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~ PROCEEDING
AND REPORT
: | of the
Be BELEAS HF) 32
NATURAL 2 HISTORY AND :: © 3 PHILOSOPHICAL = -SOGIETY. 3, 23
== or the = 2 = Session 1921-22.
q Price- - - - Five Shillinas.
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BELFAST : Tue Norruern Wuic, Lrp., CommerciaL Buripines, Brince S1
1923.
SIE SES ET AS EE SEE - SS RE TT TS HR pe
COST OF PUBLICATION:
In view of the increased cost of Printing and Publica- tion, the Council. desire to urge upon Authors of Papers the necessity for brevity of statement and for restricting, to a minimuin, the number of Plates, Figures, Diagrams, and ‘Tables.
ANKCHAKOLOGY,
The Council urgently request that any “find ’’ of Archaeological interest in Ulster, should at once be re- ported to Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.IL.A., Hon. Secretary of the Archaeological Section, B.N.H.)P.8., 8, Windsor Ave., Belfast.
Proceedings and Reports BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY
AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
—— FOR THE ———
SESSION 1921-22.
Edited by Arthur Deane, M.R.I.A Hon. Secretary
il BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. [ESTABLISHED 1821. |
CONSTITUTION.
‘Lhe membership of the Society consists of Shareholders, Annual Subscribers, and Honorary Members.
Shareholders holding more than two shares are not liable for an annual subscription, but shareholders of two shares pay an annual subscription of five shillings, and holders of one pay ten shillings.
In 1914 a new class of membership was created including persons of either sex, to be elected under the bye- laws of the Society, and admitted by the Council on payment of ten shillings per annum. Such members have all the privi- leges of the Society, and take part in any business of the Society not affecting the ownership of the property of the
Society. In 1917 an Archaeological Section was founded. Persons wishing to join the Section must be members of the
Society and pay an additional minimum subscription of five shillings per annum. An Application Form for Membership to the Society and to the Section will be found on page vii.
A general meeting of Shareholders and Members fs held annually in June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to re- ceive the Report of the Council and the. Statement of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect members of Council, to replace those retiring by rotation or for other reasons, and to transact any other business incidental to an Annuai Meeting.
The Council elect from among their own number a Presi- dent and other officers of the Society.
Each member has the right of personal attendance at the Ordinary lectures of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends for admission to such. The session for lectures extends from November to May.
Any further information required may be obtained from the Hon. Secretary at:—-The Museum, College Square North, Belfast. :
1V
CONTENTS.
Beaumont, Ivor a _.... The Public Appreciation of Art. p. 3.
d’Albe, Dr. Fournier .. The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. pp. 70-80.
Kilison, Rev. W. I. A. ... Comets. p. 27.
Gibson, Dr. W. H. ... ... some Products of Wood Waste. pp. 36-48.
Laird, Professor John — .. Ulster Philosophers. pp. 4-26.
Riddell, Alex ar ... Drennan and His Times. p. 27.
Robertson, Dr. G. S. ... ... The Use of Phosphates in Agri- culture. pp. 28-35.
Savory, Professor ee ... Moliere. p. 27.
Small, Professor J. ... ... More About the Erectness of Plants pp. 49-69.
Thomson, Professor J. A. ... The Conquest of Land and Air: A Study in Natural History. pp. 1-2.
Wren, Professor H. ... ... Recent Investigations on the Fuel Problem. p. 3.
Aunual Meeting of Society ag is pp. 81-86.
oi i Archaeological Section pp. 87-106.
List of Exchanges an ae Wa pp. 116-118.
List of Lectures mS ma a pp. 114-115.
List of Members ne es io pp. 120-131.
List of Past Presidents a Be p- vi.
Membership Application Form ... ee p. Vii.
Officers and Council, 1922-23 aa man p. 119.
Statement of Accounts site use pp. 107-108.
Subscription to Mahee Fund ss “ae pp. 109-113.
Vv
BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Officers and Council of Management for 1921-22.
President : HENRY RIDDELL, m.«., m.1.mech.u.
Vice-Prestdents : Str CHARLES BRETT, wu.v. S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.a., M.D., F.C.S. ' Pror. GREGG WILSON, o.8.£., M.A., D.SC., PH.D., M.RI A. ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.I.A., J.P. J. M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.sc. WILLIAM SWANSTON, v.e.s.
Hon. Treasurer : HENRY RIDDELL, m.tz., m.1.vech.ez.
Hon. Librarian ; ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.A., M.R.1.A., J-P.
Hon. Secretary: ARTHUR DEANE, m.r.1.a.
Council ; Str CHARLES BRETT, tu.p. T. EDENS OSBORNE, r.r.s.a.1. S. W. ALLWORTHY, m.a., mM.b., F.c.s. WILLIAM FAREN, F.r.s.a.1. ARTHUR DEANE, m.Rz.1.A. W. B. BURROWES, F.r.s.a.1. CounciLtor E. J. ELLIOTT. H. C. LAWLOR, m.pr.1.<. WILLIAM SWANSTON, F.e:s. Proressor GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1.A. JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.sc. Proressor W. B. MORTON, .a. HENRY RIDDELL, m.s., m.1.mech.z. ROBERT M. YOUNG, m.a., M.R.1.A. Proressor A. W. STEWART, M.a., p.sc.
Retire 1922
Retire 1923
Retire 1924./
——_.————{—|— ——_ sO
1821-22.
1822-27.
1827-4-.
1843-52.
1852-54.
1854-56.
1856-58. 1858-60. 1860-61. 1861-63. 1863-64.
1864-66. 1866-68.
1868-69.
1869-70.
1870-71.
1871-74. 1874-77.
1877-79, 1879-81. 1881-83.
*Died during their Presidency
sal
PAST PRESIDENTS.
James L. Drummond, M.D.
Rev. T. Dix Hincks.
James L. Drummond, M.D.
*¥Wm. Thompson. Robt. Patterson, F.R.S.
Thos. Andrews, KRESS Use en Ae
M.D.,
John Stevelly, uu.p. George C. Hyndman.
*kJas. McAdam, F.R.S.
Robt. Patterson, r.R.s.
Prof. Wyville Thom- son.
Prof. Jas. Thomson. Joseph John Murphy. Robt. Patterson, F.R.S.
Prof. Wyville Thom- son.
Robt. Patterson, F.R.s. Joseph John Murphy.
Prof. J. F. Hodges, M.D.
Robert Young, c.&. Prof. John Purser.
sir KR. Lloyd Patter- son, F.L.S.
1883-85.
1886-86.
1886-89. 1889-91.
1891-94. 1894-96.
1896-98.
1898-00. 1900-03. 1903-06.
1906-08. 1908-11.
1911-15.
1915-19.
1919-21.
President 1921: Henry Riddell, w.z., m.1.mech.z.
Prof. R. O. Cunning- ham, M.p.
Wes alie M.R.I.A.
Prof. E. A. Letts.
J. Jel. Greenhill, MUS.BAC.
Prof. M. F Fitzgerald
Sir R. Lloyd Patter- son, F.L.S,
Prof. J. D. Everett, FLR-S) Dole
Patterson,
*Vhos. Workman, J.P.
John Brown, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Symington, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir Otto Jaffe, Lu.p.
Sir John Byers, m.a., M.D., M.A.O.
Prof. J. A. Lindsay, M.D., F.R.C.S.
Prof. W. St. Symmers, M.B.
Clair
Prof. Gregg Wilson, O:B Ere, Av D.SCo, PH.D., M.R.I.A.
vil
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Founded 5th June, 1821.
Application Form for Membership.
INIGIINENVCUC nc anata tnitla! tie oce cut ofien sae, eee [ Please write name in full. | WDesGHPtONG Hei ye eek to crcal sh Gorthvecusiolecene To be filled up by the Candidate. HE SIC ONCE sroiies Pe wan ciinae bs boas Saseaaussdesnes ous 2065) SBC SaaS Cea ae , being desirous of becoming a Member of the Society, I, the undersigned member, recommend........
as a suitable candidate for election.
Dated <this....:2..-. GEOR ec cseatitds ae asl ceca bs Oe.
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evr oeees ooo oeeeveeeeFFHVHAFHDFTHHF HF HOCHHMH FHF FHET HGH HE HD
[Candidate must be known to the Member signing this form. ] [All applications are subject to the approval of the Council. |
BRRICCCIVER: oii. tae. escent eden Filected by Council
Vill CONSTITUTION OF SOCIETY.
The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders, Annual Subscribers, and Honorary Members.
Shareholders holding more than two shares are not liable for an annual subscription, but shareholders of two shares pay an annual subscription of five shillings, and holders of one pay ten shillings.
In 1914 a new class of membership was created including persons of either sex, to be elected under the bye- laws of the Society, and admitted by the Council on payment of ten shillings per annum. Such members have all the privi- leges of the Society, and take part in any business of the Society not affecting the ownership of the property of the Society.
ARCHAZOLOGICAL SECTION.
a
Persons wishing to join the Archaeological Section must be Members of the Society, and pay an additional minimum subscription of five shillings per annum. State below if you wish to join this section.
I desire to join the Archaeological Section. Signature )
OE MR ee PG aah areas as 6 Ae i A ee Candidate i
[All applications for Membership to the Section are subject to the approval of the Executive Committee. | This form, when filled in, should be addressed to the Hon. SECRETARY, Bo Ne Be’ 2 Sb ciming seers THE Museum, MUSEUN CouLeGE Square N.
Procecdings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1921-1922.
5th October, 1921.
Proressor Greaa, Wiison, Iix-President, in the Chair. robe CONOUHST OF LAND AND AIR: A STUDY IN NATURAL HISTORY.”
By Proressor J. Anrnur ‘THomson,.M.A., LL.D... ¢.,8_E,
(Abstract)
Over and over again in the history of hfe there have been attempts to get out of the water on to dry land. Plants pre- pared the way for animals. . The first important invasion was on the part of worms,. and from that there eventually re- sulted the making of good soil. ‘The second great invasion was on the part of air-breathing jomted-footed animals, and this led eventually to the very important linkages between flowers and their insect visitors. The third great invasion was on the part of ancient amphibians, and this led on to the evolution of the higher land-animals, with great improve- ments in wits and in parental care. The conquest of the dry land imphed new wavs of breathing, new protections, new adjustments to the seasons, new ways of caring for its voung. There are interesting betwixt-and-between animals, like land- erabs, shore-skippers, and mud-fish, which gives us hints as to the ways in which the transition from water to dry land may be effected. The surface of the earth has its peculiar difficulties and dangers as a home of life, and so we under- stand why many land animals became burrowers, and others climbers, and others cave-dwellers.
The last haunt to be conauered was the air, and although no animals are altogether aerial, the problem of true flight has been solved four times—by insects, bv the extinct flving dragons or Pterodactyls, by birds, and by bats. It is interest- ing to contrast these four solutions, for they are all different,
2 Professor J. Arthur Thomson
‘he possession of the air meant greatly increased safety, greatly enhanced independence, improved locomotion and means of following food, and even that circumvention of winter which we see in migratory birds.
Of great interest are the half-way solutions of the flight problems, asin ~ flying ’’ fishes, flying ’’ tree toad, ~~ fly- ing ’’ lizard, and several ‘* flving ’’ mammals—none flying in the true sense, but many attaining to great excellence in parachuting. The familiar case of the aerial journeys of gos- samer spiders shows how there may be a sort of flight without wings, and is a fine instance of life’s insurgence.
The Chairman formaily conveyed the thanks of the Society to Professor Thormson for his instructive lecture.
Sth November, 1921.
Professor GreaGa WiiLson, Ex-President in the Chair.
“THE PUBLIC APPRECIATION OF ART.”’
iy ivor, Beaumont, A.R.C.A. (Lond.), M.S.A.,; FoW.S.A..
F I.B.D., Head Master, School of Art, Municipal College of Technology.
[No Abstract. |
29th November, 1921.
PROFESSOR GREGG WIuson in the Chair. -
“ RECENT INVESTIGATIONS ON THE FUEL PROBLEM.”’ By Proressor H. Wren, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry. Municipal College of Technology.
[No Abstract. |
4 Professor John Laird on 13th December, 1921. >
PROFESSOR GreaG WILson, ex-President of the Society, in the Chair. ULSTER PHILOSOPHERS. By Proressor Jonn Latrp, M.A., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Queen’s University, Belfast.
ABSTRACT.
I have called this lecture “‘ Ulster Philosophers,’’ not “* Ulster Philosophy,’’ because there is no such thing as Ulster Philosophy. ‘That is to say, the red-handed province has no continuing philosophical tradition in it of any kind— nothing either autochthonous or imported that was born, grew and died. On the other hand, quite a large number of philosophers of varying degrees of eminence have been connected with the province.
In certain ways, however, my subject offers difficulties concerning what should be included and what omitted. It is not very clear whom one ought to count a philosopher or how rigorous one should be in excluding all save genuine Ulstermen from consideration. In a word, on both of these points I must claim the lecturer’s privilege of using his own judgment. I shall, in fact, be satisfied with any degree of affinity to Ulster which I deem sufficient, and as for the people I am to reckon philosophers I shall follow the some- what shifting boundaries of the usual books. In truth, no one has vet succeeded in defining what is meant by a philosopher in such.a way that all reasonable people (or even all who consider themselves philosophers) would admit the truth or the sufficiency of the description. To choose an example. everyone would admit, I supposs, that Herbert Spencer was a philosopher—-that is to say, he would have to be included in all the books, whatever might be thought of the merits of his speculations; but it would be a much rnore
Uister Philosophers. 6
delicate matter to decide whether or not Carlyle was to be accounted a philosopher. Anyone who wrote about his “ philosophy °” would have to suffer the distressing accusa- tion of trying to be popular—-presumably because a great many people were interested in Carlyle. Finally, if you said that Mr. Thomas Hardy was a philosopher you would be taking even greater risks. Incredible as if may seem, you might have ceased to be respectably academic.
Consequently, as I say, I am going to use my own jJudy- ment in these confusing matters, and as I have to speak only of individual men and not of ‘‘ movements ’’ or “* currents of thought ’’ I am naturally bound to choose a mercly chronolovical order of arrangement.
T shall pass over the Middle Ages very rapidly, partly be- cause Ulster had not then attained the fame in the world with which we are now acquainted, partly because time has effaced the recorded thoughts of her philosophers (if any such were recorded), and principally because I know very little about the matter. Still J have a little—a very little—to say eveu here.
The name of Duns Scotus (whose dates are approxi- mately 1265 to 1808) has a very distinguished place in the roll of the great schoolmen, and the name of Johannes Seotus Hrigena (who flourished in the ninth century) recalls us to one of the very few among the forerunners of the echolastics who are worth considering.
Now the second of these—-Johannes Scotus Erigena— was quite certainly an Irishman. The word Erigena plainty means ‘‘ hailing from Erinn,”’ and to make assurance doubly sure, “‘ Scotus’ then. meant “Irishman ’’ too. Therefore Scotus Erigena was certainly born in Ireland, and so, of course, he may have been born in Ulster. On the other hand, no one knows where he was borr:, so it would be rash to pursue the point, and it must be admitted that the literary activities of Scotus Erigena had no connection with
6 Professor John Laird on
Ireland at all. The best part of his life was spent in France at or near the court of Charles the Bold, and although according to the legend he was one of the “‘ merchants of wisdom ’’ who crossed in a stream from Ireland to Paris (one hopes their trade was good): he does not seem to have been inordinately proud of his native land. At any rate, one of the few witticisms which have survived from this rude period is a reply he made to Charles the Bold. Charles asked “° Quid distat inter sotturn et Scottum?’’ (What is there between a sot and a Scot or Irishman) and Erigena replied “‘ Mensa tantum ’’ (which is, being interpreted, ~ Just a table ’’).
To cut a long story short, I have not the face to say anything more about Scotus Erigena. I admit, of course, that he was a very great min. despite the pun which the historians bring up against him.
The case of Duns Scotus is distinctly different. By the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries, it appears, Scotus had come to mean “* North Briton,’’ at any rate in Franciscan literature. And Duns Scotus was a Franciscan. The pro: babilities, therefore, appear to be that Duns Scotus was not an Irishman at all, and it may even be the case that he was called Duns because his birthplace was Dunse in Berwick- shire, or because it was Dunstane in Northumberland (as a manuscript in Merton Library asserts). On the other hand, it was claimed by Hugh MacCaghwell. who was Archbishop ot Armagh early in the 17th century, that Duns was an Irish- man after all, and that Duns is just Down; and several writers, not all Irish, have followed the archbishop in this.
Consequently, if Duns Scotus really was an Irishman (which is unlikely) then it is highly probable that he caine from Down, and with this crumb of comfort I must leave him. He also was a very great man—not a mystic like Scotus Erigena, but none the less a very great man. Indeed, it may fairly be claimed, I think, that no one has come so near as
Ulster Philosophers. 7
he and his pupil Ockham to what is called nowadays “scientific method in philosophy,’’ ana any competent person will admit, I think, that this means that the Subtle Doctor (as Duns was called) was a very acute person indeed. However, he also was a cosmopolitan, as a tombstone erected to his memory at Cologne asserts. ‘‘ Scotia me genuit ”’ (whether Ireland or Scotland does not matter), it declares, “Anglia me suscepit (that was Oxford), Gallia me docuit (aa untrustworthy legend makes him out to have been a regent of the University of Paris), Colonia me tenet.’’ JI do aot think, therefore, that we have any right to dwell upon him longer now.
Passing to the seventeenth century we come first to Bishop Jeremy Taylor. Jeremy Taylor’s claims to be counted among the philosophers are, as I think, incontest able. Primarily, of course, he was a notable divine, one oi the very greatest in the greatest age of English divinity, and his Liberty of Prophesying, his Holy Living, and his Holy Dying are his most enduring monuments—more enduring even than the one which stands to-day in the cathedral at Droinore. On the other hand, every treatise on British ethics gives some account of his Ductor Dubitantium, which he completed in his study at Portmore in the parish of Ballin- derry, some eight miles from Lisburn, in the year 1659, at the very moment when Cromwell’s Anabaptist commis- sioners were knocking at his gates and sunimoning him to explain himself to them in Dublin. A recent historian of English philosophy states, indeed, that the Ductor Dubi- tantium in “‘ perhaps the greatest treatise on casuistry ever written by a Protestant theologian.’’ ‘‘ He will not collect individual cases of conscience,’’ this histori:n goes on, ** for they are infinite; but he seeks to provide ‘ a general instru- iment of moral theology, by the rules and measures of which the guides of souls may determine the particulars that shall be brought before them’.’’ And our commentator concludes thus—‘‘ The whole forms a comprehensive treatise on
N Professor John Latrd on
Christian ethics, based undoubtedly upon _ traditional scholastic doctrines, but holding firmly to the inwardness of inorality, and illustrated by an extraordinary wealth of con-
’
crete examples.’
There is no doubt, then, that Jeremy Taylor was an eminent philosopher, but, of course, hee was not an Ulster- man. He was born at Cambridye in 1618, and he spent the greater part of his life in Mngland, feeling to the full the stress of the times, for he was chaplain to Laud, then chaplain in ordinary to Charles I., and he was taken prisoner in the royalist defeat before Cardigan Castle on February 4, 1644-5. On the other hand he spent the last ten years of his life in Ulster; Down and Connor was the only bishopric he ever held; and he died in Jisburn in 1667 of a fever he had caught when visiting a sick parishioner there. These facts, I think, justify me very fully in considering him here, but even if they did not I could still defend myself by pointing out that he had, to this day, an enduring influence upon Ulster life. Jeremy Dunensis stirred up the Presby- terian clergy so thoroughy that he consolidated the ranks of these ‘‘Scotch spiders ’’ (as he called him) in such a way that the solidity of Presbyterianisin in Ulster is due as much to this cause as to any other single episode.
In truth Jeremy Dunensis had a bad time with these Presbyterian ministers, although he appears to have behaved with dignity and tact towards the Presbyterian gentry. Things were not so bad at first. Alter much per- suasion from Conway of Ballinderry he came over to Ireland in 1659 with a pass. under Cromwell’s sign-manual giving protection to himself and tc his family in order to undertake the work of what was called a “weekly stipendiary lecturcship ’’’ at Lisburn. Now in these days the Ulster Presbyterians did not like Cromwell. They had protested against the execution of Charles I., and Milton had called them the ‘‘ blockish presbyters of Claneboye.’’ Taylor did
Ulster Philosophe rs. | g
not quarrel with them then, therefore—indeed, as we have seen, he was subject to the same sort of persecution as they were from these Anabaptist commissioners in Dublin. But with the Restoration all was changed. ‘Taylor, it is true, came into his own, and after a delay, which can scarcely be accounted for by the absence of the appropriate seal (which was the excuse given), he was duly installed Bishop of Down and Connor. But the Presbyterians came into their own, too. It was held that their loval sentiments during the Protectorate gave them a legal right to the tithes and the twentieth parts, and therefore, with some reason, ‘they refused to submit to an Episcopalian bishop.
So there was strife. -Jeremy Dunensis refused to recognise them “*‘ as a body.’ They refused to recognise Jeremy Dunensis. Jeremy explained to Ormonde that he ‘would rather be a poor curate in a village church than a bishop over such intolerable persons,’’ and he explained also that he was “ perpetually contending with the worst of the Scotch ministers.’’ The Scotch ministers retaliated by nosing out traces of what they considered Arminianism in the Lishop’s writings, and they made representations to Dublin accordingly |
Taking it all in all, Jeremy Taylor did not like Ulster. “I will petition your Excellency,’’ he says, writing. $0 Ormonde again. “‘ to give me some parsonage in Munster that I may end my davs in’peace.”’ Per contra (perhaps) his last words as he lay dying in his house at Lisburn were, “ Bury me in Dromore.’’
There is one other episode in his life in Ulster, however, which I must mention before I pass on. It has to do with
‘
psychical research. According to the “‘ relation ’’ given by one Thomas Aleock, secretary to Bishop Jeremy Taylor, and published in the contemporary Sadducismus Triumphatus of Joseph Glanvil, the Bishop of Down investigated the case of an apparition which had appeared to a certain James Taverner. The examination took place in the first instance
1O Professor John Laird on
at Dromore. but the bishop afterwards took Taverner with him to Hillsborough (Hilbrough) because he was informed that ““ my lady Conway and other persons of quality were come purposely to hear his Lordship examine the matter.’’
The tale is a long one, and I have time to give the gist of it cnly. In Michaelmas, 1662, James 'Taverner, described as a “‘ lusty proper stout fellow then servant at large to the Kiar! of Uhichester,’’ was riding home from Hillsborough to the Earl’s house in Belfast when his horse shied at Drum- bridge. The cause of the animals’s fright was an appariticn who described himself to Taverner as James Haddock, formerly of Malone. ‘This apparition claimed acquaintance on the ground that Taverner had brought the Haddock family soine nuts five yeers before.
The former wife of the apparition (maiden name Eleanor Welsh) had now married a man called Davis, who held the lease of Malone, and the apparition contended that the lease belonged legally to John Haddock, his son by this lady. Mrs. Davis, however, was unwilling to act in the matter. When Taverner, instructed by the apparition, called on hez first she put him off by saying that there was another Hleanor Welsn. The apparition, however, was exceedingly per- sistent, It appeared every night for more than a month, generally wearing a white coat, but sometimes assuming ‘many formidable shapes,’’ and vanishiag either with ‘‘ hideous sereeches and noises’ or else “‘in a flash oi brightness ’’: and once it apeared to Taverner when he was sitting with friends in the house of one Pierce, a shoe- maker in Belfast. On this occasion, however, no one saw the ghost except Taverner, though all heard him addressing it and for this reason perhaps Dr. Lewis Downs, then minister of Belfast, attributed the ghost, in the phrase of the | times, ‘‘ rather to melancholy than to anything of realivy.”’
The Bishop, however, took Taverner seriously, and a4- vised him the next time he saw the spirit to ask him certain questions, such as, ‘‘ Are you a gocd or a bad spirit? How
Ulster Philosophers. II
are you regimented in the other world? Why do you appear tor the relief of your son in so small a matter when other spirits do not for greater cause? ’’ This advice was very wise. The spirit appeared again to Taverner, it is true, this time at Lord Conway’s house at Hillsborough; and Lady Conway and the other persons of quality saw Taverner trembling before it; but when Taverner asked his questions ‘“ It gave him no answer, but crawled on its hands and feet over the wall again, and so vanished in white with a most melodious harmonv.”’
The boy, one gathers, was righted. According to the ‘relation ’’ it was common report that he had been wronged.
I pass next to a genuine son of Ulster, William King, Archbishop of Dublin, who wus born in the town of Antrim in 1650, his father having fled thithcr from Aberdeenshire to avoid the Solemn Jueague and Covenant.
King’s title to eminence in philosophy (and it is a very sound one) is derived principally from his book De Origine Mali, an attempt (on a philosophical basis similar to Locke’s) to reconcile the conflict between the existence of evil and the omnipotence of a benevolent deity. ‘This work had Kuropean influence. Bayle, the sceptical author of the celebrated Dictionary, replied to it; so did the great philosopher Leibniz; so did Wolff: and to this day the ordinary student of philosophy hears of it, although in a rather curious way. The book was translated by Law and in an edition of 1731 John Gay prefixed a dissertation to this translation. This dissertation gives in simple outline the theory which Paley later niade fashionable, and thus it comes about that King’s Latin work, so renowned in its day, is now remembered principally because a preface to a transla- tion of it is one of the chief landmerks in the history of the celebrated utilitarian theory.
