Martyrology of Donegal,” presented by the Council of the
Irish Archeological and Celtic Society.

From J. J. Lalor, Esq., an early noble of Edward IY.

Sir W. R. Wilde presented the following antiquities :—

On the part of Dr. Gray, of Drogheda, a specimen of ancient armour ;
a small gold fibula; and the remains of a harp which had been found in
connexion with them.

On the part of Edmond O’Flaherty, Esq., the cuticular portion of
the horn of a short-horned ox, which had been found several feet deep in
a bog at Oughterard.

On the part of the Rev. P. Langan, a yellow flint arrow-head, found
near The Naul, in the county of Meath.

Captarn Meapows Tayzor read the following

Catatogur oF Inpran Muosicat InstRUMENTS, PRESENTED BY COLONEL
P. T. Frencn.

Havre been called upon to describe the valuable Collection of Musical
Instruments of India, presented by Colonel P. T. French to the Aca-
demy, I will now proceed to do so, in the order in which they have been
numbered. [have to regret that I have not been able to tune any of them:
had this been possible, their uses and effects would have been much
more readily understood than they can be by mere description; but the
greater number of these instruments require steel wire strings of a qua-
lity made especially for them by wire-drawers in India, which is not

i i ee

OO

107

obtainable in this city. I have therefore to depend upon descriptive
detail alone, with notices of the uses to which they are put by native
musicians of India, according to my own experience.

®
Nos. 1, 2, 3, in Catanocur. Native Name ha (Shan ).—Mertat
CYMBALS, OF VARIOUS KINDS.

These are used as accompaniments to all native music; but in the
north more frequently in connexion with that of a religious character
than in the south, where in all shapes they are universal. The larger
kinds, whether of silver or of bell metal, when clashed together have an
effect similar to those in use in our own military bands, and form fitting
unison with the hoarse bray of trumpets, the shrill pipes and flageolets,
the drums, and large choruses of male voices, by which the temple music,
chaunts, hymns, and the like, is generally executed. Cymbals differ in
form and sound: some have the effect of large gongs; others, of a softer
and more tinkling character, are used with softer music. In all, how-
ever, the effect for the most part is to assist in marking the time, which
is done very skilfully and evenly by the performers.

In the south of India another kind of cymbal is used, which is in
the form of two cups, of bell metal, and of which there is no specimen
here. Of these one is held in the left palm, secured by a cord passed round
the hand, and is struck by the other, which is held loosely in the right.
Players on these cymbals are extremely dexterous, and produce a not
unpleasing accompaniment to the voice, or to instrumental music, by
striking the cups together in such a manner, outside, inside, and upon
their edges, as to form notes in accordance with the voice, or the other
instruments by which it may be accompanied. This cymbal accompa-
niment is played with more execution than may be conceived possible
from the nature of the instrument. I have heard professors even play
solos upon it, which, if not very intelligible as to tune, were at least
curious in execution and diversity of ¢vme, as suited to the various styles
of music. Cymbals are used both by Hindu and Makomedan musicians.

4. QT es] (Lhalla).—Gone.

This needs no particular description. It is beaten in temple music,
or as calls to sacrifice or ceremony at different hours of the day, and is
used by many of the professional religious mendicants of the country,
more especially those who are accompanied by bulls or goats which per-
form tricks. The thalla or gong, is not used as an accompaniment to
yocal music, nor to any but the loud, crashing and generally disso-
nant music of temple ceremonies. It is not used by Mahomedans ex-
‘cept when struck as a clock, noting the hours of the day as shown by
the water-clock or hour-glass, and in this respect indeed it is common
both to Hindus and Mahomedans.

108

Ooms
5. STF (Gunté).—Bett.

As a musical instrument, the bell is used somewhat in the same
manner as the cymbals before mentioned, but more rarely. No ceremony
of sacrifice or oblation, however, is ever performed without preliminary
tinkling of the bell, which is repeated at certain intervals according to
the ritual. No set of sacrificial utensils is complete without one. To
describe the use of the hand bell at particular periods of ceremonial ob-
servance, would lead me into digressions which have no reference to the
subject in hand; but there can be no doubt that the practice of using
it is as ancient as Hinduism itself, and the rituals, liturgies, and works
on ceremonial observances, define the use tobe made of it. By Maho-
medans, the use of the bell in any form that I am aware of is unknown,

6. FITSIS (Goongooroo).—Anx1x Berxs.

These strings of small bells are used by all dancers, male or female,
Hindu or Mahomedan. They are tied round the leg, above the ankle,
and produce a faint clashing sound as the feet move in steps, which
mingles, not unmusically, with the dance music, or songs which accom-
pany the dance; and they not only serve to mark the time, but to keep
the dancer or singer in perfect time and accord with the musicians.
These bells are the symbols of their profession with all dancers and
singers, and to some extent are held sacred. No dancer ties them on
his or her ankles before performance, without touching his or her fore-
head and eyes with them, and saying a short prayer or invocation to a
patron saint or divinity, Hindu or Mahomedan. Nor is it possible, after
a female singer or dancer has once been invested with them,—a cere-
mony which is very solemnly performed, and attended with much cost,
—to abandon the professional life so adopted. He or she ‘‘has tied on
the bells,’’ is even a proverb, to signify that the person alluded to has
devoted himself or herself to a purpose from which it is impossible to
recede. Strings of these small bells are also used for horses, and tied round
the fetlocks of prancing chargers with gay tinsel ribbons or pieces of
cloth, also round the necks of lapdogs, and some of a large size round
those of a favourite plough or cart bullock. The latter are identical
with sleigh bells. No post runner in India travels without a string of
them tied on the end of his pole on which is slung the leather bag he
carries; and ona still night their clashing sound, besides being heard
at a great distance, serves to scare away wild beasts, and to cheer the
runner on his lonely path.

1G Ts27 (Seeng).— Horn.

Used universally through India for signals, watch setting, proces-
sions, and the like, both by Mahomedans and Hindus, though the per-
formers, for the most part, are Hindus of low easte. In every village of

109

central or southern India, it is the business of one or more of the watch-
men to blow the horn at sunset, and again at certain hours during the
night, or when the watchmen go their stated rounds. In large cities
every mahulla or ward has a horn blower attached to its night watchmen
or police ; and there is seldom a guard or detachment of native irre-
gular troops without one. In all processions, temple services, and
especially at marriages and other festive occasions, this horn is indis-
pensable; and wailing blasts for the dead are played upon it at
the funerals of Hindus of the lower classes and castes, or equally so at
_ the cremations of Hindu princes.

No native authority traverses the country without one, frequently
several, in histrain; and as towns or villages are approached, the great
man’s advent is heralded by flourishes of the instrument, blown by the
performer, who struts at the head of the cavalcade. These blasts are
answered by others from the town or village gate, whence the local au-
thorities come out to meet the visitor and present their offerings of
welcome. On these occasions, the horn blowers on both sides vie with
each other in producing their grandest effects, and the discordance is ge-
nerally indescribable.

Ttinerant mendicants of many classes use this instrument, both Hindu

and Mahomedan ; and by the men in charge of droves of cattle carrying
grain or merchandize, such as Brinjarees, Comptees, and others, it is
sounded at intervals along the road to cheer up their bullocks and keep
them from straggling, as well as at their departure from or arrival at
one of their stages.
In tone a good Seeng, or horn, is not unlike a common bugle, but has
much more power, and in the hands of a good player much more com-
pass. In playing the high notes in many of the calls, shrill quivering
cadences are produced, which have astartling and peculiarly wild effect
as heard from the walls of some ancient fortress, or from village towers
and gates as night falls, and more especially in the otherwise unbroken
stillness of night.

J have never heard tunes played or attempted by native horn-blowers,
though the modulations of the tones of the instrument are frequently
sweet and pleasing; nor are they used in concert with other music, but
always independently, as I have already explained. There can be no
doubt, I think, that this kind of horn is of very ancient origin and use;
and I observe in the Museum ofthe Academy one ancient Irish or Celtic
instrument, if not indeed others, identical with the Indian seeng, and
which, like it, were most probably used in battle, or for the purposes
already detailed. In shape, in the peculiar adaptation of their joints,
and in the form of the mouth-piece, they are identical.

8. gait (Tootooree).—SMALL TRUMPET.

Used chiefly in religious music at temples, and in Siler religious
ceremonies. It always accompanies the next in order, and may be

110

called the tenor trumpet, the other being the bass. No calls or modu-
lations are blown upon it, but it is sounded at intervals, several being
employed, with a wild shrill effect, in concert with the pipes on which
the tunes are played.

9. hal (Kurna).—Larer TRumeer.

Like the preceding, this is used chiefly in religious processions, or
in festivals in honour of local divinities. It has a few hoarse bass notes,
which contrast with the shrill tenor of the Tootooree, and appear inca-
pable of other modulation. These instruments are almost invariably
played by Brahmins or priests attached to Hindu temples, and by persons
attached to the retinues of the Gooroos, Swamies, or spiritual princes of
the country, who possess large ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and are pro-
vided with them, as a mark of high rank, which is not allowable to
others. Occasionally, also, they are met with in the Nobuts, or musical
establishments attached by royal permission to nobles of high rank, Ma-
homedan as well as Hindu; and they are sounded at the five stated periods
of the regular daily performance ; but they do not exist in all cases,—for
there are distinctions in the classes of instruments, according to the
rank of persons privileged to play the Nobut, which involve the pre-
sence or otherwise of the kurna, those of the highest rank only being
able to use it. The Nobut, as a peculiar institution of native music,
will be explained hereafter. The kurna, or large trumpet, is esteemed
by all Brahmins to be the most ancient instrument of music in existence,
and the sound of it to be especially pleasing to the gods, in various par-
ticular ceremonies, and at solemn parts of sacrifice. I need not, how-
ever, occupy the time of the Academy with such legends.

It is perhaps worthy of remark, however, that in the procession on
the Arch of Titus at Rome, one of these trumpets, precisely similar in
shape to that of this collection, is being carried with the sacred candle-
stick with seven branches, and other trophies from the Temple at Jeru-
salem; and thus it may be inferred that it was used in the ancient
Jewish ceremonies.

10. Ke Sl Wars (Holar cha Soonat).—11, 12. Do. Tenor

Mor Second.—REED PIPEs.

These instruments, which all belong to the same class, are of

universal use in all parts of India. What bagpipes are to Scotland
or Ireland, these pipes are to India. Although flageolets in appear-
ance, their sound is precisely similar to that of the bagpipes, only
perhaps more powerful, and in the hands of good players more
melodious. They have seven and eight holes, respectively, and thus

would appear to have no great compass; but in execution, whether i

from the effect of the lips and tongue upon the reed mouthpiece,
or the manner of fingering upon the holes, combinations are formed

which include semitones and quarter notes, and thus the expression s

lil

of chromatic passages ad libitum, of which native players are very
fond, is given, which, in reality, are very effective. From their
great power of sound, these pipes are unpleasant if the performers be
near; but at a distance in the open air, and especially among moun-
tains, the effect is much subdued, and often attains much wild beauty
and softness. As I have already stated, their use is almost universal.
They are, in fact, the only regular out-door instruments of Indian music,
and are employed on all occasions, whether in domestic or public relli-
gious ceremonials, processions in festivals, temple music, and the like ;
and the music played upon them varies with the occasion on which
they are used. Marches, and military music exceedingly lke pibrochs
in character—pieces for marriages, for rejoicings, for funerals, wel-
comings, departures—familiar ballad airs, and the stated music of the
Nobut, have all separate modes and effects. In the Mahratta country,
in which I know them best, the simple melodies of the people, joyous
or plaintive, are performed with a style of execution which is often
surprising ; and combinations of musical effect are introduced which
are equally curious and interesting.

In the Nobut, or honorary band of musicians attached to noblemen,
temples, or shrines of saints Mahomedan or Hindu, the best performers
obtainable are generally employed; and the performance is accompanied
by drums, tenor and bass, and large kettledrums, which are tuned with
the pipes, and form useful aids to the general effect. The music played
is generally traditional, as no written music is ever played from; but
skilful players not unfrequently invent new airs, which are founded
upon the several modes of recognised divisions of music, and these are
taught to pupils, thus perpetuating continual changes, whether for
different hours of the day or night, or for extraordinary occasions. Not
unfrequently, very sweet-sounding flageolets are used. by Mahratta
musicians in company with these pipes, which have the effect of molli-
fying their shrillness; but I do not find any specimens of them in this
collection.

In the Mahratta country the players of these pipes are called Gursee,
_and the office of piper is hereditary in every village or town, accom-
panied by portions of land, and certain proportions of the crops of the
village at harvest, and other hereditary dues and privileges, in common
with other members of the hereditary twelve village councilmen. The
office of ‘‘ Gursee’”’ involves sweeping the village temples, lighting the
| lamps, and officiating at certain ceremonies; and on all occasions of
marriages, festivals, funerals, and the like, the Gursee is entitled to cer-
tain perquisites, the rights to which are strictly preserved and univer-
sally admitted.

14, ZIoIe al at 15. (Hoolar cha Soor).—Tenor ann
Bass Drones.

The pipes are invariably accompanied by drones, tenor and bass, or
first and second bass, of which Nos. 14 and 14 are specimens. These

112

instruments have but one note each, which is played without intermis-
sion by different persons. They have the exact effect of the drones of
bagpipes, and can be tuned to any key which the leading instruments
require, by altering the position of the mouthpiece or reed, and the
pipes are tuned to different keys in the same manner.

16. ufz (Poongt).—Snaxe CHarmer’s Pipe.

9

These instruments have six notes, and three semitones. Simple,
plaintive airs, generally in minor keys, can be played upon them ; but
they are not used with other musical instruments, and belong exclu-
sively to the snake charmers and various tribes of jugglers, acrobats,
and the like. By the snake charmers, a few notes only are played,
which seem to have the éffect of rousing the snakes to be exhibited,
usually cobra di capellos, to action ; and as the reptiles raise themselves
on their tails, expand their hoods, and wave themselves to and fro, the
players become more excited, while the motion of the snakes is acce-
lerated by the rapidity of their execution. So also in feats of jugglery,
or sleight of hand, the poongz, accompanied by a small hand drum,
seems to assist the performer, especially when throwing knives or balls
into the air, catching them in succession, and throwing them up again.

I think there is no doubt that the tones of this instrument have an
effect upon all snakes, especially cobras, though this is denied by many.
As an instance of this I may mention that one very large cobra, which
frequented my garden at Ellichpoor, and of which every one was in ~
dread, was caught by some professional snake charmers in my own pre- _
sence by means of the poongi. It was played at first very softly be- —
fore the aloe bush, underneath which the snake lived in a hole; gra-
dually the performer increased the tone and time of his playing, and as ©
the snake showed its head, he retreated gently till it was fairly outside, —

and erected itself in a defiant manner. At that moment another man
stepped dexterously behind, and, while the snake’s attention was ab-

sorbed by the player before, threw a heavy blanket upon it, seizing ~
it by the head under the jaws. The head was then pinned down by a
forked stick, and the fangs and teeth extracted by strong pincers. The
snake was then turned loose, apparently completely cowed and exhausted,
and finally transferred to a basket for education as a performer. There
was no mistake as to the identity of the reptile; for a portion of its tail
had been shot off in an attempt to destroy it. The same men afterwards
drew snakes from the thatch of my house, all of which seemed to obey
the fascination of the pipe. 4

ive ALaTeT (Soor Sotta). 18. atau ( Tumboora).

19. Do. 20. Do.—Fovun-strIncep LUTES, LARGE AND SMALL.

The four instruments, 17 to 20, are called soor sotta, or tumboora, %
and are only variations of the tumboora. They consist of a large gourd

113

as a body, and a stringboard without frets, with pegs at the end, along
which the wires, one brass and three steel, are stretched over a bridge,
below which each string is fitted with a glass bead, which improves
the tone and assists in tuning. No performance of varied character
is made on these instruments. They are tuned to one chord, in what-
ever key is required—generally of C—and the finger passed rapidly
across the strings: or the notes are played separately, but quickly, so as
to form the chord in vibration.

Almost all Hindu and Mahomedan singers use these instruments in
preference to any other. They are, in fact, only helps to the voice, and
_ afford a simple accompaniment, which marks the time, while it does not
interfere with the singer’s execution. So much ornament is employed
by professional native singers, that they prefer to rely upon their vocal
powers alone for success; and it is esteemed a mark of inferiority to use
any other adventitious aid than the simple chord of the tumboora. In
most instances the singer plays himself, though I have occasionally seen
two or three instruments, of different sizes and tones, employed where the
singer was sure of correctness of time and accord. The ¢wmboora, there-
fore, is confined to the use of singers, male or female, or to accompani-
ments in recitations, the chaunting of sacred works and hymns, and of
scales and exercises in singing. It is never used in company with pipes
or flageolets, or indeed with any other instruments; but, as I have de-
scribed it, the effect is simple, and often very charming when a good
instrument is used which has a mellow tone.

21 RATER (Sttar). Gurrar, or Lutz, ror PERFORMANCE.

The sitar is another instrument expressly intended for the perform-
ance of pieces of music, though I have heard it used occasionally by
Rajpoot minstrels as an accompaniment to the voice. It has five wire
strings, three steel for treble, and two brass for bass, and eighteen frets,
or, with the nut, nineteen; and it will be seen by a glance, that its ca-
pability for execution is considerable, though the metallic strings always
produce a jangling effect, which is unpleasant. The se¢ar can be altered
to any key by moving the frets up or down, and a skilful musician
knows how to do this exactly. The execution with which it is fre-
quently played is wonderful, and the performer can execute chromatic
passages at will, extending to fourths of original notes.

Oe. TOT (Soorsringa). 23. GOAT (Kuchwa).

Numbers 22 and 28 are instruments of the same character as 21, for
performance only—23 differs from 21, not only in respect to its size and
power, but in having two strings only to play upon, tuned in thirds,
from strings in the centre, which are tuned to the chord of the key or
primary note ; and two smaller strings at the side, which represent a high
octave, and can be struck as necessary. In playing, the chord in the

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. Q

114

_ eentre is not always struck, but only occasionally for effect. This in-
strument, which is difficult of execution, is not often met with. 22 has
only sixteen frets, but eight strings, six from the top and two at the
sides, which le under those played upon, and are used in combination
with them for peculiar resonant effects. This variation of No. 21 is,
however, uncommon, and confined perhaps to the Guzerat country.

D4 24x, 25: ansta ( Taoosee).

This is another variation of the sitar, No. 21. No. 24 has seventeen
frets, with six playing strings; but below them are eleven strings of
very fine steel wire, which are tuned to eleven separate notes in the
direct scale, and are not played upon. Their use is to effect modula-
tions by vibration of sound, which imparts softness to the melodies ex-
ecuted by the hand. No 25 is an instrument of the same character,
but with twelve lower strings, which are tuned as in the preceding,
and with the same object.

The Vina.—The best instrument, however, and the most powerful
and melodious of this character, is the viza, which is wanting to this
collection. In form it does not differ much from the preceding, but
it has much more power and sweetness, though the peculiar effect of notes
sounded upon brass and steel strings is never absent. The finger board

of the wna with nineteen frets is 24 octaves, and the frets themselves — F

represent the following notes in English music :—
D, Di, HF PE,.G, Ge, A, BE C, Ce D, Dr, Ch eer AC

To hear, so as to understand, any really classical Hindu music, it should
be played upon this instrument ; and I have occasionally met with some
very learned and accomplished performers, principally from Mysore and
the south of India. One of these men, after playing many Hindu airs
and variations upon them, changed the key ofthe instrument, and began
a piece which was familiar to me, though from jim unaccountable ; it
was, in fact, a great portion of Beethoven’s Sonata in A; and he ex-
plained that, having once taught an English lady a good deal of his own
music, which she played upon the piano, she had in turn taught him this
Sonata, which he preferred, he said, above all other ‘‘ English Music ;”
and his version of it, considering the defects of his instrument, was really
very beautiful. The fact of nineteen frets expressing the notes I have
enumerated, and their extension according to the Hindu system of
fingering, affords satisfactory proof of the capabilities of the vina, which
is honourably mentioned by Sir William Jones in his Essay on Hindu
Music, as the standard instrument of India.

26. Sree (Sarungt). 27. acret (Sarrooda). 28. TAIT ‘

(Chikara).

These are the ordinary violins or fiddles of India, and are played in

the same manner, though differing from them in some respects, as the

a

Me: J lal
‘ rae fe. ere E
— re ae Per ee Bs inte Oe ae

NS SEP Ob oe © ee ke

115

instruments in use with us. Of the three, No. 26, is the most commonly
employed. 27, sarrooda, may be called the tenor or second fiddle, and
accompanies 26 in chords, played by the bow, or by hand as a guitar.
28 is an inferior fiddle, which is mostly to be seen in the hands of strol-
ling players, or mendicants, reciters of short plays or poems, and ballad
singers. The sarungi has four strings of catgut; it is played with a bow ;
and the execution upon it by accomplished performers is frequently
striking and pleasing, while the tones are nearer perhaps in quality to
the human voice than those of any other instrument with which I am
acquainted. Considering its small size and rude shape, the tone is much
more sweet and powerful than would be conceived from its appearance,
and this may be accounted for in two ways. First, thatthe sounding board
is of parchment, stretched over the wooden frame; and, secondly, that
_ below the gut strings which are played upon, there are eleven others of
fine steel wire, tuned exactly with the scale, and thus the effect of the
notes played is perhaps increased by vibration upon the wire notes be-
neath.

The sarungi is used by Mahomedan musicians more than by Hindu ;
and I imagine it may have been introduced into India by the Mahome-
dans, possibly from Persia. It forms an excellent accompaniment to the
voice; and an old friend of mine, an excellent musician and violin player,
the late Captain Giberne, Bombay Army, used to prefer one of these
instruments to his own violin for concerted pieces in which the violin
took a soprano part. The capability of the sarungi for the execution of
chromatic passages and harmonies is, to some extent, equal to our own
violin ; but it would be quite possible to improve the native instrument
without altering its character, and in such case it might prove a useful
addition to our own orchestral effects.

From its size, the sarrooda is more powerful, but more difficult of
execution; and it combines the effect of a guitar, as it is sometimes
played in accompaniment, and the violin.

29. AIcaees (Sar Mundal).

This may be styled the Indian dulcimer. It is by no means com-
mon, and therefore good execution upon it is not often met with, nor
indeed at any time is it very pleasing, owing to the continual jangle of
the wire strings.

30. ala (Been),

Wire-strung guitar, which is chiefly used by mendicants and re-
ligious devotees in recitations, hymns, and other sacred singing. In
some degree it resembles the vina, but has not its power or sweetness,
nor indeed capability of execution. This instrument has twenty-three
frets, and there are five strings to be played upon, with two others at
the side for occasional effects.

116

Ble WatToT ( Toontoonee),
~~)

An instrument with one wire string, and of a rude character. Itis
invariably used by mendicants and common ballad singers in the Dekhan,
and the wire is struck rapidly by the finger, or a quill, as an accom-
paniment to the voice. The string can be tuned to any key required.

32, SURE (Dufflé). 38. Do. 34. THHAT (Aullya).
35. @TACT (Dayra). 36. ZH (Daf.

These five instruments belong to one class, the common tambourine
drum of India, which is played, partly by sticks, partly by the hand.
The performer holds two long thin pieces of wood or twig in his left
hand, which he rests upon the frame of the instrument, which is strung
over his shoulder, while with the right he beats it with a short thick

drumstick. The measure and tone can be changed and varied by the.

manner in which the notes are played by the sticks in the left hand,
and in this respect the drummers are very expert. These instruments
form the ordinary accompaniments to the horn, No. 7. Every village,
or watch on town bastions, fort walls, and the like, has one; and in
native armies the duff is beaten furiously on occasions of attack. In
all sorts of processions, festivals, and the like, they are employed; but
they do not aspire to the refinement of other drums of a more scientific
character, which will be described in turn.

37. ales (DOIN) 238.039. crea th (Dhélkee).—OnDINARY

Drom anv Litttzr Drum.

Both played by hand as accompaniment to the voice, or struck with
a stick when in concert with pipes or loud instruments. Both these
instruments are of universal use, but are seldom employed by profes-
sional musicians.

40. GSqgdqyst (Pukhwy).—Tevor anv Bass Drom,

Which is used exclusively as accompaniment to the voice, and in all
concerted music. Some musicians prefer the tué/a, which will be de-
scribed hereafter; and perhaps the pukhwaj is employed more than
the other by Hindu professionals. On this instrument players are ex-
ceedingly expert ; and by the manner in which both sides, tenor and bass,
are played by the hand, the points of the fingers, and occasionally the
palms, the notes which are produced assist the voice; while the time,
however complicated, is kept with the greatest exactness. This drum
is tuned by the side cords, and by a composition laid on the centre,
which assists the sound; and a piece of dough is usually put upon the
bass side, which tempers the skin, and keeps it in tune. Among in-
strumental performers this drum, or the ¢wdla, is considered the standard
instrument, and all others, whatever they may be, are tuned to it.

ate Le eS eee

117

Al. ayn (Hoodook). 42. STH (Dak).

These drums are used by ballad singers, mendicants, and the like,
and need no particular description. The latter use them in concert with
begging petitions in the name of some divinity, which are often sung to
wild or melancholy cadences.

43. Bahya). 44. Jilla).—Common CorrEer
AAT (Batya) FABT (vitle

Kerrie Drums,

Which need no particular explanation; both are played with sticks.
They are often found with small parties of village musicians, and in
concert with pipes.

45. aac (Sumbail).—Txnor an» Bass Drum.

_ Of the same character as No. 40, Pukhwaj; but not so melodious in
tone, nor so much used.

46. AACAT (Zubia).

These drums, tenor and bass, rank with the pukhwaj, and are pre-
ferred by many players. They are tied in a cloth round the waist, when
played, and the hands are exclusively used, with extraordinary execu-
tion. The tone is mellow and delicate, and, harmonized with the violins,
forms an excellent accompaniment to the voice. The ¢ud/a drums are
made of copper, and, while equally sweet, have perhaps more resonance
than the pukhwaj, which is of wood.

Drum-playing on these instruments is quite an art among Indian
performers. They mark the time, which 1s of a very complicated nature,
and differs in many respects from ours, to suit the varied modes of the
music. On this account, and from the very florid passages required,

years of study and practice are required by the performers.

47. elegy (Nul).—Kerrie Drvus,

Generally used on horseback, much like our own, and beaten by
sticks. In native cavalry, and in our own irregular cavalry regiments,

_ they are carried in front on the march, and by their sonorous notes the
_ hne of progress is indicated to prevent straggling.

48, sts (Doogdooga).—Smatt Hany Drom,
Used chiefly by mendicants and ballad singers.

49, aran (Nobdut).

This instrument, which is the largest kettle drum used in India,
gives the name to the ‘‘ Nobut,” or honorary music before alluded to.

118

It has a deep, mellow sound, and is played and used much lke our
own bass drum. With it are usually associated the smaller kettle —
drums, 43 and 44; and a performance upon the drums alone forms part _
of every period of playing throughout the day, though they accompany _
the pipes and trumpets in all other music executed. .

50. WH (Shunk) —Concu sHELL,

Is not used as a musical instrument, but is sounded during re-
ligious ceremonials, in processions of Hindu worship, and before idols.
No tune, so to speak, can be played upon it; but the tone is capable of
much modulation by the lips, and its clear, mellow, humming notes,
heard at early morning and eventime from Hindu temples, and the
groves about them, have a peculiar though melancholy effect, not with-
out charm.

The above concludes the catalogue of these instruments; and as the
foregoing details may be esteemed incomplete without some notice of
Hindu music as a science, the following remarks upon it, brief as they
must necessarily be, may serve in some respects to supply the deficiency.
I do not put them forward as original ; for it would be impossible for me,
without a greater acquaintance with Hindu music than I possess, to
write anything more complete than Sir William Jones’s Essay, which
gives details to a greater extent than those with which I can presume
now to occupy the time of the Academy.

First, then, as to notation—we find the Hindu gamut to be in
essentials similar to our own. There are eight notes in their scale,
which form the foundation of the primary modes, or “ Swaras,” and
which are named as follows :—

Sharja, Punchama,
Rishaba, Dhaivata,
Gandhana, Nishada.
Madhyama,

of which the initial letters form the gamut :—Sa, Rv, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, <
Mi, Sa, corresponding with our Ut, Re, Mh, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Ut, and —
the Hindu scale may be thus written :—

But the Hindoos have adopted no especial symbols, like ours, to express
sound or time; and in writing music, according to the ancient system, _
the air and time of the melody are expressed by lengthening or shorten-
ing the vowels attached to each initial consonant, and repeating the —

119

notes as they may fall together in the air.* This in itself, it will be
admitted, is rude and unsatisfactory ; but by certain signs, such as dots,
curves, and other marks, the written notation becomes intelligible to
performers; and as taught at present, the scales, and vocal and instru-
mental exercises of learners, some of which are extremely complicated
and difficult, consist of repetitions of the primary notes of the gamut,
in the time and tune intended.

Each note is divided into halves, thirds, and fourths, which are de-
fined by signs and marks attached to the notes of the gamut, and can
be expressed by the voice; or, taking the vina as the standard instru-
ment, on and between the frets, by a manner of fingering known to per-
formers and teachers; and the sarungz, or violin, can be used with simi-
lar effect.

Again, taking each fundamental sound separately, the classical defi-
nition or doctrine of sounds admits and defines seven variations to each,
which become the leaders of a series of other modes. Thus we find
7x 12=84 modes: seven primary, and seventy-seven secondary, which
are known under their separate appellations. The requirements of the
classical system are, that each melody formed upon any of the above pri-
maries or other adjuncts should be complete in itself; and no deviation
from this rule is recognised or permitted. The modes are distributed
over the hours of the day and night; and no professor of Hindu music,
or educated performer, would be held excusable by a critical audience,
if he transgressed propriety so much as to introduce at a wrong period
songs, or instrumental performances, which belonged to another.

In illustration of this rule, Sir William Jones observes :—‘“‘ A me-
lody, or phrase, commencing with

D.E.FEGH A.B.CH D.

where the first semitone appears between the fourth and fifth notes, and
the second between the seventh and eighth, asin the natural scale; and
the Git and Of, or ga and ni, of the Indian authors, form our major
mode of D :—such a melody must end with the fifth note from the tonic,
and it would be a gross violation of musical decorum to sing it at -any
time except the close of day.”’
Another mode of division, which is perhaps more modern, is the di-
vision of the six primary notes into fifty-four modes, by an allegory.
Bhairava, Malava, Sriraga, Hindola, Dipaca, and Megha, are six
nymphs, each of whom is married to a Ragini, and each has eight chil-
dren. Thus we have six nymphs, as primary notes; six semitones, as
husbands ; and forty-eight children, as minor modes or divisions ;
making fifty-four in all.
A third system divides the rags or modes into six primary, and
thirty secondary. ach of these is known by the note which begins it or
ends it. As an example, the Sri raga corresponds with our major scale;

|
_ * Jn like manner our own music might be written and read from the notes themselves.
|

120

Sa, or A, isits principal note, with Pa, or E, diminished by one “ srutz,”
or part of anote. Thus, we find that this mode represents the ordinary
scale, ut, re, mi, sol, fa, la, si, ut, with a minor tone, or three srutis,
between the fifth and sixth notes.

I have mentioned in my descriptions of the instruments, that chro-
matic and enharmonic passages of great intricacy can be executed upon
several of them—the vina, the sarungi, &c. This will be accounted
for by the fact of the system of music prescribing twenty-two srutis,
or divisions of notes, to each whole octave; or furnishing each note, or
those which according to the requirements of the particular mode may
need it, or the particular melody in the mode, with semitones, thirds,
and quarters of notes, as may be necessary. It would seem, however,
as if more than ‘‘ twenty-two srutis’”’ to an octave were inadmissible;
and the notes to which any number of srutis is admissible is deter-
mined by the key note, or primary.

““Semitones,’’ says Sir William Jones, “‘ are placed as in our own
diatonic scales, the intervals between the fourth and fifth and first and
second are major tones; but that between fifth and sixth, which is
minor in our scale, is major in theirs. The two scales are made to
coincide by taking a ‘sruti’ from Pa, or EK, and adding it to Dha, or F;
or, in Indian terms, by raising Savaretna to the class of ‘Santa,’ and
her sisters. Every sruti is a little nymph; and these nymphs, or srutis,

or quarter notes of the fifth note, Pa, or H, are called, Malini, Chapala, ;

Sola, and Savaretna.”

In like manner, every note has its fairy attendants attached to it;
and these being furnished with names, the separate portions of each are
known at once, in their proper order, and without confusion, to scien-
tifie Hindu musicians.

There are many Sanscrit, as well as Teloogoo, Canarese, and Tamul
works on music, stillin existence. Indeed, in the south of India music
appears to have been maintained, and cultivated as a science, long after
it had ceased as such in the north. Mahomedan historians of the period
relate, that when the Dekhan was invaded by Alla-oo-deen Togluk, in

A. D. 1294, and the conquest of the south of India completed by the 3
Mogul general, Mullik Kafoor, several years afterwards, the profession

of music was found to be in a condition so far advanced of the north,
that singers, male and female, musicians, and their Brahmin instruc-

tors, were taken with the royal armies and settled in the north. The ~

works that remain on the subject have been examined by competent

Oriental scholars, who have discovered that music as a science held ahigh
place among ancient Hindus, and became the subject of learned, though
pedantic, treatises on doctrines of sound, variations of scales, accord of ~
musical instruments, divisions of modes, singing, and instrumenta- —
tion; but no where does it appear that the laws of harmony had ever —

been discovered or invented; and, as a consequence, all Indian music is

wanting in this most essential particular. This, and the pedantic divi- —
sions into modes, so jealously guarded from infringement, have pre-
vented Hindu music and its science from that improvement and ex-

ee a a Fe

121

tension which have been attained elsewhere. In this respect music is,
like all other sciences of the Hindus, and their philosophy, unprogres-
sive and effete. In performance upon the vina or sarungt, the perfor-
mer’s ear, and the capabilities of the instrument, lead players into thirds,
fifths, and octaves, with the laws of which they are unacquainted ; but
all sging and playing are in unison, and whether trebles, tenors, or
basses, which are often joined, and in all instrumental music, the exe-
cution is of the same character. It is needless to say that this inevit-
ably produces monotony, and causes Indian music to be generally un-
interesting, if not repellant, to European ears.

I am bound to state, however, that very little of the really good or
classical music of the Hindus is ever heard by European ears. What
is ordinarily played to them is the commonest ballads and love songs,
with modern Persian and Hindustani ditties, sung by ill instructed
screaming dancing women, at crowded native durbars, marriages,
and other ceremonials. The late Nawab Shumsh-ool Oomrah, of Hy-
drabad, for instance, used to cause from ten to twenty sets of dancers
and singers to stand up together, each set consisting of several women
as singers, and a proportion of instrumental performers. All sang and
played together whatever they pleased, and the clamour of different
tunes, with all their varied accompaniments, was quite indescribable.
It is no wonder, therefore, that the English guests stopped their ears,
and declared native music to be abominable. Need I say, that, were all
the best singers and bands of Dublin to play the most beautiful music
at their command at the same moment, the effect might even be more
painfully hideous!

But music of much intrinsic beauty, nevertheless, exists; and the an-
cient rags or modes, with their simple melodies, and the marvellously
difficult, and often charming’scales, droopuds and /aonees, and other exer-
cises of vocal and instrumental performance, and the plaintive and beau-
tiful ballads of the Rajpoots and Mahrattas, would, I think, amply repay
collection by one competent to make it. It would be a grateful gift to the
musical world at large, were the government of India to undertake a com-
plete collection and exposition of the best Hindu and Mahomedan music,
as it exists in the north of India, in Rajpootana, and Guzerat, in the south-
ern provinces, and midway in Maharashtra and Bundelkund. The music
of all these provinces differs as much in character as national music in
Europe, and there is a great deal of it that is very interesting. How many
of the old rags or modes are illustrated by love songs! and how many
of the chivalrous events of ancient and medieval times are subjects of
ballads much like our own, descriptive, picturesque, and most original
both in subject and music! Inthe Mahratta country, I can state of my

own experience that ballads and love songs are innumerable, whether
of the old Mahomedan period, the Mahratta risings against them, and
the more recent English and Mahratta wars, and are full of local adven-
ture and spirited description; while in all the grades of love songs, under
| their several local denominations, there are scores, nay, hundreds, in
: every province of India, worthy of being rescued from their present
R. I. A. PROC.——VOL. IX. R

|

122

obscurity, and of being preserved among the musical records of the
world.

In his Essay, and to illustrate the manner of notation of the ancient
Hindu system, Sir William Jones has quoted a very simple air of Soma’s,
who was one of the most ancient Hindu writers on music, and com-
posers. This, with a few airs contributed by Colonel Tod, in his work
on the Rajpoots, form nearly all the Hindu music now on record; and
these, with some common tunes picked up from ordinary singing men
and women at nautches, are the only specimens of Indian music now
available for reference or comparison. There is much to be regretted,
I think, in this, not only because national music is always valuable in an
ethnological point of view, but because it would afford most interesting
comparisons with the ancient national music of Hurope, which it so
much resembles. I venture to offer a very simple contribution, —a plain-
tive Hindu air of the most ancient class, to which I have adapted
English words in partial paraphrase of the original Hindee, and to
which one of my daughters has added enough accompaniment to admit
of its being sung by a soprano voice to the pianoforte.

I cannot close this paper without adverting to the value and impor-
tance of this collection of musical instruments, which I consider to be
unique. Ihave never seen so large a one in the possession of any native
connoisseur, and my impression is that there is nothing so complete in
any European museum. A few, and very few, instruments are wanting
to make it perfect, and these might be easily supplied. On these
grounds, therefore, I consider that this Academy is under peculiar
obligations to Colonel French for his valuable donation,—valuable alike
from its original cost and expense of transport, and as an illustration of
the musical tastes and aquirements of India; and I have no doubt that
suitable acknowledgment will be made to him.

tN DAN fa ER:

Kurna na pace bat.

Words by M. T., from Hindu Ballad. Accompaniment by A.M. T

Ge Gis —-—agj-

‘
|

eee Aa

\123

(oan ren eer ered

I could not speak with him, those fondest words which
fa ee ___—__ ey —
a leeramnl (Re SER -
— = ss
-$- -@- -@- —-@-_g. @ -@- -& .

I hadtreasured up ~ to - tell. My stream~--ing eyes were

dim, with weary tears, which then, a - las! wun - heeded

ee _o_ ee Setateeawthe lyse
= = SaaS 3}
PZo @ar wor Lee a SO fees devs
fell. Rude blows the _ bitter wind, Cold

fee ee eee ee:

Zé = . |
oe mas |
cee eee Lammas
SS ee

qa Ss

dwell. Ah! me, from them un-
Sj

Sopra riper eles

love
Pe

pitying word, no _ shelter

Ah! now I vainly cry

Dear lord, dear heart so fondly loved,

Thou would’st not see me lie

So desolate, nor fail that love so truly proved.
Rest! rest, oh, breaking heart ;

Peace cometh now to thee, that nought had ever mov’d,
Ah! why delay thy dart
Kind death—take me to him, that never more we part.

ORIGINAL HINDEE WORDS.

Kurna na paee bat

Ab myn. Peea soo jeea ke bat

Oodowjee! tahreean, myn bulaeen leongi ho!
Mohe le’chulo oonhen ke pas.

Se Il5 ANG TOC WO De S

126

The Rev. Samven Haventon, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following Paper :—

On tHE EVAPORATION OF A WATER SURFACE A? St. Hetena.

I wave already published in the “‘ Proceedings” of the Academy the
results of one year’s Observation on the Difference of Rain-fall and Evapo-
ration made at St. Helena by Lieutenant Haughton, R. A., in 1860-61.
Through the kindness of this officer, and of Major Phillipps, commanding
Royal Artillery at St. Helena, I am enabled to lay before the Academy
on the present occasion two years’ Observation on Evaporation and Rain-
fall, made at the same place, and under better conditions.

The former observations were made in a glass cylinder, 9 inches high,
and 4°85 inches wide, and gave only the excess of Evaporation above
Rain-fall. The present Observations were made in two cylinders, one
circumstanced like the last, and the other placed in a large tub of water,
so as to have the water inside the cylinder always surrounded by water
at nearly the same level, thus giving a better approximation to the true
evaporation from a water surface surrounded by water.

At the same time, Major Phillipps recorded carefully the Rain-fall ;
and from a comparison of both sets of Observations, I have obtained the
actual amount of Evaporation, corrected for Rain-fall, during the two
years.

Part [.—Lievutenant Haveuton’s OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIFFERENCE
oF EVAPORATION AND RAIN-FALL.

Observations on Evaporation resumed at 10" 45™ a.u., on Sunday,
_ 8rd August, 1862, with the old glass as before; and another, about the
same size, immersed in water up to the zero point.

A is the depth of the water evaporated in one week in the new glass
immersed in water.

B, ditto, in the former glass,

rans Mae Inches. Inches.

AuGusr MO; NeC2 oe ye OOre es O OcTOoBER 5, . .. . 1:60 2°10
Hh ae wane eaten yl Oreo () “8 | Pe aree Matar ee Pine es sim wan yet HC)

7 DA Giese ct own tenant) Osa ed () a LO erred gen cee 4 Oana oO)

3 SA ee ey be, eaehio2 Oke 20 as DiGi. (Saas ste eae Eb Ora 20
NOVEMB.O 2000. 07 ara OO ee 30

SEPT Up 1°50 2:00 | i BUS Sian ery A nl LS ta ey MAACO)
is 14, A He) Gag) i 16. —_- —

53 Dee yas ee OO e800 5. 23. als, en ee Oa ono
Zoe th teins chs ce wok OeeGo BD) eh ee eon eae

* The level of the water is always below zero at the end ofthe week.
+ For two weeks.

. Inches. ati | Inches. Inches.
: athe se 4. ie
DECEMB. bi Se p20 ATR) SOERE. Wy Ge peices Qiagg 1°10
3 ees. 1°65 220 13 :
: 5; REE He OG 1°40
Boe. | 1-45 1°15 aa 20 1°20 1°50
Pee. 1:50 2:25 Senet ss,
” 3 ob) al lp ° ° e 0:80 1°20
| SPANUARY 4,1863, . . 1°55 2-50
i 1, --. . 165 2'70 | OcTossr 4, LO! ied
‘, fea os 1°10 1°75 » Ii, 1°30 1°70
eect. 2. 1-30 1:95 ry DO) ae 520
| ‘ oF) 20 . LSI) 1°60
- FEBrRuarRyY 1, ieee LD 2°50
i" Pee 140 230) | 1
: i 7: 0°90 1:90 OVEMB. I, sr awep ues ed ove 4) 1°70
” 22, ® . e 1°40 9°45 ” te 2 s e : Ss a 2 °00
99 0, e ° ° ayy 2°30
Meet 1-40 8-05 DE ie
Sees. 1500 1:90 i) ’ ay ay
” ais ra Giga,
” ’ she t.« + 2°00. 3°90 DECEMB. 6, ai iene tun ae OO 2°00
eee 180, 3°00 ee ee ition 2d 50) ae 2200
20 a en aay imp oe :
Apri 45, Eo ders 2:70 aon oie ts
- 12: 0:90 1°70
‘ 19, 1-250 89-35
si 26, ; 1°35 9°35 JANUARY 3, 1864, ae —
TO) 7 ieee Ee BRE Bes
7
ie. a, i alen |) pan 3, CE OG SRG aan sat
i 10, ; 1-75 3°00 CRON Gala ie leah a da WH 2°35
afi a ea 1:70 2-90 PUSH sik eet see BO 2°30
oA A650 02755
» 31, eal ware 7: 25 98-00
June 7, 1:30 2:20 oe RO a RES
ara oom 475 eh Sar ite
” 21,4 — we ” 28, 1°60 2°40
BN rs DS. 'S 0:20 — 0:40
MaArocH 6, - 1°25 2°00
JULY Hae SG —0'70 —1:50 is ey 1°66 2°50
A 19, ee 10041. 1°50 ee e2Os ek ony, aioe 2°15
Pero. «6 — 0740 — 0°70 Brit CORON oa SS) 2°60
WAvevsr 2, . . . 1°20 1°30
+ Pee es LoD rl SO APRIL 3, tere a O 2°50
ye Mineo.) 1 °300! 1°65 MONON een erde Dh OO.” 0 2 OG
eee. ek 110 1°50 UM aI nr RR esis O90 1°50
Mee Ore ss. «1°00. 1°65 OA Ne Nema LO) UN. O° O15

1 Level of water in tub half an inch above that in the glass.

2 Water in tub again a little above that in glass.

3 For two weeks.

4 Not recorded, but very small.’

5 The first instance of an excess of rain.
6 For two weeks, during which time a net covered both glasses. I had placed it there
| fearing the birds had been in the habit of drinking the water ; but I removed the net to-
| day, because, on consideration, I thought it would have a tendency to conduct the drops
| of rain away from the glass. I have never seen any birds on the roof, and I think they
_ could not reach the water in the glasses, no matter how thirsty they might be.

7 For three weeks.

Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches, — 4
A B. A. Bae

Max 41, 0.20%.) 1°60) 72-450) Gert 4 ee

ah Stier ee eG eA 2°20 "a An Fe Wee dae Ae 2°15)
een ce AGO emo A a P Seep
a 22, teks 1°45 4 ONS ss 1402. 2 °0b5ame
fs 29; elite rue eedeze() 1-95 i
Fie cle ; OcToBER ?, : 1°30 217903
ae oo 9 5 1°45 2°05 —
a 12,4 2°10 3°25 ae 16. 1°45 2:10
2 LOE » 0755 1°20 k 23, ‘ ~ 1°60 2°25
” 26, 0°90 1°45 of 30, pave ec a
y 3 50°08 1-85 : q
Ge 10, por ba) 1:70 Noy. a 6 2 °70 3°75 *
1°25 2 “ = — _
Mee i es 7 20,7. 845250" 37 uaa
.
POKER OST Hae Viet eae a es al) 2°20 DEC 4, te aed OO 1°90 8
Dag Ni . 0°85 1°35 eae. . 1°02. 1°63
* 21, ciumeme stm LO 1°75 o 18, 1°60 2°57 -
‘, 28, L 0a f:60 “1 25, 1 50 2°25
1 Taken 3 hours late. * Great mountain torrent at Sandy Bay on the 11th. a
3 Cleaned out the glasses. 4 For two weeks. 5 For two weeks. .

6 For two weeks. 7 For two weeks.

129

Part 1].—Masor Puitiiprs’s OBSERVATIONS ON THE RAIN-FALL AT
St. HELENA.

Height above the Sea, 700 Feet.

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.

E z Z te : 8 s S
tes ee ee See Ss | 8 8
aie 3 Seley |e atl e | Se et Se eS | al 8
ic. 0-02 | .. fy li0r19 |, S| 0-01 | 0:02
PANE A ae OZ0Sii ae -. | 0-01 | 0°01
3rd, . 0-33 0-11]}005| .. | 0-01| 001
4th, . 0-04 ey Os 044 hue lie a) OF OL
5th, . eles BO OcOz yen) tee © \)0;02
6th, . By [0-45 |... 0°06 | 0°30] 0-01] .. | O-0L] .,
Tey @ jot] .. 0-47 | 0-00) .. | .- | 0°03 | 0-01
8th, . Beko 16 10. OTE cave cal co | 0304 140-09
Oe Se S | 0-08 | 0-02 0°16 | 0-01 | 0°01 | 0-01 | .. | 0-19
DOsH yn" 5 | 0-07 | 0-04 0-13} 0:27} .. | 0-04] .. | 0°08
tga S .. | 0-04 0-02 | 0-01 | 0°05] 0-01 | .. | 0-01
di, |S 4 |0-02|0-61| . |0-02| 0-06] .. 0-08
ith,...| % 0-13} o-12| § 0-05] 0-06] ., | .. | 0-03
Hit ee eh 0°07 £ 0:54] 0-01] . Cra wee
Basin | a g 0-28} .. | .. | 0-05 | 0-08
my teen, 4. +1 2 5 DOR natlll ere coleman
RS) a ie na Z OFOr 0,020) Wee Gor
asthy say) |. ou) - | €] 3 0-03 | 0°06 | o-o1 | 0-02
19M, cr. 2 0-01 | 0-03] 8 0-01! |. | o-01
20th, « , | 005] 2 0-10 0-05 | 9-01 | 0-03
Baste ck’ 0-07 | 0°95 E 0-01.) © 0:10 | 0:02 | 0-02
e2nds, 2% 0°05 2 0-07 0°08 | 0-02 | 0°01
725 Geen 0-05 = 0-02 | -- | 0°08 | 0-01 | 0°01
24th, ... 0-29 | 0°08 | 4 0-11 | 0°17 | 0-03 | 0-05 | 0-02
Aish, 5.06 O18 | 7: 0-35 | 0°02] 0-01 | .. go &
Pots + = ae | bie 0:04 | O01 | .. Ws -» | 0:01
Dbl te pn CROs 0:20 5 i
Wasa Bo HYH | -B2 0°15 a 0°02 | 0 08
29th, .. . aise 0-04 | -- | 0-06] .. | 0-01 | 0-08
BOibiss <0; Ce 0-06 | -- | 0-01] 0-01} .. | 0-02
Bist) aes 0-08 . | 0-04 0-03

a

‘The Rain Gauge used was a zine funnel, five inches diameter, made by Messrs.
Negretti and Zambra, placed in a bottle buried to the neck in earth. Rain-fall was
measured in a glass having one inch of rain divided into 100 parts. Observations were
taken at 9 a.m. each day.

130

Tasie showing the Rain-Fall at Ladder Hill, St. Helena.
Height above the Sea, 700 Feet.

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA,

January.
March,
April

May.

June.
July.
August.
September.
October.

| Year.

cy | ees | eee | —
ns

Dude ou onlyes. 04 | -02 : 01 is us 25 : 02 a
Srdsee denies 20 | 11 | -. : 53 09 | -09 | .. 02 | -02
Athy. esler ole 03 | -05 * , 16 02 ue Ms
Bthiy @: 05 | “14 | -01 ve at 02 oo OG ie ; }
6th, se cd OBIT eae, : oh a 14 He OL 4,203 eas,
wth, 3 .9|/702 GL BO) yh . ve PS 24 aaa 05 :
Belge Pi OB Gh vere hate 20) 06 a i 63 | -07 a 12 ee
9th, . . | °05 -- | 02 | “01 as a «. (2210 a 01 nS
10th, . .| °04 < 01 ve we 2 23 | -05 Ae 01 oe

EBthy vet eal eel nl OO a tigo. 11909 , 03 soul peehialiwon) | (c0r
T4ths cullen 22 | O27 Ola ee tales Res ROD: (COPAY ae
be | U5th,) Wn (700 1 Od 1) 08. eO0 NieA, i en al al ae
& | eth, . -. | 08 | OL | oz +) 04 |). |-aR [27 | 04 || 301-06 7) <a

J1st,. 05 | :O1 seri One ior cmeulh agente D ; OF rue. 03
Q2nd, . .« . oe o ve 02 | -10 07 | -01 | 04°) . 01
2ard,) 05 | *02 Sool OTM ih Ol siiaks. ee. Ostet wets bs
24th, Aes 04 soy le OSa 705" ||) on 03 se 01 iia 02
D5bDs foie LOMO Cel Team ah Oo licen HOM mens SN OLR ite) al 02
96th, -.|- | “Ol | 08 Saale We 01 | -10 ; sear GLO a 02
othe SER aie Manic oo . 55 -03 | “01 42 11
28th, ab 2k) ae ih *» | 05 | -03 05 01 He ay 15
29th, Bleue on He «13910 1-08 04 | 03 | :06 ih 02
yee Houle) fos i) oe 08 | 08 | -06 | -05 | 08 | “Ol :

BISts 1 ale noe <a) 1308 2 06 , 21 06 ee 3 “

The Rain Gauge used was a zinc funnel, of five inches diameter, made by Messrs. Negretti
Zambra, placed in a bottle buried to the neck in earth. Rain-fall was measured in a glass having
one inch of rain diyided into 100 parts. Observations were taken at 9A. mM. each day. ;

131

SUMMARY.
=|
Bo | da
Fe | 82
Month. S = a
al ea
A &
January, ae 22 2Eib?
Webriany, : 2 c<5 e e \s 19 1°08
March, 18 1°38
Pong Fes ue ee 17 1°61
BVIctaepuepe A spr itis te) vs): sais 13 0°99
UTNE ane ces eis ee eae 21 3°48
SRIDEVG HE a siCis tm. hts 25 3°25
August, . 13 1°43
September. <0. -.. 17 0°61
CAG HO) 03) ils gem st APA 16 0-90
MNavember,) cc. eis 17 0°85
December, + eset. Uh! ss jee 15 0°65
Total during 1862, . 219 | 18:85

132

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.

a a=
i iY ;
s “WY ‘saarting Jofep, Aq popavooy =
&g 3 ©
ma ey
i)
rmooH j=) Ge) cal We) ie) Gey Ney ee) en x Gel ten) ey Ne) = Ar. + A 5
"UIeYY ee I er uate eas ee NE ey ge tiaer uO i ee mo NOS
: o° S G91 So SvoyotS, Ose CAS o oo ore) So :
a ne =
&
eq | TA No HD OF DASHA DH OD SHO A SHAH HO Oh ©
4 Hee ete et HT HTH AANA ANAAKNAAAAN &
3
s
° 5 ° 6
TUO TT S98l AUVOUVIHA Ee
5
a es A=
S ‘Vy ‘Y ‘saqaituHg soley, Aq pepr000y 3
: %
iS rx
©
H+ on i coo =
; N Yes) fos) re fer) OO a Oo HH st 5
uy! © =a 9 © S =) aS Sao OS ooans 2 eae
= S o o Soe SS 2 Se Soo 1S Ses f
| See 2 3
. aN r=) ~ 0 4 AN 1D OF ORS +
Te ae ee a Oy ay ea i GS AIGA GUC Cue eared reac Senco oe |
3S
jae
a
. ° 6
UNO yy 698l AUVONVE s

: $s g Remarks.
Ss a a
10-15
Bal O17
3 | 0:06
4 | 0-01
5 | 0°04
6 | 0°05
Mi ACO) 34
8 | 0:05
9 | 0:09
10 | 0°51
11 | 0-40
12 | 0-49 <
13 | 0-29 pa
14 | 0-10 :
| 15 | 0-02 3
— | 16 | 0-01 a
Beit 1... a
Ee 18 |. 0-10 2
= | 19 | 0-01 b
20 | 0-13 3
Bi a0%03 5
22 63
23 ae
24 | 0°04
25 aes
26 | 0-01
27 a
28 | 0°09
29 | 0°04
B07 |...
312} 001

Total Rain-fall, . .

_i&.T. A. PROC.—VOL. Ix.

. 3°24 inches.

133

LADDER-HILL, ST. HELENA.

siahesas Ni.
see eae
2 | 0-01
3
4 E
5 | 0-03
6 | 0°25
7 | 0-21
8 | 0-19
9 | 0-01
10 | 0-02
11 | 0°15
12
13
14
e3 15 eee
co
e 16 | 0-11
ae
<
190cP eee
20 | 0°03
21 | 0°05
22 | 0°03
23 | 0°02
CL
25 | 0°04
26
27 | 0°03
28
29
30

Total Rain-fall, . .

Remarks,

Recorded by Ensign G. H. Evans, St. Helena Regiment.

1:79 inches.

L

ci ee eel, ie

g Wen
a i it AS
° . ¢ = =
F ¥ ‘i ‘Nonmeavy NHog jueue nary 4q pop.00ay 7)
= @
is)
e a BI ee eS SSS e
oe! 10 10 oH Or NAN “Hid: oo a os Ha oS 19 .
Wile Se Gy See) 0 A 0 RS, GOs Ne OS SS Ss 4
Tee . . . 5 5 5 e . . e e c & ° ™ ° . . ° e ° O ° ae . 5 a
| oS S72 oo 9 oo oo oS a oS SS) sal SS i)
en nn nnn nee a Ean Sn nS nnn na
A eC Ome Hi te) CO) E00) So Crs 1c) eH CO. sme GD) Ga Ge ted (NCO tO CORI CO CaS &
<i 94eq SBSaet nA aA KR aD RT TD HNN NATANANAANNAN 4
A 5
SS | =
Bs TUOP 2 "E98T ‘ANAL i
i
2 | &
_ a
Oe Se ee a
rt e
an) : ; E|
63 2 S
5] & Oa NP HIS) CSTE Ga Os TANI S
ie 5 OT “HIS ‘SNVAT “H “OD usisagy £q popsoooy a
=) a 3
S| °
eS [s))
- ~ iy
= H x a 00 ie)
“Urey | = < eT :
o o ° =] © ‘
es ee Sat ee a =
: TIN kee) SH 1m Sto! i 1) CO) Oro A ON 19 Oe Oo OS No ne) OM Ono Oe =
uy @ | Se eee ae eA TH ANNA ANANANA HD OD a
Res ee es eee 3
‘ 3
“TINO §98T AVA 3
es

135

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.
| am ae oe
S S = | Remarks. | | Observations.
a = = |
A a) a oe |
Rei sl, 0-30 a < | |
i
meee, ek |
eels O26 | - | |
4 UT ae | |
et OE | Sepa |
= |
6 0:22 See
S
7 0°10 | eallcane
| me & Rain GauGe.—Negretti and Zam-
| 8 O32. Z | bra’s zine funnel, five inches in
9 0°41 | z _ diameter, placed in a bottle bu-
| : S | ried in the earth. The rain was
10 0°16 | J 6 measured in a glass, having one
11 0°04 4 inch of rain divided into 100
parts.
hee 42 ae |
13 0:03 | ‘THERMOMETER. — Maximum ta-
3 | | ken from a mercurial thermo-
ES 14 0-01 | meter; minimum taken from a
yf 15 0:05. | s spirit thermometer: both placed
a site : | _ inthe shade, and as much as pos-
= 16 No observation. | Fa | sible out of the wind.
= S
gees, 0510 6 | 3
| S | The thermometers are SB SSIS
18 | 0°12 | 3 tering.
aig 0717 | eat Wah | |
ae i
| CS | |
| 5 | Pavun W. PHiLuirrs
21 HeecO 15 ° | AUL W. ;
| | = Major, R. A. |
22 | a | I
| | ee | | |
ps2 iow On 18 | | = | Ladder Hill, St. Helena, |
| 24 | 0°09 2 | | August 12, 1863. |
| | | |
| aay) : 0°32 | tz | | |
| Pie 26 % . |. 0-09 | ae | | :
een 3) | . 6°08 oa |
Rete G12, || = | |
| 29 No mevetios. | :
a | |
Pe 31 | J |

Total Rain-fall, . . . 3°82 inches. |

. gage —. -_
. aii ai - = ee a a, ere Sha Ore eater eee —

OE a a aE i

- ; Sia PPE Ca eee Se EE fee, FN ary ee ee Se oie — 3
ij a ‘
— o
ray pe
“4 3)
; | c 5 ¢ + 10 fv A AS
8 V ‘y ‘sadarrirg soley, Aq popr0oayy i
Pe oe)
; =
: co NN ~ 0 tH monrnnnti an & A
rey Oe S a = into aye oe ee oo en anoooons
: oo Oo oo Sy aS SiS) eo oo SoCo © -o So Ss :
Le ee ae ee ee ee a aE RSE Se a 7s — Sea =
: S
4 : ° aoaowrtwnonnoaornt Am HW 19 © ~ DO 2 OS
Se aq| ma oew oe Om OO RBA OeAt tH DAH AH FRO AKNANAAAAAN SG 5
ea oe ii ene rome ng
. & ws
ma “qyUOTE $98l NAANALdUS &
Goer eee en ee
DM ee
a =)
rm 4 gis Stee ene ee emer ee ee pin Sane
ja
i om
a a ‘yy ‘saarrmmg sofepr £q popsooayy 5
< S 5a
| fo)
at
cee —————— =o)
— we oO st wv ammo OD OO oH — oo tk &
sees 2 so ae Se oo o%e 5 Nnoonoso S ooo | 0
we = ° oooolcol lO =} =) =) ° So. — t=)
res i a
1 tO Oe GO A th. SS SO SO co Ne SN ee eS =
em ee Be eM RR RO COE RN CGY CLG CUNY GN OC
3 - ees Ae eS
=)
Ss
. 6 ing
“UyUON $98T LSNDOV

ES A EI CT

137

LADDER-HILL, ST. HELENA.

Toe ee Rain-fall, . . 0°32 ofan inch.

Total Rain-fall, . . . 1:44 inches.

3 g 5 R marks = = |
=| 3 e <8, S| i vk
g a é s a S Remarks.
1 | 0°14 1 | 0°01
2 | 0710 2 ve
3 | 0:07 3 | 0-01
4 | 0°06 4
|
5 | 0°01 5
6 | 0:1 6
7 1007 7
8 | 0 ol 8
oN Maas 9
10 | 0°05 LOL ees
11 01 11 | 0-02
12 “nf & 12) Nea <
fee 42. BS 13 a
; 14 | 0-03 s es} 14 ee
S 3 5 oF x
2) alae eee 3 az HESS ae S|
ES : =| Sl =
e4 16 | 0°02 & sl LG ve iauess 2
S 17 | 0°03 S S A O02 2,
E >]
= a 18. | 0°10 si Sie ie. a
2) > © i
19 | 0-07 2 Zi 19 | 0°01 es
20 | 0-14 3 20s coe ss)
> So
21 | 0°03 2 21 | o 2
22 | 0°08 22 | 0°02
gay paar? 23 | 0°05
24 | 24 | 0-02
25 | 25 | 0:07
26 | | 26 | 0-03
27 Bey." | 2a | OF 01
28 0°07 28 | 0-04
29 | 0°01 29 | 0-01
30 | 0°05 30
31 | 0°06

LADDER-HILL, ST. HELENA.

“YUOK

|

Remarks.

:

0°03
0-09

0°04

oOo mMnANn AN AN sa OD! oe LS) oS?) N Ne > Coy S25:
qe eS oS ©& oe 9 on OS SS (os) . SS) SS OS]
eS So 16 oS eS) SES eS cs) . oS © eo ~~ 3
a cor
"Ss
eS So 66m Oo SC aA OH 1 SO ht O ajo a No Wo Sk ao oS ein
weet A WA Ae et A TANT N NAN ANN NNN NHN OH FO a
Ss
es on
: —
A ¢ s
p98T AUVONVES BS
- an
=|
©
=
eyr cay f a
Vou ‘sdartnug Jofepy Aq paps0say s
5 Se
(=)
©
Xs)
a “oo + a A x ot A tO o
co) one Se o> OS} So oo 2.4 -
So Sy = Se) S) i=) aa oS Oo ©&
om HW 1p 2S re OnrnonwWnnmonwtwnmowroenaowwFnana wn Wo OF OD Oo 4
Sox we FA A eT nt wy NnOndananrieanaieantiandrieanan an wD ©

=
a
co
Ema
°
Q
©
2)
e

“$981 ‘NHANAOAA

Total Rain-fall .

139

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.

Remarks.

cI : | g : Remarks.
ee |e eae ie
1 | 0°02 | 12 | Orr?
2 | 0-01 | 2 | 0°18
3 | 0-01 3 ue
4 | 9-13 4 | 0°05
5 | 0-18 Se Oats
6 | 0:03 6 10-03
7 ) 7 | 0:09
8 | 0-01 s | 0°03
9 v7 9 | 0-06
10 | 0-02 10
NGO *01 a 11 <
12 | 0-03 res 12: hei =
g é
2 13 0:06 ey 13 0°02 4
st A _ 4
© 4 st me
A) 14 0°02 4 Jo) 14 4
a rm a S
15 10-08 ca ie a ca
64 iS 3 a
< 16 | 0:01 = = 16 a 2
=) <A =
z 17 | 0:03 a < 17 | 0°02 =
S| 18 | 0-12 io 18 | 0°07 a
fy 5 se)
19 | 0°04 2 19, ez 3
20 | 0-14 3 20 | 0-01 3
jam
21 21 | 0-04
Dari ze
23 | 0:04 23
24 | 0°08 24
25 | 0°17 25
26 | 0:04 26
27 | 0-01 27
28 | 0-08 28 ur
29 | 0-10 | 29 | 0-09
30 | 0:02
31 | 0-04

Total Rain-fall, . . . 1 42 inches. Total Rain-fall, . . 1°22 inches.

140

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.

os . Pee
3} ’ 5
S h
g "Vy ‘y ‘saalTTIEg Jofep Aq pop1099xy s
i>)
oe] ; a
)
XN 0 OR KF coo fF on Fy cn :
“ULBY boa NN GN we SN s G9 = ° ret N bor) al ° ry e So 5
SS (o.oo: oe oS eo ove ° 28
| é
eure § AN mot wowoerWOnon#WhHhHh nowt OO re DWOROAHNnNn OHO OO Ye OD SO ww =
4 AW Ww nen wi iy? TA TT TE NN NIN NNN N NIN NN DD & “SS
= AS
"3
; E
“UFUOWN ‘P9St AVIA bea
n
rea} o
cs q
a "y “3 ‘saarTuNg Jolep_ Aq poproossy AS
& i»
(am is
Ln |
ce) ~ OMAN HOW OM OD OH HM O x a a 2
ULB] S oO 5 3 rh Genk 8} heap GY Ser SS) Sh oo fo nd . Co S So "
(SVS) eye eS Ss) Sy SS OS SS SSS => fom) (=) oO =
x
SE
=
. tt POonnneamadwt © OD rYe ORoewWndndsnmwts4 Ore © HD © os
ORG Renee ee ee a Bent ARH HH TH HANAN AANHNAAAN DH BS
ot
S
P °
“UCONN V98t lad V a

3 g
3 Ss
3 *
a ‘yy ‘saarTmHg Jofeyy Aq pops0dery S|
ia is)
9 =)
es Le |
—) ie nN HO aA on DWH OH Oa HN t
“ULE Rh oe acess — ae teen raya = Jem ea EM cet == Ne a mI Yee) a0, Ned ‘
° Se re a2 See S1So0S © Se one ono To es
é eee |
t
<i ‘qrq|/ aA NOH 1 Or DROCHAHMH DOR OHROH NOH HH OH he ODO Ss
7; Bn nnn APR HR HAAN ANAAANAAANANA H & ke
: ia
: as hd ee sole wid bebrpce 2! ee es
iS &
5 . 6 =)
= yg uOHT post ‘ATOL ES
= sae Nhs ce i ae et oe a say:
NM
ca ~
sy 4
Ton rl
— a) CN aes ee ar ar ery Hee ge al ee —— so i eT st ae pe ea A oS <=
an
8 %
f 4 a
Q x ¢ =I
a q ‘Vy ‘saat g rofeyy Aq pops0deyy a 3
= ea QO | i
| ras) 4
re)
a ee ee N (oe)
CORSO Go enar) sot to oS © xX o 19 OD Ne) C=) SSH ie
“ULB oo 7 NAN > Feet ORS Cal Masala a lernomale aa ee ee =m N © Q
Soc) tere ‘oe oe 4c: 4 ero wen SS a Pa
mm S)
SF FS
‘oyaeq | A No YH 1 Ore DOD MRMOHTH AM HD DFO ROH AH H 1H OH HAS a= a
ie
, : 6 iS) fon
quo post ‘INAL Prt

142

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.

F é
a =
H
a ‘yy ‘sadiTuHg rofepy Aq pops0s0xy A=
~
= a
eS
10 x HO OH 19 10 WH OR © x nN oe) © 10 :
uUIRy | ra) =) eon oon nw oo Sf r=) 3 oOo 3
° ° S26 © © Soo SG0 @ So o ° SS) =
=
: ij
eq | AN O WM DOM DATOHAMH DOH DASH AM HD OH DAS AS
: en wnt tnt tet At DT NON NAN AN AN ANATANA NAN YD Pe
peste tae Se ees eC a Gee eee Ge Trier eS | rg
oS
3 S)
e e ¢
qyuoy b98t YHANALdYS B
n
2 =
's as)
x
SI ‘Vy ‘SaaITIIHNg sofeyy Aq pops0deyy aS
3 a
ra)
| = = es ra
(oO nm NO HA wD & ice) oo nN AN oOo x of a g
WC eae See eS ee ee valor sass: = ? ;
eee yee Se) ES = SS SS iS ° o =
&
bs ’
e Cay apne y= Ch Se Gel Sah We) Re) = (eo fer) t=) he (oR 50) Sen ey ek Sy eo) ten tS) i! (=|
ved oie Oe es ees BHr et A ATR ATA TD THN NNN ANANAAN AN | OD o
Ee ca
= —
z ¢ Slee
i a

143

3
zy eS
“4 S
g ‘ ei
A ‘yy ‘sdarrimg sofepy Aq peps0sayy he
ra iS)
i
5)
mee ©
[e.@) N oO x AN AN GN 1D SS
uley S So SS) Oo SS) -
(=>) SS). ) =) o © oOo SaaS :
ie
_ geq| mW Noto OKO RASOAAMH H DOH DROSHA NAN HD HH OH DAS =o
7, Ss mM A me tT NA TD A TW TH NNANANANAANIANI AN A S
Oo
= ——|
=
° ° 6, xe
cn] yquoW v98tE UHANAAON i)
4 i
cs E
RM \
+
e|
am) Rae ee ie a8 = ae pu ns Seats 2 Smee os =
oa a)
uv
a od ee
Be le :
5 ray é . fer £ e
> | VU ‘saarrung sofeyy Aq papsooey =
re a ee
| ©
oO
© 2. mo YN HAN NAN CO N
Ute Se Ae at as oS SPS RSs S = :
eye ey Cte Se) SS) cn) :
ee —. ——
; &
"OV ae AN © dH 10 Ore Oana oxnnaoat oo © es Ooo ox AN Os —H ASS = OG Co Oe 1
‘ : Set Amal Ae Nelo Selo teh teal Sele eh IO fo (SEN) GS OY NN OO I
os)
eee,
“UOT ‘POST ‘MAAOLOO S

144

LADDER HILL, ST. HELENA.

me
iS
Ss
q
o
[ae]

“YAUOTL

Vou (gaal ITH g lofep Aq pops0d0yy

$ GX N Oo
“me Pe eo es ie ele
fo) SS)
"018CL ~- © oO SO AN OS 29 © ES CO SD
a Mma NNN NN NN WN AN SN

WIUON “panuyuoI—FORT ‘YAANAOA
1d 6 © 219 1 H Ye) 2 Ye) Sor)
uley SS So Se) _ oOo Ft OS) (SS)
Sao SS S eS So > 6.

e fend

ayed os4H NN Oo HH 29 O ~ WD GS 2 = S Se)

‘POST NAANAOAG

0°05

30
31

14
15
16

0 °'87 of an inch.

*

Total Rain-fall, . . .

145

In the following Table I have collected together, in the form of an

abstract, the preceding Observations on Evaporation and Rain-fall, week
by week.
/ The column marked /'— & denotes Evaporation minus Rain-fall for
_each week, observed in the cylinder surrounded by water; the column 2
' denotes the weekly Rain-fall ; and the column # denotes the Evaporation,
deduced from the preceding.

Date. £- R. R. £. Date. E- R&R. R.
Aue. 10 1°00 | 0°48 | 1°48 APRIL 5 1°75 | 0°05 | 1°80
eet) hi 350) |cO dog) 1 +65 » 12] 0°90 | 0-83 | 1°73
Sep 24r iat 00) 1,-0°07 | 1-07 PEON ee le 25) 1) O72 (4. G7.
ee al POZO) O20 | Led Be OPAC) I Som OF 1711252
Sepr. 7} 1°50 | 0°02] 1°52 May 38| 1°85 | 0°03 | 1-88
» 14]. 1°80 | 0-06 | 1:86 dO) | e757 Or 00nd -75
j HO pO 0 Zou! 1°75 Bs mL TOR Om Ong tery
gS Be 28e e142 5107/5 0°20}. 1°30 eee cl 65) 1 ORO0n) 1-65
Se Oorsr5 ial:60 | 0°11] 1°71 aot | hale Dol OrS8. 1 263
Meet) | 160) 0-34) 1°94 JuNE 7] 1°30] 0:09 | 1°39
Pend) 4-40 10-511, 1-91 Sede le O51 O14 1 ql 19
fe +26 P60 ie0- Ol 3-161 Ba eal 0°00 | 2°16] 9:16
Noy. 2 1°60 | 0°00} 1°60 eZ) | O20 te 2 ON le 9
M4 me GO roo O a0) clio « JULY “5 0°70 0°88 id 723]
eG ; 0°26 [1°31]*|] os < gi? } 1°25 |F1-60
| 10 | hay [1°60]
B28. 0°23 [1:28] ]| Pele ae O0e) ORAS etc 4s
Museen atesd, 20°17 | 1°72 |) he26)| 20-40, | 10586, 4 496
Peds: |} 91 760i |.0°03 | 1°68 Aes 2 | 120. | 0-201 1-40
ek 1°45 | 0°00; 1°45 nf 9 L300) O Oleg «36
eT 2 tod) | 10245) 174 eel 1°30 | 0°16 | 1°46
aay 1°55) | 0-08 | 1-63 Ost lt OMmOKaS Ites
aera Pepa OFOd | 72 a) 13 OOF FOROS S Asetcy:
erie i 10:4 028+) 1°38 Serr. 6} 0°70 | 0 50] 1-20
3 ea ade). 0°16 | 1°46 re masa he USO (Oca A oay/
pe | Fes, 1] 1°55 | 0-20) 1-75 PPO O20) 0) 10M t- 30
Ree es eet 40.1710 227| 1-67 » 27 | 0:80 | 0°43 1 1 93
kd O°90 (1524), 2-14 Ocr. 4 LelOs). OSS7 21°67.
» 22} 1°40 | 0°40 1°80 Pelle s On now oul 5G) |
Mar. 1 1°40 |-0°69-2-09 Trees) Ko) LTO T Ocho 8s
rs et 008! 0°72. 1°72-| yy 2 1 1-10 1 044 11-54
» 15 1) 9.99 | 1°90 |[2°90] Noy. 1} 1°40 | 0-20 | 1-60 |
Bao oy 4 -| 0°28 [1°28] eo Slee 0 0 Ol et: 71
Sees AGO a Oelod LoS a ALO tom |e O02 a elec Gar
i Eee

* When two or three weeks are recorded together, the means are used, and such re-
jults are entered between brackets [ il:

Sa Og 8 ee
Date. ER | R. E. | Date. Bak: R. | E. |
Reuesmctiiex cn a |
Nov. 22 | 1°55 | 0°05 | 1-60* Junz19 | 0°55 | 1°35 | 1°90
Mahe. SEPP os it 67) 4 26 1 10°90" 0-40 |. 13m
es | Dec. 6 | 1°60 | 0°14 | 1-74 | Jury 8] 0°80 | 0°45 | 1:25
ES AS a 50019 a 10 | 2-90: |-0-15 (ees
7 20 1c tgs | O04 at 779 ye [ee O22 bers
ae Oia) 0°10 [71-39] » 241 1°05 | 0°38 | 1°43
Jan. 3 | $3°86 | 0-28 [[ 1-56] ee | 1-10 0°83 [1°38]
pas eS) 0°11 |f 1°40] Aue. 7 1°17 | 1-728
tT WA eog Oe2S | oles yn LA 08 5n 0-33. dee tis
Od |e AG 005: I 183 » 21 | (4-26 | 0-15 | 1-46
eaSi | et Oa 0-37 ao ce3 7 28 at 0be) 0-25) |. 130
Fer. 7| 1°25 | 0°38 | 1:90 | Serr. 4] 1°10 | 0°07 | 1°17
ae ON 75.) OF 15 | 1252 yo TE e420! 6°83.) 17a
Ot Vdd by O28 72-02 » 18} 0°80 | 0°73 | 1°53
» 28} 1°60 | 0-42) 1-91) x 20k AOD 0 Te ae al
Mar. 6| 1:25 | 0°66 | 1°85 | & | Ocr. 2] 1:30 | 0-05 | 1°35
=< 213 1 065.107 205) 1624) » 9 | 4245 |0-00-| 1-45
00 990 1 eles O22 Tal ese fy) 1G |e arn hd| othces
ie OT | Ge 80 0-04! te 98 28 | Ae GORIOr boils
Arrin 8 | 1°70 | 0-28 | 1:91 | ui BO \ 2-70 0°05 [1°40]
Ly 10) 20 10-714) 1-66 Nov. 6 0°08 |[ 1-43]
» 171 0:90 | 0:76 | 1°62 aS | 2-50 0-09 |[1°34]|
24 1 501 O21 Sat 163 att 20 0°04 /[1°29]]
May 1 | 4-60!) 0-03") 1283 527i ed a HOEl O- O20) elegy
Die S Wie 1-45) O 8a! 1237 Dec. 4] 1:00 | 0:30 | 1°30
SS «| 20-25 Pek) AGI. AL 1 02h 190-49. |e
» 22} 0-75 | 0°86 | 1:30) 3» 18 11560790. 07 |. fez
edt 30 Oc00M ha 79-, sy) 20 Ie bebOne 0-02 Jee
ee } 2-10 | 0-00 |[ 1-05]
1?

If we combine the preceding results into periods of four weeks, com-
mencing at winter solstice (summer in Southern hemisphere), we find
the following Table, containing the thirteen lunar months of each year:— __

* The entries in brackets [ _] are deduced from those before and after them, or are —
means, when several weeks are recorded together.

j
b |
|

:

1
| |
|
|

|
|
|

fragt dy 4s

147

TaBLE showing Evaporation for Periods of Four Weeks.

aan RNIN aN a

Commencing | Commencing | Commencing

ates eee 22, eae 21, Spear 20, Mean.
Inches, Inches. Inches. Inches, |
| 1 ; 6°47 6°00 Gr28e7)
a | 2 | 7°02 7°06 7°04 |
eos. ee 7°30 7:90 |

| 4 | 6°7 7°35 7°07
| 5 7:12 6°74 6°93 |
| 6 6°38 6°07 6-22 |
| ie 5-67 | 5-51 5°59 |

| 8 5°74 5°53 5°63
9 5°56 5°60 5°58 |
10 6°55 5°07 5°94 5 85 |

11 6°86 6°65 6°14 6°55

12 5°89 6°68 0°46 6°01

13 6°13 6°82 6°20 6°38

Woftal,-<. 34°48 80:30 S2°SS

The last column of this Table is shown graphically in Plate I., and
proves that the maximum and minimum of Evaporation follow the solstice
by intervals different in summer and winter; the maximum occurring
three months after, or nearly at the time of the equinox, and the mini-
mum occurring one month and a half afterits own solstice. This result
differs from that formerly found for Dublin, where the maximum and
minimum of Evaporation coincide very nearly with the times of the sol-
stices themselves.

This difference is produced by causes not difficult of detection.

148

MONDAY, NOVEMBER 14, 1864.
The Very Rey. Cuarztes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

Grorcr V. Du Noyer, M.R.I.A., R.G.8.1., presented to the Li-
brary of the Royal Irish Academy, 99 Drawings from Original Sketches
of Antiquities, in the counties of Westmeath, Longford, Meath, and
King’s County, to form Vol. VI. of similar donations ; of these the fol-
lowing is the Catalogue :—

No. 1. Doorway of the church erected by St. Fechin at Fore, county
of Westmeath ; interior view. St. Fechin died A. D. 664.

No. 2. East window in the chancel of St. Fechin’s church at Fore,
showing thirteenth and probably sixteenth century work.

No. 8. Plan of the same church, showing the modern chancel, the

date of which may be the thirteenth century, though modified in the

sixteenth century, as is evident from the reconstruction of the east
window.
No. 4. Proposed main doorway to the chapel of the Abbey of Fore.

Sie

Jt would appear that this doorway, which is constructed in the west

wall of a massive square tower placed at the west end of the chancel,
was never completed, probably owing to some change of design in the

construction of the abbey. There is no trace of its exterior semicircular

arch in the interior portion of the doorway, while the simple roll-
moulding which surrounds the doorway is left unfinished in the arch.
The form of the doorway and that of the moulding is clearly of the thir-
teenth century.

No. 5. Capitals of cloister columns from the abbey at Fore. The

style of the mouldings and the presence of a slender rib in the lower © |

hollowed portion of the capital are all characteristic of the early English
style, or that prevalent in the thirteenth century.

No. 6. Intercolumnation of some of the cloister arches from the ab- |

bey at Fore.
No. 7. View of the west gate of Fore, looking eastward.
No. 8. View of the same from the opposite direction.
No. 9. View of the east gate at Fore.

No. 10. Old font, built into the exterior of the wall of the Roman — |

Catholic chapel at Fore.

Fore.

No. 12. Heraldic carving from a stone which appears to have formed |
the springing of one of the cloister arches at Fore Abbey ; but now used as |

a headstone in the graveyard of St. Fechin’s church. The device is a kite-

shaped shield, on which is carved, in relief, two human arms, crossed, |

coupé at the shoulder, and clothed with a short ‘‘ manche,”’ which de-
scends from the elbows; the right hand grasps the handle of a large
cross-hilted dagger, the point of which extends beyond the top of the

No. 11. Monumental cross from the graveyard of St. Mary’s church at c |

149

shield, and on it is impaled a human head, of which the features
are defaced ; resting on the shield, and beneath the left side of the head,
is an ornament like the rowel of a spur.

No. 13. View of the east window of the Anchorites’ church at Fore.*
This building stands on the slope of the hill, just above the ancient
church of St. Fechin, and its erection would date at about the early
part of the sixteenth century ; 1t consists of a massive, low, square
tower, having a small projection in its north-west angle to admit of
circular sears, which led from the nave of the chureh, or basement
floor of the tower, to the room over the arch, which was capable of being
used as a dwelling, and was provided with a fireplace in the south
wall. On the exterior of the north wall of the church is a small stone

- tablet, bearing the following inscription, in raised Roman capitals :—

“THE KIGHT HONORABLE RICHARD NUGENT EARLE OK WESTMEATHE AT
HIS OWN EXPENCES REBUILDED THIS CHAPLE AND CASTLE FOR THE BURYING
PLACE AND PIOUS USE OF HIMSELF AND HIS SUCCESSORS ANNO DOMINI 1680.”’

Above this, and carved in high relief, 1s an earl’s coronet, resting on a
winged oriffin.
No. 14. Plan of the Anchorites’ church at Fore, showing the position

_ of the fireplace in the room above the arched chancel. It ‘would appear

that subsequent to the building of the tower the circular stairs were

blocked up, and a doorway opened into this room in the wall over the

chancel arch, access to which must then have been by a ladder from the

nave of the church.

No. 15. Doorway of the very ancient church at Agharra,} in the

' county of Longford, near the village of Legan. This doorway is flat-
_ headed, and quite Cyclopean in its character, being as beautifully and
| massively constructed as the doorways of this class which we find at
_ Glendalough. ‘The lintel measures six feet six inches in length, and
| Ono ian ° ° 5
_ some of the adjoining stones measure seven feet six inches in length.
' Tam not aware that this very ancient church has ever been described
_ by any antiquary.
No. 16. View of the central gable of the old church of Agharra,
which was originally the east gable of the building, showing the in-
| sertion of a doorway and a window loop in it, in order to adapt the
| western or ancient portion of the church to the purpose of a dwelling-
' house; by this modification the chancel was available as a chapel for

| [NOTES BY THE REV. DR. REEVES. |
|

| * The Anker House at Fore.

See, for description, Vallancey’s ‘ Collectanea,” vol. i., p. 63. See Harris’ “‘ Ware,”
| vol. ii., p. 135.

| i Aghar ral take to be a phonetic form of Echaradh, whichis thus mentioned in the
| “Qalendar of Marian Gorman,” and the ‘‘ Martyrology of Donegal,” at April 11:—“ Aedh
| Of Echaradh” (p. 101).

R.7. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. x

150

the neighbouring castle of Ardanragh—a building probably of the six- _

teenth century.

No. 17. East window of the same old church, showing the stone socket
for the internal shutter to swing on.

No. 18. Small window loop in the south wall of the chancel of the
same old church, the date of which is coeval with this portion of the
building, and is probably of the sixteenth century.

No. 19. Plan of the same old church, showing the modern chancel, and
the modifications of the original east gable. The walls of the ancient
church are without foundations, but they rest on a rough basement or
plinth of large flags. This peculiar mode of construction has been fol-
lowed by the builders of the chancel, either from veneration or for con-
venience. A large flat-headed doorway in the north wall of the chancel
allowed access to this portion of the building, while a similar doorway in

the central gable allowed of communication with the ancient or western D

part of the building.

No. 20. Near Foxhall, county of Longford, and in the parish of P|

Rathreagh (Ordnance Survey, Sheet 20), there is an ancient mound,

in the centre of which stands what is called ‘‘ The Caldragh Stone,”’ of q

which this is a sketch. The monument in question, which is un-

doubtedly of great antiquity, consists of a block of stone, five feet in a
height, ten inches in breadth, flat at one side, and rounded on the ©
other, and standing in a flat circular plinth; its apex, for something 7

)
Te

more than one foot, is fined off, and narrowed, or notched. This mo-
nument is evidently incomplete, and I feel disposed to believe that the

shaft was intended to receive a cruciform head of wood, which rested 4

on the notch at the top.

No. 21. Close to this small pillar is a flagstone, bearing the ornament 4
here sketched; it consists of two circles, connected by a narrow band, ©

the central portion of the former being ornamented by a Greek cross.
The stone is broken in the middle, and I have no doubt but that when |
perfect there were three such circles engraved onit. This form of orna- ~ |
ment, without the cross, is found on monuments of undoubted Pagan

age in Ireland. Vide Vol. I., No. 14, of my “ Antiquarian Sketches,”
where I have figured a slab of stone from the graveyard of Tully, inthe
county of Dublin, in which we find this triple circle connected by nar- q a

row bands, and which has been recognised as pre-Christian.

No. 22. View of the west gable of the old church at Feohran,* county |

* Foyran, a parish in the extreme north of the county of Westmeath.

The Ordnance Survey (Westmeath, Sheet 1) marks ‘‘ Church in Ruins, Graveyard,”

and ‘‘ Bishop Hugh’s Well (Tobar Aidain).”
The name of the church is written in Irish Fotbren and Faiobhran.

The patron saint is thus commemorated, at Nov. 1, in the ‘‘Calendar of Marian %

Gorman” and the ‘‘ Martyrology of Donegal” :—‘‘ Aedh son of Roi, of Foibren.”
The place is also noticed in the ‘“‘ Four Masters,” at the year 754 :—“ Eochaidh son
of Conall Meann, abbot of Faoibhran, died.”

cof
Oe
>

Tol

of Westmeath, showing the ancient masonry at the base of the wall, with
the comparatively modern flat belfry, pierced for three bells, above it.

No. 28. View of the interior of the same church, which is said to
have been dedicated to St. Edan, as a well bearing his name is close at
hand, To the right of the view, in the south wall of the nave, is a very
ancient window ; the chancel arch is completely gone; beyond this, to
the left of the view, isa portion of the east gable, with a small partition
taken off the width of the chancel, to allow of a narrow flight of stairs,
which conducted tothe room over the arch of the chancel.

No. 24. Exterior view of the ancient window in the south wall of the
nave of the same church. This feature is exceedingly interesting, as it
shows the method adopted of closing the window with an external wooden
shutter, a portion of the stone surrounding the ope having been cut away
to receive it. Itappears to me that in this and similar examples we have
the origin of the external mouldings, and subsequent decorations of all
our windows. At first these necessary adjuncts to buildings of stone were
merely loops; and as they were made wider in process of time, the benefit
of light and air was often counterbalanced by cold and wet, and it be-
eame necessary to close them externally by a shutter. A deep notch was
therefore cut all round them to receive this construction ; and this notch,
aiter the introduction of glassin our churches and castles, was retained
as an ornamental feature, and enlarged, modified in shape, and decorated
as taste and architectural skill suggested.

No. 25. Interior view of the foregoing window, which shows that
though the ope is triangular-headed externally, it is semicircular within
—a feature which, I believe, is novel in windows of this class.

No. 26. Specimen of the masonry at the base of the south wall of
the same old church, the character of which is quite Cyclopean, and will
bear comparison with that of the churches at Glendalough.

No. 27. Plan of Feohran church, showing the more modern chancel,
and the unique construction of the stairs to the room over this portion
| of the building.

Another place of the same name is mentioned in the ‘‘ Four Masters,” at 811, and
» placed by them in Crich Graicrighe, corresponding to the modern baronies of Coolavin
| in Sligo, and Castlereagh in Roscommon, in his note on which place Dr. O’Donovan con-
founds the two together, although in his Index Locorum he correctly has—

| “Faebhran, or Faobhran, Foyran, in the barony of Fore, county of Westmeath,
| abbot of, 754;” and ‘“ Foibhren, in Crich-Graicrighe, 811.”

. Tober Aedhain is a well of cyclopean construction, the masonry of which is now
| entirely defaced.

Aedhan is the diminutive of Aedh, the latter being the form in the Calendars; and
| this is preserved in the English equivalent given for Tobar Aedhain, in the Ordnance
| Map, “‘ Bishop Hugh's Well.” :

} Among the appropriations of the Abbey of Fore was the ‘Ecclesia S. Edani de
Fayron.” Archdall, ‘‘Monast. Hib.,” p. 715.

| In Bp. Anthony Dopping’s ‘‘ Register of Meath Diocese’ (Marsh’s Library), the
} parish is noticed thus :—“ Favoran, alias Foyran, alias Finnah. The last form is now
| written Finnea, and is the name of a hamlet on the river which connects Lough Sheelin
) and Lough Kinale.”’

152

No. 28. East window of the abbey at Abbey Shrule, in the county
of Longford. The masonry is exceedingly rude; and the design of the _
window, which is broad lancet, of two lights, is clearly late thirteenth
century.

No. 29. Exterior view of the same window. :

No. 30. Carved stone from the graveyard of the abbey church at
Abbey Shrule. This relic is cruciform above, where it is ornamented by
deeply cut lines, resembling a rude reaping-hook, with the handle up-
right. The shaft is decorated by a broad interlacing of four bands,
extending down its entire length. This stone no doubt dates to a period
long prior to the construction of the abbey adjoining, and may be a rem-
nant of the original church, which rendered the locality sacred.

No. 31. Two views of the same stone.

No. 32. View of the square keep of the old castle of Newcastle,
county of Westweath, near Castlepollard, showing the entrance gateway
to the outworks.

No. 33. Plans of the same old castle, showing the construction
of the basement floor, and that above it. There are small angular
turrets at the northern and western angles of the tower, formed by the
prolongation of the side walls, and the platform of the parapet is conti-
nued through them. From the fact of the window loops and doorway
in the interior of this tower being narrowed at the head by projecting
bevelled stones, on which the flat head of each opening rests, I feel dis-
posed to regard this tower as the work of the fourteenth century, pro-
bably during the reign of Edward III.

No. 84. View of the tower of Coolamber Castle, county of Longford, ©
showing the postern gate on its western side. The remaining portion |
of the castle must have resembled a substantial house, the walls of ~

which were about five feet thick, and the basement formed by a series
of arches. This castle was erected by some of the Nugents of the family ~
of the Barons of Westmeath. ‘

35. Plan of the same castle.

No. 36. Plan of the old church of Coolamber. Ina small grove, on :
the north side of the old road which passes by the castle of Coolamber, |
and close to the castle, on the east, there is a mutilated cross, on which ed

is the following inscription, in raised Roman capitals :—

“T HS. Pray for the Souls of Thomas Nugent deced 12 ian 1688 and of Rose Tyrell =]
his wife.” By

In the graveyard of Coolamber old church there is a tombstone of the ei

family of Farrell, or Farrall, the earliest date on which is 1799. The yy
crest is a greyhound courant, with an earl’s coronet beneath; then there |
is a lion courant, though, according to another tombstone of the same |

family, this animal should be rampant; and below all is the following
Trish motto, deeply cut in Roman letters :—‘‘ coo BREI BE DERB,” which
Mr. Hennessy translates, ‘‘ the rushing or tearing hound.”

a OES eo

153

No. 37. Tower of the old church of Moylagh, county of Westmeath,
between Fore and Oldcastle.

No. 38. Plan of the tower of Moylagh old church, showing how care-
fully it was adapted to form a residence, as it contains a fireplace
and necessarium, and ‘recess for a bed. The window loops have seats
at either side, and access to the body of the church was by a flight of
steps in the north wall of the tower. Probable date, the fourteenth
century.

No. 39. Plan of the outworks of Carlanstown Castle, county of West-

~ meath, the date of which may be the sixteenth century. The tower at

the north-west angle is singular, as the following illustrations will ex-
lain :—

J No. 40. Plans of the basement and two upper floors of the tower at

the north-west angle of the outworks at Carlanstown Castle.

No. 41. Loops for musketry from the same tower.

No. 42. View of the tower of Clonarney old church, county of West-
meath.

No. 48. Interior view of the same tower, looking north, showing the
window in the north wall, and the adjoining doorway to the necessarium.
This tower was set apart for the residence of the ecclesiastic, as at Moy-
lagh church.

No. 44. Plan of the tower of Clonarney old church.

No. 45. View of the tower of Kilpatrick old church, county of West-
meath.

No. 46. Plan of the same tower, showing the alterations in the base-
ment of the east wall by which the choir arch was built up, and a fire-
place constructed over its crown to heat the apartment just below the
arch of the tower. I believe the date of this building to be the four-
teenth century. ;

No. 47. Doorway of Tagshinod old church, county of Longford, re-
stored from fragments lying about.

No. 48. East window of the same old church, showing the introduc-
tion of the triquatra ornament at the head of the opening below the drip
moulding.

No. 49. Plan of the same old church, the date of which may be the
sixteenth century. The east gable has been propped up by a very mas-
sive buttress, at a comparatively recent date.

No. 50. Plan of Lacken old church, county of Westmeath, showing
the more modern chancel and choir are, and the small circular stairs to
the west of the doorway, which probably led to the gallery, which was
supported on the corbels at the eastern end of the nave. I think it pro-
bable that this church may date to the fourteenth century, if not earlier.

No. 51. Interior view of the tower of Tristernagh old church, county
of Westmeath, looking west, and showing the two doorways to the body
of the building, one in the north, and the other in the south side wall.
The doorway in the west wall of the tower leads to the upper floor of
that building, which was set apart and adapted for the dwelling place

154

of the ecclesiastic. The large opening over the arch supporting the
east wall of the tower is on a level with the floor of this room, and I
believe led to the space between the roof and the flat ceiling of the :
church. a
No. 52. Plans of Tristernagh old church and tower ; that of the upper ‘
floor of the latter shows the position of the fireplace and the necessarium;
that portion of the west wall over the stairs, and the recess in the same 4
wall, close to the south angle, have small ESS or turrets over them, —
marked by dotted lines on the plan. 3
No. 53. Plan of the old church at Lickblaw, near Castlepollard. This —
building, which consists of nave and chancel, having the doorway in the ©
south wall, is not of older date than the fifteenth century. =
No. 54. East window of the same church. .
No. 55. Plan of Morning Castle, county of Longford. This builds a
which is a square tower of massive proportions, has been mutilated from —
time to time by the systematic removal of all ‘the quoin stones to near
the summit, and all the cut stones or casings of the doors and windows. —
So completely shaken is the whole tower by this spoliation, that I should —
not be surprised to hear of its fall in a short time, especially during wea- ~
ther which would be alternately wet and freezing. 4
No. 56. Plan of Skurlockstown Castle, county of Westmeath, near —
Collinstown. 4
No. 57. Plan of the old church of Moat Farrel, county of Longford. ~
Near this ruin is the Moat of Farrel, on which once stood the castle —
residence of the O’Farrall or O’ Farell family. There is a tradition pre- ©
served in connexion with this family and that of the O’Reillys and ~
the Edgeworths, which may be worth preserving; I believe that it is ~
founded on truth, and I know it is recognised as such by the family of —
the Edgeworths. Some time about the early part of the seventeenth —
century the Farralls and the O’Reillys owned large possessions on the
eastern borders of the county of Longford; and as the country was ina | |
very disturbed and unsettled state, the O’Farralls, trusting to what they ©
believed their superior interest and power, devised a plan by which”
they might gain possession of the property of the neighbouring O’ Reillys. —
On a stated occasion they invited the O’Reillys to a grand banquet at”
their castle of Moat Farrall, and arranged the meeting so that each ~
O’Farrall had an O’ Reilly placed by his side at the table. Ata given —
signal, during the progress of the feast, the O’Farralls stabbed each his —
neighbour, so that not one of the O’Reillys left the banquet hall alive.
Their success, however, was of short duration ; for scarcely had they
seized the territory of the O’Reillys when the English Government sent
a strong force to punish such an atrocity, and the whole of the O’Farrall
property was confiscated, and bestowed on an English officer, named
Edgeworth, who was instrumental in the punishment of the guilty
clan; and since that period the Edgeworths have retained possession of ;
the estate. .
No. 58. Plan of Mulchan’ s old church, county of Westmeath. This

155

is the burying place of a branch of the Ogle family, and a tombstone
there bears the following inscription :—

*t Nicholas and Abigail eldest son and daughter of Nicholas Ogle of Discertally gent.
departed this life the eighth of July and the second of August the year above said
(1682).”

No. 59. View of the ‘‘ Minstrel’s Grave,” with Ross Castle and
Crover Castle, with part of Lough Sheelin in the distance. I heard
the following interesting legend relating to this locality, and I tran-

scribe it from my notebook, as I jotted it down shortly after the
recital :—‘‘ Can you tell me, » said I to an old man, named O’Reilly,
who resides on the spot, ‘and who was passing along the byeroad
leading to Ross Castle, ‘‘is that cross, standing on the summit of
that mound of stones, placed in an ancient graveyard?” This I said,
pointing to a small Calvary cross within half a mile of the castle.
“ No, Sir,” said he, ‘‘itis not ; no onewas ever buried there but a gentle-
man and a lady, and they were lovers; we call it ‘ the Minstrel’s Grave,’
for he was a great musician, and she was the daughter of the Black

Baron, who lived in Ross Castle—but I may as well tell you the whole
story, and it is as true as life. It was in the time of the great trouble
that the Black Baron Nugent lived in the Castle of Ross.”’ “‘ What trouble
do you mean?” said I. ‘‘ Sure, Sir, 1 mean the great war with the Ca-
tholics in the time of King Charles, and it lasted for ten years.’ ‘The
rebellion of 1641?” ‘True enough, Sir,” said he; ‘and the country had
neither law or peace for all that time. We call it ‘the great trouble.’

Well, Sir, the Black Baron Nugent had a lovely daughter, and one day
she went ‘boating on Lough Sheelin; and when she passed near the
‘castle of Crover, which you see standing on that little island in the lake,
‘she heard some one playing music and singing most delightful. She
ordered the boatman to land her at the castle. Now, she was a Protes-
tant; and though the castle was owned by one of the O’Reillys, who
the a Catholic, and though there was no good blood between him and

the Black Baron, who was a tyrant of a man, as I’ll tell you, yet the
Lady Nugent was so kind and charitable, and so lovely, that all
‘the country round was very fond of her, and would do anything to
‘please her. Well, Sir, Lady Nugent looked into the castle, and there
she saw an officer of the Catholics, who had been badly wounded,

jand who had fled to hide in the castle of Crover. He was lying on a
sofa, very weak and pale, and playing on a harp and singing, so sad and
jsorrowiul, that the Lady Nugent took great pity on him, and fell in love
}with him. His name was Irwin, and he was a colonel in the army of
ithe great O’ Neill, and had just come from abroad in Spain somewhere,
ito fight for the ould religion, and small blame to him. Well, Sir, Lady
\Nugent used to go every day to the castle to attend the wounded
jofficer ; but at last she found she could not be with him often enough
‘when the summer had passed, as she had to cross a couple of miles of
ithe lake, so she had a house built for him in the thick woods on the

156

shore, under Ross Castle, unknownst to her father, the Black Baron,
and she nursed him there till he died. Then it was that the Black
Baron knew of his daughter’s love for the rebel officer, and he felt great
grief to see how she pined and sickened at the loss of her lover. ‘
gratify her wishes, and m some way lessen her great afiliction, h
allowed her to have the body of her lover buried on the top of the
mound where you see the cross, just in sight of her own window in —
castle. Not long after Lady Nugent died of grief, and her last request
was that she should be buried m the same grave with him whom s
had so tenderly loved, so that in death at least they might be unite
and that is why the cross is placed over the Minstrel’s Grave. Now,
Sir, I must tell you about the Black Baron, and how he died. He wa
a great tyrant, and a wicked man, and he had all the law of the countr
to jomeele whatever he liked should be done, and there was no one a
check him or punish him. He used to hang the poor people for
nothing, if he thought they vexed him. One day, when he rode infg
the village of Fimnea,* he passed the cottage of a poor woman, and he
heard her crymg and moaning, and he asked what ailed her? She told
him that a beggarman from Connaught had asked her for a piece of the
wheaten cake which she had been baking at the fire; and when she
refused him, he took the half of it by force, and had gone away. The
Baron, haying learned the description of the man and the road he had
taken, set spurs to his horse, and soon overtook him, when he at once
had him hanged on the nearest tree. Well, Sir, this poor man hadi
brothers, better off than himself; and when they heard of how the Blz
Baron had murdered their brother, they determined to revenge them-
selves, and arranged the following plan of carrying it into execution = -
Having heard that the Black Baron always wore along red cloak, and
inl a white horse, they watted for a fair day at Finnea; and havi ing
armed themselves with 4 pistol, and procured a fresh horse’s skin, the;
went to the fair; as they were passing up the sireet, they heard ¢
lamentations in a house near hand; and, having entered it, they found
woman aa tears, and greaily distressed. ‘What ails you, my g
woman,’ said one of the brothers; ‘why are you crying so bitterly
‘ Oh, sure, and is not the Black Baron going to hang my husband)
because he is not pleased with the way the poor man shod one of li
horses this morning; and has he not sent off for some of his murderi ng
people to come Bere and make mea widow? ‘ Whisht your crymg
my poor woman,’ said the brothers, ‘there will nothing happen to you
husband ; just g give us a drink of milk, as the day is warm, and k
up your heart,’ The woman gave the boys a bowl of cream, and they
left the house; ; they then took the road to Boss Castle, and, s
enough, they soon saw the red cloak and white horse of the "Barons wh

"0
L.-

* Finnea in the “ Four Masters” is written (at 1330) Fiodh-an-atha, “‘ Wood of dl
Ford.” In the early Taxations it is called Faweran.

157

s coming to the fair. As good luck would have it, he was alone;

r he had sent word to the castle that some of his men should mect
m at Finnea to hang the blacksmith. ‘ Now, then,’ said one brother to
the e other, ‘do you keep silent, and watch your time, while I try to drag
- the horse’s skin from you, and do you keep a tight hold of it.’
Just as the Baron rode up, the brothers began their mock quarrel. ‘ Oh,
ush2,’ said the one who was pulling at the skin, ‘and is not the country
. ne fo a pretty state, when a man may be robbed in this way on the
ligh road! Is there no law or justice to be had anywhere for an honest
man, who pays his money for what he wants? The Baron at this
sd up his horse, and inquired the cause of quarrel. ‘ Sure, my lord,’
inc “brother who was tuggmg at the raw hide, ‘ did I not buy
s horse’s skin from that fellow there at the fair, and now he stops me
n the road, and wants to take it back, and he has my money for it.”

e Baron was angry; and, leaning over his horse, he was about to
smount to enforce justice, when the other brother placed the pistol
o his bedy and gave him a mortal wound; he fell from his horse, and
was then dispatched by a shot from one of his own holster pistols.
Ths Sir,” said old O’Reilly, “was the end of the wicked Black Baron

|

‘No. 60. View of Carrick Castle, county of Wesimeath, near Bal-

Eto. 61. Plans of Carrick Castle. This building is comparatively
me dern, probably erected at the beginning of the eighteenth century,
md appears to be the last of the castellated dwellimg-houses.
_ This completes the sketches of antiquities im the counties of West-
Meath, and Longford. I append to them, however, some
che: —_ bones and teeth, &c., from the Se mud of the east shore
of Li azh Killeen, m the county of Longford, three miles due west of
T= d, which I assisted in picking up during the month of August
fast, when the lake was unusually low. These are figured in sheets
Nos 62, 63, 64, and 65, and consist of the j jaw ofa horse, that of the

d d _ with bones and teeth of the same animals, and of the ox, and
mn under jaw of large proportions. In connexion with all these
ad the skull of the Bos longifrons, the frontal bone of which
pems s fo have been fractured by some blunt instrument.

oa ». 66. On the margin of the same lake, and driven into the stump
‘a large red fir tree, I discovered a staple of white metal, probably
that — known as white bromze—a mixture of tin with a small alloy of
Bpper, sufficient to give it hardness. This is merely my conjeciure.

copay into which this staple was driven is most usually covered
lake fo the depth of five or six feet, but the drought of last
- completely exposed this and the adjoming shore. I had the
cut out of the tree stump with some of the wood attached to it,
have great pleasure m presenting this smgular antique to the
um of the Royal Imsh Academy. The tm which is found im com-
lation with our bronze weapons and implements was doubtless ob-
‘BLL. A. PROC.—YOL. IX. ¥

Pn FAR 6 NI NR RL A= Rw SLT A LN ET TAS LSS TT mA SSS GAR NAN, ESD ER BAS NE A SO RA
Nemes ne mn to meters ' ;
4 ee] © 1 et \ nm ‘ a \ wk ates
one \ y) ' , ox rate
wool > oy i \ -

158

tained either from Cornwall, or from St. Michael’s Mount, the ancient _
Cassiterides; and in medieval times, chalices and patens, and other _
vessels and utensils connected with ecclesiastical uses, were often made
of pure tin. i
The following series of ancient Irish inscribed tomb slabs are from _
original sketches, taken at Clonmacnoise, in the King’s County. In
availing myself of the very limited time at my disposal for consulting __
such records as the ‘“‘ Annals of the Four Masters,’”’ I have, I believe, —
been able to identify some of these tomb slabs as being commemorative —
of people whose names are recorded in these ‘‘ Annals.”’ "
No. 67. The first tomb slab is that which was close to St. Kieran’s _
Well, half a mile distant from Clonmacnoise, on the Shannon Bridge
road; it bears the name of Fechthach—Op vo Pechchach. In the .
‘¢ Annals of the Four Masters’ I find the death of Fachtna, lector of
Clonmacnoise, recorded at the year 1024. as
No. 68. Tomb slab , bearing the name Maelfinnia—On 00 Maelpinnia. _
There is another tombstone, from Clonmacnoise, engraved by Dr. Petrie Be
in his work on the ‘“‘ Round Towers,” at p. 825, which bears the same _
name, and which he believes to be commemorative of the abbot of that —
name, son of Spellan, whose death is recorded in the ‘‘ Chronicon Scoto-
rum” atthe year 992, andin the ‘“‘ Annals of the Four Masters” at 991. —
The ornamentation on the crosses of the two slabs is very different; in
that before you, the arms of the cross end in stirrups, formed by. the ©
looping of the double line which makes the ornament. Are we to sup- —
pose that there were two abbots of Clonmacnoise of the same name ? and — :
if so, what date are we to assign to the tomb slab I have figured ? E
No. 69. Tombstone of Moelpatric—Op 00 Moelpacnpie. e
No. 70. Tombstone of Daniel—Op 00 Oatneill. I find that a Donn a |
was abbot of Glendalough, and died 866. Could he have been buried —
at Clonmacnoise, as being a more fashionable place of interment ? =
No. 71. Tombstone of Brigit—Onp 00 Op1s1c—apparently of equal
antiquity with the former. a
No. 72. Fragment of another ancient tombstone, the usual abbrevi-
ation, Op . 00. (pray for), being surmounted by two small serpent-like —
animals.
No. 78. Tombstone bearing this inscription—On an Sillaslapain, 4
A prayer on Gillaglarain. This slab was discovered by Mr. Molloy,
the farmer who resides close to the ruins, only a few days before ae
visit to the place, on the 9th of April, 1863. ;
No. 74. Tombstone of Maelmhichil—Op 00 Maetmhichit. ¥
No, 75. Tombstone of Mailcaeimghin (Mulkevin)—On Do Marleen
—with a contraction over the last letter. It is recorded in the ** Annals
of the Four Masters,” that Maelcaeimhghin, son of Scannlan, abbot of
Teach Mochua (Timahoe), died A. D. 928, and was buried at Clonmac-
noise: this is doubtless his tombstone. z
No. 76. Tombstone, with the inscription, Op 00 Donuic. ;
No. 77. Tombstone, with the inscription, Op 00 Mapcanan, or

159

Martanan (diminutive of Martin, ‘“‘ Little Martin’’). An abbot of Clon-
macnoise of this name is recorded to have died A. D. 867, and I sce
every reason to believe that this is his tombstone.

No. 78. Tombstone with this inscription—Op ovo Pogancach m
bpoénain, or Fogarty, the son of Broenan.

No. 79. Tombstone with the name Cholumban—Op vo Chollum-
ban.

No. 80. Tombstone with the name Comgan—On 00 Comsan. I find
in the “‘ Annals of the Four Masters” that a Comghan Foda was an arch-
bishop at Clonmacnoise, and his death is recorded at the year 868. We
must, I suppose, accept this as his tombstone.

N o. 81. A mutilated tombstone, of which only the concluding part of
the inscription remains; the letters are Clchlanan.

No. 82. enero’ with the inscription Op vo Cellach. The
“« Annals of the Four Masters’ record the death of a person of this name
at the year 904; and doubtless this is his tombstone.

No. 83. Pomibstone with the following inscription—Ocan huopine,
i.e. Opnoic an huopine.

No. 84. Tombstone having the following inscription—Op ap Mael-

_quiapain, with a cross and smaller circle, of precisely the same type as

that of St. Cronan’s at Roscrea, and of ane I have given an illustra-

tion in Vol. I1., Nos. 55, 56, and 57, of my ‘‘ Antiquarian Sketches.’’

No. 85. A tomb slab, of ‘apparently similar age, from the similarity
of the form of cross envraved on it, and bearing simply the name

'Ronam, i.e. (stone) of Ronan. I find that there were two abbots of
Clonmacnoise of this name—the death of one being recorded at the year
. 759, and that of the other at 842. From the form of the cross, I am

“inclined to suppose this the tombstone of the latter, and ther efore of the

ninth century.

No. 86. An unfinished tombstone slab, without an inscription—the
engraved lines representing a long-armed cross, with a small circle at
their intersection.

No. 87. A small slab, on which the St. Cronan cross is inclosed in a
square, thus resembling the ornamentation on some of our small cum-
=, or sacred boxes for holding relics. Above the cross are the letters
_ Enouticoumbening.

No. 88. Another slab, bearing a similar cumdach cross.

No. 89. Another slab, of the same type, with the letters Ahlich
above the box-like ornament.

No. 90. Part of a small quern-stone, with a cumdach cross engraved

on it, but no inscription.

No. 91. A small slab, with a circle inclosing four Greek crosses, each

inclosed 1 in a small Se.

No. 92. A slab, bearing the name Maeliohain Epp (epescopus). I
could not discover any record of a bishop of this name having been buried

at Clonmacnoise.

No. 93. Another small slab, with a cross, and bearing the letters
Omuipsup oveic. To all appearance this inscription is perfect.

160

No. 94. The last sketch of the Clonmacnoise tombstones is that of
one which bears evident marks of being of much more recent date than
any of the foregoing. ‘The form of the stone is somewhat coffin-shaped,
and the ornamentation at its foot has quite a twelfth century look. The
inscription is as follows:—Roin . Mu loppon.

Nos. 95-7. On the completion of the sketches of the Clonmacnoise |

tombstones I was struck by the fact that the letters presented many va-
rieties of form; and in the following three illustrations I have given
each variety ; thus we see that the

Letter Forms. Letter Forms.
(tenes RRP ee NNN UT Wei ran Da ce cote 3d KS) L has . 8
bi? oe cite reeenisel Mpg m — 2
Cee Re Nace halen cihebee) n —- o
0) — 7 oO — 5
e = ey) p — 1
iP — 3 g a i
h —_ 9 r sent 2
1 — 2 © ae 6

Tt is not improbable that by the form of these letters the dates of
many of the tombstones might be roughly estimated, at least by cen-
turies, as we know that the Irish form of letter varied from century to
century, from the ancient Romaz or Uncial character to the more angu-
lar and current form of the modern scribe.

I conclude this collection of ancient Irish inscribed tombstones by
sketches of two from Arranmore, in the Bay of Galway :—

No. 98. The inscription on this slab consists of the following letters:
Op.up Mclinach, and I found it lying near some ruins at the village
of Onurcht.

No. 99. The tomb slab of St. Brecan, from the old church dedicate
to the Holy Ghost. According to Dr. Petrie, this saint died in the sixth
century.

Mr, Samvet Frerevson, Q. C., read the following paper :—

Account oF OsHam INSCRIPTIONS IN THE CAVE AT RATHCROGHAN,
County or Roscommon.

THE principal remains at Rathcroghan, formerly the residence of the
provincial Kings of Connaught, are indicated on sheets 21 and 22 of the
Ordnance Survey Map of the county of Roscommon, and have been
described in some detail by O’ Donovan in a note to his translation of the
‘¢ Annals of the Four Masters,’’ at A. D. 1223, and more fully in letters
preserved among the MS. materials for the intended ‘‘ Ordnance Survey
Memoir,” and now deposited in the Library of the Academy (14 F. 8,
p. |91,.¢t seq.):

Among these remains may be noticed on the map—310 yards north-
west of the ancient sepulchral enclosure called Relig-na- Ree, or the Grave-
yard of the Kings—a spot marked with the name Owneygat, thatis, the

SE OPEe Sn oe ae

161

Cat’s Cave, of which the following account is given in the MS. letters
above referred to :—

“«There are two remarkable caves in the townland of Glenballythomas,
of which the more remarkable is called Utha1o na 5caz, because wild
cats used to hunt rabbits in it. I walked into this a considerable dis-
tance, and saw its fine roof and hanging spars, like icicles, but will
leave the description of it to geologists. The country people say that
a woman followed a calf into this cave, and that she could not stop him
till he came out at Keish Corran. I went as far into it as any one
could, that is, untilit terminated in a cleft, not wide enough to admit my
head. This, according to tradition, was the Bank of Ireland in the
time of Queen Mab ; but if it was, the drops from the Gothic roof of the
edifice must have injured the bank notes very much. A truer tradition
connected with it is, that one Croghan, a rebel, lived in it after the
rebellion, and by so doing saved his neck from the halter.”

On examining this cave, on the 30th of September, 1864, the writer
observed inscriptions in the Ogham character, on two of the roofing
stones of its upper chambers or galleries. Part of the inscription on each
stone was built into the structure, so that the stones before being placed
must have been already sculptured. Whatever the age of the cave, the
inscriptions must, therefore, have at least an equal antiquity.

The cave has always, within literary memory, been regarded as of the
epoch of Meave, the celebrated Queen of Connaught, who lived about the
beginning of the Christian era. The Zain Lo Cuailgne, or Cattle-Spoil of
Quelgny, commemorates an expedition led by this heroine of antiquity
into Ulster during the reign of Conor Mac Nessa, whose death is made,
in Irish traditionary history, to synchronize with that of our Lord. She
was daughter of Hochaid Fidleach, by whom the principal fort, or royal
dwelling at Rathcroghan, is said to have been erected. Her name,
which popular tradition has impressed on a great number of places in
Treland, is in its simplest form spelled Mrpsu, equivalent to Mrpr.
Some one intimately connected with her family was called Frazcu.
Such is the name given to her son-in-law in the ancient historical
tract called the ‘‘ Twin-bo-Flidisi,” one of the introductory stories which
constitute the preface to the Zain-bo-Cuailgne. She had many sons, by
different fathers, and has left a vivid recollection of her name through-
out the west of Ireland. That she lived at Rathcroghan at a period
before the introduction of Christianity into Ireland is a fact which no
one, in the present state of historical knowledge, will be disposed to
deny.

The earliest notices of the cave appear to treatit as a treasury house
of Meave and her husband Ailill. It is so represented in the Zazn-
bo-Aingin, another of the introductory or pre-tales of the Zain-bo of
Queleny. Such also was the tradition of the country in 1838, when
O’ Donovan made his communications to the Ordnance Office. The same
idea still exists among the peasantry of the country, by whom the interior
of the cave has been repeatedly explored within the last twenty years,
in the hope of finding treasure. Their operations have resulted in

162

the falling in of the earth, which now chokes up the western end of
the cave, and renders it impossible to say how far it extends.

The writer is indebted to W. M. Hennessy, Esq., for the following
further notes in reference to this cave :—

‘“‘Tn the list of celebrated places preserved in a stave of the ‘ Book -

of Leinster,’ which is really a portion of the ‘ Book of Lecan,’ the cave
of Cruachan is described as one of the three caves of Ireland,—the other
two being the cave of Howth, and the Derg Farna, now known as the cave
of Dunmore, near Kilkenny. This tract, from its language, appears to
be of very high antiquity. |

“‘ Tn the historical tale called the Zuin-bo-Ainghin, or the Cattle Spoil
of Ainghin, preserved in the ‘ Yellow Book of Lecan,’ the cave of Cru-
achan is referred to as the residence of a fairy community ; and some in-
teresting particulars regarding the proceedings ofits denizens are related
by a person who, for some slight to a fountain fairy, was condemned to
a year’s residence therein.”’

It consists of a natural fissure in the limestone rock, which appears
to have been artificially widened, so as to give an average breadth of five
feet throughout a distance of about forty yards. This cavern, the floor of
which is from fifteen to twenty-five feet under the surface, is connected
with the upper chambers, in which the inscriptions exist, by a passage
excavated in the rock, and roofed over, as are the external chambers, by
long stones, artificially placed, and bonded into the dry stone walls form-
ing the sides of the passages or chambers near the surface. Whether
these upper passages be entrances to the cave, or chambers to which the
cave itself served as an entrance, may be a matter of doubt. They are
two in number—one forming a prolongation, ata higher level, of the na-
tural cavern, the other opening upon it at right angles. Around these
openings exist the remains of a tumulus of about twenty yards im dia-
meter. The subjoined woodcut exhibits the general appearance and
disposition of the parts, the dotted lines representing the underground
constructions.

Fig. 1.
a
ey ty
WW DY
ESAS Zy Y Z,
<5 RS : po JS q Ze ),
ee Beet a Z —— ~ RS Za
2 saci ff mae = yyy) Z A i ‘N a
— EAA =
ae Fi SS >
Li Jin ANS é
ee 69 2b coat Ee Z SEN a
ghee Sa)

s

The traces of several interments remain about the margin of the
tumulus; and one nearly perfect sepulchral cist exists within a few

IEE RS TENE RS IRE RABE AIS get ae COTE TM ge LF RIAL Re ie in, On.

ee er een

|,

163

feet to the west of the lateral chamber, which now forms the principal
approach. ‘This chamber may be portion of a covered avenue, or it
may be portion of a separate apartment. It is entered from a de-
pression on the surface opening to the south, which bears the appear-
ance rather of a breach made into the end of a chamber than of a pas-
sage. About seven feet in length of the covered part remains. ‘The
width is three feet eight inches; the height, from the clay which has
fallen in, and forms the floor, not more than three feet three inches. At
the junction of this crypt with the eastern opening, a species of tran-
sept is formed, about eight feet by four, and four feet high, extending
eastward into the remains of what has now the appearance of a passage,
and opening on the western side into the narrow gallery formed in the
rock, which descends by a series of inclines and rude steps into the prin-
cipal apartment below. In this lower interior the natural walls of
rock rise to a height of about eighteen feet, converging at top, and hav-
ing much the appearance of the inclined passages in the Mexican pyra-
mids. The spaces between the

rock ledges at top are, as are the Vig. 2.

upper passages and chambers, co-
vered in with transverse blocks of
stone. These stones, where they
form the lintels at the junction of
the upper chambers, have been
selected with care ; and it is on the
lintel stone of the southern crypt,
marked A on the plan, where
it abuts on what has been described
as the transept, that the principal
inscription exists.

This stone, which 1s of the lime-
stone of the neighbourhood, mea-
sures four feeteightinchesin length,
of which one foot is engaged in the
adjoining masonry. It has an ave-
rage breadth of one footfour inches,
being somewhat broader towards
the western end, and varies in thick-
ness from four to nine inches. Its
under surface is corrugated in the
direction of its length with nume-
rous natural striz ; and it does not
appear to have undergone any pre-
paration with the tool, except at one
point, on the inner edge, at the
eastern end, where it presents the
appearance of having been rubbed
down, so as to form two ribbed
projections, separated by shallow grooved indentations, resembling the

164

analogous work on one of the stones of New Grange, which has been
figured in Wilde’s ‘‘ Beauties of the Boyne and Blackwater” (p. 194).

Fig. 2.

j x Zuo Ww \\ Ae

i . * WEA
iil
M" Mi

\ rn ‘
A neni

i :
‘ \Y ht hint i | ) ‘
o
a ,
a _

===

==

a

Ne = =
M
NY

Ribbed Stone in gallery at New Grange.

Something of the same kind is also observable on one of the Ogham -
inscribed stones in the Academy’s Lapidarian Museum, No.5. These
indentations, whatever object they may have had, appear to indicate
that this is the upper end of the stone, and raise a probable conjecture
that it originally stood upright. They are not carried across the
face of the stone, nor do they appear on the opposite edge. Seven, or
possibly eight, Ogham characters exist on the external edge and face,
and ten on the internal edge and face of this lintel. The external ap-
pearance of the stone, with its inscription, is shown on the annexed wood-
cut, Fig. 4. There is, at the right hand, detached from the inscription,
an indentation on the edge-line of the stone, too faint to be relied on
with any certainty ; but which may possibly be a single notch, standing
for the vowel a. A circular disc or dot appears above this indentation
on the edge near the end. This also is uncertain, and is not shown on
the drawing. Two vertical strokes, connected with some curved inden-
tations, apparently artificial, also exist on one of the stones forming the
jamb or quoim of the passage on the right. They are too uncertain to
be practically relied on, and are only hinted at in the woodeut. The cha-
racter of these indentations has a general resemblance to that of some
of the rubbed lines appearing on the stones of the chambers at New
Grange and Dowth. Bi

When first observed, the lintel was partly concealed by_a block of
stone, constituting portion of the eastern side wall, and covering part of _
the final character at that end. The removal of this block enabled the
writer to examine the whole under surface and edge, and to state that
no further inscribed marks exist upon it.

RAST;

——

a i

! Oe —
re A eT hi

Ca ee a
tees
sng ; i Hcl |

ine
BUNT

Fig. 5.

——————

166

The extended inscription is also given, so as to exclude the errors inci-
dent to perspective.

Fig. 6.
Outer Edge.

{
AUN! 0044-5 fae ttt
Nyy |

Inner Edge.

Before proceeding further in the consideration of these characters, it
may be interesting to those members of the Academy who have not
given special attention to the subject, that something should be said of
the nature of the Ogham writing, and of the existing means for its de-
ciphering. It was a species of cipher, in which straight strokes en-
graved on monumental stones, by their number and relation to a parti-
cular line, called the stem-line (generally formed by the edge of the
stone), represented the letters of an alphabet. Facility of engraving
with rude implements, rather than a desire for secreey—for who would
desire to commemorate in signs not generally understood ?—may have
been the original motive for the use of this species of writing. The
value of the characters depending on the number of strokes, and these
numbers increasing in a progressive ratio in sets of five—that is,
five groups below, five above, five obliquely across, and five directly
across, or on the stem-line—it is obvious, that if purposes of secrecy or
curiosity were desired, the cipher might be made more or less abstruse
by varying the number of the strokes; as by beginning with two or
more at the commencement of each series; and a great number of ex-
amples of such cryptic Oghams may be seen in the tract on this subject
in the ‘‘ Book of Ballymote.” They are all, however, resolvable into
the original key-cipher, in which each set of five commences witha
single stroke; and which, with the other more complex examples, and
certain arbitrary marks for vowel combinations, is also found in the
same depository. With this key, available for the last five hundred
years, we may be surprised to find the Ogham character still involved
in somuch mystery. This may be, in some measure, accounted for by the
discredit brought on the subject by a paper in our own “ Transactions,”
at an early period in the history of the Academy, in which a supposed
passage from one of the Ossianic poems was adduced in elucidation of an
Ogham inscription existing on Callan Mountain, in the county of Clare

167

(‘‘ Transactions R.I. A.,” vol. i, Antiq., p. 3). The passage appears
to have found its way into the text from a modern source; and the
charge of falsification extendeditself, with questionable justice, as 1t seems
to the writer, to the inscription itself. Added to this disaster at the out-
set of the inquiry, were the really great obstacles arising from the sin-
gularity of the names, and from the absence of any clue to the sequences
in which the writing ran, whether from top to bottom, from left to right,
or vice versd. It was not till our President undertook the investigation
in the character on the scientific principles applicable to cipher-writing
in general, that the subject again attracted a philosophic interest. His
results, arising on independent analysis and comparison, are under-
stood—for as yet the complete paper has not been published—to have
come out in substantial accordance with the old key; and in a short
paper in our ‘‘ Proceedings” (vol. iv., p. 358), he adopted and published
the ‘‘ Ballymote Key,’’ which, with some slight difference, had also
been given by Dr. O’Donovan in his “ Irish Grammar,” and by other
earlier writers.

Bit eran Te Soy ls) Be OL anes
HALE LMM
op) qe THA Hit aaa ie

beleote 80°. n
“46 ats

ea Olu, vane

In the course of these investigations our President early identified

the group,
an A ea

reading Maqui, as the genitive form of J/ac, a son—a conclusion which
_ was destined to receive corroboration of the most convincing kind from a
source not then known to bein existence. The writer here refers to those
monumental stones of Wales, which bear inscriptions in Roman characters
with accompanying Oghams. These Oghams, rendered according to the
key so furnished, have been found to yield results confirmatory not
only of the alphabetic force of the characters, but of their proper se-
quences and collocations, as indicated by the independent method of in-
vestigation employed by our President. The Welsh Oghams so tested have,
in fact, been found to resolve themselves into an echo of the correlative
Roman writing. One of these inscribed Welsh pillars, which may be
justly called the Rosetta Stone of the investigation, is in effect both bi-
lingual and bi-literal. It commemorates in Latin words and Roman
characters a person called Sagran, son of Cunotam, in the form (Lapis)
Sagrant Fili Cunotam:. An Ogham on the edge of the same stone reads
Sagramm Magi Cunotam:. Here we have Maqui as the equivalent of the
Latin Fila; and must acknowledge the conclusion to be very cogent that

168

in Irish monuments of a cognate kind, wherever we find the combi-
nation of Ogham characters which sounds ‘‘ M/aqi,” we may expect,
before it, the name of the person commemorated, and, after it, the
patronymic of that person. Such, in fact, is the formula of commemo-

ration found on great numbers of the Irish Ogham monuments. The.
writer instances in our own lapidarian Museum, No.7, Qunelogni Magi

D « x *; Nocati Maqi, Maqi Rett « *, No.11; andin Mr. Du Noyer’s
collection Logogt Magi Erenan (Du Noyer MSS. Lib. R. I. A., vol. i.,
No. 48). re Maqi Magerti, ibid., No. 27; Lafi cas Maqz Muce, ibid.,
No. 27); and numerous similar examples in the publications of the other
Trish Archeological Societies.

The presence of this well-known combination of strokes and notches,
reading maAaqt, at the western end of the legend on the inner edge of the
Rathcroghan stone, taken in connexion with the other indications of that
being the lower end of the stone, and with the generally observed rule
that these inscriptions read from bottom to top, and from left to right,
leaves no reasonable doubt that the remainder of that line contains the
patronymic, and the line on the opposite side the name, of the person com-
memorated. Reverting to the opposite side, and reading it from bottom to
top, and from left to right, and according to the ordinary key, it presents a
combination of characters, of which — R-—cct are free from doubt, and of
which it is not impossible that the three strokes occupying the place of
the first blank represent r, and the notches occupying the place of the
second blank stand for a1; in which case this part of the legend would
read rraicct. The difficulty in respect to the first set of characters arises
from a fracture of the stone, which leaves it in doubt whether the third
stroke crossed the line ofthe edge. In that case, the reading would be
omr—cci. The six notches represented by the second blank may either
be a double v, or may read £0, or 0, or in any of the combinations of
avo. ‘The name, whatever it be, seems to be in the genitive form, and
to imply some such expression as ‘‘ the stone of” before it.

Leaving this portion of the inscription, and coming to the patronymic,
it is certainly startling to find it read, as it does in this collocation and
sequence, without doubt or difficulty,

MEDFFT,
—that is, collating the several parts of the legend,
‘(The stone of) [ Fratc?] son of Medf.”’

The second inscription is found on one of the lintels covering the
eastern passage, marked B on Fig. 1. When first observed, four of the
characters and part of the fifth were hidden under the face of the stone,
where it lay bedded on the southern jamb of the passage; and it was
not until it was raised, and turned on its side, that they were, for
the first time since the construction of the cave, offered to human ob-
servation. ‘The appearance of the sculpture seems to indicate long ex-
posure to the weather prior to the deposit of the stone ; and goes to sup-
port the conjecture suggested by the ribbed appearance in the other, that

Se es ee ee ee

169

both these lintels may have been monumental pillar-stones, brought not
improbably from the adjoining cemetery of Relig-na-Ree. The inscrip-
tion consists of eight characters, two of whch stand somewhat detached,
yet seem to require collocation with the others to render an articulate
sound.

Fig. 7.

_ iW LE aed -
TT a a

~The Key-word Maar does not exist here to assist us; but a curved
character occurring near the end of the group indicates that it is to be
deemed under the stem-line, and that consequently the detached cha-
racters above referred to are those from which the reading commences.
The writer is not aware of any other example of the curved character in
any existing monument; but it is one of the contractions given in the
recognised Ogham keys, having the value of the vowels ur. The last cha-
racter to the right is extremely faint, and the writer is unable to say with
certainty whether it consists of three or of two indentations. It appeared,
however, to the eye and touch rather to consist of three strokes and .
these below the stem-line; but as F would not articulate with the
next adjoining character (m), and the strokes are short and notch-like,
he inclines to suppose it the vowel v, a not unfrequent termination of
proper names in Oghamic writing. Taken in this sequence, the legend
on this second stone would read

QRAGUISMU.

The writer is not aware at present of any corresponding proper name.
Names beginning with the same combination are, however, found on
some of the inscribed stones in the Academy’s collection, as

QRITTALEGI QRITUMAH,

on stone, No.5. In the absence of anything more satisfactory we can,
therefore, conclude no more from this object, than that Ogham writing
was certainly in use prior to the construction of the Cave of Curachain.
But, as regards the lintel first described, the legend of ‘‘ Tihe Son of
Medf””’ appears to stand plainly legible, according to the ordinary key,
and in the ordinary course of collocation; and, taken in connexion
with the place and its traditions, may afford a confirmation of the testi-
mony of our old books to the use of alphabetic writing in the Ogham
_ character at a period before the introduction of Christianity.

170

On the seemingly Latinized form of the inflections, and the feminine
genitive in 7, the writer desires to submit the matter to more competent
philologists; and, with regard to the probable age of the cave, and the
appearance it presents of having had two entrances, refers to Keating’s
tract on “‘ Early Irish Modes of Sepulture,” from the Zr Biorr-ghaethe
an Bhais (‘ Irish Ossianic Society’s Transactions,” vol.1., p. 68, e¢ seq.),
and in particular to the old poem there cited :*—

Peanc aen oonuip o’flon 50 naot,
Peanc 60 n-06 O6inp1b 00 mnaol.

A grave of one door for a man of science ;
A grave of two doors for a woman.

Mr. Eugene A. Conwell read a paper (in continuation) ‘‘ On the
Ancient Remains at Sliabh-na-Callighe.”’

Mr. H. F. Hore, by permission of the Academy, read a paper ‘‘ On
Banshees.” .
The Academy adopted an Address to His Excellency the Lord Lieu-
tenant, brought up from the Council by the Secretary.

STATED MEETING.—WepneEspay, NovEMBER 30, 1864.
The Very Rev. Coartes Graves, D.D., President, in the Chair.

The Secretary reported that the Address of the Academy to His Ex-
cellency the Lord Lieutenant, adopted on the 24th of November, was
presented by the President and Members, at the Viceregal Lodge, on
Thursday last, the 24th inst.

Whereupon it was

Resotvep,—That the Address to the Lord Lieutenant, together with
His Excellency’s Answer, be printed in the Proceedings.

Address to His Excettency THE Lorp Baron Wovernovse, Lord Lieute-
nant General, and General Governor of Ireland.

May rt Presse Your Excettency,—We, the President and Mem-
bers of the Royal Irish Academy, respectfully desire to present to Your
Excellency our hearty congratulations upon your arrival in Ireland as
the representative of our most gracious Sovereign.

In virtue of your high office, Your Excellency becomes, under our
Charter, the Visitor of the Academy. We are thus privileged, as a
body incorporated for the promotion of the study of Science, Polite

* Since making the above communication, the writer has been informed by Richard
R. Brash, Esq., Sunday’s Well, Cork, that Mr. Brash, accompanied by J. Windele, Esq.,
Cork, observed the Ogham inscription on the stone marked A, on a visit to Rathcroghan
in the year 1852.

171

Literature, and Antiquities, to enter into dutiful relation with a Noble-
man whose love of learning and brilliant career in its cultivation have
shed additional lustre on the honours of his ancient lineage.

From a small beginning, in the year 1786, our Society has steadily
increased in numbers and importance, till it has attained the rank of a
national institution ; and while the threefold object of its foundation
has opened a wide field for intellectual exercise, it has produced the
happy result of bringing together, from time to time, in friendly inter-
course and united action, a large portion of the literary public, the variety
of whose pursuits, or other accidental differences, might, but for such a
medium of communication, have placed them in a condition of antagonism
or indifference.

With what measure of success the scientific and literary labours of
the Academy have been conducted, it is not for its members to pro-
nounce. But they may be permitted to apprise Your Excellency that in
two collateral publications, the “‘ Transactions” and the “Proceedings,”
are embodied the principal results of their investigations; and that
these journals have a wide circulation at home, and among kindred in-
stitutions on the Continent. The creation of a Celtic Museum, un-
equalled in extent and variety, and the formation of a Library pecu-
liarly rich in Irish Manuscripts, have also marked the growth of our So-
ciety.

The Academy has to record, with a lively sense of gratitude, the
encouragement and favour it has received at the hands of successive Chief
Governors of Ireland, and especially of Your Excellency’s illustrious
predecessor, who, himself possessed of the most remarkable gifts and ac-
complishments, was ever ready to assist the intellectual labours of others.
We earnestly hope that one so noble-hearted and so richly endowed
may long be spared to humanity and literature.

We trust that Your Excellency’s administration of the high oftice
committed to you by our beloved and most gracious Sovereign will tend,
not only to promote the peace and prosperity of Ireland at large, but
also to impart increased vigour and efficiency to her literary institutions;
so that, while as subjects and citizens we enjoy the blessings of living
under a just and able ruler, we may as an Academy experience the be-
nefit of connexion with a Viceroy who has proved himself an accom-
plished scholar and an enlightened statesman.

To which H1s Excrtiency returned the following Answer :—

Mr. Presrpent, AND GENTLEMEN OF THE Royat Irish AcaApEMY,—
Amongst the various bodies which have presented Addresses to me on
my assuming the office of Lord Lieutenant, I can say with truth that I
have received none with greater satisfaction than the Royal Irish Aca-
demy.
A Society which has with so much success brought together the most
distinguished literary and scientific men in Ireland, and whose “ Trans-
actions” and ‘‘ Proceedings”’ enjoy a wide reputation at home and abroad,

172

would command my attention and support, even if I did not hold the
_ official position of Visitor to the Academy.

Though I have not yet had the opportunity of becoming personally
acquainted with your Museum and Library, I am well aware of the im-
portant and interesting character of those collections; and the care and
assiduity with which you have gathered and preserved the relics of by-
gone ages are at once a subject of congratulation, and a bright example
to all who study the history of the ancient races of mankind.

I shall rejoice if my connexion with the Academy should enable me
to afford that encouragement to its labours which you derived from my
accomplished predecessor; but I am conscious that my own literary ac-
quirements are far too modest to entitle them to the commendation of so
learned and distinguished a Society.

G. Henry Kinanay, F.R.G.S. L, Senior Geologist of the Geo-
logical Survey of Ireland, read the following Paper :—

Norers on Crannocks In Baturn Loven.

Battin Lover is situated in the parish of Ballinakill, barony of
Leitrim, county of Galway, Sheet 125, and on the junction of Sheets
116 and 125 of the Ordnance Inch Map of Ireland. It lies a little more
than half a mile south-east of Marble Hill, the seat of Sir T. J. Burke,
Bart.

BALLIN LOUGH (COPIED FROM THE ORDNANCE SIX-INCH MAP).
Bye k

N

In this lough are four islands; and, as they have no local names, we
shall call them in these Notes as follows:—-No. 1, or Worth Island ;

173

No. 2, or West Island; No. 3, or Meddle Island; and No. 4, or East
Island. (See Figs. Nos. 1 and 2.)

Through the kindness of J. Hemsworth, Esq., of Danesfort, who
placed his boat and man at my disposal, I was enabled to examine
them during March, 1864, and found that Nos. 2 and 3 are Crannoges,
or artificial islands, while ‘No. 4 may be one.

Wo. 1, or Nor th Island. —This, by the Ordnance Survey Map, is
about 280 feet from the north shore ; but during the dry season it can be
approached by a peaty, reedy bank which runs from it towards the
N.-E. It is of a rude oval shape, the diameters being twenty-five and
sixteen yards long. When visited, it was about a foot above the surface
of the water, and we excavated for over four feet in depth through peat
without finding any traces of ancient occupiers; and as there are no
stones round the outside of it, we came to the conclusion that it was
not artificial.

No. 2, or West Island.—This lies about 80 feet from the shore, to
which it is joined during the dry season. It is of a rude oval shape,
the diameters being about 383 and 15 yards; the outside is regularly
covered with flat stones. Most of it was covered with water when it
was visited; we therefore excavated in the centre, where we found—

Section LVo. ie

Ft. In,
Bog and clay, with a fewbones,. . Dg aoa ee Ae)
Wood ashes, full of pieces of charred bones, = over; =1..6
3. 6

No. 8, or Middle Island.—This les about 500 feet from the nearest
shore, and 250 feet from the West Island. It is-nearly round, and
about 32 yards indiameter. Outside it, for a width of about four yards,
there are regularly placed flat stones; and we were informed by the
fishermen of the lake that during the summer, when the water is low,
piles can be seen all round it; but, as the water was high at the time of
our visit, they could not be seen.

On account of the height of the water and the porous nature of the
materials forming the island, we could not make a careful examination ;
but near the west shore, ees the island was a foot above the ace
of the water, we made a small excavation, and found— :

Section No. 2

Ft. In
6. Peat andclay, . Sen eres eA OU G0
5. Peat and stones, with a few bones, SUP BB boca One
4. Wood ashes and peat, with thousands of unbroken cher ry-

stones, a few broken hazel nuts, a few broken bones,
teeth, and a ball of red colouring matter, . . . AO

3. Basket floor, about one and a halfinchesthick,. . ts

2. Sawn oak beams, 8 ay GHC ESM MIL Sao Sur aveni ea that: Be a Ui

TEE (pee a eee Grae achp sth detirnne heer gvover 24) 4'%
5 0

R. I. A. PROC.—-VOL. IX. ZA

174

The oak beams (No. 2, section 2) were evidently sawn, not cut with a
chopping instrument. Through them, at about nine inches apart, there
were pairs of dowels that were used to fasten the basket flooring to
them ; these beams seem to run nearly N. and 8.

In the basket flooring, at about every nine inches, were poles, 2°5
inches thick, through which the previously mentioned dowels went, and
fastened the flooring to the beams. These poles seemed to be ash sap-
lings, while the rest of the flooring was made of hazel rods. Below the
beams there was peat, but it could not be examined on account of the
quantity of water that rushed into the working. This Crannoge seems
to have been divided into huts or apartments, as part of a row of ash
piles, three inches in diameter, was observed.

No stone or other implements were found, nor was it likely that there
should, as only a small opening was made, and only a few feet of the
basket flooring uncovered. ‘To find them, the Crannoge ought to be
carefully explored during the summer, when the water would allow the
bed lying on the flooring to be cleared out.

SKETCH OF BALLIN LOUGH, LOOKING N. E.

Fig. 2.

The island in the middle distance is No.1, or North Island; that on the left hand, over
which there are birds, is No. 2, or West Island; the island on the shore of which a boat is
seen, is No, 3, or Middle Island; and a small portion ef No. 4, or East Island, is seen at the
right-hand margin of the sketch.

No. 4, or East Island.—This lies about 300 feet from the south
shore, and is of an irregular pearshape, being about sixty-seven yards in
length from north to south, and fifty yards in its widest part from east to

175

west. Round outside this island for about four yards in width there are
regularly placed small flat stones; and at theS.-H. shoreof theisland (under
the water at the time we visited it), there is an east and west beam seven
inches wide. These things would seem to point to its being artificial;
but we made various excavations in different parts of the island, and
found no traces of ancient inhabitants ; an excavation in the centre of it
gave us four feet of peat, under which was shell marl. From this I am
inclined to think that this island may have been partly natural, and
partly artificial.

Ballin Lough occupies a hollow among low hills, the only exit from
it being on the 8.-E., at the village of Ballinlough, where there is
an artificial cut about four feet deep through a bank of coarse stony
drift (boulder clay), about sixty yards wide. If this cut was filled up, the
waters of the lake would rise at least four feet higher than at present; and
that the water was at this level not long since, would seem to have been
the case, as all round the lake to over that height there is a deposit of
shell marl and peat. As the level of the water when the island was ex-
amined was three feet above the basket floor in the Crannoge, it must
have been at least seven feet above the floor before the cut was made
through the bank of drift. From this we see that when the Crannoges
were built, the water of the lake must have been at least four feet lower
than in March, 1864, and at least eight feet lower than the height of the
water before the artificial cut was made; how the waters could have
been at that level we have now to consider.

