ee ear eee eas aioe : niMbereeual a fA Bam an Eee A . T ? a i Us a rs tO nm 1 q PROCEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL MEETINGS FOR SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS ‘\ OF THE AQQOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 1911, pp. 1-555, witH 16 PuatTEes and 144 Texy-ricurgEs. PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY, 2\885 AND SOLD AT THEIR HOUSE IN REGENT’S PARK. LONDCN: MESSRS. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO, PATERNOSTER ROW. Jy IL sy i _ OF THE COUNCIL AND OFFICERS ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. TOTES COUNCIL. His Grace Tor Duke or Beprorp, K.G., President. Tue Haru or Auramont, F.S.A. Prof. J. Rosr Braprorp, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., Vice-President. Lt.-Col. Str R. HaAvetock- Cuaruss, K.C.V.O., M.D. AtrreD H. Cocks, Esq., M.A. The Rt. Hon. the Haru oF - Cromer, P.C., G.C.B., G.C.M.G. F. D. Dawrrey Drewirt, Ese., M.A., M.D. CuarLtes Drummonp, Ksq., Treasurer. Sir Epwarp Duranp, Bt., C.B. Freperick GILuert, Hsq., Vice- President. - Srpney F. Harmer, Hsq., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Vice-President. lb) Bs GOB. | Srk Epmunp G. Lover, Bt. Vice-President. P. Cuoatmers MircHett, Esq., MIDAS. DSc), Hons WiLDy, E.B.S., Secretary. W. R. Ocinvin-Grant, Esq. Aprian D. W. Potiock, Esq. A. Trevor - Barrys, KEsq., M.A. AntHony H. WHINGFIELD, Esq. A. SmirH Woopwarp, Esq., LL.D.,F.R.S., Vice-President. | Henry Woopwarb,Ksq., LL.D., F.R.S., Vice-President. PRINCIPAL OFFICERS. P. Cuatmers MitcHeny, M.A Secretary. >» DSc. Hons iekess Frank KE. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., Prosector. ROWE Pocock, HRS. FAS: Curator of Mammals, and Resident Superintendent of the Gardens. D. Sera-Smiru, Curator of Birds and Inspector of Works. Henry G. Purmmer, F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Pathologist. F. H. Warernouss, Librarian. Joun Barrow, Accountant. W. H. Cote, Chief Clerk, Sir Warer Roper LAWRENCE, E. G. B. Mrapre-WaA.po, Esq., 5 es <0 cA ete ali le sare LIST OF CONTENTS. 1911, pp. 1-555 EXHIBITIONS AND NOTICES. The Secrerary. Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the months of June, July, August, eigjcimemollogie, ayaa! cursors IDI) op ccesgseoseeuoceodsoseds ax Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.L.8., F.Z.8. Exhibition of a living specimen of a Black Rat (dZus rattus) from Sark ...... Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.L.S., F.Z.8. Exhibition of a female hybrid between a inale Black Lemur (Lemur macaco) and a female of the Red-fronted variety of the Fulvous Lemur (Lemur fulous rujifrons) ......0.0.c.c.ec es ecnc tenes The Hon. N. Coarnes Roruscuinp, M.A., F.Z.S. Exhibition of some Fleas, interesting in connection with the Sobeadimonat PlAasMey. oct. vedas cask iacstnes cade aeeehen Mr. J. Lewis Bonsots, M.A., F.L.S8., F.Z.8. 9 Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a young Cairo Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus) about twelve hours old ............... Mr, J. Lewis Bonuors, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.8. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a pair of hybrids between the Bramble-Finch (Fringilla montifringilla) and the Chettinely (Hringillia celebs) ©. sexsccscs sc cccc sn sobs orinas senses Mrs. R. Haic Tuomas, F.Z.S. Exhibition of a series of skins illustrating an experiment in Pheasant-breeding, and an account of the production of Thawmalea obscura in the F, generation from a cross between 7. amhersti ° pied WAL EUGTEy dee Dandadcs dehuo see aoc Lone ny eee thee Page Cr Or iv Dr. W. Nicott and Prof. EK. A. Mincuin, M.A., V.P.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, two species of Cysticercoids from the Rat-flea (Ceratophyllus fasciatus). (Text-figs: W052): cain wea ane Meee OEE aca ts.rcise = Di. Wittiam Nicott. Demonstration of his method for the collection of Trematodes Dr. R. T. Lerprr, F.Z.S. Exhibition of photographs and speclmens showing the Nematode infection known as OnChOCerCIASIS) oF. 6 52 dss ae eee Rent Glee eee eee sraen Dr. J. F. Gemuiin, M.A.. D.Sc. Notice of a paper on “The Development of Solaster endeca Forbes ” Mr. D. Sera-Suity, F.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, living examples of the Australian Budgerigar or Undulated Grass- Parrakeet (I/elopsittacus undulatus), showing three colour-phases The Srcrerary. Report on the Additions to the Societys Menagerie during the month of November 1910 ...... Dr. H. Hammonp SmirH, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a specimen of the Red Grouse (Lagopus scoticus) which displayed a curious variety Chard NR OV MONTE HAA | OMUNTEVELS 2 0, J os20ndpqadacoesbonsenbacnaocnsn Mr. D. Sera-Smiru, F.Z.S. Exhibition of some skins of the Australian Yellow-rumped Finch (Munia flaviprymna) showing markings tending towards those of JM. castanet- BROT OE (55 Jo oe SLE SAORSE SEAT SER REE EEE RERY AL BERET eee Dr. W. E. Hoyts, M.A., F.Z.8. Explanation of the Report of the International Commission on Zoological Nomen- clature presented to the Graz Meeting of the International Zoological Congress The Sucretary. Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of December 1910 ...... Dr. G. W. Anprews, F.R.S., F.Z.S. Exhibition of the skull of a Sabre-toothed Tiger (Similodon califorinicus), from an asphalt deposit in California ..................... The Secretary. Exhibition of a mounted specimen of the Platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus) ...116...eceeeeee Page 45 45 45 100 100 101 101 181 181 Vv Mr. Epwarp GerrarD, F.Z.8. Exhibition of the head of a Caribou (Rangifer tarandus carihow) with abnormal antlers. Also the heads of an Eland (Zaurotragus derbianus gigas), and of three White-tailed Deer (Dorc- elaphus americanus macrurus), (Text-fig. 52) ......... The Szcrerary. Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of January 1911 ......... Dr. H. Hammonp Smiry, M.R.C.S8., F.Z.8. Exhibition of three skins of male Pheasants assuming female plumage Mr. G. A. Bounencer, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8. Notice of a paper “On a Collection of Fishes from the Lake Ngami Rasim, Iacovella’ ccédoccs aceneosesocded concveseodeneeae Mr. Aurrep H. Cocks, M.A., F.Z.S. Exhibition of photo- graphs of, and remarks upon, the female Brindled Gnu recently born in the Society’s Gardens. (Text-figs. 97 Se GIS) y cx culbspa bone shi seahunmeabaupeacose au asa cemeenpuEaHBecmaaas The Srcrerary. Exhibition of a series of lantern-slides illustrating some of the most remarkable features of Mr. Carl Hagenbeck’s new Tierpark at Stellingen ...... Mr. Ernest C. OperHoirzer. Exhibition of lantern-slides and photographs illustrating an account of some (QOSeRATaNELONNS) Cray I Kole Nodhe coobosonadacrocbusonoecnoduacpeac Page 181 314 314 314 314 308 Ne) al PAPERS. . On the Inheritance of the Webfoot Character in Pigeons. By J. Lewis Bonuorz, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.8. (Text- IMSS) Gas 445) seopdacnesodsosoroh bodes Scogaubagsncovsneq0680080a000 Notes on the little-known Lizard Lacerta jacksoni Blegr., with Special Reference to its Cranial Characters. By Epwarp Dscen, F.Z.8. (Text-figs. 5-7.) ............... On the Peloponnesian Lizard (Lacerta peloponnesiaca Bibr.). By G. A. Bovutmncer’ F.R.S., V.P.ZS. (Plate I. and Text-fig. 8.) eee cee sere ener reese esereses esse sees . Remarks on Two Species of Fishes of the Genus Cobdius, from Observations made at Roscoff. By Hpwarp G. BouLENGER eee cece r reco ee sors eee ees eseoeseeooseyooessososseessane . On a Possible Cause of Pneumo-enteritis in the Red Grouse (Lagopus scoticus). By H. B. Fantuam, D.8c., B.A., F.Z.S., and H. Hammonp Sire, M.R.C.S., i Dre 53 Ol eae Cie) Zh wo aR a0 5.40 Ma Nout ogSeokSosseHuoddaddoanae On the Alimentary Tract of certain Birds and on the Mesenteric Relations of the Intestinal Loops. By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to thie Socieby. ) (extaties 19 =28)) ee aeeesee ance ene eetieee On the Specimens of Spotted Hyznas in the British Museum (Natural History). By Prof. ANGEL CABRERA, ORIN IAs Bee Me oa AU RS GL ARAL Ah ROR GOs 80 60: On the Segmentation of the Occipital Region of the Head in the Batrachia Urodela. By Epwin 8. Goopricu, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. (M@ext=figs: 29-51.) coe. ise sts etic hictes's « cieitce Meee eee ETE The Mammals of the Tenth Edition of Linnexus; an Attempt to fix the Types of the Genera and the exact Bases and Localities of the Species. By OLpFriEeLp MR roy eee IM] bhiob lle Ade Pre cot onan en annongktednoabasutact daa: Page 14 19 37 AQ 46 47 93 101 120 10. Ws 13. 14. 15. 16. ie ESE 19. 20. Vil The Duke of Bedford's Zoological Exploration of Eastern Asia.—XIII. On Mammals from the Provinces of Kan-su and Sze-chwan, Western China. By OLprreLp AIDETOMUAS VME EUS See RL 15S ep jac. ecciensais-s oyee-c.ave ayeisis vie ed Re On the Structure and Function of the Gas Glands and Retia Mirabilia associated with the Gas Bladder of some Teleostean Fishes, with Notes on the Teleost Pancreas. By W. N. F. Woopiann, F.Z.8., The Zoological Department, University College, London. (Plates II.-IX. and Text-figs. 53-62.) ............cce eee . On Skulls of Oxen from the Roman Military Station at Newstead, Melrose. By J. C. Ewart, M.D., F.BS., EAS aen) (Nextatio ses Os Ol) mu remrret conte ls aseasos esol. ve Plankton from Christmas Island, Indian Ocean.—l. On Copepoda of the Family Coryceide. By GrorcE P. IGPACURY Nome (ra: bes ONG NOU Vibe oe naka ccgne marae a. sea. 2 On some New Zealand Spiders. By H. R. Hoge, M.A., Ee Ze S em exci tig sty 2-008) Wy see caree secs aie acs seine Report on the Deaths which occurred in the Zoological Gardens during 1910. By H. G. Primer, F.RS., ‘F.Z.S., Pres. R.M.S8., Pathologist to the Society......... A Contribution to the Study of the Variations of the Spotted Salamander (Salamandra maculosa). By Hpwarp G. BouLencer. (Plate XV. and Text- (igay” Cz Ry UA SNE ais ce untae Pe eeaege oo On the Mountain Nyala, Tragelaphus buxtoni. By R. LypEKKER. (Plate XVI. and Text-fig. 103.) ............ é Observations on different Gibbons of the Genus Hylobates now or recently living in the Society’s Gardens, and on Symphalangus syndactylus, with Notes on Skins ijn the Natural History Museum, 8. Kensington. By Dr. F. STDS VAHL CI Zit Septet eset ny eeces tre gee of Uke cats te ie shai Se oo é Some New Siphonaptera from China. By Kart Jorpan, Ph.D., F.E.S., and the Hon. N. Cuartes Roru- scHILD, M.A., F.Z.S., F.E.S. (Text-figs. 104-124.) ... Contributions to the Anatomy of the Anura. By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Society. (Text-figs. 125-133.) ...0.....ccceceeeeeeeeeeeee nes Page 158 249 318 369 393 Wiil 21. Gn the Spermatophores in Harthworms of the Genus Pheretima (= Pericheta). By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., HARSs) Rez: ao Prosector to the Society. (Text-figs. 134- 136.) ieee BP hy Sa pa AP IMIR eee 22. A Rare Beaked Whale. By R. Lypexxer. (Text-figs. UY ee eo) Yastates a. AMG MERA ASS has LSAT POR ok ics ORR BO or 23. Age-Phases of the Rorqual. By R. LypExKER 24. On Longevity and Relative Viability in Mammals and Birds ; with a Note on the Theory of Longevity. By P. Coatmers Mircnent, M.A., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Secretary to the Society Cenc ee mee meres ee pere erro ss eresseceeane 25. Some new Parasitic Nematodes from Tropical Africa. By Roserr T. Leper, D.Sc., M.B., F.Z.S. (Text-figs. MAO AAA. J ish od te eoses aie laf cia te ah oe MRR iN ee ADDENDUM. A correction to Dr. R. T. Lerpmr’s Memoir on the “ Entozoa of the Hippopotamus ” 3 i On Sn ii aC aan iki a ke cr a i ney Page 425 549 AV ALIP inl Je) OMe CAN 1) ty OF TIIK CONTRIBUTORS, With References to the several Articles contributed by each. (1911, pp. 1-555.) Page ANDREWS, CHARLES WiuLiAM, B.A., D.Sce., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Exhibition of the skull of a Sabre-toothed Tiger (Smilodon californicus), from an asphalt deposit in Cali- IRODALIUIEL cies esa aah al Mle eae Ata po Ae aa an 181 BEDDARD, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Society. On the Alimentary Tract of certain Birds and on the Mesenteric Relations of the Intestinal Loops. (Text- HSM 1S) Bas Mae SeE ERT Tae | sree Eid raeeine sc cise eises/s scion eoeee 47 Contributions to the Anatomy of the Anura. (Text- HES, WAD=N238)5)): coaee see o0ce pene conanesandeqekeceboE UdbaeeEHEHOee repr 393 On the Spermatophores in Earthworms of the Genus Pheretima (=VPericheta). (Text-figs. 134-136.)............ 412 x Bonnore, J. Lewis, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S8. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a, young Cairo Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus) about twelve hours old ......... Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a pair of hybrids between the Bramble-Finch (fringilla montifringilla) and the Chattinels@h7nqille: calebs)\\. <).ta.css-o2 rset tac s- On the Inheritance of the Webfoot Character in Pigeons cum @bemtenOs.y3 65 4.) cin /scon enlace nee eeeeGreeen cnet BouLencer, Epwarb G. Remarks on Two Species of Fishes of the Genus Gobius, from Observations made at Roscoff .................. A Contribution to the Study of the Variations of the Spotted Salamander (Salamandra maculosa). (Plate XV. and Text-tigs. 99= N02.) - ei len sine cn eere eee eee seer ne ere Bou.encer, Grorce A., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. On the Peloponnesian Lizard (Lacerta peloponnesiaca Bibrs)m ((@elatediiamd Mlext tow St) ereyece eee sapere ertttat: Notice of a paper ‘Ona Collection of Fishes from the Wake Neami ‘Basin, Bechuanaland yeas epece es seeee ee Caprera, Prof. AncEL, C.M.Z.S. On the Specimens of Spotted Hyznas in the British Museum (Natural ieastory) i 20-0242. 4... anced eee a eeeeeee Cocks, ALFRED H., M.A., F.Z.S. Exhibition of photographs of, and remarks upon, the female Brindled Gnu recently born in the Society’s Gardens. -(Mext-figs: O77 i 98.) Me... ndeesemaee cacti oh Page 14 40 323 37 314 x1 DrGEN, Epwanrpb, F.Z.S. Notes on the little-known Lizard Lacertajacksoni Bler., with Special Reference to its Cranial Characters. (Text- INES, D=(/ 0) cass Alomhe cea nee HARE RH aT te an eenernEe eiea ale Ewart, James Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., F.Z.8S. On Skulls of Oxen from the Roman Military Station at Newstead, Melrose. (Text-figs. 63-91.).................. FantHamM, Haroup B., D.Sc., B.A., F.Z.8S., and Smrru, H. Hammonp, M.R.CS., L.R.C.P., F.Z:8. On a Possible Cause of Pneumo-enteritis in the Red Crousey CLAgGOUS SCOLLCUS) a0. na eco aaa aie cnacsdcccd so dedas Farran, Grorce P. Plankton from Christmas Island, Indian Ocean.—lI. On Copepoda of the Family Coryceide. (Plates X.—XIV.) GemMILL, Dr. James F., M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., Lecturer on Embryology in the University of Glasgow. Notice of a paper on “The Development of Solaster CRCCEMB OL DES) Mh Aoi npiants dante so eis < thiaipiie Sissies te teiseSes sese ee ao GERRARD, Epwarp, F.Z.S. Exhibition of the head of a Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) with abnormal antlers. Also the heads of an Eland (Zaurotragus derbianus gigas), and of three White- tailed Deer (Dorcelaphus americanus macrurus). (Text- 1G, DAD I BAn eit drsch cbt dbo SHe pee bonebe bo, CRORE CEE Mer a aan eee GoopricH, Epwin §., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. On the Segmentation of the Occipital Region of the Head in the Batrachia Urodela, (Text-figs. 29-51.) Page Ne 249 282 181 101 xa Page Hoge, Henry R., M.A., F.Z.S. On some New Zealand Spiders. (Text-figs. 92-96.) ... 297 Hoyts, Dr. Witi1aM E., M.A., F.Z.S., English Member of the International Commission on Zoological Nomen- clature. Explanation of the Report of the International Com- mission on Zoological Nomenclature presented to the Graz Meeting of the International Zoological Congress... 101 JorDAN, Karu, Ph.D., F.E.S., and Roruscuiip, The Hon. N. Coaruss, M.A., F.Z.8., F.E.S. Some New Siphonaptera from China. (Text-figs. 1) CRY) Aa fae eared ado aGobn oko adotoS en sontnass5o0¢ 365 Leirer, Rosert T., D.Sc., M.B., F.Z.8. Exhibition of photographs and specimens showing the Nematode infection known as Onchocerciasis ............... Ad Some new Parasitic Nematodes from Tropical Africa. (berg mils WHOS) pocoecasnonsdo02cnnacaccoasnsageannscoase 0F¢ 549 A correction to the Memoir on the ‘ Entozoa of the JBI oy s10) OWE NETO © Ghunonansoa does asocdsanosocsadoasdeonasuacsn9oqne0s 555 LYDEKKER, RICHARD. On the Mountain Nyala, 7'ragelaphus buxtoni. (Plate XV 1. and Vextafie slOds)\ (ic 5 k,l een emotes sls eae yanare 348 A Rare Beaked Whale. (Text-figs. 137-139.) ......... 420 Ager hasesiol, he shorqualll sede... 5- see eee 423 Mincurn, Prof. Epwarp A., M.A., V.P.Z.S., and Nicott, Dr. WitiiaM, F.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, two species of Cysti- cercoids from the Rat-flea (Ceratophyllus fasciatus). Wepre itersy I Gs 5) aan nagedoctinnwes. qosmdapencconacu soda jaqsonne” 9 xil MircHetyt, P. Cuatmers, M.A., D.Sc., Hon. LL.D., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Secretary to the Society. Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the months of June, July, August, September, and October, 1910 CO a a Cn a SO i ei i ie i i i ar ad Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of November 1910 Peewee cee ese aes eee as aene Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of December 1910 Ce i Exhibition of a mounted specimen of the Platypus (Ornithorhymehus paradowus) 0. s2o..2.c2- 2: escuns essed dees 2s: Report on the Additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of January 1911 Exhibition of a series of lantern-slides illustrating some of the most remarkable features of Mr. Carl ' Hagenbeck’s new Tierpark at Stellingen On Longevity and Relative Viability in Mammals and Birds ; with a Note on the Theory of Longevity Nicouz, Dr. WixiiaM, F.Z.S., Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. Demonstration of his method for the collection of Trematodes i i i ii i ei i ink i ii i ei iii i ee ee ee iy Nicotz, Dr. Wiii1am, F.Z.S., and Mincuin, Prof. E. A., M.A., V.P.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, two species of Cysti- cercoids from the Rat-flea (Ceratophyllus fasciatus). (Text-figs. 1 & 2.) Ci i i ei i i i i i ii acacia Page 100 181 18} 314 358 425 X1V OBERHOLTZER, ERNEST C. Exhibition of lantern-slides and photograph, illus- trating an account of some Observations on Moose ...... Purmer, Henry G., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Pres.R.M.S., Patho- logist to the Society. Report on the Deaths which occurred in the Zoological Cardensralummme: GOO Re crea ce eee e ee oeeeree Neavcorsan et Pocock, Reernatp I., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of Mammals, and Resident Superintendent of the Gardens. Exhibition of a living specimen of a Black Rat (J/ws TRG AATES) oe ROM OPN Ce RESE en Dano adun Sous jn oocobhoabssnocesceds oc Exhibition of a female hybrid between a male Black Lemur (Lemur macaco) and a female of the Red-fronted variety of the Fulvous Lemur (Lemur fulvus rufifrons)... Roruscurip, The Hon. N. Cuaruss, M.A., F.Z.8., F.E.S. Exhibition of some Fleas interesting in connection THIGH OE ep OTOANOUUENE? CVE THEY) “bon < dee sosegeacsonousagusedoouoce Rorsscuitp, The Hon. N. CHaruss, M.A., F.Z.8., F.E.S., and JoRDAN, Kart, Ph.D., F.E.S. Some New Siphonaptera from China. (Text-figs. 104— MS VAN) ES ROS haat BG DERG ee eel bese ok heute s eae ee Sers-Smira, D., F.Z.S., Curator of Birds. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, living examples of the Australian Budgerigar or Undulated Grass-Parrakeet ‘(Melopsitiacus undulatus), showing three colour-phases ... 398 318 Or Or 365 45 XV Seru-Surra, D., F.Z.8. (Continued.) Exhibition of some skins of the Australian Yellow- rumped Finch (dunia flaviprymna) showing markings tending towards those of WM. castaneithoraa ee ae Smira, H. Hammonp, M.R.CS., L.R.C.P., F.Z.8. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a specimen of the Red Grouse (Lagopus scoticus) which displayed a curious Vabiety Ol the ORGIMarye PUIMAMe! ee cc.- 0: on-cre es s2c+e intestinal tract of Gymnorhina lewconota “ein aie cl.) ele. te Intestinal tract of Melanerpes supercitiaris ......e.eee eres eee _ liars! HACE Ot GHAGIANIS BORIS 5 200cnncacceoosnnobonencor 5 Jnana eRtee OF CRS JODORUGIS <556n556000500008505525500 | Thatiegniiaall weanets © Wowie BONG 460600000092 040s0v0000000" Palintestinalutractio Sprzaerus Well Costs s.. - leis teen neneetets — Thnibectinaaul ees Git OMiMAGHRIZS CHEE 5460504c000000es5000n 45 0ne TionRaciauaal HRA Le 41510 DUIS 5rbnoonncagedocdocccoudaasvosans salmtestinalemacthiol eipodotusaustiialis: ln ott ed eee aerate . Intestinalitrachioh Biuvanus equips .- = 22 eee eee oe . Intestinal tract of Gtdicnemus scolopat «1... eee ee cee ee eee , Imtestinalitiract on hnatencula aicivea hi. + see ene eee 17 X1x Paga 27. Intestinal tract of Tachybaptes fluviatilis oo. vec cee cee oll 98. Intestinal tract of Nestor notabilis ............: eis uubns BAG 84 29, Dissection of a full-grown Axolotl (Amdblystoma tigrinum), showing the skeleton and nerves of the head and three trunk- SEPANG IU Smistered saris: amettiafate: Pe yee o's) s) ae: ale ale et sane che pee aterm 104 30. Outline of spinal cord and hind brain, with roots of cranial nerves and first two spinal nerves, of a full-grown Axolotl.. 108 31, 82, Partial reconstructions of the hind region of the skull and the anterior region of the trunk of an advanced larva of the PNSCONGH We ios ee he Aewhn birch clo ec His Cen oa ae 105, 106 33-30. Partial reconstructions of the left side of the head region of Aiyouney lar venom Chem col Oblitiay. sale este aslels se). -) on LOG OT 36. Reconstruction, seen from above, of the hind region of the skull, and anterior neural arches of a young larva of the Axolotl .. 107 37. Left side view of a partial reconstruction of the anterior end of the trunk-region of a young larva of the Axolotl.......... 108 38, 39. Partial reconstructions, seen from the right side, of the anterior end of the trunk-region of a young larva of the PACK OL OU tarts carn Severe ohana net eeene Ved Lae eee ae 108 40. Reconstruction, seen from above, of the head and anterior | trunk-region of a young larva of the Axolotl.............. 109 41, 42. Reconstructions of the anterior trunk-region, seen from the right side, of a young larva of the Axolotl ............ an LO 45. Left side view of a reconstruction of the anterior trunk-region OigapyounovlanrvarOl the 7A COOL UNE. aes we a/c Cites dite 57s lo iBaL 44. Right side view of a reconstruction of the anterior end of a LeEyan Oils ie NeOlOULLN: sracteeice.aatienten anh ua went stale cutee, ti} 45, Partial reconstruction, seen from above, of the anterior region of cinwe rn yO) OlabhewAmcOlat lava temient te « 1c tetra aetaeaey pets 112 46. Similar reconstruction of the more dorsal region of the same IASKG lot cma DT VAOW ays cette che «F.C ume a eeoke er aay ela 113 47. Left side view of a reconstruction of the anterior region of an embry orAscolobl ty acer. «wis s vaenc ie oe Pe ee wag 113 48. Partial reconstruction of the anterior region of an embryo Axolotl seen from abaven ay tp cta emis hen see eine cha raters 114 49, Right side view of a reconstruction of an embryo Axolotl .... 115 50. Diagrams of the segmentation of the metaotic region in WENTOH OY NU) OVE Rotate enews cece SIGE ia brie Roe iene aa ee 116 51. Diagram of the segmentation of the anterior region of an “LounpliciiRern PT Ande iy Pity he eco Ont I Ie 116 52. Head of a Caribou (Rangifer tarandus_caribou) ith abnormal SUINGLETSM | 5, 40. ot oy Aer MR RY MVR: Lely sLptouas Auch sh chslo ce Se odal | wh aiah a 182 53. The bladder, duct, and “ red bodies ” of Angzlla vulgaris, viewed SM OVETI TTR TSTO RE ics. tle ee eee om CL eae Ve 186 b4: External aspect of an Hel’s rete mirabile 0. .......0.. 000-00 u 187 55. The construction of an Kel’s rete mirabile bipolare geminum .., 188 XxX Page 56. Vein surrounded by modified acini of the pancreas in Nerophis EQUOPUUS Ne ic tate IO EC EE BE TA Ree 199 57. The construction of the “ved body ” of Peristethus cataphractus . 202 58. Diagram to explain the probable construction of the gas glands of Trigla gurnardus and Smarts maurtt . 0... ccc. cece ee eee 207 59. Diagrammatic transverse sections through the anterior end of “red body ” in ventral wall of bladder of Cepola rubescens .. 213 60. Vacuoles in the kidney cells of Nerophis ........-.0000cceuee 225 61. Microphotograph of transverse section across thin region of gas gland of Perca, showing foam-like mass of bubbles on surface. 240 62. Microphotograph of transverse section across thick region of gas gland of Perca, showing extruded gas bubbles on surface. The “spent” condition of the cells is also shown ........ .. 240 G3 eSicullliotthe Anos (Bos! depressicon7s)\ne seen ele eee ee 250 64, Front part of the skull of a Buffalo (Bos bubalus) ............ 251 65. Front part of skull of the Urus ( Bos primigenius) ............ 951 66. Skull of a Urus in the Anatomical Museum, University of ASUisallotumpsdn Gee ive, ante ©: aes aretha ne Oe ee Mies ote de oe 252 Git ront part ot siculljof American! bisonlepaer eee eee 253 68. Front and side views of the skull of a young fetal Ox ........ 258 69. Front view of a foetal Ox skull about the fifth month, and front partjof same shitlliy cs cL pi emia es ieee eRe ee oe 255 70. Front view of Calf’s skull at birth, and front part of same skull. 257 71. Front part of skull of a polled Aberdeen-Angus Ox .......... 258 72. Skull of a Syrian Ox with vestigial horn-cores and a forehead like that of flat-polled Aberdeen-Angus cattle ............ 259 73. Front part of skull of polled Newstead Ox in which the upper end of the premaxille biftircates .............. Sen ee ame eme 261 74, Front part of a horned Newstead skull in which the premaxillee are short and fail to reach the nasals ............ se HIS 262 76. Front part of skull of a horned Cadzow Ox with notched pre- maxillee which fail to reach the nasals .................. 263 76. Front part of skull of a cross-bred Shorthorn in which the pre- maxille fail toaeach thie masalsiey.. © reaciscies celia welt 263 77. Skull of polled Newstead Ox of the type, which, with horns, are sometimes said to belong to Bos frontosus Nilsson .......... 264 78. Right half of occiput of the Aberdeen-Angus skull with long MmaMmedlbss MNO A SXCMIOGM OEMS ~Gpoesouccooscgosacce 265 79. Outlines of the occiput and part of the forehead of three Urus ISU UIST lc AG rie er ree era Ieee al ona RES SCI, G..6.d.cuh!o, Hin. ola 266 80. Front view of skull of the Bison (Bos biven) ............-05- 267 81. Hind part of skull of the Urus represented in text-fig. 66...... 268 82. Frontlet and horn-cores of a small Newstead Ox with a promimentaioneleadd yr. stacy 00 - «ce etter teem tie ee 269 83. Occiput of the Urus skull represented in text-figs. 66, 79, and 81. 270 87. Front view of skull of a white “wild” Cadzow Ox from Hamilton Park. Also occiput and horn-cores of same sill SoS 5550559505 AS AS 3.cgn cca, 0 ERC aR ER ee Re 276 88. Occiput and horn-cores of an American Bison .............. 276 89. Front part of the skull of a Zebu (Bos indicus) in which the TOWEINE NAMES THER ATE TRISENISH 3 on 6n nia oe 5 adn MOS ano 278 90. Front part of the skull of a Zebu in which the premaxille fail homenehmulernedselswewy.eilee, Ps jemi e erie pean cee erases ece ome 8 279 91. Occiput of the Zebu with the premaxille reaching the nasals,. 280 a LICLRAGNALROMICTOL Valin ChOSSI at NIGLOWm tars Gite siejrelere 24.04 <4. «1 301 Sam GHOnN aires miemaley Warner de. tine ne: Meise en iela ae «+ 304 UApecncoctenusnaurcuses Hemalevs x. acserten ot ee eee vse creo teas 306 SERUM MOGICRESRE RULE GTID A thes felinfuilaii Pose faite lel Elke Tree ine iis. «i's Miavare si 509 SemeYolomedesriinentagus., «Kemala racine ae ae cen oa ti 311 97. Young Brindled Gnu born in the Society’s Gardens.......... 315 OS mileadsoyoune irindled (Gmury sos. cere se aielets ese a « 316 99. Diagram to explain the tables of different markings in Sala- TUITE, TACOS or a Dio) 6b oboe Ob OND Db Cob on UNS heer 025 1C0, 101. Salamandra maculosa forma typica...........6005- 329, 352 O02 Salamandia maculosa vans tcenidtu ..o. Seo... ce se cece sae 039 103. Head of an old Buck of the Mountain Nyala................ 351 104. Clasping organs of Archeopsylla sinensis G .........2+ eee 366 105. Abdominal segments VIT & VIII and zecepeaenl un seminis of PACH CO PSH UGH SUNCNSUS Die acy Ale vate Sa Ae cle etr ele) oeeas sche 366 HOG aleadvon Ceratopheytlustcnmapus! Goss se nee ens eee en 367 107. Clasping organs of Ceratophyllus crispus $ «1... s eee eee 310 108. Abdominal segments VII & VIII, stylet and receptaculum scummisrol Ceratophylims crispus DIN... ws cece tenes: 371 169. Abdominal segments VII & VIII and stylet of Ceratophyllus COLGCTISNODY ON RT ae ON ee are nae te ea tee ees 371 110. Clasping organs of Ceratoph ples CANNES DOUS So ech OD DDC DOS ON 373 111. Abdominal segment VIII and receptaculuin seminis of Cerato- DY LLUS CLASSUSE OMG AES SAY RAL cote eee Ne ote este a cos. as Yi 112. Clasping organs of Ceratophyllus mandarinus G .........+4. 317 115. Abdominal segments VII & VIII and receptaculum seminis of COR MLO Phy lUS ORBITS OM esas sen chslaye ae ee ns a ee 378 114. Clasping organs of Ceratophyllus mongolicus S ....... 0000005 379 115. Abdominal eomhane VIL & VIII ard receptaculum seminis of XX1 Page . Occiput of the Newstead skull represented in text-fie. 86 .... 271 . Occiput and horn-cores of a Urus in which the notches below the horn-cores are deeper than in text-fic.83.............. 272 . Front view of the Newstead skull of which the occiput is represented in text-fig. 84. Also the temporal fossa of same shill <3 cs 5seouenoses Polshsvopsdararstote slovi cid a ce lerst ete Sete eee 274 (CERO OUI OL UBUITIS:, Osu Os sto aR RICE EB 381 121. Clasping organs of Neopsylla aliena 3 122, Abdominal segments VII & VIII and receptaculum seminis of NeOp SIGUA » aa: Naya nade avo Uk ee eS 390 12a Eleadtotestenaponia coclestis) Os nnn rset eee 392 124, Abdominal segments VII & VIII of Stenoponia celestis Q .... 392 125. Ventral view of anterior part of the body of Megalophrys fee Pabcralliy G1SSeCted -,..: ics iotalnie,h r audax, 502. ralloides, 508. albifrons, 512. | chrysaéius, 502. | sumatrana, 08. brachyrhynchus, 512. | clanga, 502. | Ardetta cinereus, 512. | imperialis, 502. | anvolucris, 508. eyanoides, 512. | nevioides, 502. minuta, 5O8. erythropus, 513. | werreauxt, 502. | Argoctenus, 297. indicus, 513. | Avra aureus, 299, 306. segetum, 513. ambiqua, 495. vittatus, 398. A nseranas araraund, 86, 84, 85, | Argus semipalmata, 512. 495. | giganteus, 522. Anteliomys, 177. chloroptera, 495. | Artamus Anthornis hahni, 495. | fuscus, 473. melanura, 474. macao, 49. | personata, 473. Antbracoceros maracana, 495. sordidus, 473. coronatus, 488. militaris, 84, 495. | superctliosus, 473. malabaricus, 488. | nobilis, 499. | Arvicanthis malayanus, 488. severa, 495. pulchellus, 124, 148. Anthropoides | Aramides ig s| striatus, 124, 148. caruncilata, 527. ; cayennensis, 525. _ Arvicola leucauchen, 83, 027. | ypecaha, 82, 525. | agrestis, 448. leucogeranos, 527. | Aramus | amphibius, 147, 448. paradisea, 4,53, 527. | —-scolopaceus, 528. | pratensis, 448. virgo, 527. Araneus | terrestris, 147. Anthropopithecus, 121, | verrucosus, 297, 299. | Asarcornis 358. | Arboricola | seutulatus, 4. calvus, 429. | atrogularis, 520. | Asio gorilla, 429. | torqueola, 520. | brachyotus, 492. satyrus, 124, 125. | Arcella, 229. | mexicanus, 492. troglodytes, 354, 429. Archzopsylla | ous, (45 72) 402: Anthus erinacet, 365. _ Asopia arboreus, 472. | sinensis, 865, 366. _ farinalis, 10. obscurus, 472. | Archibuteo | Astur : pratensis, 472. | dagopus, 501. | approximans, 68, 503. spipoletta, 472. | Aretictis | nove-hollandie, 503. Antilocapra | binturong, 181, 438. _ palumbarius, 68, 503. americana, 458. | Arctogale | tachiro, 503. Antilope | lewcotis, 438. | tibialis, 503. cervicapra, 152, 456. | trivirgata, 438. | Asturina Aphobus | Aretomys magnirostris, S02. chopi, 481. caudatus, 446. natterert, 502. | Apodemus | himalayanus, 446. nitida, 502. agrarius, 172, 173 | hodgsont, 416. | Ateles — ningpsensis, 173. | marmotia, 446. | ater, 433. — paliidior, 172, 173. | monax, 446. | geoffroyi, 433. fergussont, 172. | Ardea | grisescens, 433. spectosus chevriert, 172. | agam, 508. | hybridus, 433. sylvaticus, 148. | alba, 508. melanochir, 433. Aprosmictus | argala, 49. paniscus, 433. coccinopterus, 498. atricollis, 508. rufiventris, 433. cyanopygius, 498. —— bubulcus, 508. variegatus, 433. Aptenodytes | candidissima, 508. vellerosus, 433. pennantt, 532. | einerea, 508. Athene Apteryx, 55, 59, 88, 91, | coco, 508. brama, 493. 93. | egretta, 508. noctua, 72, 493. australis, 51, 538. —— garzetta, 508. Atherina, 183, 204, 206, haasti, 533. | goliath, 508. 209, 219. Atherina hepsetus, 205, 216, 247. Atherura africana, 449. fasciculata, 439. Atherurus macroura, 14d. Atlantoxerus getulus, 149. Aulacodus swindernianus. 449, Aulacorhamphus sulcatus, Wo. Babirussa alfurus, 461. babirussa, 140. Balena boops, 156. muscilus, 156. muysticetus, 155. physalus, 156. Balenoptera boops, 156. musculus, 156, 423. physalus, 156. Balearica, 82. pavonina, O27. requlorum, 527. Balistes, 183, 215, 219. capriscus, 209, 210, 248. Bambusicola Tytchii, 520. thoracica, 520. Barbastella darjelingensis, 160. Bassaricyon alleni, 442. Bassaris astuta, 442. Bassariscus, 137. Baza lophotes, 504. Benhamia, 418. austeni, 414. Bernicla brenta, 513. canadensis, 513. hutchinst, 518. leucopsis, 513. ruficollis, 513. Bettongia - cuniculus, 464. gaimardi, 464. lesueurt, 464. penicillata, 464. Bibos, 260, 264. frontalis, 454. INDEX, _Bibos | | | gaurus, 54. Bison americans, 100, 454. bison, Lot. bonasus, Lod, 454. Bitis nasicornis, 2. Biziura lobata, 514. Blarina, 166, 167. Blarinella, gen. nov., 159, 166. quadraticauda, 166, 167. (Cryptotis) parva, 167. Blastocerus bezoarticus, 151. Blennius, 204. Bolborhynchus lineolatus, 496. Bos i acutifrons, 256, 278, 211, 218, 209, 28). bison, 154, 267. bonasus, 154. brachyceros, 249, 254, 256, 279, 280. bubalus, 154, 251, 259. chinensis, 264, depressicornis, 250, 259! Jrontosus, 249, 268, 282. indicus, 154, 249, 278, 454. 264, longifrons, 249, 254, 250, 262, Zid, 220; 281. namadicus, 254, 256, 264, 272, 273, 277, 281. planifrons, 26, 273. primigenius, 249, 251, 254, 246, 258, 262, 264, 273, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282. taurus, 154, 249, 454. — brachyceros, 254, 256. — macroceros, 254. — primigentus, 249, 256, 258, 281. trochoceros, 250. Boselaphus tragocamelus, 456. Botaurus lentiginosus, 508. stellaris, 508. Bothrioneuron, 414. 200, | Buceros XXVI11 Box, 183, 219. boops, 208, 216, 247. Bradypus didactylus, 132. tridactylus, 132, 462. | Breviceps, 397, 399. sp., 405, 408, 411. adspersus, 404. gibbosus, 401, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 412. macrops, 404. mossambicus, 404. panthert, 404, verrucosus, 404. Brotogerys chrysopterus, 496. jJugularis, 496. pyrrhopterus, 496. tirica, 496. tut, 496. tuipara, 496. virescens, 496. Bubalis boselaphus, 454. caama, 454, tora, 454. Bubalus, 260, 264. equinoctialis, 454. bubalis, 154. buffelus, 4, 454. caffer, 454. Bubo ascalaphus, 492. bengalensis, 492, blakistont, 492. capensis, 72. cinerascens, 71, '72. coromandus, 492. lacteus, 492. maculosus, 71, 72, 492, magel'anicus, 492. maximus, 71, '72, 492. nepatensis, 493, orientalis, 498. poensis, £93. virginianus, 495. lon tes cylindrica, 60. lunatus, 488. rhinoceros, 488, Bucorvus, 69. abyssinicus, 61, 488. cafer, 488. Bungarus Fasciatus, 4. Buteo albicaudatus, 50', auguralis, 501, berealis, 501. al*® XXV1IL Buteo desertorun, HUL. erythronotus, DU1. Ferox, SU. jackal, 501. pennsylvanicus, S01. poliosomus, 5U\. oulgaris, SUL. Buteogallus nigricollis, 502. Butorides atricapilles, 508. cyanwrus, 508. virescens, 508. Bycanistes subcylindricus, 483. Cabassous unicinctus, 41. Cacatua alba, 494. citrina, 494. ducorpsi, 494, galerita, 495. goffini, 499. gymnops, 499. hematuropygia, 495. leadheateri, 495. moluccensis, 495. ophthalmica, 495. roseicapilla, 499. sanguinea, 499. sulphurea, 84, 495. triton, 495. Caccabis chukar, 521. melanocephala, 52). petrosa, 521. rufa, 521. saxatilis, 621. Caica leucogastra, 497. melanocephala, 497. axanthomera, 497. Cairina moschata, 512. Calandrella betiea, 484. brachydactyla, 484. Calearius lapponicus, 480. Calidris arenaria, 529. Callipepla califormea, 521. gambelli, 521. squamata, 521. Oalliste brasiliensis, 474. fastuosa, 474. * Callorhinus | Calopsittacus INDEX. Calliste festiva, 474. melanota, 474. tricolor, 474. Callithrix, 433. jacchus, 127. Callocephalon galeatum, 84, 494. 4 ursinus, 133. Calocitta Jjormosa, 483. | Calodromus, 57. Caicenas wicobarica, )18. Calopelia puella, 618. nove-hollandia, 495. Caluromys philander, 143. Calyptorhynchus banksi, 494. jfunereus, 494. Cambridgea antipodiana, 297, 300. Camelus, 122. bactrianus, 149, 150, 460. | dromedarius, 149, 150, | 460. | glama, 150. | pacos, 150. Cancroma coehlearia, 508. Canis alopex, 134, antarcticus, 440. anthus, 440. argentatus, 440. aureus, 135, 440. azare, 440. ~ bengalensis, 440. eancrivorus, 440. cerdo, 440. chaina, 440. dingo, 440. Jamelicus, 440. Familiaris, 134. fulvicaudus, 440. Sulvipes, 440. Julous, 440. griseus, 3. hodophylax, 440. hyena, 134. gubatus, 440. lagopus, 135, 440. lateralis, 440. latrans, 440. leucopus, 440. lupus, 134, 440. | Canis magellanicus, 440. mesomelas, 440. microtis, 440, miger, 440. niloticus, 440. pallidus, 440. pallipes, 440. velox, 440. virginianus, 440. vulpes, 134, 440. (Cuon) primevus, 440. (—) rutilans, 440. (Nyctereutes) pro- cyonoides, 440. Capra egagrus, 457. ammon, 153. caucasica, 457. cervicapra, 152. depressa, 152. dorcas, 153. gazella, 152. grimmia, 153. hircus, 152, 457. hispanica, 457. ibex, 152, 457. mambrica, 153. megaceros, 457. nubiana, 457. pygmea, 152. reversa, 152. ruficapra, 152. sinaitica, 457. Capreolus bedford, 180. caprea, 459. capreolus, 151, pygargus, 459. Caprimuleus ewropeus, 487. Capromys brachyurus, 449, pilorides, 449. Caranx, 183, 219. trachurus, 209. Cardinalis virginanus, 478. Carduelis elegans, 479. orientalis, 479. Cariacus campestris, 151, 459. gymnotis, 459. leucurus, 459. macrotis, 459. mexicanus, 459. nemorivagus, 459. rufus, 459 virginianus, 489, Cariama cristata, 527. Carphibis spinicollis, 510. Carpococcyx radiatus, d4. Carpodacus erythrinus, 479. hemorrhous, 479. Carpophaga e@nea 85, 516. concinna, 8d. latrans, 85. paulina, 516. Carvomys, 175. Cassicus hematorrhous, 480. persicus, 480. Cassidix oryzivord, 60. Castor canadensis, 447. jiber, 146, 447. moschatus, 146. Casuarius australis, 51. bennetti, 534. bicarunculatus, 534. casuarius, Dd4. — australis, 534. — beccarii, 534. — intensus, d34. — salvadori, 534. — sclateri, 534. — violicollis, 534. intensus, 87. papuanus, 534. — edwardsi, 534. philipt, 34. picticollis, 534. rothschildi, 87. uniappendiculatus, 534. — aurantiacus, 534. — occipitalis, 534. — rufotinctus, 524. westermanni, O1, 87. Cathartes, 61. atratus, 50d. aura, 69, 70, 505. urubitinga, 50d. Cavia flavidens, 450. porcellus, 146. spixt, 450. Cebus albifrons, 432. apella, 128, 432. azare, 432. capucinus, 128, 452. fatuellus, 432. | | | INDEX. Cebus jlavescens, 432. hypoteucus, 128, 432. lunatus, 432. monachus, 432. vellerosus, 432. versicolor, 432. Centetes ecaudatus, 444. Centropus phasianus, 490. rufipennis, 490. senegalensis, 490. Centurus tricolor, 487. Cephalophus abyssinicus, 2. coronatus, 45. dorsalis, 314, 455. grimmé. 153, 409. maxwelli, 455. - monticolor, 455. nigrifrons, 405. rujilatus, +55. sylvicultrix, 459. Cepola, 183, 216, 218, 219. rubescens, 212, 248. Ceratodus, 118. forsteri, 119. Ceratogymna elata, 488. Ceratophyllus, 388. crassus, 874, 379. crispus, 365, 367, 370, 371. dolabris, 371, 373, 374, 375. euteles, 382. Jtamulus, 380, 381. fasciatus, 5, 9, 11. lagomys, 871, 3872, 373. londiniensis, 5. mandarinus, 315, 377, 378. mongolicus, 378. pheopis, 383, 384. tesquorwm, 379, 380. Cerchneis ardesiacus, 3. Cercocebus ethiops, 431. albigena, 431. aterrimus, 431. collaris, 431. chrysogaster, 431. Juliginosus, 431. hagenhecki, 431. Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, 442. 217 ? } xkIK Cercopithecus ethiops, 128, 431. albogularis, 430. ascantas, 430, barbatus, 126. callitrichus, 431. campbelli, 430. cephus, 127, 430. cynosurus, 431. diana, 127, 480. eryihrotis, 430. grayt, 430. griseoviridis, 123, 431. lahiatus, 430. lalandii, 431. leucanepyx, 430. Uhoesti, 430. martin, 430. mond, 430. neglectus, 430. mictitans, 430, patas, 431, petaurista, 430. pygerythrus, 431. pyrrhonotus, 431. sabeus, 451. schmidti, 430. stairs?, 430. talapoin, 431. tantalus, 431. Cereopsis, 513. nove-hollandie, 512. Ceriornis blythi, 522. caboti, 522. melanoccphala, 522. satyra, 522. temmincki, 522. Cerodon rupestris, 450, Cervicapra bohor, 459. isabellina, 455. Cervulus erinifrons, 458. lacrymans, 458. muntjac, 458. reevesi, 458. Cervus atces, 151. alfredi, 459. aristotelis, 459. axis, 459. bezoarticus, 151. camelopardatis, 150. canadensis, 100, 458. dama, 151. davidianus, 459. duvaucelli, 459. XXX Cervus éelaphus, 458. eldi, 459. hippelaphus, 459. kashmirianus, 458. huhli, 459. luehdorfi, 458. mantchuricus, 459. maral, 458. moluccensis, 459. philippinus. 459. poreinus, 459. schomburgki, 45%). sika, 459. taevanus, 459. tarandus, 151. Chalcopelia chalcospilos, 518. Chalcophaps chrysochlora, 518. indica, 518. Chalcopsittacus scintillatus, 494. Chameepelia passerina, 18. talpacott, 518. Charadrius pluvialis, 529. Charax, 208, 215, 219. Chasmorhynchus niveus, 484. nudicollis, 484. Chaulelasmus streperus, 514. Chauna cristata, 511. derbiana, 511. Chen cerulescens, 512. hyperboreus, 512. nivalis, 612. Chenalopex egypliaca, 513. Jubatus, 2, 513. Chenonetta Jubata, 513. Chera progne, 476. Chibia hottentotta, 473. Chinchilla lanigera, 450. Chionis alba, 529. minor, 529. Chirogaleus coquereli, 434. milit, 434. Chiromys madagascariensis, 434. 150, 151, INDEX. Chlamydodera maculata, 482. Chloephaga magellanica, 518. melanoptera, 513. poliocephala, 513. rubidiceps, 513. Chlorophonia _spiza, 474. viridis, 474. Chiloropsis aurifrons, 472. hardwickii, 472. Chodsigoa berezowski, 166. hypsibia, 166. salenskii, 166. smithii, 166. Cholcepus didactylus, 132. Cholopus didactylus, 462. hoffmanni, 462. Chrysochloris asiatica, 142. Chrysomitris barbatus, 479. spinoides, 479. spinus, 479. tristis, 479. yarrellt, 479. Chrysophrys, 215. Chrysothrix seiurea, 432. Chrysotis estiva, 496. agilis, 496. albifrons, 496. amazonica, 496. augusta, 496. auripalliata, 496. autwmnalis, 496. bodini, 496. bouqueti, 496. brasiliensis, 496. dufresniana, 496. caymanensis, 496. collaria, 496. farinosa, 496. Festiva, 496. Jinschi, 496. guatemale, 496. guildingi, 496. inornatus, 84. leucocephala, 497. levaillantt, 497. mercenaria, 497. ochrocephala, 497. ochroptera, 497. panamanensis, 497. pretri., 497. Chrysotis rhodocorytha, 497. salvini, 497. ventralis, 497. versicolor, 497. vinacea, 497. viridigena, 497. vittata, 497. wantholora, 497. Chunga, 85. burmeisteri, O27. Ciccaba, 72. Nichlherminia densirostris, 471. Ciconia alba, 509. boyciana, 509. nigra, 509. Cineclus aquaticus, 471. Circaétus gullicus, 503. pecioralis, +. Circus eruginosus, AOL, cineraceus, O01. cyaneus, Oi. gouldi, 501. macrurus, 501. maurus, 501. Cissa venatoria, 483. Cissopis leveriana, 475. 52, 73, | Citellus mongolicus, 379, 380. Cittocincla macrura, 471. Clangula glaucion, 514. Clepsine, 419. Cobboldia, 555. Cobboldina, gen. nov., 555. vivipara, 555. Cobus ellipsiprymnus, 455. anctuosus, 455. Coccothraustes melanurus, 478. personatus, 478. vulgaris, 478. Cochoa viridis, 473. Celogenys paca, 450. Coendou prehensilis, 145. Coeereba cyanea, 474. Colaptes auratus, 487. Colivpasser macrurus, 476. Colius capensis, 487. castanotus, 487. erythromelon, 487. nigricollis, 487. Culobus, 126. vellerosus, 430. Colugo philippinensis, 130. Columba albiqularis, 516. araucana, D16. bolli?. 516. caribbea, 516. eversmanné, 16. guined, 516, gymnophthalma, 2, 4, » Z inornata, B16, laurivora, 517. leucocephala, 517. leuconota, 517. maculosa, D177, ends, 217. palumbus, 517. picazuro, O17. plumbea, 517. rufina, 517. speciosa, 517. squamusa, O17. Columbula pieut, O17. Colymbus arcticus, 532. glacialis, 532. septentrionalis, I32. Condylura cristatus. 143. Conepitus mapurito, 441. Connochzetes gm, 454. taurinus, 181. Conuropsis carolinensis, 496. Conurus acuticaudatus, 495. eruginosus, 495. aureus, 495. auricapillus, 495. aztec, 499. cactorum, 495. canicularis, 495. chloropterus, 4995. guarouba, 495. hemorrhous, 495.» INDEX. Conurus holochlorus, 495. Jendayi, 495, leucotis, 85. nanday, 495. ocularis, 495. rubritorques, 496. rubrolarvatus, 496. solstitialis, 496. wagleri, 496, Copsychus saularis, 471. Coracias affinis, 489. garrulus, 489. nevius, 4. Coracopsis barklyi, AX7. nigra, 497. vasa, 497, Coreorax melanorhamphus, 483. Coregonus acronis, 228. Coris, 183, 217, 219. giofred?, 208. Qulis, 208, 209) 214, 216, 247. vulyaris, 208. Gorvina, 183, 215. MWGhA 209 e210) eG: 217, 248. Corvultur albicoliis, 482. Corvus americanus, 482. austratis, 482. capellanus, 60, 482. corar, 482. cornix, 482. corone, 482, culminatus, 482. daiiricus, 482. Trugilegus, 482, monedula, A82. scapulatus, 482, splendens, 482. Coryexus, 282, 283. africanus, 288, 294. agilis, 290. alatus, 287, 288, 289. amazonicus, 288, 292, 293, 294. andrewsi, 294, 295, 296. anglicus, 289, 291, 294. asiaticus, 288, 294. catus, 287, 290, 296. crassiusculus, 290. XXxX1 Coryczeus dane, 287, 290. dubtus, 292, 296. elongatus, 287, 238, 289. erythreus, 293, 294. jflaccus, 287, 288, 289. 288, 292, Jurcifer, 287, 288. gibbulus, 284, 285, gracilicaudatus, 287, 290, 296. hucleyi, 288. latus, 287. lautus, 287, 288, 294. limbatus, 287, 289. longistylis, 287, 288. lubbocki, 288, 294. megalops, 234, 285. munrimus, 288, 294. minutus, 287. murrayt, 294, 296. obtusus, 287, 289, 290, 291, 296. ovalis, 287, 290, 291. pacificus, 287. pellucidus, 284, 285. robustus, 287, 289. speciosus, 282, 283, 287, 289. tenuis, 288, 291, 292, 294, 296. varius, 288. venustus, 287, 289, 294. vitreus, 287. Corycelia, gen. nov., 283. sp., 287, 296. brevis, 284, 235, 296. carinata, 283, 284, 287, concinna, 283, 284, 286, 287, 296. curta, 284, 286, 296. gibbula, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287. gracilis, 283, 287. longicaudis, 283, 284, 285. pellucidus, 283, 284. rostrata, 283, 284. speciosus, 283. tenuicauda, 283. Coryphospingus cristatus, 478. pileatus, 478. Coscoroba candida, 512. Cotinga cincta 484 XXX1l Coturnix chinensis, 63, 520. communis, 520. coromandelica, 520. histrionica, 520. pectoralis, 520. Cracticus destructor, 483. picatus, 488. Cranorrbinus corrugatus, 488. Crax, 67. alberti, 523. alector, 5238. carunculata, 55, 523. daubentont, 523. globicera, 56, 523. globulosa, 528. hecki, 56. incommoda, 523. sclateri, 523. Crex pratensis, 525. Cricetomys gambianus, 448. Cricetulus anderson, 173. Cricetus cricetus, 147. frumentarius, 448. Crithagra albogularis, 479. butyracea, 479. chrysopyga, 479. musicus, 479. sulphurata, 479. Crocidura attenuata, 168. cerulescens, 444. Crocodilus, 87. Crocopus chlorogaster, 516. phenicopterus, 516. Crocuta, 93. capensis, 96. crocuta, 95. gariepensis, 95, germinans, 95, 99. kibonotensis, 95, 98. leonticwt, 95, 97, 98. noltei, 95. nyase, 99. panganensis, 95, 92. rufopicta, 97. thierryt, 95. thomasi, 98, 99. togoensis, 95, 99. wissmannt, 95, 96, 97. Crossarchus fasciatus, 1, 439. obscurus, 439. INDEX. Crossoptilon mantchuricum, 521. tibetanum, 521. Crotophaga ant, 490. Cryptobranchus, 117. Cryptoprocta ferox, 438. Cryptotis, 167. Crypturus, 93. noctivagus, 5303. obsoletus, 533 tataupa, 52, 58, 54, 533. undulatus, 533. Ctenocephalus canis, 5. felis, 5. Ctenodactylus gundi, 449. Crenophthalmus, 388. Ctenopsylla mayardt, 9. Cuculus canorus, 490. Curzeus aterrimus, 481. Cyanecula suecica, 471. Cyanocitta coronata, 483. cristata, 483. melanocyaned, 483. yucatanica, 483. Cyanocorax cyanomelas, 483. cyanopogon, 483. luxuosus, 488. pileatus, 483. Cyanolyseus patagonus, 496. Cyanopolius cooki, 483. cyanus, 483. Cyanopsittacus spixt, 495, Cyanorhamphus auriceps, 499. matherbi, 499. nove-zealandie, 499. saissett, 499. wnicolor, 499. Cyanospiza ciris, 477. cyanea, 477. Cyclopes didactyla, 132. Cygnus atratus, 512. bewicki, 512. buccinator, 512. Cygnus musicus, 12. nigricollis, 512. olor, 512. Cylicostomum, 551. Cylindropharynx, gen. noy., 5d1. brevicauda, 551, 552. longicauda, 551, 553. Cynelurus, 135. jubatus, 4, 438. Cynictis pemcillata, 439. Cynocephalus anubis, 432. babouin, 432. doguera, 432. hamadryas, 482. ibeanus, 432. leucopheus, 432. mormon, 432. neumannt, 432. papio, 432. porcarius, 432. sphine, 432. volans, 124, 129. Cynomys ludovicianus, 446. Cynonycteris collaris, 444. Cynopithecus niger, 432. Cynopterus marginatus, 444. Cyprinus curpto, 228. Cypselus, 60. Cystophora cristata, 448. Dacelo cervina, 488. gigantea, 488. leachi, 488. Dacnis cyana, 474. Dafila acuta, 514. spuvicauda, 514. Dama mesopotamica, 459, vulgaris, 459. Damaliscus albifrons, 454. pygargus, 454. Dasyprocta acouchy, 450. aguti, 450. azare, 450. Dasyprocta cristata, 450. isthmica, 450. leporinus, 146. mexicana, 450. prymnolopha, 450. punetata, 450. Dasypus, 121, 122, 124. minutus, 462. novemcinctus, 141, 142. quadricinetus, 141. septemcinctus, 125, 142 sexcinctus, 141, 462. tricinctus, 141. unicinctus, 141. villosus, 462. Dasyurus maculatus, 466. viverrinus, 466. Daulias luscinia, 471. Delphinus delphis, 158. orca, 158. phocena, 158. Dendraspis viridis, 3. Dendrocitta himalayensis, 483. sinensis, 483. vagabunda, 423. Dendrocopus major, 487. Dendrocygna arborea, 513. arcuata, 5138. autumnalis, 513. discolor, 54. eytont, 513. Sulva, 513. javanica, 513. major, 513. viduata, 518. Dendrolagus bennetti, 464. inustus, 464. Deroptyus accipitrinus, 497. Desis marina, 298, 299. Desmana moschatus, 146. Dichoceros bicornts, 488. Dicotyles labiatus, 461. » tajacu, 461. Didelphys azare, 466. | | INDEX, Didelphys cancrivorus, 466, cinereus, 466. crassicaudata, 466. dorsigera, 144. lanigera, 466. marsupialis, 1438, murina, 144, 466. nudicaudata, 466. opossum, 143, 466. philander, 143, 466. virginiana, 466. Didunculus strigirostris, 518. Dignus sowerbyi, 388. Dilophus carunculatus, 432. Dioplodon, 422. Diphyllodes hunsteini, 2, 60. _ Dipodillus campestris, 449. simont, 449. Dipus egyptius, 44%). hirtipes, 449. Dipylidium caninum, 12. Discoglossus pictus, 408. Dissura episcopus, 509. maguari, 50%). Diuea grisea, 477. Dolichonyx oryzivora, 480. Dolichotis patachonica, 450. — | Dolomedes, 313. tridentatus, 300, 311. Donacola castaneo-thorax, 476. pectoralis, 470. Dorcelaphus americanus, 314. — macrurus, 182. Dorcopsis ductuosus, 464, miillert, 464. | Drances huttont, 313. trippt, 313. Drepanoplectes jacksoni, 4. Dromeus, 90. nove-hollandie, 534. Dromicia nana, 464. Xxx Dryotriorchis spectabilis, 508. Dymecodon, 163. Echidna hystrix, 467. Kelectus cardinalis, 497. pectoralis, 85, 498. roratus, 498. westermani, 498. Ketopistes migratorius, 517. Himeria (Coccidium) aviwm, 46. Hlanus ceruleus, 504. : Elaphodus michianus, 458. | Hlephas africanus, 452. antiquus, 250. indicus, 131, 42. maximus, 124, 131. Emberiza aureola, 480. ehrysophrys, 480. cta, 480. ciopsis, 480. cirlus, 480. citrinella, 480. hortulana, 480. luteola, 480. melanocephala, 480. miliaria, 480. rutila, 480. scheniclus, 480. striolata, 480. Entomyza cyanotis, 474. Kos riciniata, 494. reticulata, 494, rubra, 494. wallacet, 494. Eothenomys, 175. Epimys andersont, 171. confucianus, 170, 171. — luticolor, 169. edwards, 171. excelsior, 170, 171. jerdoni, 170. ling, 170. norvegicus, 170. rattus, 147. Equus asinus, 155. burchelli, 458. caballus, 154. grevyt, 458. XXX1V Equus hemionus, 453. -— indicus, 453. hemippus, 453. onager, 453. quayga, 453. somalicus, 453. teniopus, 453. zebra, 155, 4538. Kremias arguia, 24. Hrethizon dorsata, 145. Erinaceus, 162. albiventris, 444. algirus, 444. auritus, 444. collaris, 444. europeus, 142, 444. frontatlis, 444. micropus, 444. miodon, 300. Erithacus rubecula, 471. Erithizon dorsatus, 449. Erythrospiza githaginea, 479. Hrithrura prasina, 476. psittacea, 476. Hsox, 189, 217, 219. luctus, 190, 215, 243. Estrelda amadava, 479. bella, 475. bichenovit, 475. cerulescens, 475. cinerea, 479. cyanogastra, 475. dufresnit, 475. Jormosa, 475. granatina, 479. melpoda, 475. _phenicotis, 475. phaéton, 475. rubriventris, 475. squamifrons, 475. swbflava, 475. temporalis, 475. Eudocimus albus, 510. longirostris, 510. ruber, 510. Eudromias morinellus, 529. Eudynamis orientalis, 65, 66, 490. taitensis, 490. Eudyptes antipodum, 532. INDEX, Hudyptes chrysocome, 532. pachyrhynchus, 532. selateri, 532. Euphonia, 65. chlorotica, 474. jflavifrons, 474. lanitrostris, 474. nigricollis, 474. pectoralis. 474. sclateri, 474. violacea, 60, 474. Euphractus, 121, 124. sexcinctus, 141. Eaplectes afer, 476. capensis, 476. jlammiceps, 476. nigriventris, 476. oryx, 476. Euplocamus albo-cristatus, 522. andersont, 522. erythrophthalmus, 522. horsfieldi, 522. lineatus, 522. melanotis, 522. nobilis, 522. nycthemerus, O7, 8, 80, 522. prelatus, 922. swinhott, d22. wretllott, 522. Hupodotis arabs, 526. australis, 73, 74, 526. caffra, 526. denhami, 526. kort, 4, 526. rijicollis, 526. Eupsychortyx cristatus, 521. leylandi2, 521. sonnint, 57. Hurypyga helias, 528. | Euspiza americana, 480. Exocetus volitans, 228. Faleo esalon, 503. biarmicus, 503. concolor, 508. eleonore, 503. feldeggi, 69, 503. jfusco-cerulescens, 503. | | | Falco lanarius, 503. melanogenys, 503. peregrinus, 68, 503. punicus, 503. sacer, 503. subbuteo, 503. Felis hengalensts, 436. caffra, 437. canadensis, 536. caracal, 436. catus, 136, 436. chaus, 436. chrysothri«, 436. concolor, 436. eyra, 437. geoffroii, 437. feo, 135, 314, 436. lynx, 136, 436. — rsabellinus, 181. maniculata, 437. nebulosa, 436. onca, 136, 4386. pardalis, 136, 437. pardus, 135, 456. passerum, 437. planiceps, 436. rubiginosa, 426. rufa, 436. serval, 436. servalina, 436. temminckt, 436. tigrina, 437. tiyris, 135, 436. uncia, 456. viverrina, 181, 436. yaguarundt, 437. Fiber zibethicus, 448. Fierasfer, 214, 219, 243. acus, 210. Foudia erythrops, 477. madagascariensis, 477. Francolinus bicalcaratus, 520. cdpensis, 520. clappertoni, 520. coqui, 520. granti, 520. gularis, 520. kirki, 520. levaillanti, 520. natalensis, 520. pictus, 520. ponticerianus, 520. vulgares, 520. Fratercula, 59. ° arctica, 78, 79, 80, 532. wa Fregata, 89, 92. aquila, 83, 506. Fringilla celebs, 6, 479. kawarahiba, 479.} linaria, 479. montifringilla, 6, 479. spodiogenia, 479. teydea, 479. tintillon, 479. Fringillaria sahara, 480. Fulica ardesiaca, 526. atra, 526. leucoptera, 526. Fuligula baert, 514. cristata, 514. JFerina, 514. ferrugined, 514. marila, 514. rupina, 514. Fulmarus glacialis, 531. Funisciurus leucostigima, 2. Furcifer chilensis, 459. Furnarius rufus, 484. Gadus, 219s 23. morrhua, 211, 248. Galago allent, 484. crassicaudata, 434. garnetti, 434. maholi, 434. monteiri, 434. Galeopithecus, 129. philippinensis, 130. Galeoscoptes carolinensis, 471. Galictis barbara, 441. vittata, 441. Galidia elegans, 439. Gallierax chlorochlamys, 491. porphyreolopha, 491. Gallinago ce@lestis, 529. Gallinula chloropus, 526. galeata, 526, 1835222; Zila; \ INDEX, Gallinula nestotis, 526. phenicura, 526. pyrrhorhoa, 526. | Galloperdix lunulata, 520. spadicea, 520. zeylonensis, O= Gallus bankiva, 522 sonnerutt, 5 52 >. 20. o stanteyt, 2. varius, 52 Garrulax albogularis, 472. chinensis, 472. leucolophus, 472. pectoralis, 472. perspicillatus, 472. picticollis, 472. Garrulus glandarius, 483. lanceolatus, 483. Gasterosteus, 183, PALS), Ai), aculeatus, 204. | spinachia, 201, 219. | Gastropholis vittata, 30. Gazella sp., 180. arabica, 455. bennett, 455. cuviert, 45d. dorcas, 153, 455. euchore, 455. loderi, 456. marica, +56. mohr, 456. muscatensis, 456. ruficollis, 1, 2. rufifrons, 3, 456. semmerringt, 456. speki, 456. subgutturosa, 456. | Gecinus viridis, 63, 64, 487. Gelochelidon anglica, 530. Genetta dongolana, 1. Selina, 438. genetta, 137. pardina, 438. senegalensis, 438. tigrina, 438. vulgaris, 438. | Geocichia citrina, 470. wardi, 470. 202, XXXV Geococeyx californianus, 95. Geopelia cuneata, 517. humeralis, 517. maugei, 517. striata, 517. tranquilla, 517. . Geophaps plumifera, 518. seripta, 518. Geopsittaeus occidentalis, 499. Georychus capensis, 448, Geotrygon cristata, 518. montana, 518. mystacea, 518. Geranoaétus melanoleucus, 68, 502, Gerbillus egyptius, 448. campestris, 448. indicus, 448. longifrons, 448. pygargus, 448. pyramidum, 448. robustus, 448. shawi, 448. Giraffa, 458. camelopardalis, 150. Girardinus, 206. Glareola ocularis, 528. pratincola, 529. Glaucidium passerinum, 493. phalenoides, 493. Globicera aurore, d16. pacifica, 516, rufigula, 516. Glossopsittacus concinnus, 494, Gobius, 183, 196, 204, 216, 218, 219, 235. capito, 196, 203. micropus, 41, 42, 48, 4 minutus, 40, 41, 42,43 44, 195, 196, 197, 219, 2389, 246. niger, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 202, 203, 219, 246. paganellus, 195, 196, 197,. 198, 210, 214, Paste XXXVI Goura coronata, 518. victoria, 518. Gracula intermedia, 482. Javanensis, 482. religiosa, 60, 482. Gr icupica nigricollis, 482. Grallina australis, 472. Grammatoptila striata, 473. Grayia smyth, 181. Grus americana, 5217. antigone, 5277. australasiana, 527. canadensis, 527. communis, 527. Japonensis, 527. japonicus, 64, 65, 82. monachus, 527. virgo, 82. Gubernatrix cristatellus, 477. Guira piririgua, 490. Guiraca cerulea, 478. cyanea, 478. parellina, 478. Gulo gulo, 138. tuscus, 139, 441. Guttera cristata, 522. edouardi, 522. pucherant, 523. Gymnomystax melanicterus, 4. Gymnorhina leuconota, 59, 60, 483. tibicen, 413, 485. Gymnura, 162. Gypaétus barbatus, 505. Gypagus, 61. papa, 69, 70, 505. Gypohierax angolensis, 505. Gyps bengalensis, 504. Sulcus, 504. kolbi, 504. rueppelli, 504. INDEX. Heematopus mger, 529. ostralegus, 529. Halcyon chloris, 488. sanctus, 64, 91, 488. smyrnensis, 488. vagans, 64, 488. ’ Haliaétus albicillus, 502. leucocephalus, 502. leucogaster, 502. leucoryphus, 502. vocifer, 502. Haliaster tndus, 502. intermedius, 502. | Halicherus gryphus, 443, Hapale chrysoleucus, 433. Jacchus, 433. melanura, 433. penicillata, 433. pygmed, 433. Hapalemur griseus, 434. simus, 434. Haplopelia larvata, 518. Harporbynchus rufus, 471. Harpyhaliaétus coronatus, 66, S02. Hedymeles ludovicianus, 478. Helictis subaurantiaca, 441. Helotarsus ecaudatus, 5O2. Hemicolea rogenhoferi, 297, 298. Hemidactylus Jusciatus, 3. Hemiderma brevicauda, 130. perspicillatus, 130. Hemigalea hardwickii, 438. Hemitragus jemlaicus, 457. Hemixos jlavala, 472. Henicognathus leptorhynchus, 496. Herpestes albicauda, 439. auro-punctatus, 439. Julvescens, 439. galera, 439. gracilis, 439. Herpestes griseus, 439. ichneumon, 439. pulverulentus, 439. smithi, 439. Herpetotheres cachinnans, 504. Neterhyphantes melanogaster, 477. Heterolocha gouldi, 483. Hieracicdea berigora, 5O4. Hierofalco candicans, 503. islandus, 504. Himantopus brasiliensis, 529. nigricollis, 529. Hippocampus, 208. Hippopotamus amphibius, 150, 461. terrestris, 155. Hippotragus equinus, 456. niger, 466. Hirundo rustica, 473. Holaspis guentheri, 30. Homo sapiens, 125. troglodytes, 128. Houbara macqueent, 52, 73, 526. undulata, 526. Hyeena brunnea, 439. capensis, 9d. crocuta, 93, Q4, 439. cuviert, 95. hyena, 134. rufa, 90. striata, 184, 439. Wydrocherus capybara, 490. Hydromys chrysogaster, 448. Hydropotes inermis, 409. Hydrornis alleni, 82, 525. Hylobates agilis, 353, 350, 356, 307, 429. — martini, 399. — piieata, 305. gabrielle, 350. Hylobates hainanus, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 429. hoolock, 355, 356, 357, 429. lar, 355, 357, 429. leuciscus, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 429. leucogenys, 359, 429. miilleri, 355, 429. pileatus, 429. syndactylus, 429. Hylomys, 162. Hymenolzemus malacorhynchus, 514. Hymenolepis contracta, 15. diminuta, 9, 10, 11. horrida, 10. mucrostoma, 13. murina, 12, 13. muris variegati, 13. nana, 1d. relicta, 10. Hyomoschus aquaticus, 460. Hyphantornis brachyptera, 477. capensis, 477. ; castaneo-fuscus, 477. nigriceps, 477. personata, 477. superciliosus, 477. textor, 477. velatus, 477. Hy pochera mitens, 476. Hypocolius ampelinus, 473. Hypophza chalybea, 474. Hypotriorchis chicquera, 504. Hypsipetes maclellandi, 472. Hyrax capensis, 452. dorsalis, 452. Hystrichopsylla tripectinata, 391. Hystrix brachyura, 145. cristata, 144, 449. dorsata, 145. javanica, 449. longicauda, 449. macroura, 145. prehensilis, 145. Ibis ethiopicus, 510. INDEX. Ibis berniert, 510. melanocephalus, \10. strictipennis, 510. Teterus abeillei, 480. baitimore, 480. chrysocephalus, 480. gamaici, 480. spurius, 480. tibialis, 480. vulgaris, 480. Icticyon venaticus, 440. Ictonyx Jrenata, 441. lybica, 441. zorilla, 441. Tonornis martinicus, 525. Isomys variegatus, 448. Ithaginis geoffroyi, 520. Ixocincela crassirostris, 58, 54, 60, Ze Tynx torquilla, 487. Jaculus jaculus, 148. Julis, 215. Junco hyemalis, 480. Ketupa ceylonensis, 4933. javanensis, 493. Kobus kob, 2. unctuosus, 2. Lacerta 31, 32, 40. atlantica, 22, 26, 32. boettgert, 25. cerulea, 26. campestris, 26. chlorogaster, 22, 25. defilippt, 25. derjugini, 22. dugesit, 22, 24, 25, 28, | 9 32. echinata, 24, 32, 25, 30, XxXxVvH Lacerta jfiumana, 26. yalloti, 22, 25, 26;° 32. horvathi, 34. jacksoni, 19, 22, 23, 24, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36. levis, 22, 24, 26, 32. litfordi, 25, 31, 32. mosorensis, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 34, 36. muralis, 22, 23, 24, 26, Ms} ill, Be, By, ais) 40, — bocagit, 36. — campestris, 25, 36. — melissellensis, 26. — monticola, 36. — nigriventris, 22. — serpa, 22, 25, 26, — tiliguerta, 25. — typiea, 23, 25, 51. ocellata, 22, 24, 26, 28, 32. oxycephala, 24, 25, 26, 27. peloponnesiaca, 40. pityusensis, 26. sardoa, 39. saxicola, 22, 2d. schreibert, 347. simony?, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32. taurica, 37, 39, 40. vauereselli, 33, 34, 35, 36. viridis, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32, 37, 39, 40. — gadovii, 347. vivipara, 23, 24, 25, 31. Lagopus scoticus, 46, 100. Lagostomus trichodactylus, 450. Lagothrix humboldti, 433. 37, | Lagotts agilis, 22, 23, 24, 25, | cuviert, 450. Lama glama, 150. huanaeos, 460. pacos, 150, 460. peruana, 460. Lamprocolius auratus, 481. chalybeus, 481. Lampropsar dives, 481. Lamprotornis eneus, 481. XXXVI Laniarius quadricolor, 473. Lanius collurio, 473. excubitor, 473. lahtora, 473. Larus argentatus, 77, 030. atricilla, 530. -* brunneicephalus, 530. cachinnans, 530. caus, 531. cirrhocephalus, 531. dominicanus, 531. Sranklini, 531. Fuscus, 531. gelustes, 531. glaucus, 531. wchthyaétus, O31. leucopterus, 531. marinus, 531. nove-hollandia, 531. ridibundus, 77, 531. Latastia degeni, 30. hardeggeri, 30. neumanne, 30. phillipsii, 30. spinalis, 30. Latax lutris, 138. Leggada, 169. Leipoa ocellata, 523. Lemmus denuvmus, 146. Lemur albifrons, 434. albimanus, 434. brunneus, 434. catta, 129, 434. coronatus, 434. flavifrons, 434. Sulous nigrifrons, 5. — rufifrons. 