{2 Professor John Laird on
A short account of King’s life, however, may prove of greater general interest. After receiving his early education at a Latin school in Dungannon, King went to Dublin, and had a stormy and a busy career. He was a warm supporter of the Prince of Orange, and on this account was imprisoned by the Tyrconnel Government in 1689. The Battle of the Boyne, however, brought him release, and he preached the thanksgiving service in St. Patrick’s Cathedral, which com- memorated “‘the preservation of his Majesty's person, his good success in our deliverance, and his safe and happy return into England.’’
He becaine Bishop of Derry in 1690-91; and there he also had trouble with the Presbyterians, whom he found “' mighty insolent.’” On the other hand, unlike Jeremy Taylor, he was a Stalwart Irishman, and whereas Jeremy Taylor had depre- cated the Irish tongue (that is puttimg it mildly) and had entreated that all should be taught English “ that they may understand and live,’’ King made arrangements that a Gaclic colony in the Inishowen Peninsula should have a clergvinan sent them who could speak their own language. In a word, Orangeman as he was, he was also the leader of the party opposed to the English interest in Ireland, and after he was appointed Archbishop of Dublin he wrought michtily (for many years with the aid of Swift) to this end.
The next philosopher with whom we have to deal is the celebrated Toland the Deist. Janus Julius Toland changed lis name to John verv early in life in order to avoid the ridicule of his schoolfellows, but he had to faze ridicule (and worse) during the whole of his extraordinary career. On the other hand, adventurer, starveling, spy and Grub Street hack, as he was by turn, he was certainly a pioneer in the history of free thought in England, and he deserved praise and fame as well as the somewhat dubious notoriety which was all he achieved in his lifetime.
Toland was born on the Inishowen Pensula in 1670. He was illegitimate, and his enemies declared (maliciously, no
Ulster Philosophers. 13
doubt, but perhaps truly) that his father was a priest. Be that as it may, Toland had the best possible education for a freethinker, since warring sects strove for the possession of him. Bred a Catholic up to the age of 16, he was then captured by ‘‘ some eminent dissenters ’’ (Presbyterians again, I suppose) who made a Protestant of him, and after some schooling at Redcastle, near Londonderry, he went to Glasgow University. I!dinburgh gave him an M.B., and he then proceeded to Leyden where the echoes of Spinoza’s Tractatus Theologico—Politicus could still be plainly heard. He returned to Britain in 1694, and stayed at Oxford, where ais orthodoxy seems to have been suspect from the hour oi his arrival. The proof appeared in 1696, when Toland published his Christianity not mysterious.
The work is undoubted!yv rationalistic, but it is very far from being simply the cheap profligacy of a seeker for notoriety (as its many enemies alleged). On the contrary, it is seriously argued, and even moderate in its tone. Still the bishops and the clergy did not like it, and that is scarcely surprising. Locke’s Reasonableness of Christianity was not to their liking either, and it had appeared shortly before ; but whereas Locke had not openly flouted the mysteries of Christianity—his sole aim, professedly at least, was to show that Christianity was a reasonable religicn—Toland went further, and argued that because Christianity was reasonable it could contain neither mystery nor miracle nor aught of the kind. The irony of this argument (which was quite in the style of the day) could not hoodwink a Churchman. — And it did not.
The book raised a storm. It was burnt by the Grand Jury of Middlesex (who ‘lid not consider this action a com- pliment), and it drew the fire of the heavy artillery of the Church with more than military promptitude. The author had to leave Oxford and retire to Dublin. There he received, at first, something like a welcome. Willian: Molyneux,, for example, the student of optics who wrote the Dioptrica Nova
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with Llumnsteed’s help, the architect of that portion of Dublin Castle which stands on the Piazza, and the friend and corres- pondent of Locke, received Toland gladly, and did his best. for him.* After a very short time, however, even Molyneux did not dare to countenance Toland openly. The deist had a way of feasting indiscreetly in coffee-houses (I do not suppose he was more sober than other honest Irish gentle- men), and the bailiffs dunned him for his wigs and his lodgings. Finally the Irish Parliament intervened. As South, the ecclesiastic says, ‘‘ The Parliament to their im- mortal honour sent him packing, and without the help of a faggot soon made the kingdom too hot to hold him.’’ South’s one regret was that the rest of the kingdom was less torrid.
Toland in fact had offended the institutions of his country and he had a very lean purse. Therefore he suffered, like the most of the deists that succeeded him, for the double crime of poverty and lése majesté. The deists did not fare well. They had to fight privilege, and they had also to fight an array of scholarship and ability far greater than their own. They were crushed, therefore, as thoroughly as Grub Street hacks and such-like canaille could be crushed ; and yet, in the usual way of such affairs, their doctrine has lived. The eighteenth century was the flowering time of rationalism, deism, and their step-child scepticism. Shaftesbury, Bayle, Bolingbroke, Voltaire, Hume and the French encylopedists were far too important to be crushed: and they were not.
Returning to Toland, however, we must admit that his fate was as good as he deserved. He was born to live from hand to mouth and to get his ideas printed. And this, in a word, was the story of his career. He had his bad times, no doubt. As Sir Leslie Stephen says, “‘ The poor man did not know how to starve,’’ but generally he was able to stave
*So far as I know, Molyneux had no connexion with Ulster, but his son Samuel —who was a friend of Berkeley’s—owned an estate in Armagh,
Ulster Philosophers. 16
starvation off, and he had an interesting, if unconventional, career. Most of the remainder of his life after he left Ireland (he died in 1722) was spent. on the Continent, where he was a political informer (a spy in plain language), a court sycophant and a hack writer by turns or all together. He was not troubled with too nice a conscience (for example, he printed Shaftesbury’s Inquiry without permission when Shaftesbury was making the grand tour), and he did not object to his espionage, although, as he said (with an attempt at dignity), he would rather be a ‘* private monitor and purveyor of education ’’ than a spy.
We need not weep for him, therefore; and he was known to the most interesting people of his day. Leibniz, for example, respected his ability ; a Turkish effendi inquired of Mr. Toland from Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; Prince Eugene of Holland befriended him, and Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia, sister of George I. and mother of Frederick the Great, received him at court, where she set the literary fashion which her belleslettristic warrior-son continued in the way that every schoolboy knows of. And Toland had help from England, too. He expected a good deal from Harley, and he got something. Shaftesbury, too, overlooking the incident of the pirated manuscript, paid him a pension for somne years, although he withdrew it later in one of his fits of economy.
And Toland went on writing. He had learned more at Leyden from the rationalists than the simple tactics of frontal assault. . He had also learned the other rationalistic method ; the method of sapping and mining by research into the authenticity of the Sacred Texts and by attacking the character of the early Christian bishops. I have time only for two examples of this. To his Mangoneutes being a defence of Nazarenus he appends certain ‘* queries to be sent to Christians residing in Mahomedan countries.’* One of them runs as follows: “Since we. find that they charge our Gospel with corruption and alteration in
6 Professor John Latrd on
many things, and particularly that Mahomet’s name was raz d out of ‘em, as likewise out of the Penta: teuch and the Psalms; you are. to’ enquire of the most learned, judicious and candid among ’em, how they can prove such expunctions or interpolations, if they have no authentic copies to confront with ours?’ (And so .n. Toland’s excursions into the higher criticism have not stood the test of time. le was not even a pioneer, except perhaps in England, but he was keen). The other quotation I shall give is the title page to his Hypatia. It runs, ‘‘ Hypatia, or the history of a most beautiful, most virtuous, most learned and every way accomplished lady; who was torn to pieces by the clergy of Alexandria, to gratify the pride, emulation, and cruelty of their Archbishop Cyril, commonly but un- deservedly stil’d Saint Cyril.’’ Cyril’s iniquity, in fact, is Toland’s subject quite as much as Hypatia’s virtue, but "| is only fair to add that Toland’s pamphlet does not assign too rnuch space (for the times) in discussing the important ques- tion whether or not Hypatia was virtuous.
Writings such os these, as well as his Letters to Serena in which he makes suggestions towards a _rationalistic philosophy to the Queen of Prussia, sum up his literary ex- ecursions. His last work, however, should receive some mention. It is not in good taste. He got it up like a prayer book, with red rubrics, and it contains the ritual of a pan-
theistic religion. But the most interesting point in it for
us is that the writer returns in spirit to the name and place of his birth. The preface is signed Janus Julius Koganesius. Now Inis Eoghain is Inishowen: and we have already seen the history of Janus Julius.
It is unfortunate for my purposes that Bihop Berkeley —the greatest of Irish philisophers—never resided in Ulster. He was a Kilkenny man, and Dublin was his spiritual home, as far as that was in Ireland at all. What is more, the slight connection he had with Ulster does not show that he had any love for the province. The matter befel in this wise, In the
Ulster Philosophers. 17
year 1721 Berkeley returned to Ireland after some eight years spent partly in London and principally on the Continent. ‘’ I had no sooner set foot on shore,’’ he wrote to Sir John Percival in October of that year, ** but I heard that the Deanery of Dromore was become vacant, which is worth about £500 a year and a sinecure; which circumstance recom- mends it to me beyond any preferment in the kingdom.’’ Percival did his best for him, but without much success. On February 10 of the next year, it is true, Berkeley wrote that ‘‘ his patent was now passing the seals,’’ but he added that the Bishop “ pretending a title hath put in a presentee of his own, which unavoidably engages me in a lawsuit.’’
Thereafter Berkeley experienced the law’s delays. ™ God preserve your Lordship from law and lawyers,’’ he wrote piously in April, 1722; and, indeed, he had little hope of success. ‘“* The suit,’’ he wrote, ‘‘ upon enquiry I find will be more tedious, and the event much more doubtful than I was at first aware of, but with a sure expense on my side, if I am informed right, of several hundred pounds besides what I am likely to get from the Government,* which will go but a little way to pay eight lawyers (for so many I have engaged) and to pay all other expenses of a suit against a man who is worth £1,200 p.ann., besides the Deanery which he is in actual possession of, and who hath been practised in law- suits five and twenty years together.”’
The Bishop’s motives, doubtless, were principally private and personal, but he may have known that Berkeley wanted a sinecure, and it is probable that he objected to Berkeley for precisely the reason that Percival thought in Berkeley’s favour, viz.: that Berkeley had been as much in England as in Ireland for a great many years. (There is a hint, too, that B.‘s politics were those of a mugwump.) However that may be, by the year 1723, while this lawsuit was still pending, Berkeley had made up his mind to go to _ Bermuda to found an Arcadian university in these summer
*Notre—£50 concordation money had been voted him,
18 Professor John Laird on
islands both for white and coloured. . He wished, indeed, not only to go there, but to maintain ten savages and ten whites at his own expense. This new purpose, he wrote, ‘“ sets me above soliciting anything with earnestness in this part of the world, which can now be of no use to me, but as it may enable me the better to prosecute that design; and it must be owned that the present possession of something in the Church would make my application tor an establish- ment in these islands more considered. I mean a charter for a college there.”’
He wanted money, however, as well as the charter, although he had, quite unexpectedly, inherited half the estate (one Robert Marshal inherited the other half) of Hester Vanhomrigh, Swift’s Vanessa, who had revoked her legacy to Swift in view of the Dean’s conduct when he heard that she had questioned Stella concerning her relations with him. And an appointment came, too. “‘I can now tell your Lordship,’’ he wrote to Percival in 1724, ‘* that yester- day JI received my patent for the best deanery in the kingdom, that of Derry. This deanery is said to be worth £1,500 p.ann., but then there are four curates to be paid and great changes upon entering, for a large house and offices, first fruits, patent, ete., which will consume the first year’s profit and part of the second.’’ However, Providence tempered the wind for him. ‘‘ I am now on my return from Derry,’’ he wrote a month later (May, 1724), “* where I have taken possession of my deanery and farmed out my tithe lands, etc., for £1,250 a year. I am assured they are worth two hundred pounds per ann. more, but thought it better to have men of substantial futures engaged for the punctual payment of the foregoing sum than by keeping them in my hands to subject myself to all that trouble, and all those cheats which Dissenters (whereof we have many about Derry) are inclined to practice towards the clergy of our Church,”
Ulster Philosophers. 19
However, he was enthusiastic about the place. ‘‘The Cathedral,’’ he went on to say in the same letter, “‘ is the prettiest in Ireland. My house is a fashionable thing not five years old, and cost eleven hundred pounds. The Cor- poration are all good Churchinen, a civil people, and throughout English, being a colony from London. I have hardly seen a more agreeable situation, the town standing on a peninsula in the midst of a fine spreading lake, en- vironed with green hills, and at a distance the noble ridge of Ennishowen mountains and the mighty rocks of Maghilligan form a most august scene. There is, indeed, much of the gusto grande in the laying out of this whole country, which recalls to my mind many prospects of Naples and Sicily.”’
Nevertheless he never went there again. lLaw-suits concerning the Vanhomrigh will and an attempt to obtain from the British House of Commons for the Bermuda scheme—a grant of £60,000 was voted, but never paid—kept him in Dublin or in London till 1728. Then he sailed for America. When he returned in 1731 it was to London that he came, and he did not take up residence in Ireland till 1783, when he was appointed Bishop of Cloyne.
On the whole then (save for this one week of his visit to Londonderry) his connection with Ulster is simply that he got something out of her.
Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746) is commonly regarded as _ the Ulster philosopher, and certainly he was both an Ulster- man and a philosopher. The facts of his life are briefly as follows. He was the second son of John Hutcheson, Presby- terian minister of Ballyrea, near Armagh, but he seems {0 have been born at his grandfather’s house at Drumalig in County Down. This grandfather, Alexander Hutcheson was a Plantation Scot who was minister of Saintfield in Co. Down for the greater part of his life, and had wealth enough to purchase the estate of Drumalig. Francis Hutcheson’s mother was a Longford lady.
20 Professor John Laird on
Francis was educated at a Dissenting school near Saint- field, and thereafter at the Academy (as it was called) of Killyleagh. Thence, like the other local Dissenters in Ulster, he proceeded to the University of Glasgow, sitting under Gershom Carmichael and others. At Glasgow he seems to have studied diligently, and he was tutor to the Earl of Kilmarnock—a somewhat remarkable fact so shortly after the 15 when we remember that the Harl’s family were Jacobities and Hutcheson a staunch Presbyterian. How- ever, perhaps Hutcheson was not so very. staunch. He returned to Ulster in 1719 and was licensed as a probationer, but his preaching was not to the liking of his father’s friends. A story is told, indeed, to the following effect. One cold and rainy Sunday, Francis Hutcheson went to preach at Armagh, taking the place of his father who had a cold; but a flickering sun and a determined curiosity took the old man out of his bed and sent him to hear the conclusion of his son’s sermon. Instead of that, the unhappy parent met the whole of his flock returning in disgust from the meeting-house. An elder enlightened him. ‘*‘ We a’ feel muckle wae for your mishap, Rev. Sir,’’ the elder said, ‘‘ but it canna’ be concealed. Your silly loon Frank has fashed a’ the congregation wi’ his idle cackle; for he has been babbling this ’oor aboot a gude and benevolent God, and that the souis o’ the heathen them- selves will gang to Heaven, if they follow the licht o’ their ain consciences. Not a word does the daft loon ken, speir nor say about the gude auld comfortable doctrines o’ election, reprobation, original sin and faith. Hoot man, awa’ wi’ sic a fellow.”’
The truth was that Hutcheson had leanings towards the New Light while his family preferred the old. Hutcheson was cautious, however (or—shal! we say ?—filia]), and he never took sides openly, but was content instead to contri- bute (anonymously) to the Non-Subscribers at various times throughout his life. He seems to have felt, however, that he had no vocation for the kirk, so he refused the “ call ”’
Ulster Philosophers. VI
of the congregation at Magherally and founded an Academy at Dublin instead. There he prospered, was bitten with the fashionable philosophical virus of the city, and plunged into authorship. Prosperous as he was, however, two separate complaints were lodged against him in the archbishop’s court for daring to teach without a license from the church; and there are indications that Hutcheson would not have objected to joining the Kstablishment. Still he did not; and Arch- bishop King (of whom we have already heard) protected his follow- Ulsterman.
His troubles were ended in 1729 when he was appointed a professor in Glasgow. ‘There he had enormous influence. He was principally responsible for the abolition of the old system of regents (who taught everything) substituting the regime of specialist professors. His lectures on the State directed Adam Smith’s attention to political economy, and the Kircaldy boy’s Theory of the Moral Sentiments owes much to his old professor. Moreover, Hutcheson had many other distinguished pupils. For the truth was that he was not only an eminent philosopher and a good organiser but a magnificent teacher. He could speak eloquently, forcibly, and clearly, and this gift, in addition to his personal charm and his liberal opinions, made a deep mark on the literary history of Scotland. The Scottish revival of letters in the 18th century owes as much to this Ulsterman as to any one. When the young Huine was trying to struggle into fame by the publication of his Treatise he wrote to Hutcheson for advice concerning the third book on morals. Hume was not a sycophant, and he was the very last of Scotchmen to be reckoned a fool. His action, therefore, was most significant.
Indeed, Hutcheson owes his place in the histories of philosophy quite as much to his personal influence, and to his literary popularity as to the distinctively philosophical merits of his work. In some respects, even, the tale of his work is somewhat disappointing when one comes to exarhine it. In Glasgow he was too busy to write much, and the
22 Professor John Laird on
books on logic and on metaphysics which he published there (they are only compends or text books) are both eclectic and unsatisfying. He tried to unite the scholasticism he had imbibed at Killyleagh with certain fashionable ideas: and he did not succeed very well. For the rest, it is his moral philosophy that is remembered, and here again there are qualifications. | He was in Dublin and only thirty when he published his Enquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue; his essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions also appeared during the Dublin period; and his System of Moral Philosophy was published posthumously. So the former works are immature and the latter incomplete. His ethical system, then, cannot be reckoned among the greatest in British philosophy. Philosophically speaking, he improved greatly upon Shaftesbury’s moral philosophy, although without the support of Shaftesbury’s fatally sedue- tive metaphysics, and he tried, not without success, to de- velop the psychological side of ethics in the best literary vein. This is a popular procedure to-day—indeed it is the fashion— but the modern philosophers can surround their doctrines with a plausible halo derived from anthropology and the history of human evolution, while Hutcheson could not. What is more, a cool historian must admit that Hutcheson did not appreciate the sceptical tendencies of his moral philosophy (as his great contemporary Bishop Butler did) that frequently he did not perceive the logical consequences of his own doctrine, that Hume and others developed it far more consistently than he did, that Hutcheson ciien descended (like Lord Kames and others after him) to woolli- ness scarcely redeemed by illogical piety, and that although Hutcheson was an important figure in the movement which led eventually to utilitarianism his SEOMETORS did not le in his clearheadedness. None the less, Hutcheson, the man, is a considerable figure in British philosophy. It has been claimed for him that he was one of the founders of the Seottish school, but
Ulster Philosophers. 23
this is a mistake. He builds upon human nature, as Reid did later, but he gives in essence and even upon the surface a very different account of human nature from Reid’s. The impetus which he gave to philosophy lay rather on the side of psychology and of the literary aspects of philosophy : but it is no mean thing to succeed in this enterprise. Scotland needed a renaissance, and therefore she owed much to Hutcheson.
And Hutcheson’s influence was not confined to Scotland. To Dublin in his early years he brought an Ulster leaven, and he remembered the interests of Presbyterian Ulster in Glasgow. Hutcheson’s letters to Dr. Drennan of this city show a constant solicitude for the Ulster youths under his charge. And some of therm needed it. ‘‘ I am deeply morti- fied by the vanity and foppery prevailing among our country- men,’’ Hutcheson writes, ‘* beyond what I see in others; and a sauntering forsooth which makes them incapable of any hearty drudgery at books.’’ As one of the culprits he par- ticularly mentions was the son of a non-subscribing minister in Belfast, this comment perhaps is scarely what one would expect. The rowdiness of the Ulstermen of which we hear from other Glasgow sources seems more natural somehow. Reid later had a great deal of trouble with the “* wild Irish Teagues,’’ as he call them—those Ulster Protestants whose natural university was Glasgow.
In course of time, however, Belfast began to want a university of its own, and the Academical Institution (which included a college) was founded in 1815. Two philosophers, both of them Scottish seceders, were imported from Glasgow —one of them, John Young; the other, William Cairns. Cairns published a book on Moral Freedom in 1844, and Young’s lectures were published posthumously under the title ‘“* Lectures on Intellectual Philosophy.’’ This book (I hope I am not offending any of Young’s descendants) gained the following unenviable notice from Sir William Hamilton,
DM Professor John Laird on
‘This unfortunate speculator seems to have been fated in © almost every instance to be anticipated by Brown; and as far as I have looked into their lectures I have been amazed with > the never-failing preamble—of the astonishment, the satis- faction and so forth, which the author expresses on finding, on the publication of Brown’s Lectures, that the opinions which he himself, as he says, had always held and taught, were those which had obtained the countenance of so dis. tinguished a philosopher. The coincidence is, however, too systematic and precise to be the effect of accident; and the identity of opinion hetween the two doctors can only (plagiarism apart). be explained by borrowing from the hypothesis of a pre-established harmony between their minds.’’ later, however, Hamilton added a footnote. ~‘ I ‘now find, and have elsewhere stated, that the similarity between these philosophers arises from their borrowing, 1 may say stealing, from the same source—De Tracy.’’
After the Queen’s College was founded in Belfast, Clarendon the Lord Lieutenant of the day was so much impressed by the merits of a book entitled The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral that he appointed its author, a Brechin minister called James M‘Cosh, to the Professorship of Logic and Metaphysics in the year 1857. This appointment prompted Thackeray’s lines ‘‘ The Last Trish Grievance,’’ from which I quote some stanzas. Thackeray speaks in the person of an Irish youth.
As I think of the insult that’s done to this nation Red tears of rivinge from me faytures I wash,
And uphold in this pome, to the world’s daytistation The slaves that appointed Professor M‘Cosh.
I look round me counthree, renowned by expayrience, And see midst her children, the witty, the wise—
Whole hayps of logicians, potes, schollars, grammarians, All ayger for pleeces, all panting to rise.
Ulster Philosophers. Dk
| gaze round the world in its utmost diminsion, Lord John and his minions in Council I ask,
Was there ever a Government pleece (with a pinsion) But children of Erin were fit for that task?
On the logic of Saxons there’s little reliance, And, rather from Saxon than gather its rules, I’d stamp under feet the base book of his science, And spit on his chair as he taught in the schools.
O false Sir John Kane! is it thus that you praych me? I think all your Queen’s Universitees bosh;
And if you’ve no native professor to taych me I scawurn to be learned by the Saxon M‘Cosh.
M‘Cosh remained in Belfast for the next seventeen years, and then went to Princeton (of which celebrated university he was president). It was in Belfast, however, that his most important books were written and his consider- able reputation consolidated. It is not quite fair to discuss his philosophy nowadays. Some of his ideas, it is true, are now more fashionable than they were twenty years ago, but they are not very likely to recur in the form in which he put them, and he was neither eminent enough nor enough of a pioneer to make it likely that future historians of philosophy will honour him with more than a footnote.
On the other hand he was certainly a very clear writer, and a most assiduous and successful teacher. I have met many of his pupils here, and they all concur in this verdict. IT have no doubt, indeed, that some of my audience here can vouch for the fact from personal experience. On this account chiefly I do not propose to say more about M‘Cosh now. A historian is more comfortable when he is dealing with remoter persons and events, and this consideration restrains me even more forcibly from dealing with Ulster philosophers who are either alive or who have died only
26 Professor John Laird, etc.
recently. I think, for example, of William Graham or of J. J. Murphy, President of the Linen Hall Library for twenty years and author of Habit and Intelligence and of other works: or of my predecessor, John Park, and I am silent. I shall only venture on one tiny phophecy. At last, after an interval of centuries, the philosophers of England are be- ginning to construct what the Germans call a natur- philosophie, and I venture to predict that when our grand- children come to estimate the origin of this movement in twentieth century Britain, they will unanimously place the name of Mr. A. A. Robb very high.
One other reflection and I have done. The influence of Ulster in philosophy, as in everything else, cannot be limited to the work of those who have been born or who have long resided within her borders. Her children and_ their descendants beyond the seas must also be counted to her credit; and I confess that I conceived the idea of writing this lecture when I read the recently published Letters of William James. James was a delight to the world. and Ulster gave
him. James’s paternal grandfather—also William by name—went to America from the town of Ballyjamesduff, in
County Cavan, in 1789. He arrived with very little money and a latin grammar, founded the salt industry of Syracuse and amassed so considerable a fortune as to be able to bequeath a comfortable inheritance to his widow and to each of his eleven children. ‘‘ When old Billy James came to Syracuse,’’ the customary old inhabitant said, “* things went as he wished.”’
Therefore James was an Ulsterman by descent on his father’s side, and his mother’s forbears were also Ulster people. His mother was descended from a certain Hugh Walsh who came from Killingsley (?), Co. Down, according to James’s Letters (Killyleagh, according to Henry James), in 1764. All honour then to the province that gave us William James.
27
10th January, 1922.
Henry Rippeuu, Esq., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., President, in the Chair.
“ COMETS.”’ By Rev. W. F. A. Eviison, M.A.
[No Abstract. |
16th January, 1922.
Henry Ripe, Esa., in the Chair.
\ “ MOLIERE.”’’ By Professor Savory, M.A.
[No Abstract. |
14th March, 1922.
Henry RippEewu, Esq., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., President, in the Chair.
‘“ DRENNAN AND HIS TIMES: FOUNDED ON FAMILY LETTERS.”