On the Ordnance Maps we find that the height of the lake is 356
feet above their datum level, and that a quarter of a mile to the S.-E.,
in the townland of Tulla, the surface of the stream is 340 feet. From
this we see that if a cut was made from this point, it would lower
the lake sixteen feet; or thirteen feet lower than the basket floor-
ing of the Crannoge; and if we examine the stream, we will find that
the rise from this point to the village of Ballinlough is only a few feet,
while from the village to the lough it is very rapid, being over eight
feet. From this we see that if there had once been a natural cut or
ravine through this bank of drift from the village to the lake, the wa-
ters of the latter would have been five feet below the basket flooring of
the Crannoge. On examining the bank of drift on the west of the
village, what may be the trace of an ancient ravine will be ob-
served, which appears to have been artificially filled up with stuff taken
from an oblong excavation, marked a on Fig. No. 1, about three or four
yards wide, and about six or eight yards long, and that the ravine since it
was filled up has been used as a road, which has helped to obliterate the
old embouchement of the lake. To account for this artificial filling, I would
suggest that the inhabitants of the Crannoge were flooded out by an
enemy who stopped the egress of the lake, and thus raised the waters
until the islands with the huts and inhabitants were swamped. The
islands after this were submerged until the present cut was opened,

176

when they again appeared. In latter years they have been occupied
by various individuals, generally for illicit distillation.

In the lake the horns and skulls of the Red Deer have been discovered
at various times, and the head and horns of the Irish Elk are also said to
have been found; but for the latter there is no good evidence. ;

T should be inclined to consider that these Crannoges are not as old
as those which I previously described as occurring in Lough Rea; for
in the Lough Rea Crannoges the piles and beams all appear to have
been split, while in the Ballin Lough Crannoge the beams were un-
doubtedly cut with a saw. ‘That there was an ancient settlement here-
about, and that it was a place of note, seems to be proved by all the
ancient remains scattered about, which will be seen on looking at the
Ordnance Map (Galway Sheet, 125), as within a mile of the lake are
thirteen Raths and Raheens, eight Cromlechs, and one Holy Well (Tober-
macduagh). All the Cromlechs and the Holy Well le to the N.-W. in
Marble Hill Demesne, the ancient name of which was Gortenacuppoge,

e., ‘The Field of the Leaves;’’ and most of the Raths and Raheens
lie to the N. and N.-E., only three (which are Raheens) on the south.
At amore recent period it would appear that this neighbourhood was
still a place of note, as about three miles to the north-east there are the
ruins of an extensive abbey and castle, and a mile on the north are the
ruins of a church and castle. The abbey may have been founded by
St. Colman M‘Duagh, as the Holy Well previously mentioned is dedi-
eated to him.

I may here mention that Sir W. Wilde, in his list of recorded Cran-
noges in the Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, says :—‘‘ Even so
late as 1610 we read of Crannagh Mac Knavin, in the parish of Tynagh,
barony of Leitrim, and county of Galway.” I could find no trace of this
Crannoge; but I imagine its site must lie somewhere in the large allu-
vial flat and bog which occupies the country south and south-west of
Crannagh, the seat of R. Nugent, Esq., which is in the parish of Tynagh,
and barony of Leitrim, and lies about half-way between Portumna and
Marble Hill. It is remarkable that, although it was inhabited up to so
late a period, and that the descendants of the sept of the Mac Knavins
still live thereabouts, I could find no tradition about it in the neighbour-
hood, and the only trace the name of Mr. Nugent’s place. These flats
and bogs, somewhere in which I suppose the site of this Crannoge to
be, lie between four and five miles E.-N.-E. of Ballinlough, where are
situated the Crannoges which the Notes just read refer to.

The following paper was also read :—

Notes on a Crannoce in Loven Nanincn. By H. B. Trencu, Ese.,
and G. H. Kinauay, F. R. G.S. 1.

Loven Naurncg, 1. e. The Lake of the Island, lies on the junction of Tip-
perary and the King’s County, the Crannoge being situated in the former,
barony of Lower Ormond, parish of Ballingarry, Sheet 11 of the Town-

177

land Survey of Tipperary, and Sheet 135 of the One-inch Ordnance Map
of Ireland. .

This lake les in a large bog basin (see Geological Map of Ireland,
Sheet 135 and Map Fig. No.1), and was formerly much larger; but
previous to the year 1812, its outlet to the N.-W. was lowered, and the
land about it reclaimed. In winter its limits extend much farther than
during the dry season, as the ground about it 1s low.

The appearance of the Crannoge has been much changed since the .
lake was lowered, as on its south shore a quay was built on which to
land turf cut in the peat bog on the south, and many of the piles that
surrounded the Crannoge have been removed, and its circular shape
changed. Our attention was first directed to it by the following notice in
Wakefield’s ‘‘Ireland,” which was published in 1812:—“ In the highest
part of this reclaimed land, which is about the middle of the old lake,
there is seen a circular part, in shape the top of an immense tub, about
sixty feet in diameter. The large planks which form the staves are from
one to two feet broad, and about six inches thick, quite straight as far
as it has yet been possible to trace them downwards. None of them
have yet been raised without cutting them. At present there is no
appearance of either ax or saw having been used in the formation of
them.”

When the island was visited in March and August, 1864, it was
found to have shallow water all round it, except at the south, where
the previously mentioned quay was built; on the east there is a track
into the mainland (C on Map Fug. 1), that may also be of modern
construction ; at all events, it was used at the same time as the quay,
and has been repaired from season to season, by laying branches and
trunks of trees across it, and covering them with gravel. At the junc-
tion of this track withthe quay at the §.-E. of the island, one of the old
oak sheeting piles was remarked, the section of it being 4 x 12 inches.
On the north of the island more of these piles were noted, forming part
of a circle; and from them, running 8. and 8.-E., are two rows of round
perpendicular ash piles, 2°5 inches in diameter, that appear to have been
parts of two partitions or walls that divided up the space inside the
eircle of sheet piles into rooms or habitations. On the N.-W. of the
island, about three yards from the present shore, are also some of the
circle of sheet piles, and between them and the land are, E. and W.,
beams about four feet apart, and about four feet lower than the surface
of the island. There are also above these, and close to the edge of the
island, irregularly laid logs of oak, on an average about five inches in
diameter, mingled with large stones. On the S.-W. of the island there
is a set of oak sheet piles bounding the end of the quay; these seem to
have been recently put here, and may have been some of those men-
tioned in the extract before quoted, ‘‘ that were raised’’ when the quay
was built, and were redriven here to protect the pier. There are also
‘a few other piles, but they are evidently modern, being round fir sticks,
which appear to have been used to fasten the boats to.

178

LOUGH NAHINCH.

Reduced 5th from the Ordnance six-inch Map, equal to 4,8;th inches to the mile.

a, Winter boundary of Lake. /
6, Boundary between bog and upland. ;
ec, Cart road. &

The difference between the level of the water of the lake in March
and August was only about a foot, or a foot and a half; and the island
is of such a porous nature, that the water rushed in everywhere, and
prevented satisfactory work; but we opened small excavations in various
places, and found the general section of the island to be :—

General Section. Be Ta

GHEBom Wares : Pa Ee ee oy er, Doe

5. Bog, ashes, hones, and nuts, mei i eyre e ieee. O

4. Stones and large oak sticks irregularly laid, ple os ae OG
3. Peat, bones, and ashes, in which are oak beams lying in in

different. directions, . . : aoe. .6

2. Nearly E. and W., oak beams, about four feet apart, 3 eer 6

1. Peat, wood chips, and DOMES 0 sta) ay oie y iO Tance ena

5 6

From this it is seen that the artificial work, measured from the pre-
sent surface of the island, is more than 5:5 feet in thickness. On the
beams (Led No. 2 in Section) there seems to have been a basket flooring,
but of this we could not be certain, on account of the depth of water in

179

the excavation ; but in connexion with them we observed wicker walls,
made of hazel rods. Where the wicker walls cross the oak beams, there
were round holes through the latter for the stakes to go through. In
the vicinity of these beams asmall rude stone implement made of Silu-
rian grit was found, but it was so rotten, that it broke while the dirt
was being removed from it.

The beams in bed No. 3 were charred on the under surface as if they
had been the beams which supported the roof of an edifice that was de-
stroyed by fire; near the north of the island, immediately over these
charred beams, there was a N.-W. and 8.-E. plank about ten feet long,
twenty inches wide, and two inches thick ; at about one foot nine inches
from its N.-W. end there were two holes through it, four inches by two
inches, that ran north and south in a line with the north and south piles
seen on the north shore, and on each side of the plank were upright
stakes ranging in the same direction. In bed No. 5, near the centre of
the island, a large heap of wood ashes was found, and innumerable
quantities of hazelnut shells and a few of walnuts. The bones found
in the different beds seem to be those of pigs, sheep, and cows.

From the facts we were able to collect, we may draw the following
conclusions:—That the base of the artificial work is more than 5:5 feet,
below the present surface of the island ; that it was inhabited at least at
two different periods, the first of these being when the east and west
beams formed the floor of the habitations; those habitations seem to have
been destroyed by fire, which would account for the charred beams.
After this period the oak sticks and stones irregularly laid were placed
to form a floor for new habitations. Between these periods we must
suppose that the waters of the lake rose considerably.

Within a mile of Lough Nahinch we find that there are the remains
of nine raths and raheens in the county of Tipperary, and five or six in
the King’s County; that there were more would seem likely, as the
name of the townland on the south of the lake is Lissadonna, and yet
there is now no trace of a diss or rath in it; and in other places raths
are said to have been levelled with the ground. ‘The old castle at Bal-
lingarry lies about a mile N.-W. of the lake ; it may have been built to
prevent the natives from re-occupying their island home.

The Very Rev. the PresipEnt read a paper
On InscripeD MonvuMENTs IN THE County or Kerry
(Lately discovered by himself and his son, Mr. Alfred Graves).

THE monuments now brought under the notice of the Academy appear
to be nearly related to a class which formed the subject of a paper read
by Dean Graves to the Academy in February, 1860. The monuments

_ then described exhibited inscribed circles, or groups of concentric circles,

having at the centre small cup-shaped hollows, of from two to four inches

180

in diameter. The monuments to which attention is now directed present
numbers of the cup-shaped hollows, unaccompanied by circies.

Five of them are the covering stones of large cromlechs, and Dean
Graves thinks that there is reason to believe that the hollows were de-
signedly arranged in certain alignments. The monuments, however,
have been so much defaced by the action of the weather during hun-
dreds, perhaps thousands of years, that it is hardly safe as yet to insist
positively upon this point.

Dean Graves remarks that the occurrence of these symbols on what
are undoubtedly sepulchral monuments may help towards the discovery
of their signification. A huge block, found by Mr. Alfred Graves, at
Loher, near Darrynane, and exhibiting some of these hollows, serves as
the covering stone to a sepulchral chamber excavated in the earth under
it; a narrow covered gallery, of twenty-four feet in length, constructed
in the ordinary way, leads to the subterraneous chamber. Though
careful search was made in it for human or other remains, nothing was
found, with the exception of a few fragments of charcoal, and a portion
of a charred bone.

= S
Tn a i

~~,

rn erent

Scale, {3th of an inch to 1 foot.

The other monuments described in Dean Graves’s paper were found
in the following localities:—One in the island of Valencia; another,
near Cahirciveen; a third, near Waterville bridge; and two more, near
Sneem.

The Dean concluded by expressing his expectation that artificial

hollows would
be found on
many of the co-
vering stones
of cromlechs
on which they
have not been
yet observed,

simply __ be-
cause their ex-
istence was

not suspected.
Where the
surface hag
been much af-
fected by the
weather, any
hollows that
appear may be
readily mista-
ken for natu-
ral ones; but
hollows that
are certainly
artificial hay-
ing once been
recognised, the
eye of the an-
tiquary will
be prepared to
observe those
which are not
so obviously
the work of
man.

Dean Graves
noticed some
other _monu-
ments in Ker-
ry which ex-
hibit circular
hollows, but
do not admit
of being class-
ed along with

those describ-
ed in this pa-
per.

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182

Mr. George C. Garnett read a paper ‘‘On Deep-sea Soundings.” —
The Secretary read a paper by Mr. George J. Knox ‘‘ On the Compo-
sition of Cadmium, Arsenic, and Nitrogen.”

MONDAY, DECEMBER 12, 1864.
JouNn F. WaALrer, LL. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.
P. Joseph Keenan, Esq., was elected a Member of the Academy.
Denis H. Key read the following paper :—

Description oF Two Irish MS. Tracts By THE CELEBRATED DvaLp
Mc Frepis, TRANSCRIBED BY W. Hennessy, Hsa.; AND PRESENTED
BY HIM TO THE Roya IRIsH AcaDEMY, THROUGH D, H. KeEtty,
MS REA.

Mr. PresIpENt AND GentTLEMEN,—Mr. William Hennessy has intrusted
to me, for presentation to the Academy, this small Book, containing
faithful transcripts, with the contractions resolved, of two Tracts com-
piled by the celebrated Duald Me Firbis, the Amanuensis of Sir James
Ware, the originals of which are preserved in the Bodleian Library,
at Oxford, where Mr. Hennessy discovered them in the month of
August last.

The MSS. from which these copies have been transcribed are in
the beautifully minute and well-known handwriting of the learned and
industrious D. Mc Firbis; and, although their contents are comprised
in the small volume which I now submit to the Academy, the labourers
in our wide field of Irish Archeology will, I believe, find in them much
that is well worthy of careful examination.

I feel some gratification myself in having suggested to Mr. Hennessy
the importance of a careful examination of the Irish MS. collections in
both the British Museum and the Bodleian at Oxford, on the occasion of
his kindly undertaking for me to collate my transcript of an Irish MS,
in which I am interested with its original in the British Museum;
and I believe that the volume which forms the subject of my obser-
vations this evening is only an instalment of the fruits we may look for
from Mr. Hennessy’s visit.

It will be unnecessary for me to trouble the Academy with any ob-
servations on the character of Duald Mc Firbis, and the nature of his
contributions to Irish history, topography, and genealogy. It is well
known that he was the lineal descendant of the learned compilers of
the Book of Leacan, the hereditary ollamhs in history and genealogy of
the Hy Frachrach of the Moy; and those who wish for further infor-
mation on the subject will find it on referring to our friend Dr,
Petrie’s Notice in vol. xviii. of the Academy’s ‘“‘ Transactions,” of our
lamented friend O’ Donovan’s archeological volume on the Tribes, &c.,
of the Hy Fiachrach; and to our equally lamented friend Eugene

7 ae a

183

O’Curry’s Lectures, in which such particulars of Mc Firbis’s life and
writings as were then ascertainable have been faithfully set down.
I may observe, however, in explanation of the manner in which his
MS. collections became so widely dispersed, that after the death, in the
year 1666, of his patron Sir James Ware, of whose house he had for
for some time been an inmate, he appears to have returned to his na-
tive place in the county of Sligo, leaving most, if not all, of his MSS.
in the hands of Sir James Ware’s son and heir.

It is pretty generally known that all Sir James Ware’s MS. collec-
tions relating to Ireland were purchased from his son Robert, in 1686,
by Lord Clarendon, then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.

After his Lordship’s death they passed by sale into the possession of
the Duke of Chandos, whom the witty and public-spirited Swift, Dean
of St. Patrick’s, in vain solicited to deposit them in the Library of Tri-
nity College: his letters are given in the recently published correspon-
dence of Mrs. Delany (Mary Granville), to whom he thus writes in
October, 1734 :—-

“‘ Are you acquainted with the Duke of Chandos? I know your
Uncle Lansdowne and he were intimate friends. I have known the
Duke long and well, and thought I had a share in his common fa-
your; but he hath lately given me great cause of complaint.

“<I was pressed by many persons of great learning here to write to his
Grace, that having some old records relating to this kingdom, which
were taken from hence by the Karl of Clarendon, who was Lieutenant
here, and purchased them from private owners, and are now in the
Duke’s possession, that his Grace would please to bestow them to the
University here; because Irish antiquities are of little value or curiosity
to any other nation.

‘<7 writ with all the civility in my power, and with compliments
on the fame of his generosity, and in a style very different from what I
use to my friends with titles; but He hath been pleased to be silent for
above six weeks, which is the first treatment I ever met with of that
kind from any English Person of quality, and what would better become
a little Irish Baron than a great Hnglish Duke.

“‘ But whether grandeur or party be the cause I shall not enquire,
but leave it to you; and expect you will employ ‘ my Brother Lans-
downe’ (His Lordship will tell you, why I give him that Title), if He
still converses with the Duke, to know the reason of His treatment.
And you shall be my instrument to find it out, altho’ it should cost you
two shillings for a Chair.

“Jn. Swirr.”

In the following month of February he writes again to the same
correspondent :——

“7 am very much obliged to yeur care about that Business with
the Duke of Chandos. I hear he told a person he would grant my
request, but that he had no acquaintance with me.”’

66 fa Si.

184

These MSS. underwent a second dispersion, by public auction, on
the death of the Duke of Chandos; when Dr. Milles, Dean of Exeter
(whose uncle had considerable property in Ireland), purchased a large
portion, and deposited them in the British Museum, where they are
now known as the ‘ Clarendon Collection.’’ Dr. Rawlinson bought
others, and bequeathed them to St. John’s College, Oxford, whence
they were subsequently transferred to the Bodleian Library; and
some part fell into the hands of Lord Newport, Lord Chancellor of
Ireland, and the remainder were widely scattered, and no trace re-
mained of them.

A Catalogue of Ware’s MSS. was published in Dublin, in 1648, of
which, I believe, there is but one copy known to exist, and that is in
the Bodleian Library ; but, as it was published before Ware’s acquaint-
ance with Mc Firbis, it of course contains little information regarding
the productions of the latter.

As Lord Clarendon’s property, a Catalogue of the MSS. appears at
the end of the ‘‘ Catal. Codd. MSS. Angli et Hib., Oxon, 1697;” and
the Duke of Chandos’ Sale Catalogue, 1746, affords a reasonably accu-
rate description of the collection.

Having premised thus much as to the fate of the Tracts under con-
sideration from the date of their purchase by Lord Clarendon until
they were deposited in the Bodleian Library, I now invite the atten-
tion of the Academy to the Tracts themselves.

No. I.—Tue First Tract,

to which is prefixed an Invocation of Jesus, Mary, Patrick, Co-
lumcille, Bridget, and the Holy Trinity, is entitled,

“ The Authors of Erin, with an Account of their Authorship, and
their Paternity, are arranged here by Dubhaltagh son of Giolla-Josa
M6p Mac Firbisigh of Leacan, in Tir Frachrach of the Moy. 1656.”

No. [1.—Tue Seconp Tract,

to which the same Invocations are prefixed, is entitled,

‘‘ An Aid to Remembrance, here, regarding certain Bishops of
Erinn, who are not now reckoned as having filld Bishops Sees, Tho’
they were so accounted, in their own Sees and Times. Understand
Reader the Sees are mentioned first, and the Bishops afterwards.

‘‘T am Dubhaltach Mac Firbisigh who arranges this 17th March,
Anno Christi, 1665 or 1666.”

Although, strangely enough, the name of Duald Mc Firbis is not
even mentioned in O’Reilly’s ‘‘ Account of Irish Writers,’ it was
known that he had compiled ‘‘ A Treatise on Authors.’’ And the late
lamented John O'Donovan and Eugene O’Curry, when deploring the
loss of this Tract, only echoed the sentiments which our venerated
Academician, Dr. Petrie, had on more than one occasion given ex-
pression to. Mac Firbis himself, in the preface to his great genealo-

185

gical work, refers to such a compilation, when, speaking of the various
ancient authors, he says:—‘‘ Why should I be enumerating them, for
they cannot be counted without writing a large book of their names,. . .
And, not to give but the Zvtles alone of the Tracts which they wrote,
as we have done before now.” (See Curry’s ‘ Lectures,” p. 218.) But this
preface was written in the year 1650, whereas the original of the Tract
before us was compiled or transcribed by the compiler from an earlier
copy, in the year 1656, old style.

This Tract is, I regret to say, defective; it is Mr. Hennessy’s opi-
nion that 2¢ was never finished ; and, as exhibiting his reasons for coming
to this conclusion in opposition to Mc Firbis’s statement just referred
to, I may quote a letter received from him, accompanying this do-
nation :—

‘Dear Srr—During a recent examination of the Irish MS. col-
lection preserved in the Bodleian Library, I had the good fortune to
discover two original Tracts in the handwriting of Duald Mac Firbis,
which somehow escaped the keen research of the late Dr. O’ Donovan.

‘« Having accomplished the laborious task which I had proposed to
myself of making a transcript of the profusely gloss’d copy of the Fes-
tiology of Aingus, preserved in a MS. of the twelfth centuryin the Laud
Collection, | made as close an examination as my limited time per-
mitted of the very rare and inestimable MSS. preserved in both the
Laud and Rawlinson Collections. On looking over the small paper vo-
lume ‘ No. 480, Rawlinson,’ I recognised the, to me, well known hand-
writing of Mac Firbis. The MS. consists principally of Ecclesiastical
Tracts, one of which, comprising 11 folios, is thus entitled :—

‘“*¢ Here beginneth the Booke of St. Patritius the Bishoppe, entreat-
ing of the Joyes of Heaven and the Paines of Hell, and of the good-
ness and evilnesse of this world.’

«« And at the end—‘ Here Endeth the Booke of St. Patricke the
Bishoppe, translated out of Lattin into English by R. 8., 1585.’

“ And the translator adds—‘ Vide ye Booke calld ‘ Pricke of the ye
conscience upon the same subject more at large.’

‘“‘ The portion in Mac Firbis’s handwriting consists of only fourteen
folios, but closely written, and the handwriting being very minute, and
so beautiful as to excite surprise, when it is remembered that the writer
was nearly seventy years of age at the time.

‘“‘The first eight folios contain a part of his ‘ Lost Treatise on Lrish
Authors,’ and the remaining six contain a curious ‘ Zract on Ancient
trish Bishops and Bishopricks,’ not accounted as such in Mac Firbis’s
time.

«At the end of every page of the first of these, the Treatise on
Authors, except the last, the letter or word with which the succeeding
page commences is uniformly added; and the omission of this mark
of continuation from the last page is, I am inclined to think, a proof
that the author never completed the task which he had set before

136

himself. And I may also observe that in some places the memoran-
dum, ‘see page,’ occurs, the No. of the page not being entered, as it
would doubtless have been had the Treatise been completed.

‘It is within the range of possibility that he intended in this Tract
to expand the Catalogue of Authors, which he states in the preface
to his Genealogies he had compiled, but the execution of this project
was cut short by some cause or other which we are unacquainted with.
At allevents, of both these Tracts, such as they are, I have made accurate
transcripts, and I venture to confide them to your care for presentation
to the Royal Irish Academy. And I beg to add, should the Aca-
demy deem them worthy of publication in its ‘ Transactions,’ that I
will cheerfully undertake the duty of translating and preparing these
Tracts for the press.

“Tam, dear Sir, yours faithfully,
, ‘CW. Hennessy.”

“To D. LE. Kelly, Esq.”

Now for the Tracts themselves.

No. I.

This has the words ‘‘ De Scriptoribus Hibernicis’” written on the
upper margin of the first page, in a handwriting very much resembling
Sir James Ware’s; and some words are also glossed in the same hand-
writing. But Sir James was certainly not sufficiently versed in the
Trish language to have been able to interpret the words explained. The
author begins by advancing the usual arguments put forward by the
critics of his age respecting the antiquity of the Scotic, i.e. the Irish
language; after which he enumerates the principal professors of know-
ledge who accompanied the several immigrations into Ireland from
Fintaun, who came with Cesara before the Flood! to Amergin, the son
of Milesius; and, coming down to later times, he adds some names
to the list of families which furnished hereditary Professors of the se-
veral branches of Poetry, Law, Medicine, and History.

In the department of Senchas, or History, for example, he enume-
rates the following families, in addition to those already known,
Viz. :-—

The O’Flyns, The O’ Quills, and
The O’ Dunns, The O’Squinins.

The principal hereditary Professors of Law he states to have ico

The Clann Aodhagan, or Eyan ;

The Siol Flachadha, or IClanchys ;
The Clann an Brethemhain ;

The O’ Breslens ;

The O’Dorans; and

The O’Haras.

187

The Ollamhs of Acs Dana, or Professors of Poetry, he states belonged
chiefly to the following families :— :

O’ Dalys, Mac Graith,
O’ Donnellans, O’Cillen,

O’ Higgins, O’ Moran,
Mac a Wards, M‘Casserly,
O’ Hancairty, O’ Phelan,
Mac Convey, O’ Heffernan,
O’ Hussey, Mac Keogh,
O’ Rooney, O’ Hayden,
O’ Coffey, ; O’Gneev,
O’Gearan, O’ Lorcan,
O’Cloomhan, Mac Murray,
O’Cronga, and many others.

And amongst the Professors of the Art of Healing he mentions, in
addition to those enumerated in Sir William R. Wilde’s learned Essay,
prefixed to the Table of Deaths, ‘‘ Census Report,’’ 1851, the names of

Mac Neagh, gr. Mac Nad, O’Connell,

Clann Multeely, O’Leyne,

O’Fennelly, O’ Beglan,

O’ Ronan, Clan an Deasy,

O’Feely, Mac Gilmartin,
-O’Cuhin, O’ Heneys,

O’Meledy, &e., &e.

Then the author proceeds to describe the nature of the writen re-
mains of Irish literature, and observes that the knowledge of Feneachas
or the laws was confined to three or four sons of the Ollamh of Con-
naught, including himself, I presume.

“Woe is me!” he says, ‘‘ the little regard Erin has for the preser-
vation of knowledge or superiority.”’

The subject of the formation and development of the Celtic lan-
guage under Feninsa Farsaidh and his disciples, and the invention of the
Ogham alphabet, is discussed in detail, and with much ingenuity of
argument. This chapter is illustrated by a sketch of what he calls the
most usual Ogham character, corresponding with the third alphabet in
the ‘‘ Book of Ballymote,’’ except that M‘Firbis has by mistake omitted
the vowel signs. At page 7 of the original text, but page 28 of the pre-
sent volume, reference is made to a volume of laws, called Cdsed
(Edghedh), attributed to Luigne mc Eremhon, of which I am not
aware that any fragments have been preserved.

The treatise ends with a notice of the celebrated Naente Nae-Bre-
thach, or ‘‘of the 9 judgements,” who is alleged to have lived 200
years before the Christian era; and although this notice is unfortu-
nately incomplete, it is curious, as attributing to him the famous judg-
ment of ‘‘ To every cow belongs its calf,” which is asserted to have been

188

delivered by King Dermot mac Carvall, in the dispute between SS. Co-
lumb Cille and Finian of Magh Bile respecting the copy of St. Finian’s
Gospel, which Columb Cille had made without the knowledge of its
owner, and which the king therefore adjudged to St. Finian.

[The Tract ends here, incomplete. |

No. II.

The second Tract contains an alphabetical list of 270 places reputed
as Bishops’ Sees in ancient times, appended to which are the names of
some of the principal ecclesiastics or bishops who ruled therein.

The entries correspond very generally with the records of the ‘‘ Four
Masters,” and with the ‘‘ Martyrology of Donegal ;”’ but there are some
discrepancies, chiefly chronological, which, although of no great im-
portance, afford sufficient proof that Mac Firbis compiled his treatise
from other authorities than those that the O’Clerys made use of.

Under the head of Ara, or the ‘‘ Great Aran Island,” in the Bay of
Galway, he gives some interesting particulars regarding Aelchu, called
the Pupa, or Pope of Aran, who is stated to have for some time filled
the chair of Gregory the Great, after the latter had resigned it for a quiet
retreat in Ara of the Saints.

And, speaking of St. Brecan, the compiler makes a statement which,
if it has been rightly interpreted, renders the alleged interment of that
saint in the Isle of Aran a matter of some uncertainty. The entry runs
thus :——

“ Brecan | or Bracan| Bishop [this may be the Brecan of Aran] in
Killbricken, in Thomond.”’ .

According to the idiom used by Irish scribes, the expression ‘in
Killbricken’’ would mean “‘ buried in Killbricken.”’

The entry in the printed text of the “‘ Martyrology of Donegal’’ is
nearly similar; but, owing apparently to a slight defect in the manu-
script from which the text has been taken, the sense is not so clearly
evident as in the present statement.

The note following Cvl/ Insz is also interesting, as furnishing the site
of that church, which was i Jnis Sgoreobhuin (now probably Lniscrone,
in Tireragh, county of Sligo); and the compiler adds, ‘‘ that the walls
of the church were standing in his time.”’

The entry at Cull Sgandail is very valuable, as identifying that
church with C7// Bian, the situation of which has hitherto escaped dis-
covery. Possibly our indefatigable Secretary, with this datum, may be
enabled to add one more to the long list of places which he has iden-
tified. 3

Kill Cuana is here identified with Cill Tuama, and Cill Tidil with
Drum Tidil. At Druim Urchaille the following note occurs, namely,
the Seven Bishops of Druim Urchaille.

N.B.—148 are the number of churches or places in which seven b7-

Sg

shops resided at the same tome—1001 is therefore the entire number of
those bishops. Thus in the ‘‘ Naemh Seanchas’’ the commencement is
with ‘‘ those seven bishops.”

The List of Groups of 7 Bishops preserved in the ‘‘ Leabhar Breac,”’
consists of 142, or within one of the number stated by Mac Firbis;
whilst that given by Aingus the Culdee comprises 141.

These important records could hardly have been known to the writer
who, in a recent number of ‘‘ The Gentleman’s Magazine,”’ took excep-
tion to Dr. Todd’s statement in his ‘“‘ Life of St. Patrick’ respecting
this ancient practice, and the origin of its institution.

The name of the church usually written Zndednen, the situation of
which has hitherto evaded all attempts at discovery, is written Adnen,
and entered under the letter #. Its identification may now, therefore,
be found possible.

In treating of Lusk, the compiler has made an observation of much
importance as regards the value of the ‘‘ Chronicon Scotorum,”’ the most
ancient, and indeed only reliable, copy of which is that transcribed by
himself, and preserved in Trinity College Library, from which Mr. Hen-
nessy has made an accurate translation, which we trust may soon be
published.

Speaking of Mac Cwillin, Bishop of Lusk, predecessor of our worthy
Secretary, he observes in reference to the other names by which the
bishop was known. What Mac Firbis says is, ‘‘ Quies Cumdede mae
Cathbadha, i.e. Mac Curllin Epscop Luska.’’ This expression is iden-
tical in terms with the record of his Odvt contained in the ‘‘ Chronicon
Scotorum’”’ of the year 497; and there can be little doubt that the chro-
nicle in question is the authority to which Duald Mac Firbis referred.
Now, it is not likely that the latter would have thus spoken of himself in
the third person. It was not his practice, as may be ascertained by re-
ferring to his writings in this Library, in which he frequently alludes
to “what I have said,” “ what we have observed before,” &c.

It was the opinion of Professor O’Curry—‘‘ That the Chronicon
Scotorum was an original compilation of D. Mc Firbis;” but the work
itself contains internal evidence to the contrary. Indeed, in a very
imperfect copy of the ‘‘ Chronicle,” in the collection in this Academy,
the original is said to have been compiled by Giollo-Christ O’ Malone,
an Abbot of Clonmacnois, who lived in the twelfth century. It is more
probable, however, that it may be found to be ‘‘ the Volume of Annals
known to have been written by one of D. McFirbis’s ancestors, Giolla-
Josa Mc Firbis, who died in the year 1301,”’ and to whom Harris refers
in his edition of Ware's Bishops, article Tuam.” But we will not pre-
judge a question which is at present in course of elucidation by my
intelligent friend Mr. Hennessy himself.

It is worthy: of remark that the ancient name of Lambay Island is
written Rechra, and not Rechrain, which, as Dr. Reeves has remarked in
a note at p. 262 ‘‘Martyrol. Donegal,’’ is the form of the word in the
genitive case, Rechra being the nominative.

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. YG

190

Under the head of Siol Murray, the Tribe Name of the O’Conors of
Connaught, and their correlatives, Mac Firbis says—‘‘ Some persons
imply that whenever there is a Bishop of the Siol Murray, he is Bishop
of Elphin ;”’ but, he adds—“ I am not quite cértain of this at all times.”
This observation is of some importance, and deserving ofinquiry, consi-
dering that the episcopal history of that diocese is a complete blank
from the time of St. Patrick down to the middle of the twelfth century.
The transcript extends over 45 pages of the neatly written volume
which I have now the honour to present, In the name of my friend,
Mr. William Hennessy, and the contents of which I have very imper-
fectly described. |

Mr. Kelly presented to the Library of the Academy, on the part of
Mr. William M. Hennessy, a transcript of the MS. made by himself.
Whereupon it was—

Resotvepd,—That the marked thanks of the Academy be returned
to Mr. Hennessy and Mr. Kelly for the donation. |

W. 4H. Hardinge, Esq., read a paper ‘‘ On Manuscript Mapped and
other Townland Surveys in Ireland of a Public Character.”

The Secretary read the following letter, addressed to the President,
from Henry O’ Hara, Esq. :—

On a CROMLECH AND OTHER ANCIENT REMAINS IN THE PRESIDENCY OF
ManpRASs.

‘‘Very Rey. Srr,—It may interest the Members of the Royal Irish
Society to know that in the Madras Presidency, East Indies, Cromlechs
such as are found in Ireland are met with.

Fig. 1.

~_—o-—

yy

Ly
CU]

‘“‘T enclose a rough pen-and-ink sketch of one standing some short
distance from the Travellers’ Bungalow at Policondah, thirteen miles

SH

from Vellore. The ground in this locality is covered with interesting
relics of a race whose occupancy of the country was evidently anterior
to the Hindoos. I have marked on the sketch a line of defence from
the base of the hill to the river, composed of large boulders. The foun-
dations of circular buildings exist in considerable numbers; and at the
entrance to nearly all the dwellings a mass of granite stands, with a

cavity cut into its upper surface, evidently intended for a mortar to pound
erain in.

—= —

= SS

SS

:

“<The Cromlech I send a sketch of must have been an altar for sa-
erifice; it stands on a mass of laminated gneiss that crops out on the
surface, so that it could not have been intended as a place of burial. I
have not sketched in the circle of stones surrounding the Cromlech;
these are placed about a yard apart from each other, and form a circle of
thirty yards diameter.

«While laying out a new line of road to connect the southern trunk
road with that from Vellore to Amer, I discovered four other Cromlechs,
placed so as to form a perfect square; they are similar in construction
to the one sketched.

‘The nature of my duties in India as an engineer in the service of
Government took me much among the people, whose language and pecu-
liarities I am well acquainted with. . When I could prevail on one of
the inhabitants near the site of these remains of a bygone race to get
rid of the characteristic apathy of his countrymen to matters not per-
sonally interesting, I could learn from him the tradition, ‘ that the stones
were put up by a people who lived in the country before Buddhism or
Brahminism was introduced, and that the Cromlechs were sacrificial
altars on which men were immolated.’

“The villages of Dooshu and Mannidoor are a few miles south of the
_ Palaar River, in the North Arcot District; between these villages an
immense tank, or reservoir, for storing water for rice irrigation stands.
The tank is formed by filling up the gorge between two low hills, and

192

the water supplied by a channel from the river some miles higher up,
and the drainage of the country. A large slab of granite has an inscrip-
tion cut on it, and placed on the upper level of the tank ; the character
of the letters is the same as the .
present language of the country
(Tamil) is written in, but the
language of the inscription can-
not be made out. This may be
taken as a voucher for the anti-
quity of the tank; but the vast
number of kistvaens that are to
be found on the two low hills be-
fore mentioned, from their sum-
mits to base on all sides exposed
to view, prove these hills to ~ SQ Sai
have been used as a_ burial SS en WSS
ground long before the tank was MO AX AY
constructed. JI opened several

of these monuments of antiquity, and found broken pottery in a few
of them.

‘“‘ The tradition of the people here also is the same,—‘ that the stones
were placed to mark where the people that preceded them buried their
dead.

“‘T will not attempt any conjecture as to the purpose for which the
Cromlechs were set up; I submit the fact of their existence to you and
the members of the Royal Irish Society.

‘“* Apologizing for the liberty I have taken in addressing you,

‘““T beg to remain, Very Rev. Sir,
‘‘ Your obedient servant,
‘‘ Henry O’ Hara, M.I.C.E.1.,

‘‘Deputy Commissary, Retired List, H. M.
India Army.

Fig 3.

Wh
\i

‘t Fermoy, Co. Cork, Nov. 25, 1864.”

MONDAY, JANUARY 9, 1865.

Joun Francis Water, LL. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Robert Henry Beauchamp, Esq., was elected a member of the Aca-
demy.

On the recommendation of the Council, it was—

ResoLveD,—That the sum of £29 15s., bequeathed to the Aca-

demy by the late Beriah Botfield, Esq., be allocated to the Library
department.

193

Mr. Samvet Ferevson, Q.C., read the following paper :—

On A PassaGe IN THE “‘ Histor1A ANaioRUM’ or Henry oF HUNTINGDON,
RELATIVE TO STONEHENGE.

I pustre to call the attention of the Academy to a passage in the
‘“* Historia Anglorum” of Henry of Huntingdon, descriptive of the ap-
pearance of Stonehenge towards the middle of the twelfth century,
which does not appear to have been observed on by any of the numerous
writers who have treated of that monument. Speaking of the marvels
of Britain, he says— ‘‘ Secundum est apud Stanenges; ubi lapides mire
magnitudinis in modum portarum elevati sunt, ita ut porte portis su-
perpositz videantur, nec potest aliquis excogitare qua arte tanti lapides
deo in altum elevati sunt, vel quare ibi constructi sunt;’’ that is—
‘The second marvel is at Stonehenge, where stones of amazing bigness
are raised in manner of gateways, so that gateways appear erected
over gateways; nor can any one find out by what contrivance stones
so great have been raised to sucha height, or for what reason they have
been erected.in that place.” (‘‘ Mon. Hist. Brit.” vol. 1., p. 649, a). The
latter clause of the passage has been relied on by those who discredit
the account of the origin of Stonehenge given by Geoffrey of Monmouth
and Girald Cambrensis; but the statement that the place presented the
appearance of gateways erected over gateways has been, so far as I
can find, passed by without any comment or explanation; the only
notice seemingly glancing at it being that by Herbert in his ‘‘ Cyclops
Christianus”’ (p. 160), where, citing the passage with a view to displace
the force of its second clause, by showing that Henry afterwards
adopted the statements of Geoffrey, he says— ‘‘ His striking descrip-
tion must be that of an eye-witness, but no tradition seems to have then
reached his ears.”

The image presented by the expression “ porte portis superposite”’
would be sufficiently definite, were it not for the employment of the
verb wideantur, which usually imports something seeming, rather than
real; and probably the passage has been regarded as conveying no more
than that the higher porte of the internal trilithons are seen above the in-
.tercolumniations and continucus imposts of the external circle, like gates
rising above gates; but the word ‘“‘ superpositz’’* seems irreconcileable
with that construction; and it appears more agreeable to the character
of the sentence to refer the element of ‘‘ seemingness’’ to the figurative
expression, ‘‘ portee portis;’’ and to give the verb its literal construc-
tion, rendering it, ‘‘ so that as it were gateways are seen erected over
gateways.” This construction appears quite in accordance with the
usually accepted meaning of the name Stonehenge—~. ¢. “stone gal-
lows’’—more especially if the superstructure existed over one trilithon
only; but it is not agreeable to any of the numerous plans or resto-

* “ Superimposite,” Francof. Ed. 1601, p. 299.

194

rations of the monument, in all of which it seems to be assumed that
there were no further constructions above the line of imposts, either of
the external ring or of any of the contained trilithons. There also
appears great difficulty in applying the language of Henry to the sur-
rounding ring of pillar stones, connected as they still are to a considera-
ble extent, by a continuous cornice, depriving them of the appear-
ance of detached doors or gateways. This cornice is composed of a
series of imposts, mortised on the under face into tenons wrought on
the heads of the supporting pillar stones. Hach pillar has two tenons,
which lock respectively into the mortises of two contiguous imposts
abutting over the centre of the pillar, so that all the spaces, when per-
fect—as probably they were seven hundred years ago—were spanned
by a continuous series of imposts. In the arrangement of the internal
trilithons the case is different. Hach pair of pillars here supports, or
supported, a single impost, covering the whole breadth of both supports
and the space between, and locking by two mortises on its under face
into a single tenon on each pillar. Each trizthon, or group of three, thus
presents the appearance of a lofty isolated gate or doorway. This image is
the same which presented itself to Glaus Magnus four hundred years
later, when describing a similar trilithic monument, and which I be-
lieve is the only other megalithic structure of that kind in Western
Europe of which any evidence exists, between Scara and Kelby, in the
south of Sweden:— ‘“‘ Mira compagine immensa saxa In modum altissimee
latissimeeque janue. sursum transversumque labore gigantum erectze ;”
4.e. ‘a structure of huge rocks, raised by the efforts of giants, with a
wonderful connexion, in the form of a very lofty and wide doorway.”
(“‘ De Gent. Sep.” 1. 1., c. 80), and he annexes a rude drawing of the mo-
nument (1. i. c. 29); and Stowe, in his ‘‘ Annals” (p. 58), applies the
same language to the trilithons of Stonehenge— “‘ Every couple sus-
taineth a third stone, lying overthwart gate-wise.”’ But the language
of Henry seems to intimate that in his time some of those gate-like
constructions had other trzlzthons of a similar kind erected over them ;
and a circumstance taken notice of by me, and by an accurate observer
who accompanied me on a visit to Stonehenge in September, 1863,
affords grounds, independently of the passage from Henry, for surmising
that, in regard to at least one of the trzlithons, such an upper storey, if
I may so call it, did formerly exist.

It will be in the recollection of those members of the Academy who
have seen Stonehenge, or looked at representations or models of it, that
the lintel or impost of the central trzlithon has fallen; and those who
have seen it lying at the foot of the leaning pillar-stone which once
formed one of its supports, will remember the emotion excited by its vast
size, and the surprising height to which it had once been elevated. It is
now a little more than fifteen feet long by three feet nine inches broad,
and two feet nine inches thick. Its southern end has been pushed forward
in its descent by the fall of the supporting pillar-stone at that side, which
now lies prostrate, broken in two, with its upper end within a few feet

195

of the mortise into which its tenon, still visible when Stukeley wrote
in 1760, formerly fitted. The lintel in its descent has also been canted
over, so that it lies on edge, presenting what was formerly its under
surface obliquely towards the spectator entering the circle from the main
avenue, and at once arresting attention by the well-defined sockets or
mortises cut in that under surface. These are indicated in the perspec-
tive by Inigo Jones in his ‘‘ Stonehenge Restored,” copied into Charl-
ton’s ‘‘ Stonehenge Restored to the Danes;’’ and are shown in plates
18, 21, and 22 of Stukeley’s ‘“‘ Stonehenge Restored to the British
Druids ;’’ and again are conspicuous in the ichnographic plan of the
monument given by Sir Richard Colt Hoare in his elaborate illustration
of this part of Wiltshire, copied into the ‘‘ Celtic Druids” of Godfrey
Higgins; and, finally, I may observe that they, as well as the mortises
on the under surface of the lintel constituting part of the trilithon to
the right, which fell in January, 1797, are accurately indicated in the
bird’s-eye view given in the ‘Illustration of Stonehenge and Abury”
of Mr. Joseph Browne of Amesbury, the attending illustrator of the
monument. Notwithstanding the great amount of attention given to
this central impost, the fact appears to have escaped remark until ob-.
served on the occasion I have referred to, that on its wpyer surface,
opposite to, and corresponding in position with the well-known mor-
tises on its under surfaces, there exist cavities which, though shallow,
and less regular in form, appear also as if part of the design, and, inde-
pendently of the language of Henry, suggest the idea of having served
as sockets for some kind of superstructure.

Such was the impression vividly conveyed to my mind on observing
the cavities in question in 1868. I have recently, and since giving
notice of this communication, had an opportunity of making a renewed
and very careful inspection of the monument; and the result is that I
eannot with certainty affirm these cavities to be artificial. Neither,
on the other hand, can any one with safety affirm them to benatural. If
artificial, and if their purpose was to receive the bases of other pillars,
supporting a second cross-piece, as the language of Henry would imply,
it is certain that such superstructure was confined to this one central
trilithon, for there are no corresponding cavities on the upper surfaces
of the adjoining trilithons to the left andright. In the mortises of the
impost which fell in 1797 the tool-marks (apparently made by a pick-
ing instrument) are plaimly visible; they are also distinguishable,
though the traces are fainter, in those on the under surface of the central
impost; but the hollows of the cavities here in question are smooth to
the eye and touch, save in one spot, where there exist some traces of
tooling apparently recent. Add to this the fact that the siliceous sand-
stone of which the trilithons are composed has a tendency to disinte-
grate into bowl-shaped hollows, as seen on this and several of the ad-
joiming blocks; and there arises a considerable probability of those ca-
vities being natural.

On the other hand, some considerations present themselves, for the

196

appreciation of which it is necessary to go a little into detail, as regards
the circumstances of the group formed by this impost, and the remains
immediately connected with it. I cannot better describe its general
appearance than in the language of Stukeley, premising merely that
his ‘‘ altar’ designates a fallen block of longer and more slender pro-
portions than the impost containing the mortises, which lies fiat on
the ground, pressed down by the weight of the fallen impost lying
across it near one end, and of the fallen pillar also lying across it near the
other. ‘‘ The trilithon of the upper end of the adytum,” says Stukeley,
‘‘ was an extraordinary beauty. But, alas! through the indiscretion
probably of somebody digging there between them and the altar, the
noble impost is dislodged from its airy seat, and fallen upon the altar,
where its huge bulk les unfractured.

‘ Decidit in solidam, longo post tempore, terram
Pondus, et exhibuit junctam cum viribus artem.’

Oviv. Met.

‘The two uprights that supported it are the most delicate stones of

the whole work. ‘They are, I believe, above thirty foot long, and well
chisell’d, finely taper’d, and proportion’d in their dimensions.. That
southward is broke in two, lying upon the altar. The other still
stands entire, but leans on one of the stones of the inward oval.

‘Jam jam lapsura, cadentique
Imminet assimilis. SUH

The fall of this trilithon took place about 1620. The impost about —

which this inquiry is chiefly concerned is stated to have originally mea-
sured sixteen feet; but owing, no doubt, to the injuries it has sustained
by the destructive curiosity of visitors, it is now reduced to fifteen feet
some inches or thereabouts, for the corrosions and irregularities of its
surface, and the shattered condition of its ends, render an accurate
measurement somewhat difficult, and only to be accomplished by —
the aid of appliances which would reduce its bevelled and uregular
outlines to the square. It hes on edge, presenting the flat of what
was its under surface to the east. This face has suffered compara-

tively little; but time and the weather have made great ravages on ©

:
:

the western or upper face. The lower edge on which it rests is straight ;
the upper edge somewhat convex, indicating that this latter lay to-—
wards the outside when am situ, for such is the arrangement of the
two adjoining trilithons which are still standmg. The mortises on the —
under surface are eight feet six inches apart from inner, and twelve —
feet two inches apart from outer, edge to edge, and are unequal both ©
in area and depth. That towards the southern end, which formerly —

locked on the tenon of the leaning pillar, is an oval bowl, twenty-five i

inches in its greater by seventeen inches in its lesser diameter, and
seventeen inches deep; that towards the northern end, which locked —
on the tenon of the fallen pillar, is an oval bowl, nineteen inches in its

e

197

greater by thirteen in its lesser diameter, and ten inches deep,—being,
however, much abraded and reduced in depth on its outer edge towards
the northern extremity of the impost.

The cavities, about which [am more immediately concerned, on the
western or upper face, are nine feet six inches apart from inner, and
eleven feet seven inches apart from outer, edge to edge. They are of
irregular circular form. That towards the southern end of the impost
is a dish-shaped indentation, thirteen inches in its greater by twelve
inches in its lesser diameter, and 34 inches deep. That towards the
northern end is a dish-shaped indentation, twelve inches in its greater by
ten inches in its lesser diameter, and four inches deep. The major dia-
meters of these hollows he in the direction of the length of the im-
post. The lips of the upper cavities are worn into irregular indenta-
tions; and hollows of from eight to ten inches in breadth, and about two
inches in depth, extend from both to a distance ofmore than a foot. It
is not impossible that the same process of erosion may have obliterated
tool marks, if such existed within the cavities. The tool marks have
in fact disappeared from the surfaces both of the squared leaning
pular and of its supporting leaning obelisk, which is grooved in the di-
rection of its length, although plaimly visible on the tops of the fallen
pillars on the right, where they have been picked down into smooth
surfaces for the bedding of their imposts. Then it must be owned to
be extremely improbable that chance corrosions should have resulted in
the formation of cavities so nearly symmetrical with the opposite
mortises. . :

This impost and the fallen pillar cover about nine feet of the ex-
posed surface of what has been called the ‘altar stone.’’ Where its
ends appears from under these incumbent masses, they are reduced in
thickness by the breaking off of portions of the exposed surface; so
that, partly owing to this cause, and partly to the obstruction of the
ruins above, it is impossible, in the present situation of things, to say
whether indentations corresponding to the cavities in question existed
or exist on this stone also; but its dimensions and position are such,
that if an upper trilithon ever stood over the central impost, this stone
was probably the lintel of it; and if, further, the recognised derivation
of Stonehenge be correct, this probably was the object which gave
to the monument its patibulary designation of ‘‘ Stone Gallows.’ It is
just sixteen feet in length by three feet four inches broad, and it is
stated by Stukeley to be twenty inches thick. It has been surmised to
be an altar, and a table of astronomic observation ; and some reliance
has been placed on its position, as seen on the ground plans of the place,
being symmetrical with the surrounding objects: but its position, in fact,
is considerably off the line of theory, and is not symmetrical with any
line of construction, but is such as a heavy stone tumbled from above
the central trilithon might take in its fall, especially ifits fall were
- occasioned by the tilting over of upright supports; and in such case
R.1. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 2D

198

the height of the supports would probably be about the measure of the
distance to which their fall would cast the lintel resting on them. It
lies north-east by south-west, at a distance of about ten feet from the
foot of the central trilithon, and nearly but not quite parallel to its
inner face, as it originally stood.

Supposing such a superstructure to have existed, it may be asked
what bearing would that fact have on the question of the age or uses of
the monument? I shall venture no further in speculation than to ob-
serve, that the gateway erected over the gateway is a form of comme-
morative monument in the East, and that 1f anything in the construction
of Stonehenge looked to an Eastern model, 1t would probably turn the
scale which has lately hung in pretty even balance between a post-
Roman and a pre-Celtic date for its erection. A remarkable example of
the Eastern form of monument may be seen in ‘‘ Fergusson’s Picturesque
Illustrations of Indian Architecture,’”? where the details are given of a
structure of this kind, of three stories, forming part of the enceinte of a
sepulchral tope at Sanchee, near Billah, in Central India. The rest of
the enclosure is composed of stone pillars carrying a continuous impost,
and so much in the Stonehenge taste, that the writer (p. 22) queries,
‘< Are these the originals of the trilithons of Stonehenge?’ The same
species of monuments occur in variously modified forms throughout
Tartary and the remote East. Several examples may be seen under
the head ‘‘ Pailoos,”’ in the ‘“‘ Handbook of Architecture’ by the same
writer (pp. 137 et seq.).

A sculptured object, ten inches in length, observed by Dr. Tate in
1861, which attracted the attention of the British Association at their
Bath meeting in September, 1864, exists about midway between the
mortises on the under surface of the fallen impost. It is nearly sym-
metrical with the lines of the stone, six inches nearer the southern
mortise, and leans towards the south. It consists of a straight upright
line, broadly hollowed out, and with an appearance of antiquity, having
at top a curve similar to a reaping-hook, or a Roman letter 9 reversed,
and below a smaller curve of the same character turned the opposite
way. The curved portions of the sculpture appear to be sharply incised,
having an angular section and a modern aspect; but they also bear the
appearance of having been hacked and gone over recently with some tool,
so that there is a difficulty in saying that the whole may not be ancient.
It bears a generic resemblance to an object sculptured on one of the
stones of the sepulchral chambers of the Butte of Tumiac in the Mor-
bihan. The letters LV inscribed within the upper curve appear to be
modern.

The tendency of recent explorations is to throw back the period of
monuments of this class. The possibility that an examination of the
lower surface of the so-called “altar stone’? at Stonehenge might
disclose some constructive or other traces calculated to explain the lan-
guage of Henry, induces me to observe, that the pressure both of the

HOS

impost and fallen pillar could readily be removed by a simple mecha-
nical appliance without the slightest disturbance to the rest of the
fabric.

Annexed is a list of the works which have been examined with a
view to see how far the evidence of Henry of Huntingdon has been
regarded.

** Camden’s Britannia.’’ By Gibson.

“‘ The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain, Stonehenge, Re-
stored, by Inigo Jones:” 1655.

% Chorea Gigantum, or the most Famous Antiquity of Great Bri-
tain, Stonehenge, Restored to the Danes;’’ By Walter Charlton: 1663.

“« Stonehenge, a Temple, restored to the British Druids.” By Wil-
liam Stukeley, M.D.: 1740.

Keysler, ‘‘ Antiquitates Septentrionales.”’

King, ‘‘ Monumenta Antiqua Britannie :” 1799. Vol.i., pp. 188,
et seq.
« Ancient Universal History :” 1746. Vol. xviil., pp. 430 et seg.

** History of Wiltshire.’ By Sir Richard Colt Hoare, including
the Restorations of Waltire, Smith, and Account of Stonehenge by a
Gentleman of Salisbury.

“The Celtic Druids.” By Godfrey Higgins: 1827.

‘¢ Cyclops Christianus.”’? By the Hon. Algernon Herbert: 1849.

Articles ‘“‘ Stonehenge’ and “ Wiltshire?” in ‘* Encyclopeedia Bri-
tannica,”’ Edition of 1860.

Article ‘“‘ Stonehenge,” in ‘‘ Quarterly Review,” July, 1860.

“An Illustration of Stonehenge and Abury,”’ by H. Browne:
1864.

** Gentleman’s Magazine,’ December, 1864, Article ‘‘ Bath Meenas

ot the British Association.’’

Captain Meadows Taylor read a paper, ‘‘On a Group of Ancient
Cairns on Twizell Moor, in Northumberland.”

Professor W. K. Sullivan read a paper ‘‘On the Composition and
Mode of Formation of a peculiar Hydrated Mineral containing Zine, and
on the Formation of the Halloysites found associated with Zinc Ores.”

The Secretary announced a donation by Charles W. Levinge, Esq.,°
of Levington Park, of the remains of an ancient oak canoe, found in
Owel, Co. Westmeath.

The marked thanks of the Academy were voted to the donor. |

200

MONDAY, JANUARY 23, 1865.
Wittram Henry Harpiner, Esq., in the Chair.

Mr. Joun Locxz, A. B., by permission of the Academy, read the
following paper :— |

On tue ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

““ Wast thou born before Adam ?”—Jops, xv. 7 (Heath’s Translation).

CERTAIN writers assume a gradational progress from a natural condition
of savagery to the ascendant intellect of the nineteenth century,—refer-
ring the aboriginal human animal, with his imperfect appliances of
stone, horn, wood, and bone, to an indefinitely remote, because unchro-
nicled era; but neither history nor experience furnishes tangible or
reliable evidence in support of such an equably continuous develope-
ment, unbroken by retrogression and revolution. Declension from a
state of comparative gealiestten to barbarism seems, indeed, cumula-
tively rapid; but of the converse—spontaneous progression ab infra,
from savagery to civilization, apart from introduction of extern aid, or
special supplement of Christian culture—we have no authenticated ex-
ample. In fact, the theorist in archeology frames, however uncon-
sciously, his own introspective notion of time as measured by an arbitrary
sequence of developement in uniformly advancing series, and applies
this imaginary rule unconformably to the past,* as if time itself were
the generative cause, and not a mere passive condition of entities and
events. He cannot legitimately summon geology to his aid in pro-
pounding the pre-Adamite existence of man, until experts in that sci-
ence have welded geological to secular duration (if that shall ever be
accomplished), by modify: ing the stratagraphical classification, interca-
lating a new, or filling up more definitely the subdivisions of a quater-
nary “period ; ; and extended paleontological observations tend rather to
justify the induction, that the Pleistocene, containing associated relics
of man and fossil remains of extinct animals, must be advanced within
the Adamic epoch, than that the introduction of man upon our planet

* The chronometry of some geologists is liable to a similar error of uniformitari-
anism in their theories of formation and modification of strata—forgetting that cata-
strophes, rarely occurrent within modern experience, have alternated in past ages more
frequently and over wider areas with the imperceptible yet continuous processes of
change; great physical cataclysms suddenly overwhelming or altering the geographical
and geological aspect of vast portions of the terraqueous globe.

An apt illustration has been used to show the absurdity of estimating the duration of
the past upon the basis of uniformity of geological change—e. g.—An adult attained his
full height of six feet three inches by growth of one quarter inch during the last year,
therefore he must be 300 years old; a conclusion not a whit more absurd than some
numerical guesses at geological duration.

201

should recede into chaotic gloom, many millenniums beyond the genesis
of Mosaical chronology.

Again—Applying the observed numerical statistics of succession
and increase to the antiquity of man, the solution will be found to con-
firm the Mosaical period of 6000 years since the creation of Adam.
Exceed that period by even a small proportion of the hundreds of mil-
lenniums assigned by some to the past duration of our race, and then,
making amplest allowances for all the checks to fecundity, inevitable,
or fortuitous—war, famine, pestilence, death by physical accident, or
by natural decay, and all the other ills entailed by sin and violence—
nevertheless, man must have multiplied up to this date to such an
extent as to render collective existence impossible within his present
circumscribed domain, except the cumulative pressure of population
was stemmed by a universal cannibalism, or a wholesale exodus at
stated periods to some other planet was found practicable. To such
monstrous and absurd conclusions are those driven, who reject the evi-
dence of revelation, history, and experience, for the wild inventions of
an unchastened imagination.

The frequent occurrence of stone implements, unassociated with
organic human remains, is obviously accounted for by their superior
Specific gravity to the soils on which they were originally deposited,
and consequently their gradual yet persistent descent to the glacial or
fluviatile drifts; while the lighter organic remains mingled in decay
with the superficial mould. Aqueous infiltration, cuspidal form of the
descending fragments, pressure of superinduced material, and the reci-
procal effects of weight and adhesiveness, would all modify the rate of
subsidence according to the comparative conditions in each instance;
but down they go as surely as lead sinks in water; while the flying
dust above, and that curious vegetable chemistry which abstracts carbon
from the atmosphere, gradually increase the depth by continuous incre-
ments of surface covering. Had the late distinguished Chevalier
Bunsen given due consideration to this simple fact, when he exhumed
a few potsherds from the riparian silts of the Nile, it would have saved
him the unprofitable toil of elaborating a chronology rivalling in extra-
vagance the Egyptian myth of the pre-Adamite kings.

Again, where stone implements are found commingled with bones
of animals, that had been subsequently delocalized by migration induced
from climatic change—or of those extinct gigantic Pachyderms, of
which the sole surviving link is the Auroch of the marshy forests of
Lithuania* and the Caucasus—the state of organic preservation even of

* Tt is impossible from the delineations of Ptolemy and other early geographers to
define with any approach to accuracy the topography and extent, of ancient regions and
populations ; and we shall probably find in Cesar more reliable information respecting
northern Europe than in any previous writer. From him we learn that the Hercynia
Silva, a mingled wilderness of forest, mountain, and marsh, extending for sixty
days’ journey from the Upper Danube towards the Baltic, was then unexplored; and

202

the most decayed remains does not warrant a remoter origin than the
Noachic deluge, to which their miscellaneous grouping might be na-
turally referred. To adduce the most familiar example, the Cervus
megaceros must have been living in Ireland at a period long subsequent
to the Celtic and Iberian invasions, when the remnant of the subjugated
natives, driven into the forests and peat moors of the interior, utterly

perished with extinction of those animals that constituted their chief-

means of subsistence; for the skeletons are most commonly found im-

bedded in the lacustrine marl or calcareous tuff beneath the peat, and

often contain much organic material. A centesimal analysis of a

portion of one skeleton by Professor W. Stokes yielded 43°45 phos-.
phates, with fluates, and 42°87 animal matter; and Professor Apjohn, -

after a careful chemical examination, states that ‘‘ the cartilage and
gelatine had not even been perceptibly altered by time”’ (Hart on
‘Fossil Deer of Ireland,” p. 22-3). The Megaceros, therefore, must

necessarily have been a contemporary of man far on in the historic ages ; _
although from Herodotus to Cesar, and thence to Oppian, there is no’

specific mention of this most magnificent of the ancient giant Pachy-
derms; nor even by native annalists, save a solitary and dateless tra-

dition of the whole species having been swept away in one season by a

destructive murrain.

The present or human geological era does not display the phe--

nomena of new creations, but is distinctively characterized as well by
the gradual decay and disappearance of those species least ministering

to the necessities and uses of dominant man, as by the progressive melio-

ration and sporadic increase of all the animals specially adapted to his
service, comforts, and esthetic choice; and this law extends also to the

that from its remote recesses occasionally issued huge beasts of strange form and fierce
nature. The information is acknowledged to be only from hearsay, and bears the im-
press of exaggeration; but he describes at least one animal, which we can identify with
a surviving specimen, the Auroch— Bos urus—(Cesar, ‘‘ De Bell. Gall.,” 1. vi., 24, 25).
Now, assuming that the Hercynia Silva and similar unexplored regions stretched along

the banks of the Theiss (Tibiscus), and thence northward into Lithuania, we have at

this day an outlying remnant of those ancient Silvas affording shelter to at least one of
the huge brute proprietors that roamed through its shades 2000 years ago, and whose
descendants are now preserved by stringent forest laws in the primitive forest of Bia-
lowitz, in the province of Grodno, part of the ancient Lithuania.

In the museum at Pesth is deposited a large collection of skeletous of the ancient

monster mammals—Bovine, Cervine, Elephantine, &c.—in a sub-fossil or unpetrified —

state, collected chiefly from the alluvial basins of the Theiss and other tributaries of the
Danube. There are the bones of the Bos urus (still existing), and of the rein deer (now
delocalized by migration from a climate grown unsuitable to its habits), associated in
situ with the extinct Cervus megaceros, Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorinus, and
many others, including, as I have been informed, some which are usually referred to a
long anterior era; so that we may reasonably infer the coexistence of all in the com-
paratively modern age of the renowned hero and historian, Julius Cesar. See also al-

lusion to the Hercynius Saltus in the ‘ Germauia” of Tacitus, sect. xxx., and Latham’s —

“ Prolegomena,” p. 107. a

203

occasional displacement of indigenous Floras by introduced plants of a
more utilitarian character.* Indeed, exaltation of type seems the one
essential condition of continuity even with nature’s grandest pattern,
‘man; for, wherever improvement is arrested or undeveloped, extinction
impends; and barbaric tribes either die out ‘‘ without hand” in pre-
sence of their ascendant brethren, or the debasing characteristics are
effaced in course of a few generations by assimilating intermixture with
immigrant civilized communities.

According to the testimony of Pentateuchal history, happily as yet
unshaken by ‘“‘ the controversies of a counterfeit science,’ + civilization
was the primitive condition of man. The metallurgy of ‘‘ brass (bronze),
‘and iron,” was known even within the Adamic epoch,t and conse-
quently must have been transmitted to post-diluvian ages by Noah and
his family; for the ambitious attempt at centralization in the plain of
Shinar betokened cultivated acquaintance with the constructive arts;
nor does there appear any warrant of disproof that the primitive fabri-
cators of stone, bone, and horn implements were but outcast remnants
of that ‘one people,” which, under the constraint of Divine appoint-
ment, had ‘been scattered abroad upon the face of all the earth,’’§
whose moral degeneracy precipitated their physical deterioration, until,
becoming feeble and timid, they were pitilessly driven by subsequent
immigrations of more powerful tribes into rocky deserts and forest
fastnesses, without the means and appliances of civilized life. Job,||
fifteen hundred years before Christ, gives a graphic description of a
certain Pariah race4 who had probably been ejected from their prime-
val seats by the warlike princes of the Ishmaelites and the fierce and
restless dukes of Edom; and it is curious to observe how accurately
this passage in the book of Job accords with the account of the Troglo-
dytes a thousand years after his time by Herodotus.**

Certainly the 730 years intervening between Babel and the Patri-

_ * See an interesting account of displacement of certain indigenous plants of New
Zealand by intrusion of European grasses and weeds, in a letter to Dr. Hooker from an
accomplished naturalist, W. T. Locke Travers, F.L.8., &c., in “ Natural History
Review ” for October, 1864.

+ 1 Tim. iv. 16 —see original.

- +Gen.-iv. 22.—The earliest notice after the Deluge of the mining and smelting of
metalsis found in Job, xxviii. 1-11, describing, in sublime poetic language, hydraulic and
other operations of mining on the grandest scale,

§ Gen. xi. 8. || Job. xxx. 1-11. :

4 The Sukkiim (op, 2 Chron. xii. 3), who swelled the invading host of Shishak,
is rendered in the Septuagint, rowyodUrat (? TewyAodbrar), and in the Vulgate, Trog-
lodytze—manifestly an incorrect rendering in both versions. ‘The Hebrew word signifies
“dwellers in tents, or booths” (not caves), and probably designated a warlike nomadic
tribe of Ishmaelite descent. The abject and feeble Pariahs would have been an incum-
brance, rather than an efficient auxiliary to an army numbering 12,000 chariots and
60,000 horsemen, besides footmen ‘ without number.”

_ ** Melpomene, sect. 184.

204

archal era of Job afforded ample interval for the rise and decadence of
numerous peoples, whose existence the Mosaical history ofthe chosen
nation notices only by the brief record of a name, and who had been
swept away by the devastating sword of successive revolutions, as di-
versified and destructive in their effects as those physical changes pro-
duced by the fiery deluge that overwhelmed the cities of the plain.
Migration on a world-wide scale prevailed even during the Noachic age.
Thus Cush, the grandson of Noah, is described by Sanchoniathon* as a
colonizing monarch, traversing the earth; and these waves of popula-
tion surging from the Mesopotamian plains, and again in subsequent
ages refluent upon their former tracks, would inevitably tend to create
certain residual and stagnant eddies (as it were) of the primitive settlers
in all the intermediate regions.

The unhewn megalithic structures,} scattered over all lands from
farthest East to remotest West, furnish a ‘‘ testimony of the rocks,”’
more enduring and significant than any extant historic record, of the in-
vading as contradistinguished from the primitive colonizing migrations.
The Menhir of Brittany and the Irish Gallaun are but Gentile analogues
of the pillar set up by the Patriarch at Bethel.t{ Now, these Oriental
outswarmings succeeded each other at irregular intervals, and over un-
equal extents, until the commencement of authentic Greek and Roman
annals, when Scythian, Scandinavian, and other Northern hordes rolled
back the tide, combining in their turn to produce similar debasing effects

* Eusebius, 1. i.

+ In the Pentateuchal histories these unhewn structures, monolith, trilith, or of more
complicated form, are described as set up for various purposes—altars, sepulchres, boun-
daries, testimonials of triumphs, covenants, deliverances ; but when the purity of Patri-
archal Theism was polluted by idolatrous admixture, so that the symbol itself came to be
worshipped, injunctions were issued under the Law and the Prophets to destroy utterly
all such monuments. The command, however, was but partially obeyed until the return
from the Captivity, from which period to the close of the brief Asmonean dynasty the
iconoclastic ardour of the chosen race left scarcely a vestige of the numerous megaliths
that once marked with their uncouth figures all the Syrian hills and plains. In other
regions, especially of Northern Europe, where the earlier Oriental colonists had erected
Cyclopean structures after their ancestral fashion, no such styloclastic zeal was evinced ;
and even upon the introduction of Christian missions these rude memorials were not only
preserved intact, but it was sought to evangelize the stolid and superstitious idolaters by
grafting pious figmerts on what seems to have been the earliest and most debased phase

of a material idolatry ; for the primitive graven image is not described in the Bible as es- —

sentially distinct from the stone pillar (see Deuteronomy, vii. 5, and marginal references,
in the original).—In the Celtic languages the word for idol, which is usually applied
to the rude monolith, is exactly like the Hebrew word both in etymology and sound. For

example:—The Irish word lornai§ (Eevau), and the Hebrew, 71" (Eevan), both x

signify tdolum, vanitas, nihilum ; and thus St. Paul’s definition receives an expressive
confirmation (1 Cor. viii. 4) where he terms an idol ojd0éy éy kéopw— nothing in the
world’’—a vain semblance of that which has no existence. See some curious notices on
this subject by the writer in “ Belfast Archzological Journal” for October, 1853, p. 303;
and ‘‘ Notes and Queries,’’ 1853, p.413; and second series, No. 62, p.194; together
with the Articles referred to therein.

t Gen. xxviii. 18.

:
:
:

205

among those settled populations, that had in former ages migrated from
the Kast. Indeed, civilization and savagery appear in contemporary con-
trast in every era and in every clime, and the phenomenon of a decivi-
lized people, dwarfed alike in mind and body, is not the peculiar cha-
racteristic of any one country or dispensation. In Europe, although the
Pariah tribes have disappeared, except perhaps in the instance of the
Cagots of the Pyrenees, yet their former existence in great numbers is
clearly inferred from the vast quantities of stone implements and other
rude remains strewn upon the diluvial gravels, or exhumed from ancient
shell heaps, pile dwellings; and ossiferous caves, or swallow holes; and
elsewhere throughout the world, especially among the low castes and
hill tribes of India, in the central forests and sundry remote islands of
the Pacific Archipelagos, in the Fuegian peninsula, and in the interior
of Africa, where Strabo* found the descendants of those cave dwellers
described by Herodotus 500 years before, remnants of degenerate and
outcast. races survive to this day; and traditional myths of their
archaic derival and primitive social condition are extant in the litera-
ture of the more powerful immigrant tribes, who drove them from their
aboriginal seats into forests and solitary places; but among the lapsed
races themselves not a trace of history or tradition has been discovered,
on which to base even a proximate conjecture of their origin in circum-
stance or in time.

In Australia at the present period we observe on a continental scale
the contemporaneity of an intruded civilization with the phenomena of
what archeologists term the Stone era; nevertheless the latter possesses
no chronological significance whatever; and scientific theorists may well
pause and ponder, ere they construct an imaginary series of gradational
progress from an unchronicled antiquity, when they contemplate the
myriads of these Papuan savages, with flint weapons and prognathous
aspect, in contact with an unparticipated civilization, uncheered by the
presence and unimpressed by the example (save as to debasing influences)
of the superior race ; and these contrasted conditions, too, exhibited in ‘as-
sociation with an indigenous Flora and Fauna, characteristic of an era
indefinitely withdrawn in the succession of geologic time. In absence
or sufficient proof of extreme antiquity, non-hustorie or unhistorve would
be a more appropriate term for the Cave-men and Lake-dwellers than pre-
historic, in reference to the question of chronology.—Mystery ever at-
taches to the unknown; and where the darkness of oblivion rests upon
the pristine homes and habits of a vanished people, imagination busily
fashions into long periods the unrecorded past. It may also be observed,
that this negation of the historic elements does not necessarz/y imply a
state of savagery. We infer the civilization of the Aztecs and Etruscans
respectively from elaborate sculptures and mortuary memorials, or domes-
tic utensils of elegant design; yet these, like the fossil organisms of the
rocks, supply no key of historic interpretation, and the inscriptions are

*1, i. and xvi.
R. I, Ae PROC.—VOL. IX. 2:

206

in a language utterly lost; so that no intelligible record survives of
the annals, origin, or social condition of these highly cultured peoples,

nor yet of their more famous predecessors, if not indeed founders, the
Phoenicians, who for more than 1500 years after the dispersion from
Shinar unceasingly extended their arts, religion, and literature, to all
shores accessible by their enterprise and commerce. The testimony of
a Roman historian may here be aptly introduced in illustration. The
populous state of the Veientes, renowned and powerful long before
Rome was founded (‘‘Civitas antiquissima Italie atque ditissima,”
Eutropius, 1. 1., s. 19), had been utterly destroyed by the arms of the ad-
vancing Republic, 399 B. C.; and Florus, only 500 years after, in the
reign of Trajan, thus apostrophizes the Veientes—‘“‘ Fuisse quis
meminit ? Que reliquise, quodve vestigium? Laborat annalium fides,
ut Veios fulsse credamus.’”’* Within the short space of five centuries,
and in a comparatively civilized era, oblivion had swept away every
vestige of this renowned Etruscan people, so that even their former ex-
istence seemed dubious, and their magnificent cities, like Veli, as if they
never had been.

As for the guesses of those sciolists, who, regardless of the Divine
afflatus which constituted man ‘“ a living soul” (Gen. i. 7), if not like-
wise of his distinctive organic structure, have invented the priscan, alias
pithecovd man, for the purpose of demonstrating the pre-Adamite anti-
quity of the human family—pronouncing a solitary exceptional instance
of an abnormal skull (it may be idiot or cretin) to be the type of a species,
and thus rounding off the transmutation series from Mollusc to Man at
the superior end—now, in Australia, if anywhere, the missing link
might be confidently sought; for there the aboriginal Papuan presents
the most debased form of the human organism; yet it so happens that
the Simiz are not found, either indigenous or fossil, the Fauna of that
region indicating a geologic era many thousand years anterior to their
appearance on our globe. It 1s difficult to believe that Anthropologists
are really in earnest in propounding this strange theory ; however, there
is no accounting for tastes, and the pride of ancient ancestry sometimes
assumes an amusing perversion. The Simian advocates may easily test
the conditions of their fantastic thesis by organizing an expedition to
the banks of the Gaboon,

‘‘ Where wild in woods the noble savage runs,”

not for the purpose of skinning their hirsute cousins, like Hanno, or du
Chaillu, but of introducing social reform, and educating them up to their
own standard of rational accountability. Doubtless the civilized Orsons of
Gorilla Land would hereafter move respectably on all-fours in anthro-
pomorphological circles, and in due time be enabled to enlighten their
scientific patrons and the public on the genealogy and habits of pithe-
covd or priscan man.

Meine eho.

207

The Museum at Bern presents probably the most complete collection
of primitive rude implements of human manufacture, discovered in the
ancient lake dwellings of Switzerland (in Ireland termed Crannogues),
where these had been exposed by an unusual subsidence of the water
levels; the cushion of still water beneath the frozen or wind-moved
surface having preserved from oxygenating waste and atmospheric wear
and tear numerous relics of what are assumed to be successive stages of
well-defined progress from an aboriginal savagery to civilization; al-
though, indeed, these may have existed contemporaneously under
diversified conditions of isolation and physical privation. However,
admitting the succession of epochs, they may be consistently included
within the historic period of Helvetia, as known to the Greeks and
Romans, from the pre-Christian irruptions of the Teutones and Cimbri
to the Gothic and Frankish invasions of the Gallo-Roman era. During
this stormy interval of 700 years the central highlands of southern
Europe, situate as it were in the very axis of revolutionary transit,
sustained the convergent pressure of warlike and antagonistic races.
The Romans unceasingly pressed upward from the south along the
Alpine streams and passes; while barbarian hordes successively, or in
confederate bands, overflowed from north, west, and east, tracing their
devious paths by the great fluvial highways of those forest-covered re-
gions, along the courses of the Rhine, and Upper Rhone, and through
the valley of the Inn from the vast and populous basin of the Danube.
Thus the Helvetians (both aboriginal or descended from the primitive
replenishers* of that region, as well as those of mixed colonial blood of
Ktruria and Rome) were swept by every recurrent wave of invasion
from their cities and settlements in the fertile intra-Alpine vales into
the inhospitable mountain districts; again driving before them with
unsympathizing rigour, into fastnesses still more remote, the Pagani,
or less civilized populations on the outskirts of their respective terri-
tories. Mercy for the feeble is the attribute only of a long-sustained
moral and intellectual culture; and these despised outcasts, hated for
their very harmlessness, and rifled of their weapons and all appliances
of industrial acquisition or improvement, hid themselves in solitary
eaves of the rocks, or constructed in unexplored localities rude insular
dwellings as a frail nocturnal protection against wild beasts, with whom
they waged a dubious strife in the struggle for existence. Fear on their
part, with aversion on the part of their enemies, would tend to con-
tinue, as well as aggravate, this compulsory exclusion from all advan-
tages of civilization ; thus stereotyping, as it were, the superinduced
savage state, by closing every avenue to functional developement of
mind and body. No diligent student of human nature will deny that
a persecuted and inopt race,t under incessant endurance of hunger,

a7 Gen: X.15.

+ Distinction must be made between these timid and proscribed Pariahs and the
early colonists of high latitudes, whose very climatal disadvantages kept them apart
alike from the improvements and obstructions of a dominant civilization. There is every

208

cold, and terror, must even within the lapse of three or four genera-
tions become almost hopelessly deteriorated both intellectually and phy-
sically, losing, together with the intenser vitality of soul, all memory
of the history, arts, and social condition of their progenitors—no desire,
save the satisfaction of instant animal wants—no audit of time beyond
the changing season, or the passing day ; for time must be a pure negation
to those who are incapable of applying thereto the measure of ideas
and incidents in intellectual progression.—Alike unheeded as unchro-
nicled by their oppressors, thus existed and passed away, thus now sur-

vive, yet decaying before our eyes, the degenerated tribes of the
human species.*

It is submitted that, conceding their due value and significance to
the discoveries of geologists and archeologists, the phenomena adduced
up to this date do not afford adequate evidence in demonstration of the
universality of the (so-termed) Stone era, or that it preceded civili-
zation upon our globe; and both sacred and secular history accord with
human experience in authenticating, first, the Mosaical limit of 6000
years since the creation of man; secondly, that civilization, not savagery,
was his primitive condition; and, thirdly, his utter incapabilityof self-
renovation from moral and physical decadence, apart from extern aid
and instruction.

From the days of Adam even to the ascendant enlightenment of
this nineteenth century of the Christian dispensation, civilization and

probability that a thousand years before the Christian era, and therefore strictly within
the domain of secular history, icebergs not only stranded on the coasts of the Baltic and
North Seas, but were launched even from glaciers formed in the maritime glens of Wales
and Scotland; and that in the littoral regions of the British Isles, Denmark, and
Northern Germany, dwelt many scattered tribes, of whom we have obscure intimations in
the earlier semi-fabulous annals, as being clad in the skins of animals slain by their rude
primitive weapons, and dwelling amid ice and snow, like the Esquimaux of our age.
This view receives accidental confirmation from the bones of the Al/ca impennis (great
Auk) havins been lately discovered in shell mounds in Caithness, which would imply
a sub-arctic climate in Scotland during the so-termed Stone era, when feeble communi-
ties of men dwelt in isolated localities along the coasts, and giant animals (now extinct)
roamed undisturbed through the marshy plains and forests of the imterior.

That climatic improvement may be effected to a considerable extent, indepen-
dently of physical revolutions, by the slow yet persistent agency of man, in felling fo-
rests, draiuing marine and lacustrine marshes, and confining rivers within their courses,
is exemplified (to quote but one instance) in the elevated mean temperature of the New
England states within the two centuries and half since the ‘‘ Mayflower” touched the
American shore: how much more, then, must the climate of Northern Europe have been
improved under similar agencies for well nigh twenty centuries ! ©

* The ‘* Hobart Town Mercury” of 26th October, 1864, states that the only sur-
vivors of the Tasmanian aborigines then in existence were one man and three women;
‘¢ the latter not being of such an age or appearance as to justify the expectation of any
future addition to their number ;” so that the whole race may now be deemed extinct
within the brief period of sixty years, notwithstanding humane exertions to preserve the
remnant. See papers on “ Discoveries in Australia,” in the “ Dublin Quarterly Jour-
nal of Science,” for 1861, ’62, and ’63.

209

savagery have dwelt together upon the earth, associated, although in
contrasted aspects; and their continuance, without coalescing, awaits
the solution of the providential, not geologic future.

MONDAY, FEBRUARY 13, 1865.
The Very Rey. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The Rey. Charles P. Meehan ; William Mansell Hennessy, Esq. ; and
T. Henderson Babington, M. D.; were elected members of the Academy.

W.H. Harpinez, M.R.I. A., communicated the following paper: —

On cERTAIN Manuscripr TRANSLATIONS OF A PorTION OF VIRGIL’S
AXNEID, COMPILED BEFORE 1690.

I orrer on behalf of my friend, Francis Cumming, Esq., of Woodstock,
in the county of Galway, J. P.—to be placed in the Library of the Aca-
demy as a deposit in trust for him and his heirs male—three manuscript
volumes, containing metrical translations into English of the 8rd, 4th,
6th, 8th, 9th, 11th, and 12th Aineids of Virgil.

Upon the first sight of these volumes on “the drawing room table of
my friend, their venerable aspect and foreign material and manufacture
induced me to open and examine them ; and I soon became much inte-
rested in what appears to me to be an eminently literal rendering into
English verse of the well-remembered classical companions of bygone
days; but discovering in the ninth and eleventh A‘neids marginal anno-
tations acknowledging Dryden to have been the contributor of the Epi-
sode of Nisus* and Kuryalus, and John Stafford of that of Camilla{--and,
further, finding that the third Aineid is certified to have been finished
at St. Germains on September 18, 1692, and that the fourth Atneid
was rewritten three several *imes successively by persons bearing the
surnames of Bryerly, Bysh, and Dalton, and, after having undergone 486
corrections, was then submitted to the judgment of Dryden, combined
interest and curiosity influenced me to the attempt of discovering the
author of these volumes.

After having taken much pains in this research, and unravelled the
mystery, I found that the same voyage of literary discovery had been
successfully accomplished by Mr. Lentaigne, who contributed a paper
on the subject, published in the Academy’s ‘‘ Proceedings,” { under the
date of May 13, 1839. .

That communication supplies all that is known of the history of the
manuscript volumes, and notices the particulars above described; also
the more important one, that an ineffectual attempt had been made to

* 9th JEneid, lines 283 to 667. + 11th Aneid, lines 721 to 925.
t Vol. i, p. 309.

210

obliterate the name ‘‘ Lauderdale” from a fiy leaf of one of the volumes;
and the writer further states that he compared the translations with
_ the corresponding Aineids of Lauderdale’s Virgil, published in 1709,
and expresses an opinion that these manuscripts are the originals from
which that publication, pro tanto, originated. In this criticism I agree
with Mr. Lentaigne; but I disagree with that gentleman in his adop-
tion of an early charge of plagiarism from these manuscripts made
against Dryden, and consider that Dryden’s statement, introduced in the
preface to the first edition of his incomparable work, published in 1697,
namely, ‘“‘that he was permitted by Lord Lauderdale to make use of
his Lordship’s translation, and that he consulted it as often as he
doubted of Virgil’s sense,” may be received as unquestionable truth ;
indeed, the style of these contemporaneous authors is so different, that
neither could with any chance of success adopt the metrical translation
of the other as his own. Lauderdale is a close translator, and in that
all his merit lies; Dryden is emphatically a poet—eraceful, smooth, and
aspiring—qualities rarely present in the composition contained in the
manuscript volumes now presented to the Academy. These volumes are
fragments of an entire work, compiled on the Continent of Europe, and
the circumstance is quite appropriate to the history of Richard Karl of
Lauderdale, who was a Jacobite, accompanied King James in his expatri-
ation, was at his court at St. Germains im the year 1692, and died at
Paris in 1695. There can be no reasonable doubt that the manuscript
volumes are a portion of his Lordship’s work, or that that work was
completed before Dryden’s more classical production was even thought
of.

Mr. P. W. Joyce read a paper “On the Changes and Corruptions in
Trish Topographical Names.” -

Mr. W. G. Brooxr, by permission of the Academy, read the follow-
ing paper :—

Nores on an Otp IrisH CANnoz round 1n Loven Owet, Co. WESTMEATH.

Iw the close of last year an old Irish Boat was safely lodged within the
walls of this house. Beyond question the most fitting depository for
the largest and noblest of these relics of bygone years ever found in
this country is the Royal Irish Academy. Actuated by this view, Mr.
Charles Levinge, of Mullingar, the fortunate finder of the Boat,
presented it to this institution, and it now les in the rooms be-
neath us. It is this old Boat which I desire this evening to introduce
to your notice, and briefly to describe. My claim to stand here rests,
I regret to say, not on my privilege as an Academician, but merely on
the fact that, having visited this Boat shortly after it had been raised
from its watery bed, I assisted Mr. L. in having it safely transported to |
Dublin, and brought it under the notice of Sir William Wilde, one to
whose valuable labours, and helpful and ready sympathy on the sub-
ject of Antiquities, we are all deeply indebted.

211

The Boat with which I have to do was found in Lough Owel,
in the county of Westmeath. In its immediate neighbourhood is a
crannogue not yet explored, and hard by two other smaller canoes not
yet raised, and which, if the season be favourable, will be taken up in
the course of the summer. After the drought of last year the depth of
the lake diminished by several feet ; and Mr. Levinge, while seated in his
row boat, on looking through the water, was attracted by a long piece
of black wood, which, while its main portion reposed on the peat, reared
a curved beak somewhat proudly from its bed. Further attention con-
firmed his first impression, that it was an old Boat of enormous length,
its bottom covered with a deposit of lake mud several inches in thick-
ness, and lying at that time in water somewhat less than a fathom
deep. It required some skill to float so large and so valuable a prize—
its sides worn to a knife edge, and ground down by the washing of the
tides; its frame pierced through and through with many rows of holes;
its stern board knocked out, and its oaken sides weighed down with the
saturation of the water of centuries—altogether a boat requiring care,
and sympathy, and tender handling.

I shall now briefly describe the canoe, giving its dimensions.
As [have already said, it is a single-piece canoe, carved, and hollowed,
and fashioned out of a noble oak of the primeval forest. Itis forty-two
feet long, and three feet five in breadth. Hitherto the boats which
have been found in Ireland have not exceeded twenty-eight feet in
length; and Sir Charles Lyell mentions a famous Swiss canoe of fifty
feet long, and three and a half wide, as the largest which has ever been
picked up on the Continent. Had we this Irish canoe as she was origi-
nally designed and launched —unworn by the erosion of the water, and
unsmitten by the wasting hand of time—it would probably measure some
forty-four feet in length, and represent a width of four and a half’ feet.
But, be that asit may, this magnificent Boat may now be pointed out as
the Irish analogue of her great Swiss sister, mentioned by Sir C. Lyell.
Lhe sides are imperfect; but one has sufiered by the wearing action
of the water more than the other. That its almost entire disappearance
is due to this cause is shown by the thinning down of the total thick-
ness of the bottom of the Boat to a sharp edge along the presenc ruined
gunwales. The comparative preservation of one side is easily accounted
for by the fact that it was protected on its exterior face by two rough
hewn oak planks, which lay close up against it. The construction of
the bow and stern differs most materially, but is similar in principle to
a large boat already in possession of your Academy.

If strength were aimed at, it might have been expected that the
principle of the curved bow of the boat would have been carried out in its
after end. This, however, is not so; for, while the entry is spoon-shaped,
the stern, such as it is, represents a section of a boat cut in two amid-
ships. But we are not left in the dark as to the peculiarity of the
stern; for a hollow groove at the very end passes from one side to the
other, into which the stern board fitted. This, unless they had some

212

peculiar method of securing and caulking, must have been the weakest
part of the Boat. The groove is remarkably well preserved, but of
shallow depth. The width, two anda half inches, gives us the thickness
of the stern board. In place of being flat-bottomed and straight-sided,
as are the large boats hitherto found, the section of the canoe exhibits as
delicate and fine a curved form as any frigate of Sir Wiliam Symonds, or
blockade runner of Mr. John Laird’s. Preserved from erosion by the lake
mud deposit, the bottom has a solid thickness of five and a half inches,
and probably it never was thicker than half a foot; but this is enormous, —
greatly adds to its weight, and enlarges our view as to its pristine
proportions and strength. ‘The lines are fine, and of arrowy straightness,
without a trace of sinuosity or distortion, and the timber for the most
part is in robust and admirable condition. In forming an estimate of
the size of the tree out of which this eanoe was fashioned, I may here
allude to the fact, that it exhibits no sign of sap wood; and I am in-
formed by those who have examined into this point, that its dia-
meter, as it stood erect in the forest, must have been eight or nine feet.
The mode employed in felling it was probably by fire, assisted by such
chopping tools as the country people could command.

Notwithstanding the wonder of its size, I now come to the most
interesting topic In connexion with my subject; and here I am happy
to have the assistance of a drawing behind me, to which I beg your
attention, and which represents the inner face of the Boat. Lrefer to the
number of holes which are drilled through the sides or bottom of the
canoe, carefully drilled, and in a most workmanhke manner, suggesting
sharp tools, and skill in the handling of them. The total number of holes,
or parts of holes, which we find is forty-eight. The feature of holes in
these old boats is not unusual, but this extraordinary number is most
unusual. On looking over the boats down stairs this morning, I found in
one boat six small holes, three on each side, and in one of them a plug,
which appears to have been broken off violently. In another boat three
holes, also very small, not large enough to thrust in a towel pin of
modern make, and arranged along the centre of the bottom of the boat.
But here we have forty-eight holes, twenty-four along the bottom, and
twenty-four lateral ones, of seven of which latter the waste of the
sides has left but imperfect sections.

The first thought which is suggested by these holes is the apparent
regularity with which they are arranged, and the careful marks of
design which their relative positions emphatically proclaim. An in-
spection of the drawing will show that along ‘the bottom, at stated
and constant intervals, we have twenty-four holes in two longitudinal
and parallel lines, or twelve in each long row. Viewed transversely,
or across the boat, we have twelve pairs of holes, each pair lying in the
same right line, and suggesting close connexion in their aim and ob-
ject. They are pierced right through the unvarying thickness of
the bottom, which I have already stated to be five and a half inches.
In some of them were found plugs of pine inserted from the interior,

213

as is evident from the lower ends of them being chipped with a fine
tool. These plugs were in avery soft and ruinous condition with
water saturation.

I now come to the lateral holes, of which there were twelve on each
side. A glance at the drawing will show the same evident care ob-
served in their arrangement, and such a connexion between them and
the ones of which I have already spoken, that any theory attempting
to account for them independently would seem to be untenable. For, con-
sider the position of these lateral holes— first of those on the side of the
boat which is most worn away. They le somewhat roughly, but
for the most part accurately enough, in a line with their respective
neighbour holes in the bottom of the boat. ‘This seems at once to
establish a connexion between them. There remain the lateral holes
on the other, or well preserved side; and here we meet an element of
irregularity—distinguished, however, by a rude method of its own,
which we must not overlook. Commencing, then, at the bow—the
first hole on this side is slightly in advance towards the bow of an ima-
ginary line drawn across the centre of the three holes opposite to it.
Walking aft, the next hole is somewhat on the other, or stern, side of
such a line. As we proceed further on, we find these lateral holes widen-
ing out in each case from such imaginary lines, but seemingly obeying
the law of a rude gradation, until the last hole on this side is found
outside the groove, and consequently behind the stern board. I have
dwelt with some particularity on these holes; for they seem to involve
a curious puzzle, which has not yet been cleared up. I have only fur-
ther on this point to draw your attention to the propinquity of two of
the bottom holes to the tail board, and to state that the lateral holes
probably lay below the line of flotation, and that they are drilled down-
wards from tne interior at a considerable angle. If the holes are to be
regarded as of equal antiquity with the shell, there is no theory so far
as I know which accounts for them satisfactorily, and but one which
rests on a sufficient amount of probability. If any gentleman present can
explain them, I can assure him that I know numbers of people whose cu-
riosity has been excited, and who will be glad to learn his views. It ap-
pears, however, to me, that this magnificent piece of wood, once a boat,
was afterwards employed for other purposes, to fulfil which it became ne-
cessary to perforate her in the manner in which we now possess her.
Some light may be thrown upon the subject when the other two canoes
shall have been raised. In the absence of Captain Burton, Mr. Clib-
born has asked me to mention the view which he threw out on looking
at this boat last week. It is, as I understand, common among cer-
tain tribes in Africa to construct their boats of three pieces; one is for
the bottom, theother two for the sides. Now, the sides overlap the

_ central piece, and are bolted to it with wooden rivets. It occurred,
_ therefore, to Captain Burton that this canoe is but the central fragment

of the old boat, and that the lateral holes received the bolts whereby
Bat. Ae PRCC.——VOL, IX, 2F

214

the sides were fastened on. The period of the construction of this
canoe I am inclined to fix in the age of Bronze. In Denmark, the
Bronze age is always associated with the oak; and the lake dwellings
in the central and western portions of Switzerland belong exclusively

to that period. Though much fine work has appeared from flint imple--

ments, and though lake dwellings of the Stone period are frequent in
eastern Switzerland, yet the size and finish of this relic point to a
period of sharp cutting tools. The old bronze, rivalling in temper and
strength our modern steel, would naturally furnish weapons of the re-
quisite toughness to fashion the arrowy and curved sides of this admi-
rable specimen of early navalarchitecture. But, if the boat is later in
date than the Stone, it would seem to be earlier than the Ironage. In
this age saws appear for the first time. Careful search has never
brought to ight a bronze saw. Now, if you have a saw, you do not
hollow a boat forty-two feet long out of a single tree; it saves time
and labour to build it of planks. Robinson Crusoe, who had only an
axe, did not dream of doing so; with infinite trouble he chopped the
stems of trees into planks to construct his boat. Thus, I should be in-
clined to say that this boat belongs to the close of the Bronze period,
when bronze tools had arrived at some perfection; or to the early dawn
of the Iron age, before saws were known or in general use.

A very few words as to the method used to raise the boat from the
bed of the lake, and to bring it to shore. The credit of this difficult
work is due to Mr. Adams Reilly—a gentleman who I am happy to
say is present this evening; and if I fall into error, he can correct me.
When found im situ, the canoe was resting on the peat. Fortunately,
owing to the droughts of last summer, the lake had shoaled to five feet
of water. The first step taken was to lighten it of the deposit of lake
mud. In this mud were found some bones (not human); and an old copper
ring, which may have come off some angler’s rod. Piles were then
driven down into the lake on either side of the bow of the boat; across
their heads was placed a timber platform, which bore a windlass fitted
with astout chain. This chain was first passed under the bows, and hove
on; and immediately, the hinder part still remaining firm, the bows
were brought to the level of the water. The chain was then passed
astern, and fastened to two of the holes amidships. In front of the
bows was placed a light wooden raft, or cradle, constructed for the
purpose of keeping the boat’s head up. It was now drawn forward by the
windlass, so that the head lay supported on the raft; and the stern,
which was immediately afterwards raised, was brought beneath the
platform. With her after portion buoyed up by two boats, she was
taken in tow by.a third boat, manned by Westmeath boys, and con-
veyed a mile and a half down the lake, when for the first time —for
how many years shall I say ?—-she touched the shore. With the aid of
horses, wheels, rollers, and the usual assembly of rustics who attend on
such ceremonies, it was conveyed upto Levington Park in the beginning
of last September. An object of considerable interest and attraction to

215

numbers, it remained there till the end of the year, when Mr. L. pre-
sented it as a new year’s gift to the Royal Irish Academy.

The following donations were received :—

An antique silver finger ring; presented by C. Davis, M. D.
Two Irish MSS., containing a Life of St. Patrick, anda Collection of
Irish Poems; presented by John A Nicholson, M.R.I. A.

MONDAY, FEBRUARY 27, 1865.
The Very Rey. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

No papers were read.

THURSDAY, MARCH 16, 1865.—Sratep Meetine.
The Very Rey. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.
The Sucretary of the Council read the followmg—

Report oF THE CoUNCIL.

Since the date of our last Report one paper has been printed in the
“Transactions,” and issued to the Members of the Aeademy—namely,
that by the Rey. Dr. Reeves ‘‘ On the Culdees.”’ Three are in the hands of
the printers, viz.—Captain Meadows Taylor’s ‘‘ On the Cromlechs and
other Antiquarian Remains in the Dekhan;’’ Rev. Professor Haugh-
ton’s, ‘‘ On the Semidiurnal Tides at Cahirciveen ;” the President’s,
“On an Undescribed Class of Monuments ;” and Mr. W. H. Hardinge’s
‘Concluding Memoir on MS. Mapped and other Townland Surveys in
Treland.”’

It was stated in the Report of last year that the printing of Captain
Meadows Taylor’s paper had been completed, and that its issue was
prevented only by a delay in the execution of the Illustrations. The
Council regret that this obstacle still prevents its publication. The
same difficulty has also retarded the issue of the ‘‘ Proceedings’ of the
Academy. Since 16th March, 1864, one part has appeared, complet-
ing Vol. vili., and containing an Index to that volume. A considera-
ble number of additional papers are now printed; but from the impos-
sibility of obtaining the necessary woodcuts from the engraver, the
issue of the first part of Vol. ix.is delayed. The attention of the Coun-
ceil has been directed to these embarrassing circumstances; and they
have at present under consideration the best means of securing a greater
_ promptitude in the execution of the illustrations, and, what will be the
immediate consequence, a speedier publication of the ‘‘ Proceedings.”

Many interesting and important communications have been brought

216

before the Academy during the past year. We have had papers on
‘Scientific subjects from Sir Wm. R. Hamilton, the Rev. Professor Haugh-
ton, Professor Downing, Professor Sullivan, Mr. David Moore, Mr. George
C. Garnett, Mr. George C. Knox, Mr. Alexander Macalister, Major
Paul W. Philips, R.A., Lieut. J. Haughton, R.A., and Mr. John.
Locke; in Polite Literature, from the Rev. Dr. Reeves, Mr. W. H.
Hardinge, Lord De Ros, Mr. G. C. Garnett, Mr. Samuel Ferguson, Mr.
D. H. Kelly, Mr. P. W. Joyce, and Mr. Herbert Hore; in Antiquities,
from the President, from Captain Meadows Taylor, Sir Wm. R. Wilde,
Mr. 8. Ferguson, Mr. George H. Kinahan, Mr. Du Noyer, Mr. E. A.
Conwell, Mr. Henry O’Hara, and Mr. W. G. Brooke.

During the past year the Library has received donations to the ex-
tent of 203 volumes, chiefly contributed by bodies with which the
Academy exchanges publications. We are indebted to the liberality
of the French Government for a series of the valuable historical publi-
cations issued under the direction of the Minister of Public Instruction.
A further portion of the arrears of binding has been executed; and to
this department has been allocated a sum of £29, bequeathed to the
Academy by the late Mr. Beriah Botfield.

The Collection of Antiquities has been increased during the past
year by eighty-nine donations, sixty-one articles obtained by purchase,
and seventy-six procured under the Treasure-trove regulations, amongst
which are several gold ornaments of considerable value. Mr. Marcus
Keane has deposited in the Museum a valuable relic from the county
of Clare, called the ‘ Clog Or.”

Nearly all the cases in the Museum being now full, it has been sug-
gested that more accommodation, as well as better light, would be ob-
tained by removing the Collection of Antiquities to the spacious and
handsome room, available for the purpose, on the second story of the
Academy’s house.

In April, 1864, the House of Commons appointed a Select Com-
mittee to inquire into the condition of the Scientific Institutions of
Dublin which are assisted by Government aid. The Very Rev. the Pre-
sident, Sir W. R. Wilde, and the Rev. Professor Jellett were examined
ai length by the Committee on the present state and requirements of
the Academy. In their Report the Committee speak in very high terms
of the public services rendered by the Academy. ‘‘ This Society,” they
observe, ‘‘ has had upon its lists since its foundation almost every man
in Ireland distinguished in abstract science, in the sciences of experi-
ment and observation, in literature, and in archeology ; it has illustrated
the history and character of its own country by works of originality and
importance ; it has further illustrated and awakened an interest in that
history by its Museum of Irish Antiquities. The liberality of its mem-
bers in contributing to those objects is deserving of remark. As a pecu-
larly national institution, it has no ordinary claims for support in car-
rying out its present work, and for encouragement in extending it.”

The requirements of the different departments of the Academy, to

217

enable it to do its work with efficiency, were strongly pressed on the
notice of the Committee.

The representations thus made are adopted in the Report; in which
the ‘‘ Committee state that assistance is required to enlarge the Museum,
to increase the staff, and to aid scientific researches ;’”’ and they express
the opinion that the Academy ‘has the strongest claims on the libera-
lity of Parliament.”

The Council have addressed a Memorial to the Lords of the Treasury,
founded on these statements in the Report of the Committee, and pray-
ing that the increased Grant necessary for the effective performance of
the work of the Academy may be included in the Estimates to be laid
before Parliament in the current year. A copy of this Memorial is
given as an Appendix to the present Report.

There are now on the books of the Academy 361 Members; of these
208 are Life, and 158 Annual Members.

We have lost by death within the year three Honorary Members,
viz.—

1. Baron Giovanni Plana, Astronomer Royal, and President of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Turin ;
2. Charles Christian Rafn, Perpetual Secretary of the Royal Society
of Northern Antiquaries ;
3. Frederick George Wilhelm Struve, from 1839 to 1862 Director of
the Astronomical Observatory at Pulkowa;
and seven Ordinary Members, viz.—

. Arthur B. Cane, Esq.; elected June 13, 1842.

. Christopher Coppinger, Hsq.; elected January 12, 1863.

H. T. Cusack, Esq.; elected January 14, 1861.

. Joseph Dickinson, M. D., F. R.S.; elected January 12, 1852.
. Lord William Fitzgerald ; elected November 12, 1849.

. William Smith O’Brien, Esq.; elected April 23, 1857.

. Edward James Senior, Esq.; elected January 8, 1854.

STD om oo be

The Academy has elected during the year thirteen VET Mem-
bers, viz.—

1. Thomas H. Babington, M. D. 8.*J. J. Lalor, Esq.

2.*Robert H. Beauchamp, Hsq. 9, Alexander Mac Donnell, Esq.,
3. Sir Victor Brooke, Bart. CoE,
4, Charles P. Cotton, Esq., C.K. | 10, Hon. Thomas D’Arcy M‘Gee,
5. Most Rev. the Archbishop of M. P. (Canada).

Dublin. 11. Thomas M. Madden, M. D.
6.*W. M. Hennessy, Esq. 12, Rev. C. P. Meehan.

7.*P. Joseph Keenan, Esq. 13. Alfred Power, Esq.

* Those marked with * are Life Members.

218

APPENDIX TO THE REPoRT oF THE CoUNCIL.
Memorial to the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury.

My Lorps—The Council of the Royal Irish Academy have recently
transmitted to your Lordships the usuai Estimate of their Income and
Expenditure for the year ending March 31, 1866. In stating the
several heads of their expenditure, they thought it right to restrict
themselves, in the first instance, within the limits prescribed by the
operations of the Academy in former years. But they have long felt,
both that the efficiency of this Institution for accomplishing its recog-
nised objects is seriously impeded by the smallness of the resources at
its disposal, and also that it is in the highest degree desirable that such
an extension of its operations should take place, as without increased
assistance from Parliament it would not be possible to carry into effect.
They desire now to call the attention of your Lordships to the testi-
mony relating to both these points contained in the recent Report of
the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Scientific Insti-
tutions of Dubhn.

It is stated by the Committee that the Royal Irish Academy ‘‘ has
acquired the highest reputation for the learning and activity of its re-
searches ;’’ that its ‘‘ Museum is the richest and most important in
Europe in Celtic Antiquities; that its Library contains Manuscripts
and Works of great value, illustrative of early Irish History ; and that
it has published Papers, scientific and antiquarian, of no ordinary inte-
rest.’ The Committee also point out the inconveniences which have
arisen from the “ small amount available for the pressing and absolute
wants of the several departments of the Academy.’ And they further -
state that ‘‘ assistance 1s required to enlarge the Museum, to in-
crease the staff, and to aid scientific researches;’’ and express their
opinion that the Academy ‘‘ has the strongest claims on the liberality
of Parlament.”’

It is right to inform your Lordships that frequent appeals have
been made to the generosity of the Members of the Academy, for the
purpose of supplementing the deficiency of public aid; and the Com-
mittee state in their Report that these appeals have been most liberally
responded to. But it would be highly injudicious for the interests of —
the Academy to endeavour to push further the practice of collecting
private subscriptions towards the accomplishment of its objects. Much
dissatisfaction would thus be created, and the apprehension of such re-
peated calls would probably have the effect of deterring many persons
from becoming candidates for admission.

The specific purposes for which an increase of the Parliamentary
Grant to the Academy is felt to be necessary are given as follows in the
Report of the Select Committee :—

a

219

1. For the preparation of Scientific Reports on the Irish Tides, Terres- £ =, d.
trial Magnetism, Meteorology, &c., including cost of instruments,

and grants to observer Sith a 200 0 0
2. Salary to an Irish Scribe, including cataloguing and printing Trish
Manuscripts, . 200 0 0

3. Salary to a Museum Clerk, pur chase of “Antiquities, cost of making

Casts and Photographs to be exchanged with other collections,. 200 0 0
4. Salary to a Library Clerk, with cost of Books and loubovebtinsey 9 57 ee 200 0 O
5. Printing and Illustrating the ‘‘ Transactions” and “ Proceedings,” 200 0 0

Total amount of required increase to present Annual Grant
of £500, ee a sea sf LUO. G0

The Council hope that they may be permitted to lay before your
Lordships a few remarks on each of these heads of expenditure.

First, astothe preparation of Scientific Reports on the Inish Tides, &c.,
they beg to state that a regular system of tidal and meteorological ob-
servations round the entire coast of Ireland was instituted some years
since by the Academy, and continued for more than twelve months, at
very great expense. Results of great importance were thus arrived at ;
but, notwithstanding large assistance from individual members, it was
impossible to complete the reduction of the observations. It is the
opinion of the scientific members of the Council that it would be ex-
tremely desirable to institute a complete set of meteorological observa-
tions at inland stations; but this and other similar researches the Aca-
demy, with its present resources, is quite unable to undertake.

Secondly, as to procuring the services of an Irish Scribe: it 1s most
important that the Academy should have in its employment one or
more persons well acquainted with the ancient Irish language, to cata-
logue, transcribe, translate, and edit works of historic and antiquarian
interest in the Academy’s collection of Irish Manuscripts, as well as to
copy for the Academy valuable Manuscripts which exist in other libra-
ries, at home or abroad. It may be remarked that Her Majesty’s Go-
vernment have recently determined, on the recommendation of the
Commission of Inquiry into the Queen’s Colleges, to suppress the only
offices set apart for the study of Irish literature in this country—
namely, the Celtic Professorships in those Institutions. It was the
opinion of that Commission (and the Select Committee have expressed
their concurrence in this view) that the objects which were sought to
be attained by the foundation of those Professorships may be better ac-
complished by providing the means of employing scholars in connexion
with the Academy, where a large body of Irish Manuscripts. has been
brought together, and every appliance for study and research would be
available. It may be added that, as the Irish language is dying out,
the difficulty of obtaining the services of competent Irish scholars will
be constantly on the increase.

Thirdly, additional aid is required for the safe keeping and im-
provement of the Museum. The value of the collection of Antiquities
in the possession of the Academy is universally acknowledged, and has

N

220

been fully recognised by the Select Committee. But, from scantiness
of funds, it is impossible to purchase many valuable articles which are
offered by the finders. The public are freely admitted to inspect the
Museum; but there is great need of a Curator, who could give con-
stant attendance, and whose business it should be, not merely to make
arrangements for the safe custody of the subjects in the collection, but
to give useful information to visitors. He would also be employed in su-
perintending the making of Casts and Photographs, to be exchanged
with other collections.

Fourthly, a salary for a Library Clerk is required, as well as addi-
tional funds for the purchase of books, and for binding. Both for the
convenience of readers and the safety of the books and manuscripts
they may consult, and also for the recovery, at stated periods, of vo-
lumes lent to members, it is necessary to have an attendant perma-
nently and exclusively occupied with these duties. ‘The Library of
the Academy is particularly rich in the Transactions of learned socie-
ties, and in works relating to Ireland; and it is only the want of a suf-
ficient staff which prevents the Council from making it still more ayaila-
ble for the use of the public than it has hitherto been.

Fifthly, the Academy requires aid towards the printing and illus-
tration of its ‘‘ Transactions’ and ‘‘ Proceedings.” The knowledge
of the smallness of the funds now available for these purposes prevents
persons from coming forward to read papers; and several valuable
communications have, for this reason, been withdrawn from us, and
presented to learned societies elsewere. There is a special difficulty
with respect to papers on natural science, arising from the expense at-
tending the illustrations which are absolutely necessary to make them
intelligible and useful.

For all these reasons, the Council of the Royal Irish Academy beg
leave earnestly to urge upon your Lordships the propriety of making
such increased provision for the wants of the Institution as has been
suggested in the Report of the Select Committee; and respectfully
request that your Lordships will include in the next Estimates to
be submitted to Parliament an additional Grant to the Academy of
£1000.

I have the honour to be, my Lords,
Your Lordships’ obedient humble Servant,

Cuartes Graves, D. D.,
President of the Royal Irish Academy.

RzsotveD,—That the Report now read, with the Appendix, be re-
ceived and adopted by the Academy.

The ballots for the annual election of President, Council, and Officers,
having been scrutinized in the face of the Academy, the President re-
ported that the following gentlemen were duly elected :—

PrEsIDENT.—The Very Rey. Charles Graves, D. D.

221

Councrt.—Rev. J. H. Jellett, A.M.; Robert W. Smith, M. D.; Robert
M‘Donnell, M.D. ; William K. Sullivan, Ph. D.; Joseph B. Jukes, A.M.;
George Johnstone Stoney, LL. D.; and Rev. George Salmon, D.D.: on
the Committee of Science.

Rev. Joseph Carson, D. D.; John F. Waller, LL.D.; John Kells
Ingram, LL. D.; John Anster, LL. D.; R.R.Madden, M.D.; Rev.
George Longfield, A. M.; and Captain Meadows Taylor: on the Com-
mittee of Polite Literature. |

John T. Gilbert, Esq.; Rev. William Reeves, D. D.; George Petrie,
LL.D.; W. H. Hardinge, Esq.; Rev. James H. Todd, D. D.; Sir W. R.
Wilde, M. D.; and Charles Haliday, Esq.: on the Committee of Anti-
quities. |

TREASURER.—Reyv. Joseph Carson, D. D.

SECRETARY oF THE AcapEMY.—Rey. William Reeves, D.D.

SECRETARY oF THE Councit.—John Kells Ingram, LL. D.

SECRETARY or Forrrgn CorRESPONDENCE.—Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.

Lisrartan.—John T. Gilbert, Esq.

Crerx, Assistant LIBRARIAN, AND CuRATOR oF THE Museum.—Ed-

ward Clibborn, Esq.
The President under his hand and seal nominated the following

Vicr-Prustpents.—Rev. J. H. Jellett, A.M.; Joseph Beete Jukes,
F.R.S.; John F. Waller, LL. D.; and George Petrie, LL. D.

The Secretary having reported that there was no further private
business to be transacted,

Mr. William H. Hardinge read a paper ‘‘ On Certain Irish Census
Returns attributed to the Year 1659.”

Mr. P. W. Joyce read a paper (in continuation) ‘‘On Changes and
Corruptions in Irish Topographical Names.”

Sir William R. Wilde presented the following antiquities :—

On the part of Lord Farnham, forty-one silver coins, chiefly of the
reigns of Hlizabeth, James I., and Charles I., all found in the Toney-
more Crannoge, county of Cavan, already described in the ‘‘ Proceed-
ings.’ They serve to mark a period in the later occupation of the
Crannoge, and largely contribute to the extensive collection of coins
already possessed by the Academy. Sir William expressed a hope that
some numismatist would undertake the arrangement of these coins,
and the others in the Academy’s fine collection of coins, medals, and
tokens.

Also, from the same locality, a number of large boars’ tusks; two
spindle whorls of bone; a spoon made out of the epiphysis of the long
bone of a ruminant, similar to those described in the ‘‘ Museum Cata-
logue,” p. 267. They complete the collection of articles found at To-
neymore.

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 26

222

A large socketed celt, 24 inches long, broad and flat, found in the
county of Westmeath.

A winged celt, stopped and decorated, 55inches long, also from the
county of Westmeath.

From Dr. Malcomson, of Cavan, a long narrow stone celt, 104
inches long by 3 broad in the widest portion, and much weathered,
possibly from exposure to the air, found at Lough Oughter, Co. Cavan,
on the Farnham estate.

Also, from the same locality, a very perfect massive stone celt, of
greenstone porphyry. It is highly polished, and the curved cutting
edge almost as sharp as metal. It measures 84 inches long by 34 broad,
and is especially remarkable on account of the roughened surfaces on
both outer edges, near the narrow end, evidently produced after the celt
had been polished, and no doubt serving to retain it with greater secu-
rity in the handle.

An ancient single-piece left shoe, 84 inches long, with two seams—
one from the instep to the toes, where the material has been carefully
gathered in; and the other behind the heel, where the gut sewing still
remains. This article, in which the hair side of the hide was external,
is not dissimilar in make to the pampoota still used in the western
islands of Arran. It was found, four feet below the surface, in Derry-
winney bog, in the parish of Kilmore, county of Cavan.

Three ‘very perfect bronze rings, each 34 inches in diameter, found
at Gortermore Lake, during the drainage of Loughs Oughter and Gowna,
in the parish of Killeshandra, county of Cavan.

A small bronze spur, found in the interior of Lough Oughter Castle.

A large socketed celt, 32 inches in length, found in Cromwell’s
Pass, in the parish of Kilmore, county of Cavan.

Fragment of a large iron shot, from Lough Oughter Castle.

From Denis Florence M‘Carthy, Esq.: a long narrow-winged celt,
64 by 1 inches, very rudely cast, and containing a greater proportion
of copper than is usual in such instruments; found at Calorguen, near
Dinan, in Brittany. It is somewhat longer and more slender in the
blade than the Irish form, and resembles those from the neighbourhood
of Cape Finisterre, described in the ‘‘ Proceedings,” vol. vii., p. 1538.

From Arthur Nugent, Hsq., a small socketed bronze celt, 24 inches
long, looped and decorated, broad-edged ; said to have been found in
the county of Westmeath, in a sod of turf.

MONDAY, APRIL 10, 1865.
The Very Rev. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

Richard R. Brash, Esq. ; Captain Richard F. Burton; John Freeland,
M.D.; Rev. Arthur B. Frazer; William Francis de Visme Kane, Esq. ;
Major W. Armstrong Mac Donnell; and Rev. Silvester Malone; were
elected members of the Academy.

223

Mr. J. T. Gilbert read a paper, ‘‘ On the first Parliament held in Ire-
land under Poynings’ Law; with some Account of its Statutes which
were declared to have been lost.’’

The President read a Gaper, communicated by the Rev. E. Hincks,
D.D., ‘‘ On the Assyrio-Babylonian Measures of Time.”

The following donations were received :—

Translation of Goethe’s Faustus, Part II.: presented by John
Anster, LL. D.

A copy of ‘‘ Aque Solis; or Notices of Roman Bath,” by the Rev.
H. M. Scarth: presented by Lord Talbot de Malahide.

A copy of the ‘‘ Huvres Philosophiques, Historiques, &c., d’Alem-
bert,’’ 18 vols., 8vo: presented by the Rev. T. Romney Robinson, D. D.

A selection of worked flints, collected in the neighbourhood cf Jub-
bulpore, in Central India, by the late Lieutenant Swiney: presented by
Mr. John Evans, on the part of Sir Charles Lyell.

An ancient and elaborately ornamented cinerary urn, containing frag-
ments of bones and shells. Presented by R. F. M. St. George, Esq.

MONDAY, APRIL 24, 1865.

The Very Rey. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Henry Hudson presented vols.i., i, and iv. of ‘‘L’Art de
Verifier les Dates’’—thereby completing the copy of that work previously
presented to the Library.

The Rev. Dr. Todd presented a copy of his work on ‘‘ The Books of
the Vaudois.”

The Rev. Beaver H. Blacker presented a copy of his ‘‘ Sketches of
the Parishes of Booterstown and Donnybrook.”

Edward Sellon, Esq., presented a copy of his ‘‘ Annotations on the
Sacred Writings of the Hindus.”

Maurice Lenihan, Esq., presented two large Bombshells, found in
excavations made at St. John’s Gate, Limerick.

Aquilla Smith, M. D., presented seven specimens of spurious Anti-

_ quities, said to have been found in the River Thames.

|

The Librarian, on the part of the French Government, presented a
large collection of historical and antiquarian works, printed under their
direction.

The special thanks of the Academy were returned to the French
Government for their valuable donation ; and also to M. Livio, Consul for

_ France in Dublin.

224

MONDAY, MAY 8, 1865.

The Very Rev. Cartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

William J. O’Donnavan, LL. D., was elected a member of the Aca-
demy.

W. 4H. Hardinge, eae read a paper, ‘‘On an Unpublished Hssay on
Treland, by Sir William Petty, A. D. 1687.”

The PrestpEnt read the following letter from the Under Secretary
of State for Ireland :—

“« Dublin Castle, May 6, 1865.

‘¢ Srr,—Referring to your letter of the 22nd February last, I am
directed by the Lord Lieutenant to acquaint you, for the information of
the Council of the Royal Irish Academy, that a communication has been
received from the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, stat-
ing that they have had under consideration the Memorial which accom-
panied your letter.

‘‘Their Lordships are desirous of giving due weight to the opinion
expressed by the Select Committee of the House of Commons in favour
of the Academy; but they are not prepared to recommend to Parliament
to make Grants in favour of the Museum and Library of the Institution ;
while, as regards Meteorological Science, sufficient provision appears to
be already made by the establishments under the Admiralty and the Board
of Trade ; and their Lordships have thought it right to confine themselves
to adding to the provision now made in the Estimate in aid of the pub-
lication of the ‘ Transactions’ of the Academy a sum of £200 specially
for encouraging the study of ancient Irish MSS., as materials of his-
tory, by forming Catalogues and dranslauous of them, and making them
available for public use.

‘‘Their Lordships add, that the hares for the Royal Irish Aca-
demy has accordingly been increased from £500 to £700.

““T am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
‘Tuomas A. Larcom.

“To the Very Rev. Dean Graves.”

2295

_ MONDAY, MAY 22, 1868.
The Very Rev. Cuartxes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

On the recommendation of the Council, it was—

Resotvep,—That a sum not exceeding £20 be granted by the Aca-
demy, to have a certified transcript made of the Census Returns of 1659,
upon which a paper was recently read by Mr. Hardinge.

Mr. Parrick W. Joyce, A.M. T.C.D., M. R.I.A., read the fol-
lowing paper :—

On CHANGES AND CorruPtions IN IrtsH TopograpHicaL NAMES.

I wAve often observed that there are many interesting peculiarities in
the process of altering Irish topographical names from ancient to mo-
dern English forms; and that the changes and corruptions they have
undergone are, in numerous instances, the result of phonetic laws that
have been in operation from the earliest times, and among different
races of people. Irish names, moreover, afford the only existing record
of the changes that Irish words undergo, in the mouths of English-
speaking people. For these reasons the subject appears to me to possess
some importance, both in an antiquarian and philological point of view ;
and I have thrown together the following observations, with the hope
that they may prove interesting to the Academy.

In anglicising Irish names, the leading general rule is, that the pre-
sent forms are derived from the ancient, as they were spoken, not as
they were written. Those who first committed them to writing aimed
generally at preserving the original pronunciation, by representing it as
nearly as they were able in English letters. The great majority of
names are anglicised on this principle ; and, allowing for the difficulty
of representing Irish words by English letters, it will be found that, on
the whole, the ancient pronunciation is fairly preserved. Whenever
it so happens that the original combination of letters is pronounced
nearly the same in Irish and English, the names are commonly modern-
ized without much alteration either of spelling or pronunciation; as
for instance, dun, a fort, 1s usually Anglicised dun or doon; bo, a cow, bo;
drum, along hill, drum; leitir, a wet hill side, letter, &c. In most
cases, however, the same letters do not represent ,the same sounds in
the two languages; and accordingly, while the pronunciation was pre-
served, the original orthography was in almost all cases much altered.
I do not now speak of corruption : if the present letters convey the ori-
ginal sound without material alteration, we do not call it corruption,
though the written form ofthe word bechanged. For example gabhailin

BI. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 2H

226

(pron, gowleen), a little [river] fork, is properly anglicised Goleen (in
the parish of Kilmoe, Cork); but when it is made Golden (a village in
Tipperary), this is a corruption.

To the general rule now stated, there is a remarkable exception of
frequent occurrence. In many names the original spelling is either
wholly or partly preserved ;—in other words, the modern forms are
derived from the ancient, not as they were spoken, but as they were
written. In almost all such cases, the names are pronounced in con-
formity with the powers of the English letters; and so, whenever the
ancient orthography is retained, the original pronunciation 1s generally
lost. This may be illustrated by the word Rath, which isin Irish pro-
nounced vaw. There are over 400 townland names commencing with
this word in the forms of Ra, Rah, Raw, and Ray; these names are
derived from the spoken, not the written originals; and, while the pro-
nunciation is retained, the spelling is lost. Raheny, Ratoath, Raphoe,
Raheen, Raymunterdoney, may be taken as examples. There are more
than 700 names commencing with the word in its original form, Rath,
in which the correct spelling is preserved, but the pronunciation is
commonly lost, for the word is pronounced rath to rhyme with bath.
It is worthy of remark, however, that the peasantry living in or near
' these places, to whom the names have been handed down orally, and
not by writing, generally preserve the correct pronunciation ; of which
Rathmines, Rathgar, Rathfarnham, and Rathcoole are good examples,
being pronounced by the people of the localities, Ra-mines, Ra-gar, Ra-
farnham, and Ra-coole.

The principal effect of this practice of retaining the old spelling 1s,
that consonants which are aspirated in the original names, are hardened
or restored in the modern pronunciation. To illustrate these principles
I have given the following short list of words that enter frequently
into Irish names, each containing an aspirated letter; and after each
word, the names of two places of which it formsa part. In the first of
each pair, the letter is aspirated as it ought to be, but the original spell-
ing is lost; in the second, the orthography is partly or wholly preserved,
and the letter is not aspirated, but sounded as it would indicate to an
English reader, and so, the proper pronunciation is lost. 1. Ath, a ford
(pr. ah); Adare (Aé-oana, the ford of the oak tree); Athlone (At-luain,
the ford of Luan,a man’s name). 2. Gaoth, wind (pr. gwee); Barna-
geehy (Obeanna-na-5aolte, windy gap); Balgeeth, (Oaile-na-gaoite,
windy town), the name of three townlands in Meath. 3. Ruadh, red
pr. roo); Gortroe (Go0pc-puad, red field), the name of 17 townlands
throughout Ireland; Kilroot in Antrim, (Cill-puad, red church). This
last place is called Kilrothe in the Taxation of Down, Connor, and Dro-
more, A.D. 13806. 4. Dubh, black, (pr. div); Dufferin (Ouibépian,
black third-part); Dublin (Oub-lnn, black pool). 5. Tamh, a plague
(pr. thauwv)—Taimhleacht, a plague monument—a place where those who
died of the plague were buried; Tawlaght and Tallaght, the names of
several places; Tamlaght and Tamlat forming either simply or in com-

227

position, the names of about 20 townlands in the Northern counties.
6. Tamhnach a field (pr. tawnagh); in the aspirated forms, Tannagh,
Taynagh, Tawna, &c., it forms, or commences about 147 names; in
the unaspirated forms Tamna, and Tamny, about thirty-six names,
but only in the Northern counties. 7. Damh, an ox (pr. daw); Deve-
nish in Fermanagh (Oatm-inip, ox island); Madame, in parish of Kil-
maloda, Cork, (Mag-oam, plain of the oxen). 8. Fidh, a wood (pr.
fee); Finnea, near Lough Sheelin (P10-an-ata, the wood of the ford) ;
Fethard (16-apo, high wood), the name of a parish in Wexford, and
of a village and parish in Tipperary.

A remarkable instance of this hardening process occurs in the coun-
ties of Dublin, Meath, and Louth, where the Irish word bothar (pr.
boher), a road, is converted into batter. This word “ batter’’ is, or was,
well understood in these counties to mean an ancient road. It occurs
in early Anglo-[rish documents in the form of bothir, or bothyr, which
being, no doubt, pronounced as in English, was easily converted into
botter, or batter. It forms a part of the following names :—Batters-
town, the name of four townlands in Meath, which were always called
in Irish baile-an-b6taip, 2. e., the town of the road; and anglicised by
changing bothar to Batter, and translating Baile to town. Batterjohn
and Ballybatter are also in Meath. In Louth, near Drogheda, there is
a townland called Greenbatter, and another called Yellowbatter, which
are called in Irish DOdap-slap, and bbtan-buide, having the same
meanings as the present names, viz., green road and yellow road.

We have also some examples in and around Dublin, one of which
is the well-known name of Stonybatter. Long before the city had ex-
tended so far, and while Stonybatter was nothing more than a country
road, if was—as 1t still continues to be—the great thoroughfare to Dub-
lin from the districts lying west and north-west of the city; and it was
known by the name of Bothar-na-g-cloch, 7. e., the road of the stones,
which was changed to the modern equivalent, Stonybatter, or Stony-
road. It is stated in the Dinnseanchus that there were anciently five
ereat slighes, or roads, leading from Tara through the country, in five
different directions, and that these roads were first opened, or ‘‘ disco-
vered’”’ on the night of the birth of Conn of the Hundred Battles, who
began his reign in A. D. 123. According to Dr. Petrie, traces of some of
these roads remain to the present day, and their localities are still remem-
bered in tradition. One of them passed through Dublin by Ratoath,
and on towards Bray, and it was called Shghe Cualann, from the name
of the district to which it led, viz., Cualann, which extended round
Bray and Powerscourt. Under the name of Bealach Duibhlinne (the
road, or pass of the [ river] Duibhlinn),* it is mentioned in the follow-
ing quotation from the ‘‘ Book of Rights :”’——

“Tt is prohibited to him (the King of Eire) to go with a host
On Monday over the Bealach Duibhlinne.”

-* Duibhlinn was originally the name of that part ofthe Liffey on which the city now
stands.

228

The old ford of hurdles, which in these early ages formed the only
foot passage across the Liffey, and which gave the name of Ath-Cliath
to the city, crossed the river where Whitworth bridge now stands,
leading from Church-street to Bridge-street;* and the road from Tara
to Cualann must necessarily have crossed the Liffey at this point. There
ean be, I think, no doubt that the present Stonybatter formed a por-
tion of this ancient road—a statement that is borne out by two inde-
pendent circumstances. First—Stonybatter lies straight on the line,
and would, if continued, meet the Liffey exactly at Whitworth bridge.
Secondly—the name Stonybatter, or Bothar-na-g-cloch, affords even a
stronger confirmation. The most important of the ancient Irish roads

ere paved with large blocks of stone, somewhat lke the old Roman
roads; a fact that is proved by the remains of those that can now be
traced. It is exactly this kind of a road that would be called by the
Trish—even at the present day—Bothar-na-g-cloch; and the existence
of this name, on the very line leading to the ancient ford over the Lif-
fey, leaves scarcely any doubt that this was a part of the ancient Slighe
Cualann. It must, I think, be regarded as a fact of great interest, that
the modern-looking name Stonybatter—changed as it has been in the
course of ages—descends to us with a history 1700 years old written
on its front.

Booterstown (near Dublin) is another member of the same family ;
it is merely another form of Batterstown, 7. ¢., Roadtown. In a roll of
about the year 1435 it is written in the Anglo-Irish form—Ballybothyr
(daile-an-botaip—town of the road), of which the present name,
Booterstown, is a kind of half translation. In old Angio-Irish docu-
ments frequent mention is made of a road leading from Dublin to Bray.
In a roll of about 1470 it is called Bothir-de-Bree (road of Bray); and
it is stated that it was by this road the O’Byrnes and O’Tooles usually
came to Dublin.; It is very probable that the Booterstown road and
this Bray road were one and the same, and that both were a continua-
tion of the ancient Slighe Cualann. Jam informed by Dr. Petrie that
a portion of this road between Dublin and Bray still remains, and that
it is well known as “ the old road” to the people of the locality.

It may, perhaps, be thought worthy of remark, that of the six ‘‘ Bat-
ters’ in Meath, Batterjohn, in parish of Kiltale, and Batterstown, in
parish of Rodanstown, lie southwards on the line of Slighe Dala, or the
great road to Ossory. Batterstown, in parish of Trim, and Batters-
town, in parish of Kilconnigan, lie in the direction of that branch of
Slighe Mor, or great western road, that led from Tara south-west to-
wards Trim, and must have joined Slighe Mor, or Hiscir Riada, some-
where near Clonard. Yellowbatter and Greenbatter, in Louth, both
lie a mile and a half nearly north of Drogheda, very probably on the

* See Gilbert’s ‘‘ History of Dublin,” vol. i., chap. ix.
{ For this information about Booterstown and Bothyr-de-Bree, Iam indebted to
Mr. Gilbert.

229

line of road that must have led to the ancient ford over the Boyne, be-
fore the erection of the first bridge. That such a ford existed there is
proved by the name Drogheda, Opoiceat-ata, the bridge of the ford.

While the majority of names have been modernized in accordance
with the principles just laid down, great numbers, on the other hand,
have been contracted and corrupted in a variety of ways. Some of these
corruptions took place in the Irish language; but far the greatest num-
ber were introduced by the English-speaking people in transferring the
words from the Irish to the English language. These corruptions are
sometimes so extremely irregular and unexpected, that it is impossible
to reduce them to rule, or to assign them to any general or uniform in-
fluence except mere ignorance, or the universal tendency to contraction.
In most cases, however, they are the result of certain laws or prin-
ciples, some of which are merely provincial, or attributable to particular
races of people, while the influence of others may be traced throughout
the whole of Ireland. Some of these laws of corruption have been no-
ticed by Dr. O’Donovan and Dr. Reeves ;* and I have myself given ex-
pression to some others. I have here brought them all, or the most
important of them, under one view, and illustrated each by a number
of examples.

I. Effects of the Article.—The first series of changes I shall
notice, are those produced under the influence of the article. When
the Irish article am (the) is placed before a word beginning with a
vowel, it is frequently contracted to » alone, and this » was often incor-
porated with its noun, losing ultimately its force as an article, and
forming permanently a ‘part of the word. The attraction of the article
is common in other languages also, as for instance in French: in this
manner have been formed the French words lhierre, lendemain, luette,
Lisle, Lami, and many others.

A considerable number of Irish names have incorporated the article
in this manner; among others, the following: Naul, the name ofa
village near Balbriggan. The Irish name is an Gill, 2. e. the rock or
cliff, which was originally applied to the perpendicular rock on which
the castle stands—rising over the little river Delvin near the village.
The word was shortened to n’avi/, and it has descended to us in the
present form Naul, which very nearly represents the pronunciation.
Nenagh in Tipperary was anciently called Gonaé Thece, and in later
times Conaé-Upmuran, the fair or fair green of Ormond. n’Aonach
with the article prefixed, was, in accordance with the principle of pre-
serving the pronunciation, changed to Nenagh.

Newry (in Down) is called in Irish luban-éinn-cpaéca, 2. e. the
““vew tree at the head of the strand;” and the following extract from
“The Four Masters,” at A. D. 1162, will explain the meaning of the
name :—‘‘'The monastery of the monks at Iubhar-chinntrechta was

* This is the proper place to remark that I have followed the authority of Dr.
O'Donovan and Dr. Reeves, in translating many of the names in this paper.

230

burned, with all its furniture and books, and also, the yew tree which | St. |
Patrick himself had planted.” This extract, and the Irish name of the
place, both show that there was originally only one yew; the tradition of
the place, however, is that there were two ; and in old English documents
it is called ‘‘The Newries.’’ Both accounts may be reconciled, if we
suppose either that two yew trees were planted, or sprang up, in place
of the one burned in 1162. It is curious that the imcorporation of the
m in this name, began even before the word reached the English lan-
guage, for in the Charter of Newry, a Latin document of about the
year 1160, it occurs twice, in one case with the m annexed, in the other
without it, viz:—Nyvorcyntracta, and Ybarcyntracta. The present
name Newry is merely a changed form of n’Iubhar, the yew. There
are two other places called Newry, one in Wicklow, and the other in
Tyrone. There are seven towniands called Nure, which is the same
word, and ten called Newrath or Newragh—an lubpac, “the yew
land.”’

Neddans, a parish in Tipperary, 7.e. Na Peaodin, “the brooks or
streamlets;’’ the townland that gave name to the parish, is now called
in Irish Peapann-na-b-peaodn, the ‘land of the streamlets.”” Ninch,
in parish of Julianstown, Meath—an inip, the ach or island. Nur-
ney, a name of frequent occurrence—an upnaide, the oratory.
Navan Fort, a large rath two miles west of Armagh, the remains of
the ancient palace of Emania, destroyed in A. D., 332; the Irish name
is Gathuin, the pronunciation of which, with the n prefixed, is almost
exactly preserved in the modern name Navan. Naan island, in Lough
Erne—an din, the ring. Nuenna River, in parish of Freshford,
Kilkenny—an uaitne, the green river. The River Nore is properly
written an Pheorp, z. e. the Feoir; Boate calls it ‘‘ The Nure or Cure,”’
showing that in his time (1645), the article had not been permanently
incorporated. Nobber, in Meath; an obaip, the work, a name
applied according to tradition, to the English fortress erected there.
Mageoghegan in his translation of the ‘‘ Annals of Clonmacnoise,” calls
it ‘‘ the Obber.”’

It is curious that in several of these places, a traditional remem-
brance of the use of the article still exists, for the people often employ
the English article with the names. Thus Newry is still called “‘ The
Newry” by the country people, and this was its usual name in early
English writings. So Naulis still often called ‘‘The Naul.”’ In these,
as well as in ‘‘ The Navan Fort,” both the Irish and English articles
are used together; but in ‘‘The Oil” (an dill, ‘‘ the rock’), a townland
in parish of Edermine, Wexford, and in ‘‘ The Obber,”’ the Irish article
is omitted, and the English used in its place.

While in so many names the article has been incorporated, the re-
verse process sometimes took place; that is, in the case of certain words
which properly began with n, this letter was detached in consequence
of being mistaken for the article. The name Uachongbhail is an ex-
ample of this. The word Congbhail meant an ecclesiastical establish-

231

ment, and it has been perpetuated in the names of Conwal, a parish in
Donegal, Conwal, in parish of Rossinver, Leitrim ; Great Connell in
Kildare, Cunnagavale* in the parish of Tuogh, Limerick, and other
places. With nwa (new) prefixed, it became Nuachongbhail, which
also exists in several parts of Ireland, in the forms of Noughaval and
Nohoval, and in Meath, in the formof Navan.} 'This word Nuachongbhail
is the only example of a topographical term I can point out as having
lost the 2, it being supposed that the proper word was Uachongbhail,
and » merely the article. In this mutilated state it exists in the
modern names of at least three places, viz: Oughaval, in parish of
Kilmacteige, Sligo; the parish of Oughaval, in Mayo, and Oughaval, in
parish of Stradbally, Queen’s County; this last is called by its correct
name Nuachongbhail, in the ‘‘ Martyrology of Donegal.’

The word Uachongbhail occurs in the ‘‘ Four Masters” at A. D. 1197,
and this is the only instance I can adduce of its occurrence in this in-
correct form in any Irish document. There can be, I think, no doubt
that Nuachongbhail is the original word, for we have the express
authority of Colgan that nwa not wa is the prefix, as he translates
Nuachongbhail by nova habitatio—indeed ua as a prefix could, in this
case, have scarcely any meaning, for it never means anything but ‘“‘a
descendant.’’ ‘The separation of the x may be witnessed in operation

* This place is called Cunnagabdil in Irish, and it is worthy of notice, as it points
directly to what appears to be the true origin of Congbhail, viz., Congabhail. I am
aware that in O’Clery’s Glossary, Congbhail is derived from Comhbhaile (Con + baile).
But in a passage in the “Book of Armagh,” as quoted by Mr. W. Stokes in his Irish
Glosses, I find the word Congabaim used in the sense of habito. The infinitive or verbal
noun formation is Congabail or Congabhail, which, according to this use, means habiiatio ;
and as Colgan translates Congbhail by the same word habitatio, there can be, I think,
no doubt that Congbhail is merely a contracted form of Congabhail. Congabhail lite-
rally means conceptio, i. e. comprehending or including, and as applied to a habitation,
would mean the whole of the premises included in the establishment.

+ This name affords an instructive example of the manner in which ‘consonants
drop off in the course of a long march.’”’ Navan is called Novane in old Anglo-Irish
documents, but at present at least, history does not present us with any form of the name
approaching more nearly to Nuachongbhail than this. At first sight it might seem
almost incredible that this long name should shrink into Novane; but all the different
steps in the process of reduction are strictly analogical, being nothing more than what
take place in many other Irish names. Nuachongbhail is pronounced noo-hong-vol,
which is softened down to Noughaval and Nohoval, as mentioned above. A change of
I to n, as in Colloony from Cuil-Mhaoile, makes it Nohovan, which by merely omit-
ting the # in pronunciation, as in Drumlane for Drumlahan, Glenbeagh for Glenbeha,
Drogheda for Droghed-aha, &c., becomes Novan or Noyane.

But how is it known that the ancient name of the place was Nuachongbhail? To
this there is a very satisfactory answer. Our annalists make frequent mention of a
place on the Boyne, called Nuachongbhail, and Colgan says that it ‘‘is a town (oppidum)
in Meath on the bauks of the Boyne, ten miles from Drogheda, and five from Trim.”
Colgan’s miles are often one-fifth longer than Irish miles; and bearing this in mind, any
person with a map before him, will see that Navan is the only spot answering Colgan’s
description. It was O’Donovan, our greatest Irish topographer, that first identified
Nayan with the Nuachongbhail of the annalists.

232

at the present day in Kerry, where the parish of Nohoval is locally
called in Irish sometimes Uacobail, and sometimes an Uacobail, the
n being actually detached and turned into the article. (See O’ Donovan’s
letter on this parish). That the letter » may have been lost in this
manner, appears also to be the opinion of our Very Rev. President
(Dr. Graves); for in a paper read before the Academy in December, 1852,
he remarks that the loss of the initial ~ in the words o1d¢e (nox) and
ullhip (numerus) ‘may perhaps be accounted for, by supposing that it
-was confounded with the x of the article.”

As a further confirmation of this opinion regarding the loss of » in
Uachongbhail, I may state, that the letter / 1s sometimes lost in French
and Italian words from the very same cause; as in Fr. once (Eng.
ounce, an animal), from Lat. lynx; it was formerly written lonce, and
in the It. Jonza, the 7 is still retained. Fr. azur (Eng. azure), from
lazulus. So also It. uscegnuolo, the nightingale, from luscinia, and It.
orbacca, a berry, from lauri-bacca.

Another change that has been, perhaps, chiefly produced by the in-
fluence of the article, is the omission or insertion of the letter ff The
article causes the initial consonants of feminine nouns (and in certain
cases those of masculine nouns also) to be aspirated. Now aspirated f
is wholly silent; and being omitted in pronunciation, it was, in the
same circumstances, often omitted in writing. The Irish name of the
River Nore affords an instance of this. Keating and O’Heerin write it
Feoir, which is sounded Koir when the article is prefixed (an Pheoip).
Accordingly, it is written without the f quite as often as with it:
The Four Masters mention it three times, and each time they call it
Eoir. The total silence of this letter in aspiration appears to be, to
some extent at least, the cause of its uncertain character. In the case
of many words, the speakers and writers of Irish seem either to have in-
serted or omitted it indifferently, or to have been uncertain whether it
should be inserted or not; and so we often find it omitted from words
where it was really radical, and prefixed to other words to which it
did not belong. The insertion of fis very common in the South of Ire-
Jand. (See 0’ Donovan’s Grammar, p. 80.)

The following words will exemplify these remarks :—The ash tree
was called both uinpeann and puinpeann. With the f inserted it has
given us the names of Funchadaun, Funchin, Funshinagh (Puimpean-
nac, abounding in ash trees), and Funshoge, all townlands, chiefly in
the West of Ireland; and also that of the River Funcheon (the ash-
producing river) in Cork. Without the fwe have Unshinagh (Uin-
peannaé, same as Puinpeanaéc), which is the name of seventeen town-
lands in the Northern and Western counties. From aill, a hill or cliff,
we have a great number of names—such as Elphin, in Roscommon (ailt-
finn, the rock of the limpid spring; Aillnaveagh, in parish of Omey,
Galway (dill-na-6-piaé, the ravens’ cliff), &c. With the f prefixed,
it is found in the names of about ninety townlands in different parts
of Ireland, in the forms of Foil, Foyle, Fall, and Faul. ull, I be-

233

lieve to be the most ancient form of this word, for Cill-pinn (Elphin)
occurs in the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick. So with uap and fuap,
cold, and their derivatives, uanan and puapan, acold spring, both
of which frequently enter into names, in the anglicised forms of Oran
and Foran. Fahan, on Lough Swilly, is sometimes written Patain,
and sometimes Ctéain and Otain, by the Four Masters.

The f has been omitted by aspiration in the names Lughinny, in
parish of Killahy, Kilkenny, and Lughanagh, in parish of Killosolan,
Galway (an Phliucaine, the wet land); and also in Ahabeg in parish
of Carrigparson, Limerick (an Phaitée-beaG, the little green). The f
has been affixed to the following words to which it does not radically
belong; pan for an. stay; popcail for orcail, open; piolan for
1olLan, an eagle; paimne for ainne, a ring, &c.* It has also been
inserted in Culfeightrin, the name of a parish in Antrim, which is pro-
perly Cuil-ea¢écpann, the corner or angle of the strangers. Urny in
Tyrone is often called Furny, as in the record of Primate Colton’s
Visitetion (1397), and the fis also prefixed in the Taxation of Down,
Connor, and Dromore (1806), both showing that the corruption is not
of recent origin.

