THE

Proceedings and Transactions

JUba §cotian Institute of (Science,

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

VOLUME X.

(Being Volume III of the Second Series.)
*

PART 2.

SESSION OF 1899-1900.

WITH ONE PORTRAIT AND ONE PLATE.

The First Series consisted of the Seven Volumes of the Proceedings and Transac
tions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science.

Price to Non-Members: One Half-Dollar.

HALIFAX j

Printed for the Institute by the McAlpine Publishing Co., Ltd.
Date of Publication : December 31st., 1900.

CON TENTS.

Frontispiece, Portrait of the late John Bernard Gilpin, A. B., M. D., M. R.

C. S., F. R. S. C.

Ppoceedings, Session of 1899-1900 : page

Presidential Address, by Alex. McKay, Esq xxxv

Obituary Notices of Mr. J. J. Fox, and Sir J. W, Dawson xxxvi

The utility of a Scientific Library and of a properly conducted

Museum xxxix

Report of the Treasurer xli

Report of the Librarian xlii

Ordinary Meetings xlvi

A. H. MacKay, Ll. D., on the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous

System of Canada xlvii

H. S. Poole, F. G S.. on the Periodical Appearance of Ants in a

Chimney, and on an unusual site for a Humble-bees’ nest xlix

A. H. MacKay, Ll. D.. on Material taken from the bottom of the

Atlantic by the cable steamer Minia 1

Transactions, Session of 1899-1900 :

I. On the Relation of the Viscosity of Mixtures of Solutions of certain
Salts to their state of Ionization,— by James Barnes, B. A.,

Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S 113

II. On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions con-
taining Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids,— by the same 129

III. On the Depression of the Freezing-Point by mixtures of Electro-

lytes,—by the same — 139

IV. On the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous System in Eastern

Canada, with special reference to the position of the Union and
Riversdale Formations of Nova Scotia, referred to the Devonian
System by some Canadian Geologists,— by H. M. Ami, M. A.,

D. Sc., F. G. S., of the Geological Survey Of Canada. Ottawa,.. 162

V. The Natural History of Money,— by Prof. J. Davidson, Phil. D.,

University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N. B 179

VI. On the presence of Acid Sulphate of Copper in mixtures of Aqueous
Solutions of Sulphuric Acid and Copper Sulphate,— by Charles

F. Lindsay, Dalhousie College Halifax, N. S 205

VII. On a Diagram of Freezing-point Depressions for Electrolytes,— by
Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D. Sc., F. R. S., Dalhousie College,

Halifax, N. S 211

VIII. Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia,— by Hugh Fletcher, B. A.,

of the Geological Survey of Canada 235

IX. Notes on a Cape Breton mineral containing Tungsten, and on the
effect of washing certain Cape Breton coals,— by Henry S,

Poole, F. G. S.. F, R. S. C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, etc., Stellar-

ton, N. S 245

X. Minerals for the Paris Exhibition, —by E. Gilpin, Jr., Ll. D.,

F. R. S. C., Inspector of Mines 248

XI. On the Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized India-Rubber with
Tension,— by Thomas C. Hebb, 'B. A., Dalhousie College, Hali-
fax, N. S 273

XII. Records of Post-Triassic Changes in Kings County, N. S.,— by Prof.

E. Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S 287

XIII. Phenological Observations. Canada, 1899,— by A. II. MacKay, LlD.,

Halifax, N. S 303

XIV. A Fresh- water Sponge from Sable Island,— by the same 319

Appendix II :

List of Members, 1899-1900 V

If package was not pro-
perly addressed , ad-
dress to be given

v

Please acknowledge receipt (though not necessarily on this form,) to THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,
Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada .

1 A EMBERS of the Institute, and Societies in correspondence with it,
would confer a great favor, if they would send to the Council, for
distribution to Scientific Institutions whose sets of the Institute’s publications
are incomplete, any duplicate or* other spare copies which they may possess
of back numbers of its Proceedings and Transactions. They should be
addressed : The Secretary of the N. S. Institute of Science, Halifax , Nova
Scotia.

The attention of members of the Institute is directed to the following
recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological
Bibliography and Publications : —

“ That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately
before the paper has been published in the regular manner.

“ That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title,
while keeping the title as concise as possible.

“ That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when
possible.

“ That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or
anonymous paragraphs.

“ That references to previous publications should be made fully aud
correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of rules
of quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological
Society.”

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

J^oba .Scotian Jnstitntc of Science.

SESSION OF 1899-1900.

Annual Business Meeting.

Legislative Council Chamber , Halifax , 20th November, 1899.

The President, Alexander McKay, Esq., in the chair.

The President addressed the Institute, as follows : —

Gentlemen, — A review of the last year’s work of this Institute
may well be very brief. Meetings were held at the usual times,
except in February, on account of a severe storm. Twelve papers
were read and discussed, and another was read by title. These cover a
wide range of subjects : Social science, geology, sanitary science,
mineralogy, medicine, chemistry and botany, zoology and physics.

Prof. Davidson, of the University of New Brunswick, opens up a
field new to the Institute by a valuable paper “ On Statistics and
Expenditure in Canada.” In this and related studies there are splendid
opportunities for unlimited research and the display of the highest
order of talents. A paper by Prof. Russell on “School Room Air”
will be of much interest and value to teachers. The tests recom-
mended are inexpensive, and such as can be generally used. Teachers
who have once made these tests will ever afterwards be more alive to
the almost criminal carelessness of those who allow children to occupy
badly-ventilated school rooms. Dr. A. P. Reid also deserves the
Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X. Proc.— D.

(xxxv)

XXXVI

PROCEEDINGS.

thanks of the Institute for calling attention to the spread of consumption
by contagion and its prevention by means of properly constructed
sanitaria, of which he exhibited a model. In the phenological observa-
tions of the school children, collected by Dr. MacKay, and in the
experiments in physics and chemistry conducted by Messrs. Barnes and
Lindsay — promising young students of Dalhousie College — we see
hopeful signs of a reviving interest for science in ISTova Scotia. Mr.
Piers has favored us with “ No. 5 of Notes on Nova Scotia Zoology.”
Dr. Mackay, who is our only authority on the Diatomacese of Nova
Scotia, has awakened a fresh interest in one of his favorite studies by
another paper reporting progress, and by exhibiting excellent micro-
scopic slides of our principal diatoms.

Upon the whole, then, the work of the year has been of very
considerable interest and of some scientific importance.

We have added to our numbers two ordinary members, one corres-
ponding member and three associate members. We record with sorrow
the death in September of one of our oldest and most faithful members,
Mr. J. J. Fox. He was born in Salisbury, England, in 1818. He
studied medicine, but preferred a seafaring life, and spent many years
full of adventure in Egypt, Greece, the West Indies and South
America. In 1852 he was appointed by the Imperial Government
comptroller of customs and navigation laws at Magdalen Islands.