5. macaco, 5, 434. mayottensis, 434. mongoz, 434. niger, 434. nigerrimus, 434. wigrifrons, 434. rujfitrons, 434. rufipes, 434. tardigradus, 129. varius, 434. . volans, 129, 130. xanthomystax, 434. Leontopithecus amidas, 128. edipus, 127. Lepidosiren, i118, 119. INDEX. Leptobrachium, 393. hasseltiz, 393, 395, +10, 403. Leptoptila jamaicensis, 018. ochroptera, 518. rufarilla, 518. Leptoptilus argala, 509. crumeniferus, 509. javanicus, 599. Lepus americanus, 451. brasiliensis, 146, 451. capensis, 145. cuniculus, 145. curopeus, 451. nigricoilis, £01. sechuenensis, 1&0. sylvaticus, 451. timidus, 145. variabilis, 451. Leucodioptron canorum, 472. Leuconerpes candidus, 487. Leucopternis palliatus, 502. Leucosarcia picata, 518. Licmetis nasica, 495. pastinator, 495. Ligurinus chloris, 478. stnicus, 479. Limnocorax mger, 525. Limnotragus, 350, 353. Limosa egocephala, 529. lapponica, 529, Linota cannabina, 479. flavirostris, 479. rufescens, 479. Liothrix luteus, 471. Lobivanellus lobatus, 3, 530. Lomvia troile, 532. Lophzemus antareticus, 516. Lophaétus occipitalis, 503. Lophophorus impeyanus, 521. thuyst, 521. sclateri, 521. Lophura ignita, 314. Loriculus chrysonotus, 498. galgulus, 498. indicus, 498. pusillus, 498. Loris gracilis, 434. volans, 129. Lorius domicella, 494. flavo-palliatus, 494. garrulus, 494. lory, 494. tibialis, 494. Lota vulgaris, 229. Loxia bifasciata, 480. curvirostris, 480. leucoptera, 47). pityopsittacus, 479. Lucioperca, 215. Lutra Jelina, 181. leptonyx, 441. lutra, 138. nair, 441. vulgaris, 441. Lycaon pictus, 440. Lycosa canescens, 300. Mabuia raddonti, 181. Macacus, 121, 125, 126. arctoides, 431. assamensis, 431. brunneus, 4°41. cyclopsis, 431. cynomolgus, 431. ecaudatus, 126. inua, 126. inuus, 126, 431. lastotus, 481. Teoninus, 431. maurus, 431. nemestrinus, 431. ocreatus, 481. pelops, 431. philippinensis, 124,129. pileatus, 431. rhesus, 431. rufescens, 431. silenus, 126, 431. stnicus, 431. speciosus, 431. syrichta, 129. tcheliensis, 481. oF ee. Machetes pugnax, 529. Machetornis rivosa, 484. Macropodus, 207, 215. Macropus agilis, 464. bennetti, AG4. billardieri, 464. brachiurus, 464. derbianus, 464. dorsalis, 464. giganteus, 464. gnelanops, 404, parryi, 464. robustus, 464. ruficollis, 464. rufus, 404. thetidis, 464. ualabatus, 464. Macropygia leptogrammica, 517. phastanella, 517. Manis dalmani, 124, 1383. pentadactyla, 124, 135. tricuspis, 463. (Pholidotis) gigantea, | 463. | Melursus Manucodia chalybea, 482. Mareca penelope, 514. sibilatrix, 514. Marmaronetta angustirostris, J14. Marmosa dorsigera, 144. murina, 144. Marmota marmota, 147. monax, 147. robusta, 169, 874, 375. Martes martes, 139. zibellina, 139. Megacephalon maleo, 523. Megaderma spasma, 131. Megalema asiatica, 62, 490. hodgsoni, 490. virens, 490. Megalophrys (Leptobrachium) fee, 393-403. montana, 393, 399. nasuta, 393, 396, 399. 396, INDEX. Melanerpes, 60, 76, 89. erythrocephalum, 487. superciliaris, 62. Melanocorypha calandra, 48+. mongolica, 454. yeltoniensis, 484. Meleagris gallopavo, 522. ocellata, 522. Meles ankuma, 441. leptorhynchus, 44}. meles, 140. tarus, 441. Melierax monogrammicus, 503. musicus, SUS. polyzonus, 503. Mellivora capensis, 441. indica, 441. Melopelia leucoptera, 517. Melophus melanicterus, 480. Melopsittacus undulatus, 499. 45, 8), ursinus, 442. Menura superba, 484. Mephitis mephitica, 181, 441. Mergus albellus, 514. merganser, d14. serrator, 514. | Meriones, 6. Merops apiaster, 489. Mesoplodon australis, 422. bidens, 424. densirostris, 421, 422. haasti, 422. (Dioplodon) — grayi, 420, 421, 422. Mesopsylla eucta, 12. Meta argentata, 298. Metachirus opossum, 1438. Metopiana peposaca, 51+. Metriopelia melanoptera, 518. Microcebus smithi, 434. XXX1X | Microglossus aterrimus, 494, Microsittace Serruginea, 496. Mierotus arvalis, 178, 175. calamorum, 174, 175. inez, 176. irene, 173. limnophilus, \74, 175. malcotmt, 178, 174, 175, 178. nuc, 176. ratticeps, 175. saved, 170. (Anteliomys) chinensis, 175. (Caryomys) eva, 175. (Eothenomys) melano- gaster, 176. Midas chiysomelas, 433. geoffrott, 433. labiatus, 433. mystax, 433. edinus, 433. rosalia, 433. rujimanus, 433. ursulus, 433. Milvago australis, 504. chimachima, 4, 504. chimango, 504. . megalopterus, 504. Milvulus tyrannus, 484. Milvyus egyptius, 504. govinda, 504. actinus, 504. migrans, S04. Minus polyglottus, 471. saturinus, 471. Mirafra affinis, 484. cantillans, 484. Miro albifrons, 4771. Mirounga leonina, 133. Mitua tomentosa, 523. tuberosa, 523. Molothrus badius, 481. bonariensis, 481. purpurascens, 48}. Momotus brasiliensis, 489. subrufescens, 489. xl Monachus albiventer, 445. Monodon monoceros, 19d. Monticola cyanus, 470. saxatilis, 470. Montifringilla nivalis, 479. Morphnus guianensis, 502. Moschus moschiferus, 150, 458. sifanicus, 180. Motacilla flava, 472. lugqubris, 472. melanope, 472. rail, 472. Motella, 215. mediterranea, 207. Mungos ichneumon, 136. Munia castanetthorax, 101. ferruginea, 475. flaviprymna, 101. maja, 476. malaharica, 476. malacca, 476. nisoria, 476. punctularia, 476. rubro-nigra, 476. striata, 476. topela, 476. Murena, 216, 219. Mus amphibius, 147. arboricola, 448. evellanarius, 147. éandicota, 448. barbarus, 448. blanfordi, 448. cervicolor, 448. cricetus, 147. exulans, 448. gansuensis, 169. gaculus, 148. lemmus, 146. leporinus, 146. longipes, 148. marmota, 147. sninutus, 448. monax, 147. musculus, 147. porcellus, 146. ratius, 4, 147, 448. striatus, 148. sylvaticus, 148, 448. 122, 146, | _ Mynoglenes | INDEX. Mus terrestris, 147. volans, 148, 149. Museardinus avellanarius, 147, 447. Muscicapa atricapilla, 473. Musophaga TOSS@, 3. violacea, 491. Mustela barbara, 188. bed fordi, 169. dorsalis, 169. erminea, 138, 139, 441, flavigula, 181. foina, 441. Furo, 139. gulo, 138. kathiah, 168, 169. lutra, 138. lutris, 138. martes, 139, 441. nivalis, 168. pennanti, 441. putorius, 139, 441. rixosa, 168, 169. russellianda, 168. vulgaris, 138, 441. zibellina, 139. Mustelis diversis, 122. Mycerobas melanoxanthus, 478. Mycetes, 453. Mycteria americana, 509. Myiophones horsfieldt, 470. chiltont, 299, 309. insolens, 297. marrinert, 310. Myodes lemmus, 448. Myopotamus coypu, 449. Myopsittacus monachus, 496. Myospalax cansus, 178, 179. —— shenseius, 178. fontaniert, 391. Myotalpa vufescens, 179. Myotis altarium, 161. bechsteini, 161. moupinensis, 162. 308, | Myotis pequinius, 161. Myoxus dryas, 447. gtis, 447. quercinus, 447. _ Myristicivora luctuosa, 516, Myrmecophaga didactyla, 132. jubata, 124, 132, 462. tetraductyla, 133. tridactyla, 124, 132. Myrus, 113, 189, 192, 193, 216, 217, 218. 219. vulgaris, 191, 192. Myzantha garrula, 474. Naia tripudians, 4. Nandinia binotata, 439. Nanodes . discolor, 499. Nasua, 137. naréica, 442. rufa, 442. | Neeator, 549. Necturus, 103, 105, 115, 119. Nemorhedus goral, 456. ' Neopbema | | i} bourkti, 499. chrysogastra, 499. elegans, 499. pubchella, 499. splendida, 499. venusta, 499. Neophron percnopterus, 504. | Neopsylla aliena, 388, 390. bidentatijormis, 387, 388. compar, 387. Neotetracus, 159. sinensis, 162. Neotragus pygmea, 152. Nephila argentatum, 298. venosa, 299. Nerophis, 183, 201, 219, 225, 235. equorius, 199, 200, 248. dn Sght a ee were Nesochen sand vicensis, 515. Nesonetta aucklandica, 514. Nesopelia galapagoensis, 517. Nestor notabilis, 84, 494. Ninox boohook, 71, '72, 493. nove-scelandia, 493. Nipponia temmincki, 510. Nisaétus Jasciatus, 502. pennaéus, S02. spilogaster, 502. Noctilio leporinus, 131. Nothoerax urumutum, 523. Nothura . maciulosa, 535. Notiosorex, 167. Nucifraga caryocatactes, 482. Nucras delalandii, 30. Numenius arquata, 529. Jemoralis, 529. pheopus, 529. Numida ellioti, 522. meleagris, 522. mitrata, 522. ptilorhyncha, 522. reichenowi, 522. Nyctea scandiaca, 4938. Nycticebus Javanicus, 434. tardigradus, 434. Nycticorax caledonicus, 508. gardeni, 508. griseus, 508. vielaceus, 4, 508. Nyctidromus, 60. Nyctipithecus Jfelinus, 433. rufipes, 433. trivirgatus, 433. vociferans, 435. Nyinphicus cornutus, 499. uveensis, 499. Ochotona cansa, 180. INDEX, Ochotona hodysoni, 180. tihelana, 180. Octodon cumingi, 449. Ocydromus australis, 525. earli, 25. Suseus, 5295. lafresnayanus, 25. sylvestris, 525. Ocyphaps lophotes, 518. Odobenus rosmarus, 134, Odontophorus dentatus, 521. guianensis, 521. Gidemia nigra, O14. Gidicnemus bistriatus, 529. grallarius, 77, 529. scolopax, 76, 77, 529. superciliaris, 529. Gina capensis, 518. Onychogale Jrenata, 464. unguifera, 464. Ophichthys, 183, 219. (Sphegebranchus) 77- 189, | berbis, 192, 193, 216, 217, 245. (Ophisurus) — serpens, 193, 216. Ophidium, 183, 205, | 206, 214, 215, 216, | Qe 2NGy 220! barbatum, 197, 210, 247. Orchesticus ater, 475. Orcinus orca, 158. Oreas canna, 456. Oreotragus saltator, 455. Oriolus indicus, 473. kundoo, 473. melanocephalus, £73. Ornithorhynchis paradoxus, 181. Ortalis, 58. alhiventris, 528. garrula, 523. motmot, 523. rujicauda, 56, 523. Proc. Zoou. Soc.—1911, No. XX XVIII. 204, | Ortalis vetula, 523, Ortyx virginianus, 521. Orveteropus ethiopicus, 465. capensis, 403. Oryctolagus cuniculus, 145. Oryx algazel, 1. beatriz, 456. beisa, 456. gazella, a2. leucoryx, 456. Oryzoborus crassirestris, 478. torridus, 478. Osmotreron bicineta, 516. vernans, O16. Ostinops decumanus, 480. Otaria culiforniana, 443. hookeri, 443. Jubata, 445. pusilla, 443. Otis 85. tarda, 73, 526. Otocorys alpestris, 43+. hilophu, 484. Otocyon megalotis, 440. Ouaearia, 435. Ourebia montana, 1. nigricaudata, 2, £55. Ovis ammon, 133. aries, 195. blanfordi, 457. burrhel, 457. cycloceros, 457. guineensis, 153. hodgsoni, 457. musimon, Ad7. strepsiceros, 153. tragelaphus, 457. vignei, 407. Pachynus bruchyurus, 2, 497. Padda oryzivora, 476. Pagellus, 215. Pagophila eburned, O31. Palzopsylla, 388. 38 xl Palzornis alexandri, 498. caniceps, 498. cyanocephala, 498. docilis, 498. fasciata, 498. longicauda, 498. nicoburica, 498. peristercdes, 498. rosa, 498. torquatus, 498. Palamedea, 86. cornuta, 511. Pandion haliaétus, 501. Panurus biarmicus, 471. Papio cynamolgos, 128. hamadryas, 127, 128. Paradisea minor, 482. raggiana, 60. rubra, 2, 482. Paradisornis rudolphi, 60. Paradoxurus aureus, 438. griayt, 438. hermaphroditus, 438. larvatus, 438. leucomystax, 438. niger, 438. pallast, 438. philippensis, 438. prehensilis, 438. Pardosa, 298. canescens, 300. Pareiasaurus, 118. Pareudrilus, 415. i pallidus, 419. Paroaria capitata, 477. cucullata, 477, 485. larvata, 477. Parus ater, 471. borealis, 471. ceruleus, 471. caudatus, 471. cristatus, 471. eyanus, 471. major, 471. palustris, 471. varius, 471. Passer alario, 48. arcuatus, 478. diffusus, 478. INDEX. Passer luteus, 478. montanus, 478. salicicola, 478. simplex, 478. Pastor roseus, 482. Pauxis galeata, 523. Pavo cristatus, 522. nigripennis, 522. spicifer, 522. Pelecanus, 83. conspicillatus, 506. crispus, d06. Suscus, 506. manillensis, 506. mitratus, 506. onocrotalus, 506. rufescens, 506. trachyrhynchus, 3. | Pelobates, 394. Pelodytes punctatus, 397. Penelope cristata, 523. greeyt, 923. Jacucaca, 623. mara, 523. pileata, 523. purpurascens, 523. superciliaris, 58, 523. Penthetria laticauda, 4. Peragale lagotis, 466. Perameles obesula, 466. Perea, 183, 210, 215, 216, 219, 227, 237, | 240. fluviatilis, 248. Perdicula argqoondah, 521. asiatica, 521, Perdix cinerea, 520. hodgsome, 520. Perichxta, 412. Peristedion cataphractum, 201, 202, 210, 246. Peristera geoffroyt, 518. Peristethus, 183, 201, 208, 216, 219. 214, 229 195, cataphractus, 201, 202, 210, 219, 246. Pheretima, Pernis apivorus, 501. ptilorhyncha, 501. Perodicticus potto, 434. Petaurus australis, 464. breviceps, 464. sciureus, 464. Petrogale brachyotis, 464. penicillata, 464. xanthopus, 464. Petronia petronelia, 478. stulta, 478. Phacochcerus ethiopicus, 461. africanus, 461. Phaéthusa magnirostris, 530. Phalacrocorax, 83. africanus, 507. brasilianus, 507. carbo, 507. carunculatus, 507. graculus, 507. javanicus, 507. lugubris, 507. pygmeus, 3. varius, 507. Phaps chalcoptera, 518. elegans, 518. histrionica, 518. Phascolarctos cinereus, 464. Phaseolomys latifrous, 465. mitchelli, 405. Phasianus colchicus, 52). decollatus, 521. ellioti, 621. principalis, 521. reevesi, 521. semmerring?, O21. torguatus, 521. versicolor, 521. wallichiti, 521. 412, 418, 419. cingulata, 413. montana, 418, 414, 416, 417. Pheucticus chrysogaster, 478. Phlogeenas luzonica, 918. slairt, 18. ee INDEX, x] Phoca Platycercus | Poephagus leonina, 133. adelaide, 498. | grunniens, 454, rosmarus, 134. barnardi, 499, Poéphila brownt, 499. | elegans, 499. acuticauda, 476. cincta, 476. ursina, 133. vitulina, 1383, 134, 443, erythropeplus, 499. | gouldie, 476. Phocrna eximius, 499. mirabilis, 476. phocena, 158. | jflaveolus, 84, 499. Polioaétus Phodilus | flaviventris, 499. plumbeus, 502. badius, 492. | acterotis, 499. Poliopsar Pheenicopterus pallidiceps, 499. andamanensis, 481. pileatus, 499. semitorquatus, 499. matlabaricus, 481. zonarius, 499. Polyacanthus, 207, Pleeotus | ZAlay ignipalliatus, 511. blythi, 481. roseus, O11, rubra, O11. Phonipara canora, 477. egyptiacus, 160. Polyboroides olivacea, 477. ariel, 160. typicus, 504. Phoronis, 233. auritus, 131, 160, 4465. Polyborus Phrygilus, 477. christiei, 160. brasiliensis, 504. alaudinus, 478. homochrous, 160. Polyplectron Sruticeti, 478. gay, A478. bicalcaratum, 522. chinguis, 522. sacrimontis, 160. | wardi, 160, 161. Physeter Plectrophenax germaint, 522. catodon, 157. nivalis, 480. Polytelis macrocephalus, 157. Plectropterus alexandre, 498. barrabaudi, 498. melanurus, 498. gambensis, 512. niger, 512. microcephalus, 157. microps, 17. tursio, 157. rucppelli, 512. Porcula Pica Plegadis | salvania, 461. bootanensis, 482. falcinellus, 510. | Poromera mauritanica, 482, guarauna, 510. | fordiz, 30. rustica, 482. Ploceus Porphyrio sericea, 482. atrigula, 477. | albus, 82. Pinicola bengulensis, 477. ceruleus, 525. enucleator, 479. manyar, 477. calvus, 525. Pionopsittacus Plotus edwardsi, 525. pileatus, 497. anhinga, 3, 507. madagascariensis, 82, Pionus levaillant?, 507. 52. melanonotus, 82, 525. poliocephalus, 525. vitiensis, 525. Porrhothele chalcopterus, 497. melanogaster, 507. Suscus, 497. Pluvianus, 73, 76, 77, | maximiliant, 497. 89. menstruus, 497. egyptius, 74, 75. | senilis, 497. | Podager | antipodiana, 298. sordidus, 497. nacunda, 314. Porzana Pipile Podargus carolina, 525, cujubi, 523. cuviert, 58, 60, 489. | maruetta, 525, cumanensis, 528, Podiceps | notata, O29. jacutinga. 523. cristatus, 78, 81, Potamocherus Pipilo 532. africanus, 461. erythrophthalmus, 480. | _ griseigena, 532. penicillatus, 461. Pitangus | Pecilonetta poreus, 140. Potorous tridactylus, 464. Pratincola rubetra, 471. sulphuratus, 484. Pithecia, 433. Pithecus, 121, 125. Pitta bahamensis, 514. erythrorhyncha, 514. Peocephalus fuscicapillus, 497. bengalensis, 484. strepitans, 484. Pitymys, 173. Platalea alba, 510. leueorodia, 510. ‘fuscicollis, 497. | Presbytis, 124. gulielmt, 497. meyert, 497. robustus, 497. rueppelli, 497. senegalus, 497. aygula, 124, 127. mitratus, 124, 127. Procyon cancrivorus, 442. lotor, 140, 442. xliv Proedromys, WAT hedtordi, 159, 177. Prosthemadera nove-zealandie, 474. Procteles cristatus, 439. Protopterns, 118, 119. Psammomys obesus, 448. 159, 174, Psephotus chrysoprerygius, 499. hematonotus, 84, 499. multicolor, 499. pulcherrimus, 499, Pseudis, 396. Pseudochirus peregrinus, 464. - Pseudoleistes virescens, 481. Pseudotantalus this, 5U9. leucocephalus, 509. Psittacula passerina, 496. Psittacus erithacus, 497. timneh, A97. Paittenteles chlorolepidotus, 494. Psittinus incertus, 498. Psophia crepitans, 27. leucoptera, 527. viridis, 527. Pternistes afer, 520. anfuscatus, 520. leucoscepus, 520. nudicollis, 420. swainsoni, 520. Pterocles alchata, 519. arenarius, 519. bicinctus, 519. exustus, 519. Jasciatus, 519. namaqua, 519. seneqallus, D9. Pteroglossus inscriptus, 490. torquatus, 490, wiedi. 490. Pteromys albo-rufus, 446. enornatus, 446. lencogenys, 446. magnificus, 446, oral, 446. INDEX. Pteropus edulis, 130. JSormosus, 444. gouldi, +44. medius, 444. poltocephalus, 444. pstlaphon, 444. scapulatus, 444. vampyrus, 130. Plonorhynehus smithi, 482. wiolaceus, 60, 482. Ptilopachys ventralis, 520. Ptilopus bellus, 85. Susciatus. 516. jambu, 516. melanocephalus 516. porphyraceus, 516. Ptilorhis paradisea, 482. Ptilostomus senegalensis, 483. tistes erythropterus, 493. _ Pucrasia darwini, 521. macrolopha, 321. axanthospila, 521. Pudua humilis, 459. Puffinus anglorum, 531. kuhla, 531. major, O31. Pulex irritans, ). Pulsatrix torquata, $93. Pycnonotus atricapillus, 472. crocorrhous, 472. hemorrhous, 472. Jocosus, 472. leucotis, 472. sinensis, 472. xanthopygos, 472. Pygathbrix, 124, 127, 128. Pygosceles tematius, 532. Pyranga sairad, 475. Pyrenestes albifrons, 477. Pyromelana _ aurea, 476. JSranciscana, 477. Pyrrhocorax alpinus, 483. graculus, 488. Pyrrbula europea, 479. rubicilla, 479. Pyrrhulauda verticalis, 484. Pyrrbulopsis . " personata, 498. splendens, 498. tabuensis, 498. Pyrrhura cruentaia, 496. leucotis, 496. perlata, 496. vittata, 496. Physeter catodon, 124. macrocephulus, 124. Pytelia citerior, 475. phenicoptera, 475. wienert, 475. Quelea occidentalis, 477. russt, 477. sanguinirostris, 477. Querquedula brasiliensis, 514. castanea, 514. circia, 514, erecea, 5A. eyanoptera, 514. Faleata, 514. flavirostris, 514. formosa, d14. gibberifrons, 514. Quiscalus lugubris, 481. versicolor, 481. Rallina pectloptera, 525. Rallus abboti, 82. aquaticus, 525. celebensis, 525. maculatus, 925, pectoralis, 5265. rhytirhynchus, 525, Rana, 401. Rangifer tarandus, 151, 459. — caribou, 181, 182. Raphicerus melanotis, 455. tragulus, 459. Recurvirostra, 69. avovetta. 77, 78, 429. Rbhamphastos ariel, 68, 489. brevicarinatus, 489. carinatus, 63, 489. cuviert, 489. discolorus, 489. erythrorhynchus, 490. tocard, 490. toco, 490. vitellinus, 490, Rhampboceelus brasilius, 475. Rhamphocorys clotheyi, 484. Rhea, 90, 93. americana, 51, 52, 04, 535. darwin, 535. macrorhyncha, 535. Rhinoceros bicornis, 453. lasiotis, 453. sondaicus, 453. sumatrensis, 453. unicornis, 144, 453. Rhinochetus Jubatus, 528. Rhinoderma darwini, 401. Rhinolophus cornutus 160. Rhizomys badius, 449. davidi, 179, 180. sinensis, 179. vestitus, 179. Rhodonessa caryophyllacea, 512. Rhynchotus perdicarius, 533, rufescens, 533. Rhytidoceres plicatus, 488. undulatus, 488. 144, pumilus, Rissa tridactyla, 531. Rollulus eristatus, O21. Roatrbamus sociabilis, 504. Rupicapra rupicapra, 152. tragus, 456. Rupicola crocea, 2, +84. Ruticilla phenicurus, 471. tithys, 471, INDEX, | Saimiri morta, 128. seiurea, 129. Salamandra atra, 347. maculosa, 823, 324, O20) 820), S28; 329, BB0) Sell, vor, ood) 340, 342, 347. — algira, 324, 330. — coccinea, 338. — corsica, 324, 340, 342, 343. — europea, 324. — gallaica, 327, 335, | 334, 335, 335. — molleri, 324, 327, dan, Go4, Gan 337, 342, 347. — nigriventris, 324. — quadrivirgata, 324. —teniata, 324, 327, Sal), why, 338, 339, 347. Saltator aurantitrostris, 475, magnus, 479, similis, 475. Sarcidiornis carunculata, 512. melanonota, 3, 512. Sarciophorus, 89. _pectoralis, 76, 529. Sarcophilus satanicus, 100. ursinus, 466. Sarcorhamphus equatorialis, 505, gryphus, 2, 506. Sargus, 183, 208, 215, 219. rondeletii, 209, 210, 211, 216, 248. Sauropatis, 64. Saxicola enanthe, 471. Sealops aquaticus, 143, Scapteira knowit, 31. Seardafella sguamosa, 517, Scaurus striatus, 10. Sceloglanx albifacies, 493. Scizena, 215. Sciuropterus jimbriatus, 446, Spie}, Geiig | 345, 346, | | xIv Sciuropterus layardi, 446. russicus, 149 volans, 148, 446. volucella, 446. Scinrotamias davidianus, 169. — consobrinus, 169, 3871, 3884, 380, 393, Sciuras éstivans, 445. arizonensis, 445, atrodorsalis, 45. bicolor, 445. caniceps, 445. castaneiventris, 445. cinereus, 149, 445. dorsalis, 445. ephippium, 445. erythropus, 445. flavus, 149. getulus, 149. griseo-flavus, 445, griseus, 445. hudsonicus, 445. hypopyrrhus, 445, indicus, 445. ludovicianus, 445. macrurus, 445, madagascariensis, 445. maximus, 445. niger, 149. nigro-vittatus, 445, palmarum, 445. plantani, 445. prevosti, 445, punctatus, 2. pusillus, 445. pygerythrus, 445. stramineus, 440. striatus, 149. syriacus, 445, tennenti, 445. tristriatus, 445, variabilis, 446. variegatus, 446. volans, 149. vulgaris, 148, 446. vulpina, 446. Scolopax rusticola, 529. Scops asio, 493. git, 493. glabripes, 493. lempiji, 493. leucotis, 493. senegalensis, 493. Scopus umbretia, 3, OO. xlvi Scotopelia bouviert. 71. peli, 493. Scythrops nove-hollandie, 66. Selenidera maculirostris, 490. Seleucides nigricans, 482. Semnopithecus cephalopterus, 430. entellus, 430. fasciatus, 430. hypoleucus, 450. maurus, 430. obscurus, +30. Sericulus melinus, 470. Serinus angolensis, 479. canarius, 479. canicollis, 479. hortulanus, 479. totius, 479. Serpentarius reptilivorus, OD. Serranus, 183, 215, 219. cabrilla, 209. Sialia wilsont, 471. Sibia capistrata, 472. Simia e@thiops, 128. apedia, 126. apella, 128. aygula, 127. capucina, 128. cephus, 127. cynamolgus, 128. diana, 127. faunus, 126. hamadryas, 127. Jacchus, 127. midas, 128. morta, 128. nemed, 127. edipus, 127. paniscus, 127. satyrus, 121, 122, 124, 125, 429. sciurea, 129. sidenus. 126. sphine, 126. sylvana, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126. syrichta, 129. Siphonostoma, 183, 219. rondeleti, 200, 246. typhie, 200, 201, 246. Siredon, 108, INDEX. Sitagra luteola, 477. Sitta cesia, 472. Smaris, 183. maurii, 203, 207, 208, 217, 219, 247. wulgaris, 203, 207, 208, 216, 217, 219, 247. Smilodon californicus, 181. Solaster endeca, 45. Somateria mollissima, 514. Sorex. 167. aquaticus, 143. araneus. 148, 164. bedfordie, 164, 165. cristatus, 143, cylindricauda, 164. minutus, 164. quadraticauda, 167. wardi, 165. Soriculus caudatus, 166. macrurus, 165, 166. sacratus, 165. Spathopterus alexandre, 2. Spatula clypeata, 514. Speotyto cunicularia, 493. Spermestes cucullata, 475. Tringilloides, 470. nana, 457. Spermophila alboqularis, 478. cerulescens, 478. collaria, 478. eulert, 478. gutturalis, 478. hypoleuca, 478. lineata, 478. lineola, 478. nigro-aurantia, 478. plumbea, 478. torgueola, 478. Spermophilus citillus, 446. grammurus, 446. mexicanus, 446. mongoticus, 446. tridecimlineatus, 446. Spermospiza guttata, 477. hematina, 477. 165, Sphagolobus atratus, 488. Spheniscus demersus, 532. humboldi, 532. magellanicus, 532. Sphenocercus sphenurus, 516. Sphingurus, 449. insidiosus, 450. mexicanus, 450. prehensilis, 450. spinosus, 450. villosus, 450. Spilogale putorius, 137, 181. Spilornis bacha, 503. cheela, 503. spiloyaster, 503. Spiroptera uganda, 504, 555. Spizaétus bellicosus, 502. calivatus, 503. ceylonensts, d03. coronalus, 2, 503. . nipalensis, 503. orientalis, 503. ornatus, 503. tyrannus, AUS. Spizella socialis, 480. Squatarola helvetica, 529. Starneenas cyanocephala, 518. Steatornis caripensis, 489. Stenoponia, gen. 391. celestis, 891, 392. tripectinata, 391, 392, 393. Stephanophorus leucocephalus, 474. Stercorarius ; antarcticus, 530. buffoni, 530. crepidatus, 5380. pomatorhinus, 530. Sterna cantiaca, 530. fluviatilis, 78, 530. hirundo, 78. minuta, 580. Strepera anaphonensis, 488. Juliginosa, 483. graculina, 458. 68, 69, nov., INDEX. xvii Strepsiceros, 349 oles bustoni, 348, asians Te fp ene Ens Gee en ay ats D, ve striata, 474. imberbis, 456 : Sy a 1, a fa et} | Tanagrella Kudu, 456. y 356. HALES os 353, | — eyanomelena, 474. Strepsilas Sey eer ee aoe. Ree velia, 474. interpres, 529 y 195 ic E ee 194, | Tantalus, 322. Stringops 3 | 203° Bae oe ane loculator, 509. ataenaiies (oe) 85 Beate ie | Tanyen ae 499. A Se Me Meet Spc Bh sofiee | foie 193, 218, 219, | megulorhynchus, 498, flammea, 71, 72, | Synoecns BE ee 492. | australis, 521 | aa nee perlata, 71, 72. Skea | vmericanus, 453. punctatissima, 72. aluco. 71. 492 tdicus, 493. Strongylus an D Neo | _ terrestris, 155. equinus, 553. GMT Oe ass | Tatu, 124, 141, 149. Struthidea - i a seme ae Tatusia, Wi 141. cinerea, 473. a are hybrida, 462. Struthio, 51, 59 ps a oe kappleri, 462. aa , ; | senensis, 49”. peba, 462 camelus, 585. | eae es Ge pee 7 } lq 2 7 Se erdianus gu » gee a nanes 55, | Syrrha ptes Taurus De ce Sere calis | paradoxus, 519. mevicanus, 154. defilippi, 481. | ee oe OF, U7aCU 0. afin $81, | Tnhyhayin 8,82, nui contra. 481. aoe Ges, 81, 532. barhara, 138. Sturnus - | ee 514 Taxidea menzbieri, 481. | eine ee eal americana, 441. vulgaris, 48). | ee ti ran Temenuchus Sula epee ae pagodarum, 481. Rneermresar. | tae wcus, 479. Testudo leucogastra, 507. ae 513 elephantina, 2. piscator, 507. | corn “ide 513. Poleaeces serrator, 507. Maen) a guacricornis, 455. Suricata : | eae es ong Tetragnatha } ar C F “ py = tetradactyla, 439, | iDance Gt a, 0 3. Serox, 297, 302, 303. Surni | A — eress@, 300, 3 Way che 493 i leptocephala, 10. | ssn » 300, 301. a ’ : | Lenioptera ayy Be Sus cupido, 520. nengeta, : PiddaRdnenets AG Te , 484, phen 520. babyrussa, 140 | peti urogallus, 520. se Hie 461. ° | Foie 55, 56, 523. Tetraogallus guineensis, 140. est astute 142 T lamatayensis, 521. leucomystax, 461 | NEES Genes extor eee 461, Laat tee ! 43. alector, 477. orcus, 140 Tanarain ris, 165. Thaumalea S ra a 5 scr i amherst 7 56 ie ae 461. ; tetradactyla, 133, 463. Ronen Vaal Sycalis j ; eee ant 446 obscura, 6, ie 8. arvensis, 479. jaiena idee ae Oi Ss; 5b, flaveola, 60, 479. | re Tee AC) OE: PEG, ai ae 149, 446. Thaumasia, 813. Sylvia oe Sas 169, 384 Thelotornis o ° j we » 10d, . uP 7 atricapilla, 471. | Tanagra - kirtlandia, 3. cinerea, 471. 1h ae gras Theristicus curruca, 471, ae 4 : caudatus, 510. sylvicola, 471 ee eee ee melanups, 510. : ; palmarum, 474. Theropithecus trochilus, 471. sayuca, 474, | gelada, 432 xlviil Thrasaétus harpyta, 002. Thrasops flavigularis, 181. Thylacinus cynocephalus, 100, 466. Tigriosoma brasiliense, 508. leucolophum, 508. Tinamus solitarius, 533. Tinea, 221. Tinnunculus dlaudarius, 68, 504. cenchris, 504. cenchroides, 504. dominicensis, 504. gracilis, \O4. moluccensis, SOA. rupicolus, 5O4. sparvertus, S04. vespertinus, SOL. Toccus erythrorhynchus, 488 melanoleucus, 488. Tolypeutes quadricinetus, 141. tricinctus, 141. Totanus : calidris, 529. Fuscus, 529. Trachypbarynx, nov., D2. nigeri@, 052, 554. Tragelapbus angasi, 348. gen. buxtoni, 348, 349, 350, gratus, 456. scriptus, 2, 456. sylvaticus, 456. Tragulus javanicus, 3, 460. meminva, 460. stanleyanus, 4€0. Tribonyx mortiert, 920. ventralis, 3, 526. Trichechus manatus, 131. Trichoglossus cyanogrammus, 494, jorstent, 494. hematodes, 494. guitchelli, 494. nove-hollandie, 494. ornatus, 494. rubritorques, 4, 494. Trichosurus canines, 464. JSuliginosus, 464. | INDEX. Trichosurus orientalis, 464. vulpecula, 464. Trigla, 183, 203, 219. corax, 202. gurnardus, 203, 210, 217, 219. hirundo, 202, 216, 247. Tringa alpina, 529. canutus, 529. Tringoides hypoleucus, 529. Triodontophorus, 551. Trogon, 60. Trypanosoma lewisi, 9. Tupaia peguand, 444. tana, 444. Turacus buffoni, 66, 491. corythaix, 491. livingstoni, 491. macrorhynchus, 491. persus, 491. schalow?, 491. Turdus albiventris, 470. Turnagra ‘ crassirostris, 472. Turnix, 90, 93. dussumiert, O24. lepurana, 524. sykest, 524. taigoor, O24. tankt, 524. varia, 66, 67, S24. Turtur aldabranus, 517. bitorquatus, 517. capicola, 517. cardis, 470. chinensis, 517. communis, O17. falklandicus, 470. flavipes, 470. iliacus, 470. leucomelas, 470. merula, 470. migratorius, 60, 470. musicus, 470. mustelinus, 470. erientalis, 517. pecilopterus, 470. pilaris, 470. risorius, 517, 519. rufiventris, 470. semitorquatus, 517. senegalensis, 517. 207, 66, Turtur suratensis, 517. tigrinus, S17. torquatus, 470. tristis, 470. vinaceus, DIT. wiscivorus, 470. Tym panistria bicolor, 518. Tyrannus melancholicus, 484. pipiri, 484. Uhodon, 297. hawkesi, 299, 803, 604. (Zora) frenatum, 306. Umbrina, 215. Upupa epops, 61, 489. Uria grylle, 552. Urobrachya albonotata, 476. axillaris, £76. hocagtt, 476. Urocissa flavirostris, 483. magnirostris, 483. occipitalis, 483. sinensis, +83. Uropsilus, 159. soricipes, 163. Ursus, 273. americanus, 442. arctos, 139, 442. — heringianus, 3. horribilis, 442. isabellinus, 442. japonicus, 442. lotor, 140. luscus, 139. malayanus, 442. muriti ms, +42, meles, 140. ornatus, 442. piscator, 442. syrtacus, 442. tibetanus, 442. Urubitinga anthracina, 502. meridionalis, 502. zonura, 502. Vampyrus specorum, 130, Vanellus cayennensis, 529. c F cristatus, O29. Vanellus vulgaris, 529, Vermipsylla, 365, Vespertilio auritus, 131. discolor, 130, 1381. leporinus, 131. moupinensis, 162. muricola, 162. murinus, 130, 131. natterert, 445. noctula, 445. perspicillatus, 130. spasma, 131. spectrum, 130. vampyrus, 130. Vidua albonotata, 476. ardens, 476. paradisea, 476. principalis, 476. Vinago calva, 516. crassirostris, 316. delalandii, 516. Vipera russelli, 4. Viverra civetta, 137, 488. genetta, 137. ichneumon, 136. memphitis, 137. putorius, 137. INDEX. Viverra tangalunga, 438. ztbetha, 1387, 438. Viverricula malaccensis, 438. ° schlegeli, 438. Vulpes sp., 168. alba, 135. alopex, 134. argentatus, 181. cerulescens, 135. famelicus, 1. jilchneri, 168. hooly, 168. Vultur auricularis, 504. calvus, 504. monachus, 504. occipitalis, 504. Xanthocephalus icterocephalus, 481. Xanthomyza phrygia, 474. Xanthosomus flavus, 481. Xenophrys monticola, 393, 397, 400, 402. Xenopsylla cheopis, 5. Proc. Zoot, Soc. —1911, No. XX XIX xlix Xenorhynchus australis, 509. senegalensis, 509. Xenurus tricinctus, 462. unicinctus, 462. Xerus erythropus, 446. getulus, 446, setosus, 446, Zapus, 167. Zenaida amabilis, 517. auriculata, 517. aurita, 517. Zenaidura carolinensis, 517. Zeus, 183, 210, 211, 214, 219 Saber, 209, 216, 248. Zonotrichia albicollis, 480. pileata, 480. Zorilla erythrea, |. Zosterops dorsalis, 473. lateralis, 473. palpebrosus, 473. simplex, 473. 39 ere cL CURE eco Nr Sieh ag ; fol ON en neers ne | er ; PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. f PROCHKEDINGS OF THE GENERAL MEETINGS FOR SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS i OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCLETY OF LONDON. 1911. PART I. CONTAINING Paces 1 ro 180, witH 1 Prater AND 51 Trxt-PriGURES. MARCH 1911. inlay PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY, SOLD A’ THEIR HOUSE IN REGENT’S PARK. ! LONDON: MESSRS. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CoO., PATERNOSTER ROW. [Price Twelve Shillings. } x€ 4 Lust (Oe GOON a ENS, 1911, Parr I. (pp. 1-180). EXHIBITIONS AND NOTICES. 5 age Tt Sucrerary. Report on the Additions to the Society's Menagerie during the months of June, July, August, September, and October, 1910 ...... 2... cece cece reese ce eees il Mr. RB. I. Pocock, F.LS., F.Z.8. xhibition of a living specimen of the Black Rat (Mus ratiws) from Sark............ bia lech sled seinen (Nebel a teiete AU CEN Eon cored OC Leaowodds 4 Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.L.S., F.Z.8. Exhibition of a female hybrid between a male Black Lemur (Lemur ee) and a female of the Red-fronted variety of the Fulvous Lemur (Lemar frlos rufifrons) «..s2.cerceesseees AG ciaeuren as. oa dbeC ace in uaceelaCotar everett 5 The Hon. N. Cuartes Rornscurp, M.A., F.Z.8. Exhibition of some Fleas interesting in connection with the spreading of plague by these insects ......0+...2.. seer es ae yt Mr. J. Luwis Bonnorz, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.8. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a young Cairo Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahir ns TOMAS epee Uaioe ovatate lar eltanscn te aces See AO Mie sia c 5 Mr. J. Lewis Bonnors, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a pair of hybrids between the ratible Hitch (Fringilla montifringilla) Zine the Chaffineh (Frin- GUM COHICUS) totam sn «sis 'aleelnle\e to PAN ae tS te SA ah Nn pn ee dane STN Na Pee ON Mrs. R. Hate Tuomas, F.Z.8S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a series of skins llus- trating an experiment in Pheasant-breeding ......--....-- EMER BN DOG bc uc 6 Dr. W. Nicott and Prof. E. A. Mincaty, M.A., V.P.Z.S. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, two species of Cysticercoids from the Rat-flea (Ceratophyllus fasciatus). (Text-figs.1&2.) 9 Dr. Wrextam Nicouu. Demonstration of his method for the collection of Trematodes .... 45 Dr. R. ©, Lereer, F.Z.8. Exhibition of the Nematode infection known as Onchocerciasis.. 40 “ Dr. J. F. Gunmitz, M.A., D.Sc. Notice of a paper on “ The Development of Solaster endeca Homes ai Actes aatte ta ave) Rais SS ave Ba ete orcoiete(tss 6 alee shelter eneale hypo nl can eUameinvs te ete Sis sins 45 Mr. D. Sern-Smirn, F.Z.8. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, living examples of the Australian Budgerigar or Undulated Grass-Parrakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus), showing three colour-phases ......++..-0+.+4+ RR Siena AO, ese 2 oe cha etbies uated The Srcrerary. Report on the Additions .to the Suciety’s Menagerie during the month Of Novem berlOl ayer aersiees cee aie teneyeretotade tae iayailalapuiecapensnaie 's0s here foreyetal azo Net oa 100 Dr. H. Hawmonp Siti, M.R.OS., F.Z.S8. Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a specimen of the Red Grouse, Lagopus scoticus, which displayed a curious variety of the ordinary PUM are eal arvana aya areata ome ee TRG, CA A CaN er ete Beata crtrim nate od sis se OO) Contents continued on page 8 of Wrapper. I i PROCEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL MEETINGS FOR SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. EXHIBITIONS AND NOTICES. November 15, 1910. Dr. S. F. Harmer, M.A., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. THE SecRETARY read the following report on the additions made to the Society’s Menagerie during the months of June, July, August, September, and October, 1910 :— JUNE. The registered additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of June were 405 in number. Of these 254 were acquired by presentation, 39 by purchase, 18 were received on deposit, 12 in exchange, and 82 were born in the Gardens. The total number of departures during the month, by death and removals, was 142. Amongst the additions special attention may be called to the following :— 2 Addra Gazelles (Gazella ruficollis) 3 2 , new to the Collection, 1 Mountain Oribi (Owrebia montana), 1 Sabre-horned Oryx (Oryx algazel) Q, 1 Addax (Addax nasomaculatus), 1 Soudan Fennec (Vulpes famelicus), 2 Erythrean Zorillas (Zorilla erythrea), 1 Dongolan Genet (Genetta dongolana), and 2 Banded Mongooses (Crossarchus fasciatus), from the Soudan, presented by Gilbert Blaine, Esq., F.Z.S., on June 4th. Proc. Zoou, Soc.—1911, No. I. 1 i) THE SECRETARY ON ADDITIONS TO THE MENAGERIE, 1 Addra Gazelle (Gazella rujficollis) 3, new to the Collection, from the Soudan, presented by G. Guy Chetwynd, Esq., F.Z.S., on June 4th. 1 White-spotted Squirrel (Fwnisciwrus leucosiagma) and 1 Speckled Squirrel (Scturus punctatus), both new to the Collec- tion, 1 Gaboon Viper. (Bitis gabonica), and 1 Nose-horned Viper (Bitis nasicornis), from Dunkwa, Gold Coast, presented by Dr. H. G. F. Spurrell on June 18th. 6 Cocks-of-the-Rock (Rupicola:crocea), from British Guiana, deposited on June 14th. 1 Red Bird-of-Paradise (Paradisea rubra), presented by J. M. Doctor, Esq., on June 11th. 1 Hunstein’s Bird-of-Paradise (Diphyllodes hunsteins), received in exchange on June 23rd. ] Short-tailed Parrot (Pachynus brachyurus), from the Upper Amazons, presented by H. D. Astley, Esq., F.Z.8., on June 14th. 2 Queen Alexandra’s Parrakeets (Spathopterus alexandre), from Western Australia, purchased on June llth. . 2 Condors (Sazcor hamphus gryphus), from Chili, pr esented by the Government of Chili on June 27th. A collection of Birds, including Tanagers, Sugar-birds, Tinamous, and Conures, from Brazil and Chili, presented by Albert Pam, Esq., F.Z.S., on June 18th and 27th. A collection of Birds from Venezuela, including various Tanagers, Finches, a Naked-eyed Pigeon (Columba gymno- phthalma), and an Ori inoco Goose (Chenalopex jubatus), presented by Hugo Pam, Esq., on June 21st. 5 Elephantine Tortoises (Testudo elephantina), from Aidabra, presented by Edward Mayer, Esq., on June 15th. JULY The registered additions to the nee s Menagerie during the month of July were 327 in number. Of these 124 were acquired by presentation, 16 by purchase, 85 were received on deposit, 15 in exchange, and 87 were born in the Gardens. ‘The total number of departures during the month, by death and removals, was 189. Amongst the neetblons special attention may be called to the following :— 1 Bufton’s Kob (ikebas kob), from Sierra Leone, presented by J. A. Tinling, Esq., on July 8th. - | Sing-Sing Waterbuck (Kobus unctuosus) and two Telecel Bushbucks (Zragelaphus scriptus), from Gambia, presented by Cape: Sir George Denton, K.C.M.G., F.Z.8., on J uly 19th. - 2 Harnessed Bushbucks (Tragelaphus scriptus), 1 Black-tailed Or ab) (Ouredia nigricaudata), and 1 Crowned Hawk-EHagle (Spizaétus coronatus), from French Guiana, presented by Fenwick Owen, Hsq., on July 19th. 1 Abyssinian Duiker (Cephalophus abyssinicus), from Nigeria, presented by W. A. Clayton, Esq., on July 20th. THE SECRETARY ON ADDITIONS TO THE MENAGERIE, 3 2 Black-backed Geese (Sarcidiornis melanonota), from India, presented by Lt.-Col. D. C. Phillott, on July 25th. 3 Wattled Peewits (Lobivanellus lobatus), 3 Black-tailed Water- hens (Zrihonyx ventrahs), and 1 Tufted Umbr re (Scopus umbretta), hatched and reared in foe Menagerie. AUGUST. The registered additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of August were 200 in number. Of these 105 were acquired by presentation, 15 by purchase, 27 were received on deposit, 29 in exchange, and 24 were born in the Gardens, The total number of departures during the month, by death and removals, was 181. Amongst the additions special attention may be ealled to the following :— 3 Grey Crab-eating Dogs (Canis griseus), from the Argentina, presented by Wilfred Smithers, Esq., on August 22nd. 1 Korin Gazelle (Gazella rufifrons) 2 , from Senegal, presented by Maxwell Lyte, Esq., on August 2nd, 2 Ross’s Plantain-eaters (Musophaga rossce) and 1 Ardesian Hawk (Cerchneis ardesiacus), both species new. to the Collection, from Uganda, presented by L. M. Seth-Smith, Esy., on August 15th. 3 Pigmy Cormorants (Phalacrocorax pygmeus), from Dobrud- scha, Roumania, presented by the Hon. N. C. Rothschild, F.Z.8., on August 25th. A collection of Birds, including 2 Rough-billed Pelicans (Pelecanus trachyrhynchus), 2 Roseate Spoonbills (Ajaja rosea), and 3 American Darters (Plotus anhinga), received in exchange from the Zoological Society of Washington on August 23rd. 1 Green Tree-Snake (Dendraspis viridis), 1 Kirtland’s Tree- Snake (Thelotornis kirtlandiz), and 1 Banded Gecko (Hemidactylus fasciatus), all new to the Collection, from the Gold Coast, presented by Dr. H. G. F. Spurrell on August 21st. SEPTEMBER, The registered additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of September were 228 in number. Of these 3/7 were acquired by presentation, 81 by purchase, 47 were received on deposit, 53 in exchange, and 10 were born in the Gardens. The total number of departures during the month, by death and removals, was 210. Amongst the additions special attention may be called to the following :— 1 Brown Bear (Ursus arctos beringianus), from Kamschatka, presented by W. 8. Race, Esq., on Sept. 30th. 4 Javan Mouse-Deer (Tragubus 4 jovanicus), from Java, purchased "on Sept. 26th. 1* 4 MR. R. I. POCOCK ON THE BLACK RAT. 1 White-naped Roller (Coracias navius), from the Gambia, new to the Collection, deposited on Sept. 15th. 1 Red-collared Lorikeet (Trichoglossus rubritorques), bred in the Menagerie. 1 White-winged Wood-Duck (Asarcornis scutulatus), from Burma, new to the Collection, presented by Major H. H. Harington, F.Z.S., on Sept. 12th. A collection of Snakes containing, amongst others, 6 Indian Cobras (Vaia tripudians), 2 Banded Kraits (Bungarus fasciatus), and 4 Russell’s Vipers (Vipera russelli), received in exchange on Sept. 10th. OCTOBER. The registered additions to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of October were 202 in number. Of these 102 were acquired by presentation, 26 by purchase, 47 were received on deposit, 21 in exchange, and 6 were born m the Gardens. The total number of departures during the month, by death and removals, was 225. Amongst the additions special attention may be called to the following :— 1 Siamang Gibbon (Symphalangus syndactylus), from Sumatra, deposited on Oct. 26th. 1 African Cheetah (Cyncelurus jubatus), from Andamowa, German Cameroons, presented by Walter Watts, Hsq., on Oct. 22nd. 2 Indian Buffaloes (Bubalus buffelus), from India, received in exchange on Oct. 15th. 2 Giant Bustards (Hupodotis kort), from P. W. J. Le Roux, Esq., a Black-breasted Harrier-Eagle (Circaétus pectoralis), from Crossland Robinson, Esq., and a Stanley Crane (dAnthropoides paradisea), from Dr. Robert Broom, C.M.Z.S., all presented to the King’s South-African Collection through Dr. L. Péringuey, F.Z.S., Secretary of the South-African Presentation Committee, and deposited in the Gardens on Oct. Ist. A collection of Birds from Venezuela, presented by Hugo Pam, Esq., on October 11th, containing a Bare-faced Hangnest (Gymnomystax melanicterus), a Chimachima Milvago (Milvago chimachima), a Violaceous Night-Heron (Vycticorax violaceus), 3 Naked-eyed Pigeons (Columba gymnophthalma), and others, 5 Jackson’s Whydah-birds (Drepanoplectes jacksoni) and 2 Crimson-ringed Whydah-birds (Pentheiria laticauda), from East Africa, new to the Collection, presented by Mis. George Style on Oct. 22nd. Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.L.S., F.Z.8., exhibited a living specimen of the Black Rat (Jus rattws) from Sark, which had recently been presented to the Society’s Menagerie by Mrs. C. Russell. ON NEWLY-BORN CAIRO SPINY MICE, 0 Mr. R. I. Pocock also exhibited a female hybrid, bred in the Society’s Gardens, between a male Black Lemur (Lemur macaco) and a female of the Red-fronted variety of the Fulvous Lemur (Lemur fulvus rujifrons), and pointed out that the offspring re- sembled neither of its parents. It had not inherited the facial fringe of its father nor the white over the eyes and on the fore- head of its mother, this avea of the head being dark ashy black with a deeper tinted central line, more approaching the colour seen in the Black-fronted variety of the Fulvous Lemur (ZL. fulvus nigrifrons). The Hon. N. Cuarntes Rotuscuiyp, M.A., F.Z.8., exhibited the following species of Fleas, which were of interest in connection with the spreading of plague by these insects :—Pulex irritans, AXenopsylla cheopis, Ctenocephalus canis, C. felis, Ceratophyllus Jasciatus, C. londiniensis, Clenopsylla mayardt. Mr. J. Lewis Bonuors, M.A., F.L.S8., F.Z.8., exhibited in spirit a young Cairo Spiny Mouse (dAcomys cahirinus) about 12 hours old, and pointed out the advanced state of the young at birth as compared with the common House-Mouse and other species of the genus Jus. In Acomys the young at birth were of a pale slate-colour and sparsely covered on the upper parts with downy hairs 2 to 3 mm. in length. Across the lower part of the back the spines could be distinctly felt. In spite of this advanced development the period of gestation was only 11 days at the most. In the case under notice the male was introduced at 7 p.m. on 19th July and the young were born between midnight and 9 a.m. on the 3lst July, a maximum period of 11 days and 14 hours. The period in the House-Mouse was about 13 days. In Acomys the usual number in a litter was three ; four were exceptional, but two were not uncommon. In correlation with their forward development the young were also very large at birth, as a comparison of measurements of the individual exhibited and the average measurements of an adult male show :— Young 12 hours old. Ad. g. Head and body .... 51 mm. 101 mm. about 3 full size. “| Bo aa a aa eit 35 mm. 105 mm. “ai a ek ind: foot)... 5. 14 mm, 18 mm. ieee ae late sss ore cies siecicitis ~ ) so enum 17 mm. pel ee ae When 8 to 10 days old the young were able to take care of themselves, and on the fourth day after birth their eyes were open and they occasionally left the nest and ran about the cage. They bred at a very early age, and by the agency of a young male born on the 4th June progeny were produced on the 3lst July, so that it must have bred when only 46 days old. 6 MRS. R. HAIG THOMAS ON Mr. Bonhote further stated that among Sand-Rats of the genus Meriones, a considerable number of which he had bred this - year, the period of gestation was at least 17 days, and the young, which were born quite naked, looked after themselves in about three weeks, five being the usual number in a litter. Mr. J. Lewis Bonnore, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S., exhibited a pair of hybrids between the Bramble-Finch (Fringilla montifringilla) and the Chaffinch (fringilla celebs). 'This cross had been bred for the first time in 1907 by a lady in Kent, who had since bred several every year. Mr. Allen Silver, a well-known fancier, first called Mr. Bonhote’s attention to these birds. He wrote:—“The young in nestling plumage chiefly resemble a nestling Chaflinch, but sy traces of the white rump. “Males from the cross in which the Brambling was the cock are in every case more brilliant and richer in tone, and exhibit a marked Bramble-Finch form of head, more so than the cross in which the Chaffinch was the male parent. The heads of the males in this latter cross (Chaffinch g and Brambling ©) are less speckled and almost even in tone of colour, showing few signs of the dark bases to the feathers on the head and having more of a Chaffinch shape.” The cock exhibited resembled a Bramble-Finch on the head, rump, tail, and vent, but on the mantle and breast the colour showed a mixture of the two species ; the tail also showed more white than was usually found in a pure-bred Bramble-Finch. A peculiar feature of this bird was a slight “ peak ” crest, which had not appeared in any of the other specimens. It seemed to be caused by the long feathers of the nape (a Bramble-Finch feature) meeting the long feathers of the crown (a Chaftinch feature). One other male of this cross that Mr. Bonhote had seen closely resembled a hen Bramble-Finch. The hen bird exhibited showed the Chaftinch blood more clearly, her only Bramble-Finch features being the two parallel stripes on the nape, the partially white rump, traces of yellow on the wing-bars, and a more yellowish tint on the breast. The fertility of the hybrids had not yet been tested. Mrs. R. Hate Tuomas, F.Z.S., exhibited a series of skins illus- trating an experiment in Pheasant - breeding, and gave the following account of the production of Thawmalea obscura in the F, generation from a cross between Thawmalea amhersti 2 and T. picta 3 — “The skins of the birds used in this experiment are exhibited together with their pedigree (see page 7). An Amherst cock is placed with these skins to show the plumage, but the bird took no part in the experiment. ; ASANT-BREEDING, u NIAL PHI oy 4 EXPERIMI Purchased from Jamrach, 1905, one Thaumalea amhersti 9. Purchased from Col. Middleton, The Chase, Herefordshire, Purchased from Mrs. Adair Campbell, Ardleith, Cardross, 1906, one Thaumalea picta g. 1906, two Thaumalea amhersti 2. Mating 1907. 3 Thaumalea amhersti 9 X Thaumalea picta 6. Dygees tis | | | | | ee | | 9 g 9 2 3 3 3 3 é é Matings 1909 in tivo pens. Cream | Russet | dark Brown (obscura) Thaumalea obscura Fy dead chicks 1I—~> 4 5 2(9) produced in I’, F;2 XF,¢ | 49 eggs, 29 infertile, 20 hatched | F) 9 XFid from both pens. ; : : . : 9 of these Fy birds reared. 17 of these Fy birds alive 1910. F; | | | | | | | | ? 4 ? z dg $ g (obscura) Matings 1910 in two pens. Fo? XFod (semi-obsewra). F.2 X Fog (obscura). Ee eee Voy tee oe | | | | Soa ae ae Se g ) 9 9 9 é 3 3 (cream) (cream) (obscura) (obscura) (obscura) (obscura) (cream) (cream) All 8 chicks lived only a few days. dark Brown (obscura) Summary of F3 Colours { Cream 4 1910 4 8 ON EXPERIMENTAL PHEASANT-BREEDING. “In Elliot’s ‘ Phasianide’ is a coloured plate of a pair of Thaumalea obscura with their young, which were considered by him and some other ornithologists as a variety of picta; according to this plate the birds apparently bred true. “In my pheasantry in 1907, three Amherst hens were mated with a Golden cock and produced a number of young called F, in the pedigree. In 1909 two pairs of these F, birds were mated, and from these two pens 20 F, chicks were hatched. Amongst them were three chicks of a deep chocolate-brown, in startling contrast to the others, which were cream-colour with a bronzing of russet on the back and throat. The down of these obscura chicks was of a uniform dark brown to the skin, and each eye was rimmed with a finely pencilled cream line, which was connected by another cream line across the top of the bill, giving the quaint appearance of a pair of spectacles; there was also a cream patch on the throat, varying in size in each individual, sometimes being a mere spot. The legs were a dull olive-brown. These brown chicks were produced from both pens, and were of both sexes, but unfortunately only one of the three (a cock) was reared. Thaumalea birds attain adult plumage only in the second year, so it was not till July this year that my surmise that obscura had been produced was confirmed. The cock has the same barred tail (pattern Amherst, coloration Golden), and the same dark brown on head and throat and neck, as the bird depicted on Elliot’s plate, but his breast is a duskier red and the crest and mantle paler. When a chick, his coloration was similar to the young shown on Elliot’s plate, only the brown was a deeper, richer shade. This F, cock was mated in the spring of 1910 with two F, hens, his sisters. The darkest hens were picked out, with Golden eye- skin (yellow with red round the rim); Amher st hens are lighter and greyer in plumage than the Golden, and the eye-skin is a greenish blue. From this mating eight birds were hatched, four cream-coloured and four dark brown chicks; these last had pre- cisely the same coloration as that of the father. The numbers tally with those to be expected according to Mendel’s law. I hope to obtain more evidence next season from the same birds, and to have better luck, for all these eight chicks lived only a few days. As I intend to breed again from him, I cannot show you the skin of the adult obscaa cock, but only some feathers plucked from his breast and back, and the skins of his two brothers and of two of his sisters. An examination of these breast-feathers plucked from obscura and of some of the breast-feathers of the cock marked ‘ semi-obscwra’ will show the reason of the so-called ‘duskiness’ of hue; each feather has a bar of metallic green on the inner half, while the outer end of it is red. You will observe in the Golden cock that the breast-feather is red throughout. “ Apparently, then, Zhawmalea obscura is a hybrid recessive mutation, breeding true, as shewn in Hiliot’s plate and also in my experiment this year, according to Mendel’s law. I have used the word ‘mutation,’ but these birds may possibly be a reversion to the ancestral parent form of both “ species” of Zawmalea. ON TWO SPECIES OF CYSTICERCOIDS, 9 “By whatever name it is called, this hybrid is undoubtedly a homozygote for pattern and colour, pure and permanent, trans- mitting these characters to its descendants. Cross-breeding between these two varieties of Thawmalea produces a new form, owing possibly to the meeting of characters never previously com- bined, and as they are constant it is evident these have an affinity and have become inseparable. “On such lines Evolution might be conceived as having pro- ceeded fairly rapidly towards the separation of species. “Some while ago 1 showed a hybrid hen whose pure Swinhoe plumage had been transmitted through the cock. To-day the skin of her son, a pure Swinhoe cock, is exhibited for your inspection. ** An account of my method and management of these Pheasant- breeding experiments has been already published in the ‘ Pro- ceedings ’ (1909, p. 885), showing the care and precautions used.” Iwo Species of Cysticercoids from the Rat-flea (Cevatophyllus fasciatus). (Text-figures 1 & 2.) Dr. W. Nicoxt and Professor EK. A. Mincuin, M.A., V.P.Z.S., exhibited examples of two species of Cysticercoids which had been found in the body-cavity of the rat-flea (Ceratophyllus Jusciatus) dissected by Professor Minchin in the course of in- vestigations upon the development of Zrypanosoma lewisi in the flea. The first specimen shown (text-fig. 1) was one previously ex- hibited by Prof. Minchin (P. Z. 8. 1909, p. 741). Since then experiments had been carried on by Dr. Nicoll at the Lister Institute, which proved that it was the larval form of Hymenolepis diminuta, and threw light upon the mode of infection. This Cysticercoid had occurred in about four per cent. (8 in 207) of all the fleas examined during a period of thirteen months. It was found in the body-cavity and usually only one specimen at a time. As many as three, however, had been found in one flea. In the retracted state the Cysticercoid consisted of a flattened oval body and a more or less elongated tail. The dimensions of the body were 31 xX ‘25 mm., and the tail might be as much as ‘8 mm. long. The wall of the body consisted of a number of well- differentiated layers. The outermost layer was non-cellular and bore a certain resemblance to cuticle. It was marked by fine radial striations. |The second layer consisted of columnar cells, each with a large and distinct nucleus. Neither of these layers occurred in the tail. The third layer was parenchymatous, consisting of a large number of irregularly disposed cells. This was continuous with the substance of the tail. The next layer was apparently of a fibrous nature, consisting of a few cells set in a mass of circularly arranged fibres. This layer was separated from the next by an intervening space. This was seen usually 10 DR. W NICOLL AND PROF, E. A. MINCHIN ON only as a narrow fissure. It represented the very much reduced vesicle, and separated the main part of the body from the part which was eventually evaginated to form the head of the tape- worm. Internal to this was another layer of loose parenchyma, which at the posterior pole merged into the tissue of the scolex. The latter was extremely small (075 x-09 mm.). Onit there were four small circular suckers (diam. ‘055 mm.) and a small unarmed rostellum. . Cysticercoid of Hymenolepis diminuta. X 125. This description tallied almost exactly with that of Grassi and Rovelli (Atti Acc. Gioenia Sc. Nat. Catania, iv. 1892, pp. 31-33, pl. iv. fig. 3). They found a corresponding Cysticercoid in the beetles Akis spinosa and Scaurus striatus, in Anisolabis annulipes and in the larva of Asopia farinalis. By feeding experiments with Cysticercoids derived from the first of these, they were able to produce infection in a man, and the tapeworm which was recovered was Hymenolepis diminuta Rud. (= Tenia leptocephala Creplin). * It was recognized that the Cysticercoid from the rat-flea was very probably the larva of Hymenolepis diminuta, but that could not be definitely stated without further information, for two other rat-tapeworms (H. relicta Zschokke and H. horrida v. Linstow) are known, closely resembling H. diminuta and probably possessing larvee almost indistinguishable from that of H. diminuta. On that account, in order to establish the identity of the Cysticercoid, a series of feeding experiments was undertaken. TWO SPECIES OF CYSTICERCOIDS. 11 For this purpose a litter of young rats was separated from their mother as early as possible and isolated. They were fed entirely on boiled bread and milk. They were kept under observation for three months, during which time frequent examination of their feeces showed that they were free from tapeworms. Two of the rats were then fed daily with the fleas, which were mashed up in their food. This was continued for 19 days, feeding being omitted on three of these, when one of the rats died. During this period the feces were examined regularly, but no ova were found. On examining the dead rat, five specimens of Hymenolepis diminuta were found in the intestine. They were of various sizes, the largest being over 40 cm. long and the smallest only lem. Next day numerous ova were found in the feeces of the other rat. From this it was evident that the complete develop- ment of Hymenolepis diminuta took place in less than three weeks. Grassi and Rovelli found ova after 15 days, which was probably about the actual length of time required. The remaining rats of the litter were kept under observation for a further period of two months, but during that time no ova were found in the feeces of any of them. The same experiment was repeated later with a similar result, ova appearing in the feeces on the 19th day. The rat which survived the first experiment was eventually killed and nine tapeworms were removed from its intestine. all these OL Bh ae W (27) | 3 N (543) 3 matings 2) oy MI GiaeO aaa | W(14) | 14SB WwW (30)| 4 | il) RxR!| 1 1 ee if (24) 2 5 W (30) 4 Te eae 4 1 3 | w (26) | 11 AEN a(S aaa 2 ie Bo 8 ee W (a) 1 2 |W (8) 14SB LJ Pe 30) 2 strains. * In both these birds the amount of webbing is just on the line fixed by Mr. Staples Browne. Tf we look closely into the foregoing table, we may note that whenever the apparent Normals are mated together we get some webs. This has been done in experiments 3, 4, and 7, the total result, being 12 normals to 6 webs. Were these normals hetero- zygotes we should have expected 12 Normals and 4 Webs. 17 WEBFOOT CHARACTER IN PIGEONS. Text-fig. 4. WEBBED PAIRS rrom STAPLES BROWN, EX.44. P.Z.8.1905. W Wo W Ww WwW No WSN N NG No Wo Wo NNNNW/]|N NNNNW NoN NN NNN NN W WE N N N W Genealogical Table showing matings and results in mixed strains. 7 ss, EXALZ. ExPJ1. | AND MANY. OTHERS 3 ALL WEBBED. WEBBED DRAGOON SMALLEY 69 N Wo WW NN WW EXP AS: WY. SW OI Proc, Zoou, Soc,—1911, No, II. 18 ON THE WEBFOOT CHARACTER IN PIGEONS. If we take the Normal-Web matings, as in experiments 2, 6, 9, 10, and 13, we find the total results to be 11 Normals to 10 Webs. In this case were the Normals heterozygotes we should expect equality, which is practically the result attamed. Lastly, when we mate Webs to Webs, as has been done in Exps. 1, 5, 8, 11, 12, and 14, we should expect Webs only, and this result, was only attained in one case (Exp. 8), where only two birds both webbed were reared. In the other five cases together 15 birds were reared, 12 Normal and 3 Webbed. The proportions are almost exact for a DRxDR mating, which, of course, we know they cannot be; but it is not without significance to note that in four out of these five experiments the matings were a cross between the mixed strain and Mr. Staples Browne’s strain. These, then, are the facts, and at present it seems difficult to reconcile them with the Mendelian theory, although they certainly seem to show that the inheritance of this character is to a certain extent in accordance with that theory. According to previous and contemporary work on this character, no individual should have had a normal foot. If, however, the Normals that have appeared be considered as heterozygotes, then, considering the small numbers, the results from the matings are not greatly at variance with what we should expect. As regards the Webs (in these experiments), when mated with Normals they behave as recessives, but when mated with other Webs of either the mixed or of Staples Browne’s strain they produce Normals to Webs in a ratio closely approximating 3:1. Such a result in the case of no less than five matings seems to show pretty conclusively that the joining of the two strains has produced a factor disturbing the normal course of the Mendelian inheritance. It must be carefully noted that each strain by itself breeds true according to Mendel’s laws and that the disturbing factor 1s not brought in from one side only, but is due to the intermixture of the two strains. Mention should perhaps be made of a suggestion by Prof. Bate- son, to whom I wrote on the subject. This was that the webbed foot was possibly a double character and that the web between digits 2 and 3 had a separate inheritance from that between digits 3 and 4. Now, if we look at Exp. 1 in this light, we find that in 2 the male is very slightly webbed (practically normal) and that in ? he is fully webbed. In the female, on the other hand, the webbing in 3 is very full and in 2 extremely small. 2 We could thus suppose the male in Exp. 1 to be | N (W) 2 WW, female 3 WW 2 N(W); this would then give in F, 2 Normals and Webs equally, ? Normals and Webs equally, so that we might expect pure Normals (; N ? W, 3 W ? N) and pure Webs in equal numbers—as a matter of fact, 4 were Normals and 12N3W. This suggestion, however, becomes untenable for other reasons. If we examine the birds I bred for Mx, Staples Browne (Exp. 14, ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI. 19 loc. cit.), together with 5 more individuals reared since, we find that the old maleno. 19 SB was undoubtedly | WW 2 N (W) and the female was the same ; ; consequently all birds bred gual this pair should be webbed in Zand a quarter of them webbed 1 in 2. Asa matter of fact, out of 10 birds, 1 is normal in 3, 3 are webbed in ?, and one fae all four toes Pilly webbed. It is unnecessary, therefore, to follow up the matter further, as slight deviations appear in almost every mating. We must, therefore, be driven back to the suggestion that a factor composed of two parts (cryptomeres), one of which is contained in each strain, causes the web to be suppressed or concealed. On this assumption none of the results attained are at variance with the Mendelian theory. The proportions, however, do not fit in, but as the numbers are small this does not count for much. On the average the extent of the webbing shows a tendency to diminish and the foot to approximate to the normal as compared with birds of either of the pure strains, and in only one bird, bred in Exp. 9, has the web included the hallux. Owing 40 lack of space and pressure of other experiments, I do not propose to pursue this inquiry further, but should anyone wish to follow it up I shall be very pleased to place all my material at his disposal. My best thanks are due to Mr. Smalley, who has not only supplied me with full and accurate particulars from his pedigree book, but has also during the past year kept and bred many of the birds in his lofts. 