I must notice yet another change produced by the article. When
it is prefixed to a masculine noun commencing with a vowel, a ¢
should be inserted between it and the noun, as atain, father—an
c-atain, the father. In the case of a few topographical names, this ¢
has remained, and has become incorporated with the word. For ex:
ample, Turagh in parish of Tuogh, Limerick, 7. ¢ an c-1ubpaé, the
yew land; Tummeryin parish of Dromore, Tyrone, 7. e. an c-lomaipe,
the ridge; the original words are 1ubnaé and 1omaipe. The best
known example of this is Tempo in Fermanagh, which is called in Irish
an-c-lompod Oeipiol, iompodh meaning turning, and deisiol, dex-
trorsum—trom left to right. The place received its name from the
ancient custom of turning sun-ways, 7%. ¢., from left to right, in
worship.

Under certain grammatical conditions, a ¢ is also inserted before s,
when the article is prefixed, in which case the ¢ only is heard in pro-
nunciation, the s not being sounded, though retained in correct writ-
ing. It is in consequence of this, that the word peabac a hawk
(pron. showk in the South) is commonly disguised as towk, as in Mo-
natouk in parish of Seskinan, Waterford (Moin-a’-c-peabaic, the bog
of the hawk); pasancz, a priest, frequently appears as taggart and teg-
gart, as in the very usual name Ballintaggart, baile-an-tpagainc,
priest’s town; Sioddn a fairy hill is often ¢eeane and teeaune; Seazal,
rye, appears as taggle and teggle; peipceann, amarsh, as tesken; and so
with several other words.

* See Dr. Reeves’s ‘* Primate Colton’s Visitation,” page 17.
B.I. A. PROC.—YOL. IX. 21

234

Il. Interchange of 1, r, n, m.—The interchange of these letters is
common in most languages; it would be easy, if necessary, to give ex-
amples from every language of Europe. For instance, the modern name
Bologna is a corruption of the ancient Bononia; Palermo of Panormus;
Amsterdam of Amstel-dam (the dam of the River Amstel); Rousillon
of Ruscino, &c., &c.

The substitution of these letters, one for another, is also exceedingly
common in Irish topographical names: and since this kind of corrup-
tion prevails in Irish as well as in English, the names were altered in
this particular respect, quite as much in one language as in the other.
L appears to have been a favourite letter, and the instances are parti-
cularly numerous in which it is substituted for the letter 7. The word
Sruthar, astream, forms the whole or part of many names; and gene-
rally—but not always—the r has been changed to /, as in Shrule,
Shruel, Struell, Sruveel, Sroohill, Sroolane, Commeenshrule, Abbey-
shrule, all names of places in different parts of Ireland. In Abbey-
strowry, the name of a parish in Cork, the 7 has been retained. Biorar,
watercresses, is now always called in Irish dcolar, in which form it
enters into several names, as for example Aghayiller, a parish in Kil-
kenny (Céad-biolain, field of the watercresses) ; in Toberburr, however,
in the parish of Finglas, Dublin, the original r is retained (Cobap-
biopaip, watercress well). Lough Owel near Mullingar is written
Loch Uair in the Irish Annals, but in the modern Irish it is always
called Loch Ual, from which the present name has been derived.
Rathlin, the name of an island on the coast of Antrim, and of another
on the coast of Donegal, is corrupted from Reachrainn (which O’ Donovan
translates sea rock); and Loughbrickland in Down was anciently
Loc-Omicpenn, the lake of Bricriu, an Ulster chief of the first century.

JV is also sometimes, though not often, changed to /, as in Lough
Ennell in Westmeath, in Irish Loé-Cinninn, Ainninn’s lake. Dingle
in Kerry isa corruption of Daingean, a fortress, the full name being
Oaigean-Ui-Churp, the fortress of O’Cuis; and Castleconnell near
Limerick is the castle of the O’Conaings, not of the O’Connells, as the
present form of the name would indicate.

The change of n to r is one of frequent occurrence, an example of
which is the name of Limerick, in Irish Luimne, which was originally
the name of the lower Shannon, as Ouiblinn was the name of the lower
Liffey. Kilmacrenan in Donegal is properly Cill-mac-Nenain, the
church of the sons of Enan. Killery harbour in Connemara is
called at the present day in Irish, Caolfaipe, from which the present
name is formed; but it should be Caolpaite, or, as it is written more
fully by the Four Masters, Caolpaile-puad, 7. e. the reddish narrow-
sea-inlet, a most appropriate name. In some of the Northern counties,
the Irish-speaking people cannot without difficulty articulate the.com-
binations cn and sn, and in order to facilitate the pronunciation they
change the » to v7, There are about 45 townlands commencing with the
word Crock, all in Ulster, except only a few in Connaught and Leinster,

239

and a person unacquainted with the present peculiarity might be puzzled
by this prefix, or might perhaps consider it an anglicised form of Cpuaé,
arick or piled up hill. But all these Crocks are really Knocks, dis-
guised by the change of this one letter. In these counties also, the
termination nagrow or nagrew is often found in townland names, as in
Tullynagrow in the parish of Muckno, Monaghan; this termination has
been similarly corrupted, Tullynagrow being properly Culaig-na-5-
cno, the hill of the nuts.

The change of the / to ry is not very common, but it is found in
some names. ‘Tirerrill, a barony in Sligo, is altered from Tip-Oiliolla,
a @ the district of Olioll son of Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin [ éhy-
moyvane |, monarch of Ireland in the fourth century. Dromcolliher in
Limerick is ‘properly Opuim-colléuille, the ridge or hill of the hazel
wood; and Ballysakeery, a parish in Mayo, is baile-eapa-caoile, the
town of the narrow cataract.

The change of m to n, or vice versd, is of somewhat rare occurence.
In Rathangan in Kildare, the first » should be m, the correct name
being Rat-Imgain, Imghan’s rath. JV is changed to min Kilmainham,
2,é€. St. Maighnenn’s church; Boate calls it Kilmanan, which shows that
it has been corrupted within the last 200 years. The same change has
been made in Rathfarnham, 7.e. Farannan’s rath, and in Multyfarnham
and Tyfarnham in Westmeath, the former signifying the mills (muil-
leann, a mill, pl. muilce), and the latter the house (cig) of Farannan
or Arannan. The termination of the last four names seems to have been
formed in imitation of the common English topographical postfix ham,
home. In Moyacomb, the name of a parish in Wicklow, there isa
genuine change of » to m, the Irish name being M1a$-0a-éon, the plain
of the two hounds; and the same in Slieve Kelim the name of a moun-
tain range east of Limerick city, which is Sliab-Ciblinne, Evlin’s
mountain.

Several of the letter changes now examined have been evidently
caused, or at least facilitated, by the difficulty of articulating the same
letter twice in immediate succession, and thisis a principle of considerable
influence in corrupting language. It is easier to say Tirerrill than the
right name Tireliill, Aghaviller than Aghavirrer, and so on, in‘several
other cases.

Til. Change of ¢, , 0, and, tof. The guttural sound of ¢ aspirated
(¢), as heard in Loé (lough), cannot be pronounced at all by a speaker
of mere English, and as it constantly occurs in names, it is interesting
to observe the different ways in which English substitutes are provided.
When it comes in the end of words, it is often passed over altogether,
being neither represented in writing nor in pronunciation, as in Bally-
mena (Oaile-meadonaé, middle-town). Sometimes, both in the middle
and end of words, it is represented by gh, which is often sounded by

the English speaking natives, like the proper guttural ¢, as in Lough,
Lughany, while those who cannotsound the guttural, pronounce it as £ or h
(Lock, Luhany); but if this gh occur at the end of words, it is commonly

236

not sounded at all, as in Fermanagh, Kilnamanagh, &c. In the middle
_ of words, its place is often supplied by / alone, as in Crohane, the name
of a parish in Tipperary, and of several townlands (Cpuaédn, a little
rick or hill); and in many cases it is represented by £ or ch, as in Foor-
kill in parish of Athenry, Galway (Cuap-coill, cold wood).

But there is a more remarkable change which this aspirate under-
goes in common with three ofhers. In many names, the sounds of the
Irish aspirated letters ¢, §, 0, and G, are converted into the sound of Lie
and this occurs so frequently as to preclude all supposition of mere acci-
dent. Ch is ahard guttural, as heard in the common word lough (loc) ;
5 or 0 (both which have the same sound) is the corresponding soft gut-
tural, but in the end of Irish words, these aspirated letters are not
sounded at all; Gis sounded exactly like English h.

The sound of ¢ is changed to that of fin the following names.
Knocktopher in Kilkenny, in Irish Cnoc-a-coéaip, the hill of the
togher or causeway; Luffany, the name of two townlands in Kilkenny,
an pliucaine, the wet land; Clifden in Galway, Cloédn, a stone
house: Lisnafiffy, the name of two townlands in Down, Liop-na-paicce,
the ls of the green. Coill, a wood, has the ¢ usually aspirated when
the word forms the second part of a compound term, and in these cases,
it is often anglicised field, as in Cranfield, the name of a parish in An-
trim, and of two townlands, one in Tyrone, and the other in Down, 7.e.
Cpearh-coill, wild garlick wood: Longfield, the name of 21 townlands
in different parts of Ireland, but chiefly in the North, most or all of which
are corrupted from the Irish Leamh-Coill, elm wood. So also the personal
name Murphy, which is in Irish O’Mupéada; and it seems to be in
conformity with the same principle, that the Irish epocza, an enclosure,
corresponds with the English crof¢, same meaning.

In the following names, § or 6 has been changed tof. Bruff in
Limerick is properly bpug, a mansion. The brugh, or mansion, that gave
name to this place, still exists; it is an earthen fort near the town,
called at the present day by the people, Lipin-a-bhpoga, the little lis
of Bruff; there is also a townland named Bruff in parish of Aghamore,
Mayo. Balief in parish of Clomantagh, Kilkenny, is baile-Coda,
Hugh’s town; Muff, the name of two villages, one in Donegal, and the
other in Derry, and of eight townlands, all in the northern half of Ire-
Jand, Maé, a plain. In some cases, instead of the hard labial f, it is
turned into the corresponding soft labial v, as in Lough Melvin, Loé
Meilse, Meilghe’s lake; Adrivale in parish of Drishane, Cork, Gaoan-
dSabal, between the [river] forks; Glasnevin, which is called 6lar-
Naovden in Irish documents.

In the following names, & has been changed to f. Kailclief, in Co.
Down, which is called in the ‘‘ Annals of the Four Masters,’”’ and other
Trish documents, Cill-cleite, the hurdle church, referring to the primi-
tive church made of hurdles; Tiscoffin, a parish in Kilkenny, Gig-
Scoitin, Scoithin’s house or church; Cloonascoffagh, in the parish of
Kilmacshalgan, Sligo, Cluain-na-pcotaé, the meadow of the flowers.

237

Sputdn (diminutive of ppucd), a streamlet, is often made Sruffane,
especially in the Western counties, as in Ballytrofaun, in parish Kil-
shalvy, Shgo—baile-an-c-pputdin, the town of the streamlet. In
Kildare the same word becomes Straffan, the name of a parish, which
has also given name to one of the stations on the southern line of
railway.

I believe that the greater number of the alterations noticed under this
heading are attributable to the English language, but there are several
instances of words and names corrupted similarly by the speakers of
Trish. For example, the word Guaid, past tense of the verb ced, go,
is pronounced Puaid in the South; and O’ Donovan, in one of his Derry
letters, informs us, that the word ma%, a plain, is there pronounced in
Trish ‘‘ something between mugh and muff,” thereby facilitating or sug-
gesting its conversion into the present name, Muff. Bruff, in Limerick,
is called by those who speak Irish, bpub na Oeirpe, a corruption of the
ancient name, Opus na Oeipe, though the word recovers its correct
form in the name of the old fort—lipin a’ bhpoga.

Any one who had studied the English language and its letter
changes, might however anticipate that the Irish gutturals would some-
times be converted into English f. Words transplanted directly from
Trish, as might be expected, conform in many instances to the letter-
changing laws of the English language; there are many illustrations of
this, some of which I shall have occasion to refer to further on. Take
as an example, names commencing with knock. In such English words
as ‘‘ knight,” ‘“ knife,”’ “ knee,” &c., the & sound is entirely omitted in
pronunciation ; but in the Anglo-Saxon originals cnight, cnif, cneow,
both letters—the ¢ hard and the m—were pronounced (Max Miiller,
“‘ Lectures,’”’ 2nd series, p. 186). The Irish cnoc is subjected to the
same law, for while both letters are heard in Irish, the anglicised form
knock is always pronounced nock.

There is a similar compliance with English custom in the change of
the Irish gutturals tof. The English language, though it has now no
gutturals, once abounded in them, and in a numerous class of words the
guttural letters are still retained in writing, as in daughter, laughter,
might, strarght, plough, &c. While in many such words the sound of the
eutturals was wholly suppressed, in others it was changed to the sound
of f, as in trough, draught, cough, rough, &c. Itis a curious fact that
the struggle between these two sounds has not yet quite terminated ;
it is continued to the present day in Scotland and the North of Ireland,
where the peasantry still pronounce such words with the full strong
guttural.

It will be seen, then, that when the Irish gutturals are corrupted
to f, the change is made, not by accident or caprice, but in conformity
with a custom already existing in the English language.

IV. Interchange of d and g.—The letters d and g, when aspirated
(0 and $), are sounded exactly alike, so that it is impossible to dis-
tinguish them in speaking. This circumstance causes them to be, to

238

some extent, confounded one with the other; in modern Irish, the § is
very generally substituted for the older 6. In topographical names,
this aspirated g is often hardened or restored (after the manner shown
in page 226); and thus many names-have been corrupted both in writing
and pronounciation, by the substitution ofg for 6. But as far as I have
examined, I find only one example of the reverse—d for §.

The barony of Corcaguiny, in Kerry, should have been called Cor-
eaduinny, for the Irish name is Copca-Ohuibne, 7. ¢., the race or
progeny (corca) of Duibhne, who was grandson of Conaire Mor, mo-
narch of Ireland in the third century. Corca-Dhuibhne was origin-
ally the name of a tribe; but, after a custom very common in Ireland,
it was transferred to the territory they inhabited.

There are four townlands called Gargrim, in the counties of Done-
gal, Fermanagh, Leitrim, and Tyrone. The Irish name is 6eapp-
Opuim, 2. e. short ridge or hill, and it is correctly anglicised in Gar-
drum, the name of two townlands, one in Fermanagh, and the other in
Tyrone. In exactly the same way was formed Fargrim, the name of
two townlands, one in Fermanagh, and the other in Leitrim; it is in
Trish Papdpuim or Popopuim (outer ridge), in which form it appears
in the Four Masters at A.D. 11538; in its correct anglicised form, Far-
drum, it occurs in the name of two townlands, one in Fermanagh, and
the other in Westmeath. Drumgonnelly in the parish and county of
Louth, should have been called Drumdonnelly, from the Irish Opuim-
Ohongaile, the ridge or hill of the Donnellys. {Moneygold in the
parish of Ahamlish, Sligo, is corrupted from MWume-Ohubalcais,
Dubhaltach’s or Dudley’s shrubbery. The townland of Rossdagamph,
in parish of Inishmacsaint, Fermanagh, is Rop-oa-dath, the promon-
tory of the two oxen. It was a mistake the reverse of this, that gave
their present English name to the Ox mountains in Sligo. The Irish
name in all our Annals, is Sliab-§am (which probably means stormy
mountain); but the natives, believing it to be Shiab-dam, 7. e. the
mountain of the oxen, have accordingly perpetuated the present in-
correct name.

V. Insertion of t between s and r.—The combination sr is one of com-
paratively rare occurrence in modern Kuropean languages; -there is not
a single word in English, French, German, Greek, or Latin, beginning
with it, though many of their words are undoubtedly derived from
roots commencing with these two letters.

The Irish language has retained this combination, and in the Irish
dictionaries, a considerable number of words will be found commencing
with sr. Of these, there are, so far as I know, only four that enter
often into topographical names. These are ppdio, a street; ppat, a
holm or inch—the lowland along a river; pn6n, literally a nose, but in
a secondary sense, applied to points of hills, promontories, &c.; and
Phuc, a stream, with its derivative pputaip, and diminutives pnutdn
and ppuilin. It was not to be expected that the English language,
which within its own domain does not admit of the union of s and 7,

239

should receive these names in all cases without alteration. Of the
modern townland names containing the four words just named, the sr
has been retained in less than half; in about forty or fifty, it has been
changed to shr, and inall the rest it has been corrupted by the insertion
of aZ¢. There are about 170 modern names commencing with str, and
many more containing these letters intermediate. In all these, with
hardly an exception, the ¢ is a late insertion; for although we have
words in Irish commencing with str, there are no names derived from
them, except perhaps about half adozen. The insertion of a ¢ is one
of the expedients for avoiding the combination sr, which is found in
several languages, and which has been in operation from the earliest
times. We find it, for instance, in the O. H. German strowm (Eng.
stream), and in the name of the well-known Thracian River Strymon,
both of which are derived from a Sanscrit root sru, meaning to flow.*

A few names will illustrate these remarks. In Srugreana in parish
of Killinane, Kerry (Sput-s5pianaé, gravelly stream), and in Srananny
in parish of Donagh, Monaghan (Spaté-an-eanaié, the strath or holm
of the marsh), the initial sr has been retained. In Shrule (Sputaip),
the name of a town in Mayo, and of seven townlands in different coun-
ties, it has been changed to shr; and also in Shronagree, in the parish
of Skull, Cork (Spon-na-g-cpoide, the nose or point of the cattle).
In the following names, a ¢ has been inserted. Stradbally is the name
of several townlands and villages; the Irish name is Spaobaile, 7. e.
street town, from ppdio and baile, and the word originally meant a
town consisting of one long street, undefended by either walls or castle.
Strancally on the Blackwater, in parish of Kilcockan, Waterford, the
well-known seat of the Desmonds, is in Irish Spé6n-caillge, the hag’s
nose or promontory. Ardstraw, in Tyrone, is AUpo-ppata, the height
of (or near) the srath or river bank; and Strabane, also in Tyrone,
Spac-bdn, white srath. Struell, in the parish and county of Down, is
Spucaip, a streamlet, but this word 1s more commonly anglicised
Shrule.

This corruption—the insertion of ¢—is found more or less all over
Treland, but it prevails more in the Northern counties than anywhere
else. In Ulster, the combination sr is scarcely admitted at all; of
about 170 townland names in all Ireland, commencing with these two
letters, there are only twelve in this province, and these are wholly
confined to Donegal, Fermanagh, and Monaghan.

VI. Addition of d after n, 1, and r; and of b after m.—The most
extensive agency in corrupting language is contraction, 2. ¢. the omis-
sion of letters ; first, in pronunciation, and afterwards in writing. This
is what Max Miller calls phonetic decay, and he shows that it results
from a deficiency of muscular energy in pronunciation, in other words,
from laziness. There are cases, however, in which this principle seems

* See Mr. Whitley Stokes’s “ Irish Glosses ;” and Dr. W. K. Sullivan’s Translation
of Ebel’s ‘‘ Celtic Studies.”

240

to be violated, that is, in which words are corrupted by the addition of
anomalous letters. In English, for instance, a d is often added after n,
and in Greek, after both » and /; as in Eng. thunder from A.-Sax.
thunor ; cinder from Lat. (cents) cineris, &c.; and in Greek, anér, gen.
andros, &c. This tendency in English is also noticed by Lhuyd in his
‘“‘Archeologia,”’ (p. 9). Another corruption similar to this, which is found
in several languages, is the addition of 0 after m; as in Eng. slumber
from A.-Sax. slumerian; Fr. nombre from numerus; Lat. comburo, from
com, (con), and uro ; Gr. gambros for gamros, &c. Max Miiller shows,
however, that the insertion of these letters 1s due to the same laziness
in pronunciation, that causes omission in other cases.*

_ These corruptions are very frequent in Irish names, viz.:—the letter
d is often placed after m and /, and sometimes after r; and the letter d
after m. In Oneilland, the name of a barony in Armagh, the d isa
mere excrescence, for the Irish name is Ua Niallai, 27. ¢. the territory
of the Hy Niallain, a tribe descended and named from Niallan, fourth
in descent from Colla Da Chrioch. The same corruption is found in
the following, as well as in many other names: Terryland, near Gal-
way (Cip-oiléin, the district of the island); Killeshandra, in Cavan
(Cill-a-c-pean-ndca, the church of the old rath, because the original
church was built within the inclosure of an ancient rath); Tandragee,
the name of a town in Armagh, and of several townlands, chiefly in the
northern counties (C6in-pe-5ao01t, podex ad ventum); Rathfryland, in
Down (Rat-Ppaoiteann, Freelan’s rath); Tullyland in parish of Bal-
linadee, Cork (Gulaig-Ciledin, Helena’s hill).

D is added after / in the word “ field,’ when this word is an angli-
cised form of coill, a wood, as in Longfield, Cloncrafiield, &c., which
names have been already examined. The same corruption is found in
the ancient Welsh personal name, Gildas, and in the Irish name
Mc Donald, which are more correctly written Gillas and Macdonnell.
Sometimes the hard dental ¢, instead of the soft d, is placed after J, as
in Carrigaholt in Clare, in Irish Cappaig-an-coblaig, the rock of the
fleet. This name has been correctly anglicised in Carrigahooly in
Newport Bay, Mayo, the residence of the celebrated Grace O’ Malley.

Lastly, d is placed after r in Lifford, which is in Irish Leiébeapp;
this is a comparatively modern corruption ; for Spenser, in his ‘‘ View of
the State of Ireland,”’ calls it Castle-liffer. Itis to be observed that this
adventitious d is placed after m, much oftener than after the other two
letters, / and r.

The addition of 6 to m occurs, as far as I know, only in the word
Cumber or Comber, which is the name of a town in county Down, and
of several townlands in different counties, both singly and in com-
position. It is the Irish Coman, the cenfluence of two waters,
and it is correctly Anglicised Cummer and Comer in many names,

* See Max Miiller’s “‘ Lectures,” 2nd Series, p. 178.

241

such as Castlecomer in Kilkenny—the castle on the comar or con-
fluence.

All these changes were, I believe, made in English, but in the Irish
language there was once a strong tendency in the same direction. In what
is called middle Irish (from about the 10th, to about the 15th, century),
the custom was very general of using nd for nn. For instance the
word cenn (a head) is old Irish, for it is cited in this form by Zeuss
from MSS. not later than the beginning of the ninth century; but in
middle Irish MSS. it is usually written cend. In all such words, how-
ever, the proper termination is restored in modern Irish; and so strong
was this counter-current, that the d was swept away not only from
words into which it was incorrectly introduced, but also from those to
which it properly and radically belonged. The middle Irish words
CGipppeno (the Mass), and muileand (a mill), are spelled correctly
with a d, for they are derived from Lat. offerenda, and molendinum ;
but in modern Irish, they are always spelled and pronounced, Cippionn,
and muileann.

Some of the words and names cited under this section, afford a cu-
rious example of the fickleness of phonetic change, and at the same
time, of the regularity of its action. We find words spelled in Old
Trish with nv; in Middle Irish, a d is introduced, and the mn becomes
nd ; in Modern Irish, the d is rejected, and there is a return to the Old
Trish nn ; and in modern anglicised names, the d is reinstated, and nd
seems to remain in final possession of the field.

There is a corruption peculiar to the Northern and North-Western
counties, which is very similar to the one now under consideration,
namely, the sound of aspirated m (m = Eng. v) is often represented in
the present names by mph. This mode of spelling is probably an at-
tempt to represent the half nasal half labial-aspirate sound of hh, which
an ear unaccustomed to Irish finds it very difficult to catch. Under the
influence of this custom, damh, an ox, is converted into damph, as in
Derrydamph in parish of Knockbride, Cavan (Ooipe-ourh, the oak
erove of the oxen); creamh, wild garlic, is made cramph, as in Anna-
eramph, in parish of Grange, Armagh (CGanaé-cpeama wild garlic
marsh); sceamh, the polypodium or wall fern, becomes scamph, as in
Drumnascamph in parish of Clonduff, Down (Opuim-na-pceam, the
ridge or hill of the wall fern).

VIL. The letter s prefixed to ceaé or T1$, and leaco.—The Irish word
ceac, which is also written c1§, means primarily a house, but it was
also often applied to a church. In both senses it enters extensively
into topographical names all over Ireland, in the anglicised forms of
Ta, Tagh, Tee, Ti, Ty, &c. In some of the Eastern counties, this word
is liable to a singular corruption, noticed by Dr. Reeves and Dr. O’Do-
noyan, viz. the Irish Za or 77 is converted into Sta or St, in a consi-
derable number of names, of which the following are examples. Still-
organ is in Irish G1$-Lopcain, Lorcan’s or Laurence’s house; Staban-
non in Louth ought to be Tabannon, from Teac-bandin, Bannan’s

B. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 2K

242

house; Stackallen in Meath is CGeaé-Colldin, Collan’s house. So
also Stirue, Stannaway, Stamullen, Stapolin, and several others.

This corruption is almost confined to the counties of Dublin, Meath,
and Louth: I can find only very few examples outside these counties,
among which are, the parish of Stackumny in Kildare, Stakally in
parish of Powerstown, Kilkenny, and Tyrella in Down, which is
called in the well-known Taxation (1806) published by Dr. Reeves,
Staghreel (Ceaé-Riagala, Riaghal’s or Regulus’s house). I find also,
after a not over-nice examination, that there are altogether in Dublin,
Meath, and Louth, 23 names which commenced originally with Ceaé
or G15, in 15 of which this word has become Sta or Sti, the remaining
eight being correctly anglicised.

The Irish word Leaéz, a sepulchral monument, is also in some of
the Ulster counties, corrupted by prefixing an s; for example Slaght-
averty in parish of Errigal, Londonderry, ought to be Lachtaverty,
Averty’s monument. So also Slaghtneill, Slaghtmanus, Slaghtfreeden,
Slaghtybogy, and perhaps a few others.

It will be recollected that all the corruptions hitherto noticed, were
found capable of explanation, on some previously established principle
of language: the reason of the alteration now under consideration,
however, is not so evident. In case of the conversion of Ta and 77 into
Sta and St, if I might be allowed to venture an opinion, I should sug-
gest the following as the probable explanation. The fact that this pe-
culiarity is almost confined to Dublin, Meath, and Louth, renders it
likely that it is a Danish corruption. In all the Northern languages
there are whole classes of words commencing with st, which mean
habitation, place, &c. For example, A.-Sax.-stow, a dwelling place,
a habitation; stede, a place, a station: Danish, sted, locus, sedes; stad,
urbs, oppidum; stede, statio: Icelandic, stadr, statio, urbs, oppidum;
stofa, curta domus; sto, statio. And I may add that in Iceland,
Norway, and other Northern countries, several of these words are
extensively used in the formation of names of places, of which any
one may satisfy himself by only looking over a map of one of these
~ countries.

It appears to me, then, sufficiently natural, that the Northern set-
tlers should convert the Irish Za and 77 into their own significant Sta
and Sti. The change was sufficiently marked in character to assimilate
to some extent the names to their own familiar local nomenclature,
while the alteration of form was so slight, that the words still remained
quite intelligible to the Irish population. It would appear more ~
natural to a Dane to say Stabannon (meaning Banon’s house) than
Tabannon, and an Irishman would understand quite well what he
meant.
This opinion is further supported by these two well-known facts.
First, many places on the Eastern coast have Danish names, as Car-
lingford, Waterford, Wexford, Leixlip, Howth, Lambay, Ireland’s Eye,
and Dalkey. Secondly, the Danes frequently changed the Irish Inip

243

an island, into their own equivalent word, ey, as in the three last
mentioned names. Lambay is Lamb-ey, i.e. lamb island; Ireland’s
Kye is Ireland’s island, or more correctly Eria’s island (Eria or Eire,
a woman’s name) ; and Dalkey is the Irish Deilginis, the island of thorn
bushes.

If it be objected that Tabannon could not be converted on this prin-
ciple into Stabannon, because the Northern method of forming such
names is to place the limiting term first, not last as in Irish (for
instance the Irish order is Sta-bannon, but the Northern Bannon-sta) ;
it may be answered that in anglicising Irish names, it is very usual
to convert each part of a compound wholly or partly into an Eng-
lish word, leaving the whole at the same time in the original Irish
order; as for instance Batterjohn, Castledonovan, Downpatrick, Port
Stewart, &c., in which the proper English order would be John’s batter,
Donovan’s Castle, &c.

It is only fair to state, however, that Worsae, who was perhaps
aware of this corruption, does not notice it, though in his ‘‘ Account
of the Danes and Norwegians in England, Scotland, and Ireland,” he
has collected every vestige he could find of the Danish rule in these
countries.

VIIL. Provincial Differences of Pronunciation.—There are certain
Irish words and classes of words, which by the Irish-speaking people are
pronounced differently in different parts of the country; and as the
general rule in anglicising names, is to preserve as nearly as possible
the original pronunciation, these provincial peculiarities, as might be
anticipated, are reflected in the modern names. This principle is so
general, and such large numbers of names are affected by it, that a
whole paper might be written in illustration of it; I shall, however,
notice only a few of the most prominent cases.

In the Southern half of Ireland, the Irish letters @ and o are sounded
in certain situations like ow in the English word ounce.* 6abap, a
goat, is pronounced gowr in the South and gore in the North; and so the
name Liop-na-n-5abap (the lis or rath of the goats), 1s anglicised Lis-
nagower, in parish of Ballingarry, Tipperary, and Lisnagore, in parish
of Killeevan, Monaghan. So also Ballynahown, a common townland
name in the South, (baile-na-habann, the town of the river), contrasts
with Ballynahone, an equally common name in the North. Pionn
(white or fair), is pronounced feoun or fiune in Munster, as in Baunfoun,
in parish of Affane, Waterford, and Bawnfune, in parish of Kilmacabea,
Cork. In most other parts of Ireland itis pronounced fim, as in Finglas,
near Dublin, (Pionnslaip, bright or limpid stream), and Fintona, in
Tyrone, (Pionn-camnaé, fair or whitish field).

The sound of 6 (=) is often sunk altogether in Munster, while it
commonly retains its v sound in the other provinces, especially in

* For this and the succeeding provincial peculiarities, see O’ Donovan’s Grammar,
Part I., Chaps. 1. and 1.

244

Connaught. In Derrynanool in parish of Marshalstown, Cork (Ooipe-
na-n-aball, the grove of the apples), the 6 is not heard, while it is
fully sounded in Avalbane, in parish of Clontibret, Monaghan (Gball-
bdn, white orchard), and in Killavil, in parish of Kilshalvy, Sligo
(Cill- abaill, the church of the apple tree).

In certain positions ad is sounded like Eng. eye, in the South; thus
Ladap, a [river] fork, is made /yre, and in this form it constitutes the
whole or part of more than sixty townland names, nearly allin Munster.
More northerly the same word appears as /err or lear, as in Knocknalear,
in parish of Clones, Fermanagh (Cnoc-na-ladan, the hill of the forks),
and the river Lerr in Kildare, which would be called Lyre in the south.
So Clad, a dyke or mound of clay, is anglicised cly in the South, and
claw or cla in the North, and in both forms, enters extensively into
names.

Cio in the termination of words is sounded like oo in Connaught;
thus maoad, a dog, is anglicised maddoo in Carrownamaddoo, the name
of three townlands in Sligo—while it is made vady in Limavady in
Derry (Leim-a-maoa1%, the dog’s leap, which is properly the name of
the cataract near the town).

One of the most distinctly marked provincial peculiarities, so far as
names are concerned, is the pronunciation that prevails in Munster, of
the final §, which is sounded there like the English hard g in fig.
Great numbers of local names are influenced by this corruption. Bal-
hncollig, near Cork is baile-an-cullaig, the town of the boar, and would
be better anglicised Ballincully. Ballintannig in parish of Ballinaboy,
Cork, is baile-an-c-peanaig, the town of the fox; and Ballinhassig,
same parish, is baile-an-eapaté, the town of the cataract. The present
name of the river Maigue in Limerick is formed on the same principle,
its Irish name being Maig, that is, the river of the plain. The greater
number of Munster names ending in g hard, are illustrations of this
peculiar pronunciation.

Tt is, no doubt, owing to a difference in the way of pronouncing the
original Irish words, that Cluain (an insulated bog meadow), is some-
times in modern names made cloon, sometimes clon, and occasionally
clone; that Otn (a fortified residence), is in one place spelt doon, in
another dun, and in a third down ; that in the neighbourhood of Dublin,
Bally is shortened to Bal, in Donegal Rath is often made Rye or Ray,
and in Wexford Zober is sometimes changed to Grbber, &c., &e.

1X. Lrish Names with English Plurals.—I\t is very well known that
topographical names are often in the plural number, and this peculia-
rity is found in the nomenclature of all countries. Sometimes in trans-
ferring foreign names of this kind into English, the original plurals are

retained, but much oftener they are rejected, and replaced by English

plurals, as in the well-known examples, Thebes and Athens.
Great numbers of Irish topographical names are in like manner
plural in the originals, and there is considerable diversity in angli-

245

cising them. Very often the original terminations are retained, as in
Boolteeny in parish of Kilmore, Tipperary (buailcinide, little booleys
or dairy places]; Milleeny, in parish of Ballyvourney, Cork ({Nillinibe,
little hillocks, from meall, a hillock).

Oftener still, the primary plural inflection is rejected, and its place
supplied by the English termination. Fews is the name of a parish in
Waterford, and of two baronies in Armagh; there is also a district in
Roscommon called ‘‘ The Fews or Faes of Athlone.’’ The word means
** woods,’ and the two latter places are cailed by the Four Masters
Peada, which is the plural of P1060, a wood. Keeloges is the name of
about 26 townlands scattered all over Ireland; it means ‘“ narrow
ridges or plots,’ and the Irish name is Caoléga, same meaning. Car-
rigans is a common name in the North, and Carrigeens in the South;
it is the anglicised form of Canpaisinide, little rocks. Daars, a town-
land in parish of Bodenstown, Kildare, means ‘‘ oaks” from Odipge,
plural of Oaip, an oak. So Mullans and Mullauns, from Mulldin,
little flat hills; Derreens from Ooipimie, little derrys or oak groves;
Ards and Ardes, from Upoa, heights; Bawnoges from Ddnéga, Little
green fields, &c.

In many names, the Irish plural form is wholly or partly retained,
while the English termination is superadded: these double plurals are
very common. Glenties in Donegal, is called in Irish na 6leanncaide,
“‘the glens” (sing. sleann). Glentie, which is the proper anglicised form,
would of itself mean ‘“ glens’”’ without the addition of the s, which
makes it a double plural. The place receives its name from its situa-
tion at the head of ‘“‘ The glens of Boylagh.”’ Killybegs, the name of
a village in the same county, and of several other places in different parts
of Ireland, is in Irish Cealla-beaga, little churches. The plural of
Cluain (an insulated meadow) is Cluaince, which is anglicised cloonty,
a common townland name. With s added, it becomes Cloonties, the
name of some townlands, and of a well-known district near Strokes-
town, Roscommon. This last is called Cloonties, because it consists of
24 townlands, all whose names begin with the word ‘ cloon.”’

NAMES PARTLY OR WHOLLY ENGLISH.

X. Translated Names.—W hoever examines the Index list of town-
lands will perceive, that while a vast preponderance of the names are
obviously Irish, a very considerable number are plain English words.
These English names are of three classes, viz., really modern English
names, imposed by English-speaking people, such as Kingstown, Cas-
tleblakeney, Charleville; those which are translations of older Irish
names; and a third class to which I shall presently refer. With the
first kind—pure modern English names—I have nothing to do; I
shall only remark that they are much less numerous than might be at
first supposed.

A large proportion of those townland names that have an English

246

form, are translations, and of these I shall give a few examples. Saint-
field, in Down, is a correct equivalent of the old name Tonaghneeve
(Carhnaé-naom), which means the field of the saints. Watergrasshill
in Cork, is universally called by those speaking Irish, Cnocan-na-
biolpalge, the hill of the watercresses. The Irish name of Cloverhill
in parish of Kilmacowen, Sligo, is Cnoc-na-peamap, the hill of the
shamrocks. Skinstown in parish of Rathbeagh, Kilkenny, is a transla-
tion of Daile-na-5-cpoiceann, and Nutfield in parish of Aghavea, Fer-
managh, is correctly translated from the older name Aghnagrow (U¢ad-
na-5-cno. ) :

Among this class of names, there are not a few incorrectly trans-
lated. All such false translations are the result of confounding Irish
words, which are nearly alike in sound, but different in meaning.
Freshford in Kilkenny should have been called Freshfield, which is the
correct equivalent of its Irish name Céad-tp, while its present name
is a translation of dé-Gp. The Irish name of Strokestown in Roscom-
mon, is not baile-na--m-btille, as the present incorrect name would
imply, but bél-ata-na-m-btille, the ford (not the town) of the strokes
or blows. In Castleventry, the name ofa parish in Cork, there is a
strange attempt at preserving the original signification. Its Irish
name is Caipledn-na-gaoite, the castle of the wind, which has been
made Castleventry, as if Ventry had some connexion in meaning with
ventus.

In Meath great numbers of townland names end in the word town;
and. those names derived from families are almost always translated so
as to preserve this termination, as Drakestown, Gernonstown, Cruices-
town, &c. But several names are anglicised very strangely, and some
barbarously, in order to force them into compliance with this custom.
Thus Teltown is the modern form of the ancient Tailltean; the Irish
name of Mooretown, in parish of Ardcath, 1s baile-an-cuppaié, the
town of the moor or marsh; Crannaghtown, in parish of Balrathboyne,
is in Irish Daile-na-5-cpannaé, the town of the trees ; Tullaghanstown,
in parish of Clonmacduff, is baile-an-culéain, the town of the hil-
lock, &e.

Many names again, of the present class, are only half translations,
one part of the word being not translated, but merely transferred. The
reason of this probably was, either that the unchanged Irish part was
in such common use as a topographical term, as to be in itself sufficiently
understood, or that the translators were unable to find an equivalent
for it in English. The name of Dalkey is a familiar example—the
first part, Daik, is merely the Irish veal, a thorn, and the second part,
ey, 1s the Danish equivalent of Inip, anisland; the full Irish name was
Oeilsinip, ¢.¢. thorny island. In the parish of Ballycarney, Wexford,
there is a townland taking its name from a ford, called in Irish Scainb-
an-bhpeatnaisg, Walsh’s scarif or shallow ford, and this, withan obvious
alteration, has given name to the barony of Scarawalsh, Turkhead in
parish of Aghadown, Cork, means, not the head of a Zurk, but the head

247

of a boar; its original name being the same as that of the town of Kan-
turk (Ceann-cuine, 7. ¢. boar’s head). In Cargygray, in parish of
Annahilt, Down, gray is a translation of paca, and cargy is the Irish
cainse, rocks; the full name is cainge-piaca, grey rocks. The Irish
name of Curraghbridge, near Adare in Limerick, is Opoi¢et-na-copna,
the bridge of the weir or dam, and it is anglicised by leaving copna
nearly unchanged, and translating opoicet to bridge.

XI. Irish names simulating English forms.—The non-Irish names of
the third class, already alluded to, are in some respects more interesting
than those belonging to either of the other two. They are apparently
English, but in reality Irish; and they have settled down into their pre-
sent forms, under the action of a certain corrupting influence, which
often comes into operation when words are transferred (not translated)
from one language into another. It is the tendency to convert the
strange word, which is etymologically unintelligible to the mass of those
beginning to use it, into another that they can understand, formed by
a combination of their own words, more or less hke the original in sound,
but almost always totally different in sense. This principle exists, and
acts extensively in the English language, and it has been noticed by several
writers—among others by Latham, Dr. Trench, and Max Miller, the
last of whom devotes an entire lecture to it, under the name of ‘‘ Popular
Etymology.” These writers explain by it the formation of numerous
English words and phrases; and in their writings may be found many
amusing examples, a few of which I shall quote. It is designated by
Latham ‘‘ words of foreign, simulating a vernacular origin,” and I have
borrowed from him the word ‘simulating’ in the heading of this
section.

The word ‘“‘ beefeater’’ is corrupted from buffetier, which was applied
to a certain class of persons, so called, not from eating beef, but because
their office was to wait at the buffet. Shotover Hill, near Oxford, a
name which the people sometimes explain by a story of Little John
shooting an arrow over it, is merely the French Chateau Vert. The
tavern sign of ‘The goat and compasses,” is a corruption of the older
sien-board ‘“‘God encompasseth us ;” ‘‘ The cat and the wheel” is “St.
Catherine’s wheel;’’ Brazenose College, Oxford, was originally called
Brasen-huis, 7. ¢. brew-house, because it was a brewery before the
foundation of the college; and ‘La rose des quatre saisons”’ becomes
«‘'The rose of the quarter sessions,” &c., &c.

This principle has been extensively at work in corrupting Irish
names—much more so indeed than I had believed before commencing
to write this paper. I have collected a long list of illustrative names,
which might be much extended by a further search, but only a very
small portion can be presented in this paper.

The best anglicised form of coill, a wood, is kell or kyle; in many
names, however, chiefly in the North of Ireland, it is changed to the
English word field. Cranfield, the name of three townlands in Down,

248

Antrim, and Tyrone, is in Irish Cpeam-coill (pr. crav-whill),* 1.
wild garlick wood. Uearth-Goill (pr. dav-whill), a very usual name,
meaning ‘‘ elm-wood,” is generally transformed into the complete Eng-
lish word Longfield, which forms the whole or part of a great many
townland names. The conversion of ¢oill into field seems a strange
transformation, but every step in the process is accounted for, by prin-
ciples already examined in this paper, namely, the conversion of ¢
into f, the addition of d after /, and the alteration of the Irish into an
English word. There are many townland names in the South, as well
as in the North, in which the same word coill is made /i//. Who could
doubt but that Coolhill in the parish of The Rower, Kilkenny, means
the cool or cold hill; or that Boyhill in the parish of Aghavea, Ferma-
nagh, is the hill of the boys? But the first is really ctl-coill (pr.
Coolhill), back wood, and the second bulde-coill (pr. dbwee-hill), yellow
wood. So also in Scaryhill, Cullohill, Dunhill, and many others.

M6incean (pr. mone-thaun), boggy land, and M6incin (mone-theen),
a little bog, are in the South, very generally anglicised mountain, as in
Ballynamountain, Kilmountain, Coolmountain, &c., all townland names;
and in both North and South, uaécanp, upper, is frequently changed to
water, asin Ballywatermoy, Wateresk, &c. ‘There is a parish in An-
trim called Billy, a townland in parish of Kinawly, Fermanagh, called
Molly, and another in parish of Ballinlough, Limerick, with the more am-
bitious name of Cromwell; but all these sail under false colours, for the
first is bile (d22/2), an ancient tree, the second Mdlaige (pr. mauly),
hill-brows, or braes, and Cromwell is nothing more than Cnom-éoilb
(pr. Crumwhill), stooped or sloping wood. The word bile is in other
instances transformed into the fashionable vz/e or villa, as in Munville,
in parish of Aghalurcher, Fermanagh (Muine-bile, the shrubbery of
the ancient tree), and Baurayilla in parish of Caheragh, Cork, the barr
or hill top of the tree.

There are several places in Tipperary and Limerick called by the
Scriptural name Mountsion ; but Mount is only a translation of cnoc,
and ston, an ingenious adaptation of pldedn (pr. sheeawn), a fairy mount,
the full Irish name being Cnoc-a’-c-pdedn, fairy-mount hill. No
English word could be plainer than Lowertown, a name of frequent
occurrence; stripped of its English dress, however, it turns out to be
Lubsopcan (pr. looartaun), an herb-garden; the same word is in other
places anglicised Lorton, Lurton, Luffertane, &c. There is a parish in
Roscommon, called anciently, Oipeapc-Nuadain, Nuadhan’s desert or _
hermitage, and in the corrupt modern Irish, Ister-Nuadhain (pr. [ster-
nooan); and this has been metamorphosed in the strange name of Has-
tersnow. Islafaleon in parish of Ardtramon, Wexford, is not what it

* T have given the pronunciation (as nearly as English letters can represent it) of
most of the Irish words in this section; for without it, a reader, not understanding Irish,
would be unable to catch the point in the different transformations.

249

appears to be, the island of the falcon, but Oiledn-a’-pocdin (pr.
tlaun-a-fuckaun), the island or river-holm of the buck goat; and Lis-
namulligan, in parish of Clonduff, Down, is not Mulligan’s dis, but Liop-
na-b-paoileagdn (pr. lisnaveelagaun), the lis or rath of the sea gulls.

So also braighid (a gorge) has been changed to broad, chonaidh (an
inflection of conadh, firewood) to honey, Gabhailin to Golden, Bothar-
liath to Birdlee, ’n Iubhrach to Newrath, Greagraidhe to The Gregories,
Both-iseall to Bush-hill, &c., &c.

Nearer home, however, we have a good example of this process in
the name of the Phoenix Park. This word Phcenix (as applied to our
park), is a corruption of Pionn-uips’ (pr. feenisk), which means clear
or limpid water. It was originally the name of the spring well near
the Phoenix pillar, situated just outside the wall of the Viceregal
erounds, behind the gate lodge, and which is, I believe, the head of the
stream that supplies the ponds near the Zoological Gardens. No name
could be more characteristic for this well than ‘“ Fionn-uisg,” for the
water is perfectly transparent. The name has given origin to the
figure of the phoenix on the top of the pillar. Itis proper to remark
that this name Pionn-uips’ is common through the country, in the
anglicised form £7nisk, and was originally applied to small, clear, spark-
ling streams. There is a river Finisk, for example, joining the Black-
water about three miles below Cappoquin.

But I shall not dwell further on this portion of the subject; it
would be an endless task, and totally incompatible with the limits of a
single paper, to pursue it through all its ramifications; I trust, how-
ever, that enough has been said, and a sufficient number of examples
given, to show how extensively Irish names are corrupted by this
tendency to make Irish words simulate English forms.

I have now examined eleven different sources of corruption and
change, in Irish names, and I have selected these, because, so far as I
am aware, they are the most striking and important, as well as the
most extensive in their influence. There are other letter changes
of a less violent character, such as those caused by metathesis, gram-
matical inflection, &c., which I have not thought sufficiently important
to notice. The interchange of hard and soft mutes (or tenues and media)
is extremely common, but this too, as not causing considerable ob-
scuration of the names, I shall dismiss with a single remark. In the
formation of modern English names from ancient Irish, the change
from hard to soft is comparatively rare, while the reverse change, from
soft to hard, occurs very frequently. Dulane, near Kells, is an ex-
ample of the former, its ancient name, as spelled by the Four Masters,
being Tuilen or Tuldn, 7. ¢. the little ¢ulach or hill; as examples of
the latter, it will be sufficient to mention the frequent change of oub
(black) to duff, sapb (rough) to garzf, cappais (arock) to carrick, &e.,
in the two former of which the sound of v is converted to that of
f, and in the last the sound of g (in got) is changed to that of k. There
are also corruptions of an exceptional and unexpected character, which
R. I. A. PRCC.— VOL, IX. 21

250

I have not been able to reduce to any principle, but I shall not dwell

on them, as the object of this paper is not so much the examina-
tion of individual names, as the development of general laws.

It very often happens that different Irish words, in consequence of
having some resemblance to each other in sound, assume the same form
in English. Coill, a wood, often becomes Ac//, which is the usual
anglicised form of cill, a church; and on the other hand, cill is some-
times (especially in Munster) made /yle, which is the best and most
common English form of coill. In Kilmallock, the first syllable means
a church, in Kilmore (a barony in"Cork), it is ‘‘a wood; in Kylebeg
(parish of Aglishcloghane, Tipperary), Kyle is ‘‘ church,” and in Kyle-
brack (parish of Leitrim, Galway), ‘‘awood.”’ Aughrim, Aughna-
cloy, and Aughanure, all begin with the same syllable Augh; but in
the first, it means a horse (ea¢), in the second a ford (ad), and in
the third a field (atad). Bally is usually the Irish baile, a town or
townland, as in Ballymote; but it 1s also very frequently the angli-
cised representative of béal-ata, ford (lit. ford-mouth) as in Bally-
shannon. In Kilduff, the last syllable is the Irish oub, black, while
in Clonduff (a parish in Down), it is oaih, the genitive of oam,
an OX.

In such names as these, it is impossible to determine the etymology
with certainty, without knowing either the Irish pronunciation, or the
original orthography; and there are many names of this class whose
meanings are still unsettled, in consequence of having lost both history
and pronunciation. The fact here established, that the same word
often represents different Irish roots, demonstrates the folly of at-
tempting to explain the meanings of names merely from their modern
forms.

Notwithstanding the variety of disturbing causes, and the great
number of individual names affected by each, only a small proportion
of the whole are corrupted, the great majority being, as already stated,
anglicised correctly or nearly so. When it is considered that there are

more than 60,000 townlands in Ireland, and when to the names of 4

these are added the countless names of rivers, lakes, mountains, &c.,

it will be seen that even a small fraction of all will aan a number large q

enough to give sufficient play to all the corrupting influences enumerated
in these pages.

There is no part of Irish antiquities in which writers have indulged q
in so much useless speculation, as in the interpretation of Irish topo- ~

graphical names. Almost all our tourists’ hand-books, county histories,

topographical dictionaries, &c., abound in etymologies of names. But
if we leave out of the question a few topographical descriptive works
of a superior class, published within the last few years, it may be safely _
asserted, that these interpretations are, generally speaking, false and
worthless. Instead of seeking out the ancient forms of the names in

authentic Irish documents, or ascertaining their proper pronunciation
from the people of the localities, and making allowance when necessary _

251

for the usual letter changes, writers of this class, ignoring both autho-
rity and analogy, invented original forms that the names never had,
and interpreted them, each according to his own fancy, or to lend
plausibility to some favourite theory. There are few localities of any
note in the whole country, that have not been subjected by one writer
or another to conjectural explanations of this kind; of these it may not
be uninstructive nor out of place to subjoin a few examples.

Bangor (in Down), has been generally supposed to come from Ban-
chora, meaning ‘“‘ white choir,’”’ which name, Harris states, was derived
from the elegance of its lime and stone building. This building was
erected_by St. Malachy in the 12th century, and Dr. Reeves remarks
on the absurdity of accounting for the name Bangor, which existed in the
6th century, by a building which was not erected till the 12th. The
true name is beannécoip, which means horns, gables, peaks, or pointed
rocks; and this root, under slightly modified forms, enters frequently
into names in different parts of Ireland. Thus Banagher, the name of
a town in King’s County, and of seven townlands in other counties ;
Movanagher in parish of Kilrea, Londonderry ; Drumbanagher in parish
of Killevy, Armagh, and several other places.

Clonmacnoise has been often explained ‘‘ The retreat of the sons of
the noble,’’ a name which it was thought to have received, either be-
cause the place was anciently very much frequented by the nobility,
or because it was the burial place of so many kings and chieftains.
But.the proper form of the name, as used inthe Annals, is Cluain-Mic-
Nois, which means “ the cloon or insulated meadow of the son of Nos.”

Askeaton in Limerick is made Eas-cead-tinne, in a well-known
modern topographical work on Ireland; the writer explains it ‘‘ The
cataract of the hundred fires,’ and adds, ‘‘ the fires were probably some
way connected with the ritual of the Druids, the ancient Irish Guebres.”’
The name, however, is Eas-Gephtine, which simply means the cataract
of Gephtine, some old pagan chief. The cataract is where the Deel
falls over a ledge of rocks near the town. I may remark kere, that
great numbers of these fanciful derivations were invented to prove that
the ancient Irish worshipped fire. Balla, in Mayo, is explained by
Vallancey ‘‘ The fire of fires ;’’ but we are told in the life of St. Mochua,
the founder, publishod by Colgan, that the place, which had previously
been called Ros-Dairbhreach, received the name of Balla, from the walls
(balla), with which St. Mochua enclosed the wells of his religious
establishment. Aghagower, in the same county, Vallancey also ex-
plains “ Fire of fires;” the original name, however, is Achadh-fobhair,
in which, as O’ Donovan remarks, there is not a word signifying fire at
all, its meaning being ‘‘ the field of the spring,” from a celebrated well,
still in existence, and now known by the name of St. Patrick’s well.
Neither does the present form of the name—Aghagower—mean “ Fire
of fires,’ but a very different thing, ‘‘ the field of the goat.”

Smith in his History of Cork, states that the barony of Kinalmeaky
means ‘‘ the head of the noble root”? from cean, head, neal, noble, and
meacan, aroot. The true form of the name, however, is Cinel-mBece,

252

which was originally the name, not of the territory, but of the tribe |

that inhabited it, and ‘‘ means the descendants (¢7nel) of Bece,’”’ who was
_ the ancestor of the O’ Mahonys.*

In Seward’s Topographical Dictionary, it is stated that Baltinglass
(in Wicklow) ‘is derived from Beal-tinne-glas, or the fire of Beal’s
mysteries, the fires being lighted there by the Druids in honour of the
sun ;’’ and the writer of a Guide to Wicklow (Curry, Dublin, 1834),
says "that it is « Bal-teach-na-glass, or the town of the grey houses,’ and
he adds, ‘‘ certainly the appearance of them bears us outin this.”’ This
is all pure invention; neither of the original forms here given is the
correct one, and even if it were, it would not bear the meaning assigned,
nor indeed any meaning at all. In ancient documents, the name is
always given Bealach-Chonglais, which means the pass or road of Cuglas,
who was a historical personage connected with the locality.

Carnsore Point, in Wexford, is called by Ptolemy, Hieron Akron,
t.¢., the Sacred Promontory; and Camden (‘‘ Britannia,” Ed. 1594,
p. 659), in stating this fact, says, he has no doubt but that the native
Trish name bore the same meaning. This conjecture seems fair enough,
but the reason he gives for his conviction is a very unfortunate one.
He states that the name of Bannow, a town situated not far from the
promontory, where the English made their first descent, signifies
‘‘ sacred”’ in the Irish language. The Irish verb beannuig means
‘< to bless,’”’ and its participle is beannuigce, “‘blessed:’’ but this has
no connexion in meaning with Bannow, which is nothing more than
the anglicised form of banb, asucking pig. The harbour where Robert
Fitzstephen landed, was called in Irish Cuan-an-bainb, 2. e. the har-
bour of the bonnive, or young pig, and Bannow has perpetuated the
latter part of the name.

These examples may serve as a specimen of what some years ago
passed as learning. There was a time, and that not far distant, when
whole theories regarding the social condition or religious belief of the
early inhabitants of this country were built upon, or mainly supported
by fanciful and silly etymologies. This practice has done much mis-
chief, by helping to impress the scholars of other countries, and even of
our own, with the belief that Irish Archeology was a worthless and
unprofitable study—a mass of fable and conjecture, without any solid
historical basis.

It will not be denied, I hope, that the subject of Irish topographical

names is worthy the attention, not only of the Irish scholar, but also —

of the general student of language; that it requires to be dealt with
cautiously, and precludes all indulgence in mere fancy or conjecture;
and that, if prosecuted on sound historical and philological prin-
ciples, it is a study that will fully repay the labour of investigation.

* This example has been borrowed from Dr. Todd.

Tee

253

The Rev. Joun F. Suparaan (with permission of the Academy) read
the following paper :—

On some Inscripep Stones at Kititerw Cormac, near Duniavin.

Amone the many places and objects of antiquarian interest in the neigh-
bourhood of Dunlavin, is the ancient cemetery of Killeen Cormac, lying
to the south-west of Dunlavin, and distant from it about three miles.
it is situated on the lands of Colbinstown, in a detached portion of the
parish of Davidstown, in the barony of E. Narragh and Reban, county of
Kildare. This interesting spot lies in a valley of picturesque character,
traversed by the River Griese, here separating Wicklow from Kildare,
and the diocese of Leighlin from that of Glendalough. This valley is
diversified by insulated mounds or eskars, which, as they still retain
their Irish names, and being connected with the history of the locality,
a description of them may not be deemed foreign to the subject of this
paper.

On the left bank of the Griese, in the parish of Ballynure, is along
eskar, called Bullock Hill, the legend of which will hereafter appear.
On the right bank is another elevation, called Cnoc Bunnion,* by way
of opposition to Bullock Hill. Beyond this is another eskar, the highest
of the group, called Rathown Beck, having on its summit a well-
preserved moat, of large dimensions. A small stream, called the
Srughan, 7. e. little river, flows under it, and joins the Griese in the
vicinity. Another mound lies between this and Cnoc Bunnion, which is
the site of the old cemetery of Killeen Cormac, the subject of this
paper. ‘This eskar is of oval form, its major axis lying nearly east by
west. It is occupied by the remains of three concentric enclosures,
dividing the surface of the slopes into as many steps or terraces, the
highest of which, on the western end, is fashioned into a moat or rath,
in which is a square depression, excepting which there are no direct
indications of the site of the church.

A great quantity of large stones lie about, and plainly indicate that
a building of primitive design, and of Cyclopean structure, must have
once occupied the summit of this mound. These terraces are now ina
very ruinous state; but sufficient indications remain to convey a fair
idea of their original construction. On the east side the outline of the
middle terrace is well preserved by the large flat stones, set on their
edges, against the bank; and on the western end, under the moat, the
same construction occurs, but in a more dilapidated state, the stones
haying fallen from their upright position through the lateral pressure
of the banks which they sustained. These flags are of greenstone, and
quarries producing such exist on the Hill of Uske, in the vicinity.

Pillar stones, fragments of what may have been rude crosses, of
coarse-grained granite, lying scattered about, with the rocks which for-

* Ounian is female; bo, gen. bom, a cow.
Hei. k. PROC.— VOL. IX. 2M

254

merly supported the terraces, give to Killeen Cormac an appearance of
antiquity which it is extremely difficult to describe.

About the year 1830, a wall was raised round this cemetery, and
built on the line of the first terrace, and with some of its debris, and
trees were planted inside; so that it may be hoped the existing remains
will be preserved from wanton injury, and will beno further disturbed.
The modern entrance faces the highroad, but at a considerable distance
from it. It is on the north-west side, and probably occupies its original
position.

On entering, the first objects that are to be Fig. 1.
seen are two prostrate pillar stones—one on the
_ left, the other on the right hand side.

No. 1 is a block of greenstone, partially stra-
tified, measuring in length six feet five inches ;
the upper surface, at the top, ten inches wide,
and at the base eight inches; the side, at the
top, eleven inches deep, by fourteen inches at
the base. This pillar, at its top surface, bears
a faintly incised bust, which appears to repre-
sent the Redeemer, in a style of art so very ar-
chaic that any example of similar workmanship
is scarcely to be found in these islands. On the |

same side, but near the middle, and close to the
edge or oriss of this stone, three incised strokes
or scores exist, as 1f a commencement had been
made for an inscription in the Ogham character.
On the side of the stone, under these scores, is a
mark of the stratification, across which is cut a
single score, looking, as it now stands, like a ol
cross, being probably another attempt at an =
Ogham inscription.

The pillar stone to the right (No. 2) is of the
same material, but of more irregular outline. It
measures in length nearly six feet four inches ;
the greatest width at the base of the lettered sur-
face is twelve inches, and ten towards the top of
the same side; on the Ogham side it measures S
in depth twelve inches along its entire length. “S
This pillar stone is one still more remarkable
than that already described. It appears to be
the first, and, as fur as is known, the only ex-
ample in Ireland of a Roman and Ogham in-
scription coexisting, and probably equivalents of
each other, on the same monument.

On his first visit to Killeen Cormac the writer perceived the Ogham
scores; but the Roman letters partially escaped his observation, owing
to their shallowness; besides, he was unprepared to meet with a

LU ih}
SS

————
——————

Wea an

PIRES SAMO NII AGN ERT RS Lis Et Se 0 BS BO a

5

259

monument of such extreme antiquity and rareness in that part of Ire-
land, which he regarded as fully explored. Being, however, at Killeen
Cormac on an October evening, in 1860, which was showery, with in-
tervals of bright sunshine, and then
examining these monuments, the de- Fig. 2.
pressions of the Roman letters, being
filled with water, and glistening under
the setting sun, enabled him to read WY
distinctly the words [VVE-REDRVV- or ne
IDES, and excited a most lively in- [ A
terest in the discovery. Rubbings \
were then made, and since that time
very frequently, and more carefully.
This remarkable discovery was
communicated to the late Eugene
O’Curry, and also to the Rev. James
Graves, Hon. Sec. to the Kilkenny
Archeological Society, who urged the
writer to make it public; which he
was not then willing to do, for want
of sufficient information regarding the
locality and its history. After this he
set about collecting the history and
legends connected with this cemetery
in every quarter likely to afford infor-
mation. Subsequent inquiries brought
to the surface many traditions of much
interest, which were all but forgotten;
and it is much to be regretted that si-
milar investigations have not been
made in other historic localities, as yet
unexplored, by persons having the
same facilities as the writer; as these
traditions, if not soon collected, seem
to be doomed to oblivion among the
rising generation of our countrymen.
At the time these rubbings were
made the writer was not acquainted
with the force or phonetic value of
the Ogham characters, nor does he
now take it on himself to say that the
Ogham is an equivalent for the Roman
inscription; but in connexion with the word DRVVIDES, it has been
suggested that there is a combination of Ogham characters reading
the word SA#TJ, which is most probably the Irish equivalent of the
DRVVIDES of the Roman or Latin inscription. At the first reading
of this inscription, its great novelty gave ample room for speculation.

t

REDRVY DEE

SS

VVE

256

It struck the writer that he had perhaps alighted on the stone that
may have marked the grave of Dubhtach mac ua Lugair, the chief
Druid of Leinster, and St. Patrick’s first convert at Tara, when opening
his mission there before King Laoghaire, when he called to mind Dubh-
tach’s connexion with St. Fiace of Sleibte (Sletty), which is in a ter-
ritory adjoining Killeen, which is itself in the very locality of Dubhtach’s
literary labours; the plain in which Killeen is situated being mentioned
in his third poem on Enna Kinsellagh, who is there called ‘‘ The Hero
of Magh Fhine.’’* In the same poem Mugna (or Moon Columbkile), and
Maisden (Mullaghmast), are named, and are in the vicinity of the loca-
lity under notice. These coincidences were supposed to give a clue to
the identification of the personage commemorated in the Roman inscrip-
tion on this very ancient monument; and more recently the publication
of the Senchus Mor appears to add another link to the chain of evidence,
by the fact of Dubhtach mac ua Lugair being there spoken of as Dubh-
tach doctor of literature, the Irish being Oubcach pai icp.

The River Griese that flows by this ancient cemetery is called, in
_ the poem of Meabth, daughter of Conan, Glaissi Crichi, or the boundary
stream. Mr. O’Curry refers this poem to a very remote period, so that
we may conclude that this locality was one of importance at an early
period of Irish history.

Returning now to the description of the other pillar stones, and

going to the western end of this mound, under the moat on the first

* Vide O’Curry’s ‘‘ Lectures,” App. IIL, p. 486, note 45.

t It would appear from an extract from the ‘‘ Book of Lecain,” fol. 95 a, kindly sup-
plied by Mr. William M. Hennessy, that the territory in which Killeen Cormac is situ-
ated belonged to a branch of the tribe of Messincorb, called the Ui Cormaic, or Fine
Cormaic, whose possessions with those of their correlatives are thus minutely described :—

“Ice, nanoa h. ngabla 7 h Conmaie ta Uatgnib 1. na nsebthe h.
noabla Pine uh, 7 Cuchnaigi, 7 h. 6abla nainend, oca Gch culéimsed co
oub achaib Maipcen, ocha Olaip Chnichi1 Cluanaib co uaoo pm laisip,
co clanocaip, co Nach Leachnochz oc Sleibcib, co seit nm Urei pn Nuib
mbaipnchi, 7 anangebchi .h. Chnena7 .h. Chuinccip la .-h. Chonmaie uili.
Ip o1b Abban mac -h. Conmaic. Ip uadoib machain Cholumm mic Cpim-
chain .1. MWlincloth mgen Cenanoamn, mic Cepi, mic Uusodch, mic
tabnaoa. Ip oib Conmaic in oa Simell «1. Smell mac Cenandoain, mic
Macha, mic Chpuaich, mic Ouilg1, mic Imchadoa, mic bnolaig, mic
tusgoach, mic Labnaoa; ocup Sinell pean mdc Concpnain, mic Ene, mic
Chnuaich, mic Ou1lgi, 7 anaile.”

“‘ These are the divisions of Ui Gabhla and Ui Cormaic in Leinster, viz., where the
Ui Gabhla all are found, and Cuthraighi.and Ui Gabhla of Rairend (Mullach Reelan) ;
from Ath-Culchinged to the Black Fords of Maisten (Mullachmast); from Glas
Crichi in Cluana to Vado toward Laighis (Leix), to Clanties, to Ath-Leathnocht at
Sleibhti (Sletty), untilit goes into Usci (hill of Usk), towards UiBairchi; and wherever
are found Ui Threna, and Ui Chuire, all belongs to Ui Cormaic. Of themis Abban Mac
Ui Cormaic. From them was the mother of Colum mac Crimthann, viz. Mincloth,
daughter of Cenanan.. . . . Of the Ui Cormaic are the two Sinells, viz., Sinell son
of Cenanan ... . and old Sinell, son of Corcran, &c.”

257

terrace, is another pillar stone (No. 4), standing about five feet above the
surface; itis nearly square, and presents no feature of interest, except
that at its eastern edge there are some scores, perhaps the remains
of an Ogham inscription. On
the second terrace, above this
stone, is an irregular-shaped
flag (No. 3). It is of coarse
greenstone, very rough and
hard, and much weather-worn.
An Ogham inscription 1s carried
up the two sides and top. As
it has been most carefully exa-
mined, the annexed engraving
is a faithful copy of the scores
now existing on this curious
monument.

Crossing the mound, and
over the site of the church, on
the plateau at the north-east,
stands an oblong, rough, flag-
like stone, three feet nine inches
over the surface, and about two
feet wide, having a plain cross,
incised by wide shallow lines,
twenty-two inches long by fif-
teen across the arms.

There are some such flags
in the neighbourhood—at Dun-
boyke and Kilranelagh — and

likely belong to a very remote
period, as they have not any of
the characteristics of medizval
art. Near this is another pil-
lar stone, not more than 24
feet above the surface, on the
top of which is to be seen an indentation resembling the trace of a
dog’s paw, as if impressed on a very soft surface. This stone was ex-
cavated from some depth, but any traces of scores or Inscription were not
recognised. Some years ago it was much higher above the surface, and
its sinking is likely due to carelessness in making the graves, which lie
about in profusion. A very curious legend is told about this stone.
Tradition says that it marks the grave of Cormac King of Munster,
whose name is an aflix to that of the cemetery where he rests; it more-
over states that he was carried to Killeen Cormac by a team of bullocks,
which were allowed to follow their own instinct—a mode of settling dis-
putes regarding sepulture not uncommon among the ancient Irish. The
same tradition, though unable to state at what period or under what cir-

258

cumstances King Cormac died, avers that he was carried through Bally-
-nure, from the direction of Timolin, in the county of Kildare; and when
the team reached that part of Ballynure known as The Doon, the bul-
locks, in the eagerness of their oe
thirst, pawed the earth, and Fig. 4.
that water issued forth. Ano- i}, N\A
ther version states that the Laat yn
teamster struck his goad into
the ground, and thereupon
gushed up a bubbling fountain,
which is still to be seen near
the roadside, and is used as a
watering place for the herds of
the fertile pastures of The Doon
of Ballynure. The bullocks,
having satiated their thirst,
journeyed on till they came to
the place now called Bullock-
hill, beside the Griese, and op-
posite to Killeen Cormac. Here i
they halted, and would proceed 5

—=>\
—

——

a
SS
SS =

~<a

—S—-

= ——=—
——
SS See eS

no farther; so that Killeen was |
thus determined to be the last h
resting place of King Cormac. i
The bullocks, having performed |
their part, returned homewards
across the marsh beside the ri-
ver, and tradition states that bt
they were swallowed up in the I a

3 i A
ae MIN i (| ll

nother legend puts a hound Gp hil || inn
on the team, and makes him ae
jump from Bullockbill to the dae, (Misia Ne
cemetery, and there alight on i WINAiaee Mill ie epeomelade A :
this stone, and leave on it the ea, ae ; :

impress of his paw—thus marking out the grave of Cormac. It may be
remarked that this part of the legend looks like an interpolation from one
still more ancient, concerning the hound of Cuglas, from whom Bal-
tinglass derives its name.* He was master of the hounds to ‘‘ Ederscel,
the great King of Erinn,’’ whose dogs indeed must have had paws of steel
to impress their traces on full many a rock from Baltinglass to the banks
of the Liffey.}

This very curious legend led to various investigations concerning
this King Cormac. He could not be Cormac Mac Cullinan, King and

* Vide Dinnsenchus, Book of Lecan.

+ Vide Irish version of Nennius, and A. Soc. Tracts, p. 117, for a somewhat similar
legend of King Arthur’s hound.

pierce

209

Bishop of Cashel, who was slain at Beallaghmoon, in Moyailbi, in the
year 908. Keating,* in his account of this engagement, states that
Cormac, having a presentiment of his fate, desired to be buried in Disert
Diarmid (Castledermot), in case his body could not be conveyed to
Cloyne, as Disert Diarmid was the church of his friend and preceptor,
the Abbot Snegdus.

There was, however, in this same fatal field of Ballaghmoon ano-
ther Cormac—Cormac Mac Mothla, Prince of the Desies of Munster—
who fell while in command of the left wing of the army of Munster.
He may have been the Cormac of the legend in question. The tradition
of the locality did not then come to the rescue. The writer, however,
met some time after this a gentleman lately returned from New Orleans,
who formerly lived in the neighbourhood of Killeen Cormac, whose father
was a repertory of local tradition. He told his son, the informant, that
the king who gave his name to Killeen was Cormac Mac Melia, King
of Munster. In another interview the writer asked him if he could tell
what part of Munster he came from, suggesting at the same time De-
sies, which his informant recognised as the name told him by his father.
He had thus no small satisfaction in being able to unravel a tradition
corroborating a fact of very great historical interest, if the tradition may
at all be relied on.

It has been suggested that the story of the bullocks is not recorded
of any except those whom public estimation has placed in the category
of sanctity. While admitting the force of this suggestion, the legend
in this instance appears to be very coherent, and free from vagueness.

Though it appears that Cormac Mac Cullinan had obvious reasons for
selecting Disert Diarmid (Castledermot) as the place of his sepulture,
that church may not have had the same attractions for Cormac Mac
Mothla, and he likely selected the more ancient, and perhaps more ho-
noured, cemetery of Killeen for the place of his burial, to which
in the course of time his name may have been affixed, perhaps to dis-
tinguish Killeen from another old and curious cemetery, about two miles
to the west of Killeen Cormac, and now known by the name of Kyle;
or perhaps there may have been a contention between the rival churches
for the honour and emolument of giving sepulture to the remains of a
veteran warrior; or it may be that Cormac’s friends, following an an-
cient precedent, may have allowed animal instinct to settle a dispute
which the obstinacy or cupidity of rival interests could not have other-
wise settled.

In the Life of St. Abban} there is a legend concerning his sepulture,
in which bullocks are made to play a very prominent part, and the fate
‘of these bullocks was one nearly similar to that detailed of the bullocks
in the Kilieen legend. It is also a curious coincidence that St. Abban

* See Dr. John Lynch’s Latin translation of Keating, in a note to the ‘t Annals of
the Four Masters,” vol. ii., p. 564, Dr. O’Donovan’s Edition.
+ Colgan, ‘‘ Acta SS. Hib.” xvi.; Martii, cap. xlvii.

260

is called Mac hua Cormac, being descended from an ancestor of that
- name, who is said to have been a king of Leinster.

In the appendix to this life, Colgan enumerates more than sixty
persons of this name who were eminent for sanctity, among whom ap-
pears Cormac hua Lethain, the Abbot of Durmagh, and friend of St. Co-
lumkille, who met with a tragical fate in that “territory which is now
the southern part of Kaldare.

It has been suggested that Killeen Cormac may be no other than the
Kil-Fine, or Ecclesia Fine of the various Lives of St. Patrick, and the
third church the foundation of which is referred to Palladius. A great
many indirect arguments may be adduced to sustain this opinion. As the
writer has made these churches a special study, and alighted on some
interesting relics in the localities in which they are said to have been
founded, he hopes to be able at a future period to mature his views on
this subject, and to gather new facts, and evidence to sustain them, which
will be found satisfactory and intelligible; and he trusts that stronger
evidence and future investigations will make it possible, to connect
these very remarkable and unique monuments with the names of Palla-
dius and Dubhtach mac ua Lugair—a personage celebrated in con-
nexion with our early ecclesiastical and national records, and in whose
history and acts the recent publication of the ‘‘Senchus Mor’ must
awaken no inconsiderable interest.

Mr. D. H. Ketty presented a MS. Collection of Extracts, made from
Memoranda Rolls of the Exchequer, and other record authorities, by the
late James F. Ferguson, Esq., accompanied by the following letter :—

‘¢ GentLEMEN,—The four volumes which I have now the honour to
present to the Academy, were for sale at Kelly’s, in Grafton-street, and
on the point of being sold to Sir Thomas Phillips, and sent out of the
country, when I fortunately became the possessor of them. On show-
ing them to my learned and excellent friend, the Rev. W. Reeves, D. D.,
Secretary to this Academy, I was by him confirmed in my opinion of
their value as a national record; and I was by him most generously
presented with a considerable number of additional extracts, in Fergu-
son’s own handwriting, and, amongst them, with his original auto-
graph ‘ Inventory of Hugh ‘Roe O’Neill’s Effects,’ which was pub-
lished by him in the ‘ Topographer,’ a copy of which is now extremely
rare. Of these additional pages, which are placed in the end of vol. iii.,
a valuable synopsis has been made, followed by an index to their contents,
both Nominum et Locorum, by our brother Academician, J. Huband
Smith; and vol. iv. contains a very complete Jndex Nominum et Lo-
corum to the main body of the collection, by the same skilful hand.

‘“‘ T am indebted principally to my friend, Dr. Reeves, for the fol-
lowing account of the gifted compiler of this, I believe, valuable col-
lection :—

‘The late James F. Ferguson, of Bellfield House, Rathmines,
was himself an Englishman, and in England became acquainted with

261

Mr. J. Lynch, when that gentleman was compiling his great work on
‘ Feudal Dignities ;’ at the instance of Mr. Lynch, Ferguson accompa-
nied him to Ireland, where he was soon appointed, through his influ-
ence, to the office of Deputy Keeper of the Rolls, in the Chief Remem-
brancer’s department.

<‘Tn order to give him a legal status, he was admitted an attor-
ney, without service, apprenticeship or fee; but he never practised as
such, nor did he derive any emolument from the profession. He held
this office in the Records for several years; during the early period of
which he was much employed in making searches, and furnishing ma-
terials and documents in eases of title, Quare impedit, &c.; and his
situation became, consequently, in some degree, remunerative. But
when the new Landed Estates Court and its concomitant legislation
came into operation, an end was at once put to the principal sources
of his emolument, and during his later years his fees of office dwindled
down to something miserably small.

“He compiled Calendars to the Rolls in his custody; and a sum
of one or two hundred pounds was paid over to him, on the condition
of his depositing those documents as official papers belonging to the
office. His latter years were passed in much pecuniary distress; and
the heads of his department became desirous of removing him from his
office, and from his beloved records. And here a very curious con-
test ensued; and, notwithstanding that his chief was extremely de-
sirous of having him removed, he for upwards of three years continued
to hold adverse possession; and, though its emoluments were gone, he
stubbornly refused to vacate the office. At length they succeeded in
getting him out; and penury, and ill health, and ill-remunerated lite-
rary efforts soon terminated in death, and thus deprived Ireland of
one whose talents, if rightly directly and appreciated, might have been
of inestimable value in illustrating the history of the land of his
adoption.

‘< He was a most accurate and accomplished scholar in his parti-
cular line; and he furnished to the Ulster and Kilkenny Archeological
volumes many valuable and interesting papers illustrative of the his-
tory of Ireland. He also published in the ‘ Topographer’ a paper
on ‘ The Inventory of Hugh Roe O’Neill’s Effects ;’ which, by the ge-
nerosity of the Rev. W. Reeves, D.D., is now inserted in these vo-
lumes in the handwriting of Ferguson himself, This document is most
curious, interesting, and valuable, and may be taken as a sample of his
proficiency in record lore.

‘¢ He wrote a beautiful hand, was thoronghly the gentleman.
uniformly kind and courteous to the visitants of his office, modest and
unpresuming to a fault, and always willing to communicate information
from the rich store of his well-cultivated mind. He was unquestion-
ably the best record scholar of his day in Ireland; but, when separated
from his much-loved parchments, he very soon pined away, and diedin
the forty-ninth year of his age, on the 26th of November, 1855, and

R.I, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. ; 2N

262

was buried in Mount Jerome Cemetery, Harold’s Cross, on the 29th of
the same month. He also published a small volume, entitled, ‘ Remarks
on the Limitation of Actions Bill, intended for Ireland; together with
Short Extracts from Ancient Records relating to Advowsons of Churches
in Ireland.’ This volume is now exceedingly rare; and I am indebted
for its possession to my friend, the Rev. R. Gibbings, D. D., Professor
of Ecclesiastical History in Trinity College, with whose acquiescence
I have great pleasure in presenting it to the Academy, along with the
Records themselves, to which it appears in some sort to be properly
an appendage. And I am sure that I could not deposit such records in
any more appropriate place than the Library of this Academy, where
there is always such ready access to its treasures for the real student,
and where information is always so freely and so courteously given.
‘¢ T have the honour to remain, Gentlemen,
‘« Your obedient humble Servant,
coals Kemnay ae

The Secretary made the following presentations :—

1. On the part of P. O’Callaghan, LL. D., of Leamington, a collec-
tion of Autographs of great interest.

2. On the part of the Authors, “ Memorials of the Manor of Adare,”
by Caroline Countess of Dunraven, and the Karl of Dunraven.

3. On the part of the Brehon Law Commissioners, Vol. I. of the
Ancient Laws of Ireland.

4. On the part of the Radcliffe Trustees, the ‘‘ Observations for
1862” (Vol. XXII).

5. On the part of Richard M‘Gowan, Esq., of Sandymount, Mo-
sheim’s Treatise, ‘‘ De Auctoritate Concilii Dordraceni paci sacre
noxia.”’

Thanks were voted to the several donors.

MONDAY, JUNE 12, 1865.
The Very Rey. Coartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The President read a letter, announcing the death of Dr. C.J.
Thomsen, Director of the Museum of Antiquities of Copenhagen;
whereupon it was—

Resotvep,—That the Royal Irish Academy desires to express the :

deep regret with which it has heard the announcement of the death of

M. Thomsen, the founder, organizer, and director of the National Mu-

seum of Antiquities in Copenhagen; and that the President be requested |

to communicate this Resolution to the colleagues of Dr. Thomsen and
to his family.

263

Mr. Joun Morisy (with permission of the Academy) read the fol-
lowing paper :——

On Hinpustani Srntax.

At a very early stage of my Hindustani studies, which began many years
ago, several imperfect, and not a few incorrect, statements came in my
way while consulting the Grammars. These I was gradually enabled to
rectify by a careful analysis of such passages as I found applicable from
time totime. That there had been a fair open for such investigations
_ will be easily understood from the fact, that Dr. Forbes, who published
his Grammar in 1855, applied the critical rod liberally enough to his
most eminent predecessors, not sparing even the native /unshis. But
the Doctor himself is not without defects and errors; and it is to some
of the chief of these, in both kinds, that I purpose to devote this short
paper, with something of a better temper than is fashionable among our
Orientalists. On some of the leading points I have consulted learned
friends, to whom, from their long residence in India, the Urdu had be-
come almost vernacular. Among them, I may mention Sir James Hig-
ginson, whose recognition of my views gave me a confidence which,
perhaps, I could not have derived altogether from my own convictions.
Instead of multiplying examples, I have chosen a few striking ones,
and this choice has rendered very few words sufficient for my purposes.

The relative and correlative pronouns have been very indistinctly
defined. Without entering into minutia, I have arranged such obser-
vations as will prove quite satisfactory, and much more intelligible than
those to be met with in the Grammars.

1. When jo and so (or wuh) are used correlatively,; yo appears in the
secondary clause, which usually comes first in order. Hach pronoun
with the nearest subsequent verb constitutes a distinct clause; and this
connexion with the nearest verb is scarcely ever departed from, even in
verse.

1s

G
e

eke Gu tA = st
re , ZF ° ry Va 5
a Laas us? is! ees ust Us ut %y 32 iS) Wile go
He, who is a wise boy, without bidding reads his own book in his own
house.

The medicine which increases the sight of the eye, bring the same.

In these sentences wuh and so (which we call the antecedents) follow
the relative. This may be considered its normal position, when those

264

correlatives, or antecedents (as often they actually are), happen to be
employed. In German, such is the position of wer, which must always
begin the sentence or clause in which it is used; and, consequently,
always precede its grammatical antecedent. ‘The place of the antece-
dent, however, sometimes corresponds with its name, as it ordinarily
does in English. Thus—

u G G Y g

ill. (K es i$ Acca) bul ~~ gi ole pb 3 \ymoad :
The second, who knew a trade, the same began to practise his work.
= S9 S& yy, G go oe

a oe le HE 2 yes) pe yg) ge Late law

Beta mera jo mert chashm aur surtr-t dil tha gha,ib hua hai.

My boy, who was the light of my eye and my heart’s joy, has been
missing.

Those examples readily lead to a simple statement of the general
connexion between the pronouns we have been noticing. In the de-
pendent clause, yo may appear in proximity with the person or thing it
represents; but it may not so appear without the construction being in
the least affected, or any difficulty thrown in the way of the translation.
In either case, however, jo may be considered as the relative who or
which; while so may stand for one of the personal or demonstrative.
pronouns, or for that man, or thing, or that same, &e.

2. When the remote demonstrative, wuh, is substituted for so, the
singular form is often used when the context requires the plural; but
it must be observed that the license is by no means confined to this case.
See example v., where wwh singular refers to e/che plural.

3. In all those examples jo is a simple relative, and accompanied
closely by its antecedent. The correlative appears in them also, except
in the fourth ; from which we see it may be dispensed with frequently,
although the prevailing usage is otherwise. But it would be deemed
faulty to omit the emphatic correlative, when the antecedent is unu-
sually remote. Thus—

— 12) iv a cg
Ve us) yr pls S sdf ilove sty s wg? lool J Solo 2
9

use? > Lan oft) By use?
The ambassadors of the kings of every country, who had come for the

purpose of congratulation, they too were present.

Har mulk ke padshahon ke elche mubarak-badt kt khatir jo d,e the wuh
bhi sab haz the.

269

4. Jo is often a compound relative; and this has been mistaken for
its real character by Dr. Forbes, who says, p. 117, d—

‘‘In many instances the relative jo corresponds with our ‘ who,’
‘which,’ or ‘that;’ but the student must be careful not to consider this
as a rule, for it is only the exception ; as follows :— do rote jo bete khate

hain, the two loaves which my children eat.”

It is quite obvious that jo is here the simple relative ; and the re-
mainder of the Doctor’s observations lose sight of the question altoge-
ther. If need be, the employment of wuh in the leading clause will

make the matter plainer :--wuh Lars deta hun, these I lend. The judg-

ment of Dr. Forbes is entirely inconsistent with the frequent accompa-
niment of the actual antecedent, and the ordinary presence of a corre-
lative; its reverse is the truth. But in No. vi. js is clearly a com-
pound relative, to be rendered by ‘‘by him by whom.” In No. vii., jo
may be regarded either as a simple or a compound, according as we take
so for the antecedent; or for the emphatic correlative, if we suppose yo
understood; and there is nothing in the language itself, or in the ge-
neral principles of Grammar, to prevent either view. As in the last sen-
tence, so in all the others, itis a pure relative—in the first two instances
followed by the antecedent, but in the rest preceded by it.

2 I
VES ye ee Cott (Eh Lhe © lay syleste 5 see
~ w IS
Vil. LI Used ey Doe i bles ey YLe
5. Jo is occasionally used correlatively with asa ‘ talis,’ and then it
corresponds with our ‘as,’ which has often the character of a relative.
Thus—
Vill.
tie x + LZ
See

hargi hist se aist bdt mat hah jo ek baras guzarne ke 0 ad? tibdr ki jd, we.
To any one never address such an assertion as may be believed (only)
after the expiration of a year.

6. So. Passing by the use of iv for so, and a few other particulars
stated well enough in any Grammar in use, I must direct attention to
the occasional service of so as a compound relative. I have also to ob-
serve that such a fact favours the opinion that yo, as such, is a license,
although of frequent occurrence ; but the true character of yo has been
independently established. When in its compound character, so usually

266

appears between two verbs, to both of which it may supply subject or

object. The subject is, to a Kuropean, sometimes curiously expressed,
as by log, in No. x.

ix. I shall tell what I heard. Gy ~ 4

x. The people (or they) who went, & Q Sie \ s¥) pe es
age

saw him.

In the last case, however, so may be viewed as a simple relative.
Much more that Forbes has written about the relative exhibits very
loose criticism; but Iam restricting myself to points of absolute utility.
T shall close this paper with a few words about sa and manind, or md-
nand.

7. Sd. The regimen of this adjective (needlessly called a particle) —

is not properly stated by any of the grammarians. In Dr. Forbes’s
Grammar, p. 108, we read—
‘When added to an adjective, it seems to render the same more

intensive, though frequently it is difficult to find for it an equivalent

Sm

English expression; as 4 ? ul (ies \) gi ‘bring a little water ;’

ue ys eyed gt Cane ‘there were many weapons there.’ When

the comparison made by \., alludes to one thing out of many, it go-
verns the genitive case; as in the sentence —

‘you also have a body exactly like ge pe Ls ane Jl a4 ws
their’s, oe <
g
a form like that of a tiger.’ ”’ ae se oad a oe

In the face of this correct translation, the statement of the construc-
tion is surprising indeed. It would be more literal to write, ‘‘your body
is like their body.’”’ It is quite clear that sd, ‘like,’ agrees with jzsm,
which is masculine; as tumhara also does. Tn like manner kd, which
agrees with yusm understood, has this form, both because y2sm is mascu-
line, and in the nominative case. If sd were absent, we should have ha
just as it is, according to the rule for this sign or element of the Hin-

dustani genitive construction. In the same way, in the last sentence, ~

ki 1s governed by the feminine surat, which in like manner governs s7?.
0 that sa has no influence whatsoever over the genitive sign.

267
‘ >
8. As to Dr. Forbes and others calling sda an intensive, when asso-
ciated with an adjective, I never met an example which could lead me
to that conclusion. In such expressions as thord sa pani ld, 0 ; bahut se

hathyar wahdn the, &., sd serves as a limitation or restriction on the
main idea; and, therefore, such phrases must be understood thus :—
‘bring rather a little water ;’ ‘a good many (not very many) weapons
were there,’ &c. To put an end to debate upon this trifle, I lately obtained
the opinion of gentlemen long resident in India, and also of Mir Ali,
through a very able pupil of his, with whom I corresponded when in the
country.

9. anand. Of this preposition Dr. Forbes writes, p. 98——‘‘ There is
one peculiarity attending some of the feminine prepositions . ... We
have excellent authority for saying that mdnand (and three others),
when they precede the substantive, require the genitive in ke; and
when they follow, they require 4%.” Professor Williams merely says
that manand, bamadad, and taraf may take £: when they follow the re-

gimen—ZAntroduction, p.53; and Mr. Shakspeare, Grammar, p. 79, note,
speaking of manand in this situation, declares itis sometimes constructed
with fe, and sometimes with /v. The latter is certainly the ordinary
construction, but not the only one. An instance of ce occurs in Fable 5
of Shakspeare’s Muntakhabat-i Hindi: us ne us yawdn ko auron ke ma-
nand khiyal kiya.

Sir W. R. Wilde made a presentation of, and a described, a collection
of Animal Remains and Flint Implements, found in the cave at Perigord
by Messrs. Christy and Lartet ; also the work of those gentlemen, en-
titled ‘‘Cavernes de Perigord ;” a shilling of Henry VIII., from the Rev.
F. A. Donovan; and a shilling of Queen Elizabeth, from the Rev. Tho-
mas Langan.

The Librarian, on the part of the Master of the Rolls of England,
presented thirty-four volumes of the Calendars and Historical Works
now appearing under his superintendence.

The Secretary, on the part of the Hon. T. D. M‘Gee, presented a
copy of his ‘‘ Popular History of Ireland ;”’ also several Works relating
to Canada and its Resources.

The marked thanks of the Academy were returned to the several
donors.

MONDAY, JUNE 26, 1865.
The Vury Rey. Cuarues Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

Ir was Resontven,—That the sum of £50 be granted to the Council
for the purchase of Antiquities, and the arrangement of the Museum.
*

268

The Rev. Samvzt Haveuton, M. D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dub-
lin, read the following paper :—

Nores on Anrmat MEcHANICs.

No. VI.—On tHE Muscutar ANATOMY OF THE CROCODILE.

Durine the Easter Recess of 1864, I had an opportunity of explain-
ing to Professor Gratiolet,* of Paris, the investigations I had made
with respect to the mechanism of the leg of the Ostrich and the
theory I had formed to explain it. This distinguished anatomist did
me the honour of approving of my explanation, and urged me to pro-
cure a Crocodile, in the posterior limb of which he assured me I should
find a mechanical problem exceeding in complexity that presented by
the leg of the Ostrich, and as yet unsolved by anatomists.

During the month of March last I was furnished with a young Cro-
- codile from Egypt, by Mr. Thomas Moore, Curator of the Derby Mu-
seum, Liverpool, to whom I had communicated my earnest desire to
have an opportunity of dissecting such an animal; and the results of my
examination fully bear out the anticipation of Professor Gratiolet, and
also furnish a complete confirmation of the principles I made use of in
my theory of the leg of the Ostrich.

The interlacing of tendons in the hind leg of the Crocodile is very
remarkable, and more complex than in the Ostrich, although in one
respect it somewhat resembles it.

* The incalculable loss that science has sustained in the early part of the present year
by the premature death of this gifted anatomist, is exceeded by the loss experienced by
his friends, to whom his genial social qualities endeared him even more than his brilliant
scientific attainments. I extract from the “‘ Journal des Debats” of the 19th February,
1865, the following just tribute to his memory :—

‘Les sciences viennent de faire une perte aussi cruelle qu’imprévue; M. Gratiolet,
professeur de zoologie a la Faculte des Sciences de Paris, a succombé hier matin a une
attaque d’apoplexie.

““M. Gratiolet n’avait pas cinquante ans; avant-hier, encore plein de vie et de santé,
il travaillait 4 son laboratoire du Muséum (histoire naturelle lorsque, a deux heures,
frappé dune congestion subite, il dut étre ramené 4 son domicile; quelques heures plus
tard, il avait perdu connaissance; hier matin a quatre heures, il rendait le dernier soupir.

“‘ Nous ne saurions peindre l’emotion profonde qu’a causée dans le monde scientifique
lannonce de cette mort prématurée. M.Gratiolet était aimé de tous; son affabilité, la
droiture de son caractére lui avaient concilié toutes les sympathies.

“Ses travaux d’anatomie comparée, ses recherches sur le systéme nerveux et sur le
cerveau, etc., l’avaient mis au nombre des naturalistes les plus distingués de notre pays ;
son merveilleux talent d’élocution l’avait placé au premier rang parmi nos professeurs
les plus renommés, et l’aptitude de son esprit pour les études métaphysiques avait im-
primé a ses ceuvres un caractére d’originalité qu’appréciaient les philosophes aussi bien
que les savans.

“Ta mort est venue le frapper au moment ou, aprés de longues années de lutte, al
semblait sur le point de recueillir le fruit de ses laborieux efforts. ;

*¢ AimE GIRARD.”

269
Part I.—Dzisskction oF Lee oF CRocopDILE.

On removing the skin and dissecting away the fat, the muscles
shown in Fig. 19 are exposed.
Fig. 19.

LEFT LEG OF CROCODILE (with skin removed, to show the superficial muscles).

SS

SSSSS

Rectus femoris.
b, Gluteus maximus.
c, Agitator caude.

d, Biceps femoris.

ce, Semitendinosus.
f, Semimembranosus.
u, Gastrocnemius.

2, Plantaris.

y, Peroneus longus.
z, Tibialis anticus.

Oe
Sag pera
Lx [AL

1. HL. Glutaus maximus (ON x 5 1 Ors 07.
Origin; from central half of the ilio- ischiadic line.
Insertion ; ; into the fascia outside and above the knee joint.

This is a ho flat muscle, and straps down the tendon of the rectus
Jemoris in its passage over the knee.

2. M. rectus femoris(a), . . : ie meee 9) 1.0 0.8107:
Origin ; from anterior spine of the ilium, close to the acetabulum.
Insertion ; as in the leg of the Octich.. into a tendon passing over

the knee outwards, and terminating in a remarkable muscle* (2),
in the calf of the leg, associated with the gastrocnemius (uw), and
deriving a second origin from the agitator caude (c), as shown
in the figure.

* This muscle may be the plantaris.
R.I. A, PROC.—YVOL. IX. 20

270)

3. I. agitator caude (ce), . . 0°08/02,
Origin; from the ischiadic line, behind the gluteus » maximus.
Insertion; by a double tendon.

1. One tendon passes through a pulley on the outside of the knee,
formed by the tendon of the bzceps (d) as it passes to its fibular inser-
tion, and is then inserted in the head of the muscle (), in the calf of
the,leg.

2. The second insertion is by means of a tendon that goes to the top
and front of the tibia; this second tendon also serves to strap down the
tendon of the rectus femoris (a).

4. M. biceps femoris (da), - 0:05 oz.

Origin; from the ilicischium, “under and behind the origin of the
gluteus MULUNVUS.

Insertion ; partly into the top of the fibula, forming a pulley for
the agitator caude(c), and an additional strap for the rectus fe-
moris (a); and partly by means of another tendon into the head
of the peroneus longus (y).

. M. semitendinosus (e), . 3,25, 0718-02.

Origin ; from the posterior point of the tuber ischii.

Insertion ; by a remarkable looped tendon, having one end inserted
into ne back of lower end of femur, ad the other end into the
os calcis.

6. M. semimembranosus (f), oD Mee othe! 55 eer Onin naZ.
: Origin; tuber ischii.
Insertion ; into the top of the tibia, by a tendon common to this
muscle and gracilis.
The muscles of the calf shown in the =. are the following :—

Or

7. I. gastrocnemius (u), . 1, Ot troz:
This muscle, as usual, tera an ‘outer andi inner head.
Outer head, . aes Odor:

Origin ; ‘from the tendon of the ereat caudal extensor of the thigh,
half an inch from its insertion into the outer condyle (vide a,
Fig. 20).

Insertion; into the under side of the outer tarsal bone, and into the
plantar fascia.

Inner head, . 2. 0205707:
Origin ; from the top of fibula and i inner r condyle of femur.
Insertion; by a tendon, which unites with that of the outer head

before reaching the os calcis, under which it passes to be inserted
into the outer and under side of the outer tarsal bone.

.8. M. plantaris ? (x), . fot” O04 2078

Origin; double; from rectus femoris ‘and from agitator caude.

Insertion ; having become partially blended with the outer gas-
trocnemius, it is inserted into the os calcis, and ander surface
of the plantar fascia.

9. UV. peroneus longus (y), . . Se ge nO OS. OX
Origin; from the shaft of the tae. ae fon the tendon of the
biceps femoris (@).

Insertion; into the outer tarsal bone, uniting with the tendon of
the gastrocnemius.

10. MW. tibialis anticus et extensor digitorum communis (2), . O1loz.
Insertion; into the tarsal end of the 1st, 2nd, and 38rd metatarsal
bones.

The interlacing of muscles in the thigh and leg of the Crocodile,
just described, is very remarkable, and more complicated than that
found even in ‘the Ostrich; and at first I was disposed to think that it
threw some doubt on the explanation I had given previously of the
reason for such an arrangement in the bird’s leg. In the case of the
Ostrich the necessity for strict simultaneity of action was made evident
by the great force of the muscles employed, and the great delicacy of
the bones on which they had to act. What could there be in the case
of the Crocodile to correspond to such a peculiarity in the case of the
Ostrich? After some careful dissection I found the ready answer to my
question in the remarkable muscle which I shall now describe.

On clearing away the superficial muscles of the thigh and tail, I
found the enormous mass of muscle, figured at 6, Fig. (20), which acts
as the chief and powerful extensor of the thigh.

Die eraser femoris caudalis (b),* .°.. 2. . ~.«.«) 181 o7.

Origin; from the transverse and inferior spinous processes of the
caudal vertebree, from the 3rd to the 15th, inclusive.

Insertion ; into the back of the upper part of the femur, and into a
great round tendon, which receives, in particular, the anterior
fibres of this enormous muscle, and, passing down the back of the
femur, is inserted by a strong common aponeurosis into the outer
condyle of the femur, and into the head of the fibula. This com-
mon aponeurosis also gives a partial origin to the gastrocnemius
(a), Fig. 20, and to the plantaris (x), Fig. 19.

* This remarkable muscle is noticed and accurately described by Meckel, in tome iii.,
pp. 152, 153, of his “‘ System der vergleichenden Anatomie” (Halle, 1828); but it is very
strange that he transposes its origin and insertion, and seems not to have had any idea of
its real use. Itis regarded from his point of view as a descriptive anatomist, and without
the remotest reference to its final cause. He says:—‘‘ Der zweite, tiefere weit dickere
Muskkel is yon dem ersten [the superficial muscle of the tail] wie einer breiten Binde
umgeben, entspringt mit zwei ganz getrennten, 1) einer weit kurzern, breiten,Sehne oben
von den hintern Flache des Oberschenkelbeines; 2) durch eine weit langere, schlanke,
unten zwischen den beiden Gelenkknorren desselvben Knockens, und setzt sich an die
ganze Seitenflathe der untern Dornen, so wie der Zwischendornenhaut und die uniere
Flache der Wurzeln der Querfortsatze.’”’

LX)
~I
Li)

There are two muscles, ac-
cessory to this great caudal ex-
tensor in their action, which are
as follows :—

12. IL extensori femoris caudala
accessorius, . . 0:01 oz.
Origin ; from the fascia co-
vering the great caudal
extensor, and by a ten-
dinous head from the
quadratus femoris, which
is also an accessory to
the great caudal.

Insertion ; into the looped
tendon of the semimem-
branosus, already de-
scribed.

13. J. guadratus femoris,

0°05 oz.
Origin; posterior, superior,
and inner surface of the

i]

Ton
BD
ata |

Oh

AIX)
CAS}

pubis, near its symphy- itt 7
sis. IN (iy
Insertion ; into the back of ah Inge

the femur, with the ac- (ebie

tion and position of the oan in Ngin

quadratus femoris in © ues

mammal quadrupeds, = =

and into the tendon of =

the great caudal exten- S. |

sor. > =
‘The effect of the interlacing Zo |

of the tendons of the various

‘CUSTYY Of} JO Ioxoy Coop yvori8 oy} MOYS 03 ‘pOAOUTOL sofosnU [eIOyLOdNs YIM Ldioy 10 rIIAGO.OUD NOWHOD
03 ‘Sl

muscles already describedmust > i.
be to produce simultaneity of © LHS
action among them, such asI §& en yf |
haye already endeavoured to (3 lf
describe in my account of the § Nai Fi
leg of the Ostrich; afdin the $ SW
present instance of the Croco- sg Na
dile there seems tobe a similar & bg
principle involved. The Croco- ® al
dile, resting on mud, progresses Ue
chiefly by using his hind feet as th;
paddles ; and in this use of tw

them the great caudal exten- SS

sor of the thigh is the most SS5-—

273

powerful and important muscle employed; and it seems to me that the
simultaneity of action of all parts of the leg, rendered necessary by
the employment of so powerful a muscle, is fully secured by the
interlacing of the tendons I have described, which renders it impos-
sible for one set of muscles to act without the others being also
_ exerted.

14,

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

The remaining muscles of the posterior limb are as follows :—

M. gluteus"medius, . . . bet. 10206) 07:

Origin; from the central part of the ilio-ischiadic surface.

Insertion ; its tendon passes over the great trochanter to be in-
serted into a line down the upper half of the outside of the
femur, between the origins of the two portions of the vastus

externus.

M. Gluteus minimus, . . Se an OBO: OE

Origin ; from the anterior point of the ilium.

ineertion, into the inner side of the knee, under the fascia of the
rectus femoris.

MM. vastus internus, externus, ev crureus, . . . . . O22 oz.

The vastus externus consists of two distinct muscles, as in the
Ostrich.

Me psoas, .. a WRN) Ox

This large muscle takes ¢ an origin as “high: as ‘the last rib, and is
inserted into the lesser trochanter, and the intertrochanteric
line leading to the outer side of the femur. It lies outside the
aliacus.

M. thacus, . ROP tL oz:

Origin ; from the anterior transverse surface of the ium, with a
slip from the spine.

Insertion ; al oe into the lesser trochanter.

M. sar aa : ie oer en O OA OZ,

Origin; behind the origin of the. rectus, on the inner side, at the
junction of the ium ‘and marsupial bone.

Tnsertion ; into the fascia of the inner side of the thigh, for two-
thirds of its length.

M. gracilis,. . Se 0908 ox

Takes an origin from ‘two heads—_one at the posterior point of the
pubis, and the other on the pectinzal line.

Insertion; into the head ofthe tibia by a tendon common to it with
the semimembranosus.

. M. pectineus, . . wh eo O,0GMo:
Origin ; between the two heads of gracilis, from the central part of
~ the surface of the pubis and from the pectineeal line.
Insertion, into the top of the linea aspera.
ROU GLOnOS SR ee Ce a a OD on,

22.

There are three adductor muscles :—
Ono ee. cy be eee eae ee ce) ah) OES. 0%.

274

Origin ; anterior pectineeal line of pubis.
Insertion ; into the upper half of the linea aspera.

2nd een Sa ae site O.D3. OZ:
Origin ; from the posterior edge of the pubis, its middle third.
Insertion ; into the middle of the linea aspera.

3rd Adductor, Sees soe, oe ORO OZ,
Origin ; from the posterior edge of the pubis, close to the sym-
physis.

Insertion ; into the back of the top of the fibula, with a fascial
union with the tendon of the semitendinosus.
23. M. obturator externus? . seis O13) 07.
Origin; from the tuber ischii, the posterior edge of the ischium,
and the obturator membrane.
Insertion; into an oblique line on the back of the femur, below the
insertion of the guadratus femoris.
24. M. marsupialis externus;' 3 ea ee 07:
25. M. marsupralis internus, . . i ease OM OTOL:
These two muscles take their origin, “respectively, from the outer
surface of the marsupial bone, and from its inner surface and
the last abdominal rib; and. they are inserted by a common
tendon into the top of the posterior intertrochanteric line. Their
action is to rotate the femur directly inwards.
26. UL. flexor proprius hallucis, . . , Bien er OI (07:
Origin; from the outer condyle of femur,
iene into the first, second, and third toes.
27. M. flexor digitorum communis, rape re ee UR Oe:
Origin ; from the fibula and tibia.
Insertion ; into the first, second, and third toes.
28. M. tibialis posticus, rere at 40° 0 63.075
This muscle is inserted into ‘the tarsal ends of the first, second, and
third metatarsal bones.
29. MW. peroneo-calcaneus,. . Be SOO 07:
Origin ; from the lower part of the shaft of the fibula.
Insertion ; into the upper surface of the caleaneum.

Part 2.—Dztssection or ARM oF CROCODILE.

The muscular anatomy of the anterior limb of the Crocodile presents
no such remarkable peculiarities as those I have described in the leg,
and therefore a rapid enumeration of its muscles will be sufficient. It

is necessary to bear i in mind, for the purpose of comparison with the
muscles of the leg, that

The Marsupial bone represents the clavicle ;
ue Pubis, a a coracold ;
Face iiblinbire 55 a acromion ;

7 elisha, 2.5, - scapula.

279

1. Maat. ace Una eee sO) OF
Origin ; from the occipital and ‘cervical scutes, as far back as the
shoulder joint.
Insertion; into the anterior edge of the acromion.
2. M. latissimus dorsi (humerodorsalis), . . pets Ae MRED om,
Origin ; from the four anterior dorsal scutes,
Insertion ; into the back of the humerus, having its tendon con-
joined with that of the teres major...
o. IL teres major, . . eto MOOD “OZe
Origin ; posterior superior portion of scapula.
Insertion ; with Jatissemus dorse.

4, M. sterno- ee. LG seh O22 107.
Origin; from the sternum, - in front of its articulation with the
coracoid.
Insertion ; into the side of the atlas.
5. M. pectoralis Major, « 20°71 02;

Origin ; from top of sternum, and its entire length, and from the

abdominal ribs two-thirds of the distance to the pelvis.

Insertion ; into the outer edge of the great pectoral ridge of the hu-

merus.

6. M. pectoralis minor, . . helen 0°04 07.
Origin ; from the outer surface of the acromion and coracoid, lying

under the tendon of the biceps humerv.
Insertion ; inner side of pectoral ridge.
In this muscle is also included the supraspinatus, which is repre-
sented by the portion of the muscle taking its origin from the scapular
border of the acromion, inside the origin of the deltoid. These two pec-
torals draw the arm forward in swimming.

7. 1. pectoralis secundus, . aati Jonibieriunse tes <u A Or O4UOz.
Origin; from the first sternal rib. |
Insertion ; into the posterior edge of the coracoid.

This muscle draws the arm backwards, by acting on the coracoid,
and may represent the second pectoral of birds.

8. M. sternomastordeus, seats melee Cute i otrh pains su menenc OeTeg sO.
Origin ; from top of sternum.

Insertion ; into the BoE third of inner side of lower jaw.

9. WW. Omo- hyoideus, Me - 0:06 oz.
Origin; from the acromion, just above the glenoid cav avity.
Insertion ; into the descending eee of the hyoid bone.

10. 2. deltoideus, ais - 0:15:02.
Origin ; feast a oad: rim of the acromion, and para ‘hed inner sur-

face of the acromion, winding out over the edge to form the
inner portion the deltoid.
Insertion; into the deltoid ridge of the humerus.

11. YW. infraspinatus, gee a 0202 107.

Origin; from the outer snelnge an ihe scapula, rhe 3 is altogether

occupied by this muscle and the teres major.

276

Insertion ; by a long tendon into the greater tuberosity.
12. M. arte va Sa 0:02 oz.
Origin; from spinous processes of the last cervical and the first
dorsal vertebra.
Insertion ; under surface of vertebral edge of scapula.
13. M. serratus magnus, . .« = 0 26°07.
Origin ; from the transverse processes ‘of the vertebrax, from 2nd to
8th, inclusive.
Insertion ; all round the edge of acromion, and anterior and verte-
bral edge of the scapula.

This muscle is continuous with the next, which may be regarded as —

equivalent to the scapulocostal datissimus dors: muscle found in the
Seal.

14. IL. latissimus dorst scapulocostalis, : aw Ol FS<0Z,
Origin ; from the ribs of the 9th to 14th ‘vertebrae, inclusive.
Insertion ; into the Pele edge of the scapula.

15. U1. triceps, . mer Cee a Mae ce: ee UE Iy
Origin, threefold : —

1. From the posterior edge of the scapula, near the glenoid ;
2. By a bifurcate tendon from the coracoid and scapula, allowing
the subscapularis to pass between the two tendons.
3. From the outer and inner surfaces of the back of the humerus.
16. Wf. subscapularis, . . ertaer sO O a %0Ze
Origin ; from the inner surface ‘and anterior edge of the scapula.
Insertion ; into the lesser tuberosity, and into the line leading from
it down the inner side of the arm.
17. M, biceps humert, . . -) 2 OOo oz
Origin ; from the inner side of the anterior edge of the coracoid, in
front of the glenoid.
Insertion ; into the radius.
18. I. brachialis externus, . - 0°03 oz.
Origin ; from the line outside and elo: the pectoral ‘ridge.

Insertion ; into the radius, outside the insertion of the biceps, the —

tendon of the brachialis anticus ying between them.
19. M. brachialis anticus, . . of: tp) amen 6 O22 -O7e

This muscle is inserted into the radius petwein the insertions of —

the biceps and brachialis externus.

20. M.extensor corp. -radialis, 2) ee
21. MM. supinator radu longus, =... ‘sc wi pe = OZ Gm
22. M. extensor digitorum communis, ...-. . » . . - OOl oz
23. M. anconeus, . Bri wg eon OU Bley -

Origin ; from the outer condyle of the humerus.

Insertion ; into the ulna, along the whole length of its outer side.
24. if. extensor COND Trai pails gies ae OO 4m

Origin, from the radius and ulna, and from the interosseous septum.

Tusertion; into the middle carpal bone.

277

25. M. pronator radi, . : is cee BORO ONO:

Origin ; from the inner » condyle of the humerus.

Insertion ; into the whole length of the radius.

26.0 flexor carpi ulnaris, . . Oe ale ston eae OL Oa NOZ,

Origin ; from the inner condyle.

Insertion; into the outer carne bone, articulating with the ulna.

2{. 1. palmaris(?), 9... oe epee ee rs nc OO OZ,

Origin; from the inner condyle.

Insertion ; into the tendon of the flewor digitorum communis in the
centre of the palm. Its force is expended on the index and
middle fingers.

28. M. flexor digitorum communis, . ey | 0°00) Oz.

Origin ; from the whole inner surface of the ulna.

Insertion ; into the ungual phalanges of the thumb, index, and
middle fingers.

There are, in addition, short flexors in the palm, terminating in the
metacarpal ends of the phalanges at each side, allowing the tendon of
the long flexor to pass through.

The ring and little fingers seem to be flexed altogether by these
palmar tendons.

The Rey. Samuet Haveuron, M. D., Fellow of Trinity College, Dub-
lin, also read the following paper :—

Notes on AnrmaL MECHANICS.

No. VI1.—On tue Muscunar ANATOMY oF THE MACACUS NEMESTRINUS.

Tue first monkey which I shall describe in this Note was a very fine
specimen of J/acacus nemestrinus, which died, after a short illness, in
January of the present year, of tubercular disease affecting the liver,
spleen, and other organs. He had previously suffered from rheumatic
arthritis of both knee joints, which had destroyed the anterior surfaces
of the outer condyles of the femur, and so caused dislocation of both
patellas outwards.

On examination after death, the following observations weremade:—

Lungs; both filled with miliary tubercle.
Heart; exhibited two specks of tubercle, similar to those met with
in the lungs.

3. Lier ; divided into five lobes, of which four were filled with tu-
bercular nodules, and the fifth was wholly converted into a cheesy
tuberculous mass.

4. Spleen ; contained several large nodules of softened tubercle.

5. Glands ; of mesentery, united into one tubercular mass; of thoracic
spinal region, somewhat affected; of lumbar region, healthy.
Beene idead Ody: yiicl he 5 ve ee el ee ye 2 26 bs.

R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. | 2P

ee

278

Muscties or Lee and Foor.
1. MM. agitator caude, gluteus maximus, tensor vagine femoris
(Higt:215" 616), =. ; a Oe OOO OZ.
Rig. 21.*
HIND LEG OF MACACUS NEMESTRINUS
(with skin removed).

: S SS 2S = ~ ~ ~~. —
SSS SSS SS SSE ESSSSESES
= a

<=

LL
Sa

CY IIrKY

a, Biceps femoris. c, Great fascia of thigh.

6b, Combined agitator caude, gluteus | d, Outer portion of gastrocnemius.
maximus, and tensor vagine fe- | g, Displaced patella of right
Moris. knee.

These three muscles form one continuous sheet of fibres, expanded
over the upper and outer portion of the thigh ; they are shown
at 6 b, Fig. 21.

The agitator caude forms the posterior portion of the entire
muscle, and takes its origin from the first and second caudal
vertebree; the tensor vagine corresponds to the agitator in front
of the muscle, and arises from the crest of the ilium; and the
smallest, or central portion, is composed of the gluteus maximus
proper; this muscle, however, deserves its human name so little
in the Macaque, that it is only equal in weight to the gluteus
minimus, which is 165 grs.

The whole complex muscle is inserted below and behind the great
trochanter, and into the whole of the great fascia covering the
thigh on the outer side.

* This and the following figures were drawn from nature by my son.
t The fibres of this curiously shaped muscle are not parallel, but converge through
an angle of 16°, to a point 145 inches from the crest of the ilium; and their resultant

Bie

PRI ILCHIUS, os ee He fe el ee el 8S 02.
SPM Me CNIMUSS ho ee wo es ee OST 02.
4. UM. biceps femoris (Fig. 21, a; Fig. 22, 6; Fig. 28, ¢e), . 1:100z.
Inserted into the back of the lower third of the femur, and by
fascia down the upper third of the leg; the resultant plane of

all its fibres falls below the knee joint.
ee escmmncnanosus (Hig 230)) 0 So ee ee OE L072,

Takes origin from Fig. 23.

the tuber ischii, and |
COMBINATION OF FLEXORS OF THE KNEE JOINT IN THE MACACUS

is inserted by a flat NEMESTRINUS
tendon into the upper (viewed from behind, in the lithotomy position),

point of trisection of
the tibia.

6, I. semimembranosus
(Fig. 23, d), 0°67 oz.
Origin; the poste-
rior line of ischium.
Insertion; into the
top of the tibia by
a round tendon.

7. WC. gracilis (Fig. 23,
@) ie 5 0°00 02.
Origin; from the
symphysis pubis.
Insertion; _ beside
the semimembrano-
sus, and inside the
sartorius, into the
upper fourth of the
tibia.

8. If. sartorius, (Fig.
Be) 2 O82 02,

9. M. adductor longus
(Fig. 23, ¢), 0°90 oz.
Origin; from the
spring of the arch
of the pubis.
Insertion ; into the
back of the inner
condyle, and one

inch up the femur. bh Cees e, Biceps femorise
:. » Semitendinosus. Ff, Gastrocnemius.*
10. A. adductor mMag- ¢, Adductor longus. %, Dislocated patella.
nus, . . 22002. d, Semimembranosus. h, Bulb of urethra.

divides the base line joining the crest of the ilium with the second caudal vertebra in the
proportion of 31 to 56.

280

Origin; fleshy, from the symphysis and arch of the pubis.
_ Insertion; into the entire length of the back of the femur.

Wie Macadducior brevise ee ge ee ora
Origin; from the top of the symphysis pubis. ~
Insertion ; into the second upper fourth of the back of the femur.

12. MM. pectineus,

0°22 oz.
Origin; from the
pectinezal line.
Insertion; into
the upper fourth
of the back of the
femur.

13. IL quadriceps ex-

tensor femoris,
2°32 OZ.
1. Rectus, 0°80 oz.
2. Vastus
externus, 0°82 oz.
3. Vastus
unternus, 0°40 oz.
4. Crureus,
0°30 oz.
14. MW, psoadiliacus,
1-87 oz.
15. IL. psoas parvus,
0:27 oz.
16. AL. thocapsularis,
OD grs.
Although small, this
muscle was very
distinct. _
17. UW. quadratus fe-
moris, 0°46 02.
18. UL. obturator ex-
ternus, 0°d30z,
19. MM. obturator YY
internus et ge- VLBRLZA
melli, 0°75 oz. Taree

Fig. 22.

DEEP MUSCLES OF RIGHT LEG OF MACACUS NEMESTRINUS.

a, Semitendinosus and adduc- Ff, Psoadiliacus.

20. M. Lp le, tor longus. g, Dislocated patella.
0°06 oz. b, Biceps femoris. h, Vastus internus.
An interesting ob- % Vastus eaternus. ?, Outer portion of gastro-

. d, Rectus femoris. cnenuus.
servation may be ¢” sartorius. |

made upon the

muscles that act upon the knee joint: that they do not all act in the
plane of motion of the joint itself, but at the same time their actions
are so balanced, that their total resultant is, in all probability, ac-

281

eurately in that plane; this indeed is a result to be expected
in a hinge joint like the knee, for otherwise there would be a
constant wrench produced on the joint, by the unbalanced ro-
tation outwards or inwards.

Of the muscles that flex the knee joint, the biceps, semimembrano-
sus, and sartorvus were found to act im the plane of the joint,
while the semitendinosus abducted at an angle of 5° 40’, and the -
gracilis adducted at an angle of 8°.

A little consideration will serve to show, provided my postulates
be admitted, that the semitendinosus wrenches the joint by a ro-
tation inwards, represented by its weight multiplied by the sine
of the angle its plane makes with the plane of motion of the
knee joint; and that the gracilis wrenches the joint by a rota-
tion outwards, represented by a similar quantity.

Hence we find

Wrenching moment inwards of semitendinosus = 0°61 x sin 5° 40’ = 0:06 oz.
Ms outwards of gracilis =0°55xsin 8° =0:07 oz.

These two wrenching moments nearly balance each other, so as to
leave little or no strain on the joint; and it is probable that the
slight difference between them is compensated by the action of
the popliteus, which aids the semztendinosus to some extent.

The flexors of the leg are well shown in Fig. 28, which represents
them all in their natural positions, with the exception of the
biceps, which has been drawn out of its place, in order to show
better the position of the remaining muscles.

PNEPURNGUSIEOCHCHIIUS. 9 6 ee 089 OF,
Ree Gh CL ee RE (O68 en.
Bo. i, plantaris, cae Se ee rer A eR KC EN cers SOLO ON:
24. M. flexor digitorum longus, a data ar ye Some re SO OZ:
BP OLMUS MOSHICUS; 8 080 O87.
Beet neron pollues longus, . 2... wk ee tl O66 7.
27. I. accessorius, . 0°05 oz.

The tendon of the flecor hallucis divides, i in the centre of the sole,
into tendons distributed to the 8rd and 4th toes, and an-
other tendon which constitutes half the tendon of the hallux.

The tendon of the flexor digitorum divides at the same point into
tendons distributed to the 2nd and 5dth toes, and another
tendon which constitutes the remaining half of the tendon of the
hallux.

The M. accessorius tendon meets all the foregoing at the point of
subdivision ; but its largest branch is continued directly on, into
the tendon of the flexor hallucis.

The distribution of the flexor tendons to the toes varies in different
genera of Monkeys.

In the Cebus, their distribution is like that of the Macacus neme-
strinus, viz., flecor hallucis to 3rd, 4th, and half the hallux ;

282

and flecor digitorum to the 2nd, 5th, and half the hallux; and
they all anastomose together in the sole of the foot, where they
are joined by the accessorius.

In the Cercopithecus fuliginosus (Cuvier), or Sooty Mangaby,
with white eyelid, the flexor digitorum supplies ‘the tendons
of the 2nd and 5th toes, and one-third of the tendon of the
hallux ; the flexor hallucis supplies the tendons of the 3rd and
4th toes, and two-thirds of the tendon of the hallux; and
there is no accessorvus muscle.

In the Hapale, the flexor hallucis supplies the 3rd and 4th toes
only, so that its human name becomes inappropriate; and the
flecor digitorum supplies the 2nd and Sth toes, with a small slip
to the hallux.

In the Lagothrix the accessorvus muscle is wanting, and the flexor
hallucts is distributed to the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th toes, and partly
to the hallux, while the flexor digitorum supplies the 4th and 5th
toes, and partly the hallux.

In the Chimpanzee, the flexor hallucis supplies the whole tendon of
the hallux (to which one-third of its force is sent), one-third of
the tendon of the 2nd toe, two-thirds of that ofthe 8rd toe, and
the whole of the 4th toe; while the flexor digitorum supplies
two-thirds of the tendon of the 2nd toe, one-third of that of the
8rd toe, and the whole of the 5th. There is no accessorius.

In Man, the flexor hallucis supplies the whole tendon of the hallux,

and half that of the 2nd toe (two-thirds of its force going to.

the hallux, and one-third to the 2nd toe); and the flexor digi-
torum supplies the remaining half of the tendon of the 2nd toe,
and the whole tendons of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th toes; and the
accessorvus combines the two tendons together in the sole of the
foot, pulling on both.

The different mechanical uses of the foot, indicated by these various
arrangements, would form a most interesting study for an ana-
tomist, who might have the opportunity of observing the ani-
mals during life, with their varied habits of grasping, climbing,
and walking.

= DE, peron@us LONGUS; ise vein. ela) bn ee OO Deze
. MM peroneus brevis, 5 a. ee <a ve in wes) oe
iM. tibialis anticus, . 5 gegen HO" 1D, Oza
This muscle is composed of two. distinct portions: inserted re-
spectively into the cuneiform bone and into the metatarsal of
the hallux.
Cuneiform-portion, 5. .- 5 5. \ sf oe ie. fae Ones
Metatarsal ‘portion, 02.075: eli ec) ee ee OO
, DM, extensor-digttorum communis, .... + |)... a a O27 om
» DL. extensor proprius hallucts, 2°. * 3c eee Ol 2aaze
« AM. extensor digetorum Oreets,.- 00. at.) oe) ee OO noe
. LEM. abductor et opponens haliucts, . . . . . . . 008-02.

i eee ee

283

35. M. flecor digitorum brevis (perforatus), . . . . . . 0°08 oz.

This muscle is divided into two parts :—

1. Flexor indicts perforatus, having the human origin.
2. Flexor digitorum, having an origin from the flexor digitorum
longus tendon, to which it is an accessory muscle.

Se anauctor Mminimy digitt,,. .- . . . 6 se « s « 0°04 07.
pereyeror mallncis’ O7CUIs, 2). sw ewe we wk 007 02.
ERIIAVICLOT RONLUCUS, 9 <3 ee a 0°22 07,

Muscres oF ARM AND Hann.
MPMERESIE AST ef es we ows wife Way fis acy 1°90 OZ,
meierama-arigniicis(His. 24, f), 2... ak tw ws O'BY O7:

Fig. 24.

MACACUS NEMESTRINUS.

; g, Sternomastoideus.
h, Massetericus.
c, Deltoideus. | i, Accessory atlantic slip of

a, Trapezius, reflected.
b, Supraspinatus.

d, Clavicle.
e, Spine of scapula.
f, Omo-atlanticus.

serratus Magnus.

jj, Accessory occipital slips

of rhomboideus.

Origin; from the transverse process of the atlas.

Insertion ; into the anterior third of spine of scapula.

The insertion of the omo-atlantic muscle in the MMacacus neme-
strinus forms an exception to its usual insertion in the smaller
Macaques, in which it is attached to the third of both the cla-
vicle and spine of the scapula nearest the shoulder joint. Its
insertion in the M. nemestrinus is like that of the Cercopitheci.
In Cynocephalus porcarius and C. maimon it is inserted into the
outer third of the spine of the scapula only. This muscle is
wanting in the Cebus.

284

3. M. rhomboideus (vide Fig. 24,77), . . . 0°70 oz.

Origin ; from the spinous processes of the upper half of the dorsal

vertebree, all the cervical, with ¢wo accessory slips from the oc-
cipital ridge, shown at 7 i Fig. 24.

Insertion ; into the vertebral edge of the scapula.

One or more of these accessory slips of the rhomboid muscle are
present in most of the Macaques and Cercopitheci, and Cynoce-
phali; they are to be regarded as portions of the rhomboid, with
origin extended to the head, and are connected with motions. of the
head and shruggings of the shoulder, essentially ape-like, and
not human. The accessory slip of the Rhomboid muscle is want-
ing in the Cebus.

. M. sternomastordeus (Fig. 24, ay sisi ie 5 eer laos
M. pectoralis myor,. . . eee oe en eo,
. UW. pectoralis minor, Bees sete. co, O'O-078

This muscle is divisible into ‘two portions, of winch the first takes
origin from the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ribs, and is inserted
into the top of the great tuberosity of the humerus, the coracoid
process, and capsular ligament; this portion of the lesser pec-
toral weighs 0°57 oz.; : the second portion of the muscle arises
from the 6th, 7th, and 8th ribs, and is inserted into the upper
and anterior margin of the bicipital groove.

The first portion may be regarded as a levator humere.

7. I. deltoideus, . . RAN PIE vs ae Ss eel OC, (6 7.
8. M. subclavius (second pectoral of birds 2) : tail Ola Ozm
Origin ; from the junction of the first rib with the sternum.

Insertion ; into the inferior as of the clavicle.

ors

9. M. latissomus dorst, ae si fe tO Oe

This muscle is inserted, by means of a broad tendon common to it
with the ¢eres major, into the humerus beneath the bzceps, and
also by a tendinous band passing over and binding down the
biceps, into the outer side of the humerus. One head of the
triceps is attached to the Jatissemus dorsi, as 1t passes across the
axilla.

10. M. serratus magnus (vide Fig. 24,7), . . . Pitue eaee L OOO
In this muscle I have included the levator angult scapule, which
cannot be separated from it as a distinct muscle, and also the
distinct slip figured at ¢ (Fig. 24), which takes its origin from
the posterior tubercle of the transverse process of the atlas.
11. AL supraspinatus (Fig. 24, 2D eR He lk ORIENT
12. M. infraspinatus, . . on Maree mane a moO Ce
13. WM. triceps, . be ia) pitas ep Ne a LOO meiaE
This muscle has four heads—
1. From the latissimus dors.
@. From the anterior half of the lower edge of the scapula.
3, 4. Double origin, fleshy, from the back of the humerus, asin
Man.

14.

285

WM. teres myor, . fe ee een SON 02):

Origin; from the posterior inferior angle of the scapula.

Insertion ; with the /atissimus dorsi, by means of a broad tendon,
of Ath the teres forms cored ited. and the latessiomus one-
third.

MIME CEERI QNOT ite ks he a aa) goss eu ws OLD OF,
PEN SUSUABULOTIS <0, A. 8 uccnf 8 tte ig a we oy ecw VAS OF.
MPEEICCUS UUMIENE. 2) oy of eis fe st es tw LT OM,
18. MM. coracobrachialis, . 4 0:12 oz.

This muscle is intimately blended with ‘the coracoid head of the
biceps.

Poe i erachionis antics, F280 SRT Be ace 0-47 og.
Eien mr oniLer POO teres S88 FO LK Svea 082 oz.
peerorecnrpy radials, . SR OR Oa po e087 oz.
22. M. palmaris longus, : Pee wt me tt OLS) OZ,
23. VM. flexor sublimis digitorum, DEE PEGE OY ONG OW] OZ:
eee Cape WNArIS Ye CS On! Ae Oe? A co 0°78 oz.
Pap euspiuaior radi longus, =~ . . °. . aya bxeO77 on,
26. M. extensor carpi radialis longior, 1. . . . . . « 0°38 02.
2(. 0M Sextensor carpy radialis brevior, os oe 0°82 Oz.
28. I. extensor digitorum communis, . 6 2. 2... 0°84 o7.
29. M. auricularis, ! 0:08 oz.

This little muscle stade a Haddon me Anis: 4th as el as fe the 5th
finger.

VR NCLICHSOF CON DY UNOS. Se NAVOTRON Roo aires 0:28 OZ.
. Wf, flexor digitorum profundis, » ones:

M. flexor pollices longus, §

There is no distinct flexor pollicis longus; but a tendon branches
off to the thumb, from the central portion of the tendon of the
flexor digitorum profundus, that supplies the 8rd and 4th fin-
gers. I found by trial that the weights of equal lengths of the
thumb tendon and common tendon to the other four fingers
were as 116 to 243; showing that one-third of the whole force
of the muscle is expended on the thumb, and the remaining
two-thirds on the other fingers—for it is easy to see that the
forces acting along the subdivided tendons must be exactly pro-
portional to their strengths as measured by the weights of equal
lengths.

The peculiarities of the human flexor pollicis tongus have always
been insisted upon by anatomists as essentially characteristic
of Man, as distinguished from the Quadrumans; but exceptions
of the most startling kind are occasionally met with. While I
was engaged in the dissection of the dfacacus nemestrinus, I
ealled the attention of Mr. Finney, Medical Scholar of Trinity
College, to the arrangement of the tendons of the deep flexor,
who then mentioned to me the case of a male subject dissected

BeteAe PROC.—— VOL; Ix, 2Q

286

by him in November, 1864. On referring to his note book, I
was able to extract the following observation :—

‘« Abnormal flexor pollicis longus.—The fleshy origin of this muscle
from the bone of the forearm was entirely wanting, and the
tendon of the flexor pollicis longus was attached opposite to the
base of the 8rd metacarpal bone, to the tendons of the flexor
digitorum profundus, on their superficial surface.”

This remarkable example shows that Man may sometimes possess
the arrangement of tendons of thumb and fingers characteristic
of the Macaque; but whether such a case should be regarded as
a Macaque passing upwards into a Man, or a Man passing down-
wards into a Macaque, or as a congenital freak of nature, I
cannot undertake to say.

In the Cercopithecus fuliginosus (Cuvier), the tendon of the flexor
pollicis longus springs, as in the Macaque, from the central por-
tion of the tendon of the flexor profundus that supplies the middle
and ring fingers.

In the Cebus and Lagothrix, a more degraded type of thumb is
found ; for the flexor pollicis longus is represented by a tendon
to the thumb, not proceeding from the central portion of the
tendon of the flexor profundus, but by a tendon which is merely
one of the five tendons into which the flexor profundus is divided
in the lower animals.

It is remarkable, however, that among the Quadrumans the most
degraded type of thumb is to be found in the so-called Anthro-
poid Chimpanzee, for an opportunity of dissecting which, as —
well as the Negro Monkey, I am indebted to the kindness of —
Mr. Thomas J. Moore, Curator of the Derby Museum, of Liverpool.
In the Chimpanzee, the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus is
formed by the unicn of two small thread-like tendons; of which
one, of silky texture, is derived from the muscle of the flexor
sublimis (perforatus), of the index finger; and the other,
equally slender, but wanting the silky lustre, proceeds from —
the tendon of the flexor sublimis of the little finger.*

* The following remarks on this curious subject, by Professor Gratiolet, will be read
with interest by anatomists :—

‘‘ The anatomical examination of this Chimpanzee ( Troglodytes Aubryi) reveals pro- —
found and really typical differences between man and the most elevated apes. In the ©
latter the thumb is bent by an oblique division of the common tendon of the muscle which —
bends the other fingers; it is, therefore, influenced by the common movements of flexion,
and therefore is not free. This typeis realized in the Gorilla and Chimpanzee; but the
small tendon which moves the thumb is in these reduced to a tendinous thread, which —
exerts no action, for its origin is lost in the synovial folds of the tendons which bend
the other fingers, and it abuts on no muscle; the thumb, therefore, in these apes is —
wonderfully enfeebled. In none of them is there a trace of the large independent muscle ~
which gives movement to the human thumb. Far from becoming more strongly deve-

.

287

pen nranator Guadratus, oe a ee se 6010 02.
eannuAtOr Tat) brevis, =... ee ee eo) 0°22 02.
34. MW. extensor ossis metacarpt pollicis, . . . . «© « « O'25-02,
35. M. extensor primi internodi pollicis, | :

WM. extensor secundi internodi pollicis, § WE go og AU els

Se. MP ndicntor, =. we Siar. 1 0°05 oz.

This muscle sends a tendon to the middle finger, as ell as to the
index.

37. M. abductor a ee Tin nine ous con) OOD Om,

Pema gponces ollicis, OR 0108 07:

Bee menor pollicis brevis, 6 a ew es OT1 C082.

40. Mf. adductor pollicis, Pe eT et a eum eae ont Os Oos OZ

The Rev. Samvrt Haveuton, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on Antmat MEcHANICS.

No. VIJI.—Furturr Comparison oF THE Hip Joint anp Knuxz Joint
Musciis In THE CERCOPITHECUS, CYNOCEPHALUS, AND Macacus.

Since publishing in Notes I. and II. my earlier observations on the
muscular mechanism of the hip joint in Man and some of the lesser
Monkeys, I have made further cbservations on this subject, a summary
of which seems to me worthy of being laid before the Academy.

loped, the member so characteristic of the human hand seems in the most elevated apes
(the Orangs) to incline to a complete annihilation. These apes, therefore, have nothing
in the organization of their hand which indicates a passage into the human form; and I
insist in my memoir’on the profound differences revealed by the study of the movements
in hands formed to accomplish objects of a totally distinct order. A close examination
of the muscles ofthe arm and shoulder in the pretended anthropomorphous apes confirms
these results. Besides, it is especially in the ape in appearance the most like man—the
Indian Orang—that the hand arid foot present the most striking degradations. This
paradox—this default in the parallelism in man and the large apes in the developement
of correlative organs, such as the brain and the hand—shows absolutely that other
harmonies and other destinies are here in question.

«The facts upon which I insist permit me to affirm, with a conviction founded on a
personal and attentive study ofall at present known, that anatomy gives no grounds for
the idea, so violently defended now-a-days, of a close relationship between man and ape.
One may invoke in vain some ancient skulls, evident monstrosities, found by chance,
such as that of Neanderthdl—and here and there similar forms may now be found;
they belong to idiots. One of these was discovered a few years ago by Dr. Binder, who,
at the request of M. Macé, presented it to me. It is now in the collection belonging to

the Museum. It will henceforth be counted among the elements of the great discussion

on the nature of man which now agitates philosophers and troubles consciences; out
of which discussion, some day, the divine majesty of man shall arise consecrated by com-
bat, and ever henceforth be inviolable and triumphant.”

288 ee a
1. Cercopithecus mona ? (male).

From the dissection of a specimen of a male Cercopithecus mona I
obtained the following results :—

Muscle. aes Weight, Percentage.
A TS.
ty Psoadthiacus: 250 Sa ee eres OOUN seg ac lem giepee 9°5
Be Mdiietotesie | Kites oe Sete OOUNT (a: wobntsat seals 20°7
SeGluteus maxis, eodhs sie econ ent nade aL
4.oGlutzus meding, jis, 050. a2. 6 ROT ye 2. re ee
5. Gluteus minimus, ....., 44 1A
— 46°5
1. Biceps femoris, . 561 1359
3; Semimembranosus, } 220 —«« 81
3. Semitendinosus,
A Gracilis >: ss. wa ‘
ete ae sad TAOS AEL 49
6. Quadriceps extensor femoris, ~»:.: 1080) 07. Sota eee 26:6
— 53°58
Totals, . . . 4050 grs. 100°0 100°0
Grs.
Weight of Monkey,” 0.) )90 004) unc DI S60
hearty. FE peop nee eee
on Liver. sare cassia Paneer nore 1650 —
“A TAIN A Sich re ee ec emen ae 946
; Percentage.
Proper muscles Ofnipyoints) - o4rscet 0 eee Ome
Flexors of- knee, ee eee er ae oe
Extensors of knees oy ois San creo tate oO
100-0

On projecting the planes of motion of the hip joint muscles on the ©
plane of the rim of the acetabulum, I obtained the following results :—
measuring the azimuths of the moments from the plane of motion of ©
the knee joint, which is the natural zero plane for the hip jomt—

Muscle. Azimuth. Moment.
1 Psoadiliacusy) (2) coo we to DU ge eet eee es
DEONGUUCTOTCS, erg! |. tkcn a fae) OO ee en eee eee ner
3. Glnteus maximus,\.° 4. 7 o20° oh. aes eos
cl ta WeGUS lo ee POAT ee te ae
a Oeranee = MITES) ho ogee TOON: cite tea, ee ae i ae

If we refer these moments to the plane of motion of the knee ‘cine i
which is the plane of Flexion and Extension of the thigh upon the body, ~
and to the plane of Adduction and Abduction, perpendicular to the

‘former plane, we can readily construct the following Table of Compo--
nent Moments :—

289

Component Moments of Hip Joint Muscles of Cercopithecus mona.

Muscle. Flexion. |Extension. Adduction.|Abduction.
1) /Peoadiliacus, /.. 54.5. 8°93 .: 3°25
DriNGAUCtOres,;: 9.55 6°. 4 ao 15°62 13°58 Mi
3. Gluteus maximus,,... 4°23 ate ce 2°85
4, Pee edius. |: 2. 9°55 | a: as 3-29 |
5. Pe Ominimns,...\. £708 | 0°17
ra seh cles rege et ee
Totals, . - 23279 |” 15-62 16°83 6°31
| | |

Subtracting the moments acting in opposite directions, we find—
Percentage.

Total flexion, Me sthtetne 10 Sala
Mopalvaddwetionya. <i eset a) oe LO D2

2. Cercopithecus callitrichus ? (male).

From a fine specimen of this Monkey I obtained the following re-
sults :—

Muscle. eciual Weleht Percentage.
rs.
econetimetsnicus Fee. SOO, tls A 8-0
9. Pectineus, ... oy ee ees 88 129
3. Obturator esis, ube ee aes Muli ot oa eo xaeabentten 2 esi,
PNeLOLeS a. very stole ee CLO Be 15°4
5. Quadratus femoris, . 9. 2 s.. GGrec Sosa 1°4
6. Obturator internus, ...-... 100 252,
7a Glutenssnaximus, . |. .-.. 192 4.°2
8. MeO eMedISY.) o.oo es . 7 S00 10°6
Oe ees Sele Meh | 60 1°3
—- 46°7
if), Bicepsitemioris, “ss 649 14°1
2.Semimembranosus, ..... 297 6°4
Sasemicendinosus, .-.-. .«s.% . L76 3°8
PG TACIISME cs las is ee so ADS 4°3
Beroarforius,, . .. Aes TO anes Meter hans On7i
6. Quadriceps extensor femoris. = LEE 24°0
—— 53°3
Totals, . . . 4607 grs:. 100°0
Percentage.
1. Proper muscles of hip ene eee On
Ze Plexorsof kriee, (7. Se en ee OF iO
3. Extensors of knee, SG eae, copa BOA AO)

100°0

290

Referring the moments of the hip joint muscles to the plane of the
brim of the acetabulum, I found—

Muscle. Azimuth. Moment.
Degs. Percentage.

f. Psoadiliacus. eiecsecen ene een GO) real eie 8°0
De TH eCtinacHSie. eure meee cele 94 os}
oe Waductores. anos Poleheiy elena: 15°4
4. Obturator externus, sees Mince 17
5. Quadratusfemoris, .... 180 1°4
6: ,Obturaturamternus, ee 6 sor eco O nies Ce nena a. 74.24
7s Glutice us| MaxXIMUSs se.) 2) is on eo Ole eel eee ae 4°2
8. TIME CIUSE Piva ts ules aL OAE 10°6
oO o, IMUM, 8s), Pee ee OO 1°3

46°7

=|

If these moments be resolved, as before, along the directions of
Flexion and Extension of the knee joint, and of abduction and adduction
perpendicular to it, we find—

Muscle. Flexion. | Extension.|Adduction.|Abduction.
1. Psoadiliacus, ...... 7°52 A 2°73 —_—
Je Pectingweusi eels lewese ae Omloel pelea: —
Bjo PAGKIGHORY Goo Aa 6 ee 11°24 | 10°50 —
4, Obturator externus, .. 56 1°46 0°87 —
5. Quadratus femoris, .. as 1°40 ee —
6. Obturator internus, .. ote 1°41 1°68
7. Gluteeus maximus, .. 3°48 Zea
8. PW me dinisy cw ay. On02 oe 3°45
2: a ONTOS Gos 1°28 0°20
Totals eae p22v00.) owe | koro 7°68

Subtracting opposite moments, we find—

Percentage.
Te Votalilext0n; 6. ky a See OL
2. hotalcadduction, . 7 3. hee ololk

3. Cynocephalus porcarius (Chacma).

From a specimen. of this Cynocephalus, 1 obtained the following —
results and measurements :—

291

Muscle. Actual Weight. Percentage.
Ozs, Av.
ete Eanes, ER 95) 3:1
2. Pectinzus et Adductor brevis. IO male? 1°5
3. Obturator externus,. .-. . 0°27 2°4
4, Adductor magnus et longus, 1°40 12°6
5. Quadratus femoris, . . OM: 75, 5 1°3
6. Obturator internus,. . . 0°31 a 28
7. Glutzus maximus, . 0°57 5°1
8. » ~ medius, D7, 12°3
9. » . minimus, 0°22 2°0
eos 43-1
1. Biceps femoris, 1°40 12°6
2. Semimembranosus, 0°95 8°5
3. Semitendinosus, . 0°48 x 4.°2
4. Gracilis, 0°51 4°5
5. Sartorius, . 0°28 fe 2°6
6. Rectus femoris, 0°63 5°6
7. Vastus externus, . She 1°40 12°6
Semen alntermtis, ee 0°45 4°0
9. Crureus, . 0°25 23
—— 56°9
Lotals sy. . “11°05 oz. 100°0

Proper muscles of hip joint, ee (AB
exons OF KNEC, 2 Fi sian en nese ely s ec: Bae
Extensors of knee, . 24°5

Referring the moments, as before, to the plane of the rim of the ace-
tabulum, I found—

Muscle. * Azimuth. Moment.

Degs. Percentage,
fe tsoadiliacus,. -..°. fil SUPA, SIN RCI ol
2. Pectinzeus et adductor br evis, CEs Bak ‘ 15
3. Adductor magnus et longus, . 137 12°6
4. Obturator externus, . ... 148 2°4
5. Quadratus femoris, . . 180 eS
6. Obturator internus et Gemelli, DOY ta ere 2°8
@Ginteeus maximus, &c., . 2. 8285.0. 5<1
8. wen MeCIUS Chipyie. -- 2 OAT 2 « bye tbh 5)
5 PE MMMNMUS: ook e tee BOOM 6. S “250

i
(st)
bh

Resolving these moments, as before, we obtain—

Muscle.