A faithful performance of duties soon led to advancement, and for
many years he was familiarly known as “governor.” He was charac-
terized by modesty, bravery and humanity. For valuable services to
shipwrecked mariners he was presented by the President of the United
States with a magnificent gold watch valued at $1,000. His intimate
knowledge of the fisheries made him a most valuable witness before the
Halifax fishery commission in 1877. After retiring from the civil
service he lived in Halifax, joined the Institute, and seldom missed a
meeting.

To-day brings us sad tidings of the death yesterday of Sir William
Dawson, the most distinguished member of our Institute and the most
eminent scientific man in Canada. He was born in Pictou in 1820.
At a very early age he began his studies in natural history, thereby
cultivating his powers of observation, and thus laying the foundation
for his remarkable achievements in geology subsequently. His success
in this respect is a good argument in favor of the early introduction into
our course of study of science teaching.

president’s address. xxxvii

Mr. Dawson graduated from Edinburgh University at the age of 26.
Eor four years he studied geology, travelling part of the time with Sir
■Charles Lyell, the greatest geologist of the world. At the age of
thirty he was superintendent of schools for Nova Scotia, and did much
to lay the foundation of our present educational system. In 1855 he
was appointed Principal of McGill University, a position which he held
until 1893, until he and the University had become famous the world
over.

He was capable of a prodigious amount of hard work. In his
favorite science he kept in the foremost rank, but he found it difficult
to avail himself of the light thrown upon natural phenomena by the
theory of evolution of which be was a most uncompromising oppo-
nent.

His extraordinary industry is shown by the large number of books
and scientific articles which he wrote. Some of them were of very
.great value and are still used as text books.

His eminent services to science were acknowledged by his appoint-
ment as first President of the Royal Society of Canada in 1882, his
election in the same year as President of the American Geological
Association, and of the British Association in 1886. He received
honorary degrees fram various universities, and was knighted in 1884.

At the close of my address last year I referred to the fact that
science was much neglected or very badly taught in our schools. As a
Temedy I suggested (a) that the colleges prescribe science as a subject
for matriculation, (b) that for the academic license more scholarship,
■especially in practical science, and a long course of the best professional
training be made imperative, (c) that higher qualifications in science be
required for B licenses, and (d) that a large part of the provincial
examination in science for grade A consist of laboratory work.

The progress of science teaching in other countries during the last
year has all been in confirmation of the soundness of these principles.
No doubt the time is near when we also must adopt them. When that
day comes, and not until then, science will make satisfactory progress
in all our educational institutions.

But it is perhaps more especially the province of this Institute to
awaken the public to an interest in general science and to stimulate and
assist individuals in particular fields of research.

XXXV111

PKOCEE DINGS.

In reference to this aim I may be allowed to make some additional
suggestions :

1. We should have a scientific library easily accessible to scientific
workers in every part of the Province. At present we have nothing of
the kind. A collection of partially catalogued, somewhat inaccessible
reports of scientific societies cannot be said to he such a scientific library
as the majority of workers need, however useful it may he to those-
engaged in original research.

We require not less than 5,000 volumes of the latest books by the
ablest men of science ; 10,000 would be better. In addition to this,
there should be complete sets of all the scientific periodicals in English.,.
French and German.

Such a collection of standard science textbooks, supplemented by1
government reports on agriculture, forestry, fisheries, etc., and the
reports of scientific societies, and managed by a competent librarian,,
would be of incalculable benefit. I have no hesitation in saying that I
believe it is the duty of our government in its encouragement of
technical instruction to establish such a library. If there existed an
intelligent appreciation of its value the cost would not long be a
hindrance, for the number of books required would not be large, and
probably many of them would be received as donations.

But why should the government provide a science library any more-
than a law library or a historical library 1 Because science in some form
or other lies at the foundation of success in all the industries of the-
country, so that the government would be justified and supported in
making an expenditure which would result in such general benefit.
Facilities for scientific research would lead to discoveries which would
pay the cost a thousand fold. Pasteur’s discoveries were worth untold
millions to France.

Although Nova Scotia is not large, populous or rich, yet her natural
resources are so great and varied as to warrant the government in
following the examples of other countries in respect to technical
education; and the establishment of a good science library would be but
the first and most natural step in that direction.

Recently I wanted to consult twenty or thirty scientific works and
periodicals. In the three largest public or quasi-public libraries of
Halifax I was able to find but one of them. No wonder that our
ablest young men are lost to the Province when we deny them the-
opportunities for research which they readily obtain elsewhere.

president’s address. xxxix

Here let me call your attention to the most valuable and self-
sacrificing labors of Dr. MacGregor and Mr. Maynard Bowman in
connection with the library of this Institute. A few years ago, when
they began work upon it, it consisted of a small number of unclassified
reports from secieties in various parts of the world. It now includes a
large number of serial publications by scientific societies and other insti-
tutions, and numbers about 1,500 bound volumes with about as many
more unbound. These haee been placed in a room temporarily pro-
vided by Dalhousie College, and so arranged that any one desirous of
consulting any volume would be able to find it without the assistance of
the librarian.

The work of bringing order out of the confusion that existed at
first, the cataloguing and labelling of so many books, searching and
sending abroad for missing numbers, was an immense labor, which if
performed by a paid expert would have cost several hundred, not less,
perhaps, than two thousand dollars.

But in addition to all this, the addresses of other societies had to
be searched and copies of our Transactions sent abroad to about 700
societies in all, by which means the number of valuable publications
received each year was more than doubled. Surely when these two
gentlemen have done so much, we may expect our provincial government
to supplement their efforts by the addition to this library each year of a
few hundred treatises. Then would it not he better that the library
thus enlarged should be taken over by the government, properly housed
and managed, and made free to the public 1

Nor must I forget to say that the thanks of this Institute are due
to the Governors of Dalhousie College for the use of a room at a time
when our library became so large that it could no longer be kept in the
place which it formerly occupied.

2. A properly conducted museum would do much to popularize
science in our midst. A collection of dusty, unlabelled, badly arranged
specimens does not amount to much and scarcely justifies the expense.
Such a museum is the deadest of all dead things.

To he practically useful a museum requires a large, well-lighted,
readily accessible room. It should primarily contain typical specimens
of the most important natural bodies, arranged according to their
chemical or organic affinities, so that the student may learn from them
at a glance something of their relationship and the laws of nature

x\

PROCEEDINGS,

Especial attention should be given to the products of this Province.
They should be scientifically marshalled and their industrial applications
carefully and suggestively illustrated. Raw products in every stage of
their manufacturing processes should be exhibited.