By ALEXANDER RIDDELL.
[No Abstract. |
28 G. S. Robertson on
31st January, 1922.
Henry RippELL, M.E., M.I.Mech.E., President, in the Chair. VE USE OF PHOSPHATES IN AGRICULTURE.”’ By G. 8. Rozertson, D.Sc., Head of Chemical Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Northern Ireland.
Agricultural science began in the Nineteenth Century. In the opening decades the important fact was established that there are three fertilising elements which must be applied to the soil in order to maintain its fertility, and in order that increased crops may be obtained. They are Nitrogen, Phosphates, and Potash.
The future of agriculture in this and every other country, tc a very large extent, depends upon the manufacture of these ~ three groups of fertilisers in suitable forms, and in adequate quantities.
Few realise that agriculture has progressed so rapidly during the past 80 years that to satisfy the requirements of - the industry for artificial fertilisers large chemical industries have been created, necessitating in many cases the establish- ment of new towns and cities.
The problem associated with the supply of nitrogenous fertilisers has been solved by the discovery of methods for utilising the nitrogen of the air. To-day over 44 million tons of nitrogenous fertilisers are manufactured annually from the nitrogen of the air; the total value being in the neighbourhood of 45 million pounds. :
We are not, however, in such a happy position with re- gard to our supplies of phosphates. It would be difficult to say when phosphates were first used in agriculture. As far — back as we can go they seem to have been used in the torm of bones, which we now know contain in the dry state from 60 to 80 per cent. of phosphate of lime.
The Use of Phosphates in Agriculture. 29
It was not, however, till 1500 that Lord Dundonald estab- lished the fact that bones owed their value to the phosphates which they contained, and not, as was then thought, to their oil or fat content.
From 1800 onwards the use of bones in agriculture grew
with great rapidity. ‘The home supply became inadequate, and we began to import in very large quantities. About 1834, Lawes—the first English agricultural chemist —patented a process for dissolving bones in sulphuric acid and thus making the phosphate soluble in water. Hitherto bones had been simply broken into small lumps and ploughed or rolled into the soil. In such a form they were very slow in their action, and could be ploughed up after the lapse of several years apparently unaltered. Lawes’ dissolved bones, o: bone super-phosphate, contained phosphate soluble in water, which when applied to the soil could be immediately utilised by the young plant. So effective was it in its action that it save a great fillip to the search for bones and England began to ransack the whole of Europe for supplies. So keen was the competition that even the battlefields of Leipsic and Waterloo are said to have been turned over in the course of the search.
The situation was eased by the discovery of large de- posits of rock phosphates in Spain, North Africa, the United States, and certain of the Pacific Islands, and Lawes was able to continue making his superphosphate by dissolving these ground rock phosphates, which were found to contain from 50-80 per cent. of phosphate of lime.
For the next forty years or so the use of Lawes’ super- phosphate grew rapidly, and as there seemed to be no limit to the amount of raw rock phosphate which could be obtained no anxiety was felt with regard to our supplies.
In 1878 a new type of phosphatic fertiliser appeared, namely, basic slag, and it was the means of connecting agri- culture with our great modern steel industry.
30 G. S. Robertson on
Steel is made from ‘“* Pig iron,’’ which in turn is made from iron ore. Our most important deposits of iron ore occur in the Cleveland district of the North Riding of Yorkshire. ‘T'hese iron ores contain phosphorus, and it was not at first possible to manufacture steel from them because the phos- phorus passed into the steel, rendering it brittle and unfit for industrial purposes.
This difficulty was overcome by two steel chemists, Thomas and Gilchrist, who devised a process for removing the phosphorus. They lined the steel furnace with lime, and also charged lime into the furnace along with the pig iron. The lime passing through the molten metal combined with the phosphorus, forming phosphate of hme. This, together with the excess of lime and other impurities, floats on the top of the molten metal at the end of the boil as a scum or slag. The slag, being lighter than the molten metal, is re- moved by pouring, and on cooling sets into a hard, rock-like mass.
Ground to a fine powder, so that 80-90 per cent. will pass a sieve with 10,000 holes to the square inch, this waste pro- duct from the manufacture of steel by the Basic Bessemer process became the basic slag so highly prized by the agricul- tural community. It contained about 40 per cent. of phos- phate of lime.
At first basic slag was considered to be of little value, because the phosphates were insoluble in water. Various attempts were made to dissolve the slag in sulphuric acid, and so obtain a water soluble phosphate, but the attempt was abandoned as uneconomical and impracticable.
Two agriculturai experimentors, Prof. Wrightson and Mr. Munro, persuaded some of the steel manufacturers to grind some of the waste slag to a fine powder. They applied it to grass land, and obtained highly-successful results.
These results were amply borne out by experiments in other parts of the country, particularly at Cockle Park, and the foundation was laid for the big basic slag industry.
The Use of Phosphate in Agriculture. oa
Last year the British farmer used no less than half a million tons of the fertiliser.
THE PRESENT Position.
Unfortunately for the farmer, changes in the manufac- ture of steel began to take place about 1912, and these changes were hastened by the conditions resulting from the war.
The new process of steel manufacture enabled the steel maker to produce his steel more economically; but, alas for the farmer, it meant a slag containing only half the quantity of phosphates (20 per cent. instead of 40 per cent.), and one in which the phosphates were much more insoluble than previously.
The farmers of the United Kingdom are now faced with a possible supply of only 40,000 tons per annum of high- grade slag instead of 400,000 tons.
The agricultural significance of the change is apparent from a consideration of the figures in the following table:
TABLE I. Production of Basic Slag in 1920. Grade. Tons. 1. Over 33% phosphate... ... 46,300 2. 26 to 338% ys aA ... 121,400 3. 22 to 26% us cae ie 190,900 4. 15 to 22% si sie ... 802,500 5. 11 to 15% is wae ... 118,000 6. Under 11% = se 22. 22,000
701,100
It is exceedingly doubtful whether grades 4, 5, and 6 can be profitably marketed on account of their low phosphate content. The available supply is thus only about 160,000 tons, whereas the demand, which is steadily increasing, is -approximately 500,000 tons.
It has been estimated that the farmers in Great Britain
2 G. S. Robertson on
and Ireland could use with advantage to themselves and the community 33,820,000 units of phosphate in the form of - basic slag, equivalent to 850,000 tons of high grade basic slag containing 40 per cent. of phosphate. If all the basic slag containing 154 per cent. of phosphate and upwards could be used the available supply would only be 13,400,000 units of phosphate, leaving a deficiency of 20,420,000 units, equiva- lent to 510,500 tons of basic slag containing 40 per cent. of phosphate.
It is a matter of great importance to find a substitute for basic slag, because we now know there are certain soil condi- tions for which superphosphate is not the most suitable phosphate to use.
With this object in view, experiments have been con- ducted during the past few years with raw ground phos- phates, mined in North Africa, to ascertain whether if they are finely ground they can take the place of basic slag.
The results from some of these field experiments are set out in a condensed form in Table 2.
TABLE IT, ESSEX EXPERIMENTS WITH VARIOUS PHOSPHATES. WEIGHT OF HAY IN CWTS PER ACRE—PLOTS 4 ACRE IN AREA. = G8 elie des 8 ae Te ae 4) SU wg Pi Sie) Type of Phosphate as Oe ee : He elie eo) 2 e S™ sss em lat ese se) os Se eg sia g) Gs | <x x <x Gl el Ss Basic Bessemer Slag (old process slag) Be. | 27.2 | 2010) =40:G. |» 20:4iegOng Open Hearth Fluor- spar. Basic Slag (new process slag) — 21.3 | 16.8) — rae 29.9 Untreated QOB i TOs, |-25/Ole ZO.4) aZOnsm amc, Gafsa rock Phosphace) 20.5 | 27.0 | 22-2) 26.te 2503 Egyptian do — DESIG OIA = |. 260 Algerian do — BNS6 Bu | BORN ae =F = Tunisian do a —. | 23.5) 7 aa BON Florida Pebble Phos- : phate ... — — |15.0.° — — 28.4.
The Use of Phosphates in Agriculture. 33
The plan followed in the above experiments was to give each plot exactly the same amount of phosphoric acid (200 lbs. per acre), the only difference being the form in which it was applied. Only one dressing was given and no other artificials were apphed. The hay crop on each plot was weighed for four or five years in succession.
It is quite clear from the results that in some soils—par- ticularly on grass land—-ground rock phosphates are capable of giving as good, and sometimes better, results than the best grades of basic slag.
At one of the centres given in the above table—Horndon —the experimental plots were grazed during the season of 1919 instead of being reserved for hay. The plots, unfortu- nately, were not big enough to permit of grazing trials, but as the differences in the botanical composition of the untreated plots and the plots receiving the various phosphates were so striking, a method was devised for determining the percen- tage of the ground space occupied by the various species. The results are set out in table 3.
TABLE IIT.
PERCENTAGE OF THE GROUND SPACE OCCUPIED BY THE VEGETATION ON THE PLOTS AT HORNDON
Bare
ae Type of Phosphate ae a as ie Space
3 Algerian with Phosphate AF AN +201 TA tee
5 Basic Slag (old process) Adil; 25-01, 13-7 | 13-0
6 Untreated .~. ae AD | AO) BLO! | 5O1O
8 Gafsa with Phosphate AN 34103223 | 1 20 8:8
9 Tunician do BOS! 130:0h | 22.0 3:6
12 Egyptian do 55-5 | 41-0 0-7 2:8
16 Untreated do ee OVA WT Qulal 420; On |, A595 18
Basic Slag (new process) | 43.8 | 31-8 | 13-3 | Vrer
34 G. S. Robertson on
The contrast between the figures for the untreated plots and the plots receiving phosphates is very striking indeed. it will be noted that the various phosphate have brought about a revolution in the botanical composition of the heroage, and that in this respect the various types of phosphate appear to be equally efficacious. ‘The bare space has become filled in with clover and so vigorous is its growth when supplied with suitable phosphates that it is able to crowd out the weeds to a very large extent. The appearance of three of these plots is illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. ,
Experiments which have recently been made in the North of Ireland confirm the results recorded above. Further experiments, which, it is hoped, will throw considerable light on the problem raised, are in progress under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture for Northern Ireland.
THE FUTURE.
It is very probable that in the near future we shall be dependent for our supplies of phosphates upon the deposits of rock phosphates. The farmer may have these phosphates in two forms :—
(1) Dissolved in sulphuric acid as superphosphate in which the phosphate is soluble in water. This is the quickest acting type of phosphate available.
(2) Finely ground, in which form it is hoped it may take the place of basic slag which we know is more suitable to certain types of soil than superphos- phate.
At present 8 million tons of these ground rock phos. phates are being mined annually for agricultural purposes. Tt is certain that the world’s requirements will increase with creat rapidity, and it is no exaggeration to say that the agri- cultural prosperity, and therefore the industrial prosperity, of the various countries will be determined in the future by the supplies of phosphates which they can secure. In this re- spect the British Empire is badly off. The United States has
The Use of Phosphates in Agriculture. 35
already taken steps to conserve its supplies, France has con- trol of the North African deposits—the largest deposits in the world; whilst, with the exception of the deposits on Nauru and Ocean Island, the sources of supply within the British Empire are, as far as we know, insignificant.
_ Just as in the past, we have seen a struggle for oil supplies, in view of the fact that oil was to play a determining part in industrial supremacy, so at the present moment we are witnessing a keen competition amongst the world powers for phosphates, because there is every prospect of such supplies becoming of vital importance in the future.
36 ce W: H. Gibson on
7th February, W922.
Henry Rippevt, M.E.,M.I.Mech.E., President, in the Chair.
‘““ SOME PRODUCTS OF WOOD WASTE.”’ By W. H. Gisson, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.1.C.,; F Inst.P.
ABSTRACT.
The industry of Wood Distillation goes back to very early times, though the ancients only sought the charcoal obtained. In Engiand in the Middle Ages there were large forests in the southern counties, and this was a manu- facturing district. ‘The timber was used for building and for the construction of ships, while the waste material was used partly as fuel and partly to ubtain the charcoal wanted for iron-smelting.
Charcoal-burning in the old-fashioned way still goes on in remote districts in Russia and Finland. The wood is piled round a narrow central shaft, and the mound is covered with a layer of charcoal and earth. The heap is lighted in the middle at the bottom. Part of the wood burns away, but as the access of air is closely restricted combustion is not complete, and the most of the wood is converted into charcoal. When the charring is complete the kiln is allowed to cool down before exposure to the air, as it would other- wise burst into flame.
The next development lay in constructing the kiln with « small well underneath the base of the pile, into which tar could run. The smoke from burning wood in a restricted air supply contains several different gases, with a quantity | of tar and an acid vapour consisting mainly of acetic acid, the basis of vinegar. The desire to recover these products Jed to the construction of more elaborate kilns, resembling
st 1919.
c
Augu
€.olag.Plot at: Horndon.
asi
B
Figz |,
August, 1919.
Fig. I].—Gafsa Rock Phosphate Plot at Horndon.
i
Fig. J1].--Untreated Plot at Horndon. © August,: 1919.
The Society is indebted to the University Press, Cam- bridge, for permission to reproduce Figs 1, 2, and 3 from the monograph by Dr. Robertson on *‘ Basic Slags and Rock Phosphates. ’’
as “AUG 25
f
NAL rURAL 1ISTORY
Some Products of Wood Waste. 2)
brick ovens with pipes carrying off the products for con. densation with water. These were replaced by retorts some thing similar to those used in the manufacture of coal gas, and with this type of apparatus we reach modern conditions. To understand the use of such retorts it is necessary to have at least a rough idea of the chemical nature of wool and the reaction that takes place during the distillation.
Wood is essentially composed of the three elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the approximate analysis being: carbon, 50 per cent.; hydrogen, 6 per cent. , oxygen, 44 per cent. There are two main constituents in wood, cellulose and hgenin. Cellulose is known in a very pure form in cotton, and has a composition of carbon 44 per cent., hydrogen 6 per cent., oxygen 50 per cent.; while lignin is richer in carbon and poorer in oxygen. Both these sub- stances are very complicated in nature, and their construc- tion is not vet unravelled. Cellulose, however, seems to be closelv related to grape sugar, and formule have been suggested with molecules of grape sugar linked up in various ways. The main product of the distillation of cellulose is charcoal, about 39 per cent.; accompanied by water, 34.5 per cent.; tar, 4 per cent.; acetic acid, 1.5 per cent.; and 2 considerable volume of gas amounting to a proportion of carbon dioxide 10 per cent. and carbon monoxide 4 per cent.
The effect may be broadly described as the removal of water, accompanied by charring and evolution of carbon dioxide gas, the tar and acetic acid being by-products.
The lignin gives in addition methyl! alcohol, or wood spirit, so that it is on the proportion of lignin that the yield of wood spirit depends. Lignin is also the principal source of the tar, yielding about 18 per cent. of this material.
The proportions of lignin and cellulose largely determine the products given by distillation, and these proportions vary considerably in different trees, changing with the age of the tree and differing in heart and in sap-wood. ‘The age of the
38 W. H. Gibson on
tree affects also the nature of the charcoal, voung wood con- taining more sap and giving inferior charcoal, while very old wood gives charcoal which splits readily and causes loss in transport. The time of year in which the trees are felled is of importance, winter felling giving less sap and better results in distillation. The quantity of moisture present is extremely important, and it is usual to store the wood for six months or more, when a fairly constant figure of 20 per cent. 1s obtained. This enables more regular results to be obtained.
In the process of distillation, starting from cold up to a temperature of 270° C., the water contained in the wood is first driven off, accompanied by gases which are mainly oxides of carbon, but as soon as the critical temperature is passed the nature of the gases changes completely, the oxides of carbon diminishing and being replaced by hydro- carbons, methane, etc. The quantity of aqueous distillate also diminishes; the gases are drier; the quantity of tar increases and its nature is more viscous. Up to 270° C. the apparatus requires external heat, but from this temperature the charring proceeds with practically no external heating, the reaction becoming exothermic, the decomposition spon- taneous. Up to a temperature of 500° C. the evolution of hydrocarbon gases increases, while at a higher temperature the hydrocarbons are replaced by hydrogen. In practice the carbonisation is stopped and the process finished at 380° to 400° C. If the process is stopped at 400° C. and the retort closed a further formation of hydrocarbons occurs while cooling is going on, and oxides of carbon and hydrogen gradually disappear. When retorts in which the charcoal is kept to cool are closed during this stage the pressure rises und the gases inside the retort become 80 per cent. to 90 per cent. hydrocarbons. This pressure gradually disappears as the charcoal absorbs the gaseous hydrocarbons, with forma- tion of solid varieties, the carbon content increasing in the charcoal by 5 per cent. to 6 per cent.
Some Products of Wood Waste. 39
On the commercial scale of distillation all the stages mentioned may be taking place at the same time in the one retort, as the large size of the apparatus does not allow uniform transmission of heat to all the wood in the vessel. Some of the wood near the heating surface may be in the final stage, while part further removed from the source of heat may be only beginning the reaction. The nature of the products can be influenced by the method of heating the retort and by the temperature of the furnace, a high tem- perature and rapid working giving much gas and less acetic acid, wood spirit, and charcoal. The design of the retort used will also influence the results. In small retorts the radiation from the heated sides is sufficient to keep the internal temperature differences small, but this is not the case with the large American and Swedish retorts. With vertical retorts delivering downwards the lavers at different levels will be at different stages. When any considerable portion of a charge reaches the exothermic stage it supplies toa ‘the remainder so much heat that this portion is brought with a rush to the distillation stage. There is consequently a period of violent and copious evolution of gas and distillate which extends over one to six hours,according to the size of the vessel.
The practical divisions of the process on the commercial scale are :—
1. Simple evaporation of water, almost without gases up to 170° C.
2. Water vapour, oxides of carbon, and some acetic acid up to 270° C.
8. The exothermic stage, or spontaneous period, with copious and even violent evolution of gases, hydrocarbons, acetic acid, wood spirit, and tar.
4. A gentler distillation unti] a temperature of 400° C. is reached.
40 W. H. Gibson on
5. The period of cooling, with re-absorption of gases by vhe charcoal.
The first two periods require external heat, but the third gives out heat and yields the most useful combustible gases. Arrangements must therefore be made for a rotation ef work in a number of retorts, that these gases given out in the third stage may be applied to heat the retorts at the initial stages of the process. The lower the temperature in the first period and the slower the addition of heat at the beginning of carbonisation, the greater the quantity of the dried wood in the retort and the more violent the action in ths: third period.
As the reaction after the wood reaches 270° C. is so rapid the method of firing is such as to prevent complete drying of large masses at the same time; the drying and the carbonisation must be run together. This is naturally more difficult with large retorts. The condensation arrangements must be planned to cope with the rush of the vigorous periods by a joint condensing system for several retorts, the heavy demand of each coming in turn.
The final temperature regulates the composition of the charcoal obtained.
Wood differs much in composition, even when taken from the same tree; it varies in water content, in propor- tions of cellulose and lignin, in the porosity or the sound- ness of the wood; and these differences are such that the results of any two distillations are never exactly alike. The skill or attention of the stoker is also a considerable element in the final result.
A description of the use of a small retort system often used in Germany will enable the process to be better under- stood.
- Two horizontal iron cylinders, each about ten feet long by’ three feet six inches in diameter, are embedded in
Some Products of Wood Waste. 4l matsnry, having a furnace between them, and arrange- ments permitting the circulation of the hot gases from the fire around the retorts slowly to carbonise the charge of wood. There is a wide tube: connecting each retort to a tar- separator, followed by a coil of copper tubes cooled by a water tank and acting as a condenser for the watery dis- tillate. The uncondensed gases pass a water seal and then return to the furnace to be burnt. In the continuous use of such a plant the charcoal is removed as soon as the opera- tion is finished, and rapidly emptied into a kind of iron box, which is closed air-tight, and in it the charcoal is allowed to cool. As soon as the charcoal is thus removed the retorts are refilled with billet wood, closed up, and the fire applied. Within ten minutes the neck of the retort warms up, then the first distillate begins to pass, accompanied by carbon dioxide and nitrogen from the air present. Almost at onee this is replaced by a mixture of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, and the distillate becomes acid, showing that the wood touching the hot sides has reached the temperature of carbonisation. The quantity of uncondensed gases increases, as does also the acid content of the brown aqueous distillate, with a darkening of its colour through the increase in quan- tity of tar, while the oxygen containing gases give place to hydrocarbons and hydrogen. At last the gas evolution weakens, and the cooling of the retort neck indicates the completion of the process. The fire is removed, the door opened, the charcoal removed, and the work begins again.
This dry distillation yields from deciduous trees:
1. Wood gas, of which the combustible portion is utilised in the furnace.
2. A brown watery liquid. wood vinegar, containing 8. Wood tar, partly dissolved and partly in suspension.
4. Wood charcoal.
Aids W. H. Gibson on
When pine wood is being used there is also given off:
5. <A product floating on the wood vinegar, consisting
of terpenes, products of the dry distillation of resimous sub- stances. Typical yields from 100 parts of dry wood are:
Beech—Charcoal, 80 per cent.; acetate of lime, 8 per cent. ; wood spirit, 2 per cent. : tar, 6 per cent.
Pine—Charcoal, 30 per cent.; acetate of lime, 24 per cent.; wood spirit, 0.4 per cent.; tar, 20 per cent.; and tur- pentine, 8 per cent.
The lime acetate is obtained by neutralising the acid liquor with lime. ‘The gases consist of about 60 per cent. varbon dioxide, 33 per cent. varbon monoxide, and about 6 per cent. of hydrocarbon gases and hydrogen. At the vigorous period the composition is about as follows :— Carbon dioxide, 86 per cent. ; carbon monoxide, 48 per cent. ; end hydrocarbon gas, 16 per cent. It is desirable to keep the quantity of gas as low as possible by keeping down the temperature of carbonisation, to recover a greater quantity of the methyl alcohol or wood spirit. 'The heat value of the gases thus derived from one hundred tons of wood is about equivalent to three tons of coal.
There are some inconveniences and disadvantages due to the small size of such apparatus, and these are removed by the use of a later development, the modern oven. This is much used in America, from which the greater part of the supply of charcoal and wood spirit is derived. It takes the form of an iron tunnel fifty or sixty feet long, through which runs a light railway, which takes the trucks contain- ing the wood. Five or six of these, containing about tea tons of the billet wood, are run into the tunnel by the entrance end, the iron doors are closed, and the heat from the furnace below the tunnel starts the reaction. Above the iron tunnel is a brick floor for drying the acetate of lime,
Some Products of Wood Waste. 43 while pipes lead from the top to condensers in the manner already described, the condensers being at the side of the plant. When the distillation is finished the iron door at the other end is opened, and the locomotive drags out the trucks and carries them into another iron tunnel, where they are closed up for cooling. As they cross the few feet of space between the two tunnels the charcoal breaks out into flame, but the cooling tunnel is airtight and the flames do not last. It is usual to have a third tunnel, a second cooler, into which the trucks are removed at the next changing time. From this second cooler it is taken to the store, where the charcoal is bagged and sent away. The raw distillate is allowed to settle in large wooden vats to separate the tar.
In such a factory a large area is covered by stacks of wood in process of air drving, sawmills for reducing the wood to billets. stores, redistilling houses, and other buildings.
A further development of plant is found in the Grondal, or Swedish, system. Here the trucks pass through a heated central chamber and are admitted and sent out one at a time. By this means a constant heat is maintained, the different stages being in operation at the same time. ‘The retort takes the form of a masonry tunnel about 220 feevr long, divided into chambers by iron doors. The entrance compartment is about fifteen feet in length, the charring chambers about one hundred and thirty-five, the cooling chamber about fifty-five feet, and the exit compartment fifteen, all being separated and closed by iron doors. The heat from the furnace gases is supplied by iron flues. The volatile products escape from pipes in the roof, and are con- densed as usual, while the tar drips on the floor and is led to tanks by pipes. One truck is pushed in at the entrance chamber, the outer door shut, and all the internal doors open so that the trueks are all moved forward one length, thus releasing one truck at the exit chamber. This is repeated about every hour.
44 W.H. Gibson on
The destructive distillation having been completed, the products require to be isolated. ‘The wood vinegar contains from ten to twenty per cent. of soluble organic compounds, say three per cent. of wood spirit and eight per cent. acetic acid. A few of the substances found may be named :—
Acids — Formic, acetic, propionic, butyric, valeric, caproic.
Alcohols—Methy]l, allyl.
Aldehydes—Acetaldehyde. furfurol, methyl furfurol.
Ketones—Acetone, methyl-ethyl ketone, ethyl-propyl ketone. :
Acetals—Methylal, dimethyl acetal; with ammonia and amines.
The tar contains a whole series of hydrocarbons and Phenols. As the weak liquor cannot be profitably trans- ported it is necessaiy to separate the substances of value at the works. Acetone boils at 56° C., wood alcohol at 66° C., water at 100° C., and acetic acid at 120° C. Fractional distillation is used to separate the acetone and wood alcohol from the water and acetic acid, when the latter is neutralised hy lime and recovered as calcium acetate. Owing to the presence of so many reactive substances, such as aldehydes, ketones, phenols, and amines, a troublesome condensation crroduct is obtained called ‘‘ blister tar.’’ Unless this is removed it remains mixed with the acetate. This crude brown mixture contains only about sixty per cent. of calcium acetate. The crude liquor is allowed to settle in tanks, when tar separates. This is the useful tar which can be worked up. The clear, settled liquor is then distilled in a copper still, when the wood spirit and wood vinegar pass over, leaving the resinous “‘ blister tar,’’ which is practically useless. It is either burnt direct, or redistilled to get from it the last remnant of acetic acid, of which it has retained about eight per cent. The liquor is then neutralised with slaked lime and distilled to remove the wood alcohol. The
Some Products of Wood Waste. AS
acetate is evaporated further in a multiple effect evaporator, then transferred to open tanks above the retorts, and when it reaches the pasty stage is spread on the drying-floor to dry. In some modern factories the pasty acetate is taken up from the tank by a steam-heated drum, drying rapidly, and being removed by a scraper at another part of the revolution.
