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LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

UNIVERSITY CoLLEGE, LIVERPOOL.

cat ECVV ST |

DEAR SIR,

The Council of the Liverpool Biological

Society have much pleasure in presenting to the

mee, “ef of the ‘‘ Proceedings and

—EE

Transactions’’ of their Society.

Kindly acknowledge receipt and oblige, | | :
‘ Pa
Yours faithfully

oat ew Seott

‘

Received from the ‘ Liverpool Biological

Society” Vol..... an eae of the ‘ Proceedings

and Transactions.”

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

vou. xX. a

SESSION 1895-96. 3 | ae

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LIVERPOOL: ‘ees
‘Printed By T. Doss & Co., 229, Brownnow Hit, ;
g 1896, se

| ISG O/
CONTENTS.
I. PROCEEDINGS.
- PAGE
Office-bearers and Council, 1895—96 . = vie
Report of the Council . : o> Will:
Summary of Proceedings at the Micsiings so ES
Laws ofthe Society : : Sy Seve
List of Members . XX:
Librarian’s Report (with list of eautons "p Tpoey XXIV.
Treasurer’s Balance Sheet. ‘ , : --, Ee

Il. TRANSACTIONS.

Presidential Address on Botanic Gardens—Past and
Present. By R. J. Harvey Gisson, M.A.,
eo.s. . : i

Ninth Annual Report of the eee Marine
Biology Committee and their Biological Station
at Port Erin. By Prof. HpeRpMaAn, D.Sc.,F.R.S. 34

Free-Swimming Copepoda from the West Coast of
Treland. By Isaac C. THompson, F.L.8. eae

Report on the Investigations carried on in 1895 in
connection with the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries
Laboratory at University College, Liverpool.
By Professor W. A. HeRpMAN, D.Sc., F.R.5.,

and Mr. ANDREW Scott, Fisheries Assistant. 104
Notes on the Distribution of Amphipoda. By

ALFRED O. WALKER, F.L.S. . i TS
Ferns and Flowering Plants; a Chapter in Evolution.

See et. SCOTT, M.A., Ph.D., E.R.S.. . » “NSE

Additional Observations on the Vitality and Ger-
mination of Seeds. By A. J. Ewart, B.8c.,
Ph.D. (Leipzig). ; ; oy 1 ht (486

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

POOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. =

OFFICE-BEARERS AND COUNCIL.

Ex-Presidents :

1886—87 Pror. W. MITCHELL BANKS, M.D., F.R.C.S
1887—88 J. J. DRYSDALE, M.D.

1888—89 Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
1889—90 Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.B.S.E.
1890-91 T. J. MOORE, O.M.Z.S.

1891—92 T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S., A.LS.

189293 ALFRED O. WALKER, J.P., F.L.S.

189394 JOHN NEWTON, M.R.G.S.

189495 Pror. F. GOTCH, M.A., F.R.S.

SHSSION X., 1895-96.

President -
Pror. R. J. HARVEY GIBSON, M.A.

Pice-Presidents :

Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.
HENRY O. FORBES, LL.D., F.Z.S.

Hon. Treasurer :
ISAAC C. THOMPSON, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

Hon. Wibrarian:
ANDREW SCOTT.

How. Secretary:
JOSEPH. A. CLUBB, B.Sc. (Vict.).

Council :
H. C. BEASLEY. JOHN NEWTON, M.R.C.S.
Pror. BOYCE, M.B., M.R.C.S. TC. BY LEY.
W.J. HALLS. W. E. SHARP.
J. SIBLEY HICKS, M.D., F.L.S, A. T. SMITH, Jun.
Rey. T. S. LEA, M.A. A. O. WALKER, F.L.S.

G. H. MORTON, F.G.S. J. WIGLESWORTH, M.D.

REPORT of the COUNCIL.

Dvurine the Session 1895-96 there have been seven
ordinary meetings of the Society, held as heretofore at
University College. A field meeting was arranged for to
Hilbre Island, but the weather re so bad, that it had
to be abandoned.

The communications made to the Society have been
representative of almost all branches of Biology and many
interesting exhibits have been submitted at the meetings.

The change made in the procedure whereby half an
hour at the beginnirig’ of the meeting is devoted to mis-
cellaneous exhibits, tea and conversation, has proved on
the whole satisfactory.

As on former occasions the Society has been favoured
with an address from a distinguished Biologist from
another centre, viz., Dr. Scott, Honorary Keeper of the
Jodrell Laboratory, Kew, whose paper, on ‘ Ferns and
Flowering Plants,—a chapter in evolution”’ was greatly
appreciated. . ,

The Library still continues to make satisfactory progress
as shown by the Librarian’s Report which follows.

The Treasurer’s usual statement and balance sheet are
appended.

No alterations have been made in the Laws of the
Society during the past session.

Mr. Alfred Leicester, and Dr. Hanitsch former members
of the Society, and both of whom have rendered valuable
services to the Society have been added to the roll of
Honorary Members.

The members at present on the roll are as follows :—

Honorary Members.......... 9
.Ordinary Members........... 66
Student Members............ 20

SUMMARY of PROCEEDINGS at the MEETINGS.

The first meeting of the tenth session was held at

University College on Friday, 11th October, 1895.

1. The first part of the proceedings took place in the large
Zoology Laboratory from 7 to 8 o’clock. ‘Tea was
served at one end of the room and on the tables
were the following exhibits :—

By Prof. Herdman: a series of sub-marine
deposits from the Irish Sea.

By Prof. Harvey Gibson; some recent additions
to the Botanical Museum of University College,
from Kew Gardens. ,

_ By Dr. H. O. Forbes; a living specimen of the
electric cat-fish, (Malapterurus electricus), from the
Aquarium of the Free Public Museum.

By J. A. Clubb, B.Sc.; some living specimens of
fresh-water Polyzoa under the microscope.
‘The President-elect (Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A.,)
took the chair at 8 o’clock, in the Zoology Theatre.

2. The Report of the Council on the Session 1894-95 (see
“Proceedings,” Vol. IX., p. vill.) was read and
adopted.

3. The Treasurer’s Balance Sheet for the Session 1894-95
(see ‘‘ Proceedings,” Vol. [X., p. xxxiv.) was sub-
mitted and approved. }

4, The Librarian’s Report (see ‘‘ Proceedings,” Vol. IX.,
p. XXv.) was submitted and approved.

5. The following Office-bearers and Council for the ensuing
Session were elected :—Vice-Presidents, Prof. W.
A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S., H. O. Forbes, LL.D.,
F.Z.S.; Hon. Treasurer, I. C. Thompson, F.L.5.,

X. PROCEEDINGS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

F.R.M.S.; Hon. Librarian, Andrew Scott; Hon.
Secretary, Joseph A. Clubb, B.Sc. (Vict.); Council,
H.C. Beasley, Prof. Boyce, M.B., M.R.C.S., W. J.
Halls, J. Sibley Hicks, M.D., Rev. T. 8S. Lea, M.A.,
G. H. Morton, F.G.S., John Newton, M.B.C.S.,
T. C. Ryley, W. E. Sharp, A. T. Smith, Jun., A.
O. Walker, F'.L.8., and J. Wiglesworth, M.D.

6. Mr. Alfred Leicester was elected an Honorary Member
of the Society.

7. The President delivered the Inaugural Address, eiltitled
‘“‘ Botanic Gardens—past and present”’ (see ‘‘ Tran-
sactions,” p. 1). A vote of thanks proposed by
Dr. Wiglesworth, seconded by Mr. Alf. O. Walker,
was carried with acclamation.

The second meeting of the tenth session was held at
University College on Friday, November 8th, 1895. The
President in the chair.

1. The following exhibits were on view in the Zoological
Laboratory from 7 to 8 o’clock :—

By Dr. Newton; some examples of pond life
under the microscope.

By Dr. Forbes; specimens of marine animals
preserved in formalin.

2. Mr. G. H. Morton, F'.G.8., gave a short note on some
plant remains from the Carboniferous Limestone,
and exhibited some artistically prepared restorations
drawn by Miss Wood.

3. Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., communicated the Ninth
Annual Report on the work of the Liverpool
Marine Biology Committee, and the Port Erin
Biological Station (see ‘‘ Transactions,” p. 34.)

The third meeting of the tenth session was held at

SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT THE MEETINGS. Xi.

University College on Friday, December 18th, 1895.

The President in the chair.

1. In the Zoological Laboratory, Mr. Andrew Scott
exhibited drawings of eleven species of Copepoda
new to the District; Prof. Harvey Gibson showed
a series of Botanical preparations arranged for
teaching purposes, and Mr. F. J. Cole exhibited
microscopic specimens of the nerves of skate, etc.

2. Dr. Grossmann gave an intensely interesting account
of Whaling off the Faroe Islands. By means of a
beautiful series of lantern slides, the sighting,
catching and cutting up of the big whales were
most graphically portrayed. An interesting dis-
cussion ensued on certain points brought forward
in the paper, in which Dr. Newton, Mr. Thompson,
the Hon. Secretary and others took part.

The fourth meeting of the tenth session was held at
University College on Friday, January 10th, 1896. The
President in the chair.

1. In the Zoological Laboratory, Prof. Herdman exhibited
a series of drawings and microscopic preparations
illustrative of the anatomy of the oyster.

2. Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.8., gave an account of some
free-swimming Copepoda from the West Coast of
Ireland.

3. A joint interim Report on Green Oysters and Disease
was submitted by Profs. Herdman and Boyce. A
series of lantern slides illustrated some of the
points of the paper.

4, Dr. H. O. Forbes laid on the table some notes on the
brain of the Chimpanzee (Anthropopithecus calvus),
which will be published in the next volume of
Transactions, together with some additional points.

Xll. PROCEEDINGS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The fifth meeting of the tenth session was held at
University College on Friday, February 14th, 1896. The
President in the chair. |
1. In the Zoology Laboratory, among other exhibits was a

form of photographic camera adapted for taking
photographs of living alge in rock pools, and used
by the Rev. T. 8. Lea at Port Erin.

2. Rev. T. 8. Lea gave an interesting exhibition of an
excellent series of these photographs.

3. Dr. H. O. Forbes laid before the Society a paper on the
evidence in favour of the former existence of an
Antarctic Continent. He drew some forcible argu-
ments from the distribution of both animal and
plant life at present prevailing in the extremities of
the existing continents of Australia, Africa and S.
America, and mainly on the evidence of this
distribution he showed an outline map of the
possible land connections which may at one time

have prevailed. An interesting discussion followed

in which Prof. Herdman, Mr. Lomas, Mr. Fitzpatrick
and others took part. Various points of Dr. Forbes,
paper were freely criticised, and it was generally
agreed that a greater knowledge of the depth of
the sea in the area involved was required.

The sixth meeting of the tenth session was held in
University College on Friday, March 13th, 1896. The
Vice-President (Prof. Herdman) in the chair.

1. In the Zoology Laboratory, Mr. I. C. Thompson
exhibited a form of incandescent gas light suitable

as a microscopic lamp. ,
2. Mr. Alfred O. Walker contributed a paper on the
proportion of genera to species in certain localities,

SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. Xill.

and advanced some interesting statistics in regard
to the same. A discussion followed.

38. Prof. Herdman submitted the Annual Report on the
work of the Sea-Fisheries Laboratory for 1895 by
Mr. Andrew Scott and himself (see ‘‘ Transactions,”
p. 103).

4. Prof. Herdman communicated a series of extracts
translated by Mrs. Herdman from Dr. Johan
Hjorts ‘‘ Hydrografisk-—Biologiske Studier over
Norske Fisherier,”’ a paper dealing with the currents
and their effect on the Fisheries of the North Sea.

The seventh meeting of the tenth session was held in
University College on Friday, May 8th, 1896. The
President in the chair.

1. In the Zoological Laboratory a number of microscopic
slides were exhibited.

2. Dr. Richard Hanitsch was elected an paieas) Member
of the Society.

3. Dr. Scott, Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell Laboratory,
Kew, gave an address on “‘ Ferns and Flowering
Plants—a chapter in evolution” (see Abstract
“Transations,’ p. 181). On the motion of Prof.
Weiss, seconded by Dr. Forbes, F.Z.S., and sup-
ported by Prof. Herdman, a hearty vote of thanks
was accorded to Dr. Scott.

4. Mr. A. J. Ewart, B.Sc., Ph.D., contributed a paper on
“Further observations on the Vitality of Seeds”
(see “ Transactions,” p. 185).

The Annual Field Meeting was arranged for July 25th
to Hilbre Island, but as rain was falling heavily at the
time of the starting of the train, it was reluctantly decided
to abandon the trip. An adjournment to the Museum

XIV. PROCEEDINGS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

was agreed to, for the purpose of holding a short business
meeting. Prof. Herdman took the chair.

On the motion of Prof. Herdman seconded by J. A.
Clubb, B.Sc., Dr. Forbes, F.Z.8., was elected President
for the next session.

LAWS of the LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL
SOCIETY.

I.—The name of the Society shall be the ‘‘ LIvERPOOL
BIOLOGICAL Society,” and its object the advancement of
Biological Science.

I1.—The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held
at University College, at Seven o’clock, during the six
Winter Months, on the second Friday evening in every
month, or at such other place or time as the Council may
appoint.

III.—The business of the Society shall be conducted by
a President, two Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, a Secretary,
a Librarian, and twelve other Members, who shall form a
Council; four to constitute a quorum.

ITV.—The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre-
tary, Librarian, and Council shall be elected annually, by
ballot, in the manner hereinafter mentioned.

V.—The President shall be elected by the Council
(subject to the approval of the Society) at the last Meeting
of the Session, and take office at the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

VI.—The mode of election of the Vice-Presidents,
Treasurer, Secretary, Librarian, and Council shall be in the
form and manner following :—It shall be the duty of the
retiring Council at their final meeting to suggest the names
of Members to fill the offices of Vice-Presidents, Treasurer,
Secretary, Librarian, and of four Members who were not

XVI. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

on the last Council to be on the Council for the ensuing
session, and formally to submit to the Society, for election
at the Annual Meeting, the names so suggested. The
Secretary shall make out and send to each Member of the
Society, with the circular convening the Annual Meeting,
a printed list of the retiring Council, stating the date of
the election of each Member, and the number of his atten-
dances at the Council Meetings during the past session ;
and another containing the names of the Members sug-
gested for election, by which lists, and no others, the votes
shall be taken. It shall, however, be open to any Member
to substitute any other names in place of those upon the
lists, sufficient space being left for that purpose. Should
any list when delivered to the President contain other
than the proper number of names, that list and the votes
thereby given shall be absolutely void. Every list must
be handed in personally by the Member at the time of
voting. Vacancies occurring otherwise than by regular
annual retirement shall be filled by the Council.

VII.—Every Candidate for Membership shall be pro-
posed by three or more Members, one of the proposers
from personal knowledge. The nomination shall bé read |
from the Chair at any Ordinary Meeting, and the Candi-
date therein recommended shall be balloted for at the
‘succeeding Ordinary Meeting. Ten black balls shall
exclude.

VIII.—When a person has been elected a Member, the
Secretary shall inform him thereof, by letter, and shall at
the same time forward him a copy of the Laws of the
Society.

[X.—Every person so elected shall within one calendar
month after the date of such election pay an Entrance Fee
of Half a Guinea and an Annual Subscription of one

LAWS. XVil.

Guinea (except in the case of Student Members); but the
Council shall have the power in exceptional cases, of
extending the period for such payment. No Entrance
Fee shall be paid on re-election by any Member who has
_ paid such fee.

X.—The Subscription (except in the case of Student
Members) shall be One Guinea per annum, payable in
advance, on the day of the Annual Meeting in October.

XI.—Members may compound for their Annual Sub-
scriptions by a single payment of Ten Guineas.

X11.—There shall also be a class of Students Members,
paying an Entrance Fee of Two Shillings and Sixpence,
and a Subscription of Five Shillings per annum.

XIII.—All nominations of Student Members shall be
passed by the Council previous to nomination at an Ordin-
ary Meeting. When elected, Student Members shall be
entitled to all the privileges of Ordinary Members, except
that they shall not receive the publications of the Society,
nor vote at the Meetings, nor serve on the Council.

XIV.—Resignation of Membership shall be signified 7
writing to the Secretary, but the Member so resigning shall
be lable for the payment of his Annual Subscription, and
all arrears up to date of his resignation.

XV.—The Annual Meeting shall be held on the second
Friday in October, or such other convenient day in the
month as the Council may appoint, when a Report of the
Council on the affairs of the Society, and a Balance Sheet,
duly signed by the Auditors previously appointed by the
Council, shall be read.

XVI.—Any person (not resident within ten miles of
Liverpool) eminent in Biological Science, or who may have
rendered valuable services to the Society, shall be eligible

XVI. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

as an Honorary Member; but the number of such Members
shall not exceed fifteen at any one time.

XVII.—Captains of vessels and others contributing
objects of interest shall be admissible as Associates for
a period of three years, subject to re-election at the end
that time.

XVIII.—Such Honorory Members and Associates shall
be nominated by the Council, elected by a majority at an
Ordinary Meeting, and have the privilege of attending and
taking part in the Meetings of the Society, but not voting.

XIX.—Should there appear cause in the opinion of the
Council for the expulsion from the Society of any Member,
a Special General Meeting of the Society shail be called
by the Council for that purpose; and if two-thirds of those
voting agree that such Member be expelled, the Chairman
shall declare this decision, and the name of such Member
shall be erased from the books. |

XX.—Every Member shall have the privilege of intro-
ducing one visitor at each Ordinary Meeting. The same
person shall not be admissible more than twice during the
same session.

XXI.—Notices of all Ordinary or Special Meetings shall
be issued to each Member by the Secretary, at least three
days before such Meeting.

XXII.—The President, Council, or any ten Members
can convene a Special General Meeting, to be called within
fourteen days, by giving notice in writing to the Secretary,
and stating the object of the desired Meeting. 'The circu-
lar convening the Meeting must state the purpose thereof.

XXTII.—Votes in all elections shall be taken by ballot,
and in other cases by show of hands, unless a ballot be
first demanded.

LAWS. XIX.

XXTV.—No alteration shall be made in these Laws,
except at an Annual Meeting, or a Special Meeting called
for that purpose; and notice in writing of any proposed
alteration shall be given to the Council, and read at the
Ordinary Meeting, at least a month previous to the meet-
ing at which such alteration is to be considered, and the
proposed alteration shall also be printed in the circular
convening such meeting; but the Council shall have the
power of enacting such Bye-Laws as may be deemed neces-
sary, which Bye-Laws shall have the full power of Laws
until the ensuing Annual Meeting, or a Special Meeting
convened for their consideration.

BYEK-LAW.

Student Members of the Society may be admitted as
Ordinary Members without re-election upon payment of
the Ordinary Member’s Subscription; and they shall be
exempt from the Ordinary Member’s entrance fee.

LIST of MEMBERS of the LIVERPOOL

ELECTED.

1886

1890

1886

1888
1894
1889
1887
1886
1886

1895
1890
1891
1889

1890
1894

1891
1886

BIGLOGICAL SOC ry.

SHSSION 1894-95.

A. ORDINARY MEMBERS.

(Life Members are marked with an asterisk.)

Banks, Prof. W. Mitchell; M:D., Waks@sceee
Rodney-street

Batters, H, A. .i., B.A., 11153.) Hele
Laurels, Wormly, Herts

Barron, Prof. Alexander, M.B., M.b:@iSi som
Rodney-street

Beasley, Henry C., Prince Albert-road, Wavertree

Boyce, Prof., University College, Liverpool

Brown, Prof. J. Campbell, 27, Abercromby-square

Caine, Nathaniel, Spital, Bromborough

Caton, R., M.D., F.R.C.P., Lea Hall, Gateaere

Clubb, J: -A., B.Sc., Hon. Score TAry ies
Public Museum, Liverpool |

Cole, F. J., University College, Liverpool

Davies, D., 55, Berkley-street

Dismore, Miss, 65, Shewsbury-road, Oxton

Dwerryhouse, A. R., 8, Livingstone-avenue, Sefton
Park

Ewart, A. J., B.Sc., 38, Berkley-street, Liverpool

Forbes, H. O., LL.D., F.Z.8., Vick-PResipenm
Free Public Museum, Liverpool |

Garstang, W., M.A., Lincoln College, Oxford

Glynn, Prof. T. R., M.D., F.R.C.P., 62, Rodney-
street

1886

1891
1894

1894
1886
1887

1886

1893
1891
1894
1888
1886

1894

1895

1894
1896

1886

1893

1888
1886
1886
1888
1887
1894

LISTS OF MEMBERS. XX1.

eia-en. Prot. &. J:, M.A., F.0.8., PRESIDENT,
University College

Goren, Prot. F.,-E.R.S., Oxford

Greening, Linneus, F.L.8., 5, Wilson Patten-
street, Warrington

Grossmann, Karl, M.D., 70, Rodney-street

Halls, W. J., 35, Lord-street

Healey, George F'., 32, Croxteth-grove, Sefton
Park |

meroman Prof. W.,A., D.Sc.,. F.B.S., VICcH-
PRESIDENT, University College

Herdman, Mrs., B.Sc., 32, Bentley-road, Liverpool

Hicks, J. Sibley, M.D., 2, Erskine-street

Hickson, Prof. 8S. J., Owens College, Manchester

*Hurst, C. H., Ph.D., 41, Stephen’s-green, Dublin

Jones, Charles W., Field House, Prince Alfred-
road, Wavertree

Jones, Charles E., Elpie, Prenton-rd., W., B’head

Wem, Rev. lu. de Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.58., 6,
Devonshire-road

Lea, Rev. T. S., 8, Wellington Fields, Wavertree

Laverock, W. S., M.A., B.Sc., Free Museum,
Liverpool

Lomas, J., Assoc.N.S.S., Salen, Amery Grove,
Birkenhead

Macdonald, J. S., B.A., Physiological Lab., Univ.
College, Liverpool

Melly, W. R., 90, Chatham-street

McMillan, William $., F..5., Brook-road, Maghull

Morton, G. H., F.G.8., 209, Edge-lane, HE.

Newton, John, M.R.C.8., 44, Rodney-street

Narramore, W., F..5S., 5, Geneva-road, Elm Park

Paterson, Prof., M.D., M.R.C.S., University Col-
lege, Liverpool

XX; LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

1894 Paul, Prof. F. T., Rodney-street, Liverpool

1891 Phillips, Miss F., 8, Green-lawn, Rock Ferry

1892 Phillips, E. J. M., L.D.8., M.R.C.8., Rodney-st.

1886 *Poole, Sir James, J.P., Abercromby Square

1890 Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston

1895 Ricketts, C., M.D., 1a, Cleveland-street, Birkenhead

1887 Robertson, Helenus R., Springhill, Church-road,

Wavertree

1887 Ryley, Thomas C., 10, Waverley-road

1895 Sandeman, G., University College, Liverpool

1892 Sephton, Rev. J., M.A., 90, Huskisson-street

1894 Scott, Andrew, Hon. LIBRARIAN, University Col-
lege, Liverpool

1895 Sherrington, Prof., M.D., F.R.S., University Col-
lege, Liverpool

1886 Smith, Andrew T., Jun., 13, Bentley-road, Prince’s
Park |

1895 Smith J., Rose Villa, Lachford, Warrington

1893 Tate, Francis, F.C.S., Hackins Hey, Liverpool

1886 Thompson, Isaac C., F.L.5.; FR: Miss eee
TREASURER, 53, Croxteth-road —

1889 Thornely, Miss L. R., Baycliff, Woolton Hill

1888 ‘Toll, J..M., Kirby Park, Kirby

1886 Walker, Alfred O., J.P., F.L.8., Colwyn Bay

1889 Williams, Miss Leonora, Hill Top, Bradfield, nr.

Sheffield

1891 Wiglesworth, J., M.D., County Asylum, Rainhill

1891 Wood, G. W., F.1.C., Riggindale-road, Streatham,
London

1892 Weiss, Prof., Owens College, Manchester |

1892 Young, T. F., M.D., 12, Merton-road, Bootle

B. SrupEnt MEMBERS.
Armstrong, Miss A., 26, Trinity-road, Bootle

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXill.

Burnet, A., University College, Liverpool

Crowther, H. P., University College, Liverpool
Chadwick, H. C., Free Museum, Bootle

Christophers, 8. R., 10, Lily-road, Fairfield

Crompton, Miss C. A., University College, Liverpool
Depree, 8. §., 3, Morley-road, Southport

Dickinson, T., 3, Clark-street, Prince’s Park

Dumergue, A. F’.,7, Montpellier-terrace, Up. Parliament-st.
Dutton, J. EK., Kings-street, Rock Ferry

Ewart, R. J., 33, Berkley-street, Liverpool

Hannah, J. H. W., 61, Avondale-road, Sefton Park
Harvey, EK. J. W., 5, Cairns-street, Liverpool
Henderson, W. S., B.Sc., 2, Holley-road, Fairfield
Hurter, D. G., Holly Lodge, Cressington

Linton, 8. F., St. Pauls Vicarage, Clifton-road, Birkenhead
Lowe, O. W. A., 4, Wexford-road, Oxton

Quinby, F’. G., 11, Belvidere-road, Liverpool

Simpson, A. Hope, Annandale, Sefton Park

Willmer, Miss J. H., 20, Lorne-road, Oxton, Birkenhead

C. HonoRARY MEMBERS.

H.S.H. Albert I., Prince of Monaco, 25, Faubourg St.
Honore, Paris

Bornet, Dr. Edouard, Quai de la Tournelle 27, Paris

Claus, Prof. Carl, University, Vienna

Fritsch, Prof. Anton, Museum, Prague, Bohemia

Giard, Prof. Alfred, Sorbonne, Paris

Haeckel, Prof. Dr. E., University, Jena

Hanitsch, R., Ph.D., Raffles Museum, Singapore

Leicester, Alfred, Buckhurst Farm, nr. Edenbridge, Kent

Solms-Laubach, Prof. Dr., Botan. Instit., Strassburg

REPORT of the LIBRARIAN.

Although no additional exchanges of publications have
been arranged since the last Annual Report, the number
of Societies and Institutions exchanging with us is still
maintained and is the same as that given last year,
viz. :—seventy-six.

The following list gives the titles of the exdhanees and
donations received during the session :—

1. Allgemeine Fischerei-Zeitung. Vol. XX., Nos. 10—26, Vol. XXI.
Nos. 1—5. |

2. Amsterdam, Verhand. der K. Adad. van Wetenschappen (Ser. 2).
Vol. IV., Nos. 1-6; Jaarboek, 1894.

3. Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes. Vol. II., Nos. 3 and 4; Vol. IIL,
is@= Ik

4, Archives Neerlandaises de Sciences exactes et naturelles Vol. XXIX..
Nos. 2 and 5.

5. Australian Museum, The ; Report of the Trustees for the year 1894.

6. Bergen, Museums Aarbog, 1894-5.

7. Berlin, Math. u. natur. Mittheilungen d. k. preuss. Akademie,
Nos. 3—7.

8. Berlin, Sitzungsberichte d. k. preuss. Akademie, Nos. 1—88.

9. Bihang till K. Svenska Vetenskaps—Akad. Handl. Vol. XX, Zool.
pt. LV. Bor, ote Tike :

10. Bordeaux, Proces—Verbaux de la Société Linnéenne. Vol. XLYII.,
1894.

11. Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique. Vol. XXVIL.,

part 1.

12. Canada, Proceed. and Trans. of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Vol. VIII., pt. 4.

13. Canada, Bulletin Natural History Society of New Brunswick. No. 13.

14. Chili, Actes de la Société Scientifique. Vol. IV., No. 5.

15. Chili, Revista Chilena de Hijiene. Vol. I., No. 3.

16. Denmark, Oversigt over det K. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs. Forhand.
1894, No. 3; 1895, Nos. 1—4. |

17. Denmark, Oversigt over det K. Danske Vidensk. Memoires. Ser. 6.
WOE MANNE A INhope ile

18.
iB

27.

LIBRARIAN S REPORT. XXV.

Frankfurt, Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gescllacha{t. 1895.

Gottingen, Nachrichten d. k. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften. 1895,
Nos. 1—4.

Japan, Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University. Vol.
VIL., parts 4 and 5,

Kjobenhayn, Report of the Danish Biological Station to the Home
Meparment V. 1894, Vol. VIII., 2°; Vol. IX., 1.

Leipzig, Berichte d. k. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften. 1894, No. 3;
1895, Nos. 1—4.

Manchester, Microscopical Society, Transactions and Annual Report,
1894.

Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Journal, N.S.
Ven tif, Vol. 1V., Nos. 1 and 2.

Moscou, Bulletin de la Société Impériale des Naturalistes. 1895, Nos.
1 and 3.

Museum d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, Bulletin. 1895, Nos. 1, 3, 6

' and 8.

Nancy, Builetin de la Société des Sciences. (Ser. 2), Vol. XIII., pt.
29, Nos. 4—6; 8—10; Vol. II., part 1.
Napoli, Rendiconto dell Accademia dell Scienze fisiche e matematiche.
(Ser. 3), Vol. 1.
Natuurkundig Tijschrift voor Nederlandsch. Indie. Vol. LIV; Vol.
taLSEN.S.).

New Zealand Institute, Trans. and.Proceedings. Vol. XXVII., 1894.

Rheinlande, Verhand. d. naturh. Vereins d. preuss. Vol. LII., part 1.

Royal Microscopical Society, Journal. 1895, parts 4—6 ; 1896, part 1.

Scottish Fishery Board, Annual Report. XIII.

Stavanger Museum, Aarsberetning for 1894.

St. Pétersbourg, Bulletin de VAccadémie Impériale des Sciences.
(Ser. 5), Vol. 11., Nos. 4 and 5; Vol. III., No. 1.

The Naturalist. May to December, 1895. January to April, 1896.

Torino, Bollet. dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia comparata delle
R. Universita. Vol. X., Nos. 1983—209.

United States, Bulletin of the Fish Commission. Vol. XIV., 1894.

United States, Proceedings of the National Museum. No. 1018—
1032.

United States, Bulletin of the National Museum. No. 39, parts J.
and K., No. 48.

United States, Report of the National Museum. 1898, pp. 337—
487; 587-—624; 653—663.

United States, Annual Report Museum of Comparative Anatomy.
1894-95.

XXVI. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

43.

44,
45,
46.

47.
48.
49,
50.
Bl.
52.
53.
Bd.
BD.
56.

57.
58.

59.
60.

61.

62.

63.
64.

65.

66.

United States, Bulletin Museum of Comparative Anatomy. XXV.,
No. 12; XXVI., Nos. 2and15; XXVII., Nos. 1—6; XXVIIL.,
Now.

United States, Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia.
Vol. III., parts 1 and 2

United States, Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.
Vol. XXVI.

United States, Transactions of the Academy of Science, St. Louis.
Vols. II.—V.; Vol. VI., No. 18; Vol. VII., Nos. 1—38.

United States, Tufts College, Mass. Studies No. IV.

Upsala, Royal Society of Sciences (Royal University). Ser. III., Vol.
XV; No. 2: .

Upsala, Studien tiber Nordische Actinien, 1 von Oskar Carlgren.

Upsala, Studier ofver Alkaloidernas Lokalisation,—Familjen Log-
aniaceae. By Marten Elfstarnd.

Upsala, Anatom. System. Studier ofver Lokstammiga Oxalisarter. By
Th. Fredrikson.

Upsala, Den Gotlandska vegetationens iitavecklingshistoria. By
Rutger Sernander.

Upsala, Carl von Linné, II. By Th. M. Fries.

Upsala, Naturalhistorien 1 Sverige. By Th. M. Fries.

Upsala, Uber der Rhizoidenbildung. By O. Borge.

Upsala, Uber Zchinorhynchus turbinella, . brevicollis, und LE.
porrigens. By Ernst Borgstrom.

Victoria, Proceedings of the Royal Society. Vol. VII.

Wien, Verhandl. d. k. Zool-botanischen Gesellschaft. Vol. XLYV.,
parts 4 and 5, 8—10; Vol. XLVI., part 1.

Wien, Annal. d. k. k. Naturh. Hofmuseums. Vol. IX., parts 1—4.

Zurich, Vierteljahrschrift d. naturf. Gesellschaft. Vol. XL., No. 2.

Zeitschrift fiir fischerei. 1895, part 6.

By DONATION.

The Irish Naturalist, Special Galway Conference Number. Vol. IV.,
No. 9., 1895.

Le Laboratoire Maritime du Muséum de Paris. Par A. E. Malard.

Brit. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, Ipswich 1895, Address to
the Zool. Sect. By William A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.8.,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural History in University College,
Liverpool, President of the Section.

The Marine Zoology, Botany, and Geology of the Irish Sea, Third
Report of the Committee.

On Oysters and Typhoid ; an experimental enquiry into the effect upon

84.

85.
86.

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. XXVH.

the Oyster of various external conditions including Pathogenic
organisms. By Professors Boyce and Herdman.

Some facts and reflections drawn from a study in Budding in Compound
Ascidians. By Professor W. E. Ritter, University of California.
Occupation of a table at the Zoological Station, Naples. Report of the

Committee.
Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association at Plymouth. Report of the Committee.
Fauna of Liverpool Bay. Report IV.
Science, N.S. Vol. II., No. 41.
Nos. 62—71. Presented by Professor Herdman, F.R.S.
Sur un examplaire Chilien de Pterodela pedicularia, L., & nervation
doublement anormale. Par Alfred Giard, presented by the Author.
Etudes sur les Fourmis les Guépes et les Abeilles 8e Note.
Sur Vorgane de nettoyage tibio tarsien de Myrmica rubra, L., race
Levinodis. Nyl.
Neuviéme note—sur Vespa crabro, L., Histoire d’un nid depuis son
origine.
Onzieme note sur Vespa germanica et V. vulgaris.
Dixiéme note sur Vespa media, V. silvestris et V. saxonica.
Sur la Vespa crabro, L. Ponte, conservation de la chaleur dans la nid.
Sur les nids de la Vespa crabro, L., ordre d’apparition des alveoles.
Observations sur les Frelons.
Nos. 73—80, Par Charles Janet and presented by the Author.
Flora of Anglesey. Griffith.
The Amphipoda of Bate and Westwood’s ‘‘ British Sessile-eyed
Crustacea.” By Alfred O. Walker.
Nos. 81—82. Presented by A. O. Walker, Esq., F.L.S.

The Recent and Fossil Flora and Fauna of the Country around
Liverpool. By G. H. Morton, F'.G.S., presented by the Author.
Résultats des Campagnes Scientifiques accomplies sur son yacht. Par

Albert 1°° Souverain de Monaco. Fasc. VIII. Zonthaires provenant
des campagnes du yacht |’Hirondelle. Par E. Jowdan.
Fase. I. Contribution l’etude des Céphalopoda de l’atlantique
Nord. Par Louis Joubin.
Presented by H.S.H. the Prince of Monaco.
Some.recent evidence in favour of Impact. By A. W. Bickerton.
Copy of letters sent to ‘‘ Nature” on Partial Impact. By Professor
Bickerton.

XXVlll. . LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

List of Societies, etc., with which publications are
exchanged.

AMSTERDAM. —Koninlijke Akadamie van Wettenschappen.
Koninklijke Zodlogisch Genootschap Natura Artis Magistra.
BaLtimoRE.—Johns Hopkins University.
Batayvia.—Koninklijke Natuurkundig Vereeniging in Ned. Indie.
BERGEN.—Museum.
Beruin.—Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Deutscher Fischerei- Vereins.
BIRMINGHAM.—Philosophical Society.
BoLtonea.—Accademia delle Scienze.
Bonn.—Naturhistorischer verein des Preussichen Rheinlande und West-
falens.
BorDEAUX.—Société Linnéenne.
Bosron.—Society of Natural History.
BrussELLsS.—Académie Royal des Sciences, etc., et Belgique.
CAMBRIDGE.—Morphological Laboratories.
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.—Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard College.
CunristiaANiA.—Videnskabs-Selskabet.
DuBLin.—Royal Dublin Society.
EpInBuRGH—Royal Society.

Royal Physical Society.

Royal College of Physicians.

Fishery Board for Scotland. |
FRANKFuURY.—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Frripurce.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

GENEVE.—Societé de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle.
Gussun.—Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur nnd Heilkunde.
GLAscow.—Natural History Society.

Gorrincen.—Konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Hatirax.—Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science.
Han_temM.—-Musée Teyler.

Societé Hollandaise des Sciences.
Kiel.—Naturwissenschaftlichen vereins fur Schleswig—Holstein.
KsoBENHAVN.—Naturhistorike Forening.

Danish Biological Station, (C. G. John Petersen).
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
Lrrps.—Yorkshire Naturalists Union.
Lerpzia.—Konigl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Litir.—Revue Biologique du Nord de la France.
Lonpon.—Royal Microscopical Society.
British Museum (Natural History Department).

LIBRARIAN ’S REPORT. O40

_ MAncuEsTER.—Microscopical Society.

be Owens College.

- MARSEILLE.—Station Zoologique d’Endoume.

q Musée d’Histoire Naturelle.
-MAssAcuuserts.—Tufts College Library.

_ MECKLENBURG.—Vereins der Freunde der Naturgeschichte.

_ MELBOURNE.—Rovyal Society of Victoria.
-MonrTrPeviier.—Académie des Seiences et Lettres.

_ Moscov.—Société Impériale des Naturalistes.
WNancy.—Sociéte des Sciences.

Napoui.—Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche.
New Bruyswicx.—Natural History Society.

- Ovorto.—Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes.

_ Paris.—Museum d'Histoire Naturelle.

Société Zoologique de France.

Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique.
PHILADELPHIA.—Academy of Natural Sciences.

_ PiymovrH.—Marine Biological Association.

‘Sr. Lovis, Miss.—Academy of Science.

Sr. Pererspurc.—Académie Impériale des Sciences.
SANTIAGO.—Société Scientifiq du Chili.
STAVANGER.—Stavanger Museum.

SrockHoLM.-—Académie Royale des Sciences.
_SypNnry.—Australian Museum.

_ Toxro.—Imperial University.

Torino.—Musei de Zoologia ed Anatomia Cemparata della R. Universita.
Toronto.—Canadian Institute.

TrizsTEe.—Societa Adriatica de Sceinze Naturali.

q Upsata.-—Upsala Universitiet.

_ WASsHINGTON.—Smithsonian Institution.

United States National Museum.

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries.
WELLINGTON, N.Z.—New Zealand Institute.

Wiey.—kK. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums.

; K. K. Zoologisch—Botanischen Gesellschaft.
Zoricu.—Zurcher Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

ss ss PHE LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Dr. In Accounr wirH ISAAC C. THOMPSON, Hon. Treasurer. Cr.

1896. £8. a. 1896. & is...

To Use of Rooms, University College ............. ime we or 20 By Balance, 30th September, 1895............00.000e.. 65 7 2

», Lea and Attendances at Meetings ......... heer roo weleenG »» / Members’ Entrance Hees at 10/6,..........:..0..... 818 6

», Printing and Stationery— 7p OLUdenb Membersy Hecseat 2/Gm,.,amekeoicmnee em OMncn at OE

Dole oe (Corns eeue sisaienNis enero oe Soe atietieea Sota 62 19 0 ,, 64 Members’ Subscriptions at 21/-..............0.0.. 67 4 0

IBA RONWAN Seat aac sence Snore Age eee Pe aangelit a ee Lee O ,, 13 Student Members’ Subscriptions at 5/-............ 8 5 0

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mlutouanys BOOMs Cas@rvctacells sommes iccenouvhiesdoeite Leptin: | Bom OS SO |

_ », Postage and Carriage of Vols., &c., Hon. Librarian 6 9 10
a Ae LOMAS CCE raah ernie voscmenenrde:s BEY ers oid S80) 4
= - Hons) UPedsy..cvce crs: BR fa Bae Rese ee OP ton £0
», Balance in hand, September 30th, 1896...... Riana ae Doma 24!

£146 4 6 £146 4 6

By Balance in hands of Treasurer......... ............. £55138 4

ISAAC C. THOMPSON,

Hon. TREASURER.

LIVERPOOL, September 30th, 1896.

Audited and found correct, 7
. A. T. SMITH, Junr.

Als =
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a.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
ON
BOTANIC GARDENS—PAST AND PRESENT.

BY
R. J. Harvey Gisson, M.A., F.L.S., ;

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL.

My first duty is to thank you formally but none the less
sincerely, for the honour you have done me in electing me
to fill the presidential chair of the Liverpool Biological
Society. I thank you not only for the honour you have
done me as an individual but for your implied recognition
of the importance of the science which I represent in
this College. I need hardly say that it shall be my
constant endeavour to fulfil to your satisfaction the duties
devolving on your President, and I confidently look for
your interest and cooperation in aiding me to maintain the
high standard of work which this Society has always
aimed at under the guidance of the distinguished biologists
who have preceded me in the occupancy of this chair.
Our meetings, I take it, have two important functions
to fulfil, the one to awaken in others and to stimulate in
ourselves interest in the science of Biology, the other
to advance that science by original investigation and
research. Whilst frankly acknowledging the necessity
for endeavouring to render our meetings as generally
attractive and interesting as possible, I believe that we
would be taking a distinctly retrogressive step were we
to permit any such aim to obscure the wider and more
important purpose of our Society, viz., to attempt,
however feebly, still conscientiously, to elucidate some

y TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

problem or add some fact to our knowledge of living
organisms, by original contributions to biological literature.

