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( « AO Ace Ieee) Ve a WA EH AIAN eos ey 2h 7 aS Piet ry rae ent ot Se ‘ oie HD Ow ae i Taek) \ yA My UA rote we Woh my ee aie Hi ety iv ‘ 4 Ar warewe 1 tt) Paik " CN it: <4 ” Nee) ‘ “4 PY Oee Mae ot matt Weed ma AL A Wa ASW pea de doebe ; a he COR ADAM HRD 1 A oT CCR SCN BU BNA ASRS LIC haa he o 7 oe sei ae ‘ n , 7 : ’ (a4 i "i \ \ Nay, ) } t af ‘ - hay ged oe 5 \ 1 as : a ge ' “ : i ' are | ot " hy ’ ly \ ‘; f od s } ( : ' i ‘ - i f ] hoe, Ly j € iu af WW vi iy i. | Fs ‘ ) a ¢ “9 , 6 “1 ’ ' ee ‘ - : 7 t ‘ lal . 4 ‘ 4 , i 1 - { i Tank { i axes CA a i f i wh p } ; : 4 vi it ue ‘ | [e nerd aps . - (3); (Hs j x a { 5 / fi ww Ww ©) i yV a yy PROCEEDINGS TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. TOL, ou SESSION 1900-1901. LIVERPOOL: C. Tintinc & Co., Printers, 538, VICTORIA STREET, ISO) ALP 574.0642 $7) ae CONTENTS. I.—PRocEEDINGS. Office-bearers and Council, 1900-1901 . : . Vil. Report of the Council : Viil. Summary of Proceedings at the Mectings : Ke Laws of the Society . ; : : XV List of Members . : XIX. Librarian’s Report (with list of adaiione ie ere aU: Treasurer’s Balance Sheet . oR IJ.—TRANSACTIONS. Presidential Address—‘‘ Some Anatomical Problems bearing upon Evolution.”’ By Prof. Parerson, M.D. 3 Fourteenth Annual Pepout of this tor p oO Mesa Biology Committee and their Biological Station at Port Erin. By Prof. W. A. Herpman, D.8c., E.R.S. : oie) ee) Note on the spread of te falar tay J. WIGLES- wortH, M.D. . ; : ; ‘ , Be ee ocyommm ~ (l.M.B.C. Memowr No. V.) By _ Sypxney J. Hicxson, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.. .- 92 Some Variations in the Spinal Nerves of the Frog, with a Note on an Abnormal Vertebral Column. By F. J. Coie . : , . 114 = he OE 6S Iv. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Report on the Investigations carried on during 1900 in connection with the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory at University College, Liverpool, and the Sea-Fish Hatchery at Piel, near Barrow; containing ‘“Lepeophtheirus and Lernea”’ (L.M.B.C. Memoir No. VI.) By Prof. W. A. Herpman, F.R.S., ANprEw Scort, and JAMES JOHNSTONE , : “iimeus: | (iM.B:C Montieth No. VIL). By R. C. Punnett, B.A. , The Methods and Results of be Ganae Pianeiae Investigations, with special reference to the Hensen Nets. By J. T. Jenxins, D.Sc. Some Additions to the Fauna of ies Bay. By ANDREW SCOTT : : The Neck Glands of the Meeeeortee JAMES JoHnston#, B.Sc. A List of the Hymenoptera- ecnlants sO ti obsemed in the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire, with Notes on the Habits of the Genera. By Witioucupy GaArRpNER, F'.L.8., F.R.G.S. . PAGE, 126 242 279 342, 354 363 PROCEEDINGS OF THE LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. OFFICHE-BEARERS AND COUNCIL. Gx- Presidents : 1886—87 Pror. W. MITCHELL BANKS, M.D., F.R.C:S. . 1887—88 J. J. DRYSDALE, M.D. 1888—89 Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 1889—90 Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 1890—91 T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S. 1891—92 T. J. MOORE, C.M.Z.S. 1892—93 ALFRED O. WALKER, J.P., F.L.S. 1893—94 JOHN NEWTON, M.R.C.S. 1894—95 Pror. F. GOTCH, M.A., F.R.S. 1895—96 Pror. R. J. HARVEY GIBSON, M.A. 1896—97 HENRY O. FORBES, LL.D., F.Z.S. 1897—98 ISAAC C. THOMPSON, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 1898—99 Pror. C. S. SHERRINGTON, M.D., F.R.S. 18991900 J. WIGLESWORTH, M.D., F.R.C.P. SESSION XV., 1900-1901. aresrdent Pror. PATERSON, M.D., M.R.C.S. Vice- Presidents : Pror. W. A. HERDMAN, D.S8c., F.R.S. J. WIGLESWORTH, M.D., F.R.C.P. Hon. Creasurer : T. C. RYLEY. Hon, Librarian : JAMES JOHNSTONE, B.Sc. Mon. Secretary! JOSEPH A. CLUBB, M.Sc. (Vict.). Council : H. C. BEASLEY. JOSEPH LOMAS, F.G.S. et HALLS. JOHN NEWTON, M.RB.C.S. Rev. L. pE BEAUMONT KLEIN, ALFRED QUAYLE. D.Sc. A. T. SMITH. W.S. LAVEROCK, M.A., B.Sc. I. C. THOMPSON, F.L.S. Rev. T. 8. LEA, M.A. J. M. TOLL. REPORT of the COUNCIL. Durine the Session 1900-1901 there have been seven ordinary meetings and three field meetings of the Society. The latter were held at Hilbre Island, Rosset and Gresford, and Halkin, near Holywell, respectively. The third field meeting to Halkin was a joint meeting with the Liverpool Geological Society. The communications made to the Society have been representative of almost all branches of Biology, and the exhibition of specimens, both microscopic and macroscopic, has been a feature of the meetings. On the invitation of Council, Prof. D. J. Cunnimgham, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. of Dublin University, lectured before the Society at the March meeting on the “ Microcephalic Idiot,’ and in response to special invitations, sent mainly to the Medical profession, a large and appreciative audience assembled. The Library continues to make satisfactory progress and additional important exchanges are in process of arrange- ment. The Treasurer’s statement and balance sheet are appended. No alterations have been made in the Laws of the Society during the past session. The members at present on the roll are as follows : — Honorary Members ......... 9 Ordinary Members ......... O93 Student Members ......... 28 SUMMARY of PROCEEDINGS at the MEETINGS. SS The first meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College on Friday, October 12th, 1900. The President-elect (Prof. Paterson, M.D., M.R.C.S.,) took the chair in the Zoology Theatre. 1. The Report of the Council on the Session 1899-1900 (see “ Proceedings,’ Vol. XIV., p. viii.) was sub- mitted and adopted. 2. The Treasurer's Balance Sheet for the session 1899- 1900 (see “ Proceedings,” Vol. XIV., p. xxxv.) was submitted and approved. 3. The Librarian’s Report (see “ Proceedings,” Vol. XIV. p- XXvill.) was submitted and approved. 4. The following Office-bearers and Council for the en- suing Session were elected:— Vice-Presidents, Professor Herdman, D.Sec., F.R.S., and J. Wiglesworth, M.D., F.R.C.P.; Hon. Treasurer, T. C. Ryley; Hon. Librarian, James Johnstone ; Hon. Secretary, Joseph A. Clubb, M.Sc.; Council, H, C. Beasley, H. O. Forbes, LL.D., W. J. Halls, Rev. L. de Beaumont Klein, D.Sc., W. S. Laverock, M.A., B.Sc., Rev. T. S. Lea, M.A., Joseph Lomas, F.G.S., John Newton, M.R.C.S., Alfred Quayle, A. T. Smith, I. C. Thompson, F.L.8., and J M. Toll. 5. Prof. Paterson, M.D., M.R.C.S., delivered the Presi- dential Address, entitled ‘“Anatomy and Evolution,” (see “Transactions,” p. 3). A vote of thanks was proposed by Dr. de Beaumont Klein, seconded by Dr. Newton, and carried with acclamation. X. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The second meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College on Friday, November 9th, 1900. The President in the chair. 1. Prof. Herdman exhibited under microscopes a series of lingual ribbons of Mollusca. Mr. H. C. Robinson exhibited with remarks a small collection of Birds and Mammals from Queensland, vw Australia. 3. Prof. Herdman submitted the Fourteenth Annual Report on the work of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, and the Port Erin Biological Station (see “ Transactions,’ p. 19). The third meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College, on Friday, December 14th, 1900. The President in the chair. 1. Prof. Herdman exhibited a series of marine animals, mounted as lantern slides. w Dr. Wiglesworth gave a note on the spread of the Fulmar (/ulmarus glacialis), (see “ Transactions,” p- 89). | 3. Mr. H. C. Robinson submitted a paper on “Some problems in Zoo-geography,” and referred to the peculiar distribution of certain animals and planits. 4. Mr. F. J. Cole contributed a paper on the variations in the arrangement of the spinal nerves of the Frog (see “ Transactions,” p. 114). The fourth meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College, on Friday, January 11th, 1901. The President in the chair. SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. mI 1. Mr. H.C. Beasley exhibited and described some fossils (Mstherca minuta) recently found by Mr. J. Lomas in the Trias at Oxton. 2. Prof. Herdman gave a lecture entitled ‘ The Greatest Biological Station in the World,” being an account of a recent visit to the “Stazione Zoologica” at Naples. The great importance of the work car- ried on at such Biological Stations was referred to, and a most interesting account was given of the Naples Station, its staff and its work. The lecture was illustrated by a number of lantern slides, in- cluding pictures of the aquarium tanks and their contents. The fifth meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College, on Friday, February 8th, 1901. The Vice-President (Prof. Herdman) in the chair. 1. Prof. Herdman submitted the “ Report on the Inves- tigations carried on in 1900 in connection with the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory, University College and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, near Barrow,” (see “‘ Transactions,” p. 126). vo Prof. Herdman gave a note on a “ Fisheries Problem,” (see “ Transactions,”’ p. 141). : \ 3. Mr. J. Johnstone contributed a paper on a “ Sporo- zoon parasite of the Plaice,” (see “ Transactions, p. 184). 4. The L.M.B.C. Memoir on Lernea and Lepeophthevrus, by Mr. Andrew Scott, was laid on the table (see ‘Transactions,’ p. 188). X11. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The sixth meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College on Thursday, March 28th, 1901. The President in the chair. 1. Prof. D. J. Cunningham, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. of Dublin University gave an interesting lecture entitled “The Microcephalic Idiot.” The lecturer dealt with the problems connected with the growth and structure of the skull and brain, the changes which occur in the various parts of the cerebral hemis- pheres, and the relation of these changes to the theory of atavism. The lecture was illustrated by a number of lantern photographs. The seventh meeting of the fifteenth session was held at University College on Friday, May 10th, 1901. The President in the chair. 1. Paper by Mr. A. Scott on some additions to the Fauna of Liverpool Bay (see “ Transactions,” p. 341). 2. Paper on the Neck Glands in Marsupials, by Mr. J. Johnstone, B.Sc. (see “ Transactions,” p. 354). 3. The methods and results of the German Plankton Ex- hibition, by Dr. J. T. Jenkins (see “‘ Transactions, ’ (Os Ue) 4. Report on the Aculeate-Hymenoptera of Lancashire: and Cheshire, byMr. Willoughby Gardner, F.R.G.S., (see “ Transactions,” p. 368). 5. Notes on (a) suprasternal ossifications, (6) the presence of eight cervical vertebre in the human skeleton, by Prof. Paterson, M.D. SUMMARY OF PROCEEDINGS AT MEETINGS. X1ll. ‘The eighth, ninth, and tenth meetings of the Society were Field Meetings and were held at Hilbre Island, Rossett and Gresford, and Halkin, near Holywell, respectively. The last named was held jointly with the Liverpool Geological Society. At Rossett and Gresford a short business meet- ing was held after tea. The President from the chair proposed the name of Mr. H. C. Beasley as President for the coming session. Mr. I. C. Thompson seconded and Prof. Herdman supported the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Beasley briefly responded. LAWS of the LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. I.—The name of the Society shall be the “ Liverroon BrotocicaL Society,” and its object the advancement of Biological Science. ) I1.—The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held at University College, at Seven o'clock, during the six Winter months, on the second Friday evening in every month, or at such other place or time as the Council may appoint. III.—The business of the Society shall be conducted by a President, two Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, a Secretary, a Librarian, and twelve other Members, who shall form a Council; four to constitute a quorum. TV.—The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secre- tary, Librarian and Council shall be elected annually, by ballot, in the manner hereinafter mentioned. V.—The President shall be elected by the Council (subject to the approval of the Society) at the last Meeting of the Session, and take office at the ensuing Annual Meeting. VI.—The mode of election of the Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, Librarian, and Council shall be in the form and manner following: —It shall be the duty of the retiring Council at their final meeting to suggest the names of Members to fill the offices of Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, Librarian, and of four Members who LAWS. XV. _ were not on the last Council to be on the Council for the ensuing session, and formally to submit to the Society, for election at the Annual Meeting, the names so suggested. The Secretary shall make out and send to each Member of the Society, with the circular convening the Annual Meet- ing, a printed list of the retiring Council, stating the date of the election of each Member, and the number of his attendances at the Council Meetings during the past session ; and another containing the names of the Members suggested for election, by which lists, and no others, the votes shall be taken. It shall, however, be open to any Member to substitute any other names in place of those upon the lists, sufficient space being left for that purpose. Should any list when delivered to the President contain other than the proper number of names, that list and the votes thereby given shall be absolutely void. Every list must be handed in personally by the Member at the time of voting. Vacancies occurring otherwise than by regular annual retirement shall be filled by the Council. VII.—Every Candidate for Membership shall be pro- posed by three or more Members, one of the proposers from personal knowledge. The nomination shall be read from the Chair at any Ordinary Meeting, and the Candi- date therein recommended shall be ballotted for at the succeeding Ordinary Meeting. Ten black balls shall exclude. VIII.—When a person has been elected a Member, the Secretary shall inform him thereof, by letter, and shall at the same time forward him a copy of the Laws of the Society. IX.—Every person so elected shall within one calendar month after the date of such election pay an Entrance lee of Half a Guinea and an Annual Subscription of One XVI. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Guinea (except in the case of Student Members); but the Council shall have the power, in exceptional cases, of extending the period for such payment. No Entrance Fee shall be paid on re-election by any Member who has paid such fee. X.—The Subscription (except in the case of Student Members) shall be One Guinea per annum, payable in advance, on the day of the Annual Meeting in October. _ XI.—Members may compound for their Annual Sub- scription by a single payment of Ten Guineas. XII.—There shall also be a class of Student Members, paying an Entrance Fee of Two Shillings and Sixpence, and a Subscription of Five Shillings per annum. XIIT.—AI] nominations of Student Members shall be passed by the Council previous to nomination at an Ordin- ary Meeting. When elected, Student Members shall be entitled to all privileges of Ordinary Members, except that they shall not receive the publications of the Society, nor vote at the Meetings, nor serve on the Council. XIV.—Resignation of Membership shall be signified zn writing to the Secretary, but the Member so resigning shall be liable for the payment of his Annual Subscription, and all arrears up to date of his resignation. XV.—The Annual Meeting shall be held on the second Friday in October, or such other convenient day in the month, as the Council may appoint, when a report of the Council on the affairs of the Society, and a Balance Sheet duly signed by the Auditors previously appointed by the Council, shall be read. XVI.—Any person (not resident within ten miles of Liverpool) eminent in Biological Science, or who may have rendered valuable services to the Society, shall be eligible LAWS. XVIl. as an Honorary Member; but the number of such Members shall not exceed fifteen at any one time. XVII.—Captains of vessels and others contributing objects of interest shall be admissible as Associates for a period of three years, subject to re-election at the end of that time. : XVIII.—Such Honorary Members and Associates shall be nominated by the Council, elected by a majority at an _ Ordinary Meeting, and have the privilege of attending and taking part in the Meetings of the Society, but not voting. XIX.—Should there appear cause in the opinion of the Council for the expulsion from the Society of any Member, a Special General Meeting of the Society shall be called by the council for that purpose; and if two-thirds of those voting agree that such Member be expelled, the Chairman shall declare this decision, and the name of such Member shall be erased from the books. XX.—Hivery Member shall have the privilege of intro- ducing one visitor at each Ordinary Meeting. The same person shall not be admissible more than twice during the same session. . XXI.—Notices of all Ordinary or Special Meetings shall be issued to each Member by the Secretary, at least three days before such Meeting. XXII.—The President, Council, or any ten Members can convene a Special General Meeting, to be called within fourteen days, by giving notice in writing to the Secretary, and stating the object of the desired Meeting. The circular convening the Meeting must state the pur- pose thereof. XXIII.—Votes in all elections shall be taken by ballot, XVI. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. and in other cases by show of hands, unless a ballot be first demanded. XXIV.—No alteration shall be made in these Laws, except at an Annual Meeting, or a Special Meeting called for that purpose; and notice in writing of any proposed alteration shall be given to the Council, and read at the Ordinary Meeting, at least a month previous to the meet- ing at which such alteration is to be considered, and the proposed alteration shall also be printed in the circular convening such meeting; but the Council shall have the power of enacting such Bye-Laws, as may be deemed necessary, which Bye-Laws shall have the full power of Laws until the ensuing Annual Meeting, or a Special Meeting convened for their consideration. BYH-LAWS. 1. Student Members of the Society may be admitted as Ordinary Members without re-election upon payment of the Ordinary Member’s Subscription; and they shall be exempt from the Ordinary Member’s Entrance Fee. 2. University College Students may be admitted as Student Members of the Society for the period of their college residence, on the single payment of a fee of Five Shillmgs and an entrance fee of Two Shillings and Six- pence. LIST of MEMBERS of the LIVERPOOL ELECTED. 1899 1898 1886 1886 1888 1894 1889 1886 1886 1900 1897 1900 1894 1886 1886 1896 1900 BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. SHSSTON 1900-1901. A. Orpinary MEMBERS. (Life Members are marked with an asterisk.) Annett, Dr. H. J., University College, Liverpool. Armour, Dr. T. R. W., University College, Liver- pool. Banks, Sir W. Mitchell, M.D., F.R.C.S., 28, Rodney-street. Barron, Prof. Alexander, M.B., M.R.C.S., 34, Rodney-street. Beasley, Henry C., Prince Alfred-road, Wavertree. Boyce, Prof. University College, Liverpool. Brown, Prof. J. Campbell, 8, Abercromby-square. Caton, R., M.D., F.R.C.P., Lea Hall, Gateacre. Clubb, J. A., M.Sc., Hon. SrcrEetTary, Free Public Museums, Liverpool. Cole, F. J., University College, Liverpool. Dutton, Dr. J. Everett, 502, New Chester-road, Rock Ferry. Ellis, Dr. J. W., 18, Rodney-street, Liverpool. Forbes, H. O., LL.D, F.Z.S., Free Public Museums, Liverpool. Gibson, Prof. R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.L.S., Univer- sity College. Halls, W. J., 35, Lord-street. Haydon, W. H., 8, Amberley-street. Hayward, Lt.-Col. A. G., Rearsby, Blundellsands. XX. 1886 1893 1897 1900 1898 1886 1894 1895 1894 1896 1886 1888 1900 1894 1894 1892 1886 1897 1890 1887 1897 1899 LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Herdman, Prof. W. A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Vicn-PRresi- DENT, University College. Herdman, Mrs., B.Sc., Croxteth Lodge, Ullet- road, Liverpool. Holt, Alfred, Crofton, Aigburth. Horsley, Dr. Reg., Stoneyhurst, Blackburn. Johnstone, James, B.Sc., Hon. Lrprarian, Fisheries Laboratory, University College, Liverpool. Jones, Charles W., Allerton Beeches. Jones, Charles Elpie, B.Sc., Prenton-road, W., Birkenhead. Klein, Rev. L. de Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.S., 26, Alexandra Drive. Lea, Rev. T. S., St. Ambrose Vicarage, Widnes. Laverock, W. 8., M.A., B.Sc., Free Museums, Liverpool. Lomas, J., Assoc. N.S.S., F.G.S., 16, Mellor-road, Birkenhead. Newton, John, M.R.C.S., 2, Prince’s Gate, W. Nisbet, Dr., 175, Lodge Lane, Liverpool. — Paterson, Prof., M.D., M.R.C.S., Presipent, University College, Liverpool. Paul, Prof. F. T., Rodney-street, Liverpool. Phillips, E., L.D.S., M.R.C.S., 33, Rodney-street. *Poole, Sir James, J.P., Abercromby-square. Quayle, Alfred, 7, Scarisbrick New-road, South- port. *Rathbone, Miss May, Backwood, Neston. Robertson, Helenus &., Sprimghill, Church-road, Wavertree. Robinson, H. C., Holmfield, Aigburth. Ross, Ronald, J. G. H., M.R,C.8., F.B-S., Uiiver sity College, Liverpool. LIST OF MEMBERS. XX1. 1900 Rylands, Ralph, 2, Charlesville, Claughton. 1887 Ryley, Thomas C., Hon. Treasurer, 10, Waver- ley-road. 1894 Scott, Andrew, Piel, Barrow-in-Furness. 1895 Sherrington, Prof., M.D., F.R.S., University Col- lege, Liverpool. 1886 Smith, Andrew T., 5, Hargreaves-road, Sefton Park. 1895 Smith, J., F.L.8S., The Limes, Latchford, War- rington. , 1900 Smith, Mrs., 14, Bertram-road, Sefton Park. 1886 Thompson, Isaac C., F.L.8., 538, Croxteth-road. 1900 ‘Thompson, J., 3, Derwent-square, Stoneycroft. 1889 Thornely, Miss L. R., 17, Aigburth Hall-road. 1888 Toll, J. M., 49, Newsham-drive, Liverpool. 1886 Walker, Alfred O., J.P., F.L.S., Ulcombe Place, Maidstone. 1897 Warrington, Dr. W. B., 80, Rodney-street. 1891 Woiglesworth, J.. M.D., F.R.C.P., Vicz-PRESIDENT, County Asylum, Rainhill. 1896 Willmer, Miss J. H., 20, Lorne-road, Oxton, Bir- kenhead. B. Srupent MEMBERS. Bennette, Horace W. P., Gothic Lodge, Park-road, S., Birkenhead. Brambley-Moore, J., 138, Chatham-street. Carstairs, Miss, Lily-road, Fairfield. Dickenson, T., 3, Clark-street, Prince’s Park. Drinkwater, E. H., Rydal Mount, Marlboro’-road, Tuebrook. Elder, D., 49, Richmond Park, Liverpool. Gill, E. S. H., Shaftesbury House, Formby. XX11. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Graham, Miss Mary, Ballure House, Gt. Crosby. Hannah, J. H. W., 55, Avondale-road, Sefton Park. Harrison, Oulton, Denehurst, Victoria Park, Wavertree. Hick, P., 38, Victoria Drive, Rock Ferry. Hunter, S. F., Westminster Park, Chester. Jefferies, F., 45, Trafalgar-road, Egremont. Jenkins, J. T., D.Sc., University College, Liverpool. Jones, H., University College, Liverpool. Knott, Henry, 11, Brereton Avenue, Liverpool. Lawrie, R. D., Sunnyside, Woodchurch Lane, Birkenhead. Law, Arthur, B.Sc., University College, Liverpool. Lloyd, J. T., 43, Ulet-road, Sefton Park. Mann, J. C., University College, Liverpool. Mawby, W., Clumber, Prenton-road, E., Birkenhead. Pearson, J., 43, Dryden-road. Stallybrass, C. O., Grove-road, Wallasey. Scott, G. C., 65, Croxteth-road. Smith, G., University College, Liverpool. Smith, C. H., University College, Liverpool. Tattersall, W., 290, Stanley-road, Bootle. Woolfenden, H. F., 6, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale. C. Honorary MEMBERS. H.S.H. Albert I., Prince of Monaco, 25, Faubourg St. Honore, Paris. Bornet, Dr. Edouard, Quai de la Tournelle 27, Paris. Claus, Prof. Carl, University, Vienna. Fritsch, Prof. Anton, Museum, Prague, Bohemia. Giard, Prof. Alfred, Sorbonne, Paris. Haeckel, Prof. Dr. E., University, Jena. Hanitsch, R., Ph.D., Raffles Museum, Singapore. Leicester, Alfred, Buckhurst Farm, nr. Edenbridge, Kent. Solms-Laubach, Prof-Dr., Botan. Instit., Strassburg. REPORT of the LIBRARIAN. Tue only new exchange of publications arranged during the past year is with the K. Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Akademie der Naturforscher of Halle, A.S. Several other exchanges are, however, in contemplation. The grants of £24 by the Council during the last two years have nearly sufficed to bind all the back numbers of the publications in the Library. A considerable num- ber of new volumes are, however, received every year, and it is very desirable that a yearly vote of money should be made for this purpose. Lists are given below of the publications added to the Library during the last year, and of the Societies and Institutions with which publications are exchanged. List of publications added to Library during the Session 1900-1901 : — Amsterdam, Jaarboek K. Akademie Wetenschafpen. 1899. Amsterdam, Verhand. K. Akademie Wetensch. (Ser. 2). Deel VII., Nos. 1-3. 1899-1900. Amsterdam, K. Akad. Wetensch. Verslag gewone Vergad. Wis-en Natuurk. Afdeeling. Deel. VII. 1900. Amsterdam, K. Akad. Wetensch. Proc. of The Section of Sciences. (English Translation of above). Vol. II. 1900. Baltimore, Memoirs Biol. Labt., Johns Hopkins University. Vol. IV. —No. 1—IV. 1898-1900. Baltimore, University Circulars. Vol. XIX., No. 146. 1900. Berlin, Sitzungsb, k. Akad. Wissench. Jahrg. 1900. Nos. I.—LIII. Bergen, Bergen Museums Aarbog. 1899, 1900. XXIV. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Bergen, Bergens Museum Aarsberetning for 1899 and 1900-1. Bergen, Crustacea of Norway, G. O. Sars. Vol. III., Parts 5—10, 1900. Birmingham, Proc. Nat. Hist. and Phil. Society. Vol. X.—XI. 1896-9. Bordeaux, Proces. Verbaux Soc. Linn. Vol. LIV. 1899. Bonn, Sitzungsb. Niederrhein. Gesell. 1899 (2), 1900 (1). Bonn, Verhandl. Naturhist. Vereins. Jahrg. 56 (2), 1900 (1). Bologna, Rendiconto. Accad. Sci. N.S. Vols. II. and III. 1898-9. Bologna, Memorie R. Accad. Sci. Ser. V. Tom. VII.— (a) Sezione di Medicina e Chirurgia. (b) Sezione delle Scienze Naturali. Boston (U.S8.A.), Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. 29. Nos. 9, 11-14. 1900. Buenos Aires, Comunicaciones Mus. Nac. T. I., Nos. 6 and 7, 1900. Cambridge (U.S.A.), Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Vols. 35, No. 8; 36, Nos. 1—6; 37, Nos. 1—2. ; Cambridge (U.S.A.), Annual Report Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard. 1899-1900. Chicago, Fifth Annual Report of the John Crerar Library. Chicago, Field Columbian Museum Publications— Anthropological Series. Vol. I., No. 1; Vol. II., Nos. 1—3. 1895-8. Zoological Series. Vol. I., Nos.2—18. 1895-99. Vol. 3, Nos. 1—2, 1900. Ornithological Series. Vol. I., No. 1—2. 1896-7. Geological Series. Vol. I., Nos. 1—7. 1895-1900. Botanical Series. Vol. I.; Vol. IT., Nos. 1—38. 1895-1900. Report Series. Vol. I., No. 1—5. 1895-99. The Authentic Letters of Columbus. W. E. Curtis. 1895. Birds of Eastern N. America. Pts. 1 and 2. C. B. Cory. 1899. Chicago, The Botanical Gazette. Vols. 13—27, 1888-99. Vol. 30, Vol. 31, Pts. 1—2. Christiania, Nyt. Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne. Bd. 38. Hefte 1. 1900. Christiania, Oversigt Vidensk. Selskabs. 1899. Christiania, Videnskabs-selskabs Forhand. 1899. Nos. 2—4. Dublin, Scientific Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. Vol. IX., pts. 1—2. 1899- 1900. Dublin, Economic Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. Vol. I., pts. 1—2. 1899. Dublin, Index Proc. and Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. 1877-98. Dublin, Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. Vol. VII., pts. 2—7. 1899-1900. Edinburgh, Trans. Scottish Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. 1. 1900. Edinburgh, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. Vol. XXII., 1897-99. — LIBRARIAN’S REPORT. XXV. Edinburgh, Laboratory Reports, Roy. Coll. Physicians. Vol. VII., 1900. Frankfurt, A.M., Bericht Senck. Naturf. Ges. 1900. Freiburg, Ber. Naturforsch. Gesell. Bd. 11. Heft 2. 1900. Glasgow, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 6 (N.S.), pt. 1. 1901. Glasgow, Millport Biological Station. Communications I. 1900. Glasgow, 18th Report Scottish Fishery Board. 1900. Gottingen, Nachrichten Konig. Gesellsch. Wissensch. Math.-Phys., Klasse Hefte 1—4, 1900. Gottingen, Gesch. Mitt. Hefte 1—2. 1900. Habana, El] Azucar como alimento del Hombre. Dr. y Costa. Habana, La Legislacion Sanitaria Escolar. Dr. y Costa. Hannover, Mittheil. Deutsch. Seefischerei. Vereins. Bd. 16; 17, Nos. 1—3. faanlem, Arch. Mus. Teyler. Ser. 2. Vol. 7. Pt. 2. 1900. Halifax, Proc. and Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci. Vol. X., pts. 1-5. 1899. Kjobenhayn, Oversigt K. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs. 1900, Nos. 2—6, 1IGIE No. 1. Kjobenhavn, Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Denmark. Ser. 6, t. 9, No. 6. 1900. Kjobenhavn, Report Danish Biological Station. IX. 1899. Kjobenhavn, Vidensk. Meddelelser. Aar. 1900. Kjobenhavn, Fortegn. K. Danske Vidensk. Selskabs. Jan., 1901. Kjobenhavn, Beretning Komm. for Vidensk. Undersogelse. Danske. Farvande. Kiel and Leipzig, Wissensch. Meeresuntersuchungen. Bd. 3. Heft 1. Bd. 4. Heft 1. 1900. La Hayé, Archives Neerlandaises. Ser. 2, Tome 3, Livr. 3—5, 1900. MeAceinivy. 1.0 1.5. Lawrence (U.S.A.), Kansas University Quarterly. Vol. VIII., Nos. 2—4, 1899-1900. Vol. I., No. 3, 1900. Lawrence (U.S.A.), Reports Experimental Station, Kansas University, eof.) 1691-9. Lawrence (U.S.A.), Common injurious insects of Kansas, V. L. Kellog. 1892. Lawrence (U.S.A.), Alfalfa, Grasshoppers, Bees: their relationship. S. J. Hunter. The Honey Bee. S.J. Hunter. 1899. London, The Naturalist. Nos. 520—27, 1900. Nos. 528—31, 1901. London, Monograph of Christmas Island. C. W. Andrews and others. 1900. London, Jour. Roy. Micros. Soc. 1900, Pt. 4. 1901, Pts. i—2. XXV1. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Leeds, The Alga-Flora of Yorkshire. W. West and E. 8S. West. 1900. Liverpool, Bull. Liverpool Museums. Vol. III. No.1. 1900. Leipzig, Ber. Verhandl. k. Sachs. Gesell. Bd. 52. Math.-Phys. Klasse, Bd. 52, Hefte 2—7. 1900. Manchester, Trans. and Ann. Rep. Micros. Soc. 1899. Monaco, Les Campagnes Scientifiques de S.A.S., le Prince Albert Ist. Dr. J. Richard. 1900. Monaco, Resultate des Campagnes Scientifiques. Fasc. 13—16. 1899-1900. Monte Video, Anales Museo Nacional. TT. 2, Fasc. 17, 1900. T. 3, Fase. 13—17, 1900-1. Moscow, Bull. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes. 1899. No. 2—4, 1900. Munich, Allgemeine Fischerei-Zeitung. Nos. 8—24, 1900. Nos. 1—7, 1900. Melbourne, Proc. Royal Society Victoria. Vol. 12. (N.S.). Pt. 2. 1900. Napoli, Rendiconto Accad. Sci. Fis. E. Mat. Ser. 3a, Vol. 6, Fasc. 3—12, 1900. Vol. 7, Fasc. 1—2, 1901. Napoli, Annali di Neurologia. Vol. 18, Fasc. 6. 1900. Nancy, Bull. Seances Soc. Biol. Ser. 3. Pt. 1. 1900. Nancy, Bull. Soc. Sci. Ser. 2, T. 16, Fasc. 34. Ser. 3, T. 1, Fasc. 2—3. Paris, Bulletin Scientifique. Vol. XXXII. 1899. Paris, Bull. Zool., France. Vol. XXVIII. 1899. Paris, Mem. Soc. Zool. de France. T. XII. 1899. Paris, Bull. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. 1900. Nos. 1—4, 6—8. Paris, Comptes Rendus Heb. Soc. de Biologie. T. 51, No. 40. T. 52, 15—27. T. 53, 1—12. Paris, Jubiliare Vol. Soc. Biol. Paris. 1899. Porto, Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes. Vol. VI. 1900. Philadelphia, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1899, Pt. 3. 1900, Pts. 1—2. Plymouth, Jour. Marine Biol. Association. Vol. 6, Nos. 1 and 2. 1900. Rome, Unicuique suum prof. J. B. Grassi. Note prel. Ed. 2. Dr. S. Calandruccio. 1900. Salem (U.S.A.), Bull. Essex Institute. Vols. 1—8, 15—30. Santiago, Actes Soc. Sci. du Chili. 1. 9, liv. land 5. 19007 aig ivr. 2. 1900. Singapore, An Expedition to Mt. Kina Balu, Brit. N. Borneo. R. Hanitsch. 1900. St. Louis, Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis. Vol. 9, Nos. 6—9. Vol. 10, Nos. 1—8. 1899-1900. Sydney, Records Australian Museum. Vol. 3, No. 7—8. 1900. Stockholm, Biliang Kong. Svenska Veteusk.-Akad. Bd. 25, Afd. IIT. and IV. LIBRARIAN’S REPORT. XXVII. Stockholm, Brief von Johonnes Muller. G. Retzius. 1900. St. John (Canada), Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, No. 18. 1899. Tokyo, Jour. Roy. Coll. Science Imp. University Japan. Vol. XII., Pt. 4. Vol. XIII., Pts. 1—2. 1900. Torino, Boll. Mus. Zool. ed Anat. Comp. Vol. 15, Nos. 367—379. 1900. Toronto, Trans. Canadian Institute. Vol. VI. (Semi-Centennial Memorial Vol.) 1899. Toronto, Proc. Canadian Institute. No. 9. Vol. II., Pt. 3. 1900. Tiflis, Ber. Kaukasische Museum. 1897-8. 1898. Tufts (Mass. U.S.A.), Tufts College Studies. No. 6. 1900. Upsala, Nova. Acta. Soc. Reg. Sci. Sev. 3. Vol. XVIII. Fasc. 2. 1900. Urbana, Bull. State Lab. F. Nat. Hist. Vol. V. 1900. Washington, Report Nat. Mus., U.S.A. 1898. Washington, The Crocodilians, Lizards, and Snakes of North America. Beez Cope. 1900. Washington, Proc. Nat. Mus. U.S.A. Vol. 22, Nos. 1193-6, 1025, 1900. Vol. 23, Nos. 1206, 1215, 1218, 1220-4. Washington, U.S.National Museum. Special Bulletin. American Hydroids. Pt. 1. Plumularide. C. H. Nutting. 1900. Washington, Bull. U.S. National Museum. No. 47. Fishes of N. and Middle America, Pt. 4. Jordan and Evermann. 1900. Washington, Bull. U.S. Fish Commission. Vol. XVIII. 1898. Wellington (N.Z.), Trans. and Proc. New Zealand Institute. Vol. XXXII. 1900. Wisconsin (U.S.A.), Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey— (a) Scientific Series. No. 2. 1898. (6) Economic Series. No. 3. 1900. (c) Educational Series. No. 1. 1900. Wien, Verh. K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesellsch. Bd. 50. 1900. Zurich, Vierteljahrsch. Naturforsch Gesell. Jahrg. 44. Hefte 3—4. Jahrg. 45. Hefte 1—2. 1900. List of Societies, ete., with which publications are ex- changed (additions made during current session marked with an asterisk) :— AmsTERDAM.—Koninklijke Akadamie van Wettenschappen. Koninklijke Zodlogisch Genootschap Natura Artis Magistra. XXVII11. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. BattTimorE.—Johns Hopkins University. Batravia.—Koninklijke Natuurkundig Vereeniging in Ned. Indie. Bzerecen.—Museum. Brruin.—Konigl. Akadémie der Wissenschaften. Deutscher Fischerei-Vereins. BirmineHam.—Philosophical Society. Botoena.—Accademia delle Scienze. Bonn.—Naturhistorischer verein des Preussichen Rhienlande und Westfalens. BorpEaux.—Société Linnéenne. Boston.—Society of Natural History. Brussets.—Académie Royal des Sciences, &c., de Belgique. Buenos Arres.—Museo Nacional. Museo de la Plata. CaEn.—Société Linnéenne de Normandie. CamBrip@E.—Morphological Labcratories. CamBripeE, Mass.—Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard College. Cuicagco.—Field Columbian Museum. Botanical Gazette, Chicago University. The Johns Hopkins University. CHRISTIANIA.— Videnskabs-Selskabet. Dusiin.—Royal Dublin Society. EHDINBURGH.—Royal Society. Royal Physical Society. Royal College of Physicians. Fishery Board for Scotland. FRANKFURT.—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. FRreIBURG.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. GENEVE.—Société de Physique et d Histoire Naturelle. GirssEN.—Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Heilkunde. Guascow.—Natural History Society. Gottincen.—Konigl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Hauue* a/s.—K. Leopoldinisch-Catolinische Akademie der Naturforscher. Hattrax.—Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. Haartem.—Musée Teyler. Société Hollandaise des Sciences. HELIGOLAND. —Konigliche Biologische Anstalt. KreLt.—Naturwissenschaftlichen vereins fur Schleswig-Holstein. Kommission fur der Unterschung der Deutschen meere. KsoBenHavn.—Naturhistorike Forening. Danish Biological Station (C. G. John Petersen). LIBRARIANS REPORT. XKXIX. KsJoBENHAVN.— Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. LawReENceE, U.S.A.—Kansas University Quarterly. Lrrps.—Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. Lripzie¢.—Konigl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Litte.—Revue Biologique du Nord de la France. LivrerPoout.—Geological Society. Bulletin of the Liverpool Museum. Lonpon.—Royal Microscopical Society. British Museum (Natural History Department). Mancuester.—Microscopical Society. Owens College. MARsEILLES.—Station Zoologique d’Edoume. Musée d’Historie Naturelle. Massacuusetts.—Tufts College Library. MeckLtensure.—Vereins der Freunde der Naturgeschichte. MrLBoURNE.—Royal Society of Victoria. MontrEvipEo.—Museo Nacional de Montevideo. MontTPELLIER.—Académie des Sciences et Lettres. Moscov.—Société Impériale des Naturalistes. Nancoy.—Société des Sciences. Napori.—Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche. New Brunswicx.—Natural History Society. Oportro.—Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes. Paris.—Museum d’Histoire Naturelle. Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique. Société de Biologie. PHILADELPHIA.—Academy of Natural Sciences. PrymovutH.—Marine Biological Association. Sr. Lovis, Miss.—Academy of Sciences. Sr. Pererspure.—Académie Impériale des Sciences. San FRancisco.—California Academy of Science. Santraco.—sSociété Scientifiq du Chili. STAVANGER.—Stavanger Museum. StockHoitm.—Académie Royale des Sciences. Sypnry.—Australian Museum. Toxro.—Imperial University. Zoological Society of Tokyo. Torino.—Musei de Zoologiade AnatomiaComparata della R. Universita. Toronto.—Canadian Institute. Trizste.—Societa Adriatica de Scienze Naturali. XXX. LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Upsata.—Upsala Universitiet. Société Royale des Sciences. W ASHINGTON.—Smithsonian Institution. United States National Museum. United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Weuineton, N.Z.—New Zealand Institute. Wien.—K. K. Naturhistorischen Hofmuseums. K. K. Zoologisch—Botanischen Gesellschaft. ZuRicu.—Zurcher Naturforschende Gesellschaft. "LO6L ‘Y10g saquiajdag “‘TOOTMAAT'T ‘AHISVHEA “O AUNHH 790409 punof pwo pazypny Coe Smo teh ch ae ee UMOP FYSnoiq oourpeg AG—4sT “400 ‘TOCT & VI 18s WAL Vasher @ OE © sreleietesetsvelesichexereieiete shaleerelsiare)creielesexeisis\eisieisierelle "* seuIn[oOA Jo 9[Vg oe 6 kl (9h | HOCCEORD OD pO SOO OISRIHOUEGRObo oo Octo eas onosasdc 00 soul eq ve (0) AS (0) ee ea eae and -/G 4B SIvoIrTy S,toquieyy yuepnyg “ Ie 6 sso es SsemmmyloA TO ose PUL seukIsog OueciaQmess as 9/G 38 Seo OOURTIUTT ,SsIoqUIOTY yUepNa Gg “ OG ile ie ee aes SUOTJAIAOSQNY SUTZOOTION UO SUOTSSTUITIOD ‘ 0 0OLG ~~“ -/¢ 48 saotydriosqng srequieyy yuepnyg OT “ Oo 20 OP arc cea SOS gu ae "* SUOLJIGIUXH UlozuBTT Fo ysog “ On261 Giese SG alte} suordiaosqng JO SIBIIIVW S1Oq ULE] UG Oo Tf eee cccnce ee cec cer cccccne eiclejereleielaleiels AavIquy IO} OT[OJIAOg “c © @ tec eeesececencee on 9/0 qv soo, souRIyUR SToquIey, 9 6c ) we ine crpess RCO rODOOOOON ieyerelnicvare oereiatetsersvers “85> SOTUNIO A, Surpurg ‘ OPAC Se ean “1% 9¥ Suotdrosqng saequieyy Te “ GieS 16S ee eee eee TOMO EL ale ka Lng UM Tepes 9 LT OL elelateferelelelsie BOOOOOUDOOOOUOOOIC 1 “““qUNODDW qSB] jo eouRlVed kg 0 ZF SHDOOOOOUIOODUOUOOOOOD SSUTIOOTY 1B souRpueyyy pur eaL, OL OF ‘TOT “WOE “3deg 04 4ST “900 ‘OO6T 0) Se ‘LOBT ‘TIO “adeg O9 IST “990 ‘OOGT "1D “aHMASVaNL, “NOH ‘AW TAY ‘O ‘SOHL HLIM INAODDY NT 1G ALAIDOS TVWOIDOTOIA TOOddsAIT JHL IRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. INAUGURAL ADDRESS ON SOME ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. By Pror. PATERSON, M.D., Presipent. (Read October 12th, 1900.) INTRODUCTION. My first duty is to thank the Liverpool Biological Society for the compliment paid to me in my election to the post of President for the current Session. It is a great honour to preside over this society, which under the euidance of many enthusiastic Naturalists has attained a position in the district and in the wider sphere of natural science of which it may well be proud: and it is a great honour to succeed men who have previously occupied this chair, men respected and distinguished for their knowledge and their original work. In an ideal state the President of this Society would know everything about something and something about everything. In reality I suspect all your previous Presidents would admit absolute ignorance of many things and partial knowledge of a few. In this respect I feel fully equal to the standard of excellence required. Indeed it is in truth the ever narrowing specialism of Biological science which most of all justifies the existence of such a society as this. Each of us is apt to follow his own solitary pathway of thought to the neglect of the pursuits of others. One of the main objects of our meetings here is to break down the barriers raised by separate investigation, by collectivism to improve on individualism, by sympathy to widen knowledge. One 4 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. common aim inspires us all—to define the action of organic forces, to reduce order out of apparent chaos, to peer as deeply as we can into the well of Truth. It is with special pleasure that I come before you to-day. It is a particular gratification to an anatomist to have the opportunity of discussing with a sympathetic audience some of the difficulties and puzzles that confront him in his special department of Biology. The study of animal morphology is overshadowed by the doctrine of evolution, and the theory must admittedly be tested and tried by the searching light of structure and development. = Paleeontology looks ever backward. Functions may change, and be transferred to structures of an alien pattern. Structure is always reliable. The matter of the origin of species cannot be said to be con- clusively settled. There are many points in vertebrate anatomy which bear upon it, and it is to a few of these points that I wish to direct your attention for a while to-night. The thought has occurred to me that the question of the individuality, or the transmutability of species might be settled definitely by a study of some of the lowest forms of life, such as Bacteria; but if after the exhaustive study of such primitive forms the subject is still baffling, how much greater difficulty does it present when we are con- cerned with complex and highly organised animals, such as Vertebrates. VERTEBRATE ARCHITECTURE. In any study of comparative anatomy our primary object is to decide upon the principal features, the plan of architecture of the animals in question. . Among vertebrate animals obviously the most characteristic features are a tubular structure, bilateral symmetry and segmentation, ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. 5 7 SEGMENTATION. It is of one of these characteristics—segmentation— that I wish to speak a few words. We are rather apt, in my opinion, to attach too much importance to this one feature. We are inclined, I think, to regard vertebrate segmentation as a primary feature, whereas although it is doubtless fundamental and essential, it is really a secondary event or process in the architecture of the animal. There is a still more elementary plan of structure in the vertebrate to which the process of seg- mentation is superadded and applied. The most primitive plan—the essential architecture —of the vertebrate organism is to be seen in the longi- tudinal series (median or lateral) of structures which con- stitute the organs of the body, the notochord, central nervous system, alimentary canal, vascular and genito- urinary organs. These structures are all in their origin unsegmented, and are only secondarily and_ partially affected by the segmental process. Herbert Spencer makes the luminous suggestion that segmentation has arisen on account of the necessities of hfe, for feeding or protection; that lateral cleavage is produced by the stress and strain laid upon a tubular organism in its efforts at locomotion. As a matter of fact, in the embryo the segmental process begins with the formation of organs concerned in the production of a locomotor mechanism—the myotomes or muscle-plates muscles and the axial skeleton. which eventually produce the axial Closely connected with, and immediately subsequent to, the formation of these plates, the nerve roots arise from the spinal cord in pairs, and directed between the myotomes retain in their peripheral course a definitely segmental arrangement, which becomes fixed and stereo- 6 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. typed by the formation at a later period of the vertebral column. Not only the muscular and nervous systems, but other organs and systems become stamped by secondary characters of the same kind, notably the vascular and genito-urinary systems, producing series of segmental vessels and segmental tubules, all be it noted, derived from the same mesoblastic germinal layer. At the same time it must be borne in mind that the essential feature is a longitudinal series of organs, and that the segmentation of the vertebrate is neither constant throughout its length, nor necessarily complete at any point. Time will not permit me to illustrate this point fully, but I may be allowed to refer to one or two organs and systems in passing. The Awial Skeleton—Vhe vertebral segment is never complete even in the skeleton. The nearest approach to it occurs in the thorax, but even here (in mammals) the sternum is interposed to fill up the deficiences of the segmental process, as a longitudinal element which com- pletes the thoracic skeleton. In hmbless reptiles the deficiency remains, and the ribs terminate in free ends. The secondary nature of segmentation is illustrated by the development of the spinal column in rodents. In the rat at birth, when the cartilaginous elements of the skeleton are defined, and the process of ossification is well advanced, the bodies of the vertebree are not segmented off from one another. ‘They are merely constricted at intervals, and the whole series form a kind of thick tubular investment for the notochord. There are further certain obvious instances in which segmentation is arrested: ¢.g., in the cervical vertebre of cetacea, and in the human sacrum. The best instance of ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. 