. Psoadiliacus, ;
. Pectinzeus et Ad. noes.
. Obturator externus, ..
- Add. mag. et long.,

. Quadratus femoris,
Obt. int. et Gemell.,
GL aS Aes Ua) gus
», med. et pyriform.,
7) MUS Ayes

(COND OUP oo dO

oes

BObaNS 21

292

Flexion. |Extension. lune .|Abduction.

Subtracting opposite moments, we find——

The following Tables are deduced from Note VII., on the Muscula E

Total flexiony (. seas...
Total adduction,.

2°74 1°45 aie
0°41 ae 1°44
5 2°03 LAE ie
yom 8°59 ju
1 30 eas ie
ae 1°94 : 2°01
4°33 5b ! 2540
Ue) 2°76
Oe) 0°17
21270 14°48 12275 7°64
Percentage.
4°22
Scie

4, Macacus nemestrinus.

Anatomy of the Macacus nemestrinus :—-

famsh oon

MP OOMDNAAL ODE

CANBDAB ONE

Muscle.

. Psoadiliacus,
. Pectineus, ..
. Adductor brevis,

ss magnus,

. Obturator externus, .

. Adductor longus,

. Quadratus femoris,

. Obturator internus, &c.,
. Glutzus maximus,

&c.,
». ~-medius, &c.,

», minimus, &c.,

. Biceps femoris, .

. Semimembranosus,
. Semitendinosus,
eaGracilisee . 6 6).

. Sartorius, .

. Rectus femoris,

. Vastus externus, .

3, ~internus,” .

. Crureus,

Ota Ss toni

Actual Weight.

Ozs. Av.
"37
2D Die
di ae
*20

eFoscocowmoor
: Tm
S

Soocoooeoort
‘ 9
NS)

—
~I
(=>)
(ve)

Percentage,

e
—_
[1 (=)

mo no Ba] Oo Oo 0D 0

—
BD F cre He pp Or OO GO DO

|

mp BR oo Ow
wi 00 00-7 MONO

67°3

293

Percentage.
Proper muscles of hip joint, . . . . 67°3
ilaxOrstOn KNCOl jis cere) tal So -omn OD

IPSLCMSOTS On BTCC. Une ore wert cb er Nat kOe DO

-

Referring the moments of the hip joint muscles to the rim of the
acetabulum, I found—

Muscle. Azimuth. Moment.
Degs. Percentage.

Pebsoadmiacns.. ste 8 I 26 Ge ME eee LOD
PREPeChIneUsie tts) pp ete OD iv omcaare vara teboke 13
eA GaNetOr brevis,. 5. 2 . 86 ill
4. PO UACUUS: 2 od sn 3) ee SZ 18°8
5. Obturator externus,. - . . 132 3:1
GeAaductor longus, .°... .° 157 5°3
7. Quadratus femoris, . . 180 Beg
8. Obturator internus et Gemelli, 223 4-4
9. Glutzus maximus, &c., ee Pi EBSD org
10. Pe IOE@WIS, CoC.. oe » « 4 BAS 11°4
1 ip » minimus, Ace ane NBME 2°1

Resolving these moments, as before, we obtain——

Muscle. Flexion. | Extension.|Adduction. | Abduction.
1. Psoadiliacus,........ 9°77 4°78
DP Perhinens,. 0s... 0°74 1°06
8. Adductor brevis, ela (yE EA oe 2°09
4, + magnus, ... -- LO Salada: Oe
5. Obturator externus, .. -: 2°07 2°30
6. Adductor longus, .. se 4°88 2°07
7. Quadratus femoris, .. an 2°70 Bs ne
8, Obturator internus, .. rs 3°22 3°00
9. Gluteus maximus, . Pag ae 2 2°76
10. Pee meds, .....\- Lf 19 Zeer
1, eo) Minin... -. 2°09 0°14
Totals,....| 28°60 25°45 26°27 | 8°27

Subtracting the opposite moments, we find—

Percentage.

Total flexion, oh ieee st Se LO
Wotaladdyctiony 2. 6-00

If we collect together the preceding results into one Table, having
first reduced them to percentages of the proper muscles of the hip joint,
R. I. A. PROC.—-VOL. Ix. 2k

294

we shall obtain the following results, which represent the total flexion
and adduction, expressed as percentages, compared with each other.

Total Flexion. Total Adduction.

I Cercopithecusmona ye pre yes 1 Li OU ane in eo ON
2. “i callitrichus, GO, AULA S26 RR ne ee ae
3. Cynocephalus:porcarius, ©. 16°75. 1 se te 85
4. Macacus MeMestriMuss 1s) vo. AOS teens eeeoaGramee

The relative proportions of the Gluteei muscles, in the smaller mon-
keys, I have found to be as follows :—

Gl. max. Gl. med. Gl. min.
1. 2@ercopithecus mona...) ees SLOG - 1) Ole OLS
2. 45 callitrichus, pe QO TON ee GOL OE uaa
3. Cynocephalus POrearius, =<. 4s 200 2s CLG a etn
A. Macacus Nemestrinus;,... sya 120170) con on OO Gnect coum la
5. sLagothrix Humboldt, <8. 3779) 9. 2 O08 ar

The Presipent read the following communication from the Rev.
Epwarp Hiners :—

On THE VARIOUS YEARS AND Montus 1n Usk Amone THE EGyPrTraAns.

Tue author began by referring to his former paper on a similar subject,
read before the Academy in 1888, and published in its ‘“‘ Transactions.”
The conclusions arrived at in that paper were, he observed, vitiated by
a discovery made by Brugsch, that Champollion had mistaken the sea-
sons of the Egyptian year; that the third season, which he had be-
lieved to be that of the inundation, was in reality the genial season;
and the first season, which followed this, was the true season of the inun-
dation. Fully recognising the importance of this discovery, and of others
made by Brugsch, Dr. Hincks could not acquiesce in what he had put for-
ward as his latest discoveries—namely, that the wandering year of 365
days was unknown to the Egyptians; and that the only yearsused by them
through the whole period of their history were the sacred year, com-
mencing with the rising of Sothis on the 20th or 21st July of our pre-
sent calendar; and the civil year, commencing about forty days after.
Kach of these had 365 days in three successive years, and 366 in the
fourth. The principal object of the present paper was to controvert —
these new opinions. He admitted the existence of such a sacred year
as that of M. Brugsch; which, however, was not a discovery of his,
but what all Egyptologers have long since recognised; but he main-
tained that the Egyptians had a civil year of 365 days since 2783 B.C.,

and that they never had acivil year with intercalations, beginning near
the end of August, until after the taking of Alexandria by Czesar Octa-

vianus. In support of the first proposition, he appealed first to the tes-
timonies of various astronomical writers, and of Censorinus. In the
course of his argument he noticed the mistake which Brugsch had

299

made respecting an astrological Papyrus at Paris, which he assigned to
the tenth year of Antoninus, the real date being the jirst year of An-
toninus; and the positions of the Sun, Moon, and Saturn noted therein
being certainly those which they occupied on the 4th December, A. D.
137. This correction cuts at the root one of M. Brugsch’s principal ar-
guments. Dr. Hincks then digresses to the consular fasti, which, as
generally received, are inconsistent with this date existing in a contem-
porary record. He points out a consulship in the reign of Vespasian,
which has been, he thinks, improperly inserted, and one in the reign of
Alexander Severus which has been improperly omitted. He then con-
siders the testimony of 8. Clemens Alexandrinus, whose dates respect-
ing the birth and death of our Lord can have no significance unless the
years which he uses were years of 3865 days without intercalation.
Admitting this, his dates of the birth and crucifixion of our Lord, of
the taking of Jerusalem, and of the death of Commodus, are found to
be dates of the wandering year, corresponding respectively to the 5th
January, 3 B.C.; 7th April, A. D. 380; 2d September, A. D. 70;
and 3lst December, A.D. 191. The second of these dates, it is ob-
served, is that of Bishop Ellicott. The double date on the Rosetta
Stone is then considered; and it is shown, by a reference to Archbishop
Ussher’s work on the Macedonian Solar Year, that it is in perfect
harmony with the Egyptian date, being that of the wandering year, and
quite inconsistent with its belonging to a fixed year, such as M. Brugsch
has imagined. Dr. Hincks then goes back to the time of the seventeenth
or eighteenth dynasty, and endeavours to show that the Turin Book
_ of Kings, which he refers to that period, recognises the wandering
year of 865 years, as well as the year of 860 days, which is always
meant in the Turin Papyrus when a year is spoken of. He observes
that the 2291 years, four months, and twenty days, which the Papyrus
gives as the length of the reigns of the sovereigns whom it enumerates,
if they be reduced to days, at the rate of 360 in the year, give precisely
2250x365. He observes, also, that if 2260 be subtracted from 8555,
which Manetho states to be the number of years between the accession of
Menes and the final conquest of Egypt by Ochus, the remainder is 1295,
the precise number of years which elapsed between the accession of. the
seventeenth dynasty and the conquest of Egypt by Ochus, according to
the restoration of the text of Manetho which Dr. Hincks had put for-
ward in January, 1863. He maintains that 1634 B. C. (1295 years
before Ochus), is the historic date of the accession of the seventeenth
dynasty; but demurs to the 2260 years alleged to have intervened
between it and the accession of Menes, as it does not yet appear on
what grounds this number was fixed upon by the Egyptians of the six-
teenth or seventeenth century B.C. There is good reason, he says, for
thinking that some kings mentioned in the Papyrus were contemporary
with others; and, as yet, there is no proof that in making this calcu-
lation the Egyptians allowed for their being so. He observes that the
seventeenth dynasty of Manetho is not represented in the Papyrus of

296

Turin, nor is any that follows it; but all the preceding: dynasties,
which the Papyrus recognised as real and distinct, have their kings re-
corded in it. The Papyrus, however, has only ten of the sixteen
dynasties of Manetho—namely, the first, the second; the third and
fourth, thrown into one; the fifth, the sixth, the eighth, the eleventh,
the twelfth, the thirteenth, and the Shepherds. Dr. Hincks: ‘believes
that the whole of the second, and the greater part of the first“and fifth
dynasties of Manetho, were contemporary with the third and fourth;
and has great doubts ‘whether the eighth and eleventh, and again the
thirteenth and the Shepherds, were not to some extent contem-
poraneous.

The Sothic, or sacred year, is then considered; and it is shown
that it began on the 21st July in the two years before the Augustan
bissextile, and on the 20th in the bissextile year and that which next
followed it. It began on the same day with the civil year in the four
years, A. D. 134, 185, 186, and 137, deviating from itin A. D. 138, when
the civil year began onthe sixth of the epagomene. This was counted as
the first year of the 3rd canicular cycle, the other two having commenced
on the 20th July, B. C. 2783, and 1323. The Sothic year must have su-
perseded the still older year which began at the summer solstice, or at
the beginning of the inundation, when this event occurred at the
heliacal rising of Sothis—that is, as very roughly calculated, about
3200 B.C.

The Egyptians had also, it is next observed, a lunar year, beginning
at the new moon which next followed the summer solstice. This year
was of very great antiquity, and was in use at the same time with the
better known, fixed, and moveable years already spoken of. Dr.
Hincks thinks that there was also a wandering lunar year, like that
now used by the Mahometans, in use in Egypt. It seems to be referred
to in some very ancient inscriptions, and also in the Calendar of Esneh,
in which three days are mentioned as new year’s days, and on that ac-
count observed as festivals. M. Brugsch only attempts to explain one
of these ; M. Mariette differs as to this from M. Brugsch, but attempts to
explain a second. Dr. Hincks maintains that MM. Brugsch and Ma-
riette haye not only failed to explain all the commencements of years,
but have given false explanations where they gave any. He explains
all the dates as follows:—Supposing that the calendar belongs to the
Sothic year which began 21st July, A.D. 108, the first day of this
was a double festival, being the commencement both of the Sothic year
and the regular Tunar year. The ninth day of the year, 29th July,
A.D. 108, was the first Thoth of the civil year; and the 296th day of
the year, ten lunations after the first, was the commencement of the
wandering lunar year, 11th May, A. D. 104. The 21st July, A. D. 108,
was the neomenia, according to the Egyptians, the conjunction of the
sun and moon occurring that evening. A Karnac inscription of the
Ptolemaic period speaks of the moon god being conceived on the first
day of the month, born on the second, and attaining his maturity, or

297

beginning to decay, on the 15th. These three month dates refer, of
course, to the conjunction, first appearance, and plenitude of the moon.
The 16th of the lunar month was oftener than the 15th regarded as
the day of full moon; and two monthly festivals, celebrated on the
1st and 16th, have been rightly referred by Lepsius to the lunar year.

Dates of the lunar year are, according to Dr. Hincks, occasionally
met with on the monuments. Such dates are, he thinks, those of the
Ist and 16th of Athyr, of the 11th of Amenhotap ITI., mentioned on a
scarabzeus, so as to imply that the Nile was then rising, and near its
height. The date of the Exodus in the month Abib, presumably
Epiphi, is also referred to a lunar year. The month Abib is identi-
fied with what was afterwards the first month of the Israelites, and was,
therefore, like this, a lunar month; and we know that it was the
month which began at the new moon following the vernal equinox.
Epiphi was the eleventh Egyptian month; the lunar Epiphi would,
' therefore, begin more than 295 days after the solstice, while the vernal
equinox was about 271 days after it. From this it follows that the first
Hebrew month would in general coincide with Payni, the tenth Egyp-
tian month; but that it would occasionally coincide with Epiphi—
namely, when the new moon followed the summer solstice very closely.
This would furnish a means of determining the year of the Uxodus accu-
rately, if it were known approximately ; for example, 1491 B.C. could
not be the year of the Exodus, but 1494 B.C. might. But, what is of
more consequence, the remark respecting the month Abib is a very strong
argument in favour of the genuineness of the Biblical account of the
Exodus, which has been recently called in question. No forger of a
later age, and who had not lived in Egypt, could have thought of
making such a statement.

The President read a paper, by Professor Sylvester, ‘‘On the De-
monstration of Newton’s Theorem respecting the Imaginary Roots of
Equations.”’

The PrestpEnt read the following paper, with a Norz by the late
Sir W. R. Hamittron, LL. D. :--
On a THEOREM RELATING TO THE Brnom1AL CoEFFICIENTS.

Towarps the eud of March, I communicated the following theorem to
Sir William Rowan Hamilton :—

Putting s) = % +”, + % + &c.,
8 = M+ m+ nN, + &e.,
Ss = N+ 25+ N+ &C.,

Where 7%, ™, &c., are the coefficients of the development
(1 + x)” = myx? + my0' + nx’ + &e.,

and ” is a positive whole number ;

298

we shall find that, of the three quantities, s, s,, s,, two are always
equal, and the third differs from them by unity.

I mentioned at the same time that I had arrived at theorems, ana-
logous, but less elegantly expressed, by summing the series formed by
taking every fourth or fifth coefficient, and so on, in the binomial deve-
lopment; and I asked Sir William R. Hamilton whether he remembered
to have seen these theorems stated anywhere. I thought it likely that
the well-known elementary theorem respecting the equality of the sums
of the alternate coefficients in the binomial development would have sug-
gested research in this direction. In a note, written on the day on which
he received mine, Sir William stated that my theorem was new to him,
and that he had proved it by the help of imaginaries and determinants,
The following day he wrote again to me, furnishing me with the fol-
lowing more precise statement of my theorem :—

‘‘Let »y and WV be the following (whole) functions of n,
y=(—1)", V=4(2"-»);

then WV, V and N+» are always the value of the three sums, if suitably
arranged; and the singular sum is 8, oY 8), OF 2, according as , or
n+1, or n+ 2 1s a multiple of 3.”

>

I communicated the following demonstration of my theorem to Sir
William, in a letter of the 29th March :—

Using the notation employed above, we know that
(2 + 1), = 2, -+ Mr,
(n aL 1s = Ny 1 + Ny-23
and (7+ 1),—(24+1),1 = — Mrs -
Now, puting (spire. mo a a os (en 3
SS ecceet (MH1)pmt (M4 1)-+ (4 amt ene ey
(m being any positive integer),
we have, from equation (1),
gs! — 8 = 8, — 8 p2}
and, in the particular case under consideration, viz. m=8,
S'g— 8 =S.— 8,
8) — 8/9 = 8, — 8,
8/9 — Sy =S) —- &-
Thus it appears that the differences of the quantities 8’o, 8’), &2, are
equal in magnitude, but of opposite signs to those of s,, 8, 5; and if

we form these differences for successive values of x, they will arrange
themselves in a cycle of six. Thus, if ia

299

82 — 8, = Ao, $1 — 8) = Az, 8) — 82 =A),

we might form the following Table.

n Ao

>
w
a

=)
-—1

cm)
|
oF KS 25S FS KF CO fF

—1
=a

orm Qa PrP CE WH
a
|

- OF - F|§ CO KF KH CO
|

Combining this result with the well-known theorem—
89 + 8; + S82= Ny +My + Ny + en 8) a, e-8. =
we arrive at formule for s,, 8, 8.

A couple of days later, I communicated to Sir William Hamilton
my statement and proof of the corresponding theorem respecting the four
sums obtained by adding every fourth binomial coefficient.

The theorem is as follows :—
‘< Writing »=(—1)' where z is any positive integer,
If n is of the form 42,

n-2

So a Qn-2 +y 22 ;

$= eae
n-2
s— On-a say 2 ‘
S= Dn-2 :
If n is of the form 47 + 1,
=

Gia ees awe oy

n-3
Sy On-2 __y 9 Q ‘

n-3

s,= 2"™7- 72 3

300

If n is of the form 47 + i

= 23,
-2
Se ey o2
= -2
a EE
n-2

83 = QPP —y pide
If 7 is of the form 42 + 3,

Se ae yn 9

Reais
ae A AO
n-3
8 = 224+ 22,
n-3

Sea eye

The proof of this rests upon the equations

Ba Cee a
Sn — 8/1 = 8 — 8,
So 8 = oy
= Oe a =

combined with s, + 8; + 8 + 83+ 2”.

Though the theorems which I have now stated or indicated are not —
devoid of interest, I should hardly have brought them under the notice ~
of the Academy if they had not led Sir William R. Hamilton to discuss —
the more general question treated ofin the Note appended to this paper. —
It is at his suggestion that I have communicated the substance of the
letter which I addressed to him on this subject.

I may be allowed to add, that the first theorem stated in this paper —
was suggested by the investigation of a very simple geometrical problem, —
and that I have found that it admits of being very curiously illustrated —
by means of my theory of algebraic triplets.

EXTRAct from a recent Manuscript Investigation, suggested by a Theorem :
of Dran Graves, which was contained in a Letter recewed by me a
week ago. ;

1. Let ,, for any whole value not less than zero of z, and for any whole :
value of r, be defined to be the (always whole) coefficient of the power —

. 301

2, in the expansion of (1+)” for an arbitrary x; so that we have al-
ways 2,=1, but n,=0 in each of the two cases, r<0, r>n.

2. Let p be any whole number >0; and let the sum of all the coef-
ficients ”,,, for which m=~r (mod. p), the value of x being given, be de-
noted by the symbol, :

“(e)
&

e
ns, 7 9

which thus represents, when and p are given, a periodical function of
y, in the sense that

nN, 7 nor +tp 9

if ¢ be any whole number (positive or negative).

3. A fundamental property of the binomial coefficient 1, is ex-
pressed by the equation,

(n+1),= M+ ~13

from which follows at once this analogous equation im differences,

(2) (pP) _@)

S 41,7 = Cee r ty Sayr- >
with the p amtial values,

(@) (p) (P) (?)
Seana Siar =) Og Spe Oye ete So) poi = Ue
4, Hence may be deduced the general expression,
(p)
Snr =p sa" (1 +2)”;
in which the summation is to be effected with respect to the p roots z,
of the binomial equation,
x?—-1=0.

5. The summand term,
ar(1 +2)",
usually involves ¢maginaries, which must however disappear in the
result ; and thusthe general expression for the partial sum, s, may be
reduced to the real and trigonometrical form, 3

n —2r
: aos

m
P = P13 (2.008 =

nr

?

with the verification that
n ~2
0=3(2 cos ee sede
p p

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 25

302

each summation being performed with respect to an auxiliary integer m,
from m=0 to m=1.

6. Accordingly, without using imagznaries, it is easy to prove that

this expression (5) satisfies all the recent conditions (3), and is therefore
a correct expression for the partial sum
(p)

Baar
while a similar proof of the recent equation 0 = &e.
7. But to form practically, with the easiest possible arithmetic, a

Table of Values of s, for any given period, p, we are led by No. 8 to x
construct a Scheme, such as the following :— a

(8)
TaBLE OF VALUES OF 6

Vd

The Presrprnt read the following paper by the late Sir WiztramR.
HamiIiton :—

On a New System or Two Generat Equations oF CURVATURE,

Including as easy consequences a new form of the Joint Differential ;
Equation of the Two Lines of Curvature, with a new Proof of their

General Rectangularity; and also a new Quadratic for the Joint — :

Determination of the Two Radii of Curvature: all deduced by Gauss’s _
Second Method, for discussing generally the Properties of a Surface;
and the latter being verified by a Comparison of Expressions, for —
what is called by him the Measure of Curvature. :

1. Norwirustanpine the great beauty and importance of the investiga-

tions of the illustrious Gauss, contained in his Disquisitiones Generales

circa Superficies Curvas, a Memoir which was communicated to the Royal —
Society of Gottingen in October, 1827, and was printed in Tom. vi. of

303

the Commentationes Recentiores, but of which a’ Latin reprint has been
since very judiciously given, near the beginning of the Second Part
(Deuxiéme Partie, Paris, 1850) of Liovvitin’s Hdition* of Monex, it
still appears that there is room for some not useless Additions to the
Theory of Lines and Radi of Curvature, for any given Curved Surface,
when treated by what Gauss calls the Second Method of discussing
the General Properties of Surfaces. In fact, the Method here alluded to,
and which consists chiefly in treating the three co-ordinates of the sur-
face as being so many functions of two independent variables, does not
seem to have been used at all by Gauss, for the determination of the
Directions of the Lines of Curvature; and as regards the Radi of Cur-
vature of the Normal Sections which touch those Lines of Curvature, he
appears to have employed the Method, only for the Product, and not also-
for the Sum, of the Reciprocals, of those Two Radi.

2. As regards the notations, let x, y, 2 be the rectangular co-ordi-
nates of a point Pp upon a surface (S), considered as three functions of
two independent variables, ¢ and wu; and let the 15 partial derivatives,
or 15 partial differential coefficients, of x, y, 2 taken with respect to ¢
and w, be given by the nine differential expressions.

du=a/dt+u,du; dx’ =x"dt+u2/du; dx,=x/dt+x,,du;
(a).. § dy=y'dt+y du; dy’=ydt+y/du; dy,=y/dt+y,du;
dz=2/dt+2,du; dz’ =z2"dt+2/du; dz,=32/dt+2,,du.

3. Writing also, for abridgment,

(De ge ty? te?, d= aa ty y, +32: ¢ =e2+y?+2*

we shall have (c) . . ee’ -e? = K*, if(d).. H=27+1P +N’,
and Cr Lave -2y,5 Maee ces N=xy —yx,:
so that (f) .. La’ + My'+ Ne’ =0, Lx, + My,+Nez,=0.

Hence A'L, KM, K"N are the direction-cosines of the normal to the

surface (S) ate; and if«, y, z be the co-ordinates of any other point a
of the same normal, we shall have the equations,

(g)..H(X-av)=LR; K(VY-y)=MR; K(Z-2)= NR;
with (h).. #=(X-2)? + (Y-y)? + (42-38);
where # denotes the normal line pa, considered as changing sign in
passing through zero.
4. The following, however, is for some purposes a more convenient
form (comp. (f)) of the Equations of the Normal ;
(1)... (X-a)a’ + (VY-y)y! + (Z-2)2’ =0;
(J). - (X-a)a, + (Y—-y)y, + (4-2)z,=0.

oe The foregoing dates, or references, are taken from a note to page 505 of that
ition.

3804

Differentiating these, as if X, Y, Z were constant, that is, treating
the point e as an intersection of two consecutive normals, we obtain
these two other equations,
(k) ane — x)dx! + (Y—y)dy’ + (Z-2)dz = a'du + y'dy + edz;
"* | (X - 2)dx, + (Y¥ - y)dy, + (Z- x) dz, = x,dx + y dy + 2%

If, then, we write, for abridgment,

(1) y= dt 005 E = La! + My" + Ne’;
Veit Lg, + My + Nz! Fi — Ley, Ar My, + N28);

we shall have, by (a) (b) )g), the two important formule :

(m)..R (4+ #v)=Klet+ev); R( L+H v)=K (+2);
which we propose to call the two general Hyuations of Curvature.

5. In fact, by elimination of R, these equations (m) conduct toa —
quadratic in v, of which the roots may be denoted by v,'and v,, which
first presents itself under the form,

(n).. (e+ ev) (# + B) =(e 4+ ev) (B+ £*),
but may easily be thus transformed,

(0) Av? — Bv + C=0, or Adu? — Bdtdu+ Cd = 0,
“(with A=¢ kh” —-eH, B=avH- ch’, C=ck" — ee

so that we have the following general relation,
(p)..ceA+eB+e’C=0,

(of which we shall shortly see the geometrical signification ), between — 4
the coefficients, A, B, C, of the joint differential equation of the system of —
the two Lines of Curvatare on the surface. q

6. The root v, of the quadratic (0) determines the direction of what
may be called the First Line of Curvature, through the point Pp of that
surface; and the First Radius of Curvature, for the same point P, or the —
radius F, of curvature of the normal section of the surface which touches —
that first line, may be obtained from erther of the two equations (m), as
the value of & which corresponds in that equation to the value v, of v.
And in like manner, the Second Radius of Curvature of the same surface
at the same point has the value &,, which answers to the value v, of v, —
in each of the same two Eyuations of Curvature (m). Wesee, then, ©
that this name for those two equations is justified by observing that when _
the two independent variables ¢ and w are given or known; and there- ~
fore also the seven functions of them, above denoted by ¢, e’, e’, H, E’, EL”,
and &. The equations (m) are satisfied by two (but only two) systems
of values, %4, Ry, and v,, R,, of (1.) the differential quotient v, or P
which determines the direction of a line of curvature on the surface; —
and (II.) the symbol &, which determines (comp. No. 4) at once the —
ek and the direction, of the radius of curvature corresponding to that —

me.

ro a eee
> v= - cd

305

7. Instead of eliminating & between the two equations (m), we may
begin by eliminating v; a process which gives the following quadratic
in #&* (the curvature) :—

(Q).. CR —- eK) (eR! — &! HK) =(¢R'— ek;
ee) fh —- hh + CG; where (because ce’ — "= (2),
(s).: f= A, + By = (eh — 2H’ + eH) K, and
pee Gh, ho — {hi — Bl) h-,
We ought, therefore, as a First General Verification, to find that this -
last expression, which may be also thus written,
: EE" — EE
2p up al avert)
ae ae (2+ WW? +N)?’
agrees with that reprinted in page 521 of Liouville’s Monge, for what
Gauss calls the Measure of Curvature (k) of a Surface ; namely,
be DD — DD y
oe © (AAS BB ACC?’
which accordingly it evidently does, because oursymbols ZIM NABO
represent the combinations which he denotes by ABCD D'D”.

8. As a Second General Verification, we may observe that if Zbe the
enclination of any linear element, du = vdt, to the element du = 0, at the
point P, then

(w).. tan I ye

e+ ev? j
and therefore, that if 7 be the angle at which the second crosses the
first, of any two lines represented jointly by such an equation as

(x).. Av? — bv + C=0, with v, and v, for roots, then

K(B?-4AC)

eA+éBre’ CO’
so that the Condition of Rectangularity (cos H=0), for any two such
lines, may be thus written :

ae. eA+eBre’ C=0.
But this condition (z) had already occurred in No. 5, as an equation (p)
which is satisfied generally by the Lines of Curvature ; we see therefore
anew, by this analysis, that those dines on any surface are in general
(as is indeed well known) orthogona/ to each other.

9. Finally, asa Ziird General Verification, we may assume x and y

(y).. fan H= tan (f,-f) =

themselves (instead of ¢ and w), as the two independent variables of the

problem, and then, if we use Monge’s Notation of p, g, r, 8, t, we shall
easily recover all his leading results respecting Curvatures of Surfaces,
but by-transformations on which we cannot here delay.

306

The following donations were presented :—From

1. E. W. Doyle, Esq., a perfect heptagonal stone quern, and three

flint arrow heads.

2. Stanhope Kenny, Esq., a mass of bog butter, found enveloped in
the skin of some animal.

8. H. W. Westropp, Esq., his Treatise ‘‘ On the Fanaux de Cime-
tiéres in France, and the Round Towers in Ireland.”

4, John T. Gilbert, Esq., Librarian to the Academy, ‘his work en-
titled ‘‘ History of the Viceroys of Ireland,” Vol. I.

The thanks of the Academy were voted to the donors.

MONDAY, NOVEMBER 13, 1865.
Joun Francis Waiter, LL. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Secretary reported that a Collection of about 100 Books and 50
Manuscript Volumes had been deposited in the Library ofthe Academy,
agreeably to the will of the late W. Smith O’Brien, Ksq.

The Secretary presented the following donations:—From

1. George V. Du Noyer, Esq., a stone Sundial, found in the Church-
yard of Kilbeg, near Kells.

2. John Evans, Esq., of Nash Mills, three nuclei of worked Flint,
from Pressigny-le- ‘evand.

3. G. H. Kinahan, Esq., a highly finished stone Celt, found a little
north of Oughterard, county of Galway.

4. Robert Day, Jun., Esq., a stone Celt, and two flint Lance Heads,
found at Toome Bar, county of Antrim.

5. The Rev. John Keleher, P. P., a small brass ee for holding — q

standard Weights, found near Kinsale.

6. Richard Palmer Williams, Esq., a Hillestoa of 327 Auto-
graphs, from the addresses of franked Letters, delivered in Dublin.

7. The Secretary also presented some rudely carved circular pieces
of Coal found in graves, at Portpatrick, in Galloway.

The thanks of the Academy were voted to the several donors.

The Librarian brought up the Resolution of the Council of Monday,
the 6th November—‘‘ That the Council do recommend to the Academy
to authorize the opening of a Subscription List for the purchase of the
MS. Collections of the late John Windele, of Cork ;” whereupon it
was resolved,

That this recommendation be adopted by the Academy.

307
MONDAY, NOVEMBER 30, 1865.—Starep MEgtina.

THe Very Rey. Coarztes Graves, D. D., President, inthe Chair.

The President delivered the following Address on the loss sustained
by the Academy in the death of Sir W. R. Hamilton.

ADDRESS.

GentTLEMEN,—The death of Sir Wittiam Rowan Hamitton, Andrews’
Professor of Astronomy, Astronomer Royal of Ireland, for thirty-eight
years a most distinguished member of the Royal Trish Academy, and
formerly its President, was an event which could not be allowed to pass
without public notice in this place. There was not one of his brother
Academicians who did not look up to him with reverence on the ground
of his wonderful genius, the vastness of his attainments, and the number
and importance of his discoveries. And there were amongst us not a
few bound to him by ties of an intimate friendship, who had watched his
brilliant career with an affectionate sympathy, and rejoiced as each new
conquest which he achieved in the fields of Science earned for him fresh
laurels and a more extended fame. It is not strange, therefore, that his
recent death should be lamented by all of us as a loss almost irreparable
to Science, whilst within the circle of his friends it is deplored with a
profound and lasting sorrow. ‘These feelings demanded utterance. I
should have been unfaithful in the performance of my duty as Pre-
sident—I should have been untrue to the convictions of my understand.
ing and my heart—-if I had not endeavoured to express them. If the
expression be inadequate, I trust you will make allowance for the short-
comings of a speaker overpowered at once by the greatness of his theme,
and by the consciousness of his inability to do justice to it.

It is not my intention here to present to you even a biographical
sketch of Hamitron or a complete outline of his character. Merely to
enumerate his works, and to state with adequate fulness their subjects,
would demand more time than is at our disposal. It must suffice if I
bring before you the turning points in the history of his life, and
briefly recall to your recollection his principal achievements as a
Mathematician. Born in August, 1805, in the house of his father,
Mr. Archibald Hamilton, in ‘Dominick-street, Dublin, he gave from
his infancy indications of the possession of extraordinary powers; and
they were not left without wise and diligent culture. His father con-
signed him when less than three years old to the care of his uncle,
the Rey. James Hamilton, of Trim, formerly a member of this Academy,
_and a contributor to its ‘‘Transactions.’’ Under the tuition of this affec-
_tionate and able instructor he carried on his studies till he became an
‘undergraduate in Trinity College in 1823. His career there was a
_most brilliant one. In every kind of trial he distanced his competitors,
and justified all the expectations of his friends. But, whilst thus en-
gaged in collegiate exercises of a comparatively elementary nature, he
was already entering upon studies of greater range and elevation. A
year before he entered College he had drawn up, and communicated to
| Dr. Brinkley, then President of this Academy, a paper on Caustics,

308
which was the germ of that ‘“‘Theory of Systems of Rays,” the publi- 7

cation of which first rendered Hamiurton’s name celebrated amongst

mathematicians. Brinkley encouraged the youthful author by his kind-
ness, and guided him by his counsel. He communicated the paper on
Caustics to the Academy, before which it was read in December, 1824,
and referred to a Committee, consisting of Dr. Mac Donnell, Mr. Harte, _
and Dr. Lardner. Their report bore testimony to the novelty and —
value of the results, and the analytic skill displayed in the conduct of
the investigations ; but recommended the author to give a fuller deve-
lopment to the processes and reasonings by which his formule and con-
clusions were arrived at. Acting on this advice, he employed himself
in the intervals of collegiate study in recasting and enlarging his paper,
which was anew presented to the Academy, under the title of ‘‘ Theory

of Systems of Rays,” on the 23rd of April, 1827. This memoir wasin ~

itself of the highest interest and value; so comprehensive in itsmethod
as to extend unlimitedly, and with universal success, over the whole ©

field of optics. Italso contained the germs of thought which developed

themselves in works which afterwards gained for Hamttton the highest
distinction. Its table of contents announced an intention of publishing
in the third part of the essay an application to dynamics of the same ~
general principle, of which the application to optics was thus in part
made public; and its third supplement contains the announcement of
Hamitton’s remarkable discovery of Conical Refraction. E.
The Professorship of Astronomy in Trinity College became vacant ~
in the year 1827, on the promotion of Dr. Brinkley to the Bishopric ©
of Cloyne. Perhaps there was no incident in the life of Hamimroy ~
more remarkable than his selection at that time to fill Brinkley’s place. —
An undergraduate of one-and-twenty, he was preferred to rival candi- —
dates of high qualifications and influence, and the decision of the Uni- ©
versity authorities in making the appointment was ratified by the ©
judgment of the public. It seemed to be self-evident that a man who had 7
given such proofs of the possession of a transcendant power in dealing ~
with the most abstract questions in mathematical physics must be the ©
worthy and rightful successor of Brinkley. As Professor of Astronomy, ©

two spheres of exertion belonged to him—that of lecturer upon the ©

science, and that connected with the practical working of the Observa-
tory. Those who, have attended his lectures can bear witness to their ©
merit. ‘They were full of practical teaching, and calculated by their ©
eloquence to excite in their hearers an enthusiasm for the study which ~
they were intended to illustrate. For the business of the Observatory, 7
it must be admitted that Haumr~ton was not equally well fitted. The™
bias of his genius was undoubtedly to pure mathematics; but, if we
estimate the total amount and value of the work which he has done—
the impulse which he has given to the whole of mathematical science ©
—we shall see little reason to find fault with that decision by which he ©
was placed in the professorial chair, and sustained in the possession
of it. | .
It was in 1834 that Hamruron received the Cunningham Medal of —
this Academy, and the Royal Medal of the Royal Society, as the reward

i

309

of his discovery of Conical Refraction. Thisis admitted to have been one
of the most remarkable scientific predictions that was ever made—one
which announced, on the foundation of pure mathematical calculation,
a physical phenomenon which was suggested by no analogy, and seemed
beyond the boundaries of probability ; but which, as you know, was
completely verified by the experiments of Professor Humphrey Lloyd.

In1837 Hamitron was elected President of this Academy, on the death
of Dr. Bartholomew Lloyd, who had occupied the chair for the two years
succeeding the death of Brinkley. His inaugural address gave evidence
of his power to direct the operations of a learned society constituted as
ours is. He showed that he entered into the working of all its depart-
ments, and could sympathize with the labours of all its members. For
eight years, during which he held this office, he exerted himself in every
way to increase the usefulness of the Academy, and to sustain its honour ;
and, when he resigned the Presidentship, he received the cordial thanks
of the Academicians ‘‘ for his high and impartial bearing in the chair,
and for his untiring efforts to advance the interests of the body.”

We have already mentioned Hamrtton’s paper on a “‘ General Method
in Dynamics.”’ In this memoir, starting from the idea of a characte-
ristic function, analogous to that employed in his essay on Systems of ©
Rays, he succeeded in giving a system of complete and rigorous inte-
grals of the celebrated differential equations of motion of a system of
bodies. This achievement gained for him the Medal of the Royal So-
ciety, and the recognition of the greatest European mathematicians.
The next great work of Hamrtton of which we have to make mention,
is his paper on ‘‘ Algebra considered as the Science of pure Time,” a
treatise of a peculiar and semi-metaphysical kind. His object in the
composition of it was to establish the foundations of algebra as a science,
rather than to improve its processes as an art, or to perfect its symbol-
ism asa language. With this was connected his theory of conjugate
functions, or algebraic couples, to which he was conducted in his attempts
to explain some remarkable results stated by my brother, Mr. John
Graves, in a paper upon imaginary logarithms. We now, in this rapid
summary, pass on to his last great invention—that of the Calculus of
Quaternions. Its elaboration has occupied the last twenty-two years of
his life. During that time he has employed this new and powerful
organon in discussing questions in almost every branch of mathematics.
Most of his attention has, no doubt, been given to geometrical appli-
cations. But he has not failed to record in our ‘‘ Proceedings’ results
of researches, showing that the new calculus adapts itself to the require-
ments of physical science. He has shown how perfectly it enables us
to conceive and express, in its peculiar language, the mathematical
problem of determining the orbits and perturbations of bodies governed
in their motions by the Newtonian law of force. He has also shown
that quaternion equations may be advantageously employed in the dis-
cussion of Fresnel’s wave surface.

I have not attempted to make a complete catalogue even of all his
most important works; I have said nothing of his papers on Fluctuating
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 27

old

Functions; on the Calculus of Probabilities ; on the Calculus of Princi-
pal Relations; on the Argument of Abel to prove the Insolubility of
Equations of the Fifth Degree; on Differences of Zero; on Geometrical
Nets in Space. Any one of these memoirs would have been sufficient to
make the reputation of a mathematician.

Hamitton was gifted with a rare combination of those qualities
which are essential instruments of discovery. He had that fine percep-
tion of analogy by which the investigator is guided in his passage from
the known to the unknown. ‘This is an instrument by which many
important mathematical discoveries have been effected. Sometimes the
mathematician devises some happy modification in the statement ofa
theorem or a method, by which its application may be extended.
Sometimes, by analy zing different demonstrations, he even sees that a
particular proposition may be made the starting point from which he
ascends to more than one generalization. In the investigations of Ha-
MILTON we find abundant instances of the skilful use of all the ordinary
expedients and instruments of inventive sagacity. But he seems, also,
to have possessed a higher power of divination—an intuitive perception
that new truths lay in a particular direction, and that patient and sys-
tematic search, carried on within definite limits, must certainly be
rewarded by the discovery of a path leading into regions hitherto
unexplored. Something like this was the unshaken assurance which
led Columbus to turn his back upon Europe, to launch upon the broad.
Atlantic, and seek a New World in the far-off West.

And our illustrious countryman’s diligence in research was not less

admirable than his prescient sagacity. No amount of labour to be in- ;

curred could deter him from entering upon the calculations by which ~

the correctness of his conjectures was to be tested. The confident
expectation of obtaining results instructive in one way or another re-
conciled him to the irksomeness of the most tedious and complicated
calculations. He felt that the great object to be sought, in the first ©
instance, was the discovery of the result itself; and he trusted that,

once it was reached, he would be able to strike out some more direct

and more elegant method of investigation. His MSS., even his pub- ~
lished researches, furnish many examples of this. Once he had reached ~
the conclusion at which he had been aiming, he resumed the considera-
tion of the principal steps in his argument; he interpreted them with ~
care; he traced their connexion, and seldom failed to arrive at simpli-
fications and generalizations, which amply compensated for the labour
spent upon his first essays. By this habit of grappling courageously —
with the difficulties of calculation he was distinguished from some ~
other eminent mathematicians. Averse to plunge into depths of cal- —
culation from which they see no certain hope of emerging in the end, |
they are tempted to expend an undue amount of intellectual energy in ©
the endeavour to force their way by a direct method to the desired —
result. 5m

Whilst touching on this point, I cannot help reverting to ano- —
ther mathematician of whom Ireland is justly proud—the late Pro-

oll

fessor Mac Cullagh. I have seen him sit for hours with his paper
before him, and all the outline of an elaborate investigation placed
upon it. All the while he never took up his pen to execute the work
which he had planned. He continued to brood over his task, and
scanned it on every side, in the hope of being able to avoid the neces-
sity of going through some ‘‘ sea of trouble,’ in the shape of length-
ened analytical computations. His taste in mathematics was refined—
almost fastidious; and he could not bring himself to look with approval
upon any demonstration which appeared wanting in symmetry and ele-
gance. JImust not be understood as in the least depreciating Mac Cul-
lagh’s power and skill in calculation. His researches in physical
optics prove that he possessed these qualities in the highest degree.
I only state the fact, that he sometimes was tempted to subject
his faculty of mathematical insight to a painful and dangerous strain,
in order to avoid the irksomeness of labour that was little more than
mechanical.

In the case of Hamitton, it is, moreover, deserving of notice, that he
evinced a readiness to grapple with the difficulties of calculation, even
where there was no prospect of his labour being rewarded by any dis-
covery. He engaged in exercises of this kind sometimes from a wish
to strengthen his intellectual hold of general propositions by scrutiniz-
ing the results obtained, by applying them in a number of particular
instances; and sometimes, perhaps, from a wish to mature and keep in
exercise those powers of calculation upon the exactitude and prompt
operation of which so much depends in the conduct of difficult mathema-
tical investigations. I have known him spend hours, or even days, in
working numerical examples of some theorem in pure or applied ma-
thematics, or in testing the accuracy of some formula of approximation.
Occasionally he engaged im tasks of this nature, in the kindly endea-
vour to convince some half-crazed squarer of the circle that his pro-
posed construction was inaccurate. Finding almost always that it was
hopeless to convince the mathematical fanatic of the unsoundness of any
of his premises, he would take pains to show him that the results he ob-
tained were false in particular instances.

And this leads me to notice a feature in his character which deserves
to be recorded. From the lofty height of his genius and learning he
was accustomed to stoop with the utmost readiness to hold inteilectual
converse with inferior minds. Many of his visitors at the Observatory,
and the members of the class who attended his lectures in Trinity
College, can recall instances of his patience and good nature in
answering their questions, and clearing up the difficulties which beset .
them in their elementary studies of mathematics and natural phi-
losophy.

It is remarkable that, while he possessed such powers of calculation,
and was almost prodigal in the exercise of them, he was to the last
degree solicitous about the metaphysics of every subject on which he
undertook to write. We have seen a decisive instance of this tendency
of his mind in his treatment of algebra considered as the science of pure

312

time. So, again, in laying the foundation of his Calculus of Quater-
nions, we see him labouring to secure its stability by the most careful
regard to the primary conceptions. of time and space. Students of his
lectures on Quaternions have sometimes complained that he has claimed
from them too much attention to the metaphysics of the subject, and
has stopped them in their career of building up, in order that they
might contemplate afresh the plan of the structure. But this was in
accordance with his views regarding the ascending scale of the subjects
of human thought. To religion he gave the highest place, and this
not as a formality; for his was a deeply reverential spirit. He assigned
the next to metaphysics. To them he subordinated mathematics and
poetry, and assigned the lowest place to physics and general literature.
His studies in the department of metaphysics were extensive. After a
thoughtful examination of Berkeley’s writings, he professed himself a
disciple of that philosopher, ‘‘ with most cordial and delighted submis-
sion;’’ not, indeed, assenting to every separate argument, but embracing

his grand results; and in this attachment to Berkeley’s theory we have

reason to know that he was confirmed by his converse with Faraday,
who, in his own region of investigation, had been led to the conclusion
that forces, rather than material particles, were the ultimate objects of
physical inquiry. His acquaintance with the German language enabled
him to master the works of Kant. Inthe reasonings ofthat philosopher —
he was the more ready to concur, as his own previous inquiries had —
already conducted him to several of Kant’s views respecting -the in-
tuitions of time and space.

The literary attainments of ayer were ofa high order. Atan ~
early period of his life he gave surprising proofs of his power in ac- —

quiring languages; and though in after years he made but little display

of these acquisitions, there can be no doubs but that his familiar —
acquaintance with the great Classic writers, and the ease with which ~
he could read works written in the Continental languages, contributed ~
to the culture of his taste and the force of his imagination, as well as ~
to the facility with which he prosecuted studies of a professional kind. ~
In the literary part of his Collegiate course he was not less eminent

than in his scientific studies. He was a successful competitor on two

occasions for the Vice-Chancellor’s Prizes, proposed for the authors —
of English poems; and his examiners placed on record a judgment ~
indicating their sense of his extraordinary proficiency in the Greek ~
language, as well as a similar attestation of his remarkable at- —
tainments, for an undergraduate, in astronomical science. He conti- —
nued all through his life the devotion to literature of which he ©
gave these early proofs. He read widely, with an intense enjoy- ~
ment of all that was excellent, and with the discrimination of a prac- —
tised critic. With many of the distinguished authors of his time he ~
was on terms of friendship: Miss Edgeworth, Mrs. Hemans, Words- ~
worth, Southey, and Coleridge were his friends and correspondents. 4
With such tastes and associations, it was not to be wondered at if he, —
from time to time, gave vent to his poetic feelings in verse. These —

313

compositions were not mere prolusions—exercises in versification—the
promptings of a vain desire to excel in walks different from those in
which his chief distinctions had been gained. They were the genuine
outpourings of a noble heart and fervid imagination, characterized by a
depth of thought and elevation of sentiment which compensated for
occasional defects in artistic execution. These poetic efforts have an
additional interest, as exemplifying in his own productions the con-
nexion which he so strongly insisted on as existing between the highest
provinces of science and the region of poetry—in both of which he
maintained that there was scope and demand for the exercise of the
imaginative faculty. According to him, the modern geometry, which
deals with the infinites and imaginaries of space, has its beauty and its
fascination; and he reckoned the happy daring of such geometers as
Poncelet and Chasles as closely allied to poetry. We happen to know
that this view of his, as communicated by him to the poet Wordsworth,
was to the latter an entirely new revelation, and had the effect of
raising his conception, which had before been unduly depreciatory, of
the dignity both of science itself, and of its most eminent votaries.

Literary and scientific men are often censured, and not without
reason, for their want of capacity in the transaction of business. ‘T'o
this reproach Hamintron was not liable. He had a retentive me-
mory, which enabled him to keep himself familiar with matters of
detail; and a love of method, which manifested itself in systematic
arrangement of any work which he had to perform. I believe that
there never was a President oi this Academy who had such a minute
acquaintance with its affairs—such an exact knowledge of its history
and constitution ; and, consequently, whenever questions arose respect-
ing its laws and usages, he was generally able to solve them by an
immediate reference either to established rules, or to the Minutes re-
cording the acts of the Academy or its Council. Nor was he less re-
markable for qualities as necessary in the post he occupied, and of
greater moral worth—for graciousness, combined with truthfulness, for
a perfect freedom from all unworthy jealousy, and for a just sense of
the dignity of the body over which he was called to preside.

Of his efficiency in the transaction of public business he gave signal
proof at the time of the first Meeting of the British Association of
Science in Dublin. He took an active part, along with Dr. Lloyd and
afew other distinguished men of science, in those preliminary move-
ments by-which the governing bodies of Trinity College and the Academy
were induced to invite the British Association to hold its meeting in
this city in the year 1835. On that occasion, being appointed one of
the Secretaries for the year, he discharged the duties of his office with a
zeal and efficiency which procured for him the cordial thanks of all who
took part in the proceedings. It thus fell to his lot to prepare the
Annual Address usually read at the first general meeting of the Associa-
tion. In that Address, though it was delivered thirty years ago, many
of you will remember with what eloquence he expounded the working
of the social spirit in promoting the progress of science. He explained

314

to the thousands who listened to him the means, the instruments, the
processes which are contained in the operation of that spirit. He told
them the men of science assembled there met and spoke and felt toge-
ther then, that they might afterwards better think and act and feel
alone. He told them that it is indeed the individual man who inves-
tigates and discovers—not any aggregate or mass of men; but, recog-
nising in the fullest manner the necessity for individual exertion, and
the ultimate connexion of every human act and human thought with
the personal being of man, he forcibly reminded his hearers that the
social feelings make up a large and powerful part of that complex and
multiform being. ‘‘ The affections,” he said, ‘‘ act upon the intellect;
the heart, upon the head. In the very silence and solitude of its medi-
tations, still genius is essentially sympathetic—is sensitive to influence
from without, and fain would spread itself abroad, and embrace the
whole circle of humanity.”’ And then he proceeded to descant upon
the influence which the love of fame exerts in quickening the efforts
and cheering the labours of the greatest intellects. The passage is
worthy of being referred to for its eloquence alone. But it has for us a
special value ; because it reveals to us something of the inmost mind
of Hamitron himself, and accounts for traits in his character which
were not understood or viewed as indulgently as they ought to have
been.

A mathematician endowed with such original powers as HamMILton
possessed might have been excused, if, yielding to the natural tempta-
tion of waiting for casual inspirations, he had carried on his labours in
a desultory or unsystematic manner. To such temptations—and no
doubt he felt them— he rose superior. He was, on the contrary, re-
markable for the diligence and method with which he performed all
his work. These qualities are evidenced by the number, magnitude,
and importance of his published works. There was no minute care,
even in matters of typographical nicety, which he disdained to ex-
pend upon them. And in his MS. books, carefully written, and with
dates marking from day to day the progress of his scientific life, he re-
corded all his meditations, all the calculations through which he passed
in his apparently fruitless, as well as in his most successful, researches.
These volumes, many of them very large, and numbering about sixty,

have been deposited in the Library of Trinity College. They willsupply —

to future historians of science the most precious materials illustrating —
the development of Hamrtron’s discoveries. They will exhibit, doubt- —
less, germs of thought suggestive to others of new discoveries. They —
record a great commercium epistolicum—his correspondence with the
most distinguished scientific men of his own age. Nay, more, they will
be found to contain memoirs on a variety of subjects, complete in them-
selves, and carefully elaborated, but which he had abstained from pub-
lishing, either because they were unconnected with the greater works ~
which he had in hand, or because he hoped to develope them more fully ~
at some future time. It is to be hoped that they will yet see the light.
and, like the posthumous memoirs of Euler, inspire us with a feeling that

d15

their great author is still holding converse with us. It will be a satis-
faction to the members of this Academy to be told that his “‘ Elements
of Quaternions’’—the work upon which he was engaged with the most
unceasing activity for the last two years—is all but complete. I have
reason to know that at no period of his life—not even when he was in
the prime of health and youthful vigour—did he apply himself to his
mathematical labours with more devoted diligence. Those who did not
actually know how he was employed, or who had formed a false estimate
of his character, might imagine him indolently reposing upon his laurels,
or pursuing his studies in a desultory way. Such a conception of him
would be the very opposite to the true one. His diligence of late was
even excessive—interfering with his sleep, his meals, his exercise, his
social enjoyments. It was, I believe, fatally injurious to his health.

Believe me, Gentlemen, the fame of Sir Wi111am Rowan Haumitron,
great as-it was during his lifetime, will become yet greater when °
the world has been furnished with materials enabling it more perfectly
to estimate the variety and richness of his endowments and the value
of the services which he has rendered to Science. His reputation, even
now, does not rest on the partiality of friends and countrymen. ‘The
learned men of all lands have already declared him worthy of the
highest honours which can be paid to intellectual eminence. This
world-wide recognition, at the present time, of his genius and discove-
ries, affords us a sure pledge and earnest of the perpetuity of his repu-
tation, and warrants us in regarding his name as a glory which is not to
pass away from the scientific and literary chaplet of Ireland. And in
this fact and this anticipation we might thankfully and happily behold a
full justification of his own early, and it might have been teared enthu-
siastic, aspirations—of his deep and generous consciousness that he was
intrusted with faculties and powers capable of achieving in the noblest
fields of thought a worthy tame both for himself and tor his country.
What were his feelings on this high subject of conscious power in con-
nexion with fame his Sonnet on Shakspeare beautifully expresses; and
I cannot better conclude my sincere but inadequate tribute to his memory
than by repeating those moving and characteristic lines :—

‘‘ Who says that Shakspeare did not know his lot,
But deem’d that in time’s manifold decay
His memory should die and pass away,
And that within the shrine of human thought
To him no altar should be reared? O hush!
O veil thyself awhile in solemn awe!
Nor dream that all man’s mighty spirit-law
Thou know’st ; how all the hidden fountains gush
Of the soul’s silent prophesying power.
For as deep Love, ’mid all its wayward pain,
Cannot believe but it is loved again,
Even so, strong Genius, with its ample dower
Of a world-grasping love, from that deep feeling
Wins of its own wide sway the clear revealing.”

I cannot doubt, Gentlemen, that I have had your sympathy in the ex-

316

_ pression of my regret and admiration for one who was your President
—for one who, indeed, as a human being, had his share of human in-
firmity, but whose nobly countervailing greatness, both intellectual and
moral, was such as every Irishman will long love to dwell upon.

It was resolved unanimously,

That the Academy deeply deplore the loss sustained by them in
the death of Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, and return to the President
their hearty thanks for the eloquent and touching address delivered to
them.

317

MONDAY, DECEMBER 11, 1865.
Tae Very Rey. Coartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

Mr. W. H. Hardinge read a paper ‘ On the Irish Transplantation
of A. D. 1653-54; and on the Extent, Value, and Distribution of the
Lands forfeited in Ireland.”’

Mr. W. Hanpset Grirritus read the following paper :—

On Ha=MoDROMOMETERS.

Tuere has long been a question among physiologists as to the velocity
with which the blood moves in the arteries. Many of them have made
ealculations which, had they come from others than men of such repute,
would have excited derision; and indeed we can scarcely refrain from
smiling when we read that Hales “inferred the velocity of the blood
at the commencement of the aorta in man to be at the rate of 735
feet per second.”

The celebrated Volkman saw the folly of the deductions drawn from
such vague data as these were, and he devised an instrument, which
he termed the ‘“‘ Hemodromometer,” the object of which was to measure
the velocity of the movement of the blood in the arteries.

The results of experiments made with this instrument were, of
course, much more reliable than those founded on calculations inferred
from data of the most vague and uncertain character; but, while I
would unhesitatingly give the preference to the deductions drawn from
experiments with Volkman’s Hemodromometer, I can by no means as-
sent to the supposition that they are correct, or even nearly so. The
use of Volkman’s instrument involves great objections; and, although I
look on the instrument itself as a model of ingenuity, I cannot regard
it as one on which I should depend for a solution of the problem, With
what velocity does the blood move in the arteries?

I will proceed to describe as briefly as possible the construction and
mechanism of Volkman’s Hemodromometer. I will then consider the
objections which I entertain to it; and it is but right that I should
afterwards mention how I would propose to rectify these defects.

Volkman’s Hemodromometer consists essentially of a glass tube,
which is bent into the form of a hairpin, and is fifty-two inches
long. This tube is filled with water; and, by a peculiar arrangement,
is placed between the open ends of a cut vessel. For a concise de-
scription of this instrument, I beg to refer to Todd and Bowman’s
“Physiological Anatomy,” vol. ii., page 364. In the drawing which
is given in that work is represented a tube, which is constructed of
metal, and measures one inch and a half in length; it terminates
at cones, which fit into other cones, by which means they are adapted
to the cut ends of the vessel. The mechanism of the stopcock is
indeed an admirable contrivance; and, although easily understood,

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX, 2U

318

is rather difficult of description. The handle commands the course of
the tube by means of two cogged wheels, so that when it is turned in
one direction it allows a free passage directly from one end to the
other; and when it is turned in the opposite direction this free passage
is interrupted, and another passage, namely, from one end, along
the hairpin tube, to the other end is opened; so that at the will of the
operator he can open one communication to the exclusion of the other,
but he cannot obtain a double communication. The glass hairpin-
shaped tube is attached to a board, on which is fixed a scale.

When the Heemodromometer is used, alarge artery is exposed for about
three inches, and a piece is cut out of it after means have been adopted
for the prevention of hemorrhage. The next step is to fix the cone-
shaped open cups into the open ends of the artery, and each end of the
horizontal metal tube is then fitted into its corresponding cup. I should
mention a precaution which it is here’ necessary to observe—it 1s this :
to so arrange the distance of the cups that, when the horizontal tube
is introduced between them, the continuation of the vessels is as little
altered as possible by the intervening mechanism. The blood now con-
tinues to circulate through the horizontal tube as it would were the
vessel entire, the stopcock being so turned as to shut off communication
with the glass tube. Thislatter is now filled with water, and is fixed to
the horizontal tube by means of pipes. The arrangement is now com-
plete, and the stopcock is turned, so as to shut off the direct communi-
cation between the two ends of the horizontal tube. The blood now
enters the glass tube, and pushes the water before it into the peripheral
blood vessels, with (according to Volkman) only a very slight admixture
between the two fluids.

T have now described at length this very ingenious instrument; and it
would seem at first that it supplies what is needful, in every respect, and
that the results obtainable from experiments with it are very reliable.
On mature consideration, however, no one will fail to perceive that
there are grave objections to it; and it now devolves upon me to
mention those which have struck me as being most prominent.
There are one or two of these objections which I myself have not
succeeded in obviating; and many will say that it were well that
T should pass over these, and confine myself to such as I can re-
move. Were I to heed such suggestions, I should not be performing
the duty I have taken on myself; for, although the instrument which I
am about to describe I believe to have many advantages over that of
my brother physiologist, no one is more sensible of the fact than I am
that it is by no means a perfect instrument, and that it is itself open to
great objections—objections which I do not despair of being able to

remove at some future period, or which, I myself being incompetent,
will I doubt not be done away with, and that right speedily, throngh
the exertions of the learned physicists and physiologists to whose no-
tice I submit them. Thus, in mentioning objections to Volkman’s He-
modromometer which bafile my own inventive faculties to memove, I
-anticipate the defects of my own instrument.

MS Pr iebag Sok Eee

319

The first objection which I have to state to Volkman’s Hemodro-
mometer is applicable to mine also—it is that of the sudden propulsion
of the blood from a tube of elastic and contractile force into one perfectly
inelastic, and one not having muscular force. The effect of this condition
is more serious than is generally imagined ; for when the natural calibre
of the artery, or its caliber when not in the distended state, corresponds
with that of the glass tube, the former is capable of receiving a greater
quantity of blood than the latter; and the contractility called into
action by this expansion is now exerted, and contributes to quicken the
velocity of the remaining fluid. No such conditions as these exist in the
glass tubing; and the only plan I have adopted, with a view to lessen
this difference between the two tubes, is to use a glass tube whose ca-
liber will be equal to that of the artery when at a moderate expansion.

The second objection is one which, although I have considerably
lightened, I have not been able entirely to meet, namely, the existence
of sharp turns in the long glass index tube. In Volkman’s instrument there
are three of these sharp turns; one at the entrance, and another at the
exit, both of which are right-angled ; the third is situated in the centre
of the tube, and is in reality made up of two turns, each of which is right-
angled also; the effect is alleviated in the latter case by the curves being
well directed ; but in the former cases, namely, at entrance and exit, the
arrangement is directly angular. I need not say how detrimental to the
velocity of a running fluid the presence of these angles is, nor need I
explain how the column of blood which is being propelled into the
tube, meeting at its entrance an opposing wall has to be reflected, as it
were, from it before it pursues its course. The same takes place at the
exit of the tube, except that here the reflection, if I may be allowed
the term, takes place in an opposite direction ; so that, instead of the
fluid being prevented to a degree from entering the tube, it is here hin-
dered in leaving it—not altogether, of course, but in a degree to affect
considerably the velocity of the movement of the contained fluid. At
the centre of the tube, also, is a sharp turn, arranged so that the fluid
arriving by one limb of the tube has to be sent back immediately after
moving round this sharp double turn in the opposite direction. My
instrument must be regarded as of much better design in respect to
curves in the tube than that of Volkman; for, while the fluid entering
into his 1s immediately sent in a direction at right angles to the course,
the direct course of mine is interrupted but very little. The curves in
my Hzemodrometer are greatly exaggerated, and the caliber of the tube
where they exist is slightly increased.

The third objection which I would urge is the sudden propulsion of
hot blood from a vessel of a certain temperature into another of a much
lower degree of heat, or almost cold. ‘This defect would seem to be of
such trivial consequence as to warrant its being entirely overlooked.
_ The experiments which I have made touching this question, however,
induce me to insist on the above as a decided objection. I have seen
that when blood or any other fiuid is heated to a certain point, and
is passed through a vessel of a certain temperature, and when, after

320

traversing this tube for a certain distance, it is then made to pass
through another tube continuous with the first, but cooled to or below
zero, the velocity of the running fluid is diminished from that which
was maintained in the heated tube. The manner in which I have
sought to remedy this evil is the following :—The flat support, to which
is attached the essential part of the instrument, is made so as to contain
two moveable iron heaters; when these are removed, and heated, and
then sent home into their respective cavities, the warmth they contain
is communicated first to the copper support, and thence to the glass tube,
through which the blood courses.

The next objection refers rather to the mode of using the Hemodro-
mometer than to the instrument itself. Volkman’s apparatus was, you
will remember, filled with water previously to operating. Now, no one
will refuse to recognise the inadvisability of the blood having to meet
a fluid of a very different specific gravity from itself, and one, more-
over, whose total immobility it has to overcome ere it can itself
move an inch. I look upon this as a most serious objection to Volk-
man’s mode of estimating the velocity of movement of fluid in a tube;
and indeed Volkman himself would seem to have anticipated that the
validity of his method would be called into question on this account,
since he takes care to inform us that the water is moved into the peri-
pheral arteries with but little admixture with the blood. I can only
say that I have put Volkman’s statement to the test of experiment, the
most reliable criterion, and I have invariably found the mixture of the
two fluids to be most considerable, and the specifie gravity of the re-
sulting mixture to vary much from that of either the blood or water.
When using my instrument, I apply one end of the tube to the cut end
of the artery whenee the blood flows, and I apply suction at the other
end, so as to create a vacuum, into which the flood flows freely. When
it has arrived at the opposite end, having turned the stopcock, I remove
the ligature which had been placed on the peripheral end of the artery,
and introduce the end of the tube into that of the vessel; and the blood
flows, on again turning the stopcock, as though 1t experienced no in-
terruption whatsoever. Of course, these latter operations should be
performed as quickly as possible; and, inorder to avoid the trouble of
tying and untying ligatures, I make use of a minute forceps—one which
on pressing with the fingers opens, and on removing the pressure closes
with a tight grip.

I have now mentioned the four great objections which I have to
Volkman’s Heemodromometer : each one of them tends to decrease the ve-
locity of the blood’s movement ; and hence, when we consider the combined
effect of these, we must allow that the results of experiments made with
this instrument are not such as can be relied upon, nor do they correctly
estimate the velocity with which the blood moves in the arterves.

It now behoves me to describe a Heemodromometer which I would
propose as a substitute for Volkman’s; and I must confess that I feel
considerable diffidence in so doing, not because I myself doubt for one
instant the superiority of my instrument as far as regards accuracy, but

321

since I feel it to be presumptuous in me to offer aught to the scientific
world intended to compete with the productions of so learned a physi-
cist and physiologist as Volkman. My duty, however, prompts me not
to yield to such feelings; and so, with a firm conviction of its worth, I
proceed to the description of my Hemodromometer. In my description
I beg to refer to the diagrams, such as they are, which I have drawn,
in order to render the details more intelligible.

The complete instrument, as seen in the drawing (Fig. 1), consists
of the copper support, to which is attached, by means of the fasteners

Fig. 1.

(a, a,q@), the glass index tube, furnished with its arrangements of
stop-cock (6), and piston (c). The free extremities of the glass tube
extend slightly beyond the support, so as to be more readily connected
with the cut ends of the artery. Near the centre of the support is a
chronometer, the hand of which describes the circlein one minute. At
one side of the support are represented the heaters (¢), which are sent
home into their respective cavities.

The shape and construction of the support will be readily seen on
glancing at the diagram. It is made of copper, which is a very good
conductor of heat. At its side are the openings of the two cavities, which
extend longitudinally along it for about three-fourths of its length;
into these cavities run the iron heaters, furnished with handles of porce-
lain, so as not to burn the hands of the operator when they are to be
removed from the fire. The heaters are kept in their position in the
support by means of a long iron pin, which runs through a hole in the
Support and heaters, as seen in the drawing (/).

The index tube will be seen to have a peculiar form; and, simple as
this form looks, it has cost me much thought and consideration to de-
termine on it as being that which would be least likely to prove detri-
mental to the flow of fluid in it.

This tube will be observed to have no sudden angles in its course.
The fluid on entering into it is not met by an opposing wall, as in Volk-

322

man’s instrument, nor is it immediately turned in a direction at right
angles to the one it was previously pursuing ; on the contrary, the de-
viation from the natural course is gradual, and the fluid is coaxed, as it
were, round the turns in the tube, when it arrives at them. I have
already mentioned that the caliber of the tube equals that of the artery
when at a moderate expansion, and also that the caliber of the turns
of the tube is very slightly wider than the caliber of the straight por-
tions. I need not again repeat why these differences in caliber should
exist. From the foregoing remarks you have already anticipated the
necessity for having different tubes, each with a different bore, so as
_to be applicable in the case of variously-sized arteries. JI have de-
scribed to you Volkman’s arrangement of cone-shaped cups for connect-
ing his tube to the ends of the arteries. I do not recognise the
necessity for this plan at all; and I believe that, if the glass tube have
its termination furnished with slightly raised edges, so as to take a pur-
chase on the artery, the desired effect is obtained just as well.

The removal from or fastening of the different tubes to the support
is easily effected by opening and shutting the fasteners (Fig. 1 ¢),
which are furnished with hinges and clasps.

Each tube is fur-
nished with a piston
index apparatus (c),
and with astopcock(6).
The piston index ap-
paratus (Figs. 2and 3),
consists of two tubes,
the one horizontal,
whose _ bore equals
that of the glass
tube, and which is
continuous with it;
the other perpendi-
cular, arising from
the centre of the for-
mer, and into which
fits exactly a piston.
This latter tube, in-
stead of being round- ;
ed, as is the horizontal tube, is square. Where the two tubes commu-

1 Mi

{ZZZjjjjjjss:

nicate, therefore, a square orifice exists in the upper wall of the hori-

zontal one (Fig. 4);
so that, were fluid tra-
versing this latter, it
would rush up into ==
the square perpendi- .
cular tube. The handle of the piston consists of the stem, the press,
and the handle proper. The stem is of such length, that, when the ‘
piston is shut down, the press, or lower surface of it, must form a

Fig. 4.

|

|

323

continuous surface with the upper wall of the horizontal tube. In
order to effect this continuity of surface, the press (Fig. 5) must
be curved correspond-
ingly to the wall of the
horizontal tube; and
it must be of such size
as exactly to fit the
piece which is want-
ing where the two
tubes, horizontal and
perpendicular, communicate. The whole of this mechanism is constructed
of brass. The piston must be removable from its perpendicular square
tube, so as to admit of the index ball, which I shall presently describe,
being attached to its press. When an observation is to be made, the piston
is to be taken out, together with the lid of the perpendicular square tube.
To the under surface of the press is then attached lightly the index ball,
which is made of gelatine. The arrangement is then placed in the position
as seen in the drawing (Fig. 2), and the blood is now brought through the
glass tube, the above preparations having been, of course, completed first.
When the time has come for making the observation, after the blood
has been circulating for a few seconds, the piston is pressed down, the
spring which kept it raised is overcome, and another spring is engaged
which keepsit down. The index ball is thus suddenly propelled into
the current, and, being of a certain size, is carried along the tube with
the same velocity as that with which the blood itself moves; the lower
end of the press of the piston has at the same time formed the wanting
part of the upper wall of the horizontal tube, and the blood courses
without interruption. The index ball has not gone far before it comes
up to a scratch (Fig. 1, 7) on the glass index tube. As it passes this
point, the operator glances at the chronometer, and notes the time ; sub-
sequently, the ball passes another scratch (Fig. 1,7), which is at a
known distance from the former one, and immediately as it does so,
the operator again consults the chronometer, notes the time, and turns
the stopcock to prevent the ball from passing into the peripheral end
of the artery. The observation is now completed, the index ball having

passed through a certain distance in a certain lapse of time, and thus
the velocity of the movement of the blood has been computed.

For a long time I was puzzled how to obtain balls of such lightness
as would not affect the movement of the blood. After some consideration,
I adopted the following process :—A warm concentrated watery solu-
tion of gelatine is made, and the polished extremity of an iron rod is
rolled about in it, having been previously dipped in oil. The rolling
haying been continued for some seconds, the rod is taken out of

the solution, and a thin coating of gelatine adheres to it. This
coating has now to be removed from the mould, which is done by
very gentle manipulation, until it is coaxed off. A small “ ex-

hauster,”’ furnished with a sharp extremity, and with a stopcock, is now
introduced into the open mouth of the gelatine ball, and, by working

a24

with the fingers, the latter becomes tightly applied to the extremity of
the exhauster, and the air is sucked out from the ball by the mouth.
When it is considered that nearly all the air has been subtracted, the
stopcock is turned before taking the exhauster from the mouth, and
while the suction is yet going on; a little careful manipulation is now
required to remove the ball from the exhauster without allowing the
air to re-enter. When the operator has succeeded thus far in the manu-
facture of his ball, the next step is to make it as round as possible.
This is effected by two “rounders” (Figs. 6 and 7), which I have
sketched; these consist of polished metal;
they are hollowed out slightly from centre Figs. 6 and 7.
to surface; one of them is furnished with a
handle, and the other is to be laid on the
table when using them. They are first heated
by pouring some warm oil on the polished
hollowed surface; the index ball is put on
the one which is stationary, and the other
‘rounder’ is gently worked over it in a cir-
cular manner until the ball has become per-
fectly round; the rounders are heated at in-
tervals by adding more hot oil to their polished surfaces. I need not
mention the necessity there is for iron moulds of different bulk, in order
to produce balls of different sizes, adapted to the variously sized tubes.
IT have now completed the description of my Hemodromometer.
That I do not expect it to be considered as anything like a perfect in-
strument, I have already said. I know that some physiologists will
object to it on account of the complexity of previous operations which
must be performed when working with it; but will any one, I ask,
give the preference to Volkman’s instrument simply because of the
trouble of working which mine would cost the operator ? If so—if it
is desirable that instruments be made with a view rather to save the
operator work, than to attain to accuracy of result—then have I laboured
in vain.

The following donations were presented :—

1. From the Society of Antiquaries of London the following publica-
tions of the Society :—
‘‘Layamon’s Brut,’”’ edited by Sir F. Madden. 8 vols.
‘* Rotuli Scaccarii Normannie,”’ edited by T. Stapleton. 2 vols.
‘Codex Exoniensis,” edited by B. Thorpe. 1 vol.
2. From Joseph Gurney Barclay, Esq., ‘‘ Astronomical Observations,
1862-64.”
3. From the Commendatore Negri Cristoforo, ‘“‘ La Storia Antica Resti-
tuita.”’

The thanks of the Academy were voted to the donors.

329

MONDAY, JANUARY 8, 1866.
The Very Rey. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The Rey. B. W. Adams, D.D.; Rev. Thomas D. F. Barry; George
Hatchell, M. D.; Edward 8. O’Grady, Esq.; Daniel O’Sullivan, Esq. ;
Joseph O’ Kelly, A.M.; Henry Wilson, M. R.C.S.1.; and Rev. Richard
Wrightson, B. A.; were elected members of the Academy.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright read a paper, the joint production of himself
and Professor Huxley, ‘‘ On the Fossil Remains of some large Batra-
chian Reptiles from the Irish Coal-measures.’”’ Part I.

MONDAY, JANUARY 22, 1866.
The Very Rey. Cuarites Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The President stated that in consequence of the lamented death of
Dr. Petrie, and out of respect to his memory, no literary communica-
tions would be made this evening.

The Academy accordingly adjourned.

MONDAY, FEBRUARY 12, 1866.
The Very Rev. Cuarzes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The PresrpeEnt delivered the following ApprzEss on the loss sustained
by Archeological Science in the Death of Grorcr Petriz, LL. D. :—

ADDRESS.

GENTLEMEN,—Only a few weeks have passed since I was called on to
express our sense of the loss sustained by the Academy—by Science it-
self—in the death of Sir William Rowan Hamilton. If any one of us
had been asked, a year ago, to enumerate the great men of our own
country and our own time, he would have been almost sure to give pre-
cedence to the name of Hamilton. And now, whilst our mourning for
him is recent, before we have accustomed ourselves to the thought that
he is no longer a fellow-labourer with us, that he has gone to his rest,
and that the works which he has left unfinished must be carried on by
other hands, death has made a fresh inroad on our ranks, and robbed us
of all the pleasure and the pride which we felt in companionship with one
who, in the department of antiquarian and historic literature, had at-
tained a pre-eminence as decided as that which Hamilton had won for
himself in the pursuits of mathematical science. It is hardly possible
to exaggerate the gloom which the death of Grorcr Prrriz has cast
over the friends of literature in Ireland; for his name had become a
household word amongst us. His genius and learning had rendered
him famous; and the charm of his noble and graceful character had
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 2X

326

made him equally beloved. Thus he had grown to be a power—the
centre of a great sphere of intellectual activity ; and we could not con-
ceal from ourselves the obvious fact, that his removal from the field
of his labour is a source of peculiarly anxious concern.

The death of a great mathematician like Hamilton is with reason
lamented, because it certainly retards the development of those
branches of mathematics in the cultivation of which he had been most
successful; but it can hardly be thought of as absolutely irreparable to
science. The band of whom one of the leaders has fallen is a numerous
one. It gathers its recruits from all parts of the civilized world. It
extends its conquests with a march certain, though not uniform, into
the regions of the unknown. Scientific progress in any particular di-
rection suggests research, and facilitates further progress. Thus science
advances like a tide, pressing onward with an accumulating force. If
Newton and Leibnitz had died before they had made their famous dis-
coveries, we can hardly doubt but that other scholars in these king-
doms, in France, in Italy, in Germany, or in Russia, would have created
the Differential Calculus, and furnished us with an instrument, the
need of which was felt in dealing with most of the great problems
which at that period engaged the attention of mathematicians. The
successful prosecution of the studies to which Prrrizr devoted his life
depends on circumstances of a more precarious nature; and we cannot
count with the same certainty upon their continuous progress. We
cannot expect that many will apply themselves to the history and anti-
quities of Ireland; and of those who do, how few are likely to illustrate
them by the critical sagacity, the extensive learning, and the sound
judgment of the veteran scholar whose loss we are now lamenting !
Let any man picture to himself the condition to which Irish archeology
and other kindred studies would have been reduced, if it had not been
for the labours and the influence of Petrie during the latter half of his
life; he will then understand why Prrrin’s death has been felt as a
national calamity.

Grorcr Perrier was born in Dublin, on the Ist of January, 1790.
He was the son of James Petrie, an eminent portrait and miniature
painter, from whom he inherited a taste for both literature and art.
His general education was carefully attended to. He was sent to the
school of Mr. Whyte, of Grafton-street, who at that time gave instruc-

tion to the sons of many of the most distinguished citizens of Dublin; |

and there, sitting perhaps at the same desk as that at which Thomas
Moore and Richard Brinsley Sheridan had sat before him, he acquired
that sound knowledge of the English and of the Classical languages
which he afterwards turned to good account, when he became a man of
letters. As a boy, he showed a decided preference for art. At an early
age he was allowed to assist his father in painting miniatures; and
when only fifteen had attained such skill in drawing as to gain a silver
medal for a group of figures in the School of the Dublin Society. Oc-
cupations of this kind being more to his taste than the studies and as-
sociations connected with the profession of surgery, for which his father

in

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A
a
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327

designed him, he was permitted to follow the bent of his genius, and
for several years devoted himself to landscape painting.

This is not the occasion on which a full account of his labours as an
artist would be appropriate; but I may be allowed to say, that they
were varied and successful. His pencil was for many years put in re-
quisition by those who sought for the most perfect illustrations of Irish
scenery and topography. His drawings were engraved by the most ce-
lebrated engravers. The pictures exhibited by him in London and in
this city attracted the admiration of the most accomplished art critics.
I have some idea of the causes of his success. I believe that it was
due, in the first instance, to the truthfulness with which he represented
the grace and harmony of the lines traced by Nature herself in the real
landscape. He seems to have perfectly appreciated their characteris-
tics. He knew that these lines are produced by natural agencies of
various kinds working simultaneously—by forces which shape the
outline of a mountain, as well as by those which determine the form
of a leaf. It was his nice perception—or call it, if you will, an intui-
tive feeling—of the proper flow of each separate line, and of its relations
to the other lines in the picture, which enabled him to produce draw-
ings almost matchless in delicacy and grace. IfI have failed to convey
my meaning to any of my hearers, I can promise them that they will
at once recognise the excellence of which I have been speaking in the
illustrations contributed by Prrriz to Lord Ormond’s “ Autumn in
Sicily.” His skill as a draughtsman was transcendent. Critics allege
that as a colourist he was less successful. It is not given to the same
man to excel in every branch of his art. Still it must be said of him
that he showed a fine perception of harmony and balance of colour,
even though we may admit that he was sometimes deficient in force.
But the artist who could paint such pictures as his ‘‘ Pass of Llan-
beris,” his ‘‘ Walk in Connemara,” his ‘‘ Shruel Bridge,” and ‘‘ The
Home of the Herons,”’ has secured for himself a high place in the list of
water colour painters. These are works in which the artistic treatment
of the subject manifests an intense love of Nature, and a familiar ac-
quaintance with the expressions of her ever-changing face. And they
possess a higher merit. They are not the products of a merely imitative
art. They are poetical in their conception, and full of imaginative
power. Praise from one who has so little practical acquaintance with
art as I can lay claim to may be nearly valueless; but I believe that,
even in the presence of those who have most knowledge on this subject,
I should provoke no expression of dissent, if I asserted that Purriz had
attained to a very distinguished position as a painter. His brother ar-
tists in this country long ago acknowledged his eminence by conferring
upon him the honourable office of President of their National Academy ;
and artists of the highest repute in England, by their correspondence
and their friendship, bore testimony to the respect which they enter-
tained for him as a professional compeer.

From his schoolboy days Perris took an interest in the monumental
remains which fell under his observation in the neighbourhood of

028

Dublin; and as his sketching tours led him afterwards into remote parts
of the country, where dismantled castles, and ruined churches, and
time-worn crosses, besides furnishing subjects for his pencil, excited his
curiosity respecting their history and age, his early predilection for
antiquarian pursuits must have been drawn out and fostered. Never-
theless, he might perhaps have continued to devote himself exclusively
to the practice of his art as a painter, ifaramble in company with some
friends through the western counties of Ireland had not brought him,
in 1818, face to face with the ruins of the Seven Churches at Clonmac-
noise. There, indeed, he saw a group of ecclesiastical remains, inte-
resting in their architectural features, and picturesquely placed on the
sloping shore of our great western river; and he perpetuated the scene
by making it the subject of one of his most exquisitely painted pictures.
But these ruins excited a still deeper interest in his mind, regarded as
memorials of the men who lived, and the civilization which subsisted
on the spot a thousand years before. Looking around him in that great
cemetery, he found it filled with inscribed monuments, recording the
names of distinguished persons who had been buried there in former
times. It was a favourite place of sepulture for kings and chiefs, for
bishops and abbots, for men of piety and learning, from the sixth to the
twelfth century. Applying himself first to the copying of these inscrip-
tions, he made drawings of above three hundred of them. But, as
few of them had been previously noticed or explained in any printed
work, he was obliged to investigate for himself the history of the per-
sons whose names were thus preserved. With a view to the accomplish-
ment of this object, he commenced, and from that time continued, the
formation of such a collection of documents, whether in manuscript or
in print, as he hoped would lead to the illustration of the monuments.
Thenceforth, in fact, he became an archeologist, devoting as much time
and attention as he could spare from other avocations to the study of
Irish history and antiquities.

PurTrie was elected a member of this Academy in the year 1828, a
year after the name of Hamilton was added to our roll. He was chosen
a member of Council in 1830, and at once applied himself, in conjune-
tion with other distinguished members, to raise the Academy from that
state of torpor in which it had remained for the previous quarter of
a century. At that time it could not be said that we possessed a Mu-
seum; and a stranger now visiting it, admiring its riches, and profiting
by the labours of Sir William Wilde in arranging and cataloguing it,
could hardly believe the facts in its history which I am about to men-
tion. The King of Denmark had some time previously presented to the
Academy a collection of stone implements, of no small value and interest,
when placed alongside of and compared with similar objects found in
this country. They had, however, been allowed to lie unnoticed and
uncared for. Other antiquarian articles, presented to the Academy by
various donors, were deposited in the Museum of Trinity College, there
being no place fitted for their exhibition in the Academy. Immediately
upon his appointment as a member of Council, Perris collected these re-

329

mains, and had them placed for security in an unoccupied glasscase in
the board room. These antiquities, as 1 have heard from his own lips,
had previously been left exposed for years on the floor of a small apart-
ment, called a Library, in the upper storey of the Academy House; and
between the period when Prrriz had first seen them in this situation,
previously to his election as member of the Academy, and that at which
he rescued them from future danger, nearly one half of the articles, and
those the most precious, had disappeared. From this epoch dates a pe-
riod of fruitful activity in our Committee of Antiquities, happily con-
trasting with the inertness of the previous seventeen years, during
which its meetings had been absolutely suspended. I should occupy
too much of your time, if attempted fully to record the services which
Petrie rendered to the Academy, by helping towards the acquisition of
the various collections, the assemblage of which in our Museum has
given it a national character. It must suffice for me to name the Un-
derwood Collection, and those of Dean Dawson, and Major Sirr. It is
right to notice that in these various movements PETRIE received the most
cordial and efficient support from the late Professor Mac Cullagh, whose
sympathies were, no doubt, drawn forth by the manifestation on PErRixz’s
part of a truly scientific spirit in his method of dealing with antiquities.
Many of you are aware that it was at Perrin’s instance that Mac Cullagh
purchased the Cross of Cong, and made that splendid donation to our
Museum ; and I may add his generous contribution towards the pur-
chase of the Tara Torques as another proof of the same sympathy. In-
deed, it may be recorded as one of Putrin’s academical distinctions, that
to his personal influence was mainly owing that happy union between
the scientific and archeological elements within our body, upon which
Wwe may now congratulate ourselves, but to which, before his time, cor-
responded a relation of passive, if not active, opposition.

Perris contributed no less important services towards the formation
of our Library. Whenever opportunities offered of acquiring Irish MSS.,
he exerted his influence to induce the Academy to supply funds for their
purchase. The grant placed at his disposal for this purpose being fre-
quently inadequate, he ventured more than once, at his own risk, to
secure MSS. the value of which he understood better than any one, and
which he knew ought to be added to the Academy’s collection. Thus,
at the sale of Edward O’ Reilly’s MSS.., after the Academy’s grant of £50
had been exhausted, he purchased for himself some of The O’Cleary’s
MSS., and afterwards gave them up to the Academy at the cost price.
Having become under precisely similar circumstances the possessor of
the autograph copy of the second part of the ‘‘ Annals of the Four
Masters,’’ he generously surrendered it to the Academy for the sum he
had given for it, although immediately on its becoming known in the
saleroom what the MS. was, he was offered, in the first instance, £100
over and above the purchase money, and was subsequently pressed to
name any sum that would induce him to resign it. In acknowledgment
of the generosity and zeal evinced on this occasion by Prrriz, the Aca-
demy passed a resolution declaring him a Member for Life.

330

Perrig contributed numerous papers to our ‘‘ Transactions” and
‘* Proceedings.’ His first communication was a paper ‘‘ On the Auto-
graph Original of the Annals of the Four Masters.’’ This was followed
by a description of the Domnach Airgid—an ancient reliquary, contain-
ing a copy of the Gospels, which belonged to St. Patrick. I must refrain
from stating the titles of his other contributions, with the exception of
the three to which this Academy awarded its gold medal. These were
—his essay ‘‘ On the Origin and Uses of the Round Towers;”’ his essay
“On Military Architecture in Ireland ;”’ and his essay ‘‘ On Tara Hill.”
The second in order of these essays remains unpublished. I proceed to
notice the contents of the other two.

The work which is most closely associated with the name of PETRIE
is his celebrated ‘‘ Essay on the Round Towers.’ It was originally
written for and presented to the Academy, and was rewarded by your
gold medal, and a prize of £50, in 1833. ‘This essay is included in
the treatise ‘‘ On the Ecclesiasiastical Architecture of Ireland,’ of
which the first portion forms the twentieth volume of our ‘ Transac-
tions.” The writer, feeling that the question as to the origin and uses
of the towers could not be satisfactorily settled except in connexion
with a systematic review of Christian architecture as it existed in Ire-
land previous to the Norman invasion, wisely resolved to make his essay
the basis on which to erect a more comprehensive work; and that work,
intended to be exhaustive and decisive on the subject of which it treats,
grew under his hand into proportions very different from those of the
original design. References had to be made to authorities of, different
times and in different languages—many of the most conclusive being
gathered from our Irish MSS., and produced by him for the first time ;
although it might have seemed natural that writers, treating of Irish
antiquities, would have looked, in the first instance, to our own history
and annals for information. In order to furnish adequate means of
judging of the structural features of the buildings described, it was also
necessary to supply abundant illustrations. In preparing these, the
author was independent of the assistance of other draughtsmen. The
volume is enriched by numerous drawings, which are almost as interest-
ing to the artist as to the antiquary. Again, our fellow-Academician ~
conceived it to be necessary to examine and confute all the opposing
theories as to the origin and uses of the towers. This imposed upon him
the obligation of showing, as regards their origin, that they were not
Danish or Pheenician; and, as respects their uses, that they were not
fire temples; that they were not places from which the Druidical festi-
vals were proclaimed; that they were not astronomical observatories ;
that they were not phallic emblems, or Buddhist temples; and, lastly,
to come to supposed Christian uses, that they were not anchorite
towers, or penitential prisons. To prove a single negative is prover-
bially difficult. Can we complain, then, of Perrre as having been te-
dious, if, in the compass of about one hundred and twenty pages, he has
temperately and conclusively disposed of so many erroneous theories ?
I make bold to say, that he has disposed of them, though there yet re-

dal

main amongst us—I say it with regret—too many who still cling to their
opinions as to the indefinite antiquity and pagan uses of the towers.
There is something romantic in the notion of their being monuments be-
longing to a rave wholly lost in the mist of antiquity ; and there is some-
thing imposing in the parade of Oriental authorities, and the jingle of
fanciful etymologies, in which Vallancey and his disciples so freely
dealt. But I have never yet met any intelligent man, who has taken
the pains to read through and understand Prrrin’s Essay, and who has
also gone out of his study and examined Round Towers with his own
eyes, and compared their masonry and architectural details with those
of the ancient ecclesiastical structures beside which they often stand,
who was not ready to give his frank assent to PErrim’s main conclu-
sions. 1am speaking of the most remarkable essay that was ever pro-
duced by an Irish antiquary. You will, therefore, permit me to remind
you what those conclusions were :—I. That the towers are of Christian
and ecclesiastical origin, and were erected at various periods between
the fifth and thirteenth centuries; Il. That they were designed to an-
swer at least a twofold use—namely, to serve as belfries, and as keeps,
or places of strength, in which the sacred utensils, books, relics, and
other valuables were deposited, and into which the ecclesiastics, to
whom they belonged, could retire for security in cases of sudden preda-
tory attack; III. That they were probably also used, when occasion
required, as beacons and watch towers. If it were possible to over-
throw, or seriously to modify, the conclusions at which Perris has ar-
rived, this essay would still continue to be a pattern deserving the close
imitation of writers undertaking to treat of similar subjects. It is phi-
losophic in its method; its style is clear and graceful; without being
pedantic, it is copious in references to original authorities; and, what
is rare in works of a controversial nature, it is remarkable for the good
temper and good taste with which the writer treats the reasonings of
his opponents.

In 1840, Perris received the gold medal of the Academy for his
essay “‘ On the Antiquities of Tara Hill,” printed in the eighteenth vo-
lume of our ‘‘ Transactions.” This essay was a portion of the Memoir
intended to accompany the Ordnance Survey Map of the county of
Meath. Its subject, as the title indicates, is partly antiquarian, and
partly historical; and it deserves special notice, because the latter element
is developed more perfectly in it than in any other of Perrre’s writings.
Having gathered from our most ancient MSS. every notice contained in
them of the Hill of Tara—a spot celebrated by foreign as well as native
writers as the chief seat of the Irish monarchs, from the earliest dawn
of their history down to the middle of the sixth century—he proceeds,
in the first instance, to analyze those which record events connected
with the civil and ecclesiastical history of Ireland, and then goes on to
show the exact agreement of the monuments still remaining with the
descriptions of raths and other structures mentioned in ancient topogra-
phical poems and tracts as having formerly existed at Tara. The first
portion of the paper touches upon several subjects of great interest.

=

se

d02

Such, for instance, is the account of the compilation and promulgation
of laws by Cormac Mac Art, in the middle of the third century ; and the
compilation, two hundred years later, of the ‘‘Seanchus Mor,” in the
time and at the instance of St. Patrick. The hints which he has given
in this paper will afford valuable help towards the settlement of some
of the most perplexing questions connected with our early Irish history
Though we may feel sure that the catalogue of 142 kings who are re-
corded as having reigned at Tara prior to its desertion in the year 565
is largely mythical, we should be rash in totally rejecting all the state-
ments for which we have no better authority than bardic legends. PETRIE
has pointed out the probability of some of these, and adduced confirma-
tions of them, derived from independent and trustworthy sources. One
of the most curious parts of the “ Essay on Tara’”’ is that in which he
discusses the perplexing difficulties which beset the history of St. Pa-
trick—I might rather say, of the Saints Patrick, for there were certainly
two of the name—and proposes to identify the second St. Patrick with
Palladius. The recent investigation of this subject by Dr. Todd has
brought its difficulties into a clearer ight ; but the solution of them seems
still almost beyond our reach. The second portion of the essay furnishes
a striking instance of the use to be made of antiquarian research in esta-
blishing the authenticity of documents. The ‘‘ Dinn Seanchus,” a
well-known topographical work of great antiquity, contains tracts and
poems relating to Tara, some of which describe with considerable mi-
nuteness the buildings which formerly stood there. With the buildings
so described Perriz was able with complete certainty to identify the
erumbling remains which are still apparent. Such a confirmation of the
accuracy of the accounts disposes us to attach more credence than we
should otherwise have given to statements respecting the uses to which
the various structures were applied, and all the details respecting the
mode of life of their ancient occupants. The truth of these very ancient
testimonies being corroborated in certain points, the probability of their
being in the main trustworthy is increased in a high degree.

The circumstance which must be considered the most important in
Perriz’s life as giving definiteness to his labours and completely deve-
loping his powers, was his connexion, in the year 1833, with the
Ordnance Survey of Ireland. The occasion for his services in this de-
partment arose in the following manner :—In the construction of the
maps, it was a matter of primary necessity to determine the orthography
of the names of places; but it also proved to be a matter of extreme
difficulty. Various modes of spelling them were found to be sanctioned
by common usage. Reference, therefore, had to be made to documents
of all kinds; and an inquiry, involving comparison between the existing
and the ancient states of the country, had to be instituted; in fact,
questions relating to the spelling of the name ofa townland or a parish
frequently gave rise to elaborate researches, which were not disposed
of till it had been ascertained that the name was indicative of some
early sept, some ecclesiastical establishment, or ancient chief. Thus
the co-operation of the historian, the antiquary, and the philologist, was

303

found to be essential. Under the direction of Lieutenant (now Sir
Thomas) Larcom, who conceived the idea of drawing together every
species of local information relating to Ireland, and embodying it in a
Memoir accompanying the Ordnance Survey Maps, Prrrir was employed
to take charge of the topographical department, to collect all the mate-
rials, and superintend the persons engaged in that part of the work.
There, as the head of a literary staff, he had the assistance of several
persons who possessed a good knowledge of the Irish language, and to
whom he communicated his own methods of systematic inquiry, and
_ the refinement of a more extended scholarship. It was from PETRIE
that John O'Donovan and Eguene Curry received the training which
enabled them afterwards to contribute in so many ways to that great
development of ancient Irish literature which we have witnessed in the
last quarter of a century. He became the informing spirit, the great
instructor, of a school of Archzology. He not only laid down the prin-
ciples, but exemplified upon a great scale the application to antiquarian
science of the principles of a philosophic induction. Before his time,
Trish antiquaries had brought discredit upon their pursuits by the va-
riety of errors into which they fell. Some followed blindly in the wake
of those who had gone before them, subjecting their conclusions to no
examination, neglecting to gather and sift original documentary evi-
dence, and hardly looking at the very objects of which they professed to
give accounts. Others framed fanciful hypotheses, and then spent all
their labour in casting about for arguments by which their theories
might be supported. I need not go beyond the names of Vallancey and
Beaufort for examples of the erroneous methods to which I have alluded ;
and it is deeply to be lamented that the influence of their school is still
felt amongst us; and that with avery large number of persons it seems
to be a point of honour, or almost a matter of faith, to maintain the-
ories in which the parts really played by our Celtic progenitors are
assigned to Etruscans, Phcenicians, and races inhabiting regions still
more remote. Against such misleading tendencies Prrris had to strug-
gle, and he has combated them with a success which will be more fully
recognised as the nature of his work comes to be better understood. He
first showed how to make the contents of our ancient Irish MSS. avail-
able for the purposes of antiquarian research. He had large collections
made from them of passages bearing upon questions of topography, his-
tory, architecture, and so forth. And he took pains to satisfy himself
that the true meaning of these was furnished by scholars having a com-
petent knowledge of the Irish language. He explored almost every
part of Ireland himself, filling his sketch books with careful drawings
of ancient remains; and it was by means of a comparison of these with
one another, and with the notices of them contained in ancient docu-
ments, that he established general and solid conclusions respecting their
nature. The results of this process, especially those having a philolo-
gical bearing, as exhibited in the ‘‘ Ordnance Survey Memoir,” called
forth the expression of Pictet’s cordial recognition of the importance of his
work, and of the merit of its execution. It is true thatthe literary and ec-
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 2¥

334

clesiastical history of Ireland had received important elucidations from the
labours of Archbishop Ussher, Sir James Ware, and Colgan; but before
Perrie’s time little had been done to illustrate our topography, our pre-
historic monuments, our military and ecclesiastical architecture. Sir
James Ware had treated but superficially of these classes of antiquities.
His assertion that the Irish had no knowledge of the art of building with
stone and lime till the time of Henry IT. proves how limited was his know-
ledge of this subject. He had hardly any acquaintance either with the
actual remains, or with the Irish language, and was therefore unable
to connect the antiquities with a history existing only in MSS. To-
wards the close of his life he employed an Irish translator, but not till
the greater part of his antiquarian collection had been completed.

The contributions of Perris to antiquarian knowledge were not con-
fined to the ‘‘ Transactions’ of this Academy and to the ‘‘ Memoir of
the Ordnance Survey.” To touch more cursorily than they deserve on
Guide Books, which in the earlier years of his life were indebted both
to his pen and his pencil, the ‘‘ Dublin” and the ‘‘ Irish Penny Journal’
contain a large amount of matter of great interest illustrative of the pic-
turesque ruins and the relics of art with which his rambles through
Treland had made him acquainted. As the woodcuts of these cheap pub-
lications show the true artist’s hand, so does the letterpress furnish
numerous descriptions marked by all his characteristic accuracy and
good taste. These volumes have thus acquired a permanent value.

His rambles through all parts of Ireland called into exercise another
of his natural gifts, which, like the rest, he made to contribute to the
perpetuation of his country’s peculiar endowments. I refer to his mu-
sical faculty. This, which was of a high order, enabled him to catch
the native melodies which he heard from all manner of persons, and in
as varying circumstances, and to commit them to his notebook. Part
of the fruit of this loving care is to be seen in a volume published by
the Irish-Music Society, in which about one hundred and fifty airs,
thus rescued by him, are carefully arranged, and introduced by no-
tices of their history, gracefully written, and full of interesting illus-
tration of Irish character and social hfe. He had previously contributed
many airs to the collections of Holden and Bunting ; and several hundred
more, I am told, are still in his portfolios.

Among his unpublished antiquarian works are the following :—
‘¢ An Essay on Military Architecture,” ‘‘ An Essay on Irish Bells,”
<A Description of Arran,” ‘‘ A History of Clonmacnoise,’’ ‘‘ A Descrip-

‘ee of the Sepulchral Monuments at Carrowmore,”’ his Letters in.

he Ordnance Survey Correspondence, and his great Collection of In-
eee
After indicating, even in the summary way in which I have done,
the extent and the nature of Prrris’s literary and artistic labours, it might
seem almost superfluous for me to notice a charge which was sometimes
brought against him in his lifetime. He has been accused of dilatori-
ness in his studies, anda want of systematic diligence in the prosecution
of them. Of what scholar might not this be said? And who has used

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330

his time as profitably as possible ? Prrrre may not have been blameless
in this regard; but I think that valid excuses may be offered in miti-
gation of the censure which has fallen upon him. In the first place,
his health was always delicate, and his temperament sensitive. Thus,
his total working power was less than that of many other literary men.
His intense intellectual energy was out of proportion with his physical
strength. And, besides all this, he was intentionally slow in his work,
whether with the pencil or the pen, because he was cautious and truth-
ful, and in the highest degree fastidious. He was unsparing of his
labour, and indifferent about reward. Perris united qualities which are
seldom possessed by the same individual; he had the enthusiasm and
the imaginative power which are essential to the artist; he also pos-
sessed the sagacity and calmness of judgment which are commonly sup-
posed to be characteristic of the man of science. There was in him a
singular gracefulness, combined with masculine force. He was sensitive,
without being morbid; he was playful, but never wayward; he was
candid in criticism, but never gave a gratuitous wound to the feelings
of an opponent. <‘‘ He exerted,” as has been well said, ‘‘ an influence
which prompted and encouraged many minds in liberal ideas—in genial
and tolerant social views—in the elegancies of native accomphshments,
and in that appreciation of the generous and noble traits of the national
character which is the true cement of society. Moreover, he largely
helped towards achieving the great problem of our day—the reconcilia-
tion of the cultivated intelligence and loyalty with the popular aspira-
tions and sympathies of the country.”’

Gentlemen, I need not try to complete this imperfect portrait of
Prrrie—the antiquary, the historian, the painter, the musician, the
genial, refined, true-hearted gentleman. Your recollection will supply
the traits which I have omitted, or drawn with a faltering hand. There
is no reason to fear lest his memory should fade from amongst us. You
will cherish every reminiscence of a man for whom you felt so warm an
affection, and so profound:a respect. Hus death has been a grievous loss
tous. But we must not suffer our sorrow for the man to degenerate
into a despondency injurious to the interests of those studies which
were dear to him, and of which he was the ornament. He is indeed
lost to our sight, and removed from our converse ; much of the learning
which he had amassed by laborious thought and patient study has pe-
rished with him, and the tooth of Time is silently but surely corroding
the objects upon which he toiled. But let us find a consolation in the
thought that his influence will survive in this Academy, and wherever
there is a natural and healthful interest in the literature of Ireland. He
will leave behind him disciples imbued with his spirit, and inheriting
his methods of research ; and I make bold to predict that great works,
illustrating the history, the laws, the art, the language of this country,

‘projected in his time, and promoted by his efforts, will hereafter be the

monuments attesting the magnitude of the services which Perri has
rendered to the cause of our national literature. Prrrin’s genius did
not spring up, like Hamilton’s, with a sudden growth, and clothe itself

336

with a preternatural show of flower and fruitage ; but his reputation has
been a growing one, and it will be a lasting ‘one, because he also has
done things which will endure.

“ Crescit occulto velut arbor evo Fama.”

It has struck its roots deep in the affection and respect of Irish hearts ;
and it will continue to flourish there, unless we fall upon those evil days
in which men lose all right to have hope from the living, because they
have become careless and cold in paying honour to their illustrious
dead.

The ballot for the election of a Member of Council to serve on the
Committee of Antiquities having been scrutinized in the face of the
Academy, the President reported that Lord Talbot de Malahide was duly
elected to the place vacant on the Council.

The Secretary presented, on the part of the Rev. Robert King, a
copy of the “Essay on the Primacy of Armagh” in the form in which
it originally appeared as a portion of the ‘‘ Armagh Guardian” news-

paper.
MONDAY, FEBRUARY 26, 1866.
The Very Rev. Cuartes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The Rev. Samvrnt Havcuton, M. D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

On tHe Mereoric Stoner THAT FELL AT DunpRuM, County or TIPPE-
RARY, ON THE 12TH Avcust, 1860.

Tue Meteoric Stone, that forms the fsubject3 of the present (Paper,
fell near Dundrum, county of Tipperary, under circumstances that
were described to me as follows, by the man in whose garden it fell :—

STATEMENT OF EYEWITNESS.

‘‘T, John Johnson, of the parish of Clonoulty, near Cashel, county
Tipperary, was walking across my potato garden, at the back of my
house, in company with Michael Fahy and William Furlong, on the
12th of August, 1865, at seven Pp. m., when I heard a clap, like the
shot out of a cannon, very quick, and not like thunder; this was fol-
lowed by a buzzing noise, which continued for about a quarter of an
hour, when it came over our heads; and on looking up, we saw an ob-
ject falling down in a slanting direction. We were frightened at its
speed, which was so great that we could scarcely notice it; but after
it fell, we proceeded to look for it, and found it at a distance of. forty
yards, half buried in the ground, where it had struck the top of a po-
tato drill. We were some time in looking for it (a longer time than
that during which we had heard the noise). On taking up the stone, we
found it warm, milk warm, but not hot enough to be inconvenient. The
next day it was given up to Lord Hawarden.

“‘ JoHN JOHNSON.”

337

It was afterwards presented by Lord Hawarden to the Geological Mu-
seum of Trinity College, where it is publicly exhibited.

The stone weighed 4lbs. 144 oz. It is rudely pyramidal in form ;
the triangular base being a freshly broken surface, and the faces of the
pyramid being covered by the usual black vitrified glaze. It is evi-
dently a portion of a much larger stone; and as it appears from the
foregoing statement that its vertical velocity was not great, itis probable
that other pieces of the larger mass may yet be found in the neighbour-
hood of Dundrum.

A singular feature is observable in this stone that I have never yet
seen in any other:—the rounded edges of the pyramid are sharply
marked by lines on the black crust, as perfect as if made by a ruler.
This appearance is strictly confined to the surface, and seems to be a
result of some peculiar tension of the fused crust in cooling; for no
trace of any continuation of the lines can be found in the interior of the
stone.

On examination with the lens, specks of metallic iron and of magnetic
pyrites are visible, and also a few minute grains of chrysolith ; no other
minerals can be detected in the paste, which is of a dull grey, and of
loose texture, almost like a porous sandstone; and the whole stone
would attract little notice, were it not for its specific gravity, and the
metallic particles visible in it. The specific gravity of this Meteoric
Stone, asis usually found to be the case, varied in specimens taken from
different parts of the mass. The portion analyzed was found to have
the following specific gravity :—

Gre.
Weirhtinvait, (70. 0%) o.. 20970
Weight in water, s: 95. 20179

Difference... 97°47 gts.

from which data the specific gravity is found to be,
2996
Specific gravity = O77 = 3°066.

Other portions of the stone gave a specific gravity of 3°57.

From 100 grs. acted on with iodine,* which dissolved out the alloy
of iron and nickel, there were obtained, of peroxide of iron, 27-95 grs.,
and of protoxide of nickel, 1°20.

as

. * This method of investigation was suggested by Mr. William Early, Assistant in
the Laboratory of Trinity College ; the process consists in digesting the powdered mineral
in iodine with water for twelve hours, and proved to be completely successful, as was
shown by comparative trials on different portions of the powdered mineral.

308

The portion insoluble in iodine was now acted on with dilute mu-
riatic acid, and gave the following results :——

Grs.
Silica: canst voddita soa eyeric. Cees pe WO
AlUMING, oes cals Cea waa) POO
i : resent originally as rotoxide ‘and.
PReroxidejof irony jae 2+ ne pari. 6 3) ¢8.7/ { P Gee tanE an 7 fare
Carbonate of lime, . . ct a ad 0°50
Pyrophosphate of magnesia, a ey eo 200

Potash and soda chlorides,. . . . 0°45
Platino-chloride of potassium, . . . 0°42
Oxide of manganese (Mn304),. . . 0°05

On treating another 100 grs. of the stone for sulphur, with muriatic
acid, and conducting the sulphuretted hydrogen into ammoniacal solu-
tion of sulphate of copper, so as to form a black precipitate of sul-
phuret of copper, there were found by the usual methods 10-7 grs. of
sulphate of barytes.

There were left, after the treatment with iodine and dilute muriatic
acid, 42°1 grs. of mineral, insoluble in these reagents.

From the solution by iodine, and the determination of sulphur, as
sulphate of barytes, we obtain—

Grs. Grs.
Peroxide ofifonss, tees ee eam en ed Oe aivons
Protoxide of nickel, . . . L520 2. rte aahiy e029 4enickel,
Sulphate of barytes, . . . 10°70 . . . 4°05 protosulphuret of iron.

Hence we obtain, as our primary analysis of the Dundrum Meteoric
Stone—
I.—Primary Analysis of Meteorite (A.).

1: Metalliesiron, ce 7 0.3. ells, Wem an endo Dee ee nO
2... Metallicanickels: 50-500 Spaamt tte: a00 gue mee 0°94
3. Magnetic pyrites, ae Ss uaere 4°05
4. Mineral soluble in dilute Paniatic acid, Patwier gas! 3315) G34 &
5. Mineral insoluble wa ic.i 4. <2 hots abusecy) cote aeeten pan ee

100:00

The analysis of the earthy mineral soluble in dilute muriatic acid
gives us (considering that 4:05 of FeS is equivalent to 3°68 of Fe,0,)
the following result.

II. Soluble Mineral (A)...

Grs. Per Cent. Oxygen.
1. Silica, Seay Nemes! RG AEMney Aca BhoyoVe mar An OX SAD
2. Alumina, . : Ont ee OVA A Si Oe 209)
3. Protoxide of iron, OOD ee LO TOD) an ee al
4, erotoxide.of manganese, 2. 00D. © 2) Oc 1b ae see 0SS
Ha ae eect oe. re, wn ea OS2 Smet. 0°84 0°340
6. Magnesia, Se erg ep hatir® Si pista Wa) SOS) 40°93 16°358
Us APOtAShs a Figo ae he eee OE S 0°24 0°039
Sie Oda ray Aa peenin ee Ne ete AL. 7 0°51 0°130
9. Loss, ; (0) 258) 1°59

33°34 100°00 40 °892

339
Adding together the oxygen of the protoxides, we find —

RO =20°571
Si0; =20-7112)_
Al,O3= eae = aes

This result identifies the soluble mineral with Chrysolith (or Olivine),
unless it be supposed to be a mixture of several minerals. Neglecting
all the lesser constituents, we have

Oxygen.
SiO) 7) 20"
WeOh es Gry so
Mg0,. . ie erey ee

which gives very well the formula of Chrysolith,
3RO, SiOz.

The preceding analysis of the soluble portion of the Meteorite was
checked by the following proceeding :—The 100 grs., from which the
sulphur was determined, having been acted on by the muriatic acid, the
acid solution was evaporated to dryness, and filtered; and the portion
left on the filter was boiled with solution of carbonate of soda, so as to
redissolve the silica soluble in muriatic acid. There were left 42°44 ers.
of insoluble mineral, while the soluble portion gave

Grs.

UCHMIMMAR ay ie ets) od RM AL BO

: - J Present originally as iron, protoxide
SIERNS OL ON ST amet 1a { of iron, and Be Se ipherst of iron.
@xidelof nickel, . 2. . 1°44
Carbonate of lime, cnn . 0°40
Pyrophosphate of magnesia, . 32°62
Potash and soda chlorides, ; 0°40

Assuming the iron (metallic) as 19°57, and the protosulphuret of
iron as 4:05, we find

Equivalent of 19°57 Fe, . . . . 27°94 FeeQ3
Ae ADS eS Wiiadeey i. 213 168) 4,4,
31°62

Subtracting this result from the total peroxide of iron, and converting
the oxide of nickel into nickel, we obtain

1. Primary Analysis of Meteorite (B).

HeemVCGAlietTOW so se oe cil el Co mae UM 0) LOD
Prmlecallncwmekel ay OG See ys 4 6 ude ol a ne 1°13
SA hetiC PYTItES, Sea). c's k Mile P a a yie 4500
apvimeralsoluole, ci. Bear it 4 Vee ey ye ve Oe cok
Deevinerak insoluble; Gb a. 6 Cae a. ae ae

100-00

. Silica, . :
. Protoxide of i iron,

. Lime, 2
Magnesia, .
Potash,

Soda,

ICOSSh nos. <

SU OX YB 09 1D

340

II. Soluble Mineral (B).

Grs.
12°36
6°28
fs Oe25
1a e74
0°07
0°15
e 1°00

31°81 grs.

38°86
19°74
0°72
36°85

Es IDEA
° 0°47
3°14

100°00

Oxygen.

20°175
4°379 )

0:204 |

14727
0-036
0119 J

( =19°465

This result completely verifies that already found, and proves the
soluble mineral of the Meteorite to be Chrysolith, having the formula

3RO, SiOz,

in which RO denotes protoxide of iron and magnesia.

The 42°10 grs. of mineral insoluble in muriatic acid were divided
into equal parts, of which one was fluxed with carbonate of soda, and
the other with lime and chloride of ammonium, with the following

results :-—

Silica,
Alumina, .
Peroxide of i on

Oxide of manganese (Mn30s),
Peroxide of chrome (Cr20s),

Carbonate of lime,

Pyrophosphate of magnesia, .
Potash and soda chlorides,
Platino-chloride of potassium,

an
Q
Lar j
a

OoONrFOOFrOCNW

"45
°35
64
"16
“51
°45
"45
°80
0°90

1

Assuming the chromium to be present as chrome-iron, and making
the necessary reductions in the other elements, we find

Silica, . -.
Alumina,

Protoxide of iron,
Protoxide of manganese,
Lime, ee ioa erly
Magnesia,

Soda,

Potash, .

Loss,

Original weight, .
Chrome-iron, .

Grs.
21°05
0°75

Insoluble mineral,

20°30 grs.

Ill. LZnsoluble Mineral.

Q
ah
Ka

°45
35
23
*16
oH
°47
°28
Pa u7 |
°38

SoorOCOoORODWD

oO

bo
FOF NWOOrFR FH
. e as as e e
ite)

100°00

SOOrFoCorFOrFr

Oxygen.

3A |

It is not possible to form any opinion as to the mineral composition
of the insoluble portion of the Meteorite, as it is doubtless co mpose of
more than one unknown mineral substance.

If we collect into one view the preceding results, taking a mean of
all, we obtain the following mineralogical composition for the Dun-
drum Meteorite :—

LV. Mineralogical Composition of Dundrum Meteorite.

: 3 f Tony a 19 57
1. Nickel-iron, . . . . . . 20°60 | Nickel ar ae
2. Protosulphuret OL IKON, och ee
3. Chrome-iron, . 1°50
4, Mineral erin in Mernriatic acid, 33°08
probably chrysolith,
5. Minerals insoluble in nana 40°77
acid, Rabat :
100°00

ON THE SHOWER OF AEROLITHS THAT FELL AT KILLETER, COUNTY OF TYRONE,
ON THE 29TH OF APRIL, 1844.

On the 29th of April, 1844, a shower of Meteoric Stones fell, in the
sight of several people, at Killeter, near Castlederg, county of Tyrone:
they broke into small fragments by the fall, one piece only being found
enfire ; it was (according to the testimony ofa resident) ‘‘ about as large
as a joint of a little finger.” The stones were hot when found. The
account given by three gentlemen, who, however, did not actually see
the shower fall, was that they were at a distance of three or four miles,
up the hills in the neighbourhood; it was a fine sunny afternoon (three
or four o'clock); they heard ‘‘music’”’ towards Killeter, which they
supposed to proceed from a strolling German band which they knew to
be in the neighbourhood ; they are under the impression that they heard
the music several times in the course of the evening; they remember
also to have noticed clouds in the direction of Killeter. On reaching
Killeter, the same evening, they were told of the wonderful shower of
stones which had spread over several fields. I received the fragments
of these stones from the Rev. Dr. M‘Ivor, Ex-Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, and Rector of Ardstraw : he writes to me that ‘‘it is now very
difficult to get either a specimen of a stone, or any very distinct intelli-
gence of them: even the very rumour of them has nearly died out, and
you might ask intelligent middle-aged men about the neighbourhood
who had never heard them mentioned.”’ He adds that the people of
that locality are very ‘‘ uncurious,’’ and that if there were a veritable
_ burning bush thereabouts, few would ‘‘ turn aside to see.”
| The largest specimen given to me by Dr. M‘Ivor weighed 22:23 ers.
/in air, and 16°32 grs. in water, showing that its specific gravity is
/3°761. Both it and the smaller fragments presented the usual black
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 22

342

crust and internal greyish-white crystalline structure and appearance,
with specks of metallic lustre, occasioned by the iron and nickel alloy
that was present. I analyzed it in the usual manner ; but, owing to an
accident, I was unable to determine the composition of the earthy por-
tion soluble in muriatic acid.

The following is the mineralogical composition of these Aéroliths :—

1. Hornblendic mineral (insoluble in acid), . . 34°18
2. Earthy mineral (soluble in acid), . . . . 30°42
SV ronyceeeseeet ah tee G face el few sean oie oe eee
4. Nickels (5: (i005 dee Pe 22 alas Sate peice han eens
5. Sesquioxide of chrome; * 74 0 3.0. 0 See
6. Cobalt, fone 7s gee oe pace Gdn aden tiled at aie meee
7. Magnetie’pyrites; 2 21. opi cee ee
100°00

The earthy portion, insoluble in muriatic acid, had the following
composition :—

Atoms.
DELICA re ate Wide Ons OL enema epee
Alumina, . . 5 SDgh ke LOO
Protoxideofiron, 12°18 . . 0°34
himes 035 tae oO om Ob leo
Mapnesta,: (5) 2408) So, aye ba2e

99-93

Omitting the alumina, the preceding analysis gives the rational for-
mula of the hornblende family,

4 RO, 3 SiO,

and, taken as a whole, it agrees with the analysis of many hornblendes.
The variety of hornblende with which it has the closest relation is an-
thophyllite.

According to Mr. Gregg’s ‘‘ Catalogue of Meteoric Stones and Irons,”’
three other falls of Aéroliths are recorded as having occurred in Ire-
land :—

1. A. D. 1779, at Pettiswood, Westmeath ; 6 oz.

2. August, 1810, Mooresfort, county of Tipperary ; 72 Ibs. Spec. grav. = 3°670.

3. September 10, 1813, Adare, county of Limerick ; 17 lbs. + 65 1bs + 241bs.; mov-
ing E.to W. Spec. grav. = 3°64.

4, April 29, 1844, Killeter, county of Tyrone; fragments of one stone. Spec. grav.
oto

Of the Meteorite that fell at Mooresfort, county of Tipperary, in
1810, the only analysis on record is one published by the late Professor
Higgins, in the forty-seventh volume of the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Dublin Society,”’ in whose Museum the greater part of this stone, and
a cast of the entire, are carefully preserved.

Professor Higgins considered 35 per cent. of the stone to consist of
metallic particles separable by the magnet. This would include the

343

magnetic pyrites, iron, nickel, and chrome. In the Tyrone Meteorite
examined by me, the iron, nickel, chrome oxide, and magnetic pyrites
amounted to 35°40 per cent., which is very nearly the same proportion.

Dr. Apjohn has published a detailed account of his analysis of the
Adare Meteorite in the eighteenth volume of the “‘ Transactions of the
Royal Irish Academy,” from which it appears that the following is the
mineralogical composition of that Meteorite :—

1. Meteoric iron and nickel,. . 23°07
2. Magnetic pyrites,. . . . 4°38
a Onrome iTOM, =. oa ss 3°34
4. Earthy matrix, . . . . 68°47
5.Alkalies and Joss, ... . .> 37. O-W4

100°00

Its specific gravity varied from 3-621 to 4-230. The composition of
the matrix of 200 grs. was found to be—

Grs.
DMC AMO waar Sam sks ye tery SAGO. LO
Nixemeniayt ty iis ce Siete iits. bone
ProroxKide Of Oust 0-9. ep oe LO 62
136°94

Gzorce V. Du Noyer, M.R.1.A., F.R.G.S.1., Senior Geologist,
Geological Survey of Ireland, presented to the Library of the Royal
Trish Academy 100 Drawings from Original Sketches of Architectural
Antiquities, to form Vol. VII. of a series of similar donations.

Mr. W. M. Hennessy read the following paper :—

Toe CurracH oF KILDARE.

It must be admitted that our most authentic and ancient extant
records contain little or no reference to the original establishment
of the Curragh of Kildare as a theatre, or common, for the cele-
bration of national games, sports, and pastimes; and no allusion
whatever to its having been allocated, at any period, to the per-
formance of the mystic rites of the Druidical religion. The presump-
tion that it was ever devoted, either in whole or in part, to the
latter purpose, rests on very slight evidence, as we shall see; but that
it was allocated to the former practice—nay, has continued to be so for
the space of at least 2000 years—is very certain. The obscurity which
surrounds the origin of all monuments belonging to the pre-historic
period necessarily attaches to the ancient history of the Curragh. We
know at least as much regarding it as the English know respecting the
monuments of Stanton Drew and Stonehenge—the latter of which is
asserted by some of the early English Chroniclers to have been trans-
ferred thither from the ‘plains’ of Kildare. But of its use, the race

344

of men who erected it, or the date of its erection, notwithstanding the
theory of its Saxon origin, which has lately occupied much attention,
the people of Great Britain ‘‘ know as much,” remarks a recent writer,
‘as they do of the solid framework of the globe itself.” And yet
English history has had the benefit of such elucidation as Caesar and
Tacitus were able to afford. The works of their older historians— _
Gildas, Bede, and Nennius—also remain to the English, whilst many
of our most ancient books of history are irretrievably lost. (See
O’Curry’s ‘‘ Lectures,” p. 20, for a formidable list of the Irish MSS.
which have disappeared. )

The oldest written reference to the Curragh of Kildare that I have
been able to find is a very brief one, contained in an ancient MS.
called the ‘‘ Liber Hymnorum,”’ preserved in the Library of Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, and which is believed to have been transcribed in the
tenth century, from a much older volume. It occurs in the celebrated
Hymn in praise of St. Brigid, which professes to have been composed
by St. Brogan Claen, from a prose narrative given to him by his
master, St. Ultan, of Ardbraccan,in Meath. The latter died in the year
A. D. 656, at avery great age; and it may therefore be safely assumed
that St. Brogan’s Hymn was composed not long after the year 600. It has
been published by Colgan (‘‘ Trias Thaumaturga,’’) and contains internal
evidence, if other testimony was wanting, of its antiquity. The ‘‘Mar-
tyrology of Donegal,”’ in noticing the festival of St. Ultan, at September
4, states, ‘‘It was he that collected the miracles of St. Brigid into one
book, and gave them to Brogan Claen, his disciple, and commanded
him to turn them into verse; so that it was the latter that composed [ the
hymn |, as it is found in the ‘ Book of Hymns.’”’ The reference to the
Curragh is contained in the line ‘“‘ Zn Cazllech reidhed Currech,” 1. €.,
‘the nun who races over the Currech (or Curragh).’’ The scholiast, in a
contemporary gloss on the word “ Currech,’’ says, ‘‘ Currech, a cursu
equorum dictus est.” Dr. Todd, who has quoted this gloss in his edi-
tion of the ‘‘ Book of Hymns” (p. 67), remarks that this is ‘‘a curious
proof of the antiquity of its use as a race-course ;” ‘to which,” he
adds, ‘‘ perhaps some allusion may be intended in the description of
St. Brigid as ‘the nun who drives over the Currech.’”’’ If the word
reidhed had been translated ‘races,’’ instead of ‘‘ drives,” Dr. Todd’s
suggestion would doubtless have been advanced with more confidence.

The next reference to the Curragh, in the order of date, is contained
in the ancient philological tract called ‘‘ Cormac’s Glossary ”’ (in Ivish,

“ Sanasdn Ohormaic’), the authorship of which is ascribed to Cormac — |

Mac Cuillenan, Bishop and King of Cashel, who was slain in the battle
of Ballaghmoon, in the south of the county of Kildare, A. D. 908. This
work, which is undoubtedly one of the most genuine fragments of
ancient Irish literature that has descended to our times, has been
edited by Mr. Whitley Stokes, from a MS. of the fourteenth century,
in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy; but a fragment of it is
preserved in the “‘ Book of Leinster,” a MS. in Trinity College, written
about the year 1150. There is also a portion of this tract in a MS. in

345

the Bodleian Library, Oxford, transcribed in the year 1453, and a
valuable copy in Trinity College of the early part of the fifteenth cen-
tury. We cannot at present claim to possess Cormac’s autograph copy
of the work; but Mr. Stokes, who has examined with critical exact-
ness the historical arguments for and against Cormac’s authorship,
admits that, if absolute authority is wanting to prove that the tract was
composed by Cormac himself, the internal evidence is such as to con-
vince competent judges that it must have been originally written, if
not in Cormac’s time, within a century thereafter at most.

In this glossary the word Currech, or Curragh, occurs twice, and
is thus explained, viz.:—

1. “‘ Cwrrech, i.e. a cursu, 1.e. reidhe: Cuirrech, vero, do radh fro
Sescend, 1.e. corra rechait and,’’ which, translated,~.reads
“ Currech, i.e. @ cursu, i.e. running (or racing); Currech,
indeed, is applied to a sheskin (morass), viz., cranes (corra)
frequent it.’’

2. Cormac again has “‘ Cwirrech, 1. e. a curribus, i.e. fich carpait,”
which means ‘‘ Curragh, i.e. @ curribus, viz., contest of cha-
riots.” The word ‘‘ fich’” is also glossed ‘‘ dewne,’’ ablative of
““ dian,’’—swift, vehement; and the explanation of Cormac,
therefore, plainly points to chariot races.

In O’Dayoran’s ‘‘Irish Glossary,’’ compiled in 1569, and
also published by Mr. Stokes, ‘‘ Currach’”’ is explained ‘ Corr-
dath, i.e. vathna corr” (corr-cath, i. e. the land of the herons).
This explanation is, of course, entirely fanciful, and the glos-
sarist has even committed a very great error, grammatically,
in identifying Currech with Corr-cath. 'The anonymous author
of a curious Latin poem, in the possession of Lord Talbot de
Malahide, written in the seventeenth century, an extract from
which may be seen in Mr. Gilbert’s ‘‘ History of Irish Viceroys”’
(p. 511), derives the name of the Curragh ‘a fessis equis,”’
‘‘ from tired horses’’—as if the word were compounded of cortha
(pron. corha) ‘‘ tired,” and ech, ‘‘ a horse.”

Now, it cannot, I think, be doubted that, in furnishing an expla-
nation of the word Curragh, and deriving it from ‘‘running”’ or
“racing,” the compiler of this glossary, who was probably no other
than Cormac Mac Cuillenan, had the Curragh of Kildare in view; for,
although there are countless placesin Ireland bearing the name of Cur-
ragh, singly or in compound, to which the description ‘crane land”
| applies, or may have applied, I know of no other place so called to which
_ the derivation a curribus can be held to be applicable. Cormac must
| have known the Curragh of Kildare well. He lost his life almost
| within sight of its green slopes; and the battle which proved fatal to
_ him is asserted to have been caused by a dispute with the Monarch of
| Ireland, Flann Sionna, regarding the right of presentation to the
| neighbouring church of Monasterevan. Moreover, the Curragh of Kil-
| dare never was a sheskin, or morass. Jt was not a sheskin in 484,

346

when St. Brigid founded her establishment on its borders, or for cen-
turies anterior thereto. It was not a marsh in 705, when the Irish
monarch Conghal, after devastating Leinster, apostrophized the Cur-
ragh as the ‘‘ plain of the beautiful sward,”’ in stanzas preserved by
the Four Masters; nor was it a marsh in the seventh century, when it
was the scene ofa great battle; nor in the twelfth century, when
Giraldus Cambrensis praised its fertility. In fact, the geological fea-
tures of the surrounding country are opposed to the supposition that
the Curragh was a marsh within the last 4000 years.

Cormac’s second derivation of the name of Curragh, “a curribus,”’
which he explains by ‘“‘fich carpait,” or ‘chariot contests,” suggests
the inference that chariot racing preceded simple horse racing in this
country—an inference which is highly probable. The very ancient
MS. known as Leabhar-na-h dre, now in the Academy’s collection,
contains a remarkably valuable historical tale called ‘‘ Zoghail Bruidhne
Da-Derga,” or the ‘‘ demolition of the mansion of Da-Derga,’”’ a Lein-
ster chieftain who dwelt in the valley through which the River Dodder
flows, about three miles above Tallaght. The late Professor O’Curry,
in describing this tract, observes that ‘‘its composition must be referred
to a period of very remote antiquity, the style of the construction and
language being more ancient even than the Zain-bo-Cuatlgne (which is
generally regarded as the oldest Irish tale); and of a character,’ he
adds, ‘‘ totally beyond the power of ordinary Irish scholars to reduce
to anything like a correct translation.”’ I venture to entertain the belief
that the Bruidhen Da-Derga is, perhaps, the oldest Irish text now re-
maining. The phraseology betrays no indication of the existence of
Christianity in Ireland at the time of its composition. It professes to
give an account of the destruction, by a band of pirates, of Da-Derga’s
Bruidhen, or mansion (the name of which is supposed to be still pre-
served in that of the village called ‘‘ Boher-na-breena,”’ or ‘“ the road
of the mansion’’), and the murder of the Irish monarch, Conary Mor,
whose death Roderick O’Flaherty refers to the year A. D. 60. I allude
to this old tale, because it represents Conary as having on one occasion
gone with four chariots to his ‘“‘clwche,” or games, to the Curragh,
‘7 Lifiu” (i.e. in the plain of Liffey), as the expression is.* The
‘‘ cluiche’”’ comprised all kinds of games, sports, and exercises, anciently
performed at the Aenach, i.e. fair, or assembly—whether convened on
the occasion of a national festival, the accession of a king, or for the
purpose of holding the Aenach gubha, ‘‘ fair of sorrow,’’ or funeral
rites, of some deceased chieftain; but in either case the imevitable
‘“‘ races,” or ‘‘ graifne,”’ formed a conspicuous element in the celebration.

At the period to which I refer, namely, the middle of the first cen-
tury, and during at least 200 years subsequently, chariot races would
seem to have been the system of racing in vogue. Nay, from the exist-

* Lifé was the old name of the plain of Kildare; and the river flowing through it,
anciently called Ruirtech, thus obtained the name of “‘ Amhain Liffé,” or “‘ River of the
Liffé.”

4
|

347

ing records, the chariot would appear to have then constituted the
universal means of locomotion in this country. The explanation of this
may be found in the fact, if such it is, stated in Leabhar-na-h Widhre
(fol. 68, aa), that there was neither ditch, fence, nor stone wall erected
in Ireland before the reign of the sons of Aedh Slaine (circa 660), but
that the land was all in level tracts; and that fences then became ne-
cessary as boundaries, owing to the multiplicity of houses. The erection
of fences would of course tend to diminish the usefulness of the kind of
chariots then in use, which we may well believe, notwithstanding the
glowing description left to us of the chariot of Cuchullain, to have been
little better than the heavy waggon of the Roman husbandman : —

“'Tardaque Eleusinz matris volventia plaustra.”

Be that as it may, when we come to the time of Cormac Mac Art,
and the genuine Fenians, that is to say, about the year 260, we find
the chariot races apparently superseded by horse racing ; for, whereas
in our accounts of the true epic period of Irish history—termi-
nated by the so-called Attacotic rebellion in A.D. 90—chariot races
only are mentioned, the stories of the Fian, and pieces of more genuine
history of the period, represent horse races as the delight of kings and
chieftains; and whilst Conor Mac Nessa and the heroes of the Craebh
Ruadh, or ‘‘ Red Branch,” are praised for the number and beauty of
their chariots, Finn Mac Cumhail and his friends are complimented on
the symmetry and fleetness of their steeds.

The evidences on this point are numerous; but I shall only adduce
one piece, and this simply as bearing on the subject more immediately
under consideration. The oldest specimen of Ossianic poetry with
which I am acquainted is a poem contained in the ‘‘ Book of Leinster’ —
a twelfth-century MS. in Trinity College Library—in which Ossian
laments his blindness, and expresses his regret that he cannot enjoy the
Aenach, or Assembly of the Liffey, ¢.¢., of the Curragh, which he re-
presents as having been inaugurated on the occasion by the King of
Leinster. Then he narrates a visit which he paid in his younger days,
with his father, Finn, to the assembly of Aenach-Clochmr, now Mon-
aster-an-enagh, near Croom, in the county of Limerick, where horse races,
or ‘‘ gratfne,”’ were got up in honour of Finn’svisit. Thence they pro-
ceeded, adds the poem, to Tragh Beremhain, probably the ancient name
of Ballyeigh strand, in Kerry, where another horse race took place,
and where indeed the good old practice is still kept up. The copy of
this poem which we now possess is of course not more than 700 years
old; but who can fix the age of the original from which it was then
transcribed into the ‘‘Book of Leinster?’ The statement that the public
games celebrated on the Curragh were inaugurated by the king can be

supported by many references of a similar kind. Indeed, the office of
: presiding over such assemblies was part of the duty of a king, according
to the Brehon Laws; and there are not a few entries in our annals
| where a king is said to have been killed by a fall from his horse at
an Aenach. This is also further confirmed by a clause in the well-

348

known testament called the ‘“‘ Will of Cathair-Mor, King of Leinster,”
and subsequently Monarch of Ireland, who died about the year 174,
who bequeaths to his son Crimthann, amongst other bequests, ‘the
leadership of the games of the Province of Leinster,” which I take to
include the games of the Curragh. This remarkable document has been
published in the ‘“‘ Book of Rights,’”’ by Dr. O’ Donovan, who observes, in
the preface, that it must have been written some centuries after Ca-
thair’s time; but O’Flaherty treats it as a document contemporaneous
with the testator; and it is evident that the copy which the learned
author of ‘“‘Ogygia’’ possessed was more ancient than O’ Donovan’s texts,
as the clause in which Cathair bequeaths to his son Crimthann, ‘‘ Po-
testas, qua ludorum prefectus per Lageniam erat constitutus,’’ is not
found in the later copies.

There is another very ancient poem contained in the ‘‘ Book of Lein-
ster,’ in praise of St. Brigid, the various Kings of Leinster, and the
more important places in it, including the Curragh. The author’s name
is unfortunately not given; but I have little doubt that it is the com-
position of one Orthanach, another of whose productions is also pre-
served in the same MS., although in vol. v. of the Academy’s ‘‘ Proceed-
ings,’ page 171, it is stated that no mention of this writer occurs in any
known document except in an Irish MS. in the Bodleian Library.
There are two persons of the name mentioned in the ‘‘ Annals of the
Four Masters’’—Orthanach of Cill-Foibrich, or Kilbrew, in Meath,
whose obit is given at the year 809; and Orthanach, Bishop of Kildare,
who died in 839. I think the latter, who in the Bodleian MS., is called
*‘Orthanach of the Curragh of Kildare,” was certainly the author of
of this poem, as it manifestly appears to be the production of an eccle-
siastic, and to have been written before the year 835, when St. Brigid’s
remains were transferred for safety to Downpatrick, as the writer ex-
pressly refers to Kildare as her ruaim, or place of sepulture.

The author apostrophizes St. Brigid, salutes her as the princess of
the men of Leinster, and states that, although to her then belonged the
plain of the Liffey, which he afterwards refers to as the Curragh, yet
before her time it belonged to all in succession—

““ Indiu cid latt Liphe Lir,
Ro bo thir caich ar nuair.”

which I understand as signifying that it was a common before the
time that the people of Kildare came to regard it as the appanage of
their patroness, from which period it has undoubtedly continued to be
sO. :
After enumerating some of the kings who reigned over the Curragh,
t.e., over Leinster, the poet adds—

‘“* Marid Cuirrech cona li,

Ni mair nach Ri ro boi foir.”

‘The Curragh, with its beauty, remains ;
But there lives no king who was over it.”

349

The verdure of its sward, and the shouts of its assemblies, are also men-
tioned, as well-as the curious condition which seems to have been im-
posed by custom on any celebrated stranger visiting the Curragh, which
consisted in his having to perform a ‘‘cor,’’ turn, or circuit round it.
From this word “cor,”’ or circuit, some persons might be inclined to de-
rive the name of ‘‘ Curragh;’’ and it is true that the old road leading
from the Priory, or graveyard, of Kildare, towards the Curragh, is still
called Bohereen-na-geor,”’ or ‘‘ the little road of the turns (or circuits) ;”
but the very ancient authorities of Brogan Claen and Cormac forbid our
setting aside their explanation of the word Curragh.

Local tradition assigns the honour of making the Curragh a common to
St. Brigid, who is represented as having received from the King of Lein-
ster, for removing a deformity under which he laboured, as much land as
her mantle would cover; and itis added that but for a rent made in the
garment, through the avarice of one of her female companions, the entire
surface of Ireland would have been embraced in its folds. There is no
reference to this alleged grant in any of her lives. In most of them, how-
ever, she is stated to have had pastures on the Curragh, to which she
never prevented the neighbouring people sending their cattle. Both
history and tradition here plainly point to the fact of the Curragh hav-
ing been a common from the year 484, when Brigid founded her little
church of wattles beside the old oak of Druim Criadh (‘ Ridge of Clay’),
as Kildare was anciently called. It is probable, also, that St. Brigid
did not interfere with the races, whatever may have been the case as
regards the other Pagan celebrations; for, although she is represented by
her biographers as ‘‘ never for one moment diverting her attention from
holy contemplation, but in constant converse with God by meditation in
heart and mind,” her ancient lives prove that she was not averse from
riding in her chariot over the Curragh, or opposed to the exercise of
legitimate amusement being practised there; and indeed the “‘ fatche,”’
or “ green,’’ formed an adjunct to the old church or monastery, as well
as to the Dun, or residence of the chieftain. Nor were the races dis-
countenanced, apparently, by her successors, some of whom are occa-
sionally dignified by their biographers with the agnomen “ Cuirre-
thach,” or “‘ the racing,” as the Abbot Cobhthach, who died in the year
868, and a fragment of-whose elegy is preserved by the Four Masters,
in which he is called ‘‘ Cobhthach Currigh Cwirrethach’’—1. e., ‘‘ the
racing Cobhthach (or Coffey) of the Curragh.”’ Besides, we have it on
record that kings were sometimes accompanied by the ‘‘ chiefs of the .
clergy and laity,’’ when celebrating the Aenach, or games.

It appears from the most ancient Irish MSS., that from a very re-
mote period every province in Ireland possessed an Aenach, ‘‘fair green,”
or arena, where the men of the province, old and young, assembled at
stated times, under the leadership of the king, to celebrate their festival

games. And such was the regularity with which these celebrations
_ were held, that whenever intermitted on account of wars or other inevi-

|
|

_ able causes, the Annalists deplore the circumstance in feeling terms.

Inthe old list of Irish Triads, contained in a stave of the ‘* Book of Lecan’’
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. oA

300

(which by some chance has got inserted into the vellum MS. classed
H. 2, 17, in Trinity College Library), the three great Aenachs of Ire-
land are stated to have been Aenach Croghan, in Connaught; Aenach
Taillten, in Meath; and Aenach Colmain, or the fair of the Curragh.
The green of Croghan, in Roscommon, was frequented by the people of
the trans-Shannon district; that of Taillten, or Teltown, in Meath, in

which Tara, the ancient seat of the Irish monarchy, 1s situated, was the ~

principal place of assembly for Leath Chuinn, Conn’s half, or the north-
ern part of Ireland; and the Curragh served for the southern half,
called Leath Mogha, and probably for the whole country. I may ob-
serve that the games of Taillten, or Teltown, continued to be celebrated
every first of August, down to the end of the twelfth century. Even
from that period hurling, wrestling, and other manly sports were an-
nually carried on there up to a recent date; and the Hill of Lloyd races
may possibly be arelic ofthe ancient practice. In addition to these prin-
cipal places, each sub-territory had also its special arena. The men of
Northern Ulster assembled at Emania, now the Navan Fort, near Ar-
magh. The tribes about the now county of Limerick congregated to
Aenach Clochair, now Monaster-an-enaigh, near Croom. ‘The inhabi-
tants of Hy-Kinsellagh, or Southern Leinster, met at Loch Garman, or
Wexford; and the place where they enjoyed their games is still called
the Fathy, or Paitche, t.e. ‘‘fair green’? of Wexford. The green of
Cashel is also celebrated in history, as well as that of Aenach Urmumhan,
or the Aenach of Ormond ; from which word Aenach, or An-Aeanach, the
name of Nenagh is derived.

The dates at which all these places were founded—except the Cur-
ragh—are given, and range from some centuries before the Christian
era to A. D. 400; but no reference to the exact period when the Curragh
was established as the Olympian theatre of the Irish is to be found in our
MS. remains. Dr. O’Donovan, who devoted much attention to the
elucidation of its history,- was only enabled to conclude that it was a
plain from the most remote age. However, it seems to have been used
as a national arena in the century before Christ, when Art, son of
Mesdelmond, fixed his residence on Dun Ailind, or Knock Allen, on
its eastern border, to which an old road, still traceable, led through
the Curragh. The ancient tract, called the ‘‘ Dinnsenchus,” originally
compiled in the sixth century, of which we have a copy in the ‘‘ Book of
Leinster,’’ contains a poem on the erection of Dun Azlind, or Knock
Allen, in which occur the lines,

‘“* Aillend uenach diar nogaib
Raith Airt cona Righ rodaibh.”
“« Ailind, place of assembly for our youths—
Rath of Art, with its royal roads.”
There ig no doubt, I think, that the celebrity here claimed for Aclind,
as a place of assembly, or Wundine, is borrowed from the character of
the Curragh which stretched before it, as Knock Allen is too steep to

have ever served as a place for the celebration of the games appropriate
to an Aenach.

301

The places of public assembly, as I have remarked, were generally
confined to the inhabitants of the respective districts; but it would
seem that the Curragh was frequented by people from all parts of Ire-
land. Thus Conary Mor and his companions who belonged to the
northern division, are represented as having attended its games. We
have it on very ancient authority that two centuries later the promis-
cuous band of Finn was in the habit of participating in the sports. _
The ‘‘ Book of Munster,”’ as preserved in the ‘‘ Book of Lecan,”’ states .
that Fiacha Fidh-gheinte, ancestor of the O’ Donovans, and other chief
families of Munster, and who lived in the fourth century, obtained the
surname ‘‘ fdh-gheinte,” which is supposed to mean ‘‘ wood maker,”
“quia fecit equum ligneum in Crrcino Colmain, in Campo Liphi.”” The
explanation may appear fanciful, and suspiciously suggestive of Epeus
and the Trojan horse; but it nevertheless implies that the writer knew
the men of Munster were admissible to the sports of the Curragh.
Again, at the year 825, the Annals record the destruction of Aenach
Colmaim, i.e. the Assembly of the Curragh, by Muiredhach, King of
Leinster, against the South Leinstermen, on which occasion many were
slain. South Leinster was at that time, and had been for 600 years
previously, a distinct kingdom, and had its own place of assembly at
Loch Garman, or Wexford. Its people are stated to have celebrated
the Curragh games also on other occasions without interruption; and
the contention in 825 may have been owing to their having dispensed
with the usual inauguration by the local sovereign, as the disturbance
of a fair, without weighty reasons, was severely punished under the
Brehon Laws. In the year 954, also, Congalach, Monarch of Ireland,
is recorded to have proceeded into Leinster, and held the “ fair of the
Liffey,”” or Curragh, for three days; and, although the Leinstermen
did not interfere with the celebration, Congalach, at their instigation,
was intercepted by the Danes of Dublin, on his return home, and slain
at Adlen-tighe-Giughrain, which was very likely the ancient name of
Inchicore, near Dublin. Hence it would appear that all comers were
free to make use of the Curragh for the purposes to which it was
adapted.

Tt is not necessary to the object of this paper to refer to the many
occasions on which the Curragh of Kildare was the theatre of more
hostile assemblies. Situated almost on the boundary of the warlike
kingdoms of Meath, Leinster, and Offaly, it formed a convenient
battle ground for rival armies. Neither shall I detain the Academy in
attempting to define the character or origin of the tumuli with which
its long ridge is dotted, and which, not being ramparted, are supposed

to have been used, not for purposes of residence, but as places of inter-
ment.