The wood spirit liquor left after removing the acetate is run through a continuously-acting fractioning still, where it is completely freed from the spirit, which is again separated into two fractions, of which the more volatile is a crude ucetone, containing methy! acetate and other organic liquids. This is run to storage tanks. The second fraction collected is wood spirit, about 82 per cent. methyl alcohol, removed at another level. This is refractioned to about 98 per cent. The tar is used as a wood preservative, or distilled, the pitch being removed and creosote being formed, which is used for curing processes and as an antiseptic.
Wood spirit is used for denaturing alcohol, as a solvent for varnishes and resins, and in the manufacture of formal- dehyde, which is used as a preservative and disinfectant, as well us being a starting point for the manufacture of many valuable chemicals and dyes.
The acetone fraction, generally called methyl acetone, is used in many industries as a solvent for collodion, or cellulose acetate. :
The calcium acetate is used to make acetic acid by reaction with sulphuric acid and distillation. The uses of acetic acid are many. It is the basis of vinegar, which is eften only a solution of acetic acid thus made, with colour- ing and flavouring matter sometimes added.
The acetates are useful salts; for example, aluminium acetate is much employed in dyeing and calico printing. The water-free or glacial acetic acid is used to convert cellulose into cellulose acetate, which is the basis of one type of
46 W. H. Gibson on artificial silk, and when dissolved into varnish is used for varnishing aeroplane wings and is known as dope.
Another derivative is the valuable drug aspirin, in whose manufacture the acetic acid is used. It is acetyl salicylic acid. From acetate is also derived the very important acetone.
These derivatives are often obtained at the wood dis- tillation works, acetone, for example, being obtained fromm the acetate by a process of destructive distillation, in which it is heated to a temperature between 300° C. and 400° C., leaving CaCO; behind. Acetone is about the best solvent for nitrocottons, and is used in the manufacture of celluloid and cordite. It is the starting point for the manufacture of chloroform and iodoform. Sulphonal is also derived from acetone.
Perhaps enough has been said to show that a process apparently so simple as the destructive distillation of wood is, when translated into the industrial scale, a most elaborate and complicated business, and that, although the products are valuable, the industry is remarkably dependent for suc- cess on favourable conditions. It is therefore possible that this method of disposal of wood waste will not survive indefinitely. Some of the larger pieces of waste may be worked up into small articles, broom and brush heads, toys, etc. A cheap source of wood is necessary for the develop- ment of a toy industry. Larger articles may be built up in laminated structure, as was done for aeroplane propellers, and possibly may be applied in many other ways. When suitable glues are used the built-up article is stronger and less able to warp than a solid one. Small pieces are con- verted into wood wool by a machine which cuts them into fine curly threads, much used for packing pucposes. Wood waste may also be converted into wood pulp for paper manu- facture, but at present the immense demand for this materia] leads to the sacrifice of whole forests. As a fuel wood waste
Some Products of Wood Waste. 47
is, of course, used in woodworking factories. As a source of heat it has about half the value of the same weight of coal. In Sweden wood waste mixed with coal has been used for the eeneration of town gas, and in woodworking factories in this country and elsewhere it is often used for the generation of producer gas for power purposes, as much as 35,000 cubic feet per ton of wood being generated, of a thermal value of 340 B. Th. U.
Much work has been done in the endeavour to convert wood waste into alcohol, but commercial results have not been obtained. The process depends on the intermediate production of grape sugar, and a good vield of this substance can only be obtained at present by the use of strong acids, which renders the process too costly. It is, of course, possible that an economical conversion process may be dis- covered in the near future, when the great potential value of alcohol as a substitute for petrol would allow an immense development.
The products we now obtain by the destructive distilla- tion of wood may have in the future to fear competition from synthetic methods. Acetic acid, the main product other than charcoal, has been made from acetylene, while acetone has been got by the fermentation of starch with a special culture of bacteria—a process considerably developed during the war.
There is no finality in scientific work, and processes accepted as standard in one generation are obsolete in the next. Scientific research is being applied to many indus- tries that formerly were content to depend upon traditional methods, so that we may expect the coming age to be one of ereat industrial changes, in which old industries will go and new ones arise. The processes described must certainly go unless improvements in methods are effected to reduce the waste. In the American forest trade only 25 per cent. of the ‘timber cut is obtained as finished lumber, and the waste in
48 W. H. Gibson
making wooden articles from this lumber varies from 30 per cent. to 65 per cent. Waste has arisen because of the large quantity of wood available, but this supply is becoming restricted, and the necessity of economy will be driven home. In the conversion of wood too much is done by mere rule of thumb. Chemical investigation will assist in the utilisation of vast quantities of waste, perhaps for purposes now totally unsuspected. For example, there have already been several’ methods suggested for the conversion of sawdust into cattle food. Even in the process of distillation described more careful investigation and attention to detail may lead to eonsiderable economy. The rapid decrease of forest area within reach of transport facilities will compel this attention to be given, and large economy must somehow be obtained if the industry is to survive.
Fig. 1. Big. 2.
Six cuttings of Aucuba saponica, treated with carbon dioxide, showing two with roots and tour other 1
Proceedings, Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Session 1921-22,
SQA GC...
WN
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4 YY
EXPLANATION OF PLATE
callused. Started 23rd November, 1921. Photographed 16/2/22. Oak cuttings in back-grounc | Six cuttings of Aucuba zaponica, treated with air, show ng one with roots and two others callusec | Started 23rd November, 1921. Photographed 16/2/22 Oak cuttings in back-ground.
Halt of a leaf of Brvophyvllum calycinnm, treated with carbon dixoide; a. tip of one of the lon, roots; J. translucent leaf of etiolated shoot. f Other halt of same leaf, treated with air; a. tips of short roots; @ tops of short roots ; 6. stem an normal shoot. The bottles in Figs. 3 and 4 were filled up with water for photographing purpose
x ag = ze Zz
i i
Proceedings of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, 1921-1922
Friday, 24th February, 1922.
Henry Ripper, M.E., M.I.Mech.E., President, in the Chair.
JAMES SMALL, D.Sc., F.U.8., M.B.I.A.,
Professor of Botany, Queen’s University, Belfast.
MORE ABOUT THE ERECTNESS OF PLANTS.
—— ee
It has been established since 1806 that the influence of gravity is the usual cause both of the upward growth of the shoot and of downward growth of the root. The region in the root, which is sensitive to gravity, has been shown to lie at the extreme apex, while the region of actual curvature lies a few millimetres up from the root-tip, coinciding with the region of greater growth. It has further been shown that in many cases the shoot has similar regions of sensitiveness at the tip and of curvature lower down, although the stem frequently exhibits sensitiveness for the larger part of its length, especially in seedlings. Since the beginning of the present century gravity has been generally considered to act on root and shoot by displacing certain loose starch grains or other movable heavy bodies in the cells of the sensitive region. The puzzle of the opposite directions given to root and shoot by this spar uniform cause has, however, remained.
In the previous lectures on the erectness of plants * a theory was given which accounts for this difference of direction and some experiments were described, the results of which are in accordance with that theory.
/
*See Proc. Belf, Nat. Hist. & Phil. Soc,, 1920-1921, p. 91 sqq.
50 | James Small on
The theory as originally stated may be briefly sum- imarised as follows:—Protein-fatty particles, suspended as an emulsion in the celi, carrying an electropositive charge in the root and an electronegative charge in the shoot, were supposed to cream upwards in the cells which are sensitive to gravity. This creaming of charged particles was then supposed to give rise to electric currents flowing in a more or less circular path, passing along the under side first in the root and along the upper side first in the stem. This current would be subject to leakage; the path is not properly insulated and shows a high resistance. Its effects would, therefore. be greater'in the side through which it passed first, and by the loss of turgidity in the affected cells, one effect would be a slower rate of growth in the more affected side. Thus the under side of the root and the upper side of the stem, when stimulated by gravity, would grow more slowly. This in its turn would lead to downward curvature in the root and to upward curvature in the stem.
The direction of curvature is, according to this theory, governed by the direction of the electric current, which is governed by the sign of the electric charge on the moving particles, which is governed in its turn by the relative acidity _ or relative alkalinity of the protoplasm. The relative acidity or alkalinity is in its turn governed largely by the percentage of carbon dioxide in the cell, a quantity which depends upon both the breathing of the cell and upon the amount of sugar- building or photosynthesis which is going on. The latter process uses up carbon dioxide, while respiration increases the amount present.
For the details of the theory and experiments I refer you to the published account of my previous lectures, but in order to refresh your memories I now show a few lantern slides (some of which are given in the plates illustrating the above-mentioned account) of roots which have turned up at the tips in dilute ammonia vapour; of stems which have
More About the Hrectness of Plants. 51
turned down in acetic acid vapour and in excess of carbon dioxide, and also as the result of being coated with vaseline and kept in the dark in order to retain the carbon dioxide of respiration.
THE CriticaL Point ror REVERSAL.
Having proved that the reversed curvature in excess of carbon dioxide is really a geotropic phenomenon, by means of rotation on a klinostat, Miss M. J. Iiynn, M.Sc., investi- gated carefully the action of varying percentages of carbon dioxide on the geotropic curvature, and found that with 10.3% or more the stem of seedling sunflowers always turned down; while with 7.2% or Jess they always turned up. In the table given below from The New Phytologist, Vol. XX.., p. 119, it will be seen that with 9% six turned up and two down (Expts. 20-21). The seedlings used in No. 20 had been grown in bright light, with photosynthesis active and _ all available carbon dioxide being used up; when these seedlings are taken as not quite norinal compared with the others grown in dull light, the critical percentage of carbon dioxide for normal seedlings falls to 9%. Similarly the two seedlings in Expt. 27 were grown in very dull light and may be taken as abnormal; then all other seedlings in 7.76% or less turn up in the normal way. This variation in the critical percent- age of carbon dioxide, for reversal of the direction of geotropic response in the stem of seedling sunflowers which have been grown in various intensities of light, indicates that photo- synthesis plavs an active part in determining the reaction or hydrion concentration of the stem within certain lmits.1 This will become more apparent when we discuss helio- tropism and its reversal.
pet ert — — = 7 =
1 Miss Lynn’s work has been published in some detail in The New Phy/ologisé,
Vol, XX,, 1921.
$2
Date of
experiment
SO} 00 Se Sere OO ie
Ist Dec.
11th Feb. llth Feb. 17th Jan. 19th Nov. 11th Feb. 25th Nov. 30th Nov. 19th Jan.
1st March =
27th Jan.
22nd Nov. a
21st Jan. 7th Feb. 7th Feb. 20th Jan. 21st Feb.
18th April ...
1st Feb.
14th March .
ist Feb.
14th March 23rd Feb. ...
10th March
11th March 16th March 21st Feb. 17th Feb.
15th March > 25th Feb. .. 25th Feb. ...
14th Feb. 15th March
James Small on
seedlings
— WNWWMNINWDMNWON N HDAN ANNAN KROWUNNOONWRWWONT
TABLE I.
Number of Per cent. seedlings ue aoe CO, Tempera- showing Bee (by ture °C curvature oo analysis) 5 down 4000 33 14 (C90 7000 32 12 Dip gis 7000 29.7 12 Siseen 4000 26 13 S55 4000 25 14 CS 7000 22 12 Byes 4000 20.9 14 7 99 9000 20 13 nee 4000 19.6 13 Hg 7000 18 12 Zina 9000 16.8 14 5 4000 1fi 14 D 45 4000 14.5 13 Sees 7000 14 1t Sea 7000 loro Tul 22 Pag 5500 12.6 14 2. 99 7000 10.5 13 fh. 9p 7600 10.4 14 2 hs 4000 10.3 18 6 up 7000 9 14 2 down 4000 9 14 7 up 7000 8.2 14 4 cove 7000 8 14 Bok cou ilee 22080 7.9 13 7 up 6250 7.76 15.5 Be 7000 7.6 14 2 down 7000 7.4 14 9 up 7000 V2 14 eon 7000 Coll 14 5; 6250 7 14 8 ,, 9000 6 14 his 7000 Som, 13 $,, 7000 5.2, 14
More About the Hrectness of Plants. ee
I.XTENSION OF REVERSAL OF GEOTROPIC RESPONSE OF STEMS TO REPRESENTATIVE SPECIES.
Although Miss Lynn had obtained reversal in the seedlings of Clarkia elegans, and of Antirrhinum in addition to those of the sunflower, it was not certain that this reversal would occur with all species and with mature stems. ‘herefore, Miss M. W. Rea, M.8c., undertook an investiga- tion of other species. She extended the experiments, using the same method as employed by Miss Lynn without, how. ever, analysing the atmosphere in the bell-jars to check the percentage of carbon dioxide as the fact of reversal was the point under investigation. The time taken for downward curvature to appear was noted and the angle made with the horizontal was measured with a protractor. The material included seedling stems, the upper parts of mature vegetative shoots and flowering shoots. Each specimen was placed horizontally in excess of carbcn dioxide and left in the dark. A total of 190 species were investigated ; of these 179 showed reversal of the normal upward response to a greater or lesser degree ; while 11 failed to show curvature at all. In all these eleven species control specimens laid horizontally in fresh air showed no curvature. These results are still under con- sideration, but in order to give you some idea of the scope of the work I give a list of the farnilies represented and ot some
of the more definite results :—
Ranunculaceae—14 species belonging to 8 genera, including
Anemone nemorosa, curved 70° in 4 hours in 30% carbon
dioxide, Aquilegia vulgaris, Ce 5c a ae gl a” 5 RONUNCULUS QUTICOMIS, «45° 4.4 4 5 BOM i repens NY AORN ae ae BOC n oa Trollius europaeus, SCD VAL) ok TOMA) OF rach a
Papaveraceae—2 species belonging to 2 genera. Fumariaceae—Dicentra sp.
b4 | James Small on Crucilerae—15 species belonging to 15 genera, including
Arabis sp., curved 380° in 1 day in 30% Cheiranthus Cheiri, sine RIE tay gs LN oth ot eee CS Cochleana ojicmalis, = 30° Wei Sere ees Iberis amara, 7. 40°. A hours S450. Lepidium sativum, Ran oe eens rene AUN), Matthiola incana, Serko” cof lyidayertaaies Cistaceae—Helianthemum sp. Violaceae—Viola tricolor. Polygalaceae—Polygala vulgaris, curved 10° in 1 day in 50% Caryophyllaceae—9 species belonging to 6 genera, including Cerastium vulgatum, curved 30° in 1 day in 45% Lychnis dioica, ot 4070. de ehours men 0. Stellaria media, dias outs hee Se ae a 76
Hypericaceae—Hypericum, 4 spp.
Geraniaceae—Pelargonium sp. (hairy var.) curved 45° in 1 day in 30% do.- (smooth) ~ ,;* =30° 3 4 honms. 43.076 Tropaeolaceae—Tropacolum sp. Limnanthaceae—Limnanthes sp. Leguminosae—8 species belonging to 6 genera, including Lotus corniculatus, curved 45° in 1 day in 50% Lupinus sp., pe o0 ae Srdavisa yacore Trifolium dubium, 2 802 a a homns ove iW pratense, JC NBD (ade Oes Rosaceae—8 species belonging to 6 genera, including Alchemilla vulgaris, curved 45° in 4 hours in 60% Geum sp , ih 1D a5) Ledaly, S etowe Pyrus aucuparia, > 90°) 4 hours 4159. Saxifragaceae—4 species belonging to 2 genera, including Heuchera parviflora, curved 90° in 4 hours in 50% Ribesiaceae—Ribes, 5 spp. Crassulaceae—Sedum Telephium. Begoniaceae— Begonia sp.
More About the Hrectness of Plants. be
Oenotheraceae—38 species belonging to 2 genera, including Epilobium montanum, curved 45° in 1 day in 45%
Umbelliferae—9 species belonging to 9 gensra, including Oenanthe crocata, curved 45° in 8 hours in 45% Myrrhis odorata, on BD ee ebuday es BO%
Caprifoliaceae—Sambucus nigra.
Rubiaceae—2 species belonging to 2 genera.
Valerianaceae; Valerianella olitoria.
Compositae—18 species belonging to 15 gencra, including
Bellis perennis, curved 75° inl day in 30% Chrysanthemum -Parthenium, ;, © 90° ,, 4 hours.,, 45% Hieracium Pilosella, Wee ae CON ae AU dian hy wool Hypochaeris radicata NOE ees Oke tun re MS OG Senecio vulgaris ea 4 amen Water oNniee rs \ 0 Tussilago Farfara, He aed (Sok a eR ers 8
Campanulaceae—Campanula, 2 spp. Plumbaginaceae—Statice, 2 spp. Primulaceae-—2 species belonging to 2 genera, including Primula vulgaris, curved 30° in 1 day in 30% Oleaceae—Ligustrum vulgare. Gentianaceae—Gentiana acaulis (flowering axis). Apocynaceae—Vinca minor. Asclepiadaceae—Asclepias curassivica, Polemoniaceae—2 species belonging to 2 genera, including Polemonium caerulewm, curved 90° in 1 day in 50% Boraginaceae—5 species belonging to 4 genera, including Symphytum officinale, curved 90° in 4 hours in 50% Buumonaria.opecimalis,: “Ci 007.) .4'. 0, .., bO% Solanaceae-——3 species belonging to 2 genera, including Solanum dulcamara, zurved 40° in 3 hours in 45% Scrophulariaceae—7 species belonging to 4 genera. Labiatae—8 species belonging to 7 genera, including Salvia officinalis, curved 80° in 4 hours in 45% Ajuga reptans, Peo wet Ao Ole SB(9G Plantaginaceue—Plantago, 4 spp. Chenopodiaceae—Atriplex, 2 spp.
56 James Small on
Polygonaceae—Rumez, 3 spp.
Urticaceae—Urtica (flowering axis) curved 380° in 2 hours in 60%
Kuphorbiaceae—Huphorbia lucida.
Araceae—Arum maculatum.
Gramineae—Zea Mays.
Liliaceae—8 species belonging to 7 gensra, including
Hyacinthus sp. curved 40° in 4 hours in 80% Scilla verna, Sy £bSs day. ie B876 Tulipa Gesneriana, jo 45°) 4 hourcmans O96
Amaryllidaceae—Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus, curved 30° in 1 day in 80% Orchidaceae—3 species belonging to 2 genera, as follows Listera ovata, curved 90° in 8 hours in 45% Orchis: maculata, We) 907 Ban aie Orchis mascula, ;, 45° |; loday %. 4oK5
The list is sufficient to show that we can now generalise with some safety, and say that any plant which shows negative geotropic curvature under normal conditions will probably show reversal or positive geotropic curvature in excess of carbon dioxide. It is, perhaps, needless to state that the curved sterms in all caces were turgid, and that the downward curvature was a positive active movement, not a drooping passive movement of a flaccid structure. Indeed, one of the most surprising features of these experiments was the freshness of stems which had been for days in an atmosphere which it has been usual to describe as toxic; many of the species remained fresh much longer in excess of carbon dioxide than in ordinary air.
MISCELLANEOUS INVESTIGATIONS.
A study of the responses of Phaseolus, the French bean. has been made by Miss F. M. Adams, M.Sc. The main stem was found to show the usual reversal of the direction of geotropic response in 30% carbon dioxide. This piant, however, also shows what are called sleep movements. Hach
More About the Hrectness of Plants. ay,
ieaf-stalk and each stalk to the leaflets has a pulvinus or cushion of special tissue at its base, and movement takes place at these points. The main stalk of each leat and the leaflets all droop in dark, rising again in light, with a daily periodicity which continues for a day or two even when the plant is kept continuously in the dark. These normal move- ments are controlled partly by gravity (which determines the direction of the movement) and partly by light (variations in which initiate the actual drooping or rising). It was found that the addition of 20% carbon dioxide caused the leaves tc
assume the night or dark position, but further experiments are required to show whether this is an enesthetic effect or
an effect of change in hydrion concentration. These are
being carried on.
It is “‘ common knowledge ’’ that carbon dioxide in excess retards the growth of stems, and further experiments
are being conducted on the degree of retardation in varying percentages of that gas by Miss Rea and the writer with simple auxanometers magnifying 24 times. These are still unfinished, but the results to date show that with 5% carbon dioxide there is little or no retardation in the dark, while in the light there is a distinct acceleration of the rate of growth in stems. With 30% carbon dioxide there is a retardation after the first few hours even in the presence of light, and this becomes more distinct when the plants are kept in the dark. 1
I Since this lecture was delivered the acceleration of the rate of growth in the sunflower stem, which was noted in light with 5 per cent. carbon dioxide, has been conclusively proved to occur in darkness during the first hour of exposure to the gas in any percentage of carbon dioxide from 10 per cent. to 100 percent. The subsequent retardation begins during the second or third hour and has been confirmed during the fourth hour for all percentages above ten. The effects of percentages below ten have still to be investigated. The initial acceleration by carbon dioxide of stem growth in darkness lasts for at least thirty minutes. This phenomenon may be correlated with the change in geotropic response noted by Miss M. J. Lynn (p. 26), and may be regarded as due to increased acidity in an already acid, positively geotropic tissue.
58 | James Small on
These experiments on stem growth are to be correlated with work by Miss I. Finnegan on the rate of growth of roots in carbon dioxide. The apparatus used is a modification (whereby a higher degree of aceuracy can be obtained) of a simple root auxanometer which was devised and described by Professor W. Neilson Jones.2 The results obtained, although they vary considerably, tend to support the idea that the rate of root growth is accelerated by excess of carbon dioxide. All these investigations are still in progress, and the results are mentioned to-night because some of you may be interested in what we are, at the moment, working upon.
REVERSAL OF HELIOTROPIC RESPONSE IN STEMS.
In the report of the previous lectures (op. cit., p. 98) under the heading of “‘ Another Cause of Erectness in
Plants ’’ certain preliminary experiments by Miss I. Finnegan, M.Sc., on the reversal of normal heliotropic curvature were mentioned. This investigation has been
carried to a point where we can now be positive about the fact of reversal, but there rernains a number of points to be investigated before the theory of the direction of heliotropism being governed hy the percentage of carbon dioxide in the stem can be considered proved in detail. Several methods were adopted in the attempt to get conclusive results. The chief points to notice in the tabular summary below are—1l. slit light constant ’’ means that the sunflower seedlings were exposed in a bell-jar to continuous illumination; 2. the seedlings were placed erect at first, but, since it has been shown that seedlings of sunflower turn downwards in more than 10% carbon dioxide, they were afterwards inverted to avoid the possible error due to reversed geotropic response. In the last series of experiments they were placed horizontal and kept for three or fours hours in the dark so that they might attain geotropic equilibrium before being stimulated by light.
a6
2. Annals of Botany, XXXIV., p. 555, October, 1920.
More About the Erectness of Plants. $9
TABLE II.
| vesults Per cent. of Total No. of WRC ree aes Rasta Taha UES oy Tea moo - Methods Boe | Seedlings | Gace. Nile Curved ; | away ' towards La Seedlings erect. 16 to 45 | 12 | 8) | 3 0 | Percent. CO, not | analysed Sht hght constant | | es ee aioe nu 8 fa B. Seedlings erect. | 4.6 to 5.9 | et 0 | 0 | A | Percent. CO, 7.5 to 9.1 | 30 | 10 | 3 17, | analysed Slit light | 10.4 to 42.1) 89 | 32 24 33 constant ites aU a i C. Seedlings erect. | 13.1 to 26.7 | ai 0 4 17 _ Per cent. CO, 27.4 to 33.7. 24 19 D 0 | onalysed. Shit light | | for Luour, then dark jeeensb bites zi Seales Beg B Lae ES Gis PAS ESE | | Hl | | : 1D. Seedlings inverted) 19.6 to 28.3 | VW 0 | 4 if | | Per cen. CO, 29.4 to 35.1 35) 11 | 2 0 ana ysed. Shit light for 1 hour, then dark we = —j/— soos Se wa a EK. Seedlings inverted) 21.9 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 5 per cent. CO, 25.4 | 3 | 3 ) 0 | analysed. 5-4 hours | dark, then 2 hours | light, then dark F. Seedlings | 5.2to16.9 ~° 54 | 8 Pace a | horizontal. Per cent. | 18.2 to 31-1) 38 17 | 6 | 15 CO, analysed. | | 3-4 hours dark, then | | slit light constant
60 James Small on
In the first series, A, every curvature was reversed, but the seedlings, being erect in more than 10% carbon dioxide, would have curved in any case. The results indicate, but do not prove, that the direction of response to light has been reversed, otherwise some of the seedlings would have curved downwards but towards the light.
In the second series, B., these conclusions are supported by the increasing proportion of the seedlings turning away from the light with increasing concentration of carbon dioxide. In both these groups, however, there seems little doubt that, during the continuous exposure to light, photo- synthesis used up the internal carbon dioxide and interfered with the heliotropic response.
In the third series, C., the exposure to light being limited to one hour, the disturbing action of photosynthesis is more or less eliminated, with the result that all curvatures in more than 27% of carbon dioxide are reversed.