Probably the greatest scientific work of the incoming
century will be done not so much within the realm of one
particular science as on the borderland where two or
more sciences meet. That research is steadily tending
in this direction is becoming more evident day by day. .
Recognising this trend in scientific research, we as a
society may, it seems to me, considerably expand our
own stock of conceptions and ideas by occasional joint
discussions with the devotees of allied sciences on subjects
of mutual interest. An initiative was taken in this
direction last session when the Physical Society united
with us in a consideration of certain problems connected
with the physiology of the organ of hearing. I trust it
may be possible during the present session to arrange
a joint meeting with some other scientific society whose
sphere of work to some extent may overlap that in which
we biologists labour. :

Again, I believe that it is beneficial to the welfare of
our Society that we should occasionally go outside our
own circle of members and invite some distinguished
biologist to address us on a subject which he has made
specially his own. On several occasions in past years we
have had the pleasure of listening to such addresses, and
the meetings at which we have been so favoured have
been amongst the most successful of any we have held.
I am hopeful that the precedent so established may be
again acted upon during the year of my presidency.

I would repeat, however, that in my opinion neither of
these methods of quickening public interest in Biology
must be allowed to obscure our main object and aim, viz.,
the production of original research and the publication of
our yearly volume of Transactions, which I am proud to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

to think have already won the approbation of biologists
both in Europe and America.

It is fortunate for me that your President is permitted
some latitude in his choice of a subject on which to
address you, and some freedom in his method of treatment
of it. I could scarcely hope to interest you in the detailed
anatomical researches to which I have devoted what
little time I can spare from professorial duties; on any
other subject I must perforce speak at second hand. I
would beg your forbearance, therefore, if I venture to
offer you a necessarily brief historical and descriptive
account of some of the great botanical gardens of the
world, and endeavour to shew you how the idea of a
botanic garden first arose in the minds of the medieval
botanists and thereafter became concrete in the continent
of Hurope and in our own country. I trust that some, at
least, of the remarks I have to make may be new to you,
and if I fail to make the subject interesting you will I
hope lay the blame on the teller not on the story.

It requires no great powers of observation and of
reasoning to enable us to classify gardens as either useful,
ornamental or scientific. Not that a scientific garden is
not or cannot be ornamental and even economically useful,
or a useful garden at once scientific and ornamental, but
simply that in planning out a garden we are accustomed
to consider primarily whether it is to aim at being a
decorative appendage to a house or a city, an area set a-
part for the cultivation of pot herbs or a living museum
for study and research. Scientific or Botanic Gardens
proper have for their chief purpose the advancement of
the science of Botany, are therefore just as old as the
science itself and naturally have developed pari passu
with it. An outline knowledge of the history of Botany
will obviously aid us greatly in understanding the devel-

i i ; o.oo

4 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. |

opmental stages through which the botanic garden has —
passed.

It would be quite beside my purpose to refer even in
brief to the botanical writings of the Ancients. The
names of Aristotle, Theophrastus and Dioscorides are
perhaps those most familiarly associated with the early
history of Botany, although the classical scholar is not
unacquainted with the contributions to knowledge of
plant lore of such writers as Kmpedocles, Anaxagoras,
Apollodorus, Democritus and the numerous writers on
agricultural topics down to the times of Vergil and Pliny.
A gap of several centuries follows destitute of a single
botanical publication of note until we reach the 14th and
15th centuries when we meet with the records left us by
the early herbalists. Even at the best a herbal of that
time was little more than a catalogue of plants used in
pharmacy—a list of simplicia from which the first dispen-
sers compounded their drugs. Indeed as Sachs puts it
“the chief object of the earlier herbalists was to rediscover
the plants employed in medicine by the physicians of
antiquity, and, if possible, to identify in the west the
plants mentioned as of medicinal value by the Greeks.”

_The later herbalists aimed at something higher. They
rightly relinquished the study of classic texts for the study ‘
of nature, and contented themselves with recording as
accurately as possible the external configuration of the
plants growing in or near the districts in which they
resided. It is true again that their labours resulted in a
series of descriptive and illustrated catalogues with little
or no pretence at systematic arrangement of subject
matter. They confined themselves to diagnosing and
illustrating individual form and to enumerating real or
supposed medicinal virtues. :

From a knowledge of the history of science in general ©

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

one learns to expect that along patient and apparently
purposeless accumulation of data often finds at last its
justification and its fulfilment in the sudden and brilliant
discovery of one or more grand natural laws. It is
somewhat remarkable therefore that the idea of natural
affinity arose only incidentally in the process of cataloguing
and describing plants and was, even by those who first
felt it, looked upon as of quite secondary importance.
Almost, one might say without conscious intention, but
yet, as we now see, by a very natural association of ideas,
the writers of the later herbals, for instance Bock, Fuchs,
and Brunfels, described successively plants which had an
- obvious family likeness to each other. A most important
step was thus gained and one which led quite easily and
naturally to the deliberate subordination of the question
of pharmaceutical utility and to the elevation to first rank
of the study of plant relationship and of the morphological
features on which that principle was based. To Kaspar
Bauhin belongs the credit of first clearly recognising this
principle and of emphasising it in his works. To this
botanist and not to Linnaeus we are indebted for the
first appreciation of the value of generic and specific names:
he it was who first made use of the binary system of
nomenclature in describing living objects. Grotesque as
his classification may seem to students of these later days,
still in Bauhin’s Pinax and in the Prodromus Theatri
Botanici we meet for the first time an attempt at grouping
plants in accordance with natural affinity, not merely at
cataloguing in alphabetical order. Bauhin was born at
Bale in 1550 and died in 1624, and the period of his life
may be said to include the date of the nativity of Botany
as a Science.

Another great name of the 16th Century that stands
out preeminently is that of Andraea Caesalpino, Professor

6 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

of Botany in the University of Pisa. Not content with
mere analysis and observation, Caesalpino brought to the
study of plants an intimate acquaintance with Aristotelian
philosophy, and his works teem with theoretical discuss-
ions on the seat of the soul in plants, the doctrine of
metamorphosis and such like products of scholasticism.
His classification is based not upon deduction from
observed natural phenomena but on philosophic abstrac-
tion and reasoning on the nature of plants, and the
relative value of their various parts. In this respect
Caesalpino sounded a theme on which his successors played
variations for more than a hundred years until Linnaeus
brought the concerto to a finale in the Systema Nature. —
In justice to Linnaeus one must bear in mind that he
himself proposed his artificial system avowedly as pyro-
visional; that that system should have been obstinately
not to say pugnaciously adhered to by his followers for
well nigh a century after its illustrious author had passed
away, and that his own suggestive speculations as to the
true principles of classification, given to the world in
the Philosophia Botamca, should have been almostly
completely ignored, is due to the blind reverence with
which his disciples regarded one who had accomplished
what we must recognise as a colossal task.

Long before the second revival of Botany, which took |
place at the beginning of the 18th century, travellers like
Clusius and Albini had lifted the veil from a new world
of plant life, and anatomists like Malpighi and Grew, with
their new found microscopes were endeavouring to unravel
the mysterious histological complex that these instruments —
revealed not only in the phanerogamic world but in the
hitherto untrodden field of cryptogamic Botany, wherein
Micheli and Dillenius stand out prominently as pioneers.

The last days of the 17th and early days of the 18th

—.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. t

century were noteworthy for yet another development—
the birth of vegetable physiology which dates from .
Kélreuter and Sprengel’s observations and experiments on
fertilisation and Stephen Hale’s classic labours on the
movements of sap. The De Jussieus and later the
De Candolles inaugurated a new epoch in systematic
Botany by the publication of their natural systems of
taxonomy, based on the essential principle that natural
affinities are not to be determined by any one character
but by the sum of all, whilst the developmental and
physiological methods were further emphasised by the
publication in 1842 of Schleiden’s Principles of Botany
wherein the modern standpoint is at last clearly enunciated
and defined. With the acceptance by botanists of these
principles we reach comparatively recent times, for the
next ereat names that meet us are those so familiar to
the botanical student of to-day.

Botany then, as an organised study of the structure,
functions and mutual relationships of plants had Medicine
and Pharmacy for its parents, although I fear its parents
are nowadays rather inclined to ignore their offspring.
The search for simples amongst the herbs of the field
resulted in the discovery of a great Science; the need for
the study of those simples brought about the foundation
of gardens to which the ancient apothecary might have
ready access and from which he might conveniently obtain
the particular drug he required. The finds of travellers
involved successive extensions in the superficial area of the
gardens, and the birth of the new interest in plants
for their own sake revolutionised their arrangement. —
Microscopic and experimental research demanded labora-
tories in which the student might explore the minute
structure of plants or attempt to solve the thousand and
one problems in vegetable physiology, whilst the growth

8 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

of popular interests and the necessities of international
commerce encouraged the foundation of museums of
Economic Botany. In short all the progressive phases in
the development of the Science of Botany had their
concrete counterparts in the evolution of the Physic
Garden of the 15th century into the scientific Botanic
Garden of the 19th.

In the time that is placed at my disposal this evening
I desire to give you some notion of this progressive
development and to describe to you a few illustrative
examples of the Physic Gardens of the Herbal period, of.
the Botanic Gardens of the 17th and 18th centuries and
finally of the modern Botanic Gardens both in our own
country and abroad.

It is not necessary for my present purpose to do more ;
than name some of the gardens of classical times. I do
not refer of course to the numberless private gardens
_attached to the palaces and villas of the Greek and Roman
nobles, but to the public gardens, records of which have
come down to us in the classics. Amongst these perhaps
the most famous are the gardens of Theophrastus at
Athens, and of Ptolemy Philadelphus at Alexandria, of
King Attalus at Pergamos, and the gardens of Carthage.
We read also of a medicinal garden belonging to Antonius
Castor at Rome, perhaps the first of its kind, and Vergil,
Martial and other Latin writers frequently refer to
gardens devoted to the culture of the vegetable delicacies
most fancied by the palates of the Roman epicures.

In the early middle ages the various monkish orders
were, as every one knows, the custodians of the degenerate
knowledge and practice of medicine transmitted from the
later Latin authors, until the quaint mixture of ancient
science and medieval black art was at last superseded by
the Benedictines, whose academy at Monte Cassino in

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9

Campania, was the seat of the revival of the art of
healing founded by Hippocrates and Galen. The Civitas
Hippocratica as it was called, was a non-religious establish-
ment, where law and philosophy, but especially medicine,
were taught, and to which came students from all parts
of the then known world. In connection with this
Institution we find records of a Physic Garden founded in
1309 by a certain Matthaeus Sylvaticus and in 1333 we
read of another Medicinal Garden established by the
famous Venetian Doctor Gualterus on an area given
him by the Republic “ pro faciendo hortum pro herbis
necessariis artis suse.”

Data are more abundant for dealing with the history of
the University Gardens of the 16th century and to these
Wwe may now turn.

Whilst Fuchs and Brunfels were endeavouring to weed
out the rank growths that had been assiduously cherished
by the earlier herbalists, Francesco Buonafede, the first
professor of Botany in the first university in Europe, that
that of Padua, obtained from the Senate of Venice in
1545 a grant of land for the establishment of a medicinal
garden. That garden exists to the present day, and
occupies the same (though now greatly extended) site
eranted in the 16th century by the enlightened Signiory.

The foundation of the physic garden of Padua was the
signal for the establishment of gardens in several other
Italian cities, and in quick succession we read of gardens
laid out at Pisa in 1547, at Florence in 1550, at Rome in
1566, and at Bologna in 1567. It is impossible for me in
the time at my disposal to describe to you even briefly
the history of these and of many other Italian gardens
founded at a later date. It must suffice merely to note
that the example of the Italian States was soon followed
in Northern and Western Europe, and before the end of

‘10 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

the century the great gardens of Leyden and Montpellier
had been founded. |

Just as the travels of Lusitanus, Calceolari, Ghini,
Aldrovandi and others materially aided the extention and
enlargement of the gardens of Padua, Pisa and Bologna,

so in the north, through the efforts of Dodonaeus, Lobe-
hus and Clusius a medicinal garden was in 1577 founded
in connection with the famous university of Leyden at
the expense of the Municipal Council of the city.

If Padua, Pisa and Bologna were the great botanical
schools of the east, as Leyden was that of the north,
Montpellier claimed the premier place in the west. The
names of the renowned botanists Fuchs, Gesner, Clusius,

-Lobelius and Bauhin appear on its list of students
although it did not succeed in retaining them amongst its
teachers. The new and already famous gardens of the
northern and eastern universities drew away the cream
of the botanical students from its halls. Montpellier
could not afford to be behind hand: it must needs have a

botanical garden also, and so there came into existence in
1596 a garden destined to eclipse even the most famous

_ of its predecessors in Holland and Italy. For this reason
I have selected it for fuller description. Its founder was

. Pierre Richer de Belleval, a native of Picardy and graduate

of Montpellier University. At his instigation the Parlia-
ment of Languedoc granted permission and land to found

a garden in connection with the medical faculty of the
University. Belleval’s chief aim, as he himself states, was
to cultivate plants both native and exotic, under conditions

‘ similar to those of nature. He says, ‘‘J’al exécuté vos

~ordres et fondé sous le nom de Jardin royal, un établisse-

“ment digne d’un grand empire. . II est divisé en plusieurs

parties présentant chacune une exposition différente; un

-monticule offre deux .versants tournés lun vers le Sud,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. | V1

Vautre versle Nord. I] ya des lieux escarpés, des rochers,
des sables exposés au soleil, d’autres ombragés, humides,
inondés, ou d’un sol fertile; on y trouve des buissons, des
mares, des marais, dans lesquels les végetaux herbacés, les
sous-arbrisseaux et les arbres prospérent admirablement.”’
(Onomatologia, Pref. 1598).

The main gateway of the garden led into an avenue of
laurels, to the north of which lay the medical garden with
the following inscription over the entrance: PLANTA
QUARUM IN MEDICINA HIS TEMPORIBUS MAXIME USUS EST.
The pharmaceutical collections were arranged in rows in
alphabetical order. North of the medicinal garden came
a six-tiered hill. The lowest tiers facing the south were
occupied by PLANTA ODORATA VENENAT# UMBELLIFERAE
SPINOSH CATHARTICA SCANDENTES ALIIS INNIX#; the
north side of the mound by PLANTA QU IN ASPERIS
SAXOSIS APRICIS ET IN IPSO LITTORE NASCUNTUR, whilst
on the top were grown PLANTA QU IN CLIVIS MONTIBUS
FRUTETIS DUMETIS ET SABULOSIS ADOLESCUNT. Over
the chief gate was engraved the arms of France and the
name LE JARDIN DU Roy, 1596; whilst underneath was
a rather more poetic and classic rendering of our “ visitors
are requested not to touch’—HIc ARGUS ESTO NON
BRIAREUS. The plate, I ought to add, represents only
part of the garden. In describing it Belleval says, ‘‘ Le
Jardin du Roi était coupé en dieux parties; l’une appelée
le Jardin médical, l’autre la pépiniére ; la premiére était
destinée aux démonstrations des plantes et consacrée a
1 Université; lautre était rempie des plantes étrangtres,
qui, pour la plupart, étaient montagneuses, destinées
plutot a la curiosité qu’a la nécessité, afin que ceux qui
accouraient des provinces et des nations étrangéres, y
reconnussent leurs richesses.”’ A herbarium and_ audi-
torium, with a dedication to Henry of Navarre, occupied
the extreme north eastern corner of the garden,

12 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The gardens of Montpellier created a great sensation
among the botanists of the time, all of whom speak of it
in terms of the highest admiration. Despite lack of funds
Belleval added rapidly to the contents of his garden,
devoting special attention to the collection of local plants.
The siege of Montpellier in 1622 inflicted great damage
on the garden, but the courageous founder did not lose
heart. No sooner had he seen the last of the troops than
he set to work again and in his labours was successful in
interesting the great Richelieu. He had scarcely com-
pleted the renovations necessary when he died in 1682.
It will be unnecessary for me to describe in detail the
gradual progress of the garden during the century following
the death of Belleval. The arrangement of the plants
had been twice changed, once to conform to the system
of Tournefort, and again to bring 1t into conformity with
the artificial system of Linnaeus. The beginning of the
19th Century saw the garden under the direction of
the famous A. P. de Candolle, and his election to the
directorate was followed by an entire rearrangement on
the principles of the natural system of classification now
so well known and universally followed. De Candolle
added an arboretum and greenhouses and in many other
ways extended the scientific usefulness of the gardens.
His reign at Montpellier lasted only 6 years, for in 1816 he
was appointed to the chair of Botany in Geneva, where
he spent the remainder of his life.

A word finally as to the present condition of the contin
It includes about 45,000 sq. metres divided into three
regions ; first, to the south, a triangular region devoted to
the uses of the School of Medicine, a median oblong (the
mount of Belleval’s time), and a northern area irregular in
outline added to the garden as an arboretum in De
Candolles time. Between the systematic garden and the

we oe sel a ee

_ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. See 13-

~ mound (which bears a miscellaneous collection of trees
and shrubs) is the orangery and a line of greenhouses
for temperate plants. ‘The northern area includes an
acclimatisation garden and an area devoted to the culture
of fruit trees and plants used in the arts. The extreme
north is occupied by the necessary store houses and out-
buildings, the museum, library, &c.

_ The decade which saw the foundation of the Montpellier
gardens saw also the establishment of gardens in con-
nection with the Universities of Heidelberg, Leipzig
and Breslau. In 1597 Paris followed suit. The story
goes that the now famous Jardin des Plantes was
primarily established with the intention of investigating

_ what variations were possible in the style of the bouquets

worn at the Royal Court—truly a noble piece of research!
lts first claim to be considered as a botanic garden was
not made until about 1630 when professorships of Botany
and Pharmacology were instituted. Strassburg in 1619,
Jena in 1629, Oxford in 1632, Messina in 1638, Chelsea
in 1677, Edinburgh in 1680 and Berlin in 1714 are the
next examples of note. As the Physic Garden at Chelsea
has the honour of being the first and oldest botanic
garden in Great Britain, perhaps I may select it for more
than mere mention. Itis true that Gerard, the author
_ of the famous Herbal, is said to -have had a private medi-
cinal garden attached to his house in Holborn, and also
Tradescant, gardener to James I., and after whom the
well known Tradescantia has been named, cultivated
exotics in a garden situated where S. Lambeth now
stands, still as a public garden that of Chelsea is un-
{ doubtedly entitled to priority. The immediate founders
~ of the Chelsa Gardens were the members of the Society
of Apothecaries who now for over two centuries have
maintained it solely for the advancement of the science

14 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

of Botany. The name ‘‘ Physic Garden” by which it was
for long known was to a certain extent a misnomer.
Medicinal plants were certainly cultivated in it but in the
deed of gift by Sir Hans Sloane the growing of plants for
pharmaceutical trade purposes is expressly forbidden.

The history of the first beginings of the Chelsea Gardens
sounds rather paltry not to say ridiculous after one has
studied the story of the foundation of the gardens of
Padua and Montpellier. We read that the ground on which
the Chelsea Garden is now laid out was originally taken
by the Apothecaries Society as a spot on which to build a
convenient barge house for the ornamental barge which
the society (like other city companies) then possessed.
This plot of ground was walled round in 1674, and four
years later appears to have been planted with fruit trees
and herbs for the use of the Apothecaries’ laboratory. A —
ereenhouse and stove were added shortly afterwards and
the Society then began to exchange plants with the
gardens of the University of Leyden. The purchase of
the estate by Dr. (afterwards Sir Hans) Sloane in 1712 at
once brought about a change for the better in the prospects
of the Chelsea establishment. Sloane was a scientist of
no mean rank—a pupil of the chemist Stahl and of the
botanist Tournefort and further a friend of Ray, the
father of English Botany. His scientific achievements
won for him the presidency of the Royal Society in
succession to Sir Isaac Newton. His enthusiastic love
for science in general and for Botany in particular led
him to readily accede to the request of the Apothecaries
Society for liberal treatment with regard to the conditions
of tenure of the garden now included within his estate,
and in 1722 Sloane generously handed over to them the
ground—an area of over three acres—on condition, how-
ever, that the Society paid an annual rent of £5, and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. yer 15

rendered yearly to the Royal Society 50 species of distinct
plants, well dried, preserved and named, which had been
erown in the garden that same year—those presented in
each year to be specifically different from those of every
former year, until 2000 had been delivered.

One gets a fairly good idea of the contents of the
Chelsea Garden at this time from the Catalogue published
in 1730 by Miller, the then chief gardener. The plants
were classified into herbs and under shrubs, shrubs and
trees each section being arranged alphabetically. Four
hundred and ninety nine plants in all are named and are
chiefly those which were employed in the pharmaceutical
preparations of that day. Hothouses for the cultivation
of exotics were opened in 1732. Four years later Linn-
aeus visited the garden, and no doubt his interest in it
did much towards hastening the introduction of the
Linnaean method into the systematic arrangement of the
plants in the gardens. Amongst the directors of Chelsea
Garden appear the names of some of the foremost of our
English botanists—Sherard, whose generosity established
the Sherardian professorship at Oxford—Hudson, the
author of the Flora Anglica—Curtis, the editor of the
familiar Botanical Magazine, and Lindley, whose contyri-
butions to systematic Botany and to Taxonomy are too
well known to need enumeration.

The gardens are now more of historic than of scientific
importance, being dwarfed into insignificance by the great,
but comparatively modern, establishment at Kew. It
now covers about four acres along the Chelsea embank-
ment. The centre is occupied by the statue of Sir Hans
Sloane; the upper part of the garden contains the col-
lection of medicinal plants, whilst towards the river are
arranged beds of hardy herbaceous plants in natural
orders, with trees and shrubs interspersed, the remains of

16. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

former plantings. The houses occupy the north west end.
A few years before the foundation of the Chelsea Garden
that more especially associated with the name of Linnaeus
came into being. Considering the enormous influence
this famous man had on Botany, a brief account of the
garden at Upsala may not be without interest. Although
founded by Rudbeck in 1660 it was not until 1742 that
the Upsala garden came under the direction of Linnaeus.
An old pamphlet dated 1745 published by his authority —
gives an account of the gardens at that date. You will
be able to obtain some notion of their character from the
photo of the plate which illustrates this work. The
garden was in the form of an oblong. The northern end
was lined with greenhouses—cool, temperate and hot.
To the right of this range was an “‘ area vernalis”’ to the
left an ‘‘area autumnalis”’ and immediately in front an
‘‘area meridionalis.”” In the middle of the garden were
three aquaria for marsh, lake and river plants respectively.
The remainder of the space was occupied by two great
sets of beds, that to the right for annuals, that to the left
for perennials, whilst to the south were further ornamental
flower beds, the houses of the ue ee the museum,
library and so on.
-Itis worth pausing to note at aie point that whilst, as we
have already seen, the first Italian Gardens were avowedly
purely medicinal, that of Montpellier was a compromise.
Although laid out primarily for the cultivation of medicinal
herbs, it was not purely and exclusively pharmaceutical.
Im accordance with Belleval’s scheme a portion of the
space alloted to him was designed to accommodate plants
not necessarily medicinally useful and arranged according
to their habit, rock, aquatic, marsh loving, and so on as
the case might be. Here in the Upsala garden the
specially pharmaceutical purpose is ignored and the beds

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. iy’

are laid out entirely to suit the botanical character of the
plant, and in accordance with its natural habit and in no
respect with its usefulness to man. These three historic
gardens Padua, Montpellier and Upsala, may indeed be
taken as illustrating three great stages in the evolution
not only of the botanic garden itself but also of the science
of Botany. Established first of all in Italy as a living
herbal, as a concrete illustration of Medicinal Botany, the
garden reflected in itself the birth of the science when it
became planned, as at Montpellier, partly on utilitarian,
partly on physiological lines, and becomes finally in Upsala
a purely educational establishment conceived and carried
out in accordance with scientific principles.

To attempt to follow the history or even enumerate the
botanical gardens founded in other cities in the end of the
last and the beginning of this century, and to trace how
the hard and formal scientific conception of a botanic
garden became artistically modified and softened, would
lead me far beyond the limits of time which your courtesy
erants me. Merely as an illustration, however, of the
rapidity with which the number of gardens increased
during the period of which I speak, I may mention that in
Italy alone gardens were founded in Turin in 1729, in Pavia
and Caghariin 1765, in Parma in 1770, in Modena in 1772,
in Palermo in 1779, in Mantua in 1780, in Milan in 1781,
in Siena in 1784, in Naples in 1796, in Genoa in 1803
and in Venice in 1810. And again as exemplifying
the influence of the development of the artistic sense
in the laying out of gardens I may ask you to contrast
a photograph of the gardens of Madrid in 1781 with one
which represents the same garden one hundred years
later. The rectangular beds and geometrically arranged
paths of the former give place to irregular figures in the
ground plan of the latter; whilst even in the areas where

18 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIULOGICAL SOCIETY.

the original ground plan has been retained the angularities
have been rubbed off and a curved pathway replaces the
primitive straight and formal walk. You will be able
more fully to appreciate this feature in the evolution of
the garden when we come to contrast modern gardens
such as these of Kew, Buitenzorg and S. Louis with those
of last century.

I desire now to turn for a few moments to the present
day and attempt briefly to indicate to you the chief
characteristics of some of the great gardens of our own
times. , ,

I have already more than once suggested to you that the
botanic garden of any given period more or less reflects the
condition of the science at that time. I say more or less,
because science is continually progressive and botanical
science more especially has, within the last fifty years
advanced comparatively more rapidly than any other
branch. It would be practically impossible, however, to
make corresponding changes in the systematic arrange-
ment of a garden to bring it, so to speak, up to date with
the most recent research. Many no doubt extremely
important investigations lead to suggestions in Taxonomy
which would if followed out in practice involve enormous
labour and expense. Sometimes these researches are
confirmed and universally accepted and by and by they
may become recognised concretely, one might say, in
laboratory teaching, in museum classification and in
garden arrangement. Sometimes they are not so con-
formed and recognised, and if the alterations in arrange-
ment involved by their acceptance have not be carried
out, there isno harm done. Imagine on the other hand the
trouble and outlay rendered necessary by the renaming of
the phanerograms in Kew Gardens in accordance with the
views let us say of Otto Kunze, assuming that that ardent

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. | 19

reformer’s views were to receive wide acceptance, or in the
transposition of even a small family of herbaceous plants
from one region of the garden to another in consequence
of the publication of some monograph pronouncing, even
authoritatively, on its affinities. The Linnean arrange-
ment has of course been given up in every modern botanical
garden and the natural system is to all intents and
purposes universally followed. But there the similarity
between gardens ends. In the first place there are in
_ the botanic gardens in different parts of the world the
necessarily different. climatic and other conditions to be
considered. Plants which need stove heat in Kew
erow in the open air in Rio de Janeiro or Buitenzorg ;
plants which in our northern latitudes can be cultivated
with success in open beds must be tended in frigidaria in
the tropics, if they be grown at all. Moreover no two
gardens, even in the same district, are quite alike. In
- some the principles of geographical distribution are taken
as the guide in planning the garden; in others a purely
systematic and taxonomic basis is selected, in others
again the physiological habit, whilst others combine all
three. The best gardens are those which enable the
visitor to learn not only systematic or geographical or
physiological botany but all of these, which are provided
with museums and beds of economic and medicinal plants,
with herbarium, library, and last, but byno means least, with
laboratories, where in short all the manifold developments
of the science during the last fifty years are represented
and allowed for. ‘here are several such gardens now in
existence: time permits me to describe three only, the
Missouri Garden at St. Louis, the ’s Lands Plantentuin of
Buitenzorg, Java, and the Royal Gardens, Kew.

With regard to the botanic gardens in the States I am
indebted for much information to Mr. Coville of the U.S.

20 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Department of Agriculture. He informs me that at the
present time there are in the States but three establish-
ments that can justly be regarded as botanical gardens in
the strictest sense of the term. ‘The first and the largest
is the Missouri Garden at S. Louis, the second the Arnold
Arboretum of Brookline, Mass., and thirdly the Botanic
Garden at Harvard University. Another Botanic Garden
Mr. Coville tells me is on the point of being established
at New York City by combination of private endowment
with a grant of money and land from the city itself. In
the earlier history of the country there were several
private gardens, such as Bartram’s at Philadelphia, which
is still in existence, but these cannot really be classed with
the modern article. In Washington there has existed for
many years a botanical garden which, however, while it
contained some important and interesting collections on
certain lines, has made no pretence at being a true
botanic garden, and in fact has been devoted principally to —
ornamental purposes. The Department of Agriculture
has a similar, though less complete, collection of trees
and shrubs with a few herbaceous plants, and, taken in
connection with the city parks, furnishes a fairly good
representation of the possibilities of Washington as a
centre for plant cultivation. In addition, the majority
of the Colleges and Universities of the States have in
connection with their botanical departments, gardens of
greater or lesser extent, e.g., those of the State of
Nebraska and of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. The
University of California has made a beginning in this
direction which is likely with proper pncolrag a as to
develop into an important establishment.

Tn Canada also, Montreal established a botanic garden in
1886, with an area of 75 acres, chiefly at the instigation of the
McGill College and the Horticultural Society of Montreal.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21

Henry Shaw, the founder of the great Missouri Garden
and of the Shaw School of Botany, was in his early life a
Sheffield cutler. He migrated to the States in 1819 and
by his energy and ability ere long amassed a large fortune
and retired from business whilst still in the prime of life.
During a visit to the old country, in the year of the 1851
Exhibition, he spent some time in examining the more
notable private gardens in England, and according to his
own statement it was while walking though the grounds
of Chatsworth that the idea first occurred to him to lay out
a private garden in his own city of 8. Louis on similar but
less ambitious lines. In 1857 the Missouri Gardens were
first planned on suggestions furnished him by Engelmann,
Hooker, Decaisne, Alexander Braun, and other great
botanists whose opinions he invited. In 1859 Shaw,
at Hooker’s advice, purchased the great herbarium of
Professor Bernhardi of Erfurth and for the remainder of
his hfe, indeed up to the day of his death in 1889, the
garden which he had created, in the midst of which he
lived and in which he now lies buried, was his constant
care.

From the general plan of the garden you will readily
understand the principle on which it is laid out. With
the arboretum it forms a right angled triangle about 45
acres in extent, not including the adjoinmg meadows,
which latter, though at present let, are to remain available
for further extension of the gardens. The Shaw School
of Botany, situated close at hand was also founded by
Shaw and endowed with £1000 a year, and capital
yielding a like sum was devoted to the support of a
special Professor of Botany in the School, the professor
being also director of the Garden. In addition to
the green-houses, store-houses, and palm-house, and
necessary out-buildings, a large herbarium and museum

22. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

are situated within the grounds, as is also a lodge for the
_ benefit of a number of ‘‘ garden pupils’’ who are supported
by funds left for the purpose and who are trained as
scientific gardeners and foresters. 'The Shaw School
itself has laboratories, museum and herbarium, and in
the school some remarkably good work has been already
accomplished, both morphological and systematic.

Elaborate in its detail and complete in its equipment
as the 8. Louis Garden is, it is quite eclipsed by the great
tropical garden of Buitenzorg in Java, a garden which,
under its distinguished director Dr. Treub, has, during
the comparatively short period of its existence, done as
much for the Science of Botany as any other garden in
the world.

The credit of the first conception of a tropical botanic
garden is due to Professor Reinwardt of Amsterdam who
accompanied the Netherlands’ Commissioners appointed to
organise the Netherlands Hast Indian possessions after
the termination of British rule. In 1817 Reinwardt
proposed to found an experimental garden near the palace
park at Buitenzorg, in Java, and. his suggestion being
accepted by the Dutch Government, the work was
commenced that same year—a Kew gardener being
appointed as curator and overseer of the works. In 1822
under Dr. Blume, the first director, the first catalogue,
enumerating 900 species, was published. The succeeding
twenty years was a period of anxiety for those interested
in the success of the station; economic fits on the part of
the financial adminstrators and intrigues at home with the
view of making the gardens a dependency of the National
Museum of Leyden, and curtailing the mdependence and.
freedom of action of the garden officials, considerably
retarded its development. In the struggle, fortunately for —
science, the colonists were triumphant, chiefly owing to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23

the exertions of Teijsmann, the head gardener, and the
year 1866 saw the extension of the garden by the establish-
ment of the mountain station at Tyibodas.

In 1867 Dr. Scheffer was appointed director and the
following year witnessed the separation of the garden
from the control of palace officialism. In 1874 the
museum was built and the publication of the Annals
inaugurated in the year following. In 1876 a school
of Forestry and Agriculture was established, and in
1888 on the death of Scheffer the gardens entered on a
period of unexampled progressive development under the
directorship of Dr. Treub.

The description of the garden, as it at present stands, is
rendered easy for me by the publication of the important

hel 4

volume ‘‘ Der Botanische Garten” ’s Lands Plantentuin
“zu Buitenzorg auf Java’”’ in 1898. In this treatise not
only is there given a complete historical account of the
garden but a very full description of 1t illustrated by many
photographs several of which I shall have the pleasure of
shewing you. }

The garden is of irregular shape and consists of about
145 acres, of which about 30 acres are situated on an
island to the eastward of the ground between two branches
of the Tjilinwong, a river which bounds the garden on the
east side; the north is bounded by the palace park, the
west by the high road and the south by the Chinese
quarter of the town of Buitenzorg. The garden is supplied
with water by a tributary of the Tyilinwong which passes
through the garden and feeds the lakes. The garden is
intersected by numerous drives and walks. In the south
west part are the residences of the director and head
gardener, the offices, the laboratories, anatomical, physio-
logical and pathological, photographic and printing rooms,
the head gardener’s offices, the stables, bedding and other

24 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

outhouses ; whilst on the south east corner are the huts
of the native workmen. |

The system of arrangement adopted in the garden is
that of the Genera Plantarum of Bentham and Hooker,
replacing that of Hndlicher which was the system used
when T'eijsmann had the direction of the garden. Related
families of plants are placed together in the garden, so
that the system is a strictly natural one, although of course
climbers, marsh plants, and such as shew peculiar habits
are collected together in special regions, where their
physiological characteristics may be better exhibited than
by scattering them all over the garden in proximity to
their various relations. The garden contains in all about
9000 species. I wished that time availed for me to give you
even the faintest idea of the contents of this magnificent
garden. I must leave you to imagine it from the photo-
eraphs taken from the published account of the garden I
‘have already referred to.. Dr. Burck’s most admirable
account of the treasures of the garden described in a series
of imaginary walks through the ground must be read in
detail if any adequate conception is to be obtained of
this the grandest botanical garden of the tropics. |

The Museum originally built in 1859 to accommodate
-a collection’ of minerals illustrative of the mining
districts in the Colony came into the hands of the garden
officials in 1871. The present museum consists of a
vestibule and large hall, round which runs a gallery and
off which lead passages to various smaller rooms serving
as library, keepers’-rooms, work-rooms, store-rooms and a
‘small laboratory. The gallery is occupied by the herbarium
preserved in 1200 wooden cases arranged on shelves, and
includes collections made by Zollinger in the Celebes, Java
-and Lombock, by Teijsmann in his numerous excursions
throughout the Archipelago, more especially in New

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 95

Guinea and Sumatra, and by numerous other botanists,
more or less connected with the gardens, in the less known
islands of Malaya. Amongst these the name of one
naturalist appears, whom we are proud to honour as our
vice-president—I mean Dr. H. O. Forbes. In addition

to the herbarium the museum buildings contain a collection

of dried fruits and seeds of tropical plants as well as a
collection of flowers and fruits preserved in alcohol, an
extensive series of samples of timber trees, and a large
collection of vegetable products of economic importance,
such as jute, hemp, india-rubber, gutta-percha, dyes,
cinchona, vegetable oils, indigo, sugar, tea, coffee, rice,
tobacco and the thousand and one articles of commerce
of vegetable origin, known so familiarly to us in this
country in their prepared state but whose native home is
in the tropics.

The magnificently equipped laboratories and the wealth
of tropical vegetation, literally threatening to smother the
laboratories themselves, have tempted some of the most
famous of our modern botanists to avail themselves of the
welcome offered to all students of plant life to visit the
Java Gardens by Dr. Treub and his assistants, and the
researches of these savants, published in the Annals of
the Buitenzorg Gardens and in various Journals and
separate volumes, are amongst the most important of the
many contributions to our knowledge of tropical plant
life that have been published during the past decade.

Although greatly inferior to those of Buitenzorg there
are many other really fine botanic gardens in the tropics.
I may instance though I dare not pause to describe those of
Rio de Janeiro with its stately palm avenue, of Hongkong,
of Peradeniya, of Singapore and of Calcutta. In the

_ Antipodes also Melbourne and Adelaide must be accorded

a place of high rank amongst scientific Botanic Gardens.

: , :
26 TRANSACTIONS ‘LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

“Turning now to the gardens of Europe we may first
glance at those of our own country. Unquestionably the
_ chief of these are those of Edinburgh, Glasnevin and
‘Kew. The Universities of Glasgow, Oxford, Cambridge
and Dublin also possess gardens but of lesser size and
importance. Chelsea Gardens I have already referred to.

The Hdinburgh Garden was founded in 1670 to the ©
east of the North Bridge on a site now occupied by the
N.B.R. Station. In 1763 it was transferred to Leith
“Walk and in 1819 to Inverleith Row where it now exists
and where it covers a space of about 30 acres. The
Garden includes an arboretum, palm-house, hot-houses
and conservatories, a herbarium, museum and class room
and laboratories to accommodate the large classes of
- botanical students attending the University.

The Glasnevin Gardens at Dublin are much younger
dating from about 1795. They were formed at the
instance of the Dublin Society and were laid out and
endowed by the Irish Parhament. They exceed in extent
by ten acres those of Edinburgh but are very similar to
them in character and plan.

No British Garden—indeed with the single exception
perhaps of the great tropical garden of Buitenzorg in
Java—no garden of the world approaches in extent and
completeness the magnificent establishment at Kew. Its
early history has been recently written by the Director,
Mr. Thistleton Dyer, in the Kew Bulletin, and those who
may be interested in the subject of its first beginnings I
would refer to the paper in question. It will serve my
- present purpose if I merely state that the Gardens were
established in or about 1760 by Queen Caroline, Consort
of George the III., and made into a national institution:
-in 1840 when Sir William Hooker, then professor of
Botany in the University of Glasgow, was appointed

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ‘Oy

Director. The photos I am able to shew you have been
specially taken for the purpose of this address and will,
together with the Kew plan, enable you to gain a general
notion of the Garden and its contents.

In 1840 when the garden was first made a National
Institution it covered only 15 acres, now with the Arbore-
tum it extends over 248 acres, of which 70 acres form the
garden proper. ‘The garden is entered from Kew Green
by a remarkably fine gateway, close to which are a small
student’s garden and the vast Herbarium, where undoubt-
edly there lies a more complete collection of dried plants
than exists anywhere else in the world. Inside the
grounds one meets first with a house devoted to tropical
tree-ferns and aroids, and close at hand Museum IIL., the
old orangery, filled chiefly with specimens of timber. A
ereat range of houses divided into three sections occupies
the centre of this section of the Gardens, and is devoted
to culture of tropical and temperate ferns, succulents,
heaths, begonias, victorias, temperate and tropical orchids
and economic plants; there is also a store house, conser-
vatory and alpine house. Near the rock garden and
herbaceous ground is a tank for aquatics, as also Museum
II. with specimens of botanical interest selected from
the monocotyledonous and cryptogamic orders, whilst
close to the range of bedding houses and pits, a small
laboratory has been erected, conveniently situated for
study and research. One cannot help wishing that the
Board of Works would see its way to erecting fully
equipped laboratories for anatomical and physiological
research on a much larger scale. The magnificent
collections at one’s hand and the splendid library and
herbarium in the immediate neighbourhood, encourage
one to hope that at no very distinct date these advan-
tages may be still farther added to, and the gardens

28 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

made in every sense the greatest centre for botanical ae
and research in the world.

The Gardens are constricted about the middle by Kew
Palace Grounds, and whilst the area to the north contains
the buildings I have just mentioned, that to the south
‘contains the chief museum filled with dicotyledonous
examples. On the opposite side of the pond stands the
palm house—a building 362 feet long, 100 feet broad and
66 feet high. The grounds surrounding all these museums
and hot-houses are crowded with plants of all kinds, hardy
in the open air of England. Beyond the gardens proper,
is the arboretum bounded by the grounds of the Queen’s
Cottage, the river, the deer park and Richmond Road.
The chief features of this area are the lake, the great
temperate house covering three quarters of an acre and the
Marianne North Gallery of paintings of indigenous
vegetation in different parts of the world.

Probably there are many amongst my audience who
have personally visited Kew Garden, and none who have
done so can have failed to bring away with them vivid
recollections of its high artistic excellence and beauty ;
but it needs prolonged residence and study to fully appre-
ciate the countless botanical treasures it contains and its
enormous scientific interest and value.