: The fame of the Curragh as a Druidic establishment does not rest
| on avery strong foundation. Moore, in his ‘‘ History of Ireland,” vol. 1.,
|p. 28, has given currency to the notion. ‘‘One of the old English
| traditions respecting Stonehenge,’ he says, ‘‘is, that the stones were
| transported thither from Ireland, having been brought to the latter

352

country by giants from the extremity of Africa; and in the time of
Giraldus Cambrensis there was still to be seen, as he tells, on the plain
of Kildare, an immense monument of stones, corresponding exactly in
appearance and construction with that of Stonehenge.’ Giraldus,
however, does not say that the monument was there in his time, but
that there was in ancient times a stupendous pile on the plains of Kil-
dare, near Naas, and that ‘‘ certain stones,’’ ‘‘ guidam lapides,’’ exactly
resembling the rest, were there in his time; and although it has been
supposed that the ‘‘Nasensi’’ of Giraldus was a misreading of
*¢ Darensi”’ or ‘‘ Darensis,” as Kildare is usually Latinized, it is likely
that ‘‘ Nasensi”’ is right; and that, by placing the locality close to
Naas, Giraldus meant either the enormous pillars still remaining at
Fornaught, or perhaps those at Punchestown.

But the account which Giraldus gives of the removal of the Stone-
henge monument from Ireland is copied from the ‘‘ Historia Britonum”’
of Geoffrey of Monmouth, who represents Uther Pendragon as having
come over here, by the advice of Merlin, and transported the monu-
ment from the mountain of Killarus (probably the Hill of Fornaught),
after having defeated Gillomanius, who then reigned in Ireland. As
an instance of the untruthfulness of Geoffrey’s statement, I may ob-
serve, what Mr. Charles Haliday was the first to notice, that the word
Gilla, ‘‘servus,” or “‘puer,” is not found in the composition of any
Trish proper name prior to the advent of the Danes, from whom it was
probably borrowed; and no name beginning with ‘‘ Gilla” appears in
the Irish Annals before the end of the ninth century.

Writing of Kildare, Giraldus observes, ‘‘In this neighbourhood
there are some very beautiful meadows, called ‘ Brigid’s pastures,’ in
which no plough is ever suffered to turn a furrow. Respecting these
meadows, it is held as a miracle that, although all the cattle in the
province should graze the herbage from morning till night, the next
day the grass would be as luxuriant as ever.

‘*Cropt in a summer’s day by herds, the dew’s
Refreshing moisture verdure still renews.”

It is to be regretted that this excessive fertility does not still
characterize the Curragh, which is locally called ‘‘the short grass;’’
and the young men of Kildare are known as ‘‘the boys of the short

Tass.”

: The Curragh seems also to have been regarded by the Anglo- Nor-
mans as a common pasture; and Mr. Gilbert, in his valuable ‘‘ History of
the Irish Viceroys”’ (p. 510), has published a curious Parliamentary de-
cree of the year 1299, in which it is expressly so called :—‘ Inhibi-
tum est, sicut antiquitas fierl consuevit, quod porci de cetero non pascant
in Coraghto de Kildare, quod est communis pastura, et in solio Domini
Regis. Et vicecomes puniat illos qui porcos suos fugent vel habeant
ibi fodientes vel pascentes, prius per finem, et postea per amissionem
porcorum illorum, et gravius si sepius sic delinquant.”

Among the Ordnance Survey papers in the collection of the Academy
is preserved a curious tract called a “‘ Descriptive Account of the County

3038

of Kildare,” drawn up for Sir William Petty, by a Mr. Thomas Monk, in
the time of the seventeenth Earl of Kildare, and therefore between the
years 1660 and 1664, in which the Curragh is thus referred to:

‘* Near the centre of this county is the Curragh of Kildare, a large
spatious plaine, and common to all the adjacent neighbourhood, who
find it a rich and commodious, as well as healthful pasturage, especially
for sheep, that bear a fine staple, and the finest flesh of any in the king-
dom—it being thronged with flocks all the year round. It is about
nine miles in compasse, and togeather with the adjoyneing grounds, is
reckoned one of the most pleasant sytes these kingdoms anywhere can
shew: the easie assents yeildinge noble and various prospects, and the
gentle declineings give content to the wearied traveller, as well as re-
create and please the gentiele horsman and keeper; it being a place
naturally addapted to pleasure; and its vicinity to Dublin—being but
seventeen miles distant—occasions that hither repaires the Lord Lieu-
tenant, or Chiefe Governor, when his Majestie’s important affaires will
admit leisure to unbend, and slacken from trying cares. Hither are
also seen to come all the nobility and gentry of the kingdome, that
either pretende to love, or delight in hawking and hunting, or raceing;
for in this clearer and finer aire, the falcon goes to a higher pitch, or
mount, soe as often to be scarce visible; the hounds enjoy the scent
more freely, and the courser, in his swift carreare, is lesse sensible of
pressiure or opposition then other where.”’

A few years previously also, z.¢. in 1657, the Commissioners ap-
pointed to carry out the Act of Settlement returned the Curragh as a
pasturage common to various towns, although in the reigns of James I.
and Charles I. the right of pasturage thereon was granted to certain
patentees; but it would seem that these grants were re-grants of rights
previously forfeited.

it remains to say a word as to the extent of the Curragh. It com-
prises at present 4885 acres; but it seems likely that it was anciently
much more extensive. Dr. O’ Donovan and others have been of opinion
that the Curragh extended to the River Liffey on the eastern side, as it
is referred to in the ancient records as being ar bru Life, 2.e. ‘‘ on the
brink of the Liffey.” But the expression ar bru Liféis only relatively
used, in the same way as Glasnevin is described in the ‘‘ Martyrology of
Donegal” (p. 272), as “‘for bru abhainn Lifé,’”’ ‘on the brink of the
River Liffey,” although it is much farther from the river than the pre-
sent eastern limits of the Curragh. It is very probable, however, that
the Curragh extended in another direction as far as the town of Kildare.
St. Brogan asserts in his hymn that St. Brigid built her establishment
in a plain, ‘in campo extruxit suam civitatem.” There are many no-
tices in her lives, implying that the land in immediate contiguity to
her church was a plain. This is also supported by a scholium at the
ist of February, in the Festology of Aengus Céle Dé, a copy of which
is preserved in a twelfth-century MS. in the Bodleian Library, which
represents the saint’s cows as having on one occasion given so much
milk, that the surplus, after filling all the pails, formed the lake called

354

Loch Lemnachta, or ‘‘ New-milk Lake,” to the north of the place. The
lake in question is probably the small sheet of water now called Loch
Minnaun, or the Lake of the Kids, lying a few perches to the north-
west of Kildare; and as it is represented as having been in or near
‘‘ Brigid’s pastures,” it may have probably been within the ancient
limits of the Curragh.

I may close the present paper with the following extract, already
published in Mr. Gilbert’s ‘“‘ Viceroys,” from the Latin poem in the
possession of Lord Talbot de Malahide, to which I have already re-
ferred :— ee

‘“‘ Est locus almus apex ubi se Kildarius astris
Inserit et socium lambunt fastigia coelum,
Quem prope campus adest, immensi jugeris zequor, ,
Vomere quem nulli, vel adunci vulnere aratri,
Sulecavere boves; nulle secuere lacunz.
Non illic surgunt virgulta, lapisve superstes
Limes, agro positus ; nullis hic terminus arvis ;
Terra patens, preebens promiscua pascua, nullo
Limine septa scrobis, sed toti libera regno.
Si foret hic lapidum jactu reparanda virum stirps
Perdita diluviis, hic frustraretur inanis
Deucaliona labor; silices nec Pyrrha morandis
Hoc reperire queat, mulieribus irrita, Campo.
Planities tantum in spatium se extendit utrinque,
Quantum oculus nusquam cernit. Confinia mete
Tam longinqua patent ; facies tamen unica campi est
Qualis tranquilli pelagi tenor, Afole, vestris
Flatibus, immunis solet esse et flamine quovis.
A fessis, huic nomen, equis, vernacula quondam
Lingua loco dederat, quem Graia vocabula rite
Hippodromum indigetant, a quadrupedante frequenti.
Scilicet hee toties prata ungula trivit equorum
Lassa Geraldiadum, cum se Mavortia pubes
Exerceret ovans; et equis, quee maxima virtus,
Expertura suis varium certamen iniret.”

Thus translated by Denis Henry Kelly, Esq. :—

‘* Where soars the ancient Tower of Kildare,
Amidst the stars, and leaves in ’ts kindred Heaven
Its trace, a place there is most passing fair ;
And near ’t, a level plain of many an acre,
Which coulter ne’er, nor oxen with curved share
Have into furrows riven; there no dykes
Have e’er been cut; no brushwood rises there;
No. stone stands, planted as an ancient landmark ;
No bound’ries here to point out sep’rate fields.
In common past’rage open lies the land,
Nor hedge, nor ditch is there—all, all is free!
If here Deucalion, to renew man’s race,
Sought stones to cast behind him, vain his task !
Nor in this plain could Pyrrha flints have found,
To supersede, how vain! the female sex.
So far around this plain, on every side,
No eye of human being can descry
Its limit—the great stones upon its confines

309

So far asunder stand! One likeness has it,

And only one, which in the least comes near it—
The calm blue sea, O AXolus, which stands

By any breeze or breath of thine unrufiled.

Its name, from wearied steeds, the Curragh takes—
A name of yore in tongue vernac’lar given,

But which in Greek is called an Hippodrome—
Because this plain on ev’ry side’s cut up

By the tired hoofs 0’ th’ Geraldines, when there
That martial race, exulting, exercise

Their steeds, and try their mettle —thus to test
Which fleetest is, ere ent’ring for the Stakes.”

In conclusion, I have to regret that the references to the Curragh
are so few and fragmentary, that the most diligent search has not
enabled me to present to the Academy a more specific account of its his-
tory and antiquities than the present imperfect sketch.

_ Mr. Evernr Atrrep Conwett read a paper, entitled

EXAMINATION oF THE ANCIENT SEPULCHRAL Carrns on THE LoucHcREW
Hitts, County oF Mzaru.

Parr I.
SUBJOINED are extracts from this paper, and an abstract of other details: —

Tn the extreme north-west angle of the county of Meath, commenc-
ing about two miles south-east of the neat and flourishing little town of
Oldcastle, and directly overlooking the beautiful demesne of Loughcrew,
there runs from west to east a range of hills, about two miles in extent.

The highest peak, known as Shabh-na-Caillighe, attains the height
of 904 feet, and, being the only eminence in the county assuming the
name or character of a mountain, forms a prominent feature in the land-
scape. The whole range consists of Lower Silurian rocks, which occupy
a large extent of country inthe neighbourhood. On the north the slate
rocks form the low grounds round Lough Ramor, while to the south and
west lie the comparatively low, undulating, limestone plains of Meath
and Westmeath.

The prospect from the summit of any of the peaks is not to be sur-
passed in. any other locality in the country. or pastoral beauty it is
unrivalled: while, for comprehensive extent of view, perhaps, no other
point in the kingdom could have been so well selected for the necropo-
lis of the chiefs who inhabited the central prairies of Ireland. The
mountains overhanging the bays of Carlingford and Sligo are visible,
eivying a telescopic view of Ireland from sea to sea, about its narrowest
part. Persons knowing the country well are accustomed, with the aid of a
clear horizon, to point out from these hills elevations in eighteen out of
the thirty-two counties in Ireland. This is not surprising, as it can be
easily shown by trigonometry that the square root of once and a half
the height in feet of any elevation on the globe’s surface is equal to the
eee of the offing, or sensible horizon, in miles; and thus Sliabh-na-
Caillighe, haying an altitude of 904 feet, commands a view of at least

306

thirty-seven miles all round, in a perfectly clear atmosphere, not taking
into account that atmospheric refraction would increase this distance by
about three miles. Now, a circle of thirty-seven miles in radius, swept
round Sliabh-na-Caillighe on the map, will include within its range, or
nearly touch, the counties of Fermanagh, Tyrone, Monaghan, Armagh,
Down, Louth, Meath, Dublin, Wicklow, Kildare, King’s County,
Queen’s County, Westmeath, Roscommon, Sligo, Longford, Leitrim,
and Cavan. Following up this line of calculation, any mountain at-
taining the height of 2000 feet, under favourable circumstances, might
be visible, if not more than ninety-two miles distant; which would
include every mountain of 2000 feet in height and upwards in every
county in Ireland, except in Cork and Kerry.

Such a site, however, was no doubt selected in order that these
great tombs might form conspicuous objects in the horizon from the
greatest possible number of places.

My first visit to these remarkable hills was on a pic-nic excursion,
accompanied by my wife, and was made on Tuesday the 9th of June,
1868; when, to my great astonishment, I found this commanding site
studded with the remains of a necropolis of pre-historic age, greater in
extent than anything of the kind yet thoroughly examined in Europe.

Although at a distance of about twenty miles from my home, I soon
afterwards paid as many visits to the place as my limited time and the
inconvenient distance permitted me to do—some of the results of which
I have already had the honour of laying before this Academy on two
former occasions.

When I first stated that I had discovered a series of hitherto un- —
noticed and undescribed cairns, extending for two miles along a range ~
of hills, within forty miles of the city of Dublin, I was laughed at, —
naturally enough. I can only attribute their being left for me to in-
vestigate to the fact that, up to the time the omission was drawn at- —
tention to by me, the only indication of their existence on the Ordnance ~
Survey Maps was a mere dot or two, with the word ‘‘ Stones” appended: —
and the local knowledge of their origin and use went no further than ~
what the late eminent Dr. O’ Donovan so humorously describes in one of ~
his ‘‘ Letters containing information relative to the antiquities of the
County of Meath, collected during the progress of the Ordnance Sur- —
vey,’ of which I submit a copy—writing of the parish of Loughcrew. —

“Kells, 30th July, 1836.

me hovel are Te hills he a =) minds in this sane having

three heaps [carns] of stones on their summits, with which the follow- ;
ing wild legend is connected. A famous old hag of antiquity, called ;
Cailleach Bhéartha (Calliagh Vera), came one time from the North to —
perform a magical feat in this neighbourhood, by which she was to ob- —
tain great power, if she succeeded. She took an apron full of stones, _
and dropped a carn on Carnbane; from this she jumped to the summit
of Sleve Na Cally, a mile distant, and dropped a second carn there:
from this hill she made a second jump, and dropped a carn on another hill, _
about a mile distant. Ifshe could make another leap, and drop the —

357

fourth carn, it appears that the magical feat would be accomplished;
but, in giving the jump, she slipped and fell in the townland of Patricks-
town, in the parish of Diamor, where she broke her neck. Here she was
buried; and her grave was to be seen not many years ago in the field
ealled Cul a’ mh6ca (7. e. back of the moat), about two hundred perches
to the east of the moat in that townland ; but it is now destroyed.
“This is the very old lady whose shade still haunts the Jake and
earn of Slieve Guillion in the county of Armagh. Hername was Avlin,
and it would appear from some legends about her that she was of De
Danannite origin.
‘She is now a Banshee in some parts of Ireland, and is represented
in some elegies as appearing before the deaths ofsome persons. I know
nothing more about her, but that on one occasion she turned the cele-
brated Fin Mac Cooil into a grey old man; but his soldiers dug through
the mountain of Slieve Guillion injArmagh until they drove her out of her
cave, and forced her to restore Fin to his former beauty and symmetry.
“Does her name, Giblin bheupta ng SHhuilinn, appear in the
genealogies of the Tuatha De Dananns?
‘<A quatrain of her poetic composition is yet repeated at Carnbane,
but I calculate it 1s a post-original :
Mire Cailleacé Onhéunéa boét
lomoéa 1ongnad 0’ amancap piam
Chonaicear Cann ban ’na loé
610 50 beull anoip ’na pliab.
‘I am poor Cailleach Bera,
Many a wonder I have ever seen—
I have seen Carnbane a lake,
Though it is now a mountain.’

What a pity that she is not alive now to throw light upon geology!
Could Mr. Curry, from his vast knowledge of fairyology and hagiology,
give me any account of the old hag who left her name on this range
and on Sheve Guillion ?

“There isan eminence in the townland of Knocklough called Slieve
Guillion, and a rude stone chair on the summit of Slieve Nacally called
cataoin na caillige beupta, 7. e. Calliagh Bera’s Chair. Itisa large
stone, about two tons weight, ornamented with a cross sunk (cut) into
the seat of the chair, in which three might sit together. This hollow
seems to have been madein the stone with a hammer: the cross is pro-
bably the work of a modern stonecutter. The back of the chair was |
broken by some human enemy to old Evlin.”

_ ‘That this enumeration of the cairns was very imperfect, we shall
see presently; and it may not be uninteresting in this place to allude
to some broken stanzas with which I have been furnished, having the
following local tradition associated with their authorship. Mr. Wins-
low, a gentleman of antiquarian tastes, was living in the early part of
the last century near Fore, about seven miles west of Shabh-na-Cail-
lighe. On one occasion he invited Dean Swift, who was then sojourn-
ing with his friend, Dr. Thomas Sheridan, at Quilca, in an adjoining
R.I. A. PROC.— VOL. IX. oB

308

district of the county of Cavan, to join himin visiting Sliabh-na-Caillighe,
in order to collect the fables related about the place, and the monster
woman—Garvogue—who formerly reigned there. Sheridan, who was
of the party, availing himself of his knowledge of Irish, acted as inter-
preter; and Mr. Winslow prevailed upon the Dean to turn into verse
the legends collected on the ground. The following is all that could
be deciphered from the manuscript of Thomas Farrelly, who was
gardener at Quilca at that time :—

“‘ Twelve giant elks, trained to the car,
Had brought the warlike dame from far
Bengore—where reigned the dreadful war.
When morning dawned, the board was spread
With cresses, nuts, and berries red ;
And Garvogue left her heather bed.

Black Ramor, Crewe, and glassy Sheel
Sent up the bream, the brac, and eel,
At mid- er for her ample meal,

e e e

Twelve panicles of the fattest elk,
Twelve measures of the richest milk,
Twelve breasts of eagles from the height,
Composed the meal for eve or night.

Ere Finn and Gall had raised the spear—
Ere Caolta chased the mountain deer—
Titanic Garvogue held her sway—

The feast at Se beac chase ra ane

Her cn init Hee Ae ten—
No fleeter ever crossed a glen:

Red Spidogue, with her broad, full, chest,
And ae round ribbed, and the best.

o

Bigterineds now ie domiby to build,

Her ample skirt with stones she filled,
And dropped a heap on Carnmore ;

Then stepped one thousand yards, to Loar,
And dropped another goodly heap ;

And then with one prodigious leap

Gained Carnbeg; and on its height
oe the wonders of her mien

ina ie uae death’ s ‘otal dione!
Her chair was placed within the womb
Of hills whose tops with heather bloom.”

T have also heard these lines attributed to Miss Brooke, daughter of
Henry Brooke (a pupil of Dr. Sheridan’s), who was then living at Mul-
lagh, about two miles from Quilea. As possessing local interest, I sub-
mit them; although I suppose they have been corrupted since they were
originally written.

359

During the course of the past summer I have had the good fortune
to secure the valuable co-operation and indispensable assistance of the
owner of the property, James Lenox William Naper, Esq., D.L.,
Loughcrew, by which means I have been enabled to make a more
thorough examination thar [had hitherto done of these archaic remains.
Mr. Naper communicated with his agent, Charles William Hamil-
ton, Ksq., J. P., Hamwood, Clonee, accompanied by whom, and by my
_ friend George V. Du Noyer, Hsq., I again visited the Loughcrew Hills;
and on consultation with Mr. Naper, who in the most generous and en-
lightened manner supplied the material aid in labour, a systematic plan
of examining all the cairns on the hills was determined upon.

My own personal thanks are very eminently due to Mr. Naper and
to Mr. Hamilton for the great interest they evinced in the progress of
the work, visiting the hilis nearly daily, and supplying, during the lat-
ter half of the month of September, as many men as with safety and
convenience could be employed.

Mr. Hamilton communicated with Colonel Sir Henry James, R. E.,
as to the omission of these cairns on the Ordnance Survey Maps; and,
during the time that I recently spent in their investigation, a sapper
was sent from the Ordnance Department, Phoenix Park, with instruc-
tions to remeasure the hills, and to insert the cairns on a map g;'g5, OF
25°344 inches to a statute mile. A copy of this map is now before the
Academy; and having, in my former description of the place, only
roughly measured distances, &c., by stepping them, I now avail my-
self of the more accurate measurements of this map in the details which
are to follow.

The map accompanying this paper has been reduced from the large
map to a scale of 2°64 inches to a statute mile.

In my first notice of these hills I made use of the letters of the
alphabet in naming the cairns; but, having since found that there are
remains of others not included in that description, I am now obliged to
mark these with index figures to some of the letters, in order that the
same letters as formerly used may still apply as the names of the
eairns. The hill on the western extremity of the range, attaining a
height of 842 feet, is situated in the parish of Loughcrew, and is called
Carnbawn. Here I have commenced to describe the relative positions
and dimensions of the cairns.

A.

Nearly all the stones which formed this cairn have been removed.
Its present remains are seven yards in diameter, and are situated sixty-
six yards south-east of D. Four large stones still remain, marking out
the circumference of its base.

A?

In a plantation, at a distance of 130 yards south of D, the remains of
a cairn are visible, but nearly level with the ground. It is nine yards
in diameter. One large stone still stands upright on the circumference,
and bears some evidences of apparently ancient sculpturing; but, as
they are doubtful, I have not taken further notice of the markings.

360

Ae
On the southern scalp of the hill, in a most conspicuous position,
sixty yards south-west from D, and nearly close to the southern side of
the present deer-park wall, once stood a cairn, twenty-two yards in
diameter. Its present remains are not more than a foot or two in height,
consisting of small rubble stones, the debris of the former cairn, which
is now covered with green grass.

B.

Forty-six yards to the west of D are the remains of a cairn seven

yards in diameter. The loose stones which formed it are nearly all gone,
leaving in the centre three large flags, laid on edge, forming a chamber
twelve feet in length, and two feet in breadth, pointing in the direction
of EK. 20° S.
In clearing out this chamber several fragments of charred bones were
found mixed with the earth at the bottom. Two of these I present as
specimens, as they appear, as well as all the others found here, to have
assumed an unusual degree of heaviness.

C.

Sixty yards to the south-west of D will be found the remains of a
cairn, five yards indiameter. Nearly all the stones have been removed,
leaving only four large stones still marking the site. At the distance
of twenty-five feet to the north of the cairn now lies prostrate a pillar
stone, which, like the celebrated Menhir* of Quintin (Cotes du Nord)
which is nine metres over ground, formerly stood upon its smaller

end. It measures seven feet long, three fect six inches broad, and one.

foot thick.
D.

This has been the largest of all the cairns in the range, the diameter

of its base being sixty yards. The north and east sides have been
left untouched ; but on the south and west, for nearly 100 yards round
the base, and extending inwards toa distance of twenty-four yards from
the circumference towards the centre, the dry, loose stones composing
the cairn have been entirely removed. The height of what remained
of the cairn,’ before commencing any operations upon it, measured
twenty-eight paces in sloping ascent from the base to the summit. The
original circle of fifty-four large flag stones, laid on edge round its base,
is still perfect; and, on the eastern side, towards a point indicated by
E. 20°S., denoting the entrance or passage to the interior chambers,
these marginal stones curve inwards for twelve paces in length. As
the cairn at this point—which, judging from analogy, would indicate
the direction of the passage or entrance—appeared not to have suffered
previous injury, Mr. Naper and Mr. Hamilton from the first had strong
hopes of finding the interior chambers and their contents in their origi-
nal state.

* © Memvire sur les Monumens Primitifs,” p.17, par A. Carro: Paris, 1863.

“a

2 of id -: ae,

ERR LI di yh iS gi a ENR coer pein

ikl a ae

SRR S

361

Accordingly, about a dozen labouring men commenced to remove
the stones, and to make a passage inwards from this point. As they
advanced in this way into the cairn, the loose stones composing it occa-
sionally fell in dangerous masses, filling up excavations already made ;
so that it was at length determined to make a cutting right through the
cairn, running east and west, and commencing on the top. After two
weeks spent in this labour, and with as many men as could be conve-
niently engaged at it, I regret to say, asI could not then remain longer,
that we did not come upon any of the interior chambers; but, at the
same time, the cutting had not reached the bottom—though nearly so—
of the cairn; and I have little doubt that at no very distant date Mr.
Naper will continue the exploration. This, however, is now the only
one of all the cairns left unexamined.

As the cutting proceeded, about midway down among the loose
stones, were found portions of a large skull and twelve teeth of a gra-
minivorous animal, probably of an ox, sacrificed on the pile.

At a distance of 105 feet to the north-west of this cairn, and on the
very point of the escarpment of the hill, stood a pillar of quartz, eight
feet high, three feet broad, and two feet thick. How far it may have
entered the ground when being placed there, I have not ascertained. At
present it is broken across a little above the ground, and now lies as it
fell. It might be interesting to consider whence it could have been
brought. The distance of the nearest native beds of quartz rock would
be at Howth, about fifty miles, 8.H.; Wicklow, 8.E., sixty miles; Done-
gal, N., ninety miles; Sligo, N.W., ninety miles; Galway, W., 110
miles. Most probably it has been a glacial deposit from Donegal.

K.

Traces of this cairn only sufficient to indicate the site remain; and

these show it to have been about five yards in diameter.
F.

About five feet in height of the original cairn still remain. Its
diameter is 163 yards. Clearing away the loose stones and earth which
filled the centre showed the arrangement of the interior chambers to be
in the form of a cross, the shaft, denoting the passage to the chambers
represented by the top and arms of the cross, having a bearing of E.
10° N. The length of the passage is eight feet, and it is two feet two
inches broad. The entire length from the commencement of the pas-
sage to the extremity of the opposite chamber is fifteen feet, and the
breadth from the extremity of the southern to the extremity of the
northern chamber is nine feet four inches. The commencement of the
passage is not closed up by a block of stone, but merely by small loose
stones laid against it. Only one of the roofing flags, covering the com-
mencement of the passage, remains in its original position. Across the
entrances of the southern and western chambers are laid stones, about
a foot in height, and from four to five inches in thickness. On the
floor of the northern crypt rests a rude sepulchral stone basin, three
feet five inches long, two feet four inches broad, and five inches thick.
Under this basin were found a portion ofa bone pin and a flake of flint.

362

In the south-western corner of the southern chamber, at (a),* and about
a foot from the bottom, was found, imbedded among the clay and stones
which filled it up, a brown ironstone ball, three inches in diameter,
and well rounded. Several fragments of bones lay scattered indiscri-
mney here and there aa the floor.

At a aaiane of about: two foot outside the circumference stand
three pillar stones.

Seven of the stones in these chambers are sculptured.

; G
Is 21 yards in diameter; and is only one yard from F, and 344 yards
from D. Eight large stones stand in the margin. ‘Traces only suffi-
cient to indicate the site of the cairn remain, all the interior chamber
stones having disappeared.
Hi.

The present remains of this cairn are between 5 and 6 feet in
height, and 18 yards in diameter; it is 164 yards from L, the second
largest cairn on the western hill. Some curious attempts at dry ma-
sonry will be found at the northern and southern extremities of the
chambers. The covering of the interior chambers had entirely disap-
peared, with the exception of about half a dozen large overlapping
flags, giving a good example of the mode of roofing, which are still to
be seen in their places over the western and northern crypts; and what
remained of the loose stones forming the cairn had become entirely
overgrown with grass. After carefully clearing out the central cham-
bers, the plan was found to be cruciform, nearly similar to F, except
that the central chamber might be considered a rude octagon. The
passage, which has a bearing of E. 10°S., is 13 feet long, 2 feet wide ~
at the commencement, and 4 feet wide at the extremity. The entire
length from the beginning of the passage to the extremity of the op-
posite or western chamber is 24 feet ; and the distance across the other
two chambers, from stones marked 6 to 19 ,f is 16 fect. The breadth
of the southern chamber is 2 feet 7 inches; of the western chamber
4 feet at rear, diminishing towards its entrance to 3 feet 2 inches;
of the northern chamber, 4 feet 2 inches, on the floor of which rests
a rude stone basin, 4 feet 3 inches long, 4 feet broad, and about 6
inches thick. Loose stones and earth filled the chambers and passage
for about a foot and a halfin depth. The passage itself, from that to
the bottom, a depth of about 3 feet, was completely packed with bones
in a fragmentary state, nearly all showing evidences of having been
burnt, and were found mixed with several small fragments of quartz.

From the human remains found in the passage and erypts of this ~
cairn I have collected

* Represented on plan of the chambers accompanying the original paper.
¢ Each stone is numbered on the plans.

363

150 different pieces of bones;
50 portions of limb bones ;
30 other bones—shoulder blades, &c.;
48 portions of skulls ;
8 portions of jaws, with teeth remaining ;
14 separate teeth.

The three chambers were found filled with an indiscriminate mix-
ture of stones, broken bones, and earth; the latter in a soft, stiff, re-
tentive state, although the weather had been previously very fine.
This mixture was picked and removed with great care; and in it were
obtained, apparently without having been placed there in any definite
order, one end of a bone bodkin; one half of a bone ferrule; six pieces
of bone pins;* one tine of an antler, three inches long; fourteen frag-
ments of very rude brown earthenware or pottery, evidently portions of
urns, much blackened by fire, particularly on the inside surface; ten
pieces of flint; 155 sea shells, in a tolerably perfect state of preserva-
tion, and 110 other shells in a broken state; eight varieties of small
lustrous or shining stones; 100 white sea pebbles, and sixty others of
different shades of colour.

At (a) was found a small brown stone ball; and at (0) a flake of
bone, measuring six by four inches, which appears to have been polished
on one side, and may probably have been used as a dish.

Underneath the stone basin in the northern chamber were found
imbedded in damp earth, and mixed with small splinters of burnt bones,
six stone balls, the largest about an inch in diameter, but in so soft a
state, that they could scarcely be touched without injuring them. Five
of these appear to be white carbonate of lime, and the other porphyry.

Chiefly in the southern chamber, and about the entrance to it, for
the. most part imbedded in wet stiff earth, I got the most remarkable
collection of bone implements, glass, amber, bronze, and iron, which
probably has ever been found together under similar circumstances.

In some few instances where the bone implements chanced to be
protected by an overlying stone, their original polish is still perfect ;
in all other cases they were found in a state as soft as cheese, and could
with difficulty be extracted from the stiff earth without breaking them.
Such, indeed, was their soft state, that I believe they could not have
been preserved for many years longer, and probably many have become
entirely decomposed. ‘The shapes of several will be found peculiar and
different, and wellworth the careful study of theantiquary. Many of them
resemble in size and shape the flint knives of Scandinavia. I have been
enabled to save 4071 fragments of these in a plain state—once polished,
but without further ornamentation: 108, nearly perfect in shape; 60,
where the bone material is little decomposed, and still retains the ori-

* One ornamented bone pin, an inch and three-quarters in length, still retains the
metallic rivet which fastened on a head.

364

ginal polish; 27 fragments which appear to have been stained; 11 plain
fragments perforated for suspension by a single hole near the end; 501
fragments ornamented with rows of fine transverse lines, and two others
similarly ornamented, and perforated near the end; 13 combs, seven
of which are engraved on both sides, the heads only and the roots of the
teeth of the combs now remaining; 94 implements engraved by com-
pass, and in a very high order of art, with circles, curves, ornamental
puncturings, &c., &c., and twelve of these decorated on both sides. On
one, in cross-hatch lines, is the representation of an antlered stag, being
the only attempt in the collection to depict any living thing. In some
instances the perforations near the end appear to have been counter-
sunk.* In all there are 4884 pieces. Of the earth which adhered to
them I have preserved a package, which it might be very desirable to
submit to analyzation.

Of amber, I have collected seven small beads, the largest scarcely a
quarter of an inch in diameter, and another small oblong bead of un-
certain material.

Of glass, I obtained three small beads of different shapes, and dif-
ferent shades of colour; two fragments of glass, a curious molten drop,
one inch long, trumpet-shaped at one end, and tapering towards the
other extremity.

Of bronze, I found six rings, slightly open, or rather not closed or
cemented into one solid piece, varying from a quarter to three-quarters
of an inch in diameter; a portion of another, which is hollow, and
formed by overlapping a thin plate of bronze; portions of eight other
small rings, in a less perfect state.

Of iron, I found, not lying together, but mixed up with the earth
and debris which filled the southern chamber, in all seven specimens,
each of which, as might be expected, is thickly coated with rust. One
is an open ring, about half an inch in diameter; one half of another,
somewhat larger ; two pieces, each about an inch long, and a quarter of.
an inch thick, of uncertain use; one thin piece, probably a portion of a
knife or of a saw, three-quarters of an inch long, and half an inch broad ;
one piece, an inch and a half long, which, I think, presents all the ap-
pearance of having been one leg of a compass, with which the bone im-
plements may have been inscribed; and, lastly, an iron punch, or pick,
five inches long, with chisel-shaped point, and head that bears evidences
of the use of the mallet. The circular symbols, and the greater part of
the other figures found upon the sculptured stones, have all been
punched or picked out, and afford every appearance of having been —
executed with such a tool as this.}

In this cairn there are five inscribed stones.

* Our learned President has kindly undertaken to describe these ornamented bone
implements. :

+ This cairn may have been the tomb of some early queen, the beads found being proba-
bly portions of a necklace; and several of the bone implements, the forms and uses of which

365

I.

This cairn is 644 yards to the east of F, 53 yards 8. W. of L, and is
21 yards in diameter. The apex of the cairn itself has disappeared, leav-
ing from four to five feet only in height of the original structure, want-
ing the slabs by which the interior chambers had been covered. These
erypts had become filled up with small stones, by the removal of the
root. Directly over the chambers a thick crop of luxuriant nettles
flourished, and struck their roots down into the interstices of some of
the laminated flagstones forming the chambers. During the progress of
clearing out the interior, I had thus the mortification of seeing portions
of some of the engraved stones crumble down, forced out by these nettle
roots, before I was able to make any record of the devices on them.
The direction of the entrance is due east. ‘The passage alone is eight
feet six inches long, and four feet six inches wide; and the distance
from the commencement of the passage to the back of the opposite
chamber is twenty-two feet; the diameter across the chambers north
and south measures thirteen feet. The interior arrangement consists of
seven compartments, marked a, ), ¢, d, e, f, and g, formed by flagstones
standing out towards the centre of the structure. The breadth of a is
two feet eight inches; of 6, three feet six inches; of c, three feet seven
inches; of d, three feet eight inches; of e, three feet seven inches at
rear, narrowing considerably towards the entrance ; of /, three feet ten
inches; of g, two feet eight inches.

On each of the floors of a, 6, d, and e, rested a square flag, about
two square feet in area, and two inches thick. A quantity of charred
bones was found on each of these flags; but in such a crushed state,
from the falling in of the stones upon them, that it would be difficult
to determine to what portion of the frame they belonged. On lifting
up the flag on which the bones had been placed in each of these four
compartments, I found immediately underneath, a layer, about four
inches in depth, of dry small stones, the surface portion of the layer
broken very fine, from a quarter of an inch to an inch in size, and
having some fragments of charred bones scattered on top, the lower
portion of the layer consisting of larger stones.

In compartment a, which exactly faces the east, and on the surface
of these finely broken stones, I found two stone ornaments—a bead and
a pendant. The bead lay about the centre of the space, covered by the
flag; and the pendant under, but close to the extremity of the flag, on
the right hand side, and near the back of the compartment. The bead
has been highly polished, and its being narrower on one side than on
the other will show that it was intended to be worn in a circular form.
I conjecture that both are portions of a necklace, such as has been
found in 1864 by M.1L. Galles in the tumulus of Tumiac, in Mor-
bihan. The greatest diameter of the bead is three-quarters of an inch;

are now a puzzle, may have been instruments of female industry, perhaps for weaving,
&e., used in remote times.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 3 C

366

and the pendant, perforated by a single hole for suspension, is one inch
and a quarter long. Both appear to have suffered from the action of
fire; and have become so decomposed, that it is somewhat hazardous
to name the materials of which they are formed. The bead, however,
resembles pale gray earthy grit, which has become soft from the decom-
position of the felspathic part of the stone, or more probably is blue
carboniferous limestone; and the pendant yellow shale, mixed with
whitish particles.

The floor of compartment f was covered with a closely fitting flag,
three feet ten inches long, three feet three inches broad, and nine
inches thick. I found no bones resting on its surface, as I had done
on the other floor flags in the other compartments furnished with a
slab; but, on raising it, I observed that it covered a layer of finely
broken stones, mixed with splinters of charred bones, and having a de-
pression of nearly a couple of inches in the centre. This stone, as it
rested on the floor, concealed the sculpturing on the lower portion of
the stone numbered fourteen, to a height of twenty-two inches from its
base.

Nine of the stones in this cairn are inscribed.

Je

This cairn is twenty-three yards N. E. of H, and only three yards dis-
tant from L. It is 153 yards in diameter, and its present remains,
from four to five feet in height, with twelve large stones still in the
circumference. The interior had been much disturbed, but left filled
up with loose stones and rubbish. The passage, having a bearing of
E. 10° S., is seven feet six inches in length, without any upright stone
closing its entrance. A roughly-finished brown stone ball, about an
inch in diameter, was found near the opening of the passage into the
interior chambers.

Three of the stones in this cairn are inscribed.

K

Is 124 yards N. EH. from L, and is 164 yards in diameter. When
the interior was cleared out, the large flagstones forming the central
chambers were found in a rather disorderly condition. The bearing of
the entrance is H. 15° N. Thirteen stones remain round the margin,
and no object of antiquarian interest was found here. At a distance
of twenty feet to the south-east now lies a pillar stone, six feet long,
two feet broad, and one foot thick.

Two of the chamber stones are inscribed.

, ° ° e e

L

Is 45 yards in diameter, surrounded by 42 large stones, laid lengthwise
on their edges, and varying from six to twelve feet in length, and from
four to five feet high. Great quantities of the loose stones which
formed the apex of this cairn have been removed, of which there are
very visible evidences. A curve inwards in the circumference, of ten

367

yards in length, on each side of a point having a bearing of E. 20° S.,
indicates the direction of the entrance or passage, which commences at
a distance of eighteen feet inward from the circumference.”

Finding a large flag on the top of the mutilated cairn, I removed it
and two others before I observed that I was actually taking to pieces
what remained of the original construction of the roof. The principal
portion of the overlapping flags which formed the roof over the cham-
bers had disappeared, leaving them filled up with the loose stones
which had fallen in. When the chambers: were carefully cleared of
these small stones, they exhibited 7m situ about forty of the large
plinths which formed’ the matchless, dry, Cyclopean masonry of the
roof. ‘This dome was constructed of large slabs, overlapping one
another, and bevelled slightly upwards, having most ingeniously in-
serted between them thinner slabs, which, on receiving the superin-
cumbent weight, became crushed, and formed a bond for the whole.
Wherever this precaution of placing thinner slabs or smaller stones
between the larger ones was omitted, the larger slabs themselves are now
found cracked across. What at present remains of this unique roofing
rises twelve feet above the level of the floor, which is even with the
ordinary surface of the ground. The breadth of the passage at the
commencement is 1 foot 10 inches, which increases to upwards of 8
feet about the middle, and contracts again to 1 foot 9 inches, where it
terminates. The passage itself is 12 feet long; and the entire length,
from the commencement of the passage to the extremity of the western
chamber, is 29 feet. The greatest breadth across the chambers is 13
feet 2 inches; measured from stones, 8 to 21, and from 6 to 24, the
distance is 10 feet 4 inches.

Cist (a) is 4 fect 8 inches in breadth.

3) (5) 99 3 d) 6 9 5%)
93 ) 9) 2 39 2 99 9
9) (d) 3? a 9) 3 9) Pb)
3) é 3 3) o 39 33
9 ( 9? 2 93 6 99 33

From among the loose stones which filled up the chamber, I col-
lected 1010 portions of bones; two pieces of bone apparently silicified,
a spear point in bone, and portion ofa polished bone javelin; 154
fragments of very rude pottery, having the appearance of being only
sun-dried, but which is really owing to the imperfect method of firing,
and varying in size from 1 to 30 square inches. Some fragments
retain their original brown colour, but the generality of them are much
blackened by fire on the inside surface, and for a distance round the
exterior of the lip, or upper rim of the urns, of which they were parts.
One piece, a portion of the upper edge of an urn, about 3 inches long,
and 3 broad, is very rudely ornamented with three slight ridges; and,
about an inch from the top, is perforated by asingle hole. Another
larger piece, ornamented with four slightly raised ridges, is perforated
by two holes, one an inch and a half below the other.

368

Bateman, in his ‘“‘Ten Years’ Diggings,”’ mentions urns with simi-
lar perforations, which he supposes were for suspension, and which he
classes as incense urns; but I believe the specimens now found are new
in this country—at least, I have not seen nor have I heard of any such
having been found in Ireland before this date.*

Extending along the floor of the passage, completely covering it,
and inclining a little way into the space surrounded by the interior
chambers, seven in number, lies a flag 8 feet 9 inches long, 3 feet 6
inches broad, and about 6 inches thick. Close around the western
end of this stone the earth on the floor, to a depth of about 2
inches, was perfectly black, arising, it appeared to me, from the
presence of blackened ashes; from which it may probably be inferred
that the process of cremation was performed on this stone.

On the floor of the chamber formed by stones marked 7 and 9,
and shut in by an upright stone of a foot high and 4 inches thick,
rested a quadrangular stone basin, hollowed out from the sides
towards the centre, to a depth of 3+ inches, and having a piece taken
out of one of its sides. It measures 2 feet 11 inches in length, by 2
feet broad, and is about 6 inches in thickness. Mixed with the earth
under this sepulchral basin were found many fragments of charred
bones and several human teeth.

Completely filling up the length of the opposite chamber, entered
through a space only two feet wide between two upright stone pillars,
rests an oval-shaped stone dish or basin, probably the largest yet disco-
vered ina cairn. The broader end points to the east, the narrower to the
west. Its greatest length is 5 feet 9 inches; at a distance of 18
inches from the narrower extremity itis 3 feet 1 inch broad, and at 18
inches from the other extremity it is 7 inches broader, where, on the
side facing the chambers, a curve of about four inches broad has been
scooped out of the side of the stone. A raised rim running all round
it, varies from two to four inches in breadth, rising about an inch
above the otherwise perfectly level surface of the stone. The exqui-
site tooled or picked workmanship of this stone will amply repay a care-
ful examination. On raising this stone, several splinters of blackened
charred bones were observable; and, on carefully picking the stiff wet
earth underneath it, I found imbedded in it upwards of 900 pieces of
charred bones, here presented, with about a dozen pieces of charcoal
lying in various directions; 48 human teeth in a very perfect state of
preservation; the poimted end ofa bone pin, 5; inches long, and a
quarter of an inch thick; a piece, about an inch in length, of a similar
bone pin; a most perfectly rounded syenite ball, still preserving its
original polish—a most beautiful object—nearly 22 inches in dia-
meter; another perfectly round stone ball, streaked with white and
purple layers—probably a pebble—and about an inch in diameter;

* “Ten Years’ Diggings in Celtic and Saxon Grave Hills,” by Thomas Bateman,
p. 282. London: J. R. Smyth, 36, Soho-square; Derby: W. Bemrose and Sons. ;

Se

369

another stone ball, upwards of three-quarters of an inch in diameter,
of a brown colour, dashed with dark spots; a finely polished oval jet
ornament, an inch and a quarter in length, and three-quarters of an
inch broad ; eight other white stone balls, probably carbonate of lime,
which, from lying for ages in their damp bed, had become quite soft,
but which gradually dried, on exposure, to a sufficient degree of hard-
ness to enable me to take them away in a tolerable state of preservation.

I should perhaps have previously observed that the large flagstones
alluded to in this paper are, as to material, of a uniform character,
consisting of compact sandy grit, the natural rock of the locality. The
stone, however, marked No. 18 in this cairn, is an exception, being
a good specimen of a water-washed column of blue limestone, pro-
bably from some of the adjoining lakes ; and the stone marked No. 2,
in cairn W., is a similar stone.

It is also worthy of remark that the stone No. 25 in this cairn—for
which there does not appear to be any particular necessity in the con-
struction of the chamber, there being already a stone placed there to
form the back—is a diamond-shaped slab, placed on one of its angles ;
and the stone abutting on it is elaborately carved on both sides with
diamond-shaped figures. A Celtic drinking cup, with handle, was
discovered by Mr. Bateman in 1850, in a cairn about a mile north of
Pickering, * which was found to be decorated with this same diamond-
shaped pattern. Of it he says:—‘‘ The ornamentation of the vessel is
peculiar, consisting chiefly of angularly pointed cartouches, filled with
a reticulated pattern, and having a band of the same encircling the
pepe eae i

On Nes ieee shoe of the at Ve ge ager flag, above the up-
right, numbered 21 (having two layers of thin stones intervening), and
looking directly down upon the large sepulchral basin, is a reticulated
pattern, finely cut, nine inches long, and varying from three to four
inches in breadth, formed by twelve short lines crossing in a slanting
direction eight other nearly parallel lines, having at present about fifty
meshes, varying from half an inch to an inch in breadth, and from
an inch fo an inch and a half in length.

M.

About 650 yards to the S. E. of L, and crowning the next knoll, called
Carrickbrac, from the speckled nature of the rock which forms the
hill, are the remains of a cairn, 22 yards in diameter, at present only
about four feet high, and wanting the usual boundary ring of large
stones.

NE :

On the top of a second knoll, 572 yards due east from M, are the
debris of a cairn, 22 yards indiameter. At present not more than two

* See Bateman’s ‘‘Ten Years’ Diggings,” p. 209.

BYAG

feet in height of the small stones which composed it remain. Four
large stones outside this cairn mark an avenue, pointing due east, of
16 yards long, 7 yards wide at the entrance, and diminishing to 4
yards wide as it approaches the cairn. One stone stands upwards of
six feet above the surface. .

O.

In the valley below the two knolls, 352 yards N. KE. from M, and
279 yards N. W. from N, are the remains of a cairn, 11 yards in dia-
meter. Three large prostrate stones, each measuring about 4 x 8 feet,
mark the site. One upright stone, 3 feet 9 inches high, 3 feet 9 inches
broad, and about 1 foot thick, is still standing, apparently in the cir-
cumference of the original cairn. On its western face, arranged prin-
cipally in four groups, are 28 cups, varying from a half to three
quarters of an inch in diameter, and about a quarter of an inch deep.
Probably these may have been intended to represent some of the con-
stellations.

P',

143 yards N.E. from N. are the remains of a cairn, eight yards in
diameter. Sufficient stones only remain to denote the original basis of
the cairn.

iP?

About 22 yards northwards are six large stones, probably the re-
mains of another cairn. One of these stones, 6 feet 6 inches long,
5 feet 6 inches broad, and about 2 feet thick, rests at present in an
inclining position, and has its eastern face thickly covered with small
cup-like hollows; but, as these may possibly have been created by the
action of rain water, I do not think it right to take further notice of
them.

Q.

Thirty-eight yards northward from P? are the remains of another
cairn, four and a half yards in diameter. Nearly all the stones which
composed it have been carried away.

Ri
Passing up the hill in an easterly direction, and at a distance of 242
yards from Q, we come to the remains of a cairn, eleven yards in dia-
meter. All that now remains of the original pile varies from two to
three feet in height.
Re.
Sixteen yards to the south of R', and fifty-five yards 8. W. from T,
are the remains of another cairn, nine yards in diameter, and about two
feet in height. Ten of the stones forming its circular boundary still

remain; and outside the cairn, at a distance of from three to four
yards, lie five large stones.

dtl

S

Is only five yards to the west of T, and fifty-one yards from R'. Thirty-
three large stones standing on ends form a circle, 184 yards in diameter,
round the present remains. ‘The apex of this cairn is completely gone,
leaving exposed the tops of the upright stones forming the chambers,
the arrangement of which here differs from the others in having the
passage or entrance from the west—exact bearing W. 10° N. The
entire length of the passage and chambers taken together is fifteen feet.
The passage itself, which varies in breadth from two feet three inches
to two feet seven inches, is divided by transverse upright stones into
two compartments, each about two feet square. Outside the entrance
of the passage, at the spot marked (c), was found a perfect specimen of
a white flint arrow head, an inch and a half long, and nearly three
quarters of an inch broad. Compartments (a and 6) in the passage
were filled up to the height of eighteen inches with charred bones,
broken into small fragments, on the top of which, in chamber (a), was
found a rude bone dagger, seven inches long, and nearly an inch broad;
and in a similar position, in chamber (0), a piece of bone, nine inches
long, tooled and rounded at one end, apparently a portion of a bow,
and now silicified. Nearly covering the floor of each compartment
(a and 6) rested a thin flag, underneath which were found splinters of
burned bones, intermixed with small stones and pieces of charcoal.

Six of the chamber stones here are inscribed.
je

In the distance this is the most conspicuous of all the cairns, crown-
ing the summit of the highest of all the peaks in the range, that one
especially known as Slabh-na-Caillighe. The original shape of the
cairn is still very perfect, having an elevation of twenty-one paces in
slant height from base to summit. It is 384 yards in diameter, and is
inclosed by a circle of thirty-seven stones laid on edge, and varying in
length from six to twelve feet. Exactly facing the north, and set about
four feet inwards from the circumference of the cairn, is a large stone,
popularly called ‘‘ The Hag’s Chair.’”’* It is about ten tons in weight,
measuring ten feet long, six feet high, and two feet thick, and has a
rude seat hollowed out of the centre. The ends are elevated nine
inches above the seat, and the back has fallen away by a natural
fracture of the stone. The cross carved upon the seat of this chair, as
well as others which will be found on the upright marginal stones here
and in cairn §, were cut for trigonometrical purposes by the men for-
merly engaged in the triangulation survey of the country. Underneath
the seat the stone appears to have been rounded off, or beaded, for or-
nament, for nearly its entire breadth, below which are a considerable

* The ornamentation and inscriptions on this megalithic seat point to its having been
formerly used for some important purpose. Probably it has been a coronation or inau-
guration chair; or, perhaps, a seat round which councils have been held, or from which
justice has been administered in far distant ages.

312

number of small cup hollows, which I did not enumerate, as they have
become much defaced by the action of time and the weather. Further
down on the face of the stone will be found a double zigzag, nine
inches long; a figure consisting of six concentric arches, seven inches
high, and seven inches broad; three concentric circles, seven inches
across ; a cup surrounded by three concentric circles, six inches across.
On that portion of the original back of the chair which has not fallen
away will be found a cup with two concentric circles, four inches
across; and in another place, two separate cups. In front of, and
round the base of the chair, considerable quantities of quartz, broken
into small lumps, were strewn about.

On the eastern side, the stones forming the periphery of the cairn curve
inwards for eight or nine yards on each side of a point where the passage
to the interior chambers commences, on the very margin of the cairn, the
bearing of the passage being H.10°S. The entrance to the passage was
closed by two irregular blocks of stone, inside of which were dropped
three other large blocks of stone, filling up the passage for five or six feet
in length. On the outside of the entrance was placed a loose layer of
lumps of quartz. All the roofing flags covering the passage, and more
than two-thirds of what originally covered in the central octagonal
chamber, had disappeared, leaving the passage and central chambers
completely filled up with stones. Among the loose stones over the
central octagonal chamber were found three large bones, probably be-
longing to a deer. The imperfect portion of the roof that remains,
formed by about thirty large flags overlapping one another, rises to ten
feet above the level of the floor. The floor of the central octagonal
chamber was covered by two large, and three small flags. The largest
I have not been able to raise; but underneath the others were found
fragments of charred bones, small broken stones, and pieces of charcoal.
The three cists (a, 6, and ¢) are each about four feet square. Above
the upright stones forming the walls of each chamber about half a
dozen large flags, overlapping one another, are covered in by a horizon-
tal slab, forming a chamber about five feet in height, across the entrance
into each of which stands a stone about two feet high, leaving an open-
ing over it of three feet.

These three cists were nearly but not entirely filled up with dry,
loose stones, from the uncovering of the central chamber round which
they are placed. The earth on the floor of each was mixed with splin-
ters of burned bones; while in the centre of cist (6) a circle of earth, a
foot in diameter, inclosed about a hatful of charred bones, which were
covered with a flag, above which were raised for about two feet alter-
nate layers of finely broken and larger stones, among which were found
some human teeth, and twenty-four bones, here presented, with the
ends apparently ornamented with crossed lines. Among the loose
stones at the bottom of the central chamber, and close to the entrance
of cist (c), was found a bronze pin two and a half inches long, with
head ornamented, and stem slightly so, and still preserving a beautiful
sreen polish.

373

The entire length of the passage is seventeen feet; and from the
commencement of the passage to the western extremity of the opposite
chamber, is twenty-eight feet. The distance from the back of cist (a)
to that of cist (c) is sixteen feet four inches, while the distance between
their entrances is seven feet; and from the termination of the passage
to the entrance of cist (6), is six feet three inches. The breadth of the
passage at its termination is three feet one inch; of cist (a), two feet
eight inches; of cist (b), three feet five inches; of cist (c), three feet
slx inches.

There are twenty-eight inscribed stones in this cairn.

Chamber (8) has a beehive roof of seven flags, capped by a large
horizontal one, on which is a figure formed of fourteen concentric
circles—as far as they can be counted—extending out of sight under
the structure, where no tool could reach; one single circle, two inches
in diameter; four cups, each surrounded by a single circle; two cups,
each surrounded by two circles; a figure of two concentric circles;
another of three concentric circles round a cup; a quadrilateral figure
with four lines across; a group of five waving lines, adjoining which
are six concentric circles; a straight line, running under the roof, with
eight short lines, as far as they can be counted, on each side of it;
eight lines in the form of a star, three inches in diameter; five concen-
tric ovals, running under the roof; a straight line surmounted by three
elliptical ares; a circle surrounded by ten rays, making a figure six inches
across; a star ofsix rays; a cup with eight rays, surrounded by a circle
six inches in diameter; a cup and circle, out of which rise eleven looped
or arched rays, making a figure six inches in diameter; a spiral of four
curves, twelve inches in length, having seven lines on each side at right
angles to the two outer coils.

Chamber (c) has a beehive roof, formed by five flags covered in by
a horizontal one, on which are cut 7m fine lining less than a quarter of
an inch asunder four chevron zigzag lines, about one foot in length,
and terminated at one extremity by a single zigzag line at right an-
gles to these; a circle an inch and a half in diameter.

On the lintel stone over the entrance to the southern chamber are

|
|
|

|

'
{
|

twelve short lines along the edge of the stone, and six others further
down, which probably are Ogham characters.

U

Is situated fourteen yards N. E. from T, and forty-six yards east of S.

There are sixteen large stones still in the base; and nearly two feet in-

side the circumference, a stone, measuring eight feet two inches long,

two feet four inches broad, and one foot eight inches thick, lies oppo-

site the commencement of the passage. The present remains are only

from four to five feet high, and fourteen and a half yards in diameter.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 3D

374

The tops of the upright stones were left visible, aud the chambers them-
selves more than half filled up with loose stones and earth. On re-
moving these, the interior arrangement of the chambers was found, as
in most other cases, to be cruciform. The length of the passage alone,
which has a bearing of E. 20° S., is nine feet; and from the commence-
ment of the passage to the extremity of the opposite chamber is twenty
feet ; while the breadth across the chambers is ten feet. One of the
chamber stones is wanting, and another is displaced. When the stones
which filled up these chambers were removed, the earth at the bottom,
in some places from twelve to eighteen inches in depth, was found to
be thickly mixed with splinters of burned bones.

I was informed by an old herd on the mountain that he recollected
the chambers in this cairn, in their half-cleared-out state, to have been
used for culinary purposes by the men of the Ordnance Survey, when
euesiance on Sliabh- etalighs Bey yoats nee

here are thirteen heed ee in oe cairn.

‘There are some appearances of a ‘ait raring stood about midway
between U and V

v

Js thirty-nine yards south-east from T, fifty-one yards south of U, and
is eleven yards in diameter. All the smaller stones which originally
formed the cairn have been carried away, leaving quite bare the upright
stones which formed the interior chambers. From present appearances
these do not seem to have been arranged on any particular plan. The
greatest length of the:chambers, having a bearing of E. 20°S., is twenty-
one feet, and breadth ten fect. About a yard outside the circumference,
on the north-western side, stands an upright pillar stone, five feet above
ground, five feet six inches broad, and one foot ia inches thick.
Digging round the base of this stone, in a fruitless search for engray-
ings, I turned up a long, rounded, white sea pebble, which, from ap-
pearances, may have been used as a sling stone or a hammer.

Four of the upright stones in this cairn are inscribed.
W

Is 128 yards east of T. Its present remains appear nearly level with

the ground, and are seven yards indiameter. ‘The single interior cham-—

ber which this cairn contained is round, or well-shaped; and, unlike
all the others, which appear to have been erected on the bare surface of
the ground, the earth seems to have been dug away for the construc-
tion of this chamber, six-feet nine inches in diameter, formed by eight
flagstones placed on ends, fitting closely together, except in two in-
stances, and all having an inclination inwards at the bottom. A layer of

379

charred bones, six inches in thickness, was found to cover the bottom
of this chamber; in the clearing out of which was brought to light,
resting on the floor, a splendid stone urn, two and a half feet square,
one foot thick, and hollowed out from the sides towards the centre to a
depth varying from three to four inches. On raising this urn, which
evidently occupied its original position, some splinters of charred bones
were found beneath it. The point which appears to have been the en-
trance to this chamber has a bearing due south.

Five of the chamber stones in this cairn are inscribed.
X.

Passing from the hill specially known as Sliabh-na-Caillighe, and
midway up the next or eastern peak, called the Hill of Patrickstown,
are found together the remains of three stone circles. These are marked
in the recently executed Ordnance Map as ‘‘ carns;’’ but it is doubtful
whether they are the boundary rings of large stones usually encircling
cairns, or merely simple stone circles. The northern circle is the most
perfect of the three, the other two being in their present state little
more than semicircles.

The diameter of the northern circle is forty feet. The distance
from stone No. 1 to No. 2 is four yards; from 2 to 8, four yards; from
3 to 4, one yard; 4 and 5 nearly touch one another; distance from
5 to 6, two yards; 6 and 7 nearly touch one another; distance from
7 to 8, three yards; from 8 to 9 eight yards; and from 9 to 10, seven
yards.

Thirteen feet inwards from the circumference of the northern circle
stands an upright stone, marked on the plan No. 10, upon the face of
which, pointing N. W., are inscribed a circle three inches in diameter,
a cup with thirteen rays, surrounded by a circlesix inches in diameter,
on which circle is another cup two inches in diameter, and half an inch
deep, from which fall down nine rays, varying from four to twelve
inches in length, and from half an inch to an inch in breadth, five of
which terminate in a cup; acup with nine rays, six inches across,
over which are thirteen equidistant arcs of circles, varying in length
from two to twelve inches; along the lower part of the face of the
stone are three circles, one three, one four, and one five inches in
- diameter.

The designs on this stone can be only seen to advantage in a suit-
able shade of sunlight. In this I was most fortunate, a little before
sunset of an evening in the beginning of this month, February, 1866.

The middle circle is nine yards south of the northern circle, and is
twelve yards in diameter. The distance from stone No. 1 to No. 2 is
four yards; from 2 to 3, one yard; from 38 to 4, two yards; from 4 to

736

5, two yards; from 5 to 6, three yards. In the centre of the circle
are lying flat two stones, numbered on the plan 7 and 8. No. 5 is in-
scribed with a cup, having ten others in a circle round it; the circle
measuring ten inches across, and having four other cups in an incom-
plete circle round this again, nearly eighteen inches across, the cups
being about an inch and a half in diameter and a quarter of an inch
deep; there are also 28 similar cups in one group on this stone.

No. 8 contains a circular hole, six and a half inches in diameter,
cut vertically, with much precision and smoothness, to a depth of
three inches. For what use this may have been intended it would be
difficult to conjecture, if we do not suppose that the stone itself has
been unfinished, or not completely pierced through; such as is de-
scribed by Carro (pp. 47 and 48, Paris, 1863), and again by Le Baron
A. de Bonstetten (pp. 15 and 16, Geneva, 1865), as a rare instance
occurring in cromleacs or dolmens in Palestine and in India, and espe-
cially in that of Trie-le-Chateau, near Gisors, in France, destined for
giving access for fresh sepultures without removing any of the stones,
and through a space not sufficient to admit a human body.

The third, or southern circle, twelve yards south of the middle
one, and twenty-three yards in diameter, at present contains only seven
stones, with an eighth lying five yards west of its boundary. The
distance from No. 1 to No. 2isseven yards; from 2 to 3, fifteen yards ;
from 3 to 4, four yards; from 4 to 5, nine yards; and Nos. 5, 6, and
7 adjoin one another.

Nis

Crowning the top of the Hill of Patrickstown, which attains the
height of 885 feet, there stood until within the past few years one of
the most conspicuous cairns in the range Its diameter is thirty-three
yards ; but only a few cartloads of the stones which formed it now re-
main, the rest having been used up by Mr. Edward Rotheram of ~
Crossdrum, the proprietor of the hill, in the construction of adjoining
fences.*

Z.

At the base of the eastern peak, on the south side, stands the
Moat of Patrickstown. It measures 115 paces round the base, 45 feet
in slant height, and 40 paces round the circumference at the top,

* Nearly four hundred yards east of this cairn are the remains of a burying place,
measuring 16 x 14 yards in extent, and raised three or four feet higher than the adjoin- —
ing ground. Early in the sixteenth century a regular battle was fought on this hill
between two neighbouring septs—the Plunkets and the O’Reillys; andit is said that the
dead of both parties who remained on the field after the battle were interred here. The
inclosure contains an upright stone— possibly the shaft of a rude cross—measuring seven
feet in height, one foot six inches broad, and eight inches thick.

377

which is flattened. This tumulus is situated on the top ofa small
sloping eminence in a green field, and is crowned by a mutilated
whitethorn tree, growing on its eastern border. It is covered with
earth and grass, but is said to contain stone chambers in the inte-
rior.

Although the carved stones, previously referred to, exceed one hun-
dred in number, there are not two the decorations on which are similar.
On the stones which have been long exposed to the destructive effects
of the atmosphere, the punched, or other work, is often much obliterated;
but on those lately exposed, the work of the tool is almost as fresh and
as distinct as at the period of its execution.

At what remote, or even recent period, these ancient tombs have
been subjected to demolition, it would be difficult to determine. I
have heard, however, from old men who were engaged at the work of
exploration, that they recollected, before quarries were generally
opened in the country, that persons were in the habit of coming from
distances of twenty or thirty miles round about, to procure from these
archaic structures slabs suitable for domestic or other purposes. Of what
now remains, deprived of most of the roofing flags, the inscriptions* on
the sculptured chamber stones in thirteen chambers, on the entire
range, may be thus summarized :—

406 single cup-like hollows, some arranged in parallel lines, some
in circles, and many of them scattered in groups, probably intended to
represent constellations ; 86 cups, each surrounded by a single circle ;
30, by two circles; 17, by three circles; 4, by four circles; 3, by five
eircles; 4 cup hollows, each surrounded by a spiral; 35 star-shaped
figures, varying from four to thirteen rays in each; 22 circles, with
rays emanating from each; 14 cups, each surrounded by a circle with
rays emanating from it; 16 single ovals; 1 figure of two concentric
ovals; 1 of six ; 114 single circles; 32 figures of two concentric
circles; 10 of three; 6 of four; 4 of five; 1 of six; 68 semi-ellipti-
eal or arched figures; 12 spirals, 14 quadrilateral figures, 6 triangular
figures, formed by cross-hatched lines ; 54 reticulated figures, con-
sisting in all of 138 diamonds; nearly 800 single straight lines, some
of which may probably be Oghamic ; upwards of 80 zigzag, or chevron
lines; 10 single curves; 11 figures of two concentric curves, 10 of
three, 8 of four, 4 of five, 4 of six, 2 of seven, 1 of eight, 1 of nine,
and 2 of thirteen concentric curves. In all—so far as the explora-
tions have gone—lI have laid bare 1593 separate devices, which will
be found to be many times more than had been previously supposed to
exist in Ireland.

From the existence of other sepulchral remains, cairns, moats, &c.,

* Tn the original paper the devices on each stone are separately given in detail, as
well as plans of the interior arrangement of each cairn, and accurate measurements of
the height, breadth, and thickness of each of the stones forming the chambers.

278

extending from Sliabh-na-Caillighe, in the direction of the town of
Kells, and continued thence towards Slane and Drogheda, I have little
doubt that the cairns on the Loughcrew Hills are but a portion of a
chain of such remains, terminated on the east by the great mounds of
Knowth, New Grange, and Dowth; and that a fuller and more careful
examination of the country will prove that chain to have extended
westward to the Atlantic.

Would it not be interesting to have all the tumuli in the neigh-
bourhood of New Grange thoroughly explored and examined as those
at Loughcrew have been, several of them being yet unopened? Their
examination would probably afford, if nothing else, a considerable ad-
dition to our present knowledge of existing inscribed stone monuments.

IT have a strong impression that a further investigation of cairns
L and T on Sliabh-na-Caillighe will bring to light additional interior
chambers in these two cairns; but, leaving this out of consideration for
the present, it will be readily seen that what I have already discovered,
and endeavoured here to describe, far exceeds in extent all the carved
megalithic chambers which were previously known to exist in the
kingdom, and these principally at Dowth and New Grange.

During the progress of the work of exploration at Loughcrew, I
furnished myself with paper sufficient to take rubbings of all the in-
scribed stones, some of which I actually rubbed; but, finding that in
several instances accurate rubbings could not be taken at all, and that
in addition I could not devote the time necessary for executing a series
of more than 100 inscribed faces with due care and accuracy, in this
_ dilemma I urged upon my friend Mr. Du Noyer, who was then living
in the neighbouring town of Kells, to employ his ready pencil in draw-
ing the devices on the carved stones. After I left the hills, he com-
pleted this great work; and I am sure the Academy will agree with
me, that so important a task could not be intrusted to an abler anti-
quarian artist.

In concluding this first part of my examination of these cairns,
which I have confined entirely to descriptive and statistical details, I
beg leave to make the following recommendations to the Academy :—

J. That the thanks of this Academy be voted to Mr. Naper and to
Mr. Hamilton for the willing, earnest, and important aid which they
afforded during the progress of these discoveries; and for Mr. Naper’s
patriotic generosity in allowing me to present everything found to this
Academy, where objects of antiquarian interest can be best studied and
elucidated.

II. That-a separate case in the Museum be appropriated to the
safe keeping of the various articles found, with a suitable inscription,
recording the aid which Mr. Naper gave in opening up and bringing to
light these interesting remains of a pre-historic age in this country.

IIT. That it would be all-important that the particulars of a find so
peculiarly national should be published sy tuis Acapremy, with full

illustrations, rather than allow its publication to appear in any other

form, or in any other place.* :
TY. That the Committee of Antiquities should obtain from the most

competent persons :—

379

1. An analysis of the earth in which the carved bone flakes, iron,
bronze, glass, amber, &c., were found ;

2. A descriptive report on the classification of the sea shells;

8. A similar report on the sea pebbles ;

4, An analytic report on the human aand other bones, and the various
positions and places in which they were found ;

5. A report on the apparent anachronisms in the admixture of
the stone, bronze, iron, glass, amber, &c., found in cairn H; and that
these reports be given to me for insertion in my next and concluding
paper on the examination of these ancient remains; and,

6. That some competent person be directed to make search for his-
torical allusion to these ancient tombs, as it is not probable that so
remarkable a place could have escaped all notice in the bardic annals
of the country.

The Very Rev. the Prestppnt exhibited and described, and made
some observations upon, the ornamented bone articles found in the
cairns on the Loughcrew Hills, and placed in his hands by Mr. Conwell.

The marked thanks of the Academy were returned to J. W. L.
Naper, Esq., of Loughcrew, for the lberality, earnestness, and zeal
which he evinced in furthering the researches of Mr. Conwell, and for
his consideration in presenting to the Museum of the Academy the large
and varied amount of antiquarian remains which were obtained in the
process of excavation of the Cairns on the Loughcrew Hills; as also to

Charles Hamilton, Esq., for his kind and valuable services in giving Pe

effect to the measures adopted upon the occasion.

| Mr. George V. Du Noyer, exhibited a large collection of Drawings
made by him of the Antiquarian Remains discovered and explored on
the Loughcrew Hills.
The thanks of the Academy were returned to Mr. Du Noyer.
The Secretary, on the part of the Editor, presented the ‘Register
_ of the King and Queen’s College of Physicians i in Ireland for 1866.”

The thanks of the Academy were voted to the donor.

The Rev. Samuel Haughton, M. D., read his second paper ‘‘ On the
Semidiurnal Tides of the Coasts of Ireland—Castletownsend.’’

* As the funds placed at the disposal of the Council of the Royal Irish Academy are
inadequate to meet the cost of publishing, with suitable illustrations, the very extensive
‘collection of symbols or mystic characters contained on the inscribed stones on the Lough-
crew hills, I have only to regret my own personal inability to supply the defect. It is,
however, to be hoped that at some future and not distant day funds will be available,
either from public or from private sources, for iliastrating fully (in which consists the chief
value of such discoveries) these comprehensive and most important additions to our ar-
chaic literature.

380

FRIDAY, MARCH 16, 1866.—Sratep MErtTina.
The Very Rev. Cuarzzes Graves, D. D., President, in the Chair.

The Rev. Dr. Carson, in the unavoidable absence of the Secretary
of Council, read the following

Report oF THE CoUNCIL.

Since our last Report was submitted to the Academy the following
Papers in our ‘ Transactions’ have been printed, and issued to our
members, viz. :— :

In the department of Science :—

1. ‘On the Semi-diurnal Tides of Cahirciveen,” by the Rey.
Samuel Haughton, M. D.

2. ‘© On the Granites of the County of Donegal,” by the same
author.

3. ‘On the Proof of Sir Isaac Newton’s Rule for the Discovery
of Imaginary Roots in Algebraic Equations,’ by Professor J. J. Syl-
vester.

In the Department of Polite Literature :—

1. “On the Assyrio-Babylonian Measures of Time,” by the Rey.
T. Hincks, D. D.

2. ‘ On the Various Years and Months in Use among the
Egyptians,”’ by the same author.

In the Department of Antiquities :—

1. ‘On Cairns, Cromlechs, Kistvaens, and other Celtic, Druidi-
eal, or Scythian Monuments in the Dekhan,” by Colonel Meadows
Taylor.

2. “ On Ancient Cairns on Twizell Moor in Northumberland,” by
the same author.

3. ‘* Concluding Memoir on MS. Mapped and other Townland Sur-
reys in Ireland,” by Mr. W. H. Hardinge.

4. ‘On the Earliest Known MS. Census Returns of the People of
Ireland,’ by the same author.

Of the ‘‘ Proceedings,”’ two Parts have been published, viz. :—the
ist and 2nd Parts of Vol. 1X.; the 3rd Part of the same volume is just
ready for issue; and portions of a fourth Part are already in type.

A great number of interesting communications have bcen brought
before the Academy during the past year. We have had papers on Sci-
ence from the President, the Rey. Professor Haughton, the late Sir W.
R. Hamilton, Professor Sylvester, and Mr. W. H. Griffiths, Professor
Huxley, and Dr. Perceval Wright; on Polite Literature, from the Rev.
Dr. Hincks, Mr. Gilbert, Mr. Joyce, and Mr. Morisy; and on Anti-
quities, from Mr. Hardinge, Rev. J. Shearman, Mr. W. M. Hennessy,
Mr. Conwell, and Mr. Du Noyer.

381

During the past year some important additions have been made to
our Manuscript Collections. From the Very Rey. Charles Vignoles,
Dean of Ossory, we have received the valuable original MS. ‘of the
‘“Memoires of Dumont de Bostaquet,” an authority frequently cited
by Lord Macaulay in his account of the Irish Wars of the Revolu-
tion. P. O'Callaghan, LL. D., of Leamington, has presented a highly
interesting Collection of Autograph Letters of distinguished persons,
and from Mr. D. H. Kelly we have received four folio volumes of MSS.
compiled by the late Mr. J. I’. Ferguson.

The Academy has been enabled by liberal contributions, chiefly
from its members, to secure, at the price of £100, the Manuscript Col-
lections of the late Mr. John Windele; of Cork, extending to 130 vo-
lumes, and including many MSS. in the Irish language, Sketches and
Descriptions of Munster Monuments, and a large ‘number of Original
Letters addressed to him by notable persons in connexion with his re-
searches in Cork and Kerry. We have also placed in our Library a
complete copy of the Irish Census Returns ascribed to the year
A.D. 1659. This transcript has been carefully prepared and collated
under the personal inspection of Mr. W. H. Hardinge, to whom the public
are indebted for the discovery of the original documents among the pa-
pers of Lord Lansdowne.

We are indebted to the Master of the Rolls in England for thirty-
four volumes of the Calendars and Historical Works now appearing
under his superintendence. We have also received from the Society
of Antiquaries copies of some of their most valuable publications, in-
eluding the Edition of the ‘‘ Codex Exoniensis,”’ by Thorpe; and that
of Layamon’s ‘‘ Brut,’ by Sir Frederick Madden.

The late Mr. W. Smith O’Brien, in addition to a valuable Gold Vase,
which by his will he directed to be deposited in the Academy’s keep-
ing, has bequeathed to us a collection of Books, a Catalogue of which
will be printed as an Appendix to this Report.

The Academy’s collection of Antiquities continues steadily to in-
crease. During the past year 2386 articles found in Ireland, and 155
illustrative specimens from other countries, have been added to the Mu-
seum. Of the former 185 were presented, 14 were purchased, and 37
valuable articles were procured under the Treasure Trove Regu-
lations, by which means the funds of the Academy allotted to the Mu-
seum have been greatly economized.

The rich collection of Coins and Medals in our possession has not
yet been arranged. The Council hope that some of the Numis-
matists who are Members of the Academy may be induced to under-
take the task.

The sale of the first three Parts of the Catalogue still continues; and
there is at present in hands a balance to the credit of the account of that
work, as also the Woodcuts for the portions relating to the articles of
Silver and Iron.

With regard to the state of the Academy’s finances, the Treasurer
reports that all liabilities have been discharged up to this date, leay-

R.I. A, PROC.—VOL. IX. | 3E

382

ing, as far as can be at present ascertained, a balance in the Academy’ s
favour. The Treasurer, however, thinks it right to add, that engage-
ments have been entered into for the illustration of the valuable paper
recently communicated by Professor Huxley and Dr. Perceval Wright,
as well as for other publications, which will seriously limit the sum te
be spent in that department for the ensuing year, unless additional
funds can be provided. ;

At the date of the last Report, we had addressed to the Lords Com- —
missioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury a Memorial, praying for an —
increased public grant to the Academy. This Memorial was founded —
on the Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the
Scientific Institutions of Dublin, in which the strongest testimony had
been borne to the value of the work done by the Academy, to the
learning and ability displayed in its “ Transactions,’’ and to the na-
tional importance of its Museum and Library. The result of the Me-
morial was an addition of £200 to the annual grant provided for in the
estimates; this sum being appropriated to the encouragement of the

study of ancient Irish manuscripts, by forming catalogues, and pro- |

curing translations of them, and making them available for public use.
While we gratefully acknowledge this addition to our resources, which 7
will enable us to promote an important and ill-rewarded branch of ©

research, we must at the same time repeat our former statement,

that without further assistance from Parliament we cannot accomplish ~

in a really satisfactory manner the objects of our institution. Not

only do we find difficulty in printing and illustrating the papers read
before the Academy, but the want of an adequate staif prevents our
affording to the public such facilities as would be desirable for reading

in our Library, and studying the treasures of art and antiquity contained

in our Museum. ;
When the additional grant above mentioned became available in ©

December last, the Council lost no time in taking stepsto carry out the
objects for which 11 was made. After careful consideration, they ap- |
pointed as Irish scribe to the Academy, Mr. Joseph O’Longan, having |
fully satisfied themselves of his eer to execute the duties of that |

post.

Considering that the first and most important step to be taken was the |

completion of the Descriptive Catalogue of the Academy’s Irish MSS,, 1%
they at once committed this task to Mr. 0? Longan, and also secured the —

valuable services of Professor Owen Connellan. a
Progress has already been made in preparing Irish fexts for the

press, and in continuing the Catalogue of MSS. from the point at 7]
which it was left unfinished by the late Professor O’Curry. These
works are carried on under the personal inspection of the Librarian, and |

a special committee of the Council has been appointed for the manage- ©
ment of the business of this department.

We have lost by death, within the year, two Honorary Members; 4 3

ViZ; Jo

383

1. Stmr W. Jacxson Hooxer, K. H., F.R.S8.; elected June 27,
1825;
2. Tue Rey. Wittiam WaeEwett, D. D., F. R.S., Master of Trinity
College, Cambridge; elected January 25, 1836.

And nine Ordinary Members, viz. :—

1. Rev. W. H. Drummonn,; D. D.; elected November 29, 1817.

2. Rieut Hon. toe Harz or Donoveumore; elected January 11,
1864.

. Siz W. R. Hamitton, LL. D.; elected October 22, 1827.

. Kpwarp Horton, M.D.; elected April 27, 1835.

. Tuomas Horton, Hsq., D. L.; elected February 10, 1840.

. George A. Kennepy, M.D.; elected November 30, 1835.

. George Perriz, LL. D.; elected February 25, 1828.

Srr Tuomas Stapies, Bart.; elected June 13, 1842.

. Rient Hon. Jonn Wynne; elected April 10, 1843.

In this list are included two names of European ‘celebrity—names
which stand in the foremost ranks of Mathematical Science, and Archeo-
logical Learning, respectively. After the able and eloquent tributes
lately paid by our President to the memories of Sir William Hamilton
and Dr. Petrie, it is unnecessary for us to enlarge on the loss sustained
by our country, and by the republic of letters, in the deaths of these
distinguished men. But we may be permitted to observe how closely
the labours and the renown of both were associated with this institu-
‘tion. Almost all the important researches of Hamilton were published
im our ‘Transactions’ or ‘‘ Proceedings,” from the ‘‘ Essay on Systems of
Rays,” which first established his reputation, and for which he obtained
our Cunningham Medal, to the ‘‘ Theory of Quaternions,” which was
the latest product of his genius. ‘The first hints of this Theory were
given in communications read before the Academy ; and up to the close
‘of his life, he continued to bring before us, from time to time, the newest
developments and applications of the method. In like manner, those
works on which Dr. Petrie’s reputation is principally founded—the
treatises on the Round Towers of Ireland, and on Irish Military Archi-
tecture—were prize essays written on subjects proposed by the Academy ;
while for that on the History of Tara one of our Medals was awarded
him; and our members do not need to be reminded how often, to the
very last, he took part in our discussions, and by his archeological
learning and skill threw light on the questions which came before us, and
illustrated the objects of Art or Antiquity which were exhibited at our
meetings. |

Another well-known and much-respected name appears in our Obi-
tuary list—that of the Rev. Dr. W. H. Drummond, who was for a long
dime a member of our Council, and Librarian of the Academy. He was
‘an ardent lover of literature, and possessed much solid learning, as well
as general cultivation and refined taste. His mild and amiable nature
endeared him to his friends; and when, in 1861, in consequence of his
age and increasing infirmity, he retired from the position he had held -

© CON & Sr ie Oo

rae

084

on our Council, he carried with him the sincere esteem of his colleagues
and of all the members of the Academy.

He produced many poetical pieces, which gave evidence of refined
taste and elegant culture. The principal of these were :—‘‘ Juvenile
Poems,’’ written when he was a student of the University of Glasgow ;
A Translation of the First Book of Lucretius; ‘“‘The Man of Age, a
Poem ;” ‘‘ The Battle of Trafalgar;” ‘‘ The Giant’s Causeway,” a de-
scriptive and philosophical poem; ‘‘ Clontarf, a Descriptive and Histo-
rical Poem;’’ ‘‘ Bruce’s Invasion of Ireland ;”’ ‘‘ The Pleasures of Bene-
volence ;’’ and “‘ Ancient Irish Minstrelsy, consisting of Metrical Trans-
lations, with Explanatory Notes.’ He was also editor of the ‘‘ Auto-
biography of Archibald Hamilton Rowan,” with additions and illustra-
tions, and author of several prose writings on moral and theological
subjects.

He contributed the following papers to our ‘‘Transactions’’ or
‘« Proceedings :’’—

«Roman Coins in Ireland.’’—“ Proceedings,”’ vol. vii.
‘On the ‘ Exile of Erin.’ ” Ib., vol, vill. :
‘¢ On Magnus Barefoot.” Tb., vol. v.
‘An Essay on the Life and Writings of Oppian” (‘“‘ Transactions,”
vol, xiii.); and ‘‘ An Analysis of the Cynegetics of Oppian”’ (ibid).
A Prize was awarded to Dr. Drummond, in the year 1828, for an

«« Essay on the Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian,”’ which is printed
in ‘ Transactions,’’ vol. xv1. a

ee ee ee i) ae

ne
bo

The following Ordinary Members have been elected since March 16,
1865 :—

1. Rev. B. W. Adams, D. D. 10. Rev. Silvester Malone.

2. Rev. T, D. F. Barry. 11. William J. O’Donnavan,
3. Richard R. Brash, Esq. LL. D.

4, Captain Richard F. Burton. 12. E. Stamer O’Grady, M. D.
5. Rev. Arthur Bruce Frazer. 13. Joseph O'Kelly, M. A.

6. John Freeland, M. D. 14. D. O'Sullivan, LL. D.

7. G. Hatchell, M. D. 15. Henry Wilson, Esq.

8. William F. DeVisme Kane, Esq. | 16. Rey. Richard Wrightson,
9. W. Armstrong Mac Donnell, Esq. M.A. i

Appttrons To Musrum oF THE Royat Irish AcADEMY, FRomM Aprit 1,
1864, to Marcu 16, 1865.

DONATIONS.

1. A Collection of Irish Antiquities: presented by Dr. Todd, on behalf
of Mrs. Ogilby, of Kileattan (70).

2. Antiquities and Human Remains found in the county of Down in
1780: presented by the Harl of Granard (8).

{

Tee Oo SAGE) OTA TER RAT) WT ON AREA, AS GA HAA SRGY ES. RAIA SN AT: Seetda es ey

10.
UT.

OO I rm Go bo

© OUD IIR wb

385

m oo ‘‘ Noble” of Edward IV.: presented by J. J. Lalor, Esq.
1

: Specimen of Ancient Armour, a small gold Fibula, and the remains

of a Harp which had been found with them: presented by Dr.
Gray, of Drogheda (8).

. Lenticular portion of the Horn of a Short-horned Ox: presented by

K. O'Flaherty, Esq. (1).

. A-yellow Flint Arrow Head: presented by the Rev. P. Langan (1).
. An 18-Ib. Cannon Ball of 1641: presented by Samuel Cleburn,

Esq., of Springmount, county of Tipperary.
A Stone Miner’s Hammer from Killarney: presented by D. H. Kelly,
Esq. (1).

. An Oak Canoe, 42 feet long, found in Lough Owel, county of West-

meath : presented by Charles W. Levinge, Esq. (1).
An Old Silver Finger Ring: presented by Charles Davis, M. D. (1).
Gutta-percha Impression of Great Seal of Queen Victoria: presented
by H. Roche, Esq.

PURCHASES BY THE ACADEMY.

. A Bronze Celt, from Kilglass (1).

Ancient Ring (1).

Iron Sword, from Chapelizod (1).

Two Great Seals in wax (2).

Ancient Brass Seal, from Cistercian Abbey, Baltinglass (1).
Ancient Wooden Shield (1).

Bronze Pin, from Moyvore, county of Westmeath (1).

. Two lots of Antiquities, bought at Jones’s (48).

. Antique Candlestick, from Shrule Castle, Tullamore (1).
10.
11.
12.
13.

Ten Stone Celts, and one Flint Arrow Head (11).
Bronze Beam of Scale, from Kilmainham (1).

Wooden Crucifix (1).
Small Bronze Ring Pin, from Annagh, county of Westmeath (1).

PURCHASES BY TREASURE-TROVE REGULATIONS,

: Gold Lunula (1). aie

Ditto (1).
Ditto, imperfect (1).

. Gold Ring (1).
. Two large Gold Armlets (2).

Four Gold plain Fibulee (4).'
58 Amber Beads, 4 Bones, 1 Pipe, 1 Bronze Ring (64).

, Small Gold Fibula, with ribbed arch (1).
. Old Coin.

The only deposit made has been that of the Clogh Oir, by Marcus

Keane, Hsq.

386

CaTA. LOGUE OF PRINTED Books BEQUEATHED TO THE ROYAL lites ACADEMY

BY THE LATE WILiiamM SuitH O’Brien, Ksa,

. Dictionary of the Gaelic Language. 2 vols., 4to. Published by

the Highland Society. Edinburgh and London, 1828.

. Magyarfold és népei eredati Kepekben. (Presented to W. S.

O’Brien by Ant. T. Hsaky.) 4to. Pesth, 1846.

. Shakspeare’s Works, edited by Barry Cornwall. (Presented by C.

Gavan Duffy.) 3 vols., Imp. 8vo. London, 1848.

. Wallachian Bible, by J. Heliade Radulesio. (Presented by the

Editor). Imp. 8vo. Paris, 1858.

. La Normandie, par M.Jules Janin. Imp.8vo. Paris (No date).
. Keating’s Ireland, translated by J. O’Mahony. (Presented by the

Publisher. ) 8vo. New York, 1857.

. Moore’s Poetical Works. (Presented by J. L. Fitzgerald.)

8vo. London, 1848.

. History of the Island of Scio, by A. M. Blastos.

Hermonpolei, 1840.

. The Turkish Empire, by R. R. Madden. (Presented by the Au-
thor) Vol i 8vo. London, 1862.
. Todd’s Life of St. Patrick. 8vo. London, 1864.
. Gaelic Journal. Svo. Glasgow, 18380.
. Lexicon Ciceronianum Marii Nizolii, ex recensione Alexandri Scoti.

3 vols. 8vyo. London, 1820.

. Ciceronis Omnia Opera, ex recensione J. A. Ernesti. 8 vols. 8vo.

London, 1819.

. History of the Greek Insurrection, by Tricoupi. (Presented by L.

P. Mavrogordato.) 4 vols. 8vo. London (no date).

. Willis’s Poems. (Presented by W. D. Train.)

8vo. New York, 1848.

. Report on Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian, by H. Mac Kenzie,

Esq. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1805.

. Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome. (Presented by M. F. O’G.)

Sm. 4to. London, 1849.

_ A Letter to M. Le Comte de Montalembert, on his late Review of
the Government of England, by George HH. Moore, Esq. (Pre-
sented by M. F. O’Flaherty.) 8vo. Dublin, 1859. —

. Prize Essays on the Repeal of the Union. (Presented by the Na- —
tional Repeal Association.) 8vo. Dublin, 1845.

. Greek Miscellany. 8vo. Hermonpolei, 1855.

. Prayer Book of the Greek Church. 8vo. Benetia, 1859.

. Hardiman’s Irish Minstrelsy. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1831.

. Ossian’s Poems, collected by John Smith, D. D.

8vo. Edinburgh, 1787.

. Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Dublin, vol. I.

8vo. Dublin, 1808.

. Gaelic Poems. 8vo. Perth, 1786.
. Greek Miscellany. Athens, 1856.

21.

28.
29.

30.

ol.

32.
33.
34,

35.

36.

37

.

38.

3g.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,
45.
46.
41.
48.
49,
50.

51,

387

Das Volksleben der Neugriechen. (Presented by a Greek Young
Lady ’Edis Tevvaéios.) 8vo. Mannheim, 1844,
Greek Miscellany. 8vo. Athens, 1857.

Poems by A. R. Rangabe. (Presented by the Author.).
| 2 vols. 8vo. Athens, 1857.
Pamphlets by Dr. A. Dandolo. (Presented by the Author.)
8vo. Corfu, 1851.

Hibernian Nights’ Entertainments, by 8. Ferguson. (Presented
by the Publishers.) Svo. New York, 1857.
Allgemeines Evyangelisches Gessang, und Gebetbuch zum Kirchen
und Hausgebranch. 8vo. Hamburg, 1846,
Bits of Blarney, by R. Shelton Mac Kenzie. (Presented by John
Savage, 1859.) 8vo. New York (no date),
Speeches by Lord Plunket, edited by J. C. Hoey. (Presented by
the Author.) 8vo. Dublin, 1856.

The Ballads of Ireland, edited by Edward Hayes. (Presented by

P. D. Malone) (?) 2 vols. 8vo. Boston, 1857.
Atahopa Aumypata tov Ade~Eavdpov PiGov PaykaBy.

8vo. Athens; 1855.

The Sisters, Inisfail, and other Poems, by Aubrey De Vere. (Pre-

sented by the Author). 8vo. London, 1861.
Lectures on America, by W. S. 0’ Brien. (Presented by A. M.
Sullivan. ) 12mo. Dublin, 1859.

Hyperion, by H. W. Longfellow. (Presented by T. F. Meagher.)
Small 4to. Liverpool, 1848.

Ballads, Poems, and Lyrics, by D. F. Mac Carthy. (Presented by
the Author.) Small 4to- Dublin, 1850.
The Poets and Poetry of Munster, by Hrionnach. (Presented by
the Translator.) 12mo. Dublin, 1860.

Trish Popular Songs, by Edward Walsh. 12mo. Dublin, 1847.
Lucerna Fidelium, Authore Fr. Francis Molloy.
12mo, Rome, 1676.
Speech of Wm. Smith O’ fen at Clonmel, 1858. (Presented by
A. M. Sullivan.)
Ot ‘ENAgqvixoe Kwosces, (Presented by G. A. Rhally, 1856.)
12mo. Athens, 1856.

God’s Way of Peace, by Dr. Bonar. (Presented by R. Mahony,
er L863.) 12mo. London, 1862.
Ireland, Native and Saxon, by Daniel O’Connell, M.P. (Presented
by M. Casserly, New York.) 16mo. New York, 1848.

YTalfourd’s Three Speeches on Copyright. (Presented by the
Author.) 16mo. 1840.

The Genealogy of the Right Hon. H. O’Brien, Earl of Thomond.
(Presented by Mr. Geraghty, 1844.) 16mo. Dublin, 1841.
Imitation of Christ, in four books. (Presented by C. A. Harris,
1848.) | 16mo. Oxford, 1847.

Choix des Penseés de B. Pascal. (Presented by Mrs. Sams.)
16mo. London, 1835.

69.

388

. Timothy O’Sullivan’s Pious Miscellany. Edited by J. O’ Daly.

(Presented by the Editor.) i6mo. Dublin, 1858.

. Recueil de Chansons Canadiennes et Francaises, divise en deux

parties. (Presented by A. Kierokowski.)
16mo. Montreal, 1859.

. “Greek Songs.” 16mo. Athens, 1862.
. ‘Greek Miscellany.” 16mo. Athens, 1821.
. Map of United States. 18mo.

. Public Procession and Dinner to W. S. O’Brien in Limerick,
December 4, 1843. (Presented by Mr. Redmond, of Dublin,
1843.) 18mo.

. Greek Songs. 18mo. Athens, 1862.

. Teagask Chreestye. 16mo. Dublin (no date).

. Imitation of Christ. (Presented by Professors of Maynooth Col-
lege.) 18mo. 1822.

. wuvovrews tepas Epos mpwrTov. 16mo. Bevetia, 1860.

. The Evergreen. (Presented by W. 8. O’Brien’s mother, 1848).

24mo. London (no date).

. Ballades et Chants Populaires de la Roumanie. Translated by V.

Alexander (Presented by George Boudescon.)
12mo. Paris, 1855.

. Consolatio; or, Comfort for the Afflicted. (From A. O’Brien.)

12mo. London, 1845.

. Dramas of Calderon. Translated by Denis F. MacCarthy. 2 vols.

8vo. (From the Author.) London, 1858.

. Tennyson’s ‘(In Memoriam.” (From W.S O’Brien’s sister Ellen.)

8vo. London, 1850.

. Lord Brougham’s Translation of the Orations of Demosthenes.

(From H. Dowling, 1854.) 8vo. London, 1840.

. Poems, by R. Monckton Milnes. (From the Author.)

8vo. London, 1844

Barnes’ Euripides, in 6 vols. (Vol. III. missing). (Presented by
John L. Fitzgerald.) 24mo. Oronsi, 1811.

In addition, there are a few odd numbers of Periodicals, and some

unbound Pamphlets and Serials.

Ir was Resotvep,—That the Report now read be received and

adopted by the Academy.

having been scrutinized in the face of the Academy, the President re-

The ballot for the annual election of President, Council, and Officers

ported that the following gentlemen were duly elected :—

Presipent.—Lord Talbot de Malahide.
Councit.—Robert W. Smith, M. D.; Robert M‘Donnell, M.D. ; Wil-

liam K. Sullivan, Ph. D.; Joseph B. Jukes, M.A.; George Johnstone
Stoney, LL. D.; ; Rev. George Salmon, D.D.; and James Apjohn, M. D.:
on the Committee of Science.

oO Se te nn a ee ee

Pak Se RE oie ee

a

Bea ae ae

389

Rey. Joseph Carson, D. D.; John F. Waller, LL.D.; John Kells
Ingram, LL. D.; John Anster, LL. D.; R.R. Madden, M.D.; Rev.
George Longfield, M. A.; and Very Rev. Charles Graves, D. D.: on the
Committee of Polite Literature.

John T. Gilbert, Esq.; Rev. William Reeves, D. D. W. iH. Hardinge,
Esq.; Sir W. R. Wilde, M. D. ; Charles Haliday, Esq. ; Colonel Meadows
Taylor; and Denis H. Kelly, Esq.: on the Committee of Antiquities.

TrEASURER.—Reyv. Joseph Carson, D. D.

SECRETARY OF THE AcaDEMYy.—Reyv. William Reeves, D. D.

SECRETARY oF THE Councit.—John Kells Ingram, LL. D.

SECRETARY OF ForEIGN CoRRESPONDENCE.—Sir W. R. Wilde, M.D.

Lisrarian.—John T. Gilbert, Esq.

Crerx, Assistant LIBRARIAN, AND CuRATOR oF THE MusEum.—Ed-
ward Clibborn, Esq.

The following persons were elected Honorary Members of the Aca-
demy :—

In Sctence.—R. Clausius; Michel Chasles; and Charles Darwin.

In Potrre Litnratvrs.—John Lothrop Motley.

In Awtiguirres.—Rev. 8. Nilsson; Albert Way; and Benjamin
Thorpe.

The Very Rev. Charles Graves, D. D., having retired from the Chair,
Dr. Anster was called thereto.

It was moved by the Earl of Dunraven; seconded by the Rev. Dr.
Carson; and passed by acclamation—

‘That the hearty thanks of the Academy are due, and are hereby
returned, to their late President, the Very Rev. Charles Graves, D. D.,
for the dignity, courtesy, and ability with which during the past five
years he has filled the Chair; for his watchful attention to their interests,
and for his zeal in labouring to uphold their honour and independence
as a scientific and literary body.”

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX, 3 OF

390

MONDAY, APRIL 9, 1866.
Lorp Taipot pE Maranipe, President, in the Chair.

Archibald Collum, Jun., Esq. ; Lieut.-Colonel Kdward Cooper, M.P.;
the Rev. James Gaffney ; Edward Hudson Kinahan, Esq.; W.H.S.
Westropp, Esq.; Alexander G. More, Esq.; ‘John A. Byrne, M. D.;
and J. K. Forrest, Hsq., were elected members of the Academy.

The Prustpent then delivered the following

INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

GENTLEMEN,—Permit me, in the first place, to tender you my respectful
thanks for the kind manner in which you have been pleased to elect me
to the Chair of this illustrious Society. I shall always value it as one
of the highest honours which could be conferred on an Irish gentleman.
T am, at the same time, fully conscious of my many shortcomings, and
am well aware that there are many individuals amongst you who have

higher claims for this distinction, from their researches in science, their —

discoveries in physics, their unwearied attention to the great questions
of archeology, and their achievements in the field of polite literature.
There was one man to whom we particularly owed this acknowledgment
of his great services—lI allude to George Petrie, on whom our late Pre-
sident passed so eloquent, so heart-stirring, and so well-deserved an enco-
mium, at one of our last meetings. Alas! he has left us; and it remains
for the surviving members of our body to follow up his great discoveries,
and to illustrate fully the pages of early Irish history. We must not,
however, be remiss in our endeavours to secure for his family some re-
cognition of his patriotism, and some reward for his labours. I trust
that the Government of this great country will not be deaf to our ap-
peal on behalf of his bereaved family, and that posterity will be able to
see a permanent memorial of him in the addition of his valuable museum
to our national collection.

It would be presumptuous on my part to dwell at any length upon
the prospects of mathematical and physical science in this country. I
feel quite incompetent to the task; but, thank God, I have imbibed,
during my academical education, sufficient taste for science to be able
to appreciate the great advance which has been attained in our days,
both as regards analytical and geometrical processes, through the labours
of the late Sir William R. Hamilton, and the other great mathematicians
connected with our Society.

Within the last month science has lost one of its most ardent
and painstaking votaries, by the death of Professor Whewell—a gentle-
man who combined with a complete knowledge of science in all its
branches a cultivated taste for literature, and an appreciation of every
intellectual pursuit. I have taken the liberty of mentioning his name,
as I feel proud of his friendship, which I have enjoyed for the last forty

ag1

years ; and I have a melancholy pleasure in remembering that he was my
guest at the last meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science in this city. The time has gone by when Science was
sneered at by practical men as useless, and a matter of pure curiosity.
Its many applications to every-day life have of late attracted public at-
tention, and the wonderful economic revolutions which have been wit-
nessed during the last fifty years are entirely due to its influence. It
is not equally well known how much the other branches of our Society
_ owe to the habits of patient induction and close reasoning, which have
_ flowed from the adoption of the Baconian system. ‘This part of the sub-
ject has more than once been cursorily alluded to by some of my prede-
_ eessors in the Chair; but I trust that I shall be forgiven if I mention a
_ few instances and examples by way of illustration. I may remind you
of the assistance which astronomy has given to the investigators of his-
_ tory and chronology in the determination of the dates of the battle of
Clontarf, and of Julius Cesar’s first landing in Britain, by the conside-
ration of the tides. I appeal to the triamphant efforts to decipher
hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions; and, though last, not least, the
extinct Ogham character—lI appeal to the use of the microscope in con-
_ firming the traditions as to the fact of the skins of sacrilegious Danes
_ having been nailed to church doors—I appeal to the light thrown by
_ chemistry on the curious questions connected with vitreous forts, on the
- composition of ancient bronze, on the nature of the colours of the
- ancients—-I appeal to the evidences which botany and comparative
anatomy have brought to light on the dark periods of history, on
_ extinct animals, on the origin and habits of primeeval races. Lastly, I
appeal to the connexion between scientific geology and archeology.
_ These two pursuits have always been more or less connected, but they
are becoming every day more closely interwoven with each other; and
| within the last few years the discoveries of Professor Keller, of Zurich,
and M. Boucher de Perthes; the deposits of Amiens and Abbeville;
_ the crannoges of Ireland and Scotland; the lacustrine dwellings of
| Switzerland, Germany, and Italy; the caves of Sicily, France, Bel-
_ gium, and England, have displayed a new page in history of surpassing
' interest, but in which the calmest and most honest spirit of inquiry is
| required, in order not to be carried away by wild theories and extrava-
gant assumptions.
But perhaps the most glorious achievement of the present day
is the progress of geology as a science. There are still a few sur-
vivors of that gallant band of philosophers who founded the London
Geological Society. But what changes have they not witnessed in the
progress of their science? Beginning as pupils of Werner, they were com-
_ pelled to adopt the theories of Hutton and Playfair, based as they were
' on Sir James Hall’s chemical experiments. The early ideas as to the
_ formation of the so-called primitive rocks were completely demolished,
and public attention was invited tothe interesting phenomena of volcanoes
) and the effects of metamorphism. The next step was the discovery by Cu-
_ vier of the test derived from the presence of fossiliferous deposits as a

392

criterion of the comparative age of different formations. Thenceforth
paleontology, comparative anatomy, and conchology became essential
part of geological study. The chronology of secondary strata, under
the guidance of Smith, first assumed a definite form in these islands.
The character of the Flora and Fauna of the old world developed itself
generally, showing the changes of climate, and the gradual refrigera-
tion of the globe. Here mathematics asserted their claims, and the
questions of central heat, earthquakes, and the elevation of mountain
charts, were brought within the domain of pure science. The next
discoveries were those which proceeded from the study of the Alpine
glaciers. Agassiz and his followers have proved the prevalence of a
glacial period, during which the temperature of the earth assumed
a point of cold quite inconsistent with the previous and subsequent
epochs. The character of the fossils, the dispersion of erratic flocks, the
discovery of arctic animals in these temperate climes, corroborated this
theory by independent results. The present aspect of the science is
highly satistactory. The formation of the geological survey of these
islands, the general adoption of similar undertakings in other countries,
the publication of accurate geological maps on the Continent, the
researches of travellers in all parts of the world, are adding every
day to our intimate knowledge of the formation of the crust of the
globe.

As a proof what can be done to create a science even within the
short life of man, I have thought it right to give this short review of
what has been done in the matter of geology. Iam well aware that we
possess in this city an excellent Society, specially directed to the work-
ing out of this subject. I have long been a member of it, and can bear
witness to its high position; but we cannot give up our connexion with
any science, particularly one of so much interest and importance; and
one of the great values of an institution like ours is to direct and encou-
rage the exertions of kindred societies, as well as to give a helping hand
to those of our members who devote themselves to those pursuits. I
trust that we may also have some valuable contributions on botany,
physiology, and chemistry. It is desirable that the chain of our sci-
ences should be maintained entire, and that the variety and originality
of our papers should add interest to our meetings, and further increase
the fame of the Royal Irish Academy.

Polite literature has also always been engrafted on our institution ;
and, in the early portion of our career, our ‘‘ Transactions’ con-
tain numerous contributions from this department. The course of
time has, however, produced a change, and we have had to complain of
late years of a paucity of papers on this subject. This may be ascribed

to various causes. In the first place, esthetic literature is everywhere |

on the decline. We have all heard of the sensation produced by Edmund
Burke’s ‘‘ Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful.’ The tragical unities—
the comparative merits of the Greek and French tragedies, on the one
side, as compared with Shakspeare and the Spanish school on the other—
and, in still more recent times, the discussions between the Romanti-

393

cists and the Classicists, are questions of the past. The victory has re-
mained with our national bard, and all interest is now concentrated on
the powers of execution, and critical rules and dogmas are utterly dis-
carded.

Metaphysics, again, which a few years since were so popular a
course of intellectual amusement, seem almost forgotten, even on their
favourite ground, the Scotch Universities.

I fear it must be admitted that, with the prevalence of utilitarian-
ism and political economy, poetry and the works of the imagination
have fallen into the background. There is still a Tennyson, and there
are some beautiful poems by our Transatlantic brethren; but lyrics
and ballad poetry, in which Ireland still continues to excel, have dis-
placed the epics and tragedies of our fathers. The progress of periodical
literature and novel writing has also contributed to this result. Doubt-
less, by this means a more general diffusion of a certain kind of know-
ledge and taste has taken place; but it is a question whether the desul-
tory reading now so prevalent has not tended to wean young students
from habits of close thought, and from the perusal of standard works of
literature.

There always will be a class of educated men, the bent of
whose mind will not be directed towards abstract science, and
polite literature has hitherto been their congenial pursuit. On
this account it is most desirable that literature should be kept
up to a high standard; and I cannot but regret the prejudice, which
seems to be on the increase, against the study of the Classics. It cannot
be denied that in some of our public schools too much time has been
devoted to the practice of Latin and Greek composition; but I am sure
it would be a matter of regret to find the Irish gentleman less able to
appreciate the works of Homer, Virgil, Horace, and the great orators
and historians of Greece and Rome in their own language. It cannot,
however, be said that we have neglected all questions appertaining
to polite literature. Philology is still popular; and the able papers
of Dr. Hincks must occur to every mind. :

The efforts, also, which have been made to illustrate our Celtic lite-
rature must command the respect of every friend of Ireland. The pub-
lications of the Irish Archeological and Celtic Society, in which some
of our members have had so great a share, have raised us much in the
estimation of foreigners; and the edition of the ‘‘ Brehon Laws,” now
in course of publication, is one of the most valuable contributions to the
materials of history in our days. I need not say that these great works
could hardly have been attempted without the assistance of two mem-
bers of this Academy, whose loss we can never cease to regret.

It now remains for us to digest thoroughly these materials, and to
turn them to good account. Before doing so, however, it 1s most essen-
tial that a complete and reliable Irish Dictionary should be compiled
and printed, There are considerable materials already collected for
this purpose; and our lamented member, the late Mr. Elliot Hudson,
has placed a considerable sum at our disposal in order to carry it

394

out. I trust that with a little exertion this great object may be at-
tained.

It is much to be regretted that no standard history of Ireland has
yet appeared. There has been such an improvement in the mode of
writing history—Kemble, Lappenberg, and Thierry have done so much
for Saxon and early Norman times—Hallam, Lingard, Froude, and
Turner have shown how much light can be thrown on history by avail-
ing ourselves of sources of information hitherto disregarded, and dis-
carding traditions which are not supported by trustworthy evidence—
that the time is almost ripe for systematizing Irish history. It is true
that the bitterness of party (although now much moderated among the
educated and respectable classes) offers considerable difficulty in the
way of an impartial statement of facts. However, I cannot believe that
it would be a hopeless task to compile a fair history of Ireland up to
the commencement of the sixteenth century. It is right that all Irish-
men should have an opportunity of reading, in an authentic and trust-
worthy shape, the real history of their country. They ought to know
all that can be determined as to the habits, customs, ideas, and general
civilization of their ancestors. Poison enough has been distilled from
unauthentic sources: we require the honey which is sure to reward the
candid inquirer. Doubtless they would have to wade through a chronicle
full of great crimes, and sometimes great virtues; but I feel confident
that every candid man would rise from its perusal with a feeling of self-
congratulation that his lot was cast in more peaceful times. In approach-
ing the subject of archeology, to which I must confess I am enthusias-
tically attached, it would be out of place if I alluded in more than general
terms to those details which can be studied with so much advantage in
your ‘‘ Proceedings” and ‘‘ Transactions.” It is a subject full of pain-
ful recollections. We have lost within a few years O’ Donovan, O’Curry,
and Petrie. Their loss is irreparable, but they have left a precious
legacy behind them.

Another painful subject is to hear on every side of the diminution of
the respect formerly entertained by the peasantry of the country for an-
cient monuments, even for the tombs of their fathers. The difference be-
tween the present state of Clonmacnoise and whatit was when first de-
scribed by Petrie is lamentable. Even on the Continent, where revolu-
tionary feelings at one time prevailed to such an extent that bandes nowres
were organized to demolish the last traces of national edifices, most of the
governments have taken the matter up, and stayed the hand of the spoiler,
I appeal to those who can exert powerful influence over these classes, to
endeavour to arrest the Vandalism which threatens to deprive us of the
few remaining memorials of oid Ireland. Happily, among the upper
classes of all creeds a reverential feeling prevails. In the restoration of
St. Patrick’s, due to the taste and munificence of our gifted friend, Mr.
Guinness, we see an augury of better times; and I trust that his con-
duct will produce a powerful effect on the public, although few if any
of us would be able to follow so greatan example. To advert to amore
cheering part of this subject, it is delightful to find that the exertions

390

of our archeologists are so unremitting, and that not a month passes
without some addition being made to our treasures of ancient art, and to
our knowledge of antiquity. The most important of these discoveries
is due to the excavations of Mr. Conwell in the neighbourhood of Old-
castle, under the patronage of the patriotic James Naper, of Loughcrew.

The state of the Museum is most satisfactory. The excellent ‘“‘ Cata-
logue Raisonné,’’ which has been compiled and published under the
eare of Sir William Wilde, has extended the sphere of our operations, by
diffusing an accurate knowledge of the specimens in our Museum, and
spread throughout the scientific world, both at home and abroad, an in-
creasing interest in these subjects. J understand that the sales have co-
vered the expense of the publication incurred by the Academy, and that
this great and laborious work, of which its accomplished author may be
justly proud, will soon be completed.

It has been suggested that a permanent director of the Museum is
much required. I fully agree in the propriety of the suggestion; and
T trust that the Committee of Antiquities will lose no time in maturing
a proposition to this effect. Our Library is also most valuable. The
collection of Irish Manuscripts is unrivalled. The want of a proper
catalogue has been long felt, but Iam sure that our Librarian will
leave no stone unturned to put it inaproper state. I am rejoiced
to hear that the services of a competent transcriber have been se-
cured.

In conclusion, let us all singly and collectively work together to
strengthen the hands of your Council and the Committees in their great
work. We are, in a great measure, free from those jealousies and
heartburning which are so fatal to the prosperity of our land. Let us
continue to present a bright example of what can be done by a cordial
union and co-operation of all classes, all parties, and all creeds, to heal
the wounds of our beloved country, to diffuse a wholesome spirit of in-
quiry into all matters of scientific interest, to elevate the character of
our literature, to discountenance those opinions which in some countries
degrade man asa responsible and intellectual being, convert knowledge
from being a blessing into a curse, sap the morals of the people, and
discourage the efforts of those who are disposed to promote the true in-
terests of their fellow-subjects. Let us not despair of the future of
Treland, but trust, with the blessing of God, to see it a free, happy, and
united land.

It was moved by the Very Rev. C. Graves, D. D., and seconded by
the Right Hon. the Lord Chancellor; and

) ResotveD,—That the President be requested to allow the Address
now read to be printed, and circulated among the members of the Aca-
demy.
The following paper, by Mr. Joun Casry, A.B., Sch, Trin. Coll.
Dublin, was read :

396

Ov tHe Equations anp Propertres—(1) oF THE SysTEM oF CrRcLEs
TOUCHING THREE CrrcLEs In A Prane; (2) oF THE SysTEM OF SPHERES
TOUCHING FOUR SPHERES IN SPACE; (8) OF THE SysTeM oF CIRCLES
TOUCHING THREE CIRCLES ON A SPHERE; (4) oN THE SysTEM OF
ConIcs INSCRIBED To A CONIC, AND TOUCHING THREE INSCRIBED
Conics IN A PLANE.

In the following Paper I shall give—1° The method of investigating
the equations of the circles in pairs which touch three given circles in
a plane; 2°. the equations of the spheres in pairs which touch four
given spheres; 3°. the equations of the circles in pairs which touch
three others on the surface of a sphere; 4°. the equations in pairs of
the conics having double contact with a given conic which touch three
other conics having also double contact with the same given conic.

In the course of the investigation I shall, besides giving the
methods by which I discovered the equations, indicate other methods
which subsequently occurred to me, and shall show that some of the
results are but generalizations of equations with which geometers have
been long familiar.

i.

EQUATIONS OF THE CIRCLES WHICH TOUCH THREE OTHERS.

Art. 1.—If A, B, C, D, be four points on a line disposed in any
manner, then always, none of the four being at infinity,

BC-AD +CA-BD+ AB-CD=0, a)

regard being had to the signs as well as to the magnitude of the six
segments involved—Townsend’s ‘‘ Modern Geometry,” vol. i., p. 102.
Now, let A, B, C, D, be the points of contact of four circles which
touch the line, and whose diameters are 6, 6’, 6”, 6/”, then, dividing |
equation (1) by 1/6, 6’, 6”, 6”, we get :

BC AD i CA BD AB CD :
WV Bie Kf BBU.g/BU8 | V8 Na OO hy Oe a

Now, since, if two circles be inverted from any arbitrary point, the
ratio of the square of their common tangent to the rectangle contained |
by their diameters is constant, that is, remains unaltered by the inver- _
sion (See Townsend’s ‘‘ Modern Geometry,” vol. ii, p. 375), each of |
the ratios ani

BC AD

SS ==; &e.,
Jf fsa"
is unaltered by inversion. Hence we have immediately the following _ |

theorem, which is obviously an extension of Ptolemy’s theorem con- ©
cerning four points on a circle :— Pa

397

“Tf S, S’, 8”, S’”, be four circles which touch a fifth circle =, the
common tangent of S S’ by the common tangent of S” S’” plus the
common tangent of S’, S’” by the common tangent of S, S’”’”, plus the
common tangent of S”, S, by the common tangent of S’ S’”=0; the
common tangent of any pair of circles being direct or transverse, ac-
cording as their contacts with = are similar or dissimilar.”

The foregoing theorem being the foundation of nearly the whole of
the following Paper, I shall in a subsequent article give another proof
of it, not derived, like the preceding, from inversion, and which,
slightly modified, will give the corresponding theorem respecting four
eircles which touch a fifth circle on the surface of a sphere.

2. If we denote the direct common tangents to 8’, 8S”; 8”, S;
S, S’; by

13, m3, mt, respectively,
and the transverse common tangents by
Us, m'2, n't;

and supposing the fourth circle S’” to become a point, the common
tangents to S’/”, S; S’”’, S’; S’”’, 8”; become the square roots of the
results of substituting the co-ordinates of the point S’” in the equations
of the circles S, S’, S”, respectively, and hence they are

VAST ASI, Ao

Hence, the co-ordinates of any point in the circle touching S S’ S” must
satisfy the equation

JS IS +f mS’ + /n8" = 0; (2)

and since this equation, cleared of radicals, is of the fourth degree, it is
the equation of a pair of circles, =, 2’, touching S, S’, S’’, as in
fig. (1).

In like manner, the equations of the three other pairs of circles
touching S, 8’, 8”, are

JIS +f mS! +/ nS! = 0 (3)
SUS +4/ mS! + /n'8S" = 0 (4)
JIS +/ m8 +/n8" = 0 (5)

8. The equations of the inscribed and exscribed circles of a plane

triangle are particular cases of the equations (2), (3), (4), (5), and may

be inferred from them as follows :—Let the radii of the circles S, §',,8”,

) be a, 0, ¢, and let the angles in which they intersect each other be—

for Sy oes A:
” Si Sa : B;
9 8; Ss} Ve:

BR. I, A. PROC, VOL, IX. O &

398

then it is easy to see that

2cos$ A= #2
be

2cos4 B= ae ite

2 cos 3 C= g
ab

Substituting the values of V1, /m, /n, from these equations in :

equation (2), it becomes, by dividing by 2./2abe,

cos $4 | 8+ cos3D {5 +0053 g (me 6) 3
i 2a ; 26 ; 2¢ . ( q

Now, if S be a circle (fig. 2), and O a point whose co-ordinates
are substituted in the equation of S, we have, if our equations be Car-

tesian,
S _ OP-0Q
Tn. 2 PO

And when the circle S becomes infinitely large, the limit of 0Q: PQ 3
/ 1 2
, when S S&S’ §” becomes ~

right lines, are the perpendiculars let fall on these lines, and denoting | 3

is unity. Hence the limits of = gah a

them by a, 8, y, the equation (6) becomes

cosd A./at cosh Bi/B +084 Cy/q=0. G

This is the equation of the circle inscribed in the triangle formed by thea
lines a, 8, y; and the exscribed circles may in like manner be derived 4

from the equations (3), (4), (5).—@. ED.

4, The equation of the circle circumscribed about a triangle is also”
a particular case of equation (2). Thus, let S, 8’, S”, become points, —
denoting them by A, B, C, and the point S’” by D, then equation 2)

becomes Ptolemy’s theorem,

BC:AD+ CA:-BD+ AB: CD=0.
Hence,
BC CA AB

BDGD CDAD | Apap (8);

399

Now, BC, CA, AB, are proportional to sin A, sin B, sin C; and if -
the equations of the lines BC, CA, AB, be a, B, y, we have

BD:CD = a° diameter of circle ;
CD:AO =f > diameter of circle ;
AD:'BD=y: diameter of circle.

Hence equation (8) becomes

sin A sin .B gin C

eR i a (9)

This is the equation of the circumscribed circle.

5. The equation of the inscribed circle ofa plane triangle has been
derived in Art. 3 from the equation (2) of a pair of circles touching
three circles. Conversely, the equation of a pair of circles touching
three others may be derived from the equation of the inscribed circle of
a plane triangle.

For let = (fig. 3) be the circle inscribed in the triangle ABC, the
equations of whose sides are a=0; B=0; y=0; and let the circles
S, S’, S”, touch = at its points of contact with the sides of the triangle
ABC; then denoting the radius of = by #, and the radii of S, 8’, 8”,
by 7, 7’, v’, respectively ; if any point Q be taken in &, the result of
substituting the co-ordinates of Qin S=2(#-v7) multiplied by the re-
sult of substituting the co-ordinates Q in a.

This may be written

— S .
OR oTY
in like manner,
S/
PRR
and
iS
ae 9 (R as rly

Again, since J+ denotes the direct common tangent to S’, 8”, it is
easy to see that
Cos 5 A = : one Wey.
(Ror) (B=1")

400
In like manner,
dg pote ya) he ee
ee lara
and eee
eee
be et fla ele ie oT a ae
ee las (Ror)?
making these substitutions, the equation
cos 4.4 ,/a+cos 3Br/B + c03 10,/y=0
becomes transformed into
J 1S +f md! +/ 08” = 0.

The equations of the other pairs of circles may be similarly derived i
from the equations of the exscribed circles.—e. E. D.

6. The equation
JIS +f m8! + /n8" = 9,
when cleared of radicals, becomes &
PS? 4 mS? + 0S — 2lmSS! — 2mn8'S" — 2nl8"S= 0 (10) ;
Now, since this may be written in either of the equivalent forms
(IS — mS’) + n&" (nS" — 218 — 2m8’) (11) am
(m' — nS")? + 1S (1S — 2m’ ~ 2n8") (12)
(n 8" —18)2 + mS! (mS'-InS"- 218) (18) -
it follows that the pairs of circles 7

J WS +f m8! + / nS! =0

touch § at the points S= 0, mS' ~ nS” =0;
Pauley a istic (0), nS’ —IS=0;
OUT as iS = 0, LS - mS’ = 0.

Hence, we have the following method of constructing the points of
contact on the circles S, S', 8", with a pair of their tangential circles:—

401

Describe the circle 7S —mS’=0; this circle, coaxal with S, S’, will
intersect S” in two points, which will be points of contact. Again,
describe the circle mS’—mS"; it will intersect Sin the points of con-
tact. Lastly, describe the circle nS” -7S=0, and it will intersect S’ in
the points of contact.

7. Since the circle JS — mS'=0 intersects S’’=0 in the points of
contact of S” with the pair of circles 1S + / msS' +\/ nS" = 0,

1S — mS’ —-(l-m) 8" =0

passes through the points of contact.

Now, S — 8” =0 is the radical axis of the circles S, 8”, and S’- S”=0
is the radical axis of the circles S’, S”. Hence, denoting the radical
axis of

Siena Ane i ganemer

ia
i Be 8 5) uae,
this equation becomes

| mA —-1lA’=0;
| hence,
A_A’_
l mM

In like manner, the points of contact on S are constructed by drawing
| the line :

| and the points on S’ by drawing the line
WI A

ey eh eS),

n 1

| The chords of contact of the three circles S, S’, 8”, with their four
) pairs of tangential circles, are given by the four systems of equations—

Ai Ale Ar
Vim Se ey
a Nae A’
On et
Ae: Al AP
ie was ce)
AeA! Ae
ee ee (17)

402

8. Since the discriminant of the equation (10) does not vanish, it ]

follows that it is not the product of two simple factors of the form
AS + pS! + vS” = 0
MS + pS! + v/S!’ = 0

Hence the equation of a circle (=) touching He circles, S, 8’, 8”,
cannot be expressed in the form \S + pS’ + v8" =

9. The result of Art. 8 may be proved independently, as follows, —
and we can thence infer, conversely, that the discriminant of equation

(10) ought not to vanish :—

For, if possible, let the equation of a circle A touching three J

circles S, S’, S’”’, be of the form XS + pS’ + vS”=
Hence,

AS + pSl= SZ — v8”,

Now, since = touches 9”, the circle AS +8’ =0, which is coaxal
with § and S’, also touches S” at its point of contact with =; but we ©
have seen (Art. 6) that the circle coaxal with S and S’, which passes
through the point of contact of = with S”, cuts S”, instead of touching
it. Hence the equation of a circle touching S, S’, 8”, cannot be of they .

form VS + pS’ + v8" = 0.—a. B.D.

This conclusion accords with the fact that three circles, S, S', 8",
being given, the form AS + pS’ +vS"=0 is not sufficiently general to 3
express the equation of any fourth circle. For the equation of any —
circle contains three independent constants, while \S+pS'’+vS"=0 |

contains but two, viz., the ratios X: v and p: v.

10. The equations (11), (12), (18), of Art. 6, being all of the z ,
form R?= LM, hence the pair of circles / IS aS ms! + J nS mu”! also «|

touches the circles
LS — 2mS' — 2n8"” =
mS! — 2nS''- 218 = .

n§" — 218 - 2mf! = 4

Again, the circle 1S + mS! + nS" evidently passes through the inter

sections of the pairs of circles
S and 1S - 2mS! - 2nS";
S’ and mS’ — 2nS" - 218;
S’ and nS" - 218 - 2mS;

403

and is therefore coaxal with each pair. Hence the three lines joining
the centres of these pairs of circles are concurrent. Hence we have the
following theorem:— ~—

The pair of circles »/ 7S + / mS! +./nS” = 0 touching three circles,
S, 8’, 8”, also touches the three other circles

LS — 2mS! - 2nS"=0;
mS’ — 2nS"” — 21S = 0;
nS" — 218 —- 2mS8'=0;

and the lines joining the centres of these circles to the centres of
S, S’, S”, respectively, concur to the centre of 1S + mS’ + nS”.

| 11. Since the equation (10) may be written in either of the fol-
-lowing equivalent forms,

(ZS + mS! — nS")? = 4Ilm8S' ; (18)
(mS! + nS” — 18)? = 4mn’ SS” ; (19)
(nS" + LS — mS’) = 4nl8"S ; (20)

| we have the following theorem :—
The equations of the circles passing through the points of contact of

| the pair of circles VIS + / mS" +/ n8" = 0 with

S, 8S’ is lS +mS’ —nS"=0; (21)
S’,S” 4, mS’+nS" — 1S =0; (22)
SiS 5, ws. + 1S — Sm’ = 0. (28)

12. We shall conclude this part of the subject of this Paper by
applying our principles to prove Dr. Hart’s celebrated extension of
_ Feuerbach’s theorem :—

: ‘Taking any three of the eight circles which touch three others, a
- eircle can be described to touch these three, and to touch a fourth circle
_ of the eight touching circles.”

Now, since the combinations in threes of eight things is : : - = 56,

_ this theorem makes it necessary that we should have fourteen circles,

| which we divide into two systems of circles—one system containing

) eight circles, and the other containing six.

Since the eight circles which touch three given circles are, four of
them, the inverse of the other four, with respect to the circle which

euts the three given circles orthogonally, they may be denoted in pairs

as -—
Gat Bp sa yy) eoe.;

404

then it is evident that
VIS + / mS! +/ nS" = aa
AIS + / mS! + 6/018" = BB!
STS +f mS! +f 08" = ry!
SUS +A mS! +n) 8" = 68

Now, the equation of the pair of circles aa’, when cleared of radicals,
is by equation (18)
4 ImS8' = US + mS’ -— n8")?;

and this being of the form DM = F’, the equation of any circle touch-
ing a and a’ will be of the form

wL-WwR+ = 0

(Salmon’s ‘‘ Conic Sections,” p. 234, Fourth Edition) ; oS restoring the
values of Z, I/, R,

(2 — w) lS — (w—-1) mS’ + wnS" = 0. (a)

Similarly, the equation of any circle touching the pair of circles Bf’
will be of the form

(w? = pl) LS = (p! - 1) mS’ + wn'S” = 0. (5)

Tn order that equations (a) and (6) may represent the same circle,
we must have

for the system of six circles.
Hence » and pw’ are determined, which proves the proposition ; and
we have the following system of six circles :—

aa' Bp’ are all touched by a fourth circle. (a)
aalysy’ ” (3)
aa 66! o (c)
BB’ yr’ 9 (d) |

BB oo! pager (¢)
‘ oe

rae
yy €

405

And we see that from the relation between the system of eight circles,
*

a, f, Y O; a’, B, Y's 6's

and six circles, 7
(a), (4), (©), (4), @), (f);

every circle of the former system is touched by three of the latter, and
every circle of the latter by four of the former.—e. E. D.

13. A very simple geometrical demonstration can be given of this
part of Dr. Hart’s theorem;—in fact, it is inferred at once from the
following principle, which occurred to me some time since :—

If two circles, P’, Q’, be the inverse of two other circles, P, Q,
with respect to the same circle, X, the four circles, P, Q, P’, Q’, have
four common tangential circles.

This is evident.

14. Proof for the system of eight circles :—Let S, S’, S” (fig. 4),
be the three given circles, any or all of which may be right lines, and
a, B, y, ©’, four circles described touching them similar to the exscribed
and inscribed circles of a plane triangle, I say, a, B, y, ’, are all touched
by a fourth circle, besides the three circles S, S,’ S”.

Demonstration.—Let the direct common tangent toa pair of circles,
a and f, for instance, be denoted by the notation af, and the trans-
verse commmon tangent by «$ with an understroke; then we have,

attending only to the magnitudes of the rectangles, by Art. 1, since S
is touched by f, y, 6’, on one side, and by a on the other,

aB > yo + a0 * By — ay: BO = 0; » (a)
in like manner,

ay’ BS + 46 aB- By‘ ad =0; (d)
and

aB + y6'+ BO ay - By * ad = 0. (c)

| Hence, by adding equations (@) and (4), and subtracting equation (c),
| we get

ad’: By + 18! * a8 ~ BS * ay = 0.

| Hence the circles a, 6, y, ©, are all touched by a fourth circle having
| a, B, y, on one side, and 6’, on the other; hence we have the following

| system of eight circles :—

R. I, A. PROC.—-VOL. IX. oH

406
a, B, y, 6, are all touched by a fourth circle. (A)
a, B, 9, 6, 3 (B)
a, B', 4, 4, 9 (C)
ay B, % 9, r, (D)
a, BY, ¥;, 6; 5 (A’)
Gi Bs “iy > (B’)
a’, B, y, 8, ia (C’)
a, B', y, &, 0» (D’)

This proves the theorem for the system of eight circles; and from
the foregoing scheme we see that the relation between the two systems
of eight circles, 2 B, Y) 6, a’; B, Y; o, and Alp B, C, D, A ie C’, D, *
is reciprocal, viz., each circle of each system being touched by four
circles of the other system—a property which was also noticed by Dr.
Hart.—a. E. D.

II.

EQUATIONS OF THE SIXTEEN SPHERES IN PAIRS WHICH TOUCH FOUR
OTHERS.

15. If A, B, C, D, be four points in a plane, then denoting their
three pairs of connectors by the following notation,

BC, AD, by i, p :
CA, BD; 5; 78, es
AB, CD, 99 ne, yt 5

we have (Salmon’s ‘‘ Geometry of Three Dimensions,” Art. 50,)

i p-g)(p-r)+m(q-r)q-D+n(r—p) (r-9)
+lp(l—-m—n)+mg(m-n-1)-—ur(n-l-m)+lmn=0. (24)

This formula is the expansion of the following determinant :—

| 0, Nn, mM, #p, 1,
OS vung, tele. a
peu Pics Uae pea tegecl|=: ()- (25) |
P; q; r, 0, 1, ;
ee 0,

Now, if # be a fifth point in the plane or in space, and if | ‘
A', B’, C’, D’, be the points inverse to A, B,C, D, with respect to a |)

407

circle or sphere whose radius is X and centre at H, and denoting the
connectors of the inverse points A’, B’, C’, D’, by the same notation as
those of the points A, B, C, D, only with accents, also denoting
EA', EB’, EC’, ED’, by a, B, 7, &,
Now it is evident that
7a ee Se a En
Re ine gad aps’
Ee ae RE oo) Er!
ar ce er ety

Hence, making these substitutions in equation (24), clearing of frac-
tions, and omitting the accents as being no longer necessary, we have
the following theorem :—

Tf A, B, C, D, £#, be any five points in a plane, or on the surface
of a sphere, and if the connectors in pairs of the points A, B, C, D, be
denoted by /?, py}; m}, g?; 73, 7?; and theconnectors HA, LB, EC, ED,
by a3, 62, 92, &, then the relation

Irqa? + mprB* + npqr? + lmné + (lp — mq - nr) (1aé + pBy)
+ (mq —nr — Ip) (m6 + gay) + (nr —lp —mq) (nyi+raB)=0, (26)

or its equivalent, the determinant,

| A a aa ein
nN, 0, l, q; B
| Mt te AO ere cy Oy
| Dis Oates UO seh ae
| a Py OF 0

holds between these connectors.

16. The equation (26) between the connectors of five points on
the stirface of a sphere is the analogue of Ptolemy’s theorem for four
points on a circle, and can be enunciated in a very concise manner by
the help of the following considerations :—
1°. The entire number of lines of connexion of five points
tee 10
a

2°. The entire number of triangles which can be formed by combin-

5x4xs3

ing the five points, three by three, is — 0;

1:2°3
3°, The entire number of pentagons which can be formed having

: aS 4x3x2xl
the five points for vertices = Sa = 1.

408

Then, the sum of the ten products formed by multiplying the fourth
power of the line joining any two points by the continued product of
the squares of the sides of the triangle of which the three remaining
points are vertices is equal to the sum of the twelve products formed,
each, by multiplying together the squares of the sides of each of the
twelve pentagons of which the five points are the vertices.

17. Supposing the points A, B, C, D, £, of Art. 14 to be on a
plane, and that spheres whose diameters are 6, 6’, 6”, 6”, 6”, touch the
plane in those points; then inverting the whole from any arbitrary
point in space, and denoting the common tangents to the inverse spheres
by the same notation as that of Art. 14, viz., the common to the

inverse of the spheres at B, C, by 73;
7> 33 val D, 7) Pp ;

and so on; then we have from equation (21) the following theorem :—

If five spheres, A, B, C, D, #, touch a sixth sphere, =, the relation

| 0), mt, B,
mn, 0, 1, @,_P;
mi 0, te O (27)

DB) = o> se 053, 0,
a, B, Y> 6, 0,

holds between the common tangents of the five spheres, the common
tangent to any pair of spheres being the direct or transverse, according
as the pair of spheres to which it is drawn have contacts of the same or
of opposite kinds with the sixth sphere, =.

18. The theorem of Art. 17 is an extension of the theorem of
Art: 15, analogous to the extension which the theorem in Art. 1 is of
Ptolemy’s theorem, and an analogous use can be made of it.

For, supposing the sphere at the point # to reduce to a point, and
denoting the other four spheres by S, S', 8”, S”, then we get the equa-
tion of the pair of spheres touching S, S,' 8,” S’”,

OF, MP. 8)
N, 0, 9 q S’
m, 4, 5 Te lO (28)
; 0, sv

Pea 3
A HSae ome arey 130)

precisely in the same way as the equation of the pair of circles touching
three circles was derived in Art. 2.—@. E. D.

409

19. Denoting the equation (28), for shortness, by the notation
Pl, m, n, p, 7, 7,)=0, and the transverse common tangents by the
same notation as the direct common tangents, only with accents, and
we have the following seven equations for the other seven pairs of
spheres which touch S, S’, 8S”, S”, viz.,

P(, m, wn, p', G% 71,)=9; (29)
COU 2. D5 o,f, — 0: (30)
OU, m,n Pp, G 7;)=9; (31)
OC ay Di AQ ys a, ) = Os (82)
PE, m,n, p,-¢;-7,) =0; (33)
p (/, m', n, P) q's r',) = 0; (34)
Pp (7; m, Mn, DP, q ne) = 0; (35)

20. In precisely the same manner as in Art. 3 we derived the equa-
tions of the inscribed and exscribed circles of a plane triangle from the
equations of the pairs of circles touching three circles, we can derive the
equations of the eight spheres which touch the four faces of a tetrahe-
dron from the equations of Arts. 18 and 19. ‘Thus the equation of the
inscribed sphere is, the faces being 2, y, 2, w, derived from equation

(28)

0, cos*4(ay), cos*4(xz), cos? (xv),

cos’ a(yx), 0, cos’ 3(yz), cos’ 3(yw), Y
cos? d(zr), cos? d(zy), 0, cos? $(sw), z|=0, (86)
cos?2(wa), cos’ t(wy), cos*4Z(wz) 0, w
L, Y, Z, W, 0

and the equations of the seven others are derived from equations
(29)-(85).

21. Again, in the same way exactly as we derived the equations of
the circles in pairs which touch three circles from the equations of the
inscribed and exscribed circles of a plane triangle, we might derive
the equations of the spheres in pairs which touch four spheres from the
equations of the spheres touching the faces of a tetrahedron; and, in
fact, it was in that way I first derived the theorem.

__«-22. If we form the tangential equation corresponding to equation
_ (28), we find—
) pul + vim + Aun + App + upg + ver =O0. (37)

This is the condition that the pair of spheres given by equation (28)
may be touched by the sphere AS + nS’ + vS”+ pS”=0. We get si-

410

milar equations from equations (29)-(35), inclusive; and since from
any three of these equations we get eight systems of common values for
X, #, v, p, we infer that the three pairs of spheres denoted by any three
of the equations (28)-(85) are touched by eight spheres, four of which
are the spheres S, S’, S”, S’”.

23. The eight tangential equations can all be included in one
general formula, as follows :—

Let the radii of the four spheres, S, S’, S” S’”, be denoted by
r, 7’, rv’, r’, and the angle at which S intersects S’ by the notation
(SS"), then we have

1 = 4r'r!’ cos? £(S'S") ;
UY =— Ar'r” sin? £S'8”) ;

and similar values for m, m,’ &c. Hence the equation (37) becomes
transformed into

hurr’ cos? 4088") + wvr'r!’ cos® £(8'S8") + vpr"r'” cos? £88!)
+ )dvrr” cos? 48S") + dprr’” cos? £088’) + upr/r!” cos 48'S").
This is equivalent to the equation

U= (Ar ae pr + ppl! + pre, (38)
where

Ig,

U = 27? +7? at yey"? st pr
—2rurr’ cos (SS8’) -— 2uvr'r" cos (S/8") — 2vpr''r” cos (SS)
—2vrr!! cos USS’) — 2prr’”’ cos (SS) - Qupr'r” cos (S’S”). (39)

And the eight tangential equations are included in the formula
C= (art pr’ tour" pr”)? (40)

(Compare Salmon’s ‘‘ Geometry of Three Dimensions,” Art. 219.)

ITI.

EQUATIONS OF THE CIRCLES IN PAIRS WHICH TOUCH THREE CIRCLES ONA |

SPHERE.

24. The theorem, Art. 1, which was proved by inversion, can be —

proved without inversion, as follows :—

Let 0, 0’, O", O”, be the points of contact; A, B, C, D, the cen-

tres; 7, 7’, 7”, 7/”, the radii of four circles, S, S’, S”, S”, which touch

=
a
x
‘

All

a fifth circle, =; and let G be the centre, and # the radius of =; then
we have (fig. 5),

AB?-(BG-AG) AB?-(r-r'p

a2 L — =
SE po AG: GB (R-r)(R=r')
_ square of common tangent of S, S’
(Ror) (R=)
Again,
I
4s tAGB = =
Hence, .
R

00 — common tanzeut ofS, S, x 41
: J@aneary OY

Now, by Ptolemy’s theorem,
90": 070+ 0'0" > 00" +0" 0: 0'0'" = 0.

Hence, substituting for OO’, from (41), and making like substitutions
for O” O'", &c., we have the common tangent of S, S’ by the common
tangent of S”, S/’+ &., =0.

25. The proof given in the last Article is that alluded to in Art. 1;
and it is evident that it may be proved in a manner precisely similar,
if S, S’, S’”’, S’”, be four circles on the surface of a sphere touching a
fifth circle, =, that the sin }common tangent of S, S’+sin 4 common
tangent of S”, S” + sim }common tangent of S’, S’x sin }common tangent
of S, S”+sin $common tangent of 8”, Sx sin$common tangent of
S’, S’”=0, the common tangents being the direct or the transverse, ac-
cording as the contacts of the pairs of circles to which they are drawn
with = are similar or dissimilar.

26. The direct application of the theorem in the last two Articles
gives at once a proof of Feuerbach’s theorem for plane triangles, and of
Dr. Hart’s extension of it to spherical triangles.

For if S, S’ 8”, 8S’, be the inscribed and exscribed circles of a plane
triangle, the common tangent of S, S’ =b-e;

5 of 8”, S”=b+e.

Hence common tangent of S, 8’ x common tangent of 8”, S’”=?-¢;
and the other rectangles=¢ — a’, and a?—0b*, respectively. Hence the
condition holds of S, 8’, S’””, 8”, being all touched by the same circle..—
Q. E. D.

412

27. Again, if S, S', 8", S’”, be the inscribed and exscribed circles
of a spherical triangle, we have
Sin 4common tangent of S, S’ x sin common tangent of S’”, S’”
= sin? 46 — sin? dc;
and the other rectangles = sin® 4¢ — sin? $a, and sin? 4a—sin? 46, respec-

tively. Hence the condition holds of the circles S, S', 8S’, S’’, being
all touched by the same circle.—e. 5. D.

28. Itis evident that the three anharmonic ratios of the points of
contact are
e-?@ ?-a@ af
a @-F BPH @

for plane triangles; and for spherical triangles, they are

CLA mene oe Sah) tly 80) GO) ie a a
sin? 46-—sin? $c sin? Sc—sin*3a sin? 4a—sin? $b

sin? 4¢— sin? 4a sin? da—sin? 30’ sin? 40 — sin? Le Ge

29. Let P be the centre of a small circle S on the surface of a
sphere (fig. 6); Oa fixed point also on the surface, which we shall
take as origin: OX a fixed great circle, corresponding to the initial line
in plane geometry; and let OP =n, the angle POX=™m, and the co-
ordinates of any point Q of the circle S be p and 9, then we have from
the spherical triangle OPQ, r being the radius of the circle S,

cos r= {cos cos p +sin n sin p cos (O—m)} =0. (44)

This may be taken as the equation of the small circle S; and itis plain
that with this system of co-ordinates the result of substituting the co-
ordinates of any point Qin the equation of a small circle S on the sur-
face of a sphere is equal to

2cosr x sin’ the tangent from Q to S.

This may be written
2cos r x sin? 4¢=8

Se SIE pp : . (459

2cosr

80. If the small circle S” of Art. 26 become a point, and if we
denote the

sin 4 direct common tangent of S’, S”, by &,
9) Si, S 99 m,
7) S, S! 7) n>,

413

and the sines of half the transverse common tangents by J+, m’+, 1'3, we
get from the theorem of Art. 25, and from equation (45), the equations

of the four pairs of circles which touch three small circles on the sur-
face of a sphere, as follows :—

i S/ 17
| S — py (46)
cos r cosr cos 7
l mS! NG
pee vo: (37)
COS 7 - cos 7 cos 7
VS mS! nS"
+f 4 fae : (48)
cos r cos rT cos r

ge is!
cos 7

ee iS!
os 7”

Nn S”

des Fadl

31. The four equations, (46)-(49), when expanded,
to the following determinants :—

(49)

are equivalent

l m g m | :
0, eae 93 S 0, 5) ? 8, |
cosr cosr cosr cos 7 |
/
’ 0, ae. : 9 ? : " S5
cos 7 cos 7 Pe 0. (50) COS £7 Cos 7 tees 0. (51)
m n m/ n
ee (Ue 0; 248%
) y? >) 3 WT
cosr cos7r COS 7 cos Tr
14
D, S', s”, 0, S, iS’; S 9 0,
he i m g
Sr a S, Sy g iemenne ae eee) ’
cosr cosr cosr cosr
7 f if
4 Bis Oe pe MES NG)
cosy” > cosr” cos r cos 7!” :
= 0. (52) = 0. (53)
m n! - m’ n! s”
Ae 0, S ’ ~P ip ’ ’
cosr cosr’ | cos 7’ cosr
y 7
ms <8", 0, Spin ES Bil p0H
1. A. PROC.—VOL.. IX. of

414

And the four corresponding tangential equations are— °
l

os el erento su pene tel See a (p 54
Ncosr ’ woosr’ vcosr” ; be
/ m n!
Fee i a Se ee pan SE Se (10 55
Neosr | cosy’ veosr” * Oe
U m n!
Se Sp ea eee (56)
NCOSF pmCOosr vcosr
/ mv
(57)

—— + —___ + —__ =
Neosr pcos” vcosr!

32. The proofs given in Articles 12 and 14 for Dr. Hart’s exten-
sion of Feuerbach’s theorem, it is evident, apply verbatim for the ana-
logous theorem concerning circles on the sphere; and the part of it
concerning the system of six circles, Art. 12, may also be inferred
immediately from the equations (54)-(57) ; for any two of these equa-
tions are sufficient to determine the ratios \: v and w:». Hence the
four circles denoted by any pair of the equations (54)-(57) have a com-
mon tangential circle, besides the three circles S, S’, S’’.—@. E. D.

33. The equations of the inscribed and exscribed circles of a sphe-

rical triangle may be inferred from equations (46)-(49).
For, denoting the angles at which they intersect

SS? and, iS by 4A
Ser and, oS" 4. saaeee
Ss rand (S40 ema

it is easy to see that

1
2cos$ A= pfemae 1
tan r’ tan r’’

m
cos
2 tan 7” tan r

n
2cosiC= ines
a tan r tan r’/

Hence equation (46) becomes transformed into

COS ee + COS Pee + cos4 6 le Pale 0. (58)
sin r”

eee

415

And if the circles S, S’, S”, become great circles, denoting them by

a, B, y, we get for the equation of the inscribed circle of a spherical
triangle—

cos 1 A/a + cos? LB B + cos 10)/ y= 0; (59)

and the equations (47)-(49) give, when similarly transformed, the
equations of the exscribed circles.