In the fourth series, D., the disturbing effect, if any, of positive geotropism in the stem is eliminated by the inversion of the seedlings. Photosynthesis is also eliminated as far as possible. ‘The result is the reversal of aj! curvatures in — tore than 29% of carbon dioxide.
In the fifth series, E., the seedlings were given three or four hours in the dark in which to settle down in the excess of carbon dioxide, with the result that the percentage of carbon dioxide necessary for reversal is apparently reduced from 27—29% to something below 25.4%.
In the sixth series, 1'., the results again show the disturbing effect of photosynthesis with continuous illumina- tion.
Further experiments are being conducted which indicate that the intensity of the illumination has a distinct effect on the percentage of carbon dioxide required for reversal. Most of the experiments in the table were carried out during the dull winter days in a rather dull window; this may account for the close approximation (25 to 29% of carbon dioxide) of the results in the series C., D. and E.
More About the Erectness of Plants. 61
The theory upon which these experiments are based is given briefly in The New Phytologist, Vol. XIX., p. 275, 1920.
THE STIMULATION oF Roor PRopuction By Actpic Menta.
I have Sir Isaac Bayley Balfour’s permission to tell you of the work on this subject, which was begun at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, by himself and Mr. Lawrence Stewart. The idea occurred to Professor Balfour on perusing that section of my textbook which deals with acid root and alkaline shoot, and with the kind permission of the Edinburgh workers Miss Lynn and I have extended the investigation in the new greenhouses of Queen’s University.
The idea underlying the work can be described very briefly. If the root is an acid structure, root-production in the striking of cuttings should be stimulated by acidic media. Oaks are not known to have been propagated by cuttings until recently, when at Edinburgh oak cuttings were induced to strike root by the rather special methods in use there. The percentage of successes even after ten months was very iow but, when the cuttings were watered with the acidic supernatant fluid obtained by soaking peat in water, the pereentage of successes became very high and the cuttings struck root in about two months. This work is being con- tinued by Mr. Lawrence Stewart.
At Qnueen’s we have some 1.500 cuttings mostly arranged in ten groups, each group being treated differently. These have as yet given no definite results, but they are all of species which are known to be very difficult to strike. We have also 50 rose cuttings, in groups of ten; watered periodically with-—l. cold water; 2. hot water, about 60°; 3. cokd dilute acetic acid, 1 in 1,000; 4. cold dilute acetic acid, 1 in 10,000; 5. hot dilute acetic acid, 1 in 10,000. These cuttings are all inserted loosely in coconut fibre which retains the moisture weli and is very slightly acid in itself. Within three weeks two cuttings struck root,’ and these were in the lot which were being watered with hot acid.
62 James Small on
Within six weeks eight cuttings out of the ten in hot acid had struck root, while the other sets showed not more than from one to four cuttings with roots.
Another test was made with cuttings of Chrysanthemum sp., of which eleven were treated with hot water alone, and rine with hot dilute acetic acid. Within one week seven out of the nine in hot acid had struck and the other two struck during the following week. Of the eleven in hot water only two struck during the first week and another one during the second week, while the rest failed altogether. It seems clear, therefore, that root development in cuttings is stimu- lated by acidity of the medium in which they are set, especially if the temperature be raised temporarily. 1 THE STIMULATION OF Root PropuctTion BY CAarBoN DIoxIDE.
The work on cuttings described above is purely a search for a method by which propagation of plants by cuttings on a commercial scale may be rendered more rapid and more
1. Since this lecture was delivered certain other results have been obtained. Using the same four boxes as before and watering periodically with the different fluids we have obtained the following :—-
| cae oy onan oe Gait we Rooted ise! | | i tOugs OnOIye)) Plant Number {Cold Water Ho Water! Acetic | Acetic pate See Ss a pi ene. i Acid Acid Privet Cale ea 2 | 6 (less eran er | | healthy) | (healthy). Rhododendron... 10 | | 2 | 2 | 5 cece ie aN | 3 | aes | fo) | 2 | | | | otalsi ae. 40 | 8 | Ss el 18 : | ° | | | |
A once sceptical chemist has also reported the following—‘* Two dozen * Japonica’ cuttings were put in earth in the open on 21st March. One dozen were left to be watered by rain; the other dozen were watered twice with 3-4 parts of ordinary vinegar in 200 parts of warm water. On the 2nd of May the first dozen were all dead, while 9 of the second dozen had struck root and seemed quite healthy.
Many other cases of successful “striking’ of cuttings from shrubby plants in the open, after watering with acid water (three teaspoonfuls of ordinary vinegar to the gallon of tepid water), have also been reported. Vhe writer will be glad of notes on any amateur work done along these lines, especially with shrubs which are difficult to strike,’’
~ More About the Erectness of Plants. 63
certain ; but, from the standpoint of the theory of differentia- tion of root and shoot in their reaction or hydrion concentra- tion and the control over that factor exercised by carbon dioxide, certain other experiments were indicated as being of purely scientific value.
Cuttings of the oak and of the spotted laurel (Aucuba japonica) were inserted through holes in sheet cork fitted into the tops of two flat museum jars. The cork fitted closely, all holes being sealed with plasticine, and each jar was fitted with two tubes by which water and gases could be passed in. - Water was run in until it just reached the tips of the cuttings, and it was kept at that level throughout the experiment. Then air was drawn through the space between cork and water in one jar, while pure carbon dioxide was draws through in the other jar. This “* aeration ’’ was continued for about fifteen minutes, and repeated at weekly intervals for one month. ‘The oak cuttings have stil! failed to show any signs of striking, but after one month five of the six Aucuba cuttings treated with carbon dioxide showed good callus, and two of these had sent out roots; of the six Aucuba cuttings which were treated with ordinary air one had sent out two roots with little callus, and none of the other five showed any signs of callus or roots. (Figs. 1 and 2, Plate I.)
Another experiment was carried out with Bryophyllum calycinum, the American life-plant. <A single leaf was taken and cut carefully in two up the centre of the midrib. One half was suspended with its tip in water and carbon dioxide was drawn into the bottle through two tubes in the cork as before. The other half was suspended in the same way and treated with ordinary air. In air nothing happened during the first month, but in carbon dioxide two sets of long roots were developed from two of the lower notches of the leaf margin. Two weeks later two small, but healthy, deep green shoots with corresponding short roots were developed on the half leaf in air; while by that time more long roots had grown
64 James Small on
from the same two notches of the half leaf in carbon dioxide, and one corresponding shoot had grown out from one of the notches. This shoot was of the shade type, with pale green colour, large thin Jeaves and longer internodes than in the eontrol. Further growth only emphasised the difference between these two sets. No shoot has yet arisen from the first group of roots to develop in carbon dioxide, while the stem of the other plantlet shows quite long internodes, and the shoot has a general appearance of etiolation. The roots of the plantlets in air remain short, and the stéms also are still short with numerous dark green leaves and short inter- nodes. (Figs. 3 and 4, Plate I.)
These two sets of experiments on the influence of carbon dioxide on the development and growth of roots are, of course, not conclusive, but they tend to support the general position, and further work on these lines is in progress.
More About the Krectness of Plants. 65
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL.
The Hydrion Differentiation Theory of Geotropism was first published im Apri, 1920, and in the following month two papers appeared which have important bearings upon the theory.
The first is ‘“ Studies on the Reaction of Plant Juices,’’ by A. RK. C. Haas,1 of the University of Wisconsin, who deterrmiined the actual acidity of parts of various plants. ixpressed as PH numbers (which increase with decrease in acidity), his results with medium red clover are :—Leaves 6.19-6.02, tops 6.12-5.04, roots 5-92-5.82. Then he heads a paragraph with ‘‘ Is there a gradient of reaction in plants ?”’ and gives the following data as “° the actual acidity deter- minations of the juice taken from different portions of the same plant ’’—
; Reaction Part of. Plant:
8.00 Upper 3 inches of the tops, stem, leaves and buds.
7.04 Leaves and petioles of reinainder of tops (no stems).
6.68 Stems to about 2 inches above the soil (no leaves).
6.46 2 inches of lower part of stem and 2 inches of upper part of root.
5.82 Root: 6-inch portion below the. upper 2
inches of root.
Mhe: second. is a paper.in the Journal of General Phystology- tor: May,-1920;: by. Jacques Loeb on.© The reversal of the sign of the charge on protein membranes, ”’ in which it is demonstrated experimentally that there is a change in the sign of the electric charge on protein mem- branes with a change in the hydrion concentration of the surrounding medium beyond the iso-electric point of the protein used. Later papers in the same Journal by the same author extend this proof to protein particles.
—
1, Soil Science, Wolume IX, No. 5--May, 1920,
66 James Small on
Two points of importance in the theory, namely the acidic root-tip and the alkaline stem-tip, and the change in | the sign of the charge on the protein, received experimental support within a month of publication.
Criticism has, of course, abounded, but has reached print only in a few cases. In fact, I at one time considered the issue of ‘‘ A Guide to Critics,’’ for no one seems to realise more than I do iust how many points in connection with the theory still call for experimental evidence. As a theory it has already justified its publication, firstly on acccunt of the experimental work to which it has been a guide, and secondly on account of the attentioa which has since been given to hvdrion concentration in plants.
The first criticism published was by Professor V. H. Blackman, who suggested that the hypothecated ““ creaming ’’ could not be effective on account of the small size of the ultramicrogcopic ’’ particles. This was answered fully in the following number of the same journal, the New Phytologist (June, 1921), where it was pointed out that the size of the particles could be taken as much larger than was supposed in the criticism, and that the creaming of such particles might, theoretically, be effective. My critic replied to this with an arguinentum.ad populum which has no scientific value, and need not be discussed.
The second criticism was by Professor J. H. Priestly in Science Progress for December, 1921. He intervened in the controversy to point out that the creaming was not absolutely necessary, since a delicate membrane such us occurs in the cell might have a different electric charge in different media, and might be sensitive to the change in hydrostatic pressure produced by turning the plant. Apart from the great similarity in the height and width of the cells in question, the membrane would require to be sensitive to the difference between 1 in about 600,000 and 13 in 600,000 if hydrostatic pressure were to be effective. But this sug- gestion may be helpful in another way, since it is possible
66
More About the Erectness of Plants. 67
that the loose starch grains, known as statoliths, falling upon the delicate charged membranes may produce electric currents of stimulation which would pass in different directions according to the sign of the charge on the membrane. Work on these lines is proceeding.
A third criticism has appeared (New Phytologist, December, 1921) by R. Snow which, although rather con- fused, is easy on the whole to answer, with a theoretical answer to a theoretical! criticism. The value of the theory, of course, lies in its practical experimental results. Snow first supposes a single cell to be isolated, and then, comparing this with a Voltaic cell set up with terminals unconnected, says there can be no current. The cells are, however, never isolated in nature, and the surrounding tissue is usually a conducting path for any current present. He next questions the statement that Bose found in stems and roots currents of the required kind, and suggests that if any current does cccur it will flow in the opposite direction ** to that required by Professor Small.’’ This part of his criticism seems to be based upon an assumption that the original theorist was unaware of the direction of flow of the current in an ordinary Voltaic cell. However, in the brief quotation of the results reported by Bose due aliowance was made for the direction of the flow being from negative pole to positive pole in the cell or from electro-positive element to electro-negative element in the Voltaic cell, as well as for other still undiscussed points, such as the relative resistance of tissue and wires in the experimental arrangements used by Bose in his investigations of the poteutial differences in plants.
On one point he frankly asks for information. It has been supposed that the current will produce a greater effect in that side of the organ along which it flows first “‘ on account of the resistance in the circuit.’’ The resistance as measured is as much as 10,000 ohms for a length of one millimetre. With such a high resistance there are various theoretical possibilities, any one of which may prove to be
68 James Small on
the acting cause, or the various factors may act together, their effects being increased by subsidiary phenomena; to mention only one ocr two possibilities—there may be an usyinmetric current density on account of the presence of more free liquid outside the.cells, or for other reasons, such as the leakage of the current through the endodermis into the pith or into the conducting strands; there may be a capacity effect similar to that shown by submarine cables, bringing a time factor into the flow of the current. When there are so many alternative explanations, direct investiga- tion is preferable to a balancing of theoretical possibilities.
The last part of his criticism I have entirely failed to understand. One or two extracts may make the reason for this apparent. “* The chief scurce of difficulties is surely the practice of speaking of ‘currents’ in tissues. in a state of nature, though it is evident that such must occur, by local short-circuiting through cell-walls or other paths.’’:1 ‘* Such currents must, in fact, occur if the two points at different potential are connected also by tracts of conducting tissue . . . the resulting currents will be circular, flowing in one directien along the one path and in the other direction along the other ’’ (cp. the diagrams of the supposed path of the current in previous accounts cf the theory). There may be something in this beyond a re- affirmation of the original standpoint of the theory, but I really fail to see it.
SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE HypbDRION DIFFERENTIATION THEORY.
1. The essential difference between shoot and root in their responses to gravitv and to light is proved to be one cf relative acidity and alkalinity. This is demonstrated by the experimental facts—
(a) the curving of roots upwards in an alkaline
atmosphere,
1, he Italics are mine,
More About the Erectness of Plants. 69
(b) the curving of shoots downwards in an _ acidic
atmosphere,
(c) the precision of the control by carbon dioxide of upward or downward curvature in the sunflower stem,
(d) the extension of this phenomenon of reversal of normal gravity-curvature to the stems of a large number of cther species,
(c) the reversai in carbon dioxide, with recovery in fresh air, of hehotropic response.
2. It has been proved that there is a difference in electrical conductivity between the upper and under sides of a root which has been stimulated by gravity.
3. Since even the experimental observations of the chief plant electro-physiologists, Bose and Waller, are not universally accepted, the hypcthecated currents have still to be demonstrated, together with their supposed effects.
4. It has also stili to be demonstrated either that particles which are electrically charged do cream. in the sensitive regions or that the impact of the statoliths on aifferently charged membranes gives currents opposite in direction. Indeed, beyond the points given in paragraphs 1 and 2, the whole of the hypothecated mechanism of gravity perception and response has still to be investigated experimentally.
5. Geotropism has been described by one critic as “* one of the most obscure of physiological phenomena.’’ One cannot, therefore, expect to solve to the point of experi- mental demonstration all the problems connected therewith in one set of experiments; but it may be taken as a hopeful sign that the first points for which we have obtained exper- mental proof have led almost immediately to a practical application which promises to ve of considerable value.
70 HE. E. Fournier d’Albe on
7th March, 1922. Henry RIppE.u, Esq., M.E., President of the Society, in the Chair.
“THE OPTOPHONE: AN INSTRUMENT FOR
READING BY EAR.” By HE. E. Fournier p’Auge, D.Sc. (Lond. & Birm.). Aci Sey, MOR AL y evanasteley: Honorary Member of the Society.
The problems presented by blindness can be approached along several different lines. The physician will endeavour to prevent the diseases giving rise to blindness. The opthalmic surgeon will cure blindness by operation in cases which do not transcend his skill. The philanthropist will mitigate the evils of blindness by means of special educa- tional facilities and by the provision of remunerative employ- ment.
To-day I wish to direct your attention to certain more radical methods of approach, which are based upon the fundamental principles underlving all sense perception.
Physiologists inform us that the retina of the eye con- sists of skin containing nerve endings specially adapted to the perception of hight. The general sensibility of the skin is modified so as to react to ether waves instead of bodily con- tacts or heat or cold. The sense organs are, it appears, mere modifications of the ordinary skin, and, in their original forms, they are mere depressions in the surface of the skin, lined with a finer skin sensitive to ether waves (eye), air waves (ear), or to the chemical properties of gases (nose), and liquids (mouth) respectively.
Bearing this in mind, we may conclude that the most direct way of replacing one of these senses, if lost, 1s to trans- late its action into terms of some other sense, preferably the
The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. 71
sense which is most closely allied to the lost one. Thus, if light could be made audible, and if sound could be made visible, we should be in a position to replace the eye by the ear and the hearing by sight, and the problems both of blind- ness and deafness would be practically solved.
We have thus reduced the problem to a problem of physics. It is the physicist whose business it is to study the properties of sound and light, and it is to him we must look for methods of translating one into the other. It is, there- fore, very appropriate that I should describe to you one solu- tion of the problem of blindness in this building devoted to the study of physics, the most fundamental of the exact sciences.
The difficulty which confronts us at the outset is the enormous disproportion between the rapidities of sound waves and light waves. If an ordinary light impulse could be slowed down so as to last a whole second, an ordinary sound wave, slowed down in proportion, would last 200 million years !
It is, therefore, quite futile to hope to make the ear directly sensitive to light waves. Not that the ear is in- ‘sufficiently sensitive—it is actually as sensitive as the eye, the minimum energy required to stimulate either sense organ being approximately the same. But in order to translate light into sound we must find some intermediate link.
Such an intermediate link is found in electricity. Minute electric currents can be made audible in a telephone. So our problem reduces itself to one of producing electrical effects by means of light.
There are various ways of doing this. The thermo-couple or thermo-electric cell converts radiant heat into electric cur- rent. The “‘ photo-electric ’’ cell,’’ consisting of a “* retina ”’ of colloidal potassium or rubidium mounted in a vacuum and connected with a battery gives a minute current when illuminated, a current which varies in close proportion with the illumination.
Ht. . Fournier d’Albe on
wT N
But there is one substance which transcends all these a milhionfold in efficiency, and that is the light-sensitive variety of the element seleniuin, discovered by Berzelines a hundred years ago. The discovery of its light-sensitive properties was not made until 1873, and then it was discovered by accident in Valentia Island, in the County of Kerry, in connection with some work on transatlantic telegraphy.
Selenium, even in the allotropic form which conducts electricity, has a high resistance. The selenium tablet (some- times called a “* selenium cell ’’) must therefore be designed so that the conductivity is as high as possible. This is done by having numerous conducting elements bridged over by short bridges of selenium. The best method is to coat a plate of unglazed porcelain with graphite and inscribe upon it with a diamond a fine zig-zag line cut through the graphite into the porcelain. A conductivity of some 5 °° micro-mhos ”’ per centimetre of line may thus be obtained, giving, with 100 volts, a current of half a milli-ampere. This current may be doubled or trebled by suitable illumination. As a square inch plate is sufficient to contain a zig-zag line of a total length of 20 centimetres, we cau thus ootain a current of some 10 milliamperes, or a“ useful ’’ current due to light of the same amount or more.
As modern instruments go, this is the sort of current with which inany things can be done. A small current may be amplified a thousand times by means of relays, so that in the end we may produce quite formidable effects by means ci a ray of light alone.
Thus, we may use a beam of light to produce an electric current through selenium. ‘This current may work a relay which switches on a stronger current, and that current may be used to, let us sey, spring a mine. Such an experiment I can show you now. TIT have here a small model of a search- light which I can turn in any direction I please. I shall throw the beam across the Lecture Theatre on to a selenium
The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. 3
tablet in circuit with a relay. You can see the beam travel- ling across the room, and as soon as it lmpinges upon the selenium there is the loud report which tells us that the mine’ has been exploded. .(Demonstration.) There would be no doubt in the bind man’s mind that the light had been shining on the selenium !
The light can also be made to ring a bell (demonstration) and to act in numerous different ways. But searchlights are not the kind of thing that a blind person would ordinarily wish to discover. Most visual appearances are of much smaller intensity. and they require more delicate apparatus to bring them home to the ear.
A method of making ordinary lamplight and daylight ‘ audible ’’ is illustrated by the diagram (Vig. 1). It repre- sents what electricians call a ‘“‘ Wheatstone Bridge ”’ ar- rangement of four conductors, two of which (Se.) are otf selenium, wlule the remaining two are of eraphite (Ce There is also a variable resistance shown as a zig-zag line, connected by a movable arm to the battery in the centre. The outer covers are joined through a telephone receiver (‘T’e. ) and a clock-work interruptor.
TA E. E. Fournier d’Albe on
The instrument acts as follows:—In the dark, the re- sistances of the two selenium tablets (Se.) are equal, and s9 are the two carbon resistances (C.). As a consequence, there is no current in the telephone circuit, and the interruptor, maintained by clockwork, produces no sound in the tele- phone. If now one of the Se. tablets is illuminated the balance is upset, and a current traverses the telephone and becomes audible by virtue of the interruptions (a steady cur- rent is inaudible in a telephone).
The various parts of the instrument are packed in a case resembling a camera (Fig. 2), only the telephone being out- side the case, as it has to be worn on the head.
FIG. 2. I devised the akove instrument in 1912 while at the
University of Birmingham. A gifted blind man in Birming- ham used it for finding lamps and windows, and was even able to count a number of nurses in a row by listening to the sound produced by their white aprons!
Certain heads of institutions for the blind represented to me, however, that the instrument was of little practical utility to the blind, and so I was obliged to make further re- searches with a view towards finding something undeniably
The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. 7G
useful. The result, after a further two vears’ work, was the Type-reading Optophone, which, at all events, enables totally blind persons to read ordinary printed books and newspapers.
The essential parts of this instrument are a revolving perforated disc of the type known as a Siren disc (Fig. 2) and a perforated selenium tablet. The disc revolves some 30 times per second in front of a linear source of light extending from the centre of the disc to its rim. The line of light is thus broken up into five dots of intermittent flashes, with a fre- quency of from 600 to 1,200 flashes per second. These frequencies are of the order of musical sounds, and the five dots represent the scale of Soh, Doh, Re, Mi, Soh. All these notes, sounding together, form a discord, but if the Re is emitted a common chord is formed.
DiGH 3.
The line of ‘‘ musical dots *’ having thus been obtained, the remainder of the construction is mainly devoted to throw the line of dots upon the type to be read, and to let the letters
76 Ht. EH. Fournier d’Albe on
pick out various notes which will enable us to recognise them by their sounds. |
A system of lenses is designed in such a manner that a small image of the line of dots or “ scala ’’—just sufficient to fill up the letter /—is thrown upon the type to be read, This has to be done from below, as only thus can we hope to arrange bound volumes for reading. The ilustration (Fiz. 4) shows an upright cohamn which contains the dise and the system of lenses. This column or °° tracer ’’ swings on the lower axis. The top of the tracer holds the perforated selenium tablet which moves through an are of about 8 inches close to the type, but separated from it by a bent glass cover. Books and newspapers can be clamped on this cover. The movement along the line of print takes place under the action of a spring and is governed by an oil governor which can be adjusted so as to read the line in anything from 3 seccnds to 3 minutes.
BIG? 4
A friction clutch or a rack-and-pinion device are used for changing to the next line, and this change can be adjusted to any line interval used in printing.
The Oplophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. vi
A simple displacement of one of the lenses enables the
bf
reader to adjust the size of the ‘‘ scala’ to fit any ordinary type used in books or newspapers, and this adjustment can be made by ear alone.
The first public reading demonstration with the Opto- phone was given at the British Scientific Products Exhibition in August, 1918, by Miss Mary Jameson, of South Norwood, who is blind from birth. An unknown page was selected from a book by the Chairman (Sir Richard Gregory), and Miss Jameson read a line from that page without a mistake, including punctuation. The speed of reading at that time was about 2 words per minute, but Miss Jameson has steadily increased that speed by practice, until her present speed is over 40 words a minute with ordinary reading mat- ter. Miss Jameson is also the heroine of a remarkable exploit in Paris—that otf reading unknown french print—-
aecents and all!
In 1920 the late Sir Arthur Pearson, Bart., and Captain Jan Fraser arranged for a test course of instruction in. Opto- phone reading at the National Institute for the Blind in London. The pupils selected were Mr. Emblen and Miss Mabel Green. Of these, the latter made the best progress. She is totally blind, and holds the speed record for Braille reading. She is also an expert typist and shorthand writer. I think I cannot do better than quote from the report of the examiner (Mr. H. Stainsby), as published in St. Dunstan’s Magazine. Mr. Stainsby reports as follows :—
‘“T have’tested Miss Green’s reading on the Optophone or seven different -occasions, each test being of thirty minutes’ duration and on ‘ unseen matter.’
(1) Extract from ‘ Heroes cf the Darkness,’ eighty-five
words in thirty minutes, say three words per minute.
(2) Extract from leading article of Daily Telegraph, sixty
words in thirty minutes—two words per minute,
78 EK. EH. Fournier d’Albe on
(8) Extract from ‘ Optimism ’:— | Test (a) Highty-nine words in thirty minutes, say three words per minute. Test (b) Seventy-eight words in thirty minutes, say two-and-a-half words per minute. Test (c) Sixty-four words in thirty minutes, say two words per minute. (4) Extract from ‘ The World I Live in,’ sixty-five words in thirty minutes, say two words per minute.
(5) Extract from ‘ Pier’s Plowman Histories, Junior, Book II.,’ 119 words in thirty minutes, say 4 words per minute.
‘“ Tt will thus be seen that the average speed is under three words per minute. Although slow the reading was ac- curate, very few words being unread or miscalled. Short and easy words of frequent recurrence were read with compara- tive ease, the reader evidently taking the word as a whole without analyzing into letters. This is borne out by the last test, which was from a junior school book in everyday Eng- lish. Long and uncommon words, particularly those con- taining little used letters as ‘z,’ caused much delay and consequently brought down the averages. Towards the close of a test the reading became slower, demonstrating the fact that until it becomes mechanical it will be tiring. This was obvious in the last test, when Miss Green read the first twenty-four words in four minutes, or six words per minute. This condition exists in a very marked degree in tactile read- ing, learners always being recommended to take their lessons in small ‘ doses.’
‘* Notwithstanding this, I am assured by Miss Green that she does not experience any tired feeling. Further, she assures me that the process of listening neither prevents her from grasping the full import of what she has read nor detracts from the enjoyment which she ordinarily gets out of reading.