The museum should be in charge of a man of the broadest scientific
culture, a man of business capacity, and a thorough teacher.

A museum thus equipped would do more for science than any college
or any other agency. Every visitor from the country would return to
his home with his curiosity awakened, and often with scientific problems
or difficulties solved, with a new inspiration for further advances.

Such an institution would have organic connection with every high
school and college in the province, exchanging specimens and thus
enriching the local school museums, diffusing scientific information, and
stimulating scientific activity.

How often throughout the last sixteen years have our teachers
lamented the want of opportunity in this respect? During their
holidays they would have made large collections of interesting objects
which they would study in classes formed at the museum. Long since
every school in the city, after the example of the German schools, would
have been supplied with a respectable collection of labelled specimens
for the instruction of their pupils, and the amount of scientific know-
ledge and interest would have been increased tenfold.

For the sake of economy and efficiency the museum and the science
library should be in the same building and in charge of the curator of
the museum.

Book and specimen are complementary and should he drawn as close
together as possible. u First of all, their aims are identical, for they
have the one end in view, the culture of the people ; secondly, they
appeal to the same mental faculties with which all men are endowed in
a greater or less degree, and thirdly, to a very great extent one of them,
the museum, to carry out its proper functions to a great measure, is
dependent on the other. It leans upon it, as it were ; it looks to it to
minister to the museum visitors that information which the most
comprehensive catalogue and labels in the world would fail to supply.”*

If all the specimens were labelled giving references to the books in
which they were best described, placed on a shelf near at hand, the

C. W. Wallis, Curator Birmingham Art Galleries and Museum,

treasurer’s report.

xli

student’s ability to do better work and the extent to which both library
and museum could be utilized would be greatly increased. The tendency
in England, Ontario and the United States is towards combining
libraries and museums in the same building.

In conclusion, when the colleges come to see that good work in
science in the high school gives, to say the least, as valuable mental
discipline as classics, aud vastly more of useful knowledge ; when the
education department provides adequate professional training for the
higher teachers, and subjects them to tests in the laboratory which will
demonstrate their fitness for teaching science, and when the government
will supply us with a well-equipped museum and science library in one
building, then but not before we will make satisfactory progress in
science.

The thanks of the Institute were presented to Mr. McKay for his
services as President.

The Treasurer’s report was presented, and having been audited and
found correct, was received and adopted. The following is an analytical
statement of the expenditure for 1898-99 : —

Publication of Transactions : —

Vol. IX, Part 4 (1897-98):

Printing- and binding $171 40

Less received for authors’ separates and two

copies sold 8 00

Vol. IX, Parts 1-4. Preparation of Index

Vol. X, Part 1 :

Printing $ 8 00

Photographs for Portrait 1 00

Engravings 14 13

Expressage 75

Vol. X, Part 2, 3 or 4 :

Photograph for Portrait

$163 40
2 00

23 88

25

Distribution of Transactions : —

Vol. IX, Part 4 :

Wrappers, receipts, wrapping, twine $14 50

Addressing 15 00

Postage, truckage, freight, expressage,

insurance T5 39

$189 53

Carried foi ward.

44 89

$234 42

xlii

PROCEEDINGS.

Brought forward $234 42

Library Expenses : —

Insurance (including stock of Transactions). ... $16 88

Janitor, Dalhousie College, for services 5 00

Asst.-Librarian, Dalhousie College, for services 10 00

Librarian, clerical expenses 25 00

Fittings 12 77

Arranging Library, preparing card catalogue,

etc 75 00

Truckage 3 80

Binding 95 65

Freight and postage on back numbers of

Transactions sent in exchange 4 01

Petty expenses 2 55

250 66

Calling of meetings 28 00

Advertising 6 00

Postage (Secretaries and Librarian) 11 85

P. O. Box 4 00

Miscellaneous printing (including stationery) 2 50

Type-writing ... 50

$537 93

The Report on the Library was presented by the Librarian and
Corresponding Secretary.

During the year the Transactions had been sent for the first time
to the following : —

*Konigl. Landesarchiv, Agram, Austria-Hungary.

Elektrotechniseher Verein, Beilin, Germany.

Real Academia de Ciencias Naturales y Artes, Barcelona, Spain.
Naturm Novitates, Berlin.

*Musee du Congo, Brussels.

Baltimore Astronomical Society, Baltimore, Md.

^Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, Md.

Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

New Hampshire State Library, Concord, N. H.

*Natural History Association of Miramichi, Chatham, N. B.

*K. Vetenskaps- och VitterheDsamhallet, Goteborg, Sweden.

Real Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales; Habana,
Cuba.

Periodico di Matematica, Leghorn, Italy.

librarian’s report.

xliii

Lincolnshire Science Society, Lincoln, (L B.

Public Library, Museum and National Gallery, Melbourne.
^Canadian Mining Institute, Montreal.

'Club Alpin de Crimee, Odessa, Russia.

Rivista di Patologia Vegetale, Portici, Italy.

Pasadena Academy of Science, Pasadena, Cal.

^Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, Pa.

Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, Rochdale, G. B.
*Augustana College, Rock Island, 111.

“Minerva,” Strassburg, Germany.

*Institut de Botanique, R. Universite des Etudes, Sienne, Italy.
State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana, 111.

Concilium Bibli ographicum, Zurich-Neumiinster, Switzerland.
American Microscopical Journal, Washington, I). C.

Publications have been received for the first time from the institu-
tions indicated by an asterisk in the above list, and from the following :
Observatorio de Manila, Manila.

Education Department, Wellington, New Zealand.

Public Museum, Wanganui, New Zealand.

Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birmingham.

“ La Science Sociale,” Paris.

Treasury Department, Washington, D. C.

South Staffordshire Institnte of Iron and Steel Works Managers,
Dudley, G. B.

Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, G. B.

K. Ungarische Geographische Gesellschaft, Vienna.

Societe Anversoise pour la Protection des Animaux, Antwerp.
Society of Civil Engineers, Boston.

Halifax Scientific Society, Halifax, Eng.

Universite Imperiale de Moscou, Russia.

Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, U. S „A.

K. Botanische Gesellschaft, Regensburg.

Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Ka.

Public Library, New York.

Societe Linneenne de Lyon, Lyons, France.

Academie des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts, Lyons, France.

Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.

Academy of Science, Washington, D. C.

xliv

PROCEEDINGS.

New England Zoological Club, Cambridge, Mass.

Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, Adelaide, So. Australia.

Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.

Associazione Mathesis, Leghorn, Italy.

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, Wis.

Societe Nationale des Antiquaires de France, Paris.

Lloyd Mycological Museum, Cincinnati.

The Transactions were now being sent annually to 779 institutions-
of various kinds, and exchanges had been received from 447.