2. Notes on the little-known Lizard Lacerta jacksoni Blgr., with Special Reference to its Cranial Characters. By Evwarp Draen, F.Z.8. [Received September 15, 1910: Read November 15, 1910. | (‘Text-figures 5-7.) Through the kindness of Mr.G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., a series of seven specimens of Lacerta jacksont has been placed in my hands for investigation. These specimens, recently pro- cured by Mr. R. Kemp at Mumias, Mount Elgon District, British East Africa, at an altitude of 7000 feet, reached the British Museum in a bad state of preservation ; opportunity was therefore taken to submit the cranial structure of this little- known species to a careful examination, the results of which are now placed on record. Of the seven specimens six were males and one female. The specimens from which the skulls were prepared were a small, but quite adult male, measuring 70 mm. from snout to vent, and the single female, measuring 68 mm, The dimensions ox 20 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE of the former therefore are about the same as those of the single male specimen from which the species was originally described and figured*, after its discovery at “ Ravine Station,” Mau Mountains, British East Africa, at an altitude similar to that at which the specimens now studied were obtained. : DESCRIPTION OF THE SKULL OF THE MALE. Dimensions.—Total length 21 mm.; width 12 mm. (as measured between the extreme points of the zygomatic processes of the jugular bones) ; height 6 mm. Its width is therefore contained 1-9 times in its length, and its height 3:3 times. Text-fig. 5. Skull of male. Upper, lower, lateral and posterior aspects. 22. GENERAL ConFriGuRATION.— Remarkably depressed, as may he noted from its proportionate dimensions, and further seen in the above figure representing the profile. Facial portion. Snout short, broadish at base, terminating in a bluntly rounded-off premaxillary. * © On New Lizards from the Interior of British East Africa,” by G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1899, pp. 96 & 97, pl. x. GRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI. Zi Crantum (fronto-parietal portion).—Squarish. The whole of the upper surface from the anterior borders of the nasals to the posterior margin of the parietal quite flat, and forming an almost perfectly level plane. Dermal incrustation. Evenly spread, profuse, but highly porous, and covering the whole of the upper surface, including a small portion of the nasal process of the premaxillary bone. Lamina supraciliaris (text-fig. 6, A, p. 23) (Supra-orbital region). Completely ossified ; 4 supraoculars, and 1 supraciliary on each side. Supraorbital bones (text-fig. 6, B). Small; irregularly trian- gular and thickish, convex laterally. The internal angles termi- nating in a hook-like spine and the posterior margins irregularly serrated. Their lateral edges barely showing on the exterior and almost wholly concealed under the first supraciliary scutes. Pterygoid bones. Toothless ; moderately diverging immediately in front of the dilated lateral processes of the basisphenoid. Postfrontals forming a single plate. A Retrociliary present (text-fig. 6, A). Dermal ossification of Temporal region. Supratemporalia | and 2 partially ossified. Dentition. Number of teeth in premaxillary 9; in each maxillary 18. Nasal apertures (text-fig. 6, D). Subcircular, the longitudinal diameter the greater. Parietal Region.—This, as in all Lacertide, is clearly defined in contour, and forms the greatest expanse of the cranial roof. Its anterior borders practically are coincident with the fronto- parietal suture and the postorbital margins of the adjacent post- frontals. Posteriorly, the parietal is produced well backwards, and ends in a straight edge, the latter being the result cf an increased deposit of the crusta calcarea—a feature mostly absent in the very young, in which this portion is concavely crescentic. This edge connects the two outward and backwardly directed processus parietales, spanning over the parotic processes, the processus ascendens of the supraoccipital bone, and covering the greater part of the latter in this species, so that the pars condy- loidea of the occipital alone projects beyond it when the skull is viewed from above. . The parietal processes, slightly triangular in a transverse section at their terminal parts, are quite flat at their basal portions and are mere continuations of the median portions of the parietal itself. They have not, as is the case with the majovity of the Wall-Lizards in which the facies cranialis is more elevated, the downwardly directed ridges set at right angles with their bases, in order to establish the contact with the underlying supraoccipital, No Foramen parietale. (For special remarks on this striking feature refer to p. 29 at the end of the description cf cranial characters.) he MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE The Postfrontals, which are joined laterally to the single parietal bone by means of ordinary sutures, and which extend the whole length of the parietal as far backwards as the supratemporal bones, complete the cranial roof. They form a single plate in the present species, with every trace of their former sutures com- pletely obliterated through fusion of the two component parts of which they consist in a great number of Lizards. This is a condition found to exist also in Lacerta simonyi, L. atlantica, L. ocellata, L. viridis, L. gailoti, L. dugesii, and L. levis (in the latter species the squamosal also fuses with the postfrontal plate). In Lacerta jacksoni these bones are on the same hori- zontal plane with the parietal to their outermost margins, which in so many of the Lizards of the “muralis” group are strongly convex and appreciably bent downward towards the temporal foramen. A similar feature, which imparts such a quadrangular aspect to this portion of the skull, is observable in the case of Lacerta simonyi*, L. atlantica, L. ocellata, L. viridis, L. galloti, L. dugesii, L. levis, Algiroides nigropunctatus; and among L. muralis forms in the varieties nigriventris and serpa. ally paired (in very young specimens) it is single in the skull before me as well as in the majority of the members of this genus when adult. Its interorbital width, at the narrowest part of its anterior portion, measures exactly one- half of its posterior and widest portion, which is to be found in a line drawn between supraocularia 4, the latter coinciding approxi- mately with the fronto-parietal suture. In proportion, therefore, this interorbital width is greater than in most of the mwralis-like forms, except for the skull of a male specimen of the typical form from Vienna, which is also greatly depressed. In the length of the skull sans dimension is contained six times; whereas in the majority of skulls belonging to the mwralis group it varies between seven and eight times. It further equals the width of supraocularia 2 and 3; also that of the space between the inner dentary ridges (laminz horizontales) of the maxillary bones (measured across the apertura narium interna), and is of the same length exactly as the columella cranii (epipterygoid, Parker). Equally distinguished in respect to this broad interorbital diameter are—apart, again, from all the previously enumerated Atlantic Island forms and others named—the skulls of Z. agilis and levis, and of the more typical muralis forms those of L. chlorogaster, L. saxicola, and L. derjuginit. Further, in Algiroides nigropunctatus this region is also of a broader type ; but according to Siebenrock¢ it differs in the persistence of the SCE “Das Skelet der Lacerta simonyi Steind. und der Lacertenfamilie iiber- haupt,” von Friedrich Siebenrock, Sitzungsb. Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften in Wien, vol. ae parti., April 1894, Taf. 11. fies. 8 & 11. + fr. L . von Méhely, “ Materialien zu einer Systematik und Phylogenie der Muralis-alnlichen Lacerten,” Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, Band vit. 1909, tab. xix. fic. 9 & tab. xxi. figs. 3 & 6. tT esp. 28. CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI. 23 two original parts composing the single frontal in the adult of this genus also *. Text-fig. 6. A. Lamina supraciliaris of Lacerta gacksoni, 6. Right side. B. Supraorbital bone of ZL. jacksoni, g. Right side, ventral aspect. C. Supraorbital bone of ZL. jacksoni, 2. Left side, ventral aspect. D-I. Showing configuration of nasal process of preemaxillary and outer nasal apertures of —(D) L. jacksoni, 6; (KE) L. jacksoni, 2 ; (F) L. muralis, f. typica, d@, from Vienna; (G) L. muralis, f. typica, 6, from Turin; (H) L. vivipara, fg ; (1) ZL. agilis, $. X 65. prf. prefrontale; so., seuta supraocularia (1-4); se., seutum supracihare ; s.r., scutuim retrociliare; s.o7., supraorbital. Premacillary.—lts backwardly directed nasal process (text- fig. 6, D) is rather short and exceptionally broad at_ its base, where it is widely expanded on both sides, close behind the * The skull of the male specimen of this species in the British Museum Collections does not bear out this statement, the said suture being wholly obliterated by incrustation, 24 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE laterally situated nerve-canals which at this point perforate the bone. Other examples of a very broad nasal process of the premaxillary are to be found in Lacerta ocellata, L. viridis, L. agilis (text-fig. 6, I); and reference to Dr. Siebenrock’s text and figures for L. simonyi* also shows the latter to belong distinctly to the broad type, and consequently not—as he points out, when referring to this feature—being distinguished by a “long and slender” type of processus nasalis the same as in Eremias arguta, with which he likens LZ. simonyi as regards this character. In Lacerta dugesii I find the shape of the nasal process occupies a position intermediate between ZL. jacksoni, the species here dealt with, and those possessing a nasal process of distinctly slender and elongate shape. Most of the true mwralis forms belong to the latter (text-fig. 6, F & G). Lacerta echinata, L. vivipara (text-fig. 6, H), and Z. devis must also be considered intermediate forms in this respect. Allowance for individual variation, how- ever, must be made, as the examination of three skulls of the latter species, all males, clearly demonstrates. The very low angle at which this nasal process rises at its issue from the maxillary portion of the bone is merely due to the strongly depressed type of the skull itself, as, in fact, in any of the typically platycephalous forms, e. g. ZL. mosorensis or L. oxycephala, and differing from the more or less convex types of skulls in which this process is more highly arched. Nasal bones.—Owing to the profuse incrustation of the upper surface of the skull, their contours in this specimen are very ill-defined. All that can be said on this head is that they are oblong, of a scaly nature, and that they widely diverge behind to receive between them the anterior and pointed pro- cessus nasalis of the frontal bone. Their length approximately equals their combined width at the widest part between the prefrontal bones. The Prefrontals also appear very irregular in their upper out- lines and in their relations to the maxillaries, the frontal, and the nasals, The spinous posterior process, which forms the anterior border of the margo supraorbitalis, seemingly does not reach much farther backward here than the suture between the first and the second supraorbitals. The Zacrymal bones are clearly defined, exceedingly thin, narrow, and blade-like in shape. In their situation at the anterior angle of the orbital cavity, they form, together with the incisura lacrymalis of the prefrontals, a well-developed foramen lacrymale. Jugulars.—Their zygomatic processes are represented by a rather short, but acutely pointed spine. Their temporal processes are somewhat straighter than is the case in Lizards having deeper skulls, in all of which they usually are of a more sigmoid form, oe 156.65 ie BPA, Weis Tub, sly, Eh CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONT, 25 OccIPIfAL SEGMENT.—Supraoccipitai. ts epiotic portion is neatly horizontal and only slightly inclines towards the posterior free edge, which forms the upper margin of the foramen magnum. The processus ascendens (processus spinosus, Clason) rises rather abruptly and almost vertically from the anterior portion of the supraoccipital, and constitutes the exclusive support of the parietal roof. The processus ascendens is not flanked on either side by any apophysial eminence of the supraoccipital, which so frequently acquires the same height as does the spinous process itself, in order to increase the connecting-ar ea with the pemenal, such as is the case in Lacerta oxycephala, L. saaicola, L . defilippi*, L. chloro- gaster (boettgert Méh.), and L. mosorensis, among some of the flat- headed species; or as in Lacerta muralis forma typica, the varieties tiliguerta, campestris, niyriventris, &c., as well as Lacerta vivipara, among the more highly and convexly-roofed forms where it also occurs. A similar pillar arrangement as pointed out for Lacerta jack- sont is present also in ZL. stemonyi, where it is carried out to even greater perfection owing to the inereased elevation of the parietal roof +; in L. galloti, L. viridis, L. dugesii, and L. echinata, proportionate, of course, to their respective dimensions of height. This arrangement is of rare occurrence in a strongly depressed, practically platycephalous Lizard, and equally so in the case of the more pronounced pyramidocephalous forms, amongst which I find it occurs (in two specimens) in the varieties serpa and lilfordi only. The Basioccipital £ and Basisphenoid § in no essential deviate in their configuration from the outlines usual in the genus for this region. The Parasphenoid is feebly ossified at its base, whereas its centre remains cartilaginous. The Orbitosphenoid bones have a broadish appearance on account of their reduced size, the latter being due to the depressed membranous portion of the cranium. The Squamosals, usually slender and delicately shaped, which in so many of the smaller forms of Lacerta are only loosely con- nected by ligamentous tissue with the outer postfrontals, are here strongly developed and anteriorly quite fused to the latter. Their posterior ends, which articulate with the quadrates, are broadly expanded and, together with the parietal processes and the much reduced supratemporals which wedge themselves * Cfr. Méhely, “ Materialien etc.,” Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung., Bd. vii. 1909, tab. xvi. Hh 6, tab. xix. figs. 3 & 10, tab. xxii. fig. 6. + Ofr. Siebenrock, /. c. Taf. ii. fig. 9. t Posteriorly and slightly in front of the foramen magnum there is a small aber cular process in the male specimen, which is absent in the female. § The foramen by which a branch of the jugular vein leaves the skull, and which Siebenrock (/.c. p.11) regards as the result of synostosis of a special process with the anterior angle above it in the case of the Canary Island Lizards, but as absent in the European forms as well as in ZL. duyesii, is represented in L. jachsoni by ligament only. : 26 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE between these two latero-posterior angles of the skull, unite with the processus parotici in such a way that the foramen supra- temporale, conspicuous for its relative large size even in the adults of the pyramidocephalous forms like Lacerta muralis varieties jfiumana, serpa, campestris, pityusensis, and others, is here nearly closed up as much, for instance, as in L. levis. The Presphenoid, which in some Lacerte is a slender ossifica- tion of the ethmoidal region in the membranous septum orbitale, is here reduced to a small cartilaginous band in which calcifica- tions in the shape of granules are imbedded. The Columella cranii, for a skull of the inferior dimensions of the present one, are exceptionally thick and strongly bent laterally—particularly so at their parietal ends, where they are m close contact with the ala sphenoidea. Thus they differ somewhat from the more delicate, either linear or slightly sig- moid thin structures frequently met with in the majority of other Wall-Lizards ; but this condition is the rule in the very young, as already pointed out by Siebenrock *. The Quadrata and Ossa transversa both answer to the general form of description for all these Lizards. The Vomer plates are closely approximated to each other medially along their’ entire length, but intimately united only at their anterior ends. The lacuna pterygo-vomerina does not extend beyond the most posterior portion of the palate-bones, which latter also unite with each other along their greater length, producing the crista vomerina which is continued on to the palatines. Manvi1BLe.—This consists of five elements only,a condition stated by Leydig to be typical of the Lacertw, and further confirmed also by Siebenrock fT in the fully adult Zacerta atlantica, L. muralis var. melissellensis, L. cerulea, L. oxycephala, and L. mosorensis, a condition brought about by the fusion of the supra-angulare with the articulare; whereas in L. simonyi, ocellata, galloti, and viridis t, according to Siebenrock, these two bones remain separated throughout life. The number of teeth in each ramus is 23. DESCRIPTION OF THE SKULL OF THE FEMALE. Dimenstons.—-Length 15 mm.; width 9 mm.; height 4 mm. Its width is therefore contained 1-6 times in its length, and its height 3°3 times. GENERAL CoNFIGURATION.—Strongly depressed in the same pro- portions as in the male. In texture the bones are rather delicate, such as is character- istically the case in all platycephalous species of Lizards so * Tc. p. 52. p ip Jey @ ite BS: '£ In the skull of a specimen of this species trom Bozen, Tyrol, these two hones, though fused slightly, show their original longitudinal sutures in their anterior portions. CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI. 27 typically represented by Lacerta mosorensis, oxycephala, ke. Except for the bones composing the occipital segment, and the usually more massive premaxillary and maxillaries, all the others assume a more or less foliated form. Facial portion. 'The snout appears much shorter and broader than in the larger male, but is slightly more pointed in front. Text-fig. 7. Skull of female. Upper, lower, lateral and posterior aspects. X 3. Cranium (Hrontc-parietal region).—Slightly broader than long in proportion, owing to the incomplete development of its posterior margin, which is crescentic in shape as, in all young examples. Its median edge therefore barely reaches the anterior margin of the supraoccipital. The upper surface, quite horizontal in its main configuration, is longitudinally slightly undulated by alternately being concave in its fronto-nasal and fronto-parietal parts re- spectively, and convex in the intervening frontal and parietal areas. Dermal incrustation. Very sparse and transparent. The sulci of the blood-vessels are sharply defined for their former rami- fications. Lamina supraciliaris. Completely ossified also, as in the male, and not bearing a trace of a membranous fontanelle. 28 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE Supraorbitals (text-fig. 6, C, p. 23). More regularly triangular than in the male, alsoslightly more massive. Their thickened and strongly convex lateral margins, scarcely exposed in the male, are here so to a greater extent on both sides (ascertained before accidental displacement of their dermal plates on one side in the later manipulation of the skull), having been covered partially only by the supraciliary. Pterygoids. Diverging slightly more than in the male speci- men. ‘Teeth absent. Postfrontals. Forming single -plates also. Faint traces of an earlier existing suture, as recorded to exist in the very young stages of Lacerta dugesit, ocelluta, and muralis by Siebenrock*, are discernible anteriorly only. In their posterior portions (postorbital margins) their fusion 1s complete. A minutely developed Retrociliary present. Dermal ossifications of Temporal region. I have been unable to find any. Dentition. Number of teeth in premaxillary 9, in each maxillary 15-16. Nasal apertures (text-fig. 6, KE). These ave slightly narrower than in the male, and therefore longer in proportion. Parietal Region.—Except for its morphogenetically inferior development of the posterior margin, which is a common feature of all the young, this does not deviate in any essential from the usual conditions. Its relation to the supraoccipital alone requires some explanation (see p. 29), which latter bone is, owing to the development stage, wholly exposed and not yet bridged over as it is in the male. The Foramen parietale is absent, as in the male. Frontal—The median suture is discernible in its greater length, which is quite in accordance with the remarks aleady made on this subject. The width of the frontal at its narrowest point (between the margines orbitales) is equal to that of sapra- oculary 3. The frontal is actually and relatively narrower than that of the male, its width being slightly less than half the length, and a seventh of the total length of the skull, whilst in the male the similar measurement shows that the frontal is relatively larger. ‘The width of the female frontal is three- fourths of the length of the columella cranii, and in this measure- ment, as well as when it is compared with the width between the internal Jamine horizontales (taken diagonally across the choane), the relative and actual inferiority of size as compared with the male is shown. Premaxillary (text-fig. 6, E)—The nasal process of this bone is on the whole longer and narrower than in the male. It also terminates posteriorly in a much more finely drawn-out point. It is quite devoid of any calcareous incrustation. Anteriorly it rises from the maxillary portion of the bone at a similar acute “OL cupe ios CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI. 29 angle to its horizontal plane as in the male, but is less expanded at its base, immediately behind the constriction between the nerve-holes. The Nasal bones, which, owing to extensive incrustation, in the male specimen were described as ill-defined, are here quite distinct in their entirety. Anteriorly their proximal processes, between which the nasal process of the preemaxillary is wedged, extend to the middle of the latter. Their lateral margins, shorter than those forming the median suture and moreover less decidedly linear, are parallel to each other. ‘Their posterior edges, scale- like in shape, and imbricating in a similar manner on the frontals, are characteristic in having from 2 to 3 pointed lobes, of which the median ones are the longest, so as to become a fork into the prongs of which the median process of the frontal penetrates. The Prefrontals also are more clearly defined in the female. They show their posterior frontal processes, which constitute the margo orbitalis anteriorly, to be spurs which extend nearly as far back as the suture between supraocularies 2 and 3. The Jugulars do not differ from those of the male. OcciprvAL SEGMENT.—The Supraoccipital is united along its entire upper margin with the posterior edge of the parietal bone. The processus ascendens, so tolerably well developed and forming the sole support of the parietal in the male, is quite rudimentary here and reduced to atubercle only. It is lower even than are the apophysial elevations of the epiotic portions of the bone, and, together with the epiphysial cartilaginous spine and a small portion of the membranous cranium, is laid bare and quite un- protected by the parietal. The sutures between the supraoccipital and the pleuroccipitals are perfectly distinct. The foramina retrofrontalia, in consequence of this extended transverse con- nection between the parietal and the supraoccipital, are more markedly reduced than in the male. The Basioccipital and Basisphenoid are not fused as in the male, the suture between them showing distinctly (text-fig. 7, p. 27). The Squamosals are flatter and less curved downwards than in the male. The Vomer plates are more loosely united than in the male ; but the Palatines, though more distinctly united, have their sagittal ridges imperfectly developed as compared with those of the male. The swlct palatine are also shallower in this skull. ManpisBLe.—This consists of the six elements, of which each ramus is composed in all immature Lizards as pointed out by Siebenrock, the supra-angulare and articulare being not yet united by fusion. On the Absence of the Foramen parietale. After first ascribing the absence of the orifice for the pineal eye in the skull of the male to purely pathogenic causes, or to 30 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE a possibly individual aberration, both of these assumptions were dispelled on the discovery of this peculiarity in the female aiso. An examination of the remaining five specimens preserved in alcohol, as well as of the type specimen referred to (antea, p- 20), and of a second female more recently described * (all in the Collection of the British Museum), readily confirmed its specific importance, since not one of them bore the least trace of the presence of this morphological feature. Besides the simultaneous observation of its absence in Zono- saurus madagascariensis, belonging to the neighbouring family Gerrhosauride, a more methodical search among the rich material of the British Museum Collections revealed the following genera and species belonging to the family of Lacertide as being devoid also of the foramen parietale :— Poromera fordii. Benito River, Spanish Guinea. Lacerta echinata. Kyibi River, Cameroon. Algiroides africanus. Uganda, Nueras delalandi. Natal. Latastia hardeggert. Somaliland. - NEWMaANNE. Arabia. - degen. Somaliland. a spinalis. . » prillipsir. A Gastropholis vittata. Zanzibar. Holaspis guentheri. Benito R., Spanish Guinea. As the above list shows, cases of absence of the parietal foramen occur in several monotypic genera, also in the specifically numerous genus Latastia in no less than five species out of ten. Yet it is rather remarkable to find such a character restricted to two species only in a large genus such as Lacerta. But more remarkable, perhaps, is the fact that all the forms thus deprived of the foramen belong to the African Continent, and that in the not strictly African genera it is restricted to African representatives. Some of the remaining genera of this family, even of purely African habitat, do not contribute any specific forms which exhibit this negative character. It is curious to note, moreover, that among the upwards of thirty known species of the genus Hremias, about twenty of which are found in Africa, no exception to the presence of the parietal foramen could be found. The sum total of cranial characters, as shown principally in the immature skull of the female, points to Lacerta jacksoni being * G. A. Boulenger, “ Ruwenzori Expedition Reports,” Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xix. part i1., Dec. 1909, p. 242. CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI. 5) closely allied to Z. muralis, forma typica. It agrees with the latter as well as with Z. mosorensis in the strongly depressed and more broadly expanded skull-structure in general. Also in the wider interorbital region, likewise a marked feature in Lacerta vivipara. Also in the mode in which the connection between the posterior portion of the parietal and that of the supraoccipital presents itself; in the absence of teeth on the pterygoid bones, and in the degree of divergence of these latter, as well as in the configuration of the basioccipital and the basisphenoid. Further, in the shortened muzzle with broadened base, and in the anteriorly broadened nasal process of the premaxillary bone (text-fig. 6, D), well indicated in the typical form of LZ. muralis from Turin (text-fig. 6,G), but assuming its widest proportions in Lacerta agilis (text-fig. 6, 1). The total absence of supraocular fontanelles, notwithstanding the typically platycephalous structure, together with the onto- genetically early complete fusion to one composite plate of the postfrontals, would justify our referring this type of skull to the group of Lizards to which the term of Neolacertie * has recently been given, However, considering the views held and recently enunciated by writers on the subject of the phylogenetic relation of some of these characters, it is rather surprising to find undivided postfrontals also in species belonging to entirely different genera, such as Hremias, as Prof. v. Méhely ¢ regards that genus as one of the prototypes of archeolacertic forms of this family because of the characters of its lepidosis. I might add that in Acanthodactylus boskianus{, a lizard to which Siebenrock$ ascribes a divided condition of the post- frontals, I find them to be completely fused into one plate in the skull of a female in the British Museum Collections. A perfectly obliterated suture between the two postfrontals I also find in a female specimen of Scapteirw knowii, another decidedly platycephalous species. Thus, beyond some more or less doubtful points in regard to a satisfactory solution concerning the question of phylogeny, skulls of females do not seem to afford trustworthy indications from which to draw conclusions as to affinities. It is to that of the male, so far as an examination of the present limited material is concerned, that one must turn for better results. As pointed out in the detailed part of the description, the tabular surface (inclusive of the postfrontals) is a very conspicuous feature of this male skull when taken in conjunction with the quadrangular and posteriorly well projecting parietal region. A near approach in this respect is to be found in a male specimen of Lacerta muralis of the variety lilfordi, a form restricted to * L.v. Méhely, Materialien, ic: £ Sex not stated by Siebenrock. § Cf. “Das Skelet der Lacerta simonyi,” Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1894, p. 37. 32 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE the Balearic Islands. Though unquestionably more pyramido- cephalous in regard to its superstructure, it nevertheless holds a position somewhat intermediate between Z. jacksoni and some of the more pronounced pyramidocephalous forms in this group in regard to this particular feature. The variety lilfordi also shows the same exclusive pillar arrange- ment of the processus ascendens for sole support of the parietal roof, which is so prominent a feature also in all the larger forms of Lizards from the Atlantic Islands such as LZ. simonyi, galloti, atlantica, and also L. dugesit* (except in regard to a modification in the basal portions of the parietal process), all differing by having pterygoid teeth, and all of which, except the latter, have strongly ossified temporal regions. These dermal ossifications in Lacerta jacksont, as may have been seen, are present in a rudimentary state in two of the supratemporal scutes. Specimens of Lacerta viridis, agilis, and levis may be quoted as further examples of characteristic forms in which the postfrontals are single plates, with perfectly analogous conditions in the relations between parietal and supraoccipital. Also Lacerta echinata, from West Africa (except for its more elongate skull), in which the processus ascendens, typically pyra- midal, does not enter into direct contact with the parietal, but is actually separated from it by confluence of the foramine retro- frontalia. But it is the shape of the nasal process of the premaxillary perhaps, as previously remarked on in the male, which may also provide a likely indication of closer affinity with some of the Lizards of the Canary Islands and the European species of Lacerta, viz. ocellata, viridis, and agilis—a character in which the Balearic variety lilfordi does not share, being distinguished by a narrower and very slender nasal process. So far as the topography of the skull reveals phylogenetic affinity, it would appear that Lacerta jacksoni came from a Palearctic stock, but also exhibits special relationships between the West African and Atlantic Island forms. Remarks on Characters of Lepidosis in Lacerta jacksoni. Dimensions.—In regard to size, five specimens, all of them males, are larger than the type of the species; the two biggest measuring 86 mm. from snout to vent, and consequently of about the same length as is the largest of the males of Dr. Peracca’s series (consisting of seven specimens also), the length of which is given as 85°5 mm. The male specimen, from which the skull was prepared for the * Siebenrock (vide l. c. p. 36) includes this species amongst those having divided postfrontals. ‘The specimens at my disposal, from the British Museum Collections, show them distinctly to be single plates, with no indication of former sutures. CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI,. 3o foregoing description, measured 70 min. ; equal to the length of the type specimen. Jt is therefore only slightly longer than the skull of the female which was sacrificed for the same purpose, the length of the latter from snout to vent being 67 mm. ‘Though differing by 5 mm. only, the sexual discrepancy in the size of the heads is a striking one: 19 mm. for the male against 14 mm. for the female. ; Analogous specimens for sfze in Dr. Peracca’s series show corresponding difterences, viz. 20 mm. for the head of a male and 15°5 mim. for a female. Ventral Plates —The number of the ventral plate series varies in the Mount Elgon specimens, three of these having 6 longi- tudinal rows only ‘and four of them having 8, which is the same as in the type of the species. For the Turin Museum specimens their number is uniformly stated to be 6; but to judge from a footnote im connection with this point, the author was fully cognisant of the presence of supplementary series* for some of his specimens, but hesitated to accord them serial rank on account of the inferior size of the scutes which form the outermost rows. In several of the Mount Elgon specimens these latter are sufficiently well developed to be considered as a series of ventrals. Transversely, the minimum of the plates in the Elgon speci- mens is 23 in an adult male, and the maximum 26 respectively for the male and the female from which the skulls have been prepared. For the Turin Museum series this minimum of 23 occurs in two males, one quite young and the other larger, whereas for the largest and fully adult the number is 24, ‘but the highest figures oe 27 and 28 are reached by two femeles ot the same lot ; the first number being identical with that of the Ruwenzori female in the British Tinea Collections, whereas the female specimen from Mount Elgon has only 24 rows of these scutes. It must be borne in mind that female lizards, having the body more elongate in proportion than the males, usually possess a higher number of transverse series of ventral plates. Seales across the middle of the Body.—'these range between 38 and 43, giving an average of about 40, the same as recorded for the type specimen, provided we except the male from which the skull was prepared and which showed the abnormally high number of 49. The Ruwenzori female has 37, a number close to the average of 36 as represented in the Turin Museum series, Where they vary between 34 and 38, the latter figure being that also of Lacerta vauereselli, as well as constituting the minimum of the British Museum Elgon series of Lacerta jackson. Supraciliary granules.—These vary in Oe specimens, both individually and for the two sides, between 3-3 and 6-5. They * Ofr. Dott. M.G, Peracea. Tl Ruwenzori, Relazioni Scientifiche, vol. i. Goologia- Botanica: Rettili ed Amfibii, Lacertide, pp, 166 & 167. Proc. Zoon, Soc, —1911. No. ITY, 3 34 MR. EDWARD DEGEN ON THE are confined principally to the posterior portion of the supraocular region. In the Ruwenzori female they are reduced to 3 on the left and to 2 on the right side. Dr. Peracca describes these as “ very irregular and asymmetrical for the two sides, except in a female in which the series is a complete one on the teft, but totally absent on the right side.” According to Tornier, who in his description omits to quote their number, the supraciliary series of granules is incomplete also in Lacerta vauereselli; but, as he says, confined to the posterior portion, agreeing therefore in Has point also with L. jackson. rular Scales.—The number of scales between the third chin- plates and the collar-plates varies between 24 and 26 in the Elgon specimens except in one, in which there are 28. This is slightly in excess of the Duke of the Abruzzi’s Expedition specimens, in which they are stated to be 22. In the type of the species their number is 25. Femoral Pores. —Vheir number is fairly constant, with variations between 16 and 18in the Elgon series. In one of the two females of the Turin Museum series there is a reduction to 15-14, otherwise 17-18 being the normal number. No case of supernumerary pores occurs in any of the British Museum specimens similar to the one female quoted in this respect by Dr. Peracca. Upper Labials (anterior to the subocular).—Except for the head of the male, made into a skull, which on its left side showed these to be 5, their normal number throughout the remainder is 4. A male of Dr. Peracca’s series shows a similar variation. Postocular and Temporal Region.—In one of the specimens the last postocular scute is in contact with the first supratemporal, similar to what is found in Lacerta mosorensis as figured by Méhely *. In all others it is the upper postocular and the parietal scutes which meet, as in Lacerta horvathi Méh. or L. muralis typica T The 3 to 4 supratemporals are exceedingly small and narrow, the first and longest being partially supported proximally by the lateral margin of its underlying postfrontal bone, and therefore visible practically in its greatest extent when the head is viewed from above. The number of scutes for the temporal region varies greatly. Those, for instance, forming the second row between the large sub- ocular and the first supratemporal are: 3 for the left, and 5 for the right side in the male, the skull of which served for description. Similar variation is to be found amongst the scutes in regard to their sculpture, which shows every gradation, from the per- fectly smooth through the granular stage, as pointed out in Mr. Boulenger’s description of the typical specimen ¢, to the faintly keeled or tubercular scutes to be met with in some of the Elgon * Ofr. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung. ii. 1904, p. 366, fig. 2, A, “ Hine neue Lacerta aus Uncen” + Ib. figs 2, B& C:- t CfG. A, Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1899, p. 96. De ho CRANIAL CHARACLERS OF LACERTA JACKSONT, 35 specimens, a condition said by Tornier to exist also in his Lacerta vaueresella, The suture between the first supraciliary and the second is slightly oblique. The frontal shield, which also varies slightly in length, and which is especially short in some specimens, is on the w hole shorter and broader than would appear from the figure on the plate accompanying the description of the type of the species. It was particularly broad in the male specimen which supplied the skull for description. Colour-pattern and markings are quite uniform for the Elgon specimens, and identical with the type of the species. In their nearly fresh state of preservation their ventral sides were of a vivid yellow, which, since their preservation in alcohol, has changed into the whitish blue-grey described by Tornier in his Lacerta vauereselli, or the pale blue ascribed to the Ruwenzori female. Remarks on some of the supposed Specific Characters of Lacerta vauereselli Zornier. On examination of specimens in a comparatively large series, as may have been seen from the foregoing, it appears that some of them are subject to individual var iations. This is particularly noticeable in the scaling of the temporal region, which was made one of the principal features by which to distinguish Lacerta vauereselli from L. jacksont. In the majority of specimens of the latter, these scales cor- respond with Dr. Tornier’s description of them *, and a special note on this subject made on the male specimen—previous to re- sorting to the excision of the skull—was to the effect that these scales were considerably larger than those of the upper dorsals, being oblong, irregular in size, hexagonal to pentagonal in shape, feebly though distinctly keeled, and decidedly double the size of those situated immediately behind the auditory opening— all of these being the characteristics ascribed by Dr. Tornier to his Lacerta vauereseili, and which are also referred to by Mr. Boulenger f at the end of his description of the Ruwenzori female. iveeor ding to Dr. Tornier the collar is serrated. This, again, 1S a point not always easy of recognition, for some specimens show various degrees of unevenness in this respect. The same remark applies to the number of plates forming the collar-edge, which are stated by Tornier to be 11. In the type of the species they are stated to be 10, which is the number also in one of the Elgon specimens; in the remainder of which, however, they range downward to from 9 to7 only, thus showing con- siderable fluctuation. Peracea omits to quote their number. * Ofr. Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. xxv., Oct. 1902, p. 702. + “ Ruwenzori Exped. Reports,” Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xix. part iii., Dec. 1909, p. 949, 3% cs lon ON THE CRANTAL CHARACTERS OF LACERTA JACKSONI, Nor can I find any differences in the style of scaling of the upper dorsals between Dr. Tornier’s diagnosis and that given for the type of the species by Mr. Boulenger, which scales, according to the latter, and further verified by myself, are stated to be ‘“‘rhomboidal, keeled, juxtaposed, or subimbricate,” every one of these conditions occurring in the Elgon specimens as well as in Lacerta vauereselli. The number of scales across the body, viz. 38 in the latter, also is in accord with the mean of the Elgon series of specimens; and, as regards the femoral pores, this has been finally disposed of, both by what has been made known (andtea, p. 34), as well as by a remark made by Mr. Boulenger in connection with this point in his description of the Ruwenzori female. As already pointed out in the diagnosis of the skull of Lacerta jacksoni, there are no teeth on the pterygoids any more than in LZ. vauereselli. No difference appears to exist in regard to the supratemporals as described for this species by Dr. Tornier from their condition in the Elgon specimens, in all of which a small tympanic scute is plainly v isible. Neither is a distinct gular fold recognizable in all specimens, at least in the stricter sense, as it is orem apparently absent in im- mature individuals, such as seems to be the case with Dr. Tornier’s type, judging by the dimensions given by him—an assumption which is further corroborated by the fact that its sex has not been mentioned. The length of the posterior extremity also varies greatly individually—in some Elgon examples it scarcely attains the axillary pit, whilst in others it reaches well bey ond the collar- edge. The geographical range of this species, so far as the increased, but at present still scanty, material on record permits one of judging (17 specimens, including Dr. Tornier’s L. vaueresella), appears to be a strictly equatorial one. Its habitat, moreover, seems to be generally restricted to the mountainous region of that part of the Central African plateau, or immediately west of it, which culminates in its highest peaks, an area generally acquiring considerable altitude. Its ultraplatycephalous shape, concurrently with its sombre- coloured garb, at once seems to denote a form occupying high ground, differing from those of the plains, with generally more massive skulls Aad more vividly contrasting colour - patterns, in the same manner as, for instance, eee, MLOSOTERSIS differs from Lacerta muralis var : 2 Sanne is or serpa, and Lacerta muralis var, monticola from the var. bocagit. 2 3 3 = = NC antl dS nade ~ + 2 5 ~ ., “a : iS eee ee aaa eT Quo day) }9 [Sp Ussdy Pp ON THE PELOPONNESIAN LIZARD. 37 9 3. On the Peloponnesian Lizard (Lacerta peloponnesiaca Bibr.). By G. A. BouLencsr, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. {Received October 4, 1910: Read November 15, 1910.] (Plate I.* and Text-figure 8.) Examples of a Lizard from Greece, which had been confounded with Lacerta muralis or with L. tawricat until shown by Dr. J. de Bedriaga ¢ to be fully entitled to specific rank under the name of L. peloponnesiaca Bibr. §, have been exhibited for the first time this summer in the Society’s Reptile House. As regards coloration, the species is one of the most beautiful, and as the only ficures of this Lizard we possess are quite inaccurate, or taken from specimens preserved in spirit, I requested Mr. J. Green to make coloured pictures from the specimens living in the Gardens ; at the same time I seized this opportunity of drawing up a new description of this little-known Lizard, with a view to fixing its correct position in the genus Lacerta. In addition to the live specimens I have had the following small series at my disposal, all eee no. 3 being preserved in the Natural History Museum :— 1-2. ¢2 Morea. Dr. J. de Bedriaga. Onli. ae (Lataste Collection). 4-8. @Q her. LL. Stymphalos. Norman Douglass, Esq. S10, ge Olympia. Hr. Lorenz Miller. Tile gs Kalamata. 33 The skull of a male from L. Stymphalos has been prepared, and agrees in all essential respects with that of Z. tawrica. Form and Proportions. As may be seen on comparing the following table of measurements with that given for Z. tawrica||, the general proportions are the same as in that species, except for the rather longer limbs. In the male the hind hmb reaches the collar or a little beyond, in the female it reaches the axil or the shoulder. The head is less flattened than in any of the forms of Z. mwralis, closely resembling in shape that of the typical form of ZL. viridis; snout sometimes very obtuse, sometimes very pointed, as long as the distance between the eye and the ear-opening; neck as broad as the head, or a little broader. The foot is always longer than the head. For explanation of the Plate see p. 49. For a deseription of this Lizard see P. ZS. 1907, p. 557. Zool. Anz. 1883, p. 216, and Abh. Senck. Ges. xiv. 1886, p. 315. In Bory de St. Vine. Expéd, Sc. Morée, ii. p. 66. i) Pp: ZS. 1907; p.56e: Cott 3 38 MR. G. A. BOULENGER ON Measurements (in millimetres). 3: a fig te er go oy Se fee aN 123 4 5. 6G. Me tS eos LO! IDO HO) WOM iococrecsnoo SO) 7 70 7 Th WD Wy Wl WD Oe Pr Ay Oe, bb ego «Ge 28) RS) a) Bib Br 28 26 25 25 TSA Oe WEN 5 5 Goons os oo BL FD 19 I I BW 1G 1G 16 Le AWGN @rP INGEN .y coseno nue ce2ane Wey Ts) es eye HO) NO) 9 IDyeyotelh Gre MEAL ceo oomsbaccesconen = IL IK) ul NG 9 8 8 & OOS WMS) Goounpcoaccoceosoo sence, A AO FO Bs A ws 24 21 23 22 Hind limb....................... 47 46 46 42 42 43 41 385 37 34 Nolet teehone patduscomacbcboocadou ten | CADN Bl Pe hy pes “Ost 21 19 22 18 Tail (*reproduced) ............ 170 95* 77*100* 80* 140 105 97* 98*125 1, 9. Greece; 2, 8. Olympia; 3, 6, 7. Morea; 4. Kalamata; 5, 10. L. Stymphalos. Palatal Teeth. These are strongly developed, forming two to four longitudinal series on each pterygoid bone. Scaling. Rostral shield largely entering the nostril. Nasals forming a short suture behind the rostral* ; frontonasal broader than long ; Text-fig. 8. Upper and side views of head of male and female (from photographs). frontal not longer than frontoparietals, anterior borders very concave, forming an acute angle, the shield often appearing * In one specimen the frontonasal forms a short suture with the rostral. THE PELOPONNESIAN LIZARD. 39 trilobate in front, in adult male specimens* ; parietals about once and a half as long as broad, in contact with the upper postocular ; occipital very variable in size, sometimes longer, sometimes shorter, and usually broader than the interparietal, from which it may be separated + by a short suture formed by the parietals. Supraoculars in contact with the supraciliaries, rarely one or two granular scales intervening between them. Postnasal single {. Four or five upper labials anterior to the subocular $, Rather large, irregular shields cover the temple, often exactly as in L. viridis ; tympanic shield distinct; 3 to 5 upper temporals in contact with the parietal. 28 to 33 scales and granules in a straight line between the symphysis of the chin-shields and the median collar- -plate ; gular fold distinct. Collar with even edge, formed of 10 to 12 plates. Scales on back juxtaposed, granular, round or suboval, feebly or faintly keeled, on flanks towards the ventrals larger, flat and Table showing number of scales, plates, and femoral pores. ih) eee day One ¥1Ge 1. 8. Bhs (CiREXED ccenaccessoescseus 0) “EY 7 GIy = ml) Si IR) Ey tas) 9 OME sconces TK ES i Bo) 4. 23 28 mee Monument naeseesces LOL Our? 288 a2 e28 4 20-21 3) Pneealeamationweere nacre: 100) GON ZOE O30 5 21 26 x) We Sivoo bees. Wi Gay By 1K) BY) 4 22-24 8 Fy TULA) Ray et Lahr a HO G2 ey Sil SS BEDS BHI OP Mouetemree ee eee 59 31 11 30 45 22 29 SeEOlymplaeeee ces: eid lee DOpmecaN | Il eons Fab 23 27 » Greece.. seeoheses 0) SB an BA 20 30 on We Shay mphalos SED: sy G2 SL ah, BB} 4, 24-25 27 1. Length (in millimetres) from snout to vent. 2. Number of scales across middle of body. 3. Transverse series of ventral plates. 4. Number of plates in collar. 5. Number of scales and granules between symphysis of chin-shields and median collar-plate. 6. Number of upper labials anterior to suhocular. 7. Number of femoral pores. 8. Number of lamellar scales under fourth toe. subimbricate, smooth ; 53 to 63 scales across the body, 2 or 3 transverse series corresponding to one ventral plate. Ventral plates in 6 longitudinal and 28 to 33 transverse series. Anal plate moderately large, with 2 or 3 semicircles of scales around it. ‘Seales on upper surface of ies a little smaller than dorsals, distinctly keeled; 26 to 31 lamellar scales under the fourth toe; 20 to 25 femoral pores on each side. Caudal scales truncate behind, more or less strongly keeled, the whorls subequal in length. Coloration. This varies considerably according to individuals. Females and * In the allied Z. taurica the anterior borders of the frontal vary from feebly concave to feebly convex, as in L. muralis and its varieties. Peracca has attached undue weight to this character in his description of L. sardoa. + In 4 specimens out of 12. { Two regularly superposed postnasals in one specimen (2, Morea). g 4 on both sides in five specimens 4 on one side and 5 on the other in six, 5 on both sides in one, AQ MR. E, G. BOULENGER ON young are beautifully striped with dark brown or black, some specimens may even be described as black above with 5 or 6 light longitudinal streaks. Traces of this striation may persist in some males, but usually disappears entirely, the back beimg uniform brownish or dul! green, with small blackish spots or vermicular lines on the sides. The figures annexed to this description will give an idea of the gorgeous colours assumed by the adult male during the breeding-season, making it one of the most beautiful of the European Lizards. The top of the head is of a reddish brown, sharply contrasting with the green colour of the nape, which gradually changes to olive or brown on the posterior part of the body; the sides of the head and body and the lower parts are of a bright vermilion-orange, reiieved by’a patch of azure-blue in the axillary region and a broad band of the same colour occupying the outer row of ventral shields and extending a little way up on the scaly part of the side. The female is of a reddish brown, with two broad blackish bands along each side, the outer proceeding from the eye, bordered above and below by a narrow whitish streak and separated by a third hght streak which in some specimens is pale yellow, in others pale green; a small round blue spot is present above the axil; the hind limbs bear round light spots edged with blackish; the lower parts are white or pale yellow, often tinged with rosy or lilac on the sides. Relationships. Lacerta peloponnesiaca is most nearly related to Z. tawrica, and with it fills the gap between the massive Lizards hike Z. agilis and L. viridis and the forms that cluster round LZ. mzralis. In its thick, convex skull and its well-developed pterygoid teeth, as well as in its temporal scutellation, it agrees with the former group, which I ‘regard as the most generalized, whilst in its scaling and especially in its non-serrated collar it agrees very ciosely with the typical L. muratis, from which some authors have held it to be probably derived. EXPLANATION OF PLATE f. Lacerta peloponnesiace, male and female, natural size. 4. Remarks on Two Species of Fishes of the Genus Gobius, from Observations made at Rosecoff. By Enwarp G. BouLENGER *, {Received Octoher 30, 1910: Read November 15, 1910.) Prof. F. Guitel, in his well-known paper on the breeding- habits of Gobias minutus ?, vemarks that the descriptions of this * Communicated by G. A. Bourmneen. F.RS., V.P.Z.S. 7+ Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gén. x. 1892, p. 499. FISHES OF THE GENUS GOBIUS. 4] species by various authors vary toa considerable extent and that the fish described under this name by Collett * does not* tally with the said Goby of Roscoff on which he based his observations, the number of scales along the lateral line in his specimens being about 45, those of the Norwegian fish about 60. Further that Collett’s formula for the fin-rays---D. 6/11-12. A. 11—differs slightly from that of the Roscoff fish, which he gives as: D. 6/8- 10. A. 8-10. During a stay at Roscoff last summer I collected a number of specimens of the Goby described by Guitel under the name of G. minutus and also found there another Gol by which differed at a first glance from the former in its larger size, coloration, and general appearance, and which I found on examination under a lens to have more numerous seales. This is the form described by Messrs. Holt and Byrnet, in their paper on the British and Trish Gobies, as the typical G. minastes, while the fish so commonly found at low tide in the pools of the shallow sandy bays of Roscoff is regarded by them as an estuarine race of the same species, to which they refer the G@. microps of Kroyer = and later Scandinavian authors. The colour of the latter fish is dorsally of a dirty grey, minutely speckled with black, laterally with large blackish blotches, which in the males usually expand into vertical bars on the side. That of the former is creamy speckled with rusty brown and with small blotches of the same colour laterally; the blotches may also form bars, which, however, are always finer and less conspicuous. J found the smaller form to be stouter than the larger, the depth of the body being usually from 5 to 6, as against 6 to 7 times in the total length, caudal fin excluded, and the scaleless area of the nape and back to he of greater extent. These two fishes I found under quite different conditions—the G. microps of Kréyer close inshore, the one alluded to by Messrs. Holt and Byrne as the typical G. minutus at a locality north of the little island of Batz, opposite Rosecoff, uncovered at the spring tides only. From the table of particulars of the two forms, given further on, it will be seen that they differ both in number of scales and fin-rays ; and there can he no doubt that the two fishes are distinct and well deserve to be regarded as valid species, not as races only. Messrs. Holt and Byrne, however, are of opinion that a sufficient series of specimens from various localities would show a complete gradation from the one “race” to the other, and state that specimens from the Cuckmere river approach the typical form in the large number of scales and small sealeless area of the nape and * Vidensk. Selsk. Forh. Christiania. 1874, p. 168. + Report on the Sea and Inland Fisheries of Ireland for the Year 1901, Part il. Appendix LIT. (1904). * Damn. Fiske. 1. p. 416 (1838-1810), 49, MR. E. G. BOULENGER ON back, though in form and colour they resemble the estuarine race. I have examined several specimens in the British Museum from the Cuckmere, presented by Mr. Byrne, but find that both in appearance as well as in the number of scales they agree with G. microps. It seemed desirable to make sure, by reference to the original description, which of the two species so often confounded should — bear the name of Gobius minutus. This name was proposed by Pallas* for the fish (“ Maris Belgici”) described in a rather puzzling manner by Gronoviust, who gives the number of fin- rays characteristic of G. microps, while, on the other hand, the total length “ tres wncias” (about 80 mm.) can apply only to the larger species. It is highly probable, however, that Gronovius had before him examples of both species from the Belgian coast{, and that he noted the number of fin-rays from the smaller fish and added to his description the size attained by the larger. Gmelin’s § diagnosis “ albicans ferrugineo maculatus, ... D. 6, 11. A. 11” can only apply to G. minutus of most authors. It is therefore satisfactory to find that no objection can be raised to the retention for the two species of the names used by the Scandinavian and other authors who have distinguished them. The following is a tabulation of the specimens of the two species from Roscoff || :— G. minutus. Length. | Scales. | Fin- Rays. | paged) | D.z A. 55 66 | VI. 12 11 53 | 67 ViLi2 11 53 | 65 VI. 12 12 53 | 64 VI. 12 12 50 63 VI. 12 12 | 49 71 Vi. — — 49 64 Wo Lz 11 | 48 65 VI. 12 11 | 46 63 | VI. 12 12 | 45 | 62 | VI. 12 1 Ad. | 61 Wal 11 | 39 | 63 VI. 12 12 * Spicil. Zool. vill. p. 4 (1770). + Zoophylacium, p. 81. no. 276 (1763). + Specimens of both G. minutus and G. microps from the Belgian coast were sent to the British Museum by the late Prof. 2. van Beneden, and measurements of these will be found in the table at the end of this paper. The two species have hitberto been confounded by Belgian authors under the name of G. minutus. § Syst. Nat. i. p. 1199 (1788). || In these tables the length (in millimetres) is taken from the end of the snout to the base of the caudal fin. The scales are counted in a longitudinal series from the upper extremity of the gill-opening to the root of the caudal fin. . ee ee ee a FISHES OF THE GENUS GOBIUS. G. microps. Length. Scales. | Tin-Rays. | | [ees ete ee is Baier OE al D. A, 45 48 VI. 10 v0 45 50 Will's 10 ' 45 } AA, Miles9 10 4A, 52 VI. 10 10 43 4d, | VI. 10 9 42 46 VI. 9 10 41 | 4.7 VI. 9 10 40 H 49 VI. 10 10 40 | 45 Wallee 9 37 40 | VI. 9 10 36 | 48 | VI. 10 10 | 34 49 VI. 10 10 In order to satisfy myself as to the degree of constancy of these characters, I have examined a number of specimens in the British Museum collection from various localities, including the Cuckmere river and the Belgian coast. The following table may be useful for purposes of comparison :— G. minutus. Locality. Length. | Seales. Fin- Rays. | ee ca a ee |! met bs | D. A. | Belgian coast (Van Beneden) ......| 53 70 VI. 12 12 2 conte | 49 Go Mains |e) ao | Weston-super-Mare (Day) ............ | 60 70 | VI.11 11 , Plymouth (Marine Biol. Assoc.) _..| 70 71 | VI. 12 12 ae im i sr FO wis? VVelo donne: Brishtone(Children)l sess). -| SE) WHE Tay int | } LATDE a) ose) oS Nel ae gata Ment es peoee need AT 62 WOE aa Til ; Burford Bank, Irish Sea (Byrne) _. 57 | 61 Wiig 12 . 4 Jp ha ach eae 2) 61 Wee = ie PL COKumn st! (SeOAne) =e eee eee 70 73 Wil, THE 11 eae NE ome a tn erty Mn) ve a0 67 VAD O11 i ve a ne 2 Femi hai ad G@. microps. | } | Belgian coast (Van Beneden) ...... 43 46 VI. 10 10 ie Ait Sy as | 35 48 Miedo 10 Weston-super-Mare (Day) ............ 42 47 WAG dat 10 Cuckmere R., Sussex (Byrne)......... 43 46 VI. 10 10 = 3 5 eas Al 47 VI. 10 10 5 i (are ee 41 45 VI. 10 iit 5 op 33 eee 36 52 VI. 10 10 | 3 2p 33 eee 35 42 VI. 10 10 lpsepNorwiary: (Colle). s125) seer 38 46 VI. 9 9 | is Sa cones nee ean ee temete 33 42 | Wig 8) i) | Denmark (Day) «..-...--1. eee 33 AAS ND lO eae ene ero igs ti he L.VISION ANG } 44 ON FISHES OF THE GENUS GOBIUS. As will be seen from these tables, G. mecrops has 9 or 10, exceptionally 11, rays in the 2nd dorsal and anal, G. minutus having 11 or 12; the number of scales along the lateral line, however, shows no overlap, not exceeding 52 in G. microps and not falling below 61 in G@. minutus. L therefore hope I have succeeded in settling the question of the correct name of the fish so carefully described by Prof. Guitel, about which he rightly entertained some doubts at the time of his observations on its remarkable br eeding-habits. The two forms here discussed have been quite correctly sepa- rated and identified by Messrs. Holt and Byrne; the only point on which I cannot agree with them is with regard to the existence of connecting-links, which the examination of a large material has failed to disclose. In concluding this note, I wish to express my indebtedness to Prof. Yves Delage for kindly allowing me to work at the Roscoff Laboratory, of which he has the direction, APPENDIX. Col. Shepherd, who has devoted much time to the study of otoliths, has examined for me those of the two fishes from Roscoff, and finds their claim to specific distinction confirmed by the ditferences in this character. He has kindly drawn up the following notes, as an appendix to my communication :— “Under the microscope the otolith of Gobiws microps shows as a quadrilateral lump with fairly equal sides. Two are at a right angle, but the angle is rounded off; a third is bulged out anne an amire nd curve, Te fourth forms an indent. The thr ee sides first mentioned are plain-edged. “The otolith of Gohiaus minatus shows an irregular quadrilateral shape: one side is straight and plain ; the other three sides are not so symmetrically shaped as In G. microps, and are markedly scalloped, there being six lobes on the edges of the three sides, these lobes not regularly spaced, but of varying size. “This would show that the two fishes are different species. “The otoliths referred to are in each instance the sagitta.” == ON COLOUR-PHASES OF THE BUDGERIGAR. AD EXHIBITIONS AND NOTICES. November 29th, 1910. Dr. Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. Dr. WiuttaAm Nicouu, of the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, gave a demonst ‘ation of his method for the collection of ilire matodes, elit Dr. R. 'T. Lerper, F.Z.8., exhibited two photographs and some specimens showing the Nematode infection known as Onchocerciasis in beef imported from Queensland. Dr. J. F. Gemuriy, M.A., D.Se., Lecturer on Embryology in the University of Glasgow, gave an account, illustrated by lantern- slides and specimens, of his memoir on “The Development of Solaster endecw Forbes,” communicated to the Society by Prof. J. Arthur Thomson, F.Z.S. This memoir will be published entire in the Society’s ‘Trans- actions’ in due course. Mr. D. Seru-Smirn, F.Z.S., the Society's Curator of Birds, exhibited living examples of the Australian Budgerigar or Un- dulated Grass-Parrakeet (elopsittacus wndulatus), showing three colour-phases. The normal bird was mostly green, with a yellow face, dark barring across the occiput and back, and blue on the tail-feathers. The yellow variety was now common as a cage-bird, and had been known to occur in a wild state. Init the dark pigment had disappeared and practically all trace of blue had been eliminated, though some spots on the cheek, which in the normal bird were deep indigo-blue, retained a faint bluish tinge. The third variety was an extremely rare one, in which all the yellow pigment had gone, leaving the bird almost entirely blue. Those parts which in the normal bird were green, were in this variety pale blue, while the face, which was yellow in the normal bird, was pure white. Blue Budgerigars appeared to have been known in Belgium and France some twenty-five or thirty years ago, as they were men- tioned by Greene in his ‘ Parrots in Captivity’ (i. 117) and others of his books, and by Wiener in Cassell’s ‘ Canaries and Cage Birds.’ The variety seemed to have been entirely lost sight of, however, in this country at any rate, until M. cbmc a well-known Belgian aviculturist, exhibited a pair at a bird-show held at the Royal Horticultural Society’s Hall at Westminster on November 25th—28th, 1910. This eentleman had several of these birds, which) were said to: breed true to type, but to produce a pre- ponderance of females. 46 ON PNEUMO-ENTERITIS IN THE RED GROUSE. Mr. Seth-Smith pointed out that, so far, no systematic breeding experiments had been carried out with Bud gerigars, but with three distinct colour-phases of a free-breeding species oy work with, the material for some very interesting equeniinen ial breeding was at hand. He acknowledged his indebtedness to M. Pauwels for the loan of the blue specimen exhibited at the meeting. PAPERS. 5. Ona Possible Cause of Pneumo-enteritis in the Red Grouse (Lagopus scoticus). By H. B. Fanruam, D.Sc., B.A., V.Z.S., and H. Hammonp Surra, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.., ese | Received October 24, 1910: Read November 29, 1916. ] The importance of Coccidiosis as a serious disease of the digestive tract of birds has lately been clearly established by Fantham in England in the case of young Grouse and Pheasants, and by Morse aud Hadley in America in Fowls and Turkeys. While pursuing our researches at the Frimley Experimental Farm belonging to the Grouse Disease Inquiry Committee during the summer of 1910, we found that out of 40 Grouse chicks hatched, 17 died between the ages of 4 and 6 weeks. These birds were examined by beth of us and were found to be suffering from Cocczidiosis, the parasites (Zimeria (Coccidiwm) avium) oceur- ring especially in the duedenum and ceca. Many of these young birds, however, also presented symptoms of pneumonia, consequently the lungs, trachea, and bronchi of the birds were most carefully exainined. The results of our examination were most interesting, for we both found coccidian odecysts in the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Inside these odcysts the processes of formation of the four sporoblasts were sometimes found to be going on. The odcysts were probably acquired by the mouth, and a few of them, instead of passing directly dewn the digestive tract, as is usual, may have found their way, vid the glottis, into the trachea and bronchioles. It is possible that these coccidian cysts in the bronchioles would be quite capable of setting up sufficient irri- tation to account for the pneumonic symptoms seen in the lungs of these young birds. It would seem, therefore, that the old name of pneumo-enteritis, as applied by Mr. Tegetmeier and others to one of the diseases that caused mortality in Grouse —a view which has met with much criticism—may after all be proved to have some foundation in fact. References to Literature. Cots, L. J., and Hapuey, P. B. (1910).—* Blackhead in Turkeys, a Study in Avian Coccidiosis.” Bulletin 141, Agric. Expt. Station, Rhode Island State College. Fanraam, H. B. (1910).—‘‘ On the Morphology and Life-History of Fimeria (Coccidium) avium, a Sporozoon causing a Fatal ON THE ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 47 Disease among young Grouse.” P. Z. 8. 1910, pp. 672-691, 4 plates. Fanruam, H. B. (1910).—‘ Experimental Studies on Avian Cocci- diosis, especially in relation to Grouse, Fowls, and Pigeons.” P. Z. S$. 1910, pp. 708-722, 1 plate. Kunin, E. (1892).—‘‘ The Etiology and Pathology of Grouse Disease and Fowl Enteritis.” Morsz, G. B. (1908).—‘* White Diarrhea of Chicks.” Circular 128, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry. Trcermerer, W. B.—‘ Field,’ vol. 104, p. 561 (24/9/04); vol. 105, p. 1027 (17/6/05); vol. 106, p. 410 (26/8/05); vol. 107, p-. £65 (24/3/06). 6. On tne Alimentary Tract of certain Birds and on the Mesenteric Relations of the Intestinal Loops. By Franx EK. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Prosector to the Society. [Received March 1, 1910: Read November 29, 1910. ] (Text-figures 9-28.) For some time past I have been accumulating notes relative to the viscera of birds which have died in the Society’s Gardens, and have paid special attention to the alimentary tract. In the following pages I call attention to the intestinal tract of a number of birds which either have not been studied or as to which my own investigations lead me to disagree with earlier statements. T have dealt more particularly with such species as have not been carefully studied from the point of view of the convolutions of the intestine, and am able to call attention to a considerable series of birds. ‘The subject is by no means a new one, dating as it does from the accurate though few observations of John Hunter. I arrive, however, at rather different classificatory conclusions from others, and venture therefore to direct the attention of the Society not only to the new facts but also to certain classificatory inferences to which these facts point. The observations which I lay before the Society may be considered under the following headings, viz. :— § Historical Survey, p. 48. § Description of the Intestinal Tract in various Groups of Birds, p. 50. § Some Generali Considerations, p. 86. § The Primitive Form of the Intestine in Birds, p. 86. § The Course of the Evolution of the Gut, p. 87. § The Mutual Affinities of Avian Families judged by the Intestinal Convolutions, p. 89. § The Relationship between the Gut and the Nature of the Food, p. 90. § Summary of Facts relating to the Intestinal Coils of Birds, p. 92. 48 MR. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE § Historical Survey. There is no doubt that the fullest general account of the intestinal tract of birds written by the older anatomists is that of John Hunter*. He examined and annotated upon more than fifty species not wholly though mainly British. His observations are entirely correct, though notalways quite fullenough. In many ‘ases, however, he has seized the main features of the intestinal coils so accurately and sufficiently that but lttle in the way of addition is needed. Thus in the Gallinaceous birds he has ‘appreciated the loose arrangement and absence of fixed loops in the postduodenal section of the small intestine and the attachment of its terminal region to the duodenum. In the Rails he has correctly described the three distinct loops of the jejunal region and the attachment of the first and third of these together. In the Accipitres the short loop just above the ceca is described in many forms. The peculiarities of the Parrot intestine are fully described. In short, Hunter accomplished a great deal. Cuvier and Duvernoy r distinguished perfectly correctly, as Dr. Mitchell has pointed out, the three separate regions in the small intestine of a bird, which I propose to call duodenal, jejunal, and ileic loops, and they also indicated the fact that the middle of the three loops is frequently folded upon itself, contorted into a spiral, or subdivided into several regions. Furthermore. it is semen ise (and I find myself im arcu with this opinion) that, ‘le canal intestinal des oiseaux est loi cde présenter des differences - atissi nombreuses, d'une espéce, d’un genre ou d’une famille & Vautre, que celui des mammiféres.” Thereafter follows a considerable amount of detail concerning these different loops in the different groups of birds. For example, the thiee simple loops of the Passerines are referred to in a good many species and the spiral arrangement of the middle or jejunal loop is described in the Crows. ‘The Picarian birds, Touracou and Cuckoo, are de- scribed in such words as to show that they agree completely with the Passerines. Cuvier did not, however, as Dr. Mitchell has also and quite justly pointed out, delimit the suds region correctly. He describes the limits of the third (and last) region of the small intestine as indicated sometimes on the side of the middle loop by an unpaired cecum (7. ¢., Meckel’s diverticulum). This is never the case, I believe = In his ‘ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,’ Sir Everard Home § has figured the coils of the small intestine ina number of birds— for instance, the Raven, where the spiral of the jejanum and the close association of the ileic and duodenal loops are indicated ; the * © Hssays and Observations,’ ed. by R. Owen, vol. -» London, 1861. Tats Lecons ad’ AmEiounl comparée de Georges oe ier, rec. et publ. par G. L. Duvernoy, t. iv. 2me partie, Paris, 1835, p. 269 e¢ seq. + But see for a possible exception the account of the Tinamous ay p- 52. 5 ‘Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, London, 1814, vol. 1. 402, vol. ii. pls. civ.-exii. I am indebted to Dr. Mitchell for the exact 1 fete to ‘ahr more than once misquoted work. ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS, 49) Sea-mew, where the spiral is also shown, and it is remarked by the author that the turns of the intestine bear a close resemblance to those of the Crow, Swan, Goose, “ Ardea argala,” &¢.—not a very long series of birds. Owen, in describing the Flamingo *, pointed out that the small intestines “‘ were disposed in twenty-one elliptical spiral con- volutions, eleven descending towards the rectum and ten returning towards the gizzard in the interspaces of the preceding.’ The same anatomist correctly described the three loops in the small intestine of the Hornbill. In the ‘Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates’ many more facts are given, most of which appear to be quite correct, but all are not quite intelligible to myself. Not many comparisons are made. The Cuckoo is correctly described, but it is not pointed out that it agrees with the Hornbill, which bird, indeed, is not referred to in the volume. ‘The general prevalence of concentric folds among birds with long intestines is noted. The peculiarities of the Galli- naceous birds which have no fixed loops except the duodenal are appreciated in the description of the Common Fowl. The attach- ment of what I term the ileic loop to the gizzard and to the duodenal loop is mentioned. Dr. Gadow’s contributions § to the subject of the present com- munication have an importance of their own which is very great. But they do not come exactly within the limits of the discussion to which I desire here to contribute, since the aim of that anatomist was to pourtray the arrangement of the gut within the body-cavity and not to delimit only the permanent loops of the intestine as formed upon the supporting mesentery. The most recent contributions to the subject known to me are by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell ||. In these memoirs, the author, in addition to discussing some parts of the subject with which I am not concerned here, deals with a much larger series of species than any previous author and has arranged his observations syvstema- tically, so as to cover most of the existing groups of birds. His special object, however, was to trace the various modifications of the intestinal tract to what he believed to be a primitive type, to arrange them in the form of a phylogenetic tree, and to see how far such a tree would agree with or correct conceptions of the phylo- genetic ideas regarding birds as a whole. In the course of this paper I shall refer to various points in which my own observa- tions do not agree with those of Dr. Mitchell. In my opinion, however, Dr. Mitchell’s mode of figuring the intestinal tract of birds gives an appearance of simplicity which is misleading, with the result that birds which are separated by marked characters * P, Z.S. 1832, p. 142. + Ibid. 1833, p. 102. + Vol. ii. 1866, p. 167 ef seq. § “Vergl. Anatomie des Verdauungssystemes der Vigel,” Jen. Zeitschr. 1881. “On the Taxonomic Value of the Intestinal Conyolutions in Birds,” P. Z. 8. 1889, p. 305; in Newton's ‘ Dictionary of Birds,’ sub voce “ Digestive System.” || “On the Intestinal Tract of Birds, &.,” Trans. Linn. Soc. viii. 1903, p. 175; and an earlier paper in P. Z. S. 1896, p. 136. Proc. Zoot. Soc.—1911, No. LV, 4 50 MR. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE are represented as being almost identical. In particular, Dr. Mitchell does not always distinguish between fixed loops, definitely formed by a narrow mesentery, and the irregular folds into which any mobile coil of the intestine may fall when disposed on the dissecting-board in Dr. Mitchell’s fashion. I shall recur to definite instances in the course of this communication. I shall now -proceed to deal with the intestinal tract in a number of species of birds. § Description of the Intestinal Tract in various Groups of Birds. On opening the abdominal wall of most birds the intestine is usually seen to form a rather compacted mass, such as is figured, for example, by Dr. Gadow in most of the plates which illustrate his original memoir upon the intestinal tract in birds. This mass consists of parallel or concentrically arranged loops of intes- tine, and in the higher birds, such as a Heron, a Duck, or Stork, is very characteristic. This appearance of the gut distinguishes it at once from the Mammalian or Reptilian gut, where the intes- tine lies laxly within the abdominal cavity. This also is the case with all the Struthious birds, whose intes- tinal tract at the first glance recalls that of a Mammal. A little disturbance of the apparently compact intestinal mass of some other birds, as, for instance, the Hagles and Hawks, shows that here, too, the intestinal tract is not really much welded together, but simply lies pushed close coil to coil, owing to the limited space in which it has to be stowed away. In other cases, however, it can be easily ascertained by the gentle pulling apart of the intestinal coils that the gut is disposed in tightly fixed loops. This is the case, for instance, with Ducks, Storks, Penguins, and a variety of other genera and families. Inasmuch as the lax condition of the small mtestine in such a bird as an Ostrich recalls that of the Mammalia and Reptiles, and is really like the intestinal tract in those Vertebrates, it is to be assumed that this condition of the bird’s gut is the more primitive condition and that the specialisation into definitely fixed concentrically or parallel arranged loops, whether narrower or wider, is an index of the higher position of the bird in the series. I shall commence the following survey of such new facts as I have to add to the matter in hand by dealing with the more primitive groups of birds first. Indeed, I have not attempted in this paper to map accurately the coils in several families of birds where they are very complicated, such as the Stork tribe ; for I am not satisfied as to the relationship of the coils in these birds to the more simple intestine of lower forms. It is almost entirely with the latter that I deal in the present communication to the Society. Of the Ratir# I have examined all the living genera. I fully agree with Dr. Mitchell as to the basal position in this group of ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS, 51 Casuarius andl Dromceus, but I find his description defective in one particular and the illustration which he gives of Caswarius correspondingly inaccurate. It would be inferred from that figure * that the gut lay in a single line without any attachment between the ileum and duodenum; that—to use Dr. Mitchell’s own term—there was no vestige of a supraduodenal loop. The existence of this attachment is indicated by him in other cases by a cut blood-vessel ; there is no such “short circuit ” represented in his figure of the Cassowary. Nevertheless, two species of Casso- wary which I have dissected, viz. C. australis and C. westermanni, show such a connection, which is not, however, associated with the formation of an ileic loop distinguishable from the jejunum. Nor can I agree with Dr. Mitchell’s figure of Apteryx, unless, indeed, the species examined by him (4. mantelli) differs from that examined by myself (4. australis). For I find in the latter bird no definite ileic loop, but only an attachment by mesentery of the latter part of the ileum to the duodenum. The bird, in fact, exactly resembles Casuarius, Struthio, and the Gallinaceous birds in this particular. In Kkhea americana the -intestine is formed upon a plan which may be interpreted in one of two ways—one of which is certainly not ‘‘archicentric” in the sense in which Dr. Mitchell uses the word, and the other interpretation hardly justifies the use of the word ‘“archicentric.” Since, in various other points of structure (e.g. less degeneration of wing, syrinx), Rhea is much less “Struthious” than Caswarius, it might be expected that the intestinal tract also would be more like that of Carinate birds. The accompanying figure (text-fig. 9, p. 52) shows the course of the intestine in a female example of Rhea americana, and may be com- pared with the figure drawn by Dr. Mitchell 7 from the intestinal tract of the same species, with which I do not find myself able to agree entirely. Dr. Mitchell, however, is perfectly right in dis- tinguishing two loops only in the smail intestine, viz., the duodenal and another which may or may not be the ileic loop of other birds, or “‘supraduodenal,” as it is termed by him. This latter loop is wider as well as longer than the duodenal loop, and it lies parallel with it as does the ileic loop (nearly always) in other birds, and is connected with the duodenal loop by the usual ileo-duodenal ligament, which is long and extends nearly to the end of the duodenal loop, while it is attached along more than half of the length of the loop now under consideration. So far the facts point towards the interpretation of this loop of the small intestine in hea as being the homologue of the ileic loop of other birds. If this interpretation be correct, then the jejunal region or loop will be practically absent and reduced merely to the small, tract just where the lower limb of the duodenal loop bends round to join the lower limb of the (for the moment) alleged ileie loop. There is, I think, nothing intrinsically absurd in this * P. ZS. 1896, p. 140, fig. 3. } Trans. Linn. Soe. ¢.e. p. 183, fig. 3. 4* 52 MR. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE suggestion; it is merely the assumption of the still further reduction of the jejunal region of the gut which is already greatly reduced in such birdsas Chunga burmeisteri and Houbara macqueent, where it is already as short as or even shorter than the ileic loop. There is another argument in favour of this interpretation of the two well-marked intestinal loops of Ahea which is derived from a Text-fig. 9. Intestinal tract of Rhea americana. Ce. Blind ends of cwca. d. Duodenal loop. 7@. Teic region. ad. Ileo-duodenal ligament. j. Jejunal region In this and the succeeding figures the definite loops are marked by transverse lines. consideration of the Tinamou, Crypturus tatawpa. In the last- mentioned bird the intestinal loops are very remarkable ; they are represented in text-fig. 10. There is nothing in particular to be said about the duodenal loop. This is followed by two loops, which lie one above the other, the proximal loop lying ventrally — ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 53 to the more distal of the two. They are closely attached to each other and to the duodenal by ligament and cannot be freed with- out cutting or tearing. There is, in fact, every reason to regard these two loops as a subdivision of the usually single ileic loop. Moreover, the ileic loop is occasionally double in other birds; it 1s distinctly formed of two parallel loops in Anthropoides par adisea *. Text-fig. 10. Intestinal tract of Crypturus tataupa. Lettering as in text-fig. 9. It is to be noted also that the ventrally situated of the two sub- divisions of the presumed ileic loop is attached up to nearly its end by ligament to the duodenal loop. There is no case known to me among birds where the jejunal loop is thus attached. Another argument of the same kind is to be derived from a consideration of the intestinal tract of the Passerine Jxocinela crassirostris. In this Bulbul, of which I have dissected only one * Vide p. 82. 54 MR. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE example, the tract of the small intestine consists of two loops only, which are approximately equisized and are both rather wide. Furthermore, the two oval loops of gut are attached to each other along their whole length. It will be noted, therefore, that these two loops agree in all their characteristics with those of other Passerine and many Picarian Birds. But if this be so, it follows that the jejunal loop in this Passerine is reduced to the verge of disappearance. In any case, whatever be the interpre- tation of the several regions of the small intestine in Jaxocincla crassirostris, it seems to me to be beyond all question that there is a very close likeness between its gut and that of Rhea, whether the likeness be superficial and due to parallelism of development or not. Moreover, there is no bird known to me in which the jejunal loop has any intimate relations through hgaments with the ileic loop—at any rate, to anything like the degree which is exhibited in the case of Crypturus tataupa, on the view, of course, that the jejunal loop is represented. Finally—though naturally it is not attempted to lay any very great stress upon this piece of evidence —a particular relationship between the Tinamou and Rhea is by no means an unreasonable suggestion. There is, however, an alternative view to be taken of the intes- tinal tract of Rhea americana. It will be observed that Meckel’s diverticulum lies at about the middle of the lower limb of the loop which has been provisionally regarded as the ileic loop; the diverticulum lies nearer to the duodenum, 2. ¢. above the ends of the two ceca. This fact would appear perhaps to militate against the view that has just been set forth with regard to the intestinal tract. For generally, at any rate, Meckel’s diverticulum les on the jejunal portion of the intestine and, in fact, at about the middle of the length of the entire small intestine. But although this may be generally the case in birds, it 1s by no means universally so. In Dendrocygna discolor, for example, I find Meckel’s diverticulum to be very much nearer to the ileic loop than to the duodenal, 7. ¢. to be not by any means in the centre of the jejunal region. This is also clearly the case with Carpo- coccyx radiatus as shown in Dr. Mitchell’s figure *. There is thus no absolutely fixed position for Meckel’s diverticulum within the jejunal region of the gut, though there are no positive facts which lead to the inference that this diverticulum may lie within the ileic area. If it be held that the existence of the diverticulum fixes the jejunal region of the gut, then the intestinal tract of Ahea is simply a slightly further development of that of Oaswarius in the direction of the Gallinaceous birds and many Picopasseres when there is no actual loop formed in the ileic region, but merely an attachment by ligament to the duodenal loop. The gut of the Ostrich has been described by Dr. Mitchell, as well as by others. J have only some small matters to add to the * Trans. Linn. Soc. ¢. ec. p. 243, fig. 60. ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 5D account by Dr. Mitchell in relation to the object of the present paper. The duodenal lobe of the example of Struthio molybdo- phanes has a lateral branch, as has the species examined by Dr. Mitchell. The pancreas extends down the duodenal loop to a point rather beyond this lateral diverticulum of the duodenal lobe. It does not, however, by along way reach the end of the loop. It does, however, in Apteryx. The attachment of the ileum to the duodenal lobe is rather more marked than in Gallinaceous birds and much more marked than in Apteryx. The ligamentum ileo- duodenale reaches along the duodenal loop to a point beyond the posterior termination of the pancreas in that loop. I found no fixed loops either in the moderately long small intestine or in the longer colon, Text-fig. 11. Intestinal tract of Talegalla lathami. P. Pancreas. Other lettering as in text-fig. 9. The GaALuinaczous birds appear to be very uniform in the structure of the gut. I may take Crax carunculata as a type with which the very slight divergences shown by other Galli may be compared: the duodenal loop is long and very thick and the pancreas extends about halfway down it. The duodenum soon narrows to form the jejunal region, which is of considerable length and arranged in loose folds which can be straightened out and among which are no fixed loops. There is no sharp line of demarcation between the jejunal and the ileic region, which 56 MR. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE later becomes a straight tract of intestine running partly parallel with the duodenum and attached to it just for a short space at the root of the duodenum where it (the ileum) bends upon itself to join the colon. A second. species, a hybrid C. globicera and C. hecki, was absolutely identical in all the characteristics just given. The description of one species fits the characters of the other. Text-fig. 12. Intestinal tract of Ortalis ruficauda. G. Gall-bladder. Other lettering as in text-figs. 9 & 11. In Talegalla lathami (text-fig. 11, p. 55) the only difference that T could detect was the furtber extension of the pancreas along the duodenal loop, the end of which, however, it does not reach. Among the Phasianide I have examined a few species, and again find no differences of moment from other Gallinaceous birds. In Thaumalea (picta and amherstic) the pancreas reaches to quite the end of the duodenal loop, and, as in other genera, the ileic end of the small intestine (there is, as in other forms, no definite ileic loop) is attached to the duodenal loop by —— ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. oF a not very long ileo-duodenal ligament. In Hupsychortya sonnini * the intestine is shorter, but its arrangement is precisely that of Text- fig. 13. Intestinal tract.of Huplocamus nycthemerus, showing condition reversed from the normal. Lettering as in text-figs. 9 & 11. * The ceca of Hupsychortya sonnini ave remarkable in more than one way. When the body is opened these tubes are seen to lie ina tightly closed spiral or rather helicoid, producing at first the idea that it is the gut itself which is thus coiled. The spiral coiling of the cca is not, however, permanent ; they can be uncoiled and straightened with the exception of the very tip which remains coiled. Each cecum moreover, is seen to be covered with a network of bands in which a great deal of fat is laid down, and which forms a loosely meshed network with the long axis of the interstices corresponding to the long axis of the cecum. Blood-vessels traverse the strands and apparently form a corresponding network. I am disposed to compare this with the mass of short tubular blind outgrowths from the cca in the Tinamou, Calodromas (‘ Ibis,’ 1890, p. 61). A slight tightening of the bands referred to in Eupsychortyx would cause a bulging of the interstitial tracts and the consequent formation of such diyerticula, 58 MR. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE other Gallinaceous birds, and the pancreas extends quite to the end of the duodenal loop. Penelope superciliaris has also rather a short intestine and the pancreas extends to the end of the duodenal loop, thus showing that there is no distinction in this matter between the two groups of Gallinaceous birds. Ortalis (see text- fig. 12, p. 56) has also a very simple and short gut. I pass by a number of other genera that I have examined and which are Text-fig. 14. Intestinal tract of Podargus cuvieri. Lettering as before. quite like those already dealt with, to consider a remarkable variation shown by Huplocamus nycthemerus. In one specimen the typical Gallinaceous arrangement was to be seen; the calibre of the duodenum was much greater than that of the succeeding part of the small intestine and the pancreas extended to the very end of the duodenal loop. The terminal straight portion of the ileum was attached in the usual way by ligament to the ia a — ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 59 duodenal loop. In another specimen (text-fig. 13, p. 57) the dis- position of the jejunal and ileic regions was exactly reversed *. The duodenal loop passed immediately into a straight descending limb bent sharply upon itself at its lower extremity, and then passed into a laxly coiled and rather long section of gut unattached anywhere to the duodenal loop and ended eventually in the colon. The laxly coiled region of the gut lay to the left side instead of to the right, and there was, in fact, in this individual an exact reverse of normal conditions. Text-fig. 15. Intestinal tract of Gymnorhina leuconota. Lettering as before. It is thus evident that the intestinal tract of the Gallinaceous birds is very uniform throughout the group and that it is con- stituted upon a primitive plan which is very little, if at all, in advance of that which characterises Apterya among the Stru- thious birds. The only difference is, indeed, that the ileo-duodenal ligament is longer among the Gallinaceous birds—that more of the ileum is attached to the duodenum. But this condition is more than paralleled by Struthio, where, as already mentioned, * J compare these later (p. 79) with the normal conditions occurring in Fratercula. 60 Mh. F. E. BEDDARD ON THE a considerable tract of ileum is attached by the ileo-duodenal ligament. “The PIcartAan Birps, Cuckoos, Touracous, and PAssERINES really form one group so far as their intestinal convolutions go. It is impossible, as I think, to distinguish between the Picarian Podargus cuviert* and the Passerine Gymnorhina lewconota, which may be compared and cannot be contrasted in the accom- panying figures (text-figs. 14, 15, pp. 58 & 59). The salient features in these two cases appear to me to be the great width of the ileic loop (its extreme narrowness in e.g. the Parrots places them at the opposite end of the series) and the close mesenteric connection by the ileo-duodenal ligament of the two loops in question. The great width of the ileic loop in Nyctidromus, Cypselus, and Trogon can be inferred from Dr. Mitchell's figures 7, though he does not, except in the case of Cypselus, identify the loop. These figures suggest undoubtedly the primitive gut of a Ratite or Gallinaceous bird; perhaps they are comparable with Melanerpes x. Furthermore, the total absence of specialised loops in the middle region of the small intestine is to be noted. Mitchell, as well as his predecessors in this field, has commented upon the spiral arrangement in certain Passeres , and has remarked upon the tendency to a spiral even where there is no actual regular spiral formation. This affects the middle or jejunal loop, and is greater in the Raven than in any other bird which Mitchell has described or I have examined. I found in that bird a spival of no less than nine double turns, whereas Mitchell has figured much fewer in Corvus capellanus. A complete spiral of this kind is, however, not common among the Passeres. Besides the Crow tribe I know it only in the Tanager, Huphonia violacea. The tendency toa spiral I have observed in many Passeres, among which I may mention a number of Birds-of-Paradise which I have lately had the opportunity of studying: these are Diphyllodes hunsteim, Paradisornis rudolphi, Paradisea raggiana. It seems to be universal or nearly so for the ileo-duodenal ligament to connect those two loops of the intestine along their whole lengths, and also for the pancreas to extend up to the very end of the duodenal loop. I have found both these chavacters to exist in Jxocincla crassirostris §, Sycalis flaveola, Huphonia violacea, Graculus religiosus, Buceros cylindrica, Turdus migra- torius, Ptilonorhynchus violaceus, Cassidix oryxivora, and the first- named character in a number of other genera of which I happen to have no note as to the pancreas. Both these anatomical features seem likely to be characteristic of the Picopasseres generally, even if not universally found among the members of that order of Birds. * JT have examined two specimens of this bird. + Trans. Linn. Soc. fom. cit. figs. 68, 69, 70. ae Ki infra, p. 62. § A peculiarity of the gut of this Passerme has been already referred to, v. p. 53. —~ a a ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 61 I have not met with many divergences among the Picopasseres from the typical structure. One of the most abnormal types—if not the most abnormal among the Picopasseres is the Ground Hornbill, Bucorvus abys- sinicus. The duodenal loop is longish and the pancreas extends nearly toits end. It is perfectly free from the ileic loop, which is longer than it. The ileic loop, moreover, is indented at its free extremity and thus shows signs of being bent over upon itself, It is also considerably longer than the duodenal loop. As in other Picopasseres, the jejunal loop is more or less divided into two, and the distal loop of these two is attached to the outgoing limb of the ileic loop, which on its way to the colon is looped once in a way precisely like that shown among the Accipitres and in some other birds. These facts are particularly interesting, because they confirm current opinion as to the anatomical likenesses between the Hornbills and the Hoopoe. It is plain from Dr. Mitchell’s figure * of the intestinal tract of that bird that Upupa epops agrees with Bucorvus in a number of the characters to which I have referred above. He figures the two loops of the middle part of the intestine and the small ‘“supracecal” loop, which latter is so characteristic a feature of Bucorvus as compared with other Picarian birds. He does not, however, advert to this loop by that name or compare it with the “kink” which he found in the Accipitres of both the Old and New World. Nor does he indicate a mesenteric attachment between the jejunal and ileic loops in Upupa such as I find in Bucorvus. It is impossible, moreover, to be certain from Mitchell’s figure how far the ileic and duodenal loops are connected. Their entire mutual freedom in Bucorvus is an uncommon feature. Although Dr. Mitchell happens, as I think, to be wrong in remarking that the character of the gut does not unite the Hoopoes and Hornbills closely, he was perfectly right in making that statement from the facts before him. This is a further example of the difficulty of arriving at sound clagsi- fieatory conclusions without an exhaustive knowledge of the facts. I have lately had the opportunity of examining the gut of Upupa, and can add something to the account given by Mitchell. It is a rather more abnormal member of the Picopasseri ine group than I had supposed. In my specimen there was no supraceecal kink. The duodenal loop was very wide (as Mitchell has remarked) and rather irregular in outline at its end, suggesting, therefore, a commencing spiral as in Gypagus and C athartes —a fact which may be of some significance. The duodenal loop is larger than the ileic—precisely the reverse condition obtaining in Bucorvus. And while in Bucorvus there is no ileo-duodenal ligament. there is a short one in Upupa not nearly so extensive as in Picopasseres generally, and thus bridging over the gap between Aucorvus and its allies, * Trans, Linn. Soe. ¢.c. p. 247, fig. 65. 62 MR. F, E. BEDDARD ON THE The jejunum has certainly two definite loops and thus, agreeing with Bucorvus, differs from other Picopasseres. The pancreas in a most abnormal fashion extends into the first of these and is perhaps responsible for its formation. It is, of course, possible that the intestinal tract of J/elanerpes superciliaris differs from that of other Picide. But if it agree with that of the three species reported on by Dr. Mitchell, then I find myself in total disagreement with that writer as to Text-fic. 16. Intestinal tract of Melanerpes superciliaris. Lettering as before. the relationships of the Woodpeckers. He observes of the Picide that ‘the conformation of the gut is in every important respect similar to that found in Megalema.” I have not dissected Megalema for the purposes of the present communication, but I have examined three species of Toucans, of which family (Rhamphastide) Dr. Mitchell remarks that “ Meckel’s tract and the short rectum do not differ from the form found in Megalema.” Now in Megaleme asiatica, as is plainly shown in ALIMENTARY TRACT OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 63 Dr. Mitchell’s figure *, there is a distinct ileic loop, which is wide as in Picopasseres generally. In the Toucans Aulacorhamphus sulcatus, Rhamphastos ariel, kh. carinatus, there is also a perfectly distinct ileic loop a little less distinct than in some Picopasseres, but still distinct. In Melanerpes superciliaris the only properly marked intestinal loop is the duodenal, down to the very end of which extends the pancreas. There is absolutely no ileic loop, as is shown in the figure (text-fig. 16). The jejunum simply passes forward and is connected by ligaments with the gizzard and with the duodenum quite far from the free end of the loop; it then turns abruptly backwards, passing straight to the cloaca. The arrangement of the gut is, in fact, precisely that of the Gallinaceous birds, though, of course, the gut is shorter than that of most. Text-fig. 17. Intestinal tract of Gecinus viridis. Lettering as before. There is, indeed, no great disparity in length between the gut of Melanerpes and that of an equisized Gallinaceous bird, such as Coturnix chinensis. In view of the primitive nature of the palate as urged by Huxley and Parker, though not held by some * Trans. Linn. Soe. tom. cit. fig. 71, p. 253. 64 MR. F. E, BEDDARD ON THE others, the existence of a primitive type of gut is not without interest. There is in any case no doubt about their difference in this respect from their supposed allies the Rhamphastide, though it remains to be seen whether they are like Picarian birds of any other groups. These facts and considerations gain additional significance from the quite similar intestinal tract of Gecinus viridis (see text-fig. 17, p. 63). Opinions undoubtedly differ as to the generic subdivisions of the family Alcedinide, but Alcedo ispida and Halcyon sancta have been placed in different genera—whether Halcyon or Sawropatis. The intestinal tract is, however, rather different in these two species, though one may be considered’ to be an exaggeration of the other. The simpler of the two is that of Alcedo ispida. In this Kingfisher the duodenal loop is free from the ileic for at least the greater part, and thus contrasts with most other Picarian birds. The jejunal region lies in a short spiral; but this spiral is not a permanent structure. It can be easily disarranged and spread out into an irregularly shaped loop. There is, in fact, no mesenteric connection between the circles of the spiral. The ileic loop is large, wide, and somewhat irregular, fully as long as the duodenal loop. The spiral of the jejunal region is, it should be added, quite a short one with only two complete turns. In Halcyon sancta there are differences in nearly all of these features. The duodenal loop is, however, the same; it is a simple loop, not particularly wide, and the pancreas extends along it quite to its free end. I omitted tomake any notes about the pancreas of H. vagans. The jejunal region of Halcyon sancta forms a spiral of eight limbs, and is thus, in the first place, much more complex than that of Alcedo ispida. In the second place, this spiral is fixed, and is a perfectly permanent structure which cannot be unwrapped without tearing the connecting sheets of mesentery. These are two important differences from the spiral found in 36s. doce ZK 1QOO 3 hes ieee On Gocco o buchos y Ma. ai 36s. Sees iidexIS91I=1900) on. ee ele bce AS Ge bono oS * No perfect copies in stock, tT Out of print. PROCEEDINGS or toe GENERAL MEETINGS ror SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS or tat ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 8vo. 21 vols. Price to Price to the Fellows, Public. TOO, Vokes) Dascciss seleits) A Rae thelr sce eee meee ellen cso icra sy TEN USss releases = PGB gat char hs aeraactieceieiea ek SL OTANI pC EEL Repay te age ES Sis Teneo nse Ce ere Oe aE Oda s OES howl SOE MMOGS a0 0 NSS 5 erro te - Sige) i Preaek eer Th S10 -5h A) ohn 3G Sh Ra RCA a TSS. cases ees TD OB ee sper ois Acre ot elas Accel ale oe oa re epee AERP es ce ccc a ane Week ap es sia cn Se - gfe EL SS ERMA a ica Areas leat eee es Ae eeicree cra. » PZ Ss olen im he P Syngnathus @ 10.x27 W.NLELW, del. = pay = = EH Wilson,Cambridge. ‘ GAS GLANDS Cf THLEAOSwa Tr. ee ai PZES. LOE tie cmt Gobius niger : : SS ° ° = re = S x fo} ise] GAS GLANDS OF TREROSTET qa Wilson Camuroges W.N.F.W. del. Py Sy. WELL, EAL IV, Gobius niger 34. x800 3!1.x800 fe | 32.x1000 .WN.E.W. del. GAS GhANDS OF TERE@SiEnt seal WI Bh seh Tele alae a ; i | | | | | \ \ \ oe sl Ke a - Peristethus 37. xi } (@ / C rs are \ _/ Siphonostoma ~~" 36. x 1000 ie : Nv a, i eee AM Trigha ae 43. «Is WINE W. del. GAS GLANDS OF TELEOSTET. B.Wilson, Cambridge, PAS MSIL TeV. | yo \ | bOI | J | a | i | | | | | | | Trigla 42.x1 Smaris vulgaris Zeon, = A45.x 1 # \ By Trigla 44 x 250 = | an Gl ] ows AUie Nel tele Ophidium See S | | | | ray | | ._ = | | Box. 5I. x1 M.R? yh ; \ | izes \ | be b \ /\(@))\ XS eee : Atherina 53.x1 | | | 50. x 800 ' Coris 56. x1 W.N.F.W. del. BL ICD. GAS GLANDS OF TELEOSTEI. EWilson, Garena IDA SNS IRL Wil, (e Atherina 54 x 1000 Coris 5/7. x16 Bu. O43 ( Boxe 52. x cir27 | | | 1 | } i | fo) | | \} \\ \ \ | \ | Corvina } j 59. x1 ve | E.Wilson, Cambridge. 55. x 1000 WESEENE GEN GAS GLANDS OF TELEOSTEI. PZ.S.1911. Pl VI. if \ | | | : | [=D Sargus 60. x1 { \ Balistes I x1 AN nen ; 64. x66 “\ IS < \ \ 1 \ \ W.N.F.W. del. GAS GLANDS OF TELEOSTEI. E.Wilson, Cambridge . Tear, MEL OIL ID Cepola 68. x33 69.x1\ | V GAS GLANDS OF TELEOSTEI. PALAIS CSU 2. W.N.F.W. del. ON THE GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 183 PAPERS. 11. On the Structure and Function of the Gas Glands and Retia Mirabilia associated with the Gas Bladder of some Teleostean Fishes, with Notes on the Teleost Pancreas. By W. N. F. Wooptayp, F.Z.S., The Zoological Department, University College * adore [Received November 9, 1916: Read February 7, 1911.] (Plates II.-IX.t and Text-figures 53-62.) ConvTENTs. Page Introductory .. SOE auE ES bcd oa dais -aRina ee Pee see Ree eon re Lees Part [.—The Stauetaue of « ‘Red Bodies SAPs an Os iremetirs oe he hs URAL Anguilla asa 'Type ...... 185 Other Examples of this First Type of “Red. Body’ My yr us, Ophichth. ys. 191 A Second Type of “ Red Body,” exemplified by Syngnathus.................. 193 Other Examples of this Second Type—G@obius, PRE CsOnEN. Ner nape: Gasterosteus, Peristethus, Trigla, Smaris.. Dir. 195 Notes on the Teleost Pancreas, <7... Tee eee Ge LOS. A Third Type of “ Red Body,” exemplified by Ophidium. BAB EEE pdec ecard 204 Other Examples of this Third Type—Bow, Atherina, Coris, Corvina, Sargus, Balistes, Caranx, Serranus, Zeus, Gadus, Cepola, Perca . 205 Whe Classification of Gas Glands’ ..... gic 219 iheGiant Cellsior Gas) Glands) ro... erecta. 0 tine. 2g, 2 The Gas Bubbles in Gas Gland Cells ..............5, 196 Summary of Part I. and General Conclusions ‘respecting ‘Gas Gland Structure... ‘ : BS Shin ic Saf ete aN bat pe Part IJ.—The Physiolose of # “Red Bodies ” Loree astUn oh Qa The Principal Theories as to the Origin of the Bladder Gases............... 290) ANOS ccc boar PBQBEC Bebo ce nice Getic « =u COREE RES ERS eE SERENE roe EC. Moreau.. Be is 3 SEER atte ste eth en Odean ays tein aacile aruavesle eegiem aoa eS! Jaeger . Sire bebe cic on ccd pee NBR MRSS EPO R ALO OA ee oe ER PEAR Ae MRO?) Nusbaum and Reis ......... PRLS Jn panne ne Discussion of the Views of J: aeger ‘and Nusbaum & Reis. : 224 A Statement of the Modern View of the Physiology of the “Red Bodies 777 secs 228 Some additional Suggestions by. the present Writer—the ‘Rationale of the Rete Mirabile, the Disintegration of the Red Blood Cor ee and other Minor Features of “ Red Body” Structure.. 230 ApprEnpiIx A.—The Sources and Modes of Preparation of Material. JSS oad ea baT 236 Apprnprx B.—On the Artificial Production of Gas Bubbles in Cells of the Gas Gland |........-: : 237 IN cleric cts ceemrtetcs hes ON ets MAN ee peta ee nina ee cnet nae Mp asrer it FNC 3 241 Literature Lists . REN TAH RNS fi tem on eNe CUS SR PUES Rt! Siete BRIE Eo ee ET Fe Iyrropucrory. In the present paper it is proposed tu give a fairly complete account of the gross and _ histological ereachare of the vasculo- glandular organs or “‘red bodies” found in the wall of the gas bladder = of many teleost fishes, and to offer certain suggestions * The greater part of the work connected with the present paper was carried out in the Zoological Department of King’s College, London. + For explanation of the Plates see pp. 245-248. ~ The terms “swim-bladder ” and “ aiv-bladder ” are inappropriate, since fishes do not use this apparatus for swimming and it dees not contain-air, Lor 184 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE respecting the physiology of these organs. Though the litera- ture * concerned with the morphology and physiology of the gas bladder is, of course, very considerable, yet up to the present only one author (64, @5) has attempted a complete review of the subject of the present paper in the light of recent work. Further, although there exist several memows dealing with special types of “ved body,” yet most of these are so occupied with cytological and other details that, in the opinion of the present writer, they have failed to supply such an account and such illustrations of the gross structure of these “red bodies” as to render evident some of their most remarkable features. Finally, the Jaeger- Nusbaum controversy calls for an independent description of these unique organs, so interesting from the physiological standpoint. i have divided the present paper into two parts, the first of - which deals with the structure and the second with the physio- logy of the “red bodies.” With reference to the drawings illustrating Part I., I have, with a few exceptions, adopted a definite scheme of coloration in order to facilitate comprehension. Green has been adopted to denote the internal lining epithelium of the bladder, and therefore the glandular, 7. e. gas gland, epi- thelium is always of this colour in the drawings, since this is but a special development of the usually squamous lining epithelium ; red denotes blood; black or grey has been employed for connec- tive and muscular tissue and secretion material ; and yellow bas been used to indicate the pancreas, which is often closely associated in a mechanical sense with some parts of the “red body.” The sources and methods of preparation of my material are stated in Appendix A (p. 236). Part I.—THE Srrucrure or THE ‘“ Rep Bopres” IN vARIOUS TELEOSTET. It is necessary to recognize at the outset that the term “red body ” unfortunately has been apphed to different structures by no means equivalent to each other: thus, e. g., the “ red bodies ” of the Common Kel are simply the two retia mirabilia, whereas the “red body” of the Cod consists both of numerous small retia mirabilia and of the large mass of epithelial cells called the gas gland, the retia and the gas gland being, in this case, intimately associated. A gas gland exists in the Eel as in all other fish with “red bodies,” but it is not in close connection with the rete mirabile as inthe Cod. This being the case, it must be understood that by the term “red body” all that is meant is a ved mass situated in the bladder-wall, the constitution of which is variable. I may add that in the vast majority of cases ‘“ red body” includes both rete mirabile and gas gland. As an intro- duction to the study of gas gland structure I shall first describe the anatomy of one of the most simple as well as most common * For the literatnreand historical reviews of the entire subject of gas bladders up to 1866 sce Milne-Edwards (49) and Gouriet (84); for more recent literature see the lists supplied by Bridge (22), Hiifner (38), Jaeger (44), Deineka (29), Reis & Nusbaum (62, 63), and at the end of the present paper. ‘ ea GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 185 forms, viz. that of the Common Eel, Anguilla vulgaris. The “red body” of the Hel has been described: several times previously, e. g. by Jacobs (42, 43), Quekett (61), and Corning (28), but never, J venture to think, in a sufticiently clear or comprehensive manner and certainly never adequately illustrated. The Vasculo-glandular Structure in the Bladder of the Common Hel (Anguilla vulgaris). It is well known that the bladder of the Eel is an elongated sac lying dorsally and towards the posterior end of the body cavity and connected with and opening into the esophagus by means of a long wide duct—the ductus pneumaticus (text-fig. 53, P.D., p. 186). The pneumatic duct opens into the bladder at about midway i in its length, the bladder in consequence being divisible into anterior (A. B. ) and posterior (P.B.) regions. The bladder and duct are both situated in the same hor zontal plane, 7. e. the duct opens into the bladder at the side, not dorsally or ventrally. Running along the ventral side of the duct are an artery and a vein situated close together (A.V.). This artery and vein give rise to the two ovoid retia mirabilia (R.M.) where the duct opens into the bladder, the two retia lying one on each side of the duct and therefore being dorsal and ventral in position respec- tively and in the same vertical line. The wall of the bladder (see Pl. IT. figs. 1-6, e.g.) in fish generally is best described as consisting of the tunica externa and tunica interna. The former consists of two definite layers of fibrous tissue, the outer being loose in texture, often containing muscular tissue and varying greatly in thickness, the inner dense, silvery in appear- ance, and principally consisting of elastic fibres. The latter consists of a thin basis of dense connective tissue, with which is closely connected the innermost layer of the bladder wail, a layer con- sisting usually of flattened cells. It is this innermost cellular layer which gives rise to the mass of glandular cells in connection with a rete mirabile—the gas gland. The tunica interna is easily separable from the tunica externa, and it is advisable to remove this latter before cutting sections of the gland. The vascular supply of the bladder may first be considered. It has already been mentioned that an artery and a vein run along the ventral side of the wall of the ductus pneumaticus. These two vessels are situated in the outer fibrous layer of the tunica externa (Pl. IT. fig. 1), which is here of considerable thickness, and they supply several arteries to the duct and receive several veins from it. Shortly before these two vessels reach the region of the junction of the duct with the bladder, the artery and the vein each divide into two (fig. 2), so that there are two pairs of vessels instead of one, each pair consisting of an artery and a vein. Now the artery and vein of each of fhese pairs undergoes further subdivision, the smaller arteries and veins resulting from this clic nero intermingling in their course, but noun once con municating with each other, so that we now have situated towards 186 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE the upper and lower sides of the ductus pneumaticus two distinct masses of intermingled arteries and veins (fig. 3), each mass having resulted from the subdivision of the two pairs of arteries and veins, which, as we have seen, have themselves originated Text-fig. 53. The bladder, duct, and “‘red bodies” of Anguilla vulgaris, viewed from the side (after Quekett). P.D., pneumatic duct which opens anteriorly into the esophagus; A and V, artery and vein supplying bladder; R.M., rete mirabile; A.B., anterior 1egion of bladder; P.B., posterior region of bladder. i i GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 187 by the division of the initial artery and vein. The subdivision of the arteries and veins in each mass proceeds rapidly, until there is formed by this process an ovoid mass of extremely fine parallel arterial and venous capillaries, closely intermingled with each other, but never intercommunicating and indistinguishable structurally as arteries and veins under the highest powers of the microscope (fig. 4). These two ovoid masses of parallel arterial and venous capillaries lying on the dorsal and ventral sides of the ductus pneumaticus just anterior to its junction with the bladder are the retia mirabilia of the eel-bladder (text- fig, 53, R.M.). The finest arterial and venous capillaries of each rete mirabile run parallel to each other for a short distance, but soon they commence to unite, arterial capillaries with arterial capillaries and venous with venous, in order to re-form larger vessels similar to those which produced the capillaries by subdivision. This process of reunion proceeds so far as to form two masses of large intermingled arteries and veins similar to those depicted External aspect of a rete mirabile (after Quekett). The anastomoses of the vessels shown in this figure do not occur in actuality. in figure 3 (cf. figs. 3 & 5). When reunion has proceeded thus far, each of these masses of re-formed arteries and veins once more breaks up into fine capillaries in connection with the vascular supply of the glandular folded epithelium which lines the bladder internally. I reproduce here as faithfully as I am able (text- fig. 54) Quekett’s figure (61) of the construction of the Hel’s rete mirabile, which illustrates in a general way that which I have just described. Text-fig. 54 is unsatisfactory in that it does not indicate the fact that the vessels and capillaries forming the rete are of two kinds—arterial and venous-—closely intermingled with each other, although never intercommunicating ; also anas- tomoses never occur between adjacent large vessels in the manner shown in the figure. A more satisfactory diagram of the construction of the Eel’s rete mirabile is the one I have 188 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE designed for text-fig. 55. In this the artery and the vein giving rise toa rete mirabile are distinguished from each other by the latter being cross-striped, the subdivision of each of them is indicated, also the intermingling of the fine parallel capillaries, their reunion and the second breaking up mto capil- laries of the large arteries and veins thus formed to supply the epithelium of the gas gland. Up to the present I have spoken of the arterial and venous capillaries or vessels composing each of the two retia mirabilia merely as tubes, but if, of course, we take into account the direction of the flow of blood in the two sets of vessels, then it is evidently incorrect to speak of the arteries and veins both subdividing at the anterior pole of the rete mirabile to produce Text-fig. 55. The construction of the rete mirabile bipolare geminum (R.M.). G.H., glandular epithelium of gas gland. capillaries: what is really happening in this region is that the arteries are subdividing and the veins uniting (text-fig. 55). That this is the actual mode of construction of the rete miabile is not only proved by the study of serial sections but also by the injection method. And here let me remark upon the extra- ordinary process implied by this construction of the rete mirabile—a term which, like its German rendering, ‘ wunder- netze,” happens to be peeuliarly appropriate*. It is implied that parallel vessels carrying blocd in opposite directions can so influence each other, or be so influenced by a common cause, as to break up into a rete mirabile at the same spot, the subdivision of each of the two sets of vessels being so adapted to the other as to ensure the close apposition and intimate intermingling of their finest capillaries t. It is evident that this intricate * Miiller (53) termed this type of rete mirabile a “ rete mirabile bipolare geminum, ”’ in contradistinction to a “rete mirabile bipolare simplex,” such as the purely arterial carotid gland ot Amphibia. + The fact illustrated by these retia that blood-vessels are able to capillarize on their own account, 7. e. quite apart from any other tissue, first attracted my attention to these “ red bodies”? when engaged in certain speculations concerning the “renal- portal system” in Vertebrates (76, 77). The formation of the retia seems to lend support to Dr. Shore’s views (68, 69) concerning the vascularization of the liver as distinguished from the venous penetration of the kidney-substance to form the ‘“renal-portal system.” I hope shortly to investigate the subjects of the “renal- portal system” and the various kinds of retia mirabilia from a practieal standpoint. GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 189 mechanism must be for some definite purpose, especially since it is found in all fishes possessing gas glands. What that purpose may be is a question I shall discuss later (see Part IT.). The epithelium lining the ductus pneumaticus, which is sup- plied with a few branches direct from the bladder artery and is therefore not supplied by the vessels connected with the retia mirabilia, is quite simple in character. It merely consists of a single layer of flattened cells raised up at intervals by the large capillaries running in the basis of connective tissue underlying the epithelium (PI. II. fig. 7). These capillaries in the wall of the duct apparently have much the same surface arrangement as those found in the lungs of certain reptiles (Quekett, 61), but it is hard to suppose from this fact alone that the epithelium of the duct is normally respiratory in function, since the blood supplied to this has already been oxygenated in the gills; on the other hand, it is equally improbable that the arterial blood in the wall of the duct serves to alter the composition of the adjacent gas since there is reason to suppose that the duct normally serves as a mere exit for the superfluous gas of the bladder (Jaeger, 45). It is possible, however, that this large vascular supply of the duct epithelium in the Eel is really correlated with the terrestrial habits of the animal, since when an Hel travels across a meadow the gillsare useless for obtaining oxygen, and under these circum- stances the animal doubtless draws upon the oxygen in the bladder—the duct acts as alung. Moreau proved that Perch, when placed in water previously boiled so as to deprive it of dissolved air, utilized the bladder-oxygen for purposes of respira- tion. An interesting confirmation of this view is that in other physostomes (Wyrus, Ophichthys, Hsox) the duct epithelium is, as we shall see, practically devoid of capillaries *. ~ The lining epithelium of the bladder proper is very different in character from that of the duct. It consists of a more or less folded single layer of cells which are large in size and short columnar in form, slightly granular, and, when stained by the picro-indigo-carmine method (Appendix A), usually rather opaque (PIDi. fie. 8). The folding of this layer is due to the presence of large capillaries which push1 their way inwards towards the bladder- cay ‘ity from the connective tissue base, and in so doing cause the epi- thelial layer to form corresponding emergences. Thus the interior of each projection of the glandular epithelium into the bladder cavity is occupied by an extension of connective tissue enclosing capillaries. The spaces situated between such emergences adjacent to each other are also regarded as forming gland ducts. The folding of the epithelium is very variable in different parts of the bladder wall, in some parts almost disappearing and in others being more accentuated than that depicted in figure 8; this folding is much more marked in the anterior region of the bladder than in the posterior. It might appear to be significant that immediately the lining epithelium of the duct becomes sup- plied with blood connected with the rete mirabile system of vessels * JT find that Jacobs (42, 48) states this view as a fact. 190 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE (that is, when the duct opens into the bladder) it then assumes the glandular folded character of the bladder epithelium, were it not for the fact that in other physostomous genera this sharp distinction between duct- and bladder-epithelium is absent, as I shall show shortly. The intracellular structures described in detail below as being present in the cells of the gas glands of other teleost fishes— intracellular gas bubbles, capillaries, and ducts—are not easily to be detected in my preparations of the Hel, but I believe I have seen gas bubbles present in a few cases, also the capillaries occasionally intrude somewhat upon the cells at their bases. Granular matter, ejected into the bladder-cavity with the gas, is so small in amount in the gland ducts of my preparations that it may be said to be absent. The folded glandular epithelium of the gas gland of the Eel, and presumably of all other genera possessing a folded epithelium, originates from a singie unfolded layer which during development becomes pushed out into the folds by the activity of the large capillaries situated in the thin layer of connective tissue- lying at the base of the epithelium *. Thus in the type of “red body” found in the Common Hel we have two large retia mirabilia, situated some distance from the epithelium of the bladder which they supply, and the greater part of this lining epithelium of the bladder is glandular and folded in a simple manner to form the gas gland. In all “red bodies ” we have these two elements, the rete mirabile and the gas gland, but in the majority of ‘‘ red bodies” these two elements are much more intimately associated with each other and more ° complex in form as compared with the structure of the simple type of “red body” just described. The Hel type of “red body” serves as a convenient starting-point for considering more complex types. Before considering these types, it 1s necessary to point out a serious mistake contained in almost the only English paper dealing with the present subject, that of Vincent and Barnes (75), which, though the paper is now quite out of date, has found its way into at least one recent text-book (‘Cambridge Natural History,’ vol. vii. 1904, p. 308). Vincent and Barnes, following Coggi (25), state that “red glands are only found in those bladders which are devoid of a ductus pneumaticus,” and they draw a sharp distinction between Physoclisti, which possess the gas gland, and Physostomi, which are supposed to be devoid of one. I need hardly say that no such distinction exists. Vincent and Barnes are right, in so far as they say that the ‘‘ red bodies ” of the Hel are only partially comparable with those of the Gadide (vide supra), but it is difficult to understand how they came to overlook the large and conspicuous glandular epithelium lining the bladder cavity. Further, as Deineka (29) points out, in the physostomous Pike (Hsox luciws) a conspicuous gas gland * J am much indebted to Dr. W. G. Ridewood for kindly presenting me with most of my young material. GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 191 exists (described by Coggi, 26), comparable in all essential respects with that of the Cod. Also Vincent and Barnes, unlike many of their predecessors, altogether fail to appreciate the peculiarity of the arterial and venous nature of the rete mirabile; indeed, they even appear to have some doubt as to the fact itself. They say : “ Corning has discriminated between arteries and veins in what we have usually spoken of as the ‘capillary masses.’ This he has done by means of a series of injections. ... . This method would certainly give some idea of the distinction between the smallest arterioles and smallest venules, but we are doubtful whether it would be more than a very rough method of distine- tion, that it would be, in any given case, an infallible test as to whether a particular small vessel were to be called arter y or vein. Much would depend, it appears to us, on the strength of the injecting force [!]. However this may be, we have failed to make out anything in the minute structure which would warrant us in dividing up the ‘ capillary masses’ into arterioles and venules.” This statement suggests that Vincent and Barnes never worked through a series of sections of the Eel (or any other similar) “red body” (which possibly also accounts for their missing the glandular epithelium of the Eel, which, as above stated, lies separate from and posterior to the retia mirabilia *), since the arterial and venous nature of the rete mirabilia is rendered quite evident by this means alone; also the last-quoted statement of Vincent and Barnes is still less comprehensible when we remember that these “red body” retia mirabilia have been correctly described in full and compared with the several other kinds of retia mirabilia which exist by Johannes Miiller (53) in 1840, not to mention Owen’s description (not confirmed by his figure, however) of the ‘‘ red body ” of the Hel just referred to T. Vasculo-glandular Structures of the Anguilla or First Type in the ladders of some other Anguilliformes. Myrus vuuearis Kaup. In this physostome the vascular and glandular conditions are similar to those found in Anguilla vulgaris. The only essential distinction between the two is in the character of the lining epithelia of the duct and bladder, and in this particular the * A fact clearly stated by Owen (‘The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates, vol. i. 1866, p. 495): “The two chief ‘retia mirabilia’ or vaso- ganglions, in the air-bladder of the Eel and Conger, which are situated at the sides of the opening of the air-duct, are also‘ bipolar’ and consist of both arterioles and venules [curiously enough, however, in contradiction of this statement, the figure 329 of the ‘ vaso-ganglion’ of the Eel supplied on p. 496 shows the blood going through all capillaries in one direction !] : they consist of straight parallel capillaries, as in fig. 329; their afferent trunks do not ramify in the immediate margin of the vaso-ganglion "from which they issue, as in the vaso-ganglions of the Cod, Burbot, Acerine, and Perch, but run for some distance before they again branch to form the common capillary system of the lining membrane of the air-bladder.”’ + These criticisms must not be held to imply any lack of appreciation of a very lucid and interesting paper ; the fact, however, that the statements criticised have been made use of by the late Professor Bridge so recently as 1904 shows the need for correction. 192 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE distinction is striking. In Anguilla the epithelia of the duct and bladder are, as we have seen, quite different in character; in Myrus vulgaris, on the other hand, they are very similar. ‘The duct epithelium consists of a single layer of short columnar cells which is only slightly folded. Very few capillaries are present in the connective tissue layer underlying the epithelium, though here and there large capillaries are to be seen in transverse section. Thus the duct is not lined by squamous epithelium as in Anguilla. In the bladder of Myrus vulgaris the epithelium is, as just stated, similar to that of the duct, the only difference being that the cells are larger. The folding of the epithelium is at most very slight and most pronounced in the region of the opening of the duct; in the anterior and posterior regions of the bladder, folding of the epithelium is practically absent. There is never any approach to the degree of folding seenin Anguwilla. It is also noticeable that where the epithelium passes over a large capillary (and capillaries are not very numerous) the cells immediately assume a more squamous character. OPHICHTHYS (SPHHGEBRANCHUS) IMBERBIS Delar. In this physostome the plan of construction of the “red body ” is essentially the same as that found in Anguilla and Myrus, but there exists in the single specimen at my disposal one modification in connection with the rete mirabile. When the bladder is viewed in situ, a single “red body” is seen to be present which is situated anteriorly in the ventral wall where the duct joins the bladder. A series of transverse sections shows that this “red body” is, as in the Hel, a large rete mirabile, which, however, is disposed in a different manner in the present instance. The artery and vein run along the right side of the bladder and break up to form the rete in such a manner that the long axis of this lies transversely to the length of the fish (Pl. I. fig. 9). The capillaries of the rete mirabile unite as usual to form larger vessels, which here, of course, lie to the left side of the bladder, where they break up anew to supply the epithelium of the gas gland. As in Myrus, there exists no sharp distinction between the glandular epithelium of the duct and that of the bladder, also the capillaries in connection with the epithelia are comparatively few in number. This epithelium consists, as in the two preceding genera, of a single layer of more or less columnar cells which occasionally becomes very slightly folded, but over the greater part of the wall, both of the bladder and the duct, the epithelium is a simple unfolded layer of columnar glandular cells. Strange to say, the cells of the epi- thelium of the bladder in my preparations are distinctly smaller than those of the duct. Occasionally large capillaries are present in the bladder wall, and where these oceur the epithelial cells become, as in A/yrus, almost squamous in shape. Small capillaries also exist, though they are not numerous. The epithelium of the duct remote from the bladder becomes much more squamous in character than elsewhere. ee oe ee Pe ee GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 193 OPHICHTHYS (OPHISURUS) SERPENS L. The general plan of the ¢wo retia mirabilia and the gas gland is exactly that found in Anguilla. The epithelial lining is, as in Anguilla, squamous and covers projections of the subjacent connective tissue, which contain, not one large capillary, but many small ones. Posteriorly the lumen of the duct, which anteriorly is circular in transverse section, becomes very restricted and star- shaped in outline, owing to the great size of the connective tissue projections just mentioned—a feature not met with in the species described above. The epithelium of the bladder wall is hardly folded at all over the greater part of its area, simply consisting of a single layer of short columnar glandular cells, but in places folding occurs, occasionally to such an extent as to resemble the bladder epithelium of Angwilla, but this is rare. It is curious how the epithelial linings of the duct and bladder differ in these four closely related fish—A nguilla, Myrus, Ophichthys imberbis, and O. serpens. In the duct and bladder of Anguilla we have the extremes of flattened and folded epithelia ; in the other genera intermediate conditions of the epithelium exist, both as regards the form of the cells and their arrangement, and the duct and bladder epithelia are not sharply distinguishable from each other, and yet the vascular supply has the same distribution in all cases, although it undoubtedly varies considerably in amount, being much greater in the Hel than in the other genera. The different conditions of the rete mirabile in the two species of Ophicthys are also noticeable. The type of vasculo-glandular apparatus found in the bladders of the preceding genera may be defined as follows: the glandular epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells which either remains unfolded or is only simply folded, and the retia mirabilia are one or two in number and are large and distinctly separate from the gas gland, the capillaries of the rete reuniting to form large arteries and veins before coming into connection with the glandular epithelium. A Second Type of Bladder Vasculo-glandular Apparatus, as exemplified i Syngnathus acus JJich, Syngnathus acus is a physoclistous fish in possession of a “red body,” which is, on the whole, very similar in construction to that of the Eel, but which nevertheless exhibits certain differences which justify us in separating it as a distinct type. The “red body ” in Syngnathus is visible with the naked eye as a small red patch at the extreme anterior end of the bladder. An artery and vein running in the anterior attachment of the bladder divide up in the manner already described for the Kel to form the single rete mirabile (Pls. 11. G III. figs. 10-14). It willalso be observed in figures 10 and 11 that posterior extensions of the diffuse pancreas (indicated in the figures by yellow masses) penetrate into the anterior end of the rete mirabile and, as will be shown in detail 194 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE later, are closely associated with the larger veins. Lying along- side the rete mirabile is the anterior extremity of the elongated closed bladder (fig. 14), the wall of the anterior region of which is very glandular and vascular. A little way behind the anterior extremity of the bladder, the side of the rete next the bladder comes into connection with the bladder epithelium (fig. 15), the capillaries uniting (¢. e. the arterial capillaries are uniting and the venous capillaries are really here subdividing to form the minute venous capillaries of the rete) to form slightly larger vessels before supplying the epithelium of the gas gland. This process of supplying the glandular epithelium goes on until the whole of the rete mirabile is used up (PI. III. figs. 15-17,), the fine capillaries of the rete always uniting to some extent to form larger vessels before these supply the epithelium. ‘The bladder epithelium, as shown in the figures, becomes enormously thickened by a process of folding during the breaking-up of the rete mira- bile. Posterior to the rete mirabile, which has thus disappeared in supplying the glandular epithelium, this latter itself gradually dwindles (fig. 18) until in the posterior region of the bladder the cavity is lined with simple squamous non-glandular cells. The epithelium of the bladder is quite simple in type and essentially resembles the folded epithelium of the Kel, though the folding is much more pronounced. Figure 19 represents the glandular epithelium in the unthickened region, that is, lining any side of the bladder cavity other than that adjacent to the rete mirabile, where, as just stated, the epithelium is much thickened. The folds of the epithelium due to the large capil- laries which push out the epithelium are so deep that we have here, as in Anguilla, distinct ducts formed between the folds which contain on occasion large quantities of floccular matter evidently derived from the cells. The thickened epithelium adjacent to the rete mirabile is formed by the great ex- tension of the folds just mentioned, the cells of which often join at intervals, 7. e. the folds run together so that the at-first- separate ducts form anastomosing channels before opening into the bladder. The cells forming this epithelium are faintly granular and almost cubical in form, and here and there contain gas bubbles (not shown in the figure) and intracellular capil- laries, but since I have examined these structures in greater detail in other types, I shall not refer to them any further at present. I shall also, and for the same reason, merely mention here the conspicuous opacity of the cytoplasm of the gland cells which comes into immediate contact with a capillary (fig. 19). One other fact which is very well shown in my slides of Syn- gnathus remains to be mentioned, and that is the disintegration of the red blood corpuscles contained in the capillaries of the rete mirabile and the gas gland first into spherical globules and ultimately into granular matter. This granular matter resulting from erythrocytolysis is, of course, only found in the blood-stream and is to be carefully distinguished from the granular matter above described as being found in the bladder lumen and gland —_ GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELMOSTEAN FISHES. 195 ducts just external to the cells of the gas gland. Figure 21 (Pl. ITD.) shows several stages of this disintegration of the erythrocytes, the significance of which I shall discuss later. Figure 20 represents a highly-magnified transverse section through the fine arterial and venous capillaries composing the mass of the rete mirabile. The two kinds of capillaries are quite indistinguishable by mere inspection. The capillaries are separated from each other by a small amount of connective tissue. In the very young fish, 7. ¢. before the capillaries have subdivided to the extent found in the adult, the arterial capillaries are dis- tinguishable from the venous, the former being thicker-walled and somewhat smaller in calibre (see also Bykowski & Nusbaum, 28). Thus the chief features of the second or Syngnathus type otf “red body” are that the glandular epithelium is arranged in simple folds, that it is restricted in area, not lining the whole of the bladder cavity, and that the rete mirabile is contiguous with the gas gland, although a small amount of reunion of the capillaries of the rete may occur before these supply the epithelium. Other Hxamples of the Syngnathus Z'ype of “ Red Body.” GOBIUS NIGER. As another example of the second or Syngnathus type of bladder vasculo-glandular apparatus I shall now describe that of Gobius niger caught at Naples*.. The “red body ” of Gobius is a small oval red patch situated just anterior to the centre of the oval outline of the bladder (Pl. IIT. fig. 22). It consists of a single rete mirabile which supplies a small area of glandular epithelium. As seen in a series of transverse sections, the artery and vein, which break up to form the rete, at first lie owtside the several layers of the bladder wall (Pl. IV. fig. 23) together with large masses of pancreas. The artery and vein subdivide as usual to form a cluster of small arteries and veins, which in Gobius, as in Syngnathus, are intermingled with masses of pancreas (fig. 24), 1t will also be noticed that this cluster of arteries and veins is at this stage in process of breaking through the thin dense outermost layer of the bladder wall, so as to lie within this latter, large Inasses of pancreas being included with the cluster of vessels, Still more posteriorly when the arteries and veins have undergone subdivision to a greater extent, the whole mass of vessels together with the included portions of pancreas have become alinost entirely encluded within the bladder wall, small portions of pan- creas only being left outside (fig. 25). Finally, when the rete mirabile is completely formed it is wholly included within the sub- stance of the bladder wall, as in previous genera (fig. 26). The rete mirabile supplies the adjacent area of pellesnidbeilors epithelium * Gobius paganellus, obtained from Plymouth, possesses a star-shaped ‘‘ red body ” resembling that of Peristeéhus in construction (Pl. V. fig. 37, and text-fig. 57), though less detinite in outline. Gobdius minutus, also obtained from Plymouth, has a similar star-shaped “red body,” but the gas gland epithelium in some specimens is hardly folded at all, merely consisting of a single layer os cells enclosing large capillaries ; in others it 1s folded as in Gobius niyer (Pl. LV. fig. 27). 196 . DR, W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE in the usual way, the epithelium lining the rest of the bladder remaining squamous in character. It is, however, noticeable that in the rete of Gobdiws the fine capillaries do not unite together at all to form larger vessels before supplying the glandular epithelium (see fig. 27). In Syngnathus it has been. mentioned that the reunien of the fine capillaries is very slight, but here it is quite absent. The glandular epithelium is of the same type as that found in Syngnathus, the cells only, as may be seen from figure 27, being somewhat more columnar in form. The epithelial cells of Gobwus are relatively large, and, as just stated, columnar in form and in my preparations faintly granular. They are folded in the simple manner already described for Syngnathus and Anguilla, large capillaries being situated in the interior of the folds*. In figure 27 are represented three epithelial folds of the gas gland, underlying which ave a few of the multitudimous fine capillaries composing the rete mirabile. Even in this figure it can be observed that several of the cells contain spherical clear spaces and that two small capillaries have encroached on the space previously occupied by the cytoplasm of two cells of the gas gland. ‘These intra- cellular bubbles and capillaries and the intracellular lumina, which 1 shall also shortly mention, are cytological features which have, within the last year or so, been studied im great detail by Jaeger (44-47), Bykowski & Nusbaum (24), and Reis & Nusbaum (54, 55, 62-68), and they are of considerable interest from several standpoints. I shall discuss their significance later; for the present I may remark that I think I am justified in redescribing these structures, especially in view of the controversy concerning the mode of gas-production considered in Part Il. That the fine capillaries of the rete mirabile often find their way deep into the substance of the glandular cells, as well as between them, is proved in Gobiws by a very moderate amount of inspection under a high power of the microscope (Pl. IV. figs. 28, 29). It is also noticeable that the protoplasm of that border of the glandular cells in contact with the capillary develops a dark and often striped appearance, which Nusbaum & Reis suggest is due to diffusion streams of nutritive matter passing from the blood into the gland-cells, but which I believe is intimately concerned with the production of the gas contained in the bladder (see Part II.). Concerning the presence of vacuolar spaces in the cytoplasm of the cells of the gas gland, nobody can doubt their existence who has examined well-preserved preparations of gas glands which are in an active condition. ‘These vacuolar spaces are with good reason assumed to represent bubbles of gas being generated within the cell- substance (see Part Il. and Appendix B), but it is evident that only on occasion will the gas gland be fixed and preserved when active ; in the majority of cases, preparations ot gas glands will not exhibit these intracellular gas bubbles, simply because the gas %* Reis (64) states that the folds branch and anastomose in Gobius; in all my preparations of Gobius niger, Gobius paganellus and Gobius minutus (also in Gobius capito—Coggi, 25) the folds are quite simple, as described in the text. GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISUES. 197 gland is normally quiescent *. To deny the existence of these eytoplasmie bubbles simply because certain microscopic pre- parations do not show them is illogical, to say the least, since intracellular gas bubbles, unlike intracellular capillaries, are not permanent but transitory structures. Of over fifty series of preparations which I have made of numerous types of gas gland, not more than seven or eight show these intracellular gas bubbles in an unmistakable manner. In the type of gas gland under consideration, one only of my six or seven series of preparations of the gas glands of different specimens of Gobiws niger and G. paganellus exhibits a few gas bubbles (fig. 27). I have seen these bubbles best in a preparation of Gobiws minutus (Pl. V. fig. 35), in which the gas gland cells were fixed in the active con- dition. As shown in figure 35, the majority of the gas-producing cells possess large vacuolar spaces in their cytoplasm usually present in the vicinity of the nucleus; indeed, the nucleus is often so adpressed as to assume a crescentic form. These vacuoles, which, as just mentioned, are assumed to represent the moulds, so to speak, which contained gas bubbles, just as liver- and kidney-cells exhibit similar vacuolar spaces which contained liquid globules (text-fig. 60, p. 225), are of various sizes, and some can be 1 seen in the act of being ejected from the cell substance into the bladder lumen, where they are also occasionally found in a liberated condition (see Appendix B). The bursting of these gas bubbles is doubtless accountable for the masses of granular matter always found, when the gland is active, in the bladder lumen and gland ducts just external to the glandular epithelium, this granular matter, of course, having composed the walls of the bubbles. The gland cells, when active, always have that portion of their eytoplasm situated next vascular tissue very distinct from the rest, it being, as already described, very dense and often striated in appearance; the rest of the cytoplasm usually assumes a “stringy” appearance and is very vacuolater. It may also be mentioned that the nucleus is not situated in the dense cytoplasm next the blood, in which respect gas gland cells show a marked difference from the cells of the pancreas, é.g. In addition to intracellular capillaries and gas bubbles there are also occasionally to be seen intracellular lumina or ducts— continuations of the intercellular ducts into the substance of the gland cells. These, again, vary greatly in different types of gas eland and in different Specimens of each type. In none of my preparations are they very numerous, and doubtless, like the gas bubbles, the smaller intracellular lumina are transitory structures. I have figured one or two of these structures in connection with the gas gland of Ophidiwm barbatuwm, a type very effectually studied by Reis & Nusbaum (62), and they are occasionally to be found in my-preparations of Gobius niger and Gobius paganellus opening into the numerous finer intercellular ducts. Since these * See Addenda (1). + For excellent descriptions and figures of these gas bubbles in the cytoplasm of the gland cells, see the papers of Bykowski & Nusbaum (24) and Reis & Nusbaum (55, 62, 63). Proc. Zoo, Soc.—1911, No. XIV. 14 198 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE intracellular channels have been so thoroughly studied by the authors just named, I shall not refer to them in any detail. I will merely say that since, according to Jaeger (47), gas glands are able, when active, to swell to three times their normal size, and that the finer ducts only become visible when filled with fluid, it is not surprising that they are only visible in very few preparations. One or two other histological features to be observed in serial sections of the gas gland and associated structures of Gobius niger and other types remain to be mentioned. In transverse sections across the anterior end of the rete mirabile, and only at its anterior end, where the arteries are easily distinguishable from the veins, all the arteries possess a peculiar endothelium. This endothelium (PI. TV. fig. 32) contains many more nucleithan usual, and these, instead of being flattened in the usual way, are more or less spherical, and, each being contained in a small mass of cytoplasm, project into the vascular lumen in the manner shown in the figure. ‘This peculiar endothelium, in the case of the smaller arterial capillaries, results in such a thickening of the wall (and incidentally in some of the smallest capillaries a blocking- up of the lumen) as to cause the capillary to bear a strong resemblance to a bile- or pancreatic duet; indeed, were it not for the presence of blood corpuscles these small capillaries would be almost unrecognisable as such. This type of vascular epithelium, which must be well-known to histologists, in all probability results from the contraction of the pulsatile arteries in forcing the blood through the rete, the narrowed circumference of the endothelium causing the cells both to assume a globular form and to protrude into the lumen of the vessel. Concerning the posterior extension of the diffuse pancreatic acini among the arteries and veins anterior to the formation of the rete mirabile (fig. 25, e. g.) there is little to note other than the fact itself, which I have not seen recorded by writers on the teleost pancreas (see list of references to pancreas literature below). When first studying teleost ‘red bodies” I was misled into supposing that this extraordinary extension of the pancreatic acini through and right into the bladder wall in many teleost genera represented a new gland specially developed in connection with the rete mirabile. I suggested (78) that the purpese of this supposed new gland was the abstraction from the venous blood stream of the globules and granules resulting from the breaking- up of the red blood corpuscles referred to above, and in my sections (stained by the picro-indigo-carmine method described in Ap- pendix A) the zymogen granules present in the pancreas cells often strongly resemble erythrocyte globules which have been ab- stracted from the blood stream (cf. text-fig. 56 and Pl. IL]. fig. 21). Adopting the view of Jaeger (fully discussed in Part II.) that the cells of the gas gland produce a toxin for the purpose of breaking up the erythrocytes and so enable themselves to absorb more easily the oxygen in the blood stream which they sub- sequently pump into the gas bladder, I suggested that the purpose GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 199 of the rete mirabile—a structure essentially consisting of the intimate juxtaposition of the veins returning the blood from the gas gland and carrying the hypothetical toxin, with the arteries carrying freshly-oxygenated blood to the gas gland—was to allow the toxin in its venous capillaries to diffuse into its arterial capillaries and so to disintegrate the oxygen-laden erythrocytes in time for the oxygen to be available for abstraction by the gas gland cells by the time the arterial blood reached the gas gland. On this view the veins of the rete mirabile would be laden with granular matter (as indeed they are—see fig. 32) which requires to be eliminated, and I suggested that this process of elimination was the function of these pancreatic masses which are so closely connected with the veins at the anterior end of the rete—the kind Text-fig. 56 (x circ. 470). Vein surrounded by modified acini (three shown) of the pancreas in Nerophis equorius. of yessels and the identical position that the hypothesis would suggest ; in other words, the hypothesis was supported by the position of the gland, the modification of the pancreatic acini surrounding the veins (described below), the great similarity between the erythrocyte globules and granules in the blood, the zymogen granules in the pancreatic cells and the granules in the pancreatic ducts, and the @ priori necessity for the elimination of the erythrocyte granular matter. This hypothesis, however, con- cerning the function of what I subsequently recognized as the panereas is obviously untenable, since the zymogen granules are of course present in pancreatic cells not associated with the rete mirabile veins and, as in higher Vertebrates, do not occur outside the pancreas cells; also the posterior extension of the teleost 14* 200 DR. W N F. WOODLAND ON THE pancreas into the bladder wall cannot be supposed to be of any more significance than its penetration into the liver. I failed at first to recognize this gland as the pancreas, both because of its peculiar position inside the bladder wall and because of the peculiar modification of the pancreatic acini in juxtaposition with the veins, neither of which peculiarities have been described by writers on the teleost pancreas. Another small peculiarity existing in several teleost genera (Globius miger, e. g.) which I studied more than others was the syncytial character of the wall of the pancreatic duct(Pl. V.fig. 33 and PIV. fig. 34),a feature not present in most teleosts. The modification of the pancreatic acini in connection ’ with the veins (veins from the rete mirabile as well as hepatic- portal veins from the gut wall) just referred to consists of the cells - of each acinus next the thin vein wall being drawn out, the cells on the side remote from the vein being quite short, as shown in text-fig. 56. This figure also indicates the similarity between the zymogen granules and the erythrocyte globules, both globules and zymogen granules being stained a bright emerald-green in my preparations. As stated in Part IJ., I now have good reason to believe that the erythrocyte granular matter is abstracted from the blood in part by the liver and in part by special cell- masses situated near the kidneys. Laguesse (4-10), Rennie (17), and others have shown that the teleost pancreas resembles in all essentials the pancreas of higher Vertebrates—in the characters of the acini, ducts, zymogen granules, and the presence of centro- acinal cells and areas of Langerhans. With respect to these last, IT may mention incidentally that I can fully confirm the results of Rennie (17) and there can be but little doubt now that these areas constitute an organ physiologically and in many teleosts anatomically distinct from the pancreatic acini. This view of the physiological independence of the islets of Langerhans is sup- ported by the researches of Diamare (3), Flint (3a), Opie (14, 15), de Witt (2), Lane (11) «nd others in opposition to the view that the islets are patches of exhausted pancreas, supported by Lewaschew (12), Laguesse (6, 10), and Dale (1); and, as I have already re- marked, researches on the teleost pancreas indicate quite plainly that the former is the correct view. SIPHONOSTOMA TYPHLE (RONDELETII JDelar.), NEROPHIS QUORIUS. The ‘red bodies” of these two genera are, like that of Syn- gnathus, small red patches situated at the extreme anterior end of the bladder and identical in their plan of construction. The only particular in which the “red body” of Siphonostoma differs from that of Syngnathus is that in the former the cells of the gas gland are much larger and the intervening ducts much narrower ; indeed, in the posterior portion of the gland the lumina are so narrow as not to be seen very easily. The large capillaries are also more circular in transverse section in Siphonostoma than in Syngnathus. Gas bubbles and intracellular capillaries are nm my preparations to be found occasionally in the substance of the GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 201 epithelial cells, also the cytoplasm in contact with the capillaries is darkened in the usual way. A small amount of granular material is present in the bladder lumen and gland ducts just external to the cells. I must also mention a peculiar class of corpuscles found in the blood of my specimen of Siphonostoma typhle. These peculiar corpuscles (PI. V. fig..36) possess very dense cytoplasm, are about half the size of the red corpuscles, and contain large nuclei. They are fairly numerous, forming roughly about 1 per cent. of the total number of corpuscles. They doubt- less represent white corpuscles, though in my preparations they to some extent resemble small rounded ganglion cells; indeed, they bear quite a strong resemblance to the large dense ganglion cells so often found between the pancreatic acini, and are in con- sequence very conspicuous. | have not observed such conspicuous white corpuscles in the blood of any other of my preparations. In WNerophis the gas gland epithelium is folded like that of Gobius niger and possesses the saine features. GASTEROSTEUS SPINACHIA. In this Stickleback the only feature in which the ‘ red body ” differs from those of the last four genera described is the splitting- up of the rete mirabile into three or four bunches supplying the gas gland epithelium at different levels; instead of the initial artery and vein wholly dividing up to form asingle rete mirabile, an artery and a vein are given off from this to form a rete mirabile in connection with the mest anterior region of the gland epithelium, another pair to form a second rete mirabile in con- nection with the middle region of the gland epithelium, and, finally, the initial artery and vein themselves form a third rete mirabile to supply the rest of the gas gland. This condition in Gasterosieus is intermediate between that described for Syngnathus and that about to be described for Peristethus. In all other respects the ‘‘red body” of Gasterostews resembles the Syngnathus type. PERISTETHUS CATAPHRACTUS (Penis J) TEDION CATAPHRACTUM Havinys The “red body” of Peristethus is star-shaped (Pl. V. fig. 37), owing to the fact that the artery and vein which supply the glan- dular epithelium, when arriving at the centre of the star-shaped “ved body,” break up each into ten vessels. The score of vessels thus formed sort themselves out into pairs of vessels, each pair consisting of an artery and a vein. These pairs radiate out from the point of subdivision of the original artery and vein like the spokes of a wheel and give rise to ten elongated retia mirabilia in the manner shown in text-fig. 57. Hach rete mirabile supplies a vadially-disposed tract of glandular epithelium developed as usual from the innermost cellular layer of the bladder wall. The capil- laries of each rete mirabile coalesce to a certain extent to form larger vessels before supplying the gas gland (not indicated in 202 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE text-fig. 57), but not to the same extent asin Syngnathus. Figure 38 (Pl. V.) represents a section (A—B in text-fig. 57) across the anterior end of the star-shaped “red body.” The epithelium of the gas gland is folded as in Gobius niger, but, as in Syngnathus, it becomes considerably thickened by the elongation and fusion of the folds in the vicinity of the rete mirabile. The cellsare rather small and short-columnar in form, and, in the particular specimen which I examined, contained numerous gas bubbles (figs. 39, 40, 41); in other words, the gland was here in a highly active condition when preserved. Text-fig. 57. The construction of the “red body ” of Peristethus cataphractus. E., epithelium of gas gland; R.M., rete mirabile. Fig. 38 (Pl. V.) represents a section taken across A-B. The most remarkable feature about the “ved body” of Peri- stethus is, of course, the radial disposition of the divisions of the rete mirabile and the glandular epithelium ; in every other respect it appertains to the Syngnathus type as above defined. TRIGLA HIRUNDO (CoRAX Bp.). The bladder of Trigla hirwndo, mt observed from the ventral GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISILES, 203 aspect, appears as an elongated sae, the ventral wall of which is very muscular in the median line posteriovly. At the sides of this muscular-posterior median portion of the bladder wall there are to be seen two red streaks, which are the lateral divisions of the “red body” (PI. VI. fig. 42), In a series of transverse sections it can be seen that the cavity of the bladder has a peculiar conform- ation* : anteriorly the bladder cavity consists of two laterally-placed channels, which end blindly anteriorly and proceed posteriorly over a distance equal to about one-third the length of the bladder when each divides into two ; these four channels thus formed then extend to about midway in the length of the bladder, when the two inner channels coalesce to form a wide median chamber, which, with the two external channels, extends to the posterior ex- tremity of the bladder (PIL. V. fig. 43). It will be observed in figure 43 that two great median bands of muscle (M.B.) are developed in the ventral wall of the posterior haif of the bladder, and this explains why it is that only the lateral “red bodies” are seen when the bladder is viewed from the ventral aspect (fig. 43). Also shown in this figure are the two laterally-placed strands (5) of nerve-fibres developed in connection with the two muscle- bands. The epithelium of the gas gland is folded in the manner cha- racteristic of this type of “red body,” but in Zrigla it is more folded than in previous examples (PI. VI. fig. 44), the primary folds bearing small lateral folds. In some places the depth of the folding is increased as in Syngnathus. The cells are of moderate size and columnar in form. ‘he rete mirabile is divided up into capillary tufts, 7. e. there are numerous small retia mirabilia which supply the epithelium at intervals in its course ; in other words, pairs of vessels are given off at intervals from the bladder artery and vein, each pair consisting of an artery and a veinand forming a rete mirabile to supply a certain area of gas gland. TRIGLA GURNARDUS. Concerning the gas gland epithelium of this species, see p. 207, below. SMARIS MAURII, SMARIS VULGARIS, The “red body ” of Smaris vulgaris has the macroscopic appear- ance shown in figure 45 (PI. VI.). Figure 46 (PI. V.) represents diagrammatically a transverse section across the anterior end of the “red body,” the primary artery and vein entering at the centre of the oval mass. Concerning the character of the gas gland epithelium of these two species (Pl. VI. fig. 47), see p. 207, below. Previously described “ Red Bodies” of the Syngnathus Type. The glandular epithelia of the “red bodies” of Gobius capito, Trigla gurnardus (see my description below), and Gasterosteus * See description in Milne-Edwards (49). 204 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE aculeatus have been described and figured by Coggi (25); Gaster- osteus aculeatus has also been described and figured by Deineka (29); Blennius, Gobius, Syngnathus, and other types have been briefly described by Reis (64). All these ‘“‘ red bodies” evidently belong to the Syngnathus type as defined above. A Third Type of Bladder Vasculo-glandular Apparatus, as exemplified in Ophidium barbatum L. The “ved body” of Ophidiwm barbatum has received a con- siderable amount of attention during the last few years, especially from the cytological standpoint (Bykowski & Nusbaum, 24 and Reis & Nusbaum. 62, 63), since the huge cells composing the gas gland offer exceptional facilities for enquiry in this direction. But, as in some other instances, good figures of the gross anatomy do not exist, so far as I am aware, and hence I shall make no apology for recapitulating already-known facts in a manner that shall be intelligible to the reader who has not worked at the subject. The “red body? of Ophidium barbatum is situated anteriorly in the ventral wall of the bladder and has the curious appearance shown in figure 48(P]. VI.). The fan-shaped deep red portion is, of course, the rete mirabile, which is here an undivided body. and it is formed by an artery and vein which enter at the pointed posterior apex. ‘The pink margin surrounding the anterior border of the rete is, obviously, the gas gland, A transverse section running mid- way through the “ red body ” exhibits the parts diagrammatically indicated in figure 49 (the outer layers of the bladder have been stripped off). In the centre is the rete mirabile and at the sides are the enormously thickened glandular portions of the (elsewhere) flattened lining epithelium. As in some former instances, there is no reunion of the capillaries of the rete mirabile before supplying the glandular epithelium : they directly supply the gas gland. Now in this type of ‘red body ” the gas gland does not consist of a single layer of cells which has become folded, but of a many- layered mass of cells, the arrangement of which bear's no resem- blance to the folded condition of the single-layered epithelium of the ‘“red-bodies” already described (see figs. 54, 58, 63 for examples of the massive type of gland), and, judging from the development of this massive type of gas gland epithelium as seen in Atherina, it never does, at any stage of its development, bear a resemblance to the folded type of gland. The many-layered or massive kind of gas gland epithelium, as seen in Ophidium, Atherina, and other genera to be mentioned, is, then, a distinct type; the question raised by Reis in a recent paper (64) as to whether there exist forms of bladder epithelium. transitional be- tween these two types is one which I shall discuss when describing Atherina. The faintly-granular cells composing this many-layered gas gland of Ophidiwm are of quite moderate dimensions in the vicinity of the rete mirabile, but become larger the further they are removed, and the cells at the remote edge of the gland are remarkable for their large size, In this type of gland there exist GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOCSTEAN FISHES. 205 no large ducts comparable with those we have seen in the glands consisting of folded epithelium ; on the contrary, the only ducts visible are narrow slit-like channels occasionally to be detected in their course between the cells. These narrow channels vary in width greatly according to the state of activity of the gland; they are necessarily numerous (though by no means always to be observed) in order to provide means of exit to the surface for all the numerous cells concerned, and they open on the gland surface inside the bladder lumen by small pores. Also penetrating the . mass of the gland are numerous fine capillaries supplying the individual cells with nutrimert and oxygen on the sides remote from those facing the ducts just mentioned. All the intracellular structures previously mentioned as occurring in connection with cells of the gas gland are here shown in a very obvious manner. Figure 50 (Pl. VI.) shows intracellular lumina, one in longitudinal section. As to the significance of these intracellular passages found in gas gland cells, it is not necessary to regard them all as possessing purely a nutritive utility as Nusbaum & Reis have supposed ; it seems more probable, judging from their appearance in such cases as that illustrated in figure 50, that some at least are concerned with the passage of the gas bubble from the interior of the cell to the exterior; they are very rare in their occurrence in my preparations and in transverse section closely resemble bubbles, especially if near the nucleus. The whole mass of cells composing the gas gland is therefore penetrated by capillaries and gland lumina. Ihave not observed a pancreas in the region of the rete in Ophidium. Other Examples of the Third or Ophidium Type of ‘ Red Body.” Box sBoors L. The ‘‘red body” of Box loops has the curious macroscopic appearance shown in figure 51 (Pl. VI.). Figure 52 (Pl. VIT.)isa diagram of a transverse section through the middle of the “red body,” and the appearance of two concentric loops is thus seen to be due to the disposition of the rete mirabile. ‘he primary artery and vein enter the “‘red body” posteriorly and break up into smaller arteries and veins (intermingled with pancreatic acini) to form the rete mirabileas usual. The glandular epithelium consists, as in Ophidiwm, of a mass of cells interpenetrated by capillaries and lumina, but here the cells are all approximately equal in size and the gas gland is more than a dozen cells thick. ATHERINA HEPSETUS L, In macroscopic appearance the “red body” of Atherina hepsetus is diffuse in form (Pl. VI. fig. 53) and consists of tufts of retia mirabilia borne laterally on a median pair of vessels (artery and vein) with corresponding tracts of glandular epithelium. The glan- dular epithelium (Pl. VII. fig. 54) is very similar to that of Lox boops ; in other words, it consists in its thickest parts of a mass of small cells, seven or eight cells in thickness, with inter- and 206 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE oceasional intra-cellular duets and capillaries. I have not observed a pancreas in the region of the rete. The cell-outlines of the gas gland are faint and a small amount of granular material is present in the bladder lumen in my preparation. I stated above that the massive type of gas gland is quite distinct from the folded type in certain genera, and, indeed, these two types of bladder epithelium are almost always easily distin- guishable from each other in the genera which I have studied: genera, with a few exceptions to be mentioned, either possess the folded or the massive type of gland and not glands inter- mediate in structure. In young specimens of dAtherina about 15 mm. in length, that portion of the bladder epithelium which is about to o produce the gas gland is at first. composed of a single layer of cubical or short Colter cells, and it is worthy of notice that these cells, in order to build up the fully-formed massive gland, all divide at right angles to the plane of the bladder wall (Pl. VII. fig. 55), i.e. the successive planes of cell-cleavage are pavallel with the plane of the bladder wall—the initial unilaminar epithelium never becoming folded at any stage of development. As the gas gland cells multiply connective tissue cells may be observed to extend in between them in order to furnish the connective and vascular tissues which penetrate hie mass of the gland when fully formed. Also if figures 54 and 55 be compared, it will be seen that the cells (especially the nuclei) of the gas gland of the adult Atherina are noticeably smaller as compared with those in the young fish. The fact that there is no indication of folding of the bladder epithelium during development of the massive type of gland is important, since Reis (64) supposes, on the ground that there exist forms of bladder epithelium more or less intermediate in structure between the folded and massive types, that the latter has been derived from the former, and if such be the case we might expect that the massive type of gland in its development would pass through a folded developmental stage. As we have seen, this is not the case in Atherina and presumably not in other genera possessing typically massive glands. JI assume this with thie more confidence since in some gas glands which, owing to the exceedingly close apposition of the folds, at fist sight appear to be massive, it is always possible to refer them at once to the folded type by observing in each such case the margins of the gland where it merges into the squamous epithe- lium lining the greater part of the bladder cavity, since here the folds are quite simple: such marginal folds are never present in true massive glands. Reis, in contending that the massive type of gland is but a derivative of the folded type, instances as transitional forms between the two types the gas gland epithelia of Syngnathus and Girardinus. I have not examined Girardinus, but the gas gland epithelium of my specimens of Syng gnathus can certainly not be said to be transitional, since, as my aes iption above of this epithe- lium clearly shows, the massiveness of the gland merely results from the extreme length of the folds and them occasional anastomosis : GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 207 the glandular epithelium is always wnilaminar and the folds always clearly recognizable. My preparations do not at all confirm Reis’s statement that the tubular outgrowths are so numerous at the base of the gland that they lose their lumina through mutual contact, and form almost complete layers of epithelial cells. On the other hand, the gas glands of some other genera which I have examined certainly do appear to be transitional in structure between the folded and massive types, viz. those of Zrigla gurnar- dus, Smaris maurti, and Smaris vulgaris. I may say at once that in all three species, especially Trigla gurnardus and Smaris maurit, the gas gland shows distinct signs of being of the folded type, and in the two species just mentioned the folds are quite distinct and unmodified at the edges of the glands, but, on the other hand, the surface of the gland is covered by a continuous single layer of columnar epithelium (never present in the typical folded gland) and throughout the mass of the gland the cells at certain points lose their unilaminar arrangement*. In Z'rigla gurnardus +, and perhaps also in the other two species, the explana- tion of the superficial cell-layer seems to be that at the edges of the gland the unilaminar epithelium splits into two layers, the upper remaining unfolded and forming the superficial cell-layer and the lower becoming folded in the usual manner (text-fig. 58), the folds, however, anastomosing to a considerable extent and, as Text-fig. 58. Diagram to explain the probable construction of the gas glands of Trigla gurnardus and Smaris maurii. already mentioned, the cells in places becoming clustered into groups more than one layer in thickness. In Smaris maurii (Pl. V1. fig. 47) the individual cells are larger than in Zrigla gurnardus and the anastomosing folds more closely packed; here and there the cells are several layers thick, but in general they are arranged in single folded rows as in Zrigla gurnardus. In Smaris vulgaris the epithelium has almost entirely lost its folded character, though this is sometimes to be detected at the edges of the gland. Thus the gas glands of these three species{ are to a certain extent * In many massive glands the cells are often in places arranged in single rows, and this is evidently due to the necessity (which Oppel points out : see footnote on page 208) of each cell being in contact on one side with a duct and on the other with a biood vessel. + Coggi (25) provides a figure of the epithelium of this species showing a simple folded character; the epithelium in my specimens more resembles his figure of the epithelium of Motella mediterranea with the addition of a superficial covering layer of columnar cells. ~ And possibly those of Polyacanthus. (Macropodus) described by Reis & Nusbaum (62) and Motella described by Coggi (25). 208 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE intermediate in character between the folded and massive types, but we may still retain these two categories, since we have reason to suppose that all of these three supposed transitional forms of gas gland really belong to the folded type and that they have only secondarily acquired features characteristic of the massive type by the splitting-off of a superficial cell-layer covering the surtace of the gland, by close apposition and anastomosis of the elongated folds, and by occasional local proliferation of the cells; in other words, until their development is known, we may provisionally distinguish between truly or primarily massive glands which never exhibit the folded arrangement of cells at any stage of development, and pseudo- or secondarily-massive glands which are secondarily derived from the folded type*. To me Reis’s sugges- tion that all massive glands have been derived from folded glands seems very improbable, since on this view the folded condition should occur as a stage in their development, and we have seen that this is not the case in at least one typical genus (Atherina). It seems more probable that both folded and massive types have originated independently trom the simple unilaminar condition which must in all cases form the starting-point of development both in ontogeny and phylogeny. Corts JULIS tT (VULGARIS Flem.). The ‘red body” of Corts julis has the circular shape seen in figure 56 (Pl. VI.), and the rete mirabile supplying the gland is noteworthy for the way in which it is broken up into small divisions (Pl. VII. fig. 57). The glandular epithelium (fig. 58), which is * Reis’s classification of gas gland epithelia (64) seems to me confirmatory of this view. Her classification is as follows: (1) entirely unilaminar epithelium folded mto simple tubular outpushings; (2) the epithelial tolds are much folded and branched [ Reis has made the mistake of including in this group thé gas gland epithelium ot Corvina; in my preparatious of Corvina nigra the epithelium is of the most typical massive type}; (8) the epithelium isin parts folded and in parts multilaminar [I cannot agree to the inclusion of Syngnathus in this category. I have not examined Reis’s other evample—Hippocampus] ; (4) the compact or massive glands of Sargus, Charar, and other genera. Reis regards these four types as a developmental series—a mistake I have corrected in the text. Reis also remarks that only in the first three types are the ducts obviously the spaces between the epithelial folds or tubular outgrowths ; in the fourth there exist no such intertubular ducts, intercellular crack-like channels only being present. This last statement seems to me to be confirmatory of my contention. Reis makes another statement which, as Oppel (58) points out, contravenes all probability. This statement is that whereas in the folded type of gland the individual gland cell only presents one surface towards the duct lumen (the others being contiguous with other cells and with a blood-vessel), in the massive gland the individual gland cell presents all its surfaces towards the intercellular lumina pene- trating the mass of the gland, z.e. the intercellular lumina, according to Reis, surround each cell. Reis suggests that this supposed feature is for the purpose of facilitating the exit of the gas through the gland into the bladder. As Oppel justly remarks, how can acell thus shut off from all vascular tissue obtain nourish- ment? So far as my observations go, there is no reason to suppese that a single cell of the massive giand is not in contact with a capillary. I cannot, however, agree with Oppel’s groundless suggestion that tubular and massive glands possess different functions, tubular glands being secretory and massive absorptive. If this be so, from whence do fish with massive glands obtain their bladder oxygen ? + Mr. Tate Regan intorms me that, according to Holt, “ Corvis giofrcdi” is merely the female form of C. jalis. GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 209 about twelve cells deep, is an example of the massive type possessing a squamous lining epithelium. The lumina consist of small crack-like spaces visible here and there between the cells (largely arranged in vertical rows) in transverse sections of the gland, and they form a system of fine anastomosing channels opening at various points on the surface into the bladder lumen. Gas bubbles were occasionally to be found in the gland cells. I did not observe any intracellular capil- laries, but they doubtless oceur; intercellular capillaries, on the other hand, are extremely plentiful and occur largely near the extreme edge of the gland underlying the layer of flattened cells. The glandular epithelium of Coris julis differs from preceding examples of the massive type in that the cells lying next the bladder cavity form the squamous layer, or in places layers, Just mentioned. It was doubtless because Corning (28) chiefly examined “red bodies” of this extreme massive type, as e. gy. that of the Pike, that he concluded that the bladder glands possess no lumina, and, indeed, were it not for our knowledge that most bladder glands possess lumina and that these vary greatly in volume according to the state of activity of the gland, we should probably come to the conclusion if studying exclusively the same material. CorRvVINA NIGRA Cuv., SARGUS RONDELETIY C. V., BaLisrEs cAPRiscus L., CARANX TRACHURUS and SERRANUS CABRILLA L. The “red bodies” of these genera all belong to the massive epithelium type, although they vary in appearance macroscopically (Pls. VIT. & VIIT. figs. 59-61) in correspondence with the varying configuration of the rete mirabile. The “red body” of Balistes alone is situated near the posterior end of the ventral wall of the bladder. In all cases the glandular epithelium has the usual structure—a thick mass of cells, penetrated by large or small intercellular and intracellular lumina and capillaries. ZEUS FABER L. The “red body” of Zeus faber is of the curious form depicted in figure 62 (Pl. VIIT.),and occupies the anterior half of the ventral surface of the bladder wall. It has already been figured by Vincent & Barnes (75). The “ red body ” consists of two lateral divisions, each division being shaped like a C divided into three parts, and its concavity facing that of its companion. The primary artery and vein enter at about the centre of the “red body” and supply branches to the retia mirabilia lying on the inner sides of the gas gland thickenings. Anteriorly to the “red body” a thick median longitudinal mnuscle-band is developed in the ventral bladder wall. The glandular epithelium of the John Dory is of the ordinary massive type, though more folded in appearance than is usual. It is significant that Vincent & Barnes, who wished to reduce all “red body” glandular epithelia to the folded type, remark 210 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE that ‘we have not been able to obtain sections which show the direct transition to the tubular glands, but there is no doubt that the epithelium takes on fairly suddenly a markedly glandular aspect.” A conspicuous feature in the gas gland of Zeus is the presence, among cells of the ordinary size, of giant cells and nuclei six to ten times as large (Pl. IX. fig. 65). Similar giant cells also oceur in Ophidium barbatum, Pierasfer acus, Peristethus cataphractus, alistes capriscus, Trigla gurnardus, and, in some instances, in Gobius paganellus and in other genera. The only suggestion concerning the origin of these giant cells with which I am acquainted is that implied by Deineka (29), who states that the similar giant cells in Perea give rise by amitotic division of the icleus to groups of cells of the usual size—the implication being that the giant cells are primary products of development and cells of normal size secondary products. My observations have led me to a somewhat different conclusion. In the first place, in many gas glands, containing giant cells (Zeus, e. g.), these giant cells usually lie more or less remote from the region where the blood- vessels enter the gland—giant cells are nearly always found towards the per ipher y or edge of the gland epithelium ; secondly, there is every gradation in size from the smallest to the giant gas gland cells, the smallest always being situated in those ortions of the gland next the large blood vessels, 7, e. at: the bases of the folds of folded glands and at the “ hub” or point of entry of the blood-vessels in massive glands (see figs. 46, 49, 52, on Plates V., VL., VII. e.g.) in addition to other regions, the cells of intermediate size like the smallest cells being found in most regions of the gland and the giant cells, as already mentioned, towards the peripheral portions of the gland * ; thirdly, among the smallest cells mitotic figures are quite common in many of my preparations, but among the intermediate and giant cells it is rare to find mitosis, though I have seen several cases of it in intermediate cells and once or twice even in cells approaching giant size; finally, J can confirm Deineka in his statement that the great majority of giant cells and many intermediate cells divide amitotically. Figure | 63 (Pl. VIIT.) shows the appearance of the epithelium at the base of the gland of Zeus, where the capillaries of the rete enter. It will be observed that in this genus many of the basal portions of the massive epithelium are syncytial in character, no cell-outlines being distin- guishable, and that occasionally mitotic figures are present among the nuclei of these syncytia. As we proceed from these syneytial masses towards the periphery of the gland, cell-outlines soon become more and more distinct and larger in size, but, as we might anticipate, though the giant cells are usually found towards the periphery of the gland, yet giant nuclei and nuclei of a size intermediate between these and the smallest nuclei are to be found * Reis remarks that in Sargus (in which there are no giant cells) the cells are’ largest next the blood-vessels anc! decrease in size towards the periphery, where they are squamous in character. This is not the case in my preparations of Sates rondeletii, where the cells are practically uniform in size at all depths of the gland, except per ‘haps at the very edge, where they are squamous. GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. 