The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear. "9
‘“ Miss Green manipulated the instrument quite un- aided, and occupied less than two minutes in placing her book in it ready for reading.
“I am informed by Mr. Emblen, the other Optophone student, that my tests, while perfectly fair, do not do justice to Miss Green. This is doubtless due to the fact that exami- nations of all kinds rarely show the examinee in the best light.
‘“ In preparing this report I have had two main issues in mind, all others being in my judgment quite subordinate to these two. The first is, can blind people read ordinary ink- print matter? The reply to this is emphatically yes. The second is, can they read at a speed which would make it worth their while to adopt the Optophone as a reading instru- ment? On this point I have already shown that speed is slow, but as a set-off against this it should be borne in mind, first, that no one has had adequate practice upon it, and secondly, that the right type of learner has not been tested. After mature consideration I have come to the conclusion that tests should be made on young children in a school for the blind, and that the same facilities should be afforded them as for tactile reading. In the latter this period extends over a number of years, and fluency is only attained after long practice. While I am inclined to think that tactile read- ing will be more easily acquired than reading by means of the Optophone, it must be borne in mind that the literature avail- able through the former is relatively small, but through the latter world-wide and unlimited.’’
This report, though very favourable to the Optophone, leaves the question of the maximum speed attainable unde- cided. The speed observed by Mr. Stainsby has already, within twelve months of the publication of his report, been exceeded more than tenfold, and I see no reason whatever - why the speed of reading a page of print by ear should fall short of the speed obtainable by ordinary eye-reading. The
oO EB. EH. Fournier d’ Albe
only real handicap is in turning over the page, which involves removing the book and re-inserting it. |
But I think we can say that the problem of blindness, as far as reading is concerned, is now definitely solved, at least as regards print and typescript.
In conclusion, Iam able, through the kindness of the
Gaumont Co.’s “* Around the Town film of the Optophone in action at the National Institute for
’ Editor, to show you a
the Blind. This film had the honour of being shown before their Majesties last year on the occasion of their visit to the Karl of Derby. The last scene shown is Miss Green reading a book by ear, copying it on her typewriter, and correcting her own typescript by reading it over in the Optophone—a performance which marks a distinct epoch in the history of achievement by the blind.
Annual Meeting. SI
ANNUAL MEETING.
10ist SESSION, 1921-22.
The Annual Meeting of the Shareholders and Members for the past session was held in the Museum, College Square North, on the 14th November, 1922.
Mr. Henry Riddell, M.K., M.I.Mech.E., President of the Society, occupied the chair, and among those present were :—FProfessor Gregg Wilson, O.B.H., M.A., D.Sc., PhD., M.B.I.A.;-Councillor E. J. Elliott, Messrs.. H. C: Lawlor, M.R.I.A.; J. M. Finnegan, B.A., B.Sc.; T. Edens Osborne, F.R.S.A.1.; Wm. Faren, F.R.S.A.I.; W. B: Bui- rowes, F.R.S.A.I.; J. G. Grogan, James Loughridge,. A. Milligan, 8. Turner, and P. J. M’Mullan, J.P. Apologies for absence were announced from Sir Charles Brett, L1..D.; Dr. S. W.. Allworthy, M.A.; and’R. M. Young, M.A., M.R.IA.
The Chairman called upon the Hon. Secretary to read . the report of the Council, which was as follows :—
The Council has pleasure in submitting its report on the work of the Society during the past session.
OBITUARY.
Unfortunately we have to record, with regret, the death of the following shareholders and members :— Edward H. Clarke. Sir Wm. Crawford. J.P. K. Stanley Jones. Henry Musgrave, O.B.E.. DL. David C. Patterson. John Sinclair, D.I.. John Workman, J.P.
82 Annual Meeting.
MEMBERSHIP.
Your Council is glad to intimate that there has been a steady increase of Members under the new subscription scheme, thus justifying the step the Society took in creating a new class of membership in 1914. In that year there were only 182 Shareholders and Members. At the end of the ses- sion covered by this report there were over 300 Shareholders and Members.
During the present session your Council unanimously decided to elect the following gentlemen Hon. Members of the Society, making the list of these up to seven :—
Sir Charles Brett, LL.D.
Robert Magil! Youne, J.P MoAS? Nein AS F.R.I.B.A.
Fournier dAlbe, Disc, (lond “& ‘ira eves. @iond?)| S\N ia AS
LECTURES.
While the lectures have not been so numerous—only eleven as compared with sixteen in the previous year—yet all of them were important and much appreciated by the Mem- bers and their friends. (Cn each oecasion they were weil at- tended. The session was opened on the 5th October, 1921, by Professor J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., LL.D., F.BR.S.E., who delivered an instructive lecture entitled ‘° The Conquest of Land and Air: a Study in Natural History,” in the Assembly Minor Hall. On the 16th January last a special lecture was given in French by Professor Savory, M.A., to commemorate the tercentenary of the great French dramatist Moliére. The second portion of the session was opened in the Assembly’s Minor Hall by an interesting lecture on ‘“ Comets,” delivered bv the Rev. W. F. A. Ellison, M.A., of the Armagh Observatory ; while our new Honorary Mem- ber, Dr, Fournier d‘Albe, kindly gave a special address in
Annual Meeting. 8 3
the Physics Lecture Theatre at Queen’s University on ‘‘ The Optophone,’’ an instrument which the lecturer had in- vented, and which enables totally blind people to read ordinary print.
A complete list of the lectures and lecturers appears on pages 114 and 115.
COUNCIL THANKS.
The Society 1s again indebted to the Vice-Chancellor of Queen’s University (the Rt. Hon. the Rev. Thomas Hamil- ton, M.A., D.D., J.L.D.) for the use of Lecture Theatres at the University for those lectures requiring experiments, and also to the Chairman (Alderman 8S. TT. Mercier, J.P.) and Members of the Technical Instruction Committee. for the use of rooms in the Municipal College of Technology.
The Council desires to express its sincere thanks for the facilities so willingly rendered, and for the co-operation exist- ing between these Institutions and the Society.
The Council also wishes to thank the lecturers for their assistance, and the local Press for the continued interest it takes in the Society’s meetings.
TRISH NATURALIST.
In order to assist the ‘‘ Irish Naturalist,’’ which is the organ of the various Natural History Societies in Ireland, and which, like many other scientific magazines, had suffered financially during the war, the Council felt that it was only right that we, as the senior Society in Belfast, should give a subscription and donation amounting to seven pounds. ‘This has been duly acknowledged and much appreciated, |
84 Annual Meeting.
EXCHANGES.
Your Council continues to receive in exchange, from home and foreign societies, valuable publications which con- siderably augment the Society's Library. So important has become the Library and so inadequate is the space available for the additions that your Council gladly agreed to an ap- plication from the University authorities for the loan of a selection of pamphlets and publications. The University undertakes to permit access to the loan by Members of the Society and to return it when required.
ARMOUR PLATE.
The Steel Armour Plate which has formed such a strik- ing object at the Museum entrance since 1889, on loan from his Majesty’s Dockyard at Portsmouth, has now been pre- sented to the Society by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.
A separate report will be submitted by the Hon. Secre- tary of the Archaeological Section (Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.1.A.), at the Annual Meeting of the Sectional Members, which will be held during the month. This report will be printed in the proceedings. The Section deserves to be con- gratulated upon the amount of practical work it has been able to accomplish during the session.
HON. TREASURER’S STATEMENTS.
Our President (Mr. Henry Riddell, M.F., M.I.Mech.E.), who is also Hon. Treasurer of the Society, will submit the
financia) statement,
Annual Mecting. 8 6
COUNCIL MEMBERS.
Jn accordance with the constitution of the Society five members require to be elected to the Council, in place of the following Members who retire by rotation, all of whom are — eligible for re-election :—-Sir Charles Brett, Dr. 5S. W. All- worthy, Messrs. Wm. Faren, T. Edens Osborne, and Arthur Deane. |
HON. TREASURER’S STATEMENT,
The heaviest expenditure during the past year has been for printing and advertising. This is an outlay which the Society will feel is repaid by the interest taken in the proceed- ings circulated, and the effect on the numbers of our Mem- bers. It is expected that a considerable reduction will be found in the cost of this service for the coming year.
_ Attention is drawn to the fact that there is a good balance in the hands of the parent Society credited to the funds of the Archaeological Section. A detailed Statement of Accounts as passed by the Government Auditor appears on page 107.
ADOPTION OF REPORTS.
_ Professor Gregg Wilson, in moving the adoption of the report, which was cordially passed, congratulated the Society, and more particularly the Hon Secretary, on the satisfactory nature of the work done. He commented favourably on the grant to the ‘* Irish Naturalist.’’ It was the only magazine of the kind published in Ireland, and it would be a disgrace to the whole of them if it were allowed to die. _ Scientific pub- lication was expensive and not properly appreciated. Mr. Lawlor and his colleagues of the Archaeological Section were to be sincerely congratulated on the brilliant and practical work they were doing.
86 Annual Meeting.
Councillor M!liott, in seconding, said citizens and visitors alike had been greatly pleased Ly the lectures. He was only sorry that the grant to the ‘‘ Irish Naturalist ’’ could not be larger. The importance of the work by the Archaeological Section was indicated by references he had seen in American and Spanish journals.
HLECTION OF COUNCIL MEMBERS. sir Charles Brett. Ll DD Sw. Allworthy, M.A., E\G.S.; Messrs. T, Edens Osborne. F.R.S: A.I.; Wim: Faren, F.R.S.A.1., and Arthur Deane were re-elected Members of the Council for three years, on the proposition of Mr. W. B. Burrowes, seconded by Mr. G. O’Searle, B.Se.
VOTE OF THANKS.
Mr. H:. C. Lawlor, M.R.1.A., moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Henry Riddell for his services during the past year as President of the Society, which was seconded by Mr. T. Edens Osborne, F.R.S.A LL.
Resolved—‘‘ That the Society desires to place on record their high appreciation of the services of the Hon. Secretary, Mr. Arthur Deane, during the past vear, and hereby desire to convey to him their warmest thanks.’’ Moved by H. C. Lawlor, seconded by Professor Gregg Wilson.
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Archaeological Section. 87
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION.
The sixth annual general meeting of the Archaelogical Section was held in the Old Museum on Monday, November 27th, at 4 p.m. The attendance of members was large.
Sir Charles Brett, LL.D., the Chairman, briefly referred to the increased interest that was being taken both by the members and the general public in the work of the Archaeo- logical Section. The renovation and repair of the ruins of the ancient Celtic Monastery of Nendrum, on Mahee Island, had received wide notice in the Press, not only in the local papers and the ‘‘ Irish Times,’’ but in the principal English, Continental and American papers. This widespread interest augured well for the future prosperity of the Section.
Mr. Henry Riddell, President of the Society and Hon. Treasurer, submitted his Annual Report; as a special fund had been raised for the work at Nendrum he would deal with the genera! finances and this special fund separately. The actual money at credit of the ordinary account was £98 13s 7d. Subscriptions for the opening season, together with the subsidy from the parent Society, interest, etc., would amount to about £40, so that the section would have about £140 in hand. Of this, £100 had been voted towards the work at Nendrum, and would be transferred to that fund in due course. Dealing with the special fund, a sum of £387 8s 7d had been received in subscriptions (a list of the Subscribers appearing as an appendix, pp. 109-113): sale of tickets for the two excursions which had been organised amounted to £48 2s 4d, making the total receipts £485 11s 11d. The expenditure came to the following:
James Lowry, contractor, for labour and materials, £312 2s Od; cost of excursions (train fares, chars-a-banes, etc.), £88 15s 2d; advertisements, including publication of subscription lists, £27 17s 6d; travelling ex- penses, postages, photography, lantern: slides and miscel- laneous, £28 2s 11d; total—£406 7s 7d; leaving balance of £29 4g 4d, to which had to be added the £100 voted bv the
88 Archacological Section.
Section, making a nett sum of £129 4s 4d in hand for com- pleting the work at Nendrum, which it was hoped would be recommenced in the coming spring.
Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.1.A., Hon. Secretary, presented his Annual Report of the past season’s work. He said that the Executive Committee had held three meetings during the season, at which all the members, except one, attended re- gularly. They had also visited the work in progress at Mahee Island, in which all had taken the keenest interest. Subs: members of the Archaeological Section had resigned, but a large number of new members had been introduced, the total ‘nembership being now over 100. He then gave a detailed interim report on the work carried out at Mahee Island, which will be found on pages 92—106.
The following were elected as office-bearers for the coming season :—
Chairman: Sir Charles Brett, LL.D.
Hon,,» Treasurer: Mr, -. Henry = Riddell ih, M.I.Mech.E., President of the Society.
Hon. Secretary: Mr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.1.A.
Executive Committee: Mr. Arthur Deane, M.B.J.A. (ex officio), Canon Carmody, Messrs. W. B. Burrowes, T. E. Osborne, Godfrey Ferguson, C.E.; Fergus Greeves, J. Theodore Greeves, I. A. -Eleron, : Di; and - 1, - 8) Awepper LN F.R.Hist.S.
The Hon. Secretary, in conformity with notice duly given, explained that in his opinion the income of the Archaeological Section arising from subscriptions was not sufficient to enable the Section to carry out a programme of work commensurate with the importance of its objects, and moved ‘‘ That the annual subscription to the Section be in- creased from 5/- to 10/-, commencing with the Session 1923- 1924.’’ As several members were strongly opposed to this, the motion was withdrawn.
Archaeological Section. 89
he Hon. Secretary called attention to two further items on the agenda of which he had given formal notice as follows :—
To consider the advisability of abbreviating the name of “The Archaeological Section of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society,’’ and passing a recommendation to this effect to the Council of the Society ; and
To consider the possibility of reviving either in its old form, or under some other name, ‘‘ The Ulster Journal ot Archaeology.’’
He said he thought there were strong reasons why the name of The Archaeological Section of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society should be altered. In its present form it was exceedingly long and cumbersome; at the same time narrow. Its membership was practically confined to within a radius of a few miles of Belfast, and the reports of its proceedings had an exceedingly limited circulation. He would like to rope in all Ulster Archaeologists and raise the standard of the Section from that of a mere department of wu purely local society to that of at least provincial standing. There are hundreds of archaeologists throughout Ulster, to say nothing of the rest of Ireland, who hardly ever more than hear of the Natural History Society, or know that it has an Archaeological Section, much less see the Annual Reports. He had no wish to break off or alter the present happy re- lations between the Section and the venerable Society of which it was a branch, and he though there was nothing to prevent it remaining affiliated with the Natural History Society while abbreviating the name to the ‘‘ Ulster Archaeo- logical Society,’’ at the same time making a strong effort to bring in as many members interested in archaelogy all over Ulster as possible. If this could be carried out he thought in time the old Ulster Journal of Archaeology might be re- vived, either under its old name or some other. He formally moved the following resolution :
gO Archaeological Section.
‘That in the opinion of this meeting it is advisable to abbreviate the name of ° The Archaeological Section of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society ’ to the
Ulster Archaeological Society,’ without altering in any Way its existing relationship to the Parent Society.”
Mr. Henry Riddell, President of the Society, strongly opposed the motion. He said that it was quite open to the Section to form itself into a new Society if it saw its way to do so, but that it could not be a Society or Association and still be a Section of the Natural History Society. It must either continue as it was or be an entirely separate, although friendly, entity. In that case he would go so far as to say that the Natural History Society would discontinue its finan- cial contribution towards the funds of the Section if the proposed change were carried out.
Colonel Berry, M.R.I.A., expressed his sympathy with the idea the Hon. Secretary had in view, and wished to sec the Archaeologists of Ulster, of whom there were very many, roped in to the Archaeological Section, so that its scope might be broadened and the interest in its work be widely extended ; but he did not think that this end could be achieved by the means suggested by the Hon. Secretary. He did not see how an Ulster Archaeological Society or Association could be any- thing but a separate entity, and remain a section or branch of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Mr. W. B. Burrowes and Mr. T. E. Osborne also spoke to the same effect, and on the advice of the Chairman, Sir Charles Brett, the Hon. Secretary withdrew the motion.
On the question of the possibility of the revival, under its old name or some other, of the “* Ulster Journal of Archaeology,’’ Canon Carmody said that while in sympathy with the idea, he was afraid that there could not be got to- gether material in Ulster to keep such a publication alive for more than a limited number of issues. If it could be guaran- teed that sufficient original research work would be forthcom- ing to supply material for such a publication, he would
Archaeological Section, gi
support it as far as he could, but he would not advise a re- suscitation of such a publication under the old name. The First Series of the “’ Ulster Journal of Archaeology ’’ he said was conducted purely as such, but the Second Series gradu- ally deteriorated, so far as archaeology was concerned, until it ceased to be an archaeological publication at all. He would let the old name rest, and if material were forthcoming for w new publication, let it be called “* The Ulster Archaeo- logist,’’ or ““ The Ulster Antiquary,’’ but he was doubtful if material would be forthcoming.
Mr. R. J. Welch was strongly opposed to the word “ Journal ’’ appearing in any publication of the sort. He beheved that an “* Ulster Antiquarian Magazine,’’ embracing archaeology, folklore, genealcgy, heraldry, topography, and even geology, would appeal to thousands of readers in America and the Colonies if properly edited and advertised. He was in hearty support of some such publication being organised.
Sir Charles Brett, agreeing with Canon Carmody, doubted if there could be sufficient material of a purely archaeological nature forthcoming to sustain for any length of time a new archacological publication, but suggested that a sub-committee be appointed consisting of Colonel Berry, Messrs: BR: J. Welch, H.-C. Lawlor, W. B. Burrowes, A. Deane, and himself, to consider the whole matter and report to the Executive Committee at a later date.
This suggestion was unanimously agreed to. Votes of thanks to the office-bearers brought the meeting to a close.
92 Archaeological Section.
IntTERIM Revort on WorK oF REPAIR AND PRESERVATION OF THE Ruins or Nenprum Monastery, MAHEE ISLAND.
Myr. H. C. Lawlor, M.R.I.4., Hon. Secretary, explained that but for the scholarly researches of that famous archaeo- logist, the late Bishop Reeves, no one to-day would have known even of the existence of Nendrum. Just eighty years ago he undertook the work of editing that portion of the Taxation Roll of Pope Nicholas IV. which relates to the Dioceses of Down and Connor and Dromore, and every student of Irish Antiquity knows the value of that stupendous work, and the care and knowledge of his subject displayed in Reeves’ Heclesiastical History of Down, Connor and Dro- more, a work which is the foundation of probably nine-tenths of all we know to-day of the early history of the Counties of Antrim and Down. That Taxation Roll is still preserved in London, and it is to be hoped that another Reeves will yet arise to edit the remainder of the Roll, which relates to the other Irish Dioceses. |
Before Reeves’ time the existence of Nendrum was coin- pletely unknown, to say nothing of its locality. Certain writers confused the references to it in ancient writings with Aendruim, or Antrim; others thought these references ap- plied to a site on the Copeland Islands; it rested with Dr. Reeves to unravel the historical tangle made of the subject by previous writers. The result of his work is best seen in « pamphlet he read before the Down and Connor Architec- tural Society in 1845. This booklet is now exceedingly scarce, but has been, fortunately, reproduced in the Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd Series, Vol. VIII., which is easily ac- cessible. |
When Dr. Reeves visited Nendrum in 1844 nothing re- sembling ecclesiastical remains were visible except the stump of what was locally regarded as an old lime kiln; it was in practically the same condition as it remained up to the time
Archaeological Section. 93
the recent repairs were carried out; all around were brambles and thorns, and no other building was then visible; but as- suming the possibility of the supposed “‘ old lime kiln ’’ being the stump of a round tower, Reeves searched for remains of the associated church, which after some clearing of the over- growth, he found. To confirm the conclusion he had thus come to, he spent some days clearing the debris away from the south wall and in excavating the site generally, finding several graves both inside and outside the remains of the building. He removed a number of skulls to Belfast for scientific examination. These skulls have now been dis- covered among those collected by Grattan, and are inctuded in the Grattan collection in possession of our Society. A full scientific report on these skulls and others found in our excavation is in course of preparation by Professor Walmsley of the Queen’s University.
As the present work on the repair and preservation of the ruins is as vet far from complete, the following can only be regarded as an interim report; we have found many valu- able relics bearing on the history of the foundation, and have come to conclusions on many points. Some of these cot clusions may, however, be modified or upset on further in- vestigation, so that beyond a brief account of the work done during the summer recently ended, I deem it wiser to defer the publication of minute details or conclusions until our materials are more complete.
Early last spring Mr. A. G. Johnston, the owner of the Western end of the Island, on which the ruins stand, was approached on the subject of the suggested work, and nothing could exceed the kindness with which he has responded to our wishes and assisted us in every way from the beginning of and all through the progress of the work. I should like to refer also to the assistance of Major C. Blakiston Houston, whose bungalow is close by; his assistance was invaluable ; ever on the spot, he noted down every day’s work, marked
94 Archaeological Section.
on a map the spots where each relics was found, and recorded details of inestimable value. In Mr. James Lowry, the con- tractor, and his sons we were more than fortunate; they brought as well selected a body of workmen as it would be possible to procure; after a few days’ instruction these men got used to examining every spadeful of soil; every fragment of pottery or metal, every scrap of stone carved or chipped by hand, no matter how small, was carefully put aside, and the position of its discovery reported.
The actual work commenced early in June with the re- moval of the clumps of briar and thorn which almost com- pletely covered the site. These had to be torn out by the roots by means of chains drawn by horses. By the 12th of June a good clearance had thus been made inside the inner cashel, ready for actual excavation. While clearing work proceeded on the site of the inner cashel wall and outside it, ten good labouring men commended removing the debris from the sites of the church and round tower. Fortunately, Canon Carmody was able to superintend this work for the first fort- night while the guest of Maior Houston, and under his ex- perienced guidance the men soon learned to proceed with the minute care necessary for such work.
Soon the shape of the church became clear. The stones as removed from the debris heap were all carefully examined and put to one side. The vegetable soil which had accumu- lated in the debris was examined carefully as extracted before being carted away and spread over adjoining fields. Here again the spreaders examined it as spread. On the occur- rence of the first shower of rain after spreading, the soil was again gone over with rakes so that nothing might be missed. Many small objects of interest that might easily have been lost were thus recovered, including several mediaeval coins, worked flint flakes, an iron spear ferrule and stone beads or buttons. Among the raised heaps of the debris of the church were discovered evidences of burials, including many of voung children, probably unbaptised infants, which up to a
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society. Session, 1921-1922.
Ab ut J/3rd ac ual size. A. E. Lawlo .
Fragment of old Norse (?) Inscription.
Archacological Section. 95
couple of centuries ago, or in places, recent times, were buried in some otherwise disused holy place.
Of the larger relics found on the church site the most important was a triangular fragment, 10dins. across, of an inscribed grave stone containing a portion of a circle, beneath which are remains of two lines of inscription. By extending the arc of the circle it can be ascertained that the width of the stone was originally about 27ins. The men were offered a special reward if they could find any more fragments of the inscription, but, unfortunately, although most careful search was made, nothing more of it was found except a few inches of the circle.
The inscription on this stone is shown. Copies of this were sent to the British Museum, and by the authorities there to Cambridge University; to the National Museum in Dublin; to the National Museum, Copenhagen, and else- where. No quite satisfactory solution is as yet forthcoming. Several letters are ordinary Irish characters of about the 10th century, three are runes of about the same period, while four are difficult to classify. I am not without hope that even yet we may find more of this inscription, so that meantime it may be premature to print a very ingenious but purely tenta- tive solution offered by Professor R. A. 8. Macalister, of the National University in Dublin. He considers it probable that the stone is a fragment of a grave slab to a Norse Abbot of Nendrum, of tenth or eleventh century. The abbot’s name is missing, but the remains of the first line may perhaps be read Brimopata, interpreted as equivalent to PRrIMABOTA, the old Norse for.“ of the. chief abbot.’” .. The fourth letter occurs in some later runes. found in the North of England, and is clearly M. The fitth letter is the same as the smal letter between the two lines, and seems undoubtedly to be. an‘'O or long A. The sixth letter is clearly a B, but the seventh presents some diffi- culty; it resembles the fifth with the lower cross stroke in- complete, This is probably a differentiation between che
96 Archaeological Section.
two, denoting the slight difference in the letters O and A. The eighth letter as it stands is a runic L, but it has been found, as in the Killaloe rune, used asa T. The last letter is a runic A (short). The small letter between the lines seems to be a correction in the bottom line, a letter omitted in carv- ing and inserted afterwards. Unfortunately so little of this line is left that no one has been able to decipher it. The third letter from the right cannot be identified as belonging to any known alphabet.
Professor Macalister regards this inscription as of im- mense archaeological importance. It is one more monu-. ment, like his Killaloe find, of the Christianisation of the Norseman, and even indicates an instance of what was probably a rare occurence—a Norseman actually entering into Irish monastic life and becorning abbot.
About the middle of July the sites of the church and ground about the round tower were cleared, and all the finds put carefully to one side.
The excavation had laid bare all that was left of the ehurch, which proved to be the remains of apparently a mediaeval nave, with a somewhat later chancel of the same width, with a small exedra or sacristy on the north side. The inside measurements of the whole, above the founda- tion or plinth, are 52 by 16 feet.
At the west end were remains of butresses, continua- tions of its north and south walls. These protruded 30ins. x 30ins. The jambs of the west door were completely gone, but the huge lintel, measuring 66ins. x 18ins. x 15ins., was lying prone on the door step.