34. The tangential equations (54)-(57) become, by the substitu-
tions of the last articles,

cos? A cos? $B cos? dC
—— +

SO ae a i 60
Menge wens’ vein! ’ KS?)
cos*4A sin? 4B sin? $C (61)
Meine asin” > oy sine!
wea 21 nz
a am ea cos” 2B _ Sin! Be (62)
X sin 7 wslnr y sin r
sin’tAd sin’ $B cos*iC _ (63)
2 vsnr aesny’ ven’ -

These formule: are all included in the general formula

V=(\ sin rtp sins’ +yv sin’), (64)
where
U=) sin? r + pw? sin? x’ + v? sin? 7’
— Quy sinr’sinr’” cos A - 2vi sin r’ sin r cos B
— 2husinr sin r’ cos C. (65)
35. The equations (60)-(63) denote the eight circles tangential to

three circles on the sphere, and each pair are touched by the pair of
circles

U= {\sinr cos (B-C) + sinr’ cos C- A)
+vsinr’cos(A — B)}? (66)

(See Salmon’s “‘ Geometry of Three Dimensions,’’ Second Edition, Art.
253),

416

The pair of circles (66) correspond to the circles A, A’ of Art. 14;
and the circles corresponding to the pairs of circles B, BY, C,C', D, D',
of the same Article are

U= {r\sinr cos (B-C) + sine’ cos(C'+ A)
+vsinr'cos(A+B}*?, (67)

UV= {sin r cos (B+ C)+msin rv’ cos C-A
+vsinr’ cos(A + B}?, (68)

U = {rsinr cos (B+ C)+ mwsinr’ cos(C+ A)
; +vsinr’ cos(A-B)}*% (69)

36. It can be seen precisely in the same way as in the analogous
case on the plane (Art. 6), that the points of contact of three circles,
S, S', S", on the sphere with their four pairs of tangential circles are
given by constructing the circles,

lS mS! ns! (70)
cosr cosr cos r”’

LS m’ S’ n! SS! (71)
cosr cosr- cos r”’ .
US : mS" n' S’ (72)
cos 7 cosr’ cosr’”’’

Us mS! ns’! (73)
cosr cosr’ cos r”’

Also, that if A, A’, A’, denote the radical circles of S, S’, S’”, taken
in pairs, then the equations of the great circles passing through the
points of contact on S, S’, S”, are for the four pairs of tangential
circles

A C08 Te A’ cos 7 A cos 7// (74)
l m n :
Acosr A’cosr A” cos r’/ "5
oa No n! : (78)
A cos A’eosr’ A” cosr'
ae == = (76)
m n
cosr A’ cos r’ "eos 7”

(77)

|
|

ee

417

37. Again, taking any pair of the circles 8, S’, S”, the four points
of contact on it with any pair of the tangential circles (50)-(53) are
concyclic; the equations of the circles passing through these concyclic
points are, if we denote the determinants (50)-(53) by the notation
pi, P2 Ps, P53

of -0; PH =0; H=0; Wee

of 0; 0; =o; cS)

Ts 9; 0; Beno, (81)
IV.

EquATIONS OF THE ConiIcs IN PAIRS HAVING DOUBLE CONTACT WITH A
GIvEN CoNIC WHICH TOUCH THREE OTHERS ALSO HAVING DOUBLE
ConTACT WITH THE SAME GIVEN Conic.

88. The equations of the circles on the surface of a sphere that we
have employed hitherto denote but one of the intersections of a cone
with a sphere whose centre is at the vertex of the cone; thus, if a, B, y,
be three such circles, then, taking account of the complete intersections
of the sphere with the cones, it is evident we get three other circles,
which we may denote by a, 6’, '; thus we have

8 circles touching a, B, ¥;

8 ” a, B, Y>
8 5: a, BY;
8 ” a, B, y ;

hence we have 82 circles in all.

The equation S— L? = 0, of a small circle on the surface of the sphere,
given in Dr. Salmon’s ‘‘ Geometry of Three Dimensions,’ is the com-
plete intersection of the sphere with the cone; and it is easy to see that

its factors S?- £2=0 and S?:+ £=0 are the separate circles which make

up the complete intersection ; in fact, taking the equation of any small
circle on the sphere,

Cos r - {cos n cos p + sin ” sin p cos (O—m)} =0,

418

it is by transformation to three rectangular planes changed into
(a*+y°+2?)} cosr=L,

where x, y, 2, are the co-ordinates of any point in the circle, and Lis
the perpendicular from the same point on the plane of the great circle
whose pole is the centre of the small circle ; now, this equation is of the
form

Si:-L=0;

and it may be shown that the equation of its twin circle (see Salmon,
page 200, foot note) is of the form

S+iL=0,

Hence the equation of the pair of circles touching three circles, a, f, y,
on the surface of a sphere may be written in either of the forms

ee m(Si- A) | fn (Si-N) _
cos r cos 7 Conte

(a ee

cos 7 cos 7’ cos r’

And it will be seen that these, when cleared of radicals, give the same
result; and the equations of the other pairs of circles are got from these
by properly accenting /, m, n.

39. If S’ 8”, be two small circles of the sphere (fig. 7), abed a
great circle passing through their centres, and / any circle cutting
them orthogonally in a’, U, c,d’; now, the anharmonic ratios of the
four points, a’, 0’, c’, d’, are equal to the anharmonic ratios of the points
a, 6, c, d; and two of the anharmonic ratios of the points a, ), ¢, d, are

sin Zac: sindéd: sin $ab° sin ded;
sin dad: sin $be: sn $ab- sinted;
and these are respectively equal to
Z: tan rr’: tan r’;
i: tan@ : tan 7’.

Hence we have the following theorem :—
If any circle J cuts two small circles, S’, S”, on the sphere ortho-

gonally, two of the anharmonic ratios of the four points of section are

i:tanr -tanr ;

lV’: tan r * tan r’;

7 0; (82)

é

|
[7

;
|
if

419

where /, 7’, are the squares of the sines of half the direct and half the

transverse common tangents of S’, S”.

40. If the circles a, 6, y, be cut orthogonally by J, and denoting
two of the anharmonic ratios (Art. 39) in which

J intersects B, y by X, NX,
J ” Yo % 5, By BK,
J ? a, B I? V; ve
we have
{= tan r’ tan 7”,

t=N tan r’ tan r/’;

and substituting this value of / and corresponding values for m and nin
equation (70), it becomes transformed into

pee) u(Si- M1) 2 eas SE (64)

sll 7 sin 7” sin 7’

and the equations of the other pairs of circles are got from this by pro-
perly accenting A, p, v

41. In equation (84) it will be observed that \, u, v, are anharmonic
ratios, and that sin 7, sin 7’, sin r’, are the results of substituting the
co-ordinates of the poles of the great circles LZ, M, JV, in the equations

S-I?=0; S-M*?=0; S-N?=0.

These considerations will enable us to write down the equations of the
conics in pairs having double contact with the conic S, and touching
the three conics

S-2?=0; S-M=0; S-WN?=0.

42. Since the equations S- Z?=0, S- M?=90, S—-WN?=0, are
the same analytically as the equations of conics having double contact
with a given conic, we can, by means of Arts. 40, 41, write down the
equations of the conics in pairs having double contact with a given
conic, and touching three others also having double contact with the
same given conic. Thus, corresponding to the system of circles a, 6, y,

we have the conics

Si-L=0, S-M=0, §-N=0,
whose common chords are (see Salmon, page 228)

L—-M=0, M-N=0, N-L=0.

420

Let these chords (fig. 8) intersect in O; then from O draw pairs of
tangents to the conics; then it may be proved—but I shall not occupy
space in doing so—that the six points of contact, a, a’; 6b, b’; ¢, c, are
in the circumference of a conic, and denoting two of the anharmonic
ratios, as in Art. 40, of the points

a, a, b, b’, by nr, MN;
Dye OG 2 ye (Bs be;
C, c, a, a, 99 V, Uae
and denoting the results of substituting the co-ordinates of the poles of

the chords of contact Z, UM, N, in the equations ofthe conics S — L? =
S-M?=0, S-N?=0, by P, Q, &, respectively, we have from equa-

tion 84 the following system of equations of pairs of conics, each conic —

having double contact with S, and touching S- L’?=0, S-Mt=
S- WV? =0:—

HED), [FW , (FEM, oy

P Q R
d(S?= Z) - ee YSN) _
eee pint Non ONS (86)
NO@-L) [we (St= a paGeD . |
[SD -oS,-- a

eae, ‘ eae + oe = 0. (88)

43. The system of circles a’, 8, y, have corresponding to them the |

system of conics S4L=0, S-M=0, Si3-N=0; and denoting by
Mi, M1, fy fry 4, #4, Quantities analogous tor, V, w, mw, v, v', of the
last article.

The common chords are L+ M=0, M-N=0, N+LZ=0; and the

system of equations is

MD), fal), |r (=)
ei Se een . J R

STEEL (SM) Sees aoe 5
—— {Sa qe” a0; (90)

MCSD) fin SMD) ae ia
ee vn Quis Mic Ee

Ni(St+L) jr (S?= I) (as Oe. :
es ae o a RP =0; (92)

421
44. The system of circles a, f’ y, have corresponding to them the
system of conics S?-ZL=0, S?+M=0, S:~N=0; common chords,
£+M=0, M+N=0, N-L=0; and let the anharmonic ratios be
No, her flo, fo, Vo, V9,

then the corresponding system of equations is

(ESD), BO, FEM, Gn

P ?
Xe (S?= LZ) He (Si+ 1) yf Ta
i pty a irs di ae meres Or (94)

eRe — Sta (iis
d 2(8 Eye ae wee. 4G, (95)

ie LR
M, (S32 + L) p'o(S2+ A) v,(S?+ IV)
eee: Pappa Oo (96)

45. The system of circles a, f, 9’, have corresponding to them the
system of conics S?-L=0, S?-M=0, S?+N=0; common chords,
~-M—-0, M+N=0, N+ L=0.

Let the anharmonic ratios be

Az, Ns, 35 b's, V3, vos

then the corresponding system of equations is

[SED , ESD, (IB 9, Gy

P
XSL), els IW) ee
ns ei Ne See se ee 2g:
s + 0 ? 5 (98)

ee A), (AGA,
J Pp + aa + R = 0< (99)
| = in + aes (100)

46. We have in the last four articles given the equations of the

_ sixteen pairs of conics having double contact with a given tonic, and

touching three others also having double contact with the same given
conic; and it is evident, from Articles 12, 14, 32, that Dr. Hart’s

_ theorem holds for each of the four systems into which we have written
_ the equations.

R. 1, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 3K

422

47. It may be proved precisely as in Articles 7, 36, that the points
of contact of the pair of conics given by the equation (85) with the
conics S-L?-0, S-M?=0, S- N=0, are constructed by drawing
the three lines

el a a Q(M-N) R(N-L)
XN = fe e v ;

We give in the annexed scheme the entire system of forty-eight
lines for the sixteen pairs of equations :—

1°. For the system of tangential conics (85)-(88) corresponding to
the system of concurrent common chords

L-M=0 M-N=0, N-L=0,
the equations of the lines for constructing the points of contact are

PEI) Ol Non be

a ks = Fae = raha. (101)

se M)_ oar : Es Ly age

P(L-M)_Q(M-)_RW-L). com
nN pe vy

P(L-M)_ Q(u- Nw) RW- L) om
ny 4 v

9°, For the system of conics (89)—(92) corresponding to the system

of concurrent common chords £+M=0, M-N=0, N+L=0, the © |

equations of the lines through the points of contact are
P(L+M) Q(M-N) R(N+L)

fk es co)
ua QUl- Q(M- NV) _ EOE) (106)
1 py vy
PUM) Qt NM) RN EL
i Ve 9 aoe Gor)
P(Lt+H)_ QUt- N)_ R(W+L) (108)
Mu By V;

3°. For the system of conics (93)-(96) corresponding to the system
of concurrent common chords L + M= os M+N=0, N-L=0, of the
conics S—L?=0, S—M?=0, S- N*=0, the equations of the lines
through the points of contact are, 2

phe

| terford.

423

P(L+M) Q(M+N)_ R(N-L)_

a (109)
see) ee ee ee (110)
2 B's vs
P(E+M)_QUE+N)_RW-L)_
eee eee v's ie
PE+tM), QU+N) _ AW-L) 112
N4n C je’, i V2

4°. For the system of conics (97)-(100) corresponding to the sys-
tem of concurrent common chords L-MZ=0, M+N=0, N+L=0,
the lines through the points of contact are

P(L-M) Q(M@+N) R(N+L)

= = 5 113

Ng Ps aS ( )

P(L-M) _ Q(M+N)_ RWW+E). ates
Ng ps ra

P(L-M)_ Q+N) _ RWW+L) A
te Ps Vv

P(L-dL) Q(M+LN) R(N+L)

= SS . (116)

N3 hs Vs

Hence we have a method of describing the sixteen pairs of conics.

In a subsequent paper I shall show that the greater number of the
equations employed in this paper are capable of double inte rpretations,
and also that the methods of demonstration employed can be used with
advantage in other parts of geometry.

G. V. Du Noyer, Senior Geologist, G. 8. 1., M.R.T.A., presented the

- following collection of Drawings from original sketches of various anti-
| quities, to form Vol. VII. ofa similar donation to the Library of the Aca-
, demy.

Eaxrty Irise Aanp Pre-Norman ANTIQUITIES.

No. 1. Cromleac in the townland of Ballynageeragh, county of Wa-
No. 2. Unfinished cromleac near Ballyphillip Bridge, Dunhill Glen,

county of Waterford.*

* For detailed description of these cromleacs and remarks on the classification of an-

' cient Irish earthen and megalithic structures, see a paper, by the same writer, in the

“Kilkenny Archeological Journal” for April, 1866.

424

3. Plan and restoration of St. Bridget’s House, at Faughart, county
of Louth.

This singular structure, which has been erected on a boss of rock
near the old church of Faughart, was a simple dome-shaped stone hut
or cloghaun, in plan resembling an elongated horseshoe, and measuring
12 ft. by 7 ft. 6 in. internally, the doorway, which was 2 feet in depth,
being at the narrow end, and facing to the north-east. This building,
of which nothing now remains but the foundations, evidently bears a
close resemblance to the cell or house of St. Kevin which crowns the
summit of the rocky knoll over the Reafert church at Glendalough—a
structure erected by St. Kevin himself, according to the life of that saint
published by the Bollandists.*

In Vol. LY. of a donation similar to the present I have given a plan of
the house or cloghaun of St. Gobbonet at the old church of Ballyvourney,
county of Cork, “erroneously marked on the Ordnance Survey Map as
‘‘ Base of Round Tower,’’ which, though larger than that of St. Bridget,

ay Re wii =a

is of the same type; and in Vol. V. of the same series I give a view

of the house or church of St. Finan Cam, from the Church Island, in
Waterville Lake, county of Cork, which is also a structure of the clogh-
aun type.

It is noteworthy that, according to the six lives of St. Bridget, attri-
buted to as many ancient authors s, and published by Colgan, it appears
that she was born at Fochard (now Faughart), in the county of Louth,
some time in the middle of the fifth century; and, after passing a
life of celibacy and piety, and in 480 having founded the religious esta-
blishment at Kildare, she died there about the year 523.

Trish archeologists will have no hesitation in accepting the truth
of the local tradition which asserts, that this stone hut was used by
St. Bridget as her cell or house, and the restoration as I have given it is
correct by analogy.

No. 4. Base of the Round Tower at St. Endeus, or Enda, pronounced
by the people on the spot Hanagh, on the Island of Arranmore, in Galway
Bay. The inhabitants of the village of Killeana, which hes at the base

of the rise of the hill on which this tower stood, stated that when the —

tower was perfect they could see across the island to the south from the
top of it, and that it was built to hold the bell of the neighbouring
church. From this we are not to infer that the bell was suspended,
and swung in the tower as in a campanile; but that the tower was

used as the repository of this valued sacred property, amongst other

appliances for which it would be suitable. My late lamented friend
Dr. Petrie, for whom not one who knew him had more sincere feelings
of affection than myself, told me that he recollected seeing this tower
sight of about twenty feet, and that he had conversed
with old p #on the island who recollected seeing it over eighty feet
in height, and some of the upper opes perfect. When I visited the island
in the summer of 1847, I could see but five courses of the masonry. -

* See Petrie’s ‘‘ Essay on the Round Towers,” p. 424.

4295

No. 5. Interior of the window in the south wall of Kilmacduagh, or
the church of St. Colman Mac Duagh at Kilmurvey, on the same island.
This church was erected for St. Colman Mac Duagh by his kinsman,
Guaire Aidhne, King of Connaught, about the year 610.* The flat-
head of this. ope, and its “small proportions externally, are quite
in keeping with other structures of this class, as well as with similar fea-
‘tures in some of our earliest Round Towers.

No. 6. Another window, from the south wall of the nave of the same
church.

No. 7. Interior of St. Kevin’s Church, on the southern of the Islands of
Arran, called Inisheer.{ The view is taken looking under the choir arch
to the doorway in the west gable. The masonry of this church is purely
Etruscan, or, as it has been called, Cyclopean. The doorway is flat-headed,
with converging sides; the choir arch is quite plain, but the imposts from
which it springs are perfectly unique in the style of their decoration.
Their ornamentation resembles a row of short drooping feathers, without
the usual terminal moulding or bead. As well as I remember, this arch
is semicircular, and it is interesting to find such a feature in connexion
with the flat-headed Etruscan doorway. Our Lady’s Church at Glenda-
lough is another example of the occurrence of the semicircular and flat
arch in the same building.

No. 8. Interior view of the small loop or window in the south wall
of the choir ofthe same church. Without doubt, this building may date
to the seventh century.

No. 9. The four grotesque masks carved over each of the windows
atthe summit of the Round Tower on Devenish Island and the associated
decorative carving on the string course over the windows, and just be-
low the springing of the conical roof of the tower.

Nos. 10, 11, 12. Three views of a sculptured granite plinth of a
eross, from near the old castle of Ould Court, county of Dublin. Iknow
of no better example in Ireland showing how decorative carving is mo-
dified in its character by the materials used, than in thisinstance. The
designs are boldly and simply produced without any attempt at details
unsuitable to the roughness of the material. These consist of figures
of men and animals, brought to relief by sinking the field of the stone

* Guaire Aidhne, King of Connaught, lived at Gort, which was anciently called
Gort Insi Guaire, or the Field of Guairie’s Island.— W. M. Hennessy.

t See Petrie’s ‘‘ Essay,’ p. 176.

{ The origin of the form Inisheer has not yet been explained. It is this:—The
ancient epithet was Zarnairther, as may be seen from a passage in the ‘‘ Book of Inva-
sions” (A. D. 856), where the expression “‘o Dun Cermna co hArainn Jarnairthir” occurs.
Tn the parallel entry the “‘ Four Masters” call it simply airther. Now, if we compare
the form iartuais-cerddach (gl. etesiarum, z. 777) with the same word glossed euro
—aquilo (‘‘ Book of Armagh,” 188, b. 2), we ’ shall find that ¢ tarnairther means south-east,
In this formula iar expresses a position after the cardinal point with which it is con-
nected, and before the next cardinal point, reckoning sunwise. Comp. the Lat. post-
meridianus, post-autumnalis, &c. ‘Thus iartuais-cerddach will mean north-east, and
tarnairther, south-east ; but this tarnairther having become unintelligible, er was
omitted; and thus we have Ara Lar, or Inis Liar (hodie Inisheer).—J. O’B. Crowe.

426

around them, and were doubtless suggested by some prominent events
during the life of the patron saint of the place, or the king of the district.
One side of the plinth bears a human figure standing erect, and battling
with rampant animals, one on either side of him ; the device below thisI
cannot unravel. Another side represents two animals like horses, with
their necks and fore legs crossed, as if fighting, while two men stand by,
one in the act of bending forward as if to separate the animals, andthe ~

other standing erect, enveloped inacloak. Below thisis a single hunter ~

with two dogs running before him, and each trying to catch a long-billed
bird like a pelican, which 1s represented in the act of running, and not
flying away from its pursuers. The third face has its upper compart-
ment divided into an arcade of four arches, under two of which are hu-
man figures, face to face, as if conversing; and beneath the two other —
arches is a man on horseback trotting away from the conference; below
this are two animais like horses facing each other, and looking down on
a triquatra ornament, while over one of the horses is a human mask.
It is not easy to assign a date to this work, which however, from the
truncated pyramidal form of the plinth, and the shortness and plump-

ness of the human figures, may very possibly date back to the tenth or _

eleventh century.

No. 13. Exterior view of the east window of St. Fingin’s Church at
Clonmacnoise—a building possibly of the early part of the twelfth cen-
tury.*

No. 14. Exterior view of the lowest ope of the Round Tower of St.
Fingin’s Church, Clonmacnoise.

No. 15. Do. of the second window from the basement of the same
tower.

Nos. 16 to 25. The following ten illustrations are taken from the

sculpturings on the cross at Clonmacnoise known as that of King Fland, y

according to the ‘‘Annals of the Four Masters,”’ and an inscription in the

Irish character on the plinth of the cross, now unhappily defaced by |

time. of
The first illustration which I have selected is taken from the lowest |

compartment on the east face of the cross; it represents King Fland and |
the abbot Colman Conaillech, who together founded the Church of the |

Kings in A.D. 909, making a compact by swearing on the cross or pas-
toral staff of the saint. The costume of the king is exceedingly inte-
resting; his head is covered by a flat and bordered close-fitting cap,
from beneath which the hair falls behind over the shoulders in a
massive club, ending ina ball; and over the ears there is a globose orna-
ment, which is possibly attached to the skullcap; the moustache is
heavy and plain, and the beard is long, and plaited toa point; the arms
and legs are bare; and the body is clothed in a tunic which reaches no
farther than above the knees, where it is bordered by a row of small
disks below a zigzag ornament; a broad strap is suspended over the
right shoulder, and joins on to a waistbelt, into which is thrust a

—$—<——$————

* Petrie, p. 269.

427

broad and short sword with a plain crossguard, and a very massive
semicircular pomell, quite resembling in outline those iron swords said
fo be Danish, and which were found in the old burying ground at
} Bully’s-acre near Islandbridge, Dublin. From the evidence afforded
| by the sculpturings on most of our tenth, eleventh, and twelfth century
decorated crosses such swords are clearly Irish, though others similar
_ in shape were no doubt used by the Danes during the lengthened pe-
riod they held possession of Dublin and the eastern coast of Ireland.

The figure of St. Colman represents him as a young, smooth-faced.
| man, attired in a round, narrow-rimmed hat ; a short cloak with a large
' hood hanging behind; a long gown reaching to the ankles, and fringed
+ with a row of disks between two narrow bands; and his feet are pro-
__ bably bare.

The cross is covered with the veilum, or scarf, and, with the staff,
+ reaches to the full height of the figures, which grasp it with the right and
left hands alternately.

No. 17. The next illustration affords a still further insight into the
, regal and secular costume of that period. It represents King Fland, who
can always be recognised by his broad plaited beard, standing on the
_ right hand side of another king or chieftain, and joining hands with him.
On this occasion the king is enveloped in a long mantle, bordered by pel-
| lets, and fastened on his right breast below the shoulder by a large
fibula, pierced with four circles to form a cross; the lower portion of the
figure is enveloped in a long garment, reaching to the ankles, and belted
: round the waist; the sword belt is thrown over the left shoulder out-
side the cloak, and the sword hangs in front over the cloak, as if ready
|| for immediate use. The adjoining figure to the left of the king is, like
| him, bare headed, with the hair curled over the ears; the moustache
a is heavy, with the ends curled up, the beard is bi-forked, with the ends
} curled up like those of the moustache; his dress isin all respects similar
| to that of the king, but that a portion of the inner garment is looped up
| im front and caught by the waistbelt, so as to form a sort of philibeg;
| the sword is exterior to the cloak, and is either attached to the waist-
) belt, or held naked in the left hand, just below the crossguard—the latter
) being the most probable explanation.

: It would appear that the sculptor miscalculated the length of the
space to be occupied by the figures, and was obliged therefore to omit the

feet of both effigies.

| No. 18. This and the following four illustrations, no doubt, record

_ some remarkable events in the life of King Fland, and I thus venture to

explain them:—

There came up the Shannon to visit the court of King Fland, at
| Clonmacnoise, a wandering minstrel from Greece, or perhaps from Rome;
| his special instrument was the triple flageolet, and he played before the
king and his assembled courtiers; the tones which he produced by much
| physical effort, as his inflated cheeks and swollen eyes attest, though
. pleasing to himself, were by no means appreciated by the Irish audience;

| and the witty sculptor, while he recorded the remarkable fact of the ad-

428

vent of the foreigner, satirized his performance by likening it tothe squall-
ing of two cats tied together by the hind legs and tails; while the lower
notes of the fiageolet resembled such unheard-of tones as might be pro-
duced by a learned animal of the canine species, if he could convert his ~
own body into a bagpipe, and make his tail the chanter. The dress of ©
the musician is quite unlike any costume I have seen on any of our ©
sculptured crosses ; it consists of a simple long robe, reaching to the feet
which are bare; the sleeves very wide at the elbow, but closely confined ~
at the wrists; the hair is divided at the forehead, and falls long and
straight down the back from one shoulder to the other. ¥

No. 19. It would appear that at this time the court of King Fland
was graced by the presence of a female harpist of much grace and ~
beauty; she is here represented as seated with her harp on her knee;
she is clothed in a long flowing dress, reaching to the ankles, and a short
cloak, the hood of which is modestly brought round the face, and hangs
in a graceful curve down her back. Her performance must have been
of the highest order, and the whole expression of the figure conveys the
idea that the last chord of some thrilling melody has just been struck,
and the performer looks round for the accustomed applause. So effec-
tive were the melodies of the harpist, that the spirit of ennus and discord, |
typified by a crouching big-headed, horned monster, with its tail abjectly
rolled up along its fianks, is placed beneath this figure which tramples
upon it. Mi

No. 20. In the compartment over the harpist we have another effigy |
of St. Colman, but seated, as forming one of the audience at the court |
concert; his right hand grasps a short cambutta, or pastoral staff, witha |
crooked head; a short scolloped mantle envelopes his shoulders, and di- —
rectly over his head is a cherubim with expanded wings. fies

In this sculpturing, I think, we have expressed the delight of Si)
Colman at the performances of the female minstrel, which to his poy |
etic imagination resembled the voices of an angelic choir.

Here I must pause for a moment, to remark that till I saw this mal
sculpturing I had but little respect for a cherubim, as I classed it with
the cingue cento and Rococo ornaments of the Elizabethan era: here, —
however, we can trace its pedigree back to the ninth or tenth century, —
and we find it associated at that time with the saints and magnates of
the land.

No. 21. In this sculpturing we have St. Colman seated in an arm
chair: in his right hand he holds hislarge cross, and with the end of it
he strikes the face of a prostrate figure, “apparently clothed in no other
garment than ashort mantle. Can this represent the punishment or ex- |
pulsion of some offender from the court of King Fland? for the scene is |
too circumstantial to be merely allegorical. |

No. 22. Here we again see King Fland and his companion (as illus- |
trated in Fig. 17), each being identified, the one by his plaited beard, and |
the other by his heavy curled-up moustache. St. Colman is seated |
between them in conclave, as if urging them on to some joint mode of |
action; in his right hand the saint holds the short cambutta with the |

429

erutch head, formed by a double crook which appears to have been the
third kind of ecclesiastical staff used by the early Irish bishops, and of
which we find many examples on our sculptured crosses and illuminated
MSS. ; this he holds towards the figure opposite King Fland, who grasps
it with hisright hand, the saint extending his left hand to the king, and
presenting to him something like a small box; but this portion of the
carving is very obscure. ;
In the foregoing two illustrations we no doubt have representations of
_ some remarkable event in the life of King Fland.
No. 23. This sculpturing appears to represent the guarding of the se-
pulchre, and the ascent of our Lord—the Roman soldiers being, of course,
_ dressed in the costume and with the arms of the Irish gallowglass of
the ninth and tenth centuries; these consist of a conical helmet, a short
stout spear, a belted tunic reaching to just above the knees, the arms
- and legs being bare; neither figure is bearded, though the moustache is
worn, which may either imply that the men were young, or that the
beard was not allowed to the common soldier, which is, I think, the most
correct explanation.

Over the head of the small central figure is the nambus, and above it
a circle with a descending dove within it, typifying the Holy Spirit; and
to this subject I shall presently return.

No. 24. This sculpturing is obscure in its meaning, and is merely
_ given as affording another example of the arms and costume of the gal-
_lowglass, which agree with that just noticed.

No. 25. Sculpturing on the soffit of the circle of the cross; it re-
presents two human masks inclosed by two serpents wound together in
_ an §-shape form; and it is quite evident that the sculptor drew on his
imagination for the figures of the serpents, as he appended ears to them
like those of a ruminant, and a spreading fantail like that of the salmon
-and perch. Above this device is an extended hand, coupé at the wrist,
and surrounded by a circle, decorated, like the bodies of the serpents,
with a row of small disks.

I have seen it stated that in the Greek or Eastern Church the bishop
gives the benediction by extending the outstretched hand. Can we
suppose, therefore, that the outstretched hand in this as well as in other
| similar examples is emblematic of the benediction bestowed on the
eross when it left the hands of the sculptor ?

No. 26. The sketch on the right hand side of this sheet represents
the dove and nimbus, described as surmounting the head of our Lord
/in the sculpturing numbered 23; and to this feature I wish to direct
your special attention, inasmuch as I believe that here we have the
/ original idea which suggested the cross formed by the intersection of
four parts of circles, or the cross of eight points which is essentially both
Irish and Greek. By the side of this figure I give the cross derivable from
it, and which I propose to call the dove cross.
| In the following illustration, No. 27, this cross, in combination with

that having straight arms, gives us the typical form of the Irish stan-
| dard cross.
R. I, A, PROC.—YOL. IX. 31

430

On the tombstone of Luguaedon Mac Clmenueh, the nephew of St.
Patrick, figured by Dr. Petrie in his work on the Round Towers, this
fanning or spreading out of the arms of the crossis expressed by the bi-
furcation of the straight arms of the cross. On many of our early ogham
pillar stones we have the cross of eight points, and we possess an
instance of this kind in our own collection of antiquities.* In such
standard crosses as that of St. Nen, or Nenidius, on Inishmacsaint
Island in Lough Erne, figured in Vol. II.. of this series, we have this
form of cross, but without the circle or aureole, which was not essen-
tialin its true character. When, however, the dove crossis surrounded

by the aureole or circle, with the straight-armed or Latin cross project-_

4
Sa et oe

ing beyond it, as in Fig. 27, the cross attains its full development, and

typifies the Divinity as well as the humanity of our Lord.

T had long sought for the origin of the cross and circle, as seen on
our monuments, and I believe that I have found it in the figure of the
outstretched dove from the cross of Clonmacnoise.

No. 28. The dove is frequently sculptured on our decorated crosses,
as emblematic of the Holy Spirit. Thus, in the example now given,
from the shaft of the headless cross in the graveyard at Kells, im the

county of Meath, which represents the baptism of Christ, the bird ap-

pears in the act of alighting on one of the bulbs of the water lily placed
beneath the male figure as emblematic of river water.

Nos. 29, 30, 31. Ancient tomb slabs from Clonmacnoise; the church-

yard of Kells, county of Meath; and the old abbey in the demesne of

Castle Archdallin the county of Fermanagh. These three examples of |
early Christian tombstones are all remarkably alike, and exhibit the |
cross of eight points, or the dove cross inclosed in the circle, thus show- |
ing how elen and how widespread over the island was’ ecclesiastical 5 |

fastet in such matters.

No. 32. View of the stone-covered holy well called Tobar- na- Dra oo
(Well of the Druidess), + or Clon Tubrid (Retreat of the Well), in the
county of Kilkenny, from a sketch kindly supplied to me by the Rev. |
James Graves. This structure, like others of the same class, resembled |

in miniature an ancient chureh or oratory with high-pitched roof.

No. 33. Carved stone at or near to the holy well just named, and
which is also taken from a sketch by the Rev. James Graves; this re-
presents a female figure enveloped in a long mantle; the effigy is im

high relief from the stone, which is carved around it into a heart-shaped

form, with a broad and raised border. It is remarkable that this is the
third example I have found of a heart-shaped stone being connected with
early ecclesiastical remains—one is at the old church of St. Mologga,

* See Vol. I. of this series.

+N. B.—Tobar na Druad must be written as three separate words. The article |
na is feminine; therefore Druidess is meant. If Druid was meant, we should have m |

Opuad; and if Druids were meant, we should have na n -Onuad, gen. plur.

Clon Lubrid.—The word cluain, applied both in a secular and religious sense to 80 if

many places in Ireland, has not yet been explained. It is a feminine 7-stem = clddni, |
and having the same meaning and root as the Lat. elauswra (= claudtura), a spot enclosed

either naturally or artificially.— Vid. Du Cange, sub claud-, claus-, &e.—J. 0’ B. Crows,

431

ealled Labba Mollogga iu the county of Cork, (see Vol. V. of this series),
now figured

No. 34. And the third I have already illustrated in connexion with
the details of the old church of Kilmalkedar in the county of Kerry,
Vol. V. of this series. The occurrence of stones carved in this peculiar form
in places so remote from each other is somewhat remarkable, and there
must have been some peculiar meaning attached to them, with which we
| areat present not acquainted. At Kilmalkedar I was informed that this
| heart-shaped stone was originally placed on the apex of the west gable,
and that it was thrown down in a storm; it is quite possible that this
was the original purpose for which these stones were intended, and, if so,
we have discovered the correct device for the completion of the west
gable of churches up to the early part of the twelfth century at least, a
point in early Irish ecclesiastical architecture hitherto undefined.

No. 35. Exterior view of the doorway of the old church of Clona-
mery, or Killamery in the county of Kilkenny, from a sketch by the
Rey. James Graves. This doorway, which is flat-headed, with converg-
ing sides, is strictly Etruscan in its style of masonry; it is surrounded
by araised broad flat band, which does not appear to have been completed
down the lower half of the southern jamb of the door; from the upper
| part of this band, where it crosses the lintel, a broad flat moulding pro-
| jects vertically across the lintel, and joins on to a cross of eight points
(the dove cross), also flat, but in relief, and carved on the adjoining stone.
| From the general similarity of this doorway to that of the old
} church of St. Fechin’s at Fore, in the county of Westmeath, figured in
| Vol. VI. of this series, and also to that of the Round Tower of Lusk, in
the county of Dublin,* we are safe in assigning the date of this doorway
to the seventh or eighth century.

No. 86. Plan of the doorway of the old church of Killeshin, in the
Queen’s County, near Cariow.

No. 37. Engraved ornament, drawn to the full size, on the soffit of

} the inner arch of the doorway of Killeshin old church.

: No. 38. Decorations at either side of the jam of the doorway of the

same old church.

No. 89. Engraved ornament on the soffit of the outer arch of the
_ doorway of the same old church.
| No. 40. Exterior view of the window in the north wall of the same

old church. This ope, which is of slender proportions, and semicircular-
| headed, is surrounded by a remarkably broad and projecting flat mould-
ing, terminating in a flat-sided pointed arch, cut out of one stone. The
) inner eastern edge of this band has been cut, for a portion of its length,
| into a round pilaster, without a cap or base—thus showing that the
| decorations of the window were never completed, and assisting to prove
im a remarkable manner the truth of the historical fact recorded of this
|) church, that the architect quarrelled with the founder, and left the build-
_ Ing unfinished.+

* See Vol. IV. of this series. + See ‘‘ Annals of the Four Masters.”

432

No. 41. Plan of Killeshin old church.

No. 42. Plan of the old church of Maghera, county of Derry.

No. 43. Details of the mouldings of the doorway and east window
of the old church of Maghera, county of Derry.

No. 44. Plan of the priests’ house attached to the old church of
Maghera.

No. 45. Interior view of the choir and east gable of the old church
on Holm Patrick, Skerry Island, Skerries, county of Dublin.*

This structure, which is probably of the twelfth century, or early in
the thirteenth, has the choir stone-roofed and groined, being pierced
at the east end by two semicircular-headed windows, so far apart as to
allow a narrow semicircular-headed niche between them. All the win-
dow casings, as well as the quoins of the main building, are of cale
tufa—a material sometimes used in the construction of twelfth and
thirteenth century churches, as in the roof of Cormac’s Chapel at Cashel.

This stone, from its porosity, is remarkably light, and from its exposed

position at this locality is externally decayed, though singularly sound,
all circumstances considered.

No. 46. Exterior view ofthe window of the north wall of the chan- 3 |

cel of the same church.
No. 47. Plan of the same old church. ie
No. 48. Exterior view of the doorway in the west gable of the old
church of Clone, in the county of Wexford, near Ferns. Bi

As in the doorway of the old church of Maghera, wehave hereafineex-

ample of the transition style of church architecture between the eleventh —
and thirteenth centuries. The form of the outer portion of the door is ~
essentially ancient, while the surrounding moulding, with the surmount-
ing semicircular arch, is clearly in the style of the thirteenth century. ~
We have now no means of judging what was the exact character of the —
external arch; it was, however, formed of stones not bonded into the —
masonry of the gable, and in this respect resembled the arch over the —

doorway ofthe Round Tower of Dromiskin, near Dundalk.| We know, | |
however, that the arch was decorated round its outer margin by five hu-
man heads, four of which are still 7m situ, the fifth being placed over St. |
Edan’s Well, opposite to the present parish church of Ferns. The headat
the crown of the arch is that of a bishop or mitred abbot; lower down, on |

the north side, is the head of the king or chieftain; and on the opposite —

corresponding side that of the queen, or wife of the chieftain: at the |
springing of the arch, on the north side, is the head of what we may” |

suppose to be the architect, and which is now to be seen over St. Edan’s — |
Well; and at the corresponding side is a grotesque face, andon the stone |

* During a recent visit to Holm Patrick, I found with regret that the groined roof of

the choir had fallen in, and a roughly constructed cattle shed, or possibly a dwelling place, —

had been erected out of the materials forming the west. gable and part of the side walls E u
of the church. From wanton destruction and neglect, this interesting remain will sol a |

be a shapeless mass of ruins.
+ See Vol. III. of this series.

:
.
3

2) ee SS

433

next above it is the figure of a short-tailed dog. We may suppose this
portrait to be that of the court jester, the local Yorick of his day, and
possibly the master of the hounds.

No. 49. Interior view of the same doorway, showing the presence of
a relieving arch at the inner surface of the gable.

No. 50, Sketch of a smooth block of finely porphyritic Diorite,
lying on the rise of ground close to the old church of Clone. This block
bears in delicately incised lines the cross of eight points formed by the

_ intersection of four parts of circles, and inclosed in a circle. The pre-

sence of such a cross as this on a smoothed boulder proves the fact,
that the site of Clone church was selected for a religious establishment

_ many centuries before the present structure was erected—indeed, most

probably during the life time of St. Edan, who died in the seventh cen-
i a

No. 51. The ancient font at Clone church, which is undoubtedly of
equal age with the cross just described. This rude vessel is cut out of
a block of greenish trappean ash, and resembles in general character
those frequently found attached to some of our oldest churches, and

called Bullauns by the peasantry of the South and West of Ireland.

ANGLO-NORMAN ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHITECTURE.
No. 52. Effigy in chain mail from the nave of Christ Church Cathe-

} dral, Dublin. Till lately this knightly effigy was supposed to be that
| of De Clare, Earl Strongbow, who died at the close of the twelfth cen-
| tury; but, as I have long ere this stated, the occurrence here of the
» rowelled spur is strong evidence against its being a work of the twelfth
} century, the earliest example of a spur of this form, according to
| Planché, being first observed on the seal of Henry III., 1216.}

_ The Rev. James Graves, in a most admirable memoir on this effigy,

lately ‘published in ‘‘The Gentleman’s Magazine,” has shown con-

clusively that the coat of arms displayed on the shield of this effigy,
yiz., in chief, three crosses, pattee, fitchée, are not those of the De Clare
family, Karls of Pembroke, their arms being either three chevrons, or
chevronée. Which of the Norman knights is here pourtrayed has
therefore yet to be determined. I need not describe the armour further
than to remark that the knee caps of plate—genouilitieres—with the
close-fittine ‘‘chapeau de fer,” indicate a change from the pure or un-
mixed mail, to the plate armour of Italy.

No. 58. Side view of this effigy, showing the armorial bearings on
the shield.

No. 54. Carving on a small slab of sandstone, sixteen to eighteen

‘inches square, from the old church of Annagh, county of Kerry, repre-

* For a notice.and illustration of the old church and Round Tower of St. Edan, see

| Vol. VI. of this series.

_ + See “‘ Journal of the Archeological Institute” for June, 1845, memoir by the writer

} om the cross-legged effigies at Cashel, county of Tipperary.

*

434

senting a knight on horseback, standing in his stirrups, with both arms 2

extended, the right hand holding the sword, as if leading on his follow- t

ers to battle. This is evidently a work of the twelfth century atthe

latest, as is proved by the presence of the spike spur, which is not

fastened to the heel, but strapped round the ankle. The form of the -

crossguard of the sword is also twelfth century; and it is singular
that the figure is accoutred without a scabbard. The form of the hel-
met is obscure, owing to the upper portion of the head having been _

broken away. ‘The body is clothed in a surcoat reaching to below the Es

knee in massive plaits, the waist is belted. The saddle is peaked
in front and rear, reaching high above the waistbelt; the shoulders
and the greater part of the neck of the horse are protected by a thick

tight-fitting covering, fastened to the bow of the saddle, the forehead of } |
the animal being guarded by a rectangular plate of metal, apparently

fastened to an inner neck-and-headguard, passing beneath the shoulder _

armour just described. ‘There is the appearance of a bit in the horse’s o
mouth ; and the bridle, which is represented as single, passes beneath the —_

neck armour. It is probable that this sculpturing formed a portion of

a tomb erected to one of the Irish chieftains who fell in battle against
the English invaders, or an equally hated neighbouring chieftain, asif-
is not at all probable that an English or Anglo-Norman knight would
have acquired such a social standing as this tomb would indicate in such
a remote district as this to the west of Tralee, at the close of the |

twelfth century.*

No. 55. Effigy of St. Christopher, from a carving in high relief on i
limestone, preserved, when I saw it, in the Pilltown Museum, and stated |
to have been taken from Jerpoint Abbey. Thesaintishere represented |
as standing in the water, leaning on his budding staff, which is grasped
in his right hand, while he bears the infant Saviour on his left arm and |
shoulder; the water is expressed by zigzag lines crossing his legs, and |
the lower end of the staff; and also by the outline of a fish on the field |
of the stone to the left of the figure. The cap of St. Christopher, which

has a low round crown and a broad upright rim, is the only characte-

ristic feature in the costume, and it fixes the date by the carving at the - @
thirteenth century. St. Christopher’s hair falls in flowing curls over |
his shoulders; his face is without the moustache, but he wears a care- |

fully curled beard beneath his shaven chin. His body is clothed in a
long-sleeved garment, the ends of which are looped up, and thrown over
his left arm; beneath this is a loose tunic reaching to the knees. The
bead of the infant Saviour is surrounded by the nimbus: and his right

hand and arm are raised in the act of giving the benediction to St. Chris- oI

topher.
The legend of St. Christopher is one of exceeding quaintness, and
contains a sound moral; and, as it is not generally known, I venture to

* See notice of this effigy in the “‘ Kilkenny Archeological Journal,” vol. il. “ae * ae
1853, p. 39, by Richard Hitchcock, Esq. oh

435

give its leading facts, extracted from an admirable paper on this sub-

ject by Messrs. Dennet and Barton, of the Isle of Wight, and published

in “The Archelogical Association Journal” for August, 1847, as explana-
tory of a mural painting discovered atShorewell Church in April, 1847.
The authors take for their authority Caxton’s edition of ‘‘ The Golden
Legend,” printed in the year 1483, and translated by him from Jacobus
de Voragine.

«< St. Christopher was of right great stature, with a terrible and fear-
ful countenance, and he was twelve cubits in length. He was in the ser-
vice of the king, but it came into his mind that he would seek the
greatest prince, and him only would he obey.” Accordingly, he travels
till he comes to one sovereign who is renowned as the greatest in the
world ; in his service he stays till upon a time a minstrel ‘‘ song to fore
him a song in which he named the devil oft ;”’ and the king, which
was a Christian man, when he heard him name the devil, made anon
the sign of the cross. Christopher asks the reason of this; and, on
learning that it was to protect him from the power of evil, concludes
that the devil is mightier far than the king, whom he therefore leaves,

‘saying, ‘I will go to search him [the devil] to be my lord, and him

will I serve.”

In journeying over the desert he meets a great company of knights;
and one of them, with a cruel and horrible countenance, tells him
that he is the power he seeks. They journey on till they come to a
eross; and the devil, in sore affright, leaves the direct road in which it

| stands. This excites Christopher’s curiosity, who, discovering the

¢rue reason for this fear, exclaims, ‘‘I have laboured in vain; I will
serve thee no longer, for I will go seek Jesus Christ.”
He travels then into a desert, and meets a hermit, who instructs

him in Christianity, and ultimately places him beside a rapid river,

where many perish who try to cross it, to bear over travellers harm-
less,. because he is of gigantic stature and strength. Christopher then

_ bare a great pole in his hand, instead of a staff, by which he sustained

him in the water; and bare over all manner of people without ceasing.

One night, as he slept on his bed, he heard the voice of a child
calling him. Then Christopher ‘‘lyft up the child on his shoulders,
and took his staff, and entered into the ryver for to passe;’’? and the
water of the river rose more and more, and the child was heavy as
lead; and alway he went further, the water increased, and the child
more and more waxed heavy, so that Christopher had great anguish,
and was afraid to be drowned.’”’ When he had escaped to the other side,
he set the child aground, and said, ‘‘ Thou hast put mein great peril;

_ thou wast almost as I had all the world upon me.” And the child

answered, ‘“‘Thou hast not only borne all the world, but thou hast

| borne Him that made all the world, upon thy shoulders. I am the

Christe the King, to whom thou servest in thy worke.”’ And, as a
token of the truth, he tells him that, if he sets his staff in the earth by

| his house, it shall grow; and when he arose in the morning, he found

his staff like a palmyer tree, bearing flowers, leaves, and dates.

436

Christopher now travels to Lycia, and converts many by the exhi-
bition of this miracle, until the king condemns him to death. He was
accordingly bound to a strong stake, and forty archers were ordered to
‘‘ shotten him through with arrows.’ None of the knights, however,
might attain him; for the arrows hung in the air around him. Then
the king, thinking that he had been executed, went towards him,
when one of the arrows turned suddenly in the air, and smote him in
the eye, and blinded him. Christopher tells him he may recover his
sight by mixing his blood with clay, which, after the decapitation of
the saint, he does, and recovers,

The writers go on to say that figures of St. Christopher are not
uncommon, either painted on the walls or on glass, in churches. It
was a popular superstition, common to all Catholic countries, which
induced people to believe that the day on which they should see a
figure of this saint they should neither meet with a violent death, nor
die without confession... The Squire, in Chaucer’s ‘‘ Canterbury Tale,”
wore ‘‘a christofre on his breast of silver sheen,’ for the same reason.

At the lower compartment of the fresco painting, on the right side,
St. Christopher is represented as alive, and bound naked to his own
staff, which resembles a budding tree; and his body and legs are pierced
with innumerable arrows, shot by two archers, who stand one at either
side of him. This is one way of illustrating the miracle that he was
not killed by being so pierced. In the distance the king is seen |
standing looking on at the execution, attended by his sword-bearer
and hawker; and one of the arrows is represented as striking him in
the eye.

In the year 1847 I visited Knockmoy Abbey, in the county of
Galway, and sketched the fresco painting on the north wall of the
chancel, which is familiar to all Irish archeologists, and to which
allusion is made in ‘‘The Dublin Penny Journal;” and in a short
memoir, by the Rev. Dr. Todd and Professor O’Curry, in the ‘‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Academy” (vol. vi., p. 8); and, lastly, in the first
volume of Sir W. Wilde’s ‘‘Catalogue of the Academy Museum ”’

. old).

4 oe compartment of this fresco painting represents a living
naked figure bound to a palm tree, and pierced in the body and legs with
many arrows, shot by two archers, one at either side. In the Catalogue
of the Academy this painting is called the Martyrdom of St. Sebastian |
—an idea which is merely a repetition of a previously expressed opinion
of Dr. Todd, who, in conjunction with Mr. O’Curry, detected the date
(1400) in a black letter inscription on a portion of the painting alluded
to. Any one conversant with the costume prevalent during the reign of
Richard I1.—1377 to 13899—would assign the date of the fresco paint-
ing to the close of the fourteenth century—an idea happily confirmed
by the discovery of the date upon it.

With all respect to the two high authorities just named, I must dis-
agree with them in believing that the Knockmoy figure represents the
martyrdom of St. Sebastian. Without doubt it represents the martyr-

437

dom of St. Christopher, as is almost proved by the fact that the figure
is represented as alive, and bound to a budding tree, the miraculous staff
of the saint.

In all the representations of the martyrdom of St. Sebastian which
I have seen, the figure is represented as in the last gasp of life, and
seated on the sround, or in the act of falling from a standing position.

Dr. Todd, in the notice alluded to, states that the name of St.
Sebastian does not occur in the Martyrology of “The Four Masters.”

From the foregoing remarks, I think, we may safely conclude that
the martyrdom of St. Christopher is the subject of the lower compart-
ment of the Knockmoy fresco.

No. 56. Inscription in Anglo-Norman letters, from the wall of the
episcopal castle of Fethard, in the county of Wexford, drawn to the full
size. My friend the Rev. James Graves, to whom I am indebted for
having brought me to see this inscription, sent me a sketch of it in the
year 1863, informing me at the same time that a sculptured cross, stand-
ing in the courtyard of Carerew Castle, in Pembrokeshire, bore an in-
scription so similar to this as to lead to the belief that they must have
been copied from the same MS. transcript. He stated that it never
had been deciphered, and asked a reading of it. I believe it may be
translated as follows :—

Mas: (contracted): ‘‘Magistére,” or the major domo of the castle.

Oic : Lies

€c1 : (phonetic) Here.

Cpe: (contracted): Tréfoncier. The proprietor of the estate.

Cec : This.

C : Tombstone.

f&: Fecit, or Fecerunt.

This reading attempts the solution of a problem hitherto unsolved,
and would be accepted by some of my antiquarian friends if I could
account for the occurrence of a similar inscription on the Carerew cross.
This I think is not just, as I have nothing to say to the cross in ques-
tion, and know not what connexion there existed between the Anglo-
Norman proprietor of the domain of Fethard in the twelfth or thirteenth
century, the supposed date of the inscription, and the owner of Carerew
Castle at the same period.

No. 57. Inscription in debased Anglo-Norman characters, from a
slab set into the south sidewall of the chancel of Christ Church Cathe-
dral, Dublin. It is remarkable that, though each letter of this inscrip-
tion is perfect, and each word defined by three dots, no person to whom

have submitted it has attempted to read more of it than is evident to
any one. I doubt that it is older than the sixteenth century, from the

form of the letters A. N. and T., and the frequent joining together of the

letters A. M. and A. R., whichis so characteristic of the period to which
T allude.

The name Ion .. Luaparp is very plain at the beginning of the in-

‘eription, and the second line comprises the words DE : PARME; & :

R. I. A. PROC.—-VOL, IX. 3M

458

DAME : RAME : PERIS : followed by pz : sEIDT : sAvMDVR ? whichin
sound resembles de Saint Saviour, the last words being MURUNT :
GIEINT : 1011, possibly meaning having died, lies here. The last four
letters are obscure; for they could not possibly represent the date 1011
in Arabic numerals. The Rey. James Graves thinks the inscription is
in Italian, which is quite possible.

No. 58. View of the Anglo-Norman tower erected at the extremity
of the Hook promontory, county of Wexford.

This magnificent structure has been converted into a lighthouse, by
the addition of a small circular turret, surmounted by the lantern—a
purpose for which I have very little doubt the tower itself was origi-
nally constructed.

The main tower, which is about 70 feet in height, is circular with-
out, but square within, the intervening spaces being occupied by a
winding staircase, and small rectangular rooms leading off the central
vaulted apartments. It is stated that De Courcy was the builder of.
this tower.

All history and traditions assert that Karl De Clare or Strongbow
landed in 1170 or so, on the shore of the Waterford estuary, and ac-
cording to the latest authorities, at Crook, opposite to Duncannon.

To the north of Hook, at Bag-in-bun Head, an earthen fosse and —
mound, which span the promontory from shore to shore, are pointed out
as the site of Strongbow’s entrenchment, and a rectangular depression
in the sod, the place where his tent was pitched. I have no doubt that
this spot was occupied by the Anglo-Normans at the time of their inva-
sion, who found there an ancient Irish entrenchment, which they
utilized ; but it certainly is not the place where any landing of troops
could be effected, as the entire coast is here rocky and precipitous.*

No. 59. Foliated head of a cross carved in relief on a tomb slab in _ |
Fethard church, county of Wexford. |

No. 60. View of Ferrycarrick Castle, county of Wexford.

No. 61. Plan of the basement floor of the same.

No. 62. View of Ballymoon Castle, county of Carlow, looking N. W.

No. 63. Interior view of the same, looking 8. E. This castle was
erected in the year 1300 by the Knights Templars, just four years be-
fore the suppression of the order by Edward I. In plan it is a simple
parallelogram, with walls of six or seven feet in thickness, sufficient to |
receive fireplaces, and recessed loopholes. A massive square tower |
of two arched rooms projects from the south wall, which is so far pro- |
longed beyond the face of the east wall as to form a small flanking, |

turret. The centre of the east wall is further protected by a small pro- |”

jecting angular tower. The archeres, or loops, for either long or cross |

bow are remarkably characteristic of the Edwardian architecture, as |

are also the flat-pointed arch and flat-compressed arch of the various in- |

* The small expedition, consisting of five Welsh vessels, headed by Robert Fitz Ste- |
phen, landed, according to Giraldus Cambrensis, at Bannow Island in A. D. 1169, prior |
to the arrival of De Clare with the main army,

439

ternal recesses. The wall was probably never much over fifteen or
eighteen feet in height; but the tower, or keep, may have reached to
thirty feet, or more.

In the “‘ Dictionary of Military Architecture of the Middle Ages in
France,” by M. Violet le Duc, he shows that massive wooden struc-
tures entered largely into the construction of the castles of the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, not only in the interior of such
walls as those forming Ballymoon Castle, but along their summits. With-
out doubt, this effective mode of defence was adopted here after the
most approved fashion; for the low walls of Ballymoon could offer but
feeble obstruction to any determined escalade. The wall defences, there-
fore, probably consisted of a wide projecting covered gallery, resting on
massive beams placed transverse to the wall, and called hoarding, thus
making every portion of the wall impregnable to all modes of attack
except that of fire, which the garrison, no doubt, knew how to resist.*

That our medieval castles were thus protected by external wood
work, forming galleries round the summit of the walls, is clearly
proved at Trim Castle, where, two years since, I detected the ends of mas-
sive oak beams, broken short off, and filling large external putlock holes
which surround the summit of the keep in two regular rows, far apart,
the lower being for the struts, and the upper for the flooring of the
galleries.

Thus we can understand the peculiar form of many castles, turrets,
and walls, illustrated by Froissart, in his Chronicles, which before were
not easy of comprehension, supposing the structures to have been en-
tirely of stone.

No. 64. Effigy of a bishop, or mitred abbot, preserved in the wall
of the courtyard of Slane Castle, county of Meath. From the rudeness
of the sculpturing, and the absence of all details in the dress, with the
exception of the large finger ring on the right hand, which is raised in
giving the benediction, I should regard this as late fourteenth century,
or possibly fifteenth century work.

No. 65. Plan of Clonmines Abbey, county of Wexford. From this
it appears that originally the arch of the central tower was lighted on
the south side by a beautiful window of three opes; subsequently this
was built up, and a winding stairs constructed within it, which led to
the summit of the tower. It is not easy to determine whether this
change in the original plan of the building was made to strengthen the
tower, or to add to it as a means of defence—possibly both. +

No. 66. Exterior view of the three-ope window once lighting the
base of the central tower of Clonmines Abbey on the north, but subse-
quently built up, showing also the small loops for lighting the winding
stairs within.

* See Vol. III. of this series, for examples of loops from this castle.

+ See Archdall’s ‘‘ Monasticon” for notice of this Abbey; and paper by the writer on
_ the fortified church at Clonmines, published in the “‘ Kilkenny Archeological Journal,”’
WO. V., Dp. 27.

440

No. 67. Font from the old churchyard of Ballynaneen, county of —
Waterford. |

No. 68. Bracket at the springing of the choir arch of the old church
of Kildorrery, county of Cork.

Nos. 69, 70. Full-sized sketches of the capitals of the pillasters
of probably the east window of Kildorrery old church, county of
Cork.

No. 71. Moulding of aumbrey, or piscina, from the old church of
Kildorrery, drawn to full size.

No. 72. Exterior of the doorway in the west gable of the old church
of Kill St. Lawrence, county of Waterford.

No. 73. Exterior view of the east window of the old church of
Kall St. Lawrence, restored; the external angles of the doorway and
window being so broadly chamfered, show the building to be late
thirteenth century, or early fourteenth century work.

No. 74. View of the ancient castellated and turreted wall, called
Dun Mac Patrick, which spans the narrowest portion of the Old Head
of Kinsale, from cliff to cliff, near the lighthouses.

No. 75. Principal tower of the wall of Dun Mac Patrick, - viewed
from the deep fosses, and looking westwards.

No. 76. View of one of the circular towers of the old fortifications
of the city of Waterford, near the terminus of the Tramore Railway.
The embattled merlons on various parts of the parapet between the em-
brasures are remarkably lofty and massive.

No. 77. Two crossbow loops from the tower just alluded to.

No. 78. Interior view of Preston’s Gate, Athy, part of the old for-
tifications of the town. ‘This is evidently early fourteenth century
work, and shows the groove for the portcullis.

No. 79. Interior view of the Fair Gate of New Ross, with part of the
flanking towers, showing the opening in the crown of the arch between
the outer and inner archways to protect the portcullis. In the year 1862,
when [I last visited New Ross, every stone of the gateway was gone ; and
it is therefore possible that of this ancient gateway there exists but this
sketch to show what it was in later years.

No. 80. View of Dean’s Castle, near Carrick in Bannow, county of
Wexford. This graceful rectangular tower, of unusual height, was
originally much more lofty than it appears at present, as is evident
from the brackets to support the bartizan, or eschanguette, to protect
the doorway, being yet preserved at what is now the summit level of
the walls.

No. 81. Plan of the basement floor and second story of this castle.

No. 82. View of main doorway and west window of Kilerea Abbey,
county of Cork. According to Ware, this abbey was founded by Cor-
mack, surnamed Laida, Lord Muskerry, for the Franciscans, in A. D.
1465.

No. 83. One of the pillars of the side aisle arches from Kilcrea Ab-
bey. The bases and caps of the pillars and the chamfers of the arches
all correspond, and are remarkable for their simplicity, though at the

44]

} same time they are quite characteristic of the architecture of this period
in Ireland.

{ No. 84. Flat joggled arch to a fireplace, from one of the buildings
| attached to Kilcrea Abbey. This arch is formed of five blocks of lime-

_ stone, on either side of a central or keystone of a rude T-shape. Some

_ of the flat arches for fireplaces of the fifteenth century are of most inge-
| nious construction, and of these the one now illustrated is a good ex-
' ample.

' No. 85. Large square castle, in the glen, and close to the south of
| Millstreet, county of Cork.

No. 86. View of Ballinacarriga Castle, county of Cork, erected by
| Mac Carty, sirnamed Carriga, or “of the rock,”’ in A. D. 1585.

No. 87. View of the principal room in Ballinacarriga Castle.

, No. 88. View of Carrickaphooka Castle, near Macroom, county of
| Cork.

No. 89. View of Dunsaughly Castle, county of Dublin.

No. 90. Tablet over the doorway of Dunsaughly Castle, bearing the
following emblems of the Passion, gravé en creux:—The cross, with
- crown of thorns; the cloth, with the impression of the sacred heart,
\ the hand and the feet; the ladder, spear, hammer, three nails, dice box,
whipping post, with the rope aud the three scourges. Below this are
the letters IP - MD-GS-, probably the initials for John Plunket,
Margaret Dillon, Genites Sus, followed by the date, 1578.

No. 91. View of the doorway tower of Coolhull Castle, near Carrick,
in Bannow, county of Wexford.

No. 92. View of Carrickadroghid Castle and bridge, near Macroom,
county of Cork, view looking up the river.

No. 93. Another view of the same castle, looking down the river.

No. 94. A nearer view of the same, also looking down the river.

The original sketches from which these have been taken were made
before the partial destruction of the bridge by the great flood which

carried away St. Patrick’s Bridge at Cork, and the bridge below Ma-

) croom, some years back.

| No. 95. View of the old Bawn of Tully, called Tully Castle, on

' Lough Erne, near Kesh, in the county of Fermanagh.

No. 96. Plan of the same fortified house and outworks.

From the occurrence of large circular brackets, such as would sup-
port small turrets, at the north-east and north-west angle of the wall of
the principal building, and which are about fifteen feet from the ground,
it is probable that the northern side of the second floor was entirely
constructed of wood, in the form of a gallery, to defend this side of the
castle.
| No. 97. Carved stone, probably the lintel of a fireplace from the old
| eastle of Macetown, county of Meath. At the left-hand end of the
stone is a shield, bearing the arms of Cheever—three goats passant, sur-
| rounded by a wreath; at the opposite end is a shield, with the arms of
| Plunket—a castle, with the bend sinister, or erased. The central por-

44)

tion of the stone bears the motto ‘‘ EN . DIEV . MA . FIAVNC.”’ ( fiance)
that of the Cheever family; below which is the inscription*

CHRISTOFOR . CHEVER . RMIG ET . DAME ANE. PLUNKKET.

No. 98. Monumental slab of the family of Nugent, Barons of Delvin, —
from the east wall of the ruined church of St. Mary’s, at Fore, in the — :
county of Westmeath. The inscription, which is intended to be a clear —
and succinct account of the pedigree of some families of this branch of ©
the Nugents, is so completely the reverse, that I transcribe it asa genea-—
logical curiosity :—

THES . MONUMENT , WAS. FIRST.
BEGUN . FOR. OLIVER . NUGENT.
OF . BELENA .IN. THE . COUNTY
OF . MEATH . ESQ. BROTHER. TO
THE . HONORABLE . RICHARD.
LORD. BARON. OF. DELVIN. BY.
CHRISTOPHER . NUGENT . HIS

SON . AND. HEIR . WHICH . OLIVER
DIED. THE 17 OF . MARCH 1589 . AND 4
WAS. HERE. ERECTED. AT . THE . COST .
AND. CARE. OF. ROBERT . NUGENT. OF
CLONEGIRACH . AND. XPHER. N™
GRANDCHILDREN . TO. THE. S”™,
XPHER . OF . NICHOLAS . & ROBERT

SON . OF. OLIVER. N™. OF . WILLIAM
XPHER . EDMOND. & RICHARD ‘ol
SONS . OF JAMES . N™ . BOTH . NEPH -
EUS.TO.THE. S?». AND. OF. EDMOND wy
N™ . GRANDCHILD . TO. THE. S>> XPHER
& THOMAS , HIS. SON.. FOR. THE
INTERRING . OF. THEM. & THER
POSTERITY . ANNO. DOM. 1689

GOOD . XPIANS . PRAY . FOR

THESE . HERE. INTERRD.

The inscription is surmounted by the Nugent arms, with the motto |
“¢ DECREVI.’

No. 99. Coat of arms and inscription over the doorway of the old
Castle of St. Johnstown, county of Tipperary. The shield is of the six-
teenth century type, and bears quarterly, 1st and 4th, three fish proper; —
2nd and 3rd, ermine, or, six scollop shells, three and three. The im- |
scription is as follows :— i

ROBERT DE SETO . IOHE . DNS DE -
SCADANSTOWNE . LISMAINAN . CVOLAGH
ET TOCIVS PLEBIS ILLIVS . ME FECIT.

* Evelyn P. Shirley, in his ‘‘ Memoir on the Arms of the Landed Gentry of Eng-
land,” gives three goats passant as the arms of Thorold of Marston, Bart., 1642. This
coincidence is somewhat singular, and is not unworthy of some explanation.

443

| The three fish are the bearings of the Hacket family, one of whom
| founded the Franciscan Monastery at Cashel in the early part of the
| fourteenth century, and who held a high social position in the counties
+ of Tipperary and Cork for many centuries.*

I No. 100. Sketch of a monumental slab placed over the doorway of
| the old chapel of Tubbrid, near Clogheen, in the county of Tipperary,

, which, though simple and of no great antiquity, may yet be regarded
| with feelings of veneration as sincere as were ever bestowed on the tomb
| of one of our most illustrious kings. This is the memorial slab erected
to the memory of Dr. Galf. Keating, the author of the well-known
| “ History of Ireland,” and justly termed ‘‘ The Irish Livy.” It com-

) mences with the initials I. H. 8., surmounted by a cross, followed by a
| monagram for Ave Maria, and thus continues :—

ORAte Pro Aiab?

P. Kugenu : Duby

Vie de Tybrud : et

D: Doct Galf : Kea
ting hu? Sacella
Fundatori : necno

et pro 61b? alusta

sacerd . quam lamers
quort% corpa in eod : jacet
sa A° Dom 1644.

In the foregoing Catalogue to accompany the seventh Volume of my
Antiquarian Sketches, which I have had the honour to present to the
’ Library of the Academy, I have not attempted to investigate the histo-
vical facts relating to the various objects I have sketched, from want of

time for such a purpose. These Sketches are the product of my leisure
| hours, and their defects, which are very apparent, will I trust be over-
! looked when the object which I have in view is understood—that of
| endeavouring, as far as my unaided efforts will allow me, to record in
truthful outline many an object of antiquarian interest, which in my
own memory has ceased to be, or which will disappear in a few more

| * years.

In conclusion, I wish in justice to myself to reply to some unjust
| criticisms openly passed on this collection of Drawings when they were
_ exhibited and presented to the Library of the Royal Irish Academy on
| the 9th of April last, and when I was not present to answer or explain.
| Istate distinctly that all my drawings of antiquities in this and the

* See sketch of the tombstone of the Hackets from Morne Abbey, south a Mallow,
_ county of Cork, Vol. III. of this series.

A44

other six volumes are taken from original sketches made by myself,

with but very few exceptions, and then I name my authorities; andif —

T sometimes illustrate anew what has already been published, I know

that I thereby correct an error, and do good service to the cause of an- —

tiquarian truth. G. V. D.

Resotvep,—That the warm thanks of the Academy are due, and
are hereby returned to Mr. Du N oyer for his very generous and valu-
able presentation.

The Prustpent under his hand and seal nominated and appointed the
following Members of Council as Vice-Presidents of the Royal Irise
Academy —

The Very Rev. Charles Graves, D. D. ;
The Rey. George Salmon, D. D.;

W. K. Sullivan, Esq., Ph. D. ;

Sir William R. W. Wilde, M. D.

MONDAY, APRIL 23, 1866.
Witz K. Sururvan, Ph. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. AtexanpEer Macatister, Demonstrator of Anatomy, Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons, Ireland, read the following paper :—

Nores on Muscunar ANOMALIES IN Human ANATOMY.

Te rapid advances which have been made of late years in the know-
ledge of comparative and embryological anatomy and their kindred
sciences have given a stimulus to our researches after muscular irregu-
larities in the human subject, as in these we frequently find the clue
to the explanation of the varying positions and modes of arrangement
of normal muscles, both in man and other animals. Although Huxley
and Wood in this country, and Henle, Theile, Kelch, Hyrtl, and Meckel
on the Continent, have written much on this subject, yet such is the
variability of the human frame, and of so frequent occurrence are novel
irregularities, that it often falls to the lot of other observers to examine
specimens which have not as yet been placed on record. For the past |
eight years, during which time I have been connected with the anato-*
mical room of the Royal College of Surgeons, I have preserved notes of
all the more important deviations from the normal types which I have
observed, and of these there are some which, to my knowledge, have
not been as yet made public.

As it seems to be a law of nature that the complex types of organi-
zation are much more liable to irregularity than the simpler forms, so
we should expect to find the human structures more disposed to abnor-
mal modes of arrangement than the parts of other Vertebrates; and such,
indeed, seems to be the case. Whether these irregularities are connected
with corresponding varieties of vital individuality, it is usually impossi-

445

ble to determine, and concerning the causes which bear on their
production we know little. I have: found them more commonly on the

- right side than on the left, and in females more frequently than in

males. The influence of sex in determining the occurrence of anomalies
is probably, however, very slight; for thoush in my notes I find that a

- considerable preponderance of the cases occurred in females (as a greater
| number of individuals of this sex are submitted to our observation in the
. dissecting room), yet others have remarked the contrary ; and:it is proba-
| ble that, ‘had we asutiicient body of evidence, we would find the numbers
| tolerably equal in both sexes. I can in general concur fully with the

introductory remarks of Mr. Wood, in his admirable papers on this sub- ~

_ ject, in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society” for 1865.

The varieties which I am about to notice may be arranged into six

elasses :—

Ist. Such as arise from the presence of muscles not typical parts of
the human frame;

2nd. Variations of normal muscles by duplicity, either in whole or
in part ;

8rd. Variations of normal muscles by complexity or alterations of
attachment, of course, or of arrangement;

4th. Variations by the coalescence or union of muscles normally
separate ;

5th. Variations by segmentation, or the fission of muscles into several
parts ;

6th. Variation by suppression, either partial or complete.

This arrangement, it will be seen, is an extended modification of
that adopted by Mr. Wood, and for practical purposes will be found
extremely convenient.

I. The first, and most interesting group of anomalies iene all
those muscles which are occasionally present, as if by accident, in man,
although not normal constituents of the human frame, either in rudi-
ment or in perfection. Most, if not all, of these are natural elements
existing in lower animals; and when they occur in man, they are usu ally
unconnected with his normal muscles. In some of the instances in
which I have noted them, they were gregarious in their occurrence, two
or more anomalies of this class being present in the same individual,
and in the majority of instances they were symmetrical.

The following are the principal varieties of this class which I have
observed :—

1. Sternalis rectus I have seen many times, varying in its degree
of development, from a few vertical fibres or tendinous bands running
in front of the sternum, either from the sternal tendon of the sterno-
mastoid, or from the manubrium, to its full perfection, as a large fleshy
mass, separate from both rectus abdominis and sterno-cleido- mastoid.

Et. A. PROC.—vVOL. IX, oN

446

In one instance it was double; but in all other cases it was single,
and on the right side. Its usual attachments, in six or seven instances,
I have found to be from the inferior border of the manubrium sterni to
the upper margin of the fourth, fifth, and sixth costal cartilages, and in
none of the cases where it was lar ge and fleshy was it connected with the
sterno-mastoid. Its length varied from three to six inches, and its
breadth from half an inch to twoinches. In one instance its tendon of
origin was an inch and three-quarters in length; but I have never
detected tendinous intersections in its belly, as described by Meckel; it
always overlay the great pectoral, and often coexisted with other ano-
malies. The nature of this muscle as a thoracic representative of the
rectus has been clearly shown by Theile and Meckel.

2. Cephalo-pharyngeus externus of Theile, or at least a somewhat
corresponding muscle (Plate VI., fig. 1, 6) I found in one instance aris-
ing from the inner and posterior extr emity of the vaginal process of the
temporal bone, and from the rough inner angle of the petrous portion,
external to the first attachment. of the superior constrictor of the pha-
rynx. It ran downwards and inwards, parallel, but internal, to the
stylo-pharyngeus, and was inserted into the mucous membrane of the
pharynx, passing between the middle and superior constrictors. This
might be a modification of the true salpingo-pharyngeus muscle of Hailer
and Cruveilhier, but in my case it had no connexion with the Eustachian
tube.

8. Another small pharyngeal muscle, similar to that named by
Meckel the azygos pharyngei, I have found on several occasions (Plate
VL., fig. 1, a), arising from the central spine, on the basilar process of
the occipital bone; and, being inserted into the raphe of the pharynx,
superficial to the insertion of the superior and middle constrictors; with
the ascending fibres of the latter muscle it is often confounded. It is
present in the pharynx of several Mammals, and is commoner in them
than some imagine.

4. An additional scalenus muscle has been described by Albinus and
Meckel as an occasional development in the neck. The former author
has named it scalenus minimus, and in some instances this organ has
been found cleft into two distinct parts, internal and external. It
arises from the first rib, and is attached to the anterior tubercles of the
transverse processes of the fifth, sixth, and seventh cervical vertebre;
it usually passes between the subclavian vessels and the lower cervical
nerves. In one instance in which I found this muscle to exist, it was
further complicated by the total suppression of the scalenus anticus; but
they not unfrequently coexist, and in seven subjects selected at random
in the dissecting room this muscle existed symmetrically in three.

5. I have likewise been able to demonstrate most distinctly in one
case the presence of a fifth scalene muscle (Plate VL., fig. 2, b), situated
under cover of the scalenus medius. This structure was much stronger
than the normal scalenus anticus, and was inserted above into the pos-
terior tubercles of the transverse processes of the fourth, fifth, and sixth
cervical vertebre, and arose from the first rib below, at the anterior bor-

SE Eo =

447

_ der of its tubercle, within and behind the insertion of scalenus medius,
| from which, part of the upper roots of the brachial plexus and a plane
- of cellular tissue separated it. The insertion of the scalenus medius in
_ this instance was extended farther upwards than usual, and was connected

with the posterior tubercles of the transverse processes of the first, se-
cond, and third cervical vertebrae. The scalenus posticus was normal.
To the above described muscle perhaps the name scalenus accessorius

| might be given. JI have found it present in some of the Quadrumana.

6, An unimportant, though distinct muscle, for which I would sug-

gest the name rhombo-axoid (Plate V., fig. 1, a), I found in one sub-
| ject, arising from the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra,
_ underneath the rhomboideus minor, and closely connected to its origin.
_ Its fibres ran upwards, forwards, and outwards, in a round fasciculus,

and, becoming tendinous, were inserted into the transverse process of

_ the atlas. This band lay first on the serratus posticus superior, and then
_ onthe splenius colli.

7. LI have very frequently found in man a small muscular slip
(subscapulo-capsular, mzhz), to which the name infraspinatus secundus

_ has been given by Professor Haughton (Plate VIL, fig. 2, a). When

present, it arises from the anterior aspect of the axillary border of

| the scapula, immediately below its neck, usually overlapped by the

subscapular muscle, and anterior to the origin of the long head of the

triceps; from this it passes outwards, and is inserted into the inferior

and anterior part of the capsular ligament of the shoulder joint. I
have found this muscle either quite separate from the subscapularis, or
else conjoined withits lower border. Among the Mammalia I have seen
it in the horse, seal, and many others ; and Professor Haughton has kindly
informed me that he has found it present in several of the larger Qua-
drumana, in some of which it was particularly welldeveloped, especially in
Macacus nemestrinus. In the majority of cases among animals this muscle
has little or no connexion with the capsular ligament, but it is usually
inserted into a point intermediate between the posterior surface of the
lesser tuberosity and the inner lip of the bicipital groove. The human
muscle would thus seem to have a special action to make tense the cap-
sular ligament, and to prevent its being pinched in rapid motions of the
joint; it is probably the upper extremity representative of the gluteus
quartus of Mayer and Haughton.

8. Coraco-capsular is a small muscle described by Mr. Wood, which
T have rarely found present: in the few instances in which it has occurred,
it arose under cover of the coraco-brachialis from the under side of the
extremity of the process, and was inserted into the upper and anterior
part of the capsule. It sometimes seemed as it were an offshoot from

the coraco-brachialis, but more commonly when present it is distinct. I

have found it existing and very distinct in Cebus and Callithrix; and in
these it usually passes completely over the capsular hgament, to be
attached to the front of the neck of the humerus. From its origin and
from the relation of its insertion tothe capsule and to the lesser tuberosity,
it might perhaps be considered as the humeral homotype of the qua-

443

dratus femoris. This and the foregoing are functionally analogical, as
they are both tensors of the capsular ligament. Gantzer has described
a third muscle, with a similar action, passing from the cartilage of the first
rib to the same destination under cover of the lesser pectoral.

9. Extensor primi internodu pollicis et indicis of Wood I found in
one subject, in 1858, arising from the ulna below the extensor secundi
internodu pollicis, and above the extensor indicis, the tendon of which
latter muscle united with the indicial slip of the anomalous extensor,
aud was inserted ito the second and third phalanges of the index finger.
This muscle exists in the dog and fox.

10. An extensor annularis proprius, which may be regarded as a
rudiment of an extensor digitorum brevis manus, I found in the left
hand ofa female subject, arising from the dorsal aspect of the cuneiform
bone and annular ligament and heads of the fourth and fifth metacarpal
bones. The muscle extended forwards; and ended in a single tendon,
which was inserted into the inner side of the long extensor tendon of
the ring finger, about the base of its first phalanx. Another rudiment of
the short extensor of the fingers I found in a male hand, similar to the
foregoing, but passing to the middle finger only, and quite separate from
the interossei. Not unfrequently I have seen the dorsal interossei
sending off slips, which seemed as though representatives of the same
extensor muscle.

11. In this class of irregularities I would place several instances of
double interossei in the hand, which | have at different times observed,
both involving the palmar and dorsal groups of muscles. The former I
have found doubled in four different subjects—the latter in one instance.
tn this case there were two muscles lying in each inter-metacarpal
space, each inserted by a tendon into the corresponding side of the
finger. (This instance is reported in ‘‘ The Medical Press,”’ vol. i1., p. 413.)
The former cases likewise showed twin muscles lying on the palmar
aspect of each interspace, except that between the first and second
metacarpal bone, each inserted into the outside and inside of each finger,
respectively : 1n these cases the dorsal interossel were normal. There
are several anomalies of these muscles on record, but none of them in
anywise resemble the foregoing, which I would venture to suggest
might throw light on some points of the homologies of these muscles.
It has often been a matter of comment that there is a strange want of
symmetry in the arrangement of these muscles in the hand, as well as
a want of conformity in the attachments of the homotypical muscles in
the hand and foot. This is accounted for by Mr. Wood, because, as
the middle finger in the hand is the most bulky, it is assumed as the
centre of motion; and it has two dorsal interossei to produce its divari-
cations, and its divaricator to the pollex excludes from the third meta-
carpal bone the divaricator from the pollex of the second digit, and ob-
tains an origin for itself from the dorsal aspect of the second metacarpal ;
so, instead of being a palmar, it becomes a dorsal interosseous muscle; and
this is supported by the fact that the transverse convexity of the dorsum of
the hand gives to the metacarpal bone of the middle digit a prominence

449

over the others. Though the explanation may be quite satisfactory, yet
it has struck me that perhaps another interpretation might be given in
the light of the present varieties. It might be that for each finger as
a separate individual member four muscles might be provided in a
typical hand, two dorsal interossei, and two palmar, the former as
extensors and lateralizers, the latter as flexors and lateralizers; but the
fingers being grouped as in the human hand, and the extensor and flexor
action being for the most part monopolized by the long special muscles for
the purpose, the secondary or lateralizing function becomes paramount;
and, as two muscles for each action would usually be unnecessary, a
suppression takes place of the superfluous dorsal and the palmar interossei.
Then perhaps the dorsal prominence of the third metacarpal is the
cause that the muscles which in the human hand become obsolete on
the dorsum are the adductors, but on the palmar aspect the opposite
set disappear. We still retain a trace of the double nature of the dorsal
interossei in their bicipital origins, as I think the deduction arrived at
by Meckel may be with reason accepted, that the bicipital attachment
of a muscle is usually a sign of the lateral coalescence of separate parts.
If this explanation be true, these varieties would show the typical or
unaltered state of development, respectively, of each set of muscles.
12. Gluteus quartus of Mayer and Haughton, (ilio-capsular of
Harrison). This muscle is not by any means a rare constituent of the
human body ; its existence I have noticed 1n many animals; and Professor
Haughton has furnished me with numerous instances in which he has
found it to be adistinctly existing element, asin the lon, kangaroo,
rhea, &c. In man it usually runs from the anterior inferior spine
of the ilium, and is inserted into the capsular igament of the hip joint,
and sometimes into the anterior intertrochanteric line above the lesser
trochanter. It may be of use as a special tensor of the capsule, or as a
rotator outwards or abductor of the hip joint, and seems to correspond
with the infraspinatus secundus in the shoulder; it varies in degree of
development, and is present as frequently as the psoas parvus. /

13. The peronzus quartus I have seen as a distinct muscle, arising
from about two inches of the front of the fibula, at the junction of the
upper three-fifths: with the lower two-fifths of the bone, above the
peroneeus tertius, from which, as well as from the extensor digitorum
longus, 1n one case it was completely distinct, and in other instances it
was with facility separated. Passing under the annular ligament along
with the extensor digitorum longus, it was inserted tendinous into the
base of the fourth metatarsal bone. In one subject in which this muscle
existed, the peroneeus tertius was absent; in another instance the two
tendons arose from the same muscle; and I have seen this tendon de-
tached from the outer slip of the long extensor of the toes. In one
strong muscular subject the tendon of the peronceus quartus was as
strong as the flexor carpi radialis tendon at the wrist. A slip somewhat
homotypical I found in the right forearm ofa dingo, running from the
dorsum of the ulna to the fourth metacarpal bone.

14. The slip called peronzus quinque, or the band extended to the

4.50

extensor aponeurosis of the little toe, I have seen on several occasions,
but I never have found it existing as the tendon of a separate muscle;

it always was an offshoot, commonly from the peroneus tertius, or in |

three cases from the peronzeus brevis, and as such I have found it pre-
sent in Cercopithecus. (Since the writing of this paper I have seen
it as a perfectly distinct muscle, arising under cover of peroneus
brevis.

te I can fully confirm Mr. Wood’s statement as to the frequency
of the existence of the abductor ossis metatars1 minimi digiti of Hux-
ley, Flower, and Wood. The latter author was the first to direct atten-
tion to it as a human muscle; but even before the publication of his
paper, I have been long in the habit of demonstrating its existence as
a slip, separate from the abductor minimi digiti; indeed I have found
it present in nine out of every twelve subjects.

16. A description of a sixth peronzeal muscle has been communi-
cated to me by Mr. Macmullen, who found a distinct fleshy belly,
taking origin from the lower third of the outer surface of the fibula,
over the peroneus longus, and winding round the back of the outer
malleolus, to be inserted into the posterior and external surface of the
cuboid bone. In this subject the peroneeus tertius was absent, but
the longus and brevis were present and normal.

17. Tibio-fascialis anticus was a muscle found in one subject arising
from the lower third of the anterior edge of the tibia, over the tibialis
anticus, and passing downwards to be inserted into the annular liga-
ment, over the extensor digitorum communis tendon, as well as into
the lower border of the deep tibial fascia.

18. The levator claviculsee of Wood I have only once seen, in the
neck of a spare female subject, and under cover of the clavicular fibres
of the trapezius, inserted into the posterior border of the outer third
of the clavicle.

19. The levator glandule thyroidei of Sommering I have found
either as a separate muscle, or as an offshoot from the inner edge of the
sterno-thyroid or the thyro-hyoid muscles.

20. Fibres of a hyo-epiglotticus muscle I have once traced dis-
tinctly, under cover of the glosso-epiglottic ligament, from the poste-
rior surface of the body of the hyoid bone to the anterior surface of
the epiglottis, overlying the so-called epiglottic gland.

21. Crico-thyroideus posticus (somewhat similar to the kerato-
cricoid of Merkel) was a small band of muscle, which arose from the
side of the cricoid cartilage, directly below, and extending a little ante-
rior to the articulation between the inferior cornu of the thyroid car-
tilage and the side of the cricoid. From this origin its fibres ran upwards
and forwards, to be inserted into the lower border of the thyroid cartilage
(Plate VI., fig. 3, a). It was situated below and behind the normal
erico-thyroid muscle, from which it was quite separate, and differed in
the direction of its fibres. Its cricoid attachment was external to the
outer border of the crico-arytenoideus posticus, with which some of its
fibres were slightly connected. The larynx in which this muscle

la

451

occurred was peculiar, as in it the thyroid cartilage had no superior
cornua.

22. A small muscular mento-hyoidean band (Plate V., fig. 2, a),
existed single in one subject, but double in another, arising from the
inferior surface of the mental ridge on the lower jaw, and running
backwards to be inserted into the middle of the body of the os hyoides.
For the sketch of this muscle [am indebted to Mr. Macmullen. In all
instances it was perfectly separate from the digastric.

23. I have several times found present on the side of the thorax a
small or well-developed supra-costalis muscle. Once this occurred in
an old though tolerably muscular female. Another instance was in a
male subject of enormous proportions; it arose from the lower border
of the third or fourth rib, about six inches and a-half from the outer
edge of the sternum. On the right side I have generally found it nar-
rower and thicker than on the left; it measuredin one instance three inches
and three-fourths long, three-quarters of an inch in breadth, and one-
eighth of an inch in thickness; but I have seen it much larger. Fromits
place of origin it extended vertically upwards, lying on the upper digita-
tions of the serratus magnus, and shortly in front of the respiratory nerve
of Bell; then, ascending behind the axillary vein and subclavius muscle,
it was inserted into the first rib on the right side, in one instance over
the origin of the first slip of the serratus magnus. On the left side in this
subject, however, and in several cases on the right, it cleared the bone,
and, expanding, was inserted into the deep cervical fascia in the poste-
rior inferior triangle of theneck. It lay considerably external to the
origin of the lesser pectoral, which covered it, with the intervention of
a strong aponeurotic expansion, derived from the deep axillary fascia,
and its insertion was placed internal to the scalenus anticus. Mr.
Wood has described a somewhat corresponding muscle, which, however,
differs from the foregoing in being placed anterior and internal to the
serratus magnus; and, secondly, in having no upper fascial connexion,
but being purely costal in its attachments. His slip extended to the
fourth rib, and he has described its course as from above downwards;
but as in the most of the instances which I have seen, it evidently acted
on the cervical fascia, I have taken the liberty of inverting the order
of description. The muscle occurs in several monkeys, in the seal, and
in Balenoptera rostrata. It seems to have no connexion with or rela-
tional analogy to the rectus sternalis.

24, I have met with a distinct extensor ossis metatarsi hallucis, and
have also seen this muscle existing as an offshoot from the anterior edge
of the tibialis anticus; in the latter subject there existed (25) an ex-
tensor primi internodii hallucis, which lay between the former muscle
and the extensor hallucis proprius; this latter slp was perfectly uncon-
nected with all the surrounding muscles. In an egret monkey I have
seen the extensor ossis metatarsi hallucis without any trace of another
extensor for the hallux, while in others of the Quadrumana both the
extensor ossis metatarsi and the extensor secundi internodii exist.

452

II. The second class of muscular varieties comprises those instances
in which we find normal muscles multiplied by simple reduplication,
the double portions either being placed in different planes, or in diffe-
rent vertical positions. The former arrangement I have found to be
rather the more frequent, and it has occurred, in my experience, to
several muscles. We must, however, be careful to distinguish abnor-
malities of this class from those of the fifth group, with which they are
liable to be confounded; the main distinction being that, whereas in
every example of this class all or some of the portions of the varying mus-
cles are doubled, in the fifth subdivision, on the other hand, each part
is but single, although severed from those others with which it normally
should be united.

1. The rhomboideus major I found to be the seat of a partial variety
of this class, on the left side of a female subject. It was almost com-
pletely split into two planes of fibres, especially along its lower border.
At the upper edge of the muscle the fibres of the different planes
coalesced more or less distinctly.

2. The pectoralis major has been on sever al occasions partially cleft
into two planes, more or less distinctly, and in one case was perfectly
severed. This arrangement occurs in the horse, sheep, and dog.

3. The sterno-thyroid was double on the left side of a strong male
subject, the two portions lying parallel; and (4) on the same side of
this subject there was a double levator anguli scapule.

5. In the right forearm of a thin female subject the supinator longus
was double for the largest part of its extent, while the same variety was
presented in a corresponding extremity in the case of the (5) palmaris
longus. The double arrangement of the former muscle occurs, according
to Meckel, in the three-toed sloth, and in the anteater; it is likewise
cleft in the seal.

7. The abductor pollicis brevis manus I found presenting this ano-
maly—the two muscles lying parallel, and separated by a cellular
interval. This state was described by Sommering, who believes it to
be the normal arrangement of the muscle.

8. The rectus capitis lateralis, and (9) rectus capitis posticus major
and minor, were each in at least one instance found double.

10. The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis I have seen in several in-
stances presenting this irregularity: in one case three parallel muscles
and tendons existed ; in another the muscle at first was single, but ended
below in two bellies, which were inserted by tendons quite separate and
distinct from each other, the inner of which overlapped the outer
(11). The same varieties I have seen to occur in the case of the extensor
secundi internodii pollicis.

12. The extensor minimi digiti I have likewise seen entirely doubled.
Usually, however, when this condition occurs, the tendons and bellies of
the two muscles separated except for about an inch or so from the
origin, and by no means unfrequently a single belly existed, from which
two tendons were detached, both of which were distributed to the little

453

finger. I have likewise seen three tendons arising from a common
muscle, one of which passed to the fourth finger, and was continuous
with the extensor tendon of that digit opposite the end of the first pha-
lanx; the other pair of tendons were, as usual, distributed to the little
finger. This arrangement I have likewise found in a species of Cebus.

13. The soleeus was in one subject doubled ; the accessory or second
portion lying under cover of the normal muscle, and connected to the
deep-seated surface of the tendo Achillis.

14. Two perfectly distinct planes of fibres I have been able to detect
in the gluteus maximus on several occasions, especially along the infe-
rior border of the muscle: these were separated by a cellular lamina.

III. Under the third head I place all those irregularities which arise
from the presence of additional origins, supernumerary tendons, unusual
insertions orrelational deviations from the ordinary arrangement of parts;
and these, as might be supposed, constitute the most numerous group of
muscular anomalies. They may be the results of original abnormal
development, or the products of disease or injury. The latter forms
I have, however, excluded as far as possible from my list, as they can-
not possess much value in comparative anatomy. I have found illus-
trations of this class involving the following muscles :—

1. Latissimus dorsi. In many cases I have found this muscle to
be errant either in its origins or insertion. The former have been ex-
tended as far upward as the fourth dorsal spine, or have not reached
beyond the first lumbar vertebra, or have been attached to the inferior
angle of the scapula; and the latter I have seen sometimes sending a
considerable accessory slip from its lower border into the fascia of
the arm. This band attains a considerable degree of development in
Cebus, and other monkeys. A portion of this tendon is often continued
into the long head of the triceps, and this I have found to occur about
three times in every thirty subjects. I have also seen the long tendon
of the triceps taking an origin more or less extensively either from the
lower border of the latissimus tendon alone, as in Cebus, or from it and
teres major combined.

'Very much more rarely a fascial expansion, or even a musculo-
tendinous slip, has passed from the lower border of the latissimus dorsi
down as far as the olecranon process; this we find to exist in the
gibbon, in Ateles, Cynocephalus, and many others of the Quadrumana.
A similar portion exists in the horse; and a muscle somewhat corre-
sponding I have traced in the pig, running from the inferior angle of
the scapula to the fascia on the inner side of the limb, over the triceps.
In many of the instances among the Quadrumana, where this muscle
exists as a supplement to the triceps, 1t is quite separate from that
muscle, even to its insertion ; and it is not improbable that it may be the
fore-limb homotype of the sartorius muscle, asin both cases the muscles
are superficial to the rest of the extensor mass, in bothinstances placed on
the extensor aspect of the limb, and both usually run from without in-

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 3 0

454

wards. In confirmation of this there are instances recorded both in man
and. other animals where the sartorius femoris ended either by being
inserted into the extensor muscles, the fascia of the thigh, or the
patella.

Another slip of the latissimus I have found crossing the bicipital
groove, and binding the long head of the biceps in its place, to be
inserted into the anterior edge of the groove, under cover of the tendon
of the pectoralis major: the same arrangement I have found in Cer-
copithecus. A slip of fibrous tissue also exists not unfrequently, pass-
ing from the upper border of the tendon of the latissimus to the lower
and inner border of the capsular ligament of the shoulder joint,
stretching along the inner lip of the bicipital groove, and corresponding
to the suspensory frenum of Winslow from the great pectoral tendon
along the outer lip.

2. The lower costal fibres of the great pectoral muscle, in a stout
female subject, detached a distinct chondro-epitrochlear slip, which,
arising from the seventh costal cartilage, passed outward, and ultimately
downwards, to be inserted into the upper part of the inner condyle of
the humerus by around tendon. ‘This variety is of interest, as usually
the costal fibres of this muscle are inserted above and behind the
sternal and clavicular portions. ‘This muscular slip has been found
taking different courses, and inserted either into the brachial aponeurosis,
or intermuscular septum, when it is called the chondro-fascial, or even
into the short head of the biceps, the latter attachment being similar to
the mode of arrangement in Hylobates leuciscus, in which the entire
short head of the biceps springs from the pectoral muscle: the former
we find in the pig, where the lowest fibres of the pectoral extend down
to the fascia over the inner side of the ulna. I have found this epitro-
chlear slip in one instance detached from the clavicular portion of the
muscle.

I have also found the long head of the biceps splitting the tendon
of the great pectoral, and passing down between the costal and sternal
fibres which were behind it and the clavicular fibres which lay in
front of it—a condition which has its prototype in Quadrumana.

3. The omo-hyoid sometimes took an origin from the posterior
border of the middle third of the clavicle. In one of these cases its
scapular origin was completely suppressed, and its clavicular attach-

ment was overlapped by the extended fibres of the trapezius.

4. The upper fibres of the serratus magnus of a slender male subject
extended at their insertion as far forward as the posterior border of the
suprascapular notch, behind the omo-hyoid muscle, and so occupied the
entire of the superior costa of the scapula. In this subject, likewise,
the superior and middle parts of that muscle were separated by a con-
siderable cellular interval, so as to appear quite distinct from each
other. This variety occurred to Theile in a subject in which the omo-
hyoids were absent.

5. The rectus abdominis I have found to vary much in the
extent of its attachments: sometimes it ascended as far as the fourth

455

rib, lying superficial and internal to the great pectoral; on other occa-
sions it passed outwards as far as the cartilage of the eighth rib. The
former case seemed to be an attempt at a rectus sternalis.

6. The sartorius muscle I have seen extending at its origin along
Poupart’s ligament for a short distance from the anterior superior spine
of the ilium, and by its deep-seated surface united to some of the su-
perficial fibres of the iliacus internus.

7. My friend and former pupil, Dr. Raye, has furnished me with a
note of an interesting variety, which he had found occurring in the
case of the subclavius muscle. It is well known that not very un-
commonly this muscle is continued outwards beyond the clavicle to the
acromion process of the scapula; but in this instance, ‘‘on the left side
the muscle was not inserted into the clavicle at all, but, passing free
from that bone, was attached to the ligament of the notch, and to a
small portion of the outer extremity of the superior costa of the scapula
external toit. The omo-hyoid arose more internally from the superior
costa, its usual position being occupied by the subclavius. The supra-
scapular artery separated these muscles. The subject was a female,
and the same anomaly occured on theright side.” Mr. Wood, in de-
scribing a similar irregularity, mentions that it coexisted with a normal
subclavius; and consequently he regards it as a distinct muscle. In his
subject, ikewise, it was united at its insertion to the omo-hyoid; so in
both these respects the instance recorded by him differs from the case
given above. Mr. Wood regards it, and with sufficient reason, to be
the representative of the Mammalian sterno-scapular muscle, which I
have found in many Mammals taking a similar course. Ina porcupine
which I lately dissected this muscle closely resembled our anomaly,
except that, crossing over close te the superior costa, it was inserted
into the posterior two-thirds of the spine of the scapula. A similar
arrangement I have found in a pig.

8. The occurrence of additional heads to the biceps flexor cubiti
has long been familiar to anatomists, and is among the best known of
muscular anomalies, having been described by Struthers, Meckel,
Theile, Kelch, and others. I have not in my dissections verified
Theile’s experience that this variation occurs once in every eight or
nine subjects, as out of forty subjects taken at random through the last
session I noticed its presence only in two; and from my previous ex-
perience of its occurrence I would be inclined to state its frequency as
being about once in twenty-five cases.

Among the different forms of this variety, the following are the
principal :—(1). The most common consists of a slip from the bra-
chialis anticus, interesting as the representative of the short head of the
biceps flexor cruris; (2), sometimes a similar head may come from the
supinator longus; (3), from the pronator teres; or, more, rarely
(4), I have seen a band arising from the humerus, inseparable from the
insertion of the coraco- brachial, and uniting with the biceps at the
middle third of the arm; (5) the accessory origin may be, as described
by Meckel, from the ereater tuberosity of the humerus ; (6), or, as de-

456

scribed by Mr. Wood, from the lesser tubercle: of the former I have
notes of two cases, of the latter three instances have occurred in my
experience. In all cases but one which I have met with those anomalies .
have been symmetrical. (7). An accessory head may pass from the great
pectoral to the short head, as in Hylobates; or (8), a similar slip may
run from the lesser pectoral to the same place: these latter probably
are about the rarest forms of supplemental origin.

9. A radial origin for the flexor carpi radialis in place of, or in
conjunction with, the ordinary condyloid head, is another variety
which I have noticed. The aberrant slp in these cases sprang from
the bone, between the insertion of the pronator radii teres and the
radial origin of the flexor sublimis digitorum. In one instance, how-
ever, 1n which the pronator teres was destitute of a coronoid head, a
distinct tendinous slip passed downwards and forwards from the inner
lip of the coronoid process of the ulna, and was inserted into the outer
and deep surface of the radial flexor, being separated from the con-
dyloid origin of the muscle by the median nerve and the brachial
artery.

10. The palmaris longus is frequently the seat of variation. I have
found it reversed; its tendon being connected to the mner condyle,
and its lower end being fleshy for about two inches and a half, and in-
serted below into the annular ligament and palmar fascia; but this
variety may rather be regarded as arising from the presence of a new
muscle; the palmaris longus secundus taking the place of the obsolete
palmaris longus, as I have seen several times the two muscles present
in the one forearm—first the proper palmaris, and to its inner or
ulnar side the accessory muscle, as above described (Plate VIIL, fig. 1,
a,b). Ihave found an intermediate variety of this muscle, in which
the origin and insertion were tendinous, while the fleshy belly, two
inches long, had a central position (Plate VIII., fig. 2, c). ‘These va-
rieties have, for the most part, been already recorded by Quain and
Cloquet. The site of origin of this muscle, likewise, may vary: I have
found it springing from the lowest point of the condyle, under cover of
the flexor sublimis digitorum, or from the radius, in place of the radial
origin of that muscle. Its insertion I have seen connected by oblique
-tendinous bands to the pisiform bone, external to the tendon of the
flexor carpi ulnaris. In other subjects I have seen a slip of the
flexor sublimis taking its place; and sometimes, but very seldom, its
tendon was united below to that of the flexor carpi ulnaris, reminding
us of its position in the two-toed anteater, where, according to Meckel,
these two form but the one muscle. This latter condition I have seen
in two subjects.

11. The flexor pollicis longus possesses frequently a condyloid and
occasionally a coronoid origin, which is sometimes large enough to pro-
duce by its tendinous intersection, where it unites with the radial
fibres, the appearance of a large digastric muscle, and this band in one
subject was a little complex in its relations. It sprung from the process

in the situation where usually the second head of the pronator teres

457

arises (which, however, was in this instance deficient), and shortly after
it was joined by a slip from the flexor digitorum sublimis. The con-
joined slip thus formed passed behind the ulnar artery, and terminated
in the flexor pollicis longus.

12. The extensores carpi radialis longior and brevior are not un-
frequently the subjects of altered attachments and course : most usually,
however, their varieties belong to the class of anomalies by coalescence.
Ihave in my notebook the records of a very singular interchange
which occurred between the tendons of these muscles. In this subject the
tendon of the extensor longior, a short distance below its origin, divided
into two slips, one of which, becoming tendinous, passed off to unite
with a similar offshoot from the extensor brevior. The conjoined
tendon thus formed passed for a short course between the slips which
represented the typical muscles, and then bifurcated, each of the result-
ing tendons being inserted under cover of the normal insertions of the
type muscles, respectively, into the second and third metacarpal bones.
This may be in some slight degree a representative of the mode of in-
sertion in the ornithorhynchus, where a single tendon terminates in
three slips for the three outer metacarpals; but the peculiar double mode
of insertion is, to my knowledge, unexampled in the animal king-
dom.

In another subject the extensor carpi radialis brevior was inserted
into the third metacarpal bone by three tendons.

12. The triple insertion of the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis I
have repeatedly noticed, but on several occasions, they have been ar-
ranged in a manner different from that usually described.

Sometimes two of the fasciculi passed outwards to the first phalanx,
while the other band was connected to the trapezium, or to the
metacarpal bone, or to the short abductor pollicis. Again, I found the
slips sent, one to the abductor, a second to the opponens, which also
was connected by a short recurrent band to the trapezium, while the
third was attached as usual to the metacarpal bone.

13. The extensor secundi internodii pollicis I have commonly
(about once in every nine subjects) found with a double tendon—the
supplementary portion being inserted into the base of the first phalanx,
and lying internal to the normal tendon.

14. The abductor minimis digiti I have found on two occasions pre-
senting an anomaly similar to number 14 in Mr. Wood’s paper (‘Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society,’ June, 1864), only that in my subjects
the deviating muscle was not the flexor brevis, but the abductor, which
arose by two heads—one a superficial and external, from the tendon of
the palmaris longus and fascia of the forearm, about an inch in one sub-
ject, and three inches in another, above the anterior annular ligament,
This portion crossed the ulnar artery and nerve, covering the flexor
brevis, from which it was quite distinct. The deeper or normal head
of this muscle united with the superficial in one case by fleshy fibres at
the wrist, but in the other by a tendon near the fingers, both being
inserted in common into the inner side of the first phalanx of the little
finger.

458

Though I have never seen a similar arrangement of this muscle in
any animal, yet a somewhat corresponding slip has been described, and
I have seen the same appearance in connexion with the abductor pollicis
in the Cynocephalus porcarvus and other Quadrumana. It has been sug-
gested that these varieties might be modifications of the palmaris secun-
dus or accessorius before alluded to.

15. The palmar lumbricales I have found to vary very frequently
in their origin, principally by the occurrence of additional heads from
the inner sides of the neighbouring tendons. This variety occurrred to
the second lumbricalis in one instance, and to the second and third in
another. The third is by far the most frequent subject of variety, as I
have seen two irregularities of that muscle for every single instance of
variation in the others.

16. An aggravated case of talipes varus, occurring in the foot of a
female subject, exhibited some rare and interesting varieties in the posi-
tions, attachments, and relations of some of the tendons about the ankle.
The peronzeus longus on the right side, after winding around the outer
malleolus, grooved the external side of the os calcis, being bound down
by a strong double external annular ligament. It then passed forwards,
inwards, and a httle upwards, soon splitting into three tendons, which
were inserted into the tarsal extremities of the metatarsal bones of the
fifth, third, and first toes. There was no sesamoid tubercle or cartilage
where 1t wound round the caleis, but a very strong expansion of the
calcaneo-cuboid ligament held it in its place. On the left side, although
the foot was distorted, the muscle had only its normal insertion. The
chief feature of interest in the variety arises from the fact that in the
upper extremity the flexor carpi ulnaris, which is the undoubted homo-
type of this muscle, assumes a somewhat similar mode of arrangement
in some animals, as in the striped hyena, where, from the pisiform
attachment of this tendon (the homotype of the sesamoid bone, so fre-
quently existing in the tendon of the peroneeus longus), four slips are.
continued to the four outer metacarpal bones. I have seen the same
arrangement ina seal. In the Ursus arctos a ligamentous slip of a s1-
‘milar nature seems hkewise to continue the insertion of the muscle
from the pisiform to the fifth metacarpal bone. In the porcupine and
some other rodents, the peroneeus longus sends slips to the first, second,
and third metatarsal bones, as well as to the cuneiforms.

17. In the same subject the tibialis anticus, after gliding over the
anterior surface of the tibia, and passing under the anterior annular
ligament split mto two portions—one of which, a round internal slip,
was inserted into the inner side of the scaphoid and ento-cuneiform bones;
while the other, broad and aponeurotic, passed externally, to be attached
to the outer side of the astragalus and os ealcis. Beneath this expan-
sion, and winding round the former round tendinous slip as a pulley,
the tendons of the extensor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis pro-
prius ran, turning backwards, inwards, and upwards, so as to form an
angle of sixty degrees.

18. The peronzeus tertius; in a stout female subject, sent a strong

459

slip inwards, which united with the short extensor tendon of the little
toe. In the leg of a thin subject, also a female, a second peroneal slip
arose from the outer side of the long extensor tendon of the little toe,
and was inserted in front of the nor rmal peroneeus tertius into the fift h
metatarsal bone, and likewise by a thin but strong expansion into the
base of the fourth metatarsal bone (peroneus quartus).

19. The plantaris tendon in one instance terminated about the
middle third of the back of the leg by expanding into a flat aponeurotic
lamina, separating the soleus from the gastrocnemius, and terminating
by being continuous with the deep tibial fascia at the inner border of
the former muscle; the outer edge united with the conjoined tendons
of the muscles of the calf. The facility with which the plantaris
tendon can be unrayelled and expanded is very striking, but I have
never seen a natural expansion of it except in this case: in another in-
stance this tendon, for the lower two-thirds of the leg, was inclosed in
a canal in the soleus tendon, from which, however, it was quite sepa-
rate.

20. From the back of the lower extremity of the femur, about a
quarter of an inch external to the line leading from the inner condyle
to the linea aspera, there arose a round fleshy mass, more than an inch
above the inner head of gastrocnemius, which descended, crossing over
the popliteal nerve, to be inserted by a short tendon into the outer
head of the gastrocnemius muscle, near the point of its convergence
with the inner head (Plate I[X., fig.1, f). If we are to recognise in
the gastrocnemial series of muscles the representatives of the conver-
gence of the pronator and supinator muscles of the upper limb, this
band might be the representative of the upper origin of the long supi-
nator.

21. A composite special muscle to flex the little toe in the foot ofa
slight female was made up of the following elements :—1st, a muscular
band from the posterior part of the os calcis, below the sustentaculum,
and above and internal to the musculus accessorius; secondly, a slip
from the cuboid and sheath of the peronzus longus; and, thirdly, a
small thread from the long common flexor. These three parts united
to form a single tendon, which ran to be inserted without splitting into
the last phalanx of the little toe. A séparate flexor brevis existed for
this toe in the third layer of muscles.

22. In another female subject the outer slip of the musculus acces-
sorius detached a long flexor tendon for the little toe, which split the
fourth tendon of the flexor brevis, the latter being of extreme minute-
ness. Nearly the same arrangement was seen in another female, where
the outer part of the accessorius formed two tendons, one of which
united to the flexor digitorum longus, while the other passed to the
little toe direct, ee receiving a slender thread from the last-named
muscle.

I may here record the occurrence of pao bones which I have
found in the heads of the gastrocnemius, in the peronwus longus (not

460

unfrequently), in the tibialis anticus rarely, and in the tibialis pos-
ticus.

The biceps flexor cruris in the lower limbs of a male subject arose
not only by their long heads from the tuber ischii, but these were con-
tinued upwards and backwards over the great sciatic ligament to the
side and lower border of the sacrum. |

TV. Abnormalities of coalescence may occur in two ways—either by
the fusion, more or less complete, of the opposed margins of neighbouring
muscles, or by the presence of connecting bands, uniting muscles which
typically are distinct. The latter mode of connexion is the more fre-
quently met with; but the two varieties often merge into each other.
The former I have seen in the following muscles :—

1. The anterior belly of digastric and its fellow of the opposite
side I have seen to unite, so as to form one mass of interlaced muscular
fibres, either closely united to the mylo-hyoid, or in other instances
separated from it. This arrangement is the normal state in Jnuus
sylvanus, and in a few other species of Quadrumana. A partial form of
this variety I have also seen, in which the left anterior belly sent a
very large fasciculus below the chin to the median line, there to be
inserted into the fascia.

2. I have in one instance found the anterior belly of digastric, on
the right side, inseparably connected to the mylo-hyoid ofits own side,
with which its fibres interlaced.

3. The two genio-hyoid muscles several times were absolutely
inseparable, there being no trace of the usual cellular raphe between
them. The same mode of fusion is the usual arrangement in the motor
uvule.

4, The trapezius and deltoid have been in my experience several
times united by tendinous and fleshy fibres, crossing the spine of the
scapula. The complete union of these muscles is very common in the
non-claviculate Mammals, especially at their internal extremity.

5. The infraspinatus and deltoid were in one case fused together,
as occurs partially in the pig and camel. The union was produced by
the lower fibres of the former muscle becoming continuous with the
posterior fibres of the latter.

6. The outer border of the clavicular fibres of the great pectoral
and the inner edge of the deltoid I have seen partially fused together,
especially at their lowest part. The same arrangement I found in
Cynocephalus. I have never met with a complete fusion of the above
muscles in man, but a case of the kind is described by Koster (‘‘ Neder-
landsch Archief,” 1864). |

7. The deltoid and supinator longus muscles were perfectly
blended in the left arm of a strong, well-developed subject, so that a
band three quarters of an inch broad, and half an inch thick, was con-
tinued from the acromion process to the tendon, which was inserted into
the rough surface above the styloid process of the radius.

461

8. The complete fusion of gluteus medius and minimus was one
of the rarest anomalies which I have met with. The anterior fibres
of these muscles, however, are not unfrequently united together
inseparably.

9. The gluteus medius and pyriformis I have not uncommonly
found united at their insertion; more rarely I have found their fleshy
portions connected; and in one subject the opening for the gluteal
artery was the only appearance of the interval which normally separates
these muscles. This mode of coalescence I have seen in a species of
Cebus, C. apella.

10. The palmaris longus I have once found coalescing with the
flexor digitorum sublimis, as before mentioned. This is the natural
arrangement in Cebus.

11. Another variety of coalescence has been previously described
as existing between the palmaris longus and the flexor carpi ulnaris.

12. The outer edge of the brachialis anticus was occasionally inse-
parable from the inner border of the supinator longus; in these cases
the musculo-spiral nerve passed in a deep tunnel below the connecting
fibres.

13. The deep head of the flexor pollicis brevis manus not unfre-
quently was inseparable from the adductor pollicis, except at the spot
where the deep palmar branch of the radial artery passed between
them.

The union of muscles by connecting muscular or tendinous slips -
is of frequent occurrence, and I have seen it taking place with the
following :— |

1. The lower border of the great pectoral, and the upper edge of
the external oblique, which have been very often so distinctly con-
nected that fibres and fasciculi may be easily traced from the tendon at
the bicipital groove to the linea alba at the umbilicus.

2. The coraco-brachialis and brachialis anticus I have found
united by some fibres; and this anomaly Meckel has thought of very
great importance, as establishing the homotypical place of these
muscles, as shall be noticed hereafter.

3. The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and primi internodii pol-
licis were not unfrequently connected by the interchange of muscular
or tendinous fibres, and in one case coalesced for their whole extent, ex-
cept from the groove in the radius to the separate insertions of the two
divisions of the tendon. The same occurs in Jnuus sylvanus and Cyno-
cephalus porcarvus.

4, The flexor sublimis and profundus often interchange muscular
bundles; and,

5. The flexor profundus and flexor pollicis frequently are united
by a similar interchange of slips. In one case the flexor tendon
for the index finger mainly arose from the flexor pollicis; or, conversely,
fibres often run from the flexor profundus to the flexor pollicis..

R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 3P

462

These are attempts at the complete union of the two muscles which oc
cur in the majority of Quadrumana,

6. The biceps in several instances was extended at its insertion by
« tendinous band, internal to the radial insertion, to form one of the
origins of the flexor carpi radialis: in this instance the pronator teres
was small, and was at its origin completely under cover of the flexor
carpi radialis and palmaris longus. The brachialis anticus tendon is
frequently connected with the coronoid head of the pronator teres, of
which sometimes it forms the entire.

7. The extensores carpi radialis longior and brevior were thus
connected frequently, in degrees varying from complete fusion to junc-
tion by slender tendinous slips. The former ule occurs in the horse,
camel, and sheep.

8. The connecting band between the far ae dorsi and the
pectoralis major was found very often; its attachments varied, being
connected with the lower costal fibres ‘of the latter in one instance,
whereas in most of the other cases it joined the upper sternal or costal
fibres. This connexion is very common; it occurs in most of the
Felida, in the mole, and many other animals.

9. The brachialis anticus in one case sent off a slip to form one of
the origins of pronator teres distinct from that already noticed; and in
another subject dissected by me, during the past session, the latter muscle
possessed a remarkable series of origins, consisting of :—1st, a tendinous
band, sent off from the biceps between its ordinary tendon and the
commencement of its semilunar fascia; 2nd, a thin tendinous slip from
the inner condyle, four-fifths of an inch long, and one-fifth of an inch
broad; and, 8rdly, by a thick fleshy head from the internal intermus-
cular septum and internal condyloid ridge of the humerus, for the extent
of two inches, ceasing an inch and a half above the point of the condyle.
This very complex arrangement is, I think, undescribed. (Plate VIIL.,
MO Bt (O00)

10. The peronzi were occasionally united by tendinous and fleshy
slips, but this arrangement is not of frequent occurrence.

11. The modes of connexion existing between the tendons of the
flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus are of very great. in-
terest ; and, as they have given rise toseveral discussions, I have care-
fully sought and examined their nature. Ihave found some connexion
present between these tendons in at least eight out of every ten sub-
jects. The union varied in strength and nature : sometimes it was
merely the interchange of a few tendinous fibres, or a large cord from
one tendon to the other; most commonly these ran from the flexor
hallucis to the flexor communis, especially to the tendon of the second
toe; but in two or three instances I have seen them running in the
reverse direction. In some cases a perfect fusion took place between
the tendons; and much more rarely the flexor hallucis sent off a cord
larger than its own proper tendon, which subdivided into four tendons,
which united with the tendons of the flexor communis, opposite the
metacarpi phalangeal articulations, forming with the latter tendons

463

very acute angles. In one of these subjects the lumbricales were arranged
In two sets: one group corresponded to the accessory or deeper tendons,
and these were connected with the third and fifth toes; another series
was placed in connexion with the ordinary flexor tendons, and were
inserted into the second and fourth toes. This peculiar mode of arrange-
ment has not been before described. A minute and careful description
of these modes of union, by Mr. Turner, will be found in the “ Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,” vol. xxiv. (December 19,
1864).

12. In the upper third of the arm of a female subject a small round
muscular bundle crossed over the brachial artery: it arose from the
lower border of the tendons of the latissimus dorsi and teres major
muscles (which were inseparably united), and ended below in the
tendon of the coraco-brachialis muscle. Its length was about two inches,
and it lay underneath the brachial aponeurosis. This slip resembles
some of those recorded by Dr. Struthers in the ‘“ British and Foreign
Medico-Chirurgical Review ’’ for 1854; but was peculiar in that it com-
menced by tendinous fibres, which crossed the tendon of the latissimus
dorsi at right angles, and that its fibres ran, not transversely, but ob-
liquely downwards and outwards over the artery.

Y. Varieties by segmentation, or the fission of normal muscles into
separate parts, are of frequent occurrence, and may indicate that the
muscle so divided is composed of several homologically distinct seg-
ments, which have coalesced, or else the splitting may be accidental, and
may arise from the atrophy or non-development of the natural connect-
ing fibres which ought to connect the severed portions.

1. The pectoralis major was very commonly—indeed, in the majority
of eases—thus divided, the sternal and clavicular fibres being separated
by a deep and wide interval. The costal fibres were rarely as distinctly
isolated from the sternal portion as were the latter from the clavicular;
and this condition I have seen in a pig, also in several monkeys.

2. The upper portion of the serratus magnus I have hkewise seen
perfectly distinct from the middle and lower parts of the muscle—a con-
dition which I have found in Cercopithecus and Cebus, where the upper
portion of the muscle is inseparably connected with the levator anguli
scapule.

3. The sterno-cleido-mastoid sometimes was similarly divided, the
spinal accessory nerve passing through the interspace between the two
nearly parallel bellies. These Meckel considers as the representatives of
two muscles—a sterno-mastoid and a cleido-mastoid—which he describes
as the cervical equivalents of the rectus and pyramidalis muscles in the
abdomen, and the antitheses of the splenii capitis and colli.

4, The biceps fiexor cubiti in a similar manner I have been, on two
or three occasions, able to separate throughout the whole extent of its
fleshy belly as far as its tendon, into two parts—thus showing the com-
posite nature of this muscle, and that it is most probably the represen-

464

tative, not of the rectus femoris, but of the hamstrings of the lower
extremity; the long head representing, doubtless, the origin of the semi-
membranosus, which is typically placed nearer to the articulation than
either of its congeners, and which also is the more external and most
tendinous at its origin. ‘The coracoid, or short head, thus may repre-
sent the ordinary long head of the biceps cruris ; and the humeral acces-
sory slip in the arm, when present, is the evident homologue of the short
head of the last-named muscle. In a few of the Quadrumana I have
been able to separate the heads of the biceps in a similar manner.

In this representation of the homotypical relations of the flexors of
the leg and forearm’ it will be seen that I have differed materially from
Meckel’s theoretical comparison of these muscles; as this anatomist,
from the occasional occurrence of a connecting band between the coraco-
brachialis and the brachialis anticus, has considered that these muscles
are parts of a modified representative of the semimembranosus, divided
transversely in the midst, and having both its severed ends tacked on
to the shaft of the humerus. There are, however, many valid objec-
tions to this explanation, as it would make the representative of the semi-
membranosus to arise internal to the other flexors, which is usually not
the case with that muscle ; also that it is never united with the biceps at
its origin ; and, lastly, that it usually arises by a tendon, and not fleshy;
besides, as we shall see hereafter, the coraco-brachialis may claim a
closer relation to another class of muscles than to the hamstrings.

5. The deltoid muscle is sometimes completely divided into two parts,
clavicular and scapular. I never, however, have seen the fission extend-
ing in so complete a manner as in the instance described by Meckel,
where the clavicular, acromial, and scapular fibres were all perfectly dis-
tinct and separate.

6. The coraco-brachialis in a few instances (three or four) was par-
tially divisible into two distinct planes; and in one subject these were
perfectly differentiated and separated by the external cutaneous nerve.
Of the two lamine in this instance the superficial was inserted lower
down than usual, and arose from the tip of the coracoid process, uncon-
nected with the short head of the biceps; the deeper portion was con-
nected intimately with that muscle. I would look upon this variety as
of very great interest in determining the homotypical relations of this
muscle, which, I think, we are justified in considering as the represen-
tative of the adductor mass in the hinder limb; the upper or shorter part
may perhaps represent the adductor brevis, or more probably magnus,
while the longer and more superficial element is the evident homotype
of the adductor longus. This we learn—lIst, from its origin, the dimi-
nished homotype of the ischiatic element, and this in a situation where
the pubis is obsolete ; 2nd, from its relation to the brachial artery ; and,
3rd, from its insertion. Among the Mammals we find the coraco-bra-
chialis thus divided in the ornithorhynchus, lemur, bear, and others. |

7. The supinator longus and (8) psoas magnus were split into two
portions in one subject—the former by the radial nerve, the latter by the
anterior crural.

465

9. I have likewise found the posterior sacral and coccygeal fibres of
the gluteus maximus severed from the rest of the muscle, so forming
the representative of the agitator caude of quadrupeds.

10. The anterior fibres of the gluteeus medius were in a few instances
severed from the posterior, and formed a strong distinct scansorial

muscle,

11. The quadratus femoris was three times split into two parallel
portions. I have never seen any further segmentation of this muscle,
although Jancke has described a triple division.

12. The trapezius I have found once distinctly divided into two parts:
the upper or cranial portion, strong and distinct, arose from the usual
situation of the occipital bone, and passed outwards, forwards, and down-
wards, to the clavicle, forming a distinct occipito-clavicular muscle; the
origin of the lower portion extended: no higher than the ligamentum
nuche, corresponding to the spine of the fifth cervical vertebr a, andits
insertion fell short of the acromion process. A partial attempt at this
mode of division I have seen, and I have likewise found this upper or
occipito-clavicular muscle to be deficient; perhaps it may be the repre-
sentative of a distinct element, although so frequently united to the rest
of the trapezius.

13. The levator anguli scapule [ have seen split into three parts, the
slips from the transverse processes of the third, fourth, and fifth cervical
vertebree remaining separate as far as the insertion of this muscle.

14, The flexor sublimis digitorum has frequently displayed differen-
tiation to a very considerable extent: in the right forearm of one subject,
and in the left of another, it was divided from its origin into two parts,
of which the outer was distinctly digastric. Its first belly arose from
the inner condyle, and about three inches below ended in a tendon,
which, after running for about two inches, formed the second belly,
which detached from its lower extremity two tendons for the outer pair
of fingers. The inner portion of the muscle also arose from the condyle,
but no radial origin was present for it or its fellow; it terminated by
tendons for the inner or ulnar pair of fingers. In stenops, Meckel de-
scribes the whole of this superficial flexor as being digastric; and it is
interesting to find an approach to that condition in the present instance.
In two other subjects the flexor sublimis was split into four slips up as
far as to within an inch of the inner condyle. No radial head was pre-
sent in these instances.

15. The subscapularis muscle in the arm of a thin female was split
into two portions by the circumflex nerve (Plate VIL., fig. 1, a) :' the
superficial or inferior part arose by two tendons from the posterior and
inferior border of the scapula, and, passing below but on a plane super-
ficial to the remainder of the muscle, was inserted into the capsule of the
shoulder and the tip of the lesser tuberosity; this portion did not pierce
the capsular ligament.

16. The adductor magnus femoris has been often completely divided
into an upper and lower part, the separation occurring sometimes in the
situation of the middle perforating branch of the profunda artery. I

466

have found the same arrangement in the dog, dingo, and several other
animals.

17. The flexor brevis pollicis manus was also frequently severed into
two perfectly distinct muscles. The same state of perfect differentiation
I once saw in the extensor brevis digitorum pedis in the right foot of a
female subject.

18. The brachialis anticus I have found in one subject split nearly
through to its insertion, the cellular interspace between its heads ex-
tending down almost to the elbow. A distinct portion of this muscle I
found on one occasion arising from the intermuscular ridge of the hu-
merus.

19. The pyriformis muscle I have seen in different degrees of fission,
sometimes the insertions of the two segments being apart; but more
commonly two muscular belles have ended in a common tendon, and a
part (usually the peroneal portion) of the great sciatic nerve passed
backwards between them.

20. Sometimes the costal fibres of the latissimus dorsi were separated
from the iliac portion of that muscle as far as the tendon.

21. The ericothyroid I have once seen split into two parts.

VI. Of our last series of varieties we have two subdivisions —the first
comprising those cases in which normal muscles are completely obsolete, -
and the second including those instances where partial suppression
occurs; to these might be added varieties by degeneration ; but it would
be perhaps more correct to exclude them entirely from our enumeration,
as they can have but little bearing upon questions of comparative myo-
logy, as being the results of influences acting upon parts which other-
wise would have been perfect in their embryonic and developed condi-
tions. Complete suppression I have found in cases of—

1. Platisma myoides; 2. zygomatici, major and minor; 3. levator
palpebree superioris, on both sides of a female subject, in whom there
was no sign of ptosis; 4. pyramidalis nasi; 5. trachelo-mastoid ; 6. ser-
ratus posticus superior, very rarely absent; 7. serratus posticus inferior ;
8. sterno-thyroid ; 9. omo-hyoid, twice—in one instance on both sides,
and in the other a rudiment was visible on the left, while the muscle was
completely absent on the right; 10. triangularis sterni ; 11. palmaris lon-
gus; 12. lumbricales manus, and in one case lumbricales pedis, except
the one for the third toe; 138. pyriformis; 14. psoas parvus, so fre-
quently absent, that Theile considers it not to be a normal constituent
of the human body, although Meckel falls into the singular error of say-
ing that it is not often absent; 15. plantaris more freqnently absent
than palmaris, in the proportion of three to two; 16. gemellus superior,
as mentioned by Gantzer, and as we find in stenops; 17. gemellus in-
ferior, as occurs in the kangaroo and ornithorhynchus; 18. peronzus
tertius; 19. transversalis perineei; 20. transversus abdomini in one
instance; 21. palmaris brevis; 22. scalenus anticus; 23. the stylo-
hyoid muscle; 24. transversalis pedis; 25. tensor tarsi.

Partial suppression I have found to take place regarding—1. The

467

scapular head of the omo-hyoid ; 2. the occipital portion of the trapezius ;
3. the long head of the biceps; 4. the coronoid head of the pronator teres——-
this is absent in many Quadrumana; 5. the radial- origin of the flexor
sublimis, likewise deficient in monkeys; 6. the outer slips of the extensor
digitorum longus and of the brevis in the foot ; and, 7, the tendon corre-
sponding to the former in the hand; 8. the long flexor tendon for the little
toe; and, 9, the short flexor for the same digit; 10. the sternal head of
the sterno-mastoid.

Mr. Avexanver Macarisrer, Demonstrator of Anatomy, Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons, Ireland, also read the following paper :—

_Noves oF two UNDESCRIBED LIGAMENTS IN THE Human Bopy.

Tuer are some ligaments in the human body, which, although compara-
tively distinct, seem to be as yet undescribed by anatomists, as I have
sought in vain for a notice of them in most of the standard works on prac-
tical anatomy. One of these structures is connected with the scapula, the
other with the hip joint. The first, which I propose to name coraco-glenoid
(Piate IV., fig. 1, c), is a flat fasciculus, of varying strength and distinct-
ness, which passes from het posterior and external aspect of the coracoid
process, underneath and sometimes attached to the coraco-acromial liga-
ment, downwards, backwards, and outwards, obliquely, to be inserted
into the glenoid ligament, and into the posterior and superior part of the
lip of the glenoid cavity ; extending backwards and downwards into the
neck of the scapula, in one subject so far as to be continuous with the
glenoid attachment of Sir A. Cooper’s spino-glenoid ligament. To
expose this coraco-glenoid band, we require to detach and throw down-
wards the deltoid muscle from its origin, to cut across and reflect the
eoraco-acromial ligament; and then, if we divide the supraspinatus tendon,
and draw the humerus downwards, and outwards, so as to render the
capsule and its coraco-humeral accessory band tense, this structure will
be exposed to view. It is connected at its origin with the coraco-
humeral ligament, with which its fibres passing from the coracoid attach-
ment decussate ; but they are perfectly distinguishable by their difference
in direction, as they form nearly a right angle with each other. Its outer
border gives attachment to some fibres of the capsular higament, which
rarely I have seen distinctly split by it; its posterior fibres are often con-
tinuous with the periosteum at the root of the coracoid process, or else
they may be free along their inner edge. At its insertion it crosses the
long tendon of the biceps, with which it is in general partly continuous ;
occasionally it is split into two parts—one extending to the neck of the
capula, the other continuous with the biceps tendon. In frequency I
have found this structure as constantly present as the spino-glenoid liga-
ment, than which it is often much stronger ; and from observations extend-
Ing over several sessions, I have estimated that in the average of every
twenty subjects it occurred very strong in five, weak but distinct in
seven, indistinct in five, and absent in three. Its strength I have found

468

to vary within considerable limits; in one instance it was capable of
sustaining a weight of sixteen pounds; in the majorityof other cases it
could not support a pressure of more than three, four, or five pounds,
and sometimes it was not sufficiently strong to bear a weight of six
ounces.

The second ligament to which I would call attention is a third acces-
sory slip to the capsule of the hip joint (Plate IV., fig. 2). I have usually
found this band springing from the upperand onter part of the tuberischiu;
its fibres ran outwards, backwards, and a little upwards, crossing over the
groove which separates the acetabulum from the tuber ischii, and are
inserted into the posterior aspect of the neck of the femur about midway
between the trochanters; a ridge sometimes exists in this position; here
its fibres are inseparably united to those of the capsular ligament, although
comparatively distinct at the ischiatic attachment. This structure is
brought into view by raising the gluteus maximus, by reflecting the
sciatic vessels and nerves, cutting through and throwing down the qua-
dratus femoris ; and then, when we divaricate the gemelius inferior from
the obturator externus, it can usually beseen. Its lower fibresare traceable
along the upper edge of the tuber ischii, and sometimes are connected
with the origins of the hamstring muscles : it is separated from the origin of
the semimembranosus by the attachment of the quadratus femoris. Two
other accessory ligaments are recognised in connexion with the hip joint—
ilio-femoral and pubio-femoral—but this ischio-femoral fasciculus is
usually as distinct from the capsule as either of these, and isoften much
stronger than the last-named; it protects the joint in rotation inwards,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

TO ILLUSTRATE DR. MACALISTER’S PAPER ON UNDESCRIBED LIGAMENTS.

Puate IV., Fig. 1. Coraco-glenoid ligament: a, Acromion process; 4, Long head of bi-
ceps tendon; ¢, Coraco-glenoid ligament, a well-developed speci-
men; d, Clavicle; e, Glenoid ligament.

ss Fig, 2. Ischio-femoral accessory ligament, an unusually developed example,
right side of male subject.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF DR. MACALISTER’S PAPER ON ANOMALOUS MYOLOGY.

PLATE V., Fig. 1. Rhombo-axoid muscle: @, Rhombo-axoid; 0, Splenius capitis;
é, Serratus posticus superior; d, Levator scapulee ; @, Rhomboideus
minor; f, Rhomboideus major.

Me Fig 2. a, Mento-hyoid muscle; 4, Digastric; ¢, see d, Mylo-
hyoid; e, Stern o-mastoid ; f, Sterno-hyoid; g, Omo-hyoid.

PuateE VI, Fig. 1. a, Azygos pharyngei; 64, Cephalo-pharyngeus; c, Stylo-pharyn-
geus ; d, Superior Constrictor; e, Middle Constrictor.
4 Fig. 2. Deep muscles of the front of the neck, the Scalenus anticus and

posticus having been removed; a, a, Scalenus medius, cut and re-
flected ; 6, Scalenus accessorius.

Pe Fig. 3. a, Crico-thyroideus posticus; 6, Crico-thyroideus; c, Thyroid car-
tilage ; d, Cricoid cartilage; e, Os hyoides.

469

PuatE VIL., Fig. 1. a, Subscapularis accessorius; 4, Circumflex nerve; ce, Subscapu-
laris; d, Teres major.
“n Fig. 2. a, Infraspinatus secundus; 4, Capsular ligament of the shoulder ;
e, Coraco-brachialis ; d, Biceps.

PuaTEVIILI., Fig.1. a, Palmaris longus; 0, Palmaris accessorius; c, Flexor Carpi Ul-
naris; d, Pronator Radii teres; ¢, Flexor Carpi Radialis.

A Fig. 2. a, Pronator teres; 6, Flexor Carpi Radialis; c, Palmaris acces-

sorius; @, Flexor Carpi Ulnaris.

‘5 Fig. 3. a, Bicipital origin of Pronator Radii teres; 6, 0, condyloid origin ;
ce, Supracondyloid humeral origin; d@, Flexor Carpi Radialis con-
dyloid origin; ¢, Coronoid origin; jf, Flexor Carpi Ulnaris;
g, Supinator longus; #, Belly of Pronator teres; ¢, Triceps;
J, Biceps; 4, Brachialis anticus.

PLATEIX., Fig. 1. a, Semitendinosus; 0, Semimembranosus; ¢, Biceps Flexor Cruris;
d, Gastrocnemius; ¢, Plantaris; f, Third or middle head of Gas-
trocnemius.

The Rev. Samurt Haventon, M.D., read a series of communica-
tions (in continuation)

On Antmat MEcHANICS.

No. [X.—On tHe MuscrtEs oF THE MARSUPIALS.

My observations on the muscles of the Marsupials were made on four
Kangaroos, an Opossum, and a Phalanger, which died in the Zoological
Gardens of Dublin. One of the Kangaroos was the Giant Kangaroo, a
female, which had lived for nine years in the Zoological Gardens,
and died in January, 1866, after a fortnight’s illness, of paraplegia,
produced by cold and damp. The other Kangaroos were Wallabys, two
female and one male, which died in 1865-66, of scrofulous disease of
the lower jaw, presenting similar symptoms in all, and apparently pro-
duced by the damp climate of Dublin, from the pernicious effects of
which no care seemed sufficient to protect them. The Opossum (female)
was from Virginia, and died in January, 1866, and the Phalanger died
in 1864. The stomach of the Opossum contained thirty-four lumbrical
worms.

Part J. —KaAnGARoos.

In describing the muscles of the Kangaroos, I shall refer to them in
the following manner :—

a, Macropus giganteus (female).
b, Macropus Vallabsensis (male).
C, Hs a (female).
C, s ms (female).

R.1I.A. PROC.—vVOL. IX. 3Q

470

A.—WMuscles of the Hip Joint.

1. M. thacus, HARPER ari Fics eu ny reac wc Mec ich cl Le Oye
M. psoas magnus, a RC me een cee UD Oe:
MM. nscadiliacus, a By iN oe ee eee OO

cutie rs Dire atone) ‘
as Fe pin fale ene el OU ie Oe

The chacus takes its origin from the surface of the ilium, marked in
Fig. 25, and the psoas magnus from the bodies of the last two lumbar
vertebree.

DM PCCUINCUS ON Gr Oe ct FN Gee Oca. 07,

a ei ei ipo
9? O) 3 ;
9 Sie oko EE Ga 2a eee ST 0:25 oz.

This muscle takes its origin from the pectineal line, behind the spine
of the pubis, and acts as one of the depressors of the marsupial bones ;
it is inserted into the second fourth of the linea aspera,

3. LL, adductor: brevis, Sa tek ae Oeieree | Ron oe eet 0°25 oz.
Die regal pacar o step nas 0:25
9) a - °
: vient mc tog: eel eno, ee

This adductor takes its origin from the anterior line of the pubis,
inside the adductor magnus, and is inserted into the upper fourth of the
linea aspera. It acts as a depressor of the marsupial bone.

A. ME Gdducton NGGNUS, Ge) Go|) 6 Beste ae 5°22 oz.
i peal o % 3°39
39 - ? - F,
if A es eee meee

The adductor magnus takes its origin from the anterior edge of the
pubis, from the base of the marsupial bone, from the symphysis pubis,
and from the top of the pubic arch; and is inserted into the whole
length of the linea aspera. It acts as a depressor of the marsupial bone.

5. M. adductor longus, Naps ay cae hy Val 3°42 oz.
Se MNP a ; Pai
39 3 - °
‘ Do igh ening ee

This muscle takes its origin from the anterior two thirds of the pubic
arch, and is separable with difficulty from the adductor magnus, over
which it is folded like the double adductor longus in the Emu ; it is in-
serted above the back of the inner condyle into the lower fourth of the
femur.

———

Geall> abrurator extermus, . 3. 8, Se a 1°42 oz.
to hs oe 0:94
” : ’ Sots
‘ Ge NG eet. Ab ABG aes

This muscle has a common tendon with obturator internus.

ieee Obeurator interns... 8, y. swe ss 084 07,
ANC Ee ed ens Ds a, OO :
z Meter et 2 6.89 Uae Ua

The origin of these muscles is shown in Fig. 26 (0.7. and g.),
where it will be observed that the origin of the gemelli occupies a larger
surface of the ischium than is usual in other animals.

8. IL. quadratus femoris, ayy setae oat rl sAicoz.
ab sine, HeleO2
”? : ; 4
- ec 0h welts

This is one of the most remarkable muscles found in the Kangaroos,
and is intended to assist in the support of the animal when resting in
its usual attitude, on the tail and hind legs. It takes its origin from
the large triangular surface of the ischium, Fig. 25 (q. f.), and, thence
converging in a pyramidal mass to a point, is inserted into a special tro-

Fig. 25.

chanter or tubercle, developed for its reception in the middle of the
posterior surface ofthe femur. Fully two-thirds of this pyramidal mass
are composed of tendinous fibres, the remaining third being muscular, so
that the whole may be regarded as an elastic tendon. When the animal
sits upon its tail and legs in the manner above described, it places its
feet so far forward, and its tail so far back, that a mechanical observer
is at once struck by the apparent want of strength of the arch on which
the weight of the body is supported, and is disposed to come to the con-
clusion that the act of sitting on its tail must be a fatiguing one to the
Kangaroo. Observation of their habits, however, abundantly proves the
contrary, and shows that the animal prefers this attitude to any other.

472

The explanation of the difficulty is to be found in the semimembra-
nous guadratus femoris, which acts as a ‘‘ tve-beam’’ to the arch, and,
without much expenditure of force, supports the weight of the body
placed on the vertex of the straddling arch formed by the tail and hind
feet. I do not know of any other animal in which the insertion of the
quadratus femoris is placed so low down on the femur, nor of any in
which, as in the Kangaroo, a special RUE NE TSE is provided for this
muscle.

9.0, agitator caud@, ¢ 1. Big es ee
i: ears Wal i NY
ss so eral e ceeeee ba eeu ee) | 1:94 oz.
= one GEN Fee 1°70

This muscle takes its origin from the sides of the 1st, 2nd, and 8rd
caudal vertebree, and joins the posterior portion of the gluteus maximus
in a long tendon, which is inserted into the side of the patella and lower
margin of the vastus externus.

10. M. gluteus maximus posterior,. a. . » ». « « 6°06 02.

‘3 «De ie DEG
a athe eoreee eam 2°01-oz.
” ° C, sits: Sakea eto

takes origin from the sacral fascia and from fascia covering gl. medius,
is separable with difficulty from gl. max. anterior, and is inserted by
common tendon with the agitator caude.

11. IL. gluteus maximus anterior,. a, . + « « « . 2°46 02,
es geo. lee
oe aC, ee eee eee | 1:65 oz.
s S ' Coumesione a. wales

This muscle takes its origin from the anterior margin of the ilium,
behind the origin of sartorzus, and from the lumbar fascia and that cover-
ing the g/. medius ; ; and is inserted into the fascia flowing over the great,
trochanter that gives origin to the vastus externus.

12. M. gluteus medius, oe LB ae eee ez
Sintles ueloe Die ena Deo
39 3 °
55 6, Jie S29 ONeieaes 2°71 02.

Origin from the posterior edge of the ilium, from the ischiadic notch
forward, and from the surface of that bone, marked in Fig. 26 (gl. med.)

13. WM. gluteus minimus, of es a as eon:
hig od niger
23 ? .
se 2b lGvat ee. J0- Boel 0°74 oz.

This muscle takes its origin from the surface of the ilium, marked

Fig. 26 (g/l. min.), and is inserted into the line below the head of the
great trochanter, by means of a flat tendon.

473

14. W. gluteus quartus (iliocapsularis),a,. . . 0°49 oz,
b 0°39
3) ee .
i C, 7 O16 OPT 02,

This is the muscle described by human anatomists under the name of
alio capsularis, as sometimes occurring in the human subject; it belongs
to the gluteal group, and not to the iliacal group of muscles, and arises
from the surface of the ium, marked in Fig. 26 (g/. 4); and it is in-
serted by a flat tendon into the prolongation of the insertion of the glu-
teus minimus, with which its action is almost identical.

oP PGIUNCUSQUINOUS, fs es D, 3) oo. ee 0°26 07.

takes origin from the lateral ridge of the ilium, Fig. 26 (gi. 5), se-
parating the gluteal from the iliacal surface, and is inserted by flat
tendon below glut. quartus.

Fig. 26.

——

=Ss

GMP YTUOLMNIS = tor eye h wi at By opis Ge ver) O44 02.
ogee s Dye. 0°20
Le) p) i °
: ee ec O16 Ore ee:

This muscle is well developed, and is quite distinct from the gluteus
medius ; it has the usual origin, and is inserted partly into the head of
the great trochanter, and partly into the fascial origin of the vastus ex-
ternus that flows over that trochanter.

B.—Museles of the Knee Joint.

OV. ME tensor vagine femoris, . . a, « »« « « « » 0°84 02.
ar we Daal) wo OPA
99 b) .
Fe Ue lege teh O28 api

This muscle takes its origin from 11 inch of the anterior superior
portion of the lateral ridge of the ilium, below the origin of the sarto-
rius, and is lost in the fascia directly covering the rectus femoris halfway
down the thigh. I class it, from its connexion with the rectus, among
the knee joint, rather the hip joint muscles,

PRUE RCCUNS JOMORIS; 5 oc oe Ay see es AAD 07,
: oe pe 2°00
99 . 7 7 .
ie a eae ee aeseih mud ae OF
MeN vastus ertcnnus, es On a aN es 1014 O72,
i) b, . Aro

‘; Or gos 7860 Ono Oe.

474

This large muscle takes its origin almost exclusively from the glu-
teal fascia flowing over the great trochanter, and has only a few fibres
arising from the side of the femur; and some fibres of the pyriformis
are attached to its posterior border.

AS conistis terns jo 6 orto ELPA SO eae tee Oe Oe
: be ea
‘i c, 1 Shae 1°19 oz.
5. WV. crureus, SAE OSA Rg St ES ae ae ees eZ
“4 | epthaes eaayeed aris
‘ 6. NOs 0°78 oz.
6. M. sartorius, Bere sur Bi nose idgeh. eet creep Dail 07.
” Dae ate 1g oz.

5 Cg <a ctaegl Ou te

This muscle has the usual origin, but is inserted subcentrally into
the patella, rather on the inner side; it bears a close resemblance to one
of the sartorw in the Dog.

Dl OZ.
1:04 oz,

7. ML. gracihs, Dies. Aer
# b, 6
- Cy Amo SOs
This muscle acts as one of the depressors of the marsupial bone, and
1s inserted by a broad tendinous fascia into the upper third of the leg.
PS) oz:

0°84 oz.

8. > semimembranosus,. 9 2). 6 tO, Fe eee
ieee rees Ose

5 oh as tes (Cees OO aes
takes its origin from the middle third of the arch of the pubis, and
is inserted by a narrow tendon into the top of the tibia; it is with dif-
ficulty separable from the adductor magnus.