One word in conclusion on the gardens of the Contin-
ental Universities. Every one of them possesses a garden
and although many of these are but small in area still
they are rightly considered as essential adjuncts to
botanical teaching. The museums are small as a rule
and are obviously not considered of first-rate importance.
Demonstrations are on the other hand always given in
the garden and green-houses—the living plant replaces
- the bottled preparation. Although in our own country
we of course constantly employ the garden—when we are

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29

fortunate enough to possess one—for demonstration pur-
poses, still I think we at the same time pay more attention
to the museum. In one respect we are immensely behind,
namely, in the extent and equipment of our botanical
laboratories: but then we in this country are not in a
position to draw freely on state aid for such trivial and
unimportant matters as University Education. What is
contributed by our Government is dealt out with payr-
simonious hand and after a deal of pressing. I cannot
help thinking that if only a few of the many thousands
which are just now being annually expended by County
Councils and other public bodies on what has been termed
Technical Education were distributed amongst the Colleges
and Universities to be devoted by them, at their discretion,
to the advancement of general scientific education we
might still hope to compete successfully with our
continental colleagues. Liverpool with its three-quarters
of a million inhabitants might then be able to equip the
laboratories of its University College on a scale which
would compare favourably with, let us say, one of the
smaller German universities such as Jena or Strassburg.

I have now reached the end of my time if not of my
task.

The Botanic Garden, in the history of its development,
as I have tried, however crudely and imperfectly, to shew
you, reflects the successive phases in the advance of the
science.

What I have said of the garden is equally true of the
botanist himself in his personal training and his methods
of teaching—if he be a teacher.

In Linnaeus’ time the best botanist was he who knew by
name every herb of the field—however little he might
know of each. I am not sure that the ideal aimed at
in the 18th Century has been altogether abandoned yet.

30 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Anatomy was born, and he was considered learned who
knew much about a few plants rather that little about
many. The end of the 19th Century has seen the
domination of yet a third school. As the systematist
gave way to the anatomist so the anatomist is giving way
to the physiologist. How a plant—no matter what
variety of what species 1t be—lives and moves and has its
being—what are the functions of its various parts and
how these parts work together for the common good—
what part plants play in the balance of nature—in the
drama of life on the earth—these are the problems that
botanists attempt to solve nowadays. Doubtless it were
well that every botanist should know by name every.
flowering—yea—every flowerless plant of the field and at
the same time be conversant with its entire life cycle, its
minute anatomy and the wondrous phenomena of its
physiology. But Ars longa vita brevis est—and he has
no need to be ashamed who can even say,

“In Nature's infimte book of secrecy I can a little read.”

APPENDIX.

The following list includes the names of the chief
Botanical Gardens of the world in existence in 1895. The
list does not pretend to be absolutely complete, although
it probably includes all of scientific importance. Private
gardens such as those of Tresco Abbey, La Mortola, &c., —
and public parks, often very extensive and not infrequently
arranged on scientific lines, are not recorded. The
approximate dates of foundation of some of the more
important and historic gardens are inserted in brackets
after the name of the city or town.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. sii

EUROPE.

AustriA-HunGARY. Agram, Budapesth, Czernowitz,
Dublany, Graz, Innsbruck, Klagenfurth, Kolo-
zsvar, Krakau, Laibach, Lemberg, Prague,
Salzburg, Schemnitz, Selmeebanya, ‘Trieste.
Vienna (2).

Beueium. Antwerp, Anvers, Brussels, Gand, Gem-
bloux, Liége, Louvain.

DENMARK. Copenhagen (2).

FRANCE. Angers, Besancon, Brest, Bordeaux, Caen,
Cannes, Clermont-Ferrand, Dion, Grenoble
Hyeres, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier (1596),
Nancy, Nantes, Orleans, Paris (4), (1597), Roche-
fort, Rouen, 8. Quentin, Toulon, Toulouse,
Tours.

GERMANY. Aachen, Bamberg, Berlin (2), (1714),
Bonn, Breslau, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Cologne,
Darmstadt, Dresden, Erlangen, Strassburg (1619),
Frankfurt a.M., Freiburg 1.B., Giessen, Gor-
litz, Gottingen, Greifswald, Halle, Hamburg,
Heidelberg, Jena (1629), Kiel, Konigsberg, Leip-
zig (1580), Marburg, Munden, Munich, Munster,
Potsdam, Rostock, Tharandt, Tubingen, Wurz-
burg.

GREAT Britain. London (4) [Kew (1760), Chelsea
(1677), Regents Park, Horticultural Society’s
Garden, 8.K.], Belfast, Birmingham, Cambridge,
Dublin (2) [Trinity College, Glasnevin (1795)],
Edinburgh (1680), Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool,
Manchester, Oxford (16382).

GREECE. Athens.

Houuanp. Amsterdam, Groningen, Leyden (1577),
Utrecht, Wageningen.

ITauty. Bologna (1567), Brera, Cagliari, Camerino,

32 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Catania, Ferrara, Florence (1550), Genoa, Lucca, —
Messina, Milan, Modena, Naples, Padua (1545),
Palermo, Parma, Pavia, Perugia, Pisa (1547), 1
Portici, Rome, Siena, Turin, Venice, Urbino. ee

Mauta. la Valette.

Norway. Christiania.

PortuGau. Coimbra, Oporto, Lisbon.

RouMANIA. Bucharest, Yassey.

Russia. Dorpat, Helsingfors, Kasan, Kharkoff,
Kiew, Moscow, Odessa, Orel, Ouman, 8. Peters-
burg (2), Tiflis, Warsaw.

SERVIA. Belgrade.

Spain. Madrid. }

SWEDEN. Stockholm (3), Goteborg, Lund, Upsala
(1660). ,

SWITZERLAND. Bale, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne,
Zurich.

ASTA.

Cryton. Peradeniya, Hakgala, Henaratgoda, Ami-
radhapura, Badulla.

CuinA. Hongkong. |

InpIA (BRITISH). Calcutta, Mungpoo, Darjeeling,
Darbhangah, Poona, Ghorpuri, Bombay, Nagpur,
Ootacumund, Madras, Bangalore, Baroda,
Gwalior, Morvi, Travancore, Udaipur, Agra, .
Allahabad, Cawnpur, Lucknow, Saharanpur — ‘a
Lahore, Simla.

Inpia (FRENCH). Saigon, Pondicherry.

JAPAN. Tokio.

JAVA. Buitenzorg, Tjibodas.

SIBERIA. ‘Tomsk. |

SrRrairs SETTLEMENTS. Singapore, Penang, Malacca,
Perak.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33

AFRICA.
Algiers, Orotava, Cairo, Cape Town, Grahamstown,
Port Elizabeth, King Williamstown, Graaf
Reniet, Uitenhage, Gambia, Lagos, Gold Coast,
Durban, Pietermaritzburg, Old Calabar, Port
Louis, S. Denis.

AMERICA.

CANADA. Montreal, Ottawa.

UNITED States. Brookline, Mass., Cambridge, Lan-
sing, S. Louis, Washington, Chicago, Lincoln,
Ithaca, San Francisco.

GUATEMALA. Guatemala.

West Inpizs, &c. Barbadoes, George Town, Berbice,
British Honduras, Grenada, Jamaica (6), Lee-
wards Is. (4), 5S. Lucia, 8. Vincent, Havana,
Trinidad.

Pepe. Luma.

CHILI. Santiago.

ARGENTINA. Buenos Aires.

EcuabDor. Quito.

Braziu. Rio de Janeiro.

AUSTRALASIA AND PouynesIA. Sydney, Adelaide,
Port Darwin, Brisbane, Rockhampton, Mel-
bourne, Hobart Town, Wellington, Dunedin,
Napier, Invercargill, Auckland, Christchurch,
Honolulu.

34

NINTH ANNUAL REPORT of the LIVERPOOL
MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE and their
BIOLOGICAL STATION at PORT ERIN.

By W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.B.S.,

DERBY PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL ;
CHAIRMAN OF THE LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE,
AND DIRECTOR OF THE PORT ERIN STATION.

[Read 8th November, 1895.]

THE close of a third triennial period has witnessed the
publication (October, 1895) of a Fourth Volume of
Collected Reports by our Committee upon the Fauna of
Liverpool Bay and the Irish Sea. This volume practically
brings the account of the work of the Committee up to
the end of the tenth year; the Committee was formed in
1885, the first volume of the ‘‘ Fauna’ was issued in
1886, vol. IT. in 1889, vol. III. in 1892, and this fourth
volume has now appeared in the autumn of 1895—giving
an account of the opening of the Port Hrin Station by
His Excellency Dr. Spencer Walpole in 1892, and of the
investigations conducted in the laboratory and at sea up
to the date of our last annual report. The present (ninth)
annual report brings on the record to the conclusion of
the season 1895. :

The Committee have carried on their usual exploring
work by means of dredging expeditions and otherwise
during the past year. The specimens obtained have been
worked up by specialists, and some of the most noteworthy
additions to our lists are given below. I am specially
indebted to my colleagues on the Committee Mr. Isaac
Thompson and Mr. Alfred Walker, to my Assistant Mr.
Andrew Scott, and to the various other naturalists who

DATE.

March.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN.

4 * have worked at Port Erin during the year for kind help
given me in the preparation of this report.

STATION RECORD.

NAME.

% February. 1. C. Thompson ...
Wi. A. Herdman. ..:.

I. C. Thompson

W. A. Herdman ...

J. C. Sumner
R. Boyce

A. Scott

F. G. Baily
H, O. Forbes

W. A. Herdman ...
J. D. F. Gilchrist...

J. C. Sumner

P. M. C. Kermode
A. O. Walker

W. A. Herdman
R. Boyce }
P. M. C. Kermode
J. C. Sumner

I. C. Thompson
Boyce...

A. Leicester

W. A. Herdman ...

A. M. Paterson

C. Sumner
i ee
M

W. I. Beaumont ...
ie. led ...

F. W. Gamble

J. C. Sumner

H. O. Forbes

A. Scott

W. I. Beaumont ...
J.

is

H.

eyer Delius ...

The following naturalists have worked at the Port
_ Erin Laboratory during the past year :—

WORK.
Copepoda. |
Collecting.
Collecting.
Collecting.
Collecting.
Collecting.
Collecting.

Electric organ of Skate.

Tunicata.
Opisthobranchiata.
Collecting.
Collecting.
Amphipoda.,

Oyster experiments

General.

Collecting.

Copepoda

Oysters.

Mollusca.

Tunicata.

General.

Nemertines.
Photographing Alge.
Turbellaria.
Collecting.
Preserving Animals,
Copepoda, &e.
Nemertines.
Collecting.
Photographing Algee.
Studying fauna

36 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

J. C. Sumner
J. D. F. Gilchrist...

September. W. A. Herdman ...

H. Meyer Delius .
J. C. Sumner

F. W. Gamble

R. J. Harvey Gibson

Collecting.
Mollusca.
General.
Studying fauna.
Collecting.
Turbellaria.
Marine Alge.

October. I. C. Thompson Copepoda.

_ R. Boyce : General.

— W.A. Herdman ... Collecting.

— J. C. Sumner tk Collecting.
November. I. C. Thompson ... Copepoda.

— W. A. Herdman ... Oyster experiments.

— J. C. Sumner General.

The list compares satisfactorily with those of the last
few years. It shows only aslight increase in the number
of workers, but some stayed for long periods, e.g., Mr.
Beaumont from 3lst May to July 12th, Mr. Lea from
June 10th to July 4th, and Mr. Delius for the two months
August and September. The work done by the various
naturalists at the station will be referred to further on.

THE AQUARIUM.

There is no new feature to note in connection with
this part of the establishment. About 200 visitors paid
for admission during the season (July and August) when
it was on exhibition, while many other visitors were
taken round the tanks and dishes at other times of the
year when the aquarium was not formally open.

Amongst the animals which have lived in our tanks,
during 1895, may be noted the angler fish (Lophius
piscatorius), the top knot (Zeugopterus punctatus), the
plumose anemone (Actinoloba dianthus) for over six
months, the starfish Solaster endeca for over two months,
the wrasse (Labrus mixtus), young cod and pollack, and
various other fishes. Amongst other Invertebrates the

Seal Ae.
aan
My oe
st 7 ‘eo

1? a a ee oe ) eZ

a ~o. ES Ne oad

aj

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. ore

Mollusca Doris tuberculata, Acanthodoris pilosa and
Aplysia punctata (the sea hare) spawned freely.

The basement floor of the aquarium was made use of
by Professor Boyce and Professor Herdman, during a
part of the summer, for some of their investigations on
the life conditions and health of the oyster, and the effects
of certain diseased conditions. Some further experiments
on the same subject are being made in these lower tanks
this winter; and the place, from its constant coolness
and shade and its proximity to beach and sea, is proving
admirably suited for such a purpose.

THE CURATOR.

Mr. J. C. Sumner, from the Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, acted as Curator of the Biological
Station from March to November, and besides his
ordinary routine duties devoted much attention to
improving the stock of chemicals and fixing and preserving
re-agents in the laboratory. In his report to the Committee
he states ‘“‘I made an inventory of everything in the
laboratory, all the apparatus, books, &c.; and then made
a list of all the things I thought were wanted. These
have been brought or sent to the station from Liverpool
during the summer, so that now the place is really very
well equipped...... the shelves contain all the necessary
fixing and killing re-agents, together with some of the
commoner stains, &c.’’ (For some faunistic notes from the
Curator’s diary, see p. 79). The laboratory assistant,
William Bridson, is still in the employ of the Committee,
at a weekly wage, and continues to give satisfaction.

TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA.

The temperatures of sea and air have not been taken
with regularity through the season, but so far as the

88 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

observations go they entirely corroborate those of the
year before last which were printed in full in the Seventh
Annual Report. On the whole the sea off Port Erin
seems to be of a more equable temperature—slightly
warmer in winter and slightly colder in summer—than
that of the shallow waters off the Lancashire and
Cheshire coasts.

THE PROPOSED SEA-FIsSH HATCHERY.

It was hoped that before now some arrangement would
have been made with the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries
Committee or with the Manx Government, or with both
these bodies, whereby a Sea-Fish Hatchery for the Irish
Sea should be established at Port Erin alongside the
Biological Station. We have now advocated that scheme
for some years, our Committee has disinterestedly offered
to assist by lending tanks for preliminary experiments, by
giving the services of their Assistant and in other ways,
and successive reports by individuals and committees
have shown that the Port Erin site is superior in natural
advantages to any of those proposed an Lancashire,
Cheshire or North Wales. The water is pure and cool
and salt, and the configuration of shore and cliffs is such
as to lend itself readily to the formation of a large
spawning pond on the beach, while an adjacent creek
could easily be converted into a deep vivarium for lobster
culture. Our own Committee has no funds to apply to
such a purpose, but if any of the powerful bodies interested
in promoting the fisheries of the Irish Sea, or in the
technical instruction of the fishermen, will provide the
money to erect a small experimental hatchery and spawning
pond at Port Erin, the Committee is willing to superintend
the work for the first few years, and to give time and
trouble so as to show what can be done in this locality in
the artificial cultivation of food fishes,

- MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 39

DREDGING EXPEDITIONS.

During 1895 the following dredging expeditions in
steamers have been carried out, partly with the help, as
before, of a Committee of the British Association. This
B. A. Committee was re-appointed, for one year, at
the Ipswich Meeting, but must bring its labours to a
conclusion with a final report to the Liverpool Meeting of
the Association in September 1896. With that fuller
report in view for next year, the Committee do not propose
now to give details* of the separate expeditions, but
content themselves with the following brief summary of
the occasions and localities :—

I. April 15th, 1895.—Hired steam-trawler ‘‘ Lady Loch.”
Localities dredged, to the west and north-west of Port
Erin, at depths of 20 to 40 fathoms.

IJ. April 25th, 1895.—Hired steam-trawler ‘‘ Lady
Loch.” Localities dredged, to the west and south of
Port Erin, at depths of 30 to 40 fathoms.

At one spot, 6 miles S.E. of Calf Island, 34 fathoms,
bottom sand, gravel and shells, such a rich haul was
obtained that the trawl-net tore away, and only a small part
of the contents was recovered. This contained, however, a
number of specimens ofa rare shrimp Pontophilus spinosus,
Leach, along with Munida rugosa, Ebalia twmefacta and
EH. tuberosa, Xantho tuberculatus, Pandalus brevirostrus,
Anapagurus hyndmanm, Campylaspis sp., and Melphi-
dippella macera amongst Crustaceans, and the following
Echinoderma :—Palmipes membranaceus, Porania pulvil-
lus, Stichaster roseus, Luidea savigni, Synapta nherens,
and other Holothurians. There were also, of course, many
Mollusca, Worms, &c., and an unfamiliar Actinian, which

*The course of procedure on these expeditions was very fully described

last year (Eighth Annual Report, p. 16) and need not be further referred to
now,

40 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Professor Haddon considers to be probably his new species"
Paraphellia expansa, previously only known from deep
water off the south-west coast of Ireland.

III. June ist, 1895.—Hired steam-trawler ‘‘ Lady
Loch.” Localities dredged, Calf Sound and off 8.E. of
Isle of Man, at depths of 15 to 20 fathoms.

IV. June 23rd, 1895.—Hired steam-trawler ‘‘ Rose
Ann.” Localities dredged, to the W. and N.W. of Peel
and Ballaugh, on the “‘ North Bank,” at depths about 20
fathoms.

V. August 3rd, 1895.—Lancashire Sea-Fisheries steamer
“John Fell.” Localities dredged and trawled, Red Wharf
Bay and off Point Lynas, on north coast of Anglesey, at
depths of 6 to 17 fathoms.

VI. August 19th, 1895.—Steamer “John Fell.”’ Locali-
ties dredged, Carnarvon Bay, on south coast of Anglesey,
depths 15 to 18 fathoms. .

VII. October 27th, 1895.—Hired steamer ‘‘ Rose Ann.”
Localities dredged and trawled, off Port Erin and along
S.H. side of Island from the Calf oo to 0 La at
depths of 15 to 20 fathoms.

_ ADDITIONS TO THE Fauna.

In addition to these ‘‘ steamer’ expeditions there has
been frequent dredging and tow-netting from small boats,
and a good deal of ‘‘ shore collecting.”’

Amongst the more noteworthy animals collected in the
district during the year are the following :—

C@:LENTERATA.

Mr. Edward T. Browne has drawn up a list of thirty-
four species of Mrpus which are found in the district,
and of these the following are specially noteworthy :—
Amphicodon fritillaria (carrying young hydroids in the

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. Al

umbrellar cavity), Dysmorphosa minima, Cyteandra areo-
lata (?), Lizzia blondina, Laodice calcarata (new to
European seas), and Hutima insignis.* Mr. Browne
writes, in regard to his work at the Biological Station,
“Port Erin is a good place for Meduse. The tide sweeps
clean into the bay and I have found very little difference
between the pelagic fauna inside the breakwater and that
a mile or two off shore. At Plymouth one has to go
about two miles outside the Sound before meeting the
Channel tide.”’

Miss L. R. Thornely reports the addition of Perigonimus
repens and Tubiclava cornucopia to the list of Hydroids.

VERMES.

Mr. Beaumont in his recently published report makes
the following additions to the list of NEMERTIDA :—
Anyphiporus pulcher, A. dissimulans, Tetrastemma flavi-
dum, Prosorhochmus claparédu, Micrura purpurea, M.
fasciolata, M. candida, and Cerebratulus fuscus.

During this summer we have dredged from a gravelly
bottom, at 10 to 15 fathoms, in two localities near Port
Erin, a species of Polygordius, either P. apogon, M‘Intosh,
or a new species. It seems to differ from M‘Intosh’s
species in having no eyes. It differs also from all the
three species described by Fraipont which have no eyes.

Amongst PotycumtTa Mr. Sumner records Arenicola
ecaudata and Amplutrite johnston; Mr. Arnold Watson
Autolytus alexandri (with egg-sac), and many larval
Pectinaria, in membranous tubes 7; inch long.

Amongst Potyzoa Miss Thornely reports the rare
Triticella boeckiw, found attached to the prawn Calocaris
macandree, from the deep mud off Port Erin; also

* For Mr. Browne’s observations on these and other species see his report
in ‘‘ Fauna of Liverpool Bay,” Vol. LY., 1895,

42 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Schizotheca divisa, Mastigophora dutertrei, Schizoporella
vulgaris, and S. cristata, Membranipora solidula, M.
nodulosa, and M. discreta, Cribrilina gattye, Porella
minuta, Stomatopora incurvata, and Lagenipora socialis
all from the shelly deposit, at 16 to 20 fathoms, to the east
of the Calf Sound. ?

MOLLUSGCA.

The following Opisthobranchiata may be mentioned :—
Scaphander lignarius, Pleurobranchus plumula, Oscanius
membranaceus, Hlysia viridis, Runcina hancockt, Lamel-
lidoris aspera, Jorunna johnstom, Aigirus punctilucens,
Polycera lessont, Favorimus albus, Cuthona aurantiaca
and C. nana, Coryphella gracilis, C. lineata and C.
landsburgi, Facelina drummondi, Holis arenicola, Cratena
concimna, C. amoena and C. olwvacea, Galvina farram,
G. tricolor and G. picta, Hmbletoma pulchra, Acteoma
corrugata, Limapontia nigra, Lomanotus genet, and a
curious little Doris, which has been dredged several times
in the neighbourhood of Port Erin, and is still unidentified.
It may possibly be an unknown species. The Nudi-
branchs have been chiefly collected and identified by Mr.
Beaumont and Mr. Sumner.

CRUSTACEA.

This section is contributed by Mr. I. C. Thompson and
Mr. A. O. Walker, Mr. Thompson taking the Copepoda
and Mr. Walker the higher forms. The following addi-
tional records of Copepoda have, however, been supplied
by Mr. Andrew Scott independently of Mr. Thompson’s
report, viz.:—Sunaristes pagurt, Hesse ; Stenhelia reflexa,
T. Scott; Laophonte mtermedia, T. 8.; L. propinqua,
T.andA.8.; Cletodes similis, T. S.; Nannopus palustris,
Brady; Modtolicola insignis, Aur.; and Dermatomyzon
gibberum, T. and A, 8.; all new to our fauna.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 43

COPEPODA.

In the last report mention was made of a new copepod

found by Mr. I. C. Thompson in dredged material taken
outside Port Erin at 15 fathoms. This has since been
described by Mr. Thompson (‘‘ Trans. Liverpool Biol.
Soc.,” Vol. IX., p. 26, Pls. VI. and VIL.) as Pseudocyclopia
stephoides.

It was by no means easy to decide in which genus to
place this well-marked species, as it has strong points of
resemblance in common with the three genera, Pseudo-
calanus, Stephos, and Pseudocyclopia. With Psewudocy-
clopia it agrees in all points excepting in the number of
joints in the anterior antenne, and the primary branch of
the posterior antenne, and as in general appearance and
in the first four pairs of swimming feet it strongly resem-
bles Psewdocyclopia it was decided provisionally to place
it in that genus. Its fifth pair of feet, however, are more
like those of Stephos. In the “Twelfth Annual Report
of the Fishery Board for Scotland” Mr. Thomas Scott
added a new species belonging to this genus recently
found by him in the Forth area. As the genus Pseudo-
cyclopia forms a sort of missing link between the families
Calanidze and Misophriide, Mr. Scott has wisely consti-
tuted a new family, the Pseudocyclopuide, for its reception.
The species of Psewdocyclopia described by him having
respectively sixteen and seventeen joints in the anterior
antennze, he has made that number a family character.
The species here described has, however, twenty joints
in the anterior antenne, and as it otherwise agrees in all
respects with the family characters of Pseudocyclopiide
Mr. Thompson suggested that the words “sixteen to
seventeen jointed” be altered to “sixteen to twenty
jointed” as a character of this new family, with which
Mr. Scott at once concurred,

44 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

One specimen of Modiolicola insignis, Aurivillius, new
to the district, was found in the washings of dredged
material taken some miles off Peel in June, 1895. This
species 1s known as a messmate within the shell of the
“horse mussel” (Mytilus modiolus), and has been recorded
by Canu (‘‘ Les Copep. du Boulon.,”’ p. 238, pl. xxx., fig.
14—20), and more recently by Mr. T. Scott from the Firth
of Forth. It had also been found previously by Mr. A.
Scott in the ‘‘ Hole”’ to the east of the Isle of Man.

The expedition of October 27th in the steamer ‘‘ Rose
Ann’”’ was exceedingly prolific, large numbers of Copepoda
being found on the bottom in shallow water (15 to 20
fathoms) although there was very little in the surface
tow-nets. From some of the dredged stuff (broken shells,
&c.) Mr. Scott obtained 35 species three of which, Ameira
refleca, Idya gracilis and Tetragoniceps consvmilis, are new
to the district, and eight others seem undescribed forms.
Mr. Thompson has obtained already, after only a partial
examination of the material, 21 species, of which Dyspon-
tus brevifurcatus is new to the British fauna, and a
Cyclopicera seems new to science. Other rich hauls still
remain to be examined by Mr. Thompson.

Mr. A. O. Walker reports the following additions to our
lists of the HicHER CrusTAcHA :—

PoDOPHTHALMATA.

Crangon (Pontophilus) spinosus, Leach.—Several, April
25th, 1695, station 8. Colour: whitish, freckled with
reddish-brown on the antennal scales and legs; sparsely
on the front and hind margins of thorax and first three
abdominal segments, and densely on the last three
abdominal segments, hind margin of third and generally
front margin of fourth abdominal segments and proximal
half of telson and lateral appendages white. Length, 24 in.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 45

CUMACEA.

*Hemilamprops assimilis, Sars.—Off Galley Head, Co.
Cork, November 24th, 1894.

*Iphinoe tenella, Sars——Off North Bank, Peel, June
93rd, 1895. This is new to the British fauna.

*Diastylis rugosoides, n.sp.—Galley Head, six males.
Very near D. rugosa (Sars), from which it differs in the
absence of the vertical plica on the carapace, and in the
strong dorso-lateral teeth on the first three pleon segments.

ISOPODA.

Cirolana borealis, Lilljeborg—Galley Head; off Port
Erin, April 25th, 1895, station 2.

AMPHIPODA.

A small collection has been made by Mr. R. L. Ascroft,
of Lytham, from trawl refuse and a tow-net attached to
the trawl beam when working in the southern part of the
Irish Sea off Galley Head. The most interesting feature
of it is that nearly all the specimens are adult males, in
which condition amphipods are less often taken than any
other. This may perhaps be attributed to their having
been taken late in November, a season at which collectors
do not generally dredge.

Parathemisto oblivia, Kroyer.—Galley Head.

Callisoma crenata, Bate.—Galley Head; off Port Erin,
April 25th, 1895, station 1.

Hippomedon denticulatus, Bate.-—Galley Head.

Orchomenella ciliata, Sars.—Galley Head.

Tryphosites longipes, Bate.-—Galley Head.

Lepidepecreum carinatum, Bate.—Galley Head.

*Paraphoxus oculatus, Sars.—Off Port Erin, April 25th,

1895, stations 1 and 2.

* Those species marked with a star are new to the British fauna,

46 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Epumeria corngera, Febr.—Galley Head.

Syrrhoé fimbriata, Stebbing and Robertson.—Off Port
April 25th, 1895, station 1.

Leptochetrus hirsutimanus (Bate) =L. pilosus, Sars, not -
Zaddach.—T'wo miles south-east of Kitterland, 17 fathoms,
May 27th, 1894.

Photos longicaudatus, Bate —Off Port Erin, April 25th,
1895, stations 2 and 3.

*Photis pollez, n.sp.—Colwyn Bay, shore ; Little Orme;
Menai Straits, 5 to 10 fathoms. This species is inter-
mediate between Photis reinhardi (Kroyer) and P.
tenuicornis (Sars). The hind margin of the propodos of
the second gnathopod in the male is distally produced
into a thumb-lke process which has its origin much
nearer the carpus than in P. reinhardi.

Podocerus ocius, Bate.—Sponge débris, Port Erin, 1894.

PYCNOGONIDA.

The following rare species found during tye year at
Port Erin have been named by Mr. G. H. Carpenter, of
Dublin :—A noplodactylus petiolatus, Kr., Anvmothea echin-
ata, Hodge, Nymphon gracile, Leach, N. gallicum, Hoek,
Chetonymphon lirtum, Kr., and Pallene producta, Sars,
the last apparently new to Britain.

SOME STATISTICS OF DREDGING RESULTS.

During this year’s work we have been paying some
attention to the actual numbers of individuals, species,
and genera brought up in particular hauls of the dredge
or trawl. Our attention has recently been directed to the
matter by some statements in Dr. Murray’s summary
volumes of the ‘‘ Challenger’’ Expedition Report which
seemed not to be quite in accord with our own experience.
Dr. Murray quotes the statistics of the Scottish Sea-

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. AT

Fisheries Board to show that only 7°3 species of inverte-
brates and 8°3 species of fishes are captured on the
average by the Fisheries steamer ‘‘Garland’s”’ beam
trawl; and he cites as an example of a large and varied
haul from deep water one taken by the ‘“‘ Challenger’’ at
station 146 in the Southern Ocean, at a depth of 1,375
fathoms, with a 10-foot trawl dragged for at most 2 miles
during at most two hours, when 200 specimens were
captured belonging to fifty-nine genera and seventy-eight
species. Murray then goes on to say: ‘‘In depths less
than 50 fathoms, on the other hand, I cannot find in all
my experiments any record of such a variety of organisms
in any single haul, even when using much larger trawls
and dragging over much greater distances.’”’ Now our
experience of dredging in the Irish Sea is that quite
ordinary hauls of the dredge or very small trawl (only 4-foot
beam) contain often more specimens, species, and genera
than the special case cited from the “‘ Challenger”’ results.
On the first of our expeditions after the appearance of Dr.
Murray’s volumes we counted the contents of the first
haul of the trawl. The particulars are as follows :—June
23rd, 7 miles W. of Peel, on North Bank, bottom sand
and shells, depth 21 fathoms, trawl 4 feet beam, down for
20 minutes ; 232 specimens were counted, but there may
well have been another 100; they belonged to at least 112*
species and 103 genera, a larger number in every respect—
specimens, species, and genera—than in the ‘‘Challenger’”’
haul quoted. The list of these species is here given, and
marine zoologists will see at a glance that it is nothing
out of the way, but a fairly ordinary assemblage of not
uncommon animals such as is frequently met when
dredging in from 15 to 30 fathoms.

* Really an under estimate, several other species have been identified
since from the same haul.

48 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

SPONGES:

Reniera, sp.
Halichondria, sp.
Cliona celata
Suberites domuncula
Chalina oculata

C@LENTERATA:

Dicoryne conferta
Halecvum haleconum
Sertularia abietina
Coppima arcta
Hydrallmama falcata
Campanularia verticillata
Lafoea dumosa
Antennularia ramosa
Alcyonwum digitatum
Virgularia morabilis
Sarcodictyon catenata
Sagartia, sp.
Adamsia palliata

ECHINODERMATA:

Cucumaria, sp.
Thyone fusus
Asterias rubens
Solaster papposus
Stichaster roseus
Porama pulvillus
Palmipes placenta
Ophwocoma mgra
Ophiothriz fragilis
Amphiura chraju
Ophioglypha ciliata
O. albida |
Lchinus sphera

Spatangus purpureus

Hchinocardium cordatum

Brissopsis lyrifera
fichinocyamus pusillus

VERMES:

Nemertes neesiw
Chetopterus, sp.
Sprrorbis, sp.

Serpula, sp.

Sabella, sp.

Owema filiformis
Aphrodite aculeata
Polynoe, sp.

CRUSTACEA :

Scalpellum vulgare
Balanus, sp.
Cyclopicera nigripes
Acontiophorus elongatus
Artotrogus magniceps
Dyspontius striatus
Zaus goodsirr
Laophonte thoracica
_Stenhelia reflera
Lichomolgus forficula
Anony2, sp.

Galathea intermedia
Munda bamffica
Crangon spinosus
Stenorhynchus rostratus
Inachus dorsettensis
Hyas coarctatus
Xantho tuberculatus
Portunus pusillus
Eupagurus bernhardus

£. prideauzn

EH. cuanensis

_ Hurynome aspera
Hbalia tuberosa

Pedicellina cernua

Tubulipora, sp.
Crista cornuta.
_ Cellepora pumicosa and three
or four undetermined spec-
ies of Lepralids
_ Flustra securifrons
Scrupocellaria reptans
— Cellularia fistulosa
Mouuvsca :

Anomia ephippium
' Ostrea edulis
Pecten maximus
P. opercularis
P. tigrinus
P. pusio
— Mytilus modiolus
Nucula nucleus
Cardium echinatum
Lissocardium norvegicum

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN.

Solen pellucidus

Venus gallina

Lyonsia norvegica
Scrobicularia prismatica
Astarte sulcata
Modiolaria marmorata
Saxicava rugosa
Cyprina tislandica

— Chiton, sp.

Dentalium entale
Emarginula fissura
Velutina levigata
Turritella terebra
Natica aldert

Fusus antiquus
Aporrhais pes-pelicant
Oscanius membranaceus
Doris, sp.

Coryphella landsburgt
Tritoma plebera

TUNICATA:

Ascidiella virginea
Styelopsis grossularva
Hugyra glutinans
Botryllus, sp.

Bis 8.

The following are two other similar hauls taken with
different instruments (dredge and trawl), but both in less
than 20 fathoms. On October 27th, 1895, in the steam-
trawler ‘“‘Rose Ann” we counted the first haul of the
dredge (2 feet of scraping edge) and the first haul of the
_ small trawl (4 foot beam) with the following results :—
First haul of dredge, across mouth of Port Erin Bay,
from Bradda Head towards the Calf Sound, depth 17
fathoms, bottom dead shells, 93 species in 81 genera.

50

TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL. BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Ascetta primordialis
Cliona celata
Halecium haleconum
Sertularella polyzonias
Hydrallmamia falcata
Antennularia antennina
Lafoea dumosa |
Obelia, sp.

A sterias rubens.

Henricia sanguinolenta -

Solaster papposus —
Ophiothria fragilis
Lichinus sphera
Polynoe, sp. 2.
Serpula, sp.
Pomatoceros triqueter
Sptrorbis, sp.
Terebella nebulosa
Mucronella peach
M. ventricosa

Smittia reticulata
Membrampora craticula
M. flemingia

M. dumerilu

M. wmbellis
Microporella malusit
M. ciliata |
Lichenopora hispida
Schizoporella linearis
S. hyalina

Idmonea serpens
Scrupocellarva. reptans
Tubulipora flabellaris
Crista, sp.

Diastopora suborbicularis -

D. patina
Porella concinna

Chorizopora brongniartia —

Cellepora costazw
Balanus balanoides —

Chthamalus stellatus

Cyclopina gracilis
Misophria pallida
Thalestris clausi
Lictinosoma spunipes
Cyclopicera lata -

C. nigripes. —
Lichomolgus maximus
Dermatomyzon gibberum
Artotrogus magniceps
Zaus goodswr
Iphvmedia obesa.
Melita obtusata

Lilleborgia kinahana ee

Aora gracilis
Hrichthonswus abditis

| Phtisica marina ok
Gnathia (Anceus), sp. >

Hyas araneus

H1. coarctatus
Hippolyte varians
Spirontocaris spinus
EHupagurus bernhardus
Galathea intermedia
Fibalia tuberosa
Portunus, sp.

Achelia. echinata
Anomia ephippium

}
foes 4
ee SS ee Oe

peo we
‘ i
——————— eee eee eee —s= = ——

— Nucula nucleus

— Mytilus modiolus -

_ Pecten opercularis
— P. maximus

?. pusio

- Saxicava TUGOSA
Venus lincta
Tapes, sp.

7. Cyprina islandica
-Chiton, sp.

- Emarginula fissura
Velutina levigata

— Capulus hungaricus

J Leucosolenia coriacea
Suberites domuncula
Cliona celata —
Coppinia arcta
Sertularia abietina
Antennularia ramosa

: Plumularia, sp.
Sagartia nivea
Sarcodictyon catenata
Palmipes membranaceus
Solaster endeca
Asterias rubens
FHenricia sanguinolenta
Porania pulvillus
Echinus sphera
Echinocyamus pusillus
vineus marinus

Amphiporus pulcher

- MARINE BIOLOGICAL ‘STATION AT PORT ERIN. 51

Buccinum undatum
Fusus antiquus
Trochus cinerarius
Holis viridis
Polycera quadrilineata.
Perophora listera

Ciona intestinalis
Ascidiella virginea
Ascidia mentula

A. scabra RAMOS, 85k
Styelopsis grossularia —
Cynthia Morus

‘The first haul of the small trawl, on me same occasion,
_ off the Halfway Rock, in 18 fathoms yielded 111 species
in 93 genera, as follows :—

Micrura fasciolata
Filograna vmplexa
Serpula, sp.
Pomatoceros triqueter
Polynoe, sp.

Aitea recta
Scrupocellaria scrupea
S. reptans

Idmonea serpens
Schizotheca fissa
Crista ramulosa

C. cornuta

Cellepora pumicosa

C. dichotoma |
Alcyonidium gelatinosum.
A. nytilt

Cellaria fistulosa
Membranipora pilosa

52

TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

M. craticula

M. flemingia

M. wmbellis ,
Chorizopora brongniartit
Smittra trispinosa

S. reticulata
Schizoporella linearis
Mucronella peachia

M. ventricosa

M. coccinea

Porella concinna
Diastopora obelia
Microporella malusi
Hippothoa diwaricata
H. distans .
Stomatopora johustom
Balanus balanoides
Thalestris peltata
Dactylopus flavus
Laophonte spinosa (?)
Fictinosoma atlanticum
Cyclopicera gracilicauda
Lichomolgus liber
Dyspontius striatus
Acontiophorus scutatus
Artotrogus orbicularis
Stenothoe maria
Leucothoe spinicarpa
Anvphilochus manudens
Cyproidea brevirostris
Triteta gibbosa

Cressa dubia
Podocerus cumbrensts
Spirontocarts spinus

Stenorhynchus, sp.
Portunus, sp.
Hupagurus bernhardus
i. cuanensis
Galathea intermedia
G. dispersa
Pandalus annulicornis
Crangon allmana
Xantho tuberculatus
Pycnogonum littorale
Anoma ephipprum
Ostrea edulis
Mytilus modiolus
Pecten maximus

P, tigrinus

P. pusio

P. opercularts
Astarte, sp.

Venus casina

Tapes, sp.

Nucula nucleus
Saxicava rugosa

__ Pectunculus glycumeris

Chiton, sp.

Cyprina islandica.
Tectura virginea
Emarginula fissura
Plewrotoma, sp.
Trochus millegranus
T. zizyphinus
Goniodoris nodosa
Amaroucium, sp.
Didemnum, sp.
Leptoclhinum maculatum

™

Botryilus, sp.
Ascidiella virginea
_ Ascidia mentula

_ A. plebera

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 53

Corella parallelogramma
Styelopsis grossularia
Cynthia morus

: A third haul, on this same occasion (October 27th) gave
us, from 16 fathoms, 156 species (see below, p. 64).

In order to get another case, on entirely different
ground, not of our own choosing, on the first occasion
after the publication of Dr. Murray’s volumes when
we were out witnessing the trawling observations of the
Lancashire Sea-Fisheries steamer ‘‘ John Fell,” I counted,
with the help of Mr. Andrew Scott and the men on

board, the results of the first haul of the shrimp trawl.
It was taken on July 23rd at the mouth of the Mersey
estuary, inside the Liverpool Bar, on very unfavourable
ground :. bottom muddy sand, depth 6 fathoms. The
shrimp trawl (13-inch mesh) was down for 1 hour, and
it brought up over seventeen thousand specimens referable
to the following thirty-nine species belonging to thirty-

four genera :—
Solea vulgaris
Pleuronectes platessa

P limanda

Gadus morrhua
G. eglefinus
G. merlangus
Clupea spratta
C. harengus
Trachinus vipera
Agonus cataphractus
— Gobius minutus
— Raia clavata
BR. maculata
Mytilus edulis

Tellina tents
Mactra. stultoruwm
Fusus antiquus
Carcinus menas
Portunus, sp.
Pagurus bernhardus
Crangon vulgaris
Sacculina, sp.
Amphipoda (undetermined)
Longipedia coronata
Ectinosoma spinipes
Sunaristes pagurv
Dactylopus rostratus
Cletodes linucola

54

TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Caligus, sp. | Hydractinia echinata
Flustra foliacea | Sertularia abietina —
Aphrodite aculeata | Hydrallmania falcata —
Pectinaria belgica Aurelia aurita 7
Nereis, sp. Cyanea, sp.

Asterias rubens

These numbers have been exceeded on many other
hauls in the ordinary course of work by the Fisheries
steamer in Liverpool Bay. For example, on this occasion
the fish numbered 5,943, and I have records of hauls in
which the fish numbered over 20,000. The shrimps
probably number as many again, and if the starfishes and
-other abundant invertebrates are added the total must
sometimes reach such enormous numbers as from 45,000

to 50,000 specimens in a single haul of the trawl in

shallow water, not including microscopic forms. Hauls
such as this are doubtless as prolific of individuals as any
of those hauls sometimes quoted containing large numbers
‘of specimens (of a very few species) of Copepoda and

Schizopoda from waters deeper than 50 fathoms,* and are —
certainly far more prolific in species and genera; while

hauls such as the three quoted above under dates June
23rd and October 27th compare favourably as to variety
of life, 7.e., as to number of species and genera, with the
deep water hauls of the ‘‘ Challenger” expedition made
with a far larger trawl.