From July onwards the men worked steadily clearing away the debris from the inner and second cashel walls, re- placing the fallen stones as they proceeded. A number of men were engaged at this work until October, when we stopped work for the winter, while others were turning over the soil over the greater part. of the space enclosed by the inner cashe], While removing the debris of the inner cashe!
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Socie‘y, Session 1921-1922.
West Doorway restored, showing Commemorative Tablet.
k, J. WELCH, PHOTO
Archaeological Section. 97
wall a remarkable pathway or paved causeway was found leading from the southern entrance round inside the wall and turning towards the west door of the church. This is ap- parently the pathway ‘‘ by which the brethren come to Matins,’’ referred to in Celgan’s ‘‘ Actae Sanctorum,’’ of which O’Laverty gives a translation in his Down and Connor (Vol. I., 354). This refers to the period when Saint Colman of Dromore was a boy at Nendrum under Saint Mochaoi, probably between 465 and 470, when he is related to have performed a miracle in removing a large stone which impeded the brethren on their way to church. ‘This story is preserved in the name of a little bay in Ranish or Rainey Island, al- most within a stone throw of Mahee Island, known from time immemorial as Colman’s bay. ‘This paved causeway is a most important discovery. It leads from the west door of the church to where is now one of the three entrances in the inner cashel wall. Had it not been for the pathway stopping at this point, the antiquitv of this entrance could not have been established. No remains of the original jambs of this entrance remain, but from the pathway beginning at this entrance we can establish not only the fact of an entrance having been here originally, but the strong presumption that it led from the hospitia or dwellings of the monks, and guest houses, which must in consequence have occupied the wide space between the south sections of the inner and second eashels. This flat space has been subjected to tillage, so that all signs of these huts, which undoubtedly were of wattle and mud or planks, have long since disappeared.
Among the more impertant discoveries made during the turning over of the-soil were foundation walls of apparently very ancient buildings of dry masonry, directly Hast of the ehurch. These suggest a building of considerable size joined on to the inner side of the cashel wall; but, unfortunately, little of it can now be traced, as probably the builders of the mediaeval church of stone and lime used the old materials to build the new church, The site is now largely taken up with
98 Archaeological Section.
graves covered with rough stones. As these graves are in rows it is difficult to say in all cases whether the rows of stones are remains of the ancient building or rows of stone- covered graves. *urther investigation on this point may en- able us to arrive at a more definite conclusion. !
To the West, just inside the second cashel wall or stone faced terrace are foundations of two very ancient buildings of dry masonry. Our examination of these is not yet complete. In the Western portion of this second cashel was found, in a fairly complete state a wide doorway about 5ft. 6ins. across, inside which are the foundations of what may be two janitors’ cells, in such a position that if restored, they would divide the wide entrance into three narrow ones, by which ingress or egress could only be effected in single file.
To the North-East and North of the second cashel there can be traced among the bracken and brambles foundations of numerous walls and apparently circular buildings, but these have not as yet been touched. Jf during the coming season we are enabled to excavate and repair these, doubt- less much of great interest may be exposed to view.
To the South of the church, about half-way between it and the inner cashel wall, were two circular mounds or rings about 20 feet in diameter. These were carefully excavated, and proved to be the remains of two promiscuous heaps of bodies. The skeletons included those of men, women, and children, thrown together without any arrangement or order, and lightly covered with soil and stones. On digging lower we came upon older regular graves lined with rough stones. These graves were not due E. and W., but with the feet to the S.E. In two places among these graves were fragments of foundations of a stone and mortar building, but so small as to afford no clue as to what the building could have been ; yet, that the traces of building distinctly showed lime mortar is of great importance, as the skeletons of the promiscuous heap were superimposed on the masonry fragments, proving that these bodies were thrown in the heaps at a compara- tively late date, and after the introduction into Ireland of
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Sesssion, 1921-1922.
Section of Second Cashel Wall, West Side showing entrance, before and after restoration.
R. J. WELCH. PHOTO,
Archacological Section. 99
lime mortar in building. This is generally admitted to be about the ninth century at the earliest.
T'wo causes can be alternatively put forward to explain these heaps of skeletons—namely, a plague, or a battle or massacre. Two facts, however, seem to rule out the former of these two alternatives. Among the skeletons was one of a woman apparently holding in her arms a child of a few years old. Had they both died of a plague and been brought here for interment this could not have been. The second fact is that one of the skulls was that of a man who had met his death by sword cut. We may eliminate, therefore, a plague, as the explanation of these heaps of skeletons, and there re- mains the other alternative, a massacre or battle. Of the date of this there seems to be no clue to guide us, unless Professor Walmsley’s examination of the bones gives one. There is little doubt that a massacre occurred at Nendrum in 974 when Abbot Sedna O’Deman ‘‘ was burned in his own house,’’ after which the annals never again mention Nendrum.
Of the stone lined graves which lay on a lower level than the mounds, these were close together, and extend over a considerable area South and East of the mounds. It seems as if this were at an early date the burial place for the people of the surrounding country, and not confined to the inmates of the monastery, as remains of both sexes were found side by side. From near the South-West corner of the church to al- most the southern entrance to the inner cashel can be seen in the grass what appears to be the foundation of an ancient wall, which probably shut off the burial place from the level space bounded on the west by the paved pathway. This open space probably corresponded with what, in later monasteries, was known as the cloister garth.
To the west of the church,,on clearing away a consider- able quantity of debris we found a number of stone topped graves. These are all much shorter than human adults, and investigation showed that the stone tops were only surface
100 A rchacological Section.
markings of full length graves, not stone lined, some 18 to 24 inches deep. Most of these graves appear to have been disturbed at some time, as the bones in many cases were in confusion. In every case care was taken to leave the grave covers exactly as when exposed.
About 30 feet from the west gable, and among these graves was a small mound. Examination of this produced a fragment of a carved cross (No. 5) and one small stone about Yins. x 6ins. with a rude scratched cross on one surface (Noa. 6). On penetrating further into this site a roughly-shaped rectangular foundation of what may have been a mud and wattle cell was exposed. From its position it was probably the cell of the janitor or ostiarius, an officer corresponding to the modern sexton or bell-ringer. The janitor was in Holy Orders, and in monastic rank was probably the lowest. Ex- cavating to some depth under the floor of this rectangular space we came upon several skeletons of men in position un- disturbed. With one of these, a few inches from where were the finger bones, was a small polished stone celt, almost an exact duplicate of one of the three found together in our in- vestigation in the Rath of Dreen (See Report B.N.H. & P. Society for 1919).
In clearing away debris in various places many carved stones of great interest were found in addition to the one already referred to. These were mostly crosses of a very early Celtic type (illustrated). In no single instance had any of these crosses a nimbus, nor was any one inscribed with lettering. Most of these were found in the neighbourhood of the west gable; but few were perfect, and where fractured the pieces when found were widely scattered. For instance, one arm of cross No. 8 was found in the debris of the east end of the church, while the other portion was among the debris of the inner cashel. A stone cresset lamp mould and a rough sandstone fragment of a slab cross were also found in other parts of the cashel wall. The finding of these three caryed stones is exceedingly puzzling in an effort
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Session, 1921-1922.
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Belfast Natural History and Phisolo-hical Society, Session 1921-1922.
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Fragment of Pillar Stone, with Romanesque Geometrical Design ;
exactly similar designs occur at Clonmacnoise, Lough Derg, and
Isle of Man.
Archacological Section. IOI
to arrive at the age of this cashel. They were among the stones which had tumbled from the cashel, as if they had been at one tinie built into it, which would imply a quite late date for the erection; but we have no proof what they were, and they may have been merely thrown where they were found and got covered up by the gradual falling of the stones from the wall. The two crosses Nos. 4 and 1 were found outside the N.W. and 8.W. corners of the church re- spectively on clearing away the debris. ‘The cross figured No. 9 cannot now be found. Fortunately, the late Mr. W. H. Patterson made an accurate sketch of it about the year 1874. It was then bwilt into a fence near Mr. Johnston’s house; but, unfortunately, Mr. Patterson omitted to record its size, so that in the accompanying sketch it cannot be included in the scale given. ‘To the South of the West gable were found the square base and face of a remarkable sundial. Five small fragments of the pillar of this were found in various places, all richly carved in local whinstone. In a fence built of stones taken from various places, in modern times, was a large cubic fragment of a pillar stone, measuring 12ins. x 1idins. x 8ins., on which is incised an elaborate geometrical design of interlaced circles. In spite of careful search, no other fragment of this pillar stone has been found. In the debris of the chureh itself were found three w:ndow-top arches, each carved cut of one piece of sandstone. These show that the windows were, as is usual in the early churches, very narrow but widely splayed inside.
The question of how best to conserve all these relics was cne which gave rise to much careful consideration. The first impulse was to remove them to the Society’s collection in the Belfast City Museum, but the proprietor, Mr. Johnston, strongly expressed his desire that they should not be removed from their natural home and ancient associations.
The restoration to its ancient position of the great lintet stone of the west door was also an important problem, as, although the door step remained, the doorway was entirely
102 A rchaeolagical Sectton.
gone. Mr. R. J. Welch came to our assistance with his in- valuable store of photographs of Irish church doorways, and it was eventually decided to restore the west doorway after the model of that of the Church of Tomgraney, Co. Clare, whose west gable with protruding butresses apparently co- incides exactly with what remained of the west gable of Nendrum. ‘Tomeraney is regarded as being one of the very oldest, if not the oldest, example remaining of lime mortar built churches in Ireland, and dates from the 10th century. From the width of the lintel at Nendrum, 66 inches, we gauged the width of the top of the doorway to have been the middle half, 33 inches, the outside fourths, 164 inches each, resting on the jambs. After the model of Tomgraney and many other ancient churches, it was decided to widen the doorway slightly at the bottom, to 38 inches, or an inward slope from doorstep to lintel of 24 inches in each jamb in a height of 70 inches. To conserve the ancient crcsses and other carved stones, it was decided to insert these in slight recesses in a partially-restored gable, at each side of the doorway so constructed, snd lest anyone should in time to come make the mistake of thinking that these stones are in their original position, or that this fragment of the west gable is wholly original, a tablet to the following effect has been inserted in the wall: THE EccuestasticaL Ruins or NENDRUM ON Mauer ISLAND AND THE ENcIRCLING CASHEL WALLS Havr BEEN REPAIRED BY THE BELFAST NATURAL History AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY BY PERMISSION OF THE Owner, Mr. A. G. JOHNSTON. THE CARVED AND INSCRIBED STONES, Founp 1x Various PLACES IN THE DEBRIS
ARK INSERTED IN TH1s PARTIALLY RESTGRED GABLE MereLy For THEIR CONSERVATION. 23rd Jung, 1922.
Archacological Section. 103
It is, perhaps, needless to say that the above inscription contains an apparent inaccuracy, as manifestly all could not have been done that is stated to have been done on the 23rd of June. The date is the festal date of Saint Mochaoi, the patron saint of Nendrum, whose death is recorded in the ancient festologies as having taken place on that day in 497. fourteen and a quarter centuries ago.
The date is important as, according to supposed ancient usage, a church dedicated to a patron saint was orientated in accordance with the ascension of the sun on the festa! date of the saint. The Church of Nendrum lies almost exactly W.S.W. by E.N.E. If anyone could observe sunrise on the 23rd of June, and compare it with the position of the church, allowing tor the alteration of the actual position arising from the progress of the universe, it would be interesting.
The round tower stump was cleared of ivy early in June, and the fallen debris cleared from around its base. It was found that the ivy had obtained such a hold of the ruin that almost the entire outer surface of the masonry above the first three or four feet had been pushed down. At the height of five and seven feet, respectively, however, there rernained still in original position two through stones, from which the batter of the wall could be accurately ascertained. This was very slight, only about one inch in seven feet. The wall itself is mounted on a plinth about three feet in height. The actual external circumference of the plinth is 47 feet, and above the plinth 45ft. 6ins. Comparing these measurements with those of other round towers, supplied by Petrie, it may, with fair accuracy, be assumed that the original height of the tower, that is if it were ever actually finished, was between 50 and 60 feet.
The condition of the ruin was, before we repaired it, not much altered from Reeves’ time. In his pamphlet, already referred to, he reproduced a careful sketch of it, showing the position of the two protruding ‘‘ through stones.’’ This sketch, unfortunately, has not been reproduced in the Ulster
104 Archaeological Section.
Journal (2nd Series), already mentioned, but may be seen in O’Hanlon’s Lives of the Irish Saints (28rd June). The Ulster Journal, however, supplies an admirable sketch of the tower (in 1902) by Mr. Joseph Carey, and a plan and section by Mr. Philip Reynolds. From perusal of these three sketches it will be seen that the ruin appears to stand upon a smaJl grass knoll. This on investigation proved to consist merely of the fallen masonry of the tower, pushed down in the course of time by the ivy. The men were set to remove this knoll, which was from three to four feet high, laying aside all the fallen stones, and removing the vegetable soil. The fallen stones were restored to the ruins, all being set in good cement, the ivy having been carefully extracted and the roots killed with strong chemical solution. The inner shell of the stump of the tower remained intact, and it was found that when the mason had restored all the fallen stones of the outer surface they only sufficed to bring it to the existing height of the inner shell. The broken top of the building has now been grouted with cement so that no water can lodge, or consequently, vegetation find a place to root.
If our estimate of the original size of the tower is correct, what remains is about one-fifth. The question arises, what then became of the missing four-fifths? The builders of the Elizabethan Castle at the Causeway could not have quarried here for their material, as they had copious supplies of stone on the shore and in the outer cashels, much nearer at hand, which they used, but by no means exhausted. The only other apparent use the material of the tower could have been put to was to build the church close at hand; but it is almost inconceivable that the builders of the church would pull down the tower to build the church had it been still standing at the time. <A probable solution of the difficulty may be found in the following :—The date of the erection of the tower origin- ally may, with all likelihood, be fixed shortly after the first invasion by the Danes, say about the vear 850, when it likely would have been erected as a place of refuge, watch tower,
pA » >| ? 7 . ] f If 1 ; Archacological Section. 105
and also bell tower. It likely shared in the general destruc- tion by the Danes, which appears to have taken place in 974, when the abbot Sedna “* was burned in his house.’’
Adamnan, in his Life of Saint Columba, tells us that the hospitium, tugurium or domus abbatis, the abbot’s residence, was a detached building usually on an eminence. from which the abbot could survey the surrounding monastery. It is, therefore, quite possible that the abbot Sedna used the tower as his house, and that its destruction is, therefore, implied in the entry in the annals saying that he was vurned in his own house in 974. The thoroughness displayed by the Danes in their destruction of everything Christian on their early ex- peditions is well-known, and seems to find confirmation at Nendrum by the minuteness of the fragments into which all the crosses (except two) and the sundial were smashed. We iniy therefore conclude with reasonable certainty that the round tower was knocked down by them, and lay a hopeless ruin a century or so later, when the church of stone and lime- mortar was built. If this were the case, as seems most likely, it would have been only natural that the church builders used the debris of the tower to build their church. At the same time they naturally used any loose stones that remained over to repair the cashel wall. This would satis- factorily account for the three carved fragments already re- ferred to having at one time been built into it.
In many places large quantities of pottery of various ages were found, also iron implements, sharpening and polished stones or rubbers, broken querns, and _ other miscellaneae. 3
Before giving details or theories regarding these I atn consulting, or have already consulted some of the best authorities. Meantime I await more complete reports.
T have not referred to the known history of Nendrum. A useful outline of this has been supplied by Bishop Reeves. Much, however, has developed since his time, and further facts are gradually coming to light. I am therefore deferring
106 Archacological Section.
a report on this subject unti) enquiries now pending are more complete. ?
It is regrettable that, owing to the narrowness of the road from Comber to Mahee, and the extraordinary number of dangerous corners, several more or Jess serious motor ac- cidents occurred to the cars of visitors during the season. Fortunately no one was injured. It is to the credit of the neighbouring farmers and local residents that these danger spots on the road are in process of being removed. The worst of the corners are being cut off and the road widened where necessary. To effect this the farmers concerned gave up stretches of their land, either for nothing, or for a nominal charge. The Down County Council are assisting in every way. The road from the Ardill Memorial Causeway to Mr. Johnston’s gate is his private property. He has most gene- rously offered to surrender this road to the County Council if they will render it more convenient for motor traffic. He has also offered the necessary ground at the end of the road for making a turning place for motor cars. All this is costing a considerable sum of money, and it is to the credit of all con- cerned that most of the money necessary has been locally subscribed, though more is still required. The Executive Committee voted a subscription of £10 towards this laudable object. The special thanks of the public are due to Mr. David Boyd, of Comber, who has been primarily responsible for organising this most important undertaking, and to Mr. James G. Wilkin, C.E., County Surveyor, for his assistance in carrying it out. The Down County Council have gene- rously recognised their responsibilities as part custodians of this most important National Monument, and have already supplied the sum necessary for the repair of the Elizabethan castle at the causeway.
I have to thank Dr. A. E. Lawlor for the admirable etchings accompanying this report. Her view of the nine ridges from which the Island derives its name of Nendrum is ‘taken from a point in Island Reagh (not illustrated). The photographs are by Mr. R. J. Welch, M.R.I.A.
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Subscriptions to Muhee Fund. 109
SUBSCRIPTIONS TO MAHEE FUND.
essed, Acheson, I. W. di cOF 0) Aird, W. bic 2 Qie0 Andrews, Miss Hlizabeth 111 ‘6 Andrews, lirnest a bE: 0:0 Andrews, the Rt. Hon. J. M. Fh, ae Parcels Blea) Andrews, J. .... anf eee a os shea Ol Ore O Andrews, Oscar os a a ee oe dO a0) Andrews, Mrs. ‘I’. J. oe ie a 28 O00 Atkinson, Arthur §. hk ne vid Hoaterelte. Cowin.Q)
Baird, Major i ee ae ee ky rome ( Bébe, Charles a a SE =. ise he OiO Bell, Mrs. ee ae ae ae ae Belfast Naturalist’s Field Club _ ... el mise Oru sD Bennett, 5. A. ae obs me Dee ai 2 OrlO;, 40
Berry, Colonel 1: 0.0 Breakey, Rev. J. P. 010 O Blakiston-Houston, Major C. i eores yee) The Ven. Archdeacon Brett 410) -.0 Brett, Sir Charles 5 0° 0 Bristow, Jas. R. b sOpe 0 J. B. Bryson E00 Boal, R. Aa ae 0) Boyd, David Ue) Boyd, Hugh 0 10..'6 Byrne, J. Edward es Burrowes, W. B. Aon 0
S a o> fer)
Campbell, A. A. ae ee oe, AG Campbell, James __... ot see Se of a | Carmody, Rey. Canon aae
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L110 Subscriptions to Mahee Fund.
Chambers, h. , ‘“* Christian, An Hark Christen, Madame Ciark, George E. Clark, Sir George Cletund, A. Mel. Cleiand, W. M. Cieaver, J. I. Cleaver, Colonel Cembe, George Corbett, J
Craio, it: C:
Creig, Captain FE.
Crawtford, ht. Hon. on Sones
Crawford, Hugh
Cunningham, Josias, Jun.
Deacon, Miss BE. A.
Deane, Arthur
Despard, V. D.
Diamond, Rev. Edward, C. C. Dobbs, Miss M. E.
Down and Connor and Dromore,
Bishop of Dewn Co. Council (for Crete)
Eawards, — ... Heel jc ahaa a. Ewart G. Herbert
aren, a a ‘ Briend, A ’’ (1) A he (2) ‘* Friend, A’’ (8) Anon. ... ‘‘ Friend, An Interested ”’
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Subscriptions to Mahee Fund,
“ Friends, A Few at St. Malachy’s ’
Ferguson, Godfrey W. Finlay, A. H.
Greeves, Arthur Greeves, Iergus Greeves, Joseph Greeves, Leopold Greeves, J. ‘Theodore Haddow, C. P.
Hamilton, Rt. Hon. and Rev.
Hastings, Messrs. 8. & T. Henderson, Sir 'l'revor Herdman, A. 1’. Herdman, R. E.
Heron, Francis A. Higinbotham, Granby Hunter, James Hutchinson, Captain 5. i.
Johnston, S. A.
Kernohan, J. W. “ Taisren ”’
lawlor, H. ©;
Lepper, R. S. a! Londonderry, The Marquis of
Lowry, David KE.
Mackie, James MacKisack, Dr. H. L. Magowan, T’. R.
Maleolmson, Herbert
III £8. d, 2,92). 40 di OQ Pia sen O) beOs iQ Ll O O Oa) 11205420 12.0210) | eae O tia 0) bs ALE) f eceerad iners () Peedi 24) 210 102 10 LO. oO hes Over.) 1. QO -0 LO. 0 2 Ol 7 On lOn6 BLE inet) Onn) 25 AO a0 220) 1 r@ 2 Oe. O 14.0.0 010 O te 0)
112 Subscriptions to Mahee Fund.
Maleolmson, Major G. EK. Macoun, S. M.
Metcalfe, Arthur a8 ‘“ Methodist, A Primitive ”’ Mitchell, Captain W. C. Montgomery, Miss E. 8. Montgomery, H. C. & T. W. Murland, Captain C. W. McAuley, Rev. T. H., C.C. McCready, H. L. | Mellveen, J. H. be a McKee, J. (Brooklyn, U.S.A.)
MeKinley, Very Rev. Canon, P.P.
MeLorie, James mee McNeill, Miss and Mr. Wm.
Neill, H. J.
Orr, Dr. Gawn Osborne, 'T’. Edens
Parkes, Mrs. and Miss Perceval, R. D.
Reade, J. S. Richardson, Miss Riddell, Alexr. Riddell, Henry
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Roden, Countess of Rogers, W. E.
Rotary Club Excursion
29
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Gish a. Sawerse. Uso... | OQ Sheil, Henry Percy 52 0-0 Shields, Rev. J., P.P. t.'Or 70 Shillington, T. C. 2-0). 0 Sides, W. S. Lb .0 Sinclair, John Li 0.0 Sinclair, H. D. 0 10 -0 Sinclair, Mrs. 8. E20! 0 Sinton, Alfred H. Doe 0) Sinton, Edwin ne t .0°.0 Smith, Canon N. KE. & Mrs. 010 0 Stevenson, John 010 O Strick,.G. H. O. {e120 MNoalvinev. D: O. Riz C.C. ... oi hee enemy Ora) Thompson, Joseph ... a a Be rad tis Be) iMmurner, Se. ae Be ih te HO LOG Turtle, W. H. ane ca Ou: ae fee eh, MO eQ ‘* Ulster, For the Credit of ”* vu Bh we LOO" O--0 Wallace, Rt. Hon. Colone! ... or en soe EEO. 0 Wallace, William... oe a aay ee Oo LOGO Welch, R. J. i oa Fee + -Well Wisher ’’ .... ae a ae onl shi Oe "G Wilhams, Captain... ahi a ee eae Ob 20 Wilson, George tO Young, R. M. ae wis a ne vee OHO
Contents of Collecting Box at Nendrum ... cig hO aay 4
114
List of Lectures.
LIST OF LECTURES
1921. 5th October.
8th November.
29th November.
18th December.
1922. 10th January.
16th January.
1921-1922.
In Assembly Minor Hall.
‘The Conquest of Land and Air: A Study in Natural History,’’ by Prof. J. Arthur Thomson, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E.
In Municipal College of Technology.
“The Public Appreciation of Art,’’ by Mr. Ivor Beaumont, A.R.C.A.(Lond.), MSTA, 2 Soa, aD:
In Municipal College of Technology.
‘* Recent Investigations on the Fuel Problem,’’ by Professor H. Wren, VED Se. Eh. Dp.
In Museum, College Square North. ‘“ Ulster Philosophers,’’ by Professor John Laird, M.A.
In Assembly Minor Hall. “ Comets,’’ by Rev. W. F. A. Hillison, M.A.
In Museum, College Square North. ** Moliére,’’ by Professor Savory, M.A.
31st January.
Tth February.
24th February.
7th March.
14th March.
list of Lectures. [15
In Museum, College Square North. ‘The Use of Phosphates in Agricul- ture,’’ by Mr. G. S. Robertson, D.Sc.
In Museum, College Square North.
‘“ Some Products of Wood Waste,’’ by Mr. W. H. Gibson, O.B.E., D.S8c., F.I.C., F.Inst.P.
In Queen’s University. ‘* More About the Erectness of Plants,”’ by Professor James Small, D.8c., P@; 8 L.8.; MRA:
In Queen’s University.
‘The Optophone: An Instrument for Reading by Ear,’’ by Mr. Fournier d’Albe, D.8Sc., A.R.C.Sce.(Lond.), M.R.I.A.
In Museum, College Square North. ‘“Drennan and His Times,’’ by Mr. Alexander Riddell.
116 Hachanges.
EXCHANGES.
Ann ArBpor—Publications of the University of Michigan.
BaseL (Switzerland)—Verhandlungen der Naturforchenden Gesellschaft in Basel, 1920-21.
BERGEN (Norway)—Publications of the Bergen Museum.
Buenos Arres—Anales del Museo Nacional del Historia Natural.
CAMBRIDGE (v.S.A.)—Bulletins and Annual Report of the Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zoology.
CAMBRIDGE—Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
CoLorapo Sprincs—Publications of the Colorado College.
DusLin—Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society.
EpinspurGu-—Proceedings of the Royal Society of IEdin-
burgh, 1918-19. Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical Society, Edinburgh.
Essex—The Essex Naturalist. Vol. XX., Part 1.
GLascow—Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society, 1918-1920.