7 all is in the cranium, where there is no clear evidence at all of osseous segmentation, but instead the formation of a laminar basis cranii. ven accepting the essential character of the process, the value and importance of segmentation are diminished when a comparison is made to show its effect in the con- struction of a large group of animals. We are familiar with the subdivision of the mammalian spinal column into regions—neck, chest, loin, pelvis and tail. The causes producing this differentiation are numerous, and are correlated with other differences in the skeleton—site of limb attachment, tail development, length of body required for the reception of viscera, &. Among mam- mals there is no constancy or definition of the number of vertebral segments in any region of the spine. Hven in the neck, where there is greatest constancy, exceptions to the rule occur. We cannot explain these differences, which are fundamental and essential, and are associated with other deep-seated differences of structure. The Peripheral Nerves.—Reterence has already been made to the segmental character of the peripheral nerves : but even in this case the metameric arrangement is not earried out completely, either in the origin or the termina- tion of the nerves. There is no definite segmentation of the grey matter of the spinal cord; on the contrary, the nerve 1o0ots overlap, and have relations with considerable tracts of cord on each side of the point of entrance. Similarly in their distribution, while some motor nerves have necessarily a segmental termination in segmental (intercostal) muscles, as a rule the segmental arrangement of the nerves is obliterated or confused by the formation of plexuses and the distribution of several spinal nerves to a particular muscle or area of skin. These nerve plexuses produce by a combination of 8 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. neighbouring segmental nerve trunks, a series of nerves of distribution to peripheral areas of skin or muscles, which constitute a motor and sensory mechanism for the whole of the district and for the district as a whole with which the plexus is concerned. This is well illustrated by the arrangement of the limbs, to which attention will be directed later on. But it is further remarkable that just as the seg- mental character of the nervous system is most pro- nounced (as might be expected) where the segmental skeleton is most apparent—in the region of the thorax— so in the head region, where osseous segmentation is virtually absent, the segmental nature of the nerves is most doubtful and confused. I do not wish to wander into any fields of speculation about the cranial nerves to-night, but only name them as illustrating the break- down of segmental characters even in the nervous system, and the close association of certain of them (which are most lke spinal nerves) with segmental motor mechanisms or organs, e.g., the third, fourth, sixth, and twelfth nerves, which are the motor nerves to muscles derived from the cephalic myotomes. The Nature of Limbs.—A study of the structure of the limbs of vertebrates shows the influence that this idea of segmentation has upon morphologists. Owen, that greatest of modern comparative anatomists, regarded the limbs as offshoots from the costal arches. Pinning our faith on segmentation, we may evolve the mammalian limb, in imagination, in the following way:—We may start with the segmental parapodia of the annelid. Amphioxus gives us a further advance with a lateral fold, segmented and therefore representing possibly a fusion of these segmental elements. The evanescent wolffan ridge, with its permanent pectoral ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. 4, and pelvic limbs in higher vertebrates, may represent the vestige of this lateral fold: the limbs of elasmobranchs and other fishes, with their more numerous nerves, repre- senting a lower stage of evolution than the hmbs of reptiles, birds, and mammals, in which fewer nerves (and therefore segments) are engaged. Unhappily this theory lacks adequate proof. In the mammalian limb at least the only strictly segmental structures engaged are the nerves, and they, as pointed out already, lose their segmental character for the most part owing to the formation of the limb-plexuses. The mammalian limb is formed as a flap or fold of undifferentiated mesoblast, in which the skeleton forma- tion arises as a cartilaginous core, surrounded by strata of cells from which the muscles of the hmb are produced. The vessels arise zn stu, and although ultimately the structure of the limb, as far as its muscular system is concerned, is related (indirectly) to the segmental muscle- plates, the nerves are our only guides to the segmental character of the limbs, as Goodsir first pointed out. There have been many efforts to trace these seg- mental nerves through the plexuses and through the hmbs. I do not propose to enlarge to-night upon the work that has been done by anatomists, physiologists and clinicians in this field; but we have now a fairly clear picture of the significance of a limb plexus. We know that a plexus does not mean confusion of distribution. It can be made out by careful dissection, by experiment and by clinical observation that the chief occurrence in the formation of a plexus is (1) the division of a series of spinal nerves into subordinate cords, and (2) the union of these subordinate cords (large or small) with one another, so as to produce a series of nerves for the innervation of the limb in such a way that different impulses from a 10 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. particular area or spot may be able to stimulate a wider tract of the spinal cord, and motor impulses from a particular central point may reach more than one muscle, as a given muscular nerve is known to contain fibres from more than one spinal nerve, and a given spot of skin 1s similarly known to be innervated by more than one spinal nerve. In other words, a limb plexus is a nerve-organ for the supply of the limb as a whole, and for the whole limb, providing for the adequate reception of different impulses and for the proper regulation of muscular action. There is further a morphological significance in the upbuilding of the limb plexuses, in which the segmental arrangement is shown, although faintly. Here then, without going further, we have an instance of the value of segmentation in vertebrate architecture. In elasmobranchs, and in reptiles, it appears certain that the muscular apparatus of the limbs is derived directly from the myotomes. In birds and mammals the segmental character of the Limb muscles is obliterated, and they arise i setw from undifferentiated mesoblast. In all vertebrates the nerves are segmental. As in the trunk so in the limbs in their most primitive condition, it is the locomotor mechanism which shows evidence of a segmental origin. But in the mammalian limb, as in the muscular system, so with regard to the nerves, the segmental process is, so to speak, discarded when its work is done. Although the segmental character of the nerves can be traced even in their ultimate distribution to muscles and nerves, yet this feature is partially obliterated, and is forced into a less conspicuous position by the still more fundamental and essential characteristics of the mammalian limb. The Value of Segmentation.—In fine, segmentation may be looked upon as a process which stamps the verte- brate organism with ce:tain definite features, but is not ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. iui necessarily the essential plan of its organisation. It is a process hable to be controlled, modified, and curtailed by other causes, and by the action of other principles in the erowth of the animal. It is a valuable guide up to a certain point, but other principles have to be taken into account as well, in making a wide or general comparison of even vertebrates alone. Segmentation is a factor in organic growth which is utilised as far as is needed, but the extent to which it is carried varies extraordinarily in different animals and in parts of the same animal. The process of segmentation moreover is superadded to the still more fundamental style of architecture, the longi- tudinal tubular arrangement of the essential organs of the body. EMBRYOLOGICAL DIrFICULTIES. The problem of evolution also faces us in the study of the growth and development of an animal. Of course among vertebrates and more particularly mammals, we are dealing with structures highly specialised and compli- cated. But the problem is essentially the same as in simpler forms,—to understand what determines the differentiation of the cellular constituents of the organism, because ultimately this cellular differentiation is the cause of the individual and specific characters of a particular form—the leopard’s spots and the Ethiopian’s skin. A complex organism is built up of organs. Its organs are composed of tissues, and its tissues of cells and their derivatives. In the skeleton there are a series of structures which are obviously, from their size, durability and importance in the animal economy, of the greatest use in the study of comparative anatomy. In comparing one animal with another, or making out the homologies of their structure, a basis of comparison must be taken either 12 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. in the adult bones, or in some embryonic condition of the skeleton common to both animals. 3 I have recently made a study of the development of the breast-bone, and have realised the difficulties which beset this subject in relation to the development of the tissues in the embryo. Like the rest of the skeleton, the sternum begins as myxomatous mesoblastic tissue. Its cells become more closely conglomerated together to form a longitudinal streak or strand of cells (associated at the head end with the developing clavicle.) This cellular band is joined by the ribs, and becomes converted into hyaline cartilage, around which the formation of bone occurs, gradually converting the cartilaginous sternum into blocks of osseous tissue. I hope to have another opportunity this winter of discussing the morphological questions connected with this study. At present it is enough to point out how it illustrates the depth of the difficulty surrounding the evolution of any organism. Here we have a highly complex process occurring not by chance, or apparently on account of extraneous circumstances, but spon- taneously, and in consequence of the inherent vital capacity of the constituent cells, due to the arrangement of their atoms, to their chemical activity, in short, to the functions of protoplasm. There appears to be more predestination than free will in embryology, and not only the plan of the building, but also the materials used are of a regular, definite pattern. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS. One of the strongest arguments in Darwin’s theory of the origin of species is the capacity of individual organisms for variation. I would like for a moment to ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. 13 refer to this subject, and to inquire what bearing the occurrence of anatomical variations may be said to have upon the general problem. Anatomists, from a minute study of a single species, are tolerably familiar with the extent and importance of these variations from the normal. We are all aware how the monotony of the anatomist’s day is varied by the occasional mild excitement caused by the occurrence of an abnormality. It is gravely handled by the professor, examined by the demonstrators, and enthusiastically dissected by the student, until eventually the excitement subsides and the specimen is gone. Variations may be gross or refined, teratological or anatomical. If any philosophical significance attaches to the occurrence of variations, if they are stepping-stones in the pathway of evolution, teratological variations of such a kind as to interfere with the vital functions of the indi- vidual, might be expected to disappear through want of inheritance. Even gross variations can, however, be traced, as a rule, to an excess or arrest of development along the usual lines. They thus have a distinct value (and this is their only scientific value, in my opinion) in corroborating and confirming the path of development of the organ in question (e.g., cleft palate, spina bifida). The development of the kidney and ureter has been in recent years subjected to fresh study, with the result that the accepted view of their formation has been doubted. Such a teratological example as arudimentary kidney and a separate rudimentary ureter, lends support to the orthodox view of the formation of the two organs from separate elements. The occurrence of: variations great and small alike raises some unanswerable questions. 14 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Twins.—Do twins occur merely as sports to increase the gaiety of nations? Or are they extreme examples of a fertility that, occurring in a lesser degree, produces double monsters? Or, again, does their occurrence associate man phylogenetically with any group in which a pair of young is the normal occurrence ? Vigour or Decline.—The female elephant, in certain of its organs—the anthropoid apes, in certain characters of the skeleton, exhibit extraordinary and striking varia- tions. Do such conditions illustrate a progressive ten- dency, or a tendency towards degeneration and decline ? They may be due to a restlessness of disposition caused by excessive vigour, or a flickering vitality, a lack of proper direction and correlation of the forces responsible for the growth of the organism. The Significance of Variations—The share of variations in determining the relationships of species, in deciding the avenue of evolution of an organ or an individual, in even fixing the path of development of an organ in a single species, is, In my opinion, of comparatively small account. Variations per se appear to me to have no more power in the production of specific alterations than the waves beating on the shore in grind- ing corn. Eixcessive development (e.g., double thumb) is not necessarily an advance in development, and vice versa. The variation produced may be something quite remote from the disturbance in development which causes it (e.g., Meckel’s diverticulum). One variation (e.g., supracondy- loid process) may be of little account to the individual ; another (e.g., patent foramen ovale) is of profound importance. A given variation may be common in one species, rare in another (e.g., lateral alterations in the attachment of the ilium and sacrum). | | | | : | SS a ae ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. 15 Again, taking two variations in opposite directions in a given organ, is the commoner variation of more importance than the rarer? Does the more frequent illustrate a tendency in a particular direction on the part of the species in which it occurs? Are we justified in concluding that of the two, that variation which occurs in 605 per cent. indicates progressive change, and the opposite, which occurs in 45 per cent., marks retrogressive change in the species? Teeth—¥or example, it is much more common to meet with individuals whose teeth are below the normal number by reason of the rudimentary character of the wisdom teeth, than those whose teeth exceed the normal Humber. rom this may we infer the existence of a tendency towards diminution in the number of teeth? Yes, we may, if the inference is strengthened by the com- parison in size, form and number of the teeth of man and other mammals. Ffair.—It is similarly more common to find a diminu- tion in the extent and quantity of hair than an excessive growth on head, face or body. It may therefore be in- ferred that man is gradually becoming less hairy, an inference supported by comparative anatomy. Osseous Variations.—For the most part, however, such inferences must be taken with the greatest caution, and in regard to most of the variations which occur no such inferences are possible. No evidence of the existence of a special tendency exists. Osseous variations appear to have a significance only within the narrowest hmits. Vor example, in the vertebral column two classes of variations occur —correlated variations in the number of vertebre in each region, and unilateral variations of individual vertebre. The causes producing these varia- tions are numerous, and may act separately or together. 16 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The correlated changes in coccyx and sacrum are due to atrophy of the caudal vertebre, along with fixation of the pelvis, the erect attitude, «Ke. Correlated variations of the thoracic and lumbar vertebre are dependent upon elongation or diminution of the length of the trunk, possibly associated with differences in the size and rate of growth of viscera, and upon the separation or approxi- mation of the region of the attachment of the limbs. Lumbo-sacral variations are associated with the mode of attachment of the hip-bone to the spine, and present an excellent example of individual variation. Rosenberg has formulated the theory of a phylogenetic shortening of the vertebral column by a telescoping of the spine on the hip-bones, and bases his view in part upon the fact that among the variations in this region there are examples of four instead of five lumbar yvertebre, the fifth being absorbed into the sacrum, and providing an attachment of the ilium. When however we examine a large series of human spines and sacra, we find that an excessive number of pree- sacral vertebre (25) is as common as a diminished number (23). If numbers are of any account—and in a democratic age every yote has the same weight—these variations indicate as great a tendency to elongation as to shortening in the length of the spine. Rosenberg looked upon the form of spine with an excessive number of preesacral vertebre as ‘‘atavistic,” that with a diminished number as a “future” form. The plain fact is that we have here a mere individual variation, indi- cating an oscillation of the hip-bone round its normal attachment. It may in such cases (which occur equally in both directions,—5°3 per cent.) catch on the 24th (last lumbar) vertebra, or it may miss its connection with the 2oth (first sacral) vertebra. ANATOMICAL PROBLEMS BEARING UPON EVOLUTION. ly Similar variations occur in birds, reptiles and fishes, and in the light of comparative anatomy, and of the con- comitant and correlated variations in other organs (e.y., the nervous system) their morphological value becomes extremely restricted. ‘They are indeed merely individual variations in the attachment of the limb to the trunk. Muscular and Vascular Variations—Similarly with other organs and systems, the capacity for variation is restricted to narrowly prescribed limits. In the muscular system the complexity of structure and arrangement is so great that any variation, as a rule, implies the minutest change in the complexity of the system. All the muscular -yariations possible taken together give no clue to the evolution of the system or the ancestry of man. A deficiency of the diaphragm may recall the reptile; but on the other hand, it may only be an individual example of arrested development. The variations in the vascular system are of com- paratively small importance morphologically if we except the great vessels. The mode of formation of blood-vessels and their habit of inosculation, allow readily of variation, mainly because of the occurrence of concomitant varia- tions in neighbouring structures. Any slight obstruction will cause an alteration in the origin and course of an artery. THE VALUE OF ANATOMICAL VARIATION. Variations appear thus to be unreliable guides except within narrow limits. They are exceptions that prove the rule. From abnormalities great or small, we are not justified in drawing any large conclusion. They serve to corroborate or confirm the mode of development of an organ. They serve to indicate morphological or physio- logical disturbance in the district in which they occur, B 18 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. just as abnormal population statistics are a symptom of abnormal conditions of life. A high death-rate means an unhealthy environment. An abnormal relation of the sexes occasionally occurs, e.g., at Southport. In Scotland generally the excess of marriageable females (15 to 45) is 2 in 1,000; in Dundee the excess is 78 in 1,000. This js due not to the special attractiveness of the Dundee males, but to an alteration from normal industrial conditions, and the almost exclusive employment of female labour in the Dundee mills, or, as in Southport, to the absence of industries for marriageable males. Variabihty is something inherent in all growing organisms. It is a sign of vitality and individuality. It has no significance in determining affinities with other species, or in suggesting the existence of any tendency, except the tendency to vary. At the same time the capacity for variation is extremely limited for organ, individual or species. One of the most striking phases in which the individuality and vitality of our race is shown is in what may be called theological variability. In the Protestant Chureh, freedom of thought naturally gives scope to this characteristic, and leads to the production of minor differences of thought and creed; different variations of the same idea, strangely limited, strangely active, but withal not apparently capable of affecting any funda- mental change in the national temper or the national character. 1) FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY COMMITTEE AND THEIR PIOEOGICAL STATION ar PORT ERIN. By Professor W. A. Hrerpman, D-Sc., F.R.S. THERE is nothing remarkable to record in regard to the educational aspects of the work at the Station during the past year; but all lines of work have been continued, and all investigations have advanced a stage. Four L.M.B.C. Memoirs have been published, Volume V. of the “ Fauna” has been issued, meetings have been held at the Station both for scientific purposes and to promote the interests of the insular fisheries, dredging and other expeditions have taken place, nearly all our usual workers —Mr. Thompson, Mr. Walker, Miss Thornely, Mr. Lea, Mr. Leicester, Mr. Scott, and others have continued their researches, and with their help the Curator has prepared a series of distributional charts which will be of use locally to those who visit the laboratory and collect in the neighbourhood, and will also have a wider interest to all who study the distribution of shallow water marine animals as affected by depth, nature of sea-bottom and other conditions. Tur Station Recor. During the past year the following naturalists have worked at the Biological Station, in addition to the Curator (Mr. H. C. Chadwick) who has been in constant attendance with the exception of a fortnight’s holiday in May. i oe 20 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. DATE. NAME. WORK. January Rev. T. 8. Lea Photography. March 28rd Tunicata to Mr. F. J. Cole June 12th and General. * | ( sree fee Rev. T. S. Lea and Mrs. Lea a to July 4th June 26th to 1G. SE SeS Ones ter at ... Marine Alge. July 2nd ie | April 23rd } ) PRO : Le July Mr. I. C. Thompson bat ... Copepoda. — Mr. A. Leicester ... ve ... Mollusca. July 2nd F to Ir. L. St. George Byne ... ... Mollusea. September ae August 23rd ) to Mr. F. W. Headley fs. ... General, September 18th ) ee. Ist ) Mr i. 2) Browne:.- ae ... Meduse. ye 16th | September Mr. C. Turner 38 ee ... General. — Prof. Herdman She Sas ... Tunicata. — Mr. I. C. Thompson ste ... Copepoda. September 29th \ to + Mr. H. Yates oe ae . Polycheta. October ard) . (Mr. I. C. Thompson ) Coneibey | Prof. Herdman ae es | = ( Mr. I. C. Thompson ee 2 November Prof. Herdman : ce ... + Official, (Mv. R. Okell.. j There have also been many visitors to the Station, including the President and Members of the Isle-of-Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Deemster Kneen, Deemster Moore, the High Bailiff of Peel, the High Bailiff of Castletown, Mr. Justice Shee, the Principal, Masters and boys from King William’s College, and many others. CuRATOR’S REPORT. “No effort has been spared to keep the instruments and apparatus in the Laboratory in an efficient condition, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 21 and excepting one of the larger dredges, no appreciable loss or damage has occurred in connection with their use. The larger Shellbend boat is still, after four seasons’ use, in a sound and seaworthy condition. At the close of the season some slight repairs were found necessary, and were easily effected on the spot. The boat was then thoroughly cleaned and re-varnished. The smaller Shellbend boat has not proved quite so serviceable, and repairs by the builder were recently found necessary. The boat is at present at Chester. “A few additions have been made to the Library during the past year, for which we are indebted to Mr. F. W. Headley and others. There is still room in the bookease, and further donations from authors and others will be very welcome. “The Aquarium has attracted over 350 visitors during the season, a number slightly larger than that recorded last year, and it has again been the means of interesting many in the aims of the Committee and the work of the Station, and extending their knowledge of marine lite. “During the early spring I cleaned and remounted the collection of marine shells presented some years ago by Mr. G. W. Wood. They are now exhibited in the glass cases fixed to the wall between the tanks on the upper floor, and each species bears a label on which its local and general distribution is stated. “At the end of March four small lobsters were pre- sented by M. H. Crebbin, and were placed in the tanks along with one captured by myself. Of these three are still living, the others having died during the process of shell-casting. I have fed them occasionally with fresh fish, but shore, edible and hermit crabs appear to be favourite food. The habit of concealing food in the gravel at the bottom of the tank, noticed in last year’s 22, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Report, has been practised by all the specimens. (¢ hs ae cae Fas ae ES “= aap Pa <2) “2S a yt 45 (faES 1) ‘< Bah) oH d YD fax Pow (ale Se aa x) Trent i ro =D) \ S eet SY { ~, j 4 Sey ah Ie Ae ye \ j Red Starfish. Notes on Work Done 1n THE DiIstTRIcr. As usual my companions and fellow-workers in the Committee have kindly supplied me with brief reports as to their work in their own respective groups of animals during the year. In most cases these are merely pre- liminary notices of work which will appear in their own future papers in our volumes of the Fauna or in L.M.B.C. Memoirs. Mr. I. C. THompson reports as follows:— “ As in previous years, Mr. Chadwick has forwarded to me for examination tow-net gatherings taken about Port Erin Bay throughout the year. In addition to these 4 I have collected material during several visits to the Biological Station. In last year’s Report mention was made of some shoals of rare species of Copepoda taken for the first time in the L.M.B.C. district. One of these, the MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. DAT) species being Coryceus anglicus, appeared on the 29th of May, 1899. In the 18th Annual Report of the Fishery Beard for Scotland, just published, Mr. Thomas Scott, FL.S8., reports that on the very same day, May 29th, this Copepod (which had not been recorded in Scottish Seas before or since 1896) was taken by tow-net in the Clyde in the vicinity of Ailsa Craig. The cause of the sudden migration of this southern species in quantity so far north is difficult to imagine. It has not been observed in our district, to my knowledge, during the present year. ‘The general results of my examinations seem to indicate a remarkable sameness in the Plankton throughout the seasons of the year. During the early spring the nets yielded httle but a profusion of Diatoms and Nauplu. The Cladocera, Hvadne nordmanni, and Podon wtermedium were the most conspicuous animals taken in early summer. Since then, with the exception of a single specimen of T’hawmaleus thompsonun, Gies- brecht, new to the district, taken on September 8th, and another since, on November 18th, in Port Erin Bay, about half-a-dozen common species of Copepoda usually formed almost the entire bulk of the material obtained.” “In a paper by Mr. Andrew Scott and myself, pub- lished since the last Annual Report, we have given the following species new to the district, including one new to science :—Amewa exilis, T. and A Scott; Delavaha mimica, T.8.; Laophonte denticornis, T.8.; Leptopsyllus intermedius, T. and A.S.; L. herdmani (new species), I.C.T. and A.S.; Lichomolgus hirsutipes, T.8.; Hersiliodes littoralis (T.S.); Caligus gurnardi, Kroy.; Chondracanthus radiatus, Kroy; and Nicothoe astaci, Aud. and M. Edw.” Mr. Andrew Scott, from the Lancashire Sea Fish Hatchery, at Piel, sends me the following list of twenty additions to our fauna :— 28 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. TREMATODA.—Octocotyle scombri (Kuhn), on gills of Mackerel, Isle-of-Man. Onchocotyle appendiculata (Kuhn), on gills of Raia butis, off-shore stations. Cumacka.—Eudorellopsis deformis (Kroyer), on bottom, N.W. of Bahama Light Ship. Pseudocuma similis, G. O, Sars, on bottom, N.W. of Bahama Light Ship. Ostracopa.—Cythere pellucida, Baird, in shore pools, near Piel. C. porcellanee, Brady, in shore pools, near Piel. C. gibbosa, B. & R., in shore pools, near Piel. Brancutura.—Argulus foliaceus (Linn.), on trout from the Ribble, sent to University College for examination. CopEpopa (free).—Stephus gyrans (Giesbrecht), amongst Laminaria, low tide Barrow channel. Idya mor, T. and A. Seott, amongst Laminaria, low tide Barrow channel. CopEpopa (parasitic)—Bomolochus solee, Claus, m the nostrils of Cod, Barrow channel. Caligus minimus, Otto, inside the mouth of Bass, Labrax lupus, Barrow channel. C. sp.**, inside the mouth of Gurnard, T'rigla gurnardus, Barrow channel, *Pseudocaligus brevipedes (B. Smith), inside the mouth of 3 bearded Rockling, Onus trictrratus, Barrow channel. Lepeophtheirus pollachii, B. Smith, on the tongue of Pollack, Gadus pollachius, off-shore stations. Cyncus pallidus (Van Beneden), on the gills of Conger, Barrow channel. Chondracanthus cornutus (Muller), on the gills of Flounder, Barrow channel. C. clavatus, B. Smith, on the gills of Lemon Sole, Barrow channel. Charopinus dalmanni (Retzius), im the spiracle of R. batis and R. clavata, off-shore stations. Brachiella insidiosa, Heller, on the gills of the Hake, off-shore stations. Mr. Scott has started work on the worm parasites of fishes, and the two Trematodes recorded above are the first fruits of his labour. Cythere pellucida is the * New genus. ** Apparently a new species. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 29 Ostracod which he has selected as the subject of his L.M.B.C. Memoir. The new species and new genus of fish parasites under Copepoda will be described in a paper which Mr. Scott will lay before the Biological Society early next year, and which will contain notes on the other forms in this list. Mr. Scott has finished the drawings for his L.M.B.C. Memoir on the parasitic Copepoda, Lernea branchialis and Lepeophthewus pectoralis, the latter being an external parasite on the flounder. He shows some interesting new stages in their life-history, and has come upon some important points concerning the injury such animals may cause to fishes when present in numbers. Liverpool and the Isle of Man. Miss L. R. Thornely has examined an enormous number of specimens of Hydroid Zoophytes, some dried and some preserved in spirit, obtained during the summer on dredging expeditions round Port Erin; and also many 30 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. dead shells more or less covered with encrusting Polyzoa, with the following results :— Off South end of Isle of Man, from 15 to 30 fathoms :— Hyproip Zooruytes.—Hydrallmania falcata, Obelia genrculata, O. dichotoma, Halecium Beanii, H. tenellum, Diphasva rosacea (beautiful colonies), D. attenuata, Filellum serpens (in large quantities on stems of Sertularia abietina, &e.), with among it “Coppinia arcta”’ of which Professor Nutting has recently given us the history.* Calycella syringa, Clytia johnstont (beautiful colonies with gonothecae), Opercularella lacerata, Bougainvillia muscus, Bimeria vestita, Campanularia hincksi, C. volubilis, C. verticillata, Sertularia abietina, S. aryentea, S. operculata Sertularella polyzonias, S. tenella, Lafoea dumosa, L. fruticosa, Hudendrium capillare, Antennularia ramosa, Plumalaria catharina, P. setacea, Cuspidella costata. Potyzoa.—Cellepora avicularis, C. costazu, C. dichotoma, Eucratea chelata, Bicellaria ciliata, Beania mirabilis, Scrupo- cellaria reptans, S. scruposa, Pedieellina cernua, P. gracilis, Crista eburnea, C. denticulata, Membranipora pilosa, M. cate- nularia, Idmonea serpens, Cellaria fistulosa, Lichenopora hispida, Chorizopora brongniartii, Bowerbankia inbricata, Buskia nitens, Cylindroecium pusillum, Stomatopora johnstoni, Aitea recta, At. anguina, Porella concinna, Valkeria uva, The Zoophytes and Polyzoa of the preceding lists are in some cases crowded upon one another in wonderful profusion. On one piece of Hydrallmania falcata, 5 inches in height, were 14 other species belonging to 13 genera, and on one little piece of Sertularia argentea only two inches in height, were 12 other species representing no less than 12 genera, 5 of them Hydroids, and 7 Polyzoa. * Hydroida from Alaska and Puget Sound, 1899, ending by establishing it, as not an independent hydroid species, but as the gonosome of species of Lafoeidae—in this case, therefore, probably, of Filellum serpens, - MyXpINT BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 51 On dead shells (mostly Pectunculus glycimeris) trawled at 6 miles §.E. of of Calf Island, 30 fathoms, on September 13th, were found the following Potyzoa— Schizoporella linearis, S. unicorns, S. auriculata, Mucronella peach, M. ventricosa, M. variolosa, Hippothoa flagellum, Membranipora catenularia, M. flemingii, M. dumertu, M. craticula, M. imbellis, M. pilosa, M. mem- branacea, Snittia reticulata, S. trispinosa, S. cheilostoma, Microporella ciliata, M. malusti, Diastopora obelia, D. subor- bicularis, Stomatopora johnstoni, S. major, S. expansa, Lichenopora hispida, Chorizopora brongniartii, Aectea recta, Idmonea serpens, Llustra foliacea, Bugula avicularis, Cellepora avicularis, C. dichotoma, C. armata,Crisia ramosa, C. eburnea, Tubulipora lobulata. be Mr. A. O. Waker sends me the following “ Report on the Higher Crustacea from the Biological Station, Port Hrin, received September 26th, 1900” : — ‘The above were contained in four bottles, of which the two containing species new to the District were those from (1) the dredgings of September 15th, 1900, from 6 m. 8S.W. of Calf of Man, in 20 to 30 fathoms, and (2) from low tide at Calf of Man, on September llth. Of the four species in the first bottle, two have not been previously recorded, viz., Gnathia dentata, Sars, two females, and one fine specimen of Iphimedia eblane, Bate. The former of these has not to my knowledge been pre- viously recorded in British waters, and in spite of its agreeing exactly with G. O. Sars’ excellent figure in the Isopoda of Norway, I have considerable hesitation in recording it in the absence of the male. Among Professor Herdman’s tow-nettings after dark in Port Erin Bay the only species calling for remark is Schistomysis spiritus (Norman), which has only been recorded before from Puftin Island. This night-gathering o2 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. consisted chiefly of Szrella norvegica (Sars), mostly young; and Macromysis mermis (Rathke) among Schizopoda; and of Apherusa bispinosa (Bate) and Paratylus swammerdamii (M. Edw) among Amphipoda. The total number of species was 19. Of these six were Podophthalmata, one Cumacean, two Isopoda, and ten Amphipoda, all previously recorded. | A third bottle contained Chelura terebrans, Philippi, from the wooden piles of Ramsey Pier. The fourth contained Amphipoda, &c., from Calf of Man, collected at low spring tide on September 11th. The most abundant species in this were Stenothoe monoculorides (Bate), and Jassa (Podocerus) variegata (Bate and Westwood). [See “Trans. L’pool Biological Society,’ Vol. IX., page 3195. | I retain the generic name Jassa, of Leach, 1815, in place of Parajassa, Stebbing, as I fail to see why it should be displaced by a genus of fossil fish founded in 1839. The bottle also contained several Idoteas too young to be identified with certainty, and a few specimens of Janiropsis breviremis, Sars. This species has not been previously recorded from Liverpool Bay, nor indeed from British waters, except a single female taken by me between tide marks in Valentia Harbour, Ireland. It is easily mistaken for young Janira maculosa, Leach, from which it may be distinguished by the different form of the operculum of the male and the much broader palp of the maxillipedes. This bottle also contained five or six Pyenogonida, which Mr. G. H. Carpenter, who has kindly examined one, considers to be young specimens of Anoplodactylus virescens (Hodge). ‘lwo were still in the hexapod state, and a male had the false feet five-jointed as in Phowichilidium, instead of six-jointed as in adult MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 30 Anoplodactylus, which Mr. G. H. Carpenter considers as a condition of immaturity. The auxiliary claws of the tarsi were rudimentary.” Bringing in the Dredge. Mr. A. Leicester examined the Mollusca and dredge refuse obtained on our dredging expedition of September 13th. He reports to me that the best species found were :— Six miles W.S.W. of Calf, 26 fathoms :— Pecten teste, P. tigrinus, Aclis gulsone, Eulima bilineata, Mya binghami, Lima elliptica, Rissoa striata, R. parva, R. reticulata, Odostomia spiralis, Cyclostrema nitens, C. ser- puloides, Lepton nitidum, Modiolaria marmorata. One mile §.EK. of Calf Sound, 22 fathoms :— Defrancia lWnearis, Lima loscombu, Cardium nodosum, Phasianella pullus, Trochus twmidus, Modiolaria marmorata. Mr. L. St. George Byne and Mr. Leicester spent a considerable amount of time at Port Erin in studying the local Mollusea. I take the following passages from a letter written by Mr. Leicester: —“‘The most interesting discovery was perhaps Laswa rubra. We have only found a few odd ones (dredged) until this occasion, when on the rocks near the Biological Station we found it in C 34 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. quantity inside old Balanus shells. We devoted some time to Littorina rudis and its varieties of which we took a good many, particularly var. globosa. Then the var. elevata of Patella vulgata is very abundant at Port St. Mary. We also took the var. coerulea at the Calf Sound. At Fleshwich we found Patella athleteca and Helcion /evis in good numbers; but it is strange we could not find Trochus heliceonus, and Lacuna divaricata, which I took there some years ago in quantity. Messrs. Leicester and Byne have drawn up a paper on the Mollusca round the south end of the Isle-of-Man, which will probably be published soon. In addition to the above reports, | may state that— (1) Mr. T. S. Lea has continued on two occasions in mid-winter and mid-summer his interesting work in photographing marked areas of rock in the littoral zone in order to compare their condition from year to year and at different seasons. These faunistic photographs have been exhibited as lantern slides to the Biological Society by Mr. Lea. (2) Mr. F. J. Cole, during a month’s work at Haster, continued his studies on the budding and growth of the colony in compound Ascidians commenced the previous year. He also devoted some time to the collection and preservation of material for his L.M.B.C. Memoir on Sagitta, the Arrow-worm. Now that we are specially looking for Sagitta, we find that it is remarkably variable in its appearances and disappearances, being sometimes very abundant everywhere (we have had a record lately of 90 specimens in one haul), and at other times apparently absent both in surface and bottom waters for days at atime. Sometimes it is to be found by sinking the tow- net when none are present on the surface, and during some night tow-nettings which I took in September I MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 35 _ found it was sometimes captured in the dark when we had failed to obtain any during the daytime. We also found in these night tow-nettings a few specimens of the closely allied genus Spadella. (3) Mr. E. T. Browne, during a considerable stay in September and October, collected and studied the Medusz of the Bay. He took regular tow-nettings, and made careful water-colour drawings of his material. Although the season was not a good one for Meduse, and the hauls were often day after day disappointing, still Mr. Browne obtained some new forms and stages to figure, which will doubtless appear in his forthcoming work on the subject. (4) Mr. H. Yates, of Manchester, has done some work on Polychete worms; Mr. C. E. Jones, formerly of Liverpool, now moved to the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, studied sea-weeds in June; and on various visits I have collected and identified Tunicata of various kinds. During the couple of weeks that I spent at Port Erin in September, disappointed in the scarcity of “ plankton ” during the day, and wishing to help Mr. Cole with material for his Memoir on Sagitta—the Arrow-worm— and remembering moreover the tremendous quantities obtained outside the bay in the bottom nets on a former occasion (in January, 1899), I went out in the Shellbend after dark, and took tow-nettings across the mouth of the bay. I did get a few more Sagitta by that method, but no great abundance; and I also got a few specimens of the curious allied form WSpadella. But the most noteworthy result of these night tow- nettings was the greatly increased number of Crustacea obtained. Mr. A. O. Walker tells me of no less than nineteen different species of higher Crustacea in one of these hauls, several of them being rare forms. It is 36 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. curious to notice how the difference between day and night affects some groups of animals in the sea and does not aftect others. Mr. Browne tells me it makes no difference to his Meduse. It certainly makes a marked difference in the Crustacea, which gives the night tow- netting a characteristic appearance. Our Shellbend Boat. SCIENTIFIC MrrTiInGc aT Port Erin. On Saturday, l5th September, 1900, the Isle-of-Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society held a meeting at Port Erin, in the Biological Station. The President, Dr. Richardson, the Secretary, Mr. P. M. C. Kermode, and a number of members of the Society attended. Our Committee was represented by the Hon. Treasurer, the Director, the Curator, and Mr. Kermode. Several workers in the Station at the time were present, and some of the people of Port Erin, so in all a good MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. Of attendance was secured. The Society arrived about mid- day, and after luncheon at the Bellevue Hotel the party assembled in the Biological Station, where the Director, addressing the President, welcomed his party on behalf of the L.M.B.C., reminded them of the objects of the institution, and pointed out briefly the connection between the work carried out there and the investigation and conservation of the Manx fishing industries. The President then replied in the name of his Society, thanked the L.M.B.C. for their hospitality, and urged that the attention of the Insular Government should be drawn to the fact that the recommendation of the Industries Com- mission that a connection should be established between the Government and the Port Erin Biological Station had not yet been carried out. He then called upon Mr. Isaac C. Thompson, who had consented to deliver the address on this occasion. Mr. Thompson’s subject was, “The Place of Copepoda in Nature.” The lecture proved of deep interest, and also conveyed— illustrated, as it was, by wall diagrams and by specimens under microscopes in the laboratory—a large amount of information as to the nature of the Copepoda, their place in the animal kingdom and their utility and importance to man. As reported in “ Nature” (September 20th, p. 498), the lecturer “pointed out that the Copepoda are of the utmost value as scavengers, as they live on the products of decomposition, putrefaction, drainage matter, &c., and by their internal laboratories convert refuse matter into most valuable food material, some Copepoda constituting one of the chief sources of food for some fishes, and so of man. Mr. Thompson said that no less than 200 species have now been found in Liverpool Bay. Their beautiful organisation illustrates the truth that the wonderful structure of some animals which can only be studied with 38 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the microscope shows them to be as full of interest as those familiar to our ordinary vision. Besides the many free-swimming Copepods, there are also many species found as fish parasites, living on the gills and on other external parts of our common fishes; some of these are nourished by the fish and do harm, while others do not, their presence being probably rather an advantage than otherwise.” Mr. Thompson was cordially thanked for his address, and then the formal meeting broke up, and the visitors were taken in parties round the laboratory and aquarium to see the animals in the tanks and the specimens under microscopes. We were glad on this occasion to weleome to Port Erin the Rev. E. H. Kempson, the new Principal of King William College, who expressed a desire that the boys of the School might have some opportunities of visiting the Biological Station. That we readily arranged for, and a few weeks later Mr. Kempson brought over from Outside of Biological Station. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. a9 Castletown a party consisting of Mr. Cartwright, the Science Master, and a set of boys. Our Curator took them round the Aquarium and Laboratory, and demonstrated specimens to them under the microscope. The meeting was, I believe, a success, and will probably be repeated. On occasions like the meetings referred to above, and also on days when a number of visitors come together to the Aquarium, and it is obviously impossible for the Curator to explain the animals in each tank to every visitor, we have often felt the need of a short simply- worded printed description, giving the names and leading characteristics of the chief animals in the tanks. This has led to the decision that we should issue a short GUIDE TO THE AQUARIUM. Consequently I am now drawing up an account which will be appended to a future Report for the benefit of our subscribers and correspondents, and will be sold by the Curator to Aquarium visitors at the nominal price of one penny. The illustrations, which will form a useful and pleasing addition, are, for the most part, being prepared from careful drawings made by our Curator, Mr. Chadwick. DISTRIBUTIONAL CHARTS. (See Plates I. to VII.) The idea of showing on charts the distribution of the various groups of animals in Port Hrin Bay is one that has been before the Committee from the beginning. The practical carrying out of this idea was commenced by myself in 1885, when I spent five weeks in July and August in exploring the neighbourhood, and in making collections by dredging, tow-netting and shore work. I marked at that time all my species on a chart, but came 40 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. to the conclusion in the end that it was still much too incomplete to publish, so in my paper entitled ‘* Notes on the Marine Invertebrate Fauna of the Southern End of the Isle-of-Man,’ which appeared in the first volume of our “ Fauna” in 1886, I contented myself with giving a sketch of the physical features of the neighbourhood, and of the special faunas of the different regions, and then entered opposite the species in the list such localities as “off Port Erin,” “Shore Bay-ny-Carrickey,” ‘* off Spanish Head,” “Shorepools Kitterland,”’ &. That list contained 316 species, the number of species we now have recorded from the south end of the Isle-of-Man is over 2,000. Since the establishment of the Biological Station at Port Erin in 1893, the preparation of these distributional charts has engaged our attention from time to time, and several have been started but never completed. One prepared by Mr. J. H. Vanstone, when Curator, has hung for years on the back of the Laboratory door, and has been added to from time to time. I have recently got Mr. Chadwick to bring together the work of his predecessors and of the members of the Committee, as recorded in our successive reports, and to express it in graphic form on the charts. I have added such additional records as I could from my own experience, and Mr. Thompson, Mr. Chadwick and I have carefully examined and criticised the result, as shown in Plates I.-VII. I may say that although we are confident of the substantial accuracy of all the records on these charts, we are painfully conscious of the many omissions, and of the incompleteness of the faunistic exposition. However, I have come to the conclusion that the only way of obtaining a more adequate record is to issue these incomplete charts in the belief that they will act as a stimulus, and that our students and specialists at the MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 41 Station during the next few seasons will take a salutary pride in demonstrating our omissions, and so gradually fill up the gaps in our present knowledge of the popula- tion of the sea-bottom. We submit then for criticism and completion : —- 1. A chart of the south-west corner of the Isle-of- Man, the wider area in which we often dredge from Port Krin in rowing and sailing boats. ‘This extends from Fleshwich Bay on the north to Spanish Head on the south, and takes in the Calf Sound and the rich dredging ground off Bay Fine and Half-way Rock. This chart is on a smaller scale than those that follow, about 13 inch to the mile. The numbers refer to the names of the species in the list given in the explanation of this Plate I. 2. A series of six charts of the more restricted area of Port Erin Bay, on a larger scale, about 7 inch to the mile. The first of these (Pl. Il.) shows the Physical features, the soundings, and the nature of the bottom. In this, as well as in the following five charts, we have inserted the principal contours of depth, and also a series of magnetic north and south and east and west lines dividing the area into twenty squares, each measuring about 700 feet to the side. ‘The positions of the lines are determined by prominent objects on the shore, which we believe will be easily recognised, and as the vertical and horizontal columns are lettered and numbered, we think that anyone with a little practice, when boating in the bay, will be able to determine in most cases what square he is in. The squares should be quoted by letter and numeral, and will soon become familiar to workers at the Station. For example, the Station itself lies opposite square A.2, the Traie Maenagh swimming bath is in Al, the small boat jetty in B.8, and the buoy at the entrance to the bay is at the junction of four 42 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. squares. The remaining five charts (Plates III.-VII.) deal each with one or more groups of animals, and require no further explanation—each has an explanatory accom- panying list (see p. 52). A “CENSUS” OF THE SHA. I have referred above to these charts in connection with our “knowledge of the population of the sea- bottom.” This work, so far as the DU. MisbsGeae concerned, is an investigation in pure Zoology under- taken with no ulterior economic motives, but it 1s also clearly a first contribution towards that detailed investi- gation of the sea-bottom over the whole of the Irish Sea which I have recently pressed upon the attention of the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Committee and of the Fisheries Department of the Board of Trade, as being at the present time of primary importance to us as a nation interested in great fishing industries. The Fishery Statistics collected and published at present by the Board of Trade are, I contend, inadequate. They do not give us the informa- tion we require. The system does not seem to be designed so as to realise and tackle the problem which ought to be tackled. What we must aim at ascertaining is not what a fisherman catches, but what there is for him to catch. We must in fact get series of accurate observations which will give us fair samples of the populations of the sea on the different grounds at the different seasons. I have spoken of this in brief as aiming at taking an approximate ‘‘census”’ of the sea, but that, of course, is too ambitious-a word, and indicates an exactness to which we probably could never hope to attain. Still the word serves to remind us of our approximate aim, and if we can even determine the numbers of a species on an area between wide limits, it will be of great importance. The MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 43 investigation is, of course, beset with difficulties, but they are not insuperable. One great difficulty is to determine to what extent we can safely draw conclusions from our observations. It may help to realise the problem if I take a homely illustration and liken the investigation to the case of an aeronaut in a balloon trawling along the streets of Liverpool through a thick fog. We may suppose that a drag in the neighbourhood of University College would yield some students—male and female— and a professor; one somewhere about the docks would doubtless capture some sailors, dock labourers, and a stevedore or two, while a lucky shot opposite the ‘Town Hall might bring up a policeman, an electric car, and a couple of Aldermen. Now, if such experiences were repeated over and over. again, would the _ con- clusions that might naturally be drawn by the intelligent aeronaut as to the relations between organisms and environment in Liverpool be correct? ‘The observed association of students with a professor, and of both with a college, would be justifiable. It would be eorrect to conclude that sailors, dock labourers and steve- dores frequent the docks, and that Aldermen have some connection with a-Town Hall; but the fact that electric cars are also abundant in front of the Town Hall is non- essential, and any conclusion such as that Aldermen and electric cars are usually associated with the same habitat, and are in any way inter-dependent, would be erroneous. We can imagine many other cases of this kind where appearances might at first be deceptive, and _ false inferences might be drawn from observed facts. On the other hand, some true conclusions would be clearly indi- cated; and I do not doubt that it is much the same in our investigations as to the condition and population of 44 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the sea-bottom. It is probable, moreover, that the false inferences would be corrected by the accumulation of a greater number of statistics. It might be made out from further observations that electric cars are liable to become massed in various parts of the town, and haye no necessary connection with Aldermen, and that policemen are widely but sporadically distributed. The more numerous our observations, the more our statistics accumulate, the less chance is there of erroneous conclusions. My contention, then, is that such an investigation of our seas must be made, that it is urgent and should he made now, and that the Ivish Sea is favourably situated and circumstanced at present to be made a test case before undertaking the much wider and still more difficult expanse of the North Sea, complicated by International questions. The Irish Sea is of moderate and manageable dimensions. It is all bounded by British territory and by sea fisheries authorities who might be got to agree as to their regulations. It is a “self-contained” fish area, con- taining spawning banks, feeding grounds and ‘‘nurseries.” It has several marine laboratories on its borders which would form centres for investigation, and it is controlled by two or three powerful Sea-Fisheries Committees, provided with excellent steamers, which might combine in the work. All that is required, beyond a carefully con- sidered scheme of work, is authority from the Government to the local Committees to carry out such work, and a subsidy for say five years to meet the increased expense. The Select Committee of the House of Commons, which considered the Undersized Fish Bill last summer, clearly recognised in their report the need of such a scheme of investigations, and they recommended that a — Government Department should be equipped to carry it out. I am of opinion that the matter would be better MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 45 entrusted, as I have indicated above, to the local Sea- Fisheries Committees. 7 In addition to the investigation of the bottom by dredging and trawling, the plankton in the surface and other waters would require periodic examination. We have discussed this fully during the past summer, both at Port Erin and Liverpool, and have had the advantage of 4 al hearing the opinion of Mr. I. T. Browne, who has had er SFERPOOL 2» BAY SS bc! Hilbre!l li.M.B.C. District. much experience of late years in plankton work. In order to get an adequate idea of the distribution of the minute floating organisms of our seas, we should certainly require to have weekly observations (or possibly even twice a week) taken, at both surface and bottom, at certain specified stations round the coast, of which we should recognise four as being necessary in the Irish Sea, 46 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. and about 15 round the whole British Coast. We are willing to play our part in any such general scheme, but in the meantime we are going on with the work in our own district. Mr. Thompson, Mr. Scott, Mr. Chadwick and Mr. Ascroft are all at work, and we have drawn up and agreed upon a common list of pelagic organisms the occurrences of which in the various parts of our district will be periodically registered. L.M.B.C. Memoirs anp oTHER PUBLICATIONS. After a rather longer interval than usual the oth volume of otir “‘ Fauna and Flora of Liverpool Bay” has been issued this winter. It contains reprints of the L.M.B.C. papers and reports since 1895, the date of publication of Vol. LY. 7 A new recruit to our band of workers, Mr. Herbert C. Robinson, who has recently joined the staff of the Zoological Department of University College as ‘Honorary Research Assistant,’ has undertaken to pre- pare for our “ Fauna” a report upon the Marine Birds of the District. This will be ready for publication early in 1901, and Mr. Robinson has supplied me with the following note in regard to it : — “ Defining ‘Sea and Shore Birds’ in the most hberal sense, the L.M.B.C. area may be said to harbour some 80 to 100 species, of which, however, a very considerable proportion are of purely accidental occurrence. It is proposed to compile a list of those species which can in any sense be termed littoral or marine, which as far as is known have occurred in the district during the present century, whether as occasional visitors, on migration, or as residents. To each order will be prefixed a simple key, which it is hoped will render it possible to identify any species which is at all likely to be met with, whilst short descriptions of the various plumages and records of MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. AT localities will be given under the head of each species. A bibliography of works bearing on the subject will be added in conclusion. From the nature of the subject the report can be nothing more than the merest compila- tion, but it is hoped that it may be of service as con- centrating information which is at present somewhat scattered.” It will be remembered that the scheme of preparing and publishing a series of L.M.B.C. Memoirs on single marine animals or plants, written by specialists, was started about a year ago; and in last year’s Report the issue of the first Memoir, that on Ascrpia, was duly noticed. We also recorded there the kind donations of Mr. F. H. Gossage, which had made the publication of the Memoirs possible, and had met the expense of the preparation of good plates to illustrate the series. I am clad to be able now to announce that Mrs. Holt has lately sent me a cheque for £50, to be applied to the publication of further Memoirs. These kind gifts from both Mr. Gossage and Mrs. Holt have been a most effective help, and are appreciated by the Committee as a very welcome encouragement. Four Memoirs have now been issued, of which three are Zoological and one Botanical, viz. :— Memoir I. Ascrp1a; by Professor W. A. Herdman— published in October, 1899, with 60 pp. and five plates. , I. Carpium, by Mr. James Johnstone—pub- lished in December, 1899, with 92 pp., six plates and a map. peli Ecuinvus, by Mr. H. C. Chadwick—published in February, 1900, with 36 pp. and five plates. » LV. Copium, by Professor Harvey Gibson and Miss H. P. Auld—published in April, 1900, with 26 pp. and three plates. 48 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The next two Memoirs, No. V., Atcyonium, by Professor Hickson, and No. VI., on the Fish Parasites Lern#xA and LEerrorpHtuHerrvs, by Mr. Andrew Scott, are now in the printer’s hands, and will be ready for distribu- tion in a few weeks. Linevus, by Mr. R. C. Punnett, will probably be out early in 1901. | Others, such as the Oyster, Sacirra, and the Piarcr are in preparation. In order to meet the wishes of the bookselling trade, the L.M.B.C. have decided to place the sale of their Memoirs in future in the hands of a well-known firm of scientific publishers, and they have made arrangements to this effect with Messrs. Wilhams & Norgate. This arrangement, however, is only in regard to the sale of the volumes, and does not relieve the L.M.B.C. of any responsibility either scientific or financial. The production of the Memoirs will still take place in. Liverpool, under the editorship and control of the officers of the Committee, Messrs. Williams & Norgate merely acting as agents for the distribution and sale of the books. Any of the other L.M.B.C. volumes or reports can also be obtained through Messrs. Williams & Norgate. The complete list of the L.M.B.C. Memoirs published and in contemplation is now as follows : — MemoirlI. Ascrpra, W. A. Herdman, 60 pp., 5 Pls. II. Carpium, J. Johnstone, 92 pp., 7 Pls. III. Ecurnus, H. C. Chadwick, 36 pp., 5 Pls. TV. Copium, R. J. H. Gibson and Helen Auld. VY. Aucyonium, S. J. Hickson, 30 pp., 3 Pls. ‘VI. Lernma and Lerecorutuerrus, Andrew Scott. Dzrnpronotus, J. A. Clubb. Peripinians, G. Murray and F. G. Whitting. ZostERA, R. J. Harvey Gibson. Himantuatia, C. E. Jones. Dratoms, F. E. Weiss, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 49 Fucus, J. B. Farmer. Gigartina, O. V. Darbishire. Pratce, F. J. Cole and J. Johnstone. BorrytuomEs, W. A. Herdman. Currie-Fish (Hueponr), W. EH. Hoyle. Ostracop (CYTHERE), Andrew Scott. Poon ds kk. A. Davas and H..J. Fleure. Caxianus, I. C. Thompson. Actinta, J. A. Clubb. Bueura, Laura R. Thornely. Hyprorp, KE. T. Browne. Myxine, G. B. Howes. Buccinum, M. F. Woodward. CALCAREOUS SPONGE, R. Hanitsch. Lingus, R. C.. Punnett. A PuaTyetmMintH, A. H. Shipley. pacirna, F. J. Cole. ArgEnicoua, J. H. Ashworth. AnTEDON, H. C. Chadwick. Oyster, W. A. Herdman and J. T. Jenkins, Porporsr, A. M. Paterson. In addition to these, other Memoirs will be arranged for, on suitable types, such as Carcinus, an Amphipod and a Pyenogonid (probably by A. R. Jackson). CONCLUSION. I think our Committee may claim that this is a favourable Report, and that it shows that there is a good deal of work being done upon a very small expenditure. And I have two remarks to make by way of conclusions drawn from a consideration of the year’s work. The first is that our Treasurer wants more money. We are very grateful to our annual subscribers who give us our steady though restricted income, and so keep the Laboratory D 50 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. going, and also to kind friends hke Mr. Gossage and Mrs. Holt, who have given us special larger donations to be apphed to particular purposes. But if we had more money there is no doubt a great deal more work could be undertaken. We ought to have a larger Laboratory at Port Erin, a fish hatchery attached to it would be most useful, and a fund such as would enable us to make a freer use of boats and engage steam trawlers more frequently for expeditions would be a great advantage. My second remark is that we want not only money but also Wen. Personally I think more of men than of money. This L.M.B.C. work was started on the principles of co-operation and sub-division of labour, each man— and woman—cultivating his or her own little corner of the field, and there is still plenty of waste land to reclaim. We want new recruits, and especially young, active, enthusiastic recruits, and we can offer them the most delightful of pursuits—field work in Natural History. It is the most healthy, the most happy, the most engrossing and the most satisfying, physically, mentally and morally, of all occupations. Hvyen taken merely as a hobby, it has been found by many busy professional and business men that the pursuit of some branch of Natural History adds a new pleasure to existence, gives them a constant interest in their open-air surroundings, lifts them above the petty cares and worries of the work-a-day life, and lets a little of the sun- shine of Nature into their souls. The subject of Marine Biology is as wide and as varied as the sea that environs it, and it bristles with problems of every description. The collector and classi- fier, the observer of habits, the investigator of life- histories, the morphologist studying structure, and the physiologist function, the bacteriologist and the chemico- pee aS ee MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 51 biologist, the most transcendental evolutionist, and even the humble but necessary speciographer, whom it is the fashion now in some quarters to despise and deride, will all find in our local oceanography an ample field for their special researches. Here is work for many minds and many hands for many a year to come. 52, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY: EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PavAcay eae: Key to the Chart of the South-western corner of the Isle of Man. FIG. 1. Ascetta primordialis, off Port Erin, 17 fms. 2. Sycon ciliatum, off Bay Fine, 18 fms, ete. 3. Sycon asperum, off Port Erin. 4. Leucosolenia cortacea, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. 5. Ute glabra, one mile off Bradda Head, 15 fms. 6. Leucandra gosset, m1 caves near Sugar loaf Rock. 7. Halichondria panicea, off Bay Fine, ete. 8. Pachymatisma johnstonia, 1 caves near Sugar-loat Rock. 9. Stelleta collingsi, in caves. 10. Amphilectus incrustans, in caves. 11. Axinella stunosa, off Port Erin, 15 to 20 fms. 12. Suberites domuncula, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. «| 13. Clhona celata, off Bay Fine, 18 fms; a quarter mile W. of Fleshwick Bay, 13 fms; off Port Erin. 14. Hydractinia echinata, oft Port Erin Breakwater, ete. 15. Coryne vaginata, on Fucus around Calf Island. 16. Hudendriwm ramosum, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Budendrium capillare (2), on Hyas coarctatus, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 ims. 18. Garvera mitans, off Spanish Head, 15 fms. 19. Tubularia indivisa, on rocks around Calf Island and in Caves. 20. Tubularia simpler (2), off Spanish Head, 15 fms. Yl. Clytia johnstoni, off Bradda Head, 15 fms. 22, Obelia flabellata, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. 23. Obelia dichotoma, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. FIG. 28. 49. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. ys) Campanularia volubilis, off Spanish Head. Campanularia verticillata, off Bay Fine, 18 fms. Campanularia hincksit, off Spanish Head. Campanularia caliculata, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Campanularia angulata, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Campanularia flexuosa, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Campanularia neglecta, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fins. Gonothyrea lovéni, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. ; off Bay Fine, 18 fms. Lafoéa dumosa, off Bay Fine, 18 fms.; off Spanish Head, 10 to 20 fms. Calycella syringa, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Coppinia arcta, off Spanish Head. Halectum halecinum, off Port Erin, Bay Fine, and Spanish Head, 10 to 20 fms. Halectum beann, off Bay Fine, 15 to 18 fms.; off Spanish Head. Sertularella polyzonias, off Port Erin and Bay Fine. Sertularella rugosa, off Bradda Head, 15 fms. Diphasia rosacea, off Port Krin, 10 to 20 fms. Sertularia abietina, off Spanish Head, N. side of Calf Island and Bay Fine. Sertularia operculata, off Spanish Head. Sertularia filicula, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Sertularia argentea, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Hydrallmania falcata, off Spanish Head, ete. . Antennularia ramosa, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fins. ; off Bradda Head and Halfway Rock. ». Antennularia antennina, off Spanish Head and Bay Fine, 18 fms. Aglaophenia pluma, off Bradda Head. Aglaophenia myriophyllum, off Halfway Rock and Bay Fine, 15 fms. Plumularia catharina, off Halfway Rock, 54 FIG. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Plumularia purnata, off Bradda Head. Sagartia nivea, off Halfway Rock and on Calf Island. . Sagartia venusta, on Clets and Calf Island. . Sagartia miniata, on Clets and Calf Island. Corynactis viridis, off Port Erin Breakwater, and Spanish Head. Epizoanthus (Polythoa) arenacea, off Spanish Head. Adamsia palliata, off Port Erin Breakwater, Bay Fine, and Spanish Head. Urticina (Tealia) crassicornis, generally distributed on rocky ground. Alcyonium digitatum, on Port Erin Breakwater, and off Spanish Head. Sarcodityon catenata, off Bay Fine, Port Ren: and Spanish Head. Asterias rubens, off Bradda Head, Bay Fine, etc. Asterias glacialis, N. of Calf Island, 14 fms. Henricia sanguinolenta, off Port Erin, Halfway Rock and Aldrick. Stichaster roseus, off N. corner of Calf Island, 17 fms. Solaster endeca, off Bay Fine and Halfway Rock. Solaster papposus, off Bradda Head, Bay Fine, and Kitterland. Paluipes placenta, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. Porania pulvillus, off Bay Fine, 18 tms, and N. of Calf Sound. Astropecten irreqularis, off Bradda Head. Ophiura ciliaris, off Port Erin Breakwater, Bay Bing and Aldrick. Ophiura albida, off Port Krin, Bay Fine, and Aldrick. Amphiura elegans, off Port Erin Breakwater, and Bay Fine. Ophiopholis aculeata, off Port Eri, 12 fms. Ophiocoma nigra, off Bay Fine and Aldrick. FIG, OL. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 595) Ophithrix pentaphyllum, off Bay Fine, Aldrick, Spanish Head, ete. | Ocnus brunneus, off Port Erin and Spanish Head. Thyone papillosa, off Castles, Port Erin, 15 fms. Thyone fusus, off Port Krin, 20 fms. Thyone raphanus, off Port Erin, 20 fms. Cucumaria hyndmanni, off Port Erin, 20 fms. Hchinus esculentus, generally distributed on rocky ground. Echinus miliaris, off Port Erin Breakwater, and Bay Fine. fichinocyamus pusillus, off Bay Fine, Aldrick and Halfway Rock. Spatangus purpureus, off Port Krin, 15 fms, and off Aldrick, 18 fms. E’chinocardium flavescens, one mile off Bradda Head, 15 fms. Antedon bifida (=rosacea), off Castles, Port Erin, and off Bay Fine, 18 fms. Lineus longissimus, off N. Corner of Calf Islaind,17 fms. Amphiporus pulcher, off Port Erin, Bay Fine, Aldrick, ~ ete. ‘ Micrura fasciolata, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. Micrura candida, N. of Halfway Rock, 15 fms. Carinella aragoi, N. of Halfway Rock, 15 to 18 fms. Cephalothrix bioculata, off Port Erin, 15 fms. Tetrastemma melanocephalum, off Port Erin, 15 to 20 fms. Tetrastemma robertiane, off Port Krin, 15 fms. Prosorhochmus claparedii, N. of Halfway Rock, 15 fms. Cerebratulus fuscus, off Port Erin, 15 to 20 fms. Polygordius sp., off Bradda Head. . Hermione hystrix, off Port Erin, Halfway Rock, and Spanish Head, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Aphrodita aculeata, N. of Calf Island. Polynoe squamata, off Port Erin and Spanish Head. Polynoe halhieti, off Port Hrin, 15 fms. Halosydna gelatinosa, off Aldrick and Bay Fine, 15 to 20 fms. Hermadion assvmile, on Echinus, off Port Erin and Bay Fine. Sthenelars zetlandica, off Port Erin, 20 fms. Chetopterus variopedatus, N. of Calf Island. Pectinaria belgica, off Port Erin, 20 fms. Terebella nebulosa, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Serpula vermicularis, off Port Erin, Spanish Head, etc, Serpula triqueter, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. Filograna implexa, off Bradda Head, Bay Fine, ete. Atea truncata, off Port Krin, 10 to 15 fms. Aftea recta, off Haltway Rock. Gemellaria loricata, off Port Erin and Bay Fine. Eucratea chelata, off Port Erin. | Scrupocellaria scrupea, off Halfway Rock. Canda (Scrupocellaria) reptans, off Port Eri, Half- way Rock, ete. : Bicellaria ciliata, off Bay Fine. Bugula turbinata, off Bay Fine. Bugula flabellata, off Bradda Head. Bugula plumosa, off Port Erin. Bugula calathus, off Bradda Head. Beania mirabilis, off Port Erin, 5 to 10 fms. . Cellaria fistulosa, off Bay Fine and Halfway Rock. Elustra foliacea, off Port Erin. Membranipora pilosa, generally distributed. Membranipora catenularia, off Port Erin. Membranipora craticula, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. FIG. 125. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. Syl Membranpora flemingu, off Port Erm and Halfway Rock. Membranipora dumerdli, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Membranipora imbellis, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Cribrilina punctata, off Spanish Head. Membraniporella nitida, off Spanish Head. Microporella malusu, off Port Krin and Halfway Rock. Microporella ciliata, off Port Krin and Halfway Rock. Chorizopora brongniarti, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Schizoporella linearis, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Schizoporella spuifera, off Port Erin. Schizotheca fissa, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Hippothoa divaricata, off Port Erin and Halfway hock. . Hippothoa distans, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Lepralia edax, N. of Kitterland, 18 fms. Porella concinna, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Smittia trispinosa, off Port Hrin and Halfway Rock. Smittia reticulata, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Mucronella peachii, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Mucronella ventricosa, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Mucronella coccinea, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Cellepora pumicosa, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Cellepora costazu, off Port Evin and Halfway Rosk. Cellepora dichotoma, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Crisia cornuta, off Port Krin and Halfway Rock. Crisia eburnea, off Spanish Head and Bay Fine. Crisia ramosa, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Stomatopora johnstoni, off Port Erin and Halfway toek. 58 FIG 151. 152. 153. i 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 163: PAO: Lys 2? liver. 174. 175. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Tubulipora flabellaris, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Idmonea serpens, off Halfway Rock. Diastopora suborbicularis, off Port Erin and Haltway Rock. Diastopora patina, off Port Erin, Halfway Rock, and Spanish Head. Diastopora obelia, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Lichenopora hispida, off Spanish Head. Alcyonidium gelatinosum, off Port Erin. Alcyonidium mytili, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Alcyonidium hirsutum, off Port Erin. Amathia lendigera, off Castles, Port Erin, 12 fms. Bowerbankia pustulosa, off Port Erin, 10 to 15 fms. Cylindrecium dilatatum, off Port Erin, 10 to 15 fms. Mimosella gracilis, off Bay Fine. Pedicellina cernua, off Bradda Head and Bay Fine. Cancer pagurus, generally’ distributed on rocky ground. | Xantho tuberculata, off Halfway Rock. Carcinus menas, generally distributed in shallow water. Portunus pusillus, outside Port Erin breakwater and off Bay Fine. Portunus arcuatus, + mile off shore, W. of Fleshwick Bay. Portunus puber, outside Breakwater, and off Bay Fine. Pinnotheres veterum, off Aldrick. Macropodia (Stenorhynchus) rostrata, generally dis- tributed. Inachus dorsettensis, + mile N. of Kitterland, 18 fms: Hyas araneus, generally distributed in shallow water. Hyas coarctatus, generally distributed in shallow water. FIG. 176. lithe 178. 1729. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. LST. 188. 189. 190. HOt. 192. 198. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. UE 200. 201. 202. 208. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. a9 Pisa biaculeata, off Port Erin. Eurynome aspera, off Bay Fine, Aldrick, and Spanish Head. Ebaha tuberosa, off Port Erin and Bay Fine. Ebalia cranchu, off Port Erin, and N. of Kitterland. Ebalia tumefacta, off Spanish Head. Hupagurus bernhardus, generally distributed. Eupagurus prideaux, off Port Erin Breakwater, Bay Fine, and Spanish Head. EHupagurus cuanensis, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. Porcellana longicornis, off Bay Fine and Aldrick. Galathea intermedia, generally distributed. Galathea dispersa, off Halfway Reck, 18 fms. Galathea nexa, off Bay Fine and Aldrick. Palinurus vulgaris, off Calf Island. Astacus gammarus (Homarus vulgaris), generally distributed on rocky ground. Crangon vulgaris, off Port Erin. Crangon trispinosus, off Breakwater and Bay Fine. Crangon allmani, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. Crangon fasciatus, outside Breakwater, Port Erin. Hippolyte varians, generally distributed. Spirontocaris spinus, off Bay Fine. Pandalus annulicornis, generally distributed. Idotea marina, generally distributed. Astacilla longicornis, off Bay Fine. Pleurocrypta intermedia, on Galathea intermedia, off Bay Fine. Ampelisca -macrocephala, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Leucothoe spinicarpa, off Port Krin. Eusirus longipes, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Balanus balanoides, generally distributed on rocks between tide marks. 60 FIG 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. NIL, 212. 213. 214. Zila. 216. 217. 218. PUG): 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Scalpellum vulgare, on Antennularia ramosa, off Bay Fine. Pallene brevirostris, off Spanish Head. Phoxichilidium femoratum, off Port Erin. Pephredo hirsuta (2), off Port Erin, 15 fms. Phoxichilus spinosus, off Port Erin, 15 fms. Pycnogonum littorale, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms, and Aldrick. Anomia ephippium, generally distributed. Ostrea edulis, off Halfway Rock, 18 fms. Pecten varius, off Bay Fine and Aldrick. Pecten opercularis, off Bradda Head and Aldrick. Pecten tigrinus, off Bay Fine and Aldrick. Pecten pusto, off Halfway Rock. Pecten maximus, off Aldrick and Calf Island. Lima loscombii, off Spanish Head and Bay Fine. Lima elliptica, off Spanish Head. Mytilus modiolus, off Calf Island and Spanish Head. Modiolaria marmorata, off Spanish Head. Nucula nucleus, off Bradda Head and Spanish Head. Pectunculus glyctmeris, off Bay Fine, Aldrick, ete. Arca tetragona, off Spanish Head. Lepton sp., off Kitterland. Cardium echinatum, off Port Erin. Cardium norvegicum, off Port Eri and Bay Fine; dead but fresh. Cyprina islandica, off Bay Fine and Isitterland ; dead but fresh. Astarte sulcata, off Port Erin, 10 to 20 fms. Venus exoleta, off Port Erin and Bay Fine. Venus lincta, off Breakwater and Bay Fine; dead but fresh. Venus casina, off Port Erin and Halfway Rock. Tapes virgineus, off Bay Fine and Spanish Head. FIG. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244, 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 250. Dol. 252. 253. 254. 955. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. Vien BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 61 Tellina balthica, off Port Erin. Psammobia tellinella, off Spanish Head. Mactra solida, off Port Erin. | Pandora inequivalvis, off Bay Fine. Thracia pretenuis, off Port Erin. Mya truncata, off Bay Fine. Saxicava rugosa, off Bay Fine and Aldrick. Dentalium entale, off Bradda Head and Spanish Head, 20 fms. Chiton cancellatus, off Port Erin. Chiton cinereus, off Bay Fine and Spanish Head. Emarginula fissura, off Port Evin and Spanish Head. Fissurella greca, off Port Erin and Spanish Head. Capulus hungaricus, off Bay Fine. Cyclostrema nitens, off Kitterland. Trochus zizyphinus, off Port Erin, Bay Fine, ete. Trochus magus, off Port Erin and Aldrick. Trochus millegranus, off Halfway Rock. Phasianella pullus, off Breakwater, Port Erin. Odostomia nitidissima, off Kitterland. Odostomia acicula, oft Kitterland. Odostomia rufa, off Breakwater, Port Erin. Hulima bilineata, off Kitterland. Natica catena, off Spanish Head. Natica alderi, off Bay Fine and Spanish Head. Velutina levigata, off Bay Fine. Aporrhais pes-pelricani, off Port Erin and Aldrick. Buccinum undatum, generally distributed. Murex erinaceus, off Bay Fine, Aldrick, and Spanish Head. Trophon muricatus, off Port rin. Fusus gracilis, off Spanish Head. Fusus antiquus, off Spanish Head. Pleurotoma nebula, off Port Erin. 62, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. FIG. 265. Pleurotoma turricola, off Spanish Head. 266. Cyprea europea, off Port Erin and Aldrick. 267. Act@on tornatilis, off Castles, Port Erin. 268. Bulla hydatis, off Castles and Bay Fine. 269. Scaphander lignarius, off Bay Fine. 270. Aplysia punctata, generally distributed. 271. Pleurobranchus membranaceus, off Spanish Head. 272: Gonitodoris castanea, off Spanish Head. 273. Triopa claviger, off Bay Fine. 274. Polycera quadrilimeata, off Breakwater and Bay Fine. 275. Dendronotus arborescens, off Spanish Head. 276. Hero formosa, off Bay Fine. 277. Doto coronata, off Breakwater and Bay Fine. 278. Doto pinnatifida, off Bay Fine. 279. Doto fragilis, off Port Erin and Spanish Head. 280. Facelina drummondi, off Breakwater, Port Erin. 281. Coryphella lineata, off Port Erin, 10 fms. 282. Cratena amena, off Halfway Rock. 9283. Galvina picta, off Port Erin. 984. Galvina farrani, off Breakwater, Port Erin. 285. Galvina tricolor, off Breakwater and Spanish Head. 286. Runcina coronata, off Bay Fine. 287. Acte@onia corrugata, off Bay Fine. 288. Limapontia nigra, off Bay Fine. 289. Melampus bidentatus, off Bay Fine. 290. Botrylloides rubrum, off Spanish Head. 291. Morchelliwm argus, off Bay Fine, Halfway Rock, ete. 292. Leptoclinum asperum, off Port Krin. 293. Leptochinum durum, off Breakwater, Port Erin. 294. Clavelina lepadiformis, off Castles, Bay Fine, and Spanish Head. 295. Perophora listert, off Bay Fine and Spanish Head. 296. Ciona intestinalis, generally distributed. 297. Ascidiella virginea, off Port Erin, 10 fms, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 63 FIG. 998. Ascidiella scabra, off Port Erin, 10 fms. 299. Ascidiella venosa, off Aldrick. 300. Ascidiella aspersa, off Breakwater, Bay Fine, ete. 801. Ascidia mentula, off Bay Fine and Halfway Rock. 802. Ascidia plebeia, otf Spanish Head, 20 fins. 308. Corella parallelogramma, off Castles, Bay Fine, and Spanish Head. 304. Styelopsis grossularia, off Port Erin and Spanish : Head. 805. ~Polycarpa comata, off Halfway Rock. 306. Polycarpa pomaria, off Bay Fine, 12 fms. 3807. Polycarpa glomerata, mM caves. 308. Polycarpa monensis, off Port Erin, 15 fms. 309. Cynthia morus, off Halfway Rock and Bay Fine. 310. Molgula occulta, off Bradda Head and Spanish Head. 311. Hugyra glutinans, off Halfway Rock and Spanish Head. leipegiiat Uke This Chart shows the physical features, soundings, and bottoms in Port Erin Bay, and is explained on page 41. Puats- III. Key to the Chart, showing the distribution of the PorrrEra, CokLENTERA, and HcHINoDERMA. FIG. 1. Leucosolenia coriacea, mm coralline pools, and at Fleshwick. 2. Leucosolenia botryoides, in Pat’s Dub and other coralline pools, and at Fleshwick. 3. Sycon compressum, in coralline pools and under stones, and at Fleshwick. 4, Sycon coronatum, in coralline pools and under stones, and at Fleshwick. 64 FIG. D. ~ Ie, TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Leucandra gossei, under stones at extreme low water, and at Fleshwick. Leucandra fistulosa, under stones at extreme low water, and at Fleshwick. Leucandra johnstoni, under stones at extreme low water, and at Fleshwick. Leucandra nivea, under stones and on boulders, and at Fleshwick. | Halisarca dujardini, in coralline pools. Halichondiia panicea, under stones and on rocks, and at Fleshwick. Reniera elegans, 1 coralline pools. Renera densa, in coralline pools. Amphilectus incrustans, on boulders at extreme low water. Myxitla (Halichondria) wregularis, ander stones at extreme low water. Hymeniacidon caruncala, on rocks and boulders. Hymenacidon sanguineum, on rocks and boulders. Clava nulticornis, on Fucus, and in coralline pools. TTydractinia echinata, on shell of Buccinum mhabited by Hupagurus. Coryne vaginata, under ledges of rock at low water. Tubularia larynx, under stones and on Breakwater. Clytia johnstonr, on Chorda filum. Obelia geniculata, on Chorda filum and Laminaria. Campanulina repens, in rock pool. Coppinia arcta. Sertularia pumila, under ledges of rock at low water. Antennularia antennina, off Bradda Head. Antennularia ramosa, off Bradda Head. Plumularia echinulata, im coralline pools. Alcyonium digitatum, on Breakwater. Sarcodictyon catenata, off Breakwater. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 65 Corynactis viridis, in rock pools and off Breakwater. Halcampa crysanthellum, m sand at low water. Metridiwm (Actinoloba) dianthus, on Breakwater. Sagartia bellis, in coralline pools. Sagartia venusta, in crevices of rock at extreme low water. Sagartia miniata, in erevices of rock at extreme low water. Adamsia palliata, on shell inhabited by Eupaqurus prideaux. Actinia equina, common on rocks between tide marks. Anemonia sulcata, common in pools and at low water. Urticina (= Tealia) crassicornis,common at low water. Bunodes verrucosa (gemmacea), common in pools and crevices at-low water. Asterias rubens, at and below low water mark, common. TTenricia sanguinolenta, amongst roots of Laminaria and outside Breakwater. Solaster papposus, outside Breakwater, rare at low water. Astropecten irregularis, off the Sker. Asterina gibbosa, in coralline pools. Eichinus esculentus, common at and below low water. Echinus miliaris, at low water on S. side of bay. Eehinocardium cordatum, m sand. Spatangus purpureus, off Castles. Echinocyamus pusillus, off the buoy. Synapta inhercens, in sand and muddy gravel. Cucumaria hyndmani, under stones at extreme low water, rare. Ophiura ciliaris, across mouth of bay. Ophiura albida, across mouth of bay. Ophiopholis aculeata, under stones at low water. E 66 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 57. Amphiura elegans, in coralline pools and under stones. 58. Ophrothrix pentaphyllum, common under stones at low water. 59. Ophiocoma nigra, off Castles. 60. Antedon bifida (=rosacea), outside Breakwater. Puate LY. Key to the Chart showing the distribution of the TuRBELLARIA, NEMERTEA, and CHmTOPODA. 1. Aphanostoma diversicolor, m rock pools. 2. Convoluta paradoxa, m rock pools. 3. Convoluta flaribacillum, m rock pools. Promesostoma marmoratum, m rock pools. 5. Promesostoma ovoideum, in shell débris. 6. Promesostoma lenticulatum, in rock pools. 7. Byrsophlebs intermedia, m rock pools. 8. Proxenetes flabellrfer, in rock pools. — 9. Pseudorhynchus bifidus, among drift weed. — 10. Acrorhynchus caledonicus, among sea-weeds. 11. Macrorhynchus naegelit, m rock pools. 12. Macrorhynchus helgolandicus, in rock pools. 183. Hyporhynchus armatus, 15 fms, outside Breakwater. 14. Provortex balticus, m rock pools. 15. Plagwostoma sulphurewm, m rock pools. 16. Plagiostoma vittatum, in rock pools. 17. Vorticeros auriculatum, m rock pools. 18. Allostoma pallidum, mm rock pools. 19. Cylindrostoma quadrioculatum, in rock pools. 20. Cylindrostoma inerme, among drift weed. 21. Monotus lineatus, im rock pools. 22. = Monotus fuscus, among Balanus, on rocks. 23. Leptoplana tremellaris, under stones. 24, Cycloporus papillosus, under stones and off Bradda Head. UT 36. 38. D9. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT PORT ERIN. 67 Oligocladus sanguinolentus, among shell débris outside Breakwater. Stylostomum variabile, among shell débris outside Breakwater. Carinella aragoi, ander stones at low water. Cephalothriz bioculata, under stones. Amphiporus pulcher, in shell debris outside Break- water. Amphiporus lactifloreus, ander stones. Aimphiporus dissimulans in shell débris outside Breakwater. Tetrastemma flavidum, on weeds and in pools. Tetrastemma dorsale, under stones. Tetrastemma nigrum, among weeds. Tetrastemma candidum, among weeds. Tetrastemma melanocephalum, among weeds. Tetrastemma robertiane, on shelly ground in 15 fms. Nemertes neesti, common between tide marks. Lineus obscurus, common between tide marks. Lineus longissimus, under stones. Micrura fasciolata, on shelly ground. Cerebratulus, sp. mn sand. Dinophilus teniatus, i rock pools. Polygordius, sp., off Bradda. Clitellio arenarius, under stones. Polynoé imbricata, under stones. Polynoé reticulata, under stones. Flermadion assimile, on Echinus. Sthenelais boa, under stones. Nephthys ceca, mn sand. Nephthys hombergi, in sand. Kulalia viridis, on Breakwater. Phyllodoce maculata, under stones. Phyllodoce laminosa, under stones. 68 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. FIG. 55. Nereis pelagica, under stones. 56. Nereis fucata, commensal with Hupagurus. 57. Syllis armillaris? in rock pools. 58. Nerme vulgaris, in sand. 59. Avrenicola marina, in sand. 60. Arenrcola ecaudata, ander stones. 61. ) | Boyce, Prof., University College cae ale opener) = Byne, L. St. George, Norton Manor, Taunton Lek, mos et cone ple HOLE sO) — Caton, Dr., 86, Rodney-street ... oe = Here on() Clague, Dr., Castletown, Isle of Man ... 1 1 O a Clubb, J. A., Public Museums, Liverpool 0 10 6 = Cole, F. J., Liverpool (research table) ... 1 1 O — Coombe, John N., 4, Paradise-square, Sheffield ont ae een elee 1s %.() — Comber, Thomas, J.P.,Leighton,Parkgate 1 1 O = Crellin, John C.,J.P., Andreas, I. of Man 0 10 6 oo Gair, H. W., Smithdown-rd., Wavertree 2 2 0O os Gamble,Col.C.B.,Windlehurst,St.Helens 2 0 O = Gamble, F.W.,Owens College,Manchester 1 1 O — Gaskell, Frank, Woolton Wood... te ee |. a Gaskell, Holbrook, J.P., Woolton Wood 1 1 O oo Gibson, Prof. R. J. Harvey, Waterloo ... 1 0 O a= Gotch, Prof., Museum, Oxford ... ie .0 a Halls. W. 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(| ees uaz049 pun jonni i SS ; i ie: Fr SNES ESS ~ = IS syoys 1 y0U9 pun proos arent \ Ei i x ; . \ GWIH VadvuE IR JOUE : ‘ : : ORLY S% — yoafus hyazouxe.odn paynys sujdop ay 7 a" Weare oS ‘SULLVGLA WOISATEE TNGIONTA SLE ONEAATS : _ : | WE NYA LyOd Pirate WE “VARICONIHO" CNY‘ WHohLLNG TO) ‘VHA dod SHALL JO NOLLOGINLSIG SHL ONLMOHS Avda NIG Lod 40 LMVEO ag Pratrt LV ‘VdO0dO0.LWHO GNV ‘VA.LYGNGN ‘VIdV TIdeYn GH JO NOLLASTLSIG HL ONIMOHS : AVG NING LYOd 40 LYWHO ea ACI fe § SZ a2 —) 0. SHOWINC THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRUSTACEA. Puate VI. ee : / ee a a eS eS bel —~ Os se ee TE 5 a ol sineay Ol es 9) WLYSINOAL GN’ VOZAI0Od SRL WO NOLLASRLSIG DHL DNIMGHS AW! NMRA LOd HO LUWHD See Sn a Tere 4 ~ fala 85 NOTE ON THE SPREAD OF THE FULMAR (Fulmarus glacialis ). By J. Wicieswortu, M.D. [Read December 14th, 1900. ] | Ir is but a short time ago—less indeed than a quarter of a century—since the only known breeding station for the Fulmar Petrel in the British islands was the island | sroup of St. Kilda, where, however, as is well known, it breeds in enormous numbers, and constitutes a valuable source of profit to the natives of that remote locality. In June, 1878, however, a small colony of these birds established itself on the precipices of Foula, the most remote and inaccessible island of the Shetland group, and the birds have now become fairly plentiful there. Additional colonies have since been established in Shet- land—on the island of Papa Stour and at Eshaness on the west coast of the mainland, on the cliffs of Hermaness and Saxaford in the island of Unst in the extreme north, and on the Noup of Noss on the east. The above particulars, which I have extracted from the recently publshed “ Vertebrate Fauna of the Shetland Islands,” by Buckley and Evans, I am able to supplement from my personal observations, as last year (1899) I had the pleasure of visiting the breeding station of this bird on the cliffs of Hermaness in the island of Unst in the extreme north of Shetland, a few details of which may perhaps prove of interest. It is not known when the Fulmar first established itself on Hermaness, but it may be taken as certain that the bird did not breed there in Saxby’s time. When I first visited that locality in the summer of 1895, whilst rowing round the skerries and cliffs on the northern part of the island, I saw a few 86 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Fulmars flying about the Hermaness range, and as it was then early in June, I thought it probable that they might be breeding there, though I was not able at that time to verify the supposition. The birds were very few in number, but I only visited at that time a portion of the cliff range where the birds have now taken up their abode, so that there might have been more than appeared at first sight. ‘There is no doubt, however, that since that date the bird has increased very considerably, and there is now a large and flourishing colony scattered along the range of the Hermaness cliffs, and on the detached and semi- detached stacks which project out from this wild, storm- beaten coast line. ‘Towards the end of May, 1899, I made a careful inspection of this region, spending one day in working the cliffs from the land side, and on the following day exploring some of the stacks by boat. The sitting birds were then scattered in suitable, and for the most part decidedly inaccessible, situations along this range of cliffs and the outstanding stacks for a distance of a quarter of a mile or more, and numerous other birds were con- stantly flying around. It was very dificult to estimate their numbers accurately, some portions of the cliff being entirely untenanted, and then one would come to spots where several birds were sitting on ledges within a few feet of each other. Probably 100 pair would be a con- servative estimate for the number scattered about the Hermaness district, and I did not visit the cliffs of Saxaford on the opposite side of Barrafirth, where, as I have before stated, another fair-sized colony exists. The sitting birds were seen in all situations on the face of the cliff, and some were occupying turfy banks near the bottom, but on the whole it seemed to me that the most favoured nesting sites were ledges some 25 to 30 feet from the top, especially in places where the chff overhung SPREAD OF THE FULMAR. 