On the next occasion, when on board the “ John Fell,”
on our own expedition of August 8rd, two members of
this Committee (A. O. Walker and W. A. Herdman)
identified the species brought up in the first haul of the

* Such as those referred to by Mr. Turbyne in ‘‘ Nature” for October 24th,
1895, which illustrate an interesting case of distribution of a very few
species but do not affect the argument given above for the relative nob
haul for haul, of the shallow as compared with the deeper waters. -

‘“
{

4
.
{

—— oO

_ Solea vulgaris
SS. lutea
_ Pleuronectes platessa
P. limanda
| P. flesus
Gadus morrhwua
G. eglefinus
G. merlangus
— Callionymus lyra
— Raia maculata —
Fusus antiquus
| Buccinum undatum
Natica alderi
Plewrotoma, sp.
Philine, sp.
Holis, sp.
Polycera quadrilineata
Corbula gibba
Mactra stultorum
— Serobicularia alba
Portunus depurator
Corystes cassiwelaunus
Hyas coarctatus
— Stenorhynchus phalangium
— Hupagurus bernhardus
Crangon vulgaris
Pseudocuma cercaria
— Diastylis rathket
D. spinosa
— Balanus balanoides
| Paratylus swammerdammii

* MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN.

55

trawl (5-inch mesh), taken in Red Wharf Bay, Anglesey,
at a depth of 4 to 7 fathoms. They were 78 species,
belonging to 67 genera, as follows :—

Harpinia neglecta
Ampelisca levigata
Monoculodes longimanus —
Amphilochus melanops
Pariambus typicus |

Achelia echinata

Aphrodite aculeata
Nerets, sp.

Terebella, sp.

(2?) Syllas, sp.

Serpula, sp.

Sptrorbis, sp.

Cellaria fistulosa
Flustra foliacea
Hucratea chelata
Scrupocellarva reptans
Bugula, sp.

Cellepora pumvicosa

C. avicularis —

Porella compressa
Mucronella peach
Membranipora membranacea
M. pilosa |
Alcyonidium gelatinosum
Vesicularia spinosa
Gemellaria loricata
Lichenopora hispida
Crista eburnea

C. cornuta

Idmonea serpens
Asterias rubens

56

‘TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Amphiura squamata Antennularia ramosa
Ophioglypha albida Coppyma arcta

Tealia crassicornis Sertularella polyzonias
Alcyonwum digitatum Sertularia abvetina
Clytia gohnstona S. argentea

Lafoéa dumosa Diphasia rosacea
Hydrallmama falcata D. tamarisca
Halecwum haleconum Tubularia indwisa

This was a haul—from very shallow water—which
combined mere quantity of life, z.e., number of mndividuals,
with variety of life or nwmber of species and genera. The
ten species of fish were represented by 879 individuals,
and we estimated that there were some hundreds of crabs
and of starfishes, and some thousands of shrimps. The
numbers of the Molluscs, of the hermit-crabs, of Balanus

and of Sprrorbis were also very large.

From these statements it is clear that whether it be a
question of mere mass of life or of varvety of life, haul for
haul, the shallow waters can hold their own against the
deep sea, and form in all probability the most prolific
zone of life on this globe.

RELATIONS OF GENERA TO SPECIES.

A point which comes out in making complete lists, such
as those given above, of the contents of the net on one
haul is the relatively large number of genera represented
by the species.* In the haul, quoted above, from the
expedition of June 23rd, the 112 species were referred to
103 genera; in the haul from the Fisheries steamer on
July 28rd, the 89 species obtained belong to 34 genera;
on August 8rd, there were 78 species and 67 genera, and

*Dr. Murray, in the Challenger “‘ Summary,” notes this fact in the case of

deep-sea hauls, but does not seem to recognise its application to shallower
waters.

| MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 57

in the two hauls of October 27th there were 93 species in
81 genera and 111 species in 93 genera. Taking a few
instances of particular groups—on August 25th, 1894, the
15 species of Tunicata taken in one haul represented 10
genera; and Mr. Walker reports the following numbers
of species and genera in hauls of the higher Crustacea :—
March, 1893, off Rhos, shallow, 19 species in 18 genera;
May, 1893, off Rhos, two fathoms, 24 species in 21 genera ;
July, 1898, off Little Orme, 5 to 10 fathoms, 31 species
in 28 genera; October, 1893, off Little Orme, 4 to 10
fathoms, 41 species in 86 genera; September, 1894, off
Little Orme, shallow, 39 species in 35 genera; and April,
1895, off Port Erin, 34 fathoms, 40 species in 35 genera.*

These figures are particularly interesting in their bearing
on the Darwinian principle that an animal’s most potent
enemies are its own close allies.+ Is it then the case, as
the above cited instances suggest, that the species of a
genus rarely live together; that if in a haul you get half-
a-dozen species of lamellibranchs, amphipods, or annelids
they will probably belong to as many genera, and if these
genera contain other British species these will probably
occur in some other locality, perhaps on a different bottom,
or at a greater depth? It is obviously necessary to count
the total number of genera and species of the groups in
the local fauna, as known, and compare these with the
numbers obtained in particular hauls. That has been

*These numbers refer to the Higher Crustacea only. There were many
other animals in the hauls.

+** As the species of the same genus usually have, though by no means
invariably, much similarity in habits and constitution, and always in struc-
ture, the struggle will generally be more severe between them, if they come
into competition with each other, than between the species of distinct
genera.” Darwin, The Origin of Species, sixth edition, p. 59; see also
Wallace, Darwinism, second edition, p. 33,

58 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
done to some extent with the Fauna” of Liverpool Bay,
and the following instances may be taken as samples. —
The known number of species of higher Crustacea in
Vol. I. of the “Fauna” (1886) is 90, and these fall into 60
genera. But many species have been added since then,
so Mr. Walker has gone over the records up to date (1895),
and states that we now know in our local fauna 230
species which belong to 150 genera. This is still much
the same proportion as in the former numbers, so we may
take it that in our district the genera are to the species as
2 to 3, whereas in the collections quoted from Mr. Walker
above the genera are to the species on the average about
as 28 to 31, or nearly 7 to 8. It can also be brought out
by similar series of numbers that as one extends the area
investigated the number of species per genus is increased.
In a single haul, in our district as we have seen, the species
are to the genera about as 8 to 7, in our local fauna the
proportion is about 3 species to 2 genera, while in the
much wider area embraced by Sars’ Amphipoda of
Norway the numbers are 365 species to 157 genera or
nearly 5 species to 2 genera. In other words if allied
‘species, taking a large district, were associated together
we might expect to find about twice as many species per
genus in each haul as we do find. | |
Mr. Walker has gone carefully into this matter of the
proportion of genera to species in our hauls, and in other
areas, and from the figures in his notes I extract the
following records, in support of the above statement :—
Rhos Bay, 13/5/93, Amphipoda, 16 sp. in 14 genera.
Little Orme, 28/7/93, Amphipoda, 24 sp. in 22 genera.
ae 5/10/98, ‘ 29° ;, =e
The ageregate of the species and genera of Amphipoda
in the above three dredgings is 69 species in 60 genera, or
an average proportion of 115:100. Now the total number

. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 59

of Amphipoda so far recorded in the L. M.B.C. District
‘(about 5000 sq. miles) is 124 species in 78 genera, or
inthe proportion of 159: 100; while G. O. Sars dealing
‘with the Amphipoda of Norway—a very much more
extended area—gives 365 species in 157 genera, or in the
proportion of 232 : 100.

To sum up, the proportions of species and genera, in
these Amphipoda are :—

Rhos, &c., 1 to 10 fms., 115 sp. in 100‘gen., or 14:1.

L.M.B.C. dist., to 70 fms., 159 sp. in 100 gen., over 13:1.

Norway, to 1215 fms., 232 sp. in 100 gen., or 23:1.

So, it is clear that as one increases the area and depth
investigated the proportion of species to genera in the
fauna increases, until e.g., on the coasts of Norway it has
become more than twice what it is on the north coast of
Wales.

Again, the total number of recorded species of L.M.B.C.
-Tunicata is 46, and these are referred to 20 genera; while
in the case given above (August 25th, 1894) the 12 species
taken on one spot represented 10 genera, or, a little over
a quarter of the species represented half the genera.
‘These and many other series of statistics in regard to
other groups which we might quote, seem to show that a
disproportionately large number of genera is represented
by the assemblage of species at one spot, which means
that closely related species are, as a rule, not found
together. }

We know of some individual cases, of course, of allied
Species occurring together, but these do not necessarily
affect the general argument. Exceptional cases may be
due to some special habit which, although the species are
allied forms, prevents them from being severe competitors.
It is possible also that sessile animals, such as hydroids
and polyzoa, may form a partial exception, and may differ

60 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

from’ wandering forms in their method of competition.
However Miss Thornely finds that in most gatherings of
Polyzoa the species are less than twice the number of
genera, while in our ‘“‘ Fauna”’ the average recorded number
is 2'5 species in a genus. Moreover the colonies on dead
shells or on stones are generally not only distinct species,
but also distinct genera. As many as ten genera are
sometimes represented by the Polyzoon colonies on one
shell. We are accumulating further statistics on all these
points. |

THE SUBMARINE DEPOSITS.

In last year’s report the nature of. the deposits forming
on the floor of the Irish Sea was discussed in a preliminary
‘manner. During this season’s work the bottom brought
up on each occasion has been carefully noted and a sample
kept for future study in the Jermyn Street Museum.
One point which this collection of deposits from com-
paratively shallow shore waters seems to bring out is that
_the classification of submarine deposits into ‘‘terrigenous”
_ and ‘‘ pelagic,’ which was one of the earliest oceanographic
results of the ‘‘ Challenger’? Expedition, and which is
still adhered to in the latest ‘‘ Challenger’’ volumes as an
accepted classification, does not adequately represent or
express fully the facts. Terrigenous deposits are supposed
‘to be those formed round continents from the waste of
the land, and are stated to contain on the average 68 per
cent. of silica. Pelagic deposits are those formed in the
open ocean from the shells and other remains of animals
and plants living on the surface of the sea above, and
they are almost wholly free from quartz particles.

Ordinary coast sands and gravels and muds are un-
doubted terrigenous deposits. Globigerina and Radiolarian
_oozes are typical pelagic deposits. But in our dredgings |

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 61

in the Irish Sea, where the deposits ought all, from their
position, to be purely terrigenous, we meet with several
distinct varieties of sea-bottom which are not formed
mostly from the waste of the land, and do not contain
anything like 68 per cent. of silica; but, on the contrary,
are formed very largely of the remains of bottom haunting
plants and animals, and may contain as little as 17 per
cent. of silica. Such are the nullipore bottoms, and the
shell sand and shell gravel met with in some places, and
the sand formed of comminuted spines and plates of
echinoids which we have found off the Calf Island.
These deposits are really much more nearly allied in their
nature, and in respect of the kind of rock which they
would probably form if consolidated,* to the calcareous
oozes amongst pelagic deposits, than they are to terri-
genous deposits, and yet they are formed on a continental
area close to land in shallow water. Moreover, although
agreeing with the pelagic deposits in being largely organic
in origin, they differ in being derived not from surface
organisms, but from plants (the nullipores) and animals
which lived on the bottom. Consequently the division of
deposits into “‘terrigenous”’ and ‘‘pelagic’’ ought to be
modified or replaced by the following classification :—

1. Terrigenous (Murray’s term, restricted)—where the
deposit is formed chiefly (say, at least
two-thirds, 66 %) of mineral particles
derived from the waste of the land.

2. Neritict—where the deposit is largely of organic
origin, its calcareous matter being

*They seem closely comparable with the Coralline and Red Crag
formations of Suffolk.

+ Adopted from Haeckel’s term for the zone of shallow water marine
fauna, see ‘‘ Plankton Studien,” Jena, 1890; also Hickson’s ‘‘ Fauna of
Deep Sea,” 1894,

62 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

derived from the shells and other |

hard parts of the animals and Lae
living on the bottom.

3. Planktonic (Murray’s pelagic)—where the greater
part of the deposit is formed of the
remains of free-swimming animals
and plants which lived in the sea

; above the deposit. Be
The last group is ; Murray’ s “pelagic”? unchanged, and
that, there can be no doubt, is a natural group of deposits;
but Murray’s ‘‘terrigenous”’ is an unnatural or hetero-
geneous assemblage containing some deposits, such as the
sravel off Bradda Head and the sand of the Liverpool bar,
which are clearly terrigenous in their origin, along with
others such as shelly sands and nullipore deposits which
have much less to do with the waste of the land, but
are very largely organic in origin and formed by animals
and plants an sitw. The proposal is then to recognise this
latter group of deposits by separating them from the
truly terrigenous under the name “ Neritic.” Probably
some of the Coral. sands described by Murray and Renard
in their Challenger Report on ee would also
fall into this category. aoe |
_ Professor Johannes Walther, of Jena, ae has of recent
years been working on the borderlands of geology and
bionomics, in a recent letter to me on my proposed
classification of deposits says:—‘‘Ich meine dass der
Ausdruck benthonisch statt neritisch richtiger ware. .Denn
es kommt doch bei der Diagnose weniger daraufan,
dass die Ablagerung in der Flachsee, als dass sie durch
benthonisch Orgamsmen (Coralline, Korallen, Echinoder-
men, Mollusken, Bryozoen, etc.) gebildet wird.” With
this I can. quite agree. I lay most stress on the nature

(bottom plants and animals) of the particles composing

a ee eee

a eS ee

— a

E
;
|
’

~~ =
ee
*

- MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 63

the deposits, and I do not mind much whether they are
called Neritic or Benthonic so long as the category is
recognised as distinct from terrigenous.

Dr. C. Kohn has kindly analysed for me a series of fair
samples of deposits from different parts of the Irish Sea,
with the following results :—

NERITIC. TERRIGENOUS.

16°83 | 46°65 | 54°84 | 23°41 | 84°62 | 83°06 | 77°10 | 78-92

S102.

Silica.

9°18 | 9°20) 8°59

Cal. Be arate. Ce 39 71 | 59°66| 6°38

Residue (other | 3.99 | y4-99| 6-45 | 19-93 | 9-00) 13-70 | 13-70 | 12°69

_ than Silica). -

ee 100°00/100°00|100°00/100-00/100°00 |100°00/100-00

The localities and particulars are,—

. 1 mile off Spanish Head, 16 faths., shell fragments.
1 mile off Calf of Man, 20 faths., shells and spines.
1 mile off Calf of Man, 18 faths., shell sand, spines.
. 2 miles off Dalby, 15 faths., nullipores.

. Liverpool Bar, 3 faths., sand. |

Bahama Bank, 13 faths., muddy sand.

. King William Bank, 5 faths., coarse sand.

. North end of ‘ Hole,” 28 faths., mud.

It will be noticed that the four terrigenous deposits (sands
and muds) all show less than 10 % of calcium carbonate ;
_ while the four neritic have all more than 38 %—well over a
third—of calcium carbonate, and one (A.) has over 79 %.
The silica in these neritic deposits may be less than 17 %,

HQtHU One

*Shelly deposit. Contained 1:09 % of small stones not included in
analysis. |
+Contained 4°82 % of magnesium carbonate, in addition to calcium

carbonate.

64 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

and does not rise in any to 55 %. In round numbers
it may be said that in these examples the silica makes up
from 20 to 50% and the calcium carbonate from 40 to
80 %. In all the neritic deposits there are in the residue
small quantities of calcium pees of iron and of
alumina.

In some of these Aopceitas the calcareous matter is
formed almost entirely of Lithothamnion. Amongst the
Nullipores from our neritic deposits Professor Harvey
Gibson has identified the following species :—Lithotham-
nion polymorphum, L. calcareum, L. agariciforme, L.
fasciculatum, the wanes fruticulosum, and Lithophyllum
lenormandt. 7

One of these neritic deposits (A) has its calcareous
matter formed by a large number of animals, belonging
to various groups, in addition to nullipores. One sample
(measuring 7 qts., 14 pts., and weighing, when dry, 17 lbs.
3} 0zs.) which I have gone over carefully for the purpose of
identifying the constituent particles contains more or less
fragmentary remains of at least the following 99 species,
all of them forms that leave calcareous remains :—

NULLIPORES: , Cellepora avicularis
Lithothammon fasciculatum | C. dichotoma
LL. caleareum - C. pumicosa
Lithophyllum lenormands Idmonea serpens
ECHINODERMATA : Microporella ciliata
Lichinus sphera M. malusi
Echinocyamus pusillus M. violacea
Fichinocardiwm cordatum Schizotheca fissa
VERMES: *S. dwisa
Serpula, sp. Mastigophora hyndmanna
Spirorbis, sp. | *M. dutertres
Pouyzoa :t | Mucronella peachit
Cellaria fistulosa M. variolosa

* New to district. + Identified by Miss L. R. Thornely,

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 65

M. ventricosa
M. coccinea
*Do., var. mamillata
Schizoporella auriculata
8S. linearis
S. wnicornis
_S. sumplez
*S. vulgaris
S. discoidea
*S. cristata

Membranipora catenularia

M. solidula
M. pilosa

. *M. nodulosa

*M. discreta
M. aurita
M. craticula
M. flemingu
Hippothoa distans
Cribrilina annulata
C. punctata

*C. gattye
Crisia aculeata
Aitea recta
Amatiua lendigera
Porella concinmna
Do., var. bella

*P,. minuta
Cribrilina radiata
Phylactella collaris
P. labroswm
Micropora corvacea
Chorizopora brongniarti
Diastopora patina

D. obelia

D. suborbicularis
Stomatopora johnstont

*S. incurvata

Lepralia foliacea

L. pertusa
Lagenipora socialis
Smittia trispinosa
S. reticulata
Lichenopora hispida

CRUSTACEA:

Balanus balanoides
Verruca, sp.
Cancer pagurus

Monuvusca :

Anomia ephipprum
Lima elliptica
Pecten opercularis
P. pusio

Cardium edule
Venus casina

V. ovata

Nucula nucleus

My tilus edulis
Saxicava rugosa
Tapes, sp.

Mactra solida
Pectunculus glycimeris
Acmea testudinalis
A. virginea
Emargiuula fissura
Helcion pellucidum
Trochus magus

T. millegranus

66

TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

T’. cinerarius | Bucconum undatum
Plewrotoma, sp. Capulus hungaricus
JERS Cyprea europea
Murex erinaceus Nassa incrassata
Phasianella pullus fissoa, sp.

Natica, sp. fi., sp.

From a bag of this shelly Neritic deposit (A), described
above, Mr. Andrew Scott has by careful examination

_ managed to extract the following 36 species of Copepoda,

of which 4 are new records for our district and 8 others —
seem new to science :—Pseudocyclops obtusatus, B. & R.;
Ectinosoma sarsit, Boeck; E. melaniceps, Boeck; EH.
erythrops, Brady; H. gracile, T. & A. Scott; Tachidius
brevicorms, Muller; Stenhelia, n.sp.; Stenhelia, n.sp.; —
Amewra longipes, Brady; A. longicaudata, 'T. Scott; A.
refleca, T. Scott; A. gracile, n.sp.; Mesochra macintosh,
T.& A.8.; Paramesochra dubia, T. Scott; Tetragoniceps
consimilis, T. Scott; Laophonte thoracica, Boeck; L. cur-
ticaudata, Boeck; Pseudolaophonte aculeata, n.gen. and
n.sp.; Normanella attenuata, n.sp.; Dactylopus stroma,
Baird; D. tenmremis, B. & B.; D. flavus; @ianseae
brevicorms, Claus; Thalestris rufocincta, Norman; T.”
peltata, Boeck; Harpacticus chelifer, Muller; Zaus spima-
tus, Goodsir; Z. goodsiri, Brady; Idya gracilis, T. Scott;
LIichomolgus fucicolus, Brady; L. furcillatus, Thorell;
Dermatomyzon ngripes (B. & R.); Ascomyzon thompson,
n.sp.; Acontiophorus scutatus, B. & R.’; and two other
species which have not yet been worked out.

Mr. Thompson has also identified from a sample of the
same deposit which he examined a number of the above
species, and in addition the following five :—Porcellidium,
sp., Ametra attenuata, Laophonte spinosa, Scutellidiwm
fasciatum, and Artotrogus orbicularis, uate 41 species
of Copepoda in all.

_ MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN.) 67

_ These 41 species added to the 99 species from the same
haul noted on p. 64 and to the following 16 species
recorded from the trawl on Oct. 27th, when the haul was
taken, make in all 156 species :—Mytilus modiolus, Pecten
tigrinus, Trochus zizyphinus, Fissurella greca, Hulima
polita, Pagurus prideauxu, Ophiothri« fragilis, Ophicoma
migra, Adamsia palliata, Sertularia abietina, Antennu-
laria ramosa, Hydrallmania falcata, Tubularia, sp.,
Glycera, sp., Amphiporus pulcher, Flustra foliacea. It
ought to be remembered, however, that a good many (by
no means all) of the Mollusca and a few of the Polyzoa
were dead.

Mr. Clement Reid, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey,
has examined the samples of deposits which were sent by
us to the Jermyn Street Museum, and reports as follows :—
“The series of dredgings examined since the last report
is most interesting from a geological point of view. One
is again struck by the common occurrence of loose angular
stones at places and depths apparently well beyond the
reach of any bottom drift—at least beyond the reach of
currents likely to move such coarse material. This stony
sea-bed is in all probability the result of submarine erosion
of glacial deposits. Its occurrence renders comparison
between recent marine deposits of these latitudes and
Tertiary deposits a task of peculiar difficulty ; for not only
is the nature of the true marine sediments masked, but
the fauna also must be greatly altered. It is evident that
numerous species which need a firm base on which to
affix themselves will be encouraged by a stony bottom ;
while in a Tertiary deposit, formed under identical
conditions, except for the absence of stones, they may be

68 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

entirely missing, having nothing but dead shells to which
to attach themselves.

“Notwithstanding this peculiarity of most of the
dredgings, a few samples may well be compared with our
Older Pliocene (Coralline Crag). I would particularly
draw attention to certain localities where material almost
entirely of organic origin has been obtained. Of these
perhaps the most interesting are some samples full of
Cellaria jfistulosa (found to the south-east of the Calf
Sound, 20 fathoms). They are in many respects strikingly
like certain parts of the Coralline Crag. The more
ordinary type of Coralline Crag, with its extremely varied
polyzoon fauna, we cannot yet match in British seas :* it
was probably formed, as the mollusca indicate, in a sea
several degrees warmer than ours.

‘It was hoped that in the course of these dredgings
some light might be thrown on the Tertiary strata under-
lying the bed of the Irish Sea, for in the North Sea the
dredge occasiunally brings up hauls of Tertiary fossils.
This expectation has not yet been realised; but possibly,
by dredging in the channels where the submarine scour is
sreatest, such deposits may yet be reached. It is very
important to obtain some knowledge of the Tertiary bed
of the Irish Sea, for Irish Pleistocene deposits contain a
considerable admixture of extinct forms, which may be
derived from Tertiary deposits below the sea-level. The
Glacial Drift of Aberdeenshire contains Pliocene Volutes
and Astartes, derived from some submarine deposit off
the Aberdeenshire coast. The so-called ‘ Middle Glacial
Sands’ of Norfolk are full of shells which I now believe
to be derived from some older deposit, probably beneath
the sea.”’ f

*See, however, the deposit described on p. 64, where nearly 60 species of
Polyzoa are recorded from one haul.—W, A. H.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 69

The important influence of the shore rocks upon the
littoral fauna has not been neglected, and lists and
observations are accumulating, but that subject must be
left over for a fuller discussion in next year’s report.

OTHER INVESTIGATIONS.

Several new lines of investigation have been started
during the year, and are still in progress. One of these
may be called the “larval-attachment inquiry,’ and
consists in sinking in various parts of the bay an apparatus
composed of a rope weighted at one end and buoyed at
the other, and having a number of slips of glass, slate,
wood, &c., attached at equal distances along its length,
These ropes are hauled up and examined periodically, and
may be expected, when further observations have been
taken, to give information as to the times and modes of
attachment of the larvee of various species, and also as to
the most suitable substances for particular kinds of larvee
to settle down upon. So far, glass seemed in the early
spring (February and March) to be the favourite substance.
A surprisingly large number of algee, compared with the
animals, appeared, and nearly all were on the glass slips.
Later on, in the summer, Barnacles (Balanuws) made
their appearance in great numbers on the slips of wood
and on the wooden buoy at the top of the apparatus,
while all the upper part of the rope within a few feet of
the surface became covered with alge. A number of
Ascidians (Ascidiella virginea) were also found, in August,
to have attached themselves to the rope, and seemed to
have got as far as possible in between the strands and into
the coils of the knots. On the upper pieces of slate, and
in one instance on a piece of glass, there were young
specimens of the tubicolous Annelid, Pomatoceros triqueter,
in no case more than $ to # inch in length,

70 ~ TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

- At the end of October another rope, which had been
sunk in the bay since June with a bag of oysters, was
hauled up, and the upper 4 or 5 feet, much covered with
alge, was removed for examination in the laboratory. It

was found to have the following organisms adhering :—
Aue (identified by Prof. Harvey Gibson) :

Ceramium rubrum, C. Ag. P. mgrescens, Grev.

C. strictum, Harv. P. elongata, Grev.

C. deslongchampsii, Chauv. Dictyota dichotoma, Lamx.
Chantransia daviesti, Thur. | Sphacelaria cirrhosa, C. Ag.
C. virgatula, Thur. E'nteromorpha clathrata, J.Ag.

Desmarestia aculeata, Lamx.| Monostroma witrocku, Born.

Polysiphomaurceolata, Grey. | Colonies of Gomphonema.
ZOOPHYTES (identified by Miss L. R. Thornely) : |

Obelia gemculata Bougainvillea muscus

O. longissuma Opercularella lacerata

Cytia johnstona
Pouyzoa (Miss Thornely) :
— Membranipora pilosa Scrupocellarva reptans
Eucratea chelata | Schizoporella hyalina oS
TunicaTa (Miss J. H. Willmer) :
Diplosoma gelatinoswn | Ascidiella virginea
Crustacea (identified by Mr. A. O. Walker) :
Huppolyte varvans : Gammarus locusta
Idotea marina Lileborgia kinahant
Hyale nilsson Amphithoe rubricata
Apherusa bispinosa Podocerus falcatus
Dexamine spinosa | Caprella acanthifera.

THE Drirt BoTTLES AND SURFACE CURRENTS.

In last year’s report the scheme for the distribution of
‘drift bottles over the Irish Sea, for the purpose in helping
to determine the set of the chief currents, tidal or other-
wise, which might influence the movements of fish- food

- MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 71

and fish embryos, was fully explained. Since then the
work has been going on actively, and now at the end of
about twelve months one thousand drift bottles in all
have been set free. Many have been let out at intervals
of ten minutes, or quarter of an hour, or twenty minutes
(corresponding to distances of from 3 to 6 miles apart)
from the Isle of Man boats when crossing between
Liverpool and Douglas—a very convenient line of 75
miles across the middle of the widest part of our area,
traversing the “‘ head of the tide”’ or meeting place of the
tidal currents entering by St. George’s Channel and the
North Channel. Others have been let off from Mr.
Alfred Holt’s steamers, in going round from Liverpool to
Holyhead and in coming down from Greenock. Mr.
Dawson on the Fisheries steamer ‘‘John Fell” has
distributed a number along the coast in various parts of
the district, and the Fisheries bailiffs have let off some
dozens from their small boats. Other series have been
set free at stated intervals during the rise and fall of the
tide from the Morecambe Bay Light Vessel in the
northern part of our area, north of the ‘‘ head of the tide;”’
and, through the kindness of Lieutenant M. Sweny, R.N.,
a similar periodic distribution has taken place from the
‘Liverpool North-West Light Vessel, to the south of the
“head of the tide.” Others, finally, have been despatched
by Mr. R. L. Ascroft, by Mr. Andrew Scott and by various
members of the Committee in other parts of the area
‘from small boats and on our dredging expeditions, in some
cases between the Isle of Man and Ireland. Altogether
we have pretty well covered this northern area of the
Trish Sea in our distribution of floating bottles.

The first bottles, and the printed paper they contained,
were described last year. We afterwards adopted a
rather larger size of bottle, 8°5 cm. in length; and, after

72 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

various postal difficulties and experiments, we hit upon
a convenient size and thickness of private post card, which,
ready stamped and addressed, and marked with a dis-
tinguishing letter or number, is rolled up in its bottle and
has printed on its back the following :—
For scientific enquiry into the currents of the Sea.
Whoever finds this is earnestly requested to write |
distinctly the DATE and LOCALITY, with full particulars,
in the space below, and to put the card in the nearest
post office.
[No. here]

@eeovoeceeveee eee eee eeeereereeeeeeeseeeeeseeeee eee eeeteeeeeeeeeeeeeeseseoneeeses

eeceoeeeeeec ese eee eee eee eee Zeer eeeseneeE FOF eee eee EET EEF HOTEL HOC EEH HES HES OEE

DaTE, when found...is..:csdeae) ops ss. see eee
Name and address of sender.........::<a.+s «01 s0ueaeen phis
LNo. here]

The number is marked with blue and black pencils in
duplicate on opposite -corners of the card, in case of one
edge of the card getting worn by moisture; and the card
is so rolled in the bottle that one of these numbers can
be read through the glass, in order that a record may be
kept of when and where each bottle is set free. Mr,
Andrew Scott, Fisheries Assistant at University College,
has collated these records with the particulars of finding
of those bottles which have been recovered, and I am
indebted to him for the details upon which the following
statement of results is based.

Altogether out of the 1000 bottles distributed, over 340
or 34 per cent., more than one in three, have been
subsequently picked up on the shore, and the paper or post
card has been duly filled up and returned to me. I beg
_to thank the various finders of the bottles for their kindness

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. (6)

in filling and posting the cards. They come from various
parts of the coast of the Irish Sea—Scotland, England,
Wales, Isle of Man, and Ireland. Some of the bottles
have gone quite a short distance, having evidently been
taken straight ashore by the rising tide; while others
have been blown ashore by the wind, e.g., two (post cards
211 and 214) let off near New Brighton stage on 9th
October, 1895, the tide ebbing and the wind N.N.W.,
were found next day near the Red Noses, 1 mile to the
west. Others have been carried an unexpected length,
é.g., one (No. 35), set free near the Crosby Light Vessel,
off Liverpool, at 12.30 p.m., on October 1st, was picked
up at Saltcoats, in Ayrshire, on November 7th, having
travelled a distance of at least 180 miles* in thirty-seven
days; another (H. 20) was set free near the Skerries,
Anglesey, on October 6th, and was picked up one mile
north of Ardrossan, on November 7th, having travelled
150 miles in thirty-one days; and bottle No. 1, set free at
the Liverpool Bar on September 30th, was picked up at
Shiskin, Arran, about 165 miles off, on November 12th.
On the other hand, a bottle (J. F. 34) set free on November
7th, in the Ribble Estuary, was picked up on November
12th at St. Anne’s, having only gone 4 miles.

It may be doubted whether our numbers are sufficiently
large to enable us to draw very definite conclusions. It
is only by the evidence of large numbers that the vitiating
effect of exceptional circumstances, such as an unusual
gale, can be eliminated. Prevailing winds, on. the other
hand, such as would usually affect the drift of surface
organisms, are amongst the normally acting causes which
we are trying to ascertain. Mr. W. HK. Plummer of the
Bidston Observatory has kindly given us access to his

*More probably, very much further, as during that time it would
certainly be carried backwards and forwards by the tide,

74 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

records of weather for the last twelve months, and we
have noted opposite the bottles, from whose travels we
are drawing any conclusions, an approximate estimate of
the wind influences during the period when the bottle
may have been at sea. There have been a few rather
extraordinary journeys, e.g., one let off in the middle of
Port Erin Bay on April 23rd was found at Fleetwood on
July 6th; another let off at Bradda Head on June 3rd
was found on Pilling Sands (near Fleetwood) on July 24th.

It is important to notice that the bottles may support
one another’s evidence, those set free about the same spot
often being found in the same locality, e.g., out of a batch
of 6 set free off New Brighton, on Oct. 9th, 1895, 5 have
come back and all were found at about the same place.

Dr. Fulton, who is conducting a similar inquiry by
means of drift bottles, in the North Sea, for the Scottish
Fishery Board, writes to me that he is now having large
numbers of his bottles returned to him from the Continent,
chiefly Schleswig and Jutland. And he draws the
conclusion, ‘“‘ There is no doubt that the current goes
across, down as far as Norfolk—none of the bottles have
‘been found south of Lincoln and none in Holland—and
this will explain the presence of banks and shallows
in the south and east and the immense nurseries of
‘immature fish there.” No detailed account of these
experiments on the Scottish coast has yet appeared, and
‘it will be interesting to compare our results with them at
‘some future period.*

What is already well-knownt in regard to the tidal

* Since the above was in type an account has been published.

+All the accounts I have had access to seem based upon Admiral
Beechey’s observations published in the Philosophical Trans. for 1848 and
.1851. Admiral Wharton, F.R.S., the present Hydrographer to the Navy,
“has kindly informed me that hana Beechey took his observations by the
direct method of atichoring his ship in various places and then observing the
direction and force of the tide.

- MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 175

streams or currents in the Irish Sea is that for nearly six
hours after low-water at, say, Liverpool, two tidal streams
pour into the Irish Sea, the one from the north of Ireland,
through the North Channel, and the other from the south-
_ ward, through St. George’s Channel. Parts of the two
streams meet and neutralise each other to the west of the
Isle of Man, causing the large elliptical area, about 20
miles in diameter and reaching from off Port Erin to
Carlingford, where no tidal streams exist, the level of the
water merely rising and falling with the tide. The
remaining portions of the two tidal streams pass to the
east of the Isle of Man and eventually meet along a line
extending from Maughold Head into Morecambe Bay.
This line is the ‘‘ head of the tide.”” During the ebb the
above currents are practically reversed, but in running out
the southern current is found to bear more over towards
the Irish coast.

There is some reason to believe that, as a result of the
_ general drift of the surface waters of the Atlantic and the
shape and direction of the openings to the Irish Sea, more
water passes out by the North Channel than enters that
way, and more water enters by the South (St. George’s)
Channel than passes back, and that consequently there is,
irrespective of the tides, a slow current passing from south
to north through our district. The fact that so many of
our drift bottles have crossed the ‘“‘ head of the tide’’ from
S. to N., and that of those which have gone out of our
district nearly all have gone north to the Clyde Sea-area
supports this view, which I learn from Admiral Wharton
is a priort probable, and which is believed in by some
‘nautical men in the district from their experience of
the drift of wreckage.

It may be objected to our observations by means of
‘drift bottles that they are largely influenced by the wind

76 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

and waves, and are not carried entirely by tidal streams.
Well, that is an advantage rather than any objection to
the method. For our object is to determine not the tidal
currents alone but the resulting effect upon small surface
organisms such as floating fish eggs, embryos and fish food,
of all the factors which can influence their movements,
including prevalent winds. The only factors which can
vitiate our conclusions are unusual gales or any other quite
exceptional occurrences, and the only way to eliminate
such influences is (1) to allow for them so far as they are
known from the weather reports, and (2) to employ a
large number of drift bottles and continue the observations
over a considerable time. We have carefully considered
the bearing of the weather records, and we think that
the large number of bottles we have made use of, during
the year, ought to enable us to come to some definite
results. Our conclusions so far (November) then are :—
(1) A large number (over 34 %) have been stranded and
found and returned, (2) only a small proportion (13 %)_
have been carried out of our part of the Irish Sea, (8)
nearly 12 % have crossed the “‘ head of the tide”’ showing
the influence of wind in carrying floating bodies over from
one tidal system into another, (4) most of the bottles set
free to the west of the Isle of Man have been carried
across to Ireland, only a small number (3°8 %) of them
have got round to the eastern side of the Island and
been carried ashore on the English coasts, (5) the majority
of the bottles set free off Dalby have gone to the Co.
Down coast, (6) a considerable number. of bottles have
been set free over the deep water to the east of the Isle
of Man, where our more valuable flat fish spawn, and of
‘those that have been returned the majority had been
carried to the Lancashire, Cheshire and Cumberland
coasts, So we may reasonably conclude that the embryos

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. AT

of fish spawning off Dalby would tend to be carried across
to the Irish Coast, while those of fish spawning in the
deep water on this eastern side of the Isle of Man would
go to supply the nurseries in the shallow Lancashire and
Cheshire bays, and very few would be carried altogether
out of the district.

OTHER FAUNISTIC WORK.

Mr. Arnold Watson writes as follows in regard to the
Annelids at which he is working :—‘‘ The most interesting
item is probably the capture by Mr. R. L. Ascroft, in
May last year, and subsequently at intervals, of larval
Pectinaria in the waters near Blackpool. The specimens
were taken with a tow-net attached to the beam of a
trawl, and show that in the first instance the animal
secretes a minute free tube of organic matter of somewhat
cellular appearance. This tube is about =, of an inch
long, 74> Of an inch in its widest diameter, tapering to
about =3> at the narrow end. ‘To the wider end of this
membranous tube the worm attaches very minute grains
of sand, course after course, forming a sand tube about
go Of an inch in external diameter. The length of the
larval worm from tip of tail to the outer margin of the
minute headbristles, or combs, is about =~ of an inch.
Last spring Mr. Ascroft was good enough to send me some
living specimens of these larvee which, for a few days,
survived their journey, and were very active. At this
stage of the animal’s existence a pair of eye-spots are
visible. He also sent me in March last, for identification,
a specimen of Autolytus alexandri (with its egg sac)
taken by surface tow-netting in the daytime off the
Bahama Light Ship, near Ramsey, Isle of Man. Hornell
recorded in 1892 a MALE specimen of this worm taken by
tow-netting off Puffin Island, which was the first recorded
from British waters.”

78 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Mr. Watson has completed his work on the tube-
building habits of Panthalis oerstedi, referred to in last
report, and his paper on the subject, with two plates, has
been published in Vol. IV. of the ‘‘ Fauna.”’ One of the
specimens of Panthalis from Port Erin lived in Mr.
Watson’s Aquarium at Sheffield from. September 30th,
1894, to October 8th, 1895, when as it seemed ailing he
killed it with corrosive.

‘Dr. J. D. F. Gilchrist who has paid several short visits
to the Biological Station, and worked there for some time
at Easter, has sent in the following report upon his work
to the Director :—‘‘ During my stay at the Marine Station
at Port Erin, I was chiefly concerned with the Mollusca,
but found the frequent shore collecting and dredging
excursions very profitable for general work. Aplysia
was found in abundance by dredging and I took this
opportunity of trying various methods of killing the
animal in an expanded condition. After trying several,
I found the following the only method which could be
depended on with certainty. A few drops of a 5% solution
of cocain were mixed with the water in which the Aplysias
were. After a time they expanded fully. They were then
left in the solution (12 hours or more) till no contraction
‘took place when removed and put into weak alcohol. If
contraction took place they would be put back into the
-cocain solution when they again expanded. This was
repeated till no contraction took place, when they could,
after a time, be put into stronger alcohol. Other
-methods though simpler, and not so tedious, were less
dependable and at best gave a somewhat abnormally
inflated appearance. :

“ At Prof. Herdman’s suggestion a solution of formol was —
tried as a preserving fluid for Aplysia and Plewrobranchus.
-In both cases a considerable amount of colouring matter

. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 79

was dissolved out of the integument and stained the
surrounding fluid of a reddish colour.

“‘ A series of experiments on the method of feeding in
Lamellibranchs was begun, to show in what manner the
gills exercised the function of collecting food material
and the labial palps of discriminative selection of food
particles. I hope to be able to give the results of these
experiments after further observations.

““T also procured at the Station specimens of Opistho-
branchs which will form material for future work.”’

The Rey. T. S. Lea (who has kindly presented a

large ordinance map, 6 inches to the mile, of the S.W. of
the Isle of Man, to the Biological Station) has continued
this summer his series of observations upon the zones of
algze on the shore, and has taken a number of photographs
of species in situ on the rocks and in pools.
. The work done by Mr. Browne and by Mr. Beaumont
at the Station is sufficiently dealt with in their reports,
upon the Meduse and the Nemertea respectively, which
have now been published in Vol. IV. of the ‘‘ Fauna.”
Mr. Walker and Mr. Thompson have discussed the results
of their work on Crustacea some pages back (p. 42);
and the investigations of Prof. Boyce and Prof. Herdman
on oysters under various normal and abnormal conditions
is work of a very special nature—partly bacteriological
and partly experimental—which is still in progress, and
will be reported upon in full to the British Association
-and to the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Committee.