211 in the syneytial masses at the base of the gland. In cells of intermediate size and in giant cells amitosis occurs, as. I have already statel. Figure 64 illustrates several phases of direct division, but L must also mention that the huge nuclei of many giant cells, like those of myeloplaxes of bone-marrow, appear sometimes to divide into several—three, four, or more—nuclear lumps at a single division, though I do not remember to have seen cells containing more here two nuclei in the resting condition. These various facts “considered collectively seem to suggest that in cases like Zeus the initial unilaminar epithelium of the bladder wall must contain nuclei of various sizes and that the nuclei of each size, associated with cytoplasm, multiply in order to produce the massive gland of the adult fish. As the nuclei become more numerous they migrate from the centre of proliferation, the small nuclei occupying cytoplasm which, owing to the size of the nuclei, becomes subdivided up into small areas, the larger nuclei, fewer in number, also occupying cytoplasm which, owing to the superior size of the nuclei and their slow rate of division, remains to a large extent unsubdivided, so forming the giant cells round the giant nuclei. There is no evidence in my preparations of giant cells splitting up into groups of small cells. The small cells multiply by mitotic division, and amitosis is only found in the ease of the larger nuclei—those of the giant cells and larger intermediate cells. As to the origin of the giant nuclei I can give no information. It is stated that the cells of bone-marrow and some glands divide mitotically after undergoing amitosis, so that there is no theoretical objection to supposing that the small syneytial nuclei have been produced, as Deineka supposes, by amitotie subdivision of giant nuclei, but I have never seen any appearance of this taking place and I very much doubt its occurrence: nearly all the : appearances of amitosis which I have observed have been in connection with the nuclei of giant cells, i.e. far away from the syncytia. As to the reason fen amitosis occurring in connection with giant nuclei, it is only possible to veadvance the old suggestion that it isa pr elude to degeneration. The gas gland is-in Zeus and presumably other types “constantly being regenerated at its base, and therefore there is ground for supposing that cells at the periphery of the gland become used up and degeneration is thenatural result of this. But this supposed degeneration of the cells has nothing to do with the violent decomposition of cell-substance assumed to occur by Nusbaum & Reis in connection with the production of gas—a phenomenon for the existence of which I can find no evidence and in which I quite disbelieve. GADUS MORRHUA. The “red body” of the Cod* is known to every student of comparative anatomy as a large red mass situated anteriorly in the bladder. As Vincent & Barnes (75) say, the free surface of the “red gland” shows “many small clubbed processes, packed * T used common “Codling” caught off Deal. 2) DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE bo tightly together, each consisting of a red mass of tissue, sur- mounted by a cap of yellowish mucilaginous-looking material.” Each club-shaped process ‘“ consists essentially of two parts :— (1) a mass of capillary blood-vessels, lying side by side, conveying blood te and taking blood from the second parts; (2) a glandular portion.” In figure 66 (Pl. VIII.) is represented diagrammatically a transverse section of the gland of the ‘‘ Codling,” which shows the “clubbed processes” well in section, also one “cap of mucilaginous-looking” connective tissue. Vincent & Barnes go on to say that “when the capillaries arrive at a point about -2 mm. from the free surface of the gland, they interdigitate with involutions of the glandular epithelium, which dips down between them and forms a covering tor them, thus constituting tubular glands -2 mm. in length.” In other words, Vincent & Barnes state that the glandular epithelium of Gedus is that which I have deseribed above for the Hel and Syngnathus, and they provide a diagram of what they suppose to be the folded arrangement of the epithelium. Iam quite willing to admit that the small columnar cells which compose the glandular epithelium are in general arranged round strands of vascular connective tissue, and that occasionally the intercellular lumen is so extensive and so disposed as to give the glandular tissue an almost folded appearance, but there is no real ground for comparing the massive structure of the glandular epithelinm of the “ Codling” to the folded epithelium of Syngnathus, The gas gland of the “ Codling” 1s of the massive type, in which the intercellular lumina are very abundant and occasionally very large. The capillaries are very small and run in the numerons thick strands of connective tissue. As Vincent & Barnes mention, caps of connective tissue, continuous with the connective tissue penetrating the glandular epithelium, are often present. I have not examined them in detail. CEPOLA RUBESCENS L. The “red body” of Cepola rubescens 1s situated anteriorly in the ventral wall of the bladder and has somewhat the shape of a bell (Pl. VIII. fig. 67), the handle being formed by the rete mirabile. The artery and vein enter the “red body” anteriorly at the top of the bell-handle, and there give rise to the rete mirabile in the usual way. The rete mirabile gradually diminishes as it supplies the mass of the gas gland, which first appears, in the series of trans- verse sections, on the right side of the “red body” (text-fig. 59, G.H.). The peculiar feature about the “red body” of Cepola is the curious folding of the glandular mass anteriorly. The gas gland extends a considerable way posteriorly, as seen in figure 67, and the best way to comprehend the folding anteriorly—the folding, that is to say, of the whole mass of the gas gland, not the folding of the epithelium hitherto described —is to observe the diagrams of the sections contained in text-figure 59 in the reverse order, 7. ¢. observe H first and A last. Diagram H represents the glandular epithelium (the dotted area G.H.) as a mass of cells developed from the general squamous epithelium (/.#.) lining the GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISHES. Dales bladder cavity (B.C.) in the median line of the ventral wall of the bladder. In diagram G it is to be observed that the squamous epithelium on each side of the glandular mass has become folded (f.F.#.) and projects into the bladder cavity towards the median line. In diagram F these folds have nearly met in the middle line and lie dorsal to the gas gland in the bladder cavity ; also it will be observed that on the left side the glandular mass itself has become completely reflected towards the median line (/.L.G.G.), and lies in close apposition with the rest of the glandular mass. Still more anteriorly, the two lateral folds of squamous epithelium have, as shown in diagram EK, united in the median line, so that Text-fig. 59. H Diagrammatic transverse sections through the anterior end of fig. 67 (PJ. VIII.), where the rete mirabile supplies the epithelium of the gas gland. The diagram is fully explained in the text. two separate epithelia now lie in the bladder cavity above the gas gland, the upper of which (/./.Z.) is continuous with the squamous epithelium lining the rest of the bladder wall, and the lower (O.F.Z.) is continuous with the two sides (the left reflected as just described) of the glandular mass, which latter therefore now forms the thickened ventral wall of a tube. Diagram D shows that the dorsal thin wall of the tube just mentioned is being replaced by extensions of the glandular mass, this replacement of the thin epithelium being chiefly due to the increase in size of the Proc. Zoot. Soc.—1911, No. XV. 15 214 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE reflected left side of the glandular mass. In diagram C the reflected left side of the gas gland has increased so as to extend over the opposite or right side of the gland, a narrow crack (continuous posteriorly with the bladder cavity) only being left between the dorsal and ventral halves of the gas gland... In diagrams B and A, owing to the coalescence of the glandular masses of the dorsal and ventral portions of the gas gland on the right side (7. e. the replacement of the short strip of thin epithelium which in © closed the tube on the right side), the narrow crack (C) becomes bounded on all sides by the glandular substance, and this crack narrows anteriorly until it disappears shortly before the gas gland itself terminates. The mass of glandular epithelium (Pl. IX. fig. 68) resembles that of Coris julis in being (apparently) almost devoid of gland Jumina. Small intercellular cracks are visible here and there between the cells in my preparations, but that is all to be observed in the inactive gland. On the other hand, the glandular mass is penetrated by capillaries, and the large cells appear to arrange themselves round these capillaries to some extent, giving the gland in section almost a lobulateappearance. The cytoplasm of the cells is conspicuously darkened where in contact with the capillaries. Now and again large cells are found with a very large nucleus, but these are rare. Finally, it may be mentioned that the capillaries of the rete mirabile possess the peculiar endothelium which I have already described in Gobius paganellus and found in most “ red bodies.” PERGA FLUVIATILIS. The ‘ved body” of the freshwater Perch is a diffuse organ situated anteriorly on the ventral and lateral portions of the bladder wall (Pl. TX. fig, 69). The retia mirabilia are seen as small fan-shaped tufts present at the extremities of the various branchings of the closely-associated artery and vein (both included in the red streak seen in the bladder wall), and bordering these tufts of rete are the areas of gas gland. ‘The gas gland is of the ordinary massive type, but feebly developed compared with the gas glands of most marine fish, consisting in its thickest parts of not more than six cell-layers (see text-fig. 62, p. 240) and dwindling to one at its edges (P]. TX. fig. 70). The giant cells described by Deineka in young Perch are only of very moderate size in my preparations *, indeed, not so large as those I have figured in the case of Zeus ; as in Zeus, amitosis occurs in connection with most of the cells. With reference to the suggestion of Deineka that these giant cells ‘subdivide into groups of the smaller cells as a consequence of the fragmentation of the nucleus, I have already advanced reasons for regarding this as improbable (see Zews). Previous Descriptions of the Structure of the Ophidium : or Third Type of ‘‘ Red Body.” I shall here merely enumerate the chief histological descriptions of gas glands of the massive type. Emery 1880 (33), Mierasfer ; * My Perch were from 10-14 cm. in iength. GAS GLANDS OF SOME TELEOSTEAN FISIIES. 215 Coggi 1886 (25), Serranus, Perca, Balistes, Corvina, Julis, Motella and other types, and 1889 (28) Lsou lucius; Corning 1888 (28), fisox, Perca and other types; Vincent & Barnes 1896 (75), Zeus, Gadus and other types; de Seabra 1897 (31), soa and others; Jaeser 1903 (44), Sciena, Lucioperca; Deineka 1904 (29), Perca, Hsox and other types; Bykowski & Nusbaum 1904 (24), Fierasfer, Ophidium; Reis & Nusbaum 1905, 1906 (62, 63), Polyacanthus (Macropodus), Kierasfer, Ophidium, Charax, Perca ; Reis 1906 (64, 65), Sargus, Charax, Pagellus, Corvina, Umbrina, Chrysophrys and others described in a general way. Summary of Part I. and General Conclusions respecting bee Gas Gland Structure. From the foregoing it is now manifest that all teleostean ‘“ 1ed bodies,” ¢. e. the vasculo-glandular gas-producing organs situated in the bladder wall, are composite structures consisting of two distinct and sometimes separate parts—the glandular epithelium or gas gland* and the rete mrabile +. Vhe mutual relationships of these two parts are quite constant, and though the gas gland must be described ag the essential part, yet the rete, on account of its constant = presence and undoubtedly highly important function, is probably of almost equal importance. The rete mirabile bipolare geminum (Miiller, 53), 7. e. the arterial and venous rete already described, is always formed in connection with the artery and vein supplying the gas gland, and may either be anatomically quite distinct from the glandular epithelium (Hel type), the arterial and venous capillaries reuniting to a varying extent on the gland side of the rete to form large arteries and veins before supplying the glandular epithelium, or the rete mirabile may be contiguous with the glandular epithelium, the capillaries of the rete undergoing little (e. g. Syngnathus) or no (e. g. Ophidium) reunion before supplying this. The diffuse pancreas, when present, is often intermingled with the arteries and veins situated at the extreme anterior end of the rete, and so actually becomes situated inside the bladder wall ; it was at first, on account of several peculiarities, mistaken by me for a new gland with a special function connected with the gas gland, but this view was quite a mistaken one, the penetration of the pancreas into the bladder wall being of no physiological significance. The gross anatomical differences, often visible to the naked eye, which are to be found in ‘‘red bodies” taken from different fishes, are determined by the disposition and degree of subdivision of the rete mirabile—since the distribution of the glandular * The “ driisige siiume ” of Miiller and the “ corpo epitheliale ” of Coggi. + ‘The “ vaso-ganglion ” of Owen and “ organo vascolare” of Emery. { That is to say, using the term “gas gland” in the usual sense as equivalent to ‘oxygen gland” (see Part II.), the rete is constantly associated with it; the rete, however, is absent in the cases of those bladders the lining-epithelia of which only, or principally, “ secrete” nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Tor 216 DR. W. N. F. WOODLAND ON THE epithelium must evidently correspond with that of the rete mirabile. It need hardly be pointed out that the gross ana- tomical simplicity or complexity of the “red body” by no means always corresponds with the histological simplicity or complexity of the gland epithelium, and that this latter affords the only true basis for a classification of “‘red bodies.” One of the most simple (though not the most primitive) conditions of the rete mirabile is when it is single and compact*. In this condition it may be separate from the glandular epithelium and ovoid in shape (Ophichthys imberbis, fig. 9, e.g.), or contiguous with the glandular epithelium and circular in form (Godius, fig. 22, e. g.), conical (Cepola, fig. 67, e. g.) ov fan-shaped (Ophidium, fig. 48, e. g.), &e. In some cases the rete mirabile is divided into two, and here these are separate from the glandular epithelium and ovoid in form (Anguilla, text-fig. 53, Myrus, Murcena, Ophichthys serpens, &e.). In other cases the rete mirabile is divided up into several distinct parts, which often have a radiate arrangement: e. g. 10 Peristethus the rete is split up into some ten radiating strands (fig. 37 and text-fig. 57) and in some species of Gobiws into seven or more. In most cases, however, the initial artery and vein supplying the bladder give off numerous arteries and veins in pairs (an artery and a vein to each pair, of course) at intervals so as to give rise either (@) to continuous sheets of rete mirabile, so to speak, very often two in number, one on each side, as in Corvina nigra (fig. 59), Sargus rondeletii (fig. 60), and Smaris vulgaris (fig. 45), or (6) to sheets divided up im variable degrees, as e.g. in Box boops, where the sheets are divided into outer and inner on each side (figs. 51, 52), or in Zeus faber, where there are three separate sheets—anterior, median, and posterior—on each side (fig. 62), or (c) to numerous separate small strands or tufts of rete mirabile, each strand supplying a small area of glandular epithelium: thus, in Coris julis (figs. 56, 57) the rete is seen under the microscope to be subdivided into many small strands supplying the small area occupied by the gas gland ; in Trigla hirundo also a similar condition exists, but here, indeed, the twigs extend nearly over the whole interior of the bladder cavity (fig. 43) instead of being restricted to a small area; in other cases where the tufts are larger and more separated, these can be seen with the naked eye, as, e. g., in RRR 7 18 rar | IE OMVESERUNALS) cic ccricienioten see 58 20 62 JL TOAUD OS Salis saa eae te oe en eee 3 10 16 JUS VOICI Sener BOOS aor AOR 21 10 atl DER CS UUSIM NG | ses ic otieatede ae cic cians’ 22, 16:6 143 BL (tO HOCTOSD ee 3 5:3 vy WSO HIEC nae» anne =) Seren see 16 30 119 VEE SUES Mee oh Sos Sisilred Pa < tested Gee 203 13 75 WES SHE CLOSILS Mee ae his sae HOMRs chica 4 4] 104 MEANT US: SARS se cliccicoetencceelsee’ a 18 fia LMT ROUCOCKAS 5 SHS RAOO RBA O OD ona Bees 2 16°5 19 VES Gf ESCONS FA stk. onomancee anew 2 8 15 VSS OCT.COLUS) aie see ee eee ) 1] 28 MBO VAUUSS:. CUI SO a ee 24 12-3 38 432 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND The large number of Macaque monkeys recorded shows the same low average duration, and the same marked difference between the average and the maximum duration, although the latter is certainly below the potential longevity. A Common Macaque occasionally deposited temporarily at the Gardens is stated by its owner to be at least 22 years old. It is of significance that the highest average relates to Japanese apes, examples of which, unlike all the others, were housed in a cage exposed to the open air. No, of Av. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. im months. Cynopithecus WAger .........0.0--0 00 9 10 Al (Celebes Black Ape.) All Balboomst ip bacncccctsnm toateenca: 137 12-2 113 Theropithecus gelada@ ............--- 2 9-5 10 Cynocephalus anubis ............... 12 12°6 51 CECA DOI: ON I AVE IOS: 19 10 Its} OCRAOG ETE PR Ree 1 4 4 Oh JODO UF OCS 000000008800 seneoenG0% 22 12 29 CRUE CTIISIMES Ae PON OR INE OTRO 1 1 1 Oleicophatseins Ae tet. alee 6 16 26 OG MOMOOD sosbus seo seaccbseads5s600 ns 7 15 25 (OSM IGIUCH IO), “seaadoreneeonooeecs a 1 7 7 ON DAP COW 6A Rh I eR BB 2 3 6 OR DORCU RUSH: sdhaocoocds 46 8 17 CRUNCHES. ee Re ee 9 We 39 CRIN ORUCHUSMM ore eee eee Ee 21 14:3 AQ CiSfoellenos nist secs accent erie tetet 1 15 15 OROUIRIODIUIP. udsosodoooos ooavesadeass 1 31 31 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 433 No. of Av. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. inmonths. inmonths. Ateles, whole genus. ............... 107 5°8 27 (Spider-monkeys.) EAGLE Pp Cesta et ot ORT ne) Aa eee eee 54 4:5 27 LIANG COIPENOU Da tes», tl sancs cin eiarine, Bongo d 10 (es) 24 WAN GUISE SCO MUS tapes des slats « scduin/atsieh otogalt ope 1 2 2 Beg OPIOUSE A ca senjek Rend de okie oi, ] 9 9 PART UGITO CIT iad iat sd aelossisratge cfosterf: 31 8 20 TTT DESGUIS PE ay, Ob RO ean Cee Oe EE 4 5:2 10 AAT UP UCIUERIS sv hecoptnte strain’ ed baie lem 2, 3 4 AS CTLOG ADU Stefi jerdoishinrs aeinacyatt dese 3 46 11 PA MUCLICT OSU Siig 2 ais artousx 46, sites Ayapeiayen' 1 3 3 Lagothrix hwmboldti ............... 14 5:2 16 Nyctipithecus, whole genus ...... 27 13 AD (Douroucoulis.) INE AIC cen ookb Ope enact ce SURE eRe 14 13 45 ING GOGIYOIS. ented wpeoneoceeds: > eeE Nees ] 1 i NEMERCUUNGGLUUS) Sa ete iyeecr eae a ars. 2 9) 5 ING SUOCI Er UIS: Pere «sete hea: eo << 10 15) & 98 Callithrix, whole genus ............ 5 4 8 (Teetees. ) Pithecia, whole genus ...........-. 16 Zia i Ouacaria, whole genus ............ 7 3°5 11 Mycetes, whole genus. ............ 9 3°6 13 The Cebide show the same marked disparity between the average duration and the maximum duration, although again the latter must be considerably less than the potential longevity. It is interesting to notice that the Capuchins and Squirrel Monkeys display a higher viability than the others. HAPALIDA. No. of Av. dur. Max. dur. (Marmosets. ) Indiv. in months. in months. Hapale, whole genus ............... 232 3°8 16 JER OUKISOLANIGDS. Socosevocee eee ee 1 i if ELS OCCN IES, WNP Nephi. 0 AAR Rese otek 134 4-2 16 Yale IGG OUIRLL, 85 Core oe net 6 a cesdecs. 1 6 6 ETD CRC CECE tN aa er tlle hc 94 34 16 TTY GUE Us: ANE chen. Bas oP ecvartaine 2 2°5 5 Midas, whole genus .....2..2..+++. 103 6 110 MR GhpySOMClasy hn soasttem tek dekeke 2 6°5 1] MEROCO POU Bit ets Verh PAE: otha a 2°4. 4 WM LOCUGL CUS ek ROR oor nan ated atyece 1 4 4 AM SUSE AC ieee Pods 4 sc Belge! ele. 1 5) 5 MiSs UU PUis cae sack erica GO as Ss,s 25 4 14 Mes nOSaliGk Vinge S244 septsas ake 39 9 110 DE RU UIICH OLS aoe done enone? Rao nee 11 45 16 Wie aiasanhit Shp eM ape cadte. Sie eet: 17 4:6 12 Amongst the numerous Marmosets dealt with in the record, a A434 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND single case of relatively high longevity, that of a Lion Marmoset which lived in the Gardens for over 9 years, has given those of the genus Midas an average duration of nearly double that of the representatives of Hapale. Hven this fortunate instance, however, does not disguise the low viability of Marmosets under the conditions of their captivity. As these animals spend a large part of their time in their sleeping boxes, unwise feeding by visitors cannot account for much. On the other hand, they have been treated as animals that required special protection from cold and fresh air. Miss C. Morey informs me that she has kept a marmoset for 16 years; it was allowed great freedom and had constant access to fresh air. LEMURES. No. of Av. dur. Max. dur. LEMuURIDA. Indiy. in months. in months. Lemur, whole genus ..............: 155 25°3 134 DONO ROO Wan seaoeecalon ses Sear ae: 16 43°6 113 She, UOWROTUS sesogocsscancesosoesneec 1 36 36 LE OP CHODUC TIS atoies ony Oo NOH ve oe 22 25 98 HES COULG dia NAR Hela ON tu inl 33 i 38 Loy COPOMAHO US fo ncisedadsoededsosbedaeeno: 10 G5 5D Lin UDC POMS Wwabcondosardsesdecs dass 1 AD 45 UTR TVUCHC Orin tee pe tN OP Ihe 46 134 Jb GHEIOTAOS Sogo 0ecesenontesneo vee: 1 2 2 WES ROR OR oe eticeh bee aasten eek Ree 7 39 122 TRG CT Tec AEs PRONE AE = AOR. 3 63 107 JL; GUTEPPUTOLES! conooc den scosAnh rab odooe 2 30°5 43 TREAUOPUF EONS 1) Tan MEN, SO ED 3 23 46 TOU TONS EEN Aa te EROS, E 13 27 113 LLG UJUDOS crete ES ee 3 22 29 SU GTV US RE Levee sei heen eer Nene 10 20°9 77 Jb FETAL OMDORSITEG neon goes 2066068656 13 29 72 Llapalemurrstnus .. 5.0.2.8 2 DD 8 TEL SGRUSE US BER Bote RRS 6 22 58 Chirogaleus coquereli ............... 8 82 184 CGR AR RN Vick WE 2 ih, 2 70 138 WMicnocebusismith? sa ene eee 14 20 84 Galago, whole genus ............... 61 22 86 GST ei 4 Ninn el ance at ae 3 9 15 EO NCRUSSCUUAALA ener ee 7 16 34 G NG ONTICEL I: ARM 15 ine Nar Slee 20 175 A3 GAT CIVOU CA gk aati e eR ee Ee 25 26°7 78 GE ATO NECUTIM 2S). Se kee REP ERA 6 32 86 Nyecticebus javamicus ............... 1 21 21 J, GORCMOTROUUIS. Woonssecsadnoos0s00u 29 13 AQ TGTISKG OCU IS wane ate ee 12 374 7 TET ROONEIOS JULIO.“ Gandnooconsnonsces 18 9°3 22 Chiromys madagascariensis ...... 3 36'3 107 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 435 With the exception of the Loris and the Potto, the Lemurs show a longer average duration and a higher maximum duration than in the case of Monkeys. There still remains, however, a very marked discrepancy between the average duration and the maximum duration, although the latter must be regarded as much below the probable potential longevity. On the whole, lemurs have been kept under conditions not very different from those of the monkeys. It is probably in their favour that as they are more nocturnal than monkeys, they have escaped to a greater extent erroneous feeding by the public, whilst as they are on the whole more strictly arboreal than monkeys, the relative absence of light and the more equable temperature in the interior of warmed houses have not been so damaging to them. On the other hand, they are, on the average, smaller than monkeys, and as within the same group smaller animals have usually shorter lives than larger animals, a longer average duration and a higher maximum duration as compared with monkeys, was not to be expected. Summary of Quadrumana. It is well known that the higher races of men have a higher viability than the lower races; that is to say, they display a greater power of resistance to adverse conditions, to changed conditions, and to diseases (although not necessarily to any particular disease). It is of interest to find that a still lower viability is exhibited by apes and monkeys which as a group have an amazingly poor power of resistance to the adverse con- ditions of captivity. It is even more interesting to note that there is a marked gap between monkeys and lemurs in this respect. The fact that the latter on an average live four or five times as long in captivity as monkeys, shows a marked difference in their constitutions. I may recall a curious by-product of an investi- gation into the feeding of snakes made by my friend and collea gue Mr. R. 1. Pocock and myseif (P. Z. 8. 1907, p. 785), when we found that lemurs differed from monkeys in having no fear of snakes. Fundamental differences between groups are revealed not only by anatomical characters, and in view-of the present tendency to lay increasing stress on the anatomical links between lemurs and other primates, I think their physiological differences are worth some attention. There is, however, another interpretation of the higher viability of lemurs in captivity. The close affinity of man and monkeys may render the latter more subject to human diseases and therefore more lable to suffer from the vicinity of man. Such a question can be answered only by long records of the causes of mortality based on adequate diagnosis. The laborious work of my friend and colleague Mr. H. G. Plimmer, unfortunately does not extend back to the period with which my present inquiry deals. Even if it be accepted that apes, monkeys, and lemurs are creatures of inherently low powers of resistance, the striking difference between the average durations and the maximum 436 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND durations makes it clear that they have been subjected to adverse conditions. Throughout the period to which the figures relate, and in a majority of cases since, the conditions of their housing have been determined by considerations of temperature rather than of fresh air. The conclusion is inevitable that these con- ditions are adverse. This is not the place to discuss the construction of houses for animals, but it may be well to say that there is no reason to suppose that the other extreme, com- plete indifference to the provision of warmth; would be much better, although it could not be much worse. Capt. Stanley Flower’s records show no figures of maximum duration greater than those recorded here. CARNIVORA. FELIDE. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in months. Gh ao (LAGI) ened. dobeosvasdawnd aes a5) A5-4 204. HH SGHOMIS (ISON) he eka ee eee 30 44-2 145 Jil, yoapainis (QUE PARC) 52.420 sc 255202040: 52 39°9 164 FF, uncia (Snow-leopard) ..... rae 2 20°5 AO Jd sO 0o( (wig) chgeee th ce ecole 8 57 169 JES GGG (Loe LyPIOwS)) eodevasolsess os888 3 DD 122 fF, canadensis (Canadian Lynx) ... 2 13 139 it amare (Ceneeall)) 5 ddosabiesieensoe- 9 63 131 HE coneotor, ( uma) nt). Arcee eopivints 18 A\-2 124 JTS O10GT (VESTA) Poecodssosaodacsosdseo 8 33°5 123 I have omitted from these figures a certain number of entries of under one month and which, in most cases, related to very young animals or new-born cubs. ‘The highest record in the period, 17 years, in the case of a Lion, is certainly very much under the potential longevity of the group, for lions of between 30 and 40 years old have been known. The discrepancy between the average duration and the maximum duration is still great, but very much less serious than in the case of apes and monkeys, and considerably less than in the case of lemurs. Capt. Stanley Flower gives no higher records. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in months. F. nebulosa (Clouded Tiger)......... 1 62 62 Hasenvaln (Servall) Ms. Aes 4 secceete oct 22 21-7 98 F. servalina (Servaline Cat) ......... 9) 9 AD5 F. temmincki (Golden Cat) ......... 4 24 65 I, viverrina (Viverrine Cat)......... 4 51 112 F. bengalensis (Bengalese Cat)...... 22 16 77 fF. planiceps (Rusty Tiger Cat) .... 2 9) 5) F. rubiginosa (Rusty Spotted Cat). 2 15, 2 F, chrysothrix (Red Tiger Cat)...... 1 1 1 Liyeatis(NValdg ait) aes. ecko. 31 15 110 fF. chaus (Jungle Cat) ............... 15 AT 118 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 437 No. of Ay. dur, Max. dur. Indiv. inmonths. in months. felis caffra (Kather Cat) ............ 3 1 2 F. maniculata (Fettered Cat) ...... 2 17:5 35 F. yaguarundi (Yaguarundi Cat)... 5 1 3 PERCU ( WAv CARO Alby) eines acs farsal seie\e' 3 10 19 109 FP. pardalis (Ocelot) .................. 56 U7 152 F. tigrina (Tigrine Wat, ise. 4 3 i, F, geoffrott (Geoftroy’s Cat) ......... 10 17°8 103 F. passerum (Pampas Cat) ......... 2 8 10 The records of average and maximum duration of these smaller Cats are very irregular, and in many cases the numbers are too small for the result to be more than accidental. We do not know what is the potential longevity of the smaller cats; it may be expected to be less than that of large cats, and has been estimated at something over twenty years. It is clear that the difference between average duration and potential duration has been much greater in the case of the small cats than in that of the large eats. The domestic cat is notoriously a hardy animal, and I should hesitate to infer a lower viability for small cats than for large cats. In the first place, throughout the period under dis- cussion, the majority of the large cats were kept in the Lion House, a building i in which the ventilation and bulk of air per inhabitant were fairly g good, whilst, although there was not free communi- cation with “ae outer air, there were outdoor ¢ cages, to which on occasion the animals had access. The smaller cats, on the other hand, were kept in a smaller and darker house, sasscocecooseseses 10 249 110 C. chama (Silver-backed Fox) ......... 15 19 62 C’. famelicus (Syrian Fennec) ......... 5 14:4 32 Of, jroo (L880) INOS) Aascscaosonoseesdocer 21 30 S77 Ol, KagajsuIs (CACMG 180s) }ocvode0 sob0des8o 24 488 132 C. leucopus (Indian Desert-Fox) ...... 6 50 91 C. niloticus (Egyptian Fox) ............ 9 32°5 CO C. pallidus (Pale Fennec Fox) ......... 5) 15 60 Of gn tioaa | IRING INNS) p pook cosaddaoseoacobacee 5 5 34 71 C. virgimanus (Virginian Fox)......... 1] 12°6 30 C, wailleas (Clomimnein INOE)) « coobbesassnse0- 4] 14:6 87 All Foxes and Fennec Foxes......... 165 26°7 132 Lycaon pictus (Cape Hunting-Dog)... 6 19°3 D6 Icticyorn venaticus (Bush-dog) ......... 1 2°5 + Otocyon megalotis (Long-eared Fox)... 4 A-5 8 The potential longevity of Canine animals is probably not much RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 44] more than thirty years. Ray Lankester * has recorded a domestic dog of 34 years; the oldest Metchnikoff was able to procure was 22 years and was very decrepid. The maximum record in this list—a Jackal which lived in the Gardens for nearly fourteen years, but the age of which on arrival is unrecorded,—is, therefore, not at all unexpected. The viability varies roughly with size, the wolves having a better average than jackals, small wild dogs and foxes. Within the period recorded, so far as I can ascertain, the wolves have been freely exposed to the open air, whilst many, although not all, of the smaller animals have been provided with artificial heat. Capt. Stanley Flower has no higher records. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. MUSTELIDS. Indiv. immonths. in months. Mustela, whole genus..........0.c0ece000 38 29 123 M. erminea (Common Stoat)............ 7 21 39 MM, fone (Beech-Marten) ...........--.: 5 48-4 84 M. martes (Pine-Marten) ............... tf 27 107 M. pennanti (Canadian Marten) ...... 1 123 123 M. putorius (Pole-cat) ..........0.0.065 11 10:6 26 MS nulganis’ (NWexsel) 22.0) e222 see aee 7 38°7 94 Gulo luscus (Glutton) ...............-200+- 6 A2 64 Galictis barbara (Tayra) ...........2.2..+- 13 30 95 Cavitiata(Grison)! ty, eee eee 12 Al 117 Ictonyx frenata (Banded Zorilla) ...... 1 2 2 I. lybiea (Libyan Zorilla) ............... 8 8:5 A] Ut sonllan(Cape-Zorilla\) 298 oe 18 15 65 Helictis subaurantiaca (Orange-bellied 1 48 48 Helictis). Mellivora capensis (Cape Ratel)......... 1 208 208 M. indica (Indian Ratel) ............... 1 152 152 Tauxidea americana (American Badger) 2 130 145 Meles ankuwma (Sand Badger) ......... 3 79 152 M.leptorhynchus (Sharp-nosed Badger) 1 9 9 M. taxus (Common Badger) ............ 26 32 137 PMIMIBENOUGRES gS See eerodhe ot pote ceco epeecee. 32 41-5 152 Mephitis mephitica (Canadian Skunk). 5 25 50 Conepatus mapurito (Chilian Skunk). 5 21 AQ Lutra leptonyx (Small-clawed Otter)... 2 ih 10 iar (indians Otter) te ses. eecen ceo: 3 32 52 L. vulgaris (Common Otter) ............ 36 AO 87 The average and maximum durations of the various Musteline carnivores vary irregularly. The longest duration, 17 years for a Cape Ratel, is surpassed by an Indian Ratel which has been for 20 years in the Gardens and is still alive. It is clear that the potential longevity of the Mustelines is high, if their relatively * Quoted by E. Metchnikoff, ‘The Prolongation of Life,’ English Translation. Heinemann, London, 1907. 449, DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND small size be considered. The apparent low viability of many of these animals may be attributed partly to their fierce and active disposition, from which it comes about that captured animals are frequently young or feeble, and that after capture there is heavy mortality from fighting and injury. But there is a marked effect of the mode of housing; the ratels and badgers have been kept in open-air enclosures, whilst a majority of the other forms have been housed in small cages in dark, warmed and_badly-ventilated houses. Capt. Stanley Flower has no higher records. Vf 7 ~ . . Procyontp#. Shs ucinrorireeatisance Procyon cancrivorus (Crab-eating 10 68 190 Raccoon). 12, DUP (UEKEEOOM)) goscnnasancossccoacer 24 50 165 Nasua narica (White-nosed Coati). 35 14 46 NV. rufa (Ring-tailed Coati) ......... 63 12°5 62 Cercoleptes caudivolvulus (Kinkajou) 30 30 75 Bassaris astuta (Cunning Bassaris). 5 10°6 29 Bassaricyon allent (Allen’s Bas- 1 66 66 saricyon). The Procyonide are another group regarding the potential longevity of which we have no information. The record of nearly 16 years for a Raccoon shows that the group in this respect resembles the larger mustelines. It is noteworthy that the average longevity of the Raccoons, which have been kept out of doors, is very much higher than that of the Coatis, which have been kept indoors. No. of Avy. dur, Max. dur. ASLURIDE. Indiv. inmonths. in months. Ailurus fulgens (Panda)...............++ 2 32 64 UrsID&. Unstistewino ley SemuSeeensseeentee ween (5) 68°9 400 U. americanus (Black Bear) ............ 12 (i 205 U. arctos (Browns 2. seas iaee een enn we 20 23°6 133 US, loirmalbalins (Curly 5.) soosevsscces 1 164 164 U. isabellinus(Isabelline ,, )............ 4 84 153 U. japonicus (Japanese ,, ).isciictis:. 2 109°5 123 U. malayanus (Malay ,, )....5....00. 4) 91 247 O, anes (Wollee 5) onvoacaeaced 8 102 400 OU ornatus (Spectacled jy) 1.20. 2:4.- 2 96 163 U. piscator(Hairy-eared ,, )............ vA cull 309 309 U. syriacus (Syrian sale aa gaaba 8 107°6 259 U. tubetanus(Himalayan’,, )............ 12 3 179 Melursus ursinus (Sloth Bear) ......... 9 Al 109 The duration of over 33 years attained by a Polar Bear may RELAYLIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 443 possibly approach the potential longevity of bears, for the con- ditions provided, affording exercise, constant access to fresh air and to shelter, and regular food, must be more natural than in the case of most animals in captivity. The average duration of life of the bears is probably low on account of the number of cubs which are included and which had received unwise treatment as pets. Nevertheless, the average longevity is higher than in the case of any other large carnivora, and it is interesting to notice that during the period dealt with these animals, although not given good room for exercise, were freely exposed to the open air, and at the same time provided with some artificial heat. Capt. Stanley Flower’s records are much lower. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. OTARIID#. Indiv. inmonths. in months. Otaria, whole genus’ 2 ....2.cc.00..0c00e ee 6 108 210 O. californiana (Californian Sea-lion). — 1 51 51 O. hookeri (Hooker’s ti Gy cam ft 18 34 O. jubata (Patagonian ,, )2 2 199 210 O. pusilla (Cape Sea-lion) ............... 1 151 151 Halichorus gryphus (Grey Seal)......... ihe 17 73 Phoca vitulina (Common Seal) ......... 25 20 172 Monachus albiventer (Mediterranean 2 17 34 Seal). Cystophora cristata ( meee 7 4:5 26 Seal). Sea-lions and Seals evidently at least equal in potential longevity other members of the order Carnivora of large size. The relatively low average duration is due to the very heavy mortality of young and newly caught animals. The greatest number of deaths are of animals that have lived only a few months in the Gardens; if they survive that period, and only a small proportion do survive it, their duration of life is very good. They have free access to epen air, and no artificial heat. Summary of Carnivora. Carnivora are generally regarded as animals with relatively long lives and high viability, and the records given above support such aview. It is curious, moreover, how the maximum durations correspond roughly with the sizes of the animals. Bears reached 33 years, Lions and Tigers 17, Sea-lions 17, the smaller Cats 13, Viverrids 15, Hyznas 13, Jackals 13, Badgers 12, smaller Dogs and Foxes 10, Mustelines 10. On the other hand, comparison of average durations with maximum durations shows in the clearest way that those animals have lived best which have had the readiest access to fresh air, that, in fact, darkness and the bad air of heated houses are much greater dangers to life than cold. 444 Dk. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND INSECTIVORA. No.of Av.dur. Max. dur. SORECID. Tae in Hee in Sata Crocidura cerulescens (Bluish Shrew). 1 1 1 ERINACEIDA. Hrinaceus, whole genus ............------ 53 10 54 E. albiventris (White-bellied Hedgehog) 1 1 1 FE. algirus (Algerian Hedgehog) ...... 3 28 39 HE. auritus (Long-eared ,, ) ...... 8 12 24 E. collaris (Collared et ae ete tee 6 1) 54 Hi. europeus(Kuropean ,, ) ...... 33 7 20 E. frontalis (Cape Saat g) Weeeee il 1 1 H. micropus (Small-footed ,, +) ...... 1 1 1 TUPAUIDS. Tupaia peguana (Peguan Tree-Shrew) 1 22 22 iE canvad (hanaeAltenpania) eee sapere il 28 28 CENTETID A. Centetes ecaudatus (Tenrec) ............ Tl 10°5 24 I do not know of any information as to the potential longevity of Insectivora, and the few records which I have found would appear to show that both the viability and the longevity of these animals under the conditions of captivity are bad. They have invariably been kept indoors, in small cages in houses heated i winter. Capt. Stanley Flower’s records are all low, the maximum being 34 months for a Long-eared Hedgehog. CHIROPTERA. No. of Av. dur. Max. dur. PTEROPODIDA. Indiv. inmonths. in months. Pteropus, whole genus .............+. 42 30 205 P. formosus (Formosan Fruit-bat). 3 62 94 P. gouldi (Gouldian See yok pel 58 58 P.medius (Indian et 0) 27 205 P. poliocephalus(Australian ,, ). 6 22 83 P. pselaphon (Bonin ee fa iene 26 26 P. scapulatus (Scapulated ,, ). 1 ff 7 Cynonycteris collaris (Collared 13 18 108 Fruit-Bat). Cynopterus marginatus(White-eared 4 24 30 Fruit-Bat). ° Metchnikoff has already recorded from the London Zoological Gardens the case of maximum duration amounting to 17 years in a Fruit-bat, and has pointed out that the probable maximum longevity of such batsis high. The records show that the viability under existing conditions is not good, as wherever there is a RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 445 considerable number of specimens, the average duration is much below the maximum duration. There is no difficulty about feeding these animals, but they have always been treated as creatures requiring protection from cold and indifferent to fresh air. Capt. Stanley Flower records a Collared Fruit-bat of over 11 years’ duration and still alive. VESPERTILIONIDE. hae a cae cane Vespertilio noctula (Great Bat) ... 10 1:9 5 V. natterert (Natterer’s Bat) ...... 12 1 1 Plecotus auritus (Long-eared Bat). 11 09 1 Bats are popularly supposed to be long-lived animals, but these records show only the complete failure to keep them in captivity. The chief difficulty has been to induce them to feed. RODENTIA. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. ScruRiIDsA. Indiv. in months. in months. NCUURUS: WihOlesCeNUS § san-ceekeeee ee te 273 15:5 181 S. cestivans (Tropical Squirrel)... 2 22:5 Al S. arizonensis (Arizona Dia) ie Se 39 39 S.atrodorsalis (Dark-backed ,, )... 1 10 10 S. bicolor (Jelerang SA idee et 10°5 23 S. caniceps (Hoary-headed,, )... 1 114 114 S. castaneiventris (Chestnut - bellied 2 71 107 Squirrel). S. cinereus (Grey Squirrel) ......... 24. A8°7 181 S. ephippium (Saddled ,, )......... 1 64 64 S. erythropus(White-banded Squirrel) 2 13°5 15 S. griseus (Western Grey jie ewes 25 40, S. griseo-flavus (Guatemala wattle: th 34 34 S. hudsonius (Hudson-Bay DB Pee) 40°5 99 S. hypopyrrhus (Dorsal By 2 344 89 4+ dorsalis. S. ludovicianus (Yellow-footed ,, ) 2 29°5 56 S. macrurus (Grizzled Hill go) 2 WGP) 19 S. madagascariensis (Madagascar ,, ) 1 4 4 S. maximus (Malabar panne eo) 21-5 75 = indicus. S. nigro-vittatus (Malayan po eel 34:5 68 S. palinarum (Palm 56h) uD 3-2 14 S. plantani (Plantain ale 22, 53 S. prevostt (Prevost’s Fi aduise) es) 34 S. pusillus (Dwarf bey 2 8:5 12 S. pygerythrus (Blanford’s i) a 2 2 S. stramineus (Fraser’s ey ae 8 8 S. syriacus (Syrian Pe ilvice 59 69 S. tennents (Tennent’s eat) th) D 25°4 42 S. tristriatus (Three-striped ,, ) 4 3:5 5 446 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND No. of Avy. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. inmonths. in months. Sciurus variabilis (Variable Squirrel) 2 73 75 S. variegatus (Red-bellied ,, ) 13 36 129 S. vulgaris (Common iu iog tah 6 20 S. vulpina (Vulpine oe ULO 36 85 AGA MS. SNe ETUIS Sodeascossontageenace 24 9°8 4] X..erythropus (Red-footed Ground 7 8 19 Squirrel). AX. getulus (Getulian Ground 11 10°5 4] Squirrel). AX. setosus (Bristly Ground 6 10 15 Squirrel). Tamias, whole genus ..........-.20+++- 16 26 84 T. asiaticus (Asiatic Ground Squirrel) 3 8 23 7. lateralis (Side-striped_,, ae 1 All 21 7. striatus (Chipping Squirrel) ...... 12 3] 84 Pteromys, whole genus ......-.....+.+--- 5 61 163 P. albo-rufus (Red-bellied Flying- 1 163 163 Squirrel). P. inornatus (Large Red Flying- 1 2 2 Squirrel). P. leucogenys (White Cheeked 1 101 101 Flying-Squirrel). P. magnificus (Red-bellied Flying- 1 36 36 Squirrel). P. oral (Large Brown Flying- 1 3 3 Squirrel). Sciuropterus, whole genus ............ 14 15 61 S. fimbriatus (Grey Flying-Squirrel). 11 13°7 61 S. layardi (Layard’s ,, Ona eng 1 1 1 iS. volucella (American ,, sO ne) Gor ne 30 Be = volans. Spermophilus, whole genus ............ 24 17 132 S. citillus (European Souslik)... 5 74 iit S. grammurus (Line-tailed ,, )... 1 119 119 S. mexicanus (Mexican 2 : 3 A7 S52 S. mongolicus (Mongolian ,, _).. 4 10:7 22 S. tridecimlineatus (Thirteen-str iped 11 5D 22 Souslik). Arctomys, whole genus.................- 23 64 164 A. caudatus (Long-tailed Marmot). 1 15 15 A. himalayanus (Himalayan ,,_) 1 79 79 A. hodgsont (Hodesonis mos 6 ae 73°5 74 A.marmotia (Alpine ia ee all) 82 164 A. monax (Quebee Pai) 9 aye 116 Cynomys ludovicianus (Prairie ,, ) 48 30 98 JT am unacquainted with any published observations as to the = 6X ON RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 447 longevity of Squirrels and other members of the Sciuride, and it was a surprise to find that a Squirrel had lived over fifteen years, a Flying-Squirrel over thirteen, a Souslik eleven, and a Marmot over thirteen. It first occurred to me that as these animals have not an individuality that is very obvious, mistakes with regard to individuals might have confused the records. Such an explanation, however, does not cover the facts; it would apply at least equally well to the Common Squirrel, the 77 examples of which showed no case of great longevity and a very low average, and it could not possibly account for the many cases of high longevity, where only two or three examples are recorded through- out the period of thirty-three years. Wemust takeas established the striking fact that squirrel-like animals have a very high potential longevity in proportion to their size and in comparison with other vegetable-feeding forms, as the latter are on the whole relatively short-lived. The average duration and therefore the viability of the group appears to vary much ; some species are almost uniformly unsuccessful, whilst others show a distribution of durations very close round the average. Taking the group as a whole, however, it has shown a relatively high viability just as it has a relatively high maximum longevity. It is particularly interesting to reflect that during the greater part of the period to which the figures relate, most of these squirrels were housed in outdoor cages freely open to the air, with no artificial heating, but with small nesting-boxes as retreats. No. of Av. dur. Max. dur. CasTORIDS. Indiv. in months. in months. Castor fiber (Huropean Beaver) ... 4 A-2, 7 C. canadensis (Canadian i wee fal) 403 130 The great difference in viability between European and Canadian Beavers is remarkable. The average of the latter is relatively low on account of the large proportion that lived only a few months ; if two or three months were survived these beavers usually lived some years. The number of European beavers within the period is small, and it may well be that it included no healthy, nearly adult individual. No. of Av. dur. Max. dur. Myoxip2. Indiv. in months. in months. Mayonus, Whole GENUS 222... seen 23 14:6 35 Myoxus dryas (Oak Dormouse) ...... 6 12°5 30 M., glis (Fat +3 Dhvmaercaer 3 14:3 34 M. quercinus (Garden _,, Ve ee ae 14 15:5 35D Muscardinus avellanarius (Common 17 oD 13 Dormouse). The relative low viability of, or failure with, the common English Dormouse is remarkable. A high longevity is not to be anticipated for dormice, although I am unaware of any recorded 448 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND observations. Throughout the period in question, these animals were kept in a badly ventilated house, usually kept hot. No. of MuRID&. Indiv. Hydromyschrysogaster(Golden-bellied 6 Beaver-rat). Gerbillus, whole genus ...............--- WA G. cgyptius (Lesser Egyptian 39 Gerbille). G. campestris (Field Gerbille) ...... 2 G. indicus (@inidian es ceseccc: 15 G. longifrons (Long-fronted Gerbille) 79 G. pygargus (White-rumped ,, ) 2 G. pyramidum (Large Egyptian,, ) 14 G. robustus (Robust seville saneny G. shawt (Shaw’s i ) 28 Psammomys obesus (Fat Sand-Rat) . 1 Georychus capensis (Cape Mole-Rat). 1 Cricetus frumentarius (Common 12 Hamster). Cricetomys gambianus (Gambian 8 Pouched Rat). Mois, WHOIS BOWS G4506504s00doa0s40an0000 64 M. arboricola (Sydney Bush-Rat) ... 3 M. bandicota (Bandicoot Rat) ......... 2 M. barbarus (Barbary Mouse) ...... 20 M. blanfordi (Blanford’s Rat) ......... 3 M. cervicolor (FKawn-coloured Mouse) 2 M.exulans (Pacific Mouse) ......... 9 M. minutus (Harvest Mouse)......... 10 DU RiKonagony (U8) vole 1 tun) sadeoonpesecacs 13 M. sylvaticus (Long-tailed Field- 2 Mouse). Tsomys variegatus (Varied Field-Rat) Acomys hunteri (Hunter's Spiny 11 Mouse). Arvicola, whole genus ............0..00. 14 A. agrestis (Short-tailed Vole)...... 7 A. amphibius (Water Vole) ............ 5 A poratenses a(banl= Wiole)eren teccer: 2 Myodes lemmus(Norwegian Lemming) 5 Fiber zibethicus (Musquash) ............ 7 Ay. dur. in months. dh Max. dur. in months. 17 The only published statement regarding the age of mice with which I am acquainted, is Metchnikoff’s assignment of “ five or six” years as their limit. It may be supposed that the larger forms have a higher potential longevity. The maximum duration in the record is nearly 7 years in the case of an Egyptian Field Rat. Comparatively few of the maxima approach this figure, and the relation between the maximum and average durations is fairly RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 449 close. As in proportion to their size these rodents have rather a high viability, it must be supposed that the conditions of detention in the interior of a house are not very unfavourable to them. SPALACIDH. ae ia eee aie Rhizomys badius (Bay Bamboo-Rat). 5 17-4 4] Dipropip&. Dipus egyptius (Egyptian Jerboa)... 48 188 56 D. hirtipes (Hairy-footed Jerboa)... 30 16 36 Dipodillus simoni (Simon’s Dwarf 3 20 23 Jerboa). D. campestris (Dwarf Jerboa) ......... if 12 12 Alactaga indica (Indian Jerboa) ...... tL 14 14 A, decumana (Persian Jerboa)......... 2 10°5 13 If Jerboas can be compared with rats and mice, the record of nearly five years for an Egyptian Jerboa is what might be ex- pected, but the maxima for most of the species and the average durations show a low viability. The Jerboas have always been kept in a warmed house. OcropontiDa. Ty erie sn aa Octodon cumingi (Cuming’s Octodon). 35 24 62 Ctenodactylus gundi (Gundi Rat) ... 2 DD 7 Myopotamus coypu (Coypu) ......... 39 30 121 Capromys brachyurus (Short-tailed 3 1] 15 Capromys). C. pilorides (Fournier’s Capromys) ... 5 36 116 Aulacodus swindermanus (Ground- 2 10°5 16 Rat). Some of the Octodontide are relatively large rodents and the record of 10 years for a Coypu is not surprising. The viability as shewn by the average duration is not high; in the case of the Coypus, which have always been provided with access to the open air, the average duration is lowered by high mortality amongst young born in the Gardens. Fysrricip# No.of Av.dur. = Max. dur. 7 Indiv. in months. in months. a sinia WHOLE eS eMUS ya)saa- ))). 98 Some 91 P. sinensis (Syrian Nes ae Nit 23 P. xanthopygos (Chinese Hae) es 24 83 Hemixos favala (Brown-eared ,, ). 3 27 62 Hypsipetes maclellandi (Rufous-bellied 2 un 114 Bulbul). Chloropsis aurifrons (Malabar Green 3 22 39 Bulbul). C. hardwickii (Blue-winged Bulbul)... 1 130 130 CRATEROPODIDA. Garrulax, whole genus .........-........ 26 50 107 G. albogularis (White-throated Jay- 3 15 a Thrush). G. chinensis (Chinese Jay-Thrush) ... 11 61 107 G'. lewcolophus (White-crested Jay- 7 AT 98 Thrush). G. pectoralis (Black-gorgetted Jay- 2 3 42 ; Thrush). G. perspicillatus (Masked Jay-Thrush). 2 91 103 G. picticollis (Collared *, 1 97 97 Turnagra crassirostris (South Island 5 15-4 26 Thrush). Schee capistrata (Black-headed Sibia). 3 44 61 Leucodioptron canorum (Melodious 6 30 81 Jay-Thrush). RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDs. CRATEROPODID (cont.). Grammatoptila striata (Striated Jay- Thrush). Struthidea cinerea (Grey Struthidea). Hypocolius ampelinus (Grey Hypo- colius). ORIOLID&. Sericulus melinus (Regent Bird) ...... Oriolus, whole genus ................0000 O. indicus (Black-naped Oriole) ...... O. kundoo (Sykes’s Vitesse O. melanocephalus ( Black- headed Or iole) DIcRURID. Chibia hottentotta (Indian Drongo) ... Artamus, whole genus .................. A. fuscus (Dull Wood Swallow) ...... A. personata (Masked Wood Swallow). A. sordidus (Sordid ¥ A. superciliosus (White- -eyebr owed Wood Swallow). LANIIDE. Hanius, whole genus ........4......-.+-.- L. collurio (Red-backedShrike) ...... LL. eacubitor (Great Grey ,, ) ...... L.lahtora (Indian ,, saya Laniarius quadricolor (¥ our-coloured Shrike). Cochoa viridis (Green Cochoa) ......... AMPELIDE. Ampelis cedrorum (Cedar Bird) ...... A. garrulus (Waxwing) ..............0655 MUscICcAPID. Muscicapa atricapilla (Pied Flycatcher). HIRUNDINIDE. Hirundo rustica (Swallow)............... NECTARINIID. Zosterops, whole venus ...............64 Z. dorsalis (Grey-backed White-eye) . Z. lateralis (Lateral 4 ) Z. palpebrosus (Indian saab it 2 Z. simplex (Chinese aay ey) No. of Indiv. 4 HH Ot re os ee Or Or bo Av. dur. in months. 8 93 56 14 85 473 Max. dur. in months. 14 68 bo ATA DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND _ No..of Ay. dur. Max. dur. MELIPHAGIDS. Indiv. in months. in months. Prosthemadera nove-zealandie (Poé 19 14 58 Honey-eater). Myzantha garrula (Garrulous ,, ). 1 9 9 Anthornis melanura (Black-tailed 5 6°4 13 Flower-bird). Xanthomyza phrygia (Warty-faced 5 Ug) 37 Honey- eater). Entomyza cyanotis(Blue-faced Honey- 4 5 12 eater). C@REBIDE. Careba cyanea (Yellow-winged Sugar- 26 24:4 92 bird). Dacnis cyana (Blue Sugar-bird) ...... 4 11:5 Ie Chlorophonia spiza (Black-headed 2 42°5 84 Sugar-bird). TANAGRIDAS. Chlorophoniu viridis (All-green Tanager). 6 3 4 Huphonia, whole genus ................+ 4] 12°5 39 EH. chlorotica (Greenish Tanager) ...... 1 1 1 L. flavifrons (Yellow-fronted Tanager). 2 16 30 Lf. lanvirostris (Thick-billed Boe ee ease) gt 39 H. nigricollis (Black-necked ,, ). 4 (a) 10 EL. pectoralis (Pectoral ye) ak cea 8 8 E. sclatert (Sclater’s Si tha eek | 1 if E. violacea (Violet Sh hae 15 3 Hypophea chalybea (Lead-coloured 1 11 11 Tanager). Tanagrella cyanomelena (Blue & Black 2 145 Sd Tanager). T. velia (Red-bellied Tanager) ......... 1 2 2 Calliste, whole genus .................0.0+ 32 115 39 C. brasiliensis (Brazilian Tanager) . 3 4) 8 C. fastuosa (Superb Tanager) ...... 13 15 23) C. festiva (ReStivensitae nme) uy eee 3 4 4 C’. melanota (Black-shouldered Tanager). 2 5 6 C. tricolor (Green-headed Tanager)... 11 11°8 3: Tanagra, whole genus .................. 24 16 70 T. cana (Silver-blue Tanager) ......... 3 12 23 T. cyanoptera (Blue-shouldered Tanager) 7 - 18 49 T. palmarum (Palm Tanager) .......-. 5 11 33 T. sayaca (SEROUS) Soon adcca 2 7 il UE si iaianin (Surlabe dere) )) ener ff 21 70 Stephanophorus leucocephalus (White- 2 3 4 capped Tanager) Tachyphonus coronatus (Crowned 1 8 8 Tanager). T. melaleucus (Black Tanager) ......... 8: 22, 47 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BikDS. TANAGRID (cont.). ee Pyranga saira (Saira Tanager) ......... 2 Rhamphocelus brasilius (Brazilian 13 Tanager). Cissopis leveriana (Magpie Tanager) 9 Saltator auranturostris (Ovange-bellied — 1 Tanager). S. magnus (Great Tanager) ............. 1 ersiieies \(CAUMERG 550) anteater 2 Orchesticus ater (Black-headed Tanager). 1 PLOCEIDA. fistrelda, whole genus...........1¢.0...04- 176 £. amandava (Amaduvade Finch)...... 30 #. bella (Beautiful Finch) ............... 6 E. bichenovit (Bicheno’s Finch)......... 8 E. cinerea (Common Waxbill)...... 21 #. cerulescens(Cinereous ,, ) ...... 5 EH .cyanogastra(Blue-breasted Waxbill) 6 EL. dufresnit (Dufresne’s a otal H. formosa (Green Eada) ae 6 #. granatinag (Grenadier Ss eee E. melpoda (Orange-cheeked ., ) 17 . phenicotis (Crimson-eared ,, ) 8 EH. phaéton (Crimson nS MR #. rubriventris (Red-bellied ee aay. al EL. squamifrons (Scaly-fronted - ,, ) 4 Hi. subflava = (ebra sega ae E. temporalis (Australian Hera) #310) Spermestes, whole genus ............... 26 S. cucullata (Hooded Finch) ............ 10 S. fringilloides (Pied Grass-Finch) ... 12 Se qanven (Wwart Winch) a/c.) 2 h8)..2: 4 Pytelia, whole Semus! 22.) ioe68 5. caee 9 P. citerior (Western Melba Waxbill)... 1 P. phenicoptera (Crimson-winged 6 Waxbill). P. wienert (Wiener’s Finch) ............ Amadina, whole genus .........0..225.6 € A. bicolor (Cape Palmas Finch)......... A. castanotis (Chestnut-eared Finch) A. erythrocephala (Red-headed 29 ) A, fasciata (Cut-throat Bo 8) A. fringilloides (Fringillid ay) A. lathami (Spotted-sided 5, -) A. modesta (Modest sakes) Munia, whole-wenus .2:.....020.08 0040: ) M. ferruginea (Javan Maja Finch) ... bo ~H! 1 : met OUD OF-! OV AT =1 U5 OO bO Ay. dur. in months. 3D 475 Max. dur. in months. 5 88 476 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND PLOCEID& (cont.). Munia maja (Maja Finch) M. malabarica (Indian Silver-bill) ... M. malacca (Black-headed Finch) ...... M. nisoria (Bar-breasted ieee M. punctularia (Nutmeg-Bird) ......... M. rubro-nigra (Chestnut-bellied Finch). M. striata (Striated Finch) ............ Macopelas (Mopela, | 9h) aeeneeenere Pocphila, whole @enus..-...-.-..4:42-020- P.acuticauda (Long-tailed Grass- Finch) P. cincta (Banded a5 any) P. gouldie (Gouldian “4 se) P. mirabilis (Beautiful a Fe Donacola castaneothorax (Chestnut- breasted Finch). D. pectoralis (White-breasted bat i) Padda oryzivora (Java Sparrow) ...... Erythrura prasina (Fire-tailed Finch) EL. psittacea (Parrot se) Vadtia wioleycemis sen. aeeeeet eee. cee eee V. albonotata (White-marked Whydah Bird). V. ardens (Red-chested Whydah Bird) V. paradisea (Paradise _,, 6 V. principalis (Pin-tailed _,, ) Chera progne (Long-tailed Weaver- bird). Hypochera nitens (Shining Weaver-bird ) Coliopasser macrurus (Yellow-backed Whydah Bird). Urobrachya, whole genus ............... U.albonotata (White-winged Whydah Bird). U. axillaris (Red-shouldered Weaver- bird}. U. bocagit (Orange-shouldered Weaver- bird). Huplectes, whole genus ..............04.. FE. afer (Black-bellied Weaver-bird). LE. capensis (Y ellow-shouldered Weaver- bird). E. flammiceps (Crimson-crowned ‘Weaver-bird). EL. nigriventris (Black-chested _ ,, ) E. oryx (Grenadier Pyromelana aurea (Golden- backed Weaver-bird). No. of Indiv. 6 18 6 1] 10 12 Av. dur. in mouths. 56 Max. dur. in months. 101 115 109 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. PLocEID& (cont ). Pyromelana franciscana (Scarlet Weaver-bird.) Poudiaerythrops (Red-faced ,, ff. madagascariensis (Red- “headed Weaver-bird). Pyrenestes albifrons (White-fronted Weaver-bird). Spermospiza hematina (Blue-beaked Weaver-bird). S. guttata (Bright-spotted _,, bala) Quelea, whole genus .....2.¢.22cce000e40s Q. occidentalis (Black-cheeked Weaver- bird.) Q. russi (Russ’s | Weaver-bird) Q. sanguintrostris (Red-beaked _,, ) Floceus, whole genus’ ..).........8..0:-.25 P. atrigula (Black-throated Weaver- bird). P. bengalensis (Bengal Weaver-bird) P.manyar ° (Manyar _,, Heterhyphantes melanogaster (Black- chested Weaver-bird). Sitagra luteola (Yellowish _,, oe) ITyphantornis, whole genus ............ H. brachyptera (Short-winged Weaver- bird). Hf. capensis (Olive Weaver-bird) ...... HT. castaneofuscus (Chestnut-backed W eaver-bird). HH. nigriceps (Black-headed _ ,, ae) H. personata (Masked lag sale) H. superciliosus (Kye-browed ,, ,, ) H. textor (Rufous-necked ,, ,, ) H. velatus (Black-fronted ,, ,, ) Lenton alectory(Ox= id) 25.25.24 eee FRINGILLIDZ. Cyanospiza cris (Nonpareil Finch) ... CNeyonea Gndiszo-bird)\y cccertonadten ol Paleo, wholevyeenus) ..5 5... sees vests coe 108 EN OSaLOTN INVER eee ton Woohoo ce ete 7 fF, biarmicus (Bearded Falcon) ...... 1 Ff. concolor (Ash-coloured ,, ) ...... 2 fF. eleonorce (Kleonora ata ee SAFE or 1 LF, feldeggi (¥eldege’s at Nemec 1 Ff. fusco-cerulescens (Orange-thighed 2 Falcon). F, lanarius (Lanner Falcon) ............ 14 FF. melanogenys (Black-cheeked Falcon) 5 F. peregrinus (Peregrine Falcon) ...... 61 F, punicus (Mediterranean Peregrine 1 Falcon). imsacer (Saker Walco), .2.:-cs-acascee- 3 iesubbuieo (Hobby) | <.02-dsgesedeoy ss 12 2 Hierofalco candicans (Gr eenland Falcon) 2 Ay. dut. in months. 22 —O Ore ~r me wenden oO Kop — ae He ete OUND GO OO Or Or aD 503 Max. dur. in months. 22 fiw Se He RR oN ON a boN Ol Or bo 6 KE ONMWOIoc Ore = LY 504 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND FALCONIDE (cont.). Ne. oF Hierofalco islandus (Iceland Falcon)... 6 Hieracidea berigora (Berigora Hawk). 5 Tinnunculus, whole genus ............... 81 T. alaudarius (Common Kestrel)...... AD T’.. cenchris (Lesser in) eat 9 T. cenchroides (Nankeen ,, )...... 2 T. dominicensis (Dominican ,, )...... 1h} T’. gracilis (Slender se ue) yacans 2 T. moluccensis (Molucca ,, _)...... 1 1 (royadoolins (Sky Ibe 4, onnee 2 T. sparverius (American .,, )...... 4 T. vespertinus (Red-footed ,, )...... 3 Hypotriorchis chicquera (Red-headed 1 Merlin). Milints wi holey ce muse neeece eee met Ger 30 M. govinda (Indian Kite)............ 4 M. migrans (Black ME) ee err 8 M. egyptius (Egyptian ,, )............ 12 iM michinus, (Common ii) ))ee eer 6 Baza lophotes (Crested Black Kite) .. I Hlanus ceerwleus (Black-shouldered 6 Kite). Rostrhamus sociabilis (Sociable Marsh- 2 Hawk). Herpetotheres cachinnans (Laughing 2 Falcon). Milwago, whole genus ...................-. 26 M, australis (Forster’s Milvago) .. 5 M. chimachima (Chimachima ,, )... 5 M. chimango (Brown Lorie aL M. megalopterus (Long-winged ,, )... 2 Polyborus brasiliensis (Brazilian 7 Caracara). Polyboroidestypicus(Banded Gymnogere) 2 VULTURIDE. Valiiirmewholereenus a reeestrenereekeer eter ite V. auricularis (Sociable Vulture) ...... 7 V. calvus (Rondichernyar eee 3 V. monachus (Cimereous ,, _) ...... 8 V. oceipitalis (Occipital ,, ) ...... 1 Gos awihOlenOOMus teers. scan. ee see ieeee 14 G. bengalensis (Bengal Vulture) ...... 3 G. fulvus (Griffon WAP) 5 ASR 8 G. kolbi (Kolbe’s’ BSL Oe teee 1 G. rueppelli (Ruppell’s ,, ) ...... 2 Neophron percnopterus (Kgyptian 9 Vulture). Ay. dur. in months. 33 Max. dur. in months. RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 50d VULTURIDE (cont.). No.of — Av. dur. | Max. dur. Indiv. in months. im mouths. Gypohierax angolensis (Angolan 12 40 66 Vulture). Gypattus barbatus (Kuropean Bearded 6 118 284 Vulture). SERPENTARIIDE. Serpentarius reptilivorus (Secretary 26 12 59 Vulture). CATHARTIDS. Catharies, whole genus ............6...5. 23 22 70 C. atratus (Black Vulture) ............... 15 18 57 Caaura (Turkey, os) msgs ence ee fi 30 70 C. urubitinga (Yellow-headed Vulture). — 1 8 8 Sarcorhamphus cequatorialis (Brown 1 96 96 Condor). Seagua pies: (Condon)i icra nase. oer = 6 155 403 Gypagus papa (King Vulture) ..!...... 18 20 87 Summary of Accipitres. The potential longevity of Accipitrine birds is well known to be great, although, as in most other cases, well-authenticated records are considerably lower than the ages assigned by popular rumour. Metchnikoff (op. cit. p. 53) refers to a White-headed or Egyptian Vulture of 118 years, and a Golden Hagle of 104. Mr. J. H. Gurney’s exact records (loc. cit. p. 37) range downwards from a Bateleur Eagle of 55 years and a Condor of 52. The maximum durations in my record are considerably lower; those over 20 years are a Caracara of over 41, a Condor of nearly 34, a Chilian Sea- Kagle of nearly 28, a Sociable and an Angolan Vulture which reached nearly 24, a Griffon of nearly 22 and a Wedge-tailed Eagle of more than 21 years; whilst there is at present alive, a Milvago that has been over 24 years in the Gardens. The average durations mostly under 2 years are of Ospreys, Harriers, Hawks, Falcons, Kestrels, Secretary Bird, and the American Vultures; those mostly between 2 and 4 years, are of Buzzards, Sea-Hagles, and the larger Hawk-EHagles; those mostly between 4 and 6 years are of the Chilian Sea-Hagles, Goshawks, and Kites ; whilst the records above 6 years belong chiefly to Wedge-tailed Eagles, Imperial Eagles, the larger Vultures and the Condor. There is a rough relation between size and viability, and there is the usual very low viability of the common European forms. The conditions under which the birds of prey have been kept, in the period covered, cannot be said to have led to a favourable result. In the great majority of cases no artificial heat was provided, even in winter, and there was full access to open air, but especially in the case of the smaller birds, the quarters were small and dark, and there was no provision for exercise. If the records be compared with those of the Striges, it will be seen, 506 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND however, that both average and maximum durations are con- siderably better in the case of the diurnal birds of prey. No intelligent anatomist can now doubt that the two groups are far separate amongst birds, and one of the notable differences is in the structure of the alimentary tract. In all the Accipitrme birds, although the intestines are relatively long and arranged in a complex pattern, the hind-gut and cca are extremely reduced, and the portion of the gut in which there is the greatest opportunity for intestinal putrefaction therefore has a relatively very small capacity. Capt. Flower records only two Accipitrine birds—a Griffon Vulture and an Egyptian Vulture—that are still alive after 12 years’ duration, the maximum possible in his records. STEGANOPODES. POLL 8 eM ahs ost Pelecanus, whole genus .................. 