The distribution of the Transactions to Corresponding Societies and
other institutions in all parts of the world had again, through the
courtesy of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
been effected at small expense, through the Institution’s Bureau of Inter-
national Exchanges. The total expense of distribution had been
$44.89, which included printing of wrappers and receipt forms, wrapping
and addressing as well as postage (on Canadian packages), and freight.

At the date of the last report 113 volumes were in the binder’s
hands. Subsequently 89 volumes were added to these ; and these 202
volumes are now on the shelves. The total cost of binding them was
$170.65, but as $75.00 was provided for last year, only the balance of
$95.65 appears in this year’s account. The books bound were mostly
English, but some foreign publications which were in demand by
members were included. The number of bound volumes in the Library
is now 1,482 ; and there must be a somewhat larger number of unbound
volumes, though we have never made a count of the unbound volumes.

The recommendation made last year that a paid assistant should be
provided to get the library into a condition in which it would be of
greater use to the members, was carried out during the past year, the
services of Miss N. K. MacKay, who had previously been Asst.-Librarian
of Dulhousie College, having been secured for some weeks during the
summer.

The following work was accordingly carried out : —

(1) The arranging of books on the shelves and the labelling of
shelves referred to in last report, had been completed. It is thus possible
for members to find any books they may desire without difficulty, even
in the absence ot the Librarian.

(2) All unbound volumes, in parts, were examined and tied up, note
being made of their defects. This had previously been done in the case-

librarian’s repqet.

xlv

of most of the English books. It has now been done for the whole
library.

(3) Memoranda were made out for transmission to corresponding
societies, of the parts lacking in our sets of their publications.

(4) A card catalogue of the whole library was prepared according to
the method in use in the Library of the Academy of Arts and Science
of Philadelphia. The catalogue in the case of serial publications speci-
fies of course only the volumes of the various series which are on the
shelves, without giving any clue to their contents. In the case of
publications which, though issued by one institution, do not form a
numbered series, each volume or report is separately catalogued. The
catalogue consists of about 1200 cards.

While the whole of the work, carried out in an admirable manner by
Miss MacKay, forms a necessary preliminary to the issue of a printed,
catalogue for the use of our members, we are not yet ready to issue such
a catalogue, at least to issue one which would be permanently useful.
Eor many of the unbound volumes in the library are defective, and it
would be well to get these defects supplied as far as may be possible
before printing. The Corresponding Secretary hopes during the present
year to transmit the memoranda of defects referred to above to the
various corresponding institutions, and to make some progress in getting
the defects supplied.

The report was adopted, and the thanks of the Institute tendered to-
Mr. Bowman and Dr. MacGregor for their work in connection with the
library.

On motion of Dr. MacKay, it was resolved that the Council be
directed to prepare a resolution appreciative of the scientific career of
the late Sir William Dawson and regretting his recent death.

It was resolved that the Council be instructed to approach the
Government for the purpose of ascertaining if it would be possible for
the latter to provide space, in the new Government building, for the
accommodation of the Institute’s library.

The thanks of the Institute were presented to the Hon. Robert
Boak, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use of the
Council Chamber, and to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion for his courtesy in continuing to admit the Institute to the privi-
leges of the Bureau of International Exchanges.

PROCEEDINGS.

xlvi

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1899-1900):
President. — A. H. MacKay, Esq., Ll. D., F. R. S. C., ex officio F. R.,
M. S.

Vice-Presidents. — F. W. W. Doane, Esq., C. E., and Henry S. Poole,
Esq., F. G. S.

Treasurer. — William C. Silver, Esq.

Corresponding Secretary. — Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D. Sc.

Recording Secretary. — Harry Piers, Esq.

Librarian. — Maynard Bowman, Esq., B. A.

Councillors withotit Office. — Alexander McKay, Esq. ; Edwin Gilpin,
Jr., Esq., Ll. D., F. R. S. C. ; Martin Murphy, Esq., D. Sc. ;
William McKerron, Esq. ; Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, Ph. D.;
Watson L. Bishop, Esq. ; Roderick McColl, Esq., C. E.
Auditors. — Herbert E. Gates, Esq., and G. W. T. Irving, Esq.

First Ordinary Meeting.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 20th November, 1899.

The President, Dr. MacKay, in the chair.

The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business
Meeting.

Dr. H. M. Ami communicated a paper “ On the Subdivisions of the
•Carboniferous System in Eastern Canada,” but owing to the lateness of
the hour the reading of the paper was deferred.

Second Ordinary Meeting.

Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 11th December, 1899.

The President in the chair.

The council reported that Ernest Haycock, Esq., Instructor in
Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, Acadia College, Wolf vi lie, N. S.,
had been elected an Associate member.

The following resolution was adopted : — “This Institute has learned
with the greatest regret of the death of its distinguished Corresponding
Member, Sir J. W. Dawson, and desire to place on record its profound
sense of the eminence of the services rendered by him to the cause both
of Science and of Education, during a long life, which was happily as
fully characterized by successful results, as by unremitting efforts
towards the attainment of a noble ideal.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

xlvii

“ The Institute desires to convey to Lady Dawson and her family,,
an expression of the deep sympathy with which its members have heard
of the sad bereavement she and her family Lave experienced.”

A paper by Henry M. Ami, Esq., D. Sc., of the Geological Survey
of Canada, “ On the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous System in
Eastern Canada,” was read by Dr. E. Gilpin who gave an introductory-
statement of a popular character. (See Transactions, p. 162).

The subject was discussed by Dr. Gilpin, Mr. J. Forbes and others.

The president, Dr. A. H. MacKay, said he was glad to have Dr..
Ami’s views presented to the Institute. He spent a fortnight with Mr.
Fletcher in running over the stream-exposed sections of the southern
flanks of the Cobequids ; and became deeply interested in some of the
problems discussed in the paper. The extremely careful work done of
late years had thrown new light on the problems attempted to be solved
by the older geologists trom their original but more limited observations.,
Mr. Fletcher has reason to feel gratified that Dr. Ami and Dr. Dawson,
admit that his maps of the region in question “show clearly the true
and natural order of sequence of the formations ;” so that the reference
to “ types that are everywhere held to be of carboniferous age” must
indicate a revision of the older geological nomenclature of some regions.
Sir William Dawson, a most eminent palieontologist as well as geologist,
after studying the fossil plants and animals of Riversdale, MacKay
Head, and Harrington River, placed them in the Millstone Grit forma-
tion as intimately related to those of the Coal Measures. Dr. Ami now
correlates them with the Lancaster fern ledges (hitherto known as
Devonian) of Hew Brunswick ; but he would place them all in his new
Eo-carboniferous. Of the twenty-one fossil species enumerated by Dr.
Ami, fifteen were Dawson’s own species. Psilophyton glabrum belonged
to a genus hitherto generally considered to be characteristic of the
Devonian. Leaia Leidyt (perhaps identical with Leaia t/ricarinata )
was found in rocks called Devonian by many geologists. Belinurus -■
grandoevus and Esther ia Dawsoni represented genera usually considered
common both to the Devonian and the Carboniferous, with specific
names given to specimens obtained from the rocks in dispute. Dr.
Ami’s new species Sanropus Dawsoni was stated to be only “ apparently
from rocks of this age.” Mr. Fletcher would appear to oppose the
assumption that the rocks underlying the Hew Glasgow conglomerate-

xlviii

PROCEEDINGS.

are equivalent to the coal measures of Stellarton, according to his views
given in the Report of the Geological Survey for 1886, which he did
not appear to have since changed.