In a brief report from the Curator giving an outline of
the work of the summer the following observations
which seem worthy of permanent record occur :—‘‘ The
_ dredgings in May produced amongst other nudibranchs
Cuthona arenicola, new to the fauna round the Isle of
Man ; and two Polychetes, which though common here

80 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

have not, as yet, been recorded in the L. M.B.C. lists,
were found on the shore—these were Amphitrite johnstont
and Arenicola ecaudata. The latter species seems to take
the place of A. marina amongst stones and muddy shingle
where it is invariably found, while A. marina is confined
to the sand...The dredgings in June brought to light
several interesting animals, some of the more important
finds being :—Cratena olivacea, new to the Isle of Man,
and which has proved to be not uncommon in the upper
Coralline zone off Port Erin; E’mbletonia pulchra, new to
the district, which during June and July appeared in almost
every dredging that was taken; Coryphella landsburgi,
new to the Isle of Man, taken several times; Oscanwus
membranaceus, dredged in 15 fathoms off Port Erin; and
Holts coneinna. At Whitsuntide, Polygordius was dredged
from a gravel bottom off Bradda Head, and it has since
turned up in two different localities, from similar ground...
About this time of the year (July) and for the rest of the
summer the bay was full of young fish known to the
fishermen as ‘‘Guilpins.”’ These are chiefly young cod
and pollach—mostly the latter. Some were caught and
put into one the tanks, several are still alive and have
grown considerably since their capture... Towards the end
of the month the annual cleaning of the buoy took place.
This year there were several tubes and worms of what is
probably Sabella penicillus...There were, as before, great
quantities of Caprellids, Ascidiella virginea and Crona
intestinalis were present, along with the nudibranchs Face-
lina drummondi, Cuthona aurantiaca, and Dendronotus
arborescens...During the spring months, until towards
the middle of June, Aplysia punctata was one of the
commonest animals in the bay. It came up in quantities
in the dredge, it was to be found commonly on the shore
amongst rocks, and after a westerly wind the shore was

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 81

covered with masses of its spawn. After June Aplysia
almost entirely disappeared, and was not found again
until the end of September...The following common
animals could usually be supplied alive to laboratories and
museums at any time without much delay :—Actuua
mesembryanthemum, Tealia crassicornis, Bunodes gemma-
ceus, Actinoloba dianthus, Alcyonium digitatum, Echinus
esculentus, H. miliaris, Ophiothriz fragilis, Ophiocoma
mgra, Ophiura ciliaris, Arenicola marina and A. ecaudata,
Nereis pelagica, Pecten maximus and P. opercularis, Doris
tuberculata, Aplysia punctata (spring), Cancer pagurus,
Carcinus moenas, Nephrops norvegicus, Galathea squam-
afera.”’
There are of course many other animals, both common
species and rarer forms, which could be obtained alive by
giving a little notice, or preserved in spirit, on applying
to the Hon. Director, at University College, Liverpool.
The little reference library at the Station is growing
gradually, but is still badly in want of many common
books and pamphlets. Any works on Marine Zoology,
on British Animals, or on the structure and development
of marine invertebrates will be thankfully received. The
Committee are much indebted to Prof. G. B. Howes who
has kindly presented to the Station a series of 7 volumes
of collected fishery papers—the result of the Fisheries
Exhibition of 1883. Other books and pamphlets have
- been received from members of the Committee, and the
following books have been purchased during the year :—
Baird’s British Entomostraca, Johnston’s British Mu-
seum Catalogue of Worms, and Jeffrey’s British Conchol-
ogy (5 vols.).

PUBLICATIONS.
Since the last Annual Report, we have issued Vol. IV.
of the ‘‘Fauna of Liverpool Bay.” It is the largest

82 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

volume of the series and contains about 475 pages and
53 plates, several of which are coloured. In addition to
the reports and papers which had been already announced
as forthcoming in this volume, Vol. IV. contains a note
upon the yellow variety of Sarcodictyon by Prof. Herdman,
a paper on the structure of the cerata of Dendronotus by
Mr. J. A. Clubb, a revision of the Amphipoda of the
L. M. B.C. District by Mr. Walker, and a supplementary
report on the Port Erin Nemertines by Mr. Beaumont.
It ought to be noticed that although the primary
objects of the Committee were originally faunistic and
speciographic, yet observations on habits and life-histories,
and bionomics in general, have not been neglected; and
now some of our papers in this Vol. IV., such as Mr.
Chadwick’s on the Vascular Systems of the Starfishes, and
Mr. Clubb’s on the Cerata of Nudibranchs, are coming to
deal with purely structural and morphological questions.
The other Reports in this volume deal, some of them—
such as Mr. Gamble’s on Turbellaria, Mr. Beaumont’s on
Nemertea, and Mr. Browne’s on Meduse—with fresh
groups of animals which had not been adequately discussed
in the previous volumes; while others, such as Mr.
Thompson’s and Mr. Walker’s reports, are welcome
revisions of these authors’ own previous work on the
Crustacea. Dr. Hanitsch has furnished us with a paper
on the Classification and Nomenclature of British Sponges,
which it may be said does not come strictly within the
scope of the L.M.B.C. Reports. Still the subject matter
is of such importance to anyone working systematically at
our sponge fauna, and the treatment seems so well adapted
to render the lists an indispensable working addition to
Bowerbank’s Monograph, that I had no hesitation. in
asking Dr. Hanitsch to allow the paper to be included in
our series of reports upon the Fauna of Liverpool Bay.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 83

As to the future, there are a number of reports upon
groups, and other pieces of work, in progress. The
“List of Fishes”’ is stillin hand. Mr. Andrew Scott has
undertaken to collect and report upon the Ostracoda, Dr.
- Hurst has still charge of our Pycnogonida; while Prof.
Boyce and Prof. Herdman are engaged on an extensive
investigation on Oysters in healthy and in diseased
conditions which has been partly laid before the British
Association, but ought to be published in full next year
after some further series of observations and experiments
have been made.

The Infusoria of all kinds, some of the parasitic groups
of Crustacea, the marine Rotifera, and some of the lower
worms are still not allotted to workers; while there is
plenty for many hands to do in working out the detailed
distribution of genera and species, and in tabulating and
discussing the results of dredging in various depths and
localities.

There is no need to dwell upon the large number of
species now recorded, and the additions that have been
made by our explorations both to the British fauna and
to science; such results, though very necessary, are no
longer the sole, perhaps not even the chief objects which
the Committee have in view. I think all who are engaged
in this L.M.B.C. work feel that it 1s growing steadily
under their hands in every direction. Not only are there
many animals and whole groups of animals in our sea
awaiting examination and record, but there are many
points of view, the speciographic, distributional, anatom-
ical, physiological, embryological, bionomical and others,
from which even the best known forms would well repay
further and more detailed investigation; and wider
problems such as the association of animals together on
particular sea-bottoms and at particular depths, and other

84 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

questions of bionomics and of oceanography—some of
them having important bearings upon Geology and upon
Fishery questions—are now opening up before us and
pressing for solution. >

We are a small body, the Naturalists of Liverpool, our
laboratory at Port Erin is a modest establishment with
but scanty equipment, we have no State, County or
Municipal subsidies, and our available funds (private
subscriptions) are barely sufficient for the necessary
expenses of steamer and apparatus in our explorations,
and for the publication of our results; but fortunately
there 1s no lack of work for us to do, work which is
interesting in the doing, and work which, if we seek it
earnestly and do it honestly, we cannot but believe will
be of value to science, and may, through its connection
with the fishing industries, be of direct benefit to mankind.

. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN, 85

APPENDIX A.

LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION
at PORT ERIN.

REGULATIONS.

I.—This Biological Station is under the control of the
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, the executive of
which consists of the Hon. Director (Prof. Herdman,F.R.8.)
and the Hon. Treasurer (Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.8.).

IJ.—In the absence of the Director, and of all other
members of the Committee, the Station is under the

temporary control of the Resident Curator or Laboratory

Assistant, who will keep the keys, and will decide, in the
event of any difficulty, which places are to be occupied by
workers, and how the tanks, collecting apparatus, &c., are
to be employed.

IlI.—The Resident Assistant will be ready at all
reasonable hours and within reasonable limits to give
assistance to workers at the Station, and to do his best to
supply them with material for their investigations.

IV.—Visitors will be admitted, on payment of a small
specified charge, to see the Aquarium and the Station, so
long as it is found not to interfere with the scientific
work. .

V.—Those who are entitled to work in the Station,
when there is room, and after formal application to the
Director, are:—(1) Annual subscribers of one guinea or
upwards to the funds (each guinea subscribed entitling to
the use of a work place for four weeks), and (2) others
who are not annual subscribers, but who pay the Treasurer

86 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

10s. per week for the accommodation and privileges.
Institutions, such as Colleges and Museums, may become
subscribers in order that a work place may be at the
disposal of their staff for a certain period annually: a
subscription of two guineas will secure a work place for
six weeks in the year, a subscription of five guineas for
four months, and a subscription of £10 for the whole year.

ViI.—Workers at the Station can always find comfort-
able and convenient quarters at the closely adjacent
Bellevue Hotel; but lodgings can readily be had by those
who prefer them.

VII.—Each worker is entitled to a work place opposite
a window in the Laboratory, and may make use of the
microscopes, reagents, and other apparatus, and of the
boats, dredges, tow-nets, &c., so far as 1s compatible with
the claims of other workers and with the routine work of
the Station. |

VIII.—Each worker will be allowed to use one pint of
methylated spirit per week, free. Any further amount
required must be paid for. All dishes, jars, bottles, tubes,
and other glass may be used freely, but must not be taken
away from the laboratory. If any workers desire to
make, preserve, and take away collections of marine
animals and plants, they must make special arrangements
with the Director or Treasurer in regard to bottles and
preservatives. Although workers in the Station are free-
to make their own collections at Port Erin, 11 must be
clearly understood that (as in other Biological Stations)
no specimens must be taken for such purposes from the
. laboratory stock, nor from the Aquarium tanks, nor from
the steam-boat dredging expeditions, as these specimens
are the property of the Committee. The specimens in
the Laboratory stock are preserved for sale, the animals
in the tanks are for the instruction of visitors to the

‘MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 87

Aquarium, and as all the expenses of steam-boat dredging
expeditions are defrayed by the Committee the specimens
obtained on these occasions must be retained by the
Committee (a) for the use of the specialists working at
_ the Fauna of Liverpool Bay, (b) to replenish the tanks,
and (c) to add to the stock of duplicate animals for sale
from the Laboratory.

ITX.—EHach worker at the Station is expected to lay a
paper on some of his results—or at least a short report
upon his work—before the Biological Society of Liverpool
during the current or the following session. ,

X.—All subscriptions, payments, and other communi-
cations relating to finance, should be sent to the Hon.
Wreasurer, Mr. I. C. Thompson, F.L.8., 19, Waverley
Road, Liverpool. Applications for permission to work at
the Station, or for specimens, or any communications in
regard to the scientific work should be made to Professor
Herdman, F..RB.S., University College, Liverpool.

88 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

APPENDIX B.

SUBSCRIPTIONS and DONATIONS.

Subscriptions. Donations.

£ 8. dG. (& sjsaee
Ayre, John W., Ripponden, Halifax ... 1 1 0 —
Banks, Prof. W. Mitchell, 28, Rodney-st. 2 2 0 £—
Beaumont, W. I., Cambridge ~ ae —
Bickersteth, Dr., 2, Rodney-st. ... sae, 2h, SO mn —
Boulnois, H. P., 7, Devonshire-rd. 1 ee —
Brown, Prof. J. Campbell, Univ. Coll...” 1 190 —
Browne, Edward T., B.A., 141, Uxbridge-
road, Shepherd’s Bush, London ... 1 1 O —
Boyce, Prof., University College woes ~~
Caton, Dr., 31, Rodney-street t ag

Clague, Dr., Castletown, Isle of Man ... 1 1
Clague, Thomas, Bellevue Hotel, PortHrin 1 1. 0 —
Comber,Thomas,J.P., Leighton, Parkgate 1 1
Crellin, John C., J.P., Ballachurry, An-
dreas, Isle of Man ... 0:10; 36 —
Darbishire, R.D., Victoria- _pk., Riauon 1 1 0 4535535
Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd, Owens | |
College, Manchester... i
Derby, Earl of, Knowsley 5)
Delius, W. Meyer, Hamburg Sarge
Dumergue, A. F., 7 Montpellier-terrace 0
Gair, H. W., Smithdown-rd., Wavertree 2
Gamble,Col.C.B.,Windlehurst,St.Helens 2
if
1
if
1
il

Ss oO FF

10

Gamble, F.W.,Owens College, Manchester
Gaskell, Frank, Woolton Wood... ;
Gaskell, Holbrook, J.P., Woolton Wood
Gell, James S., High Bailiff of Castletown
Gibson, Prof, R. J. H., 41, Sydenham-ay.

Saeaeoacoocooqcos

a See eS ee i

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 89

Gifford, J., Whitehouse-terrace, Edin.... 1 0 O —
Gilchrist, Dr. J. D. F., Edinburgh Univ. 1 1 0 —
Glynn, Dr., 62, Rodney-street ... ee A) —
Greening, Linneus, 5, Wilson Patten-st.,

Warrington ... dee res 4) —
Gotch, Prof., Museum, Gatoiae be VEO —
Halls, W. J., 35, Lord-street Le de oO —
Henderson, W.G., Liverpool Union Bane tou Se wa
Herdman, Prof., University College nee 2 =) —
Holder, Thos., 1, Clarendon-buildings,

Tithebarn-street ole lt 0) —
Holland, Walter, Mossley Hill- oad Jie VW) —
Holt, Alfred, Crofton, Aigburth .. De Dee —
Holt, George, J.P., Sudley, ically Elta bo Oe 0 —
Howes, Prof. G. B., Royal College of

Science, South Kensington, London 1 1 0O —

Hoyle, W. E., Museum, Owens College,

Manchester ... : 1, dyer) —
Isle of Man Natural Hace a re

-quarian Society
Jones, C.W.,J.P., Field House, minedinds
Kermode, P. M. O., Hill-side, Ramsey...
Lea, Rev. T. Simcox, 3, Wellington-fields
Leicester, Alfred, Harlow, Essex
Liverpool Museum Committee ...
Macfie, Robert, Airds P ss
Meyer, Dr. Kuno, University Guilds ey
Meade-King, H. W.,J.P., Sandfield Park
Meade-King, R. R., 4, Oldhall-street
Melly, W. R., 90, Chatham-street
Miall, Prof., Yorkshire College, Leeds...
Michael, Albert D., Cadogan Mansions,

Sloane Square, London, 8.W. she to
Monks, F. W., Brooklands, Warrington 1 1
Muspratt, H. K., Seaforth Hall... war ar. O
Newton, John, M,R.C.S., 44, Rodney-st. 010 6 —

rFaomOoNpNrRrFrHOH

=)
SV(Syey (2a (Se (Sy Son oa) SS)

RPrROrFRrOrFRNHHHP HH
ao

SS
ea

90 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Poole, Sir James, Tower Buildings

2! Deo —
Rathbone,§8.G.,Croxteth-drive,Sefton-pk. 2 2 0 —
Rathbone, Mrs. Theo., Backwood, Neston 1 1 O —
Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston 1 1 0 —
Rathbone, W., Greenbank, Allerton 2 20 —
Roberts, Isaac, F.R.S., Crowborough ... 1 1 O —
Shaw, Prof. H. 8. Hele, Ullet-road her 0 —
Shepheard, T., Kingsley Lodge, Chester 1 1 0 —
Simpson,J. Hope, Annandale, Aigburth-dr 2 2 0 —
Smith, A. T., junr., 24, King-street 1 yd ao —
Talbot, Rev. T. U., 4, Osborne-terrace,

Douglas, Isle of Man Ly 16530 —-
Thompson, Isaac C., 19, Waverley- aoa 2 20 —
Thornely, James, Baycliff, Woolton 1 hee —
Thornely, The Misses, Baychff, Woolton 1 1 0 —
Toll, J. M., 340, Walton Breck-road Ty il ae —
Turnbull, Thos. 8., 18, Spring-gardens,

Manchester ... 1 0% -—

Walker, A. O., Nant-y- eee Galen Bay 3 go oe) —
Walker, Horace, South Lodge, Princes-pk.
Walters, Rev. Frank, B.A., King William
College, Isle of Man.. iL ee
Watson, A. T., Tapton- oeenate Sheffield ee!
Weiss, Prof. F. H.,Owen’s College, Man’tr. 1 1
Westminster, Duke of, Haton Hall ~~... 5 O
20

il rah

_
(ap)
|

White, Prof., University College, Bangor
Wiglesworth, Dr., Rainhill

"anor “HLIWS WL ‘V
001l09 punof pwo pazipnrye

0 Sale

'C68L SIE waquaeg “looauaxAT'T :

‘UHUASVAUT, “NO

‘NOSANOHL ‘0 OVYSI

SOlVYG “SOD oso] OL[Qug SURUIIO A, YS
—! pung JUSWY4SeAUT JUOTUMOpUT
ZV Sole £ Vl Sole
G OL 0 eee eee ee eee ere ee eee eee eee eee eee) solipung ce
Z eT g Dee eeeeeenceeeeee 6é 3 ce “c ‘saredayy 6c
G eT G ee ee eo ees ass wa ENTS GOT enp DOURTV 66 0 0 GT ene uss nese OUP ETS [Bolsoporg UlIg qog jo quoy ese
Gee Cae tn eee ees UME Tl) Oy Se OTSE TCU [)Ivemier PE OG ct Log L10pBIOGeT pu IOZBING ‘sottepeg SS
6 61 0 Cn i i i “dS91OqU] yued (7 Tat 9T ¢g ee i) “on” ‘suouttoadg jo OSRLIIRO ‘95R4S0q ce
SETS ella RRS ORES PA AEE tg i SIMOCOy 7O OaQ & SL OL worgeqg peorsojporg wiry 410g ye suqeieddy pur syoog ‘*
6 SI G PONG OAR OR aC OR CREM Son eu pata 9 1 0 pines is te at gah ghee aio k pei dah ec li 2 qeog ce
“O79 SNOT O[QNUT SURMyIO\A Ys ‘pueptaiq ‘‘ L sl eo ccc saortpedxg SuiSpeiq jo sesuedxg ‘‘
9 8 GOL “poatooor ATTRNGJoR suoTyeUOG pu suoydtiosque ‘* Ole men etre Li a ae “+ Klauoteig pur Suyuug *
V4 OL OL Fe oes e setae LOLs Rom “Aste ‘00 “purty, Ul oouRl eg kg 6 LT 0Z aiWelalatalWaatatapesiura hi eiutate everein’ ale'e “O99 ‘soqetg ‘s.10 ay Suu OL
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GALLINNOO AONOTOIA ANTAVN TOOdYAATT AHL

92

FREE-SWIMMING COPEPODA from the WEST
COAST of IRELAND.

By Isaac C. THompson, F.L.S.
[Read January 10th, 1896.]

A NuMBER of small bottles (eighteen bottles in all)
containing tow-net material have been recently handed to
me for examination and identification by my friend Mr.
Edward T. Browne, B.A., of London, he having collected
them off Valencia on the West of Ireland during the
summer and autumn of 1895.

They represent the results of sixteen separate days
collecting, the dates being April 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16,
18, 27, 29, May 5, 8, 14, 27, June 27, July @7Sepmeae
and Oct. 16, and these corresponding to gatherings Nos.
1 to 18 consecutively (see Table I., at end).

Mr. Browne writes ‘I did not preserve every tow-
netting taken, or keep the whole, but only a sample of
it.” The sizes of the bottles varied from 2 drms. up to
2 oz., the preservative material used being in most cases
a 5% solution of formalin, the merits of which I shall
have occasion to refer to later on. It is to be regretted
that ‘‘only a sample” of the haul was retained, as
experience has often demonstrated that although the
mass of a tow-netting may contain mainly one or a very
few species, rarer species may occur isolated throughout
it, and the very last dip sometimes contains an unexpected
prize. So that although the process is slow and tedious,
it is always advisable to examine as much as possible, and
the careful observer will generally find himself rewarded
by so doing. ue

GOPEPODA FROM WEST OF IRELAND. 93

The free-swimming Copepoda of our coasts vary in size
from about 1 mm. to 4 mm. in length. The mode of
examination which I have found the best and quickest is
as follows :—After carefully shaking the material in the
bottle a quantity is poured into a shallow open glass plate
about 4 inches long, 2 inches wide andjinch deep. Sucha
plate (which I have been able to obtain only from Messrs.
Cogit & Co., Paris,) is curved inside like a watch-glass"
and the contents can be rapidly gone over by means of a
strong lens, or a simple dissecting microscope, or still
better on the large flat stage of a Swift’s Stephenson
Binocular Microscope, using a 2 inch objective. Every
portion is thus systematically examined, and those animals
identified or required for further examination are easily
picked out with a very fine needle, or better with the
lower part of a cat’s whisker cut flat at the end and
mounted.

The material of Mr. Browne’s collection may all be
classed as ‘‘ Littoral Plankton’ being taken at the
surface or at a depth of from 1 to 5 fathoms, one only of
the number (No. 5) being taken at a depth of from 5 to
15 fathoms.

As before stated Nos. 1 to 10 were collected during the
month of April, Nos. 11 to 14 during May and the others
during June, July, September, and October. The local-
ities are very adjacent to each other, the greater number
of the tow-nettings having been taken in Valencia
Harbour, and the rest off Beginnis Island and Donlus
Bay. ‘'T'wenty-two species of Copepoda in all were found.
In order to conveniently show their distribution and
abundance or scarcity I have tabulated them, the numbers
running in the order of dates (Table I.).

One species only, Calanus finmarchicus was common
to all and it formed nearly the entire bulk of many of the

94 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

earlier bottles. As the main food of the Greenland whale,
this species is very abundant in Arctic Seas and is
commonly found around our coasts during the winter
and spring, becoming scarce or almost disappearing during
the warmth of summer.

The more delicate free-swimmers Ozthona spinifrons
and Acartia clausw on the contrary it will be seen both
appear in the middle of April (No. 6) and continue
generally present in the subsequent tow-nettings through-
out the summer. A reference to the distribution table
will show that the late autumn gathering of October 16th
was much the most prolific in species, fifteen species
being then taken.

Six of the species found are decided rare, O0ze
Metridia armata, Candace pectinata, Pseudocalanus arm-
atus, Monstrilla rigida, Coryceus specitosus, and Oncea
mediterranea. The first named, a few specimens occurring
in Nos. 11 and 17 and 18, is usually a surface animal and
its first recorded British habitats are in the Valencia neigh-
bourhood (Brady’s ‘“‘ Free and Semi-parastic Copepoda of
the British Islands,” Vol. I., p. 42). I have taken it very
sparingly in Liverpool Bay and in parts of the Clyde, and
Scott reports it from the Forth. Candace pectinata
occurs in four gatherings, Nos. 5,14 and 16,and18. It
is usually found at a considerable depth below the surface
as is the case with No. 5 specimen; I have found it in
tow-nettings taken off the Ross of Mull at 55 fathoms,
and about the surface off Oban, and plentifully in the
Mediterranean. Monstrilla rigida, a single specimen of
which occurs in No. 7 has not yet disclosed its life-history.
From the absence of functional parts and especially of
mouth organs, the species of this mysterious genus seem
to give evidence of some other phase of existence, although
so far as I am aware no such phase has hitherto been

;
4
:
4
‘

»_

COPEPODA FROM WEST OF IRELAND. Gd

discovered nor have they been recorded as parasitic on
any other animal.

A single specimen of Anomalocera patersonii occurred
in No. 16 bottle. This large and very striking species is
very variable in its distribution, often occurring in
immense profusion, but is otherwise uncommon. On
more than one occasion I have seen the surface of the
sea, for many miles around the Isle of Man, so densely
covered with this animal as to make it distinctly recog-
nizable from the ship’s side, and its beautiful coloration
is well known to microscopists.

Pseudocalanus armatus a few specimens of which I
found in No. 18 is usually a deep swimmer and never
common. | ;

The occurrence of the two southern species Coryceus
speciosus and Oncea mediterranea is specially interesting
as indicating most probably Gulf Stream influence. So
far as I am aware the former is new to Britain although
it is quite possible that it may have been mistaken for
C. anglicus, Lubbock, which it strongly resembles. The
position of the eyes and the strongly divergent caudal
stylets in these specimens seem to clearly indicate its
identity with Coryceus speciosus, Dana. I found several
specimens, some with ovisacs, in No. 18 only, so it
appears to have arrived at the end of an unusually hot
summer and would probably succumb to the first cold.

Oncea mediterranea was found sparingly by Mr. G. C.
Bourne, M.A., near Plymouth, in 1889 (Report on the
Pelagic Copepoda collected at Plymouth in 1888-9), but I
am not aware that it has hitherto been reported elsewhere
in Great Britain or indeed north of the Mediterranean.
I have found it common about the Canary Islands. 'T'wo
or three specimens only, occurred in No. 18. The other |

96 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

species found are none of them specially noteworthy and
are mostly common around our coasts. } |

In connexion with this collection I would refer naturalists
to a paper by Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., entitled ‘‘ The
Biological Results of the Cruise of the S.Y. ‘ Argo’ round
the West Coast of Ireland,” in August, 1890 (Trans.
L’pool Biol. Soc., Vol. V., p. 181). The tow-net material
obtained on the “‘ Argo’s”’ cruise was placed in my hands
for examination by Prof. Herdman, the results being
given in his paper. As a supplement to the present
paper I have thought it might be of advantage to other
workers on the West Coast to transcribe from Dr.
Herdman’s paper the tabular statement of the distribution
of Copepoda at twelve localities visited by the ‘‘ Argo.”
The comparative scarcity of Calanus finmarchicus in the
‘“‘ Argo” collection and the prevalence of Acartia clausw
and Orthona spinifrons quite bears out the remarks above
made respecting the distribution of those crustaceans.
Of the 82 ‘‘ Argo”’ species, 15 occur also in the Valencia
tow-nettings (see Table IT.).

Both collections, but more especially that of Valencia,
furnish evidence of the truth of the remarks made by
Prof. Herdman in his Presidential Address to the Biological
Section at the Ipswich Meeting of the British Association
as to the relatively large number of genera of animals
represented by the species, in shallow waters, and its
bearing on the Darwinian principle that an animal’s most
potent enemies are its own close allies. In the Valencia
eroup the 22 species recorded belong to 18 genera, the
genera being therefore to the species as 9 to 11, and in
the ‘‘ Argo”’ group 32 species belong to 23 genera or less
than 3 to 4. The difference between the two collections
in this respect is probably to be accounted for from the
fact that the ‘‘ Argo”’ collection, besides covering a widely

COPEPODA FROM WEST OF IRELAND. 97

distant area, included a number of ground dwelling,
copepoda, or those which are not generally free-swimmers,
and would not therefore be brought so much into com-
petition with one another in the struggle for existence as
the altogether free-swimmers. Of the latter class may be
instanced the genera Harpacticus, Peltidium, Laophonte,
and Cletodes each of which furnish 2 or 3 species.

I have expressed regret that there was not a larger
quantity of material for examination, and have the further
regret that we had not dredged deposits from the various
localities, for it is to this source mainly that we must look
for new species, as has been recently so well exemplified
by Messrs. T. and A. Scott in the Clyde area.

As this is a report on the Copepoda only, I need only
briefly refer to the other organisms found in the bottles.
Most noteworthy was the profusion of Appendicularia
especially in the spring tow-nettings, where they formed a
large percentage of the bulk. The large number of small
Medusz was a conspicuous feature and will no doubt not
have escaped the attention of so acute an observer as Mr..
Browne himself. Larval Decapoda and Sagitta were also
abundant throughout.

As before stated a 5 % solution of formaldehyde
(formalin) was the preservative used, and the result is all
that can be desired and quite confirms my own previous
experience of its valuable preservative properties. A
drawback to its use when the preserved object is required
to be mounted for the microscope is the shrinkage
caused to the more delicate forms on removal to Farrants
medium or glycerine jelly, though probably this might be
overcome by the use of an intermediate solution containing
a smaller percentage of glycerine.

In conclusion may I express the hope that while
heartily thanking Mr. Browne, he or some other natur-

98 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

VALENCIA TOW-NETTINGS—

—_———— | | Ee

ile fe
1

2
2 f,

Date, Locality and Depth (where
not stated =surface),

April 5.
do.
April 10.
2 fe April,
April 16.

N. side Beginnis Is.
Valencia Hbr.

Calanus finmarchicus
Pseudocalanus elongatus..
P., armatus...
Centropages hamatus......
| C. CUMUCWIS! Nee:
Temora longicornis
NSLS CLOMUDOS secyeuma se dames
Candace pectinata
Metridia armata .........
COTA CLOUSTD iy. sae
(= Dias longirenns)
Anomalocera patersoni..
Parapontella brevicorms.
Oithona spinifrons
Ehalestris PpeHea@ a0.
T. longumana
Laophonte curticauda ...
Harpacticus chelrfer
Monstrilla rigida .........
Lictinosoma atlanticum...
i. Spinipes ......
CoryC@us SpeCrosus.......+.
Oncea mediterranea

x
MS KG KX

eee ees eee

eeceves

99

COPEPODA FROM WEST OF IRELAND.

TABLE I,

COPEPODA.

Piste SUTION OF

% ae | XX XXX XXX X Moe oe “Oana
© | eee | ORS eee Cena x

S | ich | x xX x <

Dal enh A Melee ok Ot eo ee

a ree lag | a ee ca aS x x
Bal wap | x x x x x

3 cpa | OX x -

si | es | apis x X

2 Vey | x x Se OEE SS RF

S | eas | x X x x

co | Perla | sO > ete

i

a bh a

(100 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

“ARGO” TOW-NETTINGS—
- genie (From Prof. Herdman’s paper ‘‘ The Biological
| round the West Coast of Ireland,” in August, 1890.

Number in List. 1 2 3, 4

3

oO

Localit 3
ocality. =
a

e)

Lough Swilly.

—_— ————_—————— ee

SPECIES. :
CONGIAS JOUIMMGTCRACIS teach aa eee Xx
Pscudocalanus ClOnGGGS ..-- asa2 eer re x
LE CHOORG LOMGLCOTMUS. ~ 1.19... Se aeener eae x
CONTTOPAGES WAMGLUS Vm... bare: Eee x
C. LUNDUCN Se An. oi ai shatter e
DEMS LONGUCMIS: «00h. maken) ean ee eee Xx
IDE \AGISOOUG OGUS (s.r E58 co 8 eee
RSCQS CUUOUD CS... 5 Mora aitea een ele) iene SORE

|
Pontelda wollastont we... ssn eee
PAV ODORLEUG: DT CUUCOTIES Ni. eee ee

x

x

OLENONG SPINL/ CONS he Gene “come eee x
PseudocyGlops ObtUSUs® lcs: es tec eee
Ti CUNOSOMG AUONMTICUIN. acsearle
ff. CRYLRVOPS Peon5 bo cne eee
i. SDUWUDC Sp Iecogee- Ee mateo ee eae
Longipedia coronata......... ae ee o.
Cyclopuna (WulOralis: 4. mie: ton. eee x
el CUD UCCECUS (OM CLUPCT ). Wes) ce spisetan ay arene
do. Val. GTACUUS oo
SR Grlbins. — 1: nas meee
NUCL PUGCOL ON eis teer. Aire A eo 5 -
TOSSES MORO TMU, Vena tean: (ere er
TO AYO LYUMECH. 2.5 ema aoe oee tate
iPelisd gn -ACOVESSUIN x..vin,nectccleasee ee Ae
P. DUCT TUDO eles 2. ioe ee ese
LIGOPRONLE SUMAULUS <.eoue mcd. setae eee
ITF CUTIUCOUGG, "ated gee eee
ify, LONGUCHUDG pecan cae eS:
Cletodes WIRtCOlG Bai me. cere nee
Os MOMCOTUS “ak ald, ei ie ee ene
Monstrilla T1gid@. 2h. Assiecs ae eke
Porcellidium subrotundwm 22. ..00001+s00s
COMGUS TOPO eet ide cio tots ne eens aaa

101

COPEPODA FROM WEST OF IRELAND.

—
(ea)
©
Ay
=
PA
(@
Se)
Ey
©
Zi
(S)
eI
HH
i
a
|
co
eal
op)
i=l
A

fiesulis of the Cruise of the S.Y. ‘ Argo”’
Trans. Biol. Soc., L’ pool, Vol. V., p. 181.)

Tasie IT.
R | —yledueyy | SX x ex x
! ee ea ee wee meee
on ean ieee! ieee cae ae es cog eS x xx xX
| “py Atoyqvog | KX xe xo xx XXX
Cd eee oe eS Me SE eS ee eee
: | seeataee | xe sxx x x X x
E | ‘Ang Semen | x x “4
a | Keg Axe ty | ee eee x
19 | ‘ssoq ATTY | i ex . MOG ae =

"Oe Py

an >

102 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

‘

alist, mnaly O74) future occasion, be able top procure ¢ ae

<
——- the localities referred to in ne age SO ee we may 5

x have *the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the —
more sedentary forms of Copepoda as we now are e with”
4 the free-swimmers of this district. ie
_ The two Tables show the distribution of the Valencia —
and the ‘‘Argo”’ Copepoda arranged according to localities | " ..
Pe and dates. r:
Ms ‘t

a

7 ; a

|

103

Report on the Investigations carried on in 1895
in connection with the LANCASHIRE SEA-FISHERIES
LaporaTory at University College, Liverpool.

By Professor W. A. Herpman, D.8c., F.R.S., and

Mr. Anprew Scott, Fisheries Assistant.

With Plates I.—YV.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE work that can be done in the application of Zoological
Science to the local Fishing industries seems spreading
and increasing in amount each year; and the work of the
past year, as may be seen from this Report, has opened
up much fresh ground, and has been carried on not only
in Liverpool and at Sea but also partly at Port Erin and
to a slighter extent in the neighbourhood of Piel Island,
near Barrow; and so has extended over the various parts
of our northern district of the Irish Sea. In fact we may
be regarded now as having, planned out, if not yet
completely established, a system of Fisheries investigations
which, although still on a small scale, will be able to
cover the ground effectively and to cope adequately with
the subject.

The central laboratory at University College, Liverpool,
the Marine Biological Station at Port Erin, the steamer
at sea, and the new branch laboratory now being fitted
up at Piel Island can subdivide the work between them,
and so render possible a wider range of observations.
The finer microscopic and laboratory work, the com-
parison of results and the drafting of reports can only be
carried on at a place like the Liverpool laboratory where

104 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

microscopes, microtomes and other laboratory apparatus
are available, where there are biological libraries to
consult, and where there are other scientific workers to
lend their help. The Biological Station at Port Erin
affords facilities for practical work on the shore and for
observations and experiments on the reproduction and
rearing of young marine animals in tanks. Such observa-
tions will prepare the way for the proposed Sea-Fish
Hatchery for which Port Erin seems pre-eminently fitted.
The trawling observations, the examination of the spawning
and feeding grounds, and the collection of statistics can
only be carried out by the steamer at sea, under the
direction of Mr. Dawson, as has been done in the past.
Finally, the little laboratory now being fitted up at Piel
Island will enable us to examine more systematically the
great shell-fish beds of the northern district and to deal
with fresh material brought in from that neighbourhood
before it is preserved and sent on to the central laboratory
at Liverpool.

Section I. of the following report, dealing with the
foods of fishes, found by an investigation of the stomach
contents, is in continuation of the work of previous yen
and has been drawn up by Mr. Scott.

Section II., on the investigation of the tidal and other
currents, ce might affect the distribution of floating
fish eges and fish food, by means of “drift bottles,” is a
further account of the observations commenced last year
and already discussed in a preliminary manner in the
Ninth Annual Report of the Port Erin Biological Station.
The results are now given more fully, and certain practical
conclusions are drawn from them. Iam myself respons
for this section. 7

A new line of enquiry has been commenced this year
by sending Mr. Scott to examine some of the shell-fish

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 105

beds of the district periodically, and bring back material
consisting of shell-fish, of various sizes, and samples of
the sea-bottom and sea-water, from which when fully
examined in the laboratory a report can be drawn up on
the condition of the beds. Section III., dealing with this
investigation and giving lists of the organisms found on
the beds has been drawn up by Mr. Scott. This can only
be regarded as a first instalment of our report on the
shell-fish beds, and the work will be continued during the
present year. It need scarcely be pointed out that the
branch laboratory on Piel Island will be of material
assistance to us in examining the beds of the northern
part of the district. Mr. Scott in the course of his
examination of the mud from these mussel beds and of
deposits from other parts of our district—notably the
neighbourhood of Port Erin—has come upon a number of
minute animals, chiefly Copepoda, not hitherto recognised
as living in our district and some of them new to Science.
These are described by Mr. Scott in Section IV. and are
figured in Plates I. to V.

Section V. contains a preliminary account of the inves-
tigations now being carried on, partly in the Liverpool
laboratory and partly at Port Erin, by Professor Boyce
and myself, upon the conditions under which Oysters live
healthily, and upon the supposed connection between
oysters and disease—especially typhoid fever. It may
be noted that in addition to the enquiry into the subject
of the great ‘“‘ Oyster and Typhoid” scare, we have made
many observations upon the different kinds of oysters
grown or laid down in our neighbourhood, and the effect
upon them of different kinds of water.

During last summer, I gave a Course of Free Lectures
under the auspices of the Sea-Fisheries Committee and
in accordance with the regulations of the University

106 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Extension Scheme. The course was on “Our Edible
Sea-Fish and Sea-Fisheries,’’ and the lectures were
delivered in the Zoology Theatre of University College
on Monday evenings, commencing May 6th. The course
was well attended, and the audience expressed much
interest in the subject, many of them staying on at the
conclusion of each lecture to examine the microscopic and
other specimens and to ask questions. These lectures
were not intended for, and were not attended by, fishermen
alone, but were open to the general public; and I am
convinced that it is fully as important for the future of
Fisheries investigation and improvement and of just
legislation in regard to the fisheries, that the general
public should have opportunities of learning the truth in
regard to the habits and life-histories of food fishes, and
the inter-relations of animals in the sea, as it 1s that the
fisherman himself should be instructed in such matters.
In addition to such public lectures, there is another
method by which an educated public opinion upon Fishery
questions can be formed, and that is by the establishment
in each district of a technical museum or collection
illustrating the local fisheries, the spawn and other stages
in the life-history of the various fishes, their foods, their
parasites, their diseases, and so on. Such a collection
could now readily be formed, with very slight additional
expenditure, at University College, in connection with
the Fisheries Laboratory, and would then be available
for consultation by fishermen, fishmongers, and all others
concerned. It would be of constant use to ourselves,
_ for comparison, in our fishery work; it ought to be of
value to Fisheries inspectors and superintendents and
to members of Sea-Fisheries Committees both in this
neighbourhood and from other parts of the country; and
it is the practical evidence that Fisheries experts from

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 107 q

abroad especially desire to see when they come for
information in regard to our local Fisheries and the
conditions under which they are carried on.

Finally, such a technical museum of the Fisheries

c
,

4
eo ee | hh Oe

. would naturally be made the scene and the means of
object lessons and set demonstrations to the fishermen of
the neighbourhood, and would probably be the most
effective method of supplying technical instruction to
that class of the community. ;

W. A. HERDMAN.

_ JANUARY, 1896.

108 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

SECTION I. ;
| EXAMINATION OF Foop In FisHEs’ STOMACHS.
(By Mr. ANDREW Scort.) |

WE have continued the examination of the stomachs of
the various marine animals whose life-histories we are
more intimately concerned with, chiefly from a fisheries
point of view, and to which we have been paying
considerable attention durimg the past few years, but as
we now know fairly well what forms the chief food supply
of these particular animals in our district, we do not deal
with this part of the work in such an exhaustive manner
as formerly and content ourselves by merely giving a
summary of the results, noting any points of special
interest connected with them.

During the past twelve months, from the beginning of
January to the end of December, 1,540 stomachs of various
marine animals from different parts of the district have
been examined.

The following are the sources from which the stomachs
have been obtained :—

Food fishes up to three imches 24-5). 487 -
ha. DOME Se hana ee — 498
Oper MSWES ws seas o.uny Soe oe nem oe eee 20
COGKIES. 5 bine ais oss so.auae caw Oeeee ee Un eee 210
MISS El Si sence swine cieSalceguaniee oe Cee ee ee 230
Siar ii PS ition cat ec Ne ane anon eee een 100
1,540

THE Foop oF YounG FIsHEs.
_ The following summaries give the result of the examin-
ation of 487 stomachs of young food fishes, the differences
between the year 1895 and the previous years, if any,
being stated ;—

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 109

Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa).

167 stomachs of young Plaice were examined, of these
36 were empty and 1 contained indistinguishable animal
matter, leaving 130 to be accounted for as having
_ recognisable matter.

Crustacea were found in 65 stomachs, exactly 50 %, and
consisted of the remains of Amphipods and Copepods, 51
stomachs contained numbers of the Copepod Jonesiella

hyena, a species described by Mr. I. C. Thompson some
years ago and which has since been found to enter very
largely into the food supply of the young flat fishes.
Annelida were also found in 65 stomachs, 50%. The
stomachs examined last year and referred to in the
Third Annual Report, gave a somewhat different result.
Crustacea took first place with fully 63 %, Annelida second
with 30 %, while 4 % of the stomachs contained Mollusca.
So that it is quite clear that Crustacea and Annelida are
the chief food supplying agents of the young plaice, and
of the two, Crustacea is probably the more important.

| Dab (Pleuronectes lumanda).
272 stomachs of young Dabs were examined, of which
226 were found to contain no food and 11 contained food
matter which was not recognisable, leaving only 35 to be
accounted for.
Annelida were found in 34 stomachs, or fully 97 %.
Echinoderms were found in 1 stomach, representing
scarcely 3 %.
In last year’s report 65 % of the stomachs of young
Dabs examined contained Annelida, and 24 % Crustacea,
so that Annelida appears to be by far the most important
food supplying agent of the young Dabs, Crustacea
occupying second place.