39

4:47 02.
Dia Oe OZen se

9. M. semitendinosus, Sp ndokgh ant eid aes Ne, ta
eee ail
3 eles omer,” 46,0538 J
This muscle arises from the tuber ischii, as usual, with a few fibres,
forming the posterior border of the g/. max. from the first caudal ver-
- tebra; and is inserted by a tendon, 14 in. to 2+in. long, into the upper
third of tibia, by fascia common to it and to gracilis.

10. DT biceps Fomoriss: 2. a2 yo DE Ors
ete Dy een) OO i
. eee er rc ee
The biceps is blended, near its origin, with some fibres of the semz-
tendinosus, and is inserted into the fascia of the thigh immediately below
the great trochanter, into the lower part of the patellar fascia, from one-
third to halfway down the leg.

ids WT, popliteusi oe Se Ay (OF as een eo e7:
Ate mga) 3 Rois 2 ny Ou Z
col) 9-90 ee " 24 oz.

27

iP]

3?

9)

A475

C.—Muscles of Ankle and Foot.

PME SHOSIVOCNOMIUS 8 ve) fe Byy ie Sony han ge

4 es see ee OGS

3 rae Cee OAS

Origin; on the outer side, from the back of the outer condyle, from

tendon of agitator caude, and from under surface of one horn of the cres-

centic sesamoid bone lying below the outer condyle at the top of fibula;
on the inner side, from the back of the inner condyle.

ago eal OZ.
2°36 OZ.

2. M. flexor communis perforatus, a, Shes 6°85 oz.
sy bys 425 B62 mee
a OE eae ie Geena cy

Origin; from the inner horn of the crescentic sesamoid bone, with
some fibres from the fascia of knee joint and outer condyle.

Insertion; at the calcaneum, the tendon is partly inserted on its
inner side, and then passes on over the calcaneum (representing the
flexor brevis digitorum), and is distributed (as flexor perforatus) to the
near ends of both phalanges of the two large toes; at the outer side of
the heel it gives off a smaller tendon, which runs direct to the outer of
the large toes, and is joined near its base by a second tendon from the
main trunk ; both united form the flex. perforatus of that toe. It seems
to contain the soleus, plantaris, and flexor digitorum brevis combined in
one.

3. I. flecor communis perforans (longus), a, . . . . 2°61 oz.
55 yg oO
‘ - eo 19) 1°24 oz.

arises from the upper two-thirds of back of tibia and fibula, except
portion covered by popliteus ; and is distributed to the ungual phalanges
of the four toes.

4. M. peroneus longus, Me ay WO eb nee Aas LO)
fs Bay trains. - a On LA)
takes origin from the top and upper half of the fibula, and from
the fascia covering the other two peronei ; and after passing under the
foot in the usual manner, its tendon is inserted into the near ends of the
metatarsals of the two inner (small) toes.

0°17 oz.

- 5. M. peroneus brevis, i Ga oe we ee renee as 0°39 oz.
sey o Oe le
oe) De oka :
x oN id 9 kOe pete OF OO min os

Origin from the outer and upper third of fibula, and insertion into
outer side of distal end of metacarpal of outer toe, and base of its first
phalanx.

6. . peroneus tertius, ee Oca mate nis. 4e nse 60 Ody OZ

This little muscle arises from the middle of the fibula, below the
other peronai, and is inserted by means of a long silky tendon into the
back of the outer and near end of the lst phalanx of the 2nd toe
(small).

476

1. I flexor proprius hallucis,” 7 BD, 2. a 7 OZ.

This muscle arises from the fascia covering the back of the popliteus,
with a few fibres running towards the head of the fibula; and is in-
serted into the os calcis, on the znner side of the groove made for the
passage of the tendon of the flecor digitorum perforans.

8. MW. tibsalis anticus, By Sel cel vee ee HOT
be oe
i oe bones 1°58 oz.
Inserted into the inner side of the near ends of the metatarsals of the
1st and 2nd toes (small).

9. M. extensor communis digitorum, a, . . sae plo 07:
0°43 oz.

33

7? r)

”? Gai 62 0°34) ~
Distributed to the 3rd and 4th toes (large).
10. 00, extensor hallucrs; ins ove Ops sage asl a ea OZ

This little muscle takes origin from inner side of the head of the
tibia, below the tibialis anticus, and its tendon, crossing the backs of the
metatarsal bones, is distributed by two smaller tendons to the backs of
the two inner toes (used chiefly for scratching), of which, with the per-
onéus tertius, itis the proper extensor,

D.—WMuscles of the Shoulder.

1. MW. trapezius, 8s oa inn aed og eee OAD OZ

bee 025

G coor 0:28 oz.
This muscle is intimately blended with the cutaneous muscles of

the neck, with the omo-atlanticus and latussimus dorsi; it takes its

origin from the last three cervical and first six dorsal vertebre.

3)

2. M. rhomboideus, Susgivct eos PG aaa O-LT, 02.
De edie ORs
9? 3 .
. 6 Jae Onlee 0°18 oz.

Arises from the occiput, from all the cervical, and first three dorsal
vertebre.

3. M. sterno-clevdo-mastordeus, Rs Se cece 0:39 oz.
by sc 088
33 >] .
: bk baie 0°32 oz.
4, Lf. omo-atlanticus, Pe cape Tt 8 0°45 oz.
Dy co seaeeee
9? P) *
- Gee One 0°26 oz.

Arises from the transverse processes of the 1st, 2nd, and 8rd cer-
vical vertebre, and is inserted into the anterior fourth of the spine
of scapula and whole of clavicle.

5. Ud. serratus magnus, AES ee MA cs, ie LOG O25
” Opt pyeaelOtoye a
fonds 0-006 0°89 oz

Arises from the costal processes (pleurapophyses) and ribs of the
vertebre, from the third cervical to the sixth dorsal.

NONI Sic al, et oe es 005: om
tee eae sear pas Deca s '.'3\ O05.
3) d °
ap rie ase oe 0-05f EUS Oe
This muscle takes its origin from the inner fourth, or cartilage of
first rib, and is inserted along the whole length of the under surface
of the clavicle.

E.— Muscles of the Shoulder Jownt.

1. YU. latissimus dorsi, ee ER a son SN i ees Leu
se A) 5 aga a Me OnFl
93 >) °
z ee as gon * | o2

In addition to the Jat. dorsi, occupying its usual position, there is
an accessory cutaneous muscle, like that so fully developed in the Seal
and other swimming animals, which is inserted, partly with the lat.
dorsi, and partly over the biceps, with the pectoralis ; it is, properly, a
part of the panniculus carnosus, and takes its origin as far down as the
symphysis pubis.

PON IECIOL UNS nn coo tae. ee A, yee ss O95. 07,

~ fee ewe be oy 46

. ee io Fre oe
takes origin from the whole length of the sternum. There is only
one pectoral muscle.

o. M.coracobrachals, . . ... Doe cage re cays «Ug 210%,
4, M. deltordeus, ee eee," Cee OZ:
Hie Nien cae ea 0 Oo O
59 2) e
| : Ah nae jo 028.02.
Arises from inner third of spine of scapula and clavicle.
5. M. supraspinatus, Se em ee oi et wr. OPO 2 OZ;
PSEA © a Oo,
2? ’ s
: te Rte RN CA 9 Cer
6. I. infraspinatus, Se IM Rae ete eas 5? 9 MONO A OM
eis eicn aD ae) 2 OLO2
3 °
é hea isl heads es
7. MW. teres minor, eee Date on cao OO. 0%.

Arises from the anterior half-inch of lower edge of scapula, and is
inserted below the flat tendon of the infraspinatus; its action is the
same as that of the gluteus quartus (clhocapsularis).

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 3k

478

G. DE, subscapularisy: Vet as eee ee 0°69 oz.
SY oe oe Oo
d3 4 .
4 Re dae aN G85 | UTE
OS Me teres MOOT, eae FAC ae eae 0:24 oz.
Vie aoe or
f De a ee
F.—Wuseles of the Elbow.
1.4. triceps extensor, . » . -° a, a ct ei Sed ke MOO TRO Ze
5 nc aan Seek Doutta eae
9 7 ‘
: mem ees en ao so Ue:
Qe ME QNCOMBUBS COR Ore ON, sig ds ree nee 0:09 oz.
Sas Sin Vahe Ra, PERN 0:14
bP) d * .
M3 ST Peg aes Ga) 32 ae sO) ame Denies
Su Dl, DiCeps CUD. 5 oe th a oR ee 0°35 oz.
sey, aD al one ge ees OS)
99 3 .
: ee a Ge ee

This muscle, as in the other Marsupials, is in the Kangaroos com-
posed of two muscles :-—

a, Coracou biceps... = ©. 02a
b, Longhead biceps,. . . . O14
| 0-39

The coracoid biceps takes its origin from the coracoid, and is inserted
into the tubercle of the radius, as in man and other Mammals.

The longhead biceps arises from the margin of the glenoid cavity
of the scapula, and its tendon passes over the head of the humerus; it
is inserted with the tendon of of the brachieus into the ulna, as in the
Crocodile. The two muscles cross each other in their fibres, like a long
X, or St. Andrew’s cross.

Al MM. brachweus (externus\ io. Yan he aes 0°33 oz.
tie da Mets 0:24
9 ’ 2 .
PENG eae a

Arises from the outer and posterior surface of the upper part of the hu-
merus, winding round under the external deltoid ridge, inside the
origin of the supinator longus.

G.—Museles of the Wrist and Hand.

1. M. supinator radv longus,. . a . . =. » . 0°25 oz.
a aD . 009
39 3 e
i le ine isa) (ee

The tendon of this muscle is distributed to the near ends of the
metacarpals of pollex and index.

479

2. M. extensor carpi radialis,. . b, . 0°14 oz,
Inserted by two tendons into the distal and radial sides of the meta-
carpals of index and middle finger.

3. M. ea gt ose 0:
extensor digitorum communis, b, ne oo loo

99 C, ° °

Distributed to the ungual phalanges of the second, third, fourth, and
fifth fingers.

SINELICNSOI MINIM) digitt, « .'D, %s- .. + +» 0:04 02.
Extends third, fourth, and fifth fingers, and is very distinct from last.

eee CLCCNSON CAN PU UNNONIS, 3s 2D; so oe 0°04 08.
Inserted, as in man, into the outer and near end of the metacarpal of
the little finger.

6. WU. extensor ossis metacarpt pollicis, b, . . . . ~ 0:09 07.
Inserted into base of metacarpal of thumb.

7. M1. extensor prim internodi pollicis, b, . . . » « 0°03 oz.

8. HW. supinator radi brevis, . . b, -. . 0:04 0:04 oz.
x Cetra Cpa a chet OL08

9. If. pronator radi teres, . . b, . « 0°10 0-11 oz.

Inserted into upper third of radius.
nO, ie palmaris longus, "S22 COs PIES we 0:08) oz,

11. MU. flecor carpi radvahs, . . b, . » 0°10 Oto" os:
‘5 ee eMC rene esol
Inserted into base of metacarpal of thumb.
12, MU. flexor carpi ulnarts, . . b, « . 0:07 0°07 oz.

“5 eat Cg? ctier) O06

Takes its origin altogether from the edge of the ulna and inner side
of the olecranon ; and is inserted into the pisiform bone.

13, M1. flecor digitorum communis, b, . . 0°76
39 C, ° ° 0°58

This muscle consists of the flex. sublimis and profundus, and flex. pol-
hieis longus, all combined ; the flex. sublimis portion takes an extensive
origin from the broad flat tendon of flex. profundus and flex. pollicis just
above the wrist, and having past the wrist, divides into four perforated
tendons for the second, third, fourth, and fifth fingers.

14. W pronator quadratus, . . . b, . . 0:02
5 re Cline: de OO?

Extends the whole length of both radius and ulna.

0°67 oz.

0:02 oz.

480

H.—Muscles of the Spine.

The muscles of the spine may be divided into the Direct and Ob-
lique muscles, according as they pass from origin to insertion from and
to similar or different processes of the vertebre.

The Direct muscles are

1. Interspinal,
2. Intercostal,
3. Intertransversal.

The Oblique muscles are
1. Spino-costal, or costospinal ;
2. Spino-transversal, or transversospinal ;
3. Costo-transversal, or transversocostal.

Direct Muscles of the Spine.

I. Interspinal Muscles, passing from spinous process to spinous pro-
cess, along the line of vertebree. There are interspinal muscles developed,
more or less, along the column, especially in the dorsal and lumbar por-
tions.

II. Lntercostal Muscles.—The costal processes of the cervical vertebree
are, as usual, well developed ; andin the lumbar region they form broad
horizontal expansions, which are continued, with modifications down the
whole length of the tail.

a, WM. intercostalis lumbaris (quadratus lumborum),
Ki c', 6:08
as ec, (83f-
This muscle takes its origin from the interior quadrate surface of
the ilium, Fig. 27 (quad. lumb.), and from the crest of ilium; and is
inserted into the backs of the flat costal processes of all the lumbar ver-
tebre, into the edge of last rib, and posterior surfaces of next two ribs
(extensor of lumbar spine).

6°96 oz.

b, IL. intercostalis dorsalo-cervicalis, cc’, . . 2°07
o Clie. em alten

From the costal processes of all the dorsals into the backs of the
ribs (9 —1), and of all the cervical costal processes (pleurapophyses),
terminating at the mastoid process (extensor of dorsal and cervical
spine).

1°67 oz.

c, IL. intercostals caudalis superior, c, . . 0°68
Es, Cy fbi. 20) Ca mens

This muscle is a horizontal wagger of the tail, and its origin is shown
in Fig. 26 (. ¢. ¢) from a line on the posterior interior edge of the ilio-
ischium; it is inserted into the back of the costal expansion of the
sacrum, and into the backs of the costal processes of the caudal vertebre
(1 — 6)—(extensor of caudal spine).

0°66 oz.

481

d, M. intercostalis caudalisinferior, ¢, . . . . . . 1°70 02.

Origin from the inner surface of the innominate bone, marked Fig. 27
(ent. cost. caud. inf.), and from the adjoining under surface of the costal
processes of the sacrum ; Insertion, into the under surfaces of the caudal
costal processes (1 — 9)—(flexor of the caudal spine).

Fig. 27.

LiL. Lntertransversal Muscles.

a, WV. intertransversalis caudalis superior, c,. . . . 2:82 oz.
d,9 C, e e . e 3°50 OZ.

From the tips of the upper transverse processes of the caudal verte-
bree (4 — 17, &c.); into the outer sides of the transverse processes of
the last dorsal, and all the lumbar, sacral, and caudal vertebre. This
series of muscles fills the space between the superior transverse and
costal processes in the tail. In the sacral and lumbar region it lies
under the gl. maximus and intercostalis lumbalis—(extensor of lumbar
and caudal spine).

b, I. intertransversalis lumbalis superior, c, . . . . 0°56 02.

joining the superior transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae—(ex-
tensor of lumbar spine).

e, I. intertransversalis caudalis inferior, c/,. . . . 1:98 02.

From the inferior transverse processes (hemapophyses) of all the caudal
vertebre; into the bodies -of the sacral vertebree, and sides of inferior
transverse processes of caudal vertebre. ‘This series is separated from
the intercostalis caudalis inferior by the large nerve of the inferior part
of tail, which supplies both—(flexor of caudal spine).

d, M. intertransversalis lumbals inferior (psoas parvus).

4 esa a ap ea Peet 3°70 02.
i [eae eemetie a
ey Ceasers seo eee Meson:
HE Chir gee CALMS

This muscle takes its origin from the spine of the pubis, and is in-
serted into the bodies of the vertebree as high up as the diaphragm—
(flexor of lumbar spine).

482
Oblique Muscles of the Spine.

I. Spinocostal Muscles (none).
Il. Spinotransversal Muscles.

a, Wf. spinotransversalis lumbahs (multifidus spine ?) c’, . 8:20 oz.

From the backs of the transverse processes of all the vertebrae from the
last dorsal to the third caudal ; into the spinous processes of the vertebrae
in front, and into the raphe above the spinous processes (extensor).

b, ML. spinotransversalis dorsalis, . C, . . « « « O57 0%.

ce, WU. spinotransversalis cervicalis,. c', . . . . « 0-98 07.
From the transverse processes of the cervical and first six dorsal (tu-
bercle in front of rib articulation) ; 1s inserted direct into the occiput.

d, M. spinotransversalis caudalis, . © . . . . « 0°68 02.
III.— Costotransversal Muscles.

a. If, spinocostalis lumbalts, . . . . . @, O81
(Sacrolumbalis), Jie 0h sae oe Ce ORS

From the anterior crest of the illum, below the guadratus lumborum,
into the outer sides of the transverse processes of all the lumbar verte- |
bre. This muscle acts as a ‘‘guy’’ to the backat either side. It was
in a state of fatty degeneration in all the Kangaroos dissected by me.

0°85 oz.

J.—Abdominal Muscles.

ls DE externus obliguus, 9... 8, oe oer:
Takes its origin from the lumbar fascia, and from all the ribs, except
the first; and is inserted into the whole length of the Marsupial bone,
and into the inner edge of the pubis, above the symphysis, and into
the edge of the ilium ; it is continuous with the pectoralis at the extre-
mity of the sternum.

2. I. cremaster, LOE MIRE Maem.’ OSS Ox
is Bie ciel ees ADS a usin aoe eee O OOO

- This muscle is from six to eight inches in length, and forms the

lower border of transversalis, and takes its origin from the edge of the
ilium. During coition it is reduced to two inches in length.

B.\ MY CLANSUCrSaliSiiphch alr sane patel hie we a ees singel G0) O28

Arises from the superior anterior edge of the ilium, from the lumbar
fascia, and from the last two ribs; and is inserted into the fascia of the
anternus obliquus.

4. M.anternus obliquus, 8s.) 0) 2 a eee OO Oe
Arises from the last two ribs, and from the rib cartilages up to the

xiphoid extremity of the sternum; and is inserted into the fascia
abdominis.

483

5. M. rectus abdonminis, Me SIGH A Mey Wei si gs ak. 8 0) ocho Of.

Takes its origin from the first rib and middle line of the sternum and
abdomen (27 inches long); and is inserted into the anterior surface and
inner edge of the Marsupial bone, of which it 1s the proper levator.

K.— Muscles of Mastication.

Beene MASSCLEM CLECTNUS, eee Aye le a ee oe 084407,

Arises from the outer and lower portion of the zyzomatic arch, from
the lower rim of the orbit and malar bone; and is inserted into the
posterior fourth of the lower jaw, including the entire external
surface of the marsupial horizontal process.

2. IM. masseter internus et I. temporalis, . . a, . . Ill oz.

Inserted into the outer and inner surfaces of the coronoid process, and
into the pit on the outer side of bone.

3. WM. plerygoideus internus, . . 4, Be ey OO0L0Z.

Takes its origin from the inner side of the sonata plate, with some
fibres from the outer side, and from the fossa between it and palatal
plate; and is inserted into the whole of the inner side of the marsupial
horizontal ramus of the lower jaw. The action of this muscle is to
push the cutting teeth of the lower jaw upwards and forwards against
the upper incisors—an action in which it is powerfully assisted by the
external masseter.

Part 2.—Opossum AND PHALANGER.

Tue following Tables contain the weights of the muscles of the Opos-
sum and Phalanger dissected by me; and, as I have already entered
into so much detail with respect to the muscles of the Kangaroos, it is
the less necessary to specify particulars, except in the form of notes.

A.—Museles of the Hip Joint.

Opossum. PHALANGER.
Oz. Ay. Grs.
ome soassMaenlus, ss ets 8 0°10 } 95
aU AGUS see el OCT 2
3. Pectinzeus, ea epee ey nei OR) 4 10
A PACAUCLOL DECVIS.) 76 2 ae) oe (OA =
5. of MASMUS Par aw ete! Ais OR aon Wie Wah of tere oods LOE RS
6. 5 LOD TUS es sig t) Viteos Al Ree ip tee wre Miawt cherie ey
7. Obturator externus, . 0°09
8. 55 internus, &. . . 0°04 Sora enere: dan ene. WNL O
9. Quadratus femoris, . . . 0°02
10; Agitator caude, 5 . . + \ 0°09 ‘ 50
11. Gluteus maximus, ewan 45
MZ): SMA D TCO Seat ail sit tw tegen One Lo } 125
13. Pyriformis, : 0°02

14. Glutzus minimus (distinct, though small), ge Ak Ue hiss 20

484
B.-—Muscles of the Knee Joint.

OPOSSUM. PHALANGER.
Oz. Ay. Grs.
i Reetus femoris). See OSS en eae ee 220
2. Vasti, Bae a aie i tates ee Pes any Sere ees
Bs Hartorwis, fe OE ORT IN, mats aS Coenen ee me
A’? Gracilis, 4% civ 5, Zomba ON ee oN Ta De ae em OD
5. Semi Membranosus) 220.2, 2 ONG 7 ee ee as ere
6. Semi Tendinosus, 0 ee O06) ce eheenmret ee ease ee ae
7. Biceps femoris . . 0°13 sh) ae I oe eee LO

N. B.—The Psoas parvus in Eh ae 33 grs,

C.—Muscles of the Ankle and Foot (Oprossum).

Oz. Av.
1. Gastrocnemius: ef Soleus.) 30G) Gs. es ee ee ce
Qe clamtaris, PS ons tema emerre kts ee Ue
3. Flexor dig. longus (perforans), . ota PEL Rene nee hn eke eens OG
(Distributed to five e:
4, Tidialis posticus, . 0°02
(Inserted into near and i inner side of the metatarsal of hallux).
5. Flexor hallucislongus, . 3s Pets a eee ees One Ope,
(Inserted into tarsal bones of hallux).
6. Peronzus longus, AO ent 0°03
7. Tibialis anticus, . ‘ 0°03
8. Extensor dig. communis, 0'01
(Four tendons).
9. Extensor hallucis, 0°01

(Inserted into near end of first phalanx of hallux).

D.—Muscles of Shoulder (Opossum).

1. WM. trapezius, . . fe se ei OO, O78

Arises from the occiput, all ite cei aif all the dorsal vertebre,
except last ; inserted into outer half of clavicle, acromion, whole spine
of scapula, and vertebral edge of same.

2. M. rhomboideus, . . iy Upedeceee OO, O77.
Origin; occiput and spines of a ite eoeaiedl and first six dorsal
vertebrae.

3. Wf, sterno-clevdo-mastoideus, . . .7. . = «is 2) O07 OZ.
Origin from top of sternum and inner third of clavicle.
4, WM. omo-atlanticus, ... . . ota Nee ee: 165035075

Arises from anterior fifth of spine of scapula; and is inserted into
the transverse wing of the atlas.
5. M. serratus magnus, . . . ade Sab.) op OOO.
Cervical vertebre, 2—7; aad ribs, is.

. M. levator angult scapule, . . . . Pie O 2 o7:;

can from under surface of the wing oe the atlas. Insertion ;
into the end of the spine of the scapula.

485

7. M. omo-hyoideus, . . . : iyi ser 7s) 0203) 07,
Origin ; from the anterior point of veriebral ue of scapula. Inser-
tion; usual.

8. WM. subclavius, .;. . 3 ee ee OOM OZ:

Origin; from sternal end of first ee TmeecGn: under surface of
outer third of clavicle, and front of acromion.

E.— Muscles of Shoulder Joint (Opossum).

1. M. latissimus dorst, . . . viet ule. 0:23.02,

Origin ; from the spines of (713) dar a oie, and from lum-
bar vertebree by fascia. Insertion; beneath biceps by a tendon distinct
from that of teres major ; this tendon also gives origin to a fourth head
of triceps, which is inserted into tip of olecranon and fascia of back
of forearm.

_N.B.—There is also an accessory cutaneous lat. dorsz, elliptical in
shape, near the inner margin of, and inside, the true latissiomus dorsi;
its inner border reaches to the pectoralis minor. This muscle weighed
0:09 oz., and was inserted into the pectoral ridge of humerus, by
fascia, and in line with insertion of pectoralis minor.

2. M. subscapularis, . . he cleo ia. oc OFLA OF:
3. WM. pectoralis minor (long sip), ae aT Coed, (OO GnOz:
4. M. pectoralis major, . . . Mee oes sy O28 107,
PLE COLACODLUCHUGISs Oe) OF OL 07,
6. M. deltoideus, sates : 0°13 oz.

Origin; from the outer ea of aoe acromion, Aalh whole
spine of scapula. Insertion; into the inner side of the pectoral
ridge, outside biceps.

EPMO ASPUNGUIS 5 ie a a ee Sy we O14 On,
Sr raspInatis. se Se er. O10 og.
meen ieres Major, we ce ee 008 02,

F.— Muscles of the Elbow.

1. M. triceps extensor cubitr, . . . Phos Osao OZs
The fourth slip from /at. dorsi weighs 0: 02 OZ. |
BPMAURICOMCUS sete Or ee i ee ee ow OO OZ.
SPR CCCUSRCLLUUEL, (0) ok See ee eee teehee eat (O09 02,
This muscle is double, as in the Kangaroos—

1. Coraco-radial, . . . 0°06 oz.

2. Ulno-scapular,. . . 0:03 02.

4, M. brachieus (externus), . . et ee O00) OZ:

From upper and outer surface of epee outeide deltoid ridge.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 358

486

G.— Muscles of the Wrist and Hand.

l. a. supinator. radi longus, 9. ee ee) 2 Ome,
Inserted into carpal bone of thumb.

2. M. extensor carpi radialis (longir), . . ae 0 OF 031/07.
Inserted into the distal end of the metacarpal of pes,

3. M. extensor digitorum communis, . - sie 002707,
Distributed to second, third, fourth, and fifth angers
4. M. extensor primi digitt (indicator), . . . . . . OOT oz.

o, Mf exvensor mmm digit,’ 9. 2. we we we OO OZ,
6. M. extensor carpi ulnaris, . . Pe stay UMUC OVA,

Inserted into near end of metacarpal of little near
7. M. extensor ossis metacarpt pollicis, . . . »« « « 0:02 02.

Its tendon crosses those of sup. rad. long. and ex. carp. radvalis, and
is inserted into the outer side of the base of metacarpal of thumb.

8, DE supinaton radi Brevis. ee) a ee eae OO Or,
DO. ME pronalor LOG CORES. 1 re ks te hd es lees ORO nO.

10. LU. palmaris longus, : sae O' OL oz
Inserted into the tendon of the flex. prof. in the sane |

11. UL flexor carpt radials, re ame ee ye a ORO ous,

12. M. flexor carpi ulnaris, Me ear el OMUS Oe

13. ME, flexor diguvorum communis, 3 4. 2.) sea 0 07,
bc sublimis, . 0:03 oz.
(Sublims et profundus, { profit. = Onan

14. WM. pronator quadratus, sie OS ahah veel) Pees Aah OA

J.—Abdominal Muscles (Opossum).

1. I. externus obliquus, Sine : «ee eee dee OZ.

Its origin was similar to that ee by Prof. Owen in the case
of the Phalanger; and its insertion was into the upper and outer half
of the Marsupial bone.

2. I. pyramidalis,, 2)... wath eee: UOROZ.
Arises from the whole inner margin of the emmy bone, and is inserted
into the raphe from the symphysis pubis as high up as two inches
below the end of the sternum.

&. M. rectus, abdominis. 82 we ics te ee) en Oe OZ

Arises from the inner margin of the marsupial bone inside the origin
of the pyramidalis ; and is inserted along the raphe below the end of
the sternum, sending upwards a strong distinct slip, which passes
under the pectoral muscles and below a remarkable intercostal muscle

487

(4), to be finally inserted, broad and fleshy, into the sternal end of
the first, second, and third ribs. Its total length is 9 inches.

4, Intercostal muscle (referred to above), . . . . . O01 oz.

Arises from the lower third of the sternum; and is inserted into the
middle of the second rib.

5. LW. cremaster, Soe Re CMC eae Me eel SONOM SOge
GE FETUS ODLIGUUS, 6 lee 008 Oz.

The Rev. Samven Blogente. M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on AntmMAL MECHANICS.

No. X.—Movscvrar Anatomy or THE Emu (Dromeus Nove
Hollandie),

I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Thomas Moore, Curator of the
Derby Museum, of Liverpool, for the opportunity of dissecting a fine
male specimen of the Kmu (Dromeus Nove Hollandie). This bird was
sent to me from London (1865); and, having reached Dublin two days
after death, was quite fresh, and in ‘fine condition for dissection. On
inspection it presented tubercles of the liver (Farre’s?), an enormous
developement of omental fat, and fibrinous clots, partly melanotic, in
all its arteries.

T had also, through Professor Huxley, applied to the Council of the
Zoological Society of London, for permission to dissect the muscles of
the Ostrich, Emu, or Cassowary, in case such birds should die in their
Gardens, and their bodies not be more favourably disposed of. In con-
sequence of this application I received, 27th of April, 1866, the second
Emu described in this note, which proved to be a larger and finer bird
than the first; and I beg leave to take the present opportunity of re-
turning my thanks to Professor Huxley, to Dr. Sclater, and to Dr.
Murie, of the London Gardens, for the kindness with which they aided
me in my attempt to procure specimens of these rare birds for the pur-
poses of scientific research.

The examination of the muscles of these two Emus afforded the fol-

lowing results :—
A.—Muscles of the Hip Joint.

PIE SOUS MAGHUSs Cpe mi ee a. MONE:

eI COCUS. (Ga rs ar ea Oy Sy a MUOMes

EO CCUN@US Ue ae ee ek LONE,

4, WM. adductor brevis, . toe eu | OMG.

5. Id. adductor magnus ig. 28, ad. mg. d et wore agi.

5:2 cS) a

99

488

Takes its origin from the lower border of the ilium (postacetabular),
and from the upper margin of the ischium, round the ischiadic foramen,
and from the membrane of that foramen (y), Fig. 28, ad. mg. The

greater part of this muscle ao 3°70z., 18 inserted by a strong flat-

tendon into the top of the linea aspera; and the rest is digastric (be-
coming tendinous as it passes behind the hip joint), and inserted into
the linea aspera of the upper half of the thigh, as far down as the
commencement of the MW. semi-membranoso accessorius ; it overlies the
adductor longus.

OM obturaton externus: <a 2 ee (55 on
Mi ae ater me Si ee GE :
39

This muscle (which probably corresponds with the obturator ex-
ternus of Mammals) arises from the znner surface of the bony rim
of the ischiadic foramen (y), and its tendon passes with that of the
obturator internus through the obturator tendinal foramen (x), and is
inserted, after receiving the tendon of the posterior gemellus, No. 7, into

the lower depression (Fig. 29. 0. ¢.), marked on the outer side of the
head of the femur.

7. M. gemellus posterior, ae uh teas ae OE
e Peer ara de N70), 6

Origin very small, and near the acetabulum, from the outer side of
the head of the obturator membrane (z). Both gemedli are found in the
Emu; the posterior attaching itself to the tendon of the analogue
of the obturator externus, and the anterior to the tendon of the true ob-
turator internus.

0:18 oz.

S27 adductor longus, =.) ee a Be Pig eg

Arises from the lower border of the ischium (Fig. 28, ad. l.), below
the inferior margin of the adductor magnus ; and is inserted into the
inner edge of the condyloid pit of the femur, and into the crucial liga-
ment of the inner condyle. This muscle was originally double, and is
folded on itself; its fibres were pale and fatty in both specimens.

9, MM. obturator (ters, ee se eg ao)
ec i aM melee sae hE fo

Arises from the inner side of the bony rim of the obturator foramen (2),
and from its membrane, and is inserted (Fig. 29, 0. 2.) into the upper
depression at the top of the back of the outer side of the head of
the femur. The anterior gemellus is included in the weight of the obtu-
rator internus.

2°90 oz.

10. I. agitator caude et tensor vagine femoris, jeer
LSBU,

9)

. 15°35 07.

This combined muscle takes its origin by fascia, from the superior

489

edge of the ilium in front of the acetabular prominence (Fig. 28, t.f. v.),
and from the superior post acetabular edge of the ilium by fleshy
fibres (Fig. 28, ag. ed.); and is inserted into the strong fascia over-
lying the knee on its outer side, and by a fleshy union and common
tendon with the vastus externus.

The pre-acetabular muscle (#. fv.) weighs . 3°5

and is inserted into the fascia ofthe knee,. 5:0f° ° 4:25 02.
The post-acetabular muscle {ag.¢c.) weighs. 4 Ee
39 ° ° e 5

and passes directly into the tendon of the vastus externus.

y, Ischiadic foramen. z, Obturator foramen. x, Tendinal foramen.
it gluicus maxims, 2... ee oe eo
Be coe Sea oe

The gl. maz. takes its origin below that of the ten. fem. vag. and
agit. caude, by fleshy fibres from a short space in front of and behind
the acetabular prominence of the ilium (Fig. 28, gl. mz.).

ieee Moginics meds, 45... ww OL
" ee Gy
The origin and insertion of this muscle are marked in Figs. 28, 29—
gl. md.

5°65 OZ.

fan JE: gluteus minis, 5 wee. so 02
. ee Ga Oot. *

The origin and insertion of this muscle are marked in Figs, 28, 29,
gl. mn.

0:20 oz.

490

14. M. gluteus quartus (ilio-capsularis), . . 1:1
. “fl de ea ie ip eaatae 1°15 oz.

Origin and insertion marked in Figs. 28, 29, il. ep.
B. Muscles of the Knee Joint.

1. MW. biceps femoris, . ee eae hen ie TE OO0 Gr.

33

Takes ‘its’ origin from the large concave post-
acetabular surface of the ilium, markedin Fig. 28;
and is inserted by a round tendon passing through
a looped pulley placed at the inner side of the
outer head of gastrocnemius and outer condyle of

the femur, into the large tubercle of the fibula, Se \
at its upper point of trisection. wi
2. WM. semimembranosus, ee ee ‘Ly
ss 72 Ol

The semimembranosus arises from the poste-
rior margin of the ilium, adjoining the ischium
(Fig. 28, s. m.), and from the sides of the 1st,
2nd, and 3rd caudal vertebre; and flows freely
over the posterior margin of the ischium (s. t.),
and is inserted by means of a pinneeform tendon
(shown at s. m. and ac. Fig. 30) formed with
the help of the accessorius, into a final flat ten-
don forming one of the heads (8) of the gastro-
cnemius, on the inner side.

3. MZ. semimembranoso-

accessorius, 7 9. 0:6 ;
: oer 0°70 oz.

This muscle is shown in Fig. 30, ae.

Fig. 30.

fo om me ot

S220"

f
|
\ tee ul >

49]

Arising from the lower half of the linea aspera, and from the back of
condyloid pit at the inner condyle, and inserted into the pinneform
tendon of the semimembranosus. It will be observed that the plane of
the semz. m. lies exterior to those of the semitendinosus and adductores
magnus and longus.

4, M. COR CHOLMOSUS. ie (ire uly cies ceaetl ty) Ae
1°8

Arises from ile posterior anid of the ee and pubes (Figs. 28 and
30, s.z.), and terminates partly in a delicate tendon running into the

tendon of the plantaris, and partly in a tendon inserted into the side of
the tibia (14 inch down).

1°40 oz.

hprinegmcwis (A) ee ican ie Sew eye LO ;
i Ue aie ies 1G an le
a (13) Ue are ake Alara ve A gehen Peak . ie 1O0l ve:

2) :

There are two muscles in the finn Heithisr of which are entitled to
be regarded as pectinwus or adductor brevis, and both present certain
analogies with gracilis. I shall regard them as gracilis (A), and
gracilis (B).

(A). Takes its origin from the anterior spine of the pubes, and a
line two inches in length behind it on the pubes (Fig. 28, gr.); and is
inserted by a line three inches long into the edge of the inner border of
the vastus internus (1) at its lower extremity.

(B). This muscle is double headed; one head being supplied from |
the pubic bone, immediately behind the anterior spine; and the other
head taking its origin from the upper inch of the linea aspera of the
femur; the tendon of the united muscle is strong and flat, and is in-
serted into the inner side of the head of the tibia.

GOSOTLOTUUS, Ges ak me ee | OD eee on
AN 9°4

Tts origin is marked Fig. 28, s. s., and its insertion is made by a
flat tendon into the inner side of the head of the tibia.

7. M. rectus femoris (Qu. 2 acilis Jey or (2), a | OME:

8. IL. vastus externus, No.1, » 8-60 oz

Ne 10°0 ;

Takes its origin all round the rim of vastus externus (2), which is com-

pletely covered by it, and from the surface of the outer front of the

femur marked in Fig. 29, v. e. 1; and is inserted into the cartilaginous

patella, like the ordinary rectus femoris, but rather towards the
outer side.

39

Se vastus externus, No.2; . 2 « =. 0°80 1:00 oz
i Le 20Sne :

Takes its origin from the surface marked on the outer side of the femur
Fig. 29, v. e. 2; and is inserted by means of a strong tendon (passing

492

under the outer head of the gastrocnemius, and under the muscular head
of the flecor perforatus digitt interni, and of the flexor secundus perforatus
digitt medi), into the outer tubercle of the tibia. Its tendon of in-
sertion passes over the muscular head of the flewor perforatus digits
externi.

LOD LV, vastus interns.) NOs) eh ee an
Meee tel)
3?
Has an origin similar to that in the Ostrich, and is inserted into the
inner side of the cartilaginous patella.

Plo Ue vastusuniernus: INO. 2. ote ee ae ay
sone Neo) site
This muscle is composed of three distinct parts, occupying the
lower, middle, and upper thirds of the femur on its inner aspect; these
parts terminate in distinct tendons, which cross each other, the upper
and lower passing to the lateral tubercle and head of tibia next inner
condyle, while the middle tendon is attached between them to the
tibia and to the fascia covering the patella.

L2M, popliveusy: Pee ne eee een Oke
6b wiclpary. wt <uveeets be seine ean eae

Inserted 1$ inches down tibia.

1°40 oz.

1°70 oz.

9)

i. . 0°85 oz.

C. Muscles of the Heel and Foot.

Te an Pe eae Tei 08400 on:
This muscle consists of four distinct parts—
Py el
OE ci a oe
By re is ec!
°, tap 1 beeen
Total seins canter 28-00 OZ.

a. This portion takes its origin from the outer condyle (having
behind its head the pulley through which the tendon of the biceps
passes), and from the fascia covering the patella.

f. This part of the muscle is inseparably connected with the muscle
accessory to the semi-membranosus; and, in a mechanical point of
view, the sem. memb., and its accessory muscle, aid the gastrocnemius,
by their insertion into the head of (8), which arises from the inferior
prolongation on the femur, of the line of origin of the accessortus.

A983

y. This branch of the gastrocnemius arises from the condyloid pit
of the femur, by a beautiful round cord-like tendon.

6. This arises from the whole inner side of the head of the tibia,
and from the side of the patella.

2. I. soleus, Sat Sh oom reNe aaa nt Mer Fe OO)
* Aes oe cowie

Takes its origin from the anterior edge of the fibula, from the outer
side of the tubercle of the tibia, from the whole outer surface of the
ligamentum patelle, and from the fascia covering the tbialis anticus.
Its insertion is double; by a broad tendon into the ligamentum calcis,
which acts as a patella to the heel, and by a narrower tendon, which,
at six inches below the first insertion, is inserted into the outer side of
the tendon of the first flexor perforatus digits medit.

3. M.plantaris, ie oateehighitags SW ba: ay
A: Sea a O21 f°
Arises from the back of the inner cartilage of the knee joint, and is in-
serted into the inner side of the ligamentum calcis, or patella of the
heel.
N. B.—The tendon of this little muscle receives a large portion of
the semitendinosus.

- 11°50 oz.

0:26 oz.

4, M. flecor perforatus primus digite medi, . 1°8 \ Dee es

O°]

99

Arises by two heads, from the patellar fascia covering the outer con-
dyle, and by a long tendon, terminating in the condyloid pit; and is
inserted by a perforated tendon on both sides of the distal ends of the
first phalanx of the middle toe.

The tendon of this muscle is united by means of a cross slip (in-
tended to produce unity of action) with that of the next muscle, at a
point opposite the metatarso-phalangeal articulation.

5. I. flexor perforatus secundus digitr media, al Ba goa
Arises from the outer side of the ligamentum patelle, overlying the
tendon of vastus externus (2); and is inserted by a perforated tendon
into both sides of the distal end of the second phalanx of the middle
toe.

39

6. M. flexor perjoratus digtti extern, . . aS \ OC Aa ae
Arises, by a double head, from the external ligament of the knee joint,
underlying the tendon of vastus externus (2), and from the condyloid
pit; and is inserted by a perforate tendon into both sides of the distal
end of the first phalanx of the outer toe.

N. B.—The tendon of this muscle, before it reaches the heel, passes
through the tendon of the second perforate tendon of the middle toe,
for a distance of three inches, as if in a sheath.

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL, IX. 3T

29

494

7. M. flexor perforatus digits intern, . . O15
c ? Rad Bio cyte Cac 0°18 oz.
This little muscle arises from the outer fascia of the knee joint,
overlying the tendon of vastus externus (2), and is inserted at both
sides of the distal end of the first phalanx of the inner toe.

8. M. flexor hallucis longus, as oe ee ben 1:00:02

lou ee ae es ee

Arises from the back of both heads of the flexor perforatus of the

middle toe, and is inserted on the outer side of the near end of first
phalanx of inner toe.

9. M. flecor commums perforans, ; Pi Feast ogi ot

This muscle is formed of two totally distinct muscles, whose sepa-

rate tendons unite into a common tendon two-thirds down the cannon
bone.

2?

if vy oO COEO mt

Be sce sear pues Ie), :
eo nea 2°30 oz.
Total: 28.2 ee aa Oroze

a. Arises by a double head from the backs of both condyles of the
femur; its tendon passes through a sheath formed in the ligamentum
calcis, on the outer side of the inferior ridge of the cannon bone.

8. Arises from the whole posterior surfaces of the tibia and fibula,
except the portion of the tibia occupied by the popliteus.

N.B.—The united tendon of the perforans bifurcates, at the meta-
tarso phalangeal articulation, to the ungual phalanges of all the toes,
and at its point of bifurcation a small auxiliary muscle (0°05 oz.) unites
the tendon with the posterior border of the sesamoid ligament, under
the groove of which the common tendon passes.

10, 5:20. tabialis antics, oo ea AE
a ae 51 fe

This muscle is bicipital, and arises from the anterior and outer
tubercles of the tibia and the surface of bony ridge joining them; and
(as in the Dog and other animals) by a long, beautiful, round rope-
like tendon, from the point of the outer condyle, inside the knee joint.

It is inserted into the near end of the cannon bone, in front of the
heel, first passing under a ‘‘ dead eye”’ ligamental bolt on the front of
the tibia.

11. M. extensor comnunis digitorum longus, a
oF 1-45 °
Arises from the front of the tibia, on the outer side of the ridge run-
ning down from the anterior tubercle, and is inserted by tendons

4°85 oz.

1:30 oz.

495

distributed to the ungual phalanges of all the toes, and to the tendinous
sheath of the first phalanx of the middle toe.

12. Flexor digitorum brevis et abductor digits
CUP CT Ie Sal oe vee ei ese. 1h AOL :
ss ose ee meme ea AW 0°10 oz.

The flexor brevis arises from two inches of the outer and back sur-
face of the near end of the cannon bone, and unites with the abductor
by a long slender tendon running the whole length of the cannon bone;
the abductor arises from the outer and under side of the distal end of
that bone, for a space of 14 inch, marked off by a slight bony ridge ;
and the common tendon is inserted into the outer side of the near end
of the first phalanx of the outer toe.

13. Abductor hallucis et extensor digitorum
LG Bes IN GEE OP aa ence cai Oh i ale cag (0 :
: oat: . 0:20 oz.
These muscles are inseparable; and the abductor arises from an
inner surface of the under and distal end of the cannon bone, marked
off by a slight bony ridge, like that of the abductor minim: digiti, while
the extensor takes its origin by a thin sheet of muscular fibres from the
whole breadth of the upper surface of the distal end of the cannon bone,
for the space of one inch.

Fig. 31.
D.—WMuscles of the Wings. |
sear ; [EN
The anterior limbs in Za
the Emu are much smaller Dy, Ima”,
than in the Ostrich and jj GEG
Y/

Rhea, and are hidden al-
most completely by the
plumage. The following
sketch (Fig. 31) gives a
very good idea of the re-
lative proportions of the
bones of the wing and
sternum; and in it, the
initial letters indicate the
parts.

1. M. trapezius,

0:27 :
wot 0°28 oz.

Takes its origin from the
first, second, and third ribs,
and subcutaneously, from
the skin covering them;
and is inserted into the cla- se., Scapula. cor., Coracoid.
vicle, acromion ridge, and cl., Clavicle. | st., Sternum.
anterior two-thirds of the acr., Acromion. h., Humerus.
scapula. Its posterior fibres slant forwards.

2. M. rhomboideus, Shae id RES ST Fee?
: Slay i ocodaeley

Arises from the third rib, and space between it and second rib; and is
inserted into the under surface of the posterior third of the scapula;
its fibres slant backwards.

0:12 oz.

3. MM. latissimus dorsi et teresmajor,. . . O18
a Si ee Oe

Occupies its usual position, passing over the posterior border of the
scapula, and has also a subcutaneous origin; the dat. dors? arises from
the fourth rib, and forms the posterior slip of the whole conjoined
muscle; the teres major arises from the outer side of the posterior half
of the scapula. These muscles are inserted by a common tendon into
their usual place at the back of the humerus.

0°14 oz.

4, M. pectoralis(major et minor), . . . . 0°06
‘ jaded 0-09 |

This sheet of muscle takes origin from the front and edge of the
sternum and from the sternal ribs (two inches), and has the usual in-
sertion; it is an adductor humeri.

. -0°07 oz.

oy. MT, pectoralis secundus, -.. 3 s,s ODO
. Be ees 34/6!

Arises in a thin sheet from the ee border of the acromion, from the
surface of the clavicle, and from the coraco-clavicular membrane, and
terminates in a tendon passing over the groove in the upper end of the
coracoid, to be inserted into the top of the pectoral ridge of the
humerus ;—it is a levator humert.

6. M. delioideus, OG ey Se peau action Pet (OG ce
aA Bie = ae OLOS

Arises from the acromial oa of tite scapula, at the coraco scapular line
of junction, and is inserted into the outer side of the pectoral ridge.

. 0°065 oz.

. 0°065 oz.

7. M. coraco-brachialis, . . . : oes ee eee, OF OD, OZ.

Arises from the outer edge of the seuicoid, na is inserted into the
upper and inner fourth of the back of the humerus.

Dg ll I CERSUMINCT 1s. 6 i eee no ka OOS :

> vs 0-08 . 0°065 oz.
Has three heads—

a. cutaneous (panniculus carnosus).

&. long head from scapula in usual place.

y. fleshy, from the inner and back side of the humerus.

9. Uisuprace’ mjra spenatus; ..* « o. tep noi 0:01 oz.
Re a! anc ar a a OR

Arises from one inch of the lower edge of scapula, close to glenoid, and

497

is inserted into the inner side of the back of the head of the humerus,
in front of the insertion of the subscapularis.

ROR Ue subscapularis, 8 ee O01
“ Ber sei a! icone is) OSOL
Origin from the inner and lower border of the scapula, half an inch from

glenoid; inserted into the top and back of the inner side of the head of
the humerus, inside the insertion of the spinatt.

ROMA. SErTOtUs MOGNUS, 6 ee es a oa
. 1 epee oi 20:09

Arises from second and third ribs in the usual manner, and is inserted
as usual.

0°01 oz.

. 0115 oz.

Dice ps uments ae ee ee Se an § 0-025 oz.

" eo ee 0-04

The Rev. Samvet Haventon, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on AnrmAt MECHANICS.

No. XI.—Mvscurtar Anatomy oF tHE Rua (Struthio hea).

T am indebted to Mr. Thomas Moore, Curator of the Derby Museum of
Liverpool, for the opportunity of dissecting the Rhea, which forms the
subject of this notice. It was a male bird, and seemed to be in good

condition.
A.—Museles of the Hip and Knee Joinis.
MPU COMS TILOGNUS oie ow a be ps oa ce we MONE,
PCH Shia Fee a ere le toa ike oe rele anes mone,
3. MU. pectineus,. . . oe 5 pl a OD Oz,

Arises immediately in front of the acetabulum (Fie, 32, p.), and is in-
serted into the top of the linea aspera.

eevaddictor brevis, 6) AES BO, pone’
ELON OOQUCLOT Magnus, ss te ee Oe. 8. 2:60 07,

Arises from the lower border of the ilium, forming the upper margin of
the ischiadic foramen, y (Fig. 32), and the prolongation of this bone
backwards in conjunction with the ischium (Fig. 32, ad. mg.); it is
partly inserted into the top of the linea aspera, and partly into the tendon
of the semimembranosus that is attached to the femur; the tendinous
slip that joins these muscles helps them both to pull on the same tendon
at the back of the femur.

498 :

6. WM. -ebiuratersexternus, 0. OS OD ae ot 07

Arises from the upper margin of the anterior half of the ischium
(Fig. 32, 0. ¢.), and from the membrane of the ischiadic foramen, and

Fig. 32.

aN VY
“AW ss

OW ep Qs
EE DD
ae LOS

H
/ Wo ‘
ty Z WAC
) 4 MI,
: \esesetiesentics weoo=se Tae
4 =: BSE = \y
= ee, Gee adl ‘
Seat ae yi
1 Aid
SS — 4 ‘ ‘
AN = == ae
viv = — : ee

SNe

SN .’
ie
\"

BAN
\ Ss
LES
y am Mill
¢ p= \
Z
r .

~
<S
SS
s.

x, Tendinal foramen. y, Ischiadic foramen. z, Obturator foramen.

is inserted by means of a strong tendon (Fig. 33, o. ¢.) into the back of
the outer side of the head of the femur, behind the gluteus medius.

1. MM. obturator wmtornus, on a ee Oe
8. 21. gemellus anion, <oy ay, Se Oe hee ee OS) OZ
Arises from the point marked (Fig. 32, gm.) in front of the tendinal

foramen x; and is inserted into the back of the femur (Fig. 33, gm.)
behind the tendon of the WZ. obturator.

GM adductor longus,” 0. et ee he eT Ome

Arises by fascia from the anterior two-thirds of the lower border of the
ischium (Fig. 32, ad. /.), and is inserted into the lower half of the linea
aspera and into the tibia.

N. B.—This muscle is double; its posterior portion weighs 0°14 oz.,
and is inserted into the lower third only of the linea aspera; the ante-
rior portion is inserted as above described.

10. UW. agitator caude et tensor vagine femoris,. . . . 6:02 02.

Arises by slip of fascia from the pre-acetabular edge of the ilium over-
lying the posterior portion of the gluteus medius, and from the post-
acetabular edge of the ilium overlying the biceps femoris. Itis inserted
partly by fascia into the outer side of the patella, and partly into the
lower margin of the vastus externus (1).

16. WW. semimembranosus,

499

RE OT UT CUSMORUMUS, 8 ge 02307.

Arises from the line marked (Fig. 32, gl. ma.) at the acetabular promi-
nence of the ilum.

12, I. gluteus medius, Fig. 33.

2°05 oz.

Tis origin and insertion

are marked in Figs. 32
and 33, gl. md.

13. IL. gluteus minimus,
0°25 oz.

14. Mf. gluteus quartus
(eliocapsularis),
0°23 oz.
The origin and inser-
tion of these muscles are
marked in Figs. 32 and
30, gl. mn. and 21. cp.

15. WL. biceps femoris,
3°80 02.
The origin of this mus-
cle on the postacetabular
surface of the ilium is
marked in Fig. 82; and
it is inserted by the usual
pulley at the back of the
outer head of the gas-
trocnennus into the tu-
bercle of the fibula.

i}
y
y
1
4\3
D
a
Hi?

2
1
2

Ala

il

i"
:
an
‘

; 2°30 oz.
Arises from the posterior
portions of the ilium and ischium (Fig. 32, s.m.); and is inserted partly
by a tendon into the top of the linea aspera, and partly by a tendon, which
is aided (as in the Emu) by an accessory muscle, and which itself has a
double insertion by means of two flat tendons into the head of the inner
gastrocnemius, and into the middle point of the broad insertion of the se-
mitendimosus into the tibia.

N. B.—This muscle, as already noticed, is connected with the ad-
ductor magnus by a tendinous slip.

17. M. semimembraneso accessorius, . . . ». » » .« 0°50 02.

This muscle is shown in Fig. 34, and its general arrangement and
connexion with the semimembranosus are similar to those already de-
scribed in the case of the Emu.

BW OCB -»
SS IZ
AZ

SE

8. Mise Veen Semimembranosus. a.,. . Portion of tendon ending in gas-

QCi5 tees Joi tae Accessorius. trocnemius.

CA. aan ne ates Common tendon. 6., . . Portion of tendon ending in tibia.
18. DL. semitendinosus, . . we ee OF LOZ

Arises from the lower margin of anterior half of the ischium (Fig. 32,
s.t.), and is inserted by means of a broad tendon into the fascia of the
upper and inner part of the leg, with a slip passing on to the heel.

19. M. gracilis, Suen. a. cle Oe,

Arises from the anterior spine of ae ees (Fig. 32, gr.), and termi-
nates in a slender tendon which passes over the patella, from within
outwards, across the knee joint under the anterior head of the gastro-
cnemius and soleus, outwards and downwards to the calf of the leg,
being strapped down by the tendon of the biceps at its insertion into
the fibula, at one inch below which it expands into a fan-shaped tendon
spread over the back of the fascia, enclosing the first flexor perforatus
digits medv and the flexor perforatus digits externi; this fan-shaped ex-
pansion of the tendon of gracilis is also connected by means of an auxiliary
tendon passing backwards, with the inner side of the head of the second
flexor perforatus digitt medit. The three tendons of the flexors just
named, and so placed in relation with the gracilis, pass together into the
toes.

N.B.—The gracilis muscle in the Rhea performs the mechanical
duty assigned by me to the rectus femoris in the Ostrich, and serves to
bring into simultaneous action all the flexors of the foot and extensors
of the leg.

D0 MT, SOPLOTUUS. |. se te Se es peels tee, ee ee ORO

Arises from the anterior surface of the ilium (Fig. 32, s.s.), and from
the backs of the last two ribs overlying the gluteus medius; and is
inserted by a broad tendon into the head of the tibia.

21. WL, rectus femoris, . . . . PI perio Shey 002-

22. I. vastus externus (1), (Fig. 38, v.e. 1), . . . . 8°07 02.
Origin and insertion as in Emu.

23. HU. vastus externus (2), (Fig. 83, v.¢.2), . . . . 0°40 02.

—————E

STROM i ame

o01

As in the Emu, with its tendon passing under the head of the gastro-
enemius to be inserted into the outer tubercle of the tibia.

N. B.—This tendon binds down the tendon of the gracilis after it has
crossed in front of the knee joint.

24. WV. vastus internus (1), (Fig. 33, wv. 2. 1), Eee ws Goro
Origin and insertion as in the Emu.
25. M. vastus internus (2), (Fig. 33, 0.7.2), . . . . 0°95 oz.

Generally as in the Emu, but not so easily divisible into three por-
tions ; inserted into the inner head of the tibia.

BPEMEBADITCUSE oe ee act. O21 Oz.

B.—WMuscles of the Ankle and Toes.

PLEASE OCIICIUNUS, 2) oe a ees te we ¢ » LY*16 07.
a, Outer head, asinthe Emu, . 2°81
8, Origin from a ae so hei:
y, Inner head, . ees COLO
11°16 oz.

y. This portion of the gastrocnemius takes its origin from the back
of the inner condyle, from the inner surface of the anterior tubercle, and
from the whole head of the tibia, as well as from the side of the liga-
mentum patelle.

2. Me plantaris, . . BS Mets ne OLD O OZ:
Arises from the posterior Teeaen of thio lenis sea on the inner side,
and is blended at its insertion with the inner surface of the tendo Achillis
formed by the gastrocnemius.

Se SOLUS ee et LO OL.

Origin and insertion as in ne ne Its i araon forms the anterior side
of the sheath for the tendons of the heel, while the tendon of the gastro-
enemius forms the posterior side; the secondary slip of the tendon of the
soleus joins the side of the tendon of the first flexor perforatus digiti
medi at five inches below the heel joint.

4. M. flecor perforatus primus digitimedu, . . . . . O74 02.
Inserted into the near ends of the first and second phalanx of the middle
toe.

5. MW. flexor perforatus digits exterm, . . See wien OF 04.07.
Inserted into the distal ends of the first sae of the outer toe.

66. MM. flexor perforatus secundus digiti med, . . . ». 0°27 o2.

Arises from the outer ligament ofthe knee joint, and is inserted into the
near ends of the ungual phalanx of the middle toe.
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. Ix. : 3U

502

N. B.—The tendons of the first and second flexor of the middle toe
are free in the Rhea, and not united by a cross slip, as in the Emu.
7. IL, flexor perforatus digit interm, . .°. . ©. . 60°28 07.

Arises from the fascia covering the inner surface of soleus, and is inserted
into the near ends of the first phalanx of the inner toe.

8. M. flexor hallucis longus, . . : ss 5) Heke OBO ro7,,

Arises from the outer hgament of the ities oe and is inserted into the
near ends of the ungual phalanx of the inner toe, the largest tendon
being distributed to the outer side of the toe.

9. M. flexor communis perforams,’ ~. . . 6s sw 122 07

This muscle is formed, as in the Emu, of two distinct muscles, whose
tendons unite halfway down the cannon bone.

o. This is a double-headed muscle, taking its origin from the backs
of both condyles, . . ope, O°2 2:07.
B. Arises from the whole posterior surfaces of the tibia
and fibula, oe OP ae ETS) TUL 2 UGE, SS chs Gane o mun UloO On Oe

1-272,07.

10. M. tibialis anticus, . . J les areca. ged tls oh ale eae em EMCO) Dine

A two-headed muscle, as in the Emu, taking one origin from the outer
and anterior tubercles of the tibia, and another by a round tendon,
inside the knee joint, from the anterior surface of the outer condyle of
the femur.

11. AL, extensor digitorum communis, . . Sugieluciehh sep Oo: OZe

Arises from the anterior surfaces of the tibia atte fibula, and is inserted
into the backs of the ungual phalanges, and into the common sheath of
the back of the foot.

C.—Muscles of the Wings.

The wing of the Rhea, like that of the Ostrich, which it resembles
in so many other respects, is much more fuily developed than that of
the Emu, as may be seen from the accompanying sketch (Fig. 35).

OM, rapes, | se ote Nepean 0: 08). Oze

Arises from the transverse processes of itp it cervical vertebra, and
from the first rib, and is inserted into the acromial ridge at the top of
the scapula.

2. M. rhomboideus, WSN e et nee RES cee nn INTO ero ie.

Arises from the side of the third dorsal vertebra, and is inserted into the
posterior inch of the back of the scapula.

Os LA. LATSSUNUS CORSIS Mo reg we ee) ce eee ee

503

Sere: MOO, < . to. s Gaee ay Hic ewes 2 O20 02.

These muscles are very remarkable, and are well shown in Fig. 35
(Jat. d. and t.m.). The lat. dorsi takes its origin from the central portion
of the fourth rib (14 inch), and is inserted into the top and back of the
humerus, where it acts nearly
as an opponent of the second Fig. 35.
pectoral, as a depressor of the
arm.

The teres major takes its
origin from the spinous pro- /
cesses of the first and second “\\,
dorsal vertebre, and from the }
interspinous ligament, and is
inserted broadly (half an inch)
into the middle of the del-
toidal ridge, lying under the -
deltoid itself.

5, 6. M. pectoralis major et
minor... 0-21.07.

Arises from side of top of ster-
num and from upper sternal
ribs, and is inserted into the
pectoral ridge of the humerus,
and into the sheath covering
the brceps humeri.

7. M. pectoralis secundus,

0°37 oz.
Takes its origin from the co-
racoid bone, from the top of
the sternum, and from the
coraco-clavicular membrane;
and is inserted into the top of
the pectoral ridge.

N. B.—This muscle acts as a direct levator humeri, and its posterior
fibres are continuous with those of the deltocdeus, which draws the hu-
merus backwards and upwards.

Be A COVOCUSCLUCTIUS. 9 ee I O86 OL.
Takes its origin from the tip of the acromion, and from three-fourths
of an inch of the scapula behind it; and is inserted halfway down the
arm, along the back of the deltoidal ridge.

BRE COracovrachialis, 5. ae, a OF Gr Or,

Arises from the posterior edge of the coracoid, and is inserted into the
triangular space lying inside the pectoral ridge on the head of the hu-
Merus.

nO MS triceps humert (Bie. 30, Ut), 6 ee ss O82 08,

504

11. MW. supra et infraspinatus, . . . 2s ooo 08207)
Arises from the inferior surface of the sphiole acromion and top of the
scapula, and is inserted into the lesser tuberosity.

12. M. subscapularis, Bigas : 22) ee O22 Ore

Arises from the whole lower and inner aes of the scapula, and is in-
serted into the back of the lesser tuberosity.

13. WL. serratus magnus, . . 2 eb ees nee aes ee ee OG EaZ.
Arises from the first and second abe
14. MW. biceps humert, . . cing oie ae Oo Oe Oe

Arises from the tip and pottenon barter of the eel) and is inserted
into the tubercle of the radius.

N. B.—This muscle overlies the coracobrachialis.

The Rev. Samurt Haventon, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on Anima MECHANICS.

No. XIJ.—Ow tHe Moscttar ANAtomy oF THE IrIsH TERRIER, AS COM-
PARED WITH THAT OF THE AUSTRALIAN Din@o.

Tur anatomy of the Dog is so well known, that I have not attempted
in the following account to do more than exhibit the relative weights
of the corresponding muscles in four typical specimens, and have added
a few explanatory notes respecting facts that I have not found recorded
in the writings of other anatomists who have described the muscles of
the Dog.

The first Dog mentioned was a long-legged Irish Terrier, with about
one-eighth Bull blood, and was a well-known oe dow, of light
weight.

The second Dog was very similar, but had not been trained to fight ;
he was a good water dog, and frequently caught and ate water hens,
hunting on his own account.

The third Dog was a Dingo, long resident in the Zoological Gardens
of Dublin, and his death was occasioned by his own misconduct ; having
devoured his four pups for breakfast, he was called to account for his
misbehaviour by the mother of the pups, who throttled him on the spot,
being persuaded, as some thought, that if she did not anticipate him, he
would have proceeded to devour herself next.

The fourth Dog described was a Greyhound bitch, of excellent run-
ning qualities.

A.—Luseles of the Hind Legs.

It will be seen from a comparison of all the muscles that the Dingo
is closely related to the Irish Terrier, but differs widely from the Grey-
hound.

505

Trisp TERRIER,

ep —*~ = Dingo. GREYHOUND.
No. 1. No. 2.

5 Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz.

. Psoas “QF : :
Dae} 0-82 0-85, ji ee
3. Pectineus,* , 0°13 0°14 0°23 : 0°30
4, Adductor brevis, Oe. OA Ars ee 2 ON 20 0°34
DeACmAsKs. 2. .. 1°86.>. 2°80 3°50 : 6°27
6. Obturator externus, 0°16 . 0°24... . 0°33 0°47
7. Ad. longus, 102 ee ae 098 a dee Z20 3°81
8. Quadratus femoris, OOS 2 ay hee oc Oe tes e023 0°21
9. Obturatorinternus,&e., 0°24 0°30 . 0°49 0°62

10. Agitator caude et ‘ ; : :
11. Gluteus maximus, \ uh ee o UTS oe ee
12. Tensor vagine femoris, 0 73 0°69 . 0°66 t:30
13. Gluteus medius, . 1°40 1°56 Se ea eet S
ia Eyritormis,.. 9. °.. 0°16 .. OR 20M eke k 5 ON nominee. 0°28
15. Gluteus minimus, . 0°17 . 0°20 0°30 : 0°35

16. Gubernator caude, part of the intercostalis caudalis (Greyhound), = 0°24 (as in
Kangaroo) from interior of ilium behind acetabulum to costal processes of second
and third caudals.

detucepstemoris |. (2°71 <2). =. 2°85 :. 9... 4°66, 760
2. MM. bicipitiaecessorius,| — -. . .- -— °.: . « 0710 . yNOF 12
ao semimembranosus, -0°60 ......'.-0°92 . . -. 2°05 odie
4. Semitendinosus, . ODOM ete we LOLs creme MOL a. eee TS
5. Gracilis, . Ae Oe baomtt, en ON Ol ase) ea hs OO) OEE oS Dh
SS ‘ 0°58 1°06 0°44
Gasamormso... °, . O61 . . ero : ae : toe
7. Rectus femoris, . Onin ogee" O83 ee AZ Bere ar tc ce Ok
8. Vastus externus, NO Oe ii welO ly ie te a co Op ON OO!
9, Vastus internus, . OA MOTO Ne rece te a oD OF.
t ; 1'28
1. Gastrocnemius, PL Ree Ae | sae they on eos 1°87
rn Ord, tains OLE oi ORL Ts 0°30
Seuliexondienloneis, "Orga. . « O40 20 6. OOD. 82
4., ada lon- 0-04 0°06 ote 0-165
5. Tibialis BasiIens miner ees Se Nog Se OM OM de op sos ye ee
6. Flexor dig. brevis } 0°01 oie ae
(perforatus), ; : i 5
Gemeromcus lomeus. i Oot tp oe) eORIS: van er oe OCG, wo. 2 0827
Se eKON MIS DLE VIS ued). 010 LOD pen) were te O08) he 8 6 OOB oc w, 0708
Ceeciocuseenius;: 9. 0°03 city O02" i 2 O04 co oe 02 04

* Inserted into the fascia covering the vastus internus.

+ Inserted into the fascia above the knee, and two-thirds down the fibula, terminating in the tendo
Achillis, as in the Lion; the posterior fibres form a ribbon-like slip, distinct from the main body of
the muscle, and terminating directly in the calcaneum, forming the J. bicipitt accessorius.

t Takes its origin from the sacro-ischiadic ligament.

§ The saréorius in the Dog is double; the greater part being inserted one inch down the inner side
of the leg, and the lesser part being inserted into the side of the patella; in the Greyhound these parts
are equal.

|| Outer_head, 1:70 oz.; and inner head, 0-70 oz.

%** Arises from the back of the outer head of the tibia, and is inserted into the side of the broad
tendon of the flex. dig. longus.

++ Reduced to a shining tendon, with usual origin and insertion.

506

Trish TERRIER.

c ~ > Dingo. GREYHOUND.
No. 1. No. 2.
Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz.

10. Tibialis anticus et
Extensor hallucis 0°27 5. O24. eG oy One Seu 80)

longus, o7 ive
av Pe ey 0°30°.. uy) ..0°28 hk O-oyaeeatee yokes

ongus, eae

B.—WMuseles of the Fore Legs.
1. Trapezius clavicularis,© 0°47 0°49. Be Oe Eire Vege
2. Cleidomastoideus,4 . 0°46 er OAdh nts . 0°69 10°61
8. Deltoideus clavicularis, 0°35 2 OS36 2. Sie ey Oma OETA
4, Trapezius scapularis,¢ 0°70 see OMSL ieee aes soon ohi1s
5. Omo-atlanticus,* 0°47 0°52 - #0::96 oP og AO POR
6. Rhomboideus,g . . 0°67 1°05. 7 Loe . 1°85
7. Serratus magnus, . 2°23 eee aad Aah EE Jatt ol» ma yep ai) (I
8. Sternomastoideus, . 0°64 Wir M ieee ee sane by 8) he 3S
9. Deltoideus scapularis,®» 0°50 1 eOKES »y 1405 Si ae,
10. Latissimus dorsi,i . 1°81 aor oouie 3°43 - 2 0 Ac44
11. Leres miajor,) 9 5) 0748 be ea OE) 0°74 Sat cea ES
12. Subscapularis, 0°91 Suet OCMC neu m etl CO Pee 0
13. Pectoralis minor, . 1°51 SIME aaah” Aaa) | esce ie tess ani greet) 2 arn ttr Ome
14. Pectoralis major, 0°83 Ste SAO gee ee ae ie iiciec) RO
15.;Supraspinatus, ~. 2 51726 Sh SUT oe) Gee aa Spe OO
16a Feres.minor:- 2a) 3 — ~ 20°08 ee Oe j 0°14
17. Infraspinatus, . . 1°08 gs aoe aera ee eC oun BG <a tep er noe!
18, Coracobrachialis, . 0°07 pe ite 0 Ober sie Uae Om eee Oa
1. Triceps humeri, . . 3°85 ABD] Bea ee eee LOSS
2eANCONRUS. ec ys LUO 5 eee euul see SUES) piss Ogle
3. Biceps humeri, . . 0°45 . 0°48 oe O85 = apres BOLE

4, Brachizus (externus), 0°23 Se U0 Oo at ues LO NOS fee On Ok
5. Pronator radii teres, 0°05 67 th 206s, eee Oa: A 0°13
6. Flexor carpi radialis,« 0°07 ...0°10 SS A Osea A iis
7. Flexor dig. sublimis, 0°21 Bre Abaya tes ila oP eT AS ae OA
8. Flexor carpi ulnaris,! 0°31 wna O48 ~ 0279 fe Ook

2 A conjoined muscle, with two appropriate tendons inserted as usual.

b Arises by a round tendon inside the knee joint from the anterior surface of the outer condyle of
the femur.

¢ Arises from the occipital ridge, and first to fifth cervical vertebra, and is inserted into the liga-
mental line that represents the clavicle.

4 Arises from the mastoid process, and is inserted into the clavicular ligament.

© Arises from the dorsal vertebrze, and is inserted into the spine of the scapula.

£ Arises from the transverse process of the atlas, and is inserted into the anterior part of the spine
of the scapula.

€ Including a slip from the occiput, as in the Macacus nemestrinus ; it takes origin from all the cer-
yical vertebree and anterior half of the dorsal.

h Arises from the anterior extremity of the scapular spine, and from the fascia covering the ante-
rior portion of the infraspinatus = deltoideus externus (Cuy.).

i Gives origin, near its insertion, to a fourth head of the triceps.
N. B.—There is also a cutaneous accessory.
k Inserted into the near end of the metacarpal of second finger (index).
1 Consists of two distinct muscles, with double tendon-inserted into the pisiform bone.

No. 2. DINGo.
Condyioid head, 0:08 0°12
Olecranon head, 0°35 0'67

0°43 0°79

. Pronator radii qua-

Irish TERRIER.
AN

Get
No. 1.
Oz.

. Supinator radii longus,™ 0°34
. Extensordig. commun.,® 0°12
. Extensor carpi radialis,° 0°04
. Extensor carpi ulnaris,P 0°11
. Supinator radii brevis,
. Flexor dig. profundus, 0°43
. Extensor oss. met.

0°03
pollicis,a. } ee

dratus,' . \ HONE

2

507

DinGo. GREYHOUND.
Oz. Oz.
wretne SONG li ica Fein 80270
a‘ O20 0 2300
06 e202 093s . 0°09
Goa 2 Oo. . 0°34
ges ROO? . 0°06
ee SOD, . 1°38
0°08 Spares Ue eC)
0°11 £60812

The Rev. Samven Havenron, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on ANIMAL MECHANICS.

No. XIJI.—On tur Muscunar ANATOMY OF THE BADGER.

Tue muscles recorded in the present Note were observed in two fine
specimens of the Badger (Meles taxus), male and female, which died in
November and December, 1864, in the Gardens of the Royal Zoolo-
gical Society of Ireland.

A.—Museles of the Hind Limb (Male).

Pa Sartorius, 0°...

2. Iliacus, aa ae

3. Psoas magnus,

4. Pectineus, . .

5. Adductor magnus, .
6. Obturator externus,
7. Quadratus femoris,
8. Obturator internus, et

9. Gluteus maximus, etagi-

Seles) ee ee

tater caude, . .

10. Gluteeus medius, .
ie yrrtormis,. . ¢s)'%
12. Gluteus minimus, .

°

Grs.
230

231

70
374
110

44

13. Glutzus quartus (ilio-

capsularis),. .

14. Tensor vaginee femoris,

15. Biceps femoris, . . .
16. Bicipiti accessorius (as in

Lion), (6 inches long,
and ribbon-like),

17. Semimembranosus, . .
18. Semitendinosts, . . .
Ome Gra cilistey: 2" auesa) eek
20. Rectusfemoris, .

91. Vastus externus,. . ._

22. Vastus internus, . .
oe CUnceWse= Yo e r

»” Tnserted into near ends of index and middle metacarpals.

1 Distributed chiefly to the little and ring fingers.

© Distributed below the tendons of the ex. dig. com. to the little and ring fingers.
P Inserted into the outer and near end of the metacarpal of the little finger.

4 Inserted into the inner and near end of the metacarpal of the thumb.

T Extends along the whole length of the radius and ulna.

& Psoas parvus = 142 grs.

508

B.—WMuscles of the Fore Limb (Female).

; Grs. Grs.

1, Trapezius et deltoideus | 8, Teres MAJOR. a ae

clavicularis vel inter- 9. Subscapularis, . . « 231

NUS, ~.° .( 2 J-25%.' Ooo/| £0: Pectoralissmimormees oom

2. Rhomboideus (with occi- i}. Pectoralis majore . - 7 240
pital slip), . . . . 276 12. Deltoideus scapularis

3. Serratusmagnus,. . . 473 (Externis)) cea tee eo

4, Sternomastoideus, . . 210] 183. Supraspinatus, . . . 308

5. Cleidomastoideus, . . 85 | 14. Infraspinatus, . . . 220

6. Omo-atlanticus, . . . 100
15. Triceps humeri, . . . 858
7. Latissimus dorsi,’ . . 652 |" 16. Biceps humert, (<7. 27 (90

The Rev. Samvrt Haventon, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Notes on Anima Mecwanics.

No. XITVY.—On tHe Musci&s oF THE VIRGINIAN BEAR,

Iw April, 1865, one of the fine Virginian Bears of the Zoological Gardens
of Dublin, a female, having fallen into a depressed condition of health,
an abscess appeared under the fascia covering the great trochanter of the
right thigh, which she persisted in gnawing at to such an extent as to
render her an object very unattractive to visitors to the Gardens. She
was accordingly sentenced to death by the Council, and the sentence
was carried into execution on the Ist of May, 1865, as follows :—
I gave her 12:4 grs. of pure strychnia, in an apple, at 3:17 Pp. u., and
she was dead at 3°52 p. u., having exhibited the following symptoms :—
1. At 20 minutes after dose, her breathing became distressed (108
in the minute) ;
2. At 24 minutes, she experienced her first tetanic convulsion, the
spasm of which never completely relaxed ;
3. At 34 minutes, she seemed to be dead;
4, At 35 minutes, she was completely dead, and her heart had ceased

to beat.
A.—Muscles of the Hind Limb. |
Oz. Av. Oz. Av.
J vaeus, 7: i 4-90 8. Obturator internus et
. Psoas magnus, gemelli, . «bse
. Pectineus, . . . . 1:60) 9. Gluteus maximus, . . 4°80

Adductor magnus, . . 14:90 | 10. Gluteus medius, . . 6:00
. Obturator externus;,%.,.8-50 | 11). Pyaformis, 2040 4) | One
. Adductor longus, . . 2°10 | 12. Gluteus minimus, . . 0°45
. Quadratus femoris, . . 0°67 |

“To Or Co DO re

f é Oz. Av. Oz. Av.
i3- Bieeps femoris, . . . 15°70 | 18. Sartorius,. . . . . 5:20
14. Semimembranosus, J eon) 1 o: Aectus femoris, . -. . 6:40
15. Semitendinosus, - . « 4407 20. Vastus externus, . . 8:80
Peestacis, =... |. 6620") 21. Vastus internus,. ; 2 3:40
17. Tensor vagine femoris, 2°50 | 22.Qrurmus, .. . . . 0°50
Pe Grsnoeuemide-soleus, ' .o7 eS OE Og 9

Oz.

a, From outer condyle, . . . 4:0

8. From inner condyle, 1°6

y. From fibula,. . 2°5

8:10

24. Popliteus, . . ere RM age y ete ee, hee eh Oro

Arises by a strong tendon from the outer side of the outer condyle, in-
side the knee joint, and is inserted into the upper half of the tibia.

Zalexor GisiorumylOncus,* pe vs) ss se te ee | OO
Peeelercot mals LONOUSS fie fis es ec ie wisn fess, « . O°D8

Sermiott as POSUICHS, ols, i. 8 o. ¢ «6 es. ee ie. O88
Ze-lexor: disitorum longo accessors, . .°. . ..°. O12
Pemelexon Brevis Perionalas, . 2). 4 6 ye ee ee OL
einianR attbiots, ot voi aL a ob eo 18g
31. Extensor hallucis,. . . 0-11
Inserted into the back and outer ede of ie first Fates of be Tene.
a peeecrensor digitorum Iongus, 2. . ew ose ew I

There are also several slips of the extensor brevis arising from the
_ surface of the os calcis, in front of the astragalus.

33. Peroneustertius, . . es be
Inserted into the outer side of ffi first shila of the little a
34, Peroneus brevis, . - : iis tareeapytrnnr 0 2)

Weigerted into the outer side of the foe of ae Saas of little toe.

35. Peronzus longus, . . . : Sy Se pi OPEL
Inserted, after crossing the sole of the Gon sed Pe outer side of the
base of the metatarsal of the hallux.

* The flezor hallucis tendon is united to the flecor digitorum longus tendon in the sole
of the foot.
R. I, A. PROC.— VOL. IX. 3x

510

B.—Museles of the Fore Limb.

Oz. Ay.
1. Trapezius clavicularis, 5:90
2S rapeZ Wis) SCAPIIATIS, Mtns wedi ite eis yeas 9°20
3. Rhomboideus, .... i ae Re os —
4, Cleidomastoideus (rope- -like muscle), : ail
5. Omo-atlanticus, mesg) tema . 4:40
GO) Nerratys Magnus, as ay. eeek es . 14:10
7. Latissimus dorsi, ¢ 12:50
8. Teres major, olathe” | a een ae tire nt ght ts ues ct cnet 2°50
9. Subscapularis, 5 6°10
10: Pectoralis minor, 1"). seer «| 4:06
11. Pectoralis major, , . 15°80
12. Deltoideus clavicularis, wsdl \rel ag Mg? SOLT raee eas eee RL
13. Deltoideus scapularis, oa aR el “Geile bel) ron ianaeeee meets ancl)
14. Supraspinatus, ee ene . 95°60
15. Infraspmatus, . . . . . . 5°10
16. Teres minor, 5 lal ae as. 5 0:42

17. Infraspinatus secundus,

17°3

May be regarded as belonging either to PL orroine: or . infraspmnatus,

and is equivalent to gluteus quintus.

18. Coracobrachialis, ,
19. Coracobrachiali accessorius s (like the gemelli), . 5

20. Triceps humeri,

including ihe fourth or Tenis aie tae ce
ISIE 7 OLOA ieee cana ies
21. Brachizeus (Setanta ths yee) Jkt Cat ee eee

22. Biceps humeri,

23. Supinator radii longus,

24. Extensor carpi radialis longior, .

Inserted into the base of the metacarpal of index fanen

25. Extensor carpi radialis brevior, at ae

Inserted into the base of metacarpal of middle finger.

26. Extensor digitorum communis,

27. Extensor carpi ulunaris, : -
Inserted in the outer side of base of sakananl of little Grtege

28. Extensor minimi digiti (auricularis),

21°70

3°30
4°70

0°89
0°63

1:01

1:06
1°16

0°61

Distributed to the ungual phalanges of third, one and fifth fingers.

29. Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, :
Inserted in the outer side of base of ibeAtoaraad of pollex.

1°31

511

Oz. Av.
30. Extensor (secundi) internodii pollicis, ... . . . . =. Q:34
Inserted into the ungual phalanx of pollex.
eer miabor radn Previss Sais es oo. leony ations Tay ard OBL
ebenOreL mE aM teTese yrs th See ae, OA aT ee eG]
Pome eat ean pl TAdlalis, 06 5. ed ess 8 sae ce eee LUO
eee MRL S LOTLOMISH Zick «ale Woh eee TM Hew ie hd ened! om) swheteeectiai! demeagneyet HIOO
aM MeranMcaT Ml MNATIS, G0 riety oie nie iis Fel, core acay au! ay cba

Rear. eee Terminate in a common tendon, which is
36. Flexor digitorum sublimis, distributed to the ungual phalanges of the
Gos five fingers; andthe upper portion of the

ol. Flexor digitorum profundus, common tendon, corresponding to that of 8:40
the flexor sublimis, sends a separate thin

38. Flexor pollicis longus, slip to the index finger, which slip lies above
the index branch of the common tendon,
39. Pronator quadratus, 28 Sie: Y sntine Dates Cie uel? Bale eeOMaS

Arises from the lower third of the se and is inserted into the lower
fourth of the radius.

The Rey. Samvzt Haventon, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,

Dublin, read the following paper :—

Norzs on Animat Mucuanics.
No. XV.— On tHe Muscurar Anatomy or THE OrTER (Lutra vulgaris).

In March, 1865, I dissected avery fine male Otter, which had lived ten
years in the Zoological Gardens of Dublin, and was well known to all
the frequenters of those Gardens, from his playful and docile habits.
He died of miliary tubercle, accompanied by pneumonic congestion of
both lungs; and his right auricle and ventricle, with the two cave and
hepatic vein, were filled with clotted blood, the result of the pulmonary
obstruction.

This beautiful animal was originally presented to the Dublin Gar-
dens by Dr. Horne, of Ballinasloe, on the 8th of March, 1855, and died
on the 27th of February, 1865.

The Council of the Zoological Society have made many attempts to
rear young Otters, but their exertions have seldom been rewarded with
success, owing to the extreme difficulty of procuring suitable food; for
the Otter, although aquatic and piscivorous in its habits, is nursed on
mother’s milk, in a dry warm nest, for a longer period than most carni-
vorous animals. As the habits of the Otter in this country, in its wild
state, are but little known, I make no apology for inserting in this place
the following account of the Lutra vulgaris, prefatory to my description
of its muscles—an account for which I am indebted to Mr. Robert

“Montgomery, the Secretary of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland,

who has had many opportunities of studying its habits in a state of
nature. I can myself bear testimony to the fact, that when cray fish

512

and salmon in the Barrow are scarce, the Otters that frequent its banks
will attack and kill young lambs for food :—

“Otter (Lutra vulgaris) belongs to the Family of the Mustelidz. There are at

least five well-ascertained species. In early spring the young are produced, generally
two, sometimes more; as many as five have been observed. The fur is of two kinds—
one thick, short, and soft, brown with white tips; the other coarser in texture, much
longer, and darker in colour.

‘“‘ Pennant mentions one having been killed of 40 ibs., but 24]1bs. is a very large ex-
ample in this country.. It is quite true that they eat the head and shoulders of fish,
leaving the remainder, when fish are plentiful; they are trained in Sweden, and still by
a few people in England ; they are trained very much in the same way as water dogs are.
The muscular system of Otters is very largely developed. Its Irish name is Madia eske,
meaning water dog, Lutra vulgaris must not be confounded with the great Sea Otter,
Enhydra marina, which is a much larger animal, and the skin of which is so much
valued by furriers. Pallas says he has known one skin to fetch upwards of £20. In
Kamtschatka they are called Kalan; they are still numerous on the west coast of Ame-
rica, as far south as California.

‘*Tt is found in Vancouver’s Island, which island is rich in Otters, producing three
kinds— Enhydra marina, the Vison (Putorius vison), and our friend, called there the
Land Otter, as distinguished from Enhydra. The’skin ofthe latter, even at present, in
Vancouver's Island, sometimes reaches six feet in length, and is sent to England to be
dressed, and fetches from £12 to £15. ‘The chief market is in China, where they bring
100 dollars (American).

“T have known an Otter to kill waterfowl, and I believe they sometimes kill lambs.
Female goes with young nine weeks. Mr. Ogilby, solong Secretary to the London Zoolo-
gical Society, is of opinion that our Irish Otter is a distinct species from the English ;
but I do not believe he has ever had an opportunity of verifying this opinion by examin-
ing and comparing their skeletons; he judged chiefly from differences in their habits.

RL EY

A.—WMuscles of the Hind Limb.

Oz. Av. Oz. Av.
1. Sartorims; 3.005, ).+.- 0°80 4.13. Gluteus mings o. 008
2, Peoadthigouee s,s...) 6. 0:28
8. Pectineus, . ... . 0-07 | 14. Biceps femoris, . . . 0°51
4, Adductor brevis, . . 0-10 | 15. Bicipiti accessorius, . 0:05
5. Adductor magnus, . . 0°43 | 16. Semimembranosus,. . 0°49
6. Obturator externus, . 0°07 | 17. Semitendinosus,. . . 0°24
7. Adductor longus, 9. ~ 0°50) | 18: AGwacilis, (.032 ee a2
8. Quadratus femoris,. . 0°03 | 19. Quadriceps extensor fe-

9. Obturatorinternuset gem. 0:04 MMONIS,, 4 Ps cies wees he
10. Agitator caude,. . . 0°06

11. Gluteus maximus et 20. Gastrocnemius, . . .. Ob]

Tensor vaginee femoris, 0°32 | 21. Plantaris,. . . . . O20

12. Gluteus medius et Py- 22. Solasuiss x osu reaeeem say ee

riformis, eh pee ey 0401 28. (Poplites, Sake se

24, ailexer digttortm: lonous em ho os) ce ye

Inserted into the common junction of the tendons of flexor hallucis .

longus and accessorius. The tendons of this muscle are distributed chiefly
to the hallux and index.

513

Oz. Av.
Semeroeot maleic loneus kg ce eel 022

This acts in the Otter as a common flexor, and is analogous to the
flexor profundus of the hand.
Pere MOSUICUS, 9.0 r sg ee es O06
Poeiomnerenorum brevis, -' es fe eg a a 002
pee exard 16100 aCCESSOTIUS, 2° sel ec et OOL
29. Tibialis aegis, pear RHR eco gs ie ay aes ide ls Ore
380. Extensor digitorum loneus, ee eee ee sg ae gon OLA
aio wacrensorminimidigiti, . . . -» : ; é . 0:03

Its tendon passes under the groove of the baer ee a that of
the peroneus brevis, and is inserted into the outer side of the ungual
phalanx of the little toe.

MB GOMeISULehEMIG. oc he we ee ee ek ww we OOD
BeeeceOnewesOTOWVIss (a es ee ee er I ee O06
Bee ererumens loneUs,- 46) ee ew ees oe ee. 0°05

B.— Muscles of Fore Limb.

Pe naeiiescapllanis, . p24). oe eee sw OAT
eeeeeamecziis Clavicilarig. 7... ee ek OP
3. Sternomastoideus, Seema i mac me eer girs Mee (eke ETD

Inserted into the first rib, the top of sternum, and raphe of lower part
of neck,

MEO CIM OMA shOIM CUS, ae yh ie ie Wile ig ig oa gla ay va ow OMT
pemio-anamcicus, No. (lL). iy oe See ea ee ie es 0'27

Arises from the anterior surface of the transverse process of the atlas,
and is inserted into the anterior third of the spine of the scapula.

Cmemocaelamilels, NOL C2) no aki ws) ho wae) Mees O21

Arises from the anterior surface of the transverse process of the atlas,
and is inserted into the posterior third of the spine of the scapula.

Gee ete us WMASTUS, ey) eo ee oe ee eeu i OL TE

In this muscle I have included the levator anguli scapule, which is
quite distinct from omo-atlanticus No. 2, and takes its origin from the
middle of the occipital line, and is inserted into the vertebral edge of
the scapula, immediately above the end of its spine. The remainder of
the serratus magnus takes its origin from the costal processes of the cer-
vical vertebrae (2 — 7), and from the first seven ribs.*

* There are fourteen ribs in all.

514

Oz. Av.
8. Rhomboideus, we ee ge ERR Bee het tee ce eee (rey

Arises from the occipital ridge, from all the cervical vertebree, and from
the first two dorsal.

9, ‘Teres major nn eee oe. oh enna ce ems aL
LO. Latissimus dorsi), 0c: meme his ane > eek A

Has a double insertion.

a. Connected with the cutaneous accessory into the tendon of the pec-
toralis minor, near its insertion, and at its lower border, strapping down
the biceps upon the bone. Takes origin from the posterior surfaces
of the last five ribs.

6. By a tendon common to it and teres mayor, into the humerus, under
biceps, as usual. Takes origin from the posterior surfaces of the se-
venth, eighth, and ninth ribs.

11,, Subseapullaris,. ve.cye vss segue) ue aco: io eee eerie Oars

12. Peetoralis minor, Fie. oak. aie eee ten ie) ace eee cr
Takes origin at sternum from the ribs (4 — 9), and is inserted, strapping
down the dzceps into three-fourths of the length of the humerus.

13. Pectoralis major, . . Sore cee OL

Takes origin at sternum, from the first fou fis iia is inserted into
the outer side of the pectoral ridge of the humerus, and by fascia into
the skin of the forearm.

14. Deltoideus clavicularis, . . . ee Oalo)
Inserted into the inner side of the ponioal mies of the humerus and
into the ulna, with the tendon of brachieus.

15. Deltoideus scapularis; .' sR a ee ee Oe
LOnSupraspimatus, 6. os Gee) ye he gear tek eee eee
17. dantraspinatus, 8 sis caine eet 2 Soe ey em a Oboe

18) Biceps humeriy. 6.0.0 4%. SA ee ae Os

19. Brachieus (externus), . 0-14
20. Triceps (including fourth head from tendon of latissimus

dorst), we ie ee | la ira ote An oils sh am aa etre
D4 AMCONRUS; i<6 ee tg Le led ne 2 eae ae eet
22, Pronator radi teres, 90 2. 9s ee ee ee
23. Klexor carpi radialis, 9 070 4g See Se ee
24.. Palmartslonous ss 8. es ek eae
25. Flexor carpi mlmaris, 70 208 ee eee Ee a ee
96. Flexor digitorum sublimis, -('e).0 <)> 29" Se ee ee

21. Mexor digitorum protundus, “9. 2 sas } 0-15
28. Flexor pollicis longus, sick ve sr N8 alata aie

29,.Pronator quadrague sac. uu see 1s oy oh ae hm ae
30, Supinator radulonaus,: 50 me.) 8) oe renee, mene

515

Oz. Av.
31. Extensor carpiradialis, . . . . Bie at REE GL NB:

Inserted by a bifurcate tendon into the near ahd of the metacarpals of
index and middle fingers.

eeantunOl radi? WLOVIS, .6r ss) es) we ose ew R02

33. Extensor digitorum spare Ss cS aaa ie Muah ee g oe oh OS)

o4, J puenenns a Fane: Pde arity ttect Or OL
Inserted into the little, ring, He middle fae oe

35. Extensor carpiulnaris, . . 0:07
Inserted into the near end of the sac emaati at of ie little ae

36. Extensor ogsis ee Be Reece aban nsrciters pay 5) ul, Oe

ome indicators. 2 . O01

Inserted by a double tendon into the srdes i middle en

The Rev. Samurt Havcuton, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Nores on AntmMAL MECHANICS.

XVI.—On tHe Muscutar ANATOMY OF THE RHINOCEROS.

A youne male Rhinoceros, three years old, having died in the Zoolo-
gical Gardens of Dublin in April, 1865, the body was purchased, for £17,
for the Museum of Trinity College, and I availed myself of the oppor-
tunity of making a careful examination of his muscles. I was ably
assisted in the dissection by Mr. Macalister, Demonstrator in Anatomy
of the Royal College of Surgeons, and by a staff of medical students,
who relieved each other from time to time. The stench from the de-
composing blood was almost intolerable, and several of my assistants
were disabled by typhoid diarrhoea; this I escaped myself, as I had
done on a former occasion when dissecting a Nylghau, which had died
of putrid fever, and whose blood after death seemed to communicate di-
arrhoea by its smell to almost every person in contact with the body.
Notwithstanding these difficulties, I was able to complete the entire
muscular dissection in person, the results of which cannot fail to prove
of interest to anatomists.

Having made a careful post-mortem examination of all the viscera,
except the brain, I felt it my duty to lay the following Report before
the Council of the Zoological Society :—

‘‘ScHOOL oF Puysic, TRinITy COLLEGE,
“ Dublin, April 14, 1866.
*¢ Report on DEatH oF THE RHINOCEROS.
‘«The Rhinoceros died at 4 a. Mm. on Thursday, the 6th inst., and his
body was opened in the new aerate Room of Trinity College on the
8th inst., at 1 P.M.

516

‘‘T was assisted in making the post-mortem examination by Pro-
fessor Ferguson and Mr. Connor ; there were also present Dr. Alexander
Carte, Dr. M‘Dowel, Dr. Bennett, Dr. Macalister, and several other ana-
tomists.

«The rectum was protruded through a space of eighteen inches,
and in it were two post-mortem ruptures; in the ilium, two feet from
the cecum, there was extensive softening, as also at the junction of the
duodenum and jejunum; the stomach was filled to distention with a
mixture of hay and whole Indian corn, both fermenting, and pervaded
with an aldehydic smell, which overcame even the intolerable odour of
the gases with which the abdomen was distended almost to the bursting
point; the hay was somewhat masticated, but the corn had been bolted
whole ; numerous tapeworms were found in the upper part of the intes-
tines.

‘The decomposition set in with most unusual rapidity, parti-
cularly in the anterior extremity, and it was with the greatest difficulty
that a few precious fragments of the viscera of this rare animal could be
preserved; many of the muscles also dissolved in the course of twenty
hours into a mass of putrid jelly. This phenomenon was most marked
in the left side of the thorax and left anterior limb.

‘* CAUSE OF DEATH.

‘‘T believe that death was caused by the improper administration of
Indian corn, which fermented in the stomach and intestines, and deve-
loped gas to such an extent as to cause prolapsus of the rectum, and that
the pressure caused by this gas ultimately destroyed the action of the
diaphragm, and so caused death by asphyxia; and I am further of opinion
that itis the duty of the Council to institute the most searching inquiry
ito the manner in which Indian corn was given to this animal, as such
food does not appear in the scale of dietary formally prescribed by the
Council’s order to be used.

(Signed) ‘‘SamvuEL Haveuton, Hon. Sec. R. ZS.

*P.§.—The tapeworms were in all probability the cause of the
convulsions experienced by the Rhinoceros shortly after his arrival in
the Dublin Gardens. Sn. Alas

A.—Muscles of the Hind Limb.
Oz. Av.
t. Sartorius) Soo: Ach eal eae
Origin; from the inner margin of the spiaseiaetee part of the ilum,
near the insertion of the psoas parvus.
Insertion; by flat tendinous fascia into the inner side of the leg
below the knee,

2. Psoas magnus, . . as ee

Origin ; from the lumbar renetee ath one slip from the true pelvis,
from the inner margin of the ilium.

a =
Ne

O17

Insertion ; by a common tendon with, and inside the M. clacus, into
the lesser trochanter.

3. Lliacus, ste EPR ee ES SE, A EMRE CIOL
Origin and Geran as cde
A. -Peetimeus, . . . 5 Se ae OO

Origin; from the ‘ainsi margin of the sic erest of the pubis.
Insertion ; into the femur at lower point of trisection, by a strong
round tendon.

5. Adductor brevis, . . . Po BE 20

Origin ; from the symphysis Ene (middle eis sites

Insertion ; by a flat tendon, inside the insertion of the adductor mag-
NUS.

6. Adductor magnus, . . Thee Me es O20

Origin; from the arch of the ba paclaraiad cals as far as the
tuberosity of the ischium.

Insertion ; into the back of the outer condyle, and halfway up the
femur.

MeO ReUT ALOK CLLCrNUS, RHE SEMEN BES OTE BR OE OS, La ye GO

Origin ; as usual.
Insertion ; into the upper half of the line leading from the great tro-
chanter to the posterior trochanter.

8. Adductor longus, . . ee.) a 220
Origin ; from the arch and SE anihysis of a pike. lying under the
HM. gracilis.

Insertion ; into the lower half of the linea aspera and inner condyle
of the femur.
Ser aeratus fomerie, a... 8d Wes. Se OM wanting.
10. Obturator internus, . . . eee 370)
Origin; from the ilium above the iechindie notch; ia without any
fibres from the rim of the foramen ; it is a long slip of muscle (Qu. Ge-
mellus supertor ?)

11. Gemellus inferior, . . . ee oe es ee)

12. Gluteus maximus (Fig. 36), . ee eee. 2080

Origin; from the posterior half of the ilio-ischiadic line, and from
the sacro-ischiadic hgament.

Insertion ; by means of a tendon, 44 inches in length, into the top
of the fibula and fascia of the leg ; it gives off two tendinous slips to the
greater and posterior trochanters in passing.

13. Glute@o maximo accessorius (Fig. 86),. . . . . «. . 138°

Origin ; from the vertebral edge of the ilio-ischium, in front of the
origin of the Glut@us maximus.

Insertion; by a long tendon into the posterior trochanter.

R. I, A. PROC.—VOL. IX. oY

518

Oz. Av.
14, Gliteus medius (Big) 36)09 2 ee ee Gr
Origin ; from the whole outer surface of the ilium, being overlapped
on its posterior border by gl. maz., and its accessory, No. 13.
Insertion as usual.

15. Glateus minimis, 2S OS eee

Origin; from a small surface of the narrowest portion of the ilium,
near the ischiadic notch.
Insertion; into the anterior ridge of the great trochanter.

16.. Lensor vagina femoris, 0. ws eee OES

Origin; from the crest of the ilium.

Insertion ; into the fascia of the knee, principally on the outer side,
but partly on the inner side; its insertion on the outer side is sepa-
rated from the gluteus maximus by a strong fascia.

a9 Boveps jemoris (Pie 38), aa ee

Origin ; from the tuberosity of the ischium.

Insertion; into the whole length of the outer side of the leg, as far
down as the heel, by fascial attachment; and is intimately blended in
its muscular portion with the semitendinosus.

re, 4850

Fig. 36.

18. Semimembranosus (Fig. 386), . . . . . . . . . 66:0
Origin; from the tuberosity of the ischium, with posterior fibres
from the great ischiadic ligament.

Insertion; into the back and inner side of the inner condyle, with
a prolongation to the tibia by fascial attachment.

O19
Oz. Av.
19. Semitendinosus (Fig. 36), . . . are Gat ea O40)
Origin; from the tuberosity of the eters
Insertion ; by a tendon, one inch broad, into the point of bisection
of the tibia.
20. Gractlis,:-..-... AOS arena 8

Origin; from the arch of the sce aa ba Pali of posterior pot-
tion of its symphysis.

Insertion ; into the head of the tibia, by a tendon, three inches in
length.

Pbenermee pcmores (Pik. 36). ce se he acer on hs 11840

22. Vastus externus (Fig.36), . . . Sree Seceyotso

A strong ligament joins the greater and ssteitior trochanters, under
which the outer head of the vastus externus passes.

ERE IOP ER eh. eR re fe Re ws ALS
EM ISI Roary ee nee os ere Pere a ese oo pe BES
25. Popliteus, . . en ee

Origin; by a strong aa from ee outer Padsie 6 of the femur;
this tendon forms one of the ligaments of the knee joint, and winds
round the back of the head of the fibula.

Insertion ; into the upper half of the back of the tibia.

26. Gastrocnemido-soleus, Med Ae er ae ce oO
Insertion ; into the os calcis.

27. Plantaris ( flecor perforatus), . . . sehen \. MESS

Origin ; from the back of the outer condyle, cavers tf gastrocnemius.

Insertion ; into the plantar fascia covering the os calcis, from which
it passes on to the common junction of flexor tendons in the sole of the
foot, and ultimately expends its force on the three perforate tendons of
the toes.

N.B.—This seems to be the plantaris and flexor digitorum brevis
(perforatus) combined.

28. Flexor digitorum (perforans), . . adi bra A oreaitay bal

Origin; from the whole back of the Abula, anit from the lower half
of the tibia.

N.B.—This seems to be the flewor digitorum longus and flexor hal-
lucis longus combined.

29. Tibialis anticus, . . citete .pttseask OQ
Origin; from the upper tre half of the ‘ane.
Insertion ; into the inner edge of the inner tarsal (cuneiform).

520

Oz. Av.
30. Extensor digitorum longus, . . le ueetesr al Ose

Origin; from the outer condyle of the ae ty a strong tendon.
Insertion ; double :—

Oz. Av.
a. Into the inner tarsal (cuneiform), . . . 5°5
6. By two tendons inserted into the inner sides
of the first me of outer and inner
GOES es oo PAO
19°5
Sl. Peroneus longus, ..-. . < a sxe 10

Origin; from the outer condyle of the —

Insertion; by a pulley passing under the outer ankle, winding ob-
liquely outside it, and crossing the sole of the foot, to be inserted two-
thirds of the way across into the under surface of the middle cuneiform
bone.

32. Peroneus brevis, . . . Bee aN CS Sta
Origin; from the whole outer side of ie ancl.

Insertion ; into the near end of the first phalanx of the outer toe.
33. Katensor brevis digiti medu,. . . . Sadie iy oe

Origin ; by a strong tendon from the nileaneue just below the ankle
joint, and by fascia from the whole breadth of the instep.
Insertion ; into the near end of the first phalanx of the middle toe.

od. Lnterosse: digits cxternt,) 6 ei ete ee ee AD
Bd. Lnterosse: dvgete-medtiy oe heal a ae et 2)
36: Interosses digit mierni |. (oon oe ee en Oe 4)

B.—Muscles of the Fore Limb.

Oz. Av.
1. Trapezius clavicularis (vel cervicohumeralis), . . . . . 385°0

Origin ; from the transverse process of the axis.
Insertion ; into the head of the humerus, in a transverse line, 24
inches long, from the great tuberosity.

2. Trapezius scapularis, . . wi 3 MUG Ea ae eer O
Origin ; from the spines of the loreal verebie

Insertion; into the end of the spine of the scapula.

3. Omo-atlanticus (vel brachio-atlanticus), . . . . . . 240

Origin; from the transverse process of the atlas.
Insertion ; into the front of the lower part of the humerus: is a long
round muscle.

021

Oz. Av.
SENMRRIN OT CUO rs ose ry es aL Hho MN Gye iy a ue eit A uiNiat Bin
Oz. Av.
a. Externus, vel levator es ig woris ee 7:0
b. Internus, mace erin :
8°5
5. Serratus magnus, . . seetioae waite acy word
Includes the levator angula ino pat
ePACEeCINAIOl aap a) ete a) ss ew ww FLO
PP SSUMTUS TOOTS). Merial) tule 6. ee ee es BLO
Has tendon in common with teres major.
8. Tricipiti accessorius, . .« - : i euiyelir ae "O

This muscle takes its origin can thie ‘abel sd fein a costal head
of the triceps, into the back of which it passes, behind the olecranon
process.

PE TUCCODUONIS MN oo. tot thas oie Meh a sha es et OC

10. Pectoralis minor? . . . Cea REE c cay set Q*()

Origin; from the sternum and Bred. six ibs.
Insertion; into the pectoral ridge, from the greater to the lesser
tuberosity of the humerus,

I: Pectoralis major? . . .. eH Saersene LOO

Origin; from the keel along fae dlidiior half of the sternum, and
from the ribs.

Insertion ; into the oblique line down the whole inner side of the
ulna.

12. Pectoralis avium ? (subclavius?). . . . 24:0

Origin ; from the first rib and side of the ae of ee

Insertion ; ; into the outer summit of the greater tuberosity, and
by fascia passing over the supraspinatus, into the scapule—d/evator
humerz.

18. Coraco-brachialis, . . . Se gee eee

Origin ; from the coracoid process cite the biceps.
Insertion ; into the inner and anterior side of the middle of the hume-
rus, by a flat insertion, three inches in length.

14. Deltoideus scapularis, . . . Bah Blech gies

Origin ; from nearly the whole tee of fe spine of the scapula.
Insertion ; into the outer side of the great tuberosity.

N. B.—The deltoideus clavicularis is merged in the cervico humeralss,

or trapezius clavicularis No. (2), which forms a part of the great delto-
trapezius.

522

Oz. Ay.
LO; SUPraspinatus, sai Ne oe NE te ate eee)
1G: Tnpraspinatiis, i en ee Nt ale ete wey a0)
U7. Biceps hument, 2) Vi eee sme ee DES

This muscle takes origin as usual; but it is Brite that the
tendon passing over the head of the humerus is much stronger than the
muscle itself requires. I do not know the reason of this singular cir-
cumstance.

Inserted, as usual, into the tubercle of the radius.

18. Brachi@us externus, . . oe aicuek saueneMeceau tL note)

Origin; arises from the ulate Neola: and part of the inside of
the head of the humerus, winding outwards round the shaft of the bone,
to be inserted in the radius by a flat prolonged tendon, below and to the
inside of the tubercle of the radius.

19: Zriceps hument,, 88 OAS i Oe ae Nene enna 24: ()

20. Flexor carpi radvalis? . . . ‘ Be sect enna TD

Origin; from the inner side of the inner aera of the humerus.

Insertion; by a long tendon passing in a groove at the inner side of
the wrist, then plunging deep into the palm, to be finally inserted, be-
low the short flexors, into the bases of the metacarpals of the inner and
middle fingers.

21. Palmaris longus,. . . Se Oe

Origin ; from the inner and tack side of ile elecuinee

Insertion ; into the common junction of the palmar tendons at the
bend of the wrist.

22. Flexor carpi ulnaris, . . . aie ~~ 40

Origin ; from the back of the inner vonldyle and oleetation

Insertion; into the carpal bone (piseforme), articulating with the
ulna.

N. B.—A ligament connects this bone with the sesamoid bone, into
which the extensor carpi ulnaris is inserted, so as to cause both muscles
to flew and abduct the outer side of the hand.

23. Mlexor Avg elon GOMMUNIS,. 7. )) a ee) ee ee)
The superficial and deep flexors unite in a common tendon at the
wrist, from which proceed three perforating and three perforate flexors.
At the same point of junction of tendons there are also found—
1. A tendinous ligament from the inner condyle, without any mus-
cular fibres attached ;
2. The tendon of a small muscle (24), which seems to be the flexor
pollicis longus.

24. Flexor pollicis longus? . . . LM ae a acca cle,
Origin; from the radius and ulna, and theese septum.

023
Oz Av.
25. Supinator radi longus?. . . eee were lo

Origin ; from the fascial covering of the ater condyle.
Insertion ; into the tendon of (26) at the wrist.

N. B.—This muscle acts chiefly as a tensor fascie, but is, no doubt,
the representative of the sup. rad. longus.

26. Hictensor carpi radials (Fig. 87,@), . . « . 2. . « BF

Fig 37.

Left Fore Arm.
Origin; from the outer condyle.
Insertion ; into the near end of the metacarpal of the middle finger.

N. B.—This muscle receives at the bend of the wrist the tendon of
the supinator longus.

27. Extensor digitorum longus (Fig.37,b), . . . 13°5
Inserted into the near end of the first phalanx of the peal ‘Ender.
Po earenson mnim, digits (Hig. 3%, ¢),-. . + .) s « 6:0

Origin; from the outer condyle, and from the tendinous expansion
of the interosseous septum from the outer condyle to the wrist.

Insertion ; into the outer side of the first phalanx of the outer finger,
with a tendinous slip to the metacarpal of the middle finger.

Penne SOT CODY WETS. «5 ke we LO

Origin; from the outer condyle.

Insertion ; into the sesamoid bone outside the base of the metacarpal
of the outer finger.

N. B.—I am almost certain that this muscle is the extensor ulnaris,
although, owing to the arrangément described in (22), itacts as a flewor.
The combined actions of the ulnar flexor and extensor would be to ab-
duct the little finger—an action which would be of great use to the
Rhinoceros when running on soft ground.

30. Hxtensor ossis metacarpi pollicis (Fig.387,¢), . . . . 45

Origin; from the anterior half of the radius and ulna, and from the
interosseous septum.

Insertion; its tendon crosses the back of the wrist, binding down
the tendons of the radial extensor, and is inserted into the outer side of
the near end of the metacarpal of the inner finger.

D24

Oz. Av.
The following muscles are found in the palm :—
31. Short flexors'of the outer finger, =. «2°... Se 8D
Oz. Av.
(RS A OP MES ON ee Se SP,
b, ¢ ° e e ° e s ° 3°0
OO

a. Origin; from the ligament already described (22) joining the pi-
siform and sesamoid of outer finger, from one carpal bone, and
from the inner side of the shaft of the metacarpal of the outer
finger.

Inserted into the base of the first phalanx of the outer finger.

6. Consists of two muscles, arising from the inner half of the meta-
carpal of the outer finger, and from the carpal bone of the
middle finger, and inserted into the inner side of the first pha-
lanx of the outer finger.

32. Short flexors of the inner finger, . « ie 5°0
These are two in number, and similar to those of the outer flgor
33. Short flexors of the mddle finger, . . . . .. . .~ 20

These are two in number.

The Rev. Samvrn Haveuton, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Norzs on Antmat MecHANICS.

XVII.—On THE CoMPARATIVE Myotocy oF CERTAIN BIrDs.

Iw order to compare the muscles of different classes of birds, I dissected
two Tiercel Peregrines, a Falcon Peregrine, a Cara Cara Hawk, a De-
moiselle Crane, and a Canadian Goose.

The Cara Cara Hawk (Polybarus, or Falco Braziliensis) presents a
most striking resemblance to the Peregrine Hawk, and, judging from
his muscular anatomy, must be regarded as a Hawk, and nota Vulture.

A.—WMuscles of the Leg.

TIERCEL. FALCON. CARA. CRANE. GOoosE.
f Oz. Oz. Oz. Ze
1: Sartorius,e) 37005 OEP ONS Ae 80a 7 Oa ie Oy

2: Adductores Pow 35 OF0A 5. 40705) 22520 ° 09. eee Or ea oe 0

* The Sartorius takes its origin from the anterior curved edge of the ilium, and is inserted by a
broad tendon into the side of the knee joint and tibia.
A b In the Peregrine and Cara there was only one adductor; in the Crane and Goose there were
WO, Viz.—

CRANE. GoOosE

Oz. is

Adductor magnus, . . O12 . . 0°23
Adductor longus,. . . 0°06 . . 0°17

229

TIERCEL. Vatcon. CARA. CRANE. Goose.
— OZ. Oz. OZ," 4 Oz. Oz.
mo@nmrnarorerternus, 0°03) -. 3. 0703,..... 0:04 2. . 0704 2... 0°12
Ghwerintermus cc.,0202 =. O7025 2 008-2. 2 0°02 2.
mGubernator caude,®.’O"02*. .. 0°02. 2. 0°02... 53. = :
eres marimus.©. 0-01. 2 O501 2.) O01. 2. 0709. 4.6 L007
mGmecusmnearms. . 0.040 fa) 8 004) 6 O10. OT ss 078

a) ed SOs = 0-08 2 +. 9-04 0-78

ee ae \s Gomer 2) Ors ©, 00h G2. 2 oe o-50
Jemoris,
ielaceusvemors.§ .- 0°08.) .. O08.) + O10. 50 O16 3.) 0°72
DEeeseamuecnorazosus’ (0°02. =. 0:02... OF005.% 2° 0:09 2. O17
Pemieniimosis. 2 0703 . .. O08. . O05 1°. 0°07. 20°07
Deerectia nee oe ot O04 OOS. O08 ete ce OD
14. Rectus femoris!) . — = ==
15. Vastus externus 0:13
et Vastus inter- Oliaaet sees! Qi Pl ree ik 0-03i° * OF 30K ay O85

OO ~I SD cr HP 9

bag

RUS,
CRANE. CARA
Oz. Oz. _
16. Gastrocnemido-soleus, . . . 0°31 . . 0°18
a.Outer head, . . 0°09 (Four heads).

QB. Middle head,. . 0°06
y. Inner head, . . 0°16

Me IONEAPI Sante tent ari es Aue ee OTOL ees | of
18. Tibtalis anticus,. . » . . ° — Sheers Oa

© This muscle is quite distinct from the agitator caude, and lies in a plane below it. In the Falcon
and Cara it takes origin from the transverse process of the large terminal caudal vertebra (plough-
share), and is inserted into the second fifth from the top of the linea aspera by means of a flat tendon;
in the Goose it is inserted into the middle of the lower part of the gluteus medius ; and in the Duck
into the outer head of the fibula.

4 The giutcus maximus in the Falcon and Cara takes its origin from the edge of the ilium, in a
plane below that of the zen. vag. fem., for one-fourth of an inch in front of the acetabulum, and has
the usual insertion ; in the Crane its origin is from the post-acetabular edge of the ilium, and it is in-
serted by a broad tendon into the middle of the vastus exiernus and fascia of the outer side of the
thigh; and in the Goose it is inserted into the fascia of the inner side of the knee.

© The gl. medius has the usual insertion in the Falcon, Cara, and Crane; butin the Goose and Duck
it isinserted into the middle of the linea aspera.

f Quite separate in the Crane; gl. min. = 0°01, gl. quartus = 0°03.

§ This small muscle, in conjunction with the savtorius, in most birds serves instead of a rectus fe-
moris.

h The biceps femoris in the Falcon, Cara, and Crane, passes through the usual tendinous pulley at
the outer side of the lower end of the femur, and outer head of the gastrocnemius ; in the Goose and
Duck itis inserted inte the tibia, at the inner side of the knee.

i These muscles in the Falcon and Cara are inserted by flat tendons into the tibia; and in the
Crane they are also inserted into the upper tendinous portion of the inner head of the gastrocnemius.

k This muscle, in the Falcon and Cara, takes origin from three-fourths of the length of the pubis
behind the acetabular prominence of that bone.

1 There is a rectus femoris in the Falcon and Cara, arising from the ilium, in front of the acetabular
prominence of the pubis; itis a fine delicate muscle, weighing 0-01 oz. in the Cara, and its tendon
passes obliquely across the front of the knee joint from within outwards, and, winding down into the
calf, forms one head of the jirst perforate flexor of the second toe, the muscular portion of which is con-
nected by muscular slips with the jirst perforate flexors of the third and fourth toes, and with the second
perforate flexor of the third toe. The weight of the jirst perforate fiexor of the second or index toe
in the Cara, was 0°02.

This muscle is thus described by Cuvier :—

“Tly a dans le lieu qu’occupe le pectineux des quadrupedes, un petit muscle gréle, quise prolonge
jusqwau genou. Son tendon passe obliquement pardessus, et se glisse derriere la jambe pour s’unir¢
au fléchisseur perforé du second et du cinquiéme doigt.’’*

Professor Owent regards this muscle as the gracilis ; while he considers as rectus femoris the
muscle already described as tensor vagine femoris.

* “ Lecons d@’Anatomie comparée,” tom. i., p. 359.
+ ‘* Cyclopedia of Anatomy,” vol. i., p. 296.

Bel a PROC VOL, 1x, 32

526
B.—Museles of the Wing.

TIERCEL. FALCON. CARA. CRANE.
Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz.
ds Serraius magnus, «... < 93°82 | On 0Eos.. DUGG a. Seo tee
2: Tehombotdeusy soe ea te ey OOD SC. 3 OOS Ee Oe ieee
oe Teres majorgue se. etek O° OF cia. OF O02 Bir ORO Arise ane oe
47 Jsalissimus dorsi, se aise OC Oar oie 080s 5) Oe Ae sisi a=
5. Subscapularis, ~~ os ee O04. 05042 Oe
6, Pectoralis minor, 2a 0705s. 07.0562 and) 0 OA 0 S06
io PectOrales Major se eee 0°73 O° 76-4 7. 4416s eee 00
8. Pectoralis secundus avium, , 0°038205. (OI pha CesT
9. Wingfolder (extensor plice \ , 0°03 0°04 0°04
Uilanis) 53. Wet s Mies. ey ; Baw ac:
10. Garorcbrachadia 5 ek eA Se 0°0Ss) 025. O0Sizt ec. = 0202 _
11. Deltoideus internus (clavi- 4 6 0°09 = 2.009 2 0 oe
cularis), . -
12. Deitoideus UE UE (scapularis), q0°09¢ :ee. OOS Sac Dea
13. Supra et infra spinatus, . > 0°09) ~.- 2, O07. /. SO 10a. oe
14. Bicepshumerty. se sras 1 00D! O04. - oo OCbree ——
Lb) Driceps RUNG. «es eg On Ad 0°14 2 2 SORT eae, kt

The Rev. Samuet Haventon, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, read the following paper :—

Notes on AntwAat MEcHANICS.
XVIILI.—On tHE CompaRATIVE Myonocy oF CERTAIN RUMINANTS.

In the following comparisons of the muscles of Ruminants I have made
the Indian Goat the standard; the other animals examined being the
Virginian Deer, the Nylghau, and Napu Deer of Java.

A.—WMuscles of the Hind Limb.

Goat. DEER Naru
Oz. Oz. Oz

l Sactorius,2 eae eee ee A 1 oe 0°13
2; Tensor vag. femoris, . . O°42 >. 5 4°25) ©

3.) Psoagmanynusy oa sr a 3 OF ON. en 0s eee

4. Iliacus, 0:26 27508 cts cise

[ Psoas parvus], . ; 0°15 LAT 0-04

Dad COMMEUS, x Hee ey cy ee 2 Loe 0°03

™ The feres major arises from the spinous processes of the lower dorsal vertebre, and crosses the
lower extremity of the scapula, to be inserted by a flat tendon into its usual place in the humerus.

2 A slip from the upper edge of this muscle joins the wingfolder (extensor plice alaris Carus).

° This muscle takes its origin from the acromion, and is inserted into the wrist, acting directly as
a folder of the wing.

P Arises from the tip of the acromion, and is inserted into the top of the humerus, inside the pec-
toral ridge.

9 Origin, from the portion of the scapula adjoining the acromion; insertion into the outer side of
the pectoral ridge of the humerus ; rotates the arm powerfully outwards,

® Arise from the lower two-thirds of the outer side of the scapula.

-2 The sartorius in the Goat has a double origin—

a. From the anterior edge of the pubis, close to the acetabulum.
6. From the anterior superior crest of the ilium, by fascia.

GipAdauctorirevis.. 2 cs: OC4d ok ee OOD

CE OF. LORE. oF eh Ee) Ohi Sikora I LD

8. Adductor magnus, p s i

9. Semimembranosus, \ Bee tO a 2800... 0766
OU NSCMmIenOnOSUS. i. cee O40. 2° 9°25 2. 0°18
WA OULTALOT CIVETNUS. 5, OAS 1, ee
A ter. atus FOMOTIS ieee WIAD O08
tS. Obturator internus, &c.,© ° O°17 .. «208s ee a
14. Gluteus maximus, i : :
15. Biceps femoris, . . \ BaP ere ase nd vied 0nd
omGluteus medins$ rte i PEN be se 10°00). a. 0519
tieGinicusmmumus. . , Or50 5) 5. 1°75)... 0°06
18. Gluteus quarts Sie eOr2o a DOOR. Noss O04
MO GRACHIS ek ie Rs es) O40 6 sy ADO... 0°08
POeCCUSIEMOTIS.. oh. teue Lolo. ¢ . 10°50... 2. =
21. Vastus externus (a), . . 0°85
22. Vastus externus(b), . . 0°28 : :
Zao astEs internus.(2),../.. 0°36) 4. 2. 4°25...
24. Vastus internus(b), . . 0°29 :
PV MOLURCUS, Cis a cic a ey TO

Leg of Goat.

Oz. Oz.
26. Gastrocnemido-soleus, . . . 0°92 | 31. Tibialis anticus,i . . . . . 0°22
27. Plantaris,s. ..... =.=. O:'06 | 32. Extensor digitorum communis,i 0°09
AS PLOPULCUS, 5. Geese Oma na a CrONCUS LONGUS: «rt ive sey.) 0 04

29. Flexor digitorum longus, ie) Ope ON ae ker OneUs Drevis. 2.) 3) ts a. 10°08
30. Flexor hallucis longus,» . . . 0°04

B.—WMuseles of the Fore Limb in the Goat.
Oz. Av.

OR CZIISSCHDUIOTIS, 6 ale ee ek se OBS
Origin; from the cervical vertebre (4-7); and from the dorsal

(1-4).

Insertion; into the spine of the scapula; separable with difficulty
from the next.

b These muscles are combined in their muscular portion into one fleshy mass in the Goat, Deer,
Nylghau, and little Napu; but retain their characteristic insertions into the whole length of the back
of the femur, and into the top of the tibia and fascia of knee joint,

© The anterior border of the gemelli joins the posterior border of the iiocapsularis.

a The gl. max. and biceps fem. form one muscle, having the double origin. In the Goat the inser-
tion is into the fascia of the thigh below the tr ochanter, and one-third down the outer side of the leg;
in the Deer and Nylghau the portion with gluteal origin has bicipital insertion, and the portion with
bicipital origin is inserted into the fascia of the inner side of the knee; inthe N apu the origin of these
muscles is covered by the sacral fascia, which, with the lumbar, is ‘converted partially into a bony
covering; the insertion is into the fascia of the knee joint, and down the whole outer side of the We
as far as the 0s calcis.

€ The gi. min. and gi. quartus form one muscle in the Nylghau.

f Inserted with the semitendinosus into the upper third of the leg.

§ The plantaris is represented by a muscular slip from the back of the top of fibula.

h This little muscle takes its origin from the tibia, just below the poplitceus, and is inserted at half
an inch below the heel into the tendon of the common flexor.

i The tibialis anticus arises from the anterior curved surface of the tibia, and by a round tendon,
common to it with the extensor digitorum longus, from the anterior surface of the outer condyle, in-

side the knee joint.

928

Oz. Ay.

2. Trapezius (clavicularis), (Humeromastordeus), . . . . O77

Origin ; from the mastoid process and fascia covering the second
vertebra.

Insertion; into the fascia of No. 1, covering the anterior portion of
the spine of the scapula, passing downwards (as external deltoid) into
the fascia covering the beceps, and finally inserted by common tendon
with biceps into the forearm.

o. Hhombovdeus,.. .\ 4. s : eae Ge Oro
Including an accessory slip from ac fear cevetcal:
4, Servatus Magnus, 65 a is Od ee oe ees

5) Leres major dh hey Eis at eee nt oe ae Oe

6. Latissemis dorsi iS Ss age dee Aes

There is also a latissimus dorst superficialis, part of the panniculus
carnosus, which extends from the border of the true lat. dorsi et pecto-
ralis major, partly covering both these muscles, and is inserted into the
fascia of the back of the humerus, both on the inner and on the outer
side, and into the elbow joint.

Ls SUOSCAMUNONIS, i ic rae 8 ice ce tat ae has ee
8) Pectoralis: Mmotyi sce 0 dt We aoe Gost a ee ee OE
9. Pectoralis major, . . . oe ee OOL

Inserted into the fascia binding oon the hens baal into the near end
of the ulna.

10.-Coracobrachialise —. 3% se eo en Os

11, Deltovdeusiorternusyc Seve, Ws is en ee ee On ke
Lies under the humeromastoid.

12. SUpraspinatus eee a en ne ae aol oe generate

13. Lnfraspinatus, 0 6) 6 Be ae VIN) a hy eee elie

14> eres WiNOry eae ; oo he at O09

Arises from the middle of fhe. awe? ponder of ihe canal and is in-
serted into the fascia covering the outer head of the triceps.

15. Infraspinatus secundus, . . . si Demet cangiat oa 8 Orde

This muscle is analogous to the Thoin ini of the hind limb,
found in the Kangaroo.

Origin; from the anterior third of the lower border of the scapula.

Insertion ; into the greater tuberosity of the humerus, below the
tendon of the infraspinatus, to which it seems related, as the eiocapsu-
larts (gl. quartus) is to the gl. minimus.

529
Oz. Av.
16. Biceps humert, . . ee iO Oe

Inserted partly into the ene of the one of ‘Ne forearm, to which
it gives a direct lift, and partly by a tendon winding in a groove round
it, being inserted into its inner and under surface.

17. Brachieus (externus), ee Vaaik 2ea-fies : ies Aaah OEOG

Its tendon crosses the iendea of biceps, Aee is wetted on the inner
and under side of the bone of the forearm, below the insertion of the
biceps.

TICE oh eee ee ee hia es LOS
Has a fourth head, from latissimus die

PAN ate Gh aor i MEE oY eo glo ge ee). OFE6
SMEAR COR DIMINGIIUS, 1s 23h lie OS. ea ew OTT

Inserted into the near end of cannon bone by a common tendon with
extensor carpr ulnaris.

OMEMEC OT (CON PIMMGDUUMIS)) oon 5 ooo on oe fs we O07

Origin ; from the inner condyle.

Inserted into the near and inner end of the cannon bone by a tendon
passing through a groove in the wrist, inside that of the flexor pro-
fundus.

Peeniexor digitorum sublamis, ~ 1 Oe A) ODD

Zaryeror Cigilorumn Profundus, = =. ww) kw es O48

24, Supinator radu longus, . . . LephaL Nee TOsOe

Inserted into the back of near end ae cannon one.

- 25. Extensor carpi radialis, . . . 0:05

Distributed to the back of ungual rivalaae of ne suet ee ma by
fascia to the inner toe.

ion Manensor olgitorum communis, . . s . ». « » ~ 0:09
Distributed equally to both toes.
PE LCCN SON, CORPUUNARIS, ee ne ak 0888

This important muscle, as in the Rhinoceros, actually flexes the
wrist, though it represents the uinar extensor; it 1s inserted by two
tendons (of which one is common to the flexor carpi ulnaris) into the
near end and inner side of the cannon bone. It takes its origin by a
round tendon from the front of the outer condyle, inside the elbow joint,
like the tebialis anticus and extensor digitorum pedis.

28. Hatensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, . . . . « « « « 0:08

Arises from the ulna and interosseous membrane; and is inserted prin-
cipally into the back of the phalanx of the inner toe.

930

The following donations were then presented :—

A collection of sixteen Original Views of the principal Buildings in
Dublin, by the late George Petrie, LL. D.: presented by the Marquis
of Kildare.

A perfect and beautifully formed Celt, of micaceous grit, found in a
bog near Hacketstown, county of Carlow: presented by the Hon. and
Ven. Archdeacon Stopford.

The Secretary read a letter from C. Darwin, Esq., returning thanks
for his election as Honorary Member of the Academy.

MONDAY, MAY 14, 1866.
Sir Wituiam R. W. Wixpez, M.D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

John Barrington, Esq., D.L.; John Casey, Esq.; and William
Frazer, Esq., were elected Members of the Royal Irish Academy.

The Rev. J. H. Jeniert read a paper

On a FLurp possessing Oppositrn Rotatory Powers FoR RAYS AT
Opposite ENDS OF THE SPECTRUM.

He commenced by alluding to the construction of an instrument which
he had exhibited and described to the Academy some time ago.* The
purpose of this instrument is to measure the rotatory power of a trans-
parent fiuid, not directly, but by the method of compensation. For this
purpose the ray of polarized light, before} its passage through the
fluid under examination, is transmitted through a fluid of an oppo-
site rotatory power; and the construction of the instrument provides a
method of varying and measuring with exactness the length of the
column of this latter fluid through which the ray passes. The
fluids used for this purpose were, in general, the two well-known
species of oil of turpentine—namely, that which is obtained from
the Pinus maritima of the South of France, and that which is obtained
from the Pinus Australis of North Carolina. The former of these, being
a left-handed substance, is used in the examination of fuids which,
like the solution of cane sugar, are right-handed ; and the latter, being
right-handed, for those substances which, like the solution of quinine,
and the great majority of fluids possessing the rotatory power,| are left-
handed.

A means is thus obtained of comparing the rotatory powers of
all fluids for which the rotation is in the same direction ; but, in order
to compare those whose rotatory powers are opposite, it became neces-
sary, in the first place, to ascertain the relative rotatory powers of the

* “ Proceedings,’”’ vol. viii., p. 279.

+ The order of transmission is indifferent, but the construction of the instrument re-
quires that the light should pass first through the compensating fluid.

t So far at least as the author has examined them.

ool

two standard fluids. This was, of course, to be done by compensating
with one of these fluids the effect produced by the other. When
this is done, it is plain that the length of the columns of the two fiuids
through which the light passes will be inversely pr oportional to their
rotatory powers. The author did not anticipate any difficulty in effect-
ing this compensation; for, inasmuch as the two species of oil of tur-
pentine, chemically identical in their composition, differ very slightly
in their refractive and dispersive powers, the law assumed by Biot
would lead us to expect that the rotations produced in the planes of
polarization of any two homogeneous rays should be in nearly the
same ratio in each of these fluids. If this were true, the ratio of the
lengths of equivalent columns of these fluids should be nearly the same
for all the rays of which white light 1s composed; and therefore, when
these columns are so proportioned that the entensities of the light in the
two images* are the same, the tints will also be the same, so that there
should be no difficulty in making the experiment.

The actual result, however, was wholly different from that which
the law of Biot had thus led the author to anticipate. So far from giv-
ing a tolerably perfect compensation, the two species of oil of turpen-
tine compensate each other more zmperfectly than any two substances
which the author has examined—in fact, it is scarcely possible to make
the experiment at all. When the lengths of the columns of fluid are so
adjusted that the intensity of the light shall be the same in the two
images,t the tints are found to be wholly different. The left-hand
image shows a very brilliant sky-blue, and the right-hand image an
equally brilliant rose colour; the beauty of these colours is very re-
markable. There is, therefore, plainly a deficiency of red ight in the
left-hand image, and a deficiency of blue light in the right-hand
image.

In seeking to interpret this appearance, it is to be remarked that
when the light passes through a single fluid whose rotatory power is
not very great, left-handed rotation is indicated by the darkening of the
left-hand image, and right-handed rotation by a similar effect produced
in the right-hand image. Assuming, then, that, in the compound effect
produced by transmission through the two columns, the rotation is
compensated, or in other words reduced to zero for the mean ray, it is
plain that this effect will be left-handed rotation for the red ray, and
right-handed rotation for the ray at the other extremity of the spectrum.
It is evident, therefore, that the right-handed or Carolina turpentine
rotates the plane of polarization of the red ray /ess, and that of the blue
ray more than the left-handed or Bourdeaux turpentine. The Carolina

* “ Proceedings,” vol. vii, p. 349.

+ So far at least as this can be effected; but the truth is, that it is almost impos-
sible to compare with any tolerable degree of accuracy the intensities of light whose
colours are so different. Even readings taken by the same observer will not agree with
each other, and the personal equation will obviously be very large.

Do2

turpentine is, therefore, more dispersive of the planes of polarization
than the other.

In reasoning on this experiment it occurred to the author that a
similar effect ought to be produced if the ray of polarized light, instead
of passing successively through two columns of French and American
oil of turpentine, were transmitted through a single column, composed
of a mixture of these two fluids. As they are identical in chemical com-
position, it did not seem probable that any chemical action could take
place; and therefore, in accordance with the principle found to hold
good for mixtures in general, the effect of two columns of fluid, when
mixed together, ought to be the sum of the effects which they produce
separately. If, therefore, the lengths of the two columns be such that
they compensate each other for the mean ray, the fluid produced by
mixing them together ought to exercise a left-handed rotation on the
plane of polarization of the red ray, and an opposite effect upon that of
the blue ray.

This anticipation was fully realized by the actual experiment. Some
difficulty was found in ascertaining experimentally the exact proportion
in which the fluids should be mixed together. The source of this dif-
ficulty is, as has been before stated, the impossibility of comparing with
exactness the intensities of lights whose colours are different, and
therefore of ascertaining the ratio of the lengths of two columns which
compensate each other for the mean ray; and a small deviation from the
true proportion will render the rotation produced by the mixture either
wholly right-handed, or wholly left-handed. :

The best method of ascertaining this proportion is to measure suc-
eessively the actual rotations produced by each kind of oil of turpentine
in the planes of polarization of the red and blue rays. Let F', be the
rotation produced in the plane of polarization of the red ray by the
column of Bourdeaux turpentine; /, that produced in the plane of po-
larization of the blue ray, and 4,, A,, the corresponding rotations pro-
duced by American turpentine; then, if m be the quantity of French
turpentine in the mixture, and n the quantity of American turpentine,
the mixture will be right-handed for the red ray (and therefore @ for-
tior¢ for all the rest), if

on the other hand the mixture will be left-handed for the blue ray,
and therefore for all the less refrangible rays, if

and if the value of ~ be intermediate to these two values, the fluid is pos-
i

sessed of double rotation. The phenomenon is rendered most striking by

giving to the two fluids in the mixture such a proportion that the left-

SS
Pa oe z

o393

handed and right-handed rotations may be equal to each other. If this
be so, we shall have -

mE,—-nA,=nA, - mi;
whence
Mm Ay, + A,

th Be Ht

In order to measure exactly the quantities A,, A,, F,, /, it was
necessary in the first place to obtain rays as nearly homogeneous as pos-
sible. This was easily effected in the case of the red ray by transmitting
a solar beam successively through blue and red glasses—this combina-
tion, as is well known, only permitting the extreme red ray to pass. It is
not possible to obtain so homogeneous a ray at the other extremity of the
spectrum ; but the condition is very approximately fulfilled by trans-
mitting the ray through a solution of sulphate of copper supersaturated
vith ammonia. The light transmitted by a sufficient thickness of this
fluid, though not homogeneous, is almost entirely composed of rays si-
tuated at the violet end of the spectrum, the red, orange, and yellow rays
being nearly extinguished.

The following were the values obtained for a column of each fluid
whose length was four inches :—

A,= 6° 58,
a oon OU k
F. =19° 45’,
F, = 61° 230
Hence we find
ae gar
n

When a mixture made nearly in this proportion was traversed succes-
sively by solar light which had passed through a combination of red and
blue glass, and by light which had passed through a sufficient thickness
of the ammontiacal solution of sulphate of copper, the effect was very
striking. With blue light, the Jef¢ side of the spectrum was almost quite
black, while the right side was a bright violet-blue; with red light,
the right side of the spectrum is nearly black, and the left side a bright
red. This appearance indicates that the fluid, through which the light
has been transmitted, is left-handed for the red ray, and right-handed
for the blue and violet. The actual rotations are—

Mor redvlight, (27k = 19K 5),
Kor blueheht i. vo + 1° 66 5

the mixture containing 67 parts of American turpentine, and 33 of
French turpentine. The ratio in which the two species of oil of tur-
R. I. A. PROC.—VOL, IX. 4a ‘

534

pentine should be mixed, in order to produce this phenomenon, must be
understood to apply only to the particular specimens examined; for
the rotatory power of oil of turpentine will be found to vary with
the specimen used, and also to some extent with the number of distil-
lations to which it has been subjected. ‘To insure success, this ratio
must be determined by actual measurement for the specimens of oil of
turpentine examined. A certain amount of difficulty attends this mea-
surement, arising from the impossibility of obtaining a homogeneous
blue or violet ray of sufficient intensity for the purpose of the experi-
ment. Hven when transmitted through a strong solution of sulphate
of copper supersaturated with ammonia, the beam will still contain
a considerable mixture of rays of different refrangibilities. The ro-
tations A,, /,, cannot therefore be measured with perfect accuracy.
It is possible, also, that, if the specimens of turpentine be not very
pure, there may be some chemical action between the two fluids
which will cause the rotation to vary. There may thus be a certain
amount of discrepancy between the observed and calculated results in
the case of the mixture. Thus in the present case the calculated rota-
tions are—
For red light, -.>. -. = gaa
For blue light; /.\. .-) 50.4 4 2eae*.

Sir W. R. W. Wize read the following unpublished Letter, written
by Lord Meath, July 14, 1690, respecting the Battle of the Boyne, and
addressed to an ancestor of Sir George Hodson, Bart., of Hellybrock,
Bray, who had kindly permitted him to submit it to the Academy :—

Dublin, Thos Court, July y? 5% (90).
<¢ MapaAM,

‘Yesterday morning I entered this Tonn*; after our
army & King James had a smart battle for 4 or 5 hours on this side ye
Boyn® boath our whole armies being verey warmly engaged; it hap-
pened ye first of July about 11: in y° morning where King William
forced y® passe on y° river Boyne called Old bridge 3 miles from Dro-
heda (in person) under y* en°mys Great gonnes mercey and ours; with
small shott Like showers of Leden hale stones; King Wilham yewing
y° enemys Campe y° day before y° engagement was shott with an 8
pounder which tooke of his coat of his shoulders, and just drew blood from
his skinn; he called for a napkin and an other coat; and after y* was
settled upon him he stretched out his arme 3 times and sayd without
y° least passhion ; The en°my designed to prevent his fighting next day ;
But sertanly Ill be to-morrow amongst y° thickest of them. He was
just to his word; for y* next day he fought through y° passe and with
losse on boath sides he tooke y° Battery of y° enemyes great gonnes and
killed all y® small shott men y‘ endeavored to( ? ) it; soone after
he charged y* enemy in y° Reare broke there first lines, and our other
line being in y° front of theres; wee drew up to Inclose y° enemy’s
whole army; but a damned (?) deepe bog being betweene we could not

535

soone passe it which gave y™ time to run for it and y° night drawing
neere wee did not persue till next morning ; and then it was too late; but
well enough; for y° fled to Dublin and made short stay there; for King
James, Terconnell Kc‘ flew through the county of Wickloe in order as I
suppose to take shipping at the y° first port where they can find vessells
to transport them; we killed beside prisoners betweene 6 & 7 thou-
sand, most of there best officers lay ded and gasping upon y° ground;
wee lost Duke Shonberg killed in y° neck with a muskett ball & somme
few officers & soldiers inconsiderable for sutch an engagement; the
enemy is so disperced and threw away their armes & run westward y‘
there is no danger of there ever Ralling againe, so y* you may be pleased
with the event of a few howers fighting which brings you all home to
y* safe interests & propertys, which I desier may bee for my owne sake
as well as yours as soone as you can; mygservise to y° family of Hobs &
Nobs; and y* Salley stakes are once againe freely at y" servise, who
am,
‘“* Madam
«Y* one hum?” Servant
‘Muar.

«Pray let Matt Anderson & all our friends partake of this thuth
we tooke Lieut’ Gen” Hamilton prisoner who I believe will soone be
executed. J am sent for to y° Campe neere Glasscneivn and can add
no more particulars att present.”’

The thanks of the Academy were returned to.Sir George Hodson,
Bart., for his permission to exhibit and publish the abovementioned
letter.

J. Kells Ingram, LL. D., read a paper, by the Rev. James Byrne,
‘On the Science of Language.”

The Secretary of the Academy informed the meeting that Sir Richard
O’ Donnell, Bart., was in waiting, and desired that the Caah of Columb-
kille should be now delivered to him on his personal demand.

It was moved, seconded, and—

ResotveD,—That Sir Richard O'Donnell be requested to present
himself.

Sir Richard O’ Donnell then entered the meeting, and signified his
wish that the Caah should be forthwith returned to him, agreeably to
the conditions upon which he had deposited this reliquary, and its cus-
tody had been accepted by the Academy.

The Caah was thereupon produced, and returned by the Chairman
into the hands of Sir Richard O’ Donnell.

It was then moved, seconded, and—

Rusorvep,—That the hearty thanks of the Academy are due, and
are hereby offered to Sir Richard O’ Donnell, Bart., for his kindness and
consideration in having for so many years allowed this venerable and
historic reliquary to remain in their Museum.

936

Sir Richard O’ Donnell then came forward, and placed the Caah in
the hands of the Chairman, stating that it was his pleasure to recommit
it to the keeping of the Academy as heretofore.

It was moved, seconded, and—

Resoitvep,—That the fresh thanks of the Academy are due, and are
hereby returned to Sir Richard O’ Donnell for the renewal of his kind-
ness in depositing the Caah in the Academy’s Museum; and that a
formal acknowledgment be made to him of the trust.

The following acknowledgment was then ordered :—

‘‘ Sir Richard O’ Donnell, Bart., has this day deposited in the Museum
of the Royal Irish Academy that ancient Irish reliquary, and its con-
tained manuscript, called ‘The Caah of Columbkille,’ with the under-
standing that the Academy will take the same care of the said reliquary
and its manuscript that they do of the best article in their Museum ;
and that the Academy will at any time return the said reliquary and
its manuscript to the said Sir Richard O’ Donnell on his demand, and
without any delay, charge, or hindrance whatever.

‘‘ And this deposit on the conditions named was approved and accepted
by the Academy, at a General Meeting, held in their house, on the same
14th day of May, 1866.”

And it was ordered that this acknowledgment, signed by the Chair-
man, Treasurer, and Secretary, be delivered to the depositor.

The Academy then adjourned.

_ MONDAY, MAY 28, 1866.

Wittram H. Harpinen, Esq., in the Chair.
Mr. Dents Crorton read the following paper :—

On Vestices or Ancient Human Hasitation 1n Pootr’s Cavern,
DERBYSHIRE.