Hauirax—Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, 1918-19.
Inp1ANA—Proceedings of the Indiana Society of Sciences 1919-1920.
La Prata (Argentine)—Obras Completas y Correspondencia Cientificia de Florentino Ameghino.
LAWRENCE—Bulletins of the University of Kansas.
Lima (Peru}—Boletin del Cuerpo de le Ingenieros de Minas del Peru. :
Lonpon—Quarterly Journal of the Royal Microscopical
Society. Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.
vy
hiarchanyes. L147
Lousanne—LBulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Mavison—Bulletins of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.
Mapras—Report of the Government Museum of Madras, 1920-21.
Mancuester—Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, 1920. M&ELBOURNE—Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
Mexico—Anales del Instituto Geologico de Mexico.
MILWAUKEE—Annual Report of the Milwaukee Public Museum.
New Haven—Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1921.
NictnEroy—Achivos de escola Superior de Agricultura e Medica Veterinaria, 1921.
Onto—The Ohio Journal of Science.
Orono—Bulletin of the Maine Agricultural ITixperiment Station.
OttawA—Publications of the Geological Survey of Canada, Department of Mines.
Parts—Publications of the Geological Society of France.
PHILADELPHIA—Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
a Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society.
PoRTLAND (U.S.A.)—Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural History, 1919.
Pusa—Reports of the Agricultural Research Institute, 1920-21.
RennES—Bulletin de la Societe Geologique.
Rio pe J ANEIRO—Report of the National Museum of Brazil.
ROCHESTER (N.Y.)-—Proceedings of the Rochester Academy of
| Science.
irs Hachanges.
San Francisco—Proceedings of the Californian Academy oi Sciences. STIRLING—Transactions of the Stirling Natural History and Archaeological Society, 1920-21. _ Sr. Lovurs—Public Library Monthly Bulletin. Toronto—Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute. ViENNA—Verhandlungen der Geologischen Staatsanstalt, 1920. WasuHInGToN—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution. Annual] Report of the United States National Museum. Publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletins of the Smithsonian Institution. Contributions from the United States National
99
Herbarium. . Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Sinithsonian Institution, Miscellaneous Col- lections. @ Publications of the United States Geological Survey.
Zuricn (Switzerland)—Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforchen- den Gesellschaft in Zurich.
Zacres (Youngoslavie)—Glasnik Hrvaksko prirodoslovnoga Drustva, 1921.
119
BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Officers and Council of Management for 1922-23.
resident; HENRY RIDDELL, n.z., m.1.uech.e.
Wice- Presidents ; Sir CHARLES BRETT, tt.p. S. W. ALLWORTHY, M.a., M.pD., F.C.S. Pror. GREGG WILSON, o.8.£., M.s., D.SC., PH.D., M.B.I A. ROBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.1.A., J.P. J. M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.sc. WILLIAM SWANSTON, r.e.s.
Hon. Creasurer ; HENRY RIDDELL, m.t., m.1.Mech.z.
Hon. Librarian ; LOBERT M. YOUNG, M.a., M.R.I.A., J.P.
Hon. Secretary ; ARTHUR DEANE, M.B.1.A., F.R.S.E.
@ouncil : W. B. BURROWES, F.R.s.a.1. Councitutor BE. J. ELLIOTT. ; H. C. LAWLOR, m.r.1.a. Retire
WILLIAM SWANSTON, r.e:s. wo Proressor GREGG WILSON, p.sc., M.R.1.A.
JOHN M. FINNEGAN, B.a., B.Sc.
Proressor W. B. MORTON, m.a. | Renee HENRY RIDDELL, .tf., m.1t.mech.r. 1924. ROBERT M. YOUNG, .a., M.R.1.A.
Proressor A. W. STEWART, M.a., v.sc.
Stir CHARLES BRETT, tt.p. F T. EDENS OSBORNE, r.r.s.s.1. | S. W. ALLWORTHY, w.a., up. F.c.s. eee WILLIAM FAREN, F.R.s.a.1. | 925.
ARTHUR DEANE, .r.1.A., F.R.S.E.
t20 Shareholders and Members.
SHAREHOLDERS AND MEMBERS. Corrected to 30th November, 1922.
[*Denotes Holders of three or more Shares. |
[a e Members of Archacological Section. | aAcheson, F. W., Cloneevin, Dundalk aAcheson, Mrs. M. K., 67 Eglantine Avenue, Belfast aAcheson, M. K. m.p., do. 3 do. aAdams, Rev. Wim. M.A., The Manse, Antrim *Alexander, Francis, 3.£., Belfast
Alderdice, Richard Sinelaire, 124 Linenhall Street, do. Allworthy, S. W. m.p., Manor House, Antrim Road, do. *Anderson, John, J.p., F.G.8. (Representative of), Holywood, Co. Down aAnderson, Frank, M.B.e., Willoughby Terrace, Portadown aAndrews, Michael C., F.8.G.S., F.B.S.G.S., Orsett,
Derryvolgie Avenue, Belfast Andrew, John, t.D.S., R.S.c.ENG., 23 University 5q. do.
aAndrews, Miss Elizabeth, 10 Park Crescent, Tonbridge, Kent
Armstrong, Hamilton, Corlea, Ashley Park, Belfast aAtkinson, Arthur 8., Dromana, Knockdene Park, do. aBaird, Major William, g.p., Roval Avenue, do. Beaumont, Ivor, 4.R.c.A., School of Art, do. aBennett, S. A., B.A., B.Sc., Campbell College, do. aBerry, Colonel, m.r.r.4., Ardluin, Neweastle Bigger, Francis J., M.R.1.4., F.R.S.A.I., Ardrigh,
Antrim Road, Belfast, Bingham, John A., M.p.s.1., 43 Donegall Place, do. aBirch, J. P., Ashfield House, Ravenhill Road, do. aBlake, R. F., F.1.c., 4 Knock Road, ~ do. Boyd, Thornton, Blackstatf Spinning Company, do.
aBoyd, Miss Kathleen St. Clair, Chatsworth, University Road, do.
Shareholders and Members, 121
Boyd, John, San Remo, Holland Park, Neill’s Hill, Belfast Brandon, H. B., 3.P., Rosemount House, Antrim Rd., do. aBrett, The Venerable Archdeacon, m.a-, Montrose,
Fortwilham Park, do. aBristow, James R., M.a., Woodville, Malone Park, do. Bristow, John, 10 College Square North, do. *Brown, George B., Lisnamaul, Ormeau Road, do.
Brown, J., M.A., B.Sc., 338 Marlborough Park (centre), | do. aBurrowes, W. B., F.R.8.A.1., Ballvnafeigh House,
Ravenhill Road, do. aByrne, J. Edwards, 37 Royal Avenue, do.
Calwell Re 1s, G.B.B., BeH., M.1/C.E., Carninard, Annadale Avenue, do.
Campbell, A. A., F.R.s.4.1.. Drumnaferrie, Rosetta
Park, do. *Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do. aCarmody, Rev. Canon, m.a., The Rectory, Lisburn Carr, A; H. R., 224 Donegall Place, Belfast aCarter, C. 8., 7 Knockbreda Road, do. aCarter, H. R., 28 Waring Street, do. *Charley, Phineas H., Coolbeg, Cultra, Co. Down
*Christen, Madame Rodolphe, St. Imier, Brig of Cairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, Sir George S., Bart., p.t., Dunlambert, Belfast Clarke, E. H., 69 Marlborough Park S., do. aClarke, John, Antrim Arms Hotel, Glenarm
aCleland, A. McI., Macedon, Green Road, Knock, Belfast Corbett, Miss K. M., Ardsallagh, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Combe, Barbour & Co., Ltd., “do. a@rawtord ; WIM BeAYLIeCcS., F.E.S., Orissa, Marlborough Park, do.
aCromie, Thomas M.D., Clough, Co. Down
122 Shareholders and Members,
Crymble, H., 40 Wellington Place, Belfast Culbert, J. C., m.p.s.1., 172 North Road, do. aCunningham, Right Hon. 8., Fern Hill, Ballygo-
martin Road, . do. Cutler, H. A., M.1ns?.c.n., City Hall, do. Dalzell, James, 4 Tokio Gardens, Chichester Park, do. Davies, A. C., Lenaderg House. Banbridge, Co. Down aDavis, Colonel, 21 Malone Park, ~~ Belfast Davison, A. H., F.A4.1., 82 Wellington Place, do. aDeane, Arthur, m.R.1.a., Municipal Art Gallery and
Museum, Royal Avenue, do. *Deramore, Lord, D.L., Despard, V. D., 10 Academy Street, do. Devoto, V. A., Kilmorna, Glastonbury Avenue, do. Dickson, 5. E., 9 Donegall Square West, do. Dixon, Professor, M.A., SC.D., F.R.S., St. Ives,
Bladon Drive, do. *Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), do.
Doran, Councillor, J. A. 3.e., Ardavon, Antrim Road, do.
*Downshire, Marquis of, The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down Duffin, Adam, Lu.p., 5.P., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park, Ballywalter, Co. Down
Earls, Professor J., B.A., Municipal College of
Technology, Belfast Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., 3.P., Firmount, Antrim
Road, do. Ewart, Fred W., M.A., B.L., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Robert H., Bart., Glenmachan House, Belfast Elliott, E. J., The Towers, Donegall Park Avenue, do.
aFaren, William, F.R.S.4.1., 454 Waring Street, do. Fee, David A., 3.p., Baythorpe, Holywood *Fenton, Francis G., 5 Rue Cervaux, Paris
Shareholders and Members. 123
aFerguson, G. W., C.E., J.P., Carnamenagh,
Antrim Road, Belfast Finlay, Archibald H., Willesden, Holywood Finlay, Mrs. Fred W., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel, Belfast Finlay, Robert H. F., Victoria Square, Beltast
Finlay, W. J., 10 High Street, do. Finnegan, John M., b.4., B.sc., 23 Botanic Avenue, do. Fitzsimons, N., F.R.1.B.4., 92 Myrtlefield Park, do. Forsythe, J., Lisadell, Cliftonville Road, do. aFrazer, Kenneth J., Hillmount, Cullybackey Fry, W. Arthur, High Street, Holywood Fulton, G. F., Arlington, Windsor Avenue, Belfast Geale, R. G., 40 Wellington Park, do. *Getty, Edmund (Representative of), do. Gibbon, Lt.-Col. W. D., p.s.o., M.A., Campbeli
College, Belfast Gibson, Andrew, F.R.S.A.1., Fairfield, Lansdowne
Road, do. Gibson, S., g.p., Summerhill, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim Gibson: W. A o:B-E., DSC: F.Icc., F.INST-P., York
Street Flax Spinning Co., Belfast Gibson, W. K., 16 Chichester Street, do. Goldsbrough, J. B., Central Public Library, do. Gordon, J. 8., p.sc., Ministry of Agriculture, do.
- Gordon, Malcolm, Dunarnon, Unversity Road, do. Gourlayv, R. J., Central Public Library, do. Green, H. Percy, Limehurst, Holland Park, Knock aGreeves, F. M., Garranard, Strandtown, Belfast aGreeves, Joseph M., Bernagh, Circular Road, do. aGreeves, Arthur, Altona, do. aGreeves, John Theo., Nendrum, Knockdene Park, do. aGreeves, W. Leopold, 11 Ormeau Road, do, Grogan, James, 2 Orient Gardens, do. Grogan, J., junior, do. do.
Hale, W. Barcroft, 6 Salisbury Gardens, do.
124 Shareholders und Members.
*Hall, Frederick H.., : Waterford Hamilton, Rt. Hon. and Rey, Vhomas. .A.; D.D., ine
Vice-Chancellor Queen’s University, Belfast *Hamilton, Hill, 3.p. (Representatives of), do. Hanson, W.M.,.St. John’s Villa, Holland Park, do. Harland, Capt. W., 4 Psalter Lane, Shefheld aHastings, 5S. R.. 3.p., Church Street, Downpatrick Hastings, Archibald, 7 Cavehill Road, Belfast Hawthorne, John, B.A., PH.D., F.1.c., 16 Donegall
Square S., do, Hayward, Harold R., Hopefield House, Antrim Road, do. Henderson, J. W., m.a., Methodist College, do. aHenry, Professor R. M., M.A., M.R.1.A., Crosshill,
Windsor Avenue North, do.
aHenry, T. W., F.s.arcu., Greenbank, Mountpleasant, do. Herdman, Hi. C., Carricklee House, Strabane *Herdman, Robert Ernest, 3.p., Merronhurst,
Craigavad, Co. Down aHeron, F. Adens, D.U., J.P., F.R.S.A.1., Maryfield, Holywood _ aHewton, John, m.p.s.1., Ava Pharmacy, 315 Ormeau
Road, Belfast Heyn, James A. M., Head Line Buildings, do. Higginson, RK. K., 20 Waring Street, do. aHill, S. W., M.p., 46 Pound Street, Larne Hind, John, 22 Cliftonville Road, Belfast aHogg, A. R., 10 Thorndale Avenue, do. Hodges, Miss, Old Spout Farm, Notherfield, Sussex aHolness, John J., 26 Ava Street, Belfast
Honneyman, Wm. B.SC., (LOND.), F.1.c., 18 Halstein Drive, Ballyhackamore, do. Hoskins, A. Percy, F.1.c., F.c.s., 14 Rosetta Park, do.
Houston, John Blakiston, D.L., J.P. (Representatives of), Orangefield, do.
*Hughes, Edwin (Representatives of), Craigavad, Co. Down
Shareholders and Members. ib)
Hummel, Professor, M.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., Queen’s
University, Belfast Hunter, Dr. J. A., 6 Stranmillis Road, do. Hunter, William, s.p., Fortwilliam Villas, do. Ireland, J. Herbert, 102 South Parade, do.
Jaffé, Sir Otto, 3.P., Lu.p., 10 Donegall Square S., do.
aJaffé, W., 10 Donegall Square South, do. Jamieson, Andrew (Andrew Jamieson, Ltd.),
Sandy Row, do. Jenkins, J. C., 86 University Road, do. aJohnston, E. C., F.R.8.4.1., Glenmount, Newtownards
Johnston, Samuel A., y.p., Dalraida, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Jones, H. H., 2 Wilmont Terrace, Belfast aJury, P. M., Brooklands, Dunmurry aKendall, 8. O., 47 Adelaide Park, . Belfast *Kinghan, John R., Windsor Avenue (Repre-
sentatives of), 7 do. Kinkead, G. W., Chellowdene, Jordanstown, do. Kyle, Robert Alexander, 15 Wellington Park, do. Laird, Professor J., M.a., 4 Cranmore Gardens, do. aLamb, G. C., Leura, Finaghy, do. Juarmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.A.S.,
Nec. R.8., St. John’s College, Jambridge alawlor, H. C., M.R.1.4., 8 Windsor Avenue, Belfast
alepper, R. 8., M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.R.S.A.1., Elsinore,
Crawfordsburn, Co. Down Lewars, D. B., 17 Dundela Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast Lindsay, Professor J. A., M.A.. M.D., F.R.C.P.,
Queen’s Elms, do. aLindsay, W. A., mM.P., Lindsay Bros., Donegall Place, do. aloewenthal, John McC., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do. Loughridge, James, 173 Cliftonville Road, do,
126 Shareholders and Members.
aLowry, David E., Oakley, Strandtown
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), Belfast aMagill, Mrs. A. P., 9 Wibnont Terrace, Lisburn
Road, Belfast aMagill, Hugh, 217 Cavehii! Road, dc. Magill, John E., Eversley, Whitehead aMackie, James, J.p., Albert Foundry, Belfast Malcolm, Bowman, M.I.C.E., M.I.MECH.E., Inver,
Ashley Park, Antrim Road, 3 do. Maleolmson, Herbert, Riverside, Holywood Matthew, J. A., M.Sc.(LOND), 4.R.c.Sc., 204 Upper
Newtownards Road, Belfast Maxton, James, M.I.N.A., M.I.MAR.E., 6 Kirkliston
Drive, do. aMayes, William, Kenmuir, 12 Deramore Park South, do. Mayne, H. Horner, 24 Elmwood Avenue, do. aMercier, Ald. 8. T., g.e., 2 Mount Clifton,
Cliftonville Road, do. aMerrick, A. 8., 18 Wellington Park, Belfast Metcalfe, A. W., Hawthornden House,
Hawthornden Road, do. Milligan, A., 4 Cooke Street, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., Lu.B., T.c.D., Marmount, Strandtown, do. Moneypenny, Sir Frederick, c.B.E., c.v.o., City Hall, do.
aMontgomery, Miss E. 8.. 26 College Green, do. aMontgomery, H. C., F.R.s.4.1., 40 Rosemary Street, do. aMontgomery, H. H., 17 Malone Park, do. Moore, Harold M., 26 Wellington Place, do. aMorton, Professor W. B., M.A., Glencarse, Nottinghill, do. Muir, A. H., 7 Donegall Square West, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do. *Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
Shareholders and Members. 129
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Beltast *Musgrave, Henry, D.L. (Reps.), Drumglass, Malone, do. uMacalister, Professor, R.a.S., D.LITT., M.A., 18 Mount
Kden Road, Donnybrook, Dublin McBride, A. H., Ormeau Avenue, Belfast *McCalmont, Robert (Representatives of), London
*McCammon, Thos. P. (Representatives of), Plaisted, Woodvale, Holywood, Co. Down McCance, Captain Stouppe, 4 Markham Square, London, S.W.3
aMcCoy, B., F.R.S.A.1., 84 Smithfield, Belfast McCoy, W. R. 8., 27 Damascus Street, do. *McCracken, Francis (Representatives of), aMcCready, H. L., m.a., 104 Myrtlefield Park, Belfast aMecGowan, Thomas R., 73 Ann Street, do. Macllwaine, Dr. John E., 26 College Gardens, do. MacKenzie, W. G., A.rR.H.A., The Studio, Clarence
Place, do. aMcKisack, H. L., m.p., Chlorine Place, do. Maclaine, Alexander, J.P., Queen’s Elms
(Representatives of), do. aMcMeekin, Adam, 3.P., Cogry House, Doagh MacMillen, Rev. J., m.a., p.p., 151 Ravenhill Road, Belfast McMullan, P. J., s.p., Churchfield, Holywood aMecNeill, George, 12 Deramore Park, Belfast Napier, N.-J; E., m.1.c.5.,; City Hall, do. aNeill, F. F., 35 Candahar Street, do. Nelson, Captain G. M., 2 Howard Street, do. Newel, J. F., 25 Lombard Street, do. Nicholl, J. W., 25 High Street, do. Nicholl, William, 10 St. James’ Street, do.
aNolan, Dr. M. J., r.m.s., Resident Medical Super- intendent, Asylum, Downpatrick
128 Shareholders and Members
ONeill 8 26 Gromellakoad! Bolas Orr, Dr. Gawn, Ballylesson, do. Orr, James, 17 Garfield Street, do.
aOsborne, T. Edens, F.R.8.A.1., 4 College Square N. do.
Patterson, Mrs. Isabella, Glenard, Holywood, Co. Down Patterson, John F., 2 Mountcharles, Belfast Patterson, Robert, M.R.1.A., F.z.S., M.B.0.U.,
Glenbank, Holywood Patterson, William H. F., Auburn, Warren
Road, : Donaghadee aPercival, R. D. 5.2., Karyhill, Downpatrick Pinkerton, EK. S., B.A., B.E., A.M.1.¢.E., Oak Lodge,
Cedar Avenue, ; Belfast Pomeroy, A. G.mM.A., Arnside; Dundonald Porter, J. W., 35 Templemore Avenue, Belfast aPringle, A., P. K. Arm, Ltd., Clarence Street W.,
Bedford Street, do. Rafter, H. L., 29 Fitzwilliam Street, do. Rentoul, J. L.. M.B., B.cH., 28 University Square, do. aRiddell, Alexander, 12 Lower Crescent, do. aRiddell, Henry, M.E., M.1.MECH.E., 64 Great
Victoria Street, do. aRitchie, John, Cullintra Comber Roberts, J. R., 43 Fitzwilliam Street, Belfast Robertson, G. §., p.sc., Queen’s University, do. Robinson, E. G., 1 Ashville, Inver Avenue, Antrim
Road, do. aRoden, Countess of, Tullymore Park, Newcastle, Co. Down aRutherford, Rev. J. C. B.a., 18 Lisburn Road, Relfa - Salter, Victor, 6 Pickie Terrace, Bangor Savage, Arthur, Westhorp, Cherryvalley, Belfast
Scott, James, B.s., Craigtara, Annadale Avenue, do.
Sharcholders and Members. 129
adearle, G. O., B.sc., Research Institute, Glenmore
House, Jambeg aShanks, E., Fernagh, Saintfield Road, Belfast aSheridan, Wm., 9 Roe Street, Cliftonville, do. Sinclair, Professor Thomas, M.p., F.R.c.s., Eng.,
University Square, do. aSinclair, Thomas, J.p., Lisburn aSkillen, Joseph, The Lisnagarvey Linen Co., Lisburn “Small, Professor James, D.SC., M.R.1.A., PH.C.,
Queen’s University, Belfast Stanley, Major Rupert, LL.D., B.A., M.I.E.E., F.I.R.E.,
Municipal College of Technology, do.
Steen, William, B.u., Roseberry, Marlborough Park, do. aStephens, Captain J. K., 3.p., 18 Donegall Square N., do. aStevenson, John, Coolavin, Malone Road, do. Stirling, James H., Ardenreagh, Windsor Avenue, do. Stelfox, Arthur W., A.R.I.B.4., M.R.1.A., 14 Clareville
Road, Rathgar, Dublin Stewart, A. W., Seaforde, Park Road, | Belitast Stewart, Prof. A. W., M.A., D.sc., Queen’s University, do. aSymmers, Professor W. St. C., M.B., 23 Windsor
Avenue, do. aTate, T. M., u.p., Infirmary House, Downpatrick atate, Dr: W. P., Bi do. Taylor, A. E., 20 Cranmore Gardens, Lisburn Road, Belfast aTaylor, James, 6 Royal Avenue, do.
*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark, do. *Tennent, Robert James (Representative of), | Rushpark, do.
Thomas, 8. L., 3.p., 4 Downshire Park, Bangor aThompson, Fidward, Prospect Mills, Belfast Thompson, John, 3.P., Mountcollyer, Malone Road, ‘do. aThompson, Joseph Altorf, Holvwood Road, do.
Thompson, J. M. 4 Milton Terrace, Wolseley Street, do.
130 Shareholders and Members.
Thompson, 8. B., J.p., Piney Ridge, Malone Road, Belfast .
Thomas, Trevor C., 6 Chichester Street, do. Torney, H. C. S., F.R.S.A.1., The Moat, Holywood Totten, J. H. B.a., B.sc., F.1.c., 16 Donegall
Square S., Belfast Torrens, T. H., p.u., s.p., Edenmore, Jordanstown Trimble, Dr. A., 3.p., Tyn Owen, Downview Ave., Belfast Todd, Robert G., 1 Mount Easton, Cliftonville, do. «Turner, S., junior, 142 Cliftonpark Avenue, do. Turnley, Francis, Drumnasole, Carnlough aWalker, Franklin M., Mount Royal, Whitehead Ward, William C., Seafield, Raglan Road, Bangor aWallace, the Rt. Hon. Colonel R. H.. c.B.,.p.z.,
Myra Castle, Downpatrick *Webb, Richard (Representative of), Knock, Belfast aWelch, R. J., m.r.1.a., 49 Lonsdale Street, do. Whitaker, W. Martin, k.c., M.A., 4 Castleton Terrace, do. White, Charles E., 10 Donegall Square West, do. White, G. W., Chatsworth, Balmoral Avenue, | do.
« White, Right Hon. J. C., 3.p. Craigavad Whitla, Sir William, M.P., M.p., J.p., Lennoxvale, Belfast aWilson, Prof. Gregg, 0.B.E., M.A., PH.D., D.SC.,
M.R.I.A., Queen’s University, do. aWilson, George, 17 Bedford Street, do. Wilson, W. J. P., Chamber of Commerce, do. *Wilson, W. Percival (Representative of), do. *Wolff, G. W. (Representatives of), do. Woodhouse, William, 24 Evelyn Gardens, Cavehill
Road, do. Workman, Francis, p.L., The Moat, Strandtown, do. Workman, W. H., m.B.o.u.. F.z.s., Lismore, Windsor
Avenue, ) do.
*Workman, T. (Representative of), Workman, W., 8 Corporation Street, do.
Shareholders and Members. 131
Wren, Prof. H., M.4., p.sc., Pu.p., Municipal College
of Technology, Belfast Wright, W. 8., 71 Marlborough Park, do.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
aBrett, Sir Charles H., tu.p., Gretton Villa, S., Malone Road, Belfast d’Albe, Fournier, p.sc. (Lond. & Birm.), a.R.c.sc., M.R.I.A., The Hermitage, Portsmouth Road, Kingston Foster, Nevin H., M.8.1.A., F.L.S.,.M-B.0.U., ; Hillsborough, Co. Down aStendall, J. A. S., m.B.o.u., Museum, College Sq., Belfast
Swanston, William, F.c.s., Farm Hill. Dunmurry
Wright, Joseph, F.c.s., 10 May Street, Belfast
a*Young, Robert Magill, 3.p., M.A., M.R.I.A., F.R.S.A.L., F.R.I.B.A., Rathvarna, do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do. Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
|The Hon. Secretary will be obliged if shareholders and members will notify him in the event of change of address, cr of any inaccuracies appearing in the names and addresses in the list. Address:—The Museum, College Square North, Belfast. |
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