Flounder (Plewronectes flesus).

5 stomachs of young Flounders were examined, of which
3 were empty and 2 contained the remains of Annelida.

110 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Sole (Solea vulgaris).

5 young Soles were examined; and the stomachs were
found to be empty.

Cod (Gadus morrhua). |

10 stomachs of young Cod were examined, 7 of which
were empty and 3 contained the remains of Crustacea.

Whiting (Gadus merlangus).

6 stomachs of young Whiting were examined. all of
which were empty.

Sprats (Clupea spratta).

21 stomachs of young Sprats were examined, all of
which were empty. Last year’s report shows that out of
20 Sprats only 2 contained recognisable food, so that we
have still to find out what the Sprats feed upon.

Foop oF LARGER FISHES.

Plaice (Plewronectes platessa).

153 stomachs of Plaice were examined, of which 43
were empty and 2 contained indistinguishable animal
matter, leaving 108 to be accounted for.

Annelida were found in 68 stomachs, or nearly 63 %.

Mollusca were found in 36 stomachs, fully 33 %, and
consisted of Solen, Philine, Mactra, Cardium and Mytilus.
The shell-fish beds are without doubt a good feeding
sround for the smaller flat and round fishes, as we
frequently find the remains of Cockles and Mussels as
well as Annelida in the stomachs of the fish caught in the
vicinity of the shell-fish beds, so that the protection and
cultivation of the more important shell-fish would be a
- means of increasing the food supply for the smaller sizes
of the valuable food fishes.

Fish were found in 7 stomachs, or about 63 %, and
consisted chiefly of sand eels.

Last year’s report showed that Mollusca were the

SHA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. gai

most important food supplying agent of the Plaice, as
fully 72 % of the stomachs contained the remains of
various shell-fish, Annelida were second 22 % and Crustacea
third with 8 %.

Dabs (Pleuronectes lumanda).

176 stomachs of Dabs were examined, of which 70 were
empty and 13 contained unrecognisable animal matter,
leaving 93 to be accounted for.

32 stomachs contained Mollusca, or fully 34 %, the
Mollusca consisted of the remains of Buccinwm, Cardium,
Mactra, Mytilus, Philine and Nucula. Here again we
also find the smaller sizes of dabs, such as are caught in
the shrimp nets, &c., feeding on the young Cockles and
Mussels which they pick up on the shell-fish beds.

24 stomachs contained remains of Annelida, nearly 26 %.

23 stomachs contained remains of Crustacea, or nearly
25%, and consisted of Crangon, Pagurus, Portunus and
various Amphipoda.

6 stomachs contained remains of Echinoderms, nearly
7%, and consisted chiefly of the sand starfish, Ophioglypha.

9 stomachs contained remains of fish, nearly 10 %, and
. were mostly composed of sand eels, but 1 stomach
contained a number of fish eggs.

1 stomach contained remains of a Zoophyte.

Last year’s report gave Annelida as first with 50 %,
then Echinoderms, Mollusca, Crustacea and Zoophytes
with 21%, 20 % and 15 % respectively. In the previous
year (1893) Mollusca were found to be the chief food.

Flounders (Plewronectes flesus).

20 stomachs of Flounders were examined 15 of which
were empty, the remainder, 5, contained fragments of
Annelida.

Soles (Solea vulgaris).
40 stomachs of Soles were examined of which 27 were

112 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Sree and 6 contained matter nore so that
only 7 out of the 40 contained food.

4 stomachs contained remains of Annelida.

2 stomachs contained remains of Crustacea.

1 stomach contained Mollusca.

Last year’s report gave Annelida as being the most
useful food supplying agent of this valuable food fish,
Crustacea being second, so that it seems clear, that on
the whole Annelida form a very important item in the food
of the Sole.

It may be stated here that by far the ee. number
of Soles examined in this district are found to have no
food in the stomachs. |

Cod (Gadus morrhua).

_ 80 stomachs of Cod were examined, of which 13 were
empty, the remainder contained recognisable food matter.
Crustacea were found in 12 stomachs, or fully 70 %.

Fish were found in 4 stomachs, nearly 23 %.

Annelida were found in only 1 stomach.

Last year 90% of the stomachs examined contained
Crustacea, Fish being again second with 12 %, and
Annelida third.

Whiting (Gadus merlangus).

74 stomachs of Whiting were examined, of which 38
were empty, and 5 contained unrecognisable food matter,
leaving 81 to be accounted for.

Crustacea were found in 13 stomachs, or nearly 43 %.

Annelids were found in 8 stomachs, or fully 9 %.

Fish were also found in 3 stomachs, or fully 9 %.

Mollusca were found in 2 stomachs, or nearly 7 %.

In last year’s report, Crustacea were found to occupy
the first place with fully 73 %, Fish second with 24 % and
Annelida third with 7 %.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 1t3

Haddock (Gadus ceglefinus).

32 stomachs of Haddock were examined of which 9
were empty, and 1 contained unrecognisable food matter,
leaving 22 to be accounted for.

Crustacea were found in 12 stomachs, or fully 54 %.

Fish were found in 6 stomachs, or fully 27 %.

Mollusca were found in 3 stomachs, or fully 13 %.

Annelida were found in 2 stomachs, or fully 9 %.

From last year’s Report it will be seen that Mollusca.
occupied the first place with fully 54 %, Echinoderms
second with 21 %, Annelida and Crustacea third with
fully 18 % each.

Thornback Skate (Rata clavata).

17 stomachs were examined of which 4 were empty, and
1 contained unrecognisable animal matter, leaving 12 to
be accounted for as having contained recognisable food.
material.

_ Crustacea were found in 8 stomachs, or fully 66 %.

Mollusca were found in 3 stomachs, or 25 %.

_ Fish were also found in 8 stomachs, 25 %.

_ Last year’s report shows that fully 97 % of the stomachs
of the Skate contained Crustacea, Mollusca occupying
second place with 16%, and Fish third with 10 %, so that
as far as our results go they show that the Thornback
Skate in our district feed largely upon Crustacea such as
Crangon, Carcinus, Galathea, Hyas, Nephrops, Portunus,
Pagurus and a species of Amphipoda, probably Ampelisca
spinipes, Boeck.

We have also examined the stomachs of a number of
other more or less important food fishes, such as the
“Lemon Sole” (Pleuronectes microcephalus), ‘‘ Long
Rough Dab” (Hippoglossoides limandoides), ‘‘ Grey Gur-
nard” (T'rigla gurnardus), “Starry Ray” (Raia radiata),
“Grey Skate” (Raza batis), but not in sufficient numbers
to make them worth while recording.

114 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

A number of the inedible fishes (fishes of no marketable
value) such as the ‘‘ Solenette’’ (Solea lutea), ‘‘ Megrim”’
(Arnoglossus laterna), ‘“‘ Pogge” (Agonus cataphractus)
etc., have been examined with the view of obtaining fresh
information regarding their habits and food, so that we
may have some idea as to what extent they compete with
the more valuable food fishes of this district.

In the stomach of one of the Solenettes a young Sole,
measuring ~ of an inch, was found, which is the first
direct evidence we have from this district of Solenettes
feeding upon young Soles. Whether or not this happens
to any great extent it is difficult to say.

CONCLUSION.

If we take into consideration the results of the four
years work of examining stomachs and compare one year
with another we find, as a rule, that each particular
species of fish is fairly consistent in preferring one kind of
animal as food.

There are times, however, when unusual animals may
form a large proportion of the food, and this may well be

due to a temporary scarcity of the usual foods or a

temporary abundance of the forms substituted. Such
variations in food matters may have considerable influence
upon the movements of fishes within our district.

SECTION Al.
THE Drirt BoTTLES AND SURFACE CURRENTS.
(By Professor HERDMAN.)

In last year’s report the scheme for the distribution of
drift bottles over the Irish Sea, for the purpose of helping
to determine the set of the chief currents, tidal or other-

eS eel

Se ee eee ee eee =

.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. les

wise, which might influence the movements of fish food
and fish embryos, was fully explained. Since September,
1894, this work has been going on actively, and at the

end of about twelve months over one thousand drift
bottles in all had been set free. Many of them have
_ been let out at intervals of ten minutes, or quarter of an
hour, or twenty minutes (corresponding to distances of
from 3 to 6 miles apart) from the Isle of Man boats when
crossing between Liverpool and Douglas—a very con-
venient line of 75 miles across the middle of the widest
part of our area, traversing the ‘‘head of the tide”’ or
meeting place of the tidal currents entering by St. George’s
Channel and the North Channel. Others have been let
off from Mr. Alfred Holt’s steamers, in going round from
Liverpool to Holyhead and in coming down from Greenock.
Mr. Dawson on the Fisheries steamer ‘‘ John Fell” has
distributed a number along the coast in various parts of
the district, and the Fisheries bailiffs have let off some
dozens from their small boats. Other series have been
set free at stated intervals during the rise and fall of the
tide from the Morecambe Bay Light Vessel in the
northern part of our area, north of the ‘‘ head of the tide;”’
and, through the kindness of Lieutenant M. Sweny, R.N.,
a similar periodic distribution has taken place from the
Liverpool North-West Light Vessel, to the south of the
“head of the tide.’ Others, finally, have been despatched
by Mr. Robert Harley, by Mr. R. Li. Ascroft, by Mr.
Andrew Scott and a few friends in other parts of the area
from small boats and on our dredging expeditions, in some
cases between the Isle of Man and Ireland. Altogether
we have pretty well covered this northern area of the
Irish Sea in our distribution of floating bottles.

Mr. Ascroft has also let off fifty larger and heavier
bottles, champagne quarts weighted with sand so as to

116 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

float almost entirely submerged, and with a post card _
attached to the end of the cork. Nearly 30 9%, of these _
have been returned; most were set free in the northern
part of the district, and about 10 % have come south—
e.g., No. 34, set free off Duddon outer buoy (Cumberland) -
on 9th May, was found at Wallasey embankment -
(Cheshire) on the 18th of May—thus differing from our -
smaller bottles (see below) which have largely gone north.
Possibly this difference in result may be due to the.
weighted champagne bottles having floated lower in the
water or having been carried along near the bottom.
Some of them are said to have sunk out of sight when |
set free, and one was trawled up from 12 miles S.E. of.
the Bahama Light Ship from a depth of 14 fathoms.
The first small bottles used, and the printed paper they
contained, were described last year. We afterwards —
adopted a rather larger size of bottle, 8°5 cm. in length;
and, after various postal difficulties and experiments, we —
hit upon a convenient size and thickness of private post —
card, which, ready stamped and addressed, and marked .
with a distinguishing letter or number, is rolled up in its |
bottle, and has printed on its back the following —
For scientific enquiry into the currents of the Sea.
Whoever finds this is earnestly requested to write
distinctly the DATE and LOCALITY, with full particulars,
in the space below, and to put the card in the nearest
post office.

eoeeeeree eee ee eeee eee eee eee eeeesesesreeeeee ves eeseeoeeeeeoesseseses eee eee

@eoeoeseere ese eee eee eee eee ees eee eee see eee seeseeseeeeeeeeseeeseeee ees eee eee

DATE, When found... ..c5cc0.0-.s0+<haseses cee :
Name and address of sender..... enna deeneeee

eee seer eee ees eee eee eee ete see 8ee FHF Bee HHH HOF OH HOT HHH GOH EEE HEHEHE EEE

(No. here]

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. ba ey

The number is marked with blue and black. pencils in
duplicate on opposite corners of the card, in case of one
edge of the card getting worn by moisture; and the card
is so rolled in the bottle that one of these numbers can
be read through the vlass, in order that a record may be
kept of when and where each bottle is set free. Mr.
Andrew Scott has collated these records with the particu-
lars of finding of those bottles which have been recovered,
and I am indebted to him for the details upon which the
following statement of results is based.

Altogether out of the 1045 bottles distributed, over 440
or 42 per cent., more than two in five, have been
subsequently picked up on the shore, and the paper, or post
card, has been duly filled up and returned. We beg to
thank the various finders of the bottles for their kindness
in filing and posting the cards. They come from various
parts of the coast of the Irish Sea—Scotiand, England,
Wales, Isle of Man, and Ireland. Some of the bottles
have gone quite a short distance, having evidently been
taken straight ashore by the rising tide; while others
have been blown ashore by the wind, e.g., two (post cards
211 and 214) let off near New Brighton stage on 9th
October, 1895, the tide ebbing and the wind N.N.W.,
were found next day near the Red Noses, 1 mile to the
west. Others have been carried an unexpected length,
e.g., one (No. 35), set free near the Crosby Light Vessel,
off Liverpool, at 12.30 p.m., on October 1st, was picked
up at Saltcoats, in Ayrshire, on November 7th, having
travelled a distance of at least 180 miles* in thirty-seven
days; another (H. 20) was set free near the Skerries,
Anglesey, on October 6th, and was picked up one mile
north of Ardrossan, on November 7th, having travelled

*More probably, very much further, as during that time it would
certainly be carried backwards and forwards by the tide,

118 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

150 miles in thirty-one days; and bottle No. 1, set free at
the Liverpool Bar on September 30th, was picked up at
Shiskin, Arran, about 165 miles off, on November 12th.
On the other hand, a bottle (J. F. 34) set free on November
7th, in the Ribble Estuary, was picked up on November
12th at St. Anne’s, having only gone 4 miles.

We have not considered it necessary to give the par-
ticulars of every bottle that has been set free and after-
wards recovered, but we have divided up our district into
eight convenient areas in each of which a sufficiently
large number of bottles has been set free, and the following
table shows our results for these areas :—

AREA, nce ited eee APPARENT Direcrion oF Drirv.
West of I. of Nicaea Ravin’ 55 ial “West and North; moshlyetainelanem
East of I. of Man 115 29 Northward, mostly to Wigtonshire.
Central area - 104 26 North-east, Cumbd., & N. Lane.
- North Wales - All 28 Mostly North-east.
Mersey area - 173 95 24 N., 16 W., rest washed ashore.
N.W. Lt. Vessel 96 4] 26 to North, 15 to West.
Ribble area - 137 72 Half N. & N.E., rest ashore.
“Morecambe B. & North 107 40 | Mostly N.E. and KE. (ashore).

It may be doubted whether our numbers are sufficiently
large to enable us to draw very definite conclusions. It
is only by the evidence of large numbers that the vitiating
effect of exceptional circumstances, such as an unusual
gale, can be eliminated. Prevailing winds, on the other.
hand, such as would usually affect the drift of surface
organisms, are amongst the normally acting causes which
we are trying to ascertain. Mr. W. E. Plummer of the
Bidston Observatory has kindly given us access to his
records of weather for the last twelve months, and we

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 119

have noted opposite the bottles, from whose travels we
are drawing any conclusions, an approximate estimate of
the wind influences during the period when the bottle
may have been at sea. There have been a few rather
extraordinary journeys, e.g., one let off in the middle of
Port Erin Bay on April 23rd was found at Fleetwood on
July 6th; another let off at Bradda Head on June 3rd
was found on Pilling Sands (near Fleetwood) on July 24th.
It is important to notice that the bottles may support
one another’s evidence, those set free about the same spot
often being found in the same locality, e.g., out of a batch
of 6 set free off New Brighton, on Oct. 9th, 1895, 5 have
come back and all were found at about the same place.
Dr. Fulton, who has been conducting a similar inquiry
by means of drift bottles, in the North Sea, for the Scottish
Fishery Board, wrote to me some months ago that he
was then having large numbers of his bottles returned to
him from the Continent, chiefly Schleswig and Jutland.
And he draws the conclusion, ‘‘ There is no doubt that
the current goes across, down as far as Norfolk—none of
the bottles have been found south of Lincoln and none in
Holland—and this will explain the presence of banks and
shallows in the south and east, and the immense nurseries
of immature fish there.” Since then a detailed account*
of these experiments on the Scottish coast has appeared,
and it is interesting to compare our results with them.
Their experiments commenced on Sept. 21st, and ours
on Sept. 3Cth, 1894. They report upon 729 bottles of
which 159, or nearly 22 % have been returned, while we ~
have distributed 1045 of which over 42 % have been found
and recorded. The general result of the Scottish investi-
gations is to show that most of the bottles are carried
southwards in the North Sea along the east coasts of

* Thirteenth Ann. Report of Fishery Board for Scotland, Part ILI, p. 153,

120 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Scotland and England as far as the Wash, and then east-
ward to the Continent; so that the fish supply of a given
area of the territorial waters may be derived not from the
offshore spawning areas opposite, but from those situated
further north—for example: the inshore waters of the
Firth of Forth and St. Andrews Bay derive their main
supplies not from the waters lying contiguous to them to
the eastward, but from areas further north, such as the
spawning grounds in the neighbourhood of the Bell Rock
and those off the Forfarshire coast. In the case of our
district, the drift is chiefly to the north and north-east
(see below).

What is already well-known* in regard to the tidal
streams or currents in the Irish Sea is that for nearly six
hours after low-water at, say, Liverpool, two tidal streams
pour into the Irish Sea, the one from the north of Ireland,
through the North Channel, and the other from the south-
ward, through St. George’s Channel. Parts of the two
streams meet and neutralise each other to the west of the
Isle of Man, causing the large elliptical area, about 20
miles in diameter and reaching from off Port Erin to
Carlingford, where no tidal streams exist, the level of the
water merely rising and falling with the tide. The
remaining portions of the two tidal streams pass to the
east of the Isle of Man and eventually meet along a line
extending from Maughold Head into Morecambe Bay.
This line is the ‘‘ head of the tide.” During the ebb the
above currents are practically reversed, but in running out
the southern current is found to bear more over towards
the Irish coast.

* All the accounts I have had access to seem based upon Admiral
Beechey’s observations published in the Philosophical Trans. for 1848 and
1851. Admiral Wharton, F.R.S., the present Hydrographer to the Navy,
has kindly informed me that Admiral Beechey took his observations by the
direct method of anchoring his ship in various places and then observing the
direction and force of the tide.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. «~~ «+121

_ There is some reason to believe that, as a result ‘of the
general drift of the surface waters of the Atlantic and the
shape and direction of the openings to the Irish Sea, more
water passes out by the North Channel than enters that
way, and more water enters by the South (St. George’s)
Channel than passes back, and that consequently there is,
irrespective of the tides, a slow current passing from south
to north through our district. The fact that: so. many of
our drift bottles have crossed the ‘‘ head of the tide’’ from
8. to N., and that of those which have gone out of our
district nearly all have gone north to the Clyde sea-area
supports this view, which I learn from. Admiral Wharton
is a prior probable, and which is believed in by Mr.
Ascroft and other nautical men in the district from their
experience of the drift of wreckage. . |

It may be objected to our observations by means of
drift bottles that they are largely influenced by the wind
and waves, and are not carried entirely. by tidal streams.
Well, that is an advantage rather than any objection to
the method. For our object is to determine not the tidal
currents alone but the resulting effect upon small’ surface
organisms such as floating fish eggs, embryos and fish food,
of all the factors which can influence their movements,
including prevalent winds. The only factors which can
vitiate our conclusions are unusual gales or any other quite
exceptional occurrences, and the only way to eliminate
such influences is (1) to allow for them so far as they are
known from the weather reports, and (2) to employ a
large number of drift bottles and continue the observations
over a considerable time. We have carefully considered
the bearing of the weather records, and we think that
the large number of bottles we have made use of, during
the year, ought to enable us to come to some definite
results, Our conclusions so far (January, 1896) then are ;—

122 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIULOGICAL SOCIETY.

(1) A large number (over 42 %) have been stranded and
found and returned, |

(2) of these returned, only a small proportion (18 %)
have been carried out of our part of the Irish Sea,

(3) nearly 12 % have crossed the ‘‘ head of the tide,”
showing either the influence of wind in carrying floating
bodies over from one tidal system into another, or the
effect of that slow drift of water to the north referred to
above, |

(4) most of the bottles set free to the west of the Isle
of Man have been carried across to Ireland, only a small
number (3°8 %) of them have got round to the eastern
side of the Island and been carried ashore on the English
coasts, | . a

(5) the majority of the bottles set free off Dalby have
gone to the Co. Down coast,

(6) a considerable number of bottles have been set free
over the deep water to the east of the Isle of Man, where
our more valuable flat fish spawn, and of those that
have been returned the majority had been carried to the
Lancashire, Cheshire and Cumberland coasts.

So we may reasonably conclude that the embryos of
fish spawning off Dalby would tend to be carried across
to the Irish Coast, while those of fish spawning in the
deep water on this eastern side of the Isle of Man would
go to supply the nurseries in the shallow Lancashire and
Cheshire bays, and very few would be carried altogether
out of the district.

The bearing of this conclusion upon the site of a Sea-
Fish Hatchery for our district is obvious. It would not
do to set the newly hatched larve free anywhere near the
Lancashire or Cheshire coasts. Besides the muddiness.
and varying specific gravity of the water to which they
would there be exposed, they would run too much risk of

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 1S

being carried straight ashore or stranded on sandbanks
by wind and tide. They must be set free as nearly as
possible where they would be found under natural con-
ditions, and that is somewhere in the open deep water
where the parent fish spawn. It is most satisfactory and
re-assuring, then, to find, by these ‘‘ drift bottle’? experi-
ments, that small objects set free in the surface layers of
water to the east and south-east of the Isle of Man (where
we can obtain the purest and most constant water for the
purposes of a hatchery) are gradually carried over to the
eastward; so that young flat fish hatched there, or set
free there from a hatchery, by the time they have passed
through their larval stages and are ready to take to the
bottom in shallow water in order to search for Copepoda
and other food matters, would find themselves in the
Lancashire and Cheshire bays and estuaries which consti-
tute our fish “‘ nurseries.”’

SECTION III.
MusseELs AND Mussreu BEps.
(By Mr. ANDREW Scott.)

We have continued the examination of samples of the
various kinds of shell-fish caught for sale in the Lancashire
Sea-Fisheries district, but have nothing new to record
beyond the fact that the results as to feeding and spawning
confirm what has already been published in the former
Reports.

With a view of securing further information, however,
regarding the food, habits, life-histories, etc., of the
shell-fish, we have begun to make periodic examinations
of the various beds of the district, In connection with

124 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

this investigation a visit was made to the Mussel beds
at Piel, Duddon and. Morecambe, about the middle of
September last, the condition of the shell-fish was noted,
and samples of material were collected for microscopic
inspection at the University College Laboratory, with the
following results. A short description of the beds is
given first with remarks upon the Mussels, then come .
lists of the various animals observed either on the beds
themselves or in the material collected from them.

RoOSEBECK SCARS.

The Roosebeck Mussel Scars are situated about one
and a half miles §.E. from Piel and are practically
continuous with the shore, at low-water spring tides only
a very narrow and shallow channel separates the inner
scar from the outer, at high-water the beds are covered to
a depth of several feet. ‘The outer scar, which is evidently
the most suitable for the production of this valuable
shell-fish, is fully half a mile long and from one hundred
to one hundred and fifty yards wide, and lies parallel to
the shore, the whole area of.this scar at the time the
examination was ‘made was covered with fine mud,
reaching in some places to a depth of nearly two feet, but
this mud, from the information supplied by Mr. Wright
the head fishery officer of the Northern District, appears
to have only settled down after the Mussels attached
themselves to the hard ground, for until the Mussels
appeared on the bed the ground was quite hard and free
from mud. This experience is the same elsewhere, that
Mussels tend to accumulate mud and so raise the level of
the bed. | i | i
- The outer scar is clearly a much better rearing place
for Mussels than the inner one as the present condition of
the shell-fish show, for while the Mussels on the outer

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 12s

scar which only settled down in April, 1895, had reached
in the majority of cases to nearly three-quarters of an inch
in about a period of five months, those on the inner scar
deposited at the same time had scarcely attained to
one-quarter of an inch in length when the examination
was made. ‘The Mussels on the outer scar are very
numerous being so closely packed together in some places.
that there appears to be scarcely any space left for further.
growth of the shell-fish, but as they have now no firm
attachment owing to their having to keep moving as the.
mud accumulates, they are liable to be washed off by any.
heavy sea from the southward, and carried off into the’
deeper water outside the scar from whence they can only
be obtained by raking. The shells are quite clean and free
from barnacles. |

It is difficult to explain why the Mussels on the outer
scar should grow so much faster than those on the inner -
scar as the conditions of the bottom must have been
much alike in structure and wealth of food supply before
the spat settled down. Possibly the rapid growth of the.
Mussels on this scar may be due to the large quantities -
of fresh water that pass over it when the tide is out, little
or none of which appears to reach the Mussels on the
inner scar. This water will bring down diatomaceous and
other material collected on its passage across the shore,
which will be deposited when it comes into contact with
the sea and will accumulate in considerable quantities
just at low-water mark, forming a splendid rearing ground
for the microfauna that forms the principle source of food
of the Mussel. Whether this be the true explanation or
not, the rapid growth of the Mussels on the outer scar is
without doubt due to some important cause which does
not affect the inner scar, and which can only be found
out by further investigation.

126 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

FAUNA OF THE SCAR.

Besides Mussels, the usual animals that live in associa-
tion with them are found here, the chief enemies being
the boring Mollusca, which perforate the Mussel shells
and extract the juices and flesh of the animal, such as
the “‘ Dogwhelk,” Purpura lapillus, lu. The ‘ Whelk,”
Buccinum undatum, L., the common ‘‘ Edible periwinkle,”’
Inttorina litorea, Li., and a few common shore crabs,
Carcinus moenas, were also present, but none of them
in any great quantity. The examination of the mud
yielded seventeen species of Foraminifera representing
ten genera, ten species of Ostracoda representing six
genera, and eleven species of Copepoda representing ten
genera. The mud also contained fragments of shells,
spines of Spatangus, sponge spicules, a few diatoms and
a considerable quantity of vegetable debris. The following
list gives the names of the species of Ostracoda, Forami-
. nifera and Copepoda. The Ostracoda and Foraminifera
from the Mussel beds at Piel, Duddon and Morecambe
have been identified by Mr. Thomas Scott, F.L.8., and
Dr. G. W. Chaster.

FORAMINIFERA.
Lagena clavata, d’Orb.

53 levis, Mont.

~ striata, d’Orb.

. williamsont, Alcock.
i squamosa, Mont.

sulcata, W. and J.
Potions striato-punctata, F. and M.
Polymorphina lactea, W. and J.
Planorbulina mediterranensis, d’Orb.
‘Nonionina depressula, W. and J.
Rotalia beccaru, L.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 197

Cornuspira involvens, Reuss.
Biloculina depressa, ad’ Orb.
Bulimina aculeata, d’Orb.
Miliolina oblonga, Mont.
seminulum, d’Orb (juv.).
subrotunda, Mont.

9)

9
OSTRACODA.

Cythere pellucida, Baird.
Cytherura angulata, Brady.
megrescens (Baird).

df sella, G. O. Sars.
Cytherideis subulata, Brady.
Loxoconcha impressa, Baird.

fr tamarindus (Jones).
Sclerochilus contortus, Norman.
Paradozxostuma abbreviatum, G. O. Sars.
flecuosum, Brady.

9)

’””)
COPEPODA.

Temora longicornis (Muller).
Paracalanus parvus (Claus).
Canuella perplexa, T. and A. Scott.
Ectinosoma curticorne, Boeck.
Euterpe acutifrons, Dana.
Ameira exigua, T. Scott.
Laophonte serrata (Claus).

op lamellifera (Claus).
Cletodes propinqua, Brady and Robertson.
Harpacticus chelifer (Muller).
Idya furcata (Baird).

SCARFHOLE SCAR, NEAR DUDDON.

This Mussel bed is fully four miles from Barrow-in-
Furness and is situated nearly opposite the north end of

128 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Walney Island. Like the Roosebeck Scars it is almost
continuous with the shore and at low-water of spring
tides is nearly dry, but is covered to a depth of several feet
at high-water. The bottom is hard and consists of sand, —
stones and Mussel shells, quite different from that at
Roosebeck, consequently the Mussels have a much firmer
hold of the bottom and are not so easily washed off.

The Mussels on this bed are numerous, large and in
good condition, but are covered with barnacles.

FAUNA OF THE SCAR.

Besides the Mussels, Buccinum, Purpura, Littorina
and Carcunus were also found on the bed. An examination
of the mud yielded thirteen species of Foraminifera
representing eight genera, five species of Ostracoda
representing four genera, and eight species of Copepoda
representing seven genera. ‘The mud also contained
fragments of shells, spines of Spatangus, sponge spicules
and a few diatoms. The following is a list of the Ostra-
coda, Foraminifera and Copepoda :—

FORAMINIFERA.

Lagena levis, Mont. | |
ee striata, d’Orb. © re
* sulcata, W. and J.
<3 williamsont, Alcock.
Polystomella str iato-punctata, F. and M.
Planorbulina mediterranensis, d’Orb.
Nonionina depressula, W. and J.
Bulvmina elegans, d’Orb.
‘ pupordes, d’Orb.
Miliolina senunulum, L.
a4 subrotunda, Mont.
. Nodosaria communis, d’Orb.
_ Haplophragmium canariense, d’Orb.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 129

OSTRACODA.

Cythere confusa, Brady and Norman.
as lutea (O. F. Muller).
Loxoconcha tamarindus (Jones).
Sclerochilus contortus, Norman.
Paradoxostoma variabile, Baird.

COPEPODA.

Canuella perplexa, T. and A. Scott.
Tachidius brevicornis, Muller.
Delavaha palustris, Brady.
Laophonte curticauda, Boeck.
ne intermedia, 'T. Scott.

Nannopus palustris, Brady.
Platychelipus littoralis, Brady.
Thalestris harpactovdes, Claus.

MorECAMBE MUSSEL BEDS.

These beds by far the most valuable and extensive of
the northern district, if not of the whole area under the
control of the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Committee, extend
trom a little way south-east of the town of Morecambe, to
a considerable distance beyond the village of Heysham
and are partly continuous with the shore. In front of
Heysham, they are separated at low water into three sep-
arate banks, the outer one tailing off into the deep-water at
the entrance to Heysham Lake. 'The Mussel scar separates
the deep-water into two distinct channels, the outer being
Morecambe Channel, the fairway to Morecambe, while the
inner is known as Heysham Lake, which at low-water is
open only at the south-west end. At high-water the beds
are completely submerged and consequently can only be
worked upon at low-water or at half tide by means of long
mussel rakes. At the time the examination was made no

130 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

?

“musselling’”’ was going on. Hedge balks were erected
on the tops of the various banks in which a number of
codling, plaice, and flounder were being taken.

The area of the bed is composed almost entirely of
the deserted sand tubes of Sabella which afford a firm
hold to the growing Mussels and no doubt also a good ©
food supply from the diatoms and other microscopic
animals which feed on the decaying matter about the
tubes. Scattered over the beds are numerous large
boulders all more or less covered with deserted sand tubes.

The Mussels here are healthy and in good condition
showing evidence of an abundant food supply and of
conditions favourable to a rapid growth of the shell-fish.
They are quite free from barnacles.

FAUNA OF THE SCAR.

Along with the Mussels, there were also a few Buccinum,
Purpura, Littorina and Carcinus. On microscopic
examination the mud was found to contain nineteen
species of Foraminifera representing eleven genera, eight
species of Ostracoda representing five genera, and nine
species of Copepoda (one of which appears to be new)
representing eight genera. The mud also contained a
few fragments of shells, spines of Spatangus, diatoms and
a quantity of vegetable debris. The following is a list of
the Ostracoda, Foraminifera and Copepoda :—

FORAMINIFERA.
Lagena striata, d’Orb.
fy williamsont, Alcock.
= clavata, d’Orb.
e senustriata, Will.
5 sulcata, W. and J.
‘ hexagona, Will.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY.

i globosa, Mont.

Polystomella striato-punctata, F. and M.
Planorbulina mediterranensis, d’ Orb.
Nonionina depressula, W. and J.

y stelligera, d’Orb.
_ Rotalia beccarw, L.
Biloculina depressa, d’Orb.
Miltolina subrotunda, Mont.

- trigonula, Lamarck.
Haplophragnuum canariense, V Orb.
Truncatulina lobatula, W. and J.
Bolivina plicata, d’ Orb.

Virgulina schreibersvana, Cz.

OSTRACODA.

Cythere confusa, Brady and Norman.
hs robertsont, Brady..

Cytherura cellulosa, Norman.

striata, G. O. Sars.

5 sella, G. O. Sars.
Cytheridea elongata, Brady.
Loxoconcha guttata, Norman.
Sclerochilus contortus, Norman.

9

COPEPODA.

Longipedia mimor, T. and A. Scott.
Canuella perplexa, 'V. and A. Scott.
Ectinosoma curticorne, Boeck.

— Bradya nuinor, T. and A. Scott.
Laophonte intermedia, T. Scott.

Cletodes propinqua, Brady and Robertson.

Platychelipus littoralis, Brady.
Idya furcata (Baird).
elongata, n.sp.

9

.. 18d

132 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

CONCLUSION.

The whole area of Morecambe Bay, with its numerous
banks and the estuaries of the Wyre and Lune rivers and
Morecambe, Grange, Ulverston, Barrow and Duddon
Channels, by a little artificial cultivation might easily be
turned into a vast rearing ground for Mussels, as every-
where the conditions seem most favourable for the
production and rearing of this valuable shell-fish. All
that is necessary is to remove some of the seed Mussels
from the beds where they are too crowded to places where
they are few in number or entirely absent. Many of the
Mussels on the various beds under the present conditions
are certain to be lost, through having too little room to
erow, when consequently they either get choked off and
perish miserably or become so stunted in their growth as
to be of little or no marketable value either as bait or food.

Under the present conditions the beds are allowed to
seed themselves and consequently it takes much longer
for the Mussel to spread over any considerable area, than
if the young Mussels were transplanted from places on
the present beds where they are tco close, to new ground.
By this means the Mussels would certainly reach a
marketable size much sooner than if left to look after
themselves, and a convenient time for moving the seedlings
would be when the close season begins, as they would be
less liable to be disturbed than if done at any other
period, and by the time the close season had expired, they
would no doubt have firmly established themselves under
their new conditions. 7

We propose during the coming year to continue this
investigation by doing some more work at Piel when
the temporary laboratory is fitted up, in examining the
Mussel beds of the middle and southern district. ‘The
southern beds can easily be examined from the central

a
4
3
:

|

ee a
—.

SHA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 138

laboratory at University College, but the examination of
the beds at Lytham and Fleetwood would be better done
from Piel. An examination will also be made of the
Cockle beds of the district as far as time permits.

The question has heen raised whether Mussels which
are no longer quite young and which have been torn off
from their first supports, or which have been detached
from larger Mussels, as in separating up bunches, are
able to fix themselves anew. It is known to Zoologists
that Mussels are able to produce byssus threads at any
time and so re-attach themselves to any foreign object,
consequently there can be no doubt that the smaller
individuals torn off a bunch, will, 1f thrown back promptly
into suitable ground, be able to spin fresh byssus round
neighbouring objects and so become anchored. In order
to settle the question quite definitely we have made some
observations in the laboratory during the last year, and
especially quite recently. One of our tanks had a number
of young Mussels, varying in size from half an inch to
an inch and a half in length, put in last June. These
after climbing about the sides of the tank for some time
attached themselves by means of byssus threads 1n various
positions. They were occasionally detached, and were
usually found re-attached after a few days. That has
gone on during the last eight months. The Mussels that
now survive in the tank have increased considerably in
size one being over 2 inches and another 3 inches in length.
The former of these was torn off from the side of the tank
lately and was thrown into the middle. In two days
it was found re-attached by byssus to the glass. Again, on
February 4th the largest Mussel, measuring 3 inches in
length, 13 inches in breadth, and 1} inches in thickness,

134 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

and weighing 523 erammes, was torn off from its attach-
ment to the glass and placed on the sand in the bottom
of the tank. In four days it had re-attached itself to the
glass by means of byssus threads. This shows, if any
further demonstration was really required, that even
Mussels which have attained to large size have the power
of spinning fresh byssus threads by which they become
anchored to surrounding objects.

SECTION IV.
_ DESCRIPTION OF NEW AND RARE COPEPODA.

(By Mr. ANDREW Scott.)

Family HARPACTICIDE.

Sunaristes paguri, Hesse.
This rather peculiar and interesting species was obtained —
-by washing the shells of Buccinwm mbhabited by the
hermit crabs Pagurus bernhardus, collected in the trawl-
net of the steamer while working at the mouth of the
- Mersey estuary on the 23rd of July, 1895. It seems to be
a comparatively rare species and so far as is known this
is only the third time it has been found in British waters.
From our present knowledge of its distribution it appears
to be confined to areas having large volumes of brackish
water passing over the bottom, and has not been found in
pure sea-water.

Sunaristes pagurt is not unlike Canuella perplexa in
general appearance but 1s readily distinguished from that
species by the structure of the various appendages,
especially the antennules and second pair of swimming
feet of the male,

:

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. sets

Stenhelia herdmani,n. sp. Pl. L., figs. 1—11.

Description of the species —Female. Length 1°43 millim.
(;;th of an inch. Body moderately stout; rostrum
prominent and curved. Antennules long and slender,
eight-jointed ; the first, second, fourth and eighth joints
longer than the others, the fifth joint being the smallest
of the series; the second, third and fourth joints have
each a tuft of sete on their upper distal margins. The
proportional leneths of the various joints are as follows :—

Hees 8 S10 56 oT Ul
PDS ee a ee ee

Antenne moderately stout, secondary branch small and
slender, two jointed; basal joint elongate narrow with
one seta on its upper distal end, second joint short, about
one third of the length of the first and furnished with two
terminal sete. Mandibles large and well developed, the
broad biting part armed with a few large teeth and a
number of smaller ones; mandible palp comparatively
large, consisting of a one-jointed basal part which carries
at its lower extremity two branches, one large and one
small, the smaller of the two being two-jointed, whilst
the larger one is composed of a single joint. Masticatory
portion of the maxilla furnished with a number of strong
teeth, palp two branched, the outer one bearing three
setiferous lobes. Anterior foot-jaws furnished with one
large terminal claw and three digitiform setose tubercles.
Posterior foot-jaws stout, of moderate length and furnished
with a strong, slightly curved terminal claw at the base
of which are two set; the basal joint of the foot-jaw has
four small ciliated tubercles on its lower side, while the
second joint has a row of fine cilia on its upper margin
and a row of stronger cilia on its lateral surface a little
way down from the upper margin, there are also two
plumose sete on the upper margin of the joint. First

186 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

pair of swimming feet somewhat similar to those of
Stenhelia ima, Brady; basal joints of the inner branches
nearly as long as the entire outer branches, second
joint about half the length of the third which is less than
one third the length of the long basal joint. ~ Outer
branches of the second, third and fourth pairs elongate,
inner branches much shorter, those of the fourth pair
only reaching to the end of the second joint of the outer
branches. Fifth pair of feet large-and well developed,
inner branches considerably larger than the outer ones,
with a subtriangular apex bearing five plumose sete, two
on the outer angle close together and three arranged at
regular intervals along the inner margins; outer branches
subovate, bearing six sete on the external distal margins,
the second seta from the inside is considerably longer
than any of the others. Caudal stylets about as long as
broad and about half the length of the last abdominal
segment.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man, in
neritic material dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms,
October 27th, 1895.

Remarks.—This large and well marked species though
somewhat like Stenhelia ima in general appearance is
_ readily distinguished from it and the other known
members of this genus, by the form and armature of the
fifth pair of feet, and by the structure and proportional
lengths of the antennules.

Stenhea similis, ni! sp, Ply, tessa

Description of the species—Female. Length 1 millim.
3; ofaninch). Bodyelongate, moderately robust; rostrum
prominent and curved with a bifid apex. Antennules
long and slender, sparingly setiferous, the second joint
longer than any of the others and slightly contracted near
the middle, but expanding again towards the distal end,

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. EST

third, fifth, sixth and seventh joints small, the others of
moderate length as shown by the formula :—
Re 240 A 512 16 26) 10
epee 4 yD Gan hind

Antenne well developed, secondary branch three-jointed,
second joint very small, terminal joint fully half the
length of the basal one and furnished with two sete on
its apex, one large and spiniform and one very small ;
one seta springs from near the middle of the upper
margin of the terminal joint, the basal joint bears one
seta on its upper distal angle. Mandibles furnished with
several strong and serrated teeth on the biting parts,
mandible palp consisting of a basal part carrying two
branches, the inner branch which is smaller than the
outer is two-jointed, both branches are furnished with a
number of setz on the apex and upper margins, the basal
part has three terminal plumose sete, and a curved row
of short spines on its lateral surface. Maxille somewhat
similar to those of Stenhelia herdmant. Posterior foot-
jaws slender and furnished with a short curved claw,
basal joints short and furnished with three small plumose
setze on the upper distal margin, second joint fully three
times longer than broad and bearing a few cilia and one
seta on its upper margin, there are also a few spines on
its lateral surface. The first four pairs of swimming feet
are nearly as in Stenhelia ima, the joints of the outer
branches of the first pair are subequal, basal joint of the
inner branches nearly as long as the entire outer branch,
second joint small and about half the length of the third
which is about half the length of the basal joint, the apex
of the third joint is furnished with one short stout spine
and two plumose sete, one long and one short. Fifth
pair of feet large, inner branches broad and triangular,
bearing five short plumose set from the middle of the

138 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

inner margin to the apex; outer branches elongate ovate,
about two-thirds the length of the inner, proximal half of
the outer margin ciliated, inner margin slightly ciliated
towards the distal end, apex and distal half of the outer
margin furnished with six sete, the second from the.
inner part of the apex considerably longer than the others.
Caudal stylets rather shorter than broad and about one-
third the length of the last abdominal segment.