87 somewhat. My first endeavours to get at the nesting ledges were unsuccessful, as after descending some 20 feet by the aid of a rope, and getting within a dozen feet or so of some sitting birds, | had to abandon the attempt owing to the overhanging nature of the cliff, and the very loose, crumbly character of the foothold, portions of the rock being detached at almost every step. It was what a Shetlander would call a very “rotten bank.” The birds sat very close, and were with difficulty got to stir except when a missile lt almost on them. The following day, however, finding some occupied ledges some 25 feet below the top of one of the stacks where the rock face was perfectly firm, I was able to descend with a rope without difficulty, and obtained several eggs. ‘The birds did not sit quite so close as those I had endeavoured to get at the previous day, but I observed one of them remain at her post until my companion got within about 10 feet of her, when, before leaving, she twice ejected from her mouth for a distance of two or three feet the thin amber-coloured, oily liquid, which the bird is well known to part with under these circumstances. The liquid, I may observe, was ejected from the throat, after the fashion of a regurgi- tation, and not squirted through the nostrils, as the older authors asserted. The other birds, however, on this set of ledges took their departure without going through this performance. The eggs were laid on broad ledges, which were covered with a coarse, sandy detritus and small, flat flakes of stone, which had fallen down from the rocks above. ‘There was not the smallest trace of a nest, and there was merely the very shallowest depression on the sandy detritus on which the single egg rested. The egg, indeed, lay as open and exposed as a Guillemot’s on its rocky ledge, and the choosing by the bird of ledges covered with this coarse detritus had probably a relation to the 88 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. safety of the egg, which would run no risk of rolling off, as it would do if the surface on which it was laid were perfectly smooth and bare, after the fashion of the Guille- mot’s nesting ledge, the egg of the Fulmar not having the protective shape of that of the Guillemot to prevent it from rolling. J. MacGillivray, who visited St. Kilda in 1840, states that whilst the Fulmar breeds on the face of the highest precipices, it only does so on such as are furnished with small grassy shelves; and Dixon, who visited the same locality some fifteen vears back, in part confirms this, for he states that whilst the bird also bred on bare ledges, its favourite nesting sites were portions of cliff where a good layer of turf-clad soil was present, adding that the bird appeared to prefer to burrow a short distance into the ground whenever possible. The observations | have just given from Hermaness show, however, that the birds take quite as readily to perfectly bare open ledges as to those covered with turfy soil. All the eggs taken on that date (May 26th) were perfectly fresh and clean, so that the birds had apparently just started laying. In addition to the localities already given in the Shet- lands, I am able to add another from my experience ot last summer (1900) in the extreme south-west of that eroup; for in June last, whilst rowing round the cliffs in the neighbourhood of Fitful Head, three or four of these birds flew round my boat for some little time. Although I was not able to detect any sitting birds on the cliffs, I feel very little doubt from my experience of other localities that they were nesting there. The facts I have just given point to a very considerable and very remarkable extension of the breeding range of this bird within the last quarter of a century, and it is a SS SPREAD OF THE FULMAR. 89 matter of interesting conjecture what causes have operated to bring it about, for so far as we can judge, the usual causes of extension of range of a species are absent in this ease. We are familiar with many instances in which birds have increased notably within recent times, owing to the extension of favouring conditions. The Missel Thrush, for example, has greatly extended its range within the present century in harmony with the increase throughout the country of the plantations it loves to frequent; and similar instances might be given of wood- jand birds, such as the Blackeap, having followed the planting of shrubberies into localities where they had pre- viously been unknown. But in all such cases there has been a change in the environment which the birds have taken advantage of, and no such explanation is applicable in the case of the Fulmar. The beetling cliffs of Shetland, which are now in process of being colonised by these birds, are the same now as they have been for ages, and can show no greater attrac- tions at the present time than they presented centuries ago. Nor does there seem any reason to suppose that any difference in the food supply furnished by the Shetland seas can enter into the case, for though the stranded carcase of a dead whale is said to have attracted the first birds to Foula, the influence of this is at least very pro- blematical, nor would it account for the continued steady spread of the birds. Has any change occurred in its stronghold at St. Isilda to cause the bird to seek out fresh breeding haunts? Of this I can find no evidence. It is true indeed that the population of St. Kilda has diminished notably since Martin’s day, when the islands supported 180 persons ; but there has been no considerable change for many years past, the population appearing to average some 70 to 50 90 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. souls. And so far as I know the bird is as much prized and as largely sought after by the St. Kildans as ever, and I know of no evidence in favour of its having multiplied there beyond its usual numbers within recent times. But there is indeed no proof that the colonies of Fulmars which are now established in Shetland have ever come from St. Kilda. Is it not equally likely that they may be offshoots from the vast colonies of this bird which people Iceland, Spitzbergen, and other places in the far North, and that what we are witnessing is a southern extension of the breeding range of this species? If this be so, it is at least a reasonable conjecture that a climatal change in the direction of greater coldness and retardation of the springs may be in course of progress, and that this is at the bottom of the phenomenon we are considering. It is not a very comfortable reflection that our climate may possibly be getting colder, but the evidence in favour of it, which the spread of the Fulmar suggests, is not altogether confined to that bird. There are certain other northern breeding birds which have only been discovered to breed in the northern parts of our islands within com- paratively recent times, and which appear to be now on the increase. The Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis) is a case in point. Tirst discovered to be nesting in Unst by Saxby in the year 1861, it has since been found to breed on several of the higher Scotch mountains, and though it may very probably have bred in those regions years before the actual discovery of the nest, there seems no doubt that the species is now on the increase there. Some of the northern breeding Ducks again, such as the common Scoter (fulzgula nigra), and the Goosander (Mergus merganser), which have for many years past been known to breed sparingly in the Highlands, chiefly in Sutherland and Caithness, appear to be on the increase SPREAD OF THE FULMAR. Q] as breeding species, though the possibility in these cases oi the increase being due, in part at any rate, to additional even if unintentional protection afforded, must not be lost sight of. There is some little evidence also in favour of the theory here suggested from another standpoint. There appears to be a fairly general belief in Shetland amongst shepherds and others that the springs are now colder than used to be the case. Wague opinions of this sort are no doubt seldom trustworthy, but I have spoken to intelli- gent shepherds, on Noss for instance, who have informed me that it no longer paid to keep sheep as formerly, as owing to the coldness of the springs, the grass was so late in appearing that there was not enough food for the lambs. Without attaching too much importance to 11, this opinion is, I think, worth recording, for so far as it goes it tends to confirm the theory I have put forward as to a clmatal change being at the bottom of the extension of the breeding range of such birds as the Fulmar and the Snow Bunting. I do not wish for a moment to be understood as con- sidering that this theory is in any way proved, for the evidence is at best but fragmentary, and the facts may admit of a wholly different interpretation; but there is at least the possibility that it may be true, and that the spread of the I'ulmar may be one of the first evidences of the change. 92 L.M.B.C.. Mie ME@iaikss No: VY.) ALCYONIU ME: IB SYDNEY J. HICKSON, MoAb Se, tenes INTRODUCTION. Tue Orper Atcyonaria is represented in the British seas by very few species; and as none of these are commonly found between tide marks nor thrown up on the beach by storms, they are very little known to the general public. The Alcyonarian which is best known to the public is the precious coral of commerce, Corallium rubrum, from the Mediterranean Sea, but other Alcyonarians, such as the Organ pipe coral (Z'ubepora), the Blue coral ({elropora), the Sea-fans (Gorgonacea) and the Sea-pens (Pennatulacea) are familiar objects in our Zoological Museums. When a living Alcyonarian is examined in sea-water a number of tubular radially symmetrical bodies are seen to project from the surface, each of which is provided at its free extremity with eight pinnate tentacles arranged in a circle round a slit-like mouth. When the water is disturbed, or the Alcyonarian removed from the water, these bodies slowly retract beneath the surface of the coral, until their presence is indicated only by an eight- rayed star-like aperture. ‘These bodies are usually called ALCYONIUM. 93 the polyps, and they undoubtedly possess many features of general resemblance to the well-known fresh-water polyp Hydra. A critical examination of the anatomical structure of the Alcyonarian, however, proves that the is misapplied in this case, for the bodies referred to only correspond with a part of the polyp of the Hydra, namely, the free end with the crown of 2) name “ polyp’ tentacles, the greater part of the fixed or proximal end of the Aleyonarian polyp being buried in the massive substance of the coral. We have, in other words, two parts in the body of the Alcyonarian polyp,—(1.) a part which is free and can be retracted or expanded at will, and (i1.) a part which is attached and firmly welded to the corresponding parts of neighbouring polyps. With this explanation of the general structure the reader is prepared to understand the critical or diagnostic features by which a given specimen may or may not be referred to the Order Alcyonaria. The Ancyonarta are Coelenterata which (with one or two rare exceptions) form colonial organisations by budding. The individual polyps composing the colony are provided with eight tentacles at their free extremity, and each of these tentacles is provided with two or more rows of papillitorm processes called pinnules, giving the tentacles a feathered or pinnate form. The form which the Alcyonarian colony takes varies immensely in the different families into which the Order is divided; some being encrusting plates, some lobular in form, some shrubby, some mushroom shaped, and so on, but a detailed description of these forms would take me beyond the scope of this memoir. The important point to note here, however, is that although there is a remarkable Q4 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. similarity in the form of the polyps of any one species, the shape of the colony has wide limits of possible variation, and consequently a definition of it is almost impossible. In other respects, too, the species vary. The colour, for example, is sometimes constant, but more generally sub- ject to considerable variation, and the spicules, which are often very characteristic in form, more frequently are subject to modification in size and form from that which is regarded as typical of the species. The reproduction of the Aleyonarians is remarkably constant. A few species are viviparous, the young being born as solid, oval, ciliated larvae, which swim away and then settle down to found a new colony. In the majority of cases, however, the eggs and sperms are discharged into the water simultaneously by the male and female colonies, fertilisation is effected in the water, and solid oval embryos are produced similar to those of the viviparous species. No other larval form is known in the group, and nothing occurs in the development of any species of the nature of an alternation of generations. With the exception of the Precious Coral, the axis of which is used by jewellers, none of the Alcyonarians have any market value. Nor do the Alcyonarians, so far as we know at present, form an important article of food for fish or indeed any other marine animals. It is true that occasionally fragments of Pennatulids are found in the stomachs of Codfish, but there is no reason to believe that they form a frequent nor a favourite diet.* It is possible that at the spawning period of the Alcyonarians many of the eggs and embryos are devoured, but of this there is at present no definite evidence. *The Haddock is sometimes found with pieces of the Pennatulid Virgularia in its stomach. Vide A. M. & W. F. Marshall, Report on the Oban Pennatulida, Birmingham, 1882. ALCYONIUM. O5 ALCYONIUM DIGITATUM. This species has a very wide distribution in the British area, and may be regarded as one of the most abundant of British marine animals, as it appears to be capable of adapting itself to a very great range of natural condi- tions; but although so common, it is not found in many places at low tides. It is found in great numbers growing on the shells of Pectens, Cardiums, and other Mollusca on sandy, gravelly or shelly trawling grounds. It occurs attached to rocks which are exposed at low tides, and even on iron pillars of piers just below low-water mark, and encrusting worm tubes on muddy bottoms. Its vertical range extends from shallow water to a depth of 383 fathoms (“Caudan’”), bat probably depths of 35-40 fathoms, 2.e., the usual limit of wave action (as Allen has pointed out) are most suitable for its maximum growth and development. Geographically it extends from the coast of Norway (Hardanger fjord) to the Bay of Biscay, and it seems probable that there is no considerable extent of the British area which is free from it. I am indebted to Mr. Chadwick for the following notes as to the distribution of Alcyonium digitatum in the L.M.B.C. district. “ Very small colonies are sometimes found at extreme low-water mark in Port Erin Bay, and large ones, of both colour varieties, occur in large numbers on the blocks of con- erete forming the now ruined breakwater. We occa- sionally dredge colonies from depths of 12 to 15 fathoms in this neighbourhood. I have seen several very fine ones brought up on the long lines used by our fishermen. ‘The greatest depth of which we have a record is 21 fathoms, on North Bank, 7 miles W. of Peel. It is pretty generally distributed all round the Manx coast. Alcyoniwm used to be abundant and the colonies of large size on some reets 96 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. of sandstone exposed only at the lowest tides at Hilbre Island. It is still to be found there, but in diminishing quantity, owing to the increase of sewage and chemical refuse in the river Dee. Small colonies occur rarely at extreme low water mark on the beach at Beaumaris, and large ones may be found at the same level in the caves on the N. side of Puffin Island. I have dredged well-grown colonies from depths varying from 5 to 10 fathoms in the Menai Straits. Red Wharf Bay, Anglesey, depth 4 to 7 fathoms, is another Welsh locality.’* An account of the distribution of Alcyonzwm in the Plymouth district is given by Mr. EH. J. Allen in the Journal of the Marine Biological Association, Vol. V., No. 4, 1899. The size of the colony varies from that of a small pin’s head to six inches or more in height by eight inches in breadth, according to the age of the colony and the number of polyps of which it is composed. The shape also varies very considerably. In the Plymouth district I found the smallest forms to be flat encrusting plates, which soon become convex above, and then grow into dome-shaped and later spherical lumps, and similar stages are found at Port Erin and elsewhere. Until the colony reaches a height of 3 inches from the support on which it grows it is not branched, but the larger specimens are divided terminally into 2, 53, 4, 5 or 6 blunt lobes which have a very rough resemblance to large human toes (Plate I., figs. 1 and 2). As these lobes are nearly always arranged in one plane the popular name of “ Dead men’s toes’ has been applied to the species. The method of growth of the colony which is given here is not constant; but no systematic investigation has yet been made of the laws which govern the growth of this * Gee also Herdman, L.M.B.C. Report No. I, 1886, on the Alecyonaria of L.M.B.C. district. ALCYONIUM. O7 and other genera belonging to the Alcyonaria. The colonies which grow on worm tubes seem to require a broader base than the others, and several specimens have been obtained which appear to be mainly encrusting plates, the vertical growth being relatively very slight. The specimens which grow on rocks, on the other hand, usually exhibit a much narrower base of support, grow rapidly in height and branch earlier and more freely than others. The colour is usually pale flesh-colour when the colony is fresh, but this soon fades in an aquarium, and the colony becomes white. Many freshly-caught colonies from Plymouth Harbour were quite pale when brought into the laboratory, but perhaps their conditions of life were not perfectly healthy. A yellow variety of several tints is frequently found. I have obtained specimens of it from the West Coast of Scotland, Port Erin, Puffin Island, the Bristol Channel and elsewhere. This colour is due to a fixed pigment in the spicules, and it shows no appreciable change after years of immersion in spirit, At Port Erin there are two distinct tints of the yellow variety recognised, the one paler and the other a deep orange. I do not think that a red colour in the spicules ever occurs in this species. The red Alcyonium dis- covered by Couch off the coast of Scotland is Alcyoniwm glomeratum of Hassall, and is distinct from A. digitatum, Linn, in various respects. REPRODUCTION. Alcyonium digitatum is always dioecious. No herme- phrodite colonies have yet been observed. The eggs, when ripe, are of a yellowish-red colour, and are dis- charged into the water by the mouths of the polyps which bear them. At the same time of the year G Q8 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the ripe sperm sacs of . the males which are always milky white in colour, and can therefore be readily distinguished from the ova, discharge great quantities of spermatozoa into the body cavity, and thence by way of the mouth into the water. Fertilisation is most probably effected in the water, and not in the body cavity of the female just before the discharge of the ova. If this is the case, the sexual act is a true process of spawning. The exact time of spawning may vary in different localities. In the Plymouth district I have found, as a result of a six years’ series of observations, that the spawning always occurs during the last fortnight in December and the first fortnight in January, and at no other time of the year. At Port Erin the spawning may be somewhat later, as I have examined larve captured with the Plankton at Haster, which I feel certain are the larvee of Alcyoniwm digitatum. ANATOMY OF THE COLONY. When a colony of Alcyonium is cut across (Plate I., fig. 5) it will be seen to consist mainly of a number of parallel tubes perforating a semi-transparent gelatinous substance in which a number of small calcareous spicules are imbedded. Each of these tubes is the body cavity— or coelenteron—ot a polyp, and the gelatinous substance is the mesogloea of the polyps fused together into a common mass. When the colony is alive and in a healthy condition a number of delicate transparent polyp heads protrude from the surface of the colony. Each of these is provided with a mouth and eight pinnate tentacles, and the body- wall below the crown of tentacles encloses a single large cavity, which is continuous with the cavity of the tubes ALCYONIUM. 99 above-mentioned. A careful examination of the body- wall of the polyp heads with a microscope (PI. IL., fig. 15) reveals the fact that it consists of three layers, an outer layer of cells—the ectoderm, a middle homogeneous layer —the mesogloea and an inner layer of cells—the endo- derm. If these three layers be traced down to the surface of the colony it will be found that the ectoderm is con- tinued over the general surface of the colony as a covering or protective sheath, that the mesogloea is continuous with the gelatinous mass or mesogloea common to the individuals composing the colony, and that the endoderm forms an inner lining to the tubes almost to the base of the colony. The colony then is formed of a number of individuals, each of which consists of two parts—a greater part below bound to its neighbours in a common mesogloea, and a smaller part above which is free. This latter part can be introverted into the former for protection—in much the same way as the head of the tortoise can be withdrawn into the shelter of the carapace —and it may be distinguished by the name * anthocodia ”’ suggested by Mr. Bourne. When the “anthocodia” 1s retracted the aperture of the tube or false mouth can be constricted and closed so as to give complete protection to the polyp, as seen by reference to Plate I., fig. 3, im which a series of stages of the retraction of the anthocodiz is illustrated. This power which the colony possesses of completely closing the ‘false mouths” of the polyps is of some physiological interest, as it enables each polyp of the colony to retain in its cavity a sufficient supply of sea-water to maintain its vitality for a few hours when the tide is exceptionally low and the colony is exposed to the air. Without this power the delicate cells which cover the tentacles and body-wall of 100 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the anthocodiz would be very quickly killed when the colony is taken from the sea. As it is, colonies of Alcyoniuwm will retain their vitality for two or three days if packed in damp seaweed. The number of the polyps in each colony increases with its age, young buds being formed between the older polyps all through the life of the colony. Tach of these buds is formed from an outgrowth of one of the superficial canals (which may be seen to ramify in the mesogloea near the surface of colony—Pl. I., fig. 3) joming a corresponding depression from the ectoderm at the surface. The young polyps thus formed remain in communication with the neighbouring older polyps by the canal through- out life, but no new canalicular communications with these older polyps are formed at a later period excepting quite close to the surface. The connection, therefore, between the polyps composing the colony is that repre- sented in Plate I. fig. 5. The cavities of the older polyps are here seen to extend to the base of the piece that is represented in section, the cavities of the younger polyps are connected at their bases with them by short canals, and these in their turn may be connected with the bases of still younger polyps in a similar manner. The colonial mesogloea appears to be at first sight a homogeneous substance, but an examination with a simple magnifying lens shows that it bears, firstly, a number of small white calcareous bodies called “the spicules,” secondly, thé canals above-mentioned, and, thirdly, a number of very fine branching lnes which might be mistaken for capillary tubes. (1.) The spicules are small bodies varying in size according to their age, but when fully formed 0°1-0°3mm. in length. They are composed of calcium carbonate with a sparse organic matrix. They vary very considerably in ALCYONIUM. 101 shape belonging to the categories which specialists call “ warted spindles” (Pl. IIL., fig. 21), dumb-bells (fig. 22), Ks (fig. 23), and simple crosses. They are formed in cells budded off from the superficial ectoderm, and are only newly formed at the surface. This accounts for the fact that they are always much more crowded at the surface than they are in the more deep-seated parts of the colony, and also for the fact that in the deeper parts the spicules are always of full size. (1.) The canals are seen most clearly near the surface of the colony (Plate L., fig. 3). They have a sinuous course and appear to anastomose freely. They probably serve the purposes of distributing nourishment and of maintaining an equilibrium in the water pressure of the polyp cavities. (i1.) The fine lines, which look like capillary tubes, really consist of strings or rows of cells. They have no lumen, and consequently cannot serve the purpose of transmitting the circulating fluids of the body. We have no definite knowledge of their function, but it is probable that they are mainly concerned in the secretion of the mesogloea. ANATOMY OF THE PoLypes. The structure of the anthocodie can only be satisfac- torily studied when they are fully expanded. When re- tracted the several organs are so tightly compressed that a correct interpretation of their structure is quite impossible. When fully expanded each anthocodia exhibits a ter- minal slit-shaped mouth (Pl. I., fig. 4) surrounded by a crown of eight tentacles. The tentacles have a row of short papilliform processes on each side, giving them what is called a pinnate form. ‘The shape of the tentacles changes every moment, slowly extending and retracting or bending inwards and outwards as they are stimulated by minute particles floating in the water. In the lhving 102 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. condition the tentacles and body wall of the anthocodiz are very transparent, and many features of the anatomy can be seen without dissection.* The details of anatomy that can be seen in a living anthocodia are as follows: From the mouth there hangs down into the body cavity a short opaque throat—the stomodeum (S¢.)—which opens freely below. At this— the lower—aperture six short sinuous cords, the mesen- terial filaments, arise attached to the free edges of six very thin vertical plates—the mesenteries (conf. Pl. L, fig. 4, Pl. IL., fig. 15, Mst.)—and, in addition, there are two cords which pass straight down into the cavity of the polyp attached to the free edges of the two remaining mesenteries. ‘'hese two straight cords are called the dorsal mesenterial filaments, and the mesenteries which support them the dorsal mesenteries. The other mesen- teries are called the dorso-laterals, ventro-laterals and ventrals respectively. Further details can only be studied in preparations made for microscopic examination. Nematocysts.—The pinnules of the tentacles bear a number of very minute stinging organs—the nematocysts. They are extremely small (0°0075mm. in length), and may be easily overlooked. ‘They are oval in shape, and when irritated discharge a plain unarmed thread (Pl. II., figs. S, 9, 10 and 11). Hach nematocyst is formed within a specialised ectodermal cell called the ** enidoblast.” THE Stomop2uM is lined internally by a columnar ciated epithelium, usually thrown into a number of folds in the preparation. On one side there is a groove lined by specialised epithelium armed with relatively long * The transparency varies in specimens from different localities. In some cases there are so many spicules in the anthocodia that the trans- parency is very considerably diminished, The figure 4 in Plate I. was drawn from a Plymouth specimen. ALCYONIUM. * 103 powerful cilia. This groove is the siphonoglyph (PI. IT., fig. 6). The siphonoglyph indicates the position of the ventral side of the polyp. Tne MesentEries.—The mesenteries are in the greater part of their course very thin, consisting of two layers of endoderm cells covering a thin sheet of mesogloea. In the region of the stomodzum, however, they exhibit longi- tudinal thickenings or ridges which support the muscular fibres that are principally concerned in the retraction of the anthocodia. The arrangement of these thickenings is very characteristic. They are all situated on the ventral faces of the mesenteries, so that in a transverse section the muscle ridges on the ventral mesenteries are face to face, and on the dorsal mesenteries they are back to back (Plate IL., fig. 6). In the last six months of the year all the mesenteries, with the exception of the two dorsals, bear a considerable number of spherical bodies which are ova or sperm sacs according to the sex of the colony (Plate III., fig. 20). The two dorsal mesenterial filaments run straight down from the lower end of the stomodeeum in the depths of the polyp cavities. In the cavities of the older polyps they may be traced almost to the base of the colony. The epithelium covering these filaments is columnar and ciliated, the cilia producing in hfe a current of water flowing towards the stomodeum. The other mesenterial filaments are of a perfectly different nature (PI. IL., fig. 15). They are much shorter than the dorsal filaments, and are covered by an epithelium densely packed with gland cells. Their function is to secrete a digestive juice upon particles of food which pass through the stomodeum. Tne Knpoperm lining the coelenteric cavity in the anthocodia is composed of ciliated cubical cells closely packed to form an epithelium. In the lower parts of the 104 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. tube the cells are not so tightly packed, and each one bears at its base a process containing a myophan thread (Pl. Il., fig. 12). These threads are so arranged as to form a circular muscle band by the constriction of which the diameter of the tube may be diminished. It is a perfectly easy operation to scrape away on to a glass slide a number of the endodermal myo-epithelial cells in Alcyonium, and mount them for microscopic examination. As a matter of fact they afford us the most readily accessible example of this kind of cell which can be procured. THe Nervous System of Alcyonewm can only be de- monstrated in sections that have been specially prepared. It consists of a few minute star-like cells situated in the mesogloea close to the endoderm and ectoderm layers of the polyps, connected together by very fine anastomosing nerve fibrils. Musoctora.—The substance of the mesogloea is, accord- ing to Brown, chiefly composed of a Hyalogen. Previous to the conversion of the Hyalogen into Hyalin it yields a Mucin. It doés not contain Gelatine, and consequently to speak of it as a gelatinous structure is liable to mis- interpretation. | SExuAL Orcans.—In the month of April several mesenteries bear close to their free borders little groups of cells derived from the endoderm. ‘These cells give rise to the sexual cells, and at this stage the sexes cannot be distinguished. Later in the year the groups of cells become differentiated. In the females the protoplasm of the cells composing a group fuses into a common mass, the nuclei diminish in number, and at length there remains only one large spherical cell with one nucleus (See Pl. III, fig. 19). This cell is a young ‘ovmmiggee grows very slowly in size, and spherical globules of some J { ; f j J ALCYONIUM. 105 kind of fatty food material which we may call yolk, appear in its cell substance. The only other changes that take place during the last six months of the year are the appearance of a yellowish red pigment at the periphery and, in the last month, the transit of the large nucleus to one side of the ovum (Plate II., fig. 13). In the males the group of primary sexual cells that are formed on the mesenteries in the spring undergo rapid cell division, and a spermary is thus formed, packed with very minute cells. The protoplasm of these cells is so tightly pressed together that the spermary has the appearance of being a single cell, with an enormous number of nuclei. When the spermary is about 0'l mm. in diameter, the cells collect towards the periphery, leaving a rounded space containing strands and lumps of protoplasm (Plate I1., fig. 14). This central body may correspond with the “ blastophore,” which occurs in the spermatogenesis of some other animals. ‘I'he ripe spermatozoa which are only found in December completely fill the cavity of the spermary. They consist of a head with a cone-shaped anterior end, followed by a spherical body, and a long flexible tail. DEVELOPMENT. When the ova are ripe, they are about 0°5 mm. in diameter, and they are discharged into the water by way of the mouth the stomodaeum distending considerably to allow them to pass. If we may judge from what may be seen in an aquarium, the spawning is a very lengthy process, as each ovum takes at least ten minutes to pass through the stomodaeum. At any rate, they do not appear to be “ vomited forth in great masses,’ as they are in Renilla, according to Wilson. — The early stages of development are probably very variable as regards the external signs of segmentation. 106 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. It is certainly the case, however, that some young embryos which appear to be unsegmented when examined whole with a simple lens are found, in sections, to be more advanced than others which are clearly segmented. It is really quite impossible to say, in the present state of our knowledge, what is the “normal” or “ typical” proceeding at this early stage. There is a stage, however, occurring a few hours after fertilisation, in which the embryo con- sists of a single mass of protoplasm containing several protoplasmic “islands”’ almost free from yolk in each of which there is a nucleus (Pl. III., fig. 16). It is really a ‘morula’ stage, although it may or may not exhibit mulberry markings externally. The “islands” of proto- plasm and their nuclei increase rapidly in number, and soon the outlines marking the boundaries of the cells become clearly differentiated. The nucleus of the cells in these stages divides by a well-defined karyokinesis (fig. 17), several beautiful achromatic spindles with their chromosomes being seen in sections of every well-pre- served embryo that is examined. A cavity makes its appearance in the interior of the mass of cells constituting the embryo and at the same time the cells at the circum- ference become arranged in a definite row. In the next stage (fig. 18) a definite ectoderm is formed at the periphery. This layer differs from the layer of embryonal cells of the last stage in the fact that it is clear and devoid of yolk globules and that the cells are ciliated. Inside the ectoderm there is still a layer of un- differentiated embryonal tissue, laden with yolk, enclosing an irregular cavity. Later stages than this of the larval development have not yet been discovered, and it is not known how the stomodeum and mesenteries are formed. It is probable, however, that’ soon after the mouth is formed the larva ALCYONIUM. 107 settles down on a rock or shell at the bottom, loses its cilia and assumes the characters of a single Aleyonarian polyp. The youngest stage that the author has seen after fixation is shown on Plate ITI., fig. 24. In this case the primary polyp has already formed one secondary polyp by gem- mation. PirysIoLoGy. When the polyps of an Alcyoniwm are fully expanded they are in a state of physiological activity, the muscles are constantly contracting, the cilia vibrating, and other functions of the body being performed. This functional activity does not go on continuously, but at times the anthocodiz are all retracted, and a period of rest super- venes. There can be little doubt that the period of rest occurs rhythmically, the rhythm corresponding not with the hght and darkness of day and night, but with the high and low tides. aon” Be SAS) Se Sos Ass oA ca SAT SY ‘ { Gx v i a 4 are aoe xa LES Yay. ZS IIS B2o0) UBOSon SN oy = a} ai 4 RoR 6L__£ SOS ee aN oat PEED PE PtP TERE PP CET EEE PLT] aaaaaaaaaye eager jaauuuay eae y PENT Sond rE 6 s S ' ' hha av oN Mes ALCYONIUM. q i ED.& SSH. ae/ SB. lith er L.M.B.C. Memo V. Puate III. WS eT SZ, i; ae ee, Ss ZZ SS ee iy oe =o hs eee eae Ee oe Zz See as SSnc a SS / == = = = z =: == == SS oS o Tp oy | Hi} nC Z s Za RB Msc cy) Fig, 22 ae 7. 2 e/,. SB. Ith. ALCYONIUM. ALCYONIUM. Hole e nucleated syncytium undifferentiated into endoderm cells. Fig. 19. ] April vo — OO OS St Gr or w jt 158 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. April 20. 42,000 plaice. a aaecUl 43,000 __,, “s 23. 718,000 cod.* p, 23 462,000 haddock.* ‘ 28 981,000 flounder. i 26. 861,000 s May a 865,000 Ms , 7. 1,447,000 nf oe TOM e530 nna 14 368 000 tees 7022) Maa OMNES Total 14,144,400 During the autumn the hatching apparatus has been thoroughly overhauled, and is now ready for use again. A fresh stock of flounders (amounting to over 225 large healthy fish) has been collected during the last three months of 1900, so that part of the supply of eggs for the season 1901 is practically secured. With the help of the new steamer, and favourable weather, it is probable that there will be a larger number of fry set free this year than has yet been possible. Description of an Apparatus for keeping Eggs in motion. (See Plate A.) To successfully incubate large numbers of floating eggs in the limited areas of the usual hatching tanks the water ~ must be kept in constant movement. When the eggs are not disturbed they gravitate towards each other, forming a layer on the surface of the water. Conse- quently the result is a high mortality, chietly due to suffocation. It becomes necessary, therefore, to employ some means to break up these masses. This is usually done by slowly raising a weighted rod placed along the ee ee ee ee eee SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 159 rows of boxes which allows the free ends of the boxes to float up. The rod is then suddenly released, and the boxes depressed rapidly into the water, which is forced up in powerful currents through the perforated bottom of the boxes. This separates the eggs in all directions, but without injury to the developing embryos. The mechanism employed in other establishments which use the same kind of hatching apparatus is driven by a water wheel. This wheel turns a cam which has a lever resting on itsrim. One end of the lever is weighted to give the necessary pull to the wires that suspend the rods. The other end has the main wires attached, and from these branches are led over pulleys to the various weighted rods. As the cam revolves the lever is alter- nately raised and depressed so pulling up and then releasing the wires. The arrangement of the hatching apparatus at Piel does not readily lend itself to the adoption of this method. Some other system had, therefore, to be planned, and after various experiments, the apparatus now adopted by us was devised. ‘This apparatus has given complete satis- faction during the last season, and as it is less compli- eated than the older systems, a description and illustra- tion may be useful to others, and will now be given. The apparatus may be briefly described as a direct- acting balance of the beam and scale pattern. It consists in the main of a balanced beam (see Plate A, 3). One end of the beam is attached to the middle of a light framework, which carries the wires connected to the weighted rods (5). The other end bears a frame contain- ing a “tumbling” box (4) of a similar design to those used in automatically measuring rainfall, washing photo- graphic prints, flushing drains, &c. The box is so con- structed that when empty it remains in a_ horizontal 160 TRANSACTIONS: LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. position, but as it fills with water the centre of gravity gradually alters until the box turns over and discharges the contents, immediately returning to the horizontal position again. The weight of the box and its frame should just be sufficient to raise the arm carrying the frame with the wires, but without the weighted rods. The quantity of water required to lift the rods and weights is found by weighing one rod with its weight, and then multiplying that by the number of weighted rods employed. The box should be made to contain rather more than the exact quantity of water required. In the Piel Hatchery the waste water from the apparatus and other tanks is used for filling the box. When the box is empty the rods are down and all the hatching boxes are depressed. The box (4) gradually sinks to the floor as the water pours in, pulling up the weighted rods (5). By the time the rods are raised high enough (6 inches) the box has lost its stability, and it falls over, discharging its contents at once. The rods at the same instant return rapidly to rest, depressing the hatching boxes. The rate of movement is easily controlled by regulating the flow of water, and also by retarding or hastening the period of instability of the tumbling box. This latter can be done by adding weights to the side of the box at B, or by placing pieces of wood on the frame under the box at D. The apparatus when fitted up can be attached to a beam in the roof of the room, and the whole should be so placed that the framework carrying the wires attached to the rods is vertically above the point of attachment. Explanation of Plate A. The drawing represents the front view of the apparatus. 1. Longitudinal beam resting on the cross beams supporting the roof, SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 161 2. Support for apparatus. . Balanced beam. . . Tumbling box. At c a brass rod is rigidly fixed working freely in lignum vite bearings. fastened to the frame. aB=304 inches, ac=274 inches, cp= 91 inches, Bp=11 inches. Width=12 inches. . Wires to rods. . End view of hatching tanks, containing little boxes for eggs. : Waste pipes leading into main pipe, taking water H CO So Or = to tumbling box. End view of top and bottom of main suspender. 6 Kind view of suspenders of framework for wires and tumbling box. ‘The suspender to the tumbling box works through a guide (9). ¢ Side view of tumbling box in its frame. g NOTE ON THE SPAWNING OF THE MussEeL (MytiLus Eputis), By A. Scort. The determination of the spawning period of the mussel on the Lancashire coast has occupied our attention for some time. Hitherto we have mainly examined the con- dition of the reproductive organs, both im stu in the living animal, and by thin sections of prepared material during periods of twelve months. ‘Tow-nettings from the vicinity of the beds have also been examined for the larve. ‘These investigations enabled us, approximately, to state when the eggs were shed. It is obvious, however, that all the information regarding the actual spawning, the fertilisation of the eggs, and the period that elapses before the resulting embryos become free-swimming larve can only be ascertained by carefully observing the living animal. It is not possible to do this under natural L 162 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. conditions on the beds, and it becomes necessary to fall back upon other methods which may not give altogether conclusive results from a critically scientific point of view. To remove animals from their natural surroundings and | place them in confinement in a limited area of water is undoubtedly detrimental to life processes at first. After some time the effects produced by the change may how- ever be diminished, and the animals become acclimatised and live probably very much as they would have done had they been left in their original state. We are thus enabled to carry on observations which would be quite impossible under natural conditions. Large samples, about 4 cwt., of mussels were collected from the Roosebeck outer scar and from a scar in Barrow ~ Channel which only ebbs dry at low water of spring tides. These were placed in the tanks in September, 1899, and kept under observation for twelve months. 