21 139 380 P. consprciliatus (Australian Pelican). 2 285 380 P. crispus (Crested st a) de icra 274°5 329 P. fuscus (Brown Viet as 65 121 P. manillensis (Spot-billed ,, ). 2 54 65 P. mitratus (Mitred 5 ss) an 8) 130 261 P. onocrotalus (White Shea actin 239 300 P.rufescens (Red-backed ,, ). 6 66 152 Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 38) gives the records. of six Pelicans ranging from 41 to 18 years, and the maximum durations given above, ranging downwards from nearly 32 years, are all re- markably high, whilst the average durations show that these birds are probably the most highly viable of all the birds and mammals usually kept in captivity. They were not provided with artificial heat, but throughout the day were exposed fully to the weather, whilst at night, and occasionally in very cold or foggy conditions, they were shut up in « small wooden shelter. As compared with other fish-eating birds, the alimentary tract 1s relatively short and simple, and the ceca and hind-gut are small (although not so reduced as in Accipitrine birds) and uncapacious. Capt. Flower records one White Pelican still alive after 12 years. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. PREGATIDE. Indiv. in months. in months. fregata aquila (Great Frigate-bird) ... 5 45:6 91 It is most probable that only weak or injured examples of this oceanic bird usually find their way into captivity, and the records, t think, must be interpreted as showing a high viability. The intestinal tract is simpler than that of Pelicans, with the hind- gut and ceca more reduced. These birds have been kept in an aviary with warmed interior and open-air front cages. RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 507 No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. PHALACROCORACIDS. Indiv. in months. in months. Sula, whole. Genus: |... b.sciechd estar arenes 39 8°3 AQ Se Omssaqeie (CANN) cere ctsaoets nehines he oh 27 6 19 S. leucogastra (Brown Gannet) ......... 5 15 40 S. piscator (Wines acre Nees a 2 14 19 S. serrator (Australian ,,- ) ......... 5 8°8 16 Phatacrocorax, whole genus.....:......... 84 12 94 P. brasilianus (Brazilian Cormorant)... 9 10°5 5D P. africanus (African 35 ) ee 23° 36 P. carbo (Common - }) Bae e331 10°5 52 P. carunculatus (Rough-faced ,, ) 2 28 49 Pe AGROCULUS (SWAL) 556 sisnctaecSvenese te 15 10 44 P. javanicus (Javan Cormorant) ......... 1 3 38 P. lugubris (Mournful __,, Dear 1 94 94 P, varius (Pied i yh iakat 1 1 ih Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cié. p. 38) quotes from H. O. Forbes the record of a Common Cormorant which lived for 23 years. The maximum durations on my list, ranging from nearly 8 years downwards, are very much lower, whilst the average durations of both Gannets and Cormorants seldom exceed one year. There is the usual remarkable failure with local species—a failure which would appear much greater if a considerable number of entries of birds that lived less than a month had not been excluded from the records. The intestinal tracts are of the fish-eating type— relatively large and of smail calibre, but the hind-gut and ceca are very rudimentary, and there seems little opportunity for intestinal putrefaction. No. of Av. dur. Max. dur, PLOTID. Indiv. in months. in months. PialohuseWwiOle SeNUS| Jreseut eee! see. 16 22 103 Plotus anhinga (American Darter)...... 12 18 53 P. levaillanti (Levaillant’s ,,_)...... 2 18 34. P. melanogaster (Indian oy) 2 55°5 103 J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 38) gives an instance of an American Darter of 12 years old; I do not know of any other records. The intestinal tract is similar to that of other Steganopodes, but although the caeca (or single cecum) are vestigial, the hind-gut is relatively more capacious and larger. These birds were kept in a house (the Fish House) that was warmed in winter, and their average duration and maximum duration show no high viability. Summary of Steganopodes. Pelecans, Frigate-birds, Gannets, Cormorants and Darters, whether or no they form a coherent zoological group, differ very little in their requirements in captivity, and receive very much the same treatment. ‘They appear to me to be a group of potentially 508 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND great longevity and viability, these, moreover, being fairly in pro- portion tosize. Therecords of Phalacrocoracide are much lowered by the number of European birds, which like most European animals have a very heavy death-rate in captivity. HERODIONES. : v. dur. Max. dur. a Iain, Rete in months. Ardeu, whole emus’ Aee-nes esse eens 90 25 110 A. agame (Agami Heron) il 4) 5 A,alba (Great White ae) 4 TOD 26 A. atricollis (Blaick-necked 5 7) 2. 24 24 A. bubulcus (Buff-backed ,, )... 4 50 64 A. candidissima (Snowy sae) 10 20 74. A. cinerea (Common ne) 23 28 SS A. cocor (Cocoi pe 4 A2 93 A. egretta (Great American Eer et). 16 ol 100 A. garzetta (Little AUAK: ania 3D 98 A. goliath (Goliath Hieron)............... 1 30 35 A. gularis (Slaty ble) aceite tyes 7 19 72 A, herodias (Great American Heron). 1 31 31 A. nove-hollandice (White-faced ,, ). 2 13 Ne A. purpurea (Purple aaah) Satna) 4-6 10 A. ralloides (Squacco Hane ee 6:5 Il A. sumatrana (Typhon pe Bea 69 69 Butorides, whole genus .................. a 14 53 B. atricapillus (Blue-capped Bittern) . 2 44-5 D3 L. cyanurus (South American Little 1 12 12 Bittern). B, virescens (Green Bittern) ............ 6 4 13 Ardetta involucris( Variegated Bittern). 3 23 40 A. minute (Mittle Bittern)............... 8 6 19 Nycticorax, whole genus.................. 64 30 199 NV. caledonicus (Nankeen Night 2 99 107 Heron). NV. gardeni (Garden’s Night Heron). 6 9 32 N. griseus (Common _,, ate) te val 37 199 iV. violaceus (Violaceous 3 eh AVS TLS 19°5 61 Cancroma cochlearia (Boat-bill)......... ~) 21 53 Botaurus lentiginosus (American 1 8 8 Bittern). JB Al Gres (ASNT) 40.5 y2houskoasesco5es 3 23 54 Tigriosoma brasiliense (Tiger Bittern). 6 48:9 a wullo2 1’. leucolophum (White-crested ,, ,, ). 7 20°5 33 J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 38) gives somewhat doubtful records of 60 and 30 years, and a well authenticated record of 22 years for a Common Heron. ) ? ~~ G. cristata (Crested Guinea-fowl) G. edouardt (Verreaux’s ,, CN sh atl! rag Ie 21 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS, PHASIANIDE (cont.). Guttera pucherani (Pucheran’s Guinea- fowl). Acryllium — vulturinum (Vulturine Guinea-fow]). CRrAcID a. O70, MUWOLe’ SOWUS 2a nce. ee ce ce cow onaie C. alberti (Prince Albert’s Curassow) ”, alector (Crested or) C. carunculata (Yarrell’s = C. daubentont (Daubenton’s rd) ". globicera (Globose shores) C. globidosa — (Globulose Ay) Pics) C. incommoda (Inconvenient singh) C. sclateri (Sclater’s tea) Mitua tomentosa (Lesser Razor-billed Curassow). M.tuberosa (Razor-billed ,, ) Pausis galeata (Galeated ‘5 Nothocrax wurumutum (Urumutum Curassow). Penelope, whole genus .................. P. cristata (Rufous-vented Guan) P. greeyt (Greey’s - P. jacucaca (White-fronted 5 P. marail (Marail . P. pileata (Red-breasted ’ P. purpurascens (Purplish ss P. superciliaris (White-eyebrowed ,, mooie. WOle SEMWUS ya.c-..2-c.cece se. -ls0 P. cujubit (Amazonian Guan) ......... P. cumanensis (Piping Guan) P. jacutinga (White-crested _,, Alburria carunculata (Wattled ,,_ ) Oniniiss WHOVG CNUs ors. 5..001 ec: «tenes O. albiventris (White-bellied Guan) ) ) ) ) ) O. garrula (Chattering sees) O. motmot (Little ue) O. ruficauda (Red-tailed en) O. vetula (Mexican re) MuEGAPODIIDA. Talegalla lathami (Brush-Turkey)...... Megacephalon maleo (Great-headed : Maleo). Leipou ocellata (Mallee Bird)............ No. of Indiv. 10 34 Dmriwewesatbnwe i) = H oo HS = Go « Summary of Galline. Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 39) gives a few interesting figures for Gallinaceous birds, including domestic fowls of 30, 25 and 24 years, and a Silver Pheasant of 21 years. Ay. dur, in months. 14-4 on 523 Max. dur. in months. 28 101 The maximum 524 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND durations on my list include some fairly high figures—a Brush- Turkey of over 19 years, a Peacock Pheasant of nearly 15 years, Argus and Kaleege Pheasants over 13 years, a Monaul of over 10 years and a Common Quail of over 7 years. Taking Galline as a whole there is no close correlation between size and duration. The Grouse are the least viable in captivity, the average durations being nearly all under a year, and 4 years being the maximum. The Francolins, Quails, and Partridges have an average duration most often between 1 and 2 years, with a few good figures of maximum duration. The Pheasants, Peacocks, and Jungle-Fowl for the most part have average durations exceeding 2 years, and reach 13 to 15 years maximum. Sir H. G. lhavien Wisks VALS. however, has told me of a Peacock still alive at a house near Aylesbury, and which is certainly 40 years old. The Curassows and Guans appear to be specially viable; there is a remarkable uniformity amongst the individual durations, these lying very close to the average, which is generally over 3 years. The strueture of the intestinal tract does not differ much in Gallinaceous birds: in all the gut is relatively capacious, although not specially long, and the posterior portion including the czeca is long and capacious compared to the whole gut. It is perhaps not more than a coincidence that the hind-gut and ceca are rela- tively least capacious in the Megapodes, ne least capacious in the Curassows, and most capacious in the other Gallinaceous birds, whilst the Megapodes show the best maximum duration, and the Curassows the highest average durations in the group. The conditions under which the birds of this group were kept during the period i in question did not differ much; all had access to open air, and the smaller Quails, Partridges and so forth, and the Cur. assows had warmed shelters, whilst the others ‘hel unheated sheds. Considering the more or less favourable conditions, and the large size of many of the Gallinaceous birds, it cannot be said that they display a good constitutional viability. Capt. Flower’s records are closely comparable with the maxima I give here. He notes a Clapperton’s Francolin still alive after 6 years, my highest record being 5 years; a Quail of over 7 years, the same maximum as mine; an Amherst Pheasant of 11 years’ duration, and a Silver Pheasant still alive after 12 years; these are higher than the records of the same species I quote, but, on the other hand, I cite a Black-headed Kaleege of 13 years piiighal Peacock Pheasant of 15 years. Yo. of Av. dur. x. dur. HEMIPODII. ie mn Rene incon Turn, whole genus <.2,.......6.-.40015. 15 9 26 7’. dussumieri (Little Bittern Quail)... 2 2°5 4 7’. lepurana (Lepurana Hemipode)... 3 AG 26 1’. sykest — (Sykes’s - Nasa ate 8 16 7’. taigoor (Black-breasted , Veneer nee 1 1 7. tanki — (Tipperah BE ve 2 1 l 1. varia (Varied 4% yew 4 16 29 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 529 T am ignorant of any figures hitherto recorded as to the longevity of Hemipodes. My figures show a very low viability both from the point of view of average and maximum dura- tions. The birds were kept during the period dealt with under the same conditions as the small Francolins, Quails and Partridges. The alimentary tract is relatively short but capacious, the hind-gut and ceca being very capacious relatively to the size of the birds. The group has a low viability. FULICARLA. RaLuip2. Thuliv, a aa “= ai an : mates, whole genus’ .....66)...0eeceebees 24 Pes 5] Rh. aquaticus (Water-Rail)............... 10 13-9 35 R. celebensis (Celebean Rail) ............ 3 36 48 R. maculatus (White-spotted Rail) ... 3 26 48 R. pectoralis (Australian of) 6 19°5 35 R. rhytirhynchus (Sooty Sse mee 36 51 Aramides cayennensis (West-Indiai 19 10 26 Rail) A. ypecaha (Ypecaha Rail) ............ Ih 15°5 39 POTLONG, WHOLE SONUS 60... yee geen: 5 30 59 P. carolina (Carolina Crake) ......... 2 22°5 28 P. maruetta (Spotted ,, ).........65. 2, 29 29 Haanorana “(Wiariked “4 \l i ecc veces. 1 1 Rallina peciloptera (Bar-winged Rail) 2 2 Crex pratensis (Corn Crake) ............ 16 22 101 Ocydromus, whole genus ........ ...++. 30 52 ILI O. australis (Weka Rail) .............+. hi 49 Waly acai dbialeles. syae eyo!) kere esses: 8 64 107 O. fuscus (Black Woodhen) ............ 1 50 50 O. lafresnayanus (New Caledonian Rail) 2 A3°5 76 O. sylvestris (Woodhen Rail)..........-. 2 38°5 66 Limnocorax niger (Black Gallinule)... 2 52°5 89 Porphyrio, whole genus.............+.+++ D3 23°5 (5 P. calous (Javan Porphyrio) ...........- ] 1 1 P. ceruleus (Purple Gallinule) ......... 4 21 32 P. edwardsi (Miine Edwards's 2 18°5 22 Porphyrio) P. madagascariensis (Madagascar 17 18 59 Porphyrio) P. melanotus — (Black-backed ,, yay ae) 25 73 P. poliocephalus (Grey-headed ,, yes as) 32 75 P. vitiensis (Grey-blue _,, eal 23 23 Hydrornia alleni ( Allen’s a yes: 17 47 Tonornis martinicus (Martinique 8 We 30 Gallinule) Tritonyx mortiert (Mortier’s Water- 1 102 102 hen). 7. ventralis (Black-tailed Waterhen). 3 85 162 526 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. Rauiip (cont.). Indiv. in months. in months. Gallinula, whole genus ../..........2-++- 20 25°5 42 G. chloropus (Moorhen) .................. 9 30 42 G. galeata (American Moorhen) ...... 2 21 29 G. nesiotis (Island-Hen Gallinule) 3 25 35 G. phenicura (White-breasted ,, ) 4 12°5 26 G. pyrrhorhoa (Madagascar Moorhen) 2 38°9 42 EulC am aWiNOle eens. Yaseen ert e 8 14 36 fF. ardesiaca (Slaty Coot) ............... 2 18°5 36 Wisatral Coop) ive kt ks. neeeree es. Sosa 4 16 21 F. leucoptera (Strickland’s Coot) ...... 2 6 9 Summary of Fulicarie. I have discovered few published statements as to the longevity of Rails and Crakes, but Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 38) has mentioned Porphyrios of 19 and 14 years. The highest figure on my list is that for a Black-tailed Waterhen with a duration of over 13 years; then come a Weka Rail of over 9 years; a Corn Crake of 8 years, and then figures ranging downwards. The average durations range rather closely round 2 years. The intestinal tract of Rails and their allies is of moderate length end capacity, the posterior portion with the ceca being rather capacious. These birds in the period in question have been kept either in open-air paddocks, or in an aviary with heated interior. and access to open air. There is not a very wide gap between the figures of average and maximum durations; there is no appreciable correlation between size and longevity, and considering the rather favourable conditions under which the birds were kept, they appear to have a rather low viability in proportion to their size. Capt. Flower’s highest record is a Gallinule still alive after 6 years’ duration. ALECTORIDES. OTIDIDE. Tae Seca REGGE Otis tarda (Great Bustard) ............ 16 30 128 Hupodotis, whole genus ....:............. 13 507 106 ZH. arabs (Arabian Bustard)......... 2 D9 91 #. australis( Australian ,,° )......... 4 13 106 Li. caffra (Kaffir ge ee 1 J] 9 LH. denhami (Denham’s Dy fe eae 3 60 98 E. kori (Borchellise yay une) s-ceeers. 2 24 42 E. ruficollis (Red-necked ,, _ )......... 1 10 10 Houbara macqueent (Macqueen’s 8 9 25 Bustard) H. undulata (Houbara Bustard) ...... 7 3 9 I have found no other figures published as to the longevity of Bustards. The maximum duration on my list, of nearly 11 years RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 527 fora Great Bustard, is no great age for so large a bird ; the figures of average duration are fairly good in comparison with the maximum durations. These birds have been kept almost altogether in open- air paddocks, and it would appear that their constitutional viability is not high in proportion to their size. The whole alimentary tract is very short in proportion to the size of the birds, but the hind-gut and ceca are relatively extremely capacious. Denese ae Cima No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in months. Wesophid, WHOLE GENUS ......:<.0-.s--e0008-+s 30 Wee 90 P. crepitans (Common Trumpeter) ... 15 Wes 90 P. leucoptera (White-backed ,, ) ... 6 19°5 34 P.viridis (Green-winged , ) ... 9 16°5 32 Cariama cristata (Brazilian Cariama) 20 AQ 151 Chunga burmeisteri (Burmeister’s 6 3l 65 Cariama). IT do not know of any published references to the ages of Trumpeters and Cariamas. The alimentary tract of these birds is much of the same character as that of the Bustards, but the ceca and hind-gut are relatively rather less capacious. The birds ‘have been kept in an aviary with heated interior and open-air compartments. The record of between 12 and 13 years for a Brazilian Cariama, and the figures of average duration appear to show that the Cariamas have a higher viability than the Trumpeters. ‘The former are larger birds, and the difference may be merely the familiar size correlation. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. GRUID&. Indiv. in months. in months. CUS HWIMOLEISEMUS . 6. 2. cee). Bebe 42 72 514 G. americana (American Crane) ...... 5 34 82 G. antigone (Kastern Sarus ,, ) ...... a 64 191 G. australasiana (Australian Crane) 10 68 129 G. canadensis (Canadian siete) ee 35 96 G. communis (Common an em 145 514 G. japonensis (Mantchurian 1 Mens 59 306 G. monachus (Hooded iain wage 99 99 Anthropoides, whole genus............... A() 46°5 227 A. carunculata (Wattled Crane) ...... 9 34 59 A. leucauchen (White-necked Crane) | 184 184 A. leucogeranos (Asiatic White ,, ) 9 34 84 A. paradisea (Stanley Pe xs, 58 227 A. virgo (Demoiselle ei): sel 46 104 Balearica pavonina (Crowned Pieayt Va 50 141 B. regulorum (Cape Bo psbA 43 170 Mr. J. H. Gurney has recorded (loc. cit. p. 38) a Common Crane of 40 years (from the Gardens of this Society) and a White-necked Crane of 28 years from the Amsterdam Gardens. The longest 528 ; DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND duration on my list isa Common Crane which lived in the Gardens for nearly 43 years, another of the same species with a duration of 274 years, and a Mantchurian Crane of 253 years. It is clear that these large birds have a very high potential longevity. The alimentary tract is relatively very long and of narrow calibre, but the ceca and hind-gut are by no means capacious in proportion to the whole tract. In the period to which the figures relate, the Cranes were kept in an open-air paddock, a few being taken indoors in winter. The maximum durations, and the average durations, ranging from nearly three years upwards, show that these birds have a high viability. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. Hurypycm 2. Indiv. in months. in months. Kurypyge helias (Sun-bittern) ......... ital 48 114 Rhinochetus jubatus (Kagu) ............ 6 137 196 ¥ do not know of any published figures relating to the longevity of the isolated birds here placed together. The individual examples of the Sun-bittern differed considerably in duration: all but one of the six Kagus lived at least 9 years in the Gardens, the maximum duration being over 16 years. They were kept under sunilar conditions, in an aviary with warmed retreats and access to open air. The maximum durations and average durations— show that both have a high potential longevity and viability in proportion to their size, but that the Kagu is hardier than the Sun-bittern. In each case the alimentary tract is, relatively to the size of the bird, rather long, but the posterior region and creca are uncapacious. ARAMID. Noxon Ay. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in months. Aramus scolopaceus (Scolopaceous 1 9 9 Coulan). IT cannot draw any conclusion from the single example of this bird. From the structure of the alimentary tr ract, I am disposed to regard this bird as less viable than Cranes, Bustards, Sun- bitterns and so forth. Summary of Alectorides. Most naturalists would agree that the association of the birds here grouped as Alectorides (following the Society’s Vertebrate List) 1s not intimate. It is quite plain that within the assemblage there is no good correlation between size and longevity and viability. The Cranes, it is true, show the longest dur ations and very good averages, but the Kagus, which are Touch smaller, are nearly as good, whilst the Bustards, which are large and bulky birds, are much worse. If we make, so to say, a correction for Size, discounting the expected eveater longevity of the HE er florins, then the birds in the assemblage might be arranged - as follows, in the order of good to less good viability Kaus, Crates, Sun- bitterns. Cariamas, Trumpeters, Bustards generally, and lowest of all Houbara Bustards. yan ae RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. LIMICOLAs. CEDICNEMID.®. Bees Wdicnemus, whole genus .............6. 31 (1. bistriatus (Double- -striped Thicknee) 4 . grallarius (Australian M3 LS . scolopax (Stone-Curlew) ............ 1) (H. superciliaris (Peruvian Thicknee) 8 CHARADRIID&. Charadrius pluvialis (Golden mi 27 Squatarola helvetica (Grey org 3) Aigialitis curonica (Little Ringed , DP a2 A, hiaticula (Ringed ssneivaee Hudromias morinellus (Dotterel) ...... i Vanellus cayennensis (Cayenne Lapwing) 19 V. cristatus (=vulgaris) (Lapwing) ... 31 Sarciophorus pectoralis (Black-breasted 7 Peewit) Strepsilas interpres (Turnstone) ...... 6 Hematopus niger (Black Oyster- 2 catcher) H. ostralegus (Oyster-catcher) ......... 28 Glareola ocularis (Hye-marked = 1 Pratincole) G. pratincola (Pratincole) ............... 10 CHIONIDE. Chionis alba (Yellow-billed Sheathbill) 12 C. minor —_ (Black-billed a yy SCOLOPACID.!. Recurvirostra avocetta (Avocet)......... Himantopus brasiliensis (Brazilian Stilt-Plover) H. nigricollis (Black-necked Stilt)....... 12 Scolopax rusticola (Woodcock) ......... 6 Gallinago colestis (Snipe) .............- 1 Tringa alpine (Dunlin) ........5...0s.6+- DD CORE US: (ISTOb) 76 isc uep comand doneiues 44 Machetes pugnasx (Ruff) ..........,.2..... 5 Calidris arenaria (Sanderling) ......... ul Tringoides hypoleucus (Common Sand- 4 piper) Totanus calidris (Redshank) ............ 19 DS fiscus (SPORLEG: = Fc, AO) Score escecs: 1 Limosa cegocephala (Black-tailed Godwit) 4 L. lapponica (Bar-tailed Godwit) ...... 3 Numenius, whole genus .................. 25 ON. angi (Curlew) 002 co. gace- anaes 20 NV. femoralis (Pacific Curlew)............ 2 NV. pheopus(W bimibrel).. ..d.. nse 6s 3 Ay. dur. im months. 18 D29 Max. dur. in months WAZ Le 43 2a) 53 530 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND Summary of Limicole. Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 40) records an Oyster-catcher of 30 years, and a Ruff of 10 years. The highest figures of maximum duration on my list are 15 years for a Pacific Curlew and over 14 years for a Black-breasted Peewit, but there is at present alive in the Gardens a Wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus lobatus) which we have had tor nearly 20 years, and an Oyster- eatcher which we have had for 13 years. The average durations on the list are in most cases between 1 and 2 years. In the period in question these birds were kept in an artificially warmed aviary, with or without access to open air, the best figures relating to species usually kept in an aviary with open-air cages. The structure of the alimentary canal of these birds is on the same general type—relatively very long and of slender calibre, with in the less specialized forms the ceca and hind-gut relatively more capacious, but seldom conspicuously so. The usual failure with common European birds is noteworthy, and would appear still more Clearly if I had not omitted from the figures numerous cases of individuals that lived less than a month at the Gardens. The evidence appears to show that in proportion to their size Limicolous birds have a high potential longevity, but that either their viability is constitutionally low, or the conditions of captivity are unfavourable to them. Capt. Flower’s highest record is a Lapwing still alive after 6 years’ duration. GAVIA. STERCORARIIDA, Tdi Gaetan ae Stercorarius, whole genus ..... Pe nea ae 14 14-6 67 S. antarcticus (Antarctic Skua) 6 18 67 S. buffoni (Buffon’s My Fal 2 2 S. crepidaius (Richardson’s ,, ) 2 1 1 S. pomatorhinus (Pomatorhine ,, ) 5 19 AT LARD. Phaéthusa magnirostris (Great-billed 1 2 2 Tern) Gelochelidon anglica (Gull-billed .,, ) 1 10 10 Sterna, whole genus ..........5.02.-.5.3. 12 116 74 S. cantiaca (Sandwich Tern) ............ 4 2°7 3 S. fluviatilis (Common ,, )............ i 16 74 S. minuta (Little SD ae ties att 1 16 16 Larus, smnole. semus) Geen eee 190 42°5 257 LL. argentatus (Herring Gull)............ 34 27°8 99 L. atricilla (Laughing ,, )............ 6 26 50 L. brunneicephalus (Brown-headed 1 55 55 Gull) I. cachinnans (Yellow-legged Herring 11 OD 230 Gull) RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 53) ao Tata, be faineatin, Sonat Larus canus (Common Gull)............ 27 30°9 (Gy L. cirrhocephalus (Ashy-headed Gull) 3 47 94 L. dominicanus (Dominican alee 10] 114 L. franklini (Franklin’s a eeo 10 16 L. fuscus (Lesser Black-backed ,, ) 11 32°8 97 L. gelastes (Arabian madi rage 10 10 L. glaucus (Glaucous are 58°5 156 L. ichthyaétus (Great Black-headed ,, ) 2 6°5 7 L. leucopterus (Iceland mado L 93 93. L. marinus (Greater Black-backed ,, ) 8 74 187 L. nove-hollandie (Jameson's ae elt 60 255, L. ridibundus (Black-headed ,, ) 57 AQ) 257 Pagophila eburnea (Ivory a) ea: 20 5D Rissa tridactyla (Kittiwake) ............ 18 10°5 55 Summary of Gavie. Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 40) mentions Herring Gulls of 44 and 21 years, Lesser Black-backed Gulls of 30 and 32 years, and a Great Skua of 24 years. The highest figures on my list are a Black-headed and a Jameson’s Gull, each of over 21 years’ duration—and a Yellow-legged Herring Gull of over 19 years’ duration. Within the divisions there is no apparent correlation between size and either maximum or average durations. The Skuas and Terns lived on an average under 2 years, most of the Gulls more than 4 years. The Gulls were kept, during the period covered, in out-door aviaries, or if they were pinioned, in open paddocks. The alimentary tract of all the Gavie is relatively long and of narrow calibre: the ceca and hind-gut are very short and uncapacious except in the Skuas, when they are of moderate length. The group, in proportion to its size, shows only moderate longevity and viability. Capt. Flower’s only high record is that of a Lesser Black- backed Gull alive after 11 years’ duration. TUBINARES. PurFINIDZ. No. of — Av. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in months. Paijenius, whole genus 2. ........c.. 0.05, 6 16 4 P. anglorum (Manx Shearwater) ...... 3 2 4 P. kuhli (Cinereous Puffin) «............ 2 1 1 P. major (Greater Shearwater) ......... 1 1 | Fulmarus glacialis (Fulmar) ............ 4 10 38 [ do not know of any published information as to the longevity of the Tubinares, and the fate of the few examples on my list is only sufficient to show that they have very bad lives in captivity. 532 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND PYGOPODES. CoLYMBIDH. ee ee aa Tachybaptes fluviatilis (Little Grebe) 10 10°3 50 Eehmophorus major (Great Selec 9 9 Podiceps cristatus (Crested, “)" 3 4-3 Wil P. griseigena (Bedenecked 5) eat J i Colymbus arcticus (Black-throated 1 1 1 Diver) C. glacialis' (Great Northern. ,,) 2 Sel 10 C. septentrionalis (Red-throated ,, ) 6 5) Ve ALCIDA. Allcattorda (Razor eee cee 12 9 5A Lomvia troile (Common Guillemot) ... 33 6 52 Uria grylle (Black itn a) ee eG) 1 2 Fratercula arctica (Puffin) ............... 11 5 16 In the case of this group also, I do not know of published information. The records I can give are very bad; of 86 examples the average duration is under a year, and in most cases much under a year, whilst the figures would have been still worse if I had included a considerable number of Little Grebes, Crested Grebes, Razorbills, and Puftins that failed to livea month. In all these birds the intestinal tract is of moderate length, in proportion to size; even in the Divers the ceca and hind-gut are uncapacious, whilst in the others they are vestigial. Jam unaware of anything in the structure of these birds from which we might infer a constitutional lack of viability as compared with, for instance, Gulls, and the conditions under which the attempt has been made to keep them are similar. I think that their lack of viability in captivity must be partly psychological, and to be referred to the set of causes which lower the average duration in captivity of most of the familiar mammals and birds of Europe. IMPENNES. No. of Av. duy. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in months. Aptenodytes pennant: (King Penguin) 9 3°6 11 Pygosceles teniatus (Gentoo fe CS 2°5 7 Spheniscus, whole genus ............... 29 17-5 135 S. demersus (Black-footed Penguin)... 24 20 135 S. humboldti (Humboldt’s is sae) 2 5 9 S. magellanicus (Jackass a Vee eaace 5 8 Fudyptes, whole genus .................. 16 13°5 88 H. antipodum (Yellow - crowned 2 6°5 12 Penguin) H. chrysocome (Rock-hopper ,, ) 6 12 58 i. pachyrhynchus(Wide-beaked ,, ) 5 4 8 E. selateri (Sclater’s Sed) sete tes 37 88 RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AWD BIRDS. DBs In this group also I am unaware of published figures as to longevity. To the maximum of over 11 years’ duration in the case of a Black-footed Penguin, I am able to add that of another example of the same species, now alive in the Gardens after a duration of 123 years, whilst there are several of over 6 years. The average duration shewn by the records is bad, in all cases under two years, In most under one. Penguins have an excessively long and slender alimentary tract, but Ae hind-gut and ceca are vestigial. In the period under consideration they were kept for the most part ina house with artificial heat and without access to fresh air, but some of the larger forms had free access to open air and they were by no means the most successful. I think it must be inferred that these birds havea good potential longevity, but that their viability in captivity, at least, is low. No. of Ay. dur. Max. dur. CRYPTURI. Indiv, im months. in months. Tinamus solitarias (Solitary Tinamou). 6 30 78 Crypturus, whole genus .............., 24 12:7 66 C. noctivagus (Banded Tinamou) ... 10 13-4 AD C. obsoletus (Obsolete _,, ) a ean Neve 4 C. tataupa = (Tataupa _s,, ant ae Al 66 C. undulatus (Undulated ,,° =) :.. 1 6 6 Rhynchotus perdicarius (Chilian 2 . 245 26 Tinamou). R. rufescens (Rufous Tinamou) ..... 66 19°6 102 Nothura maculosa (Spotted Tinamou) 48 12 3D In the case of Tinamous, once more I am unaware of the existence of published records as to longevity. The maximum duration of 84 years (in the case of a Rufous Tinamou) and the average durations, which in most cases are under 2 years, show that these birds are rather less viable than the Guans, with which they may be compared in size and to some extent in habits. They have been kept under similar conditions—in an aviary with warmed shelters and open-air compartments. The structure of the alimentary canal differs from that of Gallinaceous birds chiefly in the relative shortness and want of capacity of the whole tract andin the much greater relative capacity and length of hind-gut and ceca. APTERYGES. No. of _Av. dur. Max. dur. Indiv. in months. in mouths. Apteryx, whole genus ......2,.:2..0.0+. 22 48 240 A. australis (Kiwi) inseam ee 1 97, OF A. haasti (Haast’s Kiw i) pie edie 2 555 4G A, mantelli (Mantell’s ,, ) ......... 9 50°5 240) A. owenit (Owen's al) Leen 10 38°8 ial iy Mr. J. H. Gurney (doe. ett. p. 40) records an Australian Apteryx which died after having lived 20 years in our Gardens; this is Proc. Zoo. Soc.—1911, No. XXXV, 35 534 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND probably the same specimen recorded im my list as a Mantell’s Apteryx. Although the Kiwis are small if considered in com- parison with Struthious birds, they are actually large birds, and the figures of maximum and average durations cannot be taken as showing that these birds have a high viability in proportion to their size. They are nocturnal, and have generally been con- fined in small shelters in a heated aviary. ‘The alimentary tract is of slender calibre, and not long in proportion to the size of ihe bird, but the hind-gut and especially the cca are extremely capacious. % a if Te KS Ae al CASUARIT.* die, ree ae Caswarius, whole genus :.............. 12 30°8 186 C. caswarius (Common or Ceram 11 ol 110 Cassowary). C. c. beccarii (Beccari’s Cassowary)... 7 16 24 OC, Gm Salonen (ID ANISS 5 css I 20 20 CO. c. salvadori (Salvadori’s_,, eRe ee) 22a) 61 C'. c. intensus (Blue-necked ,, | erent 17 29 C. c. violicollis (Violet-necked 6 26 38 Cassowary). CO. c. australis (Australian - 5 64 186 C’. bicarunculatus (T'wo-wattled 5 34 86 Cassowary). C. uniappendiculatus (One-wattled 10 1359 43 Cassowary). C. w. occipitalis (Jobi Island One- 1 10 10 wattled Cassowary). C. uw. aurantiacus (Kastern One- 1 8 8 wattled Cassowary). C. wu. rufotinctus (Red-tinted One- 2 ely 26 wattled Cassowary). C. phitipr (Selater’s 43 1 jl 31 C. papwanus (Westermann’s ,, ) 5 45 85 C. p. edwardst (Milne-Edwards’s 2 14 15 Cassowary). C. picticoll’s (Painted-necked ,, ) 1 29 29 Ombennetia (Nloonuils)\sierern tata eee 5 78 174 Dromeus nove-hollandic (Kmu) 5 13-4 29 Mr. J. H. Gurney (loc. cit. p. 40) has recorded an Emu of 28 years, and a Westermann’s Cassowary of 26 years. The figures on iy list are very much lower, the maximum duration being 153 years fora Cassowary. In the period considered they were kept in a warmed house with open-air yards, but to what extent they were allowed free access to the yards, I am unable to say. The figures * (In the synonymy of the Cassowaries I have followed Mr. L. W. Rothschild, Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xv. p. 109. | RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 535 of average duration vary, but these and the maximum durations both show that at least under thesconditions of captivity, Casso- waries and Emus have a low viability in proportion to their size. It is interesting to notice that the Emus, although larger than most of the Cassowaries, appear to be less viable. In the section on Struthiones which follows I refer to the conditions of the alimentary tract of these birds. SEU EELONES: tng ON Ga osteo rat cohen! Struthio camelus (Ostrich) ............ 25 15-4 56 S. molybdophanes (Somali Ostrich)... 4 25 62 Rhea americana (Common Rhea)... 51 aod Lee 80 R. darwin (Darwin's) ">." )ee 6 9 12 R. macrorhyncha (Great-billed Rhea) ial 17-6 43 Metchnikoff (op. cit. p. 78) has collected some information as to the longevity of Ostriches and their allies, and has come to the conclusion that 35 years would be an extreme age to be attained by these gigantic birds. The figures on my list show much shorter maximum durations, whilst the figures of average duration are still lower. It is interesting to note, that taking Kiwis, Cassowaries, Emus, Rheas, and Ostriches together, not only is there no direct correlation between size and average and maximum durations, but the familiar relation is reversed. The smallest birds, the Kiwis, according to my tables, show the highest viability; next come the Cassowaries, whilst the Ostriches, much the largest birds, are lowest. In the Kiwi and Cassowary, the ceca, and hind-gut, although moderately capacious, are not specially so in proportion to the remainder of the alimentary tract ; whilst in the Rheas, Emus, and above all in the Ostrich, the hind-gut and ceca are relatively enormously long and capacious, out of all proportion to the condition in any other group of birds and recalling the structure of herbi- vorous mammals. In their case there is the maximum opportunity for intestinal putrefaction, and these large Struthious birds, in proportion to their size, appear to have the lowest viability of all birds. Capt. Flower’s only high record is an Ostrich alive after 12 years’ duration. SuMMARY or AYES. Constitutional differences in Longevity. Putting together the information so carefully collected by Mr. Gurney, which of course related to maximum durations and potential longevity, and the results which I record here, we can draw the conclusion that very real constitutional differences in viability and longevity exist amongst the different families of birds. The chief difficulty is to distinguish between low viability due to special conditions of captivity and constitutional 35% 536 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND low viability. It cannot be supposed that birds which are resident in Europe, or in England, have a lower constitutional viability than their congeners in more distant parts of the world, and yet, if we were to form conclusions as to the-via- bility of such birds (or mammals) from the evidence given by captive examples, we should have to assign to them a very low position. So also insectivorous birds have usually a low via- bility in captivity, but this may well be due to the difficulty of providing them with suitable food. So also, if we were limited to knowledge of parrots under the usual conditions of a Parrot- house, we should have a very erroneous view of their poten- tialities. Passerine birds are long-lived and hardy. Almost all of them have a potential longevity probably well over 20 years, and some of the larger forms may reach to over 60 years. The least hardy in captivity are Warblers, Tits, Pipits, Wagtails, Bulbuls, Orioles, Tanagers, and Larks. Tyrants; Bell-birds, and so forth, which are generally regarded as a lower grade of Passerines, appear less viable and shorter-lived. Of Picarian birds, Colies, Hornbills, Motmots, Toucans, and Barbets have potential longevities approaching those of Passerines, but markedly lower, whilst their viabilities are relatively good ; Woodpeckers, Kingfishers, Hoopoes, Bee-eaters, Rollers, Frog- mouths, Cuckoos, and Touracous have much lower potential longevities and are less hardy. Owls have a potential longevity certainly extending to over 50 years, but their viability appears to be constitutionally low, their short average durations in cap- tivity not depending altogether on any specially unfavourable conditions. Parrots have a high potential longevity, certainly ranging well over 50 years. Their viability is almost certainly good, and their low average durations must be assigned to unfavourable conditions in captivity. Diurnal birds of prey have potential longevities probably exceeding those of parrots. Their viabilities are better than those of Owls, the conditions in captivity being in neither case satisfactory. Steganopodes have potential longevities ranging up to about 50 years, with very good viability ; here seems no constitutional reason to assign a low viability to Gannets and Cormorants, and their tre atment in captivity does not differ much from that of Pelicans. The actual figures show that they have had much lower average and maximum durations than Pelicans, but this most pr obably i is to be associated with the failure in the case of many other European birds. Herons, Storks, Spoonbills and Ibises appear to have a poten- tial longevity of over 30 years, and a fairly good viability. Tbises appear to have a better viability than the other members of the group. RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. Doi Flamingoes have a potential longevity certainly considerably over 20 years, and have a high viability in captivity. Screamers appear to have rather low potential longevity and viability, certainly much lower than those of Flamingoes or Geese. Swans, Ducks, and Geese have a longevity most probably going beyond 50 years, and appear to have a good viability. Doves and Pigeons have a _ potential longevity certainly reaching to about 30 years and have a very good viability. Sand-grouse apparently are considerably lower than Pigeons both in potential and average duration. Gallinaceous birds have a potential longevity ranging about 20 years, and only a fair viability. Megapodes, Curassows, and Guans seem to be most hardy and the longest livers. The Hemipodes have considerably lower potential longevity and viability than Gallinaceous birds of about the same size. _ Rails, Crakes, Porphyrios, and Gallinules appear to have poten- tial longevities of not more than about 20 years, and have relatively low viability Of the Alectorides, Cranes have a potential longevity almost certainly exceeding 50 years and a very good viability. Kagus have a still better viability and pr obably a somewhat sunilar potential longevity. Bustards are the lowest of the group both in longevity and viability. Limicolous birds have a potential longevity which is high in proportion to their size and must be set down as at least about 30 years. Hither their constitutional viability is low or the conditions of captivity are specially unfavourable to them. Gulls and their allies certainly have a potential longevity of at least 30 yeas, but their viability, at least under the conditions of captivity, is relatively low. Puffins; Divers, Guillemots, and so forth have so poor a via- bility in captivity that no conclusions can be drawn as to their potential longevity. Penguins have a potential longevity of at least over 12 years, but their viability under the conditions of captivity, in the period covered by my records, is low. Tinamous appear to have a low potential longevity, certainly not much over 12 years, and a relatively poor viability, The potential longevity of Struthious birds is certainly under 50 years, and their viability is relatively low. Longevity and Size. A very summary inspection of the tables of figures I have given will show that for birds as a whole there is no constant relation between potential longevity and size. The correlation does not exist even if only size and actual longevity be taken. An Ostrich is much bigger than a Crow or a Parrot, and yet cannot 538 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND attain so great an age. Nor does the correlation exist between size and viability, for if the same sets of birds be compared, it will be seen that the average expectation of life is much better in the case of the smaller birds. If, instead of absolute correlation, relative correlation be considered, the case is more striking. | An Ostrich must be several hundred times larger and heavier than many birds which could outlive it, and which on the average do outlive it. If the comparison between birds and mammals be taken, it 1s equally clear that, apart from such a case as that of the whale for which a very great age is assumed, and that of man, there are many birds with potential longevities equal to those of the longest-lived mammals. Moreover, if the two. Classes be compared from the point of view of longevity in proportion to size, the result is still more striking. On the whole, group by group, mammals are much larger than birds, her- bivorous mammals than herbivorous birds, frugivorous mammals than frugivorous birds, omnivorous or carnivorous mammals than omnivorous or carnivorous birds. And yet, group by group, if the figures be compared, it becomes more and more obvious that birds approach and often surpass mammals in longevity and viability. Metchnikoff has already called attention to this difference and has associated it with the anatomical fact that the most striking difterence between the alimentary tracts of mammals and birds is in the greater relative length, complexity and capacity of the hind-gut in the former group. The facts that mammals with relatively reduced and uncapacious hind-guts and ceca (such as the Carnivora) tend to have longer lives m proportion to their size, and that birds like the Struthious birds, which have relatively long and capacious hind-guts and ceca, have short lives in proportion to their size, still further confirm and support Metchnikoff’s general proposition. Within certain groups of birds the correlation between size and potential longevity appears to exist. It can be traced with more or less clearness in the case of Hagles, Owls, Passeres, and Picarian birds. But even in this limited fashion it is far from being universal. Probably Swans have a higher longevity than Ducks and Geese, but I cannot find any similar differences if Geese and Ducks be compared. Kagus appear to live as long as Cranes, Ibises better than Storks or Herons: there is no trace of the correlation in. the case of Rails, or Pigeons or Gulls, and amongst Struthious birds the conditions are apparently reversed, and the Kiwi is hardier than the Ostrich. I should hesitate to say that the differences in the constitutional longevities of birds could be associated universally with- the structure of the alimentary canal, although there are some indi- cations pointing im that ditcenions The Struthious birds and the Screamers have large and capacious hind-guts and exca, and in proportion to their size have very short lives. Sand-grouse difter from Pigeons in having capacious ceca and have relatively BLATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 539 shorter lives. Owls have large ceca, Hagles and their allies have vestigial ceca, and Owls in proportion to their size appear to have lower potential and average longevities. Many large birds such as Eagles, Vultures, Pelicans, Flamin- goes, and Cranes, can attain great ages, but similar ages can be attained by much smaller birds such as Parrots and Crows. In proportion ‘to their size, it is quite clear that Passeres have the longest potential and average durations; and that Parrots, Pigeons, and Limicolous bir ds, similarly in propoition to size, come next, There are few generalizations more difficult to support with convincing argument than those which relate to the relative degrees of specialization to be assigned to natural groups of animals, but I think that many ornithologists would agree with me if I were to say that Passeres, Parrots, Pigeons, and Limicolous birds were relatively high types, standing far away from whatever we may imagine the primitive bird-type to-have been. And I think that the most certain general conclusion which I may draw regarding the relative longey ity and viability of the groups of birds is, that in propor tion to size, longevity and viability increase with perfection of organization. The further a bird has advanced along the lines of evolution of the bird group, the more viable it is. No doubt shortening of the hind-gut, reduction of the number of eggs in a clutch, increased care of the young, may all be taken as stages in the perfection of the bird-type, and so have a general association with increased longevity, apart from any direct influence which any one of them may have Viability, Temperature, and Open Air. I cannot see that there is any relation between the climate from which birds come and their viability in captivity. Nor would such a relation be expected on general grounds, for birds, by their covering of feathers and the perfection of their vascular and respiratory systems, are well adapted to resist exposure to changes in temperature. If food be abundant, and if there be protection from draught, they seem remarkably indifferent to the temperature of the air. The interpretation, however, of their viabilities is obscured by special factors which existed in the period with which the figures deal, and which exist in most menageries. The comparison that is to be desired is a direct contrast between the viabilities of birds kept in the interior of a warmed house, and birds kept with little or no artificial heat and free exposure to the open air. The numbers of species and of individuals usually kept in captivity is much greater in the case of birds than in the case of mammals, and from the smaller size of birds and their more gvegarious habits, it is usually possible to keep numbers of individuals of the same or of different species in the same aviary. The most familiar contrast in the conditions under which birds are kept, is that between one or two individuals in a small cage in 540 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND a warmed house, and considerable numbers of individuals in an aviary or enclosure giving room for exercise, and access to the open air. Now although many birds can be kept together, and are kept together, many casualties occur. A good deal of fighting and bullying takes place, and in practice, it is extraordinarily difficult to secure that every bird in the collection gets its due share of food, and is not worried by its messmates. Moreover, there is special danger of individuals which are affected by a communi- cvble disease, or by parasites, infecting their healthy neighbours. Birds in separate cages avoid these evils; they are safe from bullying, they are properly fed, and if they are out of condition temporarily, have a chance of recovery. If we discount the very considerable advantage of protection that the Parrots obtained from their housing in separate cages, it will be seen from com- parison of their average durations with their known high specific longevity, how poorly the device of keeping them in a heated house has answered. In a majority of cases, birds that have had free access to open air have lived in communities, and before judging of the advantage of fresh air, we have to discount the pevils arising from their communal life. With these limitations and corrections, | think it is as clear an inference in the case of birds as in that of mammals, that making protection from temperature more important than the access to fresh air has failed in practice. GENERAL SUMMARY. (1) This memo brings together the records of the duration of life in captivity of over 20,000 individual mammals and birds, and contains information which, so far as I can ascertain, has never before been set out systematically. The individual facts are imperfect, inasmuch as the sources did not record the age, or condition, of the individuals at the time of their reception in the Collection. The probable effect of these imperfections is to lower the figures both of averageand of maximum duration. I hope to have shewn that from the point of view of exact knowledge and for practical reasons, it is important that those in charge of living animals should take steps to record such, information as exactly as possible. Every individual should be observed for some time after its arrival, and the date when it is passed into the general collection as apparently in good condition should be recorded, whilst, if the exact age be unknown, it should be classified as infantile, adult, or aged.. The houses, enclosures, or general con- ditions under which it is kept, with the date and nature of any changes of these, should be recorded. Finally the date, cause of death, and any further notes as to age should be entered. With such a system, in course of time, very exact conclusions could be obtamed as to the viability and longevity of different kinds of animals, and as to the effect of the modes of keeping them in captivity. (2) Following Ray Lankester, I distinguish between potential RELATIVE VIABILILY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS 5Al longevity *, the limit of age which an individual could attain in the most favourable circumstances, and average or specific longevity, the average age to which the animals of a species attain under the natural conditions to which the species has become adapted. The difference between these two, I suggest is a measure of the severity of the conditions to which the species is subjected. In the case of the vast majority of animals it is impossible to get information as to either average or potential longevity. What information we have, is derived chiefly from knowledge of animals in captivity, and in this memoir I have been able to set down further information about species which have already been discussed by J. H. Gurney, Metchnikoff, Brehm and others, and to add information regarding many species about which nothing has been recorded hitherto. (3) I apply the principle of comparison between average and potential longevities to the case of animals in captivity, by discussing the meaning of average duration and maximum duration. I suggest that a measure of the effect of the conditions to which animals are subjected in captivity may be obtained by comparison of the maximum duration with what may be known from other sources of the potential longevity, and by comparison of the average duration with the maximum duration. If the individual facts were collected in such a fashion as I have suggested in paragraph 1 of this general. summary, I think the new method would lead to incontrovertible results, but even with the facts at my disposal, conclusions of fair validity can be drawn. It is necessary to note, however, that the figures of individual duration could be used to reveal more, if they were plotted out in curves instead of being used to give an arithmetical] mean. The grouping of the individual cases with regard to the mean is of great practical importance. In some cases, for instance, I have pointed out that the majority of the cases were grouped towards the two extremes, that the individuals for the most part either * [Lankester (¢.c. p.27) pointed out that some organisms, such as fish, molluses, large crustacea, sea-corals, and many trees, appear to have no fixed potential longevity but to persist until they perish from disease, or are overwhelmed by some accident, whilst others, such as man, appear to havea set period to the possible duration of their lives. he mammals and birds with which I am concerned in this memoir belong to the second category. But I doubt if there be a fundamental distinction between the categories. First,as Lankester stated, the individuality of an organism like a tree, or a colonial invertebrate, differs from that of most organisms, and must be separately considered from the point of view of potential longevity. Next, certain organisms, such as many fish, appear to have more indefinite limits of growth (possibly related to mechanical factors, of similar importance in the case of aquatic mammals such as the Cetacea) than the majority of animals, the adult dimensions of which vary within narrow limits; definite or indefinite potential longevity may be related with definite or indefinite growth. (See also H. Spencer, ‘ Principles of Biology,’ revised edition, 1898, vol. i. p. 135). I am: more inclined to suppose that potential longevity varies with structure in the widest sense, including under the term structure the consequences of wear and tear, and auto-poisoning from the slow accumulation of waste-products. All pieces of machinery, from a motor-car to a cork-screw, have a potential longevity, dependent in the main on their structure, and apart from the quality of their manufacture, varying fairly closely with their complexity. Although our attention is arrested by extreme cases, these are only terms in a series. | 542 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND died in the first few months after arrival (by birth or otherwise) or survived to an age approaching the maximum, whilst in other cases there was a mortality rate steadily increasing with the length of residence in captivity. Obviously, the different curves that would be displayed by different animals, if the individual cases were plotted out in such a fashion, would give valuable information as to the special periods of danger in the case of different animals, and inform us if there were cases where the mortality was the result of progressive and cumulative effects of captivity. As, however, the facts at my disposal did not include any information as to the age or condition of the animals on reception, I came to the conclusion that it would be a waste of time to plot out curves. (4) Unfortunately, collections of animals have to be considered from the financial point of view. The money value of an animal to a collection, that is to say, the price which can be judiciously paid for it, depends on its rarity, its attractiveness to the popular and scientific clients of the institution, and on the length of time it may be expected to live. A gorilla, for instance, is rarer and much more attractive than a chimpanzee, but as a gorilla has a very much worse expectation of life in captivity than a chim- panzee, its money value may be smaller. The facts that I have brought together form, so far as I know, the first beginning of a practical guide to the value of animals considered from this point of view. (5) I have been able to bring together a large series of facts with regard to the relation between size and longevity. Taken in the broadest way, it is true that large animals may be expected to live longer than small animals, and in the case of very closely allied creatures the relation is frequently close. This may be associated partly with the effects of the accumulation of waste products. The cubical capacity of an animal increases much more rapidly than its linear dimensions, and of two animals of similar structure and constitution, the larger may take longer to be poisoned by its own waste products. Of course many simpler factors are involved—such as the greater resistance of a more bulky animal to rapid changes in the temperature of the air or water in which it lives. On the other hand, difference in longevity is not in exact proportion to size, and otlfer con- stitutional factors are more important. Birds, for instance, in proportion to size, have higher potential longevities than mammals; whilst within the classes, orders, and even families, there are many eases where difference in size is overborne by other constitutional differences. It seems to be the case that, in proportion to their size, the more highly developed members of a group are able to live longer than their lower kin. There are also a very large number of cases, where increased viability and longevity are associated, as Metchnikoff suggested, with a relatively low capacity of the hind-gut. (6) It has long been known to aviculturists that common RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRCS. 543 British birds are often very difficult to keep in captivity. I have shown that this difficulty occurs in so large a number of different kinds of British birds and mammals, that it may be laid down as a curious principle (to which naturally some exceptions exist) that British birds and mammals have a lower viability in captivity in England than their immediate allies from any other part of the world. This remarkable circumstance is in the first place, in the strict sense of the word, accidental, and finds partial explanation in a cause independent of the constitution of the animals. Most captured examples of wild species either are weakly individuals, or are injured or frightened by the process of capture: a heavy mortality is to be expected. Tn the case of animals that come from a distance, much of the heavy mortality takes place before arrival or, because of the additional evil effects of the conditions during transit, and the survivors which reach their destination are rela- tively strong and hardy. On the other hand, local animals reach their destination in a shorter time, and the heavy mortality takes place inside the Gardens. But this explanation is not wholly sufficient to cover the cases, and I think it may be assumed that wild birds and mammals in Britain have acquired an intolerance of man, without which, unfortunately, they would not have been allowed to maintain their existence. This psychological acquisition presses heavily on them in captivity. It appears to be the case that an opposite process of selection is taking place in the parks of great cities, and that wild birds in particular are learning not to fear man. It would be interesting to know if wild birds taken in a London park lived better in captivity than birds of the same species from country districts. (7) The climate from which a bird or mammal comes has the smallest possible relation to its viability in captivity. A. Heilprin (Distribution of Animals, Int. Sci. Series, vol. lvii., 1887, p. 35) pointed out the error of the common belief as to climate being the principal factor that regulates or controls the distribu- tion of animals. Amongst mammals and birds a vast majority of species anfl genera regarded as tropical have an actual or recent range into temperate or even frigid climates. Of those now limited to the tropics, still fewer are accustomed to a steady temperature. Some range periodically or occasionally to altitudes where great cold occurs; others, by exposure to the intense radiation of the dry air of plains at night, regularly endure cold going down to freezing-point ; whilst many inhabitants of tropical forests (which we naturally associate with steamy heat) must be subjected to great cold in their nocturnal wanderings on the summits of tall trees. The abundance of thick hair and fur and of close feathering amongst tropical creatures is a clear indication that their lifeis not spent basking in tropical sunlight. Mammals and birds have the power of maintaining their internal temperature at a normal that varies only within an extremely narrow range, notwithstanding the temperature changes in their environment ; 5 and I do not doubt, not only that they can endure considerable 544 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND cold, but that even rapid and considerable changes of temperature are a necessary stimulus to their viability. On the other hand, there are cases where the change to the climate of London is certainly trying, but these occur not amongst tropical but temperate or arctic animals. The production of a thick coat against the onset of winter cold, and its dotting when summer approaches, appear not to be direct reactions to temperature but organic rhythms adapted to the seasons in the natural habitat of the animals. Thusanimals from the far North, accustomed to the short arctic summer, retain their thick coats im this climate long after their possession is cumbersome. Still worse is the case of animals brought from South temperate zones, which begin to moult their thick coats when our winter, their summer, approaches. I have not information as to how soon if ever these rhythms readjust themselves to the reversed conditions. It is clear, on the other hand, that part at least of the mechanism by which coats become warmer, 1s direct stimulation from the surrounding temperature, and such different creatures as Carnivora and Baboons rapidly get better coats when exposed to the open air. ‘The seasonal rhythms connected with breeding are also a cause of mortality to young or adults, when the conditions of climate are reversed. Birds from the Southern hemisphere, if they survive, appear to readjust themselves in this respect; it is more doubtful if mammals do so. (8) The idea that it is a fundamental] necessity to protect neal Wes adult mammals and birds from cold by providing them with artificial heat is fallacious. The supreme necessity is free access to open air. In most cases this should be combined with shelter from rain and wind, and in some cases the shelter should be supplied with artificial heat—perhaps often even in excess of what is now customary—but only so far as it can be arranged without any detriment to fresh air. I think this is probably specially important in the case of nocturnal animals; as we are accustomed to see these asleep all day in the warmest corner given them, we are disposed to forget that at night they move about actively often in great cold. For all mammals and birds stexdy exposure to an even tem- perature is unnatural and unhealthy; change is a necessary stimulus, and permanent existence indoors is the wom possible condition for viability and longevity.