Male. Antennules ten-jointed, fourth and sixth joints
very small. Swimming feet, with the exception of the
second pair, similar to those of the female. Inner
branches of the second pair two-jointed, second joint
bearing at the apex two strong and slightly curved spines, |
the inner spine which is slightly longer than the outer
one, becomes distinctly bifid at the middle. The form of
the fifth pair of feet is somewhat similar to those of the
female, but smaller and furnished with fewer set, the
inner branches have only two sete which are placed on
the apex, the outer branches have two setz on the outer
distal margin, the lower one being stout and spiniform,
two sete on the middle of the inner margin and one
seta on the apex.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man, in
neritic material dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms. A
considerable number of specimens were obtained.

Remarks.—This species comes near Dactylopus tena-—
renis, but can easily be distinguished from it by the
structure and proportional lengths of the antennules, the
length and armature of the inner branches of the first
feet, and also by the structure of the fifth feet.

Stenhelia refleca, 'T. Scott.

(T. Scott, Thirteenth An. Rep. Fish. Board for Scot.,
pty TIL; p..166,-1895. |
A few specimens of this Stenhelia were obtained from
dredged material collected off Port Erin in June, 1695.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 1389

Amewra gracile,n. sp. Pl. II., figs. 1-—11.

Description of the species.—Female. Length ‘5 millim.
(jjth of an inch). Body elongate and slender, rostrum
small and inconspicuous. Antennules long and very
slender, seven-jointed; second and fifth joints longer than
any of the others, fourth joint very short, the second,
third and fourth joints have each a tuft of long set on
the upper distal margins, the following formula shows

_ the proportional lengths of the joints :—

els AO ao 18s Bui9
Hien? FAS DOCG 57,

Antenne slender, three-jointed, secondary branch small,
two-jointed, the second joint very small. Mandibles
elongate narrow, apex obliquely truncate and armed with
a number of teeth, mandible palp with a distinct basal
part, narrow at the base but somewhat dilated towards
the apex to which is attached a one-jointed elongate
narrow branch. Posterior foot-jaws moderately robust
and armed with a strong terminal claw, lower margin of the
second joint furnished with a row of fine cilia. First pair
of swimming feet elongate and slender, basal joint of the
inner branches nearly as long as the entire outer branch,
second joint about one-fourth the length of the basal
joint and fully half the length of the third joint. Outer
branches of the second, third and fourth pairs elongate
three-jointed, inner branches also three-jointed but shorter
than the outer branches. Fifth pair of feet foliaceous,

the inner branch produced into a subtriangular lobe

which reaches to about the middle of the outer branch and
furnished at the apex with a stout setiform spine and a
small seta, outer branch oblong ovate in shape, the
greatest breadth being very nearly half the length,
furnished with three sete on the outer margin, one on
the apex and one on the inner distal margin, both the

140 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

inner and outer margins are clothed with fine cilia.
Caudal stylets long and narrow, being about five times
longer than broad and nearly twice the length of the last
abdominal segment.

Male. Antennules ten-jointed, fifth and sixth joints
very small, hinged between the third and fourth joints
and also between the seventh and eighth joints. The
form of the fifth pair of feet is somewhat similar to those
of the female, but the inner branch is much smaller.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man, in
neritic material dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms, a
number specimens were obtained.

Remarks.—This species in general appearance is not
unlike Ameira longicaudata but is readily distinguished
from it by the shape of the cephalothoracic segment and
on dissection by the characters described above. Nearly
all the specimens obtained had the last three joints of the
antennules broken off.

Ameira refleca, 'T. Scott. }
[T. Scott, Twelfth An. Rep. Fish. Board for Scot., pt.
III., p. 240, 1894. |
One or two specimens of this Ametra were obtained
from the shelly deposit dredged 1 mile off Spanish Head,
Isle of Man; depth 16 fathoms. The species is easily
distinguished from the other members of this genus by
the structure of the inner branches of the first pair of
swimming feet and also by the fifth pair of feet. |
Canthocamptus palustris, Brady. Pl. I1., figs. 12—23.
(Brady, Monograph Brit. Copep., Vol. II., p. 53, 1880.]

A considerable number of specimens of a copepod
apparently belonging to this species were washed from
mud adhering to samples of Mussels (Mytilus edulis) sent
from the St. Annes Mussel beds near Lytham, one of the
samples was from that part of the bed which neyer

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 141

becomes dry at low-water, and was obtained by means of
a “‘mussel rake,” it was from this sample that the first
specimens were obtained, other samples sent later on in
the year also contained numbers of specimens.

The specimens differ a little from the figures given by
Dr. Brady in his “‘ monograph,”’ especially in the length of
the basal joint of the first pair of swimming feet and also
in the shape of the fifth pair of feet of the female.

Mesochra macintoshi, T. and A. Scott.

Oe ocott, An. & Mac. Nat. Hist.,-Ser. 6, Vol.
XV., p. 538, 1895.]

A number of specimens of this species were obtained
from the shelly material dredged 1 mile off Spanish Head,
Isle of Man, from a depth of 16 fathoms. The slender
appearance of the species along with the structure and
armature of its various appendages, enable it to be readily
distinguished from the other members of the genus.

Tetragoniceps trispinosus,n. sp. Pl. IL., figs. 24 and
25; III., figs. 1—6.

Description of the Species—Female. Length *5 millim.

jth of an inch). Body elongate cylindrical, tapering
gently towards the posterior end, rostrum small and tri-
angular in shape. Antennules long and slender, six-jointed
and sparingly setiferous, the basal joint is considerably
longer than any of the others, fifth joint very small, about
half the length of the fourth; the proportional lengths of
the joints are as shown by the following formula :—

WS) NS. AA OA 1G

oa eee eG

Antenne of moderate length and three-jointed, secondary
branch small and rudimentary, consisting of a single seta
attached to the lower margin of the second joint of the
primary branch at a distance of about one-third from the
base. Posterior foot-jaws small, with a strong curved

142. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

claw as long as the joint to which it is attached. Both
branches of the first pair of swimming feet two-jointed,
outer branches small, the joints subequal and reaching to
about the middle of the basal joint of the inner branch ;
inner branches long and slender, basal joint nearly twice
the length of the entire outer branch and fully seven
times longer than broad, a moderately long seta springs
from near the base of the inner margin. Second joint
short and narrow, fully one-fourth the length of the basal
joint, furnished at its apex with a short curved seta, a seta
of considerable length springs from near the middle of the
inner margin. Outer branches of the second, third and
fourth pairs of feet elongate, three-jointed, inner branches
short and narrow, one-jointed, in the fourth pair the inner
branches are only about one-third the length of the basal
joint of the outer branches and furnished at the apex with
three short sete. Fifth pair of feet small, one branched
and divided into two distinct portions, an inner which is
produced into an elongate curved spiniform apex devoid
of sete and an outer tubercle-like process which arises
from near the base of the elongate portion furnished with
two short stout sete and one long slender hair. Caudal
stylets elongate narrow, slightly divergent, tapering to an
acute apex and about twice the length of the last
abdominal segment; on the inner margin of each stylet at
a distance of about one-third from the apex there arises
a single seta which is fully two-thirds the length of the
animal and having a slghly thickened base. Anal
operculum semi-circular in shape and produced into three
spines, a median and two lateral.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man, in
neritic material, dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms...
Only two specimens were observed.

Remarks.—This species though placed in the genus

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 143

Tetragoniceps differs somewhat from the generic. des-
cription given in the Monograph of the British Copepoda,
especially in the number of joints in the outer branches
of the first pair of feet and in the inner branches of the
- second, third and fourth feet, but as the mouth organs
have not been satisfactorily worked out, it 1s perhaps
better meanwhile to place it under the genus T'etragoniceps
its nearest ally rather than institute a new genus for its

reception.

Tetragoniceps consimilis, 'T'. Scott.

[T. Scott, Twelfth An. Rep. Fish. Board for Scot., pt.
III., p. 244; 1894.]

A few specimens of this species were obtained from the
material dredged 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man,
from a depth of 16 fathoms, it closely resembles Tetra-
goniceps bradyi in general appearance as well as in a few
structural details, but differs from it in the absence of the
strong hook on the second joint of the antennules, in the
inner branches of the first pair of feet being three-jointed
and in the fifth pair being composed of two distinct
branches.

Laophonte propinqua, T. and A. Scott.

[T. & A. Scott, An. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, Vol.
XV., p. 460, 1895.)

A few specimens of this species were obtained from
material washed from sponges collected by Dr. Hanitsch
at Port Erin, Isle of Man, in August, 1894; it is not
unlike Laophonte denticornis at first sight but on closer
examination 1s found to differ very markedly, not only
from that species, but from any of the other known
members of the genus.

Laophonte intermedia, T. Scott.

[(T. Scott, Thirteenth An. Rep. Fish. Board for Scot.,
py LLL., p. 168, 1895.)

144 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

This species was obtained from the same material as
the last, and also from the mussel beds at Duddon and
Morecambe, it appears to be intermediate between
Laophonte lamellata and Laophonte hispida but is quite
distinct from either of them, the sub-conical form of the
stylets alone enable it to be easily recognised when mixed
up in a collection of Copepoda along with L. lamellata
and L. hispida.

Pseudolaophonte, n. gen.

Description of the genws.—Pseudolaophonte resembles
Laophonte, Philippi, in the structure of the antennules
and antenne; the mandibles, maxille and foot-jaws, and
the first pair of swimming feet, but differs from that genus
in the structure of the second and third pairs; the second
pair of swimming feet consist of a single one-jointed
branch, and the outer and inner branches of the third
pair are each composed of two joints. The fourth and
fifth pairs of feet are somewhat similar to those of
Laophonte.

Pseudolaophonte aculeata,n. sp. Pl. IIL., figs. 7—28.

Description of the species.—Female. Length 1 millim.
ysth of aninch). Body seen from above elongate narrow,
of nearly equal breadth throughout, all the segments
are more or less angular in shape and furnished with a
row of short teeth on their posterior margins; surface of
all the segments clothed with minute cilia; rostrum
small and inconspicuous, with a small hair on each side
of the base. Antennules moderately stout, four-jointed,
first and third joints longer than the other two, the fourth
joint being the smallest, the basal joint has a row of blunt
pointed teeth on its upper margin and three rows on its
lateral aspect, the middle row being the longest; a stout
tubercle with a quadri-dentate apex arises from near the
middle of the lower margin; second joint furnished on its

—

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 145

lower margin with a strong slightly curved tooth which
reaches to near the middle of the basal joint, and forms
with the dentate tubercle of that joint, a powerful grasping
apparatus; the third joint is covered with minute spines
for about three-fourths of its length, the remaining fourth
being covered with fine cilia, the fourth joint is also
covered with cilia and has the lower distal part produced
into a strong spine, the following formula shows the

proportional lengths of the joints :—

sly loy. 6

Ce aes
Antenne two-jointed and of moderate size, with a small
one-jointed secondary branch arising from near the middle
of the lower margin of the basal joint and furnished with
four sete. Mandibles small, with a few serrated teeth
on the truncate apex, mandible palp very smal], with
ciliated margins and bearing three sete on the apex.
Maxillze and foot-jaws somewhat similar to those of a
typical Laophonte, the second joint of the posterior foot-
jaw long and slender, being about four times longer than
broad, the terminal claw is also long and slender and is
considerably longer than the second-joint. First pair
of swimming feet similar to those of a typical Laophonte,
outer branch composed of two joints. Second pair of
swimming feet rudimentary, consisting of a single one-
jointed branch, bearing three sete at the apex, the innermost
being longer than the other two. Both branches of the
third pair of feet two-jointed, the inner branch being
slightly shorter than the outer. The fourth pair of feet
has the outer branch three-jointed and the inner two, the
basal joint of the outer branch is nearly as long as broad
and is equal to the combined lengths of the second and
third joints, the first and second joints have each one stout
ciliated spine on the outer distal angle, the second joit

146 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

which is very narrow, is produced on the inner margin
into a hook-like process furnished with a short seta, the
third joint has three strong spines on the outer margin
and apex, inner branches short, reaching to about the
middle of the outer branch, the second joint is furnished
with three short setz on itsapex. Fifth pair of feet large
and foliaceous, inner branch triangular in shape, ciliated
on the inner margin and covered with a number of more
or less curved rows of cilia, the branch is also furnished
with five moderately stout plumose sete on its inner
margin and apex; outer branch broadly ovate, and fully
half the size of the inner branch, it is also covered with
rows of cilia and bears five short stout plumose sete on
its apex. Caudal stylets elongate narrow, of moderate
length, about three times longer than broad and slightly
longer than the last abdominal segment; bearing on the
inner angles of the apex, a short stout curved spine and
near the middle the dorsal surface, a slightly shorter spine
and a seta, the outer margins are furnished with two
short sete, the apex also bears two sete, one of which is
very long. Anal operculum produced into a short stout
spine.

Male. Antennules six-jointed, first and second joints
like those of the female, third and sixth joints very small,
fourth joint considerably dilated. Mouth organs similar
to those of the female. The first and second feet are also
similar to to those of the female. The basal joint of the
outer branches of. the third pair of feet has a strong
curved spine on its outer distal angle which is nearly
twice the length of the joint itself and extends considerably
beyond the end of the second joint, second joint of the
inner branches produced into a curved spine which reaches
to beyond the end of the outer branch, both branches of
the third pair two-jointed. The fourth pair of feet has

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 147

the outer branch three-jointed and the inner two; the
basal joint of the outer branches is longer than the
combined lengths of the second and third joints and bears
a strong spine on its outer distal angle, second and
third joints of the outer branch of about equal length ;
inner branches very short reaching to about the middle
of the basal joint of the outer branch, basal joint of the
inner branch very small and only about one-fourth the
length of the second joint. Fifth pair small, inner branch
not produced, furnished with two plumose set on its
apex, the inner one being three times longer than the
outer; outer branch elongate narrow, bearing at its apex
three stout sete.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man, in

neritic material dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms; a
number of specimens were obtained.
_ Remarks.—This species comes very near Laophonte
spinosa, I. C. Thompson, especially in the structure of
the antennules and mouth organs, but differs considerably
in the structure of the second, third and fourth pairs of
swimming feet; the outer branches of the second, third
and fourth feet in Laophonte spinosa are two jointed and
the inner three, whilst in Pseudolaophonte aculeata the
second pair of feet consists of a single one-jointed branch,
in the third pair each branch is composed of two joints
and in the fourth pair the outer branch consists of three
joints and the inner of two, the fifth feet also differ
somewhat. he appendages of the male differ also from
those of the male Laophonte spinosa.

Laophontodes bicornis, n. sp. Pl. IIl., figs. 24—25 ;
Py, igs. 1—7.

Description of the species—Female. Length ‘5 millim.
(#;th of aninch). Body seen from above elongate narrow,
the breadth gradually decreasing towards the posterior

148 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SCCIETY.

end; all the segments are more or less angular in shape »
and with the exception of the cephalic segment, bear each
a row of short teeth on the distal margin. Cephalo-
thoracic segment broadly triangular in outline, the frontal
portion being produced into a small rostrum, and the
lateral margins near the distal end into strong curved
spines directed backwards and extending slightly beyond
the middle of the second segment. Antennules short,
five-jointed, all the joints are of moderate length except
the fourth which is very short; the proportional lengths
of the joints are as shown in the following formula :—
AS Ag 22 pois le
Li, Qi Girt ae
Antenne small, two-jointed without any secondary
- appendage. Mandibles and other mouth organs nearly

as in Laophonte. The first pair of swimming feet are
similar to those of Laophontodes typicus, and the second,
third and fourth pairs are also similar to the corresponding
feet of that species. The fifth pair are large and prominent
and project outwards from the sides of the fifth segment ;
each foot consists of a single narrow elongate branch,
composed of two-joints, furnished with one seta on
the inner distal angle of the first joint and two on the
outer angle, the second joint has two sete on the inner
margin, two on the apex and one on the outer margin,
the basal joint has also a row of cilia on its inner margin.
Caudai stylets long and narrow, about equal to the
combined lengths of the last two abdominal segments.
Habitat, Off Port Erin, from dredged material collected
June, 1895; only one specimen has been observed.
Remarks.—This species is easily distinguished from
Laophontodes typicus the only other member of the genus,
by the lateral projections of the cephalothoracic segment,
the proportional lengths of the joints of the antennules

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 149

and the length of the caudal stylets; the fifth feet also
differ, in this species they are two-jointed whilst in
Laophontodes typicus they are composed of a single joint
only.

Normanella attenuata, n. sp. Pl. IV., figs. 8—20.

Description of the species.—Female. Length 1 millim.
(jth of an inch). Body elongate cyclindrical, slender.
Antennules nine-jointed; the second much longer than
the others, seventh and eighth joints very small, the
others are of moderate length as shown by the formula :—

peda 0 A bes Tee wb
ie Bn Ley bk 8G

- Antenne three-jointed, stout and of moderate length,
a small one-jointed secondary branch arises from the
lower distal end of the basal jomt of the primary branch
and is furnished with two sete; the lower one of which
appears to be articulated to the apex of the joint.
Mandibles slender with a serrated apex, basal portion of
the mandible palp considerably dilated and bearing two
one-jointed branches, the outer branch being much longer

than the inner. Maxille and foot-jaws nearly as in
Normanella dubia. Inner branches of the first pair of
swimming feet long and slender, two-jointed, basal joint
longer than the entire outer branch, second joint about
one-third the length of the basal joint, bearing one curved
spine and two sete on the apex, outer branches three-
jointed, shorter than the basal joint of inner branches. In
the second and third pairs of feet, the inner branches are:
short, and two-jointed; the outer branches are consider-
ably longer than the inner and three-jointed. Inner
branches of the fourth pair of feet three-jointed and very
short, only reaching to about the middle of the second
joint of the outer branches. Fifth pair of feet foliaceous,
two branched, inner branch large and subtriangular

Se Tes 4
/ Sey

150 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

bearing two sete on the inner distal margin and two on
the apex, outer branch pyriform, arising from the middle
of the outer margin and extending considerably beyond
the apex of the inner branch, bearing four sete on its
outer distal margin and two on the apex. Caudal stylets
of moderate length, about twice as long as broad and
fully half the length of the last abdominal segment.

Male. Antennules nine-jointed, sixth joint very short,
the others of moderate length, hinged between the fourth
and fifth joints and also between the seventh and eighth,
all the other appendages with the exception of the fifth
pair of feet are similar to the corresponding appendages
of the female. The inner branch of the fifth pair sub-
triangular in form bearing one stout plumose spine and
two plumose sete on its apex, the outer branch pyriform,
bearing three sete on its outer distal margin, and two
on the apex, with a strong plumose spine between the
two apical setee.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man,-
neritic material dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms; very
few specimens were obtained. | 1a

Remarks.—This species differs considerably in shape
from Normanella dubia but the structural details are
almost similar to those on which the genus was founded,
the only differences being that the antennules have nine
joints instead of seven, and the inner branches of the
fourth pair of feet have three joints instead of two.. These
differences are not considered to be of sufficient importance
to warrant the establishment of a new genus for its
reception.

Cletodes similis, 'T’. Scott.

(T’. Scott, Thirteenth An. Rep. Fish. Board for Scot.
Pp, p. 168) 1895:)

A few specimens were obtained from material washed

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 151

from sponges collected by Dr. Hanitsch at Port Erin,
Isle of Man, in August, 1894. This species is very like
Cletodes lata in general appearance but is easily dis-
tinguished from it on dissection by the structure of the
antennules, the proportional lengths and armature of
the outer and inner branches of the first pair of swimming
feet, and also by the form of the fifth pair of feet.

Nannopus palustris, Brady.

Several specimens of this species were obtained in the
mud collected from the Mussel beds near Duddon and
from mud sent to the laboratory from the Fleetwood
Oyster beds. It seems to be a brackish water species and
in general appearance is very like Platychelipus littoralis
another brackish water copepod, it can be distinguished
from that species however, even without dissecting, by
making an examination of the fifth pair of feet and also
of the inner branches of the third and fourth pairs of feet.
Nannopus palustris has two ovisacs and Platychelipus
littoralis one only.

meevauciongaia, n. sp. Pl. 1V., figs. 21—24; PI. V.,
figs. 1—5.
_ Description of the species.—Female. Length °74 millim.
(;,th of aninch). Body seen from above elongate narrow,
tapering rapidly towards the posterior end, the length
being nearly equal to four times the greatest breadth ;
rostrum prominent with a bluntly rounded apex. Anten-
nules short and comparatively stout; shorter than the
cephalothoracic segment, eight-jointed; second and third
joints longer than any of the others, as shown in the
following formula :—

tah Pied 6) B55), 12
} Po al 6450. GC 8

Antenne, mandibles and maxille nearly as in Idya
gracilis, 'T. Scott. Foot-jaws also similar to those of that

152 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

species but shorter and stouter. Inner branches of the
first pair of swimming feet slender and of moderate
length, basal joint nearly as long as the entire outer
branch, and furnished with a plumose seta arising from
the lower half of the inner margin and extending to
slightly beyond the end of the branch, second joint fully
two-thirds the length of the basal joint also furnished
with a plumose seta arising from near the middle of its
inner margin, third jomt very small, bearing on its apex
two stout spines and one short plumose seta; outer
margins and proximal halves of the inner margins of the
first and second joints fringed with short hairs, the joints
of the outer branches are short and broad, the second
joint is slightly shorter than the first and the third joint a
little shorter than the second, the armature of the joints
is somewhat similar to that of the first pair in Idya
furcata; the spines are furnished with a row of moderately
long cilia on the upper margins. Second, third and fourth
pairs of swimming feet similar to those of Idya furcata.
Fifth pair of feet very short being little more than half
the length of the joint to which they are attached and
extending only a little way beyond the base of the first
segment of the abdomen, the length of each foot is about
equal to twice the breadth, the secondary joint is furnished
with three sete on the apex, the innermost one being
longer than either of the other two, outer very short; a
short seta is attached to the outer margin a little way
from the apex. Caudal stylets narrow and _ slightly
divergent, length equal to about twice the breadth and
nearly as long as the last segment of the abdomen.

Male. Antennules nine-jointed, hinged between the
third and fourth joints and also between the seventh and
eighth joints, fourth joint very small; the other appendages
are similar to those of the female, fifth feet also similar to
the fifth feet of the female but smaller,

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 1538

Habitat, obtained from the mud collected on the
Mussel beds between Morecambe and Heysham; only a
few specimens were obtained.

Remarks.—This species is very distinct from Idya fur-
cata and also from two other species recently described—
Idya longicorms, T. and A. Scott, and Idya gracilis, T.
Scott—and can easily be recognised from either of them
by the elongate form of the animal, the short antennules
and the small fifth feet.

Idya gracilis, T. Scott.

(T. Scott, Thirteenth An. Rep. Fish. Board for Scot.,
peelit., p: 171, 1895.)

A number of specimens of this species were obtained
from the shelly material dredged 1 mile off Spanish Head,
Isle of Man, from a depth of 16 fathoms; it is easily
recognised by the long and slender inner branches of the
first pair of swimming feet and also by the shape and
arrangement of the setze on the fifth pair of feet.

Family SAPPHIRINIDA, Thorell.

Modiolicola insignis, Aurivillius.

Living as a messmate within the mantle of the ‘ horse
mussel,” Mytilus modiolus. A number of specimens
were found in the examples of this Mollusc which were
brought up in the trawl-net of the steamer, while working
in the vicinity of the north end of ‘‘ the Hole” on March
93rd, 1895. This appears to be a widely distributed
species of Copepod, its range being probably co-extensive
with that of the Mollusc. It has been recorded from the
Firth of Forth, the Moray Firth, and from the vicinity of
Mull. It has also been obtained in specimens of the
same species of Mollusc dredged by Dr. Norman in 1893,
off Trondhjem in Norway.

154. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Family AscomyzontTIp&, Thorell (1859).

Dermatomyzon gibberum, T. and A. Scott.

[T. & A. Scott, An. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, Vol.
XIIL., p. 144, 1894.]

A considerable number of specimens of this species
were obtained by washing the common starfish (Asterias
rubens)in weak methylated spirit and afterwards examining
the sediment. It was taken from starfish collected at
Hilbre Island and afterwards from the same species of
starfish taken in other parts of the district; both males
and females were found, many of the latter with ovisacs
attached. :

Collocheres elegans, n. sp. Pl. V., figs. 6—15.

Description of the species—Female. Wength 1 millim.
(ssth of an inch). Body elongate, subpyriform, anterior
seoment large and somewhat triangular in outline and
equal to twice the combined lengths of the second, third
and fourth segments, rostrum small and inconspicuous..
Antennules moderately long, slender and sparingly seti-
ferous, twenty-jointed ; the first, eighteenth and twentieth
joints of about equal length and longer than any of the
- others, the second and tenth joints slightly smaller than
the others; a sensory filament springs from the end of
the third last joint. The following formula shows the
proportional lengths of the joints :— ‘i

9.9 .3.3.3.8.3.4.4.2.3°6.5.6.6.6 6.9eemee
2°34 5-6-7 8 9 10111213 14D 16a

~ Antenne three-jointed, basal joint long and narrow, bear-
ing near the middle of the lower margin a small secondary
branch, which consists of a single joint, nearly oval in ~
outline and furnished with three small setze on the apex
and one near the middle of the upper margin, second
joint of the antenne about half the length of the first,
third joint about two-thirds the length of the second and:

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 155

bearing at the apex a long slender spine having a slightly
thickened base, and a small hair; a short seta also springs
from near the base of the upper margin. Mandibles
elongate narrow, denticulated on the oblique apex, palp
rudimentary and consisting of a single moderately long
hair. Maxille two-lobed, both lobes of about equal
length, but one is shghtly narrower than the other and 1s
furnished with one seta at the apex, the broad lobe has
four sete on its apex. Foot-jaws somewhat sinilar to
those of Collocheres gracilicauda (Brady). First four pairs
of swimming feet also similar to those of that species; the
outer branches of all the four pairs are armed with short
dagger shaped spines and the terminal joint of the inner
branch of the fourth pair is furnished with one stout
dagger shaped spine on the apex and a smaller one near the
middle of the outer margin. Fifth pair of feet somewhat
rudimentary, two-jointed, basal joint broadly triangular
in shape, the second joint which is attached to near the
middle of the outer margin of the basal joint is elongate,
curved, and bluntly serrated at its apex, the length being
about equal to three and one-half times the breadth; it is
furnished with three sete, one on the apex and twoa
little lower down on the outer margin and _ slightly
separated from each other. Abdomen slender, four-jointed,
genital segment elongate narrow, length nearly equal to
twice the breadth, and longer than the combined lengths
of the next three segments, second joint about one-third
the length of the first, third joint slightly smaller than
the second, fourth joint smaller than the third. Caudal
stylets about four times as long as broad and nearly equal
to the length of the last two segments of the abdomen.
Habitat, off Port Erin, from dredged material collected
June, 1895, only one specimen has been observed.
Remarks.—This species is not unlike Collocheres gracili-

156 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

cauda and may perhaps have been passed over for that
species, but it can be readily distinguished from it by the
much shorter caudal stylets and also by the shape of the
fifth pair of feet.

Ascomyzon thompson, n. sp. Pl. V., figs. 16—26.

Description of the species —Female. Wength 1 millim.
(jth of an inch). Body broad, suborbicular in shape,
cephalothorax broadly ovate, last segment of thorax and
abdomen much narrower, rostrum not prominent. An-
tennules slender, twenty-one-jointed, the first being the
largest and ciliated on its upper margin; second to
eighth joints small and of about equal length, ninth joint
smaller than any of the others, eighteenth joint furnished
with a short sensory filament. The proportional lengths
of the joints are shown in the following formula :—
48.7.7.5.6.6.6.7.8.4.7.8.11.8.12.11 14a

12345678 9 1011.12 13 14 15 1617 198g aoe
Antenne four-jointed, first jomt long and bearing near

the distal end of the lower margin, a small one-jointed
secondary branch, which bears at the apex a moderately
long seta, a small hair also springs from near the middle
of the upper margin; second joint of the antenne shorter
and narrower than the first and having its lower margin
ciliated, third joint very small, fourth joint about as
long as broad and bearing at its apex one strong curved
spine and two setz. Mandibles slender, and stylet shaped;
palp elongate narrow, two-jointed, second joint about one-
third the length of the first and bearing at its apex, one
long and one short plumose seta. The maxille consist
of a short basal joint bearing two lobes of about equal
length, but one is considerably narrower than the other,
each lobe is furnished with four plumose set; one of the
setze on the broad lobe is much stouter and longer than
the others, two of the other setz on the same lobe are

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 157

also comparatively stout but are only about half the.
length of the long seta. Anterior foot-jaws simple, bearing
a strong curved apical claw. Posterior foot-jaws elongate
slender, four-jointed, resembling those of Dermatomyzon
mgripes (B. and R.). Both branches of the first four
pairs of swimming feet short and stout, three-jointed and
nearly equal in length. Fifth pair of feet rudimentary,
two-jointed, inner joint short and broad, furnished with
one plumose seta on its upper distal angle, outer joint
elongate, length about equal to twice the breadth and
bearing at its apex two moderately long plumose sete
and one small spine, both margins of the joint ciliated.
Abdomen three-jointed, genital segment about as long as
broad and nearly equal to the combined lengths of the
next two segments and caudal stylets, second joint about
half the length of the first, third joint about two-thirds
the length of the second. Caudal stylets slightly longer
than the last abdominal segment, length about equal to
twice the breadth.

Habitat, 1 mile off Spanish Head, Isle of Man, in neritic
material dredged from a depth of 16 fathoms; a few
specimens only were obtained. A number of specimens
have since been found in material washed from Ophiuroids
(Ophioglypha and Ophiothriz) taken in the trawl-net off
Blackpool, and sent to us by Mr. Ascroft.

Remarks.—This species is readily distinguished from
the other members of the Ascomyzontide by the almost
oval outline of the cephalothorax and on dissection by
the structure of the mandible palp and maxille, the stout
sete on the larger lobe of the maxille appears to be a
well marked character. Dr. W. Giesbrecht of the
Zoological Station Naples, is preparing a monograph on -
this interesting family and an abstract which appeared in
the Ann. and Mag. of Natural History for August, 1895,

158 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

shows a number of changes in the nomenclature and
classification of the genera and species.

SECTION VY.
INVESTIGATIONS ON OYSTERS AND DISEASE.

(By Professor HERpMAN.)

.

F'Rom the earliest times more or less well grounded
suspicion has been cast from time to time upon shellfish—
chiefly oysters and mussels—as being the cause of
outbreaks of disease amongst consumers. These outbreaks
fall into two categories :—Ist Cases of sudden poisoning
due to the presence of putrefactive products, and 2nd
Diseases due to a specific micro-organisin, where there 1s
a period of incubation and where therefore a considerable
interval has elapsed between the infection and the actual
illness. In the latter case it is obviously much more
difficult to determine with certainty the source from
which the disease germ has entered the body; and
although many positive assertions have appeared of late
years attributing outbreaks of enteric or typhoid fever to
the consumption of oysters, still it must be pointed out
that the connection between the two has not yet been
scientifically proved, and is only at present more or less
of a possibility or, at most, probability.
Under these circumstances I suggested to my colleague
Professor R. Boyce that the subject was one well worthy
of our attention, and during the past year we have been
making a number of observations and experiments, both
in our Liverpool laboratories and at Port Erin, upon the
conditions under which oysters live healthily, and upon

a

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 159

the possibility, or even in some cases the probability, of
their being the carriers of disease germs. We gave a
preliminary account of our work at the meeting of the
British Association in Ipswich last September, and we
shall prepare a detailed Report upon the matter to be laid
before the next meeting of the British Association in
Liverpool in September, 1896, but in the meantime so
much public interest and apprehension has been raised
by several recent outbreaks of typhoid popularly attributed
to oysters, and the matter 1s so closely connected with the
shellfish industries of this district, that I consider it
advisable to give a summary here of the results of our

work up to the present time.

A. The objects we had in view in entering on the
investigation were as follows :—

1. To determine the conditions of hfe and health and
erowth of the oyster by keeping samples in sea waters of
different composition—e.g., it 1s a matter of discussion
amongst practical ostreiculturists as to what specific
eravity or salinity of water, and what amount of lime are
best for the due proportionate growth of both shell and
body.

2. To determine the effect of feeding oysters on various
substances—both natural food, such as Diatoms, and
artificial food, such as oatmeal. Here, again, there is a
want of agreement at present as to the benefit or other-
wise of feeding oysters in captivity.

3. ‘To determine the effect of adding various impurities
to the water in which the oysters are grown, and especially
the effect of sewage in various quantities. It is known
that oysters are sometimes grown or laid down for
fattening purposes in water which is more or less con-
taminated by sewage, but it is still an open question as
to the resulting effect upon the oyster.

160 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

4. To determine whether oysters not infected with a
pathogenic organism, but grown under insanitary con-
ditions, have a deleterious effect when used as food by
animals.

5. To determine the effect upon the oyster of infection
with typhoid, both naturally—i.e., by feeding with sewage
water containing typhoid infection, and artificially—.e.,
by feeding on a culture in broth of the typhoid organism. —

6. To determine the fate of the typhoid bacillus in the
oyster—whether it is confined to the alimentary canal,
and whether it increases in any special part or gives rise
to any diseased conditions; how long it remains in the
alimentary canal; whether it remains and grows in the
pallial cavity, on the surface of the mantle and branchial
folds; and whether it produces any altered condition of
these parts that can be recognised by the eye on opening
the oyster. |

7. To determine whether an oyster can free its alimen-
tary canal and pallial cavity from the typhoid organism
when placed in a stream of clean sea water; and, if so,
how long would be required, under average conditions,
to render infected oysters practically harmless.

B. The methods which we employed in attaining these
objects were as follows :-—

I. Observations upon oysters laid down in the sea,
at Port Erin—

(a) Sunk in 5 fathoms in the bay, in pure water.

(b) Deposited in shore pool, but in clean water.

(c) Laid down in three different spots in more or less
close proximity to the main drain pipe, opening into the
sea below low-water mark.

These observations were to ascertain differences - of
fattening, condition, mortality, and the acquisition of
deleterious propertiesas the result of sewage contamination.

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 161

II. Observations upon oysters subjected to various
abnormal conditions in the laboratory.*

(a) A series of oysters placed in sea water and allowed
to stagnate, in order to determine the effect of non-
aération. i

(6) Similar series in water kept periodically aérated.

(c) A series placed in sea water to which a quantity of
fresh (tap) water was added daily, to determine effect of
reduction of salinity.

(d) A series of oysters weighed approximately, and fed
upon the following substances, viz.:—(1) Oatmeal, (2)
Flour, (8) Sugar, (4) Broth, (5) Living Protophyta (Dia-
toms, Desmids, Algze), (6) Living Protozoa (Infusoria,
etc.), (7) Earth.

In this series of experiments the oysters were fed every
morning and the water aérated, but not changed (evapor-
ation was compensated for by the addition of a little tap
water as required). ‘The oysters were weighed from time
to time, and observations made upon the apparently
harmful or beneficial effects of the above methods of
treatment. |

(ce) A series of oysters placed in sea water to which was
added daily—

(1) Healthy fecal matter.

(2) Typhoid feecal matter.

(3) Pure cultivations of the typhoid bacillus.

The oysters were carefully examined to determine their
condition, with special reference to condition of branchia,
alimentary canal, adductor muscle, and viscera generally.
The contents of the rectum, as well as the water in the
pallial cavity, were subjected to bacteriological analysis

* The oysters were kept in basins in cool rooms of constant temperature,
shaded from the sun, both at the Port Erin Biological Station and also in
the Pathological and Zoological Laboratories at University College, Liverpool.

162 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

to determine the number of micro-organisms present, as
well as the identity of the typhoid or other pathogenic
organisms.
C. The following is a summary of the results obtained
so far :— .
We consider that these results are based upon tentative
experiments, and serve only to indicate further and more

definite lines of research. They must not be regarded as

conclusive. We feel strongly that all the experiments
must be repeated and extended in several directions.

Our experiments demonstrate :—

I. The beneficial effects of aération—

(a) By the addition of air only ;

(6) By change of water ;
pointing to the conclusion that the laying down of oysters
in localities where there is a gocd change of water, by
tidal current or otherwise, should be beneficial.

II. The diverse results obtained by feeding upon various
substances, amongst which the following may be noted.
The exceedingly harmful action of sugar, which caused
the oysters to decrease in weight and die; whilst the
other substances detailed above enabled them to maintain
their weight or increase. The oysters thrive best upon
the living Protophyta and Protozoa. Those fed upon
oatmeal and flour after a time sickened and eventually
died.

III. The deleterious effects of stagnation, owing to
the collection of excretory products, growth of micro-
organisms, and formation of scums upon the surface of
the water. |

IV. The toleration of sewage, etc. It was found that
oysters could, up to a certain point, render sewage-
contaminated water clear, and that they could live for a
prolonged period in water rendered completely opaque by

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 163

the addition of fecal matter; that the fecal matter
obtained from cases of typhoid was more inimical than
that obtained from healthy subjects; and that there was
considerable toleration to peptonised broth.

V. The infection of the oyster by the micro-organisms.
The results of the bacteriological examination of the
pallial cavity of the oyster, and of the contents of the
rectum, showed that in the cases of those laid down in the
open water of the bay the colonies present were especially
small in number, whilst in those laid down in proximity
to the drain pipe the number was enormous (e.g., 17,000
as against 10 in the former case). It was found that
more organisms were present in the pallial cavity than in
the rectum. In the case of the oysters grown in water
infected with the Bacillus typhosus, it was found that
there was no apparent increase of the organisms, but that
they could still be identified in cultures taken from the
water of the pallial cavity and rectum fourteen days after
infection.

It is found that the typhoid bacillus will not flourish in
clean sea water, and our experiments seem to show so
far that it decreases in numbers in its passage along the
alimentary canal of the oyster. It would seem possible,
therefore, that by methods similar to those employed in
the ‘‘ Bassins de dégorgement”’ of the French ostreicul-
turist, where the oysters are carefully subjected to a
natural process of cleaning, oysters previously contaminated
with sewage could be freed of pathogenic organisms or
their products without spoiling the oyster for the market.

It need scarcely be pointed out that if it becomes
possible thus to cleanse infected or suspected oysters by
a simple mode of treatment which will render them
innocuous, a great boon will have been conferred upon
both the oyster trade and the oyster-consuming public,

164 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The discovery of a green tinge of more or less intensity
which made its appearance on the mantle and other parts
of the body of some of the oysters in our experiments
started us on a series of investigations into the minute
structure of the green parts, and the nature and causes of
the greenness in general in oysters. We soon found that
the greenness of our experimental oysters,* which is very
different in appearance from the greenness of the culti-
vated French oyster—the ‘‘huitre de Marennes’’—was
present also in some American oysters freshly imported,
and was lable to make its appearance in oysters laid
down in certain parts of our own coast. We founda that
this pale green inflammation, as it may be called, was
known to the local oyster importers and oyster merchants,
by whom the suggestion was made that the colour was
due to copper poisoning in the oyster.

This led us to a chemical examination of the matter
which showed (as had been shown in the case of other
green oysters before) that copper had nothing to do with
the disease. There was very little copper present in the
ereen parts—practically no more than in the corresponding
parts of colourless (yellow) oysters. Moreover we have
kept oysters in old copper vessels and in vessels of sea
water containing different amounts of sulphate of copper
in solution (0°02 and 0°2 % of the copper, in 10 litres of
water), and other salts, and in none of these cases did the
animal acquire any green colour except what was deposited
on the surface of the shell and other exposed parts until
the death of the tissues when a certain amount of post-
mortem green staining made its appearance.

Dr. Charles Kohn has kindly analysed the gills of some
green (French) and some ordinary colourless oysters, and

* Our thanks are due to Charles Petrie, Esq,, C.C., and to George T. G.
Musson, Esq., for the kind help they have given us in procuring .varions
kinds of oysters for investigation and experiment,

‘
j

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 165

finds that in both of them there are traces of copper, and
of iron, but that the amount of both metals is actually
greater in the colourless than in the green gills.