7. is, 8: Bic: 9: Fig. 10. Hie: 11. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. SEA-FISHERIES LABORATORY. 239 Transverse section of pore-canal at the base of the mouth. x 3850. Pruate IIT. Lepeophtheirus pectoralis. Female, ventral view, showing the nervous System 7m seu. x 17. The nervous system from the ventral aspect. x 38. Female, nearly median longitudinal section. Ite One of the antennules, showing the nerve endings. x 76. Median longitudinal section of the ganglia, showing the “pinhole” cesophagus passing through between the supra and sub-cesophageal pats. x 71. Transverse section in the region of the eyes. x 38. Transverse section in the region of the supra- and sub-cesophageal gangha. x 30d. Transverse section in the region of the second maxillipedes. x 30. Transverse section through the genital segment, female. x 30. Transverse section through the genital segment, male. x 38. Part of a transverse section of the intestine. x 06. ! Horizontal section of the dorsal aspect of the supra-cesophageal ganglion, showing the cross- ing of the fibres of the optic nerves. x 152. Transverse section of the eyes. x 162. 240 Ss: Fig. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. y ) vo Co Puate IV. Lernea branchialis. Mature female, from the right side. The line f’ g' shows how much of the anterior portion is buried in the branchial arch. x 4:3. Nauplius stage, newly hatched. x 50°8. Very young female, unfertilised, dorsal view. From gills of flounder. x 51°. Fertilised female, dorsal view. Just after leaving the gills of flounder. x 27°6. Mature male, dorsal view. From gills of flounder. x 28°95. Fertilised female, “ Penella” stage, dorsal view. Just after settling on gills of Gadus (whiting). gua Later stage than Fig. 6, from the left side. The folding has just finished. Nat. size. Apex of gill filament of flounder, showing mal- formation caused by the young Lernea. x 18°6. Apex of gill filament of flounder, normal. x 18°6. PuaTe VY. Lernea branchialts. Fertilised female, ventral view, showing the appendages, the reproductive organs, and nervous system. x 47°6._ Nearly median longitudinal section of the same. x 476. Transverse section in the region of the eyes. x 80. Mature female, from the right side, showing the first maxillipede and the four pairs of feet, the alimentary canal and the reproductive 189 DaBs. Average Numbers per haul. 32 826 708 423 241 268 213 265 186 417 595 636 293 327 1800 321 470 0 102 247 691 1023 540 705 1001 345 193 273 313 249 654 584 981 150 511 96 44 287 329 706 WHITING. Total Numbers. o Bank Shrimping Ground WHITING. Average Numbers per haul. If 241 1283 496 53 65 9 82 66 220 131 143 he Nay OE TABLE (Area A) during the period 1898—1899. I.—Abstract of the results of Hauls with a Shrimp Trawl made on the Burlho Bank Shrimping Ground Average Number) Total Nos. 8 SHRIMps. Syeuriatats PLAICE. Puatcn. Sous. Dass. WHITING. Darn. of of aves Total Nos Average Nos.) “mota] Average coune: Average ee Average Nesta Avetige Hauls Fish. of Fish | quarts, | Of Warts | wmbers,| Numbers Naeenate Numbers} } 7 ae Numbers |, Total | Numbors per haul. ~| per haul. per haul. "| per haul. || \"™?E"S-) per haul, | Numbers. per haul. 1893—May 4 1005 251 | 163 4 749 185 93 | 7 12 2 Rion Tome oj] a 5948 1489 38 L 1868 467 48 | 12 3804 836 968 oat August...) 3 8165 2722 61 20 1810 603 109 | 36 2276 758 3850 1283 September) 5 19593 3919 78 15:6 14548 2910 173 35 2115 493 2480 496 October...) 1 662 662 0-125 0-125 280 280 2 2 | 247 241 53 58 November | 2 866 433 2-95 1-125 170 85 2 1 536 268 130 65 December | 2 621 310 10 5 162 81 0 0 426 213 18 9 1g94January...| 2 1235 617 14 i 499 246 15 75 581 265 165 82 February 4 1792 448 16 4 699 175 20 5 746 186 266 66 March “...e 5 5237 1047 48 9:6 1474 295 301 | 60 2084 417 1101 220 April 4 3922 980 30°5 7:6 1067 267 88 | 21 2379 595 524 131 May 4 5376 1344 26°75 6:7 2010 502 82 | 20-5 2545 636 571 143 June 9 6599 733 765 8:5 2932 326 318 | 35 2633 293 227 25 July 3 3838 1279 24-5 8-1 461 153 69 | 23 983 327 2160 720 August 6 21913 3652 62:5 10-4 3329 555 95 | 16 10801 1800 7493 1249 September} 4 8111 2028 | 133 33-2 2283 571 39 9 1283 321 4014 1008 October ..., 3 | 3682 1227 | 130 43:3 680 926 28 9 1410 470 1561 520 | — “| 1895—March 2 538 26 0:5 0:25 40 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 April 3 734 245 18 6 170 56 4 1:3 306 102 237 79 May 8 3671 459 | 102°5 13 571 val 158 | 20 1977 247 683 85 June 4 3575 894 50 12-5 272 68 29 T 2765 691 302 75 July 5 19245 3849 | 136 OT 3104 621 129 | 26 5117 1028 9500 1900 August ...) 3 8750 2916 99 7-3 982 327 G3) | Sal 1621 540 5272 1757 September] 1 4404 4404 T i 9315 9315 5 5 705 705 1294 1294 October ...| 38 8897 2965 Oa 8-5 1747 582 0 0 3003 1001 9434 811 November | 1 1000 1000 9 9 984 284 0 0 | 345 345 299 999 December | 1 385 385 6 6 62 62 0 0 | 193 193 71 71 | 1896 —March 2 1911 955 12 6 954 477 5 25 | 546 273 258 129 April 2 2819 1409 5 2-5 1258 629 13 6:5 626 313 741 370 May 2 1481 740 10:5 5:25 649 324 5 250 4 498 249 994 147 Tune 3 4199 1399 13 4-3 1703 568 29 | 10 1963 654 361 120 July 2 6996 3498 8:5 4-95 9219 1109 49 | 25 1169 584 3534 1767 August 1 2608 2608 0-75 0-75 206 206 il 1 981 981 1433 1433 September] 1 723 723 8 8 120 120 57 | 57 | 150 150 298 298 October...) 3 2920 973 92 30°6 397 132 128 | 48 1534 511 800 266 1897—February 1 446 446 15 1:5 94 94 34 | 34 96 96 215 215 April p) 490 245 2-5 1-25 190 95 66 | 33 88 44 257 128 August 1 1913 1913 2°5 2:5 1278 1278 197 | 197 287 287 150 150 September| 2 2591 | ~ 1295 Bib 275 685 342 62 | 31 658 329 1186 593 October ...| 1 1298 1228 7 111 111 58 | 58 756 756 252 252 1898—Jul 41 10-2 1175 294 1060 | 265 1628 407 1352 338 August 3 Be 060 16 5:3 166 55 341 | 114 1678 559 1967 656 : 7 8-2 3 188 979 | 140 8374 1196 9677 1382 September 7 90330 9904 57°5 1316 October ...| 2 4686 9343 7 3-5 625 312 954 | 197 1071 535 2676 1338 = ie 1 18 293 | 37 718 119 94 16 me Tune ‘ aa aa " 7 “ii 30 43 | 43 3 3 71 iil : 20 2951 197 9361 | 158 8340 556 17608 1174 August 15 31718 9114 292 : : 19-5 190 95 209 | 104 982 491 654 327 September} 2 2133 1066 39 - 207 933 233 October ...) 4 1237 309 | 28 57 79 20 236 |_59 eae i S = : : P € i 2 = } . 2 + | ; Shi - > * ge - ; : = ¢ 4 ‘ A . < ~ { 5 - 7 > 2 : -f : ‘ : é “ : ~ _ ’ , ‘ r= , ‘ 4 = —— \ » - ‘ As i - . » in —~ i 7 rse, Rock, Queen’s and Crosby | PAZORP Sp ZC Ses ea Beadaeyo Cy by GY DABS. Total number. Dass. 2 WHITING. Average ee Average otal No. per at Sie No. per haul. haul. 39 385 Tir 8) 6 6 O 6292 2097 20 28 28 iy 966 193 DONT 158 79 284 76 19 IAG 214 19 i O O 161 O O 5 61 20 10 5) 5 140 156 156 58 10 10 164 22. 22. 213 28 14 O 0) O Flounders 119 102 Dies andy Cod 22 292 Sie onllye UTI 17 8 67 Bs 11335) 338 211 Dial 1383 389 389 665 28 14 147 29 29 il 9 9 23 14 14 14 O 0) 410 23 ial 20 19 9 100 220 220 553 143 (fal 140 20 20 18 1 1 695 466 116 234 733 105 176 1s) 4 Taste I.—Abstract of the results of Hauls with a Shrimp Trawl made in the Horse, Rock, Queen’s and Crosby Channels (Area B) during the period 1893—1899. ) Average | Surms.| ,°7"™2S- | praron, | PLAtcE. . Soxes. | Dass. Wuitinc. Dare, | Nala | ormione Noon! Motarno, Average Ne-| “aotat” | Average | Sioat | Average | Moti | Average | Wate| verge per haul. | of quarts. senha numbers. reat number. pipnee number. Neale * | number. gn 1893. “ JXaratl Soneseseooo 5 1019 204 13 2-6 378 76 29, 4-4 196 May...... il 312 312 0°5 0-5 283, 283 14 14 2) i oS ma August 3 7065 2355 43 14 13 4 14 4 0 0 6292 2097 September ...... 1 425 425 "f if 321 321 29 29 20 20 28 98 October .......... 5 3739 748 36 7 1846 369 22. 4 | 855 171 966 193 November ...... 2 1054 527 8 4 843 421 2 1 454 227 158 79 December ...... 4 2933 733 1:75 0:5 1591 398 0 0 1136 284 76 19 —————— = — 1894. January ...-....- 11 5310 483 45 4 3400 310 0 0 | 1980 116 214 19 February ........ 1 669 669 0:125 0-125 530 530 0 0 | Tf Ti 0 0 March.... il 647 647 07125 07125 284 284 0 (0) 161 161 0 0 May....... 3 430 148 12 4 166 55 109 36 | 17 5 61 20 June al 257 257 4:25 4:95 212 212 15 15 10 10 5 ti) July........- 1 753 753 13 13 367 367 55 55 140 140 156 156 August ......... 1 132 132 6°5 6:5 61 61 3 3 58 58 10 10 December ...... il 394 394 6 6 201 201 0 0 164 164 22 22 1895. January 2 1141 570 15 0:75 328 164 (0) 0 497 213 28 14 March...... il 12 12 0 0 0) 0 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 Flounders April o 758 379 15 75 62 31 0 0 fo 238 119 102 51 and Cod May....... 3 399 133 10°5 3°5 26 8 2 0-6 | 66 22 292 97 only. WANG) ceca ceveeene 2 3946 1973 12 6 674 337 87 43 3155 1577 aly 8 September ...... 1 466 466 2 2 166 166 rt 11 | 67 67 135 135 October ......... il 666 666 29 29 52 59 0 0 338 338 211 211 November ...... 2 4591 2295 ee ae 1135 567 0 0 | 2767 | 13983 389 389 1896. ATER AZ sarnonaon 2 3830 1915 1 0:5 2393 1196 0 0 1331 665 28 14 February ...... al DOL 591 0:5 05 365 365 0 0 147 147 29 29 FIWINE: ~ aosqacorDaDs 1 17 17 dt 4 6 6 0 ) | 1 1 9 9 1897. Wench 1 218 213 1 1 129 129 34 34 23 23 14 14 AFIT. acosmeonaceel| 1 243 943 0:5 0:5 158 158 50 50 | i4 14 0 0 ——s| 1898. January ......... 2 2749 1374 11 55 1772 886 99 50 820. 410 23 iit TINY sereevinccisescne 2 1344 672 8 4 933 466 B52 176 | _40 20 19 9 September ...... il 417 417 18 18 18 18 108 108 100 100 220 220 November ...... D) 9350 1175 60 30 410 205 628 314 1106 553 143 71 Meacembersee 1 724 794 16 16 174 174 240 240 | 140 140 20 20 ry ae 1 167 167 2 2 62 62 95 op Ble aM - - INDERIRG caosccen 4 3851 963 106°5 26°6 413 103 84 21 2782 695 466 116 September 7 2977 495 198 28 622 89 958 | 37 1636 234 733 105 October ......... 4 1100 275 202 50 266 66 Ag 705 176 15 4 | Pa s ’ z f 4 om f ) 4 4 ee 4 7 7 _ eal A ia Le 8 SIT 069 G6LT SEE 89L9 GLT G& 696 L87 VI 66 666 OVG TGL O6T 68T GG§ 09 L€9 61 9¢ 19 Lh L6G OFTT LGEP 868T S681 _OF8G O8T V8I& 66 STP v8I VST 8986 GCI oL VE 0 66 8GE 866 I1G SIT 19 SEP T6T 89 GL SET LVP v9OV 996T 886 PITG LGTT L8¥ OOST vS6 GLY 86G SIP G68 6684 VG 9h 096 GGG 9ST IG GG-6G &G G-86 GCL-T. Gé9-0 G-8G GLO CSEL OFS SGP T8éT 669 LL8 691 GGG 166 0&9 | 2 Se | "* Taqurieseqy "** TOQUIOAON. “555 79q090(0) ** Tequieydeg seeeee qsnsny AIVNIQIT ATENUY ‘(q Bory) sjouuvyD Aosroyy oy} ur YS pue sdunmg Jo seyoyeo ATYyYMOUT oSer0AL oY} SUIMEYG— AT a@TAVy, 8OTT GL 06 O9T [ST 96 68 “yaey aed ‘ON ISVIOAV *ONIGIH AA 68 6GP 6018 6S961 6LLLE LT99T 6761 LT9T 6GLT 69ET I87 GOT ‘ON T?49O.L “ONILIA AA 906 66 06S 879 G18 66S 8&7 986 606 666 89T G9G ey red "ON, ISBIOAV ‘savq 619 T88 vP8s LOGPT 8696 0068 S8ETT LVTG 6686 O€9G GP8 T&G ‘ONT TPIOL “Sadvq 0) 9-0 167 69 66 06 GG CT GT TE att Th “ney rod "ON OSVIOAW ‘SH'IOG 906 vG ci: ‘ON [¥JOL ‘Sa'IOG Gh TST 0&6 G16 ete) 997 G9G 1GG VG VLG 891 IVE err rod ‘ON ISRIOAV ‘HOIVIg TGG VSP 616E LGFIG GGLOT 6869 L889 6L66 G896 S9FG 664 G6P ‘ON [e401 "AOLVIg B= G © 19 GD Od HH HH H © O10 ml al el | Daa Ot AWARDED . ‘Tney aod syaenb Jo ‘ON OSvIOAVW "SdNIUHS OT Go-TT 9-186 SCE GL-9S7 L1G G- LEG 9ST 9g G-09 Seal tI ‘syaenb Jo “ON [P90], ‘SdNTIMHS GEE G69 TLET T&9G SLIG G8EG 6&8 1v9 PCL 008 LUP LT9 ‘Tuey red YSTH JO “ON ISVIDAY 900T 998T 6LEEG G88L¢ 66662 VVLGE 6G91G SESTT G96L TOGL SEGG SSGI uae ORSON TeqO.L | § C&C “STR x) | JO‘ON | ToquLa.a(T "** TaqULOAO NT seers 10q0100) “* raquieydag sebieisiakehah 7 cee eeees = ATP Hee ARTY s ATenIqo,7 sreees ATONUBP “ELV ‘(Y Bory) punorg sutdu1iyg yureg oqing ety} uo Ystq pue sduiryg jo soyoyeo ATYJUOM oSvIOAV OY} SMIMEeYS—T]]] ATIAVY, ‘ = i * t t . i =! f . = - 7 % ;, + : 7 - . nee ; =: . = ? ¥ ‘ : ‘ g ‘a . ; = r “6 ‘ , }. ; 5 - - \ 2 é oe - » - i‘ = ’ Pi a , 7 ——— E x 7» be : ; 2 ‘ . Z S 2 x 2 4 : 2 : + XY = —— = ~ > oe : a : > Taste Y.—Showing the ratio of Immature Fishes to Shrimps in the average monthly catches (Tables III. and 1V.) taken on the Mersey Shrimping Grounds :— MonrtTHs. 1893-1899. January February March ... April May June July August ... September October... November December AREA A. AREA B. Sous. | PLAIcE. | WHITING. | SOLES. | PLAICE. | WHITING. per Qt. | per Qt.| per Qt. | per Qt.| per Qt.| per Qt. Shrimps} Shrimps} Shrimps. |Shrimps/Shrimps.| Shrimps. pea 35:1 ile’) 1127 134:9 5 3°1 45°3 27°5 0 1432 48°3 5:1 40°8 22-4 30°2 367 12:7 3-0 47-9 | 31:4 5) 20°9 Ira dT 2a | 103 5:4 20°7 13 ae 29 8-2 4:7 22°6 0-8 6:2 Boe le * F419 19°3 61:9 8°3 6°9 USS i) Mt eWar 0:6 Dal 43-7 4:6 65°4 59°5 18 5 5 2°4 13-8 34:1 0°3 8:3 4:6 0-2 40-4 37°6 8°3 31-4 9 0 14 5 10:0 ely) 5 | Taste VI.—Shewing the Average Hauls made with a Shrimp Trawl during the 3rd quarters of the years 1893— 1899 on the Burbo Bank Shrimping Ground (Area A) :— Date. 1893—3rd quarter.. 1894— 3rd quarter... 1895 — 3rd quarter... 1896—3rd quarter... 1897—3rd quarter... 1898 — 3rd quarter... 1899-—8rd quarter... isp oH ars ig As : : S e C4) Se |ES)] 8a Seles af as Sa|\ g°S |ge| So |SFlsolse| so ZAsl|nm 98 leat| ee Gamelan] Oe 8 | 189 17 |16358 |2045) 282) 35 | 4391 13 | 220 17. | 6073 | 467] 203] 16 '13067 9 | 165 18 | 6401 | 711] 197) 22 | 7443 4| 17-25 | 4:3] 2545 | 636] 107| 27 | 2300 3 8 2-6| 1963 | 654] 259] 86 | 945 14 | 114-5 | 8 | 2657 | 190/2380/170 |/11680 18 | 338 19 BU7(Al Sia 145 | 9825 | Dabs. Average. Or TS We) 1005 827 575 315 854 518 Oo co) Whiting. Whiting. Average. Total. 6330 | 7 13667 15996 5265 1336 | 445 12996 | 928 18333 1018 Re) — =a © On ee ALT jo isu) — (op) Prate A. i ‘SALVUVddY ONIHOLVH NN ‘% sor q = Yew) “ay~9g : ODISAY | WTS] LY ‘04g | | ‘203q ‘g aALVIg Wh. ‘AON RGN ete ‘bd aS a “Wad UW 8 '66=COgI Csuuvng 1 “Sq WMHS jO Soyo zed ATYIUOUW |9SvI9 41d39 ‘ony ATAL 00Z i. _ Alverage ee IV. monthly catches of SOLES, 1893-99. La erage|monthly catches of 1893-99. | i | | Vv ®93-00. Ct quarts } Mar. Apri. ~~ May. _ JUNE. diy. Aua. |] i sy AZ tape sep 6681 pG6SL S6sL- 4 CS > ‘) aLvid —_ ~~ - — te ee oa. ee _ —— EE EE Ee i i _ _——— | SB Sith acu, SPOROZOGN FROM PLAICE, iG o S/S de/ Nm - 0S. J os 2 DS REET ‘eels: pice —— Sa SI NTE 02 OTST a ee oe A.SCOW. We/. LEPEOPHTHEIRUS & LERNAA. Memoir V upg eae (Sy : .: er ‘ “OD ey v ' H r Bn Fz t | IIA MARS 1 ‘ ' 1 a Pe he \a~ Rone Sahara ce ENO Ih oe DER AGN aieiy ft wos Bee Oe BEN PONS on is rape ve aS ROA DARA, Mla TET od. Vv S.B. GH A.Scorl, de/ LEPEOPHTHEIRUS & LERNAIA. L.M.B.C, Memoir VI. , Puate III. il) a \ Sea Ne PIG ae ReSeor: 7e/ SBa LEPEOPHTHEIRUS & LERNAIA. S.B.hith. A. Scat de/ LEPHOPHTHEIRUS & LERNADA. . itl | ' ; | 4 ra &? - - | } ' |- ‘ , : | ' { | f : ‘ £ ‘4 a ; . if F “s i+ se { Sithene D ) A well-marked cephalic vascular head loop may be present, or the cephalic vessels may form an anastomosing network. (c) The excretory system shews great variations in its backward extent; the position of the tubules may be dorsal or ventral, or both; they may reach forward to the cerebral organ, or may com- mence some way behind it. Also some species possess a number of ducts whilst only one pair is present in others. In the majority of the Lineide, and indeed in many British forms, we are as yet in ignorance with regard to many of these points, and until they have been deter- mined it is useless to attempt to place the classification of the family upon a more satisfactory basis. ; 4 274 acg. be. CC. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Reference Letters. anterior gland of cerebral organ. buccal vascular commis- sure. commissural vessel between dv and lbv. ciliated canal of cerebral organ. . circular cephalic muscles. longitudinal cephalic muscles. cephalc nerve. . cerebral organ. . glandular cutis. cephalic vascular loop. dorsal commissure of brain. dorsal ganglion. median dorsal blood vessel. epithelium. excretory duct. excretory tubules. frontal organ. ganglion cells. gonidial duct. head slit. intestinal diverticulum. intestinal epithelium. lateral blood lacuna. lateral blood vessel. mouth. me. mcp. mcr. mdv. ml. circular muscle layer. circular muscles of pro- boscis. muscle cross. dorso-ventral muscles. internal longitudinal muscle layer. external ditto. longitudinal muscles of proboscis. nerve to eye. median dorsal nerve. nervous layer. nervous layer of pro- boscis. . nuclei. ganglion celi (?) layer of eye. oesophagus. . oesophageal nerve com- missure. oesophageal vascular lacunae. oesophageal nerve. oesophageal epithelium. gland cells round oeso- phagus. ovary, proboscis. parenchymatous cells. posterior gland of cere- bral organ. ee Seas ee nm ail LINEUS. 205 . | pep. proboscis epithelium. ‘sdg. superior lobe of dorsal \ t pg. pigment layer of eye. ganglion. ie g pn. proboscis nerve. ss. lateral nerve. He ; ps. proboscis sheath. ve. ventral commissure. Hi rd. vhynchodaeum. vep. epithelium of blood vessel i, rhe. rhynchoccelom. vg. ventral ganglion. Ht rhce. rhynchoceelomic epith- elium. Ha) Puate I. Fig. 1. Transverse section through the tip of the head. before the two limbs of the cephalec vascular << OU) i Fig. 2. Transverse section taken between brain and tip i of snout. x 46. i Fig. 35. Transverse section through hinder part of brain, lit where the anterior gland of the cerebral organ | opens near the end of the head slits. x 60. Hi Vig. 4. Transverse section through dorsal commissure lif loops have fused ventral to the proboscis i sheath. x 40. Hi Fig. 5. Transverse section through brain at a level | i between 4 and 3. x 40. AR Fig. 6. Transverse section through level of cerebral | | organ, buccal vascular commissure and It cesophageal nervous commissure. { } 1 Puate IT. Fig. 1. Transverse section through mouth region. The cesophageal vascular lacunze are just com- | mencing. x 46. | Fig. 2. Transverse section through about the middle of th the cesophageal region. x 46. Fig. Eig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Transverse section of epithelium from anterior intestinal region. x 300. . Longitudinal vertical section through brain taken rather to one side of the median line. se Als), . Transverse section through hinder region of proboscis. The circular muscles and nervous layer have both disappeared. x 120. . Transverse section through proboscis at its widest—about the middle. x 80. . Longitudinal median section through anterior end, shewing the relations of the proboscis to the rhynchodeum and rhynchocclom when retracted. x 45. Somewhat schematic. Puate III. . Transverse section through so-called ciliated canal of cerebral organ, shewing the seven large external cells and the internal homo- geneous cell layer all with crystalline ends formed from fused cilia projecting into the lumen. - x 300. . Portion of intestinal epithelium, shewing the circular refractive bodies enclosed in the elongated ciliated cells. x 168. . Schematic longitudinal horizontal section through the cerebral organ of a Heteronemer- tean. (After Biirger). . Section through eye just anterior to the entry of the nerve into the pigmentary layer. x 240. . Section through blind end of an excretory tubule (left portion), shewing elongated cilia. x 300. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Pig. Figs. LINEUS. PATE . Longitudinal horizontal section through intes- tinal region, shewing the intestinal diverticula alternating with the gonads. x 46. . Flask-shaped egg capsule, containing a single embryo in the morula stage. (After M’Intosh.) x2 20: . Transverse section through intestinal region passing between two diverticula. x 40. PLATE IV. . Schematic figure, shewing the relations of the various systems in the anterior end of the animal as viewed from above. The proboscis and its sheath, the esophageal nerves and the buceal vessels have been omitted. . Transverse section through lateral blood vessel. On the side of the alimentary canal the paren- chyma cells are smaller and complete. On the outer side no cell wall is to be distinguished away from the vessel. x 168. . Portion of esophageal epithelium from a trans- verse section. Three kinds of gland cells are seen among the ciliated epithelium and below it:—(a), (8), and (S). (for explanation vide text). x 168. . Two spermatozoa (after M’Intosh). x 700. . Larva of Desor as seen from the ventral surface. The outer ciliated coat is not yet shed. (After Barrois). . Young Lineus just hatched. x 40. (After M’Intosh). 7-11. Diagrammatic sections through larve of Lineus at different stages. (After Hubrecht). hi My 278 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Fig. 7. Transverse section, shewing the secondary epiblast of the cephalic plates (¢p.) gradually overgrown by the primary (prep.). The pro- boscidial plate (prp.) arises antero-dorsally by delamination. Fig. 8. Transverse section of slightly later stage, shew- ing the two invaginations from the primary epiblast on either side of the blastopore, which will eventually give rise to the cerebral organs (corg.). Fig. 9. Longitudinal section through a stage slightly younger than 7. The archenteron is_ sub- divided into intestine (znt.) and csophagus, which do not communicate. Kig. 10. Horizontal section of older embryo. Proboscis now invaginated and mesoblast accumulating. The secondary epiblast, consisting of proboscis, cephalic (cp.) and ventral plates (vp.), now forms the external surface of the worm, having sunk in, and become separated from ihe primary epiblast (prep.). The section corre- sponds to the stage shewn in figure 9. Fig. 11. Median longitudinal section through somewhat later stage. The hinder portion of the pro- boscidian mesoblast is now attached. ‘The esophagus and intestine communicate. Rhyn- chocceelom now apparent (rhc.). WD Pais) S F oO5d 2° ao o i nN, yh 0, ea aa rem ae. F TCR EI... UE Dak iyi 7 Tk 5 BT op AE ak & . a os nF = ISH) “Ss Soy VL) ASS et ae ‘ cette, e : : wn ah gilt i _ < 4 NS H fi SLT an ybat Sy RS nS Le ‘ ue \ cul. Hi ; ng. i Hh, Lyi tie f i} Bagh Yay f ey ate, { } Ny hit aaa are ’ : ) 2 eet GO 8 i ’ | i Wi i a4 {i\4 i} Wht Wik ei | f 5 { | | | iin | wid. 5 We wie oi ivi vk | ‘ 4 aes + mAs Hey LAE NS ee ? PTI TN RC Pael, SB.Lth i i i } LINEUS. i Wd Le L.M.B.C. Memoir VII. cy RCP del a SSS SB Lith. LINEUS. TT OM iow : PP. ny Puate III. eer? Cry er) @ 220 oo Sart SSadea ee 2 o ot) ° us z Web re Wi SIRS WN LINEUS. i i ne Wa it iee a a SSS ee =e ih Pak { } vies, = = | i i ti] Le i ’ | ca S. Sar WU: WIE NY ete eo oo a ® Sa Rese So fp & © Se > 19) v COrg. Lol \ Lat L.M.B.C. Memoir VIL. SBiith RCP ael LINEUS. My _ 7 Ps hay seas We , » 5 : ' t “ey X F ; * a 279 THE METHODS ann RESULTS or tHe GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS, wire SPECIAL REFERENCE to tor HENSEN NETS. By J. T. Jenxrns, D.Sc. [Read May 10th, 1901.] INTRODUCTION. At the suggestion of Professor Herdman I have under- taken to draw up a brief but I trust sufficient account of the methods employed by the German investigators for the estimation of the Plankton, that is, the floating, as distinguished from the swimming, organisms which occur at all times but in varying abundance in all parts of the seas and oceans. I do this the more readily as I have had ample opportunities of practically making myself acquainted, during the past twelve months, with the methods of plankton investigation as at present carried out in Kiel, and as no account of these methods yet exists in English. A short account of the results, which are of great and far-reaching importance, already obtained by the German workers, has also been appended; but this latter part is somewhat brief, and serves more as an indication of the direction in which results have been already obtained than as a summary of the results themselves. Sufficient references are, however, given to the literature to enable any one who might care to devote further study to the question to find a full and adequate account of the con- clusions already obtained. The plankton estimation methods of the Germans, the credit for initiation of which 280 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. is due to Hensen (1),* differ from and mark an advance on the methods hitherto employed in England, inasmuch as no attempt is made in the latter country to arrive at a quantitative as distinguished from a qualitative result. The questions that Hensen attempts to answer are, 1, What does the sea contain at a given time in the shape of lving organisms in the plankton? and, 2, How does this material vary from season to season and from year to year? It may be pointed out that the results obtained by the German investigators are largely due to the liberal atti- tude taken by their Government with regard to subsi- dising scientific investigation of problems connected with the Sea-Fisheries. It is to be hoped that the Irish Sea may be subsequently investigated in hke manner. A comparison with the results already obtained for the North and Baltic Seas could not fail to be of interest and to yield important results. | In the preparation of this paper, which is, of course, largely a compilation from the literature already published in German (a list of the more important works is appended), I have received much assistance from Professor Brandt, to whom my best thanks are due both for the assistance given me and for permission to photograph the apparatus at present in use in the Zoological Institute at Kiel. In addition, I have to thank Professor Vanhoffen and Dr. Apstein for their unfailing readiness to assist me in matters of difficulty. Of the figures, numbers 2, 3 and 6 are taken, by per- mission, from Dr. Apstein’s ‘‘ Stisswasser Plankton” (5). Figs. 8 and 9 are from Prof. Brandt's work on “ Die Fauna der Ostsee” (7). Fig. 10 is from Prof. Hensen’s * The numbers in parentheses refer to the list of papers at the end (p. 341). GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 281 work on the quantitative estimation of the smaller plankton organisms (11). The other figures are repro- ductions of photographs that I have taken of the apparatus as at present in use. Tur Nets anp Metuops. The nets devised by Hensen for the quantitative deter- mination of the plankton are of two kinds, vertical and horizontal, according to the way they are used. Of these the vertical alone are used, the difficulties in the case of the horizontal nets being at present insuperable. The principle of the use of the vertical net consists in that it is, In the form of an inverted truncated cone, lowered perpendicularly in the water to a required depth, and then raised to the surface also perpendicularly. By this method a cylindrical column of water filters through the net, and its planktonic contents are captured. Now the volume of this cylindrical column of water can be calcu- lated since the depth to which the net is sunk is known, as is also the area of the net opening. The first and most important requisite of the Hensen net is that it should capture the whole of the plankton in an exactly known volume of water, so that on every occasion not only must the whole of the plankton remain in the net, but the exact volume of water which has filtered through must be calculated. It is perfectly obvious that not so much water passes through the net as would pass through a ring of equal diameter to that of the mouth of the net, which had nothing attached to it. It is also clear that a square centimetre of the net would let through more water if it were composed of a single mesh than if, as is really the ease, it is composed of a large number of minute meshes, each bounded by a square of silk fibre. Therefore it is 282 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. important to know, for each variety of the silk bolting cloth of which the net is composed, how much water for a given pressure and in a given time passes through a square centimetre. Hensen has with this object in view con- structed a very ingenious apparatus and by means of numerous experiments has calculated the filtration capacity of each net-substance (1. page 12). In addition to these experiments another set is necessary in order to determine the filtration capacity of the net itself, and in order to make this calculation easier the net must be exactly conical, and to that end great care must be exercised in its construction. Even then an exceedingly laborious and difficult caleulation is necessary for each separate net. From the depth of water to which the net is sunk, from the quantity or volume of water through which it passes, from the speed with which it is drawn up, and from the filtration capacity of the net substance and of the net itself, Hensen has finally calculated what fraction of the water column through which the net has been hauled passes through the net itself, and what fraction has escaped over the edge of the ring. The number of organisms captured in the net is thus brought into relation with the column of water through which the net has passed, and so with any given portion of the.sea. By means of a closeable net, observations can be made at any depth required. The net is lowered vertically to a given depth while open, but in a collapsed condition, so that practically nothing gets into it through the ring. The water that passes in at first does so through the meshes of the net. Then it is hauled up vertically through a given height, and by means of a weight which runs down the rope it becomes closed, and is then hauled on board go that the organisms in the water at the required depth, say from 1,000 to 500 metres, are captured. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 283 THE VERTICAL NET. The large vertical plankton net consists essentially of _ three parts :—1. The conical head piece (Fig. 1, A). 2. The | net itself, B; and 8, a metal cylinder or bucket suspended at the apex of the net, C. gee 8! eee eee ' iivels” ale The newest form of the net is here described, and the description therefore differs in some details from that given by Hensen (1). The head piece consists of a circular iron ring, e, of 38 cm. diameter, so that the area of the mouth of the net is 284 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. one-tenth of a square metre, to which are attached three iron rods, each 40 cm. long, which are in turn attached to another broad and flat iron ring, d, of 100 cm. diameter. The iron rods are at their upper ends bent into hook-lhke rings, to which ropes are attached. The whole of this head piece is covered with fustian. This part serves to prevent mud or slime getting into the net when it is lowered on to very soft ground. The edge, d, sinks to some extent in the mud, but only when the edge, e, sinks below the surface of the mud can the latter enter the net. Only very occasionally was the head piece found to be not sufficiently high. It is also useful, as it serves to prevent part of the catch from overflowing the ring d, for instance, should the ship during the time the net is out sink to the trough of a wave, the net might at the same time be raised and its contents be spilt. The net is also liable to collapse in a short choppy sea. The space in the headpiece serves to prevent these accidents, as the volume of water momentarily jerked out of the net proper is retained in this space and subsequently filters through the net itself. To the iron ring, d, is suspended a rope sewn on with linen, and from this the silk net passes to a brass ring. The net has a funnel-shaped form. An improvement would be effected if it were possible to make it eylindrical. To the brass ring, f, a filtering cylinder or bucket is suspended. After many experiments Hensen came to the conclusion that the most suitable material for the net itself was silk bolting cloth or gauze (“ Miillergaze”’), being the material used by millers to separate flour of different qualities. This silk bolting cloth is numbered according to the meshes of the silk. There are twenty varieties, of which the highest number has the smallest mesh. The web is very ingeniously constructed, so that the threads GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 285 of the network cannot become displaced, and the areas of the meshes are, as a rule, very similar. As a rule the mesh numbered 20 has been used, and for this number and 5 the number of meshes per square centimetre and the length of a side of a single mesh are given. For number 59 each square centimetre has on the average 763 meshes, and the length of each mesh is 0°22 mm. In number 20 the number of meshes is 5,926 and the length of side 0°05 mm. With the latter mesh most of the Diatoms would be captured, though it would occasionally happen, when they approached the mesh in the direction of their longitudinal axis, that they slipped through. The silk bolting cloth must be so arranged between the two rings that it cannot become folded. It is advisable in the first place to cut out a paper pattern, the silk cloth can then be cut accordingly. The net should have the form of a truncated cone (Vig. 2). Let R and ¢ be the radii of the larger and smaller rings respectively, and let y be the height of the covering ; let w be the length of the truncated portion. These are the dimensions chosen for the particular net. It is necessary 286 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. to find the angle to which the cloth must be cut. This is calculated as follows :— Wh, 0 Paley tae eal Te ep ies NENG! GE pee Now suppose the conical mantle is unrolled (Fig. 3). Then it follows that the segment of the circle subtended by the angle a bears to the circumference of the circle the ratio of a to 360°. Consequently = zal eas a = BOOy A heretoren. a For the large plankton net used in marine investiga- tions 2 is 50 em., r is 10 cm., and y is 144 cm. When the net is cut out according to the above pattern, an extra inch of cloth must be allowed on all sides, so that the edges A C and B P (fig. 3) may be sewn together by means of a fine needle. The silk cloth along the ine A B is sewn on to the upper ring, and along the line C VP it is fastened between the metal cylinder and a brass ring. There are several varieties of the metal cylinder, or bucket, that is attached to the apex of the net. One only is described here (Fig. 4). The upper part of the cylinder is formed of a brass ring, B, which by means of three screws, s, is fastened on to a brass ring of similar cireum- ference at the apex of the net. The walls of the upper part of the cylinder are composed of silk bolting cloth, c. The lower part of the cylinder is of brass, which is painted green. By means of a turncock, ¢, the catch can be run off into the filtrator. — The filtrator (Fig. 5) consists of four principal parts, a metal base (m), a removable glass plate (g), the filter itself eS Oe GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 287 (f), and a metal funnel (D), which fits exactly into the filter. The catch is carefully filtered, and then the metal funnel (D) is removed. On unscrewing the screw (s) the brass rod (6) can be moved downwards, while the arms (a) are moved upwards, and then the filter and glass plate can be removed. The catch remains on the glass plate. (EGA The use of the vertical net at sea is attended with many difficulties. In the first place the ship must be brought to, and even then it is impossible that a large ship can remain perfectly still during the time necessary for lowering and hauling in the net. The strain on the net while being lowered and drawn up is controlled by means of the apparatus well known in dredging as an 288 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. “accumulator.” This apparatus consists essentially of two iron rods bound together by strong caoutchouc bands, and fastened to a spar attached to the fore mast. To the under end of the accumulator a pulley is attached, over which runs the rope attached to the net. The elasticity of the caoutchouc regulates the speed at which the net is MTG. to: hauled in, and the degree of extension of the caoutchouc bands gives one an idea of the strength of the pull, so that one can avoid the breaking of the rope and the loss of the valuable net. The washing down of the plankton into the metal cylinder at the base of the net is important, as when the GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 289 net is first hauled up a large quantity of the catch remains lodged just above the lower ring (Fig. 1, d). The washing is best accomplished by directing a stream of sea water on to the outside of the net by means of a hose, or if that is impracticable by throwing buckets of water on to the net, care being taken that nothing enters the net through the ring. Tue Horizontat NET. In addition to the vertical net a horizontal net has been devised, that is to say, a net which is towed along through the water in a _ horizontal direction, with the opening of the net forward. This net can only be used in the upper layers of the water, and when the ship is passing over a certain definite course, the length of which is given by the log. The construction and use of this net also presents many difficulties, the chief being the strong pull brought to bear on the net owing to the variable speed with which it is drawn through the water. An alternative method to the use of this net is to pump up the water on deck by means of a steam pump, and there filter it. | PRESERVATION OF THE CATCH. The catch is first of all freed from sea water in the filtrator, in which similar silk bolting cloth to that of the netisused. Several kinds of preservative fluids have been recommended. Hensen first of all tried picrosulphuric acid, but this has proved unsatisfactory. Carbonate of lime is dissolved out by this reagent, and the shells of Foraminifera are entirely destroyed. In addition the exoskeletons of the Copepoda also contain calcium car- bonate, which is dissolved out. Under certain conditions Flemming’s solution (chromo-aceto-osmic acid) may be E 290 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. used, but an excess of osmic acid should be avoided. Perhaps the best preservative is alcohol. This had better be used at first in a weak solution. The strength of the solution can be subsequently increased to the point desired. Tue Estimation oF THE CATCH. The most difficult part of the whole undertaking is the work on land, consisting, as it does in the estimation of the catch in so exact a manner that the plankton in the sea in different places or in the same place at different times may be quantitatively compared. This estimation may be conducted in several different ways, each of which is summarised and discussed by Hensen. There are four chief methods of estimation, namely : — 1. Volume estimation. 2. Estimation by weight. 3. By chemical analysis. 4. By enumeration of the indi- vidual organisms. Taking first of all the method of estimation by volume, we find that the simplest method is by allowing the plankton to settle down in a glass vessel. The catch is first of all thoroughly shaken up in alcohol in a glass measuring cylinder, and allowed to stand for at least twenty-four hours. This shaking up had better be centrifugal when the plankton contains a large number of Diatoms or Peridinex, as the subsequent deposition of these organisms is thereby facilitated. At the end of this time the plankton material has settled down at the bottom of the vessel, and forms a more or less deep layer. The depth of the layer can then be read off in centimetres, which are marked on the outside of the glass cylinder. It is of the utmost importance that the catch should remain perfectly still, because the least disturbance causes the layer of deposit to become thicker. By this means the crude or rough volume (“ Rohvolumen” of Schiitt) is GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 291 obtained. The results obtained by this method can be readily compared with one another, but do not by any means give the true volume, because a certain amount of fluid occupies the spaces between the individual organisms. It is possible that the plankton on several different days might yield lke results according to this method, and yet be essentially quite different. For instance, the plankton might be one ccm. per day for several successive days. Then according to the volume estimation method one would be constrained to say that the plankton had remained the same. The enumeration of the individual constituents might however show that while the total volume had remained the same, the individual species had undergone a remarkable variation. Hence the importance of the last of the four methods, the estimation by counting. The presence or absence of certain forms makes a great difference in the volume of the catch, which may be out of all proportion to their importance for the particular object of the experiments. Again, certain forms take a much longer time to settle down than others. Catches in which Dinoflagellata preponderate settle down very rapidly, and only require a few hours. Copepoda also settle down quickly, and after twenty-four hours a correct result can be obtained. The Diatomacee are very trouble- some, and when they are present in large quantities they tend to nullify the results, and a true estimation of the volume can only be obtained after waiting for a very long time. When Salpe and similar animals are present, the estimation becomes so imperfect that the large individuals require to be separately estimated. Another objection to the estimation of volume by this method is that a varying amount of fluid fills up the spaces between the organisms. An attempt has been made to 292 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. avoid this objection in the second method of volume estimation. | According to this method the catch is filtered through the finest silk cloth. Filter paper is of no use, as so many organisms remain immovably attached to it. The damp mass of the plankton is then introduced into a glass measuring cylinder, in which an exactly known volume of alcohol is contained. The height of the mixture of plankton and alcohol is now measured. The difference between this and the previous measurement gives us, of course, the volume of the catch. This method is good, but not always practicable because on account of the extremely small catches occasionally made there is hardly any appreciable difference in the two measurements. This method gives what Schiitt terms the “ Dichtes Volumen.” There is yet another way of arriving at the ‘“Dichtes Volumen.” The volume of the catch and fluid is first of all measured. Then the catch is filtered, and the filtrate measured. The difference gives, of course, the volume. This method is applicable for catches that consist of microscopic material. _Hensen considers it gives inaccurate results. The only way of arriving at the true volume of an organism, that is the sum of the volumes of the individuals without the adhering particles of fluid, would be to estimate the average volume of an individual of the species, then count the number in the catch, and multiply the average volume by the number in the catch. This estimation is, however, too difficult, and requires too much time to be practicable. ‘The absolute volume, that is the volume of the dry substance, would give us the most complete idea of the volume of a plankton collection. No method has as yet been devised for its estimation. The second method, that of weight estimation, is very simple, but has gradually been replaced [o> 2s. a . eS ~~ as” | f GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 293 by the third method, that of chemical analysis. The weight estimation, when practicable, gives us the best estimation of mass. It has, however, one decided dis- advantage, and that is any material investigated in this way is invariably destroyed, so that it cannot be employed in cases where it is desired to preserve the material, as in the case of oceanic expeditions which have been fitted out at great cost. The third method, that of chemical analysis has been developed by Brandt (7). The method was also employed by Hensen in his first plankton estimation work. The results of these two methods are described further on. The methods are briefly: 1. The weight in the damp condition, im addition to the volume of the mass after settling down. 2. The dry weight. 3. The weight of ash. The difference between 2 and 3 gives the weight of dry organic substance. 4. The percentage of silica. Obtained by weighing the residue insoluble in water and acids. These methods may either be employed for the whole of the catch or for certain constituents of the same as, for example, for Copepoda or Cerateum. For chemical investigation only fresh material or material preserved in alcohol can be investigated. By the use of all other preservatives either some of the sub- stance of the catch becomes lost or destroyed or else some of the preservative medium remains behind and vitiates the results. For killing and preservation pure rectified spirit (70 per cent.) was found most suitable, and for the preservation, bottles and flasks with glass stoppers must be used. If it is wished to analyse a separate portion of the eatch, the separation of such portion must be made before the organisms are killed. This can be done by the use i. 294 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. of silk cloth of different sized meshes. A great difficulty in the chemical investigation method is the getting rid of the salt water which adheres to the organisms. In the filter most of the water filters through, but a certain amount invariably remains behind. The difficulty may be avoided in two ways, either by washing the organisms on the silk cloth with fresh water or by making, by means of a chlorine estimation, an estimate of the amount of salt retained on the average in a catch of given volume or weight. The former method is the more successful one. For the dry weight estimation the total catch is first of all dried in a water bath at a temperature of 100° C. Then it is placed in a desiccator containing strong sulphuric acid until the weight becomes constant. Then it is weighed by means of a Bunge’s balance to the nearest 0°0005 gram. The analytical methods consist of (1) Estimation of carbon and hydrogen. 2. Estimation of nitrogen. 3. Ether extract. 4. Estimation of ash. 5. Estimation of chlorine. 