These differences of opinion demonstrated that new information was
being acquired, and was in the course of being assimilated by the
geologists. But whether taking the upper slice from off our old
slenderly developed Devonian and attaching it with its unconformity to
the base of our corpulent Carboniferous is the true rectification of the
old nomenclature, remained, perhaps yet to be indubitably determined.
If the true order of superposition of rocks can be ascertained at any point
from the observation of their actual bedding, the palaeontologist must
modify his hypotheses based on defective biological horizons observed
elsewhere. so as to harmonize with the facts of the stratigrapliist. It
was the stratigraphist in the first place who determined the biological
horizons for the palaeontologist. But the palaeontologist with his
biological horizon becomes the supreme arbitrator where the strati-
graphist is not sure of his base, or of the order of superposition.

Prof. J. G. MacGregor, communicated a paper, “On Laws of
Dilution for Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes.”

Third Ordinary Meeting.

Legislative Council Chamber , Halifax 15th January, 1900.

The President in the chair.

A communication was read from the Eighth International Con-
gress of Navigation, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to
attend the meeting of the Congress to be held at Paris in July next.
The matter was referred to the Council for action.

James Barnes, Esq , B. A., Dalhousie College, presented two
papers : —

1- “On the Relation of the Viscosity of Mixtures of Solutions of
Certain Salts to their State of Ionization.” (See Transactions, p. 113).

2. “ On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions

containing Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids.” (See Transactions, p.
129.)

A vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Barnes for his communica-
tions.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

xlix

Fourth Ordinary Meeting.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th February, 1900.

The President in the chair.

A paper entitled : “ Nova Scotian Minerals collected for the Paris
Exhibition,” was presented by Edwin Gilpin, Jr., Esq., Ll. D., F. R.
S. C., Inspector of Mines. Dr. Gilpin answered a number of inquiries
made by those present, relative to the minerals of the Province. (See
Transactions, p. 248.)

A communication by Henry S. Poole, Esq., F. G. S., entitled
“ Notes on the Periodical Appearance of Ants in a Chimney, and on
an "Unusual Site for a Humble-Bee’s Nest,” was read by the Recording
Secretary in the absence of the author, as follows :

“ For many years, possibly fifteen, a flight of ants has annually
tumbled down a chimney in the office of the Acadia Coal Co., at
Stellarton, N. S., generally on August 24th, sometimes a day or two
later, and occasionally a few ants again appear as late as the middle of
September. Fires are used in the chimney each winter. A tinned roof
has been put on the office since the ants first were seen, and the top of
the chimney has been thoroughly repaired by masons without finding a
nest. The habitat selected seems unusual, and so far has not led to the
similar adoption by colonies of other chimneys in the same building.

“ In a grove of young fir trees, about eight feet from the ground, I
noticed one autumn a la^ge robin’s nest in unusually good repair. On
pulling down the tree-top the nest was found to be full, with a dome
shaped cone. It was occupied by humble-bees and a small comb with
larvse in it. Such a situation for a humble-bees’ nest, I am told, has
been seen before, but apparently it is unusual.”

Fifth Ordinary Meeting.

City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th March, 1900.

The President in the chair.

It was announced that Charles Pickford, Esq., had been elected a
Corresponding Member.

A paper by C. M. Pasea, Esq., of Dalhousie College, “ On a relation
between the Ionization Coefficients of Electrolytes, and its application
as an Interpolation Formula,” was presented by Dr. J. G. MacGregor.

1

PROCEEDINGS.

James Barnes, Esq., B. A., Dalhousie College, read a paper “ Oil
the Depression of the Freezing-point by Mixtures of Electrolytes.” (See.
Transactions, p. 139.)

The paper was discussed by Drs. MacGregor and Mac Kay, and a
vote of thanks was presented to the author.

Dr. A. H. MacKay, exhibited, with comments, material taken from?
the bottom of the Atlantic at four different points, by the Cable S. S.
Minia in charge of Captain De Carteret, by whom the specimens were
presented.

1. From lat. 40° 47' N., long. 38° 45' W., at a depth of 2544
fathoms, in June, 1899 : —

a. A fragment of a dark igneous rock about 13x8x5cm, not very
unlike some massive, dark green traps of Nova Scotia. The Cable was
hooked at the same time, but broke and slipped over the stone which
was abraded in two separate places. The exact determination of the
rock, as well as the other specimens, had to be postponed to a future-
opportunity after which the results of their special examinations would
be communicated.

b. A fragment of gneiss or granite with dark, fine-grained mica,
about a centimeter cube, in

c. Mud, which on an average of three samples gave 72 per cent
insoluble in nitric acid, leaving 28 per cent for carbonate of lime in
foraminiferal shells, and any other soluble matter which might be
present. The species of foraminifera present were left for future
enumeration. The mud was, therefore, about three-quarters derived
from decomposed rock, and contained specks of mica flakes among the
minute sand grains also found in it.

2. From lat. 49° 30' N., Ion. 49° 36' W., at a depth of 2594
fathoms, were taken on the 3rd July, 1894: —

a. A fragment of rock about 8x4x3cm. It was a very compact,
fine-grained, dark (with a band of light grey) chocolate quartzose felsite
in appearance, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, a portion of one
side looking as even as if it were ground plane. The light grey band on
the opposite side suggested discoloration by weathering, and the con-
choidal fracture in this portion was much rougher in its surface texture.

b. A fragment of a water-worn, whitish, cryptocrystalline quartzite-
pebble about 3cm in its three dimensions.

c. Mud with small pebbles, containing what suggested the remains-
of a coelenterate animal with slender stem, cylindrical body a few

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

\i

centimeters long, with slender tentacular processes. This material was
originally bottled in alcohol which had nearly all evaporated before
examination, and the organism was not intact. The mud contained
siliceous grains with occasional sponge spicules, &c.