Pootr’s Cavern 1s an enormous natural excavation in the Carboniferous
Limestone of Derbyshire, running for several hundred yards under a
hill, about half a mile from Buxton. It is said to derive its appellation
from an outlaw named Poole, who is traditionally reported to have
made it his place of refuge in the reign of Henry VI. The entrance is
very small, and for some distance a man of ordinary height must go
into it in a stooping posture. The cave then enlarges, and expands
into a capacious passage, with numerous stalactites depending from the
roof. It bears marks of having been subjected to the action of water
at some former period, there being for a considerable part of the length,
on top of the limestone floor, a layer of gravel, about three or four feet
deep, covered over by one of brown clay, having a somewhat greater
thickness. At the distance of perhaps thirty or forty yards from the
mouth of the cavern the widening of the passage suddenly increases on

O37

the right hand from the entrance, and leaves a sort of semicircular
recess, in which were exhumed the remains upon which I found the
opinion that the cave must originally have been the dwelling place of
an ancient race of men. These relics were found under the following
circumstances :-—

In the month of August last, the proprietor, having determined upon
making explorations for the purpose of finding out what might be
hidden from superficial view, set men to break up the surface, at the
distance of a few feet.from the side of the cavern, in the before-mentioned
recess. As this operation was at the top of both the gravel and clay,
it was at the height of some seven or eight feet above the natural floor
of the cave. Nearly at the surface, and only slightly covered over, the
workmen came upon a layer of stalagmite, of varying thickness, but
averaging about three quarters of an inch. After this had been broken
through, there came a layer of the brown clay, about ten inches or a
foot deep. Below this was another layer of stalagmite, thinner than the
upper one, and averaging perhaps an eighth to half an inch thick.
When this in its turn had been broken up, there came again about ten
inches or a foot more of the brown clay, and then a quantity of bones
compacted within a small space, and mingled with fragments of broken
pottery, and charcoal, but without flint implements. I was not myself
present during the excavation, but upon hearing of it went into the
cavern, and made a personal examination of the place, when I found
no reason to doubt of the facts having been as described. I also disin-
terred im situ, with my own hands, some pieces of bone which had
escaped the first explorers, and brought away some of the charcoal. I
further procured a selection of the first found bones, and pieces of
pottery. All of these, as well as specimens of the two overlying layers
of stalagmite, you may now see before you. One of the pieces of pot-
tery discovered had a sort of rhombic ornamentation figured on what
had been the outside of the vessel. The bones are all of animals such
as would be used for human food, and there are none human, of carni-
vora, or extinct species; they comprise remains of the cow, goat, and
pig tribes; I am not yet, at least, aware of the existence of any other.
There is not, so far as 1 know, a trace ofany of them having been split
up for the purpose of extracting the marrow. Upon one bone—an
astragalus—an adherent layer of stalagmite has formed.

Tt is a matter of importance to find out what evidence the organic
remains give upon the subject of their own antiquity, and whether
this be in any degree confirmatory of what might be surmised from the
circumstances under which they were found. The outsides of the
bones are to a certain extent decayed and discoloured; and some are
light, whilst others are comparatively heavy, which might lead to a
suspicion that the latter had been infiltrated with some weighty sub-
stance. There are but two such at all likely to cause the phenomenon
in question under the circumstances; namely, iron, and carbonate of
lime. Accordingly, some portions of the bones which appeared to be
heavy have been boiled in hydrochloric acid, and treated with ferro-

538

cyanide of potassium, as a test for the existence of the former; and these
in the reaction yielded a distinctly blue colour, thus showing evident
traces of iron. A fresh beef bone subjected to the same process, for
the purpose of comparison, only gave an extremely light tinge of blue.
It was thus clear that the cavern bones contained more iron than one
perfectly recent does. The question then arose as to whether the infil-
tration were only superficial, or permeating the substance. This was
solved by sawing some of the heavier bones across. During the opera-
tion they gave out a strong organic smell; and the sections showed
plainly that a large amount of the original organic matter was retained,
whilst any decay of gelatine had been chiefly from the outsides, more

. spongy parts, and fractured surfaces. This also proved that the bones

had remained unsaturated with carbonate of lime, or other foreign
mineral matter. We must therefore conclude that the iron impregnation
was only superficial, derived from the enveloping ferruginous clay, and
that the difference in comparative weight must be referred mainly to
the greater or less loss of gelatine. Upon the whole, these bones must
rather be referred to the class ‘‘recent,’”’ than that of ‘‘subfossil.”’

The existence of the charcoal and pottery along with the remains
leads us to the conclusion that the place in which they were found was
used for cooking by the ancient Troglodytes—that the charcoal survived
from their fires, and the pottery from their rude culinary utensils. Upon
taking a general view of the facts, I am inclined to consider the deposit
in the light of what the Danish antiquaries have designated as a
“‘ Kjokkenmodding,” or ‘‘ Kitchen dung”’ heap.

As to the antiquity of the bones it is very hard to give a conjecture ;
and opinions on these matters, where there is little proof, should always
be formed with great caution, and put forward with diffidence. There
is, however, one thing which may possibly throw some light on this
point, as a matter of circumstantial evidence, and it is the following :—
That about four years ago a fibula, and two coins of the reign of Trajan,
were found at the opposite side of the cavern, a little further on in it
than the bone deposit, at the height of about four inches above the
gravel, and in the clay. These 1 have seen, and have no reason to
doubt their genuineness. But there is no evidence as to when or how
they got to the place in which they were discovered; and, as there was
no stalagmite overlying them, there is nothing determinative of at least
a certain degree of antiquity for the time of their embedding. It is
right, however, to mention this circumstance, from its possible bearing
on my subject. If we allow to it some weight, and combine it with
the comparatively recent character of the bones, I think that a period
about that of the Roman dominion over Britain may be fairly accepted,
provisionally at least, as that of the time of the deposit. This takes it
unquestionably out of the domain of geology, strictly speaking, but
relegates it to that of archeology. |

Tt is an interesting fact to find that one of the great Derbyshire
caverns, like several others which have recently come to light both in

039

Hingland and on the Continent was anciently appropriated as a place of
human habitation.

The following donations were presented :—

The Marquis of Kildare presented a MS. copy of the “‘ Book of Post-
ings of the Forfeited Estates in Ireland, A. D.1701.”

Dr. W. D. Moore presented his Tr anslation of Professor Donders’
work ‘“‘On the Constituents of Food.’

The thanks of the Academy were returned to the donors.

The Academy adjourned.

| MONDAY, JUNE 11, 1866.
Sir W. R. W. Witpn, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Tue following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy :—-
John A. Baker, Hsq.; Edward H. Bennett, M. D.; Francis R. Cruise,
M.D.; Thomas Galwey, Esq.; Thomas Maxwell Hutton, Esq.; Rev.
John O’ Rourke; and Alexander Thom, Esq.

Dr. Thomas Hayden read a paper “On the Physiology of Protrusion
of the Tongue, and its Deviation to the Affected Side in Unilateral Pa-
alysis.”

Mr. Evernr A. Conwe tt read the following paper :—

Has roe Lia Farr on Tara Hitt Been Inscripep ?

So much has already been written about the obelisk on Tara Hill, but
more particularly by the late lamented Dr. Petrie, to prove that it is
the veritable Lia Fail, or Stone of Destiny, on which the Irish kings
were formerly crowned, that it is with a certain amount of well-felt
_diffidence I venture to draw attention to this stone in a new light, and
to head this communication with the foregoing question.

It is well known that its present position in the great oval enclosure
of the Rath na Riogh, or the King’s Chair, is not its original one.
During the current century it was removed from an adjoining tumulus,
called Dumha-na-Ngiall, or the Mound of the Hostages, where it pre-
viously lay, and was erected as a headstone to the grave of thirty-seven
insurgents who were killed in a skirmish with the military at the battle
of Tara in 1798.

On the 18th of last month (May, 1866) I paid a visit to Tara, and
made an examination of thisstone. It stands five feet over ground; and
from subsequent examination, on Saturday last, I found that it was sunk a
foot and a half in the earth, the entire height or length of the stone being
63 feet, and its girth 4 feet 10 inches.* I was at first struck by finding two

* The late eminent Dr. Petrie, in his celebrated essay ‘‘ On the History and Anti-
quities of Tara Hall,” published in the ‘‘ Transactions of the Royal Ivish Academy,”

540

lines cut into the south-east face of the stone, which overlooks “‘ The
Croppies’ Grave’ (as itis familiarly called), each line being 14 inch long,
about an inch asunder, and cut or furrowed out, in V-shaped fashion,
to the depth of about three-eighths of an inch, On the top of the pillar,
which is rounded off, can still be traced the remains of four cup-like
hollows, in their present appearance rudely dug into the stone. Other
portions of the pillar also afford evidences of similar cup-like hollows.

The stone itself, which is a pillar of very fine-grained granite—a
rock not belonging to the locality, and which consequently must
have been imported here—appears to me not to have been originally a
round pillar, asits present aspect might suggest, but a quadrilateral stone,

whose edges have been worn off by attrition and the action of the
weather.

- On Saturday last June 9, 1866), I paid another visit to Tara; and
having dug round the base to the extremity of this stone, I found that
on the same face which contained the two inscribed lines before men-
tioned, for a foot in height, the surface was quite smooth and flat across
the entire face of the stone; and on this portion of it were two lines
cut, as seen in the rubbing, and a third line ending in a cup hollow.
The fact of this portion ofthe stone, now sunk in the earth, having been
found to be quite smooth, leads me to suppose that the entire surface of
the stone was originally the same, and contained characters engraved
upon it. On the opposite side of the stone, now its north-west face,
and near the bottom, are to be found three other lines, whether or not
owing to the action of time, assisted by a natural fracture in the rock,
is a point which I trust some one more competent may hereafter clear
up.
3 From the fact of the principal cuttings which I have observed on
this stone overlooking immediately ‘‘ The Croppies’ Grave,’”’ where it
has in recent times found a site, I infer that those who placed it there
must have observed, and acted on such evidence, that this face of the
stone contained something more of interest than any of the others.

The stone itself, although it may have been originally covered with
hieroglyphics, from being of rather a soft and friable nature has in
course of time lost those inscribed records, which might have settled the
question of its identification as the real Lva Fal.

vol. xviii., p..161 (1837), writing of the Lia Fail, has fallen into two mistakes regarding
this stone—one, as to its material being limestone ; and the other, as to its dimensions,
which are overstated. His description is :—

“ The material of which this monument is composed is a granular limestone, very pro-
bably from some primary district; but whether it be Irish or foreign has not been ascer-
tained; it may be remarked, however, that no granular limestone occurs in the vicinity.
The stone is at present but six feet above ground, but its real height is said to be twelve
feet.”

:

541

Mr. Everne A. Conwett read the following Paper :—
On an Inscripep CromLEAc NEAR RatHxKenny, Co. Mearu.

Ar page 105 in the late Dr. O’Donovan’s manuscript letters, contain-
ing information ‘‘relative to the antiquities of the county Meath,
collected during the progress of the Ordnance Survey in 1836,” refe-
rence is made to a very remarkable cromleac in these words :—

‘‘Near Rathkenny House are two large stones, which, though de-
scribed in Name Book, p. 23, as part of a cromleac, are not known, how-
ever, by that name among the people. They are sometimes called
large stones, and are said to have been thrown from Tara Hill by
Fionn Mac Cumhail.”’

From the fact of the stone which forms the subject of the present
notice being about twenty tons in weight, and its distance from the
Hill of Tara, in a northerly direction, about eighteen statute miles, the
correctness of the above information may be very fairly doubted. This—
improbable, nay, impossible as it is—is all that the country people, up
to the present day, can tell you respecting the remarkable memento of
very remote ages which still exists at Rathkenny.

Seeing mentioned on the Ordnance Map of the district about Rath-
kenny, which is a village lying four miles N. W. from the town of
Slane, what is there marked as a ‘“‘ Druid’s Altar,” I had the curio-
sity to visit the place on the 27th February, 1865 ; and I was astonished
to find that the singular and elaborate inscriptions on this cromleac
had not attracted previous notice.

On the 11th March following I spent several hours in a fruitless
attempt to get a good rubbing of the upper surface of the slab, although
E succeeded in taking accurate rubbings of seven circles on the under
side, and of seven other circles picked on the opposite face of the
single upright stone against which it leans. The circles on the under
surface are not on, or about, the middle of the large slab, but nearer
to the lower edge of the stone, which rests upon the ground, than to
the upper portion of it. In Plate X., fig. 1, their relative positions are
shown, the circles being nearly one-twelfth of the actual size.

The single upright stone against which the cromleac slab rests
stands about four feet over ground, is four feet broad where it emerges
from the ground, tapers slightly as it ascends, and varies from eighteen
mehes to two feet in thickness. The interior face of this supporting
stone presents the appearance of having been picked all over with
minute hollows for the purpose of ornamentation ; and the seven circles
hollowed out on this face are grouped in the manner shown in Plate X.,
fig. 2, being there represented nearly one-twelfth of their actual size.

The construction of the circles is rude and irregular, formed by lines
about half an inch in breadth, and about a quarter of an inch in depth,
which appear to have been picked out of the stone with a metallic im-
plement.

PROC. R. I, A.—VOL. IX. 4B

542

Plate XL., fig. 4, is a representation of this unique monument, as it
stands on elevated ground in the centre of a green field called Capndn
cull, i.e. “the little carn of hazel’—the name, no doubt, originally
applied to the cromleac itself, from having some hazel trees formerly
growing round it, but which afterwards extended to the field.* It is
272 yards in an easterly direction from the residence of H. H. Hussey,
Esq., the proprietor of the estate.

The large flag itself measures ten feet ten inches long, eight feet
six inches broad, and is three feet thick, with one edge resting on
the ground, and the other upon the upright or supporting stone before
described ; it is inclined to the horizon at an angle of 37°, and faces
N.N.E.

Both stones constituting this monument consist of the natural bed
surface of lower Silurian rock, greenish grey calcareous grit, slightly
micaceous, which is found in abundance in the neighbourhood.

In the month of August last my friend Mr. Du Noyer accom-
panied me to Rathkenny, and made a very careful drawing of all the
characters on the upper surface of the slab, which I was previously un-
able to record by means of arubbing. To secure extreme accuracy we
divided the face of the stone into square feet, by transverse lines of
white twine, fastened on the extremities of the stone by ordinary shoe-
makers’ wax. Having paper ruled off in square inches, there was no
difficulty in making a correct transcript of the entire face of the stone,
the characters on which will be more intelligible from an examination
of the drawing than any words could make them (Plate XIL., fig. 5).

It will be observed that there are upwards of three hundred depres-
sions, or cup-shaped hollows, which, although in several instances they
take the form of grouping, may be merely the result of weathering,
and not artificial. Having been so long exposed to the wasting action
of the weather, it would now be hazardous to pronounce with certainty
upon this point. Itis, however, very remarkable that all these de-
pressions are distinct from, yet interspersed with, the singular collection
of inscribed lines which cover the face of this stone. These lines, con-
sisting of upwards of ninety separate characters, still exhibit the ori-
ginal clean and smooth cutting—for the most part in a triangularly
shaped hollowed line—some to the depth of nearly a quarter of an inch;
and are, to all appearance, the delicate workmanship of some sharp
metallic tool, bearing a strong contrast in style of execution to the
rude sculpturing of the circles.

I am not presumptuous enough to make any attempt at offering an
explanation of the reading or meaning of these mysterious characters,
yet I am not without hope that a key to their interpretation will be
found, and I trust at no very distant day. Wecannot but admire the
perseverance and success of philologists in developing affinities in the
languages of various nations from the shores of the Pacific to Western

* It has also been supposed that the name may have reference to the local tradition,
and may mean ‘‘ the little carn of Finn Mac Cumhaiill.”

543

Europe. Over the same vast region there is often a particular, and
always a general, resemblance in the megalithic memorials which have
come down to us from unrecorded ages. ‘The similarity of popular
tales, legends, and superstitions will also show the early connexion of
the ancestors of many nations which are now geographically remote.
Nearly two thousand years ago Pliny has recorded the similarity of the
magical arts of the British Druids and the Persian Magi; and we are
all familiar with the close resemblance between many of the Irish and
Oriental popular superstitions and beliefs. That the characters en-
graved on this cromleac are Oriental, I have little doubt ; but, not being
an Oriental scholar, I commit the task of pursuing the investigation to
those competent to deal with such a question.

Although inscribed cromleacs have hitherto received little attention
from antiquarian writers and investigators, I trust the publication of
this present notice may lead to a re-examination and comparison of all
such remaining records of prehistoric times, wherever they are known
to exist; and no doubt many such will be discovered by those who
know what they may expect to find on cromleacs.

Up to the present time, these ancient monuments have been exa-
mined and classified rather in relation to the mode of their construction,
&c., than with the hope of finding upon them incised records in lines,
cup-like hollows, &c., which might lead to a fuller elucidation of their
history. Since it is known that some of them at least contain such cha-
racters, would it not be highly interesting that antiquaries, Im every
country —in Asia, Africa, and Kurope—where cromleacs still exist,
should most carefully examine them, for the purpose of comparing every
record they may be found to contain ? Some clue to the reading of such
characters may then turn up, as trustworthy as the celebrated Rosetta
Stone* afforded to the interpreters of the hieroglyphics in the Pyramids
of Egypt.

About a year ago, the late John Windele, Esq., of Cork, sent me a
sketch of the characters on an inscribed cromleac near Macroom, the
similarity between which and that near Rathkenny is very striking.
I regret I am not able to enter into fuller particulars respecting the
Cork cromleac; but, not having seen it, I content myself with sub-
mitting Mr. Windele’s sketch (Plate XI, fig. 3).

* The Rosetta Stone, now in the British Museum, is a slab of basalt, about 3 feet
long, and 24 feet broad. It was found near Rosetta, on the western mouth of the Nile,
in the year 1800, and appears to have been placed originally in a temple dedicated to
AtTum, by the monarch NecuAo. It exhibits three inscriptions, of the same import, —
namely, one in hieroglyphics (some of which are lost by a portion of the stone having
been broken off at the right-hand upper corner) ; another, in the Egyptian written cha-
racter, called Demotic or Enchorial (this part of the stone being quite perfect); and a
third, in the Greek language (a portion of which is also lost by a fracture at the right-
hand lower corner of the stone). These inscriptions, furnishing the key to the decipher-
ing of the Hieroglyphical and Demotic characters of Egypt, record the services which
Ptolemy the Fifth (Epiphanes) rendered to his country. He is commended for his piety,
his liberality to the temples, his victories, his remission of arrears of taxes and diminution
of the imposts, and his protection of the lands by dams against the inundations of the
Nile. He reigned between B.C. 205 and B.C. 182.

p44

In our present state of archeological knowledge it would be almost
idle to speculate as to the age of these monuments, or the people by

whom they have been erected. By some they are called Celtic, and the.

people who erected them Celts; while others hold that they have been
raised by a people ethnologically different from the Celts—cromleac
building and burying being a form of sepulture in all probability prac-
tised before the arrival of the Celt, as it has been certainly followed in
countries where neither Celt nor any other branch of the Aryan or
Indo-European race ever penetrated; for we find such in Syria, aud
along the northern coast of Africa. The race that erected cromleacs
must have been much more widely diffused over the world’s surface
than the Celtic, and in all probability that race existed in our own
country before the Celts.

Le Baron A. de Bonstetten, in his ‘‘ Essai sur les Dolmens,’’ published
at Geneva last year, at pp. 5, 6, 7, &c., enters minutely into the classi-
fication and description of the various kinds of existing cromleacs
(dolmen being the word adopted on the Continent to signify what in
the British Isles we call a cromleac). Unless we suppose the monu-
ment near Rathkenny to be a eromleae in ruins, we cannot bring it
under this most recent and carefully studied classification of such
remains.

If we adopt the meaning of the term eromleac, which probably
has come to us through the Welsh, to be a@ leaning stone, or inchined
stone, I am disposed to think that this monument near Rath-
kenny is perfect as it now stands; that it never consisted of more
than the two stones; and that this may be a type of monument not
hitherto noticed or described. I am the more impressed with this be-
lef, because up to about thirty years ago another slab, popularly re-
membered as very similar, nearly, but not quite, as large as that just
described, and facing in the same direction, existed in an adjoining
field, at a point 275 yards south-east from the present one. What
mystic characters it may, or may not, have contained inscribed upon
it no one now can tell. The man—Christy Downey—-still lives, who,
in his zeal for agricultural improvement, subjected this stone to the
operation of blasting; and its debris were afterwards worked up into
fences and drains. He states that in the act of blasting “‘ this stone
was raised entire into the air for about six feet above the surface of the
ground, and it then broke into pieces.”’

There was also a third ‘‘ big stone,” of still smaller dimensions,
which he describes as lying quite flat, and about two perches to the
east of the one just mentioned as destroyed. From what he sawin the
destruction of the first stone he would not undertake to break or to
blast this one, though less in size than the other. He therefore dug a
deep pit on one side of it; and when in the act of prizing the stone into
the pit, he says that ‘‘such a whirlwind came about my legs as asto-
nished me; and I saw the effects of the wind on the surface for six or

eight perches all round.” Under the centre of the stone, he states,’

‘“‘ there was a cavity of about the size of a good pot, with black mould

045

in it, and a horseshoe on one side of the cavity, and a broken glass
bottle on the other.’ Both horseshoe and bottle, I presume, found their
way there in modern times.

The subject of our present notice was also doomed; but, on the

night preceding the day intended for commencing operations upon it,
Christy strolled out from his cottage, and, looking towards the scene
of his next day’s projected labour, saw a light i in the direction of ‘‘ the
big stone,” there being low marshy ground in the neighbourhood im-
mediately beyond. He returned to his home, and came to the wise
conclusion, from all that he had seen, that it would be dangerous to
interfere further with these ‘‘sacred stones.’’ So, after one of these
primitive monuments having been blasted, and another buried, to the
fortuitous appearance and the lucky intervention of the cgnis fatuus
we are at the present day indebted for the preservation of the singular
vestige of our nation’s early history which I have feebly endeavoured
to lay before the Academy.

Several raths or forts are in the Immediate vicinity; and tradition
states that there are also several subterranean caves, which I have not
had either the time or the opportunity to find out or to investi-
gate.

The Secretary brought up the following recommendation of
Council :—-

“That the sum of £50 be granted for the purchase of Antiquities,
the arrangement and registration of articles in the Museum, and for
other matters connected with the department of Antiquities.”

The question having been put, it was moved as an amendment, by
Professor Haughton, and seconded by Professor Jellett—

*“¢ That it be recommended to the Council to omit all the words fol-
lowing the word ‘ Museum’ ”’.

A division being called for, it was found that ten members voted for
the amendment, and twenty-three against it; it was therefore declared
lost.

The original motion was then put, and carried.

Read—Letters of acknowledgment from Professor Clausius and Mr.
Albert Way, on their election as Honorary Members.

The following presentations were made :—

“ Timerick, its History and Antiquities, Ecclesiastical, Civil, and
Military, from the Earliest Ages,” by Maurice Lenihan: from the
Author.

«< Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the Rad-
cliffe Observatory, Oxford, in the Year 1868,’ Vol. XXIIT.: from the
Radcliffe Trustees.

546

‘“‘ Statistics of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ;
May, 1866:” from Alexander Thom, Hsq.

‘“‘Cassell’s Illustrated History of England,” Vols. III. and 1V.:
from J. Godkin, Esq.

MONDAY, JUNE 25, 1866.
Sir W. R. W. Witpz, M. D., Vice-President, in the Chair.

Tur following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy :—
David R. Edgeworth, Esq., and John O’ Hagan, Esq.

Sir W. R. Witpz read the following paper :—
On THE Battie oF Moyrtura.

Tue author brought under the notice of the meeting the first of
a series of communications he was about to make to the Academy upon
the topography of the Battle-fields of Moytura, and the monuments
still standing upon those memorable localities, and which were some
of the earliest places referred to in the Irish annals.

He mentioned that there were two battle-fields of this name, one
was the northern or the ‘‘ Moytura of the Fomorians,” in the parish of
Kilmacatranay, in the county of Sligo, adjoining the north-western end
of the county of Roscommon, and extending from Lough Arrow to the
strand at Ballysadare ; but with which he would not deal on the pre-
sent occasion. The other, on the southern site, or ‘‘ Moytura Conga’ —
of which Sir William exhibited a large map, and pointed out the dif-
ferent localities on it—occupies the western extremity of the great
plain at the junction of the counties of Mayo and Galway, ex-
tending from the Fairy Hill of Knockmaha, near Tuam, to Benlevi,
the first of the mountain range, which, rising from the waters of Loughs
Corrib and Mask, gradually ascend and stretch into the Partry, Joyce
Country, and Connemara mountains. This was the particular locality
to which he proposed to call the attention of the meeting, and said he
hoped on a future occasion to bring forward illustrations of the most
remarkable of the very ancient monuments which crowd around the
picturesque village of Cong, and occupy the northern sloping banks of
Lough Corrib, and the eastern borders of Lough Mask. This great plain
is nearly sixteen miles long, and the monuments occupy a space of about
five miles in breadth atits western end. It was originally called Magh
Nia, or Nemeadh, and in some works Magh Itha, before the celebrated
battle from which it took its historic hame; but at present it goes
by the Irish name of Ath Readh, or the unobstructed plain. Sir William
said :—

Prior to the date assigned by the Four Masters, A. M. 3308, for the
battle of Moytura Conga, the entries in our annals are comparatively
few, meagre, and of very doubtful chronology, and consist chiefly of
notices of cosmical phenomena, colonizations, pestilences, the clearing of

O47

the plains, the erection of forts, raths, and cashels, and the battle of
Sleamhnai, Maighe Ithe, on the banks of Lough Swilly, in the county
of Donegal, between the Fomorians, the possessors of the island at that
period, and the newly arrived forces of Parthalon, the so-called Oriental
or Grecian leader. The Firbolgs, or Belgze, so called from their assumed
Belgic origin, next occupied the country, and established a Kingly Pen-
tarchy.

When the Tuatha De Dannan, who were a Scandinavian and decidedly
a superior race, and who undoubtedly possessed a knowledge of metal,
established themselves in the north-east of Ireland, they demanded a
division of the kingdom from the Firbolgs; and a meeting took place
between their respective ambassadors upon Magh Rein, on the shores of
Lough Allen, near Slieve-an-Icrin, in the county of Leitrim; and upon
the latter refusing to accede to this modest request, the Tuatha De Dan-
nans marched westward, and, according to our histories, occupied the
plains of Southern Moytura; and Nuadha, their king, with his staff,
took up his position on the heights of Benlevi, from which a view can
be obtained of the plains beneath to an immense extent, and a secure
retreat preserved towards the fastnesses in their rere.

The Firbolgs, under EKochy Mac Ere, their king, marched from Tara
to the eastern end of the plain of Nia, where it rises into the picturesque
hill of Knockma, now known as Castle Hacket, and where, according to
the legends of the land, the Fairy King Finvarra (the Oberon of Irish
Sylvan mythology) holds his court. From thence may be obtained one
of the grandest views in Ireland. To the east, the great plain stretches
beneath and around, from the hill of Knockroe to the towers of Athenry,
or City of the Ford of the Kings, and includes the Tuam of St. Jarlath,
the round tower of St. Benan, the beautiful abbey of Knockmoy, and the
ruined keeps of the De Burgos—to the south, the ships riding in the
Bay of Galway can be discerned in a clear day, and the Slievebloom
and Clare mountains; and to the west the blue island-studded waters
of Lough Corrib, and in the far western background the Connemara
Alps, stretching from Lecanvre and Sheanapholia, with their clear-
cut edges, and their sides momentarily varying in tints from the mar-
vellous atmospheric effects of that region, round to the lofty peak of
Croagh Patrick, and the bulky form of Nephin, and even some of the
Achill mountains skirting Clew Bay, are all withinview. Certainly, if
the son of Erc had an eye for the picturesque, or a soul for poetry, his
patriotism should have warmed when he viewed the fair scene which
was sought to be wrested from him by the invader.

On the summit of Knockma an immense cairn of small stones has been
erected over the remains of the female Coesair, the first of that great west-
ern chain of similar monuments that stretch from thence to the valley
of Maam, and finally abut upon the shores of the Atlantic near Renvyle.
Around this cairn, in the month of May, the ground is literally blue with
the flowers of the Gentiana verna. The battle is said to have been com-
menced on the lith of June; it lasted four days, and ended in the defeat
of the Firbolgs, and the death of their king, the pillar stone of whose

~

043

son is probably the long stone of the Neale. Nuada, the Dannan king,
lost his hand; and from the circumstances stated in the Bardic legends
of an artificial arm having been supplied, he is ever after mentioned
in history as ‘“‘ Nuad of the Silver Hand.’’ Whether Belor of the basilisk
eye, another well-known character in our early tales, was at the battle
of Southern Moytura is doubtful; but all the legends respecting the
petrifying qualities of his eye, and even where he stood, &c., at the
time of the engagement, are still related of the ‘‘Fothach Rua,” or
ereat red giant. Fintan, the sage; Edena, the poet-prophetess; Dian-
checht, the physician; Credne, the artificer; Gobnen, the smith; and
all the Druid celebrities of early historic romance are said to have been
at this battle. The site of the fiercest combat, and that which is still
called Cath na Bunnen, or the Valley of ‘‘ The Battle of the Butts,’’ be-
cause it is said that, the weapons of the belligerents having been injured,
they fought with the butts, like the ‘‘ Faigh-a-Ballaghs’”’ of later days,
is still pointed out.

Several years afterwards the second battle, on the Northern Moytura,
was fought ; and after it, as well as on the occasion of the previous defeat,
the Belgze, or Firbolgs, fled for security westwards, and entrenched them-
selves in those stupendous fastnesses of Arran, in Galway Bay—so that
even then we see that the destiny ofthe Celt was Westward. But that
they did not all go is manifest from the very marked characteristics of the
two races, the dark and the fair, still remaining in the West.

These few particulars and the foregoing brief sketch are worth men-
tioning, inasmuch as heretofore some misconception has occurred, and
some erroneous statements have been put forward by writers who have
jumbled up the two battles of Moytura, although many years took place
between them, and the intervening space from the Sligo to the Mayo
locality is about fifty miles. Between the western slopes of Knockma,
in the barony of Dunmore, to Shrule, and through the rich pastures of
the barony of Kilmaine, the plain is studded with forts and circular
raths, showing the early cultivation and comparatively dense population
of that district. As, however,, we advance westward through the ba-
rony of Kilmaine, over the great plain where the limestone crops out
above the surface, in many places to the extent of several acres, the
grass-grown circles are replaced by immense cairns, artificially con-
structed caves, circles of standing stones, many of gigantic size, mono-
liths or pillar stones, and great duns, cashels or stone forts, resembling
some of those in Kerry and the Western Islands of Arran. All these
accumulate, and finally culminate into a narrow space of about four
square miles, the eastern line of which would run from the village of
Cross to the Neale, and thence by Ballinrobe, to the western shores of
Lough Mask, and the narrow neck of land between it and Lough Corrib
to the waterport of Cong, where the wealth, taste, and liberality of our
distinguished church restorer, Mr. Guinness, have done so much to beau-
tify the landscape, to benefit the people, and to restore the crumbling
columns of that Abbey, wherein was preserved the greatest artistic, as

|
|

o49

well as the most historic memorial of piety and skill to be found in
north-western Kurope—the Cross of Cong that now adorns our Mu-
seum.

About forty years ago, our great Petrie, in company with our bard
and artist, Samuel Lover, visited this locality, and greatly regretted the
obliteration of many of the monuments which he expected to find there.
In 1838, O’ Donovan, then an officer in the Ordnance Survey, under our
distinguished Academician, Sir Thomas Larcom—who for upwards of
forty years has been more Irish and more useful than many of the Irish
themselves—went over this locality ; but his observations thereon were
not as full as might be wished. O’ Donovan, however, has left behind
him what is even more valuable than a mere enumeration and identifi-
cation of forts and cairns, in a translation, executed with that facility
of diction in which he excelled, of one of those metrical histories which
abound in our early literature, and which, although defective in the
romance of the epic, ismore truthful in its history and topography than
the ‘‘Tain Bo Cuilne;”’ but, like it, it was probably derived from varied
and earlier sources than the times of the transcriber or collector.

Having spent much of my youth in this memorable locality, where
my ancestors sheltered the ecclesiastics who fled with the Palladium of
the West, to which I have already referred, and having the honour to
own a small bit of this battle-field myself, I have during my occasional
visits to the country thoroughly investigated all these monuments on
Southern Moytura; and, as an instance of what may be done by local
investigation, | may mention that within the space of a single sheet of
the Ordnance Map I was enabled to point out no less than twelve most
interesting monuments previously unnoticed, consisting of forts, raths,
stone circles, caves, lisses, and cashels, &c., all of which will be
marked upon the new edition of that great work; and upon a future
occasion I hope to be able to bring these and others in detail under the
notice of the Academy. I may also mention that, through the kindness of
my friend George Crampton, Esq., I have been supplied with a map and
measurements of Caher-Mac Turk, the Dannan fort at Nympsfield, which
was removed at the time of the building of the glebe house there, nearly
fifty years ago: so that upon the whole we can even now enter upon
the consideration of the battle-field of Southern Moytura with a fair

_ prospect of success. The legendary lore and traditional accounts re-

specting this and other battle-fields, and the events for which they were
celebrated, have now almost ceased to exist. The locality can, how-
ever, be recognised by the topographer, and the monuments thereon
identified by the antiquary, while much of the old sagas may be culled
from the popular superstitions of the district, or gleaned from the tale,
surrounded as it is by all its incongruities, of the old Sennachie, whose
language one understands, and whose feelings one reverences. Yet,
although this traditionary and popular remembrance of the battle-field
affords no more information than can be gleaned from similar sources
respecting the raths of Tara, the monuments on the banks of the Boyne,
BR. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX. 46

590

the cahers of Arran, or the Round Towers, and several of the primitive
churches, and even the Norman castles throughout the country, there
are names attaching to this locality which serve to guide the painstak- —
ing and skilled inquirer; and the ancient Irish annals, and some manu-
scripts believed to be derived from very early sources, afford sufficient
materials for attempting now, in the middle of the nineteenth century,
an essay on a battle-field referred by our annalists to a period before the
Christian era.

To popularize Irish history, and familiarize our youth with incidents
such as the foregoing, will tend to the mentakculture of the rising gene-
ration, and the preservation of our national monuments; but until some
Scott, or some one endowed with even a fragment of his genius; and
combining, as he did, the knowledge of the antiquarian scholar, the deep
research of the historian, the gifted tongue and feeling heart of the poet,
the subtle wit of the humorist, the dramatic powers of the novelist, the
knowledge of the popular superstitions and modes of thought of his
countrymen, together with that rarest of all powers, the faculty of fus-
ing fiction and fact, so as to weave a romance common to humanity with
the historic incidents and characters of the past, we shall never have an
opportunity, notwithstanding our much greater materials, for viemg
with the literature of Scotland.

Sir William R.W. Wilde exhibited plans of some of the subterranean
chambers he had discovered, and quoted several of the early authors on
the subject of Moytura. “He also said he intended dividing his commu-
nications on Moytura into three portions—a general sketch of the
battle-field, an historic aggount of the engagement, and a detailed de-
scription of the monuments still existing thereon.

Sir William R. W. Wilde brought forward, and made some remarks
upon, his paper on the Plunket MS., descriptive of the civil wars in Ire-
land, and styled ‘‘ A Light to the Blind,” which he had read to the Aca-
demy on the 27th June, 1859.

The following donation was presented :—

A perforated stone found at an earthen fort, adjoining Kilbride pa-
rish church, in the county of Wicklow: presented by J.S. Moore, Esq.,
of the Manor, Kilbride.

Thanks were returned to the donor.
The Academy then adjourned to the 12th of November.

eR END dX.
No. I.

ACCOUNT

OF

THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,

FROM 1sr APRIL, 1863, ro 3isr MARCH, 1864.

THE CHARGE.

To balance in favour of the Public on the 1st ee 1863 SS AMI /G0 Re ee ee 2
(see Vol. VIII., App. No. II. a) xX. ne ers ee aaa 79 11 38
PARLIAMENTARY. GRANT, 3). Ea Wee lee ie She ere OO Om ORO

CunnincHam Funp, INTEREST, 3 PER CENTS. :—

Half-year’s Interest on
NG Wiss Gd). | 5 « /L2687 «8
Deduct Income Tax,. . . ae) a4
——- 2517 6
Half-year’s Interest on
Bu792 is 8d,. . .-. £2617 8

Deduct Income Tax,. . . 015 8
— 26 2 0
Total Cunningham Fund, Interest, . ————— 51 19 6

ACADEMY 3 PER CENT. CoNSOLS :—
Half-year’s Interest on
MIWA SS NES a ore es UZ WS)
Deduct Income Tax,. . . Oto
— 1617 8
Total Academy Stock, Interest, . . ——-—— LON 8

MONGIMUDLCEESE ON SUOCHS. aM si reliye Mie | Veal tio! t Utre as a eo Coralia (2

CATALOGUES SOLD, PArt I. :—

In April, 1863, 2 copies, 8s.; September, 1 copy, 4s. ;
December, 1 copy, 4s.; January, 1864, 1 copy, 4s. ;
WVIIEEMEARCOPICS OS. le ote ep ek Vales Ge ts ees f-8 0

Honward. Wii AN SiO! | G48), Seo
KR. 1, A. PROC.—VOL, IX. a

ll

Bs: det eee ee i
Brought forward, Nos BiayO Bi CAS ers i
CATALOGUES SOLD, PART II. :—

In April, 1863, 3 copies, 14s. 9d.; January, 1864, 1
copy, 5s.; March, 2 copies, £1 9s. 0d, eae PR oy a)

CATALOGUES SOLD, PART III. :—

In April, 1863, 5 copies, 11s. 8d.; June, 1 copy, 2s. 4d.;

September, 1 copy, 3s. 6d. ; November, 46 copies,

£5 11s. 7d. ; December, 1 copy, 2s. 4d.; January, 1864,

A copies, ils. 8d. ; March, 30 copies, £3 11s. AG aoe 10 14 5

Total Catalogues sold, .--~« “se wee oo ree Alero

ENTRANCE Fees (£5 5s. each) :-—

Bagot, Charles N., Esq.; Belmore, Right Hon. the Earl
of ; Charlemont, Right Hon. the Earl of; Crampton,
Rev. J.. A. M.; Donoughmore, Right Hon. the Earl of;
Foot, C. H., Esq.; Garnett, G. C., Esq.; Granard,
Right Hon. the Earl of; Kinahan, T. W., Esq.;
La Touche, J. J. D., Esq.; Pigot, J. E., Esq.; Poore,
Major R. ; Warren, J. W., Esq. ; Waterton, E. Esq.,
Total Binesas Hees; 0a eat. Nasi 2, ahiuell feuee 73 10 0

Lire ComposiTIoNs :—

Andrews, W., Esq.,_ . Lines 6 6 0
Belmore, Rt. on. the Earl fe as Raa 21 2 Oina0)
Bewley, E., M.D. . . binges eens DRmboNs ia 6 6 90
Ferrier, A., Esq., BRE re ora Me oy 3 6 6 0
Kelly, Hon. 2S) eee ee GAG 20
Leach, Lieut.-Col. cc Ay 15° 15250
Magee, James, Esq., : es le aig 6 6 0
Porte, George, Say) sce tvs: lave tune ens ene poets 2 5 0ua
Stoney, Babs, MSGs5q - Wie olen Sol thi ane nS 21.30.40
Walls Revs James; (Drs tsa e156 Mea eels vas) ie 6.6 0
Total Life Compositions, Be SE” Ene ele ees pee aerated ae
ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTIONS (£2 2s. each) :—
For 1861:—
Moore sCaptecAcg tess Stel alsaig set «ees ony ae te Pe) eet dee)
For 1862 :—
Burnside, Rev. W. S., B.D; Codd, F., Esq.; Col-
clough, J. T. R., Esq.; Gibson, Rev. C. B.; Griott,
D. G., Esq.; Hamilton, G. A., LL. D.; Kelly, Hon. T.
F.; Leared, A., M.D.; Lee, Rev. A. T., A. M.;
Lefroy, G., Esq.; Lentaigne, J., Esq.; Mac Namara,
R., M.D.; Moore, Capt. A. M.; Muspratt, J. S.. Esq.,
F.R.8.; O'Driscoll, W. J., Esq.; O'Hagan, Hon.
Judge; Sidney, F. J., LL. D.; Thompson, W., LL. D.;
Tombe, Rev. H. J. ; Tufnell, TJ. nant ‘Walker, D

NED ee a. , | 44° 2 0

er | re

Forward, |-46 4 0| 853 0 7

il

For 1863 :— Brought forward,

Alcorn, Rev. J., D. D.; Baker, A. W., Esq.; Bevan,
P., M.D.; Berwick, Hon. W.; Bewley, E., M. D.;
Brooke, T., Esq.; Campbell, J.. M.B.; Carte, A.,
M. D.; Claridge, J., Esq.; Codd, F., Esq.; Colclough,
J. T. R., Esg.; Corbet, R., Esq.; Cotton, Ven. H. ;
Deasy, Hon. Baron; Domvile, Sir C. W., Bart.;
Eiffe, J. S., Esq.; Enniskillen, Right Hon. the Earl
of; Fitzgerald, P., Esq.; Fleming, C., M. D.; Gibson,
J., Esq.; Griott, D.G., Esq.; Hamilton, G. A., LL.D. ;
Hardinge, W. H., Esq.; Hardy, S. L., M. D.; Hart-
ley, R., Esq.; Haughton, Rev. S., M. D.; Hayden,
T., Esq.; Hudson, A., M.D.; Ingram, J. K., LL. D.;
James, Sir H., EF. R.S.; James, Sir J. K., Bart.; Law,
R., M. D.; Lee, Rev. A. T., A. M.; Lefroy, G., Esq. ;
Longfield, Rev. G., A.M.; Lyons, R. D., M.D.;
Mac Carthy, D. F., Esq.; Mac Carthy, J. J., Esq.;
Mac Dougall, W., Esq.; Mac Namara, R., M. D.;
Madden, R. R., M. D.; Magee, J., Esq.; Maunsell,
D. T. T., M.D.; Meyler, G., Esq.; Moore, Captain
A.M. ; - Moore, W., M. D.; Moore, J., M.D.; Muspratt,
J. 8, Esq. ; ; O'Driscoll, Vitec len Esq. ; O’Flanagan, J.
Tes Esq.; O’ Hagan, Hon. J udge ; Pigot, Rt. Hon. D. R.,
Lord Chief Baron; Pigot, J. E., Esq.; Porte, G.,
Esq.; Sanders, G., Esq.; Sawyer, J. H., M.D.;
Sloane, J.S8., Esq.; Smyth, H., Esq., C. E.; Staples,
Sir T., Bart.; Stewart, H. H., M.D.; Stoney, B. B.,
Esq., C.E.; Sullivan, W. K., Esq.; Thompson, W.,

LL. D.; - Tombe, Rev. 1 Weel ae Tufnell, Pde, SESDE;

Waller, ‘J. F., LL. D., :

For 1864 :—

Alcorn, Rev. J., D.D.; Armagh, Most Rev. M. G.,
Lord Archbishop of, D, D.; Atkinson, R., Esq.; Barnes,
E., Esq.; Blackburne, Rt. Hon. F., Lord Justice of
Appeal; Blakely, A. T., Esq.; Brady, D. F., M. D.;
Brooke, T. F., Esq.; Burke, Sir J. B. (Ulster); Camp-
bell, J., M. B.; Copland, C., Esq.; Corbet, R., Esq. ;
Davy, E. W., M.B.; Donovan, M., Esq. ; Duncan,
J. F., M.D.; Enniskillen, Rt. Hon. the Earl of,
F.R.S.; Farnham, Rt. Hon. Lord; Foley, W., M. D.;
Hardy, S. L., M.D.; Hatchell, J., Esq.; Haughton,
J., Esq.; James, Sir H., F.R.S.; Kenny, J. C. F.,
Esq.; Kinahan, T. W., Esq.; King, C..C., M.D.;
L’Estrange, F., M. D.; Mac Donnell, J. S., Esq.; Mey-
ler, G., Esq.; Mollan, J.. M. D.; Moore, Capt. A. M.;
Moore, D., Esq.; Moore, J.,M. D.; O’Donnell, Lieut.-
Gen. Sir C.R.; Pigot, Rt. Hon. D. R., Lord Chief Baron ;
Pigot, D. R., Esq.; Pratt, J. B., Esq.; Smith, R. W.,
M. D.; Starkey, D. P., M.A.; Talbot de Malahide,
Rt. Hon. Lord; Taylor, Capt. M.; Tombe, Rev. H.
J., A.M.; Tyrrell, H. J.. M. D.; Waldron, L., Esq. ;
West, Very Rev. J., D.D.; Wright, E. P., M. D.,

Total Annual Subscriptions,
Forward,

Fe as ik
46 4 0
|
138 12 0
94 10 -0

eS mnSeas
ski) oO el
e
279 6 O
MS 2a One

1V

Bit Sale <r anys
Brought forward, |. <5. 1. \etoee Gale
TRANSACTIONS SOLD :—

Hodges, Smith, & Co., to March 16, 1864, .... 8 16 I1
M‘Geel Ws) Vol. XX Part Ve oe i cae OG
Williams and Norgate, to March 16, 1864,. . ... 813 0

Total Transactions sold, . . ....+-«-s Henan ie 12 17 5

PROCEEDINGS SOLD :—

Armagh Public Library, binding Proceedings, .. . 1 3
Dixon, Rey. R. V., ditto, Laas £20
Kelly, D. H., Esq., ditto, : 1 0
Mac Car thy, D. F., Esq., ditto, 1 0
Meehan, Rev. C. P., binding Vols, Te IV., V.; VE,

and VIL, AC oO oan en cece

O’Daly, J., ‘binding ANVCOL FINITE ais wiley ro estar ae
O'Daly, J., 1 Part Proceedings, Bae
Reeves, Rev. W., D. D., binding Pindsedinis.|
Smith, Aquilla, M. D., ditto,

e ry e e
ooooo ooo o

Total Proceedings sold, ..... « 015 3

Toran Amount oF CHARGE, ..... Sg Geers aoa oes oO

THE DISCHARGE.

ANTIQUITIES BOUGHT, MusEum, &¢. :— GB) si ds'|) G8. Gat eos. Ge
Dorey, M., Irish coin of Elizabeth, . . . .| O 1 O
Doyle, T., ’ ancient brass weight, . 0 0 6
Enniskillen, Earl of, for P. Brady, three

wooden articles found i in a bog near Ballina-

mallard, : ot ial ie 013 0
Gann, E., two antique hatchets, Srey itr 0 5 0
Geoghegan, M., five coins, . 0) sly 00
Hagerty, E. , halfpenny of William and Mary, 0 0 6
Jones, J., silver coins from Armagh, . . .| 1 0 38
Marsh, S., brass figure, : 0 1 0
Martin, Rev. T., 10 Saxon and. Cufie coins,

ELOMN SAGA Te nen Meier ike ideals 317 6
Mason, T., silver ornament, . . te 0 2 6
Muffeny, A. , antiquities, from Ballina, . £7530
O’Brien, B., " brass candlestick, found at New

Barns, Rowlestown Parish, Co. Dublin,. 0 6 0
Ryan, F., antiquities found near Arbane, . .| 1.10 0
Wakeman, W. F., four bronze articles from

Co.Galway, . . 012 0
Wilde, Sir W. R., model of See oe. St.

Manchan, . . aut : 5 10 0
Wilde, Sir W. R. "antiquities, Rats Ora 7206

Total cost of Antiquities bought, - 15 12.9

POTION Ass Weis eek oan vee Iya 174) 2) 00 0 0

~ a eae ee?

‘ 8.
Brought forward,| ... . 15 12
Smyth, B., van-hire for moving antiquities, .| 010 0
Dublin and Drogheda Railway, carriage of
antiquities, . Bre eer ea AOA
Midland Great Western Railway, do., ‘ 0 38

Total cost of carriage of Antiquities, . .|. . . . 0 17 10

Kelly, A., drawing antiquities, . . Ou OS

A pildime plaster casts; ss... 2) Ob 0

Lotal cost of drawing and modelling An-

PIQUE SE ET Robi 8 le fe cds Suen abies 011 8

Total Antiquities bought, Museum, &c.,

Books, Printing, AND STATIONERY :—
iDarthes and Lowell. books, . . .~s « .| (9 18 *6
Connolly, T. , books, Se 318 6
Hodges, Smith, and Co., books and perio

dieals ise), Paine etl eh! hi « Pye IRS
Jones, J. F. shook, Seem auiirs fille! ics 5 19 0
Kelly, W. B. MOORS osha) Mest Ns), ie 213 0
O’ Daly, J. , books, ; 2 Oe 0
Thom, A., six copies of Treasury Report

on Royal Dublin Society, . See ele ON A e®
Williams and Norgate, books, .. . be 29)

Lotal Books, Periodicals, &c., egy: s/h i ae) tema takes Us)
Camden Society, 1862-1863, . 2050
Paleontographical Society, 1859-1863, . .| 5 5 0
Ray Society, 1862-1863, . . . citer tye cain 2 0

Total Subscriptions paid, . . Bl Ha ee ai tie)
Rainsford, P., labelling books in Library, . 2 0 0

Total cost of arrangement of Library, eae Zr Ovi
Barthes and Lowell, charges on books, . 0 16
British and Irish Steam Packet Co., do., . Oe Ed
City of Dublin Steam Ship Co., do, . . 0 1 6
Dublin and Liverpool Screw Ship Co., do., Oy on0
Hanmimand Condo i) eels 0 0 6
General Parcel Office, Goren. OO
ilayes MLPA dO... «| 8 One canG
Henshelwood and Co., COs is OF 3G
Lambert, T.,do., . . 0 1 6
London and Dublin Steam S. Co., do. oar 0 4 0
London N. W. Railway Co., do., ° Sb Ona ene
Manchester and London Railway Co., do., La eat Ole wa
Marcus’ Parcel Express, do... . . . Oni
Mason, G., lsd NC coe at 0 4 6
Nolan, J., do., Si eaten eel sseryeiaree mia enemies 0 6 4
Palgrave and Co., do.,. Ore
Williams and N orgate, do, . 4 4 8

Total Freight, nee and Charges on |

EBOORSI 6 6. : saw icekaeh be 7 19 10
LOnWARA sees i srelG2 Ay ol

Sr Sd,
00 0 0
eos
Qos

v1

Sek: fs. om See a:
Brought forward, 62 Ae a 203
Cooke, H., letter signed by Duke Schonberg, | 0 15 0

Total cost of Manuscripts bought, . .\|... - O alowed
O’Neill, T., 25 Vols. Transactions, R.I.A., .| 6 5 0O

Total cost of Transactions, R. 1. A.,bought,|. . . . O90

MIscELLANEOUS BINDING :—

Caldwell, M., binding books in ae. to
March 16th, eke 5 es -| 32 14 0

Total cost of Miscellaneous boding, ays lie ett aden |e Oa any)
Total Expenditure on Library for Be ey
Carriage, Binding, &c.,. . eso eleva a OMG Seats

MisceELLANEOUS PRINTING :—

Gill, M. H., printing circulars, notes, &c.,
from March 16, 1863, to March 31, 1864, | 19 13 8

oo

Total Miscellaneous Printing, . F 19 1S ss
PROCEEDINGS, PRINTING AND BINDING :—
Gill, M. H., printing to March 16,1864, . .|101 6 2
Hanlon, George A., woodcuts, . . Seen 2s OO
Mowat, J., binding to 16th March, . Ae, Teal eas OWNS
Oldham, W., woodcuts, . . Pra Sen py al CAEN KO)

Total Printing, &c., Proceedings, . .|. - + «| 127 4 11
TRANSACTIONS, PRINTING AND BINDING :—
Caldwell, M., binding, . . Fe Pah o 4 Le
Gill, M. H., printing, to March 16, 1864, . Sioa h aio
Mowat, J., binding; San Be podria (Uae U2 hiesee)
Oldham, W., woodcuts for Mr. + Stoney’ s paps

“ On Girders,” Rts aes Zee Ae

Pilkington, F. , binding, Bs Rees. re en SMe faded ke aE 339.0 (9

DLotal cost ofa Lranswactwons, 2. V.~ ai\i's| ee) len LOO pommee

STATIONERY :—

Tallon, J., paper, envelopes, &c., toMarch,1864,} 9 16 6
VWihelan, Mo ihom's) Directoryssen +) ee lie Oe LOn nO

Total, Stutvon ery, OCa Wis. Value eee at een ect ie 10 12 6

Total Books, Printing, Stationery, &e., |... .| . « . «| 800 12 4

CaTaLocurt or Museum (Vol. I.):—

Gill, M. H., printing title, . Sa Heuteret ieee
Mowat, J., binding 1384 copies, . . . . .| 81

Expended on Vol. I. of Catalogue, .. ». . . - 10-1 1

Forward, a ietth ds ole 10.7 e aio Go 1A ceri

vu

BENGE py Me Meanie 1b EE INS si Cle
Brought forward, Ce ec calie OF POPS 8o> Uae oe
CATALOGUE OF Museum (Part III.) :—
Oldham, W., engraving gold oe ae ce Oe Donic)
Pilkington, F. onde, )) a. Srultod etiam’ S
Expended on Part II1, of Catalogue, .|. . . . 510 8
CATALOGUE OF Museum (Part IV.) :—
Olam Wee wwoodeuts, 2 7. ek Lo
Expended on Part IV. of Catalogue, .|. .. . 2. 6
Total expended on es y! eee ——
USG3—645 7 e0 6 - Us hy ok RMNEY Roe Stn 16 14 38
Repairs or Hovsz:—
Boylan, 8., cleaning windows, . ... . Dene dened
Bray, J., cleaning ashi. es). 018 0
Kelly, A. , cleaning portrait of Sir Tsaac Ne ewton, 010 0
Kennedy, P., work in library, : sige ORs 266
Maguire and. Sons, irenmongery, &c., . Be vee 219 10
Mucply,rdssweepins chimneys... 5) 6 ss lie OO)
O’Brien, M., window blinds, &c., . ° . A Ona) G
Swan, M., workin library, . ... .» OM 2h
Total Repairs of House, . ‘ ie a S$. h60 io
FURNITURE AND REPAIRS :—
Angeli. painting 21 busts, . =~ -...«.- oe Oo)
Boake and Son, sundries, . : me ibatenh Nee Dai Aan’:
Dobbyn and Son, repairs of clocks, : 010 O
Maguire and Son, IOMIMONG CV Cry gs) skew! lu) ey > Oy.
Merry, E., polishing tables, . . . . wee aoe
| O’Brien, M., window blinds.and fittings, : us 016 0
) Smyth, B. , removing and shaking carpets, alee 110 O
Yeates and Son, repairing barometer,. . . . =. .« 013 0

| Total Furniture and Repairs, ... « + « « « IAM cag Helm 10 15 11

TAxES AND INSURANCE :—

National Insurance Company, . . . . £10 6 O
Patriotic do., eehe atete te) MLIOL MG? WoO)

—- Moy 8) a8
WanishCess, aster, 1863, : 9. ss). ew ee 09 4

Total Taxes and Insurance,. . ». ». »« «© « «+ AN Pa ca MU 16 18 10

| = Coats, Gas, &c, :—

| Alliance Gas Company, gas, and fittings,. . . . . Ow Ome
| Lambert, Brien, and Co., tapers eadles,) &er.0 5) 5) % 010 6
Smyth, BL 4tonscoal, . . EUS ey Mees SSN Ee Ni 3.4 0
Tedcastle and Co., 30 tons COa is Geeta nest ane Ma BG

MIRC ORS GAs, GC. oie ol wiry cols emo) fo) s Bu inelitelare 5210 5

Forward, area ieeo le (Ons

Vil

Brought forward, hi os ite gana ea RCL Ogata ed
CONTINGENCIES :—
Advertising in ‘‘ Freeman's Journal,’’ . 4 0 3 6
4 ‘“‘ Saunders’ News-letter,”. . : 0 3 6
a oe Dartly. Pisapreseue ravine: al oaks 0-256
‘ Trish Times,” . 0 3 0
Bellew, G. , impression of plates of the “ Clog Or,” 12D EO
Boake, W., and Sons, aprons LOT), PONCETS,, «140 2 03 4
Clibborn, E., one year’s allowance for incidentals used
in cleaning house; <<) e. aehrh bOvease Gs 10 0 0
Flower, M., wire fr Indian Tnecramient Pe NaI a NM i 0 1 6
Johnson F., Paint, ees, 70-3. a We Gh 8)
aoe &e., April 1, 1863, to March 31, 1863, . eile ly i
Smyth, B , hire of ee to Archbishop Whately’s
funeral, Bs erat tier 0 12.56
Verdon, Maguire and Co., twine, &e., Sage BBS 019 5
Total Contingencies, <6 hog ee nee Cane |e ee ee 25 15 5
SALARIES, WAGES, &¢. :—
Carson, Rev. J., D. D., Treasurer, 1863-64,. . . . 21 0 0
Reeves, Rev. W., D. D., Sec. of Academy, do.,. . . 21 0 0
Ingramy J. K., LL.D.) Sec. of Council-do. 03. 6 21 0 0
Gilbert, J. T, , Esq., Librarian, oven son. 210 ~0
Clibborn, E. , Esq., Clerk, Assistant-Libravian, Curator
of the Museum, &e., 1863- GAs ren se Pa Na eee hy 150 0 0
Doyle, E. W., Accountant, AOSHI MESO irae AVE AUG tie 46 0 0
Kelly, A., house-porter, 52 WEEKS ih ou Geil ue een IR 39. 0 0
Leigh, S., messenger, 3l weeks,. . . . 23 5 0
Byrne, P., messenger, 21 weeks,.-.:.. . 1515 <0
——— 39 0 0
Keeffe, A., cleaning house, . . at dea ae 10 10 O .
Molloy, Connor, and Co.. servants’ liveries, Sa wan ents 13 15 7
Wright and Oxley, servants’ hats (2 years), . , . 210 0
MacDonnell, M., bootsfor messenger, . . . .. . E090
Walpole and Geoghegan, servants ties, . . .. . 015 0

Total Salaries. Wages, Gt... + <6 6 Os) 4s eho a a, eee e OO LO eat

GOVERNMENT STOCKS BOUGHT ON ACCOUNT OF CUN-
NINGHAM Trust FunpD :—

£56 14 0O| New 3 perCents.,, £51 16 2
20 days’ Interest, Q. 1 10
Brokerage, . . 0 1 6
—— 5119 6
——| Total Cunningham Trust
£56 14 0 Hund, Stocks bought, . 3 +3 5 51-19 46

CoNnsoLs BOUGHT ON ACADEMY’s LIFE COMPOSITION
Account :—
616 L601 Consols., 2) 2. Sld<9 10
141 days’ Interest, 0 8 11
Brokerages. gor 0) el ve
a TS)

——— —

£16 16 0 Forward, ss. £15 15 -0° | 54 19 eaneos) Gs

“£ 8. a £ s. a.
£16 16 0 Brought forward, . . .£15 15 0 515 19) 56) 7903-63
Palermo | Corsols,: i...) 39-8 |
117 days’ Interest, 0 8
Brokerages 6s ae |) OVogl:
—— 3918 0
ae ou. Consols, ;. «. .f 33.6
73 days Interest,. 0 4
Brokerage,. . .-* 0/01
—— 38312 0
Spies a Consols, -.>;, . 20 ib i
76 days’ Interest,. 0 2 10
BTOKETACC 6+). HOD 1 3
aa DO
Total Academy Stock
—_——. WDA Gnas Me SAN Sue: seebale
S119 1-4 EO: 2b 0
7. Total Government Stock bought, . | 162 4 6
ToTAL DIscHARGE,. . , MOS 0) oS)
Balance in Bank of Ireland, . Zyros 0
on in Treasurer’s hands, . : Oo O26
Total Balance in favour of the public, @ this
account (31st March, 1864), . Si eseenel 80 8 6
ToTaAL AMOUNT OF CHARGE, . . es ulteP ail O'S

GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE MONTHLY ACCOUNTS OF THE ROYAL
IRISH ACADEMY,

AS FURNISHED TO AUDIT OFFICE, FROM Isr APRIL, 1863, TO 3lst MARCH, 1864.

Dr. £) Ss:
To Balance on Ist April,1863, ... 79 11
To Parliamentary Grant,...... 500 0
To Annual Subscriptions,...... 279 6
MlosbyarAnCe HES als As 5 alls 73 10
Lodite Compositions, . - .... . 116 11
To Interest on Academy Stock,. .. 1617
To Interest on Cunningham Fund, . 61 19
To Catalogues sold, Part L., 5 1 8
To Catalogues sold, Part II, . 2 8
To Catalogues sold, Part IIL.,. 10 14
Moctransaetions sold, o. 5 2. ss 12 17
Mow@roceedings sold, 21.060... 015
ea
£1145 19

|

WMNMOOADOODOCOWS

Cr. 23 GE OL

By Academy Stock bought,..... 110 5 0
By Cunningham Fund, Stock bought, 5119 6
Bya@ oals Gas ndies iiveiiasec eet ee) He 56210 5
By Furniture and Repairs,..... 10 15 11
By Repairs ofHouse:®. 0... 3 8 6 38
Bys laxesiand Insurance, . 7) <a. - 16 18 10
1bi7 SPIRITS, CGS 6 6 a tava oiaioed | 386 10 7
By Printing Proceedings,...... 127 411
By Printing Transactions, ..... 109 3 2
By Printing, Miscellaneous,. . 19 13 8
Bye BOOKS MOUS It ciel ys) -miconel! elle 562 4 3
By Miscellaneous Binding, ..... 32 14 0
By Manuscripts bought, ...... 015 0
By Antiquities bought,....... 1614 8
By Catalogue of Museum, ..... 1614 8
ie SMOWOIAY, cio a 5 6 6616 oo 10 12 6
By Transactions bought, ...... 6 5 0
By Contingencies, .....-... 36 3 1
By Balance tonext Account,.... 80 8 6
£1145 19 3

BANK OF IRELAND,
April 15, 1864.

I certify that it appears by the Books of the Bank of Ireland, there remained a Balance of

£1848 15s. 8d. New Three per Cent. Government Stock, and £1261 9s. 5

d, Government Three per

Cent. Consols, to the credit of the Account of the Royal Irish Academy, on the 3lst day of Mareh,

1864.

J. R. BRISCOE,
Stock Leger Keeper.

R. I. A. PROC.—VOL. IX,

ROBERT ROBERTS,
Transfer Officer.

No. II.

ACCOUNT

OF

ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY,

FROM ist APRIL, 1864, ro 3lst MARCH, 1865.

———_¢——_—_

THE CHARGE.

To balance in favour of the Public on the 1st ee 1864
(see Vol. [X., App. No. I., p. ix. ) ee Oboe
TO eu RSTO SE GRANT, A i A

CunnincHamM Funp, INTEREST, 3 PER CENTS. :—
Half-year’s Interest on

£1848 15s. 8d.. L20 Va 7
Deduct Income Tax, . Oe 2
——— 26 18 5
Half-year’s Interest on
£1847 15s. 4d.,. . 25) ond
Deduct Income Tax, . 014 0
Die a,
Total Cunningham Fund, Interest,- SS
ACADEMY 3 PER CENT. CONSOLS :—
Half-year’s Interest on
LIZ Ss. LOG ore) vila Oud
Deduct Income Tax, . . 010 6
—— 1710 1
Half-year’s Interest on
£1261 9s. 5d, oo) LS: LS) cro
Deduct Income Tax,. . . OFE9 5
—— 18 9 0
Half-year’s Interest on
EeELZGl sod. He radlteh ales 7a)
Deduct Income Tax,. . . 09 6
— 18 8i1
Total Academy Stock, Interest, SNARE hey ce

Total Interest on Stocks,

Forward,

Ber pane £ s. a
ce lay Nata 80 8 6
500 0 0
54 8 0
54 8 0
108 16 0
. | 689 4 6

X1

Brought forward,
CATALOGUES SOLD, PART I. :—

In February, he. 1 copy, 4s.; March, 5 Es
Pest Ids2 i, 6 A See

CATALOGUES SOLD, PArT II. :—
In September, 1864, 1 copy, 5s.; February, 1864, 1
copy,jas.; March, U-copy, 4s. 9d... 6 ej os ee

CATALOGUES SOLD, VOL. I.:—

In April, 1864, 1 copys 12s.; March, 1865, 2 ae
£1 0s. 0d, .

CATALOGUES SOLD, Part III. :—

In October, 1864, 1 copy, 8s. 4d.; February, 1865, 1
copy, 2s. 4d.; March, 6 copies, Ve Stewiet Tones

Total Catalogues sold,

EnTrRANCE Fees (£5 5s, each) :-—

Babington, T. H., Esq.; Beauchamp, R. H., Esq. ;
Brooke, Sir V., Bart.; Cotton, C. P., Esq.; Dublin,
Most Rev. the Lord Archbishop of; Hennessy, W. M.,
Esqg.; Keenan, P. J., Esq.; Lalor, J. J., Esq.;
Mac Donnell, A., Esq. ; M‘Gee, Hon. T. D’A. ; Madden,
T. M., M. D. ; Meehan, Rev. C. P.; Power, A., Esq.,

Total Entrance Fees, .

Lire Compositions :—

BeAuCHA Mp it. El, TSG etc se ol eee) Ce
Hennessy, W. M., Esq., Seep ned SuCwbane aaLG
Keenan, P. J., Esq.,

IDES ic, UIST ee tec a eR a aa
Clingyens. Tits 01a 1 De Daan sce hse ee ae em
Poore, Major Robert, SMa Miire Late wank coho at

Total Life Compositions,
ANNUAL SuBscrIPTIONS (£2 2s. each) :—
For 1862 :—
Comean, Dy J.,) M.D. ; Smith, ©, Esq, . . >. s

For 1863 :-—

Abraham, G. W., LL. D.; Corrigan, D. J., M.D.;
Field, F., Esq.; Fitzgerald, Lord W.; Gages, A., Esq.;
Galbraith, Rev. J. A.; Gibson, Rev. C. B.; Goold,

Forward,

689 4 6
Py Vals)
014 9
220
018 8
‘ 4:82
ere: ele) 10 68 5 0
21 0 0
207 0
2A 020
21 0 0
6 6 0
21-70). 0
° 111 6 0
4 4 0

a0) 873) 3. 8

xl

Br Bisa Een US: a
For 1863 :— Brought forward, A AO BiB 3778
Ven. F.; Leared, A., M.D.; Lentaigne, J.. M.D.;
Neville, P., Esq.; Ringland, J., M. D.; Stapleton,
M. H., M.B.; Stuart de Decies, Right Hon. Lord ;
Wilson, J., Esq. ol 105770

For 1864 :—

Baker, A. W., Esq. ; Bevan, P., M. D.; Berwick, Hon.

Judge; Brownrigg, Sir H.J., C. B.; Carte, A., M. B.;

Cather, T., Esq. ; Claridge, J. Esq.; Codd, F., Esq.;

Cooke, A., Esq.; Corrigan, D.J., M. D.: Cotton, Ven.

EL ; Davy, E. W. , Esq. . D’Arcy, M. P,, Esq.; Deasy,

Hon. Baron ; De Vesci, Rt. Hon. Viscount ; Domvile,

Sir C. W., Bart. 2 Downing, S., LL. D.; Field, F. Esq.;

Fitzgerald, Lord W.; Fitzgerald, P., Esq.; Fleming,

C., M.D.; Galbraith, Rev. J. A.; Gibson, J. Esq. ;

Goold, Ven. F.; Graves, Rev. J.; Hancock, W. N.,

LL. D.; Hanlon, C., Esq.; Hardinge, W. H., Esq. ;

Hartley, R., Esq.; Haughton, Rev. S.; Hayden, T.,

Esq.; Hudson, A., M.D.; Ingram, J. K., LL. D.;

James, Sir J. K., Bart; Joyce, P. W., Esq.; Ken-

nedy, H., M.D.; Killaloe, Rt. Rev. The Lord Bishop

of; Law, R., M.D.; Le Fanu, W. R., Esq.; Len--

taigne, J..M.D.; Longfield, Rev. G.; Lyons, R. D.,

M.D.; Mac Carthy, J. J., Esq.; MacDougall, W., Esq. ;

Madden, R. R., M.D.; Maunsell, D. T. T., M.D.;

Neville, P., Esq.; O’Flanagan, J. R., Esq.; Oldham,

T. M., LL. Di Hi ENeOt «cd: He, Bisgy: Purser, J. Esa. ;

Richardson, T. 7M. D. . Ringland, J., M. D.; : Segrave,

O’N., Esq. ; Sidney, F. J., LL. D. ; ; Sloane, a S., Esq. ;

Staples, Sit bant.:; ‘Stapleton, M. ig. M. B.;

Stewart, H. H., M. Dee ; Stoney, G. J., A. M. ; Sul-

livan, W. K., Esq. ; Tufnell, T. J., Esq., Waller, J. F., |

LL. D.; Wilkie, H. W., Esq.; Wilson, J:, Esq’ - --|°436 40 0
For 1865 :— |

Cotton, C. P., Esq.; De Vesci, Rt. Hon. Viscount; |

Foley, W., uM Dy . Kenny, J. C. F., Esq.; Killaloe, |

Rt. Rev. The Lord Bishop of; L’Estrange, F., Esq. ;

Moore, D., Esq.; Talbot de ene Rt. Hon. Lord; |

.
Waldron, it SOs ern sees ; ENS 18 18 0
For 1866 :—
Mechans Rey--Ca bn Waldron els pEscer sie) osrio ste 4 4 0
Total Annual Subscriptions, £95) 16:0 |

PROCEEDINGS SOLD :— |
'

Gilbert, J. T., Esq., binding Vol. VIIL., he oeOla ae a OKn
Gilbert, J. d., Wsq.,)Proc., Vol. I...) 0 5 0
Haliday, C., Esq., binding Vol. VIII, aE) ake ae Ores
Kelly, 1D! pai Esq: binding (Viol Vili. i) 0 () aires)
Kenny, F. ee binding Vols. VII. and VIII, Oe)
Mac Carthy, J J., Esq., binding Vol. VIIT., Oe n0
Forward, 0 11-0 11068" 9 8

Xiil

BieiSei Gael 5)! Sel Be
Brought forward, On 11s OF) 1068) 5.9°° 8
Mayne, Rev. C., ditto, Vols. VII. and VIII, . ‘ On 0
Michkolson. J. A-, ditto, Vols..Vii, VIL, VIII, 2. 2%. 043" 0
Sidney, F.J., LL. D., ditto, Vol. VIIE, vous One e0
Smith, Aquiila, M. D., ditto, Vol. VIIL., Orel. 0
Total Proceedings sold, : : 018 0
TRANSACTIONS SOLD :—
Burnside, Rev. W. S., Vol. XVIII., Part I., and Vol.
MEL, Part i, . 4 : Ore
Hodges, Smith, & Co., fo March 31, 1865, Sa Gaur ha te Lae Oe
Williams and Nor gate, to March: 31, 1865534 2-).%¢..),. 13 8 0
Moral ronsnctions Sold, ss eke ss Dye ED 15 9 8
CONTINGENCIES :—
Executors of the late Beriah Botfield, Esq., M. P., per
Messrs. Urwick and Marston, amount of legacy be-
queathed by him tothe Academy, . .... . 29 15 0
REE OOREER GEN CLES eg BUS. g Se Wi Ass sy A)

Oe —_—_—_—---

ToraL Amount oF CHARGE, . ... . PS aia ta gf ie Li Bla

THE DISCHARGE.

ae Se tnd £18. d.; & 8. d
ANTIQUITIES BOUGHT, Museum, &c. :—
Robinson, Rey. C., bronze celt from Kil-
glass, Orrezn 6
Walsh, J., bocent aes : ale Onl Ors.
Egan, C., iron sword from Chapelizod, . 3 Ona G
O’ Neal, T., two great seals, in wax, Oem Pa et) |
Fleming, oe ancient brass seal from the Cis- |
tercian Abbey, Baltinglass,. . LexORcO
Wilde, Sir W. R. , antique wooden shield, 4 5 6 |
Reynolds, J., Braace pin from Moyvoir, One 0
Jones, J. F, a lot of antiquities,. . . 619 6
ditto, ditto, 5 L160
Ryan, F., antique candlestick, ; Ua mat)
Carroll, T., ten stonecelts, and a flint arrow-
head, Ae Oot 0
Langan, iP iipconze pena a? seme Powe Kil- |
mainham, MPs: oe Socbsuges 5 |
O'Daly, J., "wooden ansliee : 0 2 °6
M‘Cormack, small bronze pin from Annagh,
Westmeath, ii tenants ee eG YD "6
Total cost of Antiquities bought, . . .|. . . .j 16 1 «0 |
HOnUAT Ms Note. th, Day eats basaza t) | 00 0 Q

X1V

Brought forward,| .... | 16 1 01 00 0 0
Elvery & Oo., gutta percha for casts, . .| 0 4 6 ;

Total cost of modelling Antiquities, . .|. . « - 0 4 6
Dublin and Drogheda ee carriage of

be ANCL UILICS. ier. Deane 6 O19 7
Farley, J., moving antiquities, Leura |nt 0, uitanKO ;
Kelly, J., ditto, ON 26
Midland Great Western are carriage of

ancient canoe, . 015 4
Kenny, W.., carrriage of ¢ canoe from railway, 0 7 6
Leo, J., moving canoe into eo

House, Os 7210
Brooke, W. G., Esq; Remigee aie canoe from

Levingston to Mullingar yaven ca). OF oO

Total cost ea and carriage of An-.

tiquities,. . Pm cCue ree ieee Ls nbs 30a 214 5

Total Antiquities bought, Museum, &c., 18 19 11

Books, PRinTING, AND STATIONERY :—

Barthes and Lowell, books and periodicals, Ante 0
Sage, James books ci vis is eke Otel Ol,
Arthur, De b0oks: eee. sor se eral aaa Gen G
Lovell, Reeves and Co., “‘ Hors Ferales” . DOW eG
Thom, A., a on Scientific Institu- | —

tions; 721% 2 @
Russell, Rev. Dr., , Papal Mertens relating to

Treland, : 2020
Hodges, Smith, and Co., books’ andl perio

dicals, vie tine «|. 5° 12,3

ditto, periodicals, Se alah alsa 0)

O’Daly, J. , Stapleton’ s Irish See Bea 04 0)

Jones, J. F. MDOOKS ire eealy i Hirengon a « oie 2 0) <0

Total Books bought,. . . LO Oe so I) ai, 2
Crania Britannica, decades iv., v., Pandy vi., 3
Paleeontographical ee 1864- US GD mere
Ray Society, 1864, . . sui pepeel alfa ned

Total Subscriptions paid, . . . otras pear le uece 6 G0

Atlas Parcel Express, carriage of books, he 0) Sao
Barthes and Lowell, duty, &c., on books, 218 0
British and Irish Steam Packet Co., car-

FIASEKOL WOOKS eras ema ey ura se eee ont Ons omnee
Byrne, M.,do., . . Bren | De ty 2)
Chester and Holyhead Railway, ¢ do., peste Olek ac O
Fishbourne, J.,do.,. . . ore OM comune
Globe Parcel saa ESSOrte aerate Oo Dew
Hodges, Smith, and Co., do... . . Ono 0
London N. W. Railway Co., ye etna ie OF ian 0
Mason, G., do., ar ei 010 0
Manning’s Dispatch, do, BiceSer ayy ee Mole way ac’
Moore, T.,.do.,--.-". PAC MUECHIDAC OR MOG ieee Lat’)

Forward, Cri? 617 8) 1819 11

XV

Brought forward,
Pickford and Co., carriage of as
ROWE VY. 00s, % 6c
Williams and Norgate, duty, &e., on ‘books,
Zoological Society, carriage of books,

Total Freight, Duty, and Charges on
Books, .
Connolly, T., General Vallancey’s Military
ae (Maps), : ;
Long, J “Dialogue of the Sages,” and
“Life of St. iPinchua,? >. .. :

Total cost of Manuscripts bought,
Martin J., 10 Parts Proceedings,
O’Neill, T., 47 Vols. Transactions, R. it ie

Total cost of Transactions, R. 1. A., bought,

MIscELLANEOUS BINDING :—

Caldwell, M., binding books in Library from
April 1st, 1864, to March 31st, 1865,

Total cost of Miscellaneous binding, .
Total Expenditure on Library for Books,
Carriage, Binding, &e.,. - . + +

MISCELLANEOUS PRINTING :—

Gill, M. H., miscellaneous printing from
April 1, 1864, to March 31, 1868,

Total Miscellaneous Printing, .

PROCEEDINGS, PRINTING AND BINDING :—

Gill, M. H., printing to March 16, 1865,
Grey, C., woodcuts,

Hanlon, George A., woodeuts, 5
Mowatt, J. , binding Vols. IV. and VIIL,,
Oldham, W.. MOOK CUESS | cane) wee tales ve
Ward, M., and Co., woodcuts, . . . .

Total Printing, &c., Proceedings,

TRANSACTIONS, PRINTING AND BINDING :—

Gill, M. H., printing, Dr. Reeves’s Paper
On Culdees, ese rs

Hanlon, G. A., santo, the Presence
paper “ On Undeseribed Monuments,”

Total cost of Transactions, . . .

Forward,

fies a.
(5) alts} 7
OWas 0
0 O 10
Gelsis
0 8 6
Ay A)
8 0 0
0 5 0
pl alas @)
AA OL
17, 12-310
48 11

=
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73:15 0
LOG Oke

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94 3 2
830.15) 27
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18 19 11

XVill

Bam et V(0 eel ane IE eget
Ilan O ae Brought forward,. . . £69 6 9 54 8 O| 88612 4
310 0.|—Consols. one) a2 On ae
41 days’ Interest, 0 1 7
Brokerage, . Ou tia vs
Pap eR) (8)
23, 10 6) Consols—s5 20 15 11
74 days’ Interest, 0 2 10
Brokerage, . Seal Aa ae,
———- 21 90 90
6.19) 10%eC@onsols, sa Go, 11 :
76 days’ Interest, 07-0716 |
Brokerage, SO Rede 8 |
—— 6 6 0
——_—_—_—_. Total Academy Stock
£131 5-11] ought ene nacre 117 12 0
Total Government Stocks bought, shite ot Roe OO
ToraAL DISCHARGE,. . . 1058712 “4
Balance in Bank of Ireland, 47 0 7
», in Treasurer’s hands, oe ein Y
Total balance in favour of the Public % this
account (3lst March, 1865), . . . . . Breed ei 55 19. 7
TotaL AMouNT oF CHARGE, Bee oho yeaa ea bal: Sina la be

GENERAL ABSTRACT OF THE MONTHLY ACCOUNTS OF THE ROYAL

IRISH ACADEMY,

AS FURNISHED TO AUDIT OFFICE, FROM Ist APRIL, 1864, TO 31st MARCH, 1865.

Dr. Liisa: | Cr. LU Sicde

To Balance on Ist April, ee 80 8 6 By Academy Stock bought, . . . 11712 0
To Parliamentary Grant, 500 0 0 By Cunningham Fund, Stock bought, 54 8 0
To Annual Subscriptions, | 195 6 0 By Coals, Gas; &G.98) ete eo 4014 29
To Entrance Fees, . 68 5 0 | By Furniture and Repairs, .-.-.. 31 0 6
To Catalogues sold, Part I, 29 By Repairs of House, 5 318 4
To Catalogues sold, Part ies oA Ge By Taxes and Insurance, 16 18 10
To Catalogues sold, Part ee 018 8 By Salaries, ... 387 1 0
To Catalogues sold, Vol. LO @ By Printing Proceedings, Cee Cape) Se Gime
To Proceedings sold, . 018 0 By Printing Transactions, . ... 83815 7
To Transactions sold, 15) 293 By Printing, Miscellaneous, . 17 12:0
To Life Compositions, saya lll 6 0 By Books bought; .=.5 32 ¢ 5617 8
To Interest on Academy’s Stock, . 54 8 0 | By Miscellaneous Binding, « (44508
To Interest on ou Fund, 54 8 0 By Manuscripts bought, 12 4 0
To Contingencies, 2915 0 By Antiquities bought, . . eo Lo 24
By Stationery, . : (i PA Ai

By Transactions pought, . 12 0 0

By Contingencies, . . . 35 8 2

By Tidal Observations, 20 0 0

" By Balance to next Account, 6519 7

£1114 11 11 £1114 11 11

I certify that it appears by the Books of the Bank of Ireland, there remained a Balance of
£1910 12s. lid. New Three per Cent. Government Stock, and £1392 15s. 4d. Consolidated 3 per Cent.
Government Stock, to the credit of the Royal Irish Academy, on the 31st day of March, 1865.

For the Governor and Company of the Bank of Ireland,

ROBERT ROBERTS,
Transfer Officer.

J. R. BRISCOE,
Stock Leger Keeper.

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INDEX

TO VOLUME IX. OF THE PROCEEDINGS.

ABBAN, St., burial of, 259.
Abbey-Shrule, architectural drawings of,

152,

Abib, or Epiphi, the month, 297.
AcaADEmyY, RoyAt IrRIsH,
Accounts :

For 1863-4, Appendix, p. i ; for 1864-5,

Tbid., p. x; for 1865-6, Ibid., p. xix.
—— Address:

Of Academy, to Baron Wodehouse,
Lord Lieutenant, adopted, 170; pre-
sented, 170; His Excellency’s answer,
171.

Of Dean Graves, President, on the death
of Sir W. R. Hamilton, 307; on the
death of Dr. Petrie, 325.

Inaugural, of Lord Talbot de Mala-
hide, President, 390.

Adjournment :

On occasion of Dr. Petrie’s death, $25.
Clerk:

Edward Clibborn, 220, 389.
Committee. See Council.

Council :

Committee of Science—

Apjohn, James, M.D., 388; Jellett,
Rev. J. H., 221; Jukes, Joseph B.,
221, 388; M‘Donnell, Robert, M. D.,
221, 888; Salmon, Rev. George, D. D.,
221, 388; Smith, Robert W., M. D.,
221, 388; Stoney, George J., LL. D.,
221, 388; Sullivan, William K., Ph. D.,
221, 388.

Committee of Polite Literature—
Anster, John, LL. D., 221, 389; Car-
son, Rev. Joseph, D.D., 221, 389;
Graves, Very Rev. Charles, D. D., 389;
Ingram, John K., LL. D., 221, 389;
Longfield, Rev. George, 221, 389;
Madden, R.R., M.D., 221, 389; Taylor,
Captain Meadows, 221; Waller, John
Pe 1D, 221,389.

Committee of Antiquities—
Gilbert, John T., 221, 389; Haliday,
Charles, 221, 389; Hardinge, William
H., 221, 389; Kelly, Denis H., 389;
Petrie, George, LL. D., 221; Reeves,
William, D. D., 221, 389; Talbot de
Malahide, Lord, 336; Todd, James H.,
D.D., 221; Wilde, Sir William R.,
M: D:, 221; 389.
Election of Council and Officers:
In 1865, 220, 221; in 1866, 388, 389.
Finances :
In 1865-6, 381: increase of Parliamen-
tary grant, 224, 382; to £700, 224, 382;
inadequate for purposes of publication,
&e., 379, 382. See Accounts.
Grant, Parliamentary:
Memorial for increase of, 217, 220, 382 ;
addition made, bringing it up to £700
a year, 224, 382.
-—— Librarian:
Gilbert, John T., 221, 389.
Library:
Donations to, 106, 148, 223, 260, 262,
267, 306, 324, 336, 348, 379, 386,
423, 5380, 539, 545; additions to, in
1864-5, 216; in 1865-6, 381.
Meetings :
March Stated, in 1865, 215; in 1866,
380: November Stated, in 1864, 170;
in 1865, 307.
Members, Ordinary :
Elected in 1864-5, 217; in 1865-6,
384; lost by death in 1864-5, 217; in
1865-6, 383.
Members, Honorary :
Elected in 1866, 389.
Museum :
Presentations to, 41, 106, 199, 215,
221, 223, 267, 306, 530, 550; additions
to, in 1864-5, 216; in 1865-6, 381,
384; early state of, 329; curator of,

XX

221, 389; grants to, 267, 545; sale of
Catalogue, Append., p. ii.
—— President: ;
Very Rev. Charles Graves, D. D., 220 ;
Lord Talbot de Malahide, 388.
Proceedings :
Delay in publication of, 215 ; progress,
380.
—— Report:
Annual, for 1864-5, 215; for 1865-6,
380. See Accounts.
Salaries:
Of officers, &c., Append. pp. vill, xvii.
Secretary :
Rev. Wm. Reeves, D.D., 221, 389.
Secretary of Council:
John K. Ingram, LL. D., 321, 389.
Secretary of Foreign Correspondence :
Sir Wm. R. Wilde, M. D., 221, 389.

Subscribers ¢

ec 209

Transactions :

Papers published in, 215, 380.

Treasurer:

Rev. Joseph Carson, D,D., 221, 389.

Vice-Presidents :

Graves, Very Rev. Charles, D. D., 444;

Jellett, Rev. John H., 221; Jukes,

Joseph B., 221; Petrie, George, LL. D.,

221; Salmon, Rev. George, D. D., 444;

Sullivan, W. K., Ph. D., 444; Waller,

John F., LL. D., 221; Wilde, Sir W. R.,

M. D., 444.

Report on, by Select Committee of

H. of Commons, 216; Memorial to the

Lords Commissioners of the Treasury,

216; vote on the death of Sir William

R. Hamilton, 316; Recommendation to

Government to survey and map the

monuments near Oldcastle, 50.

- Adams, Rev. Benjamin W., D.D., elected
a Member, 325.

Address of the Academy, to Baron Wode-
house, Lord Lieutenant, 170; His Excel-
lency’s answer, 171.

of the Very Rev. Dean Graves,

President, on the death of Sir W. R.

Hamilton, 307; on the death of Dr.

Petrie, 325.

Inaugural, of Lord Talbot de Mala-
hide, President, 390.

Adjournment of Academy on Dr. Petrie’s
death, 325.

Aedh, or Hugh, son of Roi, bishop of
Foyran, 150; his well, 151.

Aelchu, St., of Aran, 188.

Aenach Clochair, or Monasteraneanaigh,
347.

Aengus the Culdee, manuscript of his
Felire in Bodleian Library, 185.

Aéroliths, various falls of, in Ireland, 342 ;.
shower of, at Killeter, 341. See Me-
teorite.

Aes-dana, professors of poetry, 187.

Agharra, ancient church of, 149.

Aghaviller, origin of the name, 234.

Ailind, or Knock-Allen, 350.

An, the Irish article, how changed in
composition, 229.

Analysis, of Meteoric Stone, 337-342, 343.

Anatomy, notes on muscular anomalies
in, 444.

Anchor, ancient form of, 39.

Anchorite, church of, at Fore, 149.

Animal Mechanics, notes on. See Rev.
Samuel Haughton, M. D.

Annagh, county of Kerry, drawing of
carved slab at, 433.

Anster, John, LL. D., member of Council
(Com. of Polite Lit.), 221, 389; dona-
tion of his Goethe’s Faustus, pt. 2, 223.

Antiquities, added to Museum, in 1865-6,
381; purchased, Append., pp. iv, xiii.

Apjohn, James, M. D., member of Council
(Com. of Science), 388; his analysis of
the Adare meteorite, 343.

Ara, the island, St. Aelchu of, 188.

Aran-more, two sepuchral inscriptions
from, 160 ; drawings of remains on, 425.

Archeologia of the Society of Antiquaries,
Irish remains described in, 101.

Armstrong, Sir William, experiments with
his gun, 68, 70-76.

Article, the definite, preserved in names of
places, 230.

Assyrio-Babylonian measure of time, Dr.
Hincks on, 223.

Authors, Irish, Duald Mac Firbis’ tract
on, 184.

Autographs, collection of, presented by P.
O’Callaghan, LL. D., 262.

Babington, T. Henderson, elected a Mem-
ber, 209.

Badger, the, Dr. Haughton on the muscu-
lar anatomy of, 507.

Bahya, Indian copper kettle drum, 117.

Bag-in-bun Head, Strongbow’s entrench-
ment at, 438.

Baker, John A., elected a Member, 539.

Ballaghmoon, battle field of, 259.

Ballinacarriga Castle, views of, 441.

Ballin Lough, crannogs in, 172; sketch
of, 174; ancient remains in vicinity of,
176.

XX11

Ballymoon Castle, county of Carlow,
drawings of, 438.

Ballymote, Book of, key to Ogham alpha-
bets in, 167.

Ballynageeragh, cromleac of, 423.

Ballynakill, crannogs in parish of, 172.

Ballynameen, county of Waterford, draw-
ing of font at, 440.

Ballyphilip Bridge, cromleac near, 423.

Bannow, origin of the name, 252.

Banshees, Herbert F. Hore on, 170.

Barrington, John, elected a Member, 530.

Barry, Rev. Thos. D. F., elected a Mem-
ber, 325.

Batter, corrupted from Bothar, ‘a road,’
Zotee:

Bealach-Duiblinne, an ancient road, 227.

Bear, the Virginian, Dr. Haughton on the
muscles of, 508.

Beauchamp, Robert Henry, elected a Mem-
ber, 192.

Been, a species of Indian guitar, 115.

Bell, the Golden, or Clog Oir of St. Senan,
41.

the Indian Gunté, 108; ankle bell
of India, 108.

Belview, cave of, 48.

Bennett, Edward H., M.D., elected a
Member, 539.

Bequest, of Beriah Botfield, Esq., 192;
of William Smith O’Brien, Esq., 306.
Binomial coefficients, Sir William Hamil-
ton’s note on theorem relating to the,
297, 300.

Birds, Dr. Haughton on the comparative
myology of certain, 524.

Bishops of Ireland, Duald Mac Firbis’ tract
on the, 184; 270 sees of, enumerated
therein, 188; seven, at Druimurchaille,
188; groups of seven, in 143 churches,
188, 189.

Blood, instrument for measuring the ve-
locity of, in circulation, 317.

Boat, ancient, found in Lough Owel, 210;
presented, 199.

Bodleian Library, tracts of Duald Mac
Firbis in, 182.

Boher-na-breena, meaning of, 346.

Bones, remains of, from the cairns on
Sliabh-na-Caillighe, 363, 367; described
by Dean Graves, 379.

Bonuit, name on a tombstone at Clonmac-
nois, 158.

Books, bequeathed by W. S. O’Brien,
catalogue of, 386; donations of. See
Academy, Library.

Booterstown, origin of the name, 228.

Botfield, Beriah, Esq., his bequest to the
Academy, 192.

Bothar-na-geloch, or Stony-batter, 227,
228.

Boyne, the battle of the, Lord Meath’s letter
respecting, 534.

Bradfield reservoir, Professor Downing on
the failure of, 42.

Brash, Richard R., elected a Member, 222;
Ogham inseription noticed by, 170.

Brecan, St., a bishop, 188; his tombstone,
160.

Brehon Laws, vol. i. of, presented, 262.

Brigid, St., her house at Faughart, 424;
her connexion with the Curragh, 344,
348.

Brigit, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois, 158.

Brogan Claen, St., poem by, 344.

Bronze, white, staple of, 157.

Brooke, Sir Victor A., Bart., elected a
Member, 1.

Brooke, W. G., his description of ancient
boat found in Lough Owel, 210.

Brugsch, M., discoveries by, 294; correc-
tious of, 295, 296.

Bull of Pope Innocent IV., 40.

Bullaun, a rude font, 433.

Burton, Captain Richard F., elected aMem-
ber, 222.

Byrne, Rev. James, on the science of lan-
guage, 536.

Caah, of St. Columcille; withdrawn and
redeposited by Sir R. O'Donnell, Bart.,
536.

Caher-mac-turk, at Nymphsfield, 549.

Cahirciveen, Dr. Haughton on the semi-
diurnal tides of, 40; inscribed monu-
ment found near, 180.

Cailleach Bhéartha, from whom Sliabh-
na-Caillighe, 356.

Cairns, sepulchral, on Sliabh-na-Caillighe,
44, 355; described, 359-378.

on Twizell Moor, 199.

Caldragh Stone, 150.

Cane, Arthur B., death of, 217.

Canoe, ancient Irish, found in Lough Owel,
210; presented, 199.

Carlanstown Castle, drawing of, 153.

Carnan-Cuill, at Rathkenny, 542.

Carnbane, in Meath, remains on, 357.

Carrick Castle, Co. of Westmeath, 157.

Carrickadroghid, castle and bridge of, 441.

Carrickaphooca Castle, view of, 441.

Carson, Rev. Joseph, D. D., member of
Council (Com. Polite Lit.), 221, 389;
Treasurer, 221, 389.

Carte, Dr., dissection by, 1.

Casey, John, elected a member, 530; paper
on equations and properties of certain
systems of circles and spheres, 396.

XXIV

Castle Archdall, old abbey in the demesne
of, 430.

Castle Hacket, formerly Knockma, 547.

Castles, wood used in the construction of,
439.

Castletownsend, Dr. Haughton on the semi-
diurnal tides at, 379.

’ Catalogue of Irish MSS., Mr. Jos. O’Lon-
gan employed in compiling, 382.

Cath-na- Bunnen, valley of the Battle of the
Butts, 548.

Cave, at Ratheroghan, Ogham inscription
in, 161; remarkable cavesin Meath, 48;
the three caves of Ireland, 162.

Cellach, tombstone of, at Clonmaenois, 159.

Celtic literature, professorships of, sup-
pressed, 219.

Cemetery of Relig-na-ree, at Rathcroghan,
162.

Census returns of Ireland in 1659, 221;
transcribed for Academy, 225, 381.

Cercopithecus, anatomy of hip and knee
joints of, Dr. Haughton on, 287.

Cervus megaceros, skeletons of, 202.

Chain armour, for ships, 80.

Chandos, Duke of, purchaser of the Ware
MSS., 183.

Chasles, Michel, elected an Honorary
Member, 389.

Chikara, a species of Indian violin, 114.

Chimpanzee, anatomy of, Prof. Gratiolet
on, 286.

Cholumban, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
159.

Christ Church, Dublin, drawing of effigy
in, 433; inscription on a slab in, 437.
Christopher, St.,slegend of, 435; effigy of,
434; represented in Knockmoy fresco,

436.

Chronicon Scotorum, compiler of, 189.

Cill-Bian, or Cill-Sgandail, 188.

Cill-Cuana, or Cill-Tuama, 188.

Cill-insi, in Inis-Sgoreobhuin, 188.

Cill-Sgandail, or Cill- Bian, 188.

Cill-Tuama, or Cili-Cuana, 188.

Circles, concentric, inscribed-on stone, 179;
inscribed on a cromleac, 541; drawing
of, Plate x; circular hollows cut on stone
monuments, 180.

Clann Aodhagain, or Egan family, 186.

Clann an Bretheimhain, family of, 186.

Clann an Deasy, the family, 189.

Clann Multeely, the family, 187.

Clarendon, Lord, purchaser of the Ware
MSS., 183; Clarendon MSS. in British
Museum presented by Dean Milles, 184.

Clausius, R., elected an Hon. Member, 389;
his letter of acknowledgment, 545.

Clibborn, Edward, Clerk, Assist. Librarian,
and Curator of Museum, 221, 389.

Cloghawn, or stone house, of St. Brigid,
424,

Clog Oir, or Golden Bell, of St. Senan, 41;
deposited in Museum, 216, 385.

Clonamery, or Killamery, old church of,
431.

Clonarvey Church, in Westmeath, 153.

Clone, in Co. Wexford, old church of, 432.

Clonmacnois, inscribed tombstones at, 158;
cross of king Fland at, 426; St. Fingin’s
church at, exterior view of, 426; church
of the kings at, 426.

Clonmines Abbey, plan and drawings of,
439.

Clon-tubrid, in Co. of Kilkenny, 480.

Cloonties, meaning of the name, 245.

Cluain, meaning of, 430.

Coins, collection of, in Academy, 221; not
yet arranged, 381.

Colloony, formerly Cuil-mhaoile, 231.

Colman Conailech, St., figure of, 427 ; re-
presentations of, 428.

Colman Mac Duagh, St., abbey founded by,
176; his church, 425.

Colum Mac Crimthainn, St., Mincloth mo-
ther of, 256.

Comber, meaning of the name, 240,

Comgan, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
159.

Conch shell, the Indian shunk, 118.

Congabaim, ‘‘habito,” from which comes
Congbhail, 231.

Congbhail, i. e., Congabhail, a habitation,
231; derivation of the word, 231.

Connellan, Professor Owen, employed at
descriptive catalogue of MSS., 382.

Conwal, meaning of the name, 231.

Conwell, Eugene A., on hitherto unde-
scribed antiquarian remains in Meath, at
Sliabh-na-Caillighe, 42, 170; examina-
tion of sepulchral cairns on the Lough-
crew hills, 355; on an inscribed cromleae
near Rathkenny in Meath, 541; onthe
Lia Fail at Tara, 539.

Coo brei be derb, an inscription at Coolam-
ber, 152:

Coolamber, view and plan of castle of, 152;
plan of church of, 152; inscribed tomb-
stone at, 152.

Coolhull Castle, Co. Wexford, view of, 441.

Coppinger, Christopher, death of, 217.

Cormac, King of Munster, tradition con-
cerning, 257; his burial place, 259.

Cormac Mac Mothla, burial place of, 259.

Cormac’s Glossary, MSS. of, 344.

Cornish pumping engine, 61.

Corrosion of iron-plated vessels, preven-
tives of, 64.

Costume, Irish, represented on King Fland’s
cross, 427; articles of, found in Co.
Down, 101-104.

Cotton, Charles Philip, C. E., elected a Mem-
ber, 42. i

Cranfield, original form of the name, 236.

Crannagh-mac-Knavin, 176.

Crannogs, in Ballin Lough, Mr. Kinahan’s
account of, 172; in Lough Nahinch, 176.

Crich-Graicrighe, in Sligo and Roscom-
mon, 151. ;

Crocodile, the muscular anatomy of, Dr.
Haughton on, 268. ;

Crofton, . Denis, on vestiges of ancient
human habitation in Poole’s Cavern, 536.

Cromleacs, classification of, 544; in Co.
Waterford, drawings of, 423; an in-
scribed cromleac at Rathkenny, 541,
Plate xii.; and near Macroom, 543, Plate
xi.; cup-shaped hollows incised on
some, 180; cromleac at Policondah,
described by Hen. O’Hara, 190.

Cross, of King Fland, at Clonmacnois, draw-
ing of, 426 ; sculptured plinth of, at Old-
court, 425; of eight points, 433, origin
of, 429; St. Cronan’s, 159.

Crover Castle, 155.

Cruachan, or Rathcroghan, cave of, 162.

Cruise, Francis R., M. D., elected a Mem-
ber, 539.

Cuinnedh Mac Cathbadha, or Mac Cuillen
of Lusk, St., 189.

Cuirrech, or Curragh, 345.

Cul a mhota, the burial-place of Caillech
Bhéartha, 357.

Culdees, paper on, cost of printing, Append.,
p. Xv.

Cumming, Francis, MS. deposited by,
209.

Cunnagavale, origin of name, 231.

Cunningham Fund, annual account of,
Append., p. i, x.

Cunotamus, Sagranus son of, 167.

Cup-shaped hollows incised in stone, 179.

Curragh of Kildare, Mr. Hennessy’s paper
on, 343; derivation of the name, 345;
345; a common in 1299, 352.

Currech, changed to Curragh, 344, 345.

Curry, Eugene, Lectures of, cited, 185.

Curvature, Sir W. R. Hamilton on a new
system of two general equations of, 302.

Curved surfaces, disquisitions on, 303.

Cusack, H. T., death of, 217.

Cuthraighi, in Leinster, 256.

Cyclopean masonry, examples of, 149, 151,
425, 481.

Cymbal, the Indian, 107.

XKV

Cynocephalus, anatomy of hip and knee
joints of, Dr. Haughton on, 287.

Daineill, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
158.

Dak, a kind of Indian drum, 117.

Darwin, Charles, elected an Hon. Member, —
389; his letter of acknowledgment, 530.

Dayra, a kind of Indian tambourine, 116.

Dean’s Castle, near Carrick, Co. of Wex-
ford, view of, 440.

De Clare family, arms of, 433.

Deer, red, horns and skull of, found, 176.

Delany, Mrs., her correspondence cited,
183.

Deléme, M. Dupuis, 25.

Deposit, in the Museum, of the Caah of St.
Columkille, 536; of the Clog-Oir, 216,
385.

Derg-Farna, a cave, 162.

Dermot Mac Kervil, alleged judgment of,
earlier than he, 187.

De Ros, Lord, on the construction of an-
cient galleys, &c., 32.

Devenish, round tower of, drawings of carv-
ings on, 425.

Dh6l, an Indian drum, 116.

Dhélkee, an Indian kettle drum, 116.

Dickinson, Joseph, M. D., death of, 217.

Dingo, the Australian, muscular anatomy
of, 504.

Disert Diarmaid, the burial place of King
Cormac, 259.

Do, a kind of Indian tambourine, 116.

Donations. See under Academy, Library,
and Museum.

Donoughmore, Earl of, his death, 383.

Doogdooga, small hand drum of India, 117.

Dopping, Bishop Anthony, his Register of
Meath Diocese cited, 151.

Dort, Mosheim’s ‘‘ De auctoritate concilii
Dordraceni paci sacrz noxia’’ present-
ed, 262.

Dove, an emblem on sculptured crosses,
429, 430.

Down, county of, antiquities found in, 101.

Downing, Professor, on the failure of the
Bradfield reservoir, 42.

Drawing, illustrative, of Ballin Lough,
174; dissection of parts of the crocodile,
269, 272; cave of Rathcroghan, 162-
165; Cromlech at Policondah, 191; La
Gloire frigate, 63; the French Emperor’s
Galley, 29; model of Galley in T. C. D.,
27; parts of the lion, 86, 87, 89; Lough
Nahinch, 178; parts of Macacus neme-
strinus, 278, 279, 280, 283; parts of the
ostrich, 51-53, 56, 59, 60; parts of the
seal, 96-98; stone with incised hollows,

Xxvl

180, 181; ancient textile fabrics, 102,
103; Warrior target, 69.

Drawings of Irish architectural antiquities,
ninety-nine, presented by G. V. Du
Noyer, 148; another donation of one
hundred, by the same, 343; another
donation of one hundred, by the same,
423.

Dress, ancient Irish, samples of, 102-5.

Dromcolliher, original form of the name,
235.

Drones, Tenor and Bass, Indian, 111.

Druim-Criadh, the ancient name of Kil-
dare, 349.

Druim-Urchaille, seven bishops of, 188.

Drum, the Indian, various kinds of, 116,
117.

Drumkeragh mountain, in Co. of Down,
101.

Drummond, William H., D. D., death and
obituary notice of, 383; his publica-
tions, 384.

Dubhthach mac Ua Lugair, 256.

Dublin, Priory of the Holy Trinity, papal
bull regarding, 40.

Duff, a species of Indian tambourine, 116.

Dulcimer, the Indian Sar Mundal, 115.

Dumont de Bostaquet, memoirs of, pre-
sented, 381.

Dundrum, Co. of Tipperary, fall of a
meteoric stone at, 336.

Dun Mac Patrick, at Old Head of Kinsale,
views of, 440.

Du Noyer, George V., ninety-nine original
drawings of Irish architectural antiqui-
ties presented by, 148; one hundred
more presented by, 343; one hundred
more presented by, 423; descriptive
catalogues of same, 148, 423; his dona-
tions filling seven volumes, 343, 423,
443; his drawings of antiquarian re-
mains on the Loughcrew hills, 378, ex-
hibited, 379; his drawing of inscribed
cromleac at Rathkenny, 542, Plate xii.

Dunraven, the Countess of, Memorials of
the Manor of Adare presented by, 262.

Dunsaughly Castle, Co. of Dublin, view of,
441.

Eanagh, or Enda, on Aranmore, 424.
Eastersnow, origin of the name, 248.
Echaradh, now Agharra, 149.

Edan, or Aidan, St., church of, at Foyran,
151 ; church and well of, at Clone, 432,
433.

Edgeworth family, possessions of, 154.

Edgeworth, David R., elected a Member,
546.

Edhghedh, a volume of laws, 187.

Ednen, or Indednen, church of, 189.

Effigy, mailed, in Christ Church, Dublin,
drawing of, 433.

Egyptians, the, various years and rrigeiflis
in use among, Dr. Hincks’ paper on,
294.

Eibhlin Bheurtha, or Evleen Vera, 357.

Elchiaran, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
159.

Elphin, derivation of the name, 233.

Emu, the, muscular anatomy of, 487.

Endeus, St., of Aran, 424.

Eochaidh, son of Conall Mean, 150.

Eochy mac Hire, King of the Firbolgs, 547.

Equations and properties of certain systems
of circles, spheres, and conics, paper on,
by John Casey, 396.

Era, the Christian, dates of, 295.

Evleen, of Sliabh Gullion, 357.

Explosion, calculation of the strain in, 75.

F, the letter, in proper names, 233.

Faebhran, or Faobhran, two places of the
name, 151; one nowcalled Foyran, 150;
another in Co. of Sligo, 151.

Farnham, Lord, donation of, tothe Museum,
221.

Fathy, or Faithche, a court or green, 350.

Faughart, plan and restoration of St. Bri-
gid’s house at, 424.

Favoran, now Foyran, 151.

Fayron, or Foyran, St. Edan’s church of,
151.

Fechin, St., of Fore, old church of, 148.

Fechthach, tombstone of, 158.

Felire of Aengus, MS. of, 185.

Feohran, or Foyran, old church of, 150.

Ferguson, James F., biographical notice
of, 260; his collection of abstracts from
the memoranda rolls, 260; his ‘‘ Re-
marks on the Limitation of Actions
Bill,” 262.

Ferguson, Samuel, account of Ogham in-
seriptions in the cave of Rathcroghan,
by, 160; on a passage in Henry of
Huntingdon relative to Stonehenge, 193.

Ferrycarrick Castle, view of, 438.

Fethard, inscription in wall of episcopal
palace at, 437; cross at the church of,
438.

Fidh-gheinte, origin of the name, 351.

Filii, represented in Ogham inscriptions by
Magi, 167.

Finan Cam, St., stone cell of, 424.

Fine Cormaic, extent of, 256.

Fingin, St., church of, at Clonmacnois,
426.

Finnae, Finnah, in Irish Fiodh-an-atha,
151, 156.

XXVli

Fiodh-an-atha, now Finnae, 156.

Firbolgic race, 547.

Fitzgerald, Lord William, death of, 217.

Fland, King, his cross and story, 426, 427.

Fogartach, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
159.

Foibren, now Foyran, 150.

Forbes, Dr., his Hindustani Grammar
noticed, 263.

Fore, St. Fechin’s at, drawings of, 148;
St. Mary’s of, monument of the Nugent
family at, 442.

Forfeited lands in Ireland, extent, value,
and distribution of, 317.

Fossil remains, found in Irish coal mea-
sures, 325.

Four Masters, autograph of 2nd part of
their Annals, when purchased, 329.

Foyran, or Foibren, or Faoibran, old
church of, 150, 151.

Fraech, son-in-law of Queen Medhbh, 161.

Fraic, son of Medhbh, 168.

France, historical works presented by the
Government of, 216, 223.

Franked letters, a collection of, presented
by R. P. Williams, 306.

Frazer, Rey. Arthur B., elected a Member,
222.

Frazer, William, elected a Member, 530.

Freeland, John, M. D., elected a Member,
222.

French, Col. P. T., collection of Indian
musical instruments presented by, 106.

Funcheon, the river, origin of its name, 232.

Galley, ancient, model of, 27; modern
French, 28, 29; G. C. Garnett, on an-
cient galleys, 25; diagrams of parts
and arrangements of, 34, 36, 37, 39;
various theories concerning, 29 ; Lord
de Ros, on their construction, 32.

Galway, Thomas, elected a Member, 539.

Games, public, in Ireland, 350.

Gargrim, origin of the name, 238.

Garnett, G. C., on ancient galleys, 25; on
armour-plated ships of war, 62 ; on deep
sea soundings, 182.

Gauss, his disquisitiones generales circa
superficies curvas, 3(2.

Geology, progress in the science of, 391.

Gilbert, John T., member of Council (Com.
of Antiqq.), 221, 389; Librarian, 221,
389; on first Parliament held in Ireland
under Poyning’s Law, 223.

Gilla, when first introduced into composi-
tion, 352.

Gillaglarain, his tombstone at Clonmac-
nois, 158.

Glutzeal muscles, comparison of, in various
animals, 88.

BR. FE. A. PROC.—VOL. IX.

Goat, and certain other ruminants, com-
parative myology of, 526.

Gobbonet, St., her stone cell at Bally vour-
ney, 424.

Gong, the Indian, 107.

Goongooroo, or Indian ankle-bell, 108.

Gort, ancient name of, 425.

Gortenacuppoge, the old name of Marble
Hill demesne, 176.

Gort-insi-Guaire, now Gort, 425.

Granard, Earl of, his donation to the
Museum, 102.

Grant, the Government, increased to £700,
224, 382; by Academy to the Museum,
545 ; for copying the census of 1659,
2209.

Gratiolet, Professor, notice of, 268; his
remarks on the anatomy of the chim-
panzee, 286.

Graves, Alfred, inscribed monument found
by, 179, 180.

Graves, Very Rev. Charles, D. D., re-
elected President, 220; vote of thanks
to, on his retirement, 389; appointed a
Vice-President, 444; his eloge on Sir
W. R. Hamilton, 307; on Dr. Petrie,
325; theorem relating to the Binomial
coefficients, 297; on inscribed monu-
ments in Kerry, 179; description of the
bone remains found on Sliabh-na-Cail-
lighe, 379.

Griese, the river, 256.

Griffiths, W. Handsell, on Hemodromo-
meters, 317.

Guitar, the Indian, 113, 115.

Gun, the Armstrong and Whitworth, 68
70-76.

Gun cotton, qualities of, 77.

Gunté, or Indian bell, 108.

Hacket, family of, 443.

Hemodromometers, W. H. Griffiths on
317.

Hag’s Chair, a cairn, 46, 371.

Hair, female, ancient specimen of, 102.

Haliday, Charles, a member of Council
(Com. of Antigq.), 389.

Hamilton, Charles W., 359, 379.

Hamilton, Sir William R., on some recent
geometrical results of the Quaternion
calculus, 106 ; note on a theorem relat-
ing to the Binomial coefficients, 297,
200; on anew system of two general
equations of curvature, 302; his death,
383 ; Academy’s vote on, 316; obituary
notice of, 8383; Dean Graves’ eloge on,
307; allusion to his death, 390.

Hardinge, William H., a member of Coun-
cil (Com. of Antiqq.), 221, 389; on
MS. mapped and other townland sur-

@

XXVlll

veys of Ireland, 190; on certain MS.
translations of Virgil’s AMineid, 209;
on the Irish census returns of 1659,
221; on an unpublished essay of Sir
Wm. Petty, 224; on the Irish trans-
plantation of 1653-4, 317.

Hatchell, George, M. D., elected a Mem-
ber, 225.

Haughton, Lieutenant, observations by, at
St. Helena, 126.

Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M. D., on the se-
midiurnal tides at Cahirciveen, 40, 379 ;
on an approximate method of deter-
mining the excretion of urea, 104; on
the evaporation of a water surface at
St. Helena, 126; on the Dundrum
meteorite, 336; dissections by, 1, 15;
on the muscular anatomy of the badger,
507; on the muscles of the Virginian
bear, 508; comparison of certain mus-
cles in the Cercopithecus, Cynocephalus,
and Macacus, 286; on the muscular
anatomy of the crocodile, 268; on the
muscular anatomy of the emu, 487;
on the muscular anatomy of the lion,
85; on the muscular anatomy of the
Macacus nemestrinus, 277; on the mus-
cles uf the Marsupials, 469 ; on the mus-
cular mechanism of the leg of the ostrich,
50; onthe muscularanatomy of the otter,
511; on the muscular anatomy of the
rhea, 497; on the muscular anatomy
of the rhinoceros, 515; on the muscu-
lar anatomy of the seal, 93; on the
muscular anatomy of the Irish terrier,
504; on the comparative myology of
certain birds, 524; on the comparative
myology of certain ruminants, 526.

Hawarden, Lord, meteoric stone presented
to Trinity College, Dublin, by, 337.

Hayden, Thomas, M. D., on the physiology
of protrusion of the tongue, 539.

Heart-shaped stones in ecclesiastical re-
mains, 430.

Hennessy, William M., elected a Member,
209; letter of, 185; two of Mac Firbis’
tracts copied by, 182, presented to the
Academy, 190; on the Curragh of
Kildare, 343.

Henry of Huntingdon, passage of, relative
to Stonehenge, 193.

Hincks, Rev. Edward, D. D., on the
Assyrio-Babylonian measures of time,
323; on the various years and months
in use among the Egyptians, 294.

Hindu music, account of, 118; example
of, 122.

Hindustani Syntax, Mr. John Morisy on,
263.

History, Irish, pofesssor of, 186.

Hodson, Sir George, Bart., letter com-
municated by, 534.

Holar-cha-soonai, Indian reed pipes, 110.

Holm Patrick, destruction of ecclesiastical
remains on, 132; drawings of old church
of, 432.

Hoodook, a kind of Indian drum, 117.

Hook Promontory, drawing of tower at,
438.

Hooker, Sir William J., death of, 383.

Hoolar-cha-soor, Indian drones, 111.

Hore, Herbert F., on Banshees, 170.

Horn, the Indian, 108.

Hospital of St. John, outside Newgate,
Dublin, 40.

Hudrine, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois, 159.

Hugh, or Aedh, bishop, 151.

Hulkya, an Indian tambourine, 116.

Hutton, Edward, M. D., death of, 283.

Hutton, Thomas, death of, 383.

Hutton, Thomas M., elected a Member, 539.

Huxley, Professor, on certain fossil re-
mains in Ireland, 325.

Tar-nairthir, or south-east, 425.

Tar tuiais-cerddach, north-east, 425.

Imaginary roots of equations, Professor
Sylvester on Newton's theorem respect-
ing, 297.

Indednen, or Ednen, a church, 189.

India, East, cromlechs in, 191; catalogue
of musical instruments of, 106; music
Of Misi 22

Ingram, John K., LL. D., a member of
Council, (Com. of Polite Lit.), 221,
389; Secretary of Council, 221, 389.
See Academy Report.

Inisheer, origin of the name, 425.

Inis Sgoreobhuin, Cill-insi in, 188.

Innocent IV., Pope, a bull of, 40.

Inscription, sepulchral, at Clonmacnois,
158; at Coolamber, 152; at Killeen-
Cormaic, 255; Ogham, at Killeen-Cor-
maic, 257; Ogham, in cave of Rath-
croghan, 161; on Cromleac at Rath-
kenny, 541, Plate xii.; on Cromleac near
Macroom, 543, Plate xi.; on Lia Fail,
540 ; on tank in India, 192.

Ireland, mapped surveys of, 190; bishops’
sees numerous in, 188; antiquities of,

- “ of little value or curiosity to any other
nation,” 183; want of Irish dictionary,
393; families furnishing professors of
history, 186, of law, 186, of physic,
187, of poetry, 187; comparative view
of Irish letters, 160; Irish MSS. pre-
served in the Bodleian Library, 185;
Trish writers, Mac Firbis’ tract on, 184,
186.

Irwin, Colonel, 155.

XX1X

Jal, M. Auguste, his opinion concerning
triremes, 26; letter of 28.

Jellett, Rev. John H., a member of
Council (Com. of Science), 221; Vice-
President, 221; on a fluid possessing
opposite rotatory powers for rays at
opposite ends of the spectrum, 530.

Johnson, John, his statement regarding
the Dundrum aérolite, 336.

Johnstown Castle, inscription on, 442.

Joyce, Patrick W., on the changes and
corruptions in Irish topographical names,
210, 221, 225.

Judgment, commonly ascribed to king
Dermot Mackervil, 187.

Jukes, Joseph B., a member of Council
(Com. of Science), 221, 388; Vice-
President, 221.

Kane, William F. De V., elected a Member,
222.

Kangaroo, the muscular anatomy of, 469.

Keane, Marcus, the Clog Oir deposited by,
41, 216.

Keating, Dr. Geoffrey, his monument, 443.

Keenan, Patrick J., elected a member, 182.

Kelly, Denis H., a Member of Council
(Com. of Antiqq.), 389; description of
two tracts by Mac Firbis, 182; Fergu-
son collection presented by, 26(); trans-
lation of Latin verses by, 354.

Kennedy, George A., death of, 383.

Kerry, inscribed monuments in, 179.

Kettle drums, various Indian, 117.

Kevin, St., his stone cell at Glendalough,
424 ; his church on Inisheer, 425.

Kilbricken in Thomond, called from St.
Brecan, 188.

Kilcrea Abbey, views of, 440, 441.

Kildare, formerly Drum-criadh, 349.

Kildorrery, drawings of old church of, 440.

Killamery or Clonamery, old church of,
431.

Killarus, Hill of Fornaught, 352.

Killeana, on Aranmore, 424.

Killeen Cormaic, near Dunlavin, inscribed
stones at, 253.

Killery, origin of the name, 234.

Killeshin, drawings of old church of, 431.

Killeter, shower of aérolites at, 341.

Kill Fine, of St. Patrick’s lives, 260.

_ Kill St. Laurence, old church of, 140.

Kilmacduagh on Aranmore, drawings of,
425.

Kilmurvey on Aranmore, 425.

Kilpatrick, Co. Westmeath, old church of,
153.

Kinahan, G. Henry, notes on crannogs in
Ballin Lough, 172; on a crannog in
Lough Nahinch, 176.

King, Rey. Robert, donation of, 336.

King’s Mountain in Co. of Meath, 48.

Knock- Allen, or Ailind, 350.

Knockma, hill of, now Castle-Hacket, 547.

Knockmoy Abbey, fresco painting in, 436,

Knocktopher, original form of the name,
236.

Knox, George J., on the composition of
cadmium, arsenic, and nitrogen, 182,

Kuchwa, an Indian lute, 113.

Kurna, an Indian trumpet, 110.

L, the letter, occasionally lost, 232.

Lacken, Co. of Westmeath, old church of,
153.

La Gloire, the frigate, account of, 62.

Lalor, J. J., elected a Member, 1.

Language, Rev. James Byrne on the
science of, 535.

Larcom, Sir Thomas A., letter of, 224.

Lauderdale, Richard Earl of, his metrical
translation of Virgil’s Aineid, 210.

Law, professors of, in certain Irish fami-
lies, 186.

Lecan, Book of, extract from, 256.

Levinge, Charles W., ancient boat pre-
sented by, 199.

Lia Fail, at Tara, supposed inscription on,
539.

Library. See under Academy.

Lickblaw, old church of, 154.

Lifé, or Liffey, a plain in Kildare, 346.

Ligaments, two undescribed, in human
body, 467.

Light to the blind, a MS., 550.

Lion, the, muscular anatomy of, Dr.
Haughton on, 85, 86, 87, 89.

Liquids, the, interchange of, in proper
names, 234.

Loch Lemnachta, origin of the name,
354, 345.

Locke, John, on the antiquity of man, 200.

Loher, near Darrynane, inscribed monu-
ment at, 180.

Longfield, Rev. George, a member of
Council (Com. of Polite Lit.), 221, 389.

Lord Lieutenant, Baron Wodehouse, ad-
dress of Academy to, 170; his reply,
iat

Lougherew Hills, sepulchral cairns on,
map of, Plateii. See Sliabh-na-Caillighe.

Lough Nahinch, on confines of Tipperary
and King’s Co., 176; plan of, 178;
crannogs in, 176; antiquarian remains
in vicinity of, 179.

Lough Owel, ancient canoe found in, 199,
210.

Lusk, the founder of the church of, 189.

Lute, the Indian, 112.

KKK

Macacus nemestrinus, muscular anatomy
of, 277, 287.

Macalister, Alexander, on the anatomy of
the ostrich, 1, 50; notes on muscular
anomalies in human anatomy, 444; on
two undescribed ligaments in the human
body, 467.

Mac-a-ward, family of, 187.

Mac Carthy, Denis F., donation of, 222.

Mac Casserly, family of, 187.

Mac Convey, family of, 187,

Mac Cuillin, St., bishop of Lusk, 189.

Mac Donnell, Alexander, elected a Mem-
ber, 1.

M‘Donnell, Robert, M. D., a Member of
Council (Com. of Science), 221, 388.
Mac Donnell, Major W. Armstrong, elected

a Member, 222.

Macetown, castle of, 441.

Mac Firbis, Duald, two MS. tracts of,
182, transcribed and presented, 190 ;
on the bishops of Erin, 184; on the
writers of Erin, 184, 186.

Mac Firbisigh, Dubhaltach, 184.

M‘Gee, Hon. Thomas D’Arcy, elected a
Member, 1; donation of, 267.

Mac Gilmartin, family of, 187.

Mac Graith, family of, 187.

Mac Ivor, Rev. Doctor, communication of,
regarding the Killeter aéroliths, 341.

Mac Keogh, family of, 187.

Mac Knavin, family of, 176.

Mac Murray, family of, 187.

Mac Neagh, family of, 187.

Madden, R. R., M. D., a member of Coun-
cil (Com. of Polite Lit.), 221, 389.

Maelcaeimghin, tombstone of, at Clonmac-
nois, 158.

Maelfinnia, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
158.

Maeliohain eps., tombstone of, at Clonmac-
nois, 159.

Maelmhichil, tombstone of, at Clonmac-
nois, 158.

Maelquiarain, tombstone of, at Clonmac-
nois, 159.

Magazine, Gentleman’s, a statement in,
noticed, 189.

Maghera, Co. of Derry, old church of, 432.

Magnus, Olaus, cited, 194.

Maisten, or Mullaghmast, 256.

Malcolmson, Dr., donation of, 222.

Malone, Rey. Silvester, elected a Member,
222.

Man, antiquity of, 200; typical differences
between, and macaque, 286.

Manuscripts, Irish, collected by Sir James
Ware, 183; in Bodleian Library, 185 ;
Windele’s collection, 306, purchased,
38%.

Map, of Sliabh-na-Caillighe, by Ordnance
Survey, 359.

Marble- Hill, formerly Gortenacuppoge, 176.

Marsupials, muscles of, 469.

Martanan, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
158.

Maqui, the gen. of Mac, in Ogham inscrip-
tions, 167, 168.

Master of the Rolls of England, books pre-
sented by, 267, 381.

Meath, antiquarian remains discovered in,
by E. A. Conwell, 42.

Meath, Lord, letter written by, 534.

Meave, or Medbh, Queen, 161.

Meehan, Rev. Charles P., electeda Mem-
ber, 209.

Meeting. See under Academy.

Megalithic structures, diffusion of, 204.

Melville, General, theory of, concerning
ancient galleys, 31.

Member. See under Academy.

Memorial of Academy to Lords of the
Treasury, 218.

Meteorites, various falls of, in Ireland,
842; analysis of, 337, 342, 343; shower
of, at Killeter, 341; one at Dundrum,
336, drawing of, Plate ii.

Milles, Dean, Clarendon MSS. presented to
the British Musenm by, 184.

Minstrel’s Grave, the legend and view of,
155.

Moat Farrel, old church of, 154.

Moats, large, in Co. of Meath, 48.

Moelpatric, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois,
158.

Moira, Countess of, antiquities described
by, 101.

Monitor, or turret ship, 77.

Monk, Thomas, descriptive account of
Kildare by, 353.

Montgomery, Robert, on the habits of the

otter, 512.

Monuments, inscribed, in Co. Kerry, 179.

Moore, D., Ph. D., on Neotinea intacta,
105.

Morisy, John, on Hindustani syntax, 263.

Morning Castle, Co. of Longford, plan of,
154.

Mosheim, Dr., work of, presented, 262.

Motley, John Lothrop, elected an Honor-
ary Member, 389.

Moylagh, old church of, 153.

Moytura, two places of the name, 546;
the northern, 548; poem on the battle
of, 549; Sir W. R. Wilde on, 546.

Muff, a corruption of Magh, 237.

Mulehan, old church of, 154.

Muscles, anomalies of, in the human body,
444; muscular anatomy of various ani-
mals, See Haughton, Rev. Samuel.

XXX1

Museum. See under Academy.
Music, Hindu, 118.

N, the letter, suppression of, 232.

Naente-nae-brethach, or ‘ Naente of the
Nine Judgments,’ 187.

Names, Irish topographical, changes and
corruptions in, 210.

Naper, James L. W., his services in the
Lougherew Hills’ investigation, 359;
thanks returned to, 379.

Naul, derivation of the name, 229.

Navan, ancient forms of the name, 230,
Zoi.

Neddans, derivation of the name, 230.

Neotinea intacta, Dr. Moore on, 105.

Nenagh, derivation of the name, 229.

Newcastle, Co. of Westmeath, castle of,
152.

New Ross, fair gate of, 440.

Newry, meaning of the name, 229
Newton, Sir Isaac, his theorem respecting
the imaginary roots of equations, 297.
Nillson, Rev. S., elected an Honorary Mem-

ber, 389.

Ninch, derivation of the name, 230.

Nine judgments, the, Naente of, 187.

Nobber, meaning of the name, 230.

Nobert, largest Indian kettle drum, 117

Nohoval, meaning of the name, 231.

Nore, the river, old form of its name, 232.

Nuachongbhail, or Navan, formation of
the name, 231.

Nuad of the Silver Hand, 548.

Nuadha, King of the Tuatha-de-Danaan,
547.

Nuenna, the river, origin of its name, 230.

Nugent, Arthur, his donation to the
Museum, 222.

Nugent, the Black Baron, 155.

Nugent family, their monumental slab at
Fore, 442.

Nul, an Indian kettle drum, 117.

Nurney, derivation of the name, 230.

O’Beglan, family of, 187.

O'Breslen, family of, 186.

O’Brien, William Smith, death of, 217;
bequest of books to the Academy, 306,
381, catalogue of them, 386; his gold
vase to be deposited in Academy, 381.

O'Callaghan, P., LL. D., collection of
autographs presented by, 262.

O’Cillen, family of, 187.

O’Cloomhan, family of, 187.

O’ Coffey, family of, 187.

O’Connell, family of, 187.

O’Cronga, family of, 187.

O’Cuhin, family of, 187.

III

O’ Daly, family of, 187.

O’Donnavan, William, LL. D., elected a
Member, 224.

O’Donnell, Sir Richard, Bart., the Caah
withdrawn and redeposited by, 535.

O’Donnellan, family of, 187.

O’ Donovan, Dr., his letter on Sliabh-na-
Caillighe, 356 ; his translation of a poem
on the battle of Moy-Tura, 549; an error
of, corrected, 151.

O’ Doran, family of, 186.

O’ Dunn, family of, 186.

O’Farrell, of Moat-Farrell, family of, 154.

O’Feely, family of, 187.

O’ Fennely, family of, 187.

Officers. See under Academy.

O’Flyn, family of, 186.

O’Gearan, family of, 187.

Ogham character, nature, and use of, 166);
alphabet of, 167; recorded in Book of
Ballymote, 167; Dean Graves’s investi-
gations on, 167; inscription at Killeen-
Cormaic, 254, 255, 257; inscription in
the cave of Rathcrogh n, 160, draw-
ings of, 163, 165, 166 ;inscription in
Wales, 167.

Ogilby, Mrs., of Kilcattan, antiquities pre-
sented by, 41.

Ogle, family, of Disertally, 155.

O’Gneev, family of, 187.

O’Grady, Edward, elected a Member, 325.

O’Hagan, John, elected a Member, 546.

O’Haneairty, family of, 187.

O’Hara, family of, 186.

O’Hara, Henry, on a cromlech in the
Presidency of Madras, 190.

O’ Hayden, family of, 187.

O’ Heffernan, family of, 187.

O’Henry, family of, 187.

O’ Higgin, family of, 187.

O’ Hussey, family of, 187.

O’Kelly, Joseph, A. M., elected a Member,
325.

Oldcastle, Co. of Meath, undescribed monu-
ments near, 42.

Oldcourt, Co. of Dublin, sculptured plinth
of cross at, 425.

O’Leyne, family of, 187.

O’Longan, John, employed as scribe, 382.

O’Lorcan, family of, 187.

O’Malone, Gillachrist, 189.

O’Meledy, family of, 187.

O’Moran, family of, 187.

O’Neill, Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, inventory
of his effects, 260.

Onurcht, village of, in Aranmore, 160.

O’Phelan, family of, 187.

Opossum, the muscular anatomy of, 483.

O’Quill, family of, 186.

XXX

Ordnance survey, Parliamentary Commit-
tee on, extracts from report of, 82; re-
mains of Sliabh-na-Caillighe unnoticed
on map of, 43, 359; subsequently
mapped by, 50, 359.

O’Reilly, family, their contest with the
O’Farrells, 154.

O’Ronan, family of, 187.

O’ Rooney, family of, 187.

O’ Rourke, Rev. John, elected a Member,
539.

Orthanach, two persons of the name, 348.

O’Squirin, family of, 186.

Ostrich, the anatomy of, Mr. A. Macalister
on, 1; muscular mechanism of the leg of,
Rev. Dr. Haughton on, 50.

O'Sullivan, Daniel, elected a Member, 325.

Otter, the, muscular anatomy of, 511;
habits of, 512.

Oughaval, derivation of the name, 231.

Owneygat, i.e. Cat’s Cave, at Rathcroghan,
160.

Patrick, St., his book On the joys of hea-
ven and pains of hell, 185.

Patrick’s Island, near Skerries, old church
of, 432.

Patrickstown, moat of, 376.

Perigord, cave of, remains found in, 267;
the ‘CavernesdePerigord’ presented, 267.

Perrault, Mons., referred to, 1, 2, 3.

Petrie, George, LL. D., a member of Coun-
cil (Com. of Antiqq.), 221; Vice-Presi-
dent, 221; his antiquarian essays, 330;
his death, 383, adjournment of Aca-
demy on, 325; eloge of, by Dean
Graves, 325; biographical memoir of,
326; obituary notice of, 383; Lord
Talbot’s mention of, 390; sixteen ori-
ginal views by, presented, 530.

Petty, Sir William, unpublished essay on
Ireland by, 224.

Phalanger, the, muscular anatomy of, 483.

Phillips, Major Paul W., his observations
on rainfall at St. Helena, 129.

Phenix Park, origin of the name, 249.

Physicians, Irish families furnishing, 187.

Pillar stones, at Killeen-Cormaic, 254,
255, 257.

Pipes, reed, Indian, 110, 112.

Plana, Baron Giovanni, death of, 217.

Plunket MS., ‘‘A light to the blind,” 550.

Plural, Irish names with English forms
of, 244.

Poem, Latin, in Lord Talbot de Malahide’s
collection, 354.

Poetry, Irish families professors of, 187.

Poole’s Cavern, vestiges of human habita-
tion in, 536.

Poongi, Indian snake charmer’s pipe, 112.

Poyning’s law, first Parliament held under,
223.

President, the Very Rev. Charles Graves, ©
D. D., 220; Lord Talbot de Malahide,
388.

Preston’s Gate, Athy, view of, 440.

Prick to the Conscience, a book, 185.

Primacy of Armagh, original copy of King’s
Essay on, presented, 336.

Proceedings. See under Academy.
Professorships of the Celtic language in
Queen’s University, suppressed, 219.

Projectiles, gun, 65.

Pukhwaj, an Indian drum, 116.

Pupa or pope, of Ara, St. Aelchu, 188.

Quaternion Calculus, the, Sir William R.
Hamilton on some recent geometrical .
results of, 106.

Qraguismu, an Ogham inscription, 169.

Qrittalegi Qritumah, an Ogham inscription,
169.

Races, horse, ancient Irish, 350.

Rafn, Charles Christian, death of, 217.

Rainfall at St. Helena, observations upon,
126.

Rairend, or Mullach-Reelan, 256.

Rath, pronunciation of the word, in town-
land names, 226.

Rathcroghan, remains of, described, 160;
cave at, 162; Ogham inscription in,
160.

Rathkenny, inscribed cromleac near, 541.

Rawlinson, Dr., purchaser of some of
Ware’s MSS., 184.

Rechra, gen. Rechrain, now Lambay, 189.

Reeves, Rev. William, D.D., member of
Council (Com. of Antiqq.), 221, 389;
Secretary, 221, 389; a bull of Innocent
IV. exhibited by, 40.

Relig-na-ree, a cemetery at Rathcroghan,
160.

Report. See under Academy.

Rhea, the, muscular anatomy of, 497.

Rhinoceros, dissection of, by Rev. Dr.
Haughton, 515; muscular anatomy of,
IID,

Ronan, tombstone of, at Clonmacnois, 159.

Ross Castle, 155.

Rotatory powers of fluids, mode of compar-
ing, 530.

Round tower of Eanagh, on Aranmore, 424.

S, the letter, sometimes an adventitious
prefix, 241.

Sagran, inscription of, 167.

St. Helena, evaporation of a water surface
at, Dr. Haughton on, 126.

XXXlil

Salmon, Rev. George, D. D., a member of
Council (Com. of Science), 221, 388;
a Vice-President, 444.

Sar mundal, an Indian dulcimer, 115.

Sarrooda, an Indian violin, 114.

Sarungi, an Indian fiddle, 114.
Sculptures, in caverns on Sliabh-na-
Caillighe, 362, 371, 373-375, 377.

Seal, the muscular anatomy of, 93.

Seeng, the Indian horn, 108.

Sees, episcopal, in Ireland, Mac Firbis’
tract on, 184; very numerous, 188.

Senan, his bell called the Clog Oir, 41.

Senior, Edward James, death of, 217.

Seven bishops, groups of, 188, 189.

Sliabh-na-Caillighe, description of anti-
quarian remains on, 42, 170, 355; list
of cairns on, 44; map of cairns on, 359,
Plate xi.; extensive view from, 355.

Shearman, Rev. John F., on some inscribed
stones at Killeen Cormaic, 253.

Shell, the Whitworth, 74.

Ships, ancient kinds of, 25; of war, G.C.
Garnett on, 62, 64; with chain armour,
80; turret, or monitors, 77.

Shoe, ancient Irish, 222.

Shunk, an Indian conch shell, 118.

Sinell, St., two of the name, 256.

Siol Flanchadha, or Mac Clanchy, the
family of, 186.

Siol Murray, the bishops of Elphin for-
merly elected from, 190.

Sitar, an Indian guitar, 113.

Skurlockstown Castle, plan of, 154.

Slane Castle, drawing of, 439.

Smith, Robert W., M. D., a member of
Council (Com. of Science), 221, 388.
Son, how expressed in Ogham inscriptions,

167.

Soor-Sotta, an Indian lute, 112.

Soorsringa, an Indian lute, 113.

Stanenges, or Stonehenge, 193.

Staples, Sir Thomas, Bart., death of, 383.

Stephens, Mr., his experiments on iron-
plating of ships, 62.

Stonehenge, Mr. S. Ferguson on the con-
struction of, 193; meaning of the name,
193; reference to the notices of, 199;
tradition regarding, 351.

‘Stoney, George G., LL. D., a member of
Council (Com. of Science), 221, 388.

Stonybatter, origin of the name, 227.

Strongbow, erroneously alleged effigy of,
433.

Struthair, a stream, how changed in pro-
per names, 234.

Struthio camelus. See Ostrich.

Struve, Fred. Geo. Wilhelm, death of, 217.

Subscription, opened for purchase of Win-
dele MSS., 306.

Sullivan, William K., Ph. D., a member
of Council (Com. of Science), 221, 388;
a Vice-President, 444; on a peculiar
hydrated mineral containing zine, 199.

Sumball, a species of Indian drum, 117.

Surveys, of Ireland, early, 190.

Swift, Dean, his endeavours to obtain the
Chandos MSS. for Trin. Coll. Dubl.,
183; two letters of, to Mrs. Delany,
183; his lines on Sliabh-na-Caillighe,
358.

Sylvester, Professor, on the demonstration
of Newton’s theorem respecting the ima-
ginary roots of equations, 297.

T, the letter, its use in some proper names,
233.

Tag-Shinod, county of Longford, old
church of, 153.

Tain-bo-Aingin, a romantic tale, 161, 162.

Tain-bo-Cuailgne, the tale, cited, 161.

Tain-bo-Flidisi, a romantic tale, 161.

Talbot de Malahide, Lord, elected on the
Council, 336; elected President, 388;
inaugural address of, 390.

Tambourine drum of India, 116.

Taoosee, an Indian lute, 114.

Tara, the Lia Fail on, 539.

Target, the Warrior, experiments with, 69.

Tawnagh, ‘‘a field,” 227.

Taylor, Colonel Meadows, a member of
Council (Com. of Polite Lit.), 221;
(Com. of Antiqq.), 389; his catalogue
of Indian musical instruments, 106; on
a group of ancient cairns on Twizell
Moor, 199.

Tempo, origin of the name, 2383.

Terrier, the Irish, muscular anatomy of,
504.

Thalla, an Indian gong, 107.

The, the definite article, prefixed to some
Irish names of places, 230.

Thom, Alexander, elected a Member, 539.

Thomastown, Co. of Meath, antiquarian
remains at, 47.

Thomsen, Dr. C. J., his death, and notice
of it by Academy, 262.

Thorpe, Benjamin, elected an Honorary
Member, 389.

Tides, semidiurnal, at Cahirciveen, Dr.
Haughton on, 40, 379.

Tihe, son of Queen Medbh, inscription of,
169.

Tobar Aedhain, or Bishop Hugh’s Well,
151.

Tobermacduagh, a holy well, 176.

Tobar-na-Druad, a holy well, 430.

Todd, Rev. James H., D. D., a member of
Council (Com. of Antiqq.), 221; an-
tiquities présented through, 41.

XXXI1V

Tomb slabs, drawings of, 158, 430.

Toneymore crannog, antiquities found at,
221.

Tongue, the, physiology of its protrusion,
539.

Toontoonee, an Indian stringed instrument,
116.

Tootooree, a small Indian trumpet, 109.

Topography, Irish, changes and corrup-
tions of names in, 210, 221, 225.

Townlands, names of, changes and cor-
ruptions in, 226.

Tragh Beremhain, in Kerry, 347.

Transplantation, Irish, in 1653-4, 317.

Treasury, the, Academy’s memorial to,
217; additional grant recommended by,
224.

Trench, H. B., notes on a crannog in
Lough Nahinch, by, 176.

Trilithic monuments, 194; trilithons of
Stonehenge and Sweden, 194.

Trinity College, Dublin, Museum of, 27.

Trireme, construction of, 26; built by the
Emperor of the French, 39.

Tristernagh, old church of, 153.

Trumpets, Indian, 110.

Tuatha-de-Danaan, the race, 547.

Tubbrid, county of Tipperary, monumental
slab at, 443.

Tubla, an Indian drum, 117.

Tufa, calc, employed in masonry, 432.

Tully Castle, Co. of Fermanagh, 441.

Tumboora, an Indian lute, 112.

Turpentine, rotatory qualities of different
kinds of, 531.

Turret ships, or monitors, 77.

Twizell Moor, in Northumberland, group
of cairns on, 199.

Tynagh parish, crannog in, 176.

Uachongbail, changes in the name, 230.

Ua Cormaic, in Leinster, 256.

Ui Gabhla, in Leinster, 256.

Umhaid-na-geat, or Owneygat, at Rath-
croghan, 161.

Urea, daily excretion of, Dr. Haughton on
the mode of determining, 104; table for
calculating, 105.

Valencia, inscribed monument at, 180.
Vase, gold, of W. Smith O’Brien, to be
deposited in Academy, 381.
Vice-Presidents. Sce under Academy.
Vignolles, Dean, Memoirs of Dumont de
Bostaquet, presented by, 381.

Violin, Indian, varieties of, 114.

Virgil, English translation of a portion of
the Aineid of, 209.

Volkman, his hemodromometer, 317.

Wakefield’s Ireland, cited, 177.

Wales, Ogham inscription in, 167.

Waller, John F., LL.D., a member of
Council (Com. of Polite Lit.), 221, 389;
a Vice-President, 221.

Ware, Sir James, disposal of his manu-
scripts, 183; catalogue of them, 184.

Ware, Robert, son of Sir James, 185.

Waterford, circular tower at, 440.

Waterville bridge, inscribed monuiment
found near, 180.

Way, Albert, elected an Honorary Member,
389; his letter of acknowledgment,
545.

Well, holy, at Tobar-Aedhain, 151; at
Tobermacduagh, 176; at Tobar-na-
Druad, 430.

Whewell, Rev. William, D.D., his death,
383; President’s allusion to, 390.

- Whitworth gun, experiments with, 70-76.

Wilde, Sir William R., M.D., a member
of Council (Com. of Antiqq.), 221, 389;
Secretary of Foreign Correspondence, 221,
389; Vice-President, 444; the Clog
Oir exhibited by, 41; on antiquarian
remains found in Co. of Down, 101; an
unpublished letter read by, 534; on the
battle of Moytura, 546; antiquities pre-
sented by, 267.

Wilson, Henry, elected a Member, 325.

Windele MSS., resolution for purchase of,
306; purchased, 381.

Wodehouse, Baron, Lord Lieutenant, ad-
dress of Academy to, 170; his reply,
Hale

Woollen manufacture,
samples of, 103.

Wright, Dr. E. Perceval, on certain fossil
remains in the Irish coal measures, 325.

Wrightson, Rev. Richard, elected a Mem-
ber, 325.

Writers, Irish, Duald Mac Firbis’ tract
on, 186.

Wynne, Right Hon. John, death of, 383.

ancient Irish,

Year, the Egyptian, Dr. Hincks on, 294;
the wandering, 295.

Zine, Dr. Sullivan on certain combina-
tions of, 199.

END OF VOLUME Ix.

PLATE I.

VOL. IX.

SOLSTICE
SOLSTICE

SOLSTICE

“a
5 IN.
oO si pe es

7 IN.

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MEAN EVAPORATION AT ST. HELENA IN 1862, 3

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Crust, along the edges of Pyramid.

VOL. IX. PLATE |

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MAP OF THE ANCIENT SEPULCHRAL CAIRNS ON THE LOUGHCREW HILLS, OLDCASTLE, CO. MEATH, IRELAND.

Scale :—2'64 inches to a Statute Mile.

R.I. A. PROC.

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VOL. IX. PLATE VII

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| 4 WO 62 do. do.
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Fig. 2.

No. 1 measures 53 inches in diameter from outside to outside of the circular lines.

| 2) do. i) do. do.

| 5 8 COs 8 do. do
ria 3 do. 9 do. do
eae do. 73 do. do
aa) ; do. 5 do. do
mn U do. 42 do. do

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R. I. A. PROC.

Fig. 3.

Characters on an Inscribed Cromleac, near Macroom. County Cork.

——- —— =——
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Limits

Cromleac near Rathkenny House, County Meath.

[View—looking East ]

VOL. IX. PLATE

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VOL. IX. PLATE

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R. I. A. PROC.

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