6. Estimation of silica. Occasionally the quantity of chitin, cellulose or the soluble carbohydrates were estimated. A detailed consideration of these methods is beyond the scope of the present summary. The last and perhaps the most satisfactory method of investigation is that of the enumeration of the individual constituents of the plankton. This method gives us a far better idea than any other of the nature and variability of the plankton. It is obviously impossible to count all the individuals of the catch, as the following facts prove. On one occasion Hensen found in one cubic metre of water from Kiel harbour 13 million individuals of Ceratiwm tripos, and on another occasion 102 millon Rhizoso- lenia semispina. In the first place the excess of the preservative fluid is decanted off, and _ the ——P TP == ——————————————————— she TCU TT eee eee _ zed ae £ / GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 295. | catch diluted with water until a given volume is reached. This is the first dilution. If the catch has been preserved in alcohol, the latter must be thoroughly washed out with water, and this operation takes several days. Suppose the volume of the catch has been diluted with water to 90 cem., it is evident that in each ccm. of this dilution the different organisms are present to a very varying extent. When the volume has been thoroughly shaken up, we find perhaps in one cem. one Leptodora and 300,000 Melosira. ‘The examples given in the estimation detailed below are from fresh water plankton. An even greater variation occurs in the case of salt water organisms. It may here be mentioned that the method of enumeration and the forms employed for entering the results of the same are exactly the same for both salt and fresh water planktonic investigations. Now the enumera- tion of 300,000 Meloszra is obviously impossible, so for the enumeration of the more abundant individuals we have to make a second dilution. In the present instance we take from the 50 cem. of the first volume, say 2°5 ccm., after the volume has been well shaken up in order that the organisms may become as evenly distributed as pos- sible, and dilute this a second time until it becomes 50 cem., then we have in this second dilution in every ccm. 300,000 DOO 275) we count out the number of Melosira in one-tenth of a ceem., that is, 1,500. In this mass of water it is possible that we should not find any individuals of the rarer species, so that when we wished to count these, the dilu- tion would not have to be carried so far, that is, 10 ecm. of the first dilution would be diluted up to 50 cem. For the still rarer forms the first volume itself would have to be taken for the purpose of counting. = 15,000 Melosira. From this second dilution . 296 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. For the extraction from the diluted solution of an accurately known volume of liquid, Hensen has devised a form of apparatus known as the ‘“‘ Stempelpipette,” that is a pipette furnished with a piston (see fie (6): yas instrument consists of a strong glass tube (2), the under surface of which is cut off quite evenly. This tube con- Hie. 6: tains a moveable piston, consisting of alternating cork (¢) and metal (m) plates, securely fastened together by two screws. To this piston a metal cylinder (7) 1s screwed, and this must exactly fit the glass tube. From this metal cylinder a quantity of metal is cut off so that between it and the glass tube an exactly known volume, say one ccm., remains. In order to do this, first of all a certain quantity GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. _ 297 of metal is cut away from the cylinder. The pipette is weighed. The cavity is then filled with mercury, and the pipette re-weighed. The weight of a ccm. of mercury is known, and more and more metal is cut away until the difference between the two weighings becomes equal to this. There are six such pipettes in common use, of capacities 0'1, 0°2, 0°5, 1, 25 and 5 cem. These pipettes are passed through a strong cork (k), which is fitted into a glass vessel with strong walls. The fluid is poured into the latter vessel, and thoroughly shaken up, so that the plankton becomes evenly distributed throughout the whole volume, and as soon as this is the case the piston is pulled quickly up into the glass tube, so that the space (1) between the metal cylinder and the walls of the tube contains an exactly known volume of liquid. Before this fluid is subsequently emptied out it is as well to smear the under end of the glass tube with a little fat, as other- wise a drop of the fluid might easily hang there. After the volume has been ejected from the pipette, the latter is washed out with a little water, so that no organisms may remain behind. It is impossible to use the ordinary measuring pipettes in this connection, because the open- ing is so small as to become stopped up by some of the larger organisms. If the dilution is sufficient for the immediate purpose, the counting may now commence, and for this a special form of microscope (fig. 7) has been devised. This micro- scope has a very large mechanical stage,* which is able to earry a glass plate of 11°5 by 10 cm., and this, by means of two screws, can be moved at will in either of two direc- tions, from or to the observer, or sideways. This glass * Mechanical stages are supplied by Zwickert, Optician, Kiel, and are made to fit suitable microscopes, from 60 marks upwards. 998 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. plate is engraved with fine lines cut in by means of a diamond, and each plate has a definite linear system. When the glass plate is in focus two parallel lines, in a direction perpendicular to the observer, are seen. When the side screw is turned successive lines are brought into the field of view. The rotation of the other screw gradually brings into view the whole of the space between Tues Ve two given lines. The whole glass plate can thus, starting from one corner, be gradually brought into the field of view, and no part of it can possibly be overlooked. When a known volume of the diluted fluid is brought on to the glass plate the number of individual organisms of a given species can be readily determined, but the dilution is best GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 299 arranged so that not more than one thousand and not less than one hundred of the organisms are found at one time on the glass plate. When the number of a single species only is enumerated at one time the counting is a simple matter, and is easily carried out. The plate is carefully looked over and every individual as it comes into the field of view is counted. In this way the total number of the individuals on the glass plate is arrived at, and the amount of the dilution being known the total number of individuals of that species in the catch can be calculated. Suppose, for example, the dilution to be ten times the original volume and that one ccm. of the diluted portion is used for the purpose of enumeration, and 55 Clathro- cysts were found, then the total number in the catch of 50 cem. would be 55 x 10 x 50, that is, 27,500 individuals. When it becomes necessary to count the different species of a genus, or a number of different species of plants or animals from the same plate, it is found expe- dient to adopt a labour-saving device suggested by Hensen. A box, divided into as many different compartments as there are species to be counted, and having each compart- ment labelled with the names of the species, is used for this purpose. The plate containing the various organisms is now brought under observation, and as each individual of a given species comes into view, the observer drops a token of some kind (button or coin) into the compartment labelled with the name of the species. In this way a plate with fifty different species can be easily investigated, The method is, of course, more practicable for the rarer individuals. The first organisms to be enumerated are usually the Diatomacee, as they are at certain seasons the most numerous constituents of the plankton. Firstly a strongly diluted portion of the catch is taken, and about one-tenth of a cem. of the fluid is placed on the glass plate. 300 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The magnification required for Diatoms and other small alez is about 100. The amount of the fluid and the largeness of the magnification offer difficulties in the way of a successful counting. The amount of the fluid is so great that all the Diatoms in a given field of view will not be in focus together, so that it is found convenient to count the diatoms dry. The water is therefore evaporated by the plate being placed in the rays of the sun, or by being placed on the top of a paraffin bath, or any such suitable warm place. On account of the mixing of the organisms and the diluted fluid not being quite uniform, different enumera- tions for the same species give different results from different plates, so that it becomes necessary to con- sider how many enumerations are requisite in order to give an average from which the total number of individuals in the whole catch may be accurately deduced. In general, it may be said that, for the species which occur most abundantly, when a fraction, — say one-tenth of the square root has been counted it will be found sufficient to afford a basis for the caleulation of the total number. For instance (see form, pp. 302-3) we might have on the first plate 43 examples of Melosira, and as we know that the fraction of the total volume taken for the purpose of calculation was one ten-thousandth part of the whole, the total number of Meloszra would be, according to this single estimation, 430,000. The tenth part of the square root of this is 66. When at least 66 specimens of Melosira have been counted, we can regard the result as sufficient to supply us with an average, and no more need be counted. In order to find out the degree of correctness of the enumeration, Hensen adopted the following method: —An organism is first of all counted on several plates, and the average is taken. Then another GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 301 plate is used, and this result, combined with the previous one, gives us a fresh average. When this second average does not differ from the first by more than 5 per cent., the result may be taken to be satisfactory. In the form appended we find for Melosira the numbers 43, 38 and 48 on the first three plates. This gives us as average 43. The next counting gives us 38. The total now becomes 167 and the average 42. Then it follows that 43 : 100 = 42: w. = BUT. That is, the difference is 2°3 per cent., and therefore the counting can be regarded as accurate enough and com- pleted, but of course it is always more advisable to use too many plates than too few. Having thus arrived at a sufficiently accurate result, we do not estimate the Diatoms on succeeding plates, and we can therefore use a weaker dilution and magnification. [or the rarer forms the first dilution can be used, and from this 1 ccm. and finally 2°5 cem., counted through; this work is much quicker, as a smaller magnification is used and only a few animals have to be counted. Hach separate counting is noted on a form, an example of which is given (pp. 302-3). The forms originally used by Hensen are very compli- cated, and I have not attempted to produce one in its entirety; still the appended form is sufficient for all practical purposes. It may here be mentioned that the eriticisms of Kofoid and the results obtained by Lohmann (9) seem to render some modification of the original form necessary. It seems useless to include organisms in the calculation the majority of which are proved to slip through the silk bolting cloth, No. 20. The forms are of two kinds. One is used for entering the results of an individual catch; the other for comparing such catches together. An example of the first only is appended, This 302 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ForM FOR ENTERING ReEsuutTs No. 324. Place—Dobersdorfer Lake. Date—20 ix., 1891. 14 ccm. diluted to 50. _ Rune. ck Amount of No. True Total, |Calcula-| _Co- Volumal investigation. dilution. volume. tion. |efficient.| used. | wet. dry 2°52 50 1 0-005 ba 50/0-005} 10,000 O-1 | a | 3 2 * 0-01 | 50/0°01 | 5,000 Pe ») 3 3 s 0-015 | 50/0-015} 3,333 oe wet me 4 5 0:02 | 50/0:02 | 2,500 i; » 95 5 | 0-025 0:045 | 50/0°045) 1,111 0-5 »» 9) 6 ‘ 0-07 | 50/007 714 i os undiluted 7 O-1 O17 | 50/Oxt% 294 | O-1 9 9 8 a 0-27 | 50/0°27 185 * » iB 9 Bae 0°37 | 50/0°37 135 re 3 9 10 0-5 0-87 | 50/0°87 5T4 Oss . ‘ il . 1:37 | 50/1-37 36-5] _,, s ie 12 i 1:87 | 50/1-87 26°7 ‘5 2 i 13 1:0 2:87 | 50/2:87 17-4} 1 ¥9 55 14 Remainder 50 an al. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 303 for A SINGLE Carcu. Under one : Total in ; é ; No. of poe Lean Species. 1/2|}3)4/5)6) 7) 8) 9 |10/11)12/13)14/Total plates. Coeff. Bare sieolenare-270)| Clathrocystis|55|\60/57) ? |...|...|...|..-|--«fa-|-.-[---[2--]-.-| L72 | 1-38, |3,838 Ossie -994) Maerocystis | 6) 6] 6 ?)...|...|...]...]..-Jes[e.-[eo2|---[---| “18 - ee 12,331,494) 81,396) Ceratium LOMO! SAU AG| Pilecclicoclicceliace|soaliesalloaa| IZZE |) 16 714 65,138,486) 429,957 | Melosira LEVERS? |ooeloco|leoo|aelleoc||coal|secllacel|scallooal| IS) | aay | B68) 369,054, 2,436 | Copepoda QO; 1) 1) 1) 1) 2) 2) 6) 2)25/20\25/54) ?| 140 | 1-18 | 17-4 larvee 303 2| Cyclops $ O} O| O| O} OF OF OF OF OF OF OF OF OF 2; 21-14) 1 1364 9) Leptodora ¢ | 0) 0; 0} 0] 0} 0} OF OF O} O] O]-0/ OF 9| «69 | 1-14). 1 6818 45 | Daphnia O} O} O| O} OF OF OF O} OF 1) O} O; O44) 45 | 1-14) 1 galeata etc. 304 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. form must be studied in connection with the explanation in the text. The form contains the results of one of Apstein’s investigations (5) on the fresh water plankton of one of the Holstein lakes. Although the form records fresh water organisms, an exactly similar form can be, and is, used for salt water plankton. The forms for comparing results of different catches present no special features, and one can easily be devised, so I have not thought it necessary to reproduce one here. At the head of such a form are printed the names of the various organisms captured in the plankton. At the left- hand side are spaces for entering the number and certain particulars regarding the catch. Underneath the head- ing for each organism and opposite the number of the catch are entered numbers giving the total number of organisms for the catch and the number per unit area of surface, so that it becomes easy to compare different catches either taken at the same place at different seasons or at different places. | With regard to the form, first of all in the top left- hand corner the number, place and date of the catch are noted. For instance, 32a. Dobersdorfer Lake. 20 Sept., 1891. The number 32a is recorded in a Journal in which information of a physical character is noted, such as the depth of water, its temperature, the temperature of the air, the direction and force of the wind, as well as the general condition of the catch, and any other information likely to be serviceable. On the form we see vertically and horizontally ruled spaces. Taking the vertical rows, we see on the extreme left the heading, ‘‘ Kind of investi- gation.” Under this heading we enter either dry or moist, according to the nature of the plate on which the enumeration is carried out. As arule dry plates are only used for the enumeration of Diatoms. Under the second GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 305 heading the amount of the dilution is recorded. 2°5 : 50 means that 2°09 ccm. of the original volume has been diluted with 47°5 cem. of water, so that the total volume becomes 50 ccm. It is always better to dilute to either 100, 50 or 25 cem., because flasks of these capacities can be easily obtained, the exact volume being indicated by a mark on the neck of the flask, and so any required dilu- tion can be readily prepared for use. For the last plates, from 7 to 14, the original volume is taken, but from it only the larger species are enumerated. The next space 2} is headed “number,” and refers to the number of the glass plate used for the counting. As a rule ten plates are found sufficient. The form appended gives, however, fourteen. On the right of the form these successive numbers are used as head numbers. With reference to the “volume used,” the numbers in this column signify exactly what volume of water has been used on each individual plate. For instance, on the first plate one- tenth of a ccm. was used, and this was from the dilution 2°5:50. This volume of liquid would be measured out by means of the “ Stempelpipette ’ described above, and then brought on to the plate. As seen by reference to the form, several different volumes are used. Returning now to the rows on the left, we come to the heading “ true volume.” ‘This differs from the volume used, and it gives us the proportion of the original volume that 1s actually investigated, whereas the volume used is the volume actually placed on the plate. The true volume is calculated as follows: —First of all 2°5 ccm. of the first dilution have been subsequently diluted to 50 ccm., and of this one-tenth of a cem. has been taken. Now each of the 50 com. of the second dilution contains one-fiftieth of 2°5 cem., that is 0°05 ccm. of the first dilution, and one-tenth of a cem., the volume actually counted, contains U 306 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 0'005 of the first dilution. On plate 6 we have used the same proportion of the first dilution, but we have taken half a centimetre for the purpose of counting, that is, five times as much as for plate 1, and consequently the true volume is 0°025 em. This true volume is important for the estimation of the coefficient. Under the heading “calculation” this is set out. Under the heading “true volume” for the first plate we get the number 0°005. The number of times that this is contained in the original volume (first dilu- tion) is naturally 50/005, that is, 10,000, so that one ten- thousandth part of the total number of organisms have been enumerated. For example, the number of JJelostra reckoned for the first plate is 45. This multiplied by the coefficient 10,000, gives us the total number of Melosva in the catch, that is, 430,000. This number is of course approximate, and is corrected by the numbers obtained on the succeeding plates. Suppose the individuals of a certain species have been counted on several plates, then it becomes necessary to determine the coefficient for the plates taken together (see heading “ Coeff.” on right-hand side of the table). With this object the numbers given under the heading “true volume” for all the plates enumerated for a given organism are added together, and the coefficient 1s caleu- lated exactly as described above for a single glass plate. For instance, for J/felosira three plates in all have been counted, those numbered 1 to 3. The numbers respectively noted are 43, 38 and 48. ‘Total 129. The sum of the true volume for the three plates is 3 x ‘005 = 0°015 ccm. Then the coefficient is 50/0°015, that is, 5,333. The total number of individuals counted, 129, is now multiplied by the coefficient, and that gives us the total number of Melosira in the whole catch, viz., 429,957. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 307 We now consider the right-hand portion of the form. Under one heading the names of the species, the numbers it of which it is desired to estimate, are entered. ‘T’o the right of this are spaces in which the numbers of the glass plates are entered. When the enumeration of a given species is ended a query is placed in the column devoted to the next plate. When no individuals are found a cipher is naturally entered in the space provided. If, on the contrary, a given species is being investigated, but on certain plates not counted, a question mark is entered, and the plates are not considered in the summation. In the three last places on the right are entered the total number of individuals counted, the number of plates used in the enumeration, and thirdly the coefficient. Now, in order to find the total number of individuals of a given species in the catch, we have only to multiply the total number counted by the coefficient, as above indicated for Melosira. The number is then entered on the form in the space provided for the purpose. The last heading to be considered is entitled ‘‘ Under one square metre.’ We have seen from what has been written above in the description of the net that the whole volume of water, calculated from the area of the mouth of the net and the depth to which it is sunk, does not pass through the net, but part of it passes over the edge. It is therefore necessary to consider the filtration coefficient of the net, that is, what number the volume or number of organisms must be multiplied by in order to find the true value supposing the whole column of water filtered through. In the present instance the coefficient is 151°5, the estimation being made for one square metre surface area of the water column. For Leptodora there are 9 females captured. In a column of water of one square metre section and 20 metres : 308 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. depth, therefore there would be 151°5 x 9 such individuals, that is, 1,364. , In order to convey some idea of the laborious nature of this method of enumeration, it may be stated that Hensen himself says that he took a week, working eight hours a day, to count the organisms in a single catch. An important question here suggests itself. Is it likely that such an enormous expenditure of energy can be justified by the results obtained? A perusal of the results already obtained, a short summary of which is appended, is the best answer to the question. The obstacles in the way of a successful counting are numerous, but Hensen has attempted in a masterly manner to overcome them, and if one considers the success which has attended the solu- tion of equally dificult problems, for instance, the enumeration of the corpuscles in the blood of man, there seems no reason to doubt that the Hensen planktonic method, if carefully employed, is a success. All reckonings according to this method are so made that they can safely be regarded as minimum totals, and it is absolutely certain that in every case the fertility of the sea is really greater than indicated. Numerous control experiments have been made, and it is proved that with ordinary care the error never exceeds 20 per cent., and should on the average not exceed 7 or 8 per cent. These control experiments were partly so arranged that at the same spot several observations were made one after the other, the vertical net being in every case lowered to the same depth (comparative trials), or the same net would be successively lowered at the same spot to different depths (depth trials). The first series were useful to determine the errors likely to arise in an individual estimation. The second series served to prove that the GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 309 plankton is evenly distributed in the upper layers of the water. The quantitative plankton method has been used in the investigation of both fresh and salt water, and in the latter case both in the open ocean and in the neighbour- hood of the coasts. The following salt water areas have been investigated : I.—Coastal areas. (a) For several years—Bay of Kiel (6) During a whole year— In the arctic seas. Karajak-Fiord, in N.W. Greenland, 70° N., by Vanhoffen. In the Mediterranean. The Straits of Messina, by Lohmann. In the Tropics. The Bay of Ralum, by Dahl. (c) In the winter months— The Gulf of Naples, by Schiitt. Il.—Part of the open ocean, by means of a series of investigations carried out during a journey— The west and other coasts of the Kast Baltic (to Memel and Gotland). The north part of the North Sea from Skagen to the Hebrides. A great part of the Atlantic Ocean during the Plankton Expedition (July-Nov., 1889). The area between the Lofoten Islands and the north of Spitzbergen, during the Prince of Monaco’s Expedition, in July and August, 1898. Numerous investigations of fresh water lakes have also been undertaken, notably one by Apstein on the Lakes of Holstein. 310 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. REsULTs. As there are four methods of estimation, naturally the results may be conveniently grouped under four headings, namely, results of volume estimation, weight estimation, chemical analysis, and enumeration of the individual constituents. The determination by volume has not been extensively employed, so we proceed to the consideration of weight estimation and chemical analysis, which had better be taken together. Hensen (1) in his first work gives the results of fifteen weight determinations. Three of these were of the whole catch, which consisted mainly of Diatoms. Assuming that the masses of these catches were contained in a body of water of one square metre superficial area, and an average depth of 20 metres, we find under a square metre of surface in one case 1,608°3 ccm. of plankton, in another 2,123°9. The first mass contained 4°296 grams of dry organic substance, the second 6°128 grams. These results show very little dry organic substance, because the greater quantity of the catch consisted of Diatoms, which not only contain a large amount of water but on account of their hard shells contain relatively more mineral than organic substance. In 100 parts of dry substance, about 40 paris would be organic and 60 parts ash. The Peridinez and Copepoda gave a much smaller quantity of water and a higher percentage of organic substance than the Diatoms. For the Peridinee 100 parts of dry substance gave 96 parts organic to 4 parts ash. In the case of Copepoda the percentage of organic substance was 99. Fresh, conse- quently damp, Copepoda from the Baltic gave from 9 to 10 per cent. dry organic substance. The results are interesting, as they show the large amount of organic matter that the Copepoda contain, seeing that they form GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 311 a large and important part of the food supply of fish. On the other hand, the Diatoms, in comparison with the other organisms of the plankton, contain a proportionately very small amount of dry organic substance, but they exist in such colossal quantities in the plankton that Hensen was able to demonstrate that by far the larger quantity of the organic substance of the plankton exists in the form of Diatoms. The chemical analysis method has been further developed by Brandt (7), but it is more convenient to first of all consider Hensen’s results deduced from the method by counting. The most important results deduced from this method are in connection with the enumeration of the floating fish egos. The first results were obtained in the West Baltic for cod and flat fish. The results of 120 such observations are detailed. These results are in some respects deficient, because the percentage of salt in the Baltic, and therefore the specific gravity of the water, varies greatly, so that occasionally the specific gravity of the water fell below the point at which it was possible for the eggs to float. The numbers must therefore be considered as minimal. Hensen concluded that for the Kckenforde waters, where the fishery for cod and flat fish is carried on (an area of about 16 square miles) there are in January an average of 30, in February from 45 to 50, in March at least 60, and in April 50, floating eggs of the above fishes per square metre of surface (with an average depth of 20 metres). These eggs take on the average 15 days to develop under the conditions obtaining in the West Baltic, so that the number above recorded must be doubled in order to give the number occurring per month under a square metre of surface water. This gives from January to April 370 eggs. 3a hi TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Hensen calculates that the number of cod and plaice annually caught by the ckenférde fishermen would, if allowed to remain in the sea, have produced 23,400 million cod and 73,895 million plaice eggs annually. These figures are calculated from a nine-year average. ‘These numbers give for every square metre of the 16 square miles of sea fished over 26°6 cod and 84 plaice eggs; total 110°6 eggs. This, added to the 370 calculated above, gives a total of 480°6, which represents the number of eggs that would have been produced from all cod and plaice, captured and free, yearly for each square metre surface water. As a consequence 110°6/480°6 = 1/4°4, gives the fraction of the total quantity of adult cod and plaice actually captured, or in other words, man captures for his own use every year about one-fourth of the total number of adult fish in this particular area of the West Baltic. This result is surprising to those who consider the resources of the sea as inexhaustible, and believe that the number of fish caught by man bears only a small proportion to the number actually present in the sea. . The estimation of the number of floating eggs accord- ing to this method has important practical bearings. For instance, it is possible to compare the fertility of a given area of the sea with this area of the West Baltic, and so to obtain an idea of the probable yearly catch of fish for that area. The results in the North Sea invariably gave a greater number of eggs per square centimetre than for the Baltic. On the other hand, results in the open ocean invariably gave less results than the Baltic. As an exceptional instance, Hensen found on the 26th July, 1885, in the Skaggerrack 5,069 floating eggs per square metre of surface water; that is, for each square mile of surface water 278,795 million eggs. On this same GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 313 journey, in the middle of the North Sea 230 eggs per square metre were found, on the Scottish side 275, and at another time 130 eggs per square metre. The results of Hensen and Apstein for the North Sea in 1895 are of interest. Three journeys were made. A lasted 8 days, and 1,029 sea miles were covered (in Feb.), and 49 catches - made. B oe) 9 ” 1,077 9 4 ” (in Feb. & Mar.) ” 50 ” Crit; 8 a IL AeA i; ¥ (iam yore) 45 8) ee In the journey A the number of eggs and larve per ‘square metre was 1,932, in B 6,538, in C 6,975; total 15,495 in 167 catches, eggs and larve being absent in nine catches. The average per square metre is therefore 92°5 eggs and young fish. This compares favourably with the Baltic average of 373. Estimating the surface area of the North Sea to be 547,623 million square metres, this gives a grand total for the North Sea of 148 million fish eggs and larve. After applying certain corrections and omitting Ammodytes’ eggs and larvee, as not being those of food fish, Hensen came to the conclusion that the North Sea during the year 1895 contained 157 billion eggs and larve. This number, being calculated from eggs and larve actually counted, must be regarded as too small. Finally the Hensen method is of practical importance, inasmuch as it enables us to determine during which months of the year certain fish spawn. By means of this net Hensen, on one of his earlier Baltic expeditions, dis- covered that the sprat egg is, in contradistinction to that of the herring, pelagic. The spawning places and number of spawning individuals of the different species can also be approximately determined, since above them the float- ing eges will be met with in the spawning season in large quantities. With regard to the Copepoda, all the species are 314 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. enumerated together. In addition, the larve and eggs (in the egg-sacks) were counted. For the West Baltic the number of Copepoda throughout the whole year is very similar, and is very high. The average number, inclu- sive of larvee, for ten cubic metres of sea water, was on one occasion 725,900; on another 891,000. That is, a litre of West Baltic sea water contains from 72 to 89 of these little crustacea. The average depth of the West Baltic being 20 metres, there are present for every square mile of surface water from 80 to 100 billion Copepoda. The latter number gives a dry weight of 150,000 kilograms. The relation between adult Copepoda, larve and eggs was also determined. In a thousand specimens the average was 134 eggs, 461 larve, and 405 adults. The time required for the development of an adult Copepod is on the average a week. The birth-rate per week of the year for Copepoda is thus 154 per thousand. Assuming that the population of Copepoda remains fairly stationary, then the death-rate must be about the same. The calculation of the yearly mortality of the Copepoda of the Baltic becomes a sum ple matter. For 10 cubic metres of sea water, the mortality would be 175,000 per week, or in a year 8,866,500. Death to a Copepod generally imphes that it is devoured by a fish or other animal. So that from a consideration of the death-rate of the Copepoda we can arrive at an idea of the food supply of some of our valuable marketable fish. The Clupeide feed largely on Copepoda. For a square mile of surface water the annual consump- tion of Copepoda can be regarded as approximately 975 billion, or for the 16 square miles of the Hckenférde fishery district a grand total of 15,600 billion. A billion Copepoda yield not less than 1,500 kilograms of dry organic substance, so that the 15,600 billion weigh not less than 23,400,000 kilograms. ‘Taking the average weight -“ le GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 315 of an adult West Baltic herring as being 60 grams, and allowing that every herring uses in 00 days its own weight of organic substance, we find that every herring consumes annually 438 grams. In the 16 square miles of the Kekenfoérde fishery district there exists food in the shape of Copepoda for 534 million herring of an average body weight of 60 grams. ‘This result may of course be largely problematical, but it is at any rate extremely interesting. The North Sea, in a similar manner to the Baltic, contains an abundant wealth of Copepoda. ‘The open ocean, on the other hand, contains much less. The estimation of the number of free swimming larvee of the larger edible crustacea, such as the crab and lobster, is also of practical interest, as on almost every coast a large number of the adult individuals may be met with. When applied to previously investigated coasts the method would yield results which would enable one to ascertain whether or not a fishery for such crustacea could be successfully established. The larve of the edible mollusca, the mussel, for example, are also frequently present in almost incredible quantities, and especially in the neighbourhood of coasts where the adults prevail. In the greater depths of the North Sea and in the open ocean such larve are rarely found. On one occasion in the West Baltic it is calculated that in the case of the larve of Mytilus edulis, the number present was 170,000 for each square metre of surface water. If all these developed into adult animals, we should have for each square centi- metre of bottom 17 adult mussels. ‘This is, of course, physically impossible. It therefore follows that only an exceedingly small proportion of the larvae ever become mature, the greater portion being devoured by other animals. It is thus seen that the larve of the various 316 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. invertebrates play an important part in the food supply of other animals, particularly of young fish; but still they are not so important in this respect as are the Copepoda. In the first place, the number of invertebrate larvee, Cope- pod larvee being excepted, is never so large as the average number of Copepoda in a similar volume of water; and secondly, these larve are only present in enormous quantities at certain periods of the year, that is, when the spawning period of the adult occurs, and so belong to the * in contradistinction to the Copepoda, ‘periodic plankton ’ which are always present, and therefore belong to the perpetual plankton. The microscopic Infusoria, which are included under the title Tintinne, also belong to the periodic plankton. Their number is so enormous that they play an important role in the plankton. The principal Baltic form, Tintinnus subulatus, occurs to the number of 1,228,000 in 10 cubic metres of water. During the months when they are at a maximum their number equals that of the Cope- poda, but as they are very much smaller, their total mass is much less. The Peridinee are also present in enormous quantities. The commonest form is Ceratiwm tripos, which is the usual cause of phosphorescence in the Baltic. The numbers for 10 cubic metres of water are, maximum 130 million, minimum 44,000, average 14 million. 150 million per ten cubic metres gives 13 for a cubic centimetre; the average gives 1:4 per ccm. ‘The Peridinez are of importance, since they presumably form the chief source of the food supply of the Copepoda. The food supply of the latter 1s not, however, definitely known. Hensen and other investigators found no determinable substance in their alimentary canal, but only a mass of green chlorophyll- containing material. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. Ont In order to determine whether or not the Copepoda lived on Peridinee and Diatoms, Hensen made three experi- ments. The catch from a single net was divided into two parts. One part was immediately killed and preserved. The organisms in the other part were allowed to live for from 7 to 9 hours, and then killed and preserved. In each case the number of Diatoms and Peridineze were in excess in the part that had been fixed and preserved imme- diately after capture. [rom this it is concluded that the Copepoda in the part allowed to stand for from 7 to 9 hours had devoured a certain number of Diatoms and Peridinee. The number of consumed Peridinee was in all cases in excess of the number of Diatoms consumed. From this it may be deduced with a fair amount of certainty that the Copepoda devour the Peridinee. Pro- bably the hard shells of the latter are not devoured, but are broken up by the comphcated masticatory apparatus posessed by the Copepoda, and the edible contents extracted by means of the hair-like bristles. Hensen endeavoured from the above experiments to determine the average number of Peridinee annually devoured by a Copepod, and he concluded the number was 4,730. On the calculation that each square metre of surface water in the Baltic covers one million Copepoda, we see that 4,730 million Peridinee are annually used up by these as food. A million Peridinee yield 0:031240 grams of dry organic substance, so that the Copepoda of the Baltic use, per square metre of surface water, dry organic matter in the form of Peridinee to the annual amount of 135°35 grammes. The number and mass of Diatomacez probably exceeds all the other constituents of the plankton taken together. On account of their extraordinary minuteness, the capture and enumeration of these organisms is attended with no 318 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. little difficulty. Two of the most important genera of the salt water Diatom flora are Chetoceros and Rhizoso- lenia, both with numerous species. They appear in enormous quantities in the Baltic, but do not seem to be present so abundantly at some seasons of the year, and the number also varies considerably in different years. The species of CActoceros attain their maximum in March, with an average of 457 million per cubic metre, or 457 in every ccm. of water. The principal species of Rhizosolenia that occur in the Baltic are Rhizosolenia alata, which reaches its maximum in May with a total of 85°7 per cem., and Rhizosolenia semispina in March with an average of not less than 102'4 per ccm. Since a cubic centimetre of water contains on the average about 30 drops, 1t is no exaggeration to say that every drop of sea water in the Baltic is inhabited by Diatoms. The North Sea, and especially the open ocean, contain very much smaller numbers of Diatoms than the Baltic. The Copepoda of the North Sea, on the other hand, show no diminution. In the North Sea, in spite of the much smaller quantity of the total catch than in the Baltic, the meshes of the net were much sooner obstructed, and the net itself took on a yellowish-green colour. Hensen con- cluded from this that there exists in the plankton still smaller unknown organisms which escaped through the meshes of the net. Subsequent research has shown this surmise to be justified. If the number of Diatoms in a drop of water is occasionally so high, what must be the case with regard to these still smaller organisms ? All animal life in the sea is ultimately dependent on vegetable life. This latter is in turn dependent on sun- light, and is therefore only able to exist down to depths to which the sun is able to penetrate, that is, a maximum of 400 metres from the surface. Thus by far the greater GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 319 bulk of the ocean is unproductive of vegetable life, since it lies to a greater depth than 400 metres. It is certain that the Diatoms and Peridinee play a far greater part in the cycle of matter in the sea than do the attached Alge. The animals which inhabit the greater depths may be ultimately indebted to the spores of Diatoms and Peri- dinez for their food supply, which spores are set free in enormous numbers, and contain, as it were, a concentrated extract of the organic substance of the plant. It is certain that Copepoda do not use Diatoms as food to any large extent, and it is as yet unknown what, if any, groups of animals habitually live on Diatoms, so that apparently the sreater mass of the vegetable plankton is useless, at any rate directly, as a food for the animal part of the same. The Diatoms must consequently die and putrify, and it is known that the bottom of some of the shallower seas is covered by a large quantity of decomposing material. Behrens discovered that the percentage of combined nitro- gen at the bottom of the sea varied from 0:18 to 0°4, which exceeds the percentage of the soil of the land considerably. The soil of the continents is hkewise enriched by a large quantity of vegetable material, which is not directly used up by animals, but which is utilised by dispersion and decomposition. Hensen has determined how much plankton is daily generated in the Baltic. The estimation bristled with difficulties, and the result must be considered as a minimum one. The conclusion arrived at was that for every square metre of surface water, omitting from consideration matter devoured by the animals of the plankton, there is daily generated at least 15 cem. of plankton, giving for a year 6,570 cem. ‘This mass con- sisted principally of Diatoms, and according to the weight estimation method would contain from 14°8 to 17°77 grams 320 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. of dry organic substance. The annual bill of fare of the plankton animals is calculated to be 153 grams for every square metre of surface water. Consequently the grand total of annual production of plankton per square metre of the Baltic is 150 grams, or for the whole sea 8} million kilograms. According to Biebahn and Rodewald, the pro- duce of one square metre of cultivated land would be annually 179 grams. The fertility of the sea is thus seen to be on this reckoning about 20 per cent. below that of the land. But when it is taken into consideration that ¢ the estimation is based on “ cultivated land,’ and when it is further considered what an enormous extent of land is incapable of cultivation, it will be seen that it is by no means improbable that the produce of the sea is really — greater than the produce of the land. It seems however to be less favourable. Detailed results of the method of investigation accord- ing to chemical analysis have been published by Brandt (8), and he has further instituted a most interesting and instructive comparison between the chemical constituents of the plankton, or single groups of plankton animals, and the land plants and edible fish and invertebrates. For the three principal groups of organisms of the plankton Brandt gives the following results. All the figures are percentages : — GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 321 | Chaetoceros | Ceratium and other and other | Copepoda. Diatoms. Peridinee. Containing albumen. 10 13 59 chitin. == = Aly] Organic . Fat. 2-8 iL} Of substances. Bais anh 8 inant od SRY de free from |sol. carbohydrates 39 N. 22 20 cellulose. 41°5 Inorganic Silica. 54°5 — = substances. Sea salt. 10:7 Be) 9°3 Other ash. A. Toran Dry WEIGHT. Diatoms. Peridinee. Copepoda. /NMoyowaavsial So5qe6 AST UB 65:1 Chitin AC AOOOOOOBRE — =s5 5-1 BE ANON ikea oie 8:0 UeBi7 Won Carbohydrates 63°2 84:9 22-1 B. Dry SUBSTANCE FREE FROM ASH. Taking next the plankton as a whole, we find that the autumn and winter plankton of the Baltic takes a position intermediate between rich pasture and lupine. Albumen. Fat. Carbohydrates. Ash. Rich pasture ...... 20°6 a 4°5 bene | OAe Ormemnans 10-1 Autumn plankton 20°2-21°8 ... 2:1-3:2 ... 60-689 ... 85-157 HGHITO! 22.0. 000s 20°6 ia 2°6 Tron f(a) da 4°6 The Peridinee in chemical constitution are very peculiar, and differ markedly from the land plants used as fodder. The percentage of fat is very low, while that of carbohydrates, and especially of cellulose, is high. In both peculiarities the Peridineew resemble good grass hay or rye straw. Ww aaa TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Albumen. Fat. ee HOHE NCE Cellulose. Ash. rom N. Rye Straw......... 2D as. Ted» 2. 38°83 |. «4 4 (oIGS Ren Peridines .......:. T3cO!y: toe, See sD sas) 41D ee Good grass'\hay...13°6\ ...< 3:2)... 48°2\- 237 26)5 see On account of their comparatively large amount of albumen, the Peridinese resemble the better kinds of fodder, but their small amount of fat and large amount of cellulose causes them to resemble the poorer sorts. As spring approaches, a remarkable change is noticed in the plankton, the percentage of silica becoming very much higher, due to the sudden increase in the Diatoms. In order to compare Diatoms with the land plants, the weight, free from ash, must be taken. Albumen. Fat. Carbohydrates. Very good Lupine ... 