3. From a depth of 30 fathoms, about 15 miles E. N. E. (magnetic)
from Flat Point, Sydney, C. B.

a. Thin braehiopod shells, the largest about 28x22mm.

b. What suggested arborescent Polyzoan Zoecia, about ldm high,
the cylindrical spray of branches having a diameter of about 15mm.

c. A sheet of the eggs of a gastropod.

4. From between

lat. 43° 52' 1ST., Ion. 58° 53' W. in 500 fathoms,

lat. 43° 53 P N., Ion. 58° 59-J' W. in 858 fathoms,

and lat. 43° 56' Ab, Ion. 59° 3' W. in 170 fathoms.

A coral, of the form of caryophilia , rising from a thin encrustation

partly surrounding a pitch-covered cylinder (Cable) about 3cm in dia-
meter, with a stem about lcm at the base, gradually expanding until at
a height of 4cm it formed ail elliptical cup-shaped corallite abou t 3.5cm
and 4.5cm in diameter, filled with numerous septae of unequal height, in
one series.

Sixth Ordinary Meeting.

Legislative Council Chamber , Halifax, 9th April, 1900.

The President in the chair.

The Recording Secretary read a communication from the Royal
Society of Canada, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend
the nineteenth general meeting of the Society to be held at Ottawa oil
the 29th of May next. The communication was referred to the Council
for action.

Prop. Ernest Haycock of Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S., read a
paper entitled : “Records of Post-Triassic Changes in Kings County,
N. S.” (See Transactions, p. 287.)

The subject was discussed by Dr. Gilpin and Mr. McKay, and a
vote of thanks was presented to the author.

The President, A. H. MacKay, Esq., Ll. D., read a paper on “ A
Fresh-Water Sponge from Sable Island.” To this species Dr. MacKay
proposed to give the name Heteromeyenia Macouni. The subject was
illustrated by microscopic preparations. (See Transactions, p. 319).

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X. Proc — E.

Hi

PROCEEDINGS.

Seventh Ordinary Meeting.

Legislative Council Chamber. Halifax, lJ/th May, 1900,

The President in the chair.

It was announced that the President, Dr. MacKay, had been
appointed delegate to represent the Institute at the forthcoming meeting
of the Royal Society of Canada.

It was reported that progress had been made in fitting up a room
for the library of the Institute, etc., in the new government building,
Hollis Street.

In the absence of the author, Dr. MacGregor read a paper by
Prof. John Davidson, of the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
on “The Natural History of Money.” (See Transactions, p. 179.)

The paper was discussed by Colonel McShane, Dr. H. II. Read,
Frererick P. Ronnan, Esq., and others, and a vote of thanks was
presented to Prof. Davidson for his communication.

A. H. MacKay, Esq.. Ll. D., F. R. S. C , read a paper entitled
“ Phenological Observations, Canada, 1899.” (See Transactions, p. 303.)

A paper by T. C. Hebb, Esq., B. A., Dalhousie College, “On the
Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized India-Rubber with Tension,” was
presented by Dr. MacGregor. (See Transactions, p. 273 )

The following papers were read by title : — “ Notes on a Cape Breton
Mineral containing Tungsten, and on the effect of washing certain Cape
Breton Coals,” — By Henry S. Poole, Esq., F. G. S., Stellarton, N. S.
(See Transactions, p. 248.)

“Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia,” — By Hugh Fletcher,
Esq , Geological Survey of Canada. (See Transactions, p. 235.)

A collection of dried plants from the vicinity of Buffalo, U. S. A.,
made by Rev. Brother Junian Peter, St. Joseph’s Commercial College,
Detroit, and presented by him to the Institute, was shewn, and a vote
of thanks was passed to Brother Peter for his gift.

The council was authorized to receive as having been read by title,
any papers that might be offered too late for this meeting. [Cinder this
resolution a paper subsequently submitted by Prof. J G. MacGregoh,
“ On a diagram of Freezing-point Depressions for Electrolytes,” was
accepted by tlieXouncil. (See Transactions, p. 211).]

HARRY PIERS,

Recording Secretary.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Jloim Scotian Institute of .Seienee.

SESSION OF 1899-1900.

I. — Ox the Relation of the Viscosity of Mixtures of
Solutions of Certain Salts to their State of
Ionization. — By James Barnes, B. A., Dalhousie
College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor on December 15th, 1899.)

The present paper is the result of a piece of work undertaken
at the suggestion of Prof. MacGregor, for the summer vacation
of 1899, the object being to find out in the case of mixtures of
aqueous solutions of certain electrolytes with a common ion,
whether or not it is possible, by the aid of the dissociation con-
ception, to predict the viscosities of the mixtures, when sufficient
data as to the viscosities and conductivities of the constituent
solutions are available.

The salts selected were sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
barium chloride, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate, and
copper sulphate, the viscosities of simple solutions of these salts
having been determined by 1Reyher and 2 Wagner, and that of
mixtures of them by 3 Kanitz, and extensive series of observa-
tions on the conductivity by Kohlrausch and by former students
of Dalhousie College, being available. As will be seen below I
found 4 Kohlrausch’s values of the conductivity sufficient for my
purpose.

1Ztschr. f. phys. Chemie, 2, 744, 1888.

2 Ibid., 5, 31, 1890.

2 Ibid., 22, 336, 1897.

4 Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, pp. 159, 160, tab. 2.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X. Trans.— H.

(113)

114

ON THE VISCOSITY

1 Professor MacGregor has pointed out that, both on theoretical
grounds and because of the way in which the ionization coeffi-
cients and such physical properties as specific gravity, viscosity,
etc., in general, vary with the concentration in simple solutions,
it is to be expected that the value of any such property, for a
simple solution which is so dilute that the dissociated and undis-
sociated molecules may be regarded as without mutual action,
will be expressed by the formula :

P = PW + k (1 — a) n + l a n, (1)

where P is the numerical value of the property for the solution,
Pw that of the same property for water under the same physical
conditions, n the concentration expressed in gramme-equivalents
per unit volume, a the ionization coefficient of the electrolyte
in the solution, and k and l constants, called ionization constants.

He has further shown that the value of a property for a
mixture of two electrolytes will be given in terms of the values
of the ionization constants as determined for the simple solu-
tions, by the expression :

+ (/<2 (1 - a2) n2 + l2 a3ns)—^ -J . . (2)

where the n’s are the concentrations of the constituent solutions
(the electrolytes being indicated by 1 and 2), the a s the ioniza-
tion coefficients of the respective electrolytes in the mixture, the
?/s the volumes of the constituent solutions, and p the ratio of
the volume of the mixture to the sum of the volumes of the
constituent solutions.

The application of the first expression to simple solutions is,
as 1 2 Prof. MacGregor has shown, of little theoretical interest; but
that of the second to mixtures, because of its being based on
the dissociation theory and involving no arbitrary constants, is
of very considerable interest. It is the applicability of this
expression (2) that the present paper is intended to test with
mixtures of solutions of the above-mentioned salts.