Cases of sudden poisoning following upon the con-
sumption of oysters have frequently been ascribed to the
oysters having a green colour which was supposed, with
httle or no reason, to be due to impregnation with a
copper salt. The river Roach, in Hssex, has long been
known to produce in winter green oysters which, on
account of their colour, are not sold in England but are
sent to the French and other continental markets. It
has been shown several times that copper has nothing to
do with the greening of these oysters. However, that
conclusion is constantly doubted, and such cases as the
following are quoted:—In 1713 a certain Ambassador
gave a great supper at the Hague, and, we are told, as a
luxury procured green oysters from England. The guests
who eat them are said to have been seized with severe
colics and to have been cured with great difficulty. It is
also said, however, that the merchant had palmed upon
the Ambassador some common oysters tinted with copper
instead of the true greens. Another historic case is that
of the trial which took place at Rochefort in 1862 of a
merchant who had sold green oysters imported from
England and which were said to contain copper.

Other cases are on record of green oysters which
are supposed to have taken up copper from old mines
under the sea, as at Falmouth, or from the copper bottoms
of ships, and so have become poisonous. Mr. G. C.
Bourne of Oxford who has investigated the Falmouth
oysters tells me that their greenness is in his opinion due
to a green Desmid upon which the oysters feed in
quantity. It is said that these oysters lose their colour
on being transplanted to the mouth of the Thames.

166 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

It has been conclusively shown by various investigators,
since Dumas in 1841 and Berthelot in 1855, that the green
colour is not due to Chlorophyll and that although every
‘oyster contains a very small amount of copper in its blood
there is no reason to believe this becomes increased to a
poisonous extent in any oyster, and that the green colour
of the French cultivated oysters (‘‘ huitres de Marennes ”’)
is not due to copper. —

Gaillon in 1820 came to the conclusion that the green
colour is due to the microscopic food which the oyster
gets from the water of the “claire” or oyster park. He
called the organism in question Vibrio ostrearius; it 1s
now known to be a Diatom—Navicula fusiformis, var.
ostrearta, Grunow. Since then other French investigators,
and notably Valenciennes in 1841, have corroborated
Gaillon’s conclusion and have shown that in addition to
the branchie, the inner surfaces of the labial palps, the
alimentary canal beyond the stomach, and to some extent
the liver, become coloured green.

It has been proved experimentally by Puysegur,*
Bornet, Decaisne and others that white oysters can be
ereened rapidly—in 26 hours—by keeping them in clean
soup plates and feeding them with water containing the
Navicula. These interesting experiments were carried out
at Le Croisic in Brittany, and were afterwards repeated
in Paris; and the result seems entirely opposed to the
old suggestion that iron salts in the soil at the bottom of
the ‘‘claire’’ are the cause of the greening, which was
alluded to twenty years ago by Bouchon-Brandely and
has quite recently been revived by Carazzi at Spezia.

Ryder,+ in America, was also in 1880 investigating the
greening of oysters, with much the same results as those

of Puységur. He went a step further, however, and
* Revue Maritime et Coloniale, 1880.
+U. S. Fish Comm. Report for 1882 (published 1884).

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 167

showed that the colouring matter was taken up by the
amoeboid blood cells, and that these wandering cells
containing the pigment were to be found in the heart, in
some of the blood-vessels and in aggregations in ‘‘ cysts”’
under the surface epithelium of the body. He describes
the colour (in the ventricle) as a ‘“‘ delicate pea-green,”’
and states that it is not chlorophyll nor diatomine: he
suggests that it may be phycocyanine or some allied
substance.

In 1886, Ray Lankester* gave a useful summary of some
of the earlier papers, and discussed the main questions
concerned. Moreover he investigated the gills of the
green oyster histologically, and described cells laden with
green granules which occur in the epithelium of the gills
and labial palps. He showed that such cells are also
present in the common oyster, where, however, they are
not green, and that these cells may be found also wandering
over the surface of the gills. He considered them as
“secretion ” cells, but they are clearly the same structures
which Ryder a few years before had found in the blood.
Lankester found the Navicula in the intestine of the
_ green oyster, and re-asserted that there was no copper
and no iron in the refractory blue pigment—which he
described under the name ‘‘ marennin.”

Quite recently, Chatin, de Bruyne, and others have
re-investigated the structure of the oyster’s gill and the
process of greening in more detail, with the general result
that the large cells (macroblasts) containing the green
granules are now regarded as ‘“‘ phagocytes”? conveying
some substance to the surface of the body. One author,
however, Carazzi, considers that the macroblasts are
surface cells, which are taking up substances from without
for purposes of nutrition, and he attributes the green

* Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci., Vol. XXVI., p. 71.

168 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

colour to sesquioxide of iron in the mud of the “‘ claire.”
This revival of an old view I have alluded to above.

At present then there are several distinct views as to
the exact cause and. the meaning of the greenness of the
French cultivated oyster which is fattened, flavoured and
ereened in the oyster parks or ‘“‘claires”’ of La T'remblade,
Marennes, Sable d’Olonne, Le Croisic and other places
on the west coast of France. One view is that it is due
to the microscopic food of the oyster, another that it is
caused by the nature of the bottom of the ‘‘claire.” One
view is that it is a process of excretion or the removal of
certain coloured matters from the body, another that it is
a process of absorption of nutriment. The whole subject
is at present under investigation both by ourselves and
by others, and we hope to report upon our conclusions
more fully in a few months. It cannot, however, be
questioned that the normal green oyster of the French
markets is in a thoroughly healthy condition and that its
ereen colour is not due to copper nor to any other
poisonous substance. :

There are, however, other green oysters—or rather
there is a greenness which may appear in any oyster
under certain conditions—which have nothing to do with
cultivation in “claires’’ and where the colour is not due
to feeding upon diatoms. This is the pale greenness
mentioned above which we have met with in some
American oysters. We find that it is an inflammatory
condition or ‘‘ leucocytosis’’ in which enormous numbers
of wandering leucocytes filled with large green granules
come out on the surface of the body and especially on the
mantle. For further details of this green condition of
the oyster, with figures, I must refer to our full report to
the British Association to be published later. We have
tried growing oysters under various unusual conditions,

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY, 169

including the addition to the sea water of fluid from
alkali works, such as may enter our estuaries, in the hope
of getting some clue to the cause of the green inflam-
mation, but have so far failed to reproduce exactly in the
laboratory the changes which seem to take place when
the oyster is left in its natural (?) surroundings.

Our present opinion, however, is that oysters exhibiting
this pale green leucocytosis are In an unhealthy state,
and we may add that we find the liver in these specimens
is histologically in an abnormal, shrunken and degenerate
condition. Whether actually “unfit for food” or not,
they are at any rate in very “poor’”’ condition, and have
lost the aroma and flavour of the normal healthy oyster.

It is clear that, so far as our present knowledge goes,
oysters only share along with many other food matters—
such as tinned foods, meat pies, fish under certain
conditions, and diseased or infected meat—the responsi-
bility of occasionally being capable of conveying poison,
parasites, or disease germs into the human body; and
that is, taken by itself, no sufficient reason why an
important and highly esteemed food matter should be
avoided. What is evidently necessary is that the precise
conditions under which the oyster may become dangerous
as human food should be investigated, and that when these
are determined precautions should be taken to insure that
the unhealthly conditions can never arise 1n our oyster beds.

It is all important that perfectly healthy grounds should
be chosen for fattening the oysters upon. The water in
which they are kept should be above suspicion. Oysters
have to be fattened in water that is to some extent
estuarine, and unfortunately estuaries are the places
where a certain amount of sewage must find its way into
the sea. When sewage is present in water the number
of micro-organisms, pathogenic and otherwise, becomes

170 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

very largely increased. The water of the Seine above
Paris contains 800 organisms to the cubic centimetre,
while below Paris the number has increased to 200,000
per cubic centimetre. We have also shown from our
experiments at Port Erin that in oysters purposely placed
near the outlet of the drain the number of organisms
increased enormously. All estuaries, however, are not
polluted, and the deleterious effects of sewage do not
extend far, consequently there should be no great difficulty
in finding perfectly suitable localities for oyster culture if
a careful study is made of the matter. Tides and other
currents, depth, specific gravity and temperature of the
water all affect the distribution of the sewage in an
estuary, and their influence should be carefully enquired
into in connection with the site of any proposed shellfish
cultivation.

Some of our experiments have shown that the oyster
can purify polluted water in a most remarkable degree,
but that property may have a bad as well as a good result.
The good side of the matter is that the oyster in obtaining
its nutriment from the water is able to convert useless
and deleterious products of decomposition into excellent
human food. The bad side of the matter is that if there
happen to be any disease germs in the water the oyster
may possibly strain out and store them up in its own
body. And it even seems probable that other microbes
associated with disease germs may play some part in
causing or modifying disease. |

It is re-assuring, however, to find as we do from our
own investigations as well as from the consideration of
the work of others that the typhoid organism (Bacillus
typhosus) dies off very rapidly in ordinary sea water as
one passes either in distance or time from the source of

supply.

—< =

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. Wal

Professor Boyce has supplied me with the following
facts in regard to the presence and behaviour of the
typhoid Bacillus in sea water.

We showed at the British Association Meeting in 1895
that, as was to be expected, the number of micro-organisms
in oysters grown in the vicinity of sewage was enormously
increased. ‘The organisms present were non-pathogenic
for man, and it became necessary therefore for us to
investigate the growth of the typhoid bacillus in sea water.
The first point of importance is the relative proportion of
typhoid sewage to ordinary sewage. The proportion of
typhoid fecal matter which may find its way into the
sewers has been investigated by Laws and Andrewes, and
in one instance in London they gave the proportion as
zs0,000, Pointing out, however, that in the case of the
fever hospitals every endeavour was made to disinfect the
typhoid materials. The same authors were only able to
demonstrate the presence of the Bacillus typhosus in the
drains in the immediate vicinity of the Typhoid Hospital.
Further, from their experiments there seems every reason
‘to suppose that sewage is an unfavourable medium for the
propagation of the typhoid Bacillus, and that although
when incubated and grown in sterile sewage the organism
‘may show a slight multiplication in the first 24 hours, it
soon tends to become extinct.

Since 1886 a very large number of investigators have
shown that drinking and river water may become infected
with typhoid sewage, and here again numbers of experi-
ments have been made to ascertain whether the Bacillus
typhosus propagates in fresh water. Iraus showed that a

very rapid decline of the Bacillus and a very rapid increase
of the ordinary water bacteria took place when the water
was incubated. The most recent observations are those by
Frankland and Ward, and they showed that the Bacillus

172 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

disappeared at the end of 34 days in unsterilised Thames
water and that there was no multiplication in potable
water. Observations thus tend to show that neither
sewage nor fresh water are favourable media and that the
former is the least favourable. ‘
A further very important point is the action of oat
water upon the typhoid bacillus. In 1889 Giaxa made
observations upon the vitality of the B. typhosus in
sterilised and unsterilised sea water and showed that it
was present in the latter up to the 9th day, and in the
former to the 25th. Frankland and Ward showed that a
3% salt solution most prejudicially influences the growth
of the Bacillus, the latter disappearing by the 18th day.
Our own experiments have been made so far with
sterilised sea water incubated at 35°C., and in one case
at 8°—10°C. A culture of the B. typhosus on agar was
emulsified with sterilised water and a definite quantity of
this in each instance was added to the sterilised sea water.
Experiment I. No. of bacilli at time of mixing 29,250.

After. 2) hours... ..2 505 20,475.

1, 4B ay \ + 2eenenat sno cee

ia: pthlzy gece ie eee 9,360

wc, Wh LY is chet ese see ae 5,850

Wie hl Mem ara ee ie oo -.- 260

i, LOS ee ee Pe Ee ii,

Experiment If. . At time of mixing ........9eee 1,300.
Atter 21. howe «.:....¢: 05 eee 110s:

59 Doe a oe a 780

st rfl emeMmrre Men 650

sg * DOT. eat g enna er 325.

SDH? ie \ oat ee

w5t ORO pant ie 0.

Experiment III. At time of mixing............... 22,780.

After -5 hoars ......i.33. 1L7..ba0)

—
ea

- SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 173

PREREE, oy MOUES <2. css. 0s soe cne cas ae 11,700

-¢ ont Syne dtgas eae ie 3,250
oe ond soa gas gs 2 3,250

oa (OTT ag ie age a SS ee an 455

ae” seh yee cael “Eager ane 325.
Experiment IV. At time of mixing ............... 130.
are edlii Stediongedd i] CGC 1 eS aaa a ae
RS plea sea ren aia eens 31.

oy SOP Tg 2S. aha Speen ea eel Oi ie 38.

oj a MRA ial adapta: Neer iea as negative.

wc tt Pagar Relea CHA Re Rar Mead I,

ei eee ee : aeieetlng 0.

Meperment V. At time of mixing ............... 31,200.
Peete lak UNS oY osterscie<sisiccc esses 9,360.

oo (ee a oe eee ee 325,

Maperment Vi. At time of mixing ............... 325,
J 2 mall gO) 2.

Experiment VII. At time of mixing ............ 32,500.
_ After 504 hours (water kept at 8°C. to 10°C.). vies
Experiment VIII. At time of mixing ............ 325.
pests: Eeien DU MOUS gett. Ys. se kad, nO,

These results are fairly uniform. When a large number
of Bacilli are added to the water their presence may
be demonstrated longer than in cases where smaller
quantities are used. Fourteen days would appear to be
the average duration in sea water incubated at 35°C., whilst
when kept-in the cold their presence was demonstrated
on the twenty-first day. There appears to be no initial
or subsequent multiplication of the Bacilli. Between 40
and 70 hours after infection there ts less decrease than at
other periods; but there is no evidence of increase in
numbers of the Bacilli when grown in sea waters either
when incubated or at ordinary temperatures.

- On the whole the investigations which are summarized

174 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

above—and which it must be remembered are not yet
finished—give results of a re-assuring nature, and demand
from the public at the very least a suspension of
judgment, while they also indicate the advantage of
adopting some simple sanitary measures which, if properly
carried into effect, would go far to remove suspicion from
the oyster in our markets. These measures are, 1° a
strict examination of all grounds upon which oysters are
grown or bedded so as to ensure their freedom from
sewage, and 2°, if practicable, the use of ‘‘ dégorgeoirs”’
or disgorging tanks in which the oysters should be placed
for a short time before they are sent to the consumer.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puate I.

Stenhelia herdmant, n. sp. (A. Scott).

Fig. 1. Female seen from the side, X 27. 2. Antennule,
x 68. 38. Antenna, x 85. 4. Mandible, x 85.
5. Maxilla, x 85. 6. Anterior foot-jaw, X 127.
7. Posterior foot-jaw, x 90. 8. Foot of first
pair of swimming feet, X 85. 9. Foot of fourth
pair, X 85. 10. Foot of fifth pair, x 127. 11.
Abdomen and caudal stylets, x 170.

Stenhelia similis, n. sp.

Fig. 12. Female seen from the side, X 40. 138. Anten-
nule, X 127. 14. Antennule of male, X 127.
15. Antenna, xX 125: 16. Mandible, X 253:
17. Maxilla, x 253. 18. Posterior foot-jaw, X
953.. 19. Rostrum, x 253.20. Foot, Of ames
pair of swimming feet, x 127. 21, Foot of

re. , "Va a”
é ; a

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 175

fourth pair, X 127. 22. Foot of second pair,
male, X 127. 23. Foot of fifth pair, x 125.
24. Foot of fifth pair, male, X 125. 25. Abdo-
men and caudal stylets, x 53.

PratEe II.

: Ametra gracile, n. sp.
_ Fig. 1. Female seen from the side, x 64. 2. Antennule,

Peio2. 3. Antennule, male, « 152. — 4.: An-
feuma, <X 253. 5. Mandible, x 380. 6. Pos:
terior foot-jaw, X 380. 7. Foot of first pair
of swimming feet, X 170. 8. Foot of fourth
pair, X 170. 9. Foot of fifth pair, x 380: 10.
Foot of fifth pair, male, x 880. 11. Abdomen
and caudal stylets, x 80.

Canthocamptus palustris, Brady.

Fig. 12. Female seen from the side, X 50. 138. Anten-
nule, X 200. 14. Antennule, male, x 152.
ie antenna, <X 253. 16. Mandible, x 300.
17. Posterior foot-jaw, xX 3880. 18. Foot of
first pair of swimming feet, X 170. 19. Foot of
fourth pair, X 170. 20. Foot of fifth pair,
eas, Al Foot of fiith pair, male, x 252.
22. Appendage to the first abdominal segment,
male, X 253. 23. Abdomen and caudal stylets,
x 80.

Tetragoniceps trispinosus, n. sp.

Fig. 24. Posterior foot-jaw, xX 300. 25. Foot of fifth

pair, X 380.

Prape IIT.

Tetragoniceps trispinosus, n. sp.
{ _Fig. 1. Female seen from above, X 80. 2. Antennule,
| x 170, 38. Antenna, xX 2538, 4. Foot of first

176 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

pair of swimming feet, x 253. 5. Foot of
fourth pair, X 253. 6. Abdomen and caudal
stylets, x 258.
Pseudolaophonte aculeata, n. gen. and n. sp.

Fig. 7. Female seen from above, X 106. 8. Antennule,
x 170. 9. Antennule, male, x 170.) 10mm
tenna, X 125. 11. Mandible, x 253. 12.
Maxilla, x 253. 18. Anterior foot-jaw, x 253.
14. Posterior foot-jaw, xX 253. 15. Foot of
first pair of swimming feet, X 253. 16. Foot
of second pair, X 253. 17. Foot of third pair,
xX 2538. 18. Foot of fourth pair, x 253. 19.

_ Foot of fifth pair, x 170. 20: Foot of third
pair, male, X 258. 21. Foot of fourth be
male, X 253. 22. Foot of fifth pair, male,
380. 23. Abdomen and caudal stylets, x ae
Laophontodes bicornis, n. sp. —
Fig, 24. Mandible, x 500. 25. Anterior foot-jaw, x 500.

Prats TV.

Laophontodes bicornis, n. sp.

Fig. 1. Female seen from above, X 120. 2. Antennule,
< 253. 3. Antenna, x 253. 4. Posterior toers
jaw, X 880. 5. Foot of first pair of swimming
feet, X 253. 6. Foot of fourth pair, X Zoe:
7. Foot of fifth pair, x 253.

Normanella attenuata, n. sp.

Fig. 8. Female seen from the side, X 50. 9. Antennule,
x 127. 10. Antennule, Male, x “127m
Antenna, X 150. 12. Mandible, X 253. 18.
Maxilla, x 253. 14. Posterior foot-jaw, X 253.
15. Foot of first pair of swimming feet, X 150.

iiee 16. Foot of second pair, X 150. 17. Foot of

>. fourth pair, X 150, 18, Foot of fifth pair, x

SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. iy,

300. 19. Foot of fifth pair, male, xX 300. 20.
Abdomen and caudal stylets, x 90.
Idya elongata, n. sp.

Fig. 21. Posterior foot-jaw, xX 380. 22. Foot of fifth
pair, female, X 115. 28. Foot of fifth pair,
male, X 115. 24. Appendage to the first ab-

- dominal segment, x 115.

PLATE V.
Idya elongata, n. sp.

Fig. 1. Female seen from above, x 64. 2. Antennule,
* 253. 3. Antennule, male, xX 253. 4. Foot
first pair of swimming feet, X 190. 5. Foot
fourth pair, x 190.

Collocheres elegans, n. sp.

Fig. 6. Female seen from above, X 52. 7. Antennule,
x 133. 8. Antenna, xX 170. 9. Mandible, x
953. 10. Maxilla, x 170. 11. Anterior foot-
jaw, X 170. 12. Posterior foot-jaw, x 170.
13. Foot of first pair of swimming feet, x 125.
14. Foot of fourth pair, X 125. 15. Foot of
fifth pair, x 190.

Ascomyzon thompson, n. sp.

Fig. 16. Female seen from above, X 50. 17. Antennule,
= 1la0. 18. Antenna, x 190.. 19: Mandible;
<x 190. 20. Maxilla, x 125. 21. Anterior
foot-jaw, X 127. 22. Posterior foot-jaw, x 127.
23. Foot of first pair of swimming feet, X 127.
24. Foot of fourth pair, X 127. 25. Foot of
fifth pair, xX 200. 26. Abdomen and caudal
stylets, X 85.

178

NOTES on the DISTRIBUTION of AMPHIPODA—

The proportion of species to genera in small and large
areas; also of species at various depths.

By AuFRED O. WatKeER, F.L.S.
[Read March 18th, 1896.]

THE remarks of Prof. Herdman in his Presidential
Address to Section D (Zoology) at the meeting of the
British Association last September (1) as to the relative
proportion of genera and species in large and small areas,
and (2) on Dr. Murray’s theory that the number of
species of marine animals is greater, per haul, at and
near the 100 fath. line than in depths less than 50 fath.,
have led me to make some investigations into the
distribution of the Amphipodous Crustacea in our district
as compared with Norway. :

I have chosen the Amphipoda in preference to any
other order of Crustacea because those of Norway have
recently been described by Prof. G. O. Sars in the first
part of his magnificent work on the Crustacea of Norway,
and also because more than half of the species of
Malacostraca in our district belong to it.

The proportions of genera to species have already been
given by Dr. Herdman in the Ninth Report of the
L.M.B.C. (1896), and I will only repeat the summary :

Rhos Bay, 1 to 10 fath., species are to genera as
115:100.

L.M.B.C. District, shore to 70 fath., species are to
genera as 159:100. ,

Norway, shore to 1215 fath., species are to genera as
232: 100.

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF AMPHIPODA. 179

Now as to the second question, vzz., the proportion of
species at different depths, I find on taking out all the
species of Sars of which the depth at which they occur
is given (but omitting pelagic and parasitic species) the
results shown in the annexed summary.

And, as it 1s impossible for species to be taken at a
greater depth than the dredge has gone, while it is not
only possible, but very probable, that the dredge will
catch some specimens between the bottom and the
surface while being hauled up, it is more likely that
species will be recorded at too great a depth than the
reverse.

Where a range of depth is given I have taken the
mean, e.g., 20 to 100 fath. is reckoned as 60 fath.

The following L.M.B.C. species have not yet been
found in Norwegian waters, those marked “‘M.’ being
Mediterranean species :

Lysianaxz longicormis (Lucas). M.

Socarnes erythrophthalmus, Robertson.

Nannonyz spirmmanus, Walker.

Phoxocephalus fultont, Scott. M.

Amphilochus melanops, Walker.

Cyproidea brevirostris, Scott.

Syrrhoe fimbriatus, Stebbing and Robertson.

Guernea coalita (Norman).

Mera bater, Norman.

Leptochetrus pilosus, Zaddach. M.

Photis pollex, Walker.

Podocerus ocius, Bate. M.

P. cumbrensis, Stebbing and Robertson.

Unciola crenatipalmata (Bate).

Colomastiz pusilla, Grube. M.

The following is a summary of the depths at which the

180 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Amphipoda Gammarida and Caprellida occur according

to Sars and in the L.M.B.C. District :—
Number of Sars’ species under 20 fath. (A)

do. 20— 50 ,, (B)
do. 50—100° re)
do. over 100 ,, (D)

Number of Sars’ species in L.M.B.C. Dist. (A)
+f species notin Sarsin do.

) Sars’ species, &c. Je (B)
ie species not in Sars

o Sars’ species, &c. RA (C)
ie species not in Sars

r, Sars’ species, &c. ae (D)

106.
102.
74.
of”.

23.

9.
1,

It will be seen from the above, at least as regards the

Amphipoda,

1. That the proportion of species to genera increases

with the area, and

2. That a far greater number of species are found at
depths less than 100 fath. than at that or a greater
depth, 208 species being recorded below 50 fath.
against 74 between 50 and 100 fath. and 57 above

100 fath.

* Podocerus odontonyx (=P. herdmani), a doubtful species taken in 21

fath. and 32 fath. off Port Erin.

181

FERNS and FLOWERING PLANTS: a CHAPTER
in EVOLUTION.
AN ADDRESS BY
ie score, MA PhDs FE RAS.,

HONORARY KEEPER OF THE JODRELL LABORATORY, ROYAL GARDENS, KEW.

[Read May 8th, 1896.]
ABSTRACT.

THE object of the lecture was to show how much light
has been thrown on the evolution of certain groups of
Flowering Plants, by modern work on fossil botany.

The order Cycadex, now represented only by 9 genera
with about 70 species appeared to be the remnant of what
was once a great class of plants, with wide-spreading
affinities.

The first part of the lecture was devoted to plants from
the Paleozoic rocks, which combine the characters of Ferns
with those of Cycads. Lyginodendron, a Coal-measure
fossil the structure of which was discovered by the late
Prof: Williamson, was shown to have a stem which was
essentially that of a Cycad, while the leaves, both in
form and structure, were entirely Fern-like, belonging
to Brongniart’s genus Sphenopteris. The adventitious
roots, when young resembled those of Marattiacex, but
subsequently grew in thickness like the roots of modern
Gymnosperms. Heteranguum was also described, and
proved to stand nearer to the Ferns (resembling those of
simple structure, such as Gleichenia), as might be
expected from its greater geological age, one species
appearing in the Burnt island beds, at the base of the
Carboniferous formation.

182 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Other genera, especially Protopitys and Medullosa,
were briefly referred to, as also showing a combination of
Fern-like with Cycadean characters, and indicating that
there were probably several distinct lines of descent,
starting from various groups of the Ferns, and leading in
the direction of Cycad-like plants. The evidence, though
at present almost limited to vegetative characters, was
regarded as sufficient to establish the existence of an
extensive intermediate group in the borderland between
Ferns and Cycadex, taking the latter term in a wide
sense. The lecturer, however, pointed out that these
intermediate forms must not be regarded as belonging to
the direct line of descent of our living Cycads; the
genealogical tree of the Vegetable Kingdom (like that of
animals) was far more complex than we easily realized,
and the chances were much against our lighting on
‘missing links,”’ z.e., the direct ancestors of living plants.

It now seemed certain that a number of the well-
known Fern-like fronds of the Coal-measures, including
species of the so-called genera Sphenopteris, Alethopteris,
and Neuropteris, really belonged to these transitional
forms, though many others were known to be true Ferns.

Passing on to the evidence from the Secondary rocks,
the lecturer dwelt on the abundance and beauty of the
Cycadean remains representing both leaves and stems
from the Oolite, Wealden and Lower Greensand. He
pointed out, however, that only in the rarest cases was
there any evidence for the fructification having been of a
truly Cycadean type. The best known specimens of
reproductive organs in these plants were of quite peculiar
structure, totally unlike the cones of any existing Cycads.
The classical genus Bennettites, which might be called the
Archaeopteryx of the Vegetable Kingdom, was described
at length. These remarkable plants, now so well known

FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. oy) eg

from the researches of Carruthers, Solms-Laubach and
others, strongly resembled Cycadee in habit and in their
vegetative anatomy; their fructifications, however, were
of a highly complex character, consisting of a receptacle
bearing numerous seeds on long pedicels, with intermediate
scales, the whole being enclosed in a kind of pericarp,
and surrounded by bracts. The seeds were perfectly
preserved, and were found to be exalbuminous (unlike
_ those of any Gymnosperm) and to contain a large Dicoty-
ledonous embryo. The fructification thus approached
that of an Angiosperm, but at the same time Bennettites
and its allies retained Fern-like characters in their
ramenta, or scale-hairs, which were identical with those
so common in Ferns, and quite different from anything in
existing Cycadee. The facts indicated that the Bennet-
titeee (which were probably an extensive family) though
possessing clear Cycadean affinities, were not on the
same line of descent with recent Cycads, but rather
indicated a ‘‘short cut” from Filicinee towards Angio-
sperms. Here again a warning was necessary against the
assumption of direct ancestry. While Bennettites certainly
showed an approach to Angiospermous organization, it
was probably not directly related to any of the existing
groups of Angiosperms.

It appeared then that the existing Cycadex represented
a surviving offshoot of what was once an important
stock, connecting the Filicinee with various groups of
Flowering Plants. Only a small part of the question,
however, could be dealt with in the time available.

The lecture was illustrated by between 40 and 50
lantern-slides, representing existing Cycadew, and the
structure of the various fossil plants described. Some
diagrams, the work of the late distinguished Palo-
botanist, Prof. W. C. Williamson of the Owens College,

184 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

were also exhibited, as well as a number of specimens
from the botanical museum of the University College,
Liverpool.

Before the lecture a demonstration of microscopic
slides, showing the structure of the fossil plants in
question, was held in the botanical laboratory.

185

ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS on the VITALITY
and GERMINATION of SEEDS.

By A. J. Ewart, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Leipzig).

1851 EXHIBITION SCHOLAR. LATE DEMONSTRATOR OF BOTANY IN

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL.
In the present paper it is proposed to give an account of
additional experiments which have been performed,
illustrating and corroborating several of the points dis-
cussed in a previous paper.* The results therein arrived
at, in three directions merited further investigation.
These are; the effects of prolonged immersal in water; the
resistance to dessication, and the oxytropic irritability of
young radicles.

The results of immersal in water in which the develop-
ment of Bacteria, Infusoria, etc., is allowed to continue
unchecked (temperature 15—20°C.) are shown in Table
A., the numbers given being comparison percentages with
normal seeds.

TABLE A,
y.. | 10 days. | 14 days. | 3 weeks. | 4 weeks.
Peas - -| 66 p.c. germinated. | 9 p.c. None. aes
Haricots - | 90 p.c. id None. cae
Barley 64 p.c of 18 p.c 6 p.e None
Hemp - -| 85 p.c. sf 60 p.c. | 22p.c. | 19 pe. Pee

*Trans. L’pool Biol, Soc., Vol. VIII., 1894,

186 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Under conditions as above the seeds may commence to
germinate and it is also impossible to be certain whether
or not the apparent injurious influence of prolonged
soaking in water is not merely due to the development of
Bacteria and the putrefactive changes thereby induced.
To eliminate these factors the following precautions were
taken.

The dry seeds are well washed with a watery solution
of mercuric chloride and then with boiled sterilized water,
in a tube of which they are finally left. The tube is
completely filled with water and the mouth is hermetically
' sealed with a plug of cotton wool soaked in melted
paraffin or wax. With Peas, Haricots and Barley, owing
to the absence of all oxygen from the surrounding water
no germination whatever takes place, but with Hemp,
probably owing to the fact that the seeds themselves may
contain a little air, 7.e., oxygen, in a good many cases the
seed coat splits, and the radicle protrudes and may
elongate a millimetre or two.

The mode of sterilization adopted 1s not always success-
ful but is the only one practicable without damaging the
seeds and with sufficient care and accuracy of manipulation
gives quite good results. During the experiments the
seeds are exposed to a temperature varying from
4—10°C. The results obtained are shown in Table B.

TABLE B.

Seeds in sterilized oxygenless water for: -

i week. 2 weeks. 3 weeks. | 4 weeks. | 14 weeks.

Peas - pas | Ty 7. p.€. 2 spre; 3 p.c. None.
wi Sakae

Haricots -; 12 p.c. ki Few seeds cotyledons | None.
living. None ger-

minate.

ee EEE REEL LR a ae SO

VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 187

1 week. 2 weeks. 6 weeks. | 10 weeks.| 14 weeks,
Barley -| 88 p.c. 58 p.c. 36 p.c. | 26 p.c. | 18 p.c.

Hemp- -| 99 p.c. 93 p.c. 48 pser)) ELE p.e: 9 p-c:

Of the Haricots planted after two weeks immersal none
germinate but in a few seeds the cotyledons are living
and may remain living for a week or two. It appears
that a comparatively short immersion in water is fatal to
seeds containing much proteid food material, whilst
starchy and oily seeds, such as Barley and Hemp, may
show marked resistant powers. The apparently lower
resistant power of the Hemp, as compared with the
Barley, is really due to the fact that a large number of
the seeds undergo incipient germination. Thus, of the
Hemp seeds taken after ten weeks immersal in sterilized
water, in 60 p.c. the seed coat is split and the tip of the
radicle just protruding. Of these 8 p.c. germinate. In
40 p.c. the seed coats are quite entire and 7 p.c. germinate.
In a normal sample of these Hemp seeds only 75 p.c.,
however, germinate and all the seeds which were dead
to commence with are included amongst those which
show no signs of germination. Hence, of the living
seeds with entire integuments, the power of germination
is retained by 20 p.c. after ten weeks immersal but of
those which undergo incipient germination only by 8 p.c.

It follows from the above experiments that in certain
cases seeds can, in the absence of oxygen, though soaked
with water, remain in a dormant condition and retain their
vitality for long periods of time. If germination has
begun the seeds are very much less resistant, young
seedlings being readily asphyxiated by the absence of
oxygen.

Further experiments were also performed upon the
resistance of seeds to dessication, Table C. gives the

188 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

results of a series of such experiments the seeds being
dried over sulphuric acid at from 37°C.—88°C. for the
times given. The numbers given are comparison per-
centages with seeds kept for similar lengths of time in
paper bags at a room temperature from 16°C.—20°C.

TABLE C.

aaa Brassica! Helianthus
pepo. napus. annuus.

Barley.|Hemp.| Peas. |Haricots.

..—e_— — | qe“ uw“m!), “i qo |

3 weeks.| 73p.c. | 48 p.c. 83 p.c. 98 p.c. None. |15p.c.| None.

-—————qK“ | — ———_ |sEK cee’ | ————————————————— | ———————_ | S| |

None.

6 weeks.| 50 p.c. | 43 p.c. De. MOM se None. | None.

Seeds of Brassica napus after nine weeks dessication
gave as their comparison percentage 21 p.c. but of these
many seedlings are weaklings and soon die. Of the seeds
of Helianthus which germinated after six weeks drying,
in 9 p.c. the radicle was killed, the ‘ seedlings” consisting
of hypocotyledonary axis, cotyledons and plumule, all
soon dying. Similarly in 5 p.c. of the pea embryoes
formed after three weeks drying no radicle or roots
develop, the plumule and cotyledons soon dying and
decaying, but in some cases not till the plumule has
attained a length of several centimetres; in 6 p.c. the
radicle does not develop but is replaced by secondary
roots; the remaining 4 p.c. are normal seedlings but in a
few cases the stems are irregularly twisted and grow horiz-
ontally instead of upright. In this last case apparently
one result of dessication has been to induce irregularities
of growth in the plumule, so pronounced in character,
as to inhibit or mask its ageotropic and heliotropic
irritabilities. "With shorter periods of dessication Haricots
and Hemp gave the following results,

VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 189

“‘TasuE D.
|
1 week. 10 days. 2 weeks, | 3 weeks.
Haricots - - 39 p.c. 15 p.c. 3 p.c. None.
Hemp - - - 52 p.c. | 35 p.c. 1 Pec. None.

In both cases several of the young seedlings are weak-
lings and soon die, so that the percentage of seeds capable
of forming normal healthy adult plants is still less than
that of those which remain capable of germination.
Prolonged dessication at a. moderately raised temperature
therefore exercises a marked injurious influence upon all
seeds, one sign of which is the increase, which is frequently
very pronounced, in the time taken in germinating by those
seeds which remain living and capable of germination. The
resistant power of a seed to dessication is partly dependent
upon the nature and thickness of the seed coats and appears
also to be connected with the form in which the reserve food
material is stored. ‘Thus, other conditions being similar
albuminous seeds appear to be the least resistant to dessica-
tion, oily seeds next, and starchy seeds most resistant. At
ordinary room temperatures (15°C.—20°C.) dessication 1s
always more or less imperfect and under such conditions
oily seeds appear to be quite as resistant as starchy ones
(pp. 229 and 230 of previous paper). In very many cases
seeds are very intolerant of even ordinary air drying.
Thus seeds of Oxalis, Salix and Populus are unable to
withstand from one to three weeks air drying, whilst
prolonged air drying also exercises a marked injurious
influence upon the seeds of Acer, Fagus, Aesculus, etc.*

*Schroder. Ueber die Austrocknungfaihigkeit der Pflanzen. Bot.
Untersuch. Tiibingen Bd. II., Hft. 1, 1886.

190 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The most resistant of seeds, however, cannot have the
percentage of water which they contain reduced to lower
than between 2 and 3 p.c. of their dry weight without
their vitality being affected. It is possible that this
water forms an integral part of the dried stable proto-
plasmic molecule and in this connection it is interesting
to notice that Loew’s* equations for the production of
proteid by the polymerization of aspartic aldehyde and
addition of hydrogen and sulphur give as the final result
an albumen having the formula
Ore Hip Nys 8O., + 2H,0, or C7. Hyyo Nis SO,, 2 HO,

and containing 2°2 p.c. of water. It appears possible
that this or some analogous empirical formula may
represent the chemical composition of protoplasm when
in the dried condition. A seed is resistant to dessication
when its protoplasm can assume and maintain this
particular composition for long periods of time. It is
interesting to notice that no cell the protoplasm of which
shows streaming or rotation can withstand dessication.
It appears that where the vital activity of the plasma
manifests itself in the form of rotation or circulation, the
preservation of vitality 1s indissolubly connected with the
presence of free fluid water in the protoplasm.

OXYTROPIC IRRITABILITY OF Roots.

In the previous paper an account was given of certain
experiments which seemed to lead to the conclusion that
the root apices of plants possess a special oxytropic
irritability enabling them to seek out the regions in which
oxygen is most abundant and avoid those in which it is
deficient or absent. Satisfactory demonstration of the
presence of such an irritability must always, owing to the

*Loew. Die Chemische Kraftquelle in lebenden Protoplasma. Miin-
chen, 1882.

VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 191

nature and varying character of the stimulus and to the
extreme difficulty of successfully controlling its application,
necessarily be extremely difficult.

If Hemp and Peas are placed in a tube filled with
boiled sterilized water and closed at the open end by a
loose plug of cotton wool it 1s commonly found that the
radicles of the seeds immediately, in contact with the
plug of cotton wool, grow upwards against the action of
eravity and finally emerge from the open end of the tube,
then growing vertically downwards. If the tubes are
kept slanted, at a small angle with the horizontal so as to
diminish the antagonism between the geotropic and
oxytropic irritabilities of the radicles, the upward curvatures
of these towards the source of oxygen and away from
parts where it is absent or deficient, are more markedly
produced. The effect might possibly partly be due to
somatotropism the radicles preferring rather to burrow in
the damp cotton wool than to immerse themselves in the
subjacent water. This error is, however, easily obviated by
filling the lower parts of the tubes with cotton wool soaked
in boiled sterilized and practically oxygenless water. Above
this the soaked seeds are placed and then covered by a loose
plug of cotton wool. For purposes of comparison similar
experiments are also made with tubes open at both ends.
Both sets of tubes are placed at a slight angle 15°—
30°, with the horizontal and kept in a moist well aerated
atmosphere at a temperature of 25°C. In the tubes, open
at both ends, the radicles unless affected by somatotropism
grow directly downwards, but in the tubes in which only
‘the upper end is open in most cases the radicles bend
upwards and may go on growing upwards against the
action of gravity until they reach the mouth of the tube
when they at once grow downwards. In many cases the
radicle after bending upwards for a short distance and

192 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

penetrating the upper plug of cotton wool, then bends
downwards again and this may be repeated more than
once. This upward curvature, followed by a downward
one, is due to the fact that the radicle at first bends
upwards in virtue of its oxytropic irritability until having
penetrated the upper plug of cotton wool, it reaches and
is surrounded on all sides by an atmosphere rich in
oxygen, when in virtue of its geotropic irritability it
curves downwards again. In a few cases the radicles
grow downwards into the lower cotton wool for a short
distance, growth becoming slower and slower as the
radicle penetrates deeper and deeper. In such cases the
tip of the radicle was probably equally surrounded on all
sides by an atmosphere poor in oxygen and rich in
CO, and hence being equally affected on all sides its
oxytropic irritability or tendency to bend towards regions
richer in oxygen was not called into play. Experiments
performed with a variety of seeds gave in general corro-
boratory results and though the oxytropic irritability is
not always equally well marked, nevertheless it can
generally be made under appropriate conditions to over-
come both geotropism and somatropism.

In Helianthus annuus the primary root shows marked
oxytropism, which in the secondary roots is only slight
and is weaker than their somatropism. Piswm is similar
to Helianthus but the oxytropism of the secondary roots
is rather more pronounced. In Cucwrbita the radicles
show distinct oxytropism and but slight somatropism but
in the secondary roots the somatropism is marked and |
the oxytropism only slight. The primary radicles of
Hemp also show oxytropism but their somatropism is
very strong and in the secondary roots quite overpowers
the other directive agencies.

That roots develop and flourish more abundantly in

VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 193

oxygenated areas than in ones deficient in oxygen is
well known, and it appears that the primary radicle more
especially and to a lesser extent the secondary roots
possess the power of seeking out within given limits and
under appropriate conditions of stimulation the better
oxygenated areas of soil and turning to them in preference
to areas deficient in oxygen.

Since the above was written I have found that H.
Molisch (Ueber die Ablenkung der Wurzehn von ihrer
normalen Wachsthumsrichtung durch Gase. Ber. D. Bot.
Gesell., 1884, II., p. 160) has already described this
special form of irritability as occurring in the roots of
Zea, Cucurbita and Pisum, and has given it the name of
“aerotropismus.” The term ‘“ oxytropismus”’ seems to
me to be better than ‘‘ aerotropismus,”’ but the latter has
of course priority. The experiments here described
support in all essentials the conclusions drawn by Molisch.
The curvatures, however, which he found could be
induced in many roots by the action of various poisonous
gases are probably to be regarded as Traumotropic in
nature and do not seem to have any connection with the
true “‘ oxytropic” irritability of the root tip.

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