29°3 cae 2°8 oa 67°8 Pea, SCOdS: wockGecteseecce 27-2 53s 2°3 mn 70°4 IDNENNOIOAS) | Geeeeorcedcccee 28°7 ae 8:0 bce 63°2 Compared with whole land plants, 2.e., excepting special parts such as rape seed, the percentage of fat in Diatoms is invariably found to be much higher. The albumen in Diatoms is also relatively high. On account of the high percentage of fat and albumen, as well as on account of the poverty of the carbohydrates, the Diatoms stand out in marked contrast to most of the land plants. The percentage of albumen in Diatoms is seen to be in excess of that in pea seeds. It must, however, not be forgotten that more than half of the Diatom total weight consists of silica, which possesses absolutely no nourishing properties. Brandt is of opinion that further investiga- tions are necessary to determine the importance of Diatoms as a direct food supply of animals. In the summer plankton the animal constituents come into prominence, so that it is no longer possible to compare GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. AD) the analyses with the land plants usually used as fodder. The albuminous constituents predominate. Fat is in one case low, in another case abnormally high, and the car- bohydrates are comparatively very low. Other observa- tions are necessary in order to determine whether the vegetable constituents of the plankton, invariably in summer, take a subordinate position as compared withthe animals. Itis very probable that the smaller chlorophyl- containing Flagellate, or even Schizophyte alge, pass through the the meshes of the silk bolting cloth No. 20. The Copepoda form avery important food supply for fishes and other plankton-devouring animals. A comparison is instituted between the Copepoda and certain fish and edible Mollusca. The comparison is not so exact as for the plankton and land plants above, because in the case of the Copepoda and the mollusca the carbohydrates must be to some extent contained in the alimentary canal. In other respects, that is for albumen and fat, the Copepoda, oysters and mussels are comparable to the lobster and erab. Dry Substance] Albumen. | Chitin. Fat. page Ash. POET cas... 56-42 es ess aS AE oo Salmdon......... 60-49 esr 35°62 — 3°89 Flounder ...... Sromip ee!) le) 4-38 a 8-0 (WEG epee 91:08 — 1°86 — 76 Lobster......... 79-80 md 10-13 Mag Pee S31 ae 78°87 — a 7:69 B10 9°6 r | ee 59 cell qv ” ee Roy rer ee 1G || ee pur Gee ho oie.) see |, .| tor CO oe 324 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. All the figures are percentages. The soft bodies only of the lobster, crab, oysters and mussels are included in the above table, the exoskeleton of chitin, or shell, being, as the case may be, omitted. Brandt (7) has given a graphic representation of the chemical analysis of 11 plankton catches (fig. 8, p. 325). A shows the volume of the catch after it has stood for 24 hours. B shows the dry weight of the same. In C the dry weight of the different constituents of the plankton are given. ‘The Diatoms are represented by the clear spaces, the Peridinee by the black, Copepoda obliquely lined, and the remaining organisms dotted. D gives the results of the chemical analysis, the dotted spaces repre- sent the amount of albumen present, the black represents the fat, the horizontally lined the carbohydrates, the clear spaces the silica, and the obliquely striated the other ash. A glance at the figure shows how great an influence the Diatoms exert on the volume results as compared with the weight results. (Vide March, April and September, 1893). In spite of the enormous volume of the catch during these three months, the amount of dry organic substance remains small. In March, 1893, the volume has been graphically represented as three times as broad as the others, otherwise it would have had to be made three times as high. The first three catches have a large quantity of Ceratium, and are therefore very rich in carbohydrates. The 6th and 7th catches are very rich in Diatoms, and hence contain a large quantity of ash, a fair amount of fat, and relatively little carbohydrate. The 10th catch, which in addition to a large number of Diatoms, contains also many Ceratia, is somewhat intermediate to the other catches. The plankton catches in summer (May and August, 1893) are seen to be made up in dry weight of 325 |\V v¥ Wuwmex yxy vi GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. ARG LSS ER Wi TN fs A - CERES HAHN MLN CAR UTA GHD TDDB AVANT OB 326 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. from 60 to 70 per cent. of animals. One Copepod equals in dry weight 157 Ceratium individuals, or 1,500 Chetoceros cells. ; In order to illustrate the distribution of the plankton during different months of the year, Brandt has drawn up annual curves for the years 1889 to 1893. The curves are based on the results of over 300 catches taken at a given spot, Buoy A, at the entrance to the Bay of Kiel, and at a depth of 20 metres. These catches were all made by means of the large Hensen plankton net. The curves are volume curves, based on volume measurements after the catch has been allowed to stand for 24 hours. Very large catches are only made in the spring (fig. 9), from the middle of March or in April to the beginning of May. ‘These maxima are due to the fact that at this time of the year the Diatoms multiply to an enormous extent, and this is especially true of Chetoceros. In the summer we get a second increase of Diatoms, namely, of Rhzzoso- lena species, so that in August or September a second maximum is established. The other catches show less marked peculiarities. The minima of plankton produc- tion occur in February or March, and again in May or _ June, that is, before and after the chief periods of increase of the Diatoms. Although Hensen or Brandt made at least 70 observa- tions at this spot, only on one occasion did they find so small a volume as usually occurs in the Sargasso Sea, and that was in February, 1894 (fig. 9). he Diatoms are so extraordinarily prolific that, in spite ot their small size, they play an important part in modifying the plankton curves. In conclusion, I may quote, as an example of the far reaching effect of plankton studies, from a highly interest- ing and suggestive work recently published by Brandt (9), GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. BAT eg org | 328 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. a few observations of the utmost importance both from a scientific and an economic point of view. Writing with reference to the circulation of matter in nature, he draws attention to the important part played by the denitritying bacteria of the plankton. In nature the inorganie com- pounds containing nitrogen are present in three forms, as ammonia, as nitrates and nitrites. No plant can develop without inorganic nitrogen compounds, and as all animal life is dependent on plant life, it is seen that all fe on the earth is ultimately dependent on the presence of these nitrogen compounds. It is therefore of — importance to endeavour to trace their circulation. The three above-named nitrogen compounds and their com- _ binations as well, are soluble in water. By the action of the atmospheric agents the nitrogen compounds of the land are gradually being washed out of the soil, and find their way by means of rivers to the sea. It is calcu- lated that the Rhine alone carries over 130 thousand million grams of nitrogen every year into the sea, and the total amount annually conveyed by all rivers of the world is computed to be not less than 39 billion grams. But for the action of denitrifying bacteria the ocean would long since have become poisoned by the excess of nitrogen compounds. These denitrifying bacteria, however, exercise a reducing action on the nitrogen compounds, so that nitrates are first of all reduced to nitrites, then to ammonia and lastly to free nitrogen. In this way the excess of nitrogen compounds in the ocean are destroyed. The identification of the different species of Bacteria that carry on the decomposition processes in the sea, the investiga- tion of their mode of operation and their mode of life and their distribution in the sea is a subject of the greatest importance. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 329 A study of the results already obtained by the German investigators leads to the following conclusions. In general the shallower waters are richer in plankton than the deeper seas, and of the latter the Sargasso Sea is exceptionally poor. In the shallower seas the influence of the bottom and of the solid land is quite appreciable. The plants have therefore in a smaller layer of water more food material, whereas in the deeper seas the inorganic nitrogen-containing food material is distributed over a very much larger volume of water, only the upper layers of which are capable of supporting plant life. The food material in the lower layers, which are devoid of sunlight, cannot be used up by plants. Apstein (6) divided the fresh water lakes of Holstein into two groups, 2.e., rich in plankton and poor in plankton. Brandt investigated the proportion of nitrates in the different lakes by means of the diphenylamine-sulphuric acid reaction (9, p. 228, footnote). The investigation of the lakes rich in plankton gave a result which showed them to be rich in nitrogen compounds; while the lakes poor in plankton were found on the contrary to contain but a small proportion of these compounds. . Another important result deduced from the quantitative plankton investigations is that the tropical and sub-tropical seas are comparatively poor in plankton, while the arctic seas are richer. On the dry land the contrary is the case with regard to the vegetable products. It would appear that the true cause of the wealth of the cold and the poverty of the warm seas in plankton is to be sought for in the different amount in which the denitrify- ing bacteria are present, and the influence which they exert on the presence of the nitrogen compounds in the water. If, as is apparently the case, a not inconsiderable denitrification takes place in the ocean, then it is probable 8330 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. that a destruction of the most important nitrogen-con- taining inorganic food supply of plants takes place to a greater extent in the warmer seas, since the activity of the bacteria in the lower temperatures of the arctic seas would not be so great as in the higher temperatures of the warmer seas, and consequently the same amount of des- truction would not go on in the former case as in the latter. As a practical bearing of this question, it may be asked whether the sewage deposited in or washed out to sea is, as is commonly supposed, wasted? The answer must be in the negative. The bacteria present in the sea water convert the sewage material into nitrates, nitrites and ammonia salts, which can be used up by the planktonic plants. These in turn are devoured by Copepoda and similar animals. These are then the prey of fish, which are in turn the food of man, himself ultimately destined _ for bacteria, and so the cycle perpetually runs its course. About 19 milhon kilograms of nitrogen are yearly with- drawn from the North Sea in the shape of edible fish. This represents more than one-half of the nitrogen present in the North Sea at any given time. It is therefore obvious that the balance must be made up in the form of material derived from the land, and in this respect the sewage which annually drains into the North Sea cannot but be of importance, and hence must not be regarded as wasted. CRITICISMS OF THE HENSEN METHOD. The Hensen method has been severely, and it seems to me, unfairly criticised by Haeckel.’ Haeckel particularly objects to the estimation of the adult fish from the number of floating eggs, but he has entirely misapprehended Hensen’s point of view. Hensen 1 Plankton Studien. Jena. G. Fischer. 1895. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 381 endeavours to estimate the number of fish already present in the sea from the number of eggs produced by them, and not as Haeckel supposes, the number of fish those eggs will ultimately produce. In addition, Haeckel is of opinion that the plankton of the warmer seas is richer than that of the colder; but it must be remarked that his opinion—it is nothing more—is based on qualitative methods, whereas the methods of Hensen are based on quantitative experiments, carefully carried out, and their results have therefore a more sure and firmer foundation. Space does not allow me to enter into the discussion of these and other points raised by Haeckel. It is perhaps sufficient to say that his objections have been satisfactorily answered by Hensen’ and Brandt.? Kofoid? has recently published a criticism of the Hensen method. He employed the method in the investigation of the fresh water lakes in the district of Illinois, and he found that for the silk bolting cloth No. 20 the meshes were far too large and consequently most of the material slipped through, and his quantitative results were value- less. He further considers that the quantitative method of fishing with the plankton net is entirely impracticable, on account of the closure of the meshes by the captured organisms, so that the filtration capacity of the silk cloth and of the net itself varies in an uncontrollable manner. Therefore it is impossible to estimate what volume of water has been fished through, and the estimation of the volume or the number of the plankton constituents is in a hke manner uncertain. On these grounds Kofoid wishes 1 Die Plankton Expedition und Haeckel’s Darwinismus. Kiel, 1891. 9 Haeckel’s Ansichten tiber die Plankton-Expedition. Schrift. d. Naturw. Vereins Schles-Holst. Bd.VIII. Heft 2. 1891. 3“ On some important sources of error in the Plankton Method.” Science, N. 8., vol. 6, pp. 829-832. 3382 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. to substitute pump and filter for the Hensen vertical net, which he considers useless. It may be stated as a general proposition that no scientific method is perfect and incapable of being improved upon. Hensen himself is well aware of the defects of the method. With a view of confirming or rejecting the use of the net for such purposes as fish-egg enumeration and determination of the most important constituents of the plankton, for which it was primarily intended, Lohmann (10) has recently undertaken a number of observations on the Stollergrund (Baltic Sea), the results of which have just been published, and are of considerable interest and importance. On the 8th November, 1899, Lohmann obtained 76 litres of water from the Stollergrund, and carefully filtered it, first of all through the silk bolting cloth No. 20, and sub- sequently through filter paper. The results were then tabulated, and the most important are here quoted. For plants, the auxospores of Chetoceros and small species of Naviculacee entirely escaped through the meshes of the net. Of small forms of Coscinodiscus, 98°6 per cent. in a like manner escaped. The percentage of forms in the case of the Diatomacez was almost invariably large, in the case of Cocconeis, Nitschia, and Sceletonema costatum being over 90 per cent. But of the most important Diatom, that is the largest form of Coscinodiscus (208), all specimens were retained by the silk cloth. Of the Peridinez, 100 per cent. of Dinophysis rotundata and 98°7 per cent. of Proro- centrum micans escaped capture. Of Ceratiwm trios var. tergestina and var. baltica 96°8 and 99°3 per cent. were respectively retaimed. The whole of the specimens of Peridinium divergens were also retained as were the Oscillaria threads. Of the Tintinnee, 97 per cent of Vintinnus acuminatus escaped, ; : —— GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. ooo but of Codonella campanula the whole were retained. With regard to the eggs, only 19 per cent. of the ege sacs of the Copepoda were lost, eggs (of 81 diameter) with a shell, as well as eges (127 » diameter) with a_ soft membrane, were invariably retained. With regard to the invertebrate larve, young larve, with a ciliated ring, invariably escaped capture. Of Cope- pod larve 14 per cent. escaped. With regard to the larger and more important animal constituents of the Plankton, a decided improvement is noticed. Of adult Copepoda only one-third per cent. (0°3) escaped capture, while Evadne, Podon, worm larve with long bristles, Sagitta, young mussels and gastropods, Cyphonautes, Oikopleura, and (?) Planula were invariably totally retained by the silk cloth. It is thus seen that the individuals which escape play a small and insignificant part in the total volume or weight of the plankton, while the larger and more important individuals are invariably retained. Kofoid’s results, being based on observations made on fresh water plankton, are not directly comparable to the results obtained from the sea, since the nature of the plankton is in both cases very different, in the former con- sisting to a much greater extent of the very smallest Alge and Protozoa. THe Latest Form or THE PLANKTON NETS. To meet the objections raised by Kofoid, which were in a measure substantiated by the experiments of Lohmann, Hensen (11) has devised two nets which will capture the smallest organisms in the plankton, and which are briefly described below. These nets, being protected externally by a strong metal covering can be used from a steamer which is travelling at a fair rate of speed. DOL TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The first of these nets is the basket net (“ Korbnetz”’), so-called because the protective covering was originally of basket work. This has now been dispensed with, and a strong metal covering has been substituted. This net is Shown in section (fig. 10). A is a strong metal covering leis, iO). 240 mm. high, which at B is soldered to a thick metal ring. Cis a hollow metal cone, which is so screwed on to the cover D that a ring-shaped opening is formed. The diameter of the cone at this point is 40 mm.; the diameter of the outer edge of the ring-shaped opening is 48 mm. The whole cover is fastened on to the metal conical cover- ing by means of three overfall screws, one of which is represented at H. The cover D rests on a ring F#’ which is covered with fustian, and to which the net (JV) itself is sewn. When in use the net expands, because in the under surface of the metal cone there are two small apertures of a total area of 5°5 square centimetres. Through these openings the water escapes, and so the expansion of the net is brought about. The net is iet overboard over the stern of the —te 6 es GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 30D ship while still in motion, with sufficient rope to allow it to remain under but near to the surface. It is allowed to remain out for ten minutes or a little longer, then hauled in and the plankton emptied into a glass trough. Ifthe net is allowed to remain out too long, it becomes so blocked up with plankton that it filters badly. In this way the pressure on the net becomes con- siderably increased, and it is liable to become ruptured. When used during the above-mentioned time the Appen- dicularia are captured uninjured and alive. If the catch is very slimy, the net gets stopped up sooner than usual. Although Hensen described the construction of this net, and its mode of use, fourteen years ago, nets of similar character have been described by other investigators. Borgert has described a modification which differs from the Hensen “ Korbnetz” in that it is quite free behind. Hensen considers that the strain on the net in that case would be too great, and that the net would be easily torn, but Borgert has not found such to be the case. The calculation of the volume of water which passes through this net im a particular instance is complicated, and depends on a number of variable factors, among which are the area of the opening, the length of time the net is out, the speed of the steamer, the angles formed by the rope attached to the net, to the perpendicular, when being let out and when being pulled along. This net serves admirably for the capture of plankton from a steamer when going at full speed. The latest form of quantitative plankton net, and one which, like the Korbnetz, is capable of being used from a steamer going at full speed, is one devised by Petersen and improved by Hensen, here designated as the Petersen- Hensen net (fig. 11). This net combines a strong pro- tective covering, with an aperture of the smallest possible a ne rk 336 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. dimensions and a filtering surface of very large area. The cubical capacity of the net is also as small as possible, so that when it is hauled up it is unnecessary to wait so long for the water which remains in it to filter through. It is also easy to unfold the net, to wash out its contents, and replace it in the metal covering. In order to increase the surface of a net either its length or its circumference can be increased. Hensen at first tried pushing in the net on itself, in a similar manner to that in which the finger isting}, TL of a glove can be pushed in. This form was given up because the net was inconveniently long and the end very narrow. The case might be made square and the surface increased by deep foldings, so that the surface resembles a photographic camera. ‘his form would be very con- venient and practicable if the net could always be arranged in such folds. A spiral arrangement of the net appears impracticable, therefore the net has been folded in the direction of its longitudinal axis, as was done by Hensen for his cylinder net (4, p. 111), but with the modification that the net les in a basis that can be fully withdrawn from the metal covering. * ’ “ 4 | GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. aor There are two rows of metal rods, which serve to keep the net in place. The inner row, not visible in Fig. 11, is attached to the lower metal rmg FR’. This row of rods is external to the net. The outer row attached to the ring /t is inside the net, and serves to keep its folds in position. When the headpiece, 7, is taken off from the metal cover- ing, W, it is possible to remove the upper ring F& with the attached rods, which lhe, as has been noted above, outside the net. The net itself can be subsequently removed, inverted, its contents washed out, and it can then be replaced in the metal covering. Attached to the upper end of this covering are three metal rings. To the ring X a weight of about haltf-a- hundredweight is attached, the use of which is indicated below. To the ring Y, and to a similar ring 180° away from it, ropes are attached which allow of the net being let out and hauled in. The cover is fastened to the cylinder by means of three overfall screws, two of which, S and S’, are shown in the figure. In the cover #7 of the cylinder there is a turbine to which an indicator is attached, by means of which the volume of the inflowing water can be estimated. The turbine is mounted on an axis provided with stones, the points on which the turbine rotates are of Iridium-plati- num. Iron is useless for the purpose, as it so soon becomes rusty. It does not much matter if a little water flows into the net near the turbine, that is, where the turbine rotates, but it is better to avoid this loss. In the tube of the turbine there is, therefore, a sharp cutter which prevents this, and also serves to cut to pieces any organisms that might lodge there, and prevent the rota- tion of the turbine. On the axis of the turbine an indi- cator is placed. This measures up to 15,000 revolutions. When the turbine has revolved 1,400 times about 500 ».4 338 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. litres of water have passed through. The turbine gives relatively true volumes of water when used at fairly similar velocities. The absolute volume may be estimated if the head piece be placed in water and through the open- ing a measured volume of water be poured. The amount for one rotation is 0°44 litre. The net is so manipulated that it cannot quite sink to the bottom. The use of the weight mentioned above obviates this. The weight itself sinks to the bottom, and if it be allowed to remain there the net itself cannot sink so far. It is possible to estimate when the weight touches the bottom by trying with the rope or by greasing the weight, and making several trials for the depth. The haul is a diagonal one, and its length may be calculated if the following factors are known:—the velocity with which the net sinks, the distance the ship has travelled from the point where the weight touched bottom, and the angle between the rope attached to the net and the vertical. A number of drawbacks stand in the way of the exacti- tude of a quantitative estimation of all the organisms which are retained (usually) in the net. These are— 1. The ship frequently does not remain in the same situation, and undercurrents influence the net, so that possibly more of the upper layers is fished through at one time than another. 2. The variability of the pull on the net is in marine investigations uncontrollable. 3. It happens on account of the length of time the net remains damp, and the subsequent drying in the sun, that a shrinkage is set up. This happens earlier when the net is mishandled, but is sooner or later unavoidable, . GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 339 _ 4. Owing to the organisms becoming embedded in the pores of the net and to the drying of slime on it, it | becomes ultimately permanently stopped up. PracticaL APPLICATIONS OF THE HENSEN METHOD. It cannot be denied that the application of this method has yielded valuable and important results, in the shape of additions to our knowledge of the conditions of life in the sea, and more particularly that portion of the life which comes under the heading of plankton. In this way a reat step forward has been made. The plankton undoubtedly forms the sole food supply of many of our most important food fishes, for example, the herring, sprat and mackerel. For the solution of the problem of the migration of the herring we must probably seek further in this direction, as it is in all likelihood connected with the variation in their food supply, that is, in the variation of the plankton, or more particularly the variation in the Copepod constituents of the same. In lke manner the estimation of the number of floating fish eggs in the sea gives us an idea of the total number of spawning fishes present at that time in the portion of the sea investigated. The quantitative method thus started for plankton work might be capable of extension in other directions. It might be possible to estimate how much valuable human food in the shape of fish is annually consumed by por- poises and dogfish around our coast. These destroyers of fish are undoubtedly our most formidable competitors, and should be ruthlessly destroyed. Another animal which might be quantitatively investigated is the starfish. The amount of damage done by this pest in the way of destruction of mussel, oyster and other shell fish beds 340 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. might be estimated. Hensen has suggested a method for converting star fish into manure. While the present paper was in the press, there appeared the preliminary announcement of a work on Plankton Methods, by Volk,! who has investigated the Plankton of the Elbe and its tributaries and the harbour at Hamburg. He found that he obtained no exact results by the Hensen-Apstein method, though no reason is given for the supposed inexactitude. He therefore suggests a new method, which consists in the employment of a rotary pump, with a contrivance for pumping up water from different layers. To the pump is attached an apparatus by means of which the volume of water can be measured, and the depth to which the lower opening of the pump is sunk can also be ascertained. The water is first of all filtered through an Apstein net, the meshes of which are however not small enough to capture the smaller organisms. The water is therefore subsequently mixed with formalin, and carefully filtered. For the purpose of filtration either porcelain, burnt clay, silica or charcoal may be used. The organisms were, for the purpose of quantitative estimation, shaken up in a viscous fluid consisting largely of formalin, and a given portion of the fluid was weighed out on to a glass plate and the organisms counted. Volk says that he has such solutions which after 10 months’ standing have no deposit. 1 Zur Plankton-Methodik (Vorlaufige Mittheilung). Zool. Anz. 1901. p. 278. GERMAN PLANKTON INVESTIGATIONS. 341 LITERATURE. The most important works on the German plankton methods, consulted in preparation of the present account, are as follow :— 1, V. Hensen, Ueber die Bestimmung des Planktons oder des im Meere treibenden Materials an Pflanzen und Thieren. 5 Ber. Komm. Wiss. Untersuch. d. Meere. Berlin, 1887. 2. FR. Herncke, Die Untersuchungen von Hensen tiber die Produktion des Meeres an belebter Substanz. Deutscher Fisch. Ver. Nr. 3. 4. 5. Marz, April, Mai, 1889. 3. ScuutTtr, Analytische Plankton-Studien. Kiel, 1892. 4. V. Hensen, Methodik der Untersuchungen. Ergebn. d. Plankton- Exped. Kiel, 1895. 5. ApsTEIN, Das Siisswasserplankton. Kiel, 1896. 6. HENSEN u. ApstEIN, Die Nord-See-Expedition 1895 des deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins. Wissenschaft]. Meeresuntersuch. Bd. 2. Heft2. Kiel, 1887. 7. Branpt, Die Fauna der Ostsee insbesondere die der Kieler Bucht. Verh. deutsch. Zool. Ges. Leipzig, 1897. 8. Branpt, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der chemischen Zusammensetzung des Planktons. Wissenschaft. Meeresuntersuch. Bd. 3. THetite co. Kiel 11898. 9. Branpt, Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. Wissensch. Meeresun- tersuch. N.F.Bd.4. Kiel, 1899. 10. Loumann, Ueber das Fischen mit Netzen aus Miillergaze Nr 20 zu dem Zwecke quantitativer Untersuchungen des Auftriebs, Wissensch. Meeresuntersuch. N. F.Bd.5. Heft 2. Kiel, 1901. 11. V. Hrnsen, Ueber die quantitative Bestimmung der kleineren Planktonorganismen und iiber den Diagonal—Zueg mittelst geeigneter Netzformen. Wissenschaft. Meeresuntersuch: Neen bd.o:. Heft 2. ‘Kiel, 190i: 542 SOME ADDITIONS to the FAUNA of LIVERPOOL iByaly CoLLEcTED May Ist, 1900, ro Arrim 301TH, 1901. By ANDREW Scott. [Read May 10th, 1901. ] Since the publication of the paper by I. C. Thompson, F.LS., and myself in the Transactions of the Society for last year,* further additions to the published lists have turned up. ‘The new records, chiefly Crustacea, were found while carrying on various investigations connected with fisheries work in the Piel Laboratory, partly during the past year and earlier portion of the present one. This report represents an addition of thirty species not previously recorded for the district. All of these have come under my own observation. The additions include, one sporozoan fish parasite, six worm parasites of fishes, and twenty-two crustaceans, represented by one Macrurid, two Sympoda, one Branchiurid, four Ostracoda, and four- - teen Copepoda. Of the Copepoda, only two are non- parasitic ; the other twelve are parasites on various fishes. The latter include one new spec‘es and another for which anew genus is now established. A number-of the addi- tious are ‘here recorded for the first time from the sea round the English coasts. * Some Recent Additions to the Fauna of Liverpool Bay. Trans. L’pool Biol. Soc., vol. xiv., 1900, p. 139. FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. 343 PROTOZOA. 1.—Glugea lophu, Doflein.t Glugea lophu, Mrazek, Sporozoenstudien II. Sitz. d. Konig]. Bohmischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften. Mathematisch- naturwissenschaftliche classe (1899). The cysts of this protozoan were found imbedded in the posterior region of the brain of the Angler fish (Lophius piscatorius) forming a conspicuous mass, easily visible to the naked eye when the brain had been dissected out. Very much larger masses of cysts were found surround- ing the main trunks of the seventh nerve just outside the skull. The fish measured about two feet in length, and was caught on the offshore station between Lancashire and the Isle-of-Man, April 19th, 1901. Mrazek obtained his specimens from Lopiius caught at 'Triest and Naples. Vermes (T'rematoda). 2.—*Dactylocotyle pollachu, Van Beneden and Hesse. Dactylocotyle pollachw, Van Beneden and Hesse, Recherches sur les Trématodes, p. 110, pl. xi., figs. 23-30 (1863). Attached to the gills of Pollack (Gadus pollachius) caught on the offshore stations between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, March 13th and April 19th, 1901. 3.—Octobothrium merlangi (Kuhn). Octostoma merlangi, Kuhn, Mém, Mus. d’hist. nat., vol. xviii. (1830.) Attached to the gills of Whiting (Gadus merlangus) from the offshore stations between Lancashire and Isle- of-Man, March 13th, 1901. This species has been recorded from the Firth of Forth, by Mr. T. Scott, F.L.S., in Thirteenth Annual Report, Fishery Board of Scotland (art I11.). + J. Doflein, Studien zur Naturgeschichte des Protozoen: III. Ueber die Myxosporidien Zool. Jahrb. Bd. xi. (1898.) 344 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 4.—*Octobothrium scombri (Kuhn). Octostoma scombri1, Kuhn, Mém. Mus. d’hist. nat., vol. xviil. (1830). Attached to the gills of Mackerel caught off the Manx coast, August, 1900. This is a very slender species and unless the gills are carefully examined will be easily over- looked. 5:—*Onchocotyle appendiculata (Kuhn). Polystoma appendiculatum, Kuhn, Mém. Mus. d’hist. nat. vol. xvill., p. 862 (1830). Attached to the gills of Grey Skate (aia batis), caught on the offshore stations between Lancashire and Isle-of- Man, February, 1900. It is easily identified by having, in addition to the six suckers at the posterior end, a slender median appendage arising from between the suckers and passing in an anterior direction. 6.—*Phyllonella solee, Van Beneden and Hesse. Phyllonella solee, Van Beneden and Hesse, Recherches sur les Trématodes, p. 70, pl. v., figs. 1-8 (1863). Attached to the scales on the “white side” of the Common Sole (Solea vulgaris), caught on the offshore stations between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, April 19th 1901. ~ (.—¥? Placunella pint, Van Beneden and Hesse. Placunella pini, Van Beneden and Hesse, Recherches sur les Trématodes, p. 72, pl. v., figs. 9-18 (1863). Attached to the gills of Yellow Gurnard (T'rigla hirundo), caught on the offshore stations between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, April 19th, 1901. This species differs in some respects from the figure of Placunella pint given by Van Beneden and Hesse, as will be seen from the appended drawing, and may turn out to be a different species. There are eight distinct and two FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. B45 indistinct rays in the large posterior sucker. Van Beneden and Hesse (op. cit.) give a description with figures of Trochopus tubiporus (Diesing) from the Yellow Gurnard, but the above species does not appear to be that form. 3 * a > s. ne Vk ce ‘Sinaadd so ~ “ay Gove ode 2 fh int ade . nex # ee sector iareten eter he oe Se Cal " rae 2 Placunella pum, Van Beneden and Hesse, from ventral surface. x 16. There is no doubt that by careful examination of the various fishes taken in the local sea, other trematode parasites will in time be found. Practically every species of fish has its own peculiar parasites, but some are more easily overlooked than others on account of their small size and resemblance to the particular region they adhere to. . Crustacea (Macrura). 8.—Upogebia deltdwra (Leach). Gebia deltéiura, Leach, Malac. Podolph. Brit., t. xxxi., fig. 9, 10. An almost perfect specimen of this curious lobster-like crustacean, measuring two inches in length, was found in eee 346 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the stomach of a haddock caught on the offshore station between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, March 13th, 1901. The Upogebia had evidently just been swallowed by the fish, as it was perfectly fresh, and the gastric juices had not had time to act upon the carapace. It belongs to the Callianasside, a family of Crustacea which burrow under the surface of the sea bottom, and as Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing remarks, “are more often obtained from the stomachs of fishes than by intentional methods of capture.” There is some doubt whether this species is really dis- tinct from Upogelia stellata (Montagu), but the present form, which has the inner branches of the uropods deltoid in. shape, agrees better with the species described by . Leach than with Montagu’s U. stellata. SYMPODA. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing in his memoir on some crustacea from the South Seas collected by Dr. Willey (Willey’s Zool. Results, part V., 1900), has shown that Cuma, so familiar as the name of a genus of Crustaceans, is preoccupied; and as the subordinal name Cwmacea is derived from Cwma and must also lapse, he adopts the name Sympoda for this sub-order instead of Cwmacea. 9.—Hudorellopsis deyormis (Kroyer). Leucon deformis, Kr., Nat. Tidsskr, vol. 2 (2nd series), p. 194, pl. 4 (1846). This peculiar little form, though probably widely dis- tributed, is apparently rare. Only one specimen has so far been found in the Irish Sea. It is easily recognised, when mixed with Hudorella, by the turned up rostrum. In bottom material collected N.W. of Bahama Light- ship, off the north end of the Isle-of-Man. FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. 347 10.—Pseudocuma similis, G. O. Sars. Pseudocuma similis, G. O. Sars., Crustacea of Norway, vol. iii. (Cumacea), p 76, pl. 53 (1900). It is probable that this Cumacean has been passed over as a deep-water form of Pseudocuma cercaria (Van Beneden), which is occasionally met with in the sandy bays round the Lancashire coast. Professor G. O. Sars, in his work on the Crustacea of Norway, now separates it from that species, and shows its distinguishing characters. One of these is the presence of three small but quite distinct teeth at the anterio-lateral angles of the carapace. In the same gathering as the last. ‘Two specimens were found. OsTRACODA. 11.—Cythere pellucida, Baird. Cythere pellucida, Baird, British Entomostraca, p. 173, pl. xxi. fig. 7 (1849). This form is very abundant, especially during the summer months on the muddy sand flats along the coast. Common on the mud flats near Piel, practically throughout the year. 7 12.—Cythere porcellanea, Brady. Cythere porcellanea, Brady, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. iv., vol ‘ill., p. 47, pl. vii., figs. 1-4. Usually associated with C. pellucida. Some care has to be taken in identifying the two forms owing to the amount of variation that occurs amongst the two species. In the same locality as the last. August, 1900. 13.—Cythere gibbosa, Brady and Robertson. Cythere gibbosa, B. and R., Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. iv. VOl. Ui., p. 368, pl. xxi., figs. 1-3. This ostracod is frequently found in gatherings from the mud flats left dry by the receding tide associated with C. pellucida and C. porcellanea, but is easily dis- tinguished from either of these species. In tidal pools near Piel. August, 1900. 348 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 14.—Cytheropteron humile, Brady and Norman. Cytheropteron humile, B. and N., Monog. of the Marine and F. W. Ostracoda. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. iv., ser. ii., p. 219, pl. xx., figs. 4-7 (1889). Many specimens of this remarkable little ostracod were found by washing waterlogged and decayed wood in weak spirit, and examining the sediment. This appears to be the true habitat of the species. My father, who first found the species in material dredged in the Clyde, tells me that he always finds it when examining the sediment washed from old wood brought up in the trawl net, and remarks that 1t seems to be partial to that kind of habitat. In waterlogged wood burrowed by wood-boring crus- tacea, collected between tide marks in Barrow Channel, near Piel, April 18th, 1901. BRANCHIURA. 15.—Argulus folraceus (Linn). Monoculus foliaceus, Linn. Syst. Nat., edit. 10th, 1,648, No. 2 (1758). On Trout from the Ribble, which were sent to University College, Liverpool, for examination. June, 1900. CopEpopA (Free). 16.—Stephus gyrans (Giesbrecht). Mobianus gyrans, Giesb. Pelagischen Copepoden des Golfes yon Neapel (1893). Amongst material collected in Laminaria bed, near Piel, at a very low ebb. August, 1900. . 17.—Idya minor, T. and A. Scott. Idya minor, T. and A, Scott, Annals of Scottish Natural History Oct., 1896. In the same material as the last species. 4 FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. 349 CopEpopa (Parasitic). 18.—Bomolochus solew, Claus. Bomolochus solee, Claus, Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaft Zool. vol. xiv., p. 374. A number of specimens of this Copepod can usually be found by pressing the nostrils of Cod, so that mucus, «c., may be ejected. ‘I'he mucus is then placed in a drop of water, and the copepods, if present, are easily seen. The females have two large white egg sacs. From small cod caught in Barrow Channel, August, 1900; and also in the nostrils of large cod caught on the offshore fishing grounds between Lancashire and Isle-of- Man, March, 1901. 19.—Caligus minimus, Otto. Pl. 1, figs. 1-8. Caligus nmuumus, Otto, Beschreibung neuer Crustacean, p. 354, joll, Souls ale yASe This is a well marked species, and may easily be dis- tinguished from other Caligi by the long slender anten- nules and large caudal stylets. The second foot-jaws in the male are powerful grasping appendages. Frequent in the mouth of the Bass (Labrax lupus), caught in Barrow Channel, August, 1900. Length of female, 4:99 mm.; male, 69 mm. It is rather unusual to find the males of copepod fish parasites larger than the females. 20.—Caligus brevicaudatus, n.sp. Pl. IL., figs. 7-10. Length of female, 53 mm. ‘The characters which dis- tinguish this species from the other members of the genus are, 1° the extremely short abdomen and caudal stylets ; 2° the fourth pair of feet, the expodite of which is very slender. Inside the mouth of the Common Gurnard (T'rigla gurnardus) caught in the vicinity of Piel, August, 1901. 350 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPGOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Pseudocaligus, nov. gen. Animal similar to Caligus. The general structure of the various appendages, with the exception of the fourth pair of feet, is the same as in that genus. Fourth pair of feet very rudimentary, almost obsolete, consisting of a basal portion only; no exopodite, as in Calzgus. 21.—Pseudocaliqus brevipedes (Basset Smith). Pl. IL., figs. 1-6. Caligus brevipedes, B. Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Vol xvi, pe dik plan, ie. ta(ali896): A number of specimens of this species were found inside the operculum of a three-bearded Rockling (Onus tricir- ratus), caught in Barrow Channel, August, 1900. Also on another one sent me by Mr. Ohadwick, Port Erin, March, 1901. | Length of female, 3°6 mm.; male, 2°8 mm. 22.—Lepeophtheirus pollachi, Basset Smith. Lepeoptheirus pollachu, B. Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), vol. xvili., p. 12, pl. iv., fig. 1 (1896). Attached to the inside of the mouth of Pollack (Gadus pollachius), caught on the offshore stations between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, March, 1900, March and April, 1901. | 23.—Cycnus pallidus (Van Beneden). Congericola pallidus, Van Ben., Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., vol. xxi. pl. 11 (1854). On the gills of the Conger (Conger vulgaris), caught in the Barrow Channel, March, 1900; also on Congers from the offshore stations, caught at various times during the past two years. A number of specimens were found on each fish examined. It is a small, slender species, and easily overlooked. ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee a a ee, ee # 4 i oe .. > = ae ww ee ee FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. 351 24.—Oralien asellinus (Linn). Lernea asellina, Linn. Fauna Suec., 2101 (1761). On the gills of a Yellow Gurnard (T'rigla hirundo) from the offshore station between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, April 19th, 1901. This appears to be a very variable species, and the figures given by various writers on fish parasites all show differences, more or less marked. ‘The species, therefore, requires further study, as it is possible that there is more than one Oralien. 25.—Chondracanthus cornutus (Muller). Lernea cornuta, Muller, Zool. Dan., vol. i. (1776). On the gills of Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) from the offshore station between Lancashire and _ Isle-of-Man, March, 1900. What appears to be a variety of this species occurs on the gills of the Flounder (P. flesus) from the Barrow Channel and other parts of the Lancashire coast. 26.—Chondracanthus clavatus, Basset Smith. Chondracanthus clavatus, B. Smith, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), MoOlpeayvili p. 13 (1896). On the gills of Lemon Soles (Plewronectes microcephalus) from the offshore station between Lancashire and Isle-of- Man, February, 1900, and also from Barrow Channel. on" 27.—Chondracanthus solew, Kroyer. Chondracanthus solea, Kr., Naturh. Tidsskr. I., p. 189 (1838). On the gills of the Common Sole (Solea vulgaris) from the offshore station between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, April 19th, 1901. 28. Charopimnus dalmannii (Retzius). Lernea dalmannit, Retz. Froriep’s Notizen, vol. xxix. (1831). In the spiracles of the Grey Skate (Raza batis) from the offshore station between Lancashire and Isle-of-Man, February, 1900. 352. TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 30.—* Brachiella insidiosa, Heller. Brachiella insidiosa, Heller, lieise der Novara, p. 239 (1865). On the gills of the Hake (Merluccius vulgaris) from the vicinity of Calf of Man, 1900. 30.—*Brachiella ovalis, Kroyer. Anchorella ovalis, Kroyer, Naturh. Tidsskr., 1, p. 289 (1837). Attached to the gill-rakers of the Common Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus) from the offshore stations, April, 1901. Also from the gill-rakers of the Yellow Gurnard, caught off Conway. Notr.—tThe species recorded as Chondracanthus radiatus, Kr., in the paper by Mr. Thompson and myself, published in the Transactions last year, turns out to be Chondracanthus merlucci, Holten. The species marked with an asterisk are described and figured by my father, Mr. T. Scott, in the XIX. Ann. Rept. Fishery Board for Scotland, part iii. For other fish parasites see XVIII. Ann. Rept. F.B.S. Piri LABORATORY, May 1, 1901. ra —————— = = ea ea ae ney ee SS aE = mn = > — . 