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 219, 1896-97.

2 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 61 (foot note), 1898-99.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION S.- — BARNES.

115

The observations of Reyher, Wagner and Kanitz were made
on somewhat stronger solutions than those for which the above
expressions might be expected to hold, but they were considered
as probably sufficiently dilute to warrant the expectation of an
approximate applicability of the expressions.

Simple Solutions.

For the determination of the ionization constants in expres-
sions (1) and (2), one must know the ionization coefficients for
the four solutions examined in the case of each salt by Reyher
and Wagner. Unfortunately all the observations on the vis-
cosity of these salts were made at 25° C., while all the available
conductivity data, from which the ionization coefficients are
obtained, were at 18°C., and thus it was necessary either to
reduce the viscosity values from 25° to 18° or the conductivity
values from 18° to 25°. This latter reduction was carried out,
as data for the former were not available. This involved
much work ; because for the determination of the ionization
coefficients at 25°, it was necessary to obtain both the specific
molecular conductivity at 25° and the specific molecular con-
ductivity at infinite dilution for 25°.

Determination of the Specific Molecular Conductivity at
Infinite Dilution for %5°C.

The value of the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution for 25° for each salt was obtained from 1 Kohlrausch’s
value at 18° by aid of 2Ddguisne’s data. These data were
employed in obtaining the specific molecular conductivity at
25° from the values at 18°, for the three weakest solutions
given in 3 Kohlrausch’s and Ddguisne’s tables ; and the ratio

— — 8- was then determined, where y25- and yls are the

f1 1 8

specific molecular conductivity at 25° and 18° respectively.

Table I gives the values thus obtained. The concentrations
are expressed in gramme-equivalents per litre, and the specific
molecular conductivities in terms of this unit and of 1(U4 times
4 Kohlrausch’s new unit of conductivity (ohm-1 cm.-1).

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 200, tab. 8.

2 Ibid., p. 195, tab. 7.

3 Ibid., pp. 159, 160, tab. 2.

4 Ibid., p. 1.

116

ON THE VISCOSITY

TABLE I.

Concentration.

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 18“ C.

(m)

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 25° C.
(y“25)

^25 - ^18

f*lS

Na.

Cl.

.0005

1085

1262

1

.163

.0002

1002

1270

.163

.0001

1097

1276

.163

K Cl

.0005

1283

1484

.156

.0002

1291

1494

.157

.0001

1295

1499

.157

i Ba Cl2.

.0005

1183

1375

.162

.0002

1198

1394

.163

.0001

• 1205

1402

.163

so4.

.0005

1308

1516

.159

.0002

1327

1540

.160

.0001

1335

1549

.160

lNa2

s°4.

.0005

1083

1266

.169

.0002

1096

1281

.169

.0001

1105

1292

.169

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

117

As the ratio — — was thus found to be constant for the

^1 8

two most dilute solutions of every salt, and as these solutions
are very dilute, this ratio may be assumed to approximately
hold for infinite dilution. Observations on the conductivity of
weaker solutions at different temperatures were not at hand ;
and the writer used the value of this ratio for the solution of
concentration .0001 for the calculation of the specific mole-
cular conductivit}^ at infinite dilution for 25° C.

The following Table II gives the values of the specific
molecular conductivity at infinite dilution for 25° C. as thus
obtained from the values at 18° 0. In the case of copper sul-
phate this method could not be employed for want of data. A
somewhat doubtful value obtained by 1Bredig was therefore
used. The conductivities are expressed as in Table I.

TABLE II.

Electrolyte.

Specific Molecular Conductivity at Infinite
Dilution.

.

j 18-C. j

25" C.

Na Cl

1103

1283

K Cl

1312

1519

i Ba Cl2.

1232

1433

iK2S04

1350

1566

|Na2 S04

1141

1334

| Cu so4

1423

Determination of the Ionization Coefficients at 25° C.
for Simple Solutions.

The ionization coefficient for a simple solution is taken to be
the ratio of the specific molecular conductivity to the specific

1Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 13, 220, 1894,

118

ON THE VISCOSITY

molecular conductivity at infinite dilution. Before this ratio
could be found for 25° C. it was necessary to determine the
values of the specific conductivity at 25° from 1 Kohlrausch’s
values at 18° by means of 2 3Deguisne’s and 8Kohlrausch and
Grotrian’s temperature coefficients. The concentrations of solu-
tions of the salts for which Kohlrausch gives conductivity
values, did not in all cases correspond to the concentrations of
solutions for which Reyher and Wagner determined the vis-
cosit}^. In such cases (concentrations 0.25 and 0.125), the values
of the specific conductivities at 25° were obtained by inter-
polation.

Table III gives both the values of the specific conductivity
at 25°C. determined as above from the values at 18°, and the
calculated ionization coefficients at 25°. Onty those coefficients
are given which are necessary in the calculation of the vis-
cosities. Under copper sulphate are given a few conductivity
values of higher concentration, these being necessary for the
determination of the ionization coefficients in the mixtures by
the method used. The concentrations are expressed as in Table I,
and conductivities in terms of 10— 4 times Kohlrausch’s new
unit.

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 159, table 2.

2 Loc. cit.

3 Kohl, u . Holb., p. 145, tab. 1.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS— BARNES.

119

TABLE III.

Concentration.

Specific
Conductivity
at 18° C.

Specific
Conductivity
at 25° C.

Ionization
Coefficients
at 25° C.

Na Cl.

1.0

744.0

862

.672

0.5

404.5

469

.732

0.3

255.6

296

0.25

252

.786

0.2

176.4

205

0.125

131

.817

0.1

92.5

107

K Cl.

1.0

982.0

1128

.743

0.5

511.5

588

.774

03

315.9

363

0.25

308

.811

0.2

215.4

248

0.125

159

.838

0.1

111.9

129

iBaCl2.

1.0

703

811

.566

0.5

388

448

.624

0.3

249

287

0.25

245

.684

0.2

173.4

200

0.125

130

.726

0.1

92.2

106

... .

120

ON THE VISCOSITY

Table III. —( Continued.)

Concentration.

Specific
Conductivity
at 18° C.

Specific
Conductivity
at 25° C.

Ionization
Coefficients
at 25° C.

4K2

so4

1.0

718.0

827

.528

05

393.5

453

.578

0.3

253.2

292

0.25

251

.640

0.2

177.8

205

0.125

135

.690

0.1

95.9

111

!Na2

S04-

1.0

508 0

591

.443

0.5

298.5

347

.520

0.3

199.8

230

0.25

201

.604

0.2

142.8

166

0.125

110

.662

0.1

78.4

91.4

h Cu SO

4

2.631

458

534

!