* * [When this memoir was read my friend Dr. Leiper called my attention to the undoubted fact that the problem of the duration of life of animals in captivity is com- plicated by the eftects of parasites. In the course of my paper (see pp. 470 and 540) I have made reference to this subject, pointing out that some of the evil caused by confinement in warmed houses is undoubtedly not the direct result of absence of tresh air, or of artificial heat, but comes about mediately inasmuch as the conditions are specially favourable to parasites. It is true of course that any argument as to the potential longevity of animals based on maximum durations in captivity is’ subject to the effects of parasitism. J hope that the work of Mr. Plimmer, Mr. Beddard, Dr. Leiper, Dr. Nicoll, and Mr. Coventry, who are now systematically examining the parasites at the Gardens, will before long enable us to eliminate some at least of these evils. | RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 5AD5 (9) The tabulation and analysis of the records in this memoir has been a laborious task which has not been lightened by the knowledge that the materials were imperfect. But I trust that it may be a step towards obtaining systematic and more exact knowledge on the subject. Such knowledge i is the only sure basis for that improvement in the condition of animals in captivity which those in control of Zoological Collections desire to bring about. The peculiarity by which a menagerie is distinguished from a museum is that its zoological specimens are alive. Not the obtaining of rare animals, nor the addition to the records of * species new. to the Collection ” should be the chief glory of a Zoological Society, but that. Collection should be judged most valuable and successful in which the average duration of life of its inhabitants approaches potential duration most closely. Nore on THE THEory or LONGEVITY. With three notable exceptions, those of Lankester, Weis- mann, and Metchnikoff, discussions of the theory of longevity may be dismissed briefly here, partly beeause they have been treated fully in the literature of the subject *, and partly because they do not pretend to explain why the gift of life has been measured out to different animals in unequal portions. Bacon made a careful summary of the known facts, but refrained from general conclusions. ‘‘ In tame creatures” he wrote, as cited by Lankester from Basil Montagu’s translation, “ their degenerate life corrupteth them, in wild creatures their exposing to all weathers often intercepteth them; neither do those things which may seem concomitants give any furtherance to this information (the greatness of their bodies, their time of bearing in the womb, the number of their young ones, the time of their growth, and the rest), in regard that these things are intermixed, and some- times they concur, sometimes they sever.” Buffon thought that there was a relation between the total duration of life and the period of growth, and set down the ratio between the two as 6 or 7 to 1. Flour ens followed Buffon’s idea, but took as the limit of erowth, the age at which the long bones unite with their epiphyses, estimating that the ratio of the longevity to the period of growth was as 5 to 1. Bunge, without calculating an exact ratio, pointed out that there was a frequent relation between the longevity and the time taken by a new born animal to double its weight. Such calculations at the best are limited in their application to the higher animals, and even amongst these have to encounter many exceptions : so far as they go “they must be taken as secondary and comparatively accidental correlations. Ray Lankester’s early contribution (¢. c. p. 71) was a serious * See specially E. Ray. Lankester, ¢. c.; KE. Metchnikof!, ¢. c. p. 39, and article Longevity, im the XI. edition of the Eneyclopedia Britannica. 546 DR. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL ON LONGEVITY AND addition to knowledge. Having distinguished between potential and average specific longevities, and shown that the latter were determined to a large extent by accidents outside the constitution of the species (destruction by enemies, diseases and so forth), he attributed the former to constitutional causes of which the most important were the degrees of evolution or individuation and the amounts of personal and generative expenditure. High individua- tion, and low expenditure were to be associated with great potential longevity. A. Weismann, in his famous essay Ueber das Dawer des Lebens {translated in Essays upon Heredity, Oxford 1889), examined the various constitutional explanations of the duration of life. He admitted that small animals might be expected to run through the cycle of life more rapidly than large animals; that if the period of growth were long it might expand the total duration of life; that creatures in which the metabolic processes were extremely active, might finish their career more quickly (as Lotze suggested in his Microcosmus) than slow-living creatures; that the rates of personal and of reproductive expenditure had some influence. But he urged that the application of these various principles was only partial and led to so many inconsistencies - that no constant correlation could be established. He came to the conclusion that duration of life was really dependent upon adaptation to external conditions, that its length was governed by the needs of the species and was regulated by the same process as that by which the structure and the other functions of an organism were adapted to the environment. In adaptation to the environment, Weismann urged, it is the prosperity of the species and not that of the individual that is concerned. That species is most successful which contains at any time the largest number of vigorous adults, and as every organism in the vicissitudes of life becomes to a certain extent worn and dilapidated, it is not to the advantage of the species that indi- viduals should live too long. As soon as the business of repro- duction has been successfully accomplished, the advantage of an individual to the species is gone, and the sooner it disappears the better. Animals are in fact wound up to go for the requisite time,and no longer. The mechanism Weismann suggested was a limitation of the possible number of cell generations, admitting that this was hypothetical. The requisite length of time was determined by the reproductive habits of the animals. Slow breeding, for instance the production of a small number at a birth or in a season, long brood-care either embryonic or post- embryonic, and all the various circumstances by which an organism or pair of organisms require longer time to replace themselves by their younger and fresher children, stretched out the dura- tion of life; whilst rapid reproduction, absence of brood-care and so forth, contracted it. By the process of natural selection the incidence of death was adapted to the needs of the species. RELATIVE VIAPILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. SAT Obviously where there was a heavy incidence of death on the young, a longer life would be required to secure replacement of the parent by successfully reared young. Weismann (é. ¢. p. 11) brought together a very remarkable and cogent series of cases showing that a constant correlation existed between the reproductive powers and the duration of life of the individuals of a species, and his theory has an extremely im- portant place in the history of the subject. It is to be noted, however, that although he appreciated the probability that a very large number of deaths were due to external causes (enemies, diseases, accidents, untoward conditions) he did not explicitly work out the important relation to his theory of Lankester’s distinction between average specific longevity and potential longevity. It is clear that if the duration of life be fixed by some internal cause such as the limitation of cell-reproduction, it must be the potential longevity and not the average specific longevity that is affected; but if the majority of animals perish from accidents from without, it is difficult to see how their potential longevity could be influenced by selection. Metchnikoff’s most interesting work has still further increased the diticulty in the way of accepting Weismann’s theory. Metchnikoff investigated the causes of death in a very large number of cases, including those of insects which die very soon after having pac their eggs, and came to the conclusion that it is extremely doubtful if natural death occurs except in the rarest possible cases. Most animals perish long before they have reached an age at all approaching what may be regarded as their potential longevity. In the cases that survive the accidents of youth or early maturity, another series of accidents take effect. The changes of senility are induced from without; the various degenerations are brought into existence by the absorption into the system of various kinds of poisons, and these whether they are due to the exudations of the microbes of intestinal putrefaction, or to those of special diseases, are entirely external to the constitution. Senile animals perish because they can no longer resist common diseases or common accidents. It would be only in a world where the most perfect hygiene reigned, and from which the bacteria and microbes of diseases had been dri ‘iven, that the majority of the members of a species would attain the potential age, and that death would come on them from purely constitu- tional causes. And so the conception of the duration of animal life being an adaptation to breeding habits, produced by the operation of selection, disappears. I cannot doubt but that the average specific longevity is the dominating factor in animal life. At every stage of their existence animals are assaulted from without by enemies, diseases, and their whole environment. To say that is merely to restate the existence of the struggle for existence, the fundamental proposition of the theory of natural selection. If favourable 548 LONGEVITY AND RELATIVE VIABILITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS. variations arise, that is to say changes in diathesis, structure, function or habit, which enable the possessors of these to make a better fight against enemies, or diseases, or any part of their hostile environment, then we expect such variations to be preserved, and, consequently, the constitution of the organism to be modified in the direction of adaptation to its environment. It is no part of my present argument to discuss whether such variations appear in response to the environment, or by large or small stages; these are wide qnestions not germane to the present issue. But they do arise, and in sucha fashion there have come about increases or decreases in size, advances in structure or degenerations, protective colours and weapons—the whole armoury offered by variation to the choice of natural selection. Such improved powers of resistance to the environment may increase the average specific longevity, and indirectly may affect the potential longevity. But the attain- ment of the latter is too rare an event to come under the direct control of natural selection. There is no more important part of the structure and function of an organism than that associated with reproduction. The impulses and instincts connected with fertilization, the time, duration and frequency of rutting, the numbers of ova that are fertilized and allowed to develope, the duration of embryonic development, the amount and character of post-natal brood-care, the whole apparatus and machinery of the reproductive process, present an extraordinary series of modifications from species to species, and from individual to individual. They are subject to much variation amongst individuals at the present time, and it may well be presumed that they have offered a rich . material to natural selection in the past. Weismann has established a correlation between longevity and reproduction, but I think his interpretation of the correlation must be reversed. Tt is not longevity that has become adapted to reproduction, but the rate of reproduction has been adapted not to potential longevity, but to average specific longevity. Average specific longevity is simply a measure of the pressure of conditions on a species, and its constitution, including its mode of reproduction, has been shaped in conformity with the pressure of these conditions. Potential longevity is a bye-product of the process ; it depends directly on the constitution, and is simply the result of the fact that if the constitution be adapted to meet the average mortality, it must be able to outlive, and will outlive, the average duration of life in a number of fortunate cases. ON NEW PARASITIC NEMATODES FROM TROPICAL AFRICA, 549 25. Some new Parasitic Nematodes from Tropical Africa. By Rosert T. Lerreer, D.Sc., M.B., F.Z.S. [Received April 4, 1911: Read April 25, 1911.] (Text-figures 140-144.) In the following paper I give a brief description of a number of new genera that have recently come under my notice in the course of an examination of helminthic material collected by me during a visit to Kast Africa, Uganda and the Soudan, whilst a member of the Egyptian Government Survey in 1907, and of further material sent to me at the London School of Tropical Medicine by members of the Colonial Medical Service. NEMATODA. Family ANCYLOSTOMID 4, Genus ACHEILOSTOMA, gen. n. Species SIMPSONI, sp. n. (‘ype sp.) Host: a large rodent. Locality: Nigeria. A large number of specimens was collected from the ali- mentary canal and preserved in 70 °/, alcohol. The males measure 17 mm. in length, the females 23 mm. in length. The former are less numerous than the latter. The cuticle shows marked transverse striation in the anterior end of the body. The indi- vidual striz are so deeply cut as to give the edge of the cuticle in this region a serrated appearance. Ata distance of 0:8 mm. from the anterior end are two large stout lateral papille curving backwards and shaped like large thorns (text-fig. 140, A, /.p. p.550). The anterior end of the body is bent dorsally only very slightly, showing that the oral aperture, which is surrounded by a thick collar, 0-004 mm. deep, is almost but not quite terminal. The mouth capsule shows similar characters to those found in other members of this family. There is a large median ventral tooth and two fan-shaped inner teeth guarding the cesophageal entrance to the buccal capsule dorsally (text-fig. 140,D). The buceal capsule has a chitinous wall, and resembles that of Vecator rather than that of Ancylostomum. 'The most striking feature of the genus, how- ever, is the entire absence of teeth or cutting-plates guarding the entrance to the oral aperture. There is no indication either of a corona radiata; so that although the buccal cavity of the parasite recalls that of the Ancylostomes in its internal characters, the oral aperture reminds one rather of the Bunostomes. The csophagus measures 0°95 mm. in length and shows no special characters. In the female the genital pore lies almost at the centre of the body. The eggs in the uterus measure 0-055 mm. x 0°032 mm. and usually contain a few segments. In the male, the posterior end of the body is surrounded by a Proc. Zoot. Soc.—1911, No. XXXVI. 36 D5) DR. ROBERT T. LEIPER ON NEW oO well developed bursa that projects much more ventrally than dorsally (text-fig. 140, B). The genital cone (text-fig. 140, B, g.c.) is greatly developed and can be seen projecting between the two sides of the bursa and the dorsalinembrane. The dorsal membrane is distinctly delimited from the lateral halves of the bursa and is very much shorter (text-fig. 140, C). Text-fig. 140. Acheilostoma simpsoni. A. Anterior extremity showing mouth capsule m.c., wsophagus @s., Jateral cervical papilla /.p. B. Bursa of male, lateral view: g.c., genital cone; sp., spicules. C. Bursa showing division of dorsal ray. D. Base of mouth capsule showing chitinous folds of the wall of the capsule guarding the cesophageal orifice. The dorsal ray is short and thick and bifurcates about halfway along its length to form two stout rays, which are again split into two subdivisions as they reach the edge of the bursal membrane. The externo-dorsal rays leave the dorsal ray from about the middle of the thick undivided portion. The ventral rays are fairly well developed and are united to their tips. All the lateral rays, middle and posterior, run to the bursal edge almost side by side, but the anterior ray, which has a thickness almost equal to the two central rays combined, takes a separate course, ending about one-third of the distance from the midlateral to the ventral rays. (Collected by J. J. Simpson, Esq.) fe | — PARASITIC NEMATODES FROM TROPICAL AFRICA. 5 Family STRONGY LID &. Subfamily CyLrcosromiIn %. Genus CYLINDROPHARYNX, gen. n. Species BREVICAUDA, sp. n. (Type sp.) Host: Zebra. Locality: British Hast Africa. The Zebra is the subject of a considerable number of parasites that occur normally in the Horse, but in addition it appears to have found a few peculiar to itself. While examining a number of Cylicostominz cleared in glycerine, I noticed a number of specimens that appeared to have an abnormally deep buccal capsule. The shape of this capsule struck me at once as of generic value, and on further search I was soon able to distinguish in the material two distinct species showing this special character. To the naked eye appearances the species of this genus resemble exactly those of Cylicostomwm. The mouth is surrounded by a collar bearing a double corona radiata. In C. brevicauda, the type species, the buccal capsule is cylindrical, and has a thick chitinous wall measuring 0-4 mm. in depth and 0-1 mm. in transverse diameter. The wsophagus is exceedingly short and fleshy, measuring 0-46 min. in length and 0°18 mm. in greatest diameter. The nerve-ring surrounds the esophagus immediately behind its union with the buccal capsule (text-fig. 141, A, p. 552). Tn the female, the posterior end tapers very quickly from a diameter of 0°25 mm. at the level of the vulva to a pencil-like point. The vulva opens at 0°7 mm., the anus at 0°18 mm. from the extremity (text-fig. 141, C). In the male the bursa shows a characteristic disposition of the rays. The posterior ray is split to its base into two portions, and each of these is again split as far into an internal and external ray. The external ray is bifurcated as it reaches the edge of the bursal membrane (text-fig. 141, D). The genital cone is very large and protuberant. The spicules are long and filiform, measuring 1mm.in length. There isa stout thick uneven accessory piece 0-2 mm. in length (text-fig. 141, B). The edge of the bursal membrane is finely serrated as in the genus Triodontophorus. CYLINDROPHARYNX LONGICAUDA, Sp. Nn. Host: Zebra. Locality: British East Africa. This species closely resembles C. brevicauda, but the buccal capsule is smaller, measuring only 0°23 x 0-07 mm. The cesophagus is more slender, measuring 0°42 x 0:12 mm. (text-fig. 142, A). In the female the tail is long and pointed. The vulva is situated much farther forward in this species, opening at 1°55 mm., whilst the anus opens 0°32 mm. from the posterior extremity (text- fig. 142, D). In the male the spicules are shorter, 07 mm. The accessory piece is less developed and shorter, 0°13 mm. The genital cone is more globular (text-fig. 142, B). The rays differ more par- ticularly in that the external branch of the posterior is undivided (text-fig. 142,C). (Collected by Dr. J. T. C. Johnson.) DR. ROBERT T, LEIPER ON NEW or Sil bo Text-fig. 141. Cylindropharynx brevicauda. A. Anterior extremity showing deep cylindrical pharynx (ph.) and short muscular cesophagus (cs.), nerve-ring (nv.), and chyle imtestine (c.in.). B. Bursa of male showing the long spicules (sp.’, sp.’’) and well-developed accessory piece (acc.). The externo-dorsal ray is bifurcated at its tip. ‘There is a large protruding genital cone (g.c.). C. Posterior extremity of female showing relationship of vulva (v.) and anus (an.) to tip of tail. D. Dorsal rays of bursa as seen from ventral surface; the edge of the bursa is serrated. Subfamily STRONGYLINA. Genus TRACHYPHARYNX, gen. n. Species NIGERIA, sp. n. (Type sp.) Host: a large rodent. Locality: Nigeria. Among the above specimens were a few shorter and more stunipy forms that on microscopical examination proved to belong to quite a different family. The specimens were few in number and badly preserved. The diagnosis is based upon the anterior end of the body, mainly because in both sexes the posterior end was obscured and embedded in a thick brown prostatic secretion. The males measure 11 mm. in length and the females 15 mm. in length, and 0-46 mm.in breadth. They taper a little at either end. PARASITIC NEMATODES FROM TROPICAL AFRICA, 553 Text-fig. 142. Cylindropharyne longicauda. Explanation of individual figures as in text-fig. 141. The oral aperture is quite terminal, and is surrounded by a well developed corona radiata highly reminiscent of that found in the species Strongylus equinus. The number of leaves in the external crown could not be determined exactly. The internal crown was distinctly visible as a series of comma-like projections, apparently corresponding in number to those of the external erown. The oral capsule is a wide pear-shaped cavity, the anterior third of which is surrounded by a thick wall of cuticle, the posterior two-thirds being almost entirely replaced by a layer of cesophageal musculature, which is however covered by a thin layer of cuticle bearing a large number of round cuticular knobs that project into the buccal cavity. The esophagus mea- sures 1°25 mm. from the base of the cuticular portion of the buccal capsule to its termination in the chyle intestine. Where 554 DR. ROBERT T. LEIPER ON NEW the cesophageal musculature supports and encloses the buccal cavity the muscular tissue is only 0:006 mm. in thickness, but in the posterior third the cesophageal musculature attains a thickness of 0°13 mm, Text-fig. 143. Trachypharynex nigeria. Anterior extremity showing buccal capsule. The females were full of eggs, and although the details of the posterior end of the body could not be made out exactly, the vulva appeared to be situated a short distance in front of the anus, which in turn was situated almost at the posterior end of the body. (Collected by J. J. Simpson, Esq.) Family SPIROPTERIDS. SPIROPTERA UGANDA, sp. n. Host: Monkey. Locality: Uganda. In the intestine of a Monkey a fragment of a male worm was found. The anterior portion, having been cut off in the process of opening the gut, was unfortunately lost. The essential points are, however, shown in text-fig. 144, which illustrates the posterior end, showing the papille and other specific characters. The papille are large, and arranged as four pairs of pedunculated preanals and five pairs of postanals, three of these being pedun- PARASITIC NEMATODES FROM TROPICAL AFRICA. 555 culated, the terminal two pairs being sessile. On either side, the cuticle is expanded to form an alar ledge about 0°2 mm. in breadth. The expansions are marked on the ventral aspect by a longitudinal Text-fig. 144. Spiroptera uganda. Posterior extremity of male: al., ale; sp., spicules. striation similar to that commonly found in other species of the genus Spiroptera. The spicules are remarkably short and almost equal, measuring 0°2 and 0°3 mm. in length respectively. ADDENDUM. CoppoLDINA nom. nov. * for Cobboldia Leiper 1910, preoce. _ In my memoir on the “ Entozoa of the Hippopotamus” pub- lished in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1910, at page 255, I described and figured a new genus Oobboldia having as type Cobboldia vivipara, sp. n. Mr. Hassall and Dr. Schouteden have kindly drawn my attention to the fact that Cobboldia has been used already for a genus of Insects and is therefore not available. I propose to replace Cobboldia Leiper 1910, by the new generic name Cobboldina. R. T. Lerper, D.Se., F.Z.8. May 1911. i j ns BR CT) ghana aaa NRO A a i a Lith pp eortente f he penkaad A pe OR eer baked 6 Tap fees we , if yi r 7 rao 4 i ‘ Spas i eho ales ey oe Lek ake Rites i wht ui} shone Lita oie AVY s bit ae H vey Oras ie “aageho Drevhnts ME ean Ladig Fpaghe fi byese (i ee abatieg tt aa : B's iy —=—o No. 93. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. March 21st, 1911. Dr, S. F. Harmer, M.A., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last Scientific Meeting were confirmed. The SECRETARY read a Report on the additions that had been made to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of February tO Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.Z.S8., Superintendent of the Gardens, exhibited :— (1) A pair of Otter cubs about seven weeks old, which were found under a landing-stage at Tewkesbury, and presented to the Society by Mr. W. Baring Bingham, F.Z.8. (2) A specimen of the North American Black-footed Polecat (Putorius nigripes), recently received in exchange from the Zoological Society of Washington, a species furnishing, in Mr. Pocock’s opinion, an admirable instance of “ warning coloration.” (3) The skin of a Chacma Baboon (Papio porcarius), from Potchefstroom in the Transvaal, representing an apparently un- described subspecies, for which the name griseipes was proposed, in allusion to the speckled coloration of the hands and feet, a character in which it differed markedly from the typical black- handed Chacmas of Cape Colony. * This Abstract is published by the Society at its offices, Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, N.W., on the Tuesday following the date of Meeting to which it refers. It will be issued, along with the ‘ Proceedings,’ free of extra charge, to all Fellows who subscribe to the Publications ; but it may be obtained on the day of publication at the price of Sixpence, or, if desired, sent post-free for the sum of St# Shillings per annum, payable in advance, 18 (4) The frontlet and antlers of a specimen of the Manchurian Wapiti (Cervus xanthopygus), to show variation in the structure of the two antlers, one having a short “ bez”-tine nearly midway between the ‘“ brow” and the “ trez,” the other a long “ bez ”-tine rising close to the “ brow ”-tine. Mr. D. Ssru-Smita, F.Z.8., the Society’s Curator of Birds, exhibited a living Hybrid Duck, which was believed to be a cross between the White-eyed Pochard (A ythya nyroca) and the Marbled Duck (Marmaronetia angustirostris). It was hatched at Scampston Hall, Yorkshire, from a clutch of eggs laid by a Marbled Duck at Lilford Hall, Northamptonshire. The bird displayed the characteristic markings of Marmaronetta, but the general colour was dark reddish brown. It had been presented to the Society by Mr. W. H. St. Quintin, F.Z.5. Mrs. E. W. Srxton presented a paper, communicated by Dr. W. T. Cauman, F.ZS8., “On the Amphipod Genus Leptocheirus.” In preparing this revision of the genus the type specimens of nearly all the species had been examined. The author found that in some cases different stages of growth had been described by different authors as distinct species, in other cases the in- adequacy of the original descriptions and figures had Jed to the introduction of a number of unnecessary synonyms. ‘The speci- mens of Zaddach’s Z. pilosus and Grube’s LZ. guttatus had been examined and re-described, and the number of valid species in the genus was now seven, namely: ZL. pilosus, L. pinguis, L. hirsutimanus, L. pectinatus, L. guttatus, L. aberrans, and LL. bispinosus. Messrs. J. Lewis Bonnotz, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.8S., and F. W. SmautEy, F.Z.S., read their paper on Inheritance of Colour in Pigeons, which dealt with the first results of a long series of experiments. Although chiefly Mendelian in character, the authors laid stress on the fact that in several respects their results seemed to point to a further law or laws, which were able to modify the expected Mendelian results and in regard to which the Mendelian theory offered no satisfactory solution. They showed, for instance, that in Chequer and Blue matings there was a regular tendency to an over-production of Chequers, in the Grizzle matings the tendency was to an over-production of Blues. Another point apparently inexplicable on the Mendelian hypothesis was the difference in shades of the same colour; by disregarding these and considering them all as gametically iden- tical, the results gave approximately the expected proportions, but, on the other hand, the shades of the different birds un- doubtedly affected their progeny, and hence the gametes must also have been affected. The preponderance of a certain sex in a particular colour was also noted, as well as an increase of white 19 in successive generations. No explanation of these phenomena was put forward, as further experiments were still in progress. In dealing with the purely Mendelian aspect of the results the following points were clearly brought forward :—(1) Silver is dilute Blue. (2) Blue is dominant to Silver. (3) Chequering and Grizzling are both dominant to absence of pattern. (4) Griz- zling is dominant to Chequering. (5) A Mealy is a Grizzled bird with the White replaced entirely or partially by Red. (6) Red in a Mealy is dominant to White, hence a Mealy is dominant to a Grizzle. (7) White and Grizzling combine to have a common inheritance. (8) Red combines with Grizzling in the same way as White. Dr. G. StewaRDson Brapy, M.D., F.R.S., C.M.Z.S., presented a paper on Marine Ostracoda from Madeira, based on specimens collected by the Rev. Canon Norman, F.R.S8., in the spring of 1897. Apart from the species described as new to science, the collection was interesting as extending the known range of several species from the European and North Atlantic areas much farther southward, though not quite into the tropical zone. The next Meeting of the Society for Scientific Business will be held on Tuesday, April 4th, 1911, at half-past Hight oclock p.M., when the following communications will be made :— ier: Res Lererr, FZ: Demonstration of Nematode Parasites obtained from Animals in the Gardens. 2. F. E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8. Contributions to the Anatomy and Systematic Arrangement of the Cestoidea.—No. I. On some Mammalian Tapeworms. 2. J. A. Morcu. On the Natural History of Whalebone Whales. 20 The following communications have been received :— 1. Witi1am Nicott, M.A., D.8c., M.B., ¥.Z:8. On Three new Trematodes from Reptiles. 2. Dr. R. W. Suureipt, C.M.Z.8. On the Comparative Osteology of Cercopithecus and Callithrix (C. sabeus and CO. callitrichus and C. jacchus). Communications intended for the Scientific Meetings should be addressed to ; P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, Secretary. ZOOLOGICAL Socrery oF Lonpon, Recent’s Park, Lonpon, N.W. March 28th, 1911. No. 94. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. April 4th, 1911. Dr, Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair, The Minutes of the last Scientific Meeting were confirmed. Dr. H. B. Fantuam, F.Z.8., and Miss AnnrzE Porter, D.Sc., exhibited some diseased bees and combs infected with a minute pathogenic Protozoal parasite, apparently the same as Vosema apis found by Zander and Doflein in diseased bees in Bavaria. Microscopic preparations and drawings of the parasite, Vosema apis, were also shown, as well as healthy bees and combs in contrast. The material exhibited was obtained from Cambridge- shire and Hertfordshire in March 1911. The infected combs were brown in colour instead of the normal yellow, while the infected bees suffered from a sort of dry dysentery which rapidly proved fatal. The pathogenic agent of this dry dysentery, Nosema apis, formed thousands of minute spores which fouled the hive, while infection was probably spread to new hives by hungry, weakly bees attempting to enter healthy hives. The spores, about 2 to 3 by 4 to 6, were the resistant and cross- infective stages of the Protozodn. The parasite Nosema apis was closely allied to that of pébrine, the silkworm disease due to Nosema bombycis. The trophozoite and pansporoblast stages of NV. apis had been observed, as well as some spores with polar filaments extruded. Like WV. bombycis, the bee-parasite was possibly capable of hereditary infection, as infected bee-larve had been found. The only certain destructive agent of the Micro- sporidian spores was fire, and all infected bees and hives, and any * This Abstract is published by the Society at its offices, Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, N.W., on the Tuesday following the date of Meeting to which it refers. It will be issued, along with the ‘ Proceedings,’ free of extra charge, to all Fellows who subscribe to the Publications ; but it may be obtained on the day of publication at the price of Sixpence, or, if desired, sent post-free for the sum of Str Shillings per annum, payable in advance. 22 débris therefrom should be most carefully burned. In the opinion of the exhibitors, the Microsporidian parasite, Vosema apis, had been responsible for much of the bee-disease recorded in this country since 1906, especially in 1906, 1907, and 1911. The exhibitors first noticed the parasite in 1906 in diseased bees ob- tained from the Isle of Wight; its full significance was grasped in 1907, but owing to the difficulty of obtaining material the exhibitors’ results were not published. As much attention was now being directed to “‘bee-disease,” the exhibitors briefly recorded their observations. It was not asseited that microsporidiosis was the only disease of bees current in Great Britain at present, as Dr. Malden had investigated a bacillary infection in bees. Micro- sporidiosis had probably been introduced from the Continent into British apiaries. Dr. R. T. Luiprr, F.Z.S., gave a demonstration of Nematode parasites obtained from animals in the Zoological Gardens during the year ending November 1910. The collection contained a number of new forms, of which a systematic account will be published later. Among the more interesting of the known forms were fictularia plagiostoma from a Palm-Civet, a number of species of Polydelphis from various Pythons, Dicheilomena horrida from the South American Ostrich, and Dictyocaulus jilaria from the lungs of Sheep. It was noticed that whereas intestinal parasites were almost wholly collected from animals that had not lived in the Gardens for more than six months, those of which the normal habitat and food were the internal tissues of the host occurred in animals that had been confined in the Gardens for several years. Thus, an undescribed /laria was found in a Lemur after four years, and filaria australis ina Wallaby after two and a half years’ captivity. In all these cases the number of parasites obtained was small, and could have had little or no effect upon the heaith of the host. There was a remarkable preponderance of female forms. From these observations it appeared that the change of food and general conditions obtaining in the Gardens were unfavourable to the continued existence of the intestinal parasites an animal may harbour on its admission. The number of cases of auto- and re-infection during captivity was strikingly small, and bore testimony to the cleanly surroundings in which the animals were kept. In four cases only was there evidence of the occurrence of accumulative infection in the Gardens :— 1, A number of Giant Toads died from lung infection with Lhabdias bufonis. 2. The Wolves appeared to be heavily infected with Ascaris canis, 3. A Sheep died from pneumonie condition resulting from an intense infection with Dictyocaulus filaria. 4, The Tortoises had Oxyuriasis. 23 In all these cases repeated infection undoubtedly had followed from contamination of food and drink with feces containing eggs of the parasite. The infection could be eliminated by steam sterilisation of the cages, or still more easily by changing the species of animal living in the particular paddocks or cages, for Helminthes were often peculiarly selective as regards their hosts, and those flourishing in one animal sometimes found it impossible to continue their life even in closely allied forms. Sir E. Ray Lanxester, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.Z.8., exhibited a special Supplement of the ‘Field’ newspaper dealing with the British non-migratory Trout, and called attention to this new medium for the publication of scientific observations requiring ulustration. The Secretary read a letter from the Governor of Seychelles, received through the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on the subject of the herd of Land-Tortoises at Government House, Mahé. Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.LS., F.Z.8., Superintendent of the Gardens, exhibited the body of a newly-born cub of the Masked Palm-Civet (Paradoxurus larvatus) from Szechuen, and after pointing out its differences from the adult, drew attention to a peculiar abnormality in the left foreleg. Mr. F. E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Society, read a paper on some Mammalian Tapeworms which had been collected from animals that had died in the Society’s Gardens. This collection was the result of nearly two years’ examination of a very large number of animals, but did not contain a very large number of species. Tapeworms were by no means so common as other parasitic worms, particularly Nematodes, which were the most abundant among the animals in the Gardens. Dr. 8. F. Harmer, M.A., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., communicated a paper by Mr. J. A. Morch, of Christiania, on the Natural History of Whalebone Whales, drawing attention to, and throwing light upon, some of the problems connected with the migrations of the larger Cetacea. 24 The next Meeting of the Society for Scientific Business will be held on Tuesday, April 25th, 1911, at half-past Hight o'clock -p.m., when the following communications will be made :— 1. Mr. D. Seru-Suiru, F.Z.8. Exhibition of Lantern-slides :— (a) Penguins in Moult. (6) Wild Swainson’s Lorikeets. 2. Dr. R. T. Lerper, F.Z.S. Some new Parasitic Nematodes from Tropical Africa. 3. Dr. Curusert Curisty, F.Z.S. On a Collection of Antelope and other Skins from the Chagwe Forests, Uganda. 4, Wiuttam Nicout, M.A., D.Sec., M.B., F.Z.S. On Three new Trematodes from Reptiles. The following paper has been received :— H. W. Marert-Tims, M.D., F.Z.8. Tooth-Germs in a Kangaroo. Communications intended for the Scientific Meetings should be addressed to P, CHALMERS MITCHELL, Secretary. ZOOLOGICAL Society oF Lonpon, ReceEnt’s Parx, Lonpon, N.W. April 11th, 1911. No. 95. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. April 25th, 1911. Dr. S. F. Harmer, M.A., F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the last Scientific Meeting were confirmed. The SecRETARY read a Report on the additions that had been made to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of March USS Mr. D. Seru-Suirn, F.Z.8. the Society’s Curator of Birds, exhibited :— (1) A nest of the Grey Struthidea or Apostle Bird (Struthidea cinerea), composed entirely of mud, and built on a branch in the Western Aviary. (2) Lantern-slides from photographs of the King Penguin (Aptenodytes pennanti) and Black-footed Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) showing the method of moulting. (3) Lantern-slides from photographs of a number of wild Swainson’s Lorikeets (Zrichoglossus nove-hollandice), kindly sent by Mrs. Innes, of Mackay, North Queensland. These birds came in large numbers to feed daily at a table, on syrup provided, settling without fear upon the head, shoulders, and arms of the lady who fed them. My. C. Tate Recan, M.A., F.Z.S8., exhibited a series of lantern- slides of scales of the Salmon (Salmo salar), and showed how the life-history of the fish could be read from its scales. * This Abstract is published by the Society at ils offices, Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, N.W., on the Tuesday following the date of Meeting to which it refers. It will be issued, along with the ‘ Proceedings,’ free of extra charge, to all Fellows who subscribe to the Publications ; but it may be obtained on the day of publication at the price of Sixpence, or, if desired, sent post-free for the sum of Sia Shillings per annum, payable in advance. 26 Dr. Witi1am Nicout, M.A., F.Z.S., exhibited some preparations from a Hare which showed an interesting and unique patho- logical condition. The liver was extensively invaded with calcareous nodules which were due to a parasitic Nematode of the family Z7ichotrachelide. 'The worms were so coiled up that they could not be extricated entire, but the ova, which were present in enormous numbers, showed that they must belong to a peculiar genus. The structure of the eggs was remarkable in displaying a double-layered shell, with a markedly papillated surface. No similar condition had been hitherto recorded from the Hare or Rabbit, but an analogous condition had been met with fairly frequently in Rats. It was still impossible to say whether the conditions in the two animals were caused by the same species of parasite, but experiments with a view to deter- mining this were in progress. ‘The Hare further showed a large infection with Trichostrongylus retorteformis, and a slight, purely intestinal, infection with Coccidium cuniculi. There were also signs of recent parturition and of an inflammatory condition of the uterus. Whether this or the liver disease was the cause of death, which took place under remarkable circumstances, is doubtful. Dr. Curupert Curisty, F.Z.8., exhibited part of a collection of skins of mammals and reptiles obtained by him in Uganda, which included those of the Antelope, Leopard, Civet, Hyrax, &c., and drew attention to a rare form of Dendrohyrax, D. emini, and to the skin of a melanistic form of the Civet. Dr. Wiuuiam Nicoutt, M.A., F.Z.8., read a paper on Three new Trematodes from Reptiles, from material received from the Society’s Prosectorium. The specimens were interesting as forming an important addition to our knowledge of the large variety of forms which inhabited the air-passages and anterior coil of the alimentary canal of reptiles and batrachians. Dr. R. T. Leper, M.B., F.Z.S., read a paper on some Parasitic Nematodes from Tropical Africa, and gave a brief description of a number of new genera. The paper was based on helminthic material he had collected during a visit to Hast Africa, Uganda, and the Soudan in 1907, and on material sent to him by members of the Colonial Medical Service. Mr. OuprieLD THomas, F.R.S., F.Z.8., read a paper, the fourteenth of the series, on Mammals collected in Southern Shen-si, Central China, by Mr. Malcolm Anderson, for the Duke of Bedford’s Exploration of Hastern Asia. ‘The region explored was in the Great Pe-ling (or Tsin-ling) range, that divides Northern from Southern China, many of the specimens coming from the sacred mountain Tai-pei-san, where several of the most interesting forms were ebtained. 27 Of these by far the most striking was a new species of Takin (Budorcas), readily distinguishable by its uniform golden buffy colour from the Sze-chuen species (B. tibefanus). In the adult of this fine animal the coloration was wholly buffy, the darkening of the ears, dorsal line, hinder back and limbs found in B. tibe- tamus being absent, and there was scarcely a trace even of the dark facial patch so prominent in that animal. The new species was proposed to be called Budorcas bedfordi, and female no. 2190 was selected as the type. Other new forms were as follows :— ARCTONYX LEUCOLEMUS ORESTES, subsp. n. Lighter than in true lewcolemus. Dark orbital patch reduced to a narrow rim round eye. Head and body 570 mm.; tail 195; skull 132. Hab. Tsin-ling Mts., alt. 12,000’. Type. Female. No. 2191. Microtus CALAMORUM SUPERUS, subsp. n. Rather larger and with decidedly longer tail than true calamorum. Head and body 130 mm.; tail 63; hind foot 24; skull 33. Hab. 8. Shen-si. Type. Male. No. 2163. OCHOTONA SYRINX, sp. n. Near O. cansa, but larger. Bulle smaller, Head and body 142 mm.; hind foot 28°5; skull 36:5. Hab. Tai-pei-san. Type. Male. No. 2170. In all, the collection contained 160 specimens referable to 30 species. The next Meeting of the Society for Scientific Business will be held on Tuesday, May 9th, 1911, at half-past Hight o'clock p.m., when the following communications will be made :— 1. RK. 1. Pocock, F.L:S., F:Z.S. On the Palatability of some British Insects. (Hxperiments made in the Society’s Gardens with Arthropods (chiefly In- sects) and Molluscs, and Notes on the significance of Mimetic resemblances.) 28 9. Prof. Gitpert C. Bourneg, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Contributions to the Morphology of the Group Neritoidea of Aspidobranch Gastropods.—Part II. The Helicinide. 3. J. J. Laster, M.A., F.B.S., F.Z.S. On the Distribution in the Pacific of the Avian Family Megapodide. The following papers have been received :— 1. H. W. Marert Tims, M.D., F.Z.S., and A, HopewEeLL Smiru, L.R.0.P. Tooth-Germs in a Kangaroo. 2. R. Broom, M.D., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. On the Structure of the Skull in Cynodont Reptiles. 3. The Rev. A. Mites Moss, M.A., F.Z.8., F.ELS. On the Sphingide of Peru. With a Preface by Karu JORDAN, Ph.D. 4, C, KE. Hetimayver, M.B.O.U. A Contribution to the Ornithology of Western Colombia. Communications intended for the Scientific Meetings should be addressed to P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, Secretary. ZOOLOGICAL SocrETY OF LONDON, Regent's Park, Lonpon, N.W. May 2nd, 1911. No. 96. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.” May 9th, 1911. EK. G. B. MEapre-Wa po, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair, The Minutes of the last Scientific Meeting were confirmed. Mr. R. I. Pococr, F.R.S., F.L.8., Superintendent of the Gardens, exhibited some of the hair of the “ puppy coat” of a Grey Seal (Halicherus grypus), which was caught at Barmouth, in Merioneth, at the end of April. When received at the Gardens at the beginning of May this Seal was covered, with exception of the head and flippers, with longish woolly white hair, the last of which was moulted on May 7th. Most authorities state that Grey Seals are born in the autumn, not later than about the middle of October, and that the puppy coat is shed from a month to six weeks later. Allowing six weeks for the retention of its puppy coat, this Welsh Grey Seal must have been born near the middle of March, a date in tolerably close agreement with the date, namely the end of February, given by Cneiff for the birth of these Seals in the Gulf of Bothnia. It is, therefore, quite clear that these Seals breed both in the early spring and the autumn. Mr. E. G. BouLenceEr exhibited some living male specimens of the Midwife Toad (Alytes obstetricans) carrying the eggs. He also exhibited a number of the detached eggs to show the manner in which they were strung together. * This Abstract is published by the Society at its offices, Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, N.W., on the Tuesday following the date of Meeting to which it refers. It will be issued, along with the ‘ Proceedings,’ free of extra charge, to all Fellows who subscribe to the Publications; but it may be obtained on the day of publication at the price of Sixpence, or, if desired, sent post-free for the sum of Siv Shillings per annum, payable in advance. 30 Mr, A. E. Anpersow exhibited a large number of photographs of the more important fossil mammals in the Department of Vertebrate Paleontology of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, showing the methods of mounting fossil skeletons. For comparison, a set of photographs was exhibited with the skeleton supports eliminated from view, thus adding to the pictorial value of pose in the specimens. Dr. P. Cuatmers Mircuety, F.R.S., Secretary of the Society, gave an account, in the absence of the author, of a Memoir by Lt.-Col. Nrvinne Manpmrs, R.A.M.C., F.Z.8., on the phenomena of Mimicry amongst Butterflies in Bourbon, Mauritius, and Ceylon. The author had investigated the habits by observation and ex- periment of the insectivorous reptiles and birds of these islands, and had been unable to accept the view that their relations to butterflies were such as to be effective in producing Batesian or Miillerian mimicry. Mr. BR. I. Pococx, F.R.S., F.L.S., read a paper on the Palata- bility of some British Insects, with Notes on the significance of Mimetic resemblances, and said that at Prof. Poulton’s request he had undertaken in the summers of 1909 and 1910 to make a series of experiments in the Gardens to test the edibility of various British insects, most of which were sent to him, together with some slugs, by Dr. G. B. Longstaff. The insects comprised Lepi- doptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and Hy- menoptera ; and the most interesting of the experiments were those made with the Bumble-Bee (Bombus) and its mimetic fly (Volucella bombylans) to test the theory of mimicry. The Bombus proved to be unpalatable to nearly all birds. The birds would try them a varying number of times. When they had learnt their distastefulness by experience they refused to touch them, and then when offered the Volwcella refused that likewise. A considerable number of species of insectivorous birds were tested in this way, and always with the same result; and the one speci- men of Volucella bombylans that did duty for some thirty or forty experiments went through the ordeal untouched. Prof. G. C. Bourne, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., read the second portion of his paper on the Morphology of the group Neritoidea of the Aspidobranch Gastropods, which dealt with the Helicinide. He stated that this family was capable, by some unknown means, of wide dispersal across seas and oceans, and that the conditions most suitable to its existence were found in proximity to the sea. Jn describing the anatomy the genus Alcadia was taken as the type, and the differences between it and the other genera were pointed out, but the species and even the genera of Helicinide were closely similar, anatomically, from whatever part of the world they came. 31 Mr. J. J. Lister, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., presented a paper entitled “On the Distribution in the Pacific of the Avian Family Megapodide.” The next Meeting of the Society for Scientific Business will be held on Tuesday, May 23rd, 1911, at half-past Hight o'clock p.m., when the following communications will be made :— 1. J. Stuart THomson, Ph.D. The Aleyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. 2. H. W. Marerr Tims, M.D., F.Z.8., and A. HopEeweL. Smits, 1G Ore. Tooth-Germs in a Kangaroo, 3. R. Broom, M.D., D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. On the Structure of the Skull in Cynodont Reptiles. 4, he Rey. A. Mizzs Moss, M.A., R.ZS8, RES. On the Sphingide of Peru. With a Preface by Karu JORDAN, Ph.D. The following papers have been received :— 1. C. KE. Henimayr. A Contribution to the Ornithology of Western Colombia, 2. The Hon. Paut A. Mrtuuen, F.Z.8. On an Amphipod from the Transvaal. 3. R. LyDEKKER. The Somali Rhinoceros and the Nigerian Klipspringer. 32 Communications intended for the Scientific Meetings should be addressed to P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, Secretary. ZOOLOGICAL Socinry or Lonpon, Rrcent’s Park, Lonpon, N.W. May 16th, 1911, No. 97. ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.* May 23rd, 1911. Dr. A. Smita Woopwarp, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair, The Minutes of the last Scientific Meeting were confirmed. The Sucrerary read a Report on the Additions that had been made to the Society's Menagerie during the month of April ig) Prof. ArtHuR Denby, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., communicated a paper by Dr. J. Stuart THomson on the Alcyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. The author dealt exclusively with the order Gorgonacea, and recorded nineteen species, of which six were described as new. A paper entitled ‘“‘Tooth-Germs in the Wallaby (d/acropus billardieri),” was presented by Dr. A. Hoprwexu Suiru, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., and Dr. H. W. Marert Tims, M.A., F.Z.S., F.L.S. The material upon which their observations were based had been kindly sent to the authors by Mr. Brooke Nicholls, of Melbourne. It consisted of three embryos of Muacropus billardieri. The smallest specimen (allowing for the difference in size of the adults of different species) was considerably younger than that of any other Diprotodont previously examined. In the upper jaw they had identified six incisors, thus confirming M. F. Woodward’s original statement. The functional incisors of the adult appeared to be the 2nd, 4th, and 6th of the series, There were four * This Abstract is published by the Society at its offices, Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, N.W., on the Tuesday following the date of Meeting to which it refers. It will be issued, along with the ‘ Proceedings,’ free of extra charge, to all Fellows who subscribe to the Publications; but it may be obtained on the day of publication at the price of Sixpence, or, if desired, sent post-free for the sum of Six Shillings per annum, payable in advance. 34 - premolars, of which the Ist, 3rd, and 4th persisted. There was also one molar tooth. In the lower jaw, owing to the difficulty of interpreting the conditions, it was not certain whether there were representatives of five or six teeth in front of the premolars. Presuming there were five, the large functional incisor of the adult was the 4th of the series. As in the upper jaw, there were four premolars and and one molar, the 2nd premolar not fully developing. There were evidences of vestigial predecessors to the large lower incisor and to pm’. The following points of histological interest were noted :— 1. The heaping up of the ‘epithelium along the alveolar margins, a character often supposed to be peculiar to the Ungulates. 2. The precocious development of the enamel. 3. The compactness of the stellate reticulum of the enamel- organ. 4. The abundant evidence of blood-vessels within the enamel- organ, thus confirming the observations of Poulton and Howes in the Rodents. The opposite opinion is usually held. 5. Some slight evidence in support of the fusion of enamel- organs. Such fusion has been recorded in the fishes and reptiles, but not hitherto in mammals. The Rev. A. Mites Moss, M.A., F.Z.S., F.E.S., gave a short account of his memoir on the Sphingide of Peru, based on studies of Lepidoptera, with special reference to the larvee, which he had made during a three years’ residence at Lima. Dr. Karl Jordan had assisted him with the working out of his collections, and had described the following new species of Sphingidee :— PROTOPARCE MOSSI Jord., sp. N. Similar to P. seata cesiri Blanch. (1854). Both wings narrower and more pointed. Fore wing without black streaks on the disc. Antenna thinner. Genitalia quite different, approaching those of P. hannibal Cr. (1779). This paper will be published in the ‘Transactions’ in due course. Prof. J. P. Hitz, D.Se., communicated a paper by Dr. R Broom, C.M.Z.8., on the Structure of the Skull in Cynodont Reptiles. The author, after a study of all the available material contained in the British and South African Museums, gave a detailed comparative account, illustrated by a series of figures, of the morphology of the skull in the chief genera of the Cyno- dontia, including Bauria, Nythosaurus, Cynognathus, Trirachodon, Gomphognathus, Diademodon, Sesamodon, and Melinodon. He also discussed in some detail certain peculiarities of the Mam- malian skull, apparently derived from a Cynodont ancestor. — ee Se 35 r. C. W. Anprews, F.R.S., F.Z.8., read a paper “On a New cs of Dinotherium from British E t st Africa.” The specimens described were sent to the British Museum by Mr. C. W. Hoble Y, Commissioner of Mines for British East Africa. They included portions of the mandible with teeth, a caleaneum, and a patella of a small species of Dinotheriwm nearly allied to D. ewvieri, from the Lower and perhaps Middle Miocene beds of France. The new species, which he proposed to call Dinotherium hobleyi, differed from D. cuvieri in several particulars—e. g., the inner anterior column of pm 3 was more distinctly developed, and the talon of m, had a distinct tubercle on its inner side. Remains of Rhinoceros, a giant Tortoise, Zrionyx, and Cro-odiles also occurred. The bones were well preserved in a tough clay, and further collecting would no doubt yield important results. The next Meeting of the Society for Scientific Business will be held on Tuesday, June 13th, 1911, at half-past Hight o'clock p.mM., when the following communications will be made :— eS of = Tos Tee and Lthynchotragus from Somaliland. The Hon. Paut A. Mernuen, F.Z.S. On an Amphipod from the Transvaal. 3. R. LyDEKKER. The Somali Rhinoceros and the Nigerian iXlipspringer. 4, C. BE. Henemaynr. A Contribution to the Ornithology of Western Colombia. 5. Prof. ANGEL CABRERA, C.M.Z.S. The Subspecies of the Spanish Ibex. 36 The following papers have been received :— 1. Miss Ruta Harrison. Some Madreporaria from the Persian Gulf. With Notes on the Memoir and some Further Notes on Pyrophyllia inflata by Sypnry J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z8. 2. Cuarues L. Boutencer, M.A., F.Z.S. ‘On Variation in the Medusa of Merisia lyonsi. 3. Frank E. BEDDARD, M.A, E.BS., E.ZS. Contributions to the Anatomy a Systematic Arrangement of the Cestoidea.—No. 2. On Two New Genera of Basia dles from Mammals. 4. R. Broom, D.Sc., C.M.ZS8. On some new South African Permian Reptiles. Communications intended for the Scientific Meetings should be addressed to P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, Secretary. ZOOLOGICAL SocreTy or Lonpoy, Regent’s Park, Lonpon, N.W. May 30th, 1911. patie a yi ee Papers (continued). \ . Page 15. Report on the Deaths which occurred in the Zoological Gardens during 1910. By H. G. Pruoar, F.R.S., F.Z.8., Pres.R.M.S., Pathologist to the Society 16, A Contribution to the Study of the Variations of the Spotted Salamander (Salamandra maculosa). By Epwarp G. Boutunenr. (Plate XV. and Text-figs. 99-102.) 17. On the Mountain Nyala, Tragelaphus buxtoni. By R. Lypuxker, (Plate XVI. and Arse LOE: Jin shearer cial elec otraats weitin dare sacha Sosusavatd sane eee aerate 348 18, Observations on different Gibbons of the Genus Hydobates now or recently living in the Society’s Gardens, and on Symphalangus syndactylus, with Notes on Skins in the Natural History Museum, N. Kensington. By Dr. F. D. Wutcn, F.Z.S'. ........+++5 353 19. Some New Siphonaptera from China. By Karu Jorpan, Ph.D., F.E.S., and the Hon, N. Cuarues Roruscuinp, M.A,, F.Z.8., F.E.S8. (Text-figs. 104-124.) .......... 365 20. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Anura. By Franx H, Bzpparp, M.A., E.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Society. (Text-fies. 125-133.)..............cc0ecececeeeee 393 21. On the Spermatophores in Earthworms of the Genus Pheretima (=Pericheta), By Frank EH. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Society. (Text-figs. 184-136.) 412 22, A Rare Beaked Whale. By R. Lypexxer. (Text-figs. 187-139.) ...............0.. 420 ae Age-Phasesof the, Rorqual. By R. UypwRKaR 6. ee eta ee be eet s Sa cuee ets 423 24. On Longevity and Relative Viability in Mammals and Birds; with a Note on the Theory of Longevity. By P. Cuatmurs Mircnunn, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., SECie ralnya CONDOMS OCLOLYmaious tary tien. fperenersa sce tte stm stake tee amet he ere cieitea. ais! cc cueter sa teleey siete oe 425 25. Some new Parasitic Nematodes from Tropical Africa. By Roszrt T, Lerrer, D.Sc., ERE a Seen (Nex tefivan DAU IA4, rane acs Ah o's. vee vowels aera beeen 540 ADDENDUM. A Correction to Dr. R. T, Lerpzr’s Memoir on the Entozoa of the Hippopotamus ........ 555 PESTER HOR Ni har ia'es ate (oleve «' Sie, cin Sys ohe ra aegis rms Reb ae | MER INRaR CO ERA tinct t SaG i List of Council and Officers .................. 2 a ar ae eI HEME Os ol Soc li MintvOts@ OMhenisere trast reer arerasesls, < heehee ders ote. oe Se EE EERO Ac Ont ili ANE Rien DES Ot Coammllamnons” Ae co nloas ou Ob Hla mp Re oOaOeO DoUGUon a dsae 0000 an ix TERE GME TENA ENE BGS AiGak Oo SERB OO CISSRELE Ed ea IRa Ene cee iar eR AIC r sae ria coe GD xvii METS aaa eee te TC SMM Pee AN arc iA ae sh iieia’ sta stve oboe) (leis one bv Ole, #10 ah nahn fal a ane ea VE "New Generic Terms Bene vere e tenes been eee ence eee e ete te teee whey ene ee gece XXiii TICES Soe aig sich lie SiS SS nh eee ue ee ne AEE SORE en ein Ga eh ee ng Site oS gi ee 243 UA LIST OF PLATES. 1911, Parr II. (pp. 181-555). Plate Page II. | ) III. IV. v.| | Gas Glands of Teleostel "f. 62. jen. 0 9. de see ee oie aoa oe. VI. | VII. | VIII. a | ey) : X. 1-6. Corycella brevis. 7-11. C. curta ......6. 2. se ee eee ees XI. 1-6. Corycella curta. 7. C. brevis. 8, 9. Corycella sp. 6. 10. C. carinata: 11, 12. Coryceus gracilicaudatus .....- XII. 1-38. Coryceus catus. 4-6. C. obtusus. 7. C. dubtus. ‘282 BOO MEMS EPMA HAR Meni tei nal dale dois rta eta tyetel cate totale | XIII. 1-6. Coryceus murrayt. 7-9. C. andrewst .....-1..2+--++++- | KIV. 1-4. Coryceus andrewsi, 5-9. C. dubius ..-.--++ 1.1. ..0.s 5 ee ) XV. Salamandra maculosa var. teniata, var. mollert, and ferns synaaa 323 XVI. The Mountain Nyala, Tragelaphus buxtont ...........+...-.. 348 NOTICE. The ‘ Proceedings’ for the year are issued in fowr parts, paged consecutively, so that the complete reference is now P. Z. 8.1911, p.... The Distribution is as follows :— Part 1 issued in March. pari oe ease June. 19 3 ” September. Went bea Ghd December. ‘ Proceedings,’ 1911, Part I. (pp. 1-180), were published on March 22nd, 1911. ‘The Abstracts of the Proceedings,’ Nos. 93-97, are contained in this Part, e918 Cl x iene an) ‘i! iy