4 = = = = P ae! § : = oro" rn —— sep odacle~ ani i a gi = SB.sith. CALIGUS MINIMUS, Orro. Ja ; pe PKG TBS eee a ee ~ } : ’ a il ll ae = ey ee ee x He —— JS SS == ne tS 7 — = ; . - = se = = = — = = _ — tn mln am i SR - - < ~ - ~ = ee TN @ a a — ~ - _ nom —_ — ee RE i = - - - = ~ — = ~-— — —— — ie — et oe - — ———— = a ae ——— aoe —- a 7 = x ma a re _ _ —_— _ ——— — a Prats II. em ne A. Sco/t de/ 7 - Wigs. 1-6. PSEUDOCALIGUS BREVIPEDES (B * é SMITH). ry = Se Oo Hie, 1. Bie 2. Hig, 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 6. Bis. » 6. Bie. 7 Fig. 8 Be. 29 Fig. 10 Es) e 0g ee CO CO le FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Puate I. Caligus minimus, Otto. Mature female, dorsal view Mature male, dorsal view Antennule Sternal fork, female Sternal fork, male Second maxilliped, female Fourth foot Second maxilliped, male Pruate II. Mature female, dorsal view Mature male, dorsal view Sternal fork, female Sternal fork, male Fourth foot Second maxilliped, male Caligus brevicaudatus, n.sp. Mature female, dorsal view Sternal fork, female Second maxilliped, female Fourth foot x 19°25 x 12°8 x 100 x 100 x 100 x Ut el x x OS KX dl Pseudocaliqus brevipedes (Basset Smith). a2 19 009 354 THE NECK GLANDS OF THE MARSUPIALIA. By JAMES JOHNSTONE, B.Sc. [Read May 10th, 1901.] The following notes are a description of the relation- . ships of the glands of the neck—the thymus organs, the thyroid, the submaxillary and parotid glands, in two marsupials, Dendrolagus and Acrobates. They are of interest in view of the discovery by Symington,* in 1898, of a superficial cervical thymus gland in many of these animals, an organ which so far’ as is known is not found in any other group of mammalia. It would appear from the forms already studied that this superficial thymus organ is characteristic of Diprotodont Marsupials, and indeed affords an additional distinction between these and the Polyprotodont families, and it seems very desirable, both on this account, and in view of the remarkable con- stancy in the relations of the thymus in other mammals, that as many genera as may be available should be described with this in mind. As a general rule little attention has been paid in most descriptions of the anatomy of Marsupials to the topography of the glands of the neck, and the presence of this remarkable thymus lobe has long been overlooked. I am indebted to Mr. H. C. Robinson, Assistant in the Zoological Department, University College, Liverpool, for these two animals, which were collected for him. ‘The Dendrolagus was a young male, measuring 31 cm. from the snout along the back to the root of the tail. It was either D. lumholtzt or D. bennettc, but I am unable to *The Thymus Gland in the Marsupialia. Journ. Anat. and Physiology, vol, xii. (N.S.), 1898, pp. 278-291. NECK GLANDS OF THE MARSUPIALIA. 855 determine its species. Dendrolagus, the tree-kangaroo, is an arboreal macropid, which feedson bark, leaves and fruit ; Acrobates—the pigmy flying-phalanger—is a very small animal, smaller than a mouse, which is found in Queens- land, N.S. Wales and Victoria. It too is arboreal, living M. yl hyoid. Ane ohatis, a ues Ext. | ; ; Gld. Prot M.sterno- be f ‘i —- Mopectoratis. “Cervical thymus. Fig. 1. Dendrolagus ; superficial dissection of the neck—only the integument removed. Natural size. on the honey, which it abstracts from flowers, and on fruit. Only one species, pygmaeus, is known. ‘The specimen described here was a male, measuring 13} cm. from the snout to the tip of the tail. 356 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Denprotacus (Figs. 1 and 2). So far as I can find, only two descriptions of the visceral anatomy of this genus are in existence. Beddard* has described the abdominal viscera, certain of the great bloodvessels and the brain; Owent gave some notes on the anatomy of a different species, and refers to the unusual size of the parotid glands. In the specimen I dissected, the superficial thymus was found with no other dissection than dividing the skin and platysma along the middle ventral line of the neck, and reflecting back the folds. The organ had two lobes of nearly equal size, the largest of which had a longitudinal diameter of about 20 mm., and a transverse diameter of 13 mm. — It was situated on the upper part of the thoracic wall, covered only by skin and platysma, and lay mostly posterior to the anterior extremity of the sternum. The external jugular veins were connected by a wide anastomosing vessel at the transverse level of the angles of the lower jaw. The submaxillary glands were situated in the angles of the three vessels so formed. External to the jugulars, and only separated by these from the submaxillary glands, were the parotids, large thin sheets of glandular tissue, about 23 mm. in length, extending backwards to the ears on the lateral surfaces of the neck. All these glands were hardened, imbedded in paraffin, and sectioned. ‘The pre- servation of the tissues was very bad, and no more of the minute structure of these organs could be ascertained than sufficed for their identification. In the thymus no obvious distinction into cortical and medullary portions could be made out. MHassall’s corpuscles were however present. * On the visceral anatomy and brain of Dendrolagus bennett. Proc. Zool. Soc., 1895, pp. 131-137. + Notes on the Anatomy of the Tree-Kangaroo (Dendrolagus inustus). Proc. Zool. Soc., 1852, pp. 103-107. SS SS LS Se Vag NECK GLANDS OF THE MARSUPIALIA. 357 Fig. 2 is a representation of the anatomy of the deeper ventral part of the neck and thorax of the same animal. The thoracic thymus is seen occupying its typical mam- a. Sterno-cleido- Mastoid. a Vv. joer hte a 2 : "Diaphragm. Fic. 2. Dendrolagus ; dissection of the deeper parts of the neck and thorax. Natural size. malian position in the anterior mediastinal cavity over the base of the heart. It consisted of two lobes, and was much smaller than the superficial organ. No extensive 358 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. fatty degeneration had taken place. Smaller detached nodules of thymic tissue lay along the roots of the carotid arteries, and some larger masses are represented on the course of those vessels and on the internal surface of the left external jugular. Such portions of thymus tissue detached from the main gland, and lying in various positions in the neck or in close association with the thyroid, are of frequent occurrence in many mammals, and probably have no special morphological significance. ACROBATES. From a first examination it appeared that, contrary to expectation, the cervical thymus was absent in this animal. When the skin was divided in the middle line of the neck and reflected outwards, two large, paired, glandular masses were seen lying in the angle formed by the flexure of the head, in contact with each other by their internal surfaces, one slightly overlapping the other. Each of these was oval in shape, the transverse diameter was the longer, and measured about 8 mm. They were separated from the parotid glands, which occupied their usual positions, by the external jugular veins. On dissect- ing away these structures two other paired glandular masses were seen lying underneath, each about half the size of the more superficial mass and darker in appearance. Closer examination showed that each of the two super- ficial glands was compound in nature; a very slight groove separated it into inner and outer portions. The inner portion was about one-third the size of the outer, and was paler in colour. The compound gland was hardened and sections were made. Sections were also made of the underlying lobes and of the parotid glands. NECK GLANDS OF THE MARSUPIALIA. 359 A section parallel to the transverse axis of the outer lobe showed two distinct organs. The inner smaller portion had all the characters of a thymus gland, except that cortical and medullary portions were not distinct. A few Hassall’s corpuscles could be seen. This portion of the gland, which is evidently the cervical thymus lobe, was enclosed in the same sheath as the outer portion. The latter was a salivary gland. A few alveoli are repre- sented in fig. 5 (3). It is evidently a mixed gland, contain- Fig. 3. Acrobates, portions of the salivary glands—1, lower lobe of submaxillary ; 2, parotid; 3, upper lobe of submaxillary. ing serous and mucous alveoli. The former are composed of cells, staining deeply, and with the nuclei about the centre of the cell. The latter are made up of cells staining lightly, and with the nuclei crowded round the lumen. The characters of the underlying lobes are repre- sented in (1). The alveoli are larger, and as a rule their lumina were wider. The nuclei were near the external surfaces. Marginal or “crescent” cells were present, and some of the alveoli had the character of the darkly 360 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. staining alveoli of (3). The parotid gland was of still another type; three alveoli are represented in (2). All are made up of darkly staining cells, as in the serous alveoli of fig. 3. The nuclei are, however, nearer the external surfaces of the cells. The submaxillary gland, therefore, consists of two portions. One of these, a mixed gland, is bound up with the cervical thymus, to form one structure. The other les underneath, and is a mucous gland. The parotid is a serous gland. It may be useful to summarise here what has been made out regarding the presence of this cervical thymus organ in the families of the Marsupialia. Representative genera from all the six families have now been examined by Professor Symington,* and by myself,t and the relationships of thoracic and cervical thymus organs have been ascertained in these forms. The facts may be expressed in the form of a table. DIPROTODONTIA. | POLYPROTODONTIA. Superficial cervical thymus Superficial cervical thymus always present. Thoracic thymus always absent. Thoracic thymus usually present, but may be usually present, but varies as in absent. other mammalia. Macropodide :— : Didelphyide :— Macropus bennetti. Didelphys virginiana. ” Tutus. ‘3 pusilla. ” wilcoxil. ne murina. 5 eugenil. » giganteus. Dasyuride :— » rufus. Dasyurus Viverrinus. Dendrolagus sp. Nt cancrivora. Phalangeride :— Thylacinus. : Trichosurus vulpecula. Antechinomys lanigera. Phascolarctus cinereus. Sys ; pane: Acrobates pygmeus. Peramelide : Perameles gunni. Phascolomyid@ :— Phascolomys wombat. * Symington, Jour. Anat. Phys. loc. cit. + Johnstone, Journ. Linnean Soc. London, vol. 26, pp. 537-557. 1898. NECK GLANDS OF THE MARSUPIALIA. 361 These are nearly all the forms examined. ‘The results obtained from several others (not meluded) are rather doubtful, and renewed investigation is desirable. So far as the facts go, they support the view suggested by Symington, that the superficial cervical thymus is absent in polyprotodont marsupials, as in all other mammalia in which the anatomy of the neck has been investigated in sufficient detail, and is characteristic of Diprotodontia. The number of forms examined is still somewhat small, and it is desirable that the possible presence of a cervical thymic organ should be kept in mind in dissections of marsupials. It has been seen that this structure may enter into intimate association with the submaxillary gland, and its presence may be overlooked where such relations exist if the organs are not identified micro- scopically. The morphology of the cervical thymus is obscure, and until its development has been worked out in suficient detail little can be said as to its relation to the other organs arising from the embryonic branchial pouches. It appears probable that, lke thymus and thyroid, it arises from one or other of the posterior pouches. It is now known that various other organs arise in connection with the thyroid and thymus glands, and may enter into variable relations with those structures. In connection with the thyroid (itself a compound structure), there are always two much smaller glandular bodies in association with each lateral thyroid lobe. These are the ‘“ glandule parathyroide” of Sandstrém (epithelial corpuscles of Kohn), and their development is now fairly well known.* One of these bodies, the internal epithelial corpuscle (“Gilandule thyrodienne” of Simon) is always sunk in * See C. Simon, Thyroide laterale et glandule thyroidienne chez les mammiferes. Nancy, 1896. 362 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. the tissue of the thyroid lobe, with which it is associated. It is derived from the lateral thyroid anlage, and so from the fourth branchial. pouch. The other, the external epithelial corpuscle (“Glandule thymique” of Simon) always lies outside the thyroid lobe at a variable distance. It arises in association with the thymus from the third branchial pouch. I have described elsewheret a connection between the cervical thymus and the thyroid lobe of the same side in a foetal Macropus, in the form of a cord of cells uniting the two organs. ‘This suggests a relation of the former organ to the thyroid rather than to the thymus organ in the mediastinal space. It is possibly the case that the cervical thymus may correspond to one of the epithelial corpuscles, though its minute structure does not resemble that of the latter (which, however, may be very variable), and its superficial position is against this view. The nature of the structure can be only a matter of conjecture, however, until its development is made known. + Journ. Linnean Soc., London, vol. xxvi., p. 546. 363 A LIST or tHE HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA so Far OBSERVED tn tHE COUNTIES or LANCASHIRE anp CHESHIRE, witu NOTES on tot HABITS oF THE GENERA. By Wittovensy Garpner, F.L.S., F.R.G:S. [Read May 10th, 1901.] CoMPARED with the generally favoured and now well- exploited Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, but little work has been done in the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire up to the present time in the order Hymenoptera. We have, however, had several observers here and there, who, during a series of years, have paid some attention to the Aculeata. The first of these who has left us any records is that excellent entomologist the late Mr. Benjamin Cooke, who resided at Hazlegrove and afterwards at Southport, and whose observations extended not only around these places, but also especially over Delamere Forest and the Wirral. The result of his work is fortunately preserved to us in the “Naturalist” for December, 1879, and January, 1880. His records are marked B.C. in the following pages. The next observer in our district was that well-known local naturalist the late Rev. H. H. Higgins, M.A., of Rain- hill. He collected the Aculeata during a number of years in his own neighbourhood, and also at many other places in the two counties. He kindly handed over his notes to the writer, and they appear here under the initials H.H.H. Other collectors who have at various times worked in the district are—Miss E. C. Tomlin, Chester—E.C.T. Mr. R. Newstead, F.1.S., Chester—R.N, Mr, J. Ray Hardy, Z 364 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Manchester—J.R.H. Mr. J. T. Green, Birkenhead— J.T.G. Their notes, and the full use of their collections, most generously given, have very largely contributed to the present list. The initials, as above, distinguish their several records in the text. Where no initials occur, the writer is himself responsible for the statement. In the year 1892 a “ Preliminary List of the Hymenop- tera Aculeata of Lancashire and Cheshire” was published in the “British Naturalist,’ Vol. II., by the present writer, and included all observations made to that date. Since that time much less work has been done locally among the Aculeata than could have been wished, owing to our surviving observers being engaged in other researches, or else living outside the limits of our two counties. But some additions to our local Fauna thave nevertheless been made, and our knowledge of the range of many species has been considerably extended, while one or two former records have been proved to require correction. Also, by the publication in 1896 of Mr. Edward Saunders’ ‘“Hymenoptera-Aculeata of the British Islands,” changes have been made in nomenclature, &c., so that a new list has become still further necessary for our local faunistic hterature. It will be seen from the above list of our local workers that observations hitherto made have extended over but a portion of our two counties, and that therefore we are at present far short of sufficient data for a complete Aculeate-Hymenopterous Fauna of the district. Still, even as a basis for future work, it would appear to be desirable to bring together the information obtained up to date, and to this end the following paper is contributed to the Transactions of the Liverpool Biological Society. The difficulty of naming obscure species correctly is often great. The writer and our local collectors, however, TYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 365 have had the kind and generous assistance of Mr. Hdward Saunders, '.L.8., in this matter, which is hereby grate- fully acknowledged. In order to make a mere list of more interest to local entomologists who have as yet had no experience of the Aculeata, and who it is hoped may be induced to pay some attention to them in the future, a brief resumé of the interesting habits of the British genera is, by suggestion, included with the following records of our loval species. For this the writer acknowledges much indebtedness to the works of Mr. Edward Saunders, Professor Pérez, Schuckard, F. Smith, and others, and also to various con- tributors to the “ Ent. Mon. Magazine.” PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATOLOGY. Physically our two counties of Lancashire and Cheshire consist chiefly of that extension of the great midland plain of England called the Western Plain, a long tract of level country lying between the high watershed of the Pennine Chain in the east and the Irish Sea and the mountains of Wales on the west. The limits of our faunistic district are thus roughly speaking natural ones. This broad plain is only broken by a few rocky ridges and hills cropping up here and there in heights varying from 300 to 600 feet; but along its eastern borders and in the north the continuous highlands become mountainous, and occasionally attain an altitude of as much as 1,900 feet. I.—As regards its solid geology, the district mainly consists of sandstones of the Triassic age, varied in places by both newer and older formations. Along the eastern borders of Cheshire and projecting into the centre of South Lancashire, the older coal measures occupy the ground. From beneath these, again, the millstone grit crops up among the hills along the extreme eastern edge of the two 366 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. counties, and also in parts of northern Lancashire. In the latter district other carboniferous rocks, including the mountain limestone, appear, while in the extreme north there is a mass of Silurian slate rocks. The Triassic formations are in great part covered by recent boulder clays and sands, which have filled the valleys and over- spread the lower plains; large peat mosses, now much reduced by drainage and cultivation, also occur here and there; while along the western side are extensive tracts of post tertiary silts, &c., covered again near the sea coast by hillocks of blown sand. II.—Such geological features naturally produce much local variety in the flora within the limits of our district. The central plain is for the most part cultivated, and therefore without marked feature ; the low hills and ridges cropping up out of it are generally heath-covered or pine- clad sandy tracts, with the plants peculiar to such country; and the same may be said of our peat mosses. The limestone district of North Lancashire and the sand- hill zone of our coasts each produce highly specialised floras; and the last-named, owing to hme from imnumer- able snail shells, also affords a home for many plants found in the former. further, the absence of rocks along our shores ensures freedom from the salt spray so often destructive of vegetation along a coast line; so that for several reasons our sandhill flora is particularly rich. III.—The mean annual temperature of the greater part of our district ranges between 40° and 50° Fahr., or about 5° lower than Central and Southern England; the mean summer readings average 60° to 61° Fahr., or three to four degrees less than the Thames Valley. IV.—The annual rainfall over the greater part of Cheshire is 25 to 30 inches, about 5 inches more than the eastern half of England, including the lower Thames HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 367 Valley; but to the N.E. of the county it rises to 30 to 40 inches. The latter figures also represent the fall over the S. and 8.W. of Lancashire, while in the high ground along the N.K. and the extreme N. the amount increases to as much as 40 to 50 inches. V.—The sunshine of our district has been averaged approximately at about 1,400 hours per annum; there is rather more along our dry, sandy coasts, and, owing to the smoke of large manufacturing towns, much less in many inland parts of Lancashire. The average is about equal to that of the Midlands and the Thames Valley, but about 100 hours less than the lower Severn Valley and the more southern and eastern parts of England, and 200 to 200 hours less than the extreme South and South-eastern coasts. VI.—The winds of our district are largely westerly, with a mean annual velocity of 15 miles an hour—excessive, compared with the Midlands and South and Kast of England. VII.—Another feature which has much effect in several ways upon the fauna of a district is its population. Cheshire is still mainly rural, having, even reckoning for its towns, about an acre of ground to each person. In Lancashire, the proportion is only about a quarter of an acre per person, making it the most thickly populated county in England next to Middlesex: and this notwith- standing large tracts of waste or sparsely-inhabited country in the North and West, so that the South and South-east is very densely peopled indeed, town succeed- ing town, with all their attendant destructive effects upon flora and fauna. From the above it will be seen that the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire afford the Hymenoptera- Aculeata— 368 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. I.—Excellent localities for nidification, both in the fre- quent escarpments of crumbling Triassic sandstone inland, and in the sandhills of the coast—both places where many species delight to burrow; also considerable variety of soil, including plenty of clay, for other specialised species. The mountainous and limestone country in the North, as yet unworked by local Hymenopterists, should produce additions to our fauna, as well as the high hills extending along the East. I'T.—A varied flora, rich in flowers frequented by Aculeates, especially in the sandhills districts, which are already attractive to them as good places for their burrows. The uncultivated pine and heather-clad regions also favour many species. | hi Sve Ne and) Vie ites Aculleatre Hymenoptera delight above all things in warmth, dryness, sunshine and absence of wind; cold and wet in their breeding seasons are very destructive to them. From this it will be seen that our sandy coasts are again more suited to the Aculeates than our inland localities, but that our district as a whole compares very unfavourably with others in the Midlands and in the east and south of England in respect of climate. This probably explains the undoubted scarcity of these insects in Lancashire and Cheshire, compared with their great abundance in many districts more favoured meteorologically. Very many common species which are seen in profusion further south, require to be searched for in order to discover them here in ordinary seasons, though nearly all have occasional years when they appear more numerously. VIl.—The growth of our population, with resultant building operations, smoke, fog and reduced sunshine, aa ‘ well as golf clubs and “summer camps,” have caused many species of the gregarious burrowing Aculeates to HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 369 disappear entirely from former favourite breeding places ; this will be noticed more particularly later. On the whole, however, the Aculeate Hymenoptera pos- sess greater power of adaptability to circumstances than insects of other orders. The Lepidoptera, for instance, with their many special-plant-fed larve, certainly depend more upon the flora, and consequently upon the geology of a district, for their distribution than the Aculeata. The connection between the fertilising bees and the honey and pollen yielding flowers is of course great; but the relation- ship is usually a broad one between families or genera respectively, and is only occasionally confined to the limits of species. Many bees undoubtedly show a marked pre- ference for certain flowers, but, in their absence, they usually find other nearly-related species to suit their tastes. Hence the Aculeate-Hymenopterous fauna of our district seems to be more ubiquitous in its distribution than our flora, or than several of the other sections of our insect fauna. HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. PRAIDONES. Insects both solitary and social in their habits, com- prising the Ants, and the various kinds of Wasps. HETEROGY NA. Social Ants, consisting of males and females, both usually winged, and also workers, or imperfect females, which are apterous. They dwell, with few exceptions, in large communities, constructing for themselves very elabo- rate nests; in these they rear their larve, which are fed upon honey by the worker ants. The economy and instinct of these insects is very remarkable and wonderful, 370 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. and places them high in the scale of invertebrate life. Some ants have apparently no homes of their own, but live in the nests of others, as Yormicoxrenus with Formica rufa; while one British species, Formica sanguinea, actually steals the pupz of another, /’. fusca, from their dwellings, and rears them up as workers or “ slaves” in its own nest. Many species introduce and keep various Aphides within their nests, for the sake of the “ honey” which they emit. Others harbour certain Coleoptera in their dwellings, some of which, as the curious blind Claviger, which they feed and tend with care, would appear to be of some unknown value or interest to the ants. Very many beetles, chiefly belonging to the Staphylinide, are more or less peculiar to ants’ nests, where they dwell, and sometimes even pass their metamorphoses; others again occur there probably as plunderers, or even casual visitors in search of warmth and shelter; altogether about seventy species of Coleoptera have been found associated with ants in Britain. Of other insects, certain Coccide are regularly found in ants’ nests, where they seem to be carefully cared for by their hosts; also a species of wood- louse. FORMICID &. Most of our English species come under the head of Mining Ants, forming extensive burrows and excavations for their nests in various situations; some in the earth, either in banks (1. fusca, L. niger, L. umbratus and T. erratica) or in raised “ant-hills” or under stones (L. flavus), and some in decayed wood (L. fuliginosus and occasionally F’. fusca, L. niger, L. umbratus). The three non-mining species (/”. rufa, I’. sanguinea and F’. exsecta) construct pyramidal nests of twigs, leaves, &c., above ground. The pupe of the FI ormicide are generally HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. Sal enclosed in silken cocoons. The nests of this family usually contain more myrmecophilous Coleoptera than those of other ants, the most frequented being those of F. rufa, L. fuliginosus and L. flavus. The Formicide so far observed in our district are :— Formica, Linn. FP. rufa, Linn.—Only noted so far in Delamere Forest, E.C.T., and Dunham Park, J.R.H. F’. fusca, Latr.—Common in the district. race cunicularia, Latr—Taken at Greenfield, B.C. Laswus, Fab.= Formica, pars., Smith. L. fultginosus, Latr.—Hoylake and West Kirby; Dela- mere and Bowden, B.C., Bolton district, C. E. Stott. L. mger, Linn.—Our common garden ant. L. umbratus, Nyl., brunneus, Sm.—Bowden, B.C. L. flavus, De Geer.—Abundant everywhere. The large Aphis Paracletus comiciformes in its nests at Delamere, R.N. PoNERIDZ. Another family of Mining Ants, forming nests in the earth (P. contracta) and in houses (P. punctatessema). Ponera, Latvr. P. contracta, Latr.—Once near Manchester, B.C. MyRrMIcID&. Very similar in habits to the Mormecide, generally excavating nests either in the ground (J. rubra, T. cespitum, and sometimes L. acervorum and L. tuberum), or in wood (L. acervorum, L. tuberum and sometimes MM. rubra). One species, however, Mormicovenus nitidulus, lives in the nests of /. rufa, and another, Solenopsis fugax, burrows in the walls of the dwellings of various 372 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ants. The pup of the Myrmicide are naked, unlike those of most of the /’ormicida, which are in cocoons. The nests of the genus Myrmica harbour one or two myrmecophilous Coleoptera, and those of Z’apinoma a single rare species. Leptothorax, Mayr. L. acervorum, Fab.—Delamere Forest, E.C.T. Found in nest of /’. fusca on Bidston Hill by Mr. Henry Burns. ‘This is an unusual habitat, as it generally forms colonies in the ground, under bark of trees, in dead wood or bramble stems. Myrmeca, Latr. M. rubra, Linn. race rugimodis, Nyl. — Abundant near Man- chester, B.C. race levinodis, Nyl.—Hoylake and West Kirby ; Bowden, B.C.; Chester and Delamere, E.C.1. race scabrinodis, Nyl_—Common everywhere. race lobicornis, Nyl.—This rare variety has been taken near Bowden, b.C. Monomorium Pharaonis, Linn.—Diplorhoptrum domesti- cum, Sm.—tThis introduced species 1s now often a pest in houses in our towns. FOSSORES. Solitary insects, consisting of male and female only, and without workers, as found in the previous social division. They comprise certain Ants and the majority of our species of Wasps. They feed on honey gathered from flowers in the imago state, but the larve are carnivor- ous. Though solitary in habit (7.c., the female constructs a single nest for herself, instead of the common one, con- taining several hundred individuals, of the social ants and wasps), the Fossores often form large colonies of many HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 373 separate burrows in close proximity. According to her species, the female wasp excavates a little tunnel either in sand, mud, dead wood or other suitable material; there she deposits her egg, and then stores up as sustenance for the future grub, which she herself will never live to see, such animal food as Lepidopterous larve, Diptera, Coieoptera, other Hymenoptera, Hemiptera and Arach- nide. These products of the chase are placed in the burrows alive, but reduced to a state of paralyzis by the poison of the captor’s sting; they apparently die about the time the egg hatches and the young larva requires food. It is probable that some few species, such as those belonging to the Mutedlidw, are inquiline upon other insects, and thus form exceptions to the above general rule of hfe among the /ossores. The Hymenopterous Chrysidide are parasitic upon the larve of some of the Fossores, e.g., Hedychrum upon Mimesa, Hedychrum and Chrysis upon Astata, and the ubiquitous C’. zgnita upon other genera. Certain Diptera are also said to have been bred from their nest cells. MUTILLIDZA. Sohtary Ants, with winged males and apterous females. Their habits are but little known; they are very probably inquiline upon the insects whose nests they have been observed to frequent. Mutilla europea has been found in the nests of the genus Bombus, and Myrmosa melanocephala with Halictus, Megachile and Vespa. Myrmosa, Latr. M. melanocephala, Fab.—Only recorded so far from Delamere, B.C., though it is not infrequent in North Wales about burrows of Halictus rubi- cundus and other Aculeates. 374 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. TIPHIIDZ. The first family of the Solitary Wasps, with both males and females winged. The life histories of our two British species of T2phia do not appear to be worked out. The females of 7’. minuta have been found under cow-dung, and possibly prey upon Aphodi. Neither of the species have yet been recorded from our district. SAPYGIDZ. Another family of Solitary Wasps. The female usually forms cells for her eggs in a burrow previously excavated by some other insect (e.g., a Colletes, Chelostoma, or Osmea), in the ground or in wood; she sometimes makes use of a deserted snail shell. As food for her offspring she stores up the larve of Lepidoptera. Sapyga, Latr. S. d-punctata, Fab.—Rainhill, H.H.H.; Upton, near Chester, at burrows in old barn wall, E.C.T. PoMPILIDZ. The agile members of this large family of Sandwasps often burrow in sandhills by the seaside (Pompzdlus rufipes, plumbeus, niger, and gibbus), in rubble walls (A. variegata) or in wood. Nearly all the species prey exclusively upon spiders. P. niger, however, is said to sometimes store up the larve of Lepidoptera. Pompilus, Fab. P. rufipes, Linn.—Southport sandhills, B.C. P. plumbeus, Fab.—pulcher, Shuck.—Wallasey sand- hills, exceedingly abundant some years; South- port sandhills, B.C. P. niger, Fab.—approximatus, Sm., melanarvus, Bond.— On the coast at Southport, B-C., and inland at Hazlegrove, B.C. HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. oD P. gibbus, Fab.—trivialis, Dhlb., Thoms., &c.—Common in district. P. pectinrpes, V. d. Lind.—crassicornis, Shuck, Sm., ? Southport, B.C. Salius, Fab. (Priocnemis, Schiédte). S. exaltatus, Fab.—Only recorded so far from Bowden, B.C., and Delamere, E.C.T. and B.C. Ceropales, Latr. C. maculata, Fab.—Only noted at Southport, B.C, . though probably occurs elsewhere on our sand- hills, as 1t 1s common on North Wales coast. SPHEGID A. A large and comprehensive family of Wasps, of which the genera vary greatly in form and also in habits, as noted below. Astata, Latr.—The females burrow in hard sand. They prey upon various larve. A. stigma, Panz.—jaculator, Sm. (Zool).—This, till recently, rare species has been twice recorded from our district, one specimen having been taken at Southport by Mr. B. Cooke, on 25th June, 1879, and another on Wallasey sandhills by myself, on the 5th July, 1891, (v. Ent. Mon. Mag., Jan., 1892). It should be searched for, as it has also occurred upon the North Wales coast. It loves the hottest sunshine, and has an excellent habit of returning to the spot again after being disturbed. The male is easily detected, when running among other similarly coloured sand- wasps, by a brilliant white spot on its face. Tachytes, Panz.—The females excavate tunnels in sand, and are stated to store up for their offspring larve of both Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. 376 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. T’. pectinipes, Linn.—pompiliformis, Sm.—Wallasey sandhills; Oakmere, Delamere, 11.C.T. Dinetus, Jur.—Allied to last-named genus; only taken very rarely in South of England. Miscophus, Jur.—Our two British species burrow in sandy places like T'achytes, but provision their cells with spiders. They have not been observed in our district. Trypoxylon, Latr.—The several species excavate their little tunnels in various different situations, ke figulus either in banks of light earth or in wooden posts, often in colonies, 7’. clavicerum in old timber, and 7’. attenuatum in briar_ stems. Spiders are stored up as food. T. figulus, Linn.—Only reported so far from Bowden, B.C., but probably overlooked, as common in North Wales. Ammophila, Kirb.—The nest cells of these formidable looking sand-wasps are at the end of a burrow excavated in a bank of earth or sand. The prey of the various species consists of Lepidopterous larve, with the exception of A. hersuta, which apparently confines its attention to spiders. A. sabulosa, Linn.—Our most abundant species of this genus, extending along the coast from Hoylake to Southport. Inland also at Delamere, H.C.T. A. lursuta, Scop.—vatica, Sm.—Taken on sandhills at Southport, B.C. and J.R.H., and at Formby, H.H.H. and F. Birch. Observed once carrying Pyralide, J.R.W., though on North Wales coast, where abundant, it stores spiders. | A. lutaria, Fab—Brought to me from sandhills at Blackpool, by Mr. C. E. Stott. Spulomena, Schuk.—Our one very small British species —E——————— ee Stigmus, TWYMENOPTERA-ACULEFATA., sah burrows in sand, or sometimes in dead wood or bramble stems. It is said to store up a Coccid for its young. It has not yet been observed in our district. Jur.—Nearly related to the last genus. Our one British species is said to make its nest :n holes in dead wood, &c., and to provision its cells with Aplides; another account says it is parasitical. Not recorded, so far, from Lancashire or Cheshire. Pemphredon, Latr—The females burrow in dead tree trunks, posts, &c., (P. lugubris), or in rose and bramble stems (P. shuckardi and lethifer). They prey upon Aphides collected from roses and other plants. P. lugubris, Latr.—Well distributed in district. Storing the Aphis Melanovanthus salicis in its cells at Ince, R.N. P. shuckardi, Moraw.—unicolor, Thoms.—Also wide- spread. P. lethifer, Schuck.—Similarly abundant. Dodontus, Curt.—Excavates its nest in sandy banks (D. minutus), or in mortar of walls and in bramble stems (D. tristis). D. minutus, Fab.—Only noted as yet from Bowden, B.C. Passalecus, Shuck.—The females make their cells in dead Mimesa, wood or in bramble stems. This genus has not yet been observed in our district, though the writer has taken P. insignis over the border in North Wales. Shuck.—Females burrow in colonies in sandy places, and occasionally in holes in dead wood 01 in straws (JZ. unicolor). They store up Aphides and allied insects for their young. A Chrysid is said to be parasitical upon this genus. 378 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. M. bicolor, Fab.—Delamere, B.C. Psen, Latr.—Breeds in holes in dead wood, in bramble stems, or in straws, and provisions its cells with A phides. . P. pallipes, Panz.—atratus, Panz, Shuck, &c.—Only noted from Manchester and Bowden, B.C., and near Birkenhead, J.T.G. Probably overlooked elsewhere. Gorytes, Latr.—But little seems to be known of the economy of this wasp-like genus. The females apparently deposit their eggs in ready-made holes in dead wood, &e. G. mystaceus, Linn.—Halsnead, H.H.H.; Manchester, Bowden, Hazlegrove and Marple, B.C.; and Barleymore Wood, near Withington, J.R.H. Nysson, Latr.—Probably nearly related in habits to Gorytes. N. spinosus, Fab.—Common in the district, B.C. Didineis, Wesm.—A genus with a single species in Britain, of which the life history does not appear to be known. It has not occurred in our district. Mellinus, Fab.—The variable WM. arvensis burrows gre- gariously in sandy banks. It preys upon various Dipterous insects—Muscide, Syrphide, &e. M.arvensis, Linn.—Well distributed and often very abundant. Philanthus, Fab.—The one British species of this genus provisions its nest with various wild bees (Andre- nide and Halicti) and also with the honey bee (Apis mellifica). On the Continent it 1s some- times very destructive in apiaries, stinging and carrying off the bees in great numbers. Fortunately it is very rare in Britain, and has not been seen so far north as our neighbourhood. ITYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 379 Cerceris, Fab.—The species comprising this genus are gre- garious, and form tunnels in the ground; some, as C’. arenaria, preferring loose sand, and others, as C. interrupta, choosing hard trodden pathways. The prey is various, according to species; wild bees, Halzctz and occasionally Andrenide, are stored up by C. ornata, and different kinds of beetles by C. arenaria (Curculionide), C. inter- rupta (Apionide) and C. labiata (Halticide). C. arenaria, Linn.—Formerly common on the Cheshire sandhills, B.C., but not observed there during recent years, though still abundant on the North Wales coast. Oxrybelus, Latr.—The females make their burrows in sandy places, and provision their cells with certain Diptera, some of which the various species mimic strongly both in form and in action. O. uniglumis, Linn.—Abundant, burrowing in_ loose sand, on Cheshire coast. Extends northward to Southport, B.C. Inland also at Bowden, B.C., and at Rock Ferry, where a specimen nearly black once taken, J.T.G. OQ. mucronatus, Fab.—argentatus, Curt.—feror, Shuck.— This rare and beautiful species was taken on the Cheshire sandhills, opposite Liverpool, by Mr. Matthews prior to 1836 (v. Schuckard’s ‘““Fossorial Hymenoptera.) The locality has since been built over. It was also captured on Wallasey sandhills more recently, B.C., but does not appear to survive there now. It still occurs on the North Wales coast. Crabro, Fab.—This large genus contains species with very various places of nidification. Some torm burrows in sandy banks (C. varius, wwestmela, 380 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. cribrarius, peltarrus, scutellatus), some in the mortar of old walls (C. elongatulus), some in decayed wood (C. leucostoma, gonager, dimidiatus, signatus, cevhalotes quadrimaculatus, vagus, interruptus, chrysostomus), and some in bramble and rose sticks (C. tebzalzs, clavipes, capitosus). The food stored up for the future grub includes various kinds of Diptera (C. lewcostoma, poda- gricus, westmeli, dimidiatus, cephalotes, quadri maculatus, cribrarius, peltarius, vagus nter- ruptus, chrysostoma), and Aphides (C. gonager and elongatulus). . clavipes, Linn.—rufiventris, Panz.—Generally distri- buted, B.C. ; specially noted Higher Bebington, J.T.G. | . leucostomus, Linn.—Fairly distributed. Nests in rotten willow at Ince stored with Syrphide, R.N. . podagricus, V. d. Lind.—Only recorded from Hazle- grove, B.C. palmipes, Linn.—tarsatus, Shuck.—Garden at Thorpe Villa, Chester, ‘H.C.T. . elongatulus, V. d. Lind.—lutecpalpis, Shuck.—pro- pinguus, Sehuck.—obliquus, Schuck.—hyalinus, Shuck.—Manchester, Hazlegrove, Delamere and Cheshire coast, B.C. . dimidiatus, Fab.—Chester and Delamere, E.C.T.; Cheshire coast, B.C.; and West Kirby, with a remarkable variety of male almost black, J.T.G. . vagabundus, Panz.—Higher Bebington, J.T.G.; Delamere, ‘E.C.T., and “commonly distrrbuted,” B.C. . cephalotes, Panz.—sexcinctus, Sm.—interstinctus, Sm. ? —Only reported as yet from Bowden, B.C., and HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 381 Bollin river valley, burrowing in willow stumps, JR.H. C. 4-maculatus, Fab.—subpunctatus, Shuck.—Not un- common. Specially noted from Chester, H.C.T., Delamere, E.C.T. and B.C., and Bowden, B.C. C. ervbrarius, Linn.—Usually common in sandy places, . where it burrows, e.g., Wallasey, H.H.H., West Kirby, J.T.G., Cuddington, R.N., Dela- mere, H.C.T., and Bollin Valley, J.R.H. C. peltarius, Schreb.—patellatus, Panz.—Well distri- buted; Hoylake; West Kirby, J.T.G., Cheshire coast and Southport, B.C., Oakmere, Delamere, J. Arkle, and Manchester, B.C. C. mterruptus, De Geer.—Lindenius, Shuck.—Taken on the Cheshire coast. B.C. C. chrysostomus, Lep.—vylurgus, Shuck.—Equally well distributed, e.g., Cheshire coast, B.C., Bebington, J.1.G., Ince, R.N., Haton, near Chester, 1.C.T. Entomognathus, Dahlb.—The only British species of this genus is very similar in its habits to Crabro. It has not yet been noted in our district. DIPLOPTERA. Containing the true Wasps, with wings longitudinally folded, instead of flat and unfolded, as in the Possores. There are two families in Britain, the one social and the other solitary in habit. These insects feed chiefly on vegetable diet, honey from flowers, fruit, &c., in the imago state, but the larve are carnivorous, like those of the Fossores. VESPID®. Vespa, Linn.—A genus consisting of the well-known Social Wasps, which have not only perfect males and females, but also workers, or imperfect 382 TRANSACTIONS LIVERPOOL BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY. females. They dwell together in communities, sometimes containing over 2,000 individuals, in wonderfully constructed nests made of wood paper. These nests are placed in various situations by the different species. Some (V. germanica, vulgaris and rufa) usually select a ready-made hole in the ground, or other suitable cavity; others (V. sylvestres usually, and norvegzca invariably) hang their nests exposed in bushes and trees. The “ paper” material made by the latter is stout and tough to withstand the weather, while that of the ground builders is thin and fragile. Unlike the larva of the solitary Fossores, feeding upon insects paralyzed by the sting of the parent wasp, and stored up by her in the burrows for their use after her death, the young grubs of the genus Vespa are fed regularly — by the workers living with them in the nests. Their diet consists mainly of insects or other animal food, which is semi-masticated by their devoted attendants before it is supplhed to them. Like those of the ants, the nests of our social wasps are regularly inhabited by certain other insects belonging to various orders. The list of inmates hitherto found in wasps’ nests includes some seventy-five species of Coleoptera, about ten species of Diptera, a few Hemiptera, several Hymenoptera, and certain Acarida and Crustacea. Some are foes, others possibly friends, useful as scavengers, &c., but very many are merely casual pilferers or visitors. Certain Coleoptera pass their metamorphoses in the nests of various wasps. The curious Metacus paradoaus, L., feeds upon the grubs of its host, HYMENOPTERA-ACULEATA. 383 choosing V. vulgaris and V. rufa. Vellewus dale- tatus, F', breeds in the nests of V. crabro and V. germanica, and several Quedw and Cryptophagr in those of the three ground building species. Many Diptera are also found in wasps’ nests in the larval state, although they have other habitats as well; such are species of the genera V olucella, Acanthiptera and Homolomyia, some of which mimic the wasps their hosts. Of Hymenoptera, the ichneumon Sphegophaga vesparum, Curt., lays its eggs on the grubs of several members of the genus Vespa, upon which its larve feed, and the parasitical Chryszs cgnita also preys upon V. rufa and vulgaris. The inquiline and nearly allied wasp, Pseudo-vespa austriaca breeds in the nest cells of V. rufa, and Myrmosa melancephalus has been found dwelling with V. sylvestris. V. crabro, Linn.—This species sometimes occurs in our towns, apparently imported with fruit and vegetables from the south. The only nest known to have been found in our district, viz., from Hawkshead, North Lancashire, is preserved in Owens Coll. Museum at Manchester. V. vulgaris, Linn.—Abundant everywhere. LS ° Rw Co?) @ oS one” e yowd (2) = a ¢ mid ARTON e- KNOTTy ae BS ve ee TO ° ASH « ae OAS ‘ - e et j ae owiT INGTON As « - / ap ste Wa a “fp / : oe? SALE DIDS BURY 2 MARPLE Go e So < han ALLEGROVES %y » LIN Sac . DISALEY o ee 4 e e Aie™ ing, ¥& ‘i : f or e Ran - ] e \ 3 e % ol ° Pkt PT S. Ce e PA f e ¢ e EC ds Pes hed Z e HY ome? a ae =, = PED eC - : , 5. _'~ : Se ne = ~- , gn patina a - -—- - = = — - “ a — - ~ - - —— _ “hem a > — —— —_—— _ - — >