2.194

421

489

1.0

258

297

.209

0.5

154

177

.249

0.3

106.5

122

0.25

107

.302

0.2

78.4

89.9

0.125

61.7

.347

0.1

45.0

51.6

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.— BARNES.

121

Determination of the Ionization Constants.

Table IV gives the values of the ionization constants (Jc and
l) determined by the method of least squares from the data
given in Tables III and V, the observed values of the viscosity
of the four solutions of each salt being used. The relative
magnitude and the sign of the ionization constants would seem
to show that the undissociated molecules exert the greater
influence in increasing the viscosity, while the free ions have
in some cases a diminishing effect.

TABLE IV.

Electrolyte.

k.

Z.

Na Cl.

+ 0.11213

+ 0.089765

K Cl.

+ 0.30645

-0.12289

1 Ba Cl2.

+ 0.20327

+ 0.061009

i K2 S04.

+ 0.21347

+ 0.0088236

2 Na2 S04.

+ 0.30418

+ 0.13348

£Cu S04.

+ 0.46500

-0.058144

Results of Calculations on Simple Solutions.

Table V gives a comparison of the calculated and observed
values of the viscosity of simple solutions, the calculated values
being determined by expression (1) with the ionization coeffi-
cients and ionization constants, as given in the above tables. In
this table all the viscosity results are relative to water at 25°C.,
and the concentrations are expressed as in Table I.

TABLE V.
Viscosity at 25° C.

Concentration.

Observed Value.

Calculated Value.

Difference.

Na Cl. (Reyher.)

1.0

1.0973

1.0971

- 0.032

0.5

1.0471

1.0479

+ 0.038

0.25

1.0239

1.0236

-0.033

0.125

1.0126

1.0117

-0.039

122

ON THE VISCOSITY

Table V.— (Continued).

Concentration.

Observed Value.

Calculated Value. |

Difference.

K Cl.

(Wagner.)

1.0

.9872

.9874

+ O.O32

0.5

.9874

.9871

— 0.0S3

0.25

.9903

.9896

— 0.037

0.125

.9928

.9933

t 0.035

i Ba Cl2. (Wagner.)

1.0

1.1228

1.1228

±0.030

0.5

1.0572

1.0572

±0.030

0.25

1.0263

1.0265

+ 0.032

0.125

1.0128

1.0125

— 0.033

* K2so

. (Wagner.)

1.0

1.1051

1.1054

+ 0.0S3

0.5

1.0486

1.0476

-0.021

0.25

1.0206

1.0206

±o.o3o

0.125

1.0078

1.0090

+ 0 0212

h Na2S04. (Wagner.)

1.0

1.2291

1.2286

— 0 035

0.5

1.1058

1 . 1078

+ 0.022

0.25

1.0522

1.0502

— 0.022

0.125

1.0235

1.0239

+ 0.034
1

h Cu SO

4. (Wagner.)

1.0

1.3580

1.3556

- 0.0224

0.5

1.1603

1.1675

+ 0.0272

0.25

1.0802

1.0767

— 0.0235

0.125

1.0384

1.0354

— 0.0230

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.— BARNES. 123

As both Reyher and Wagner regard their results as affected
by a possible error of about ± 3 in the third decimal place, it is
seen that the agreement between the calculated and observed
values for all the salts except copper sulphate is very satis-
factory, the differences being well within the limit of experi-
mental error. In the case of copper sulphate, the agreement
is not so satisfactory. But it was noticed on plotting the
observed values against the concentration that the points do not
lie on a smooth curve, and that the point corresponding to the
concentration 0.5 is at quite a distance from this curve, which
leads one to think that this observed value cannot be correct.
The poor agreement in this case might also be partly due to the
doubtful value of the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution used. Thus it seems that for all the salts examined,
copper sulphate perhaps excepted, expression (1) gives the vis-
cosity of a solution within the limit of experimental error
throughout a concentration range of 1.0 to 0.125.

Mixtures of Solutions.

As there is no change of volume on mixing the constituent
solutions of the above electrolytes of the concentrations given
below1, and as the solutions mixed were of equal volume and
also equimolecular, the expression (2) for the value of a property
in the case of a mixture of two electrolytes with a common ion,
reduces to :

72-

P = P w + ~2~ ph (f — &i) 1-l a i -f- &2 (1 — a2) + 1 2 • (^)

where n is the concentration of the solutions and the k’s and V s
have the values obtained above for simple solutions of the
respective electrolytes. For the application of this equation to
the calculation of the viscosity of a mixture, all the quantities
required are known except the as, the ionization coefficients in
the mixture.

1 See Trans. N. S. Inst.. Sci., 9, 125, 1895-96 ; also 9, 297 and 310, 1897-98.

124

ON THE VISCOSITY

Determination of Ionization Coefficients in the Mixture.

The method proposed by 1 Prof. MacGregor for finding the
ionization coefficients in a mixture of two electrolytes having an
ion in common, is by solving graphically the following equa-
tions :

II

• ‘ (4)

N.V. + NtV, = l, . .

• (5)

• (6)

|^=y2(v3). . .

• (?)

where the electrolytes are denoted by 1 and 2, the concentra-
tions (in gramme-equivalents per litre) of the mixture with
respect to them by Nt and N2 respectively, their ionization
coefficients by ax and a2, and their regional dilutions (in litres
per gramme equivalent) by V1 and V2, the regional dilutions
being the dilutions of the electrolytes in the regions which they
are supposed to occupy in the mixture, or the dilutions of the
constituent isohydric solutions.

His graphical mode of solving these equations involves the
drawing of dilution-ionic-concentration curves, which, as they
have great curvature for moderately dilute solutions, cannot be
drawn with great accuracy unless a large number of observa-
tions of the conductivity are available. As mentioned above,
extensive series of observations of the conductivity in the case
of the salts under consideration were available ; but they were
all made at 18° C. and required therefore to be reduced to 25° C.
before they could be used. In order to reduce this labour as
much as possible I devised another mode of solution which
requires only a comparatively small number of observations. It
is based on the fact that the specific-conductivity-concentration

Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-96; also 10, 68, 1898-99.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS— BARNES.

125

curve of an electrolyte exhibits only slight curvature and can
therefore be drawn with fair accuracy from a small number of
observations.

The above equations may be expressed in terms of specific
conductivity and concentration as follows. Since

and

a

Y

^2 '~2

V 2 ^oo 2

/c(

1^00 1

(8)

(9)

where Jcl and /t,2 are the specific conductivities of the electrolytes
in the regions which they respectively occupy in the mixture,
and the ju^-’s the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilu-
tion for each electrolyte, equation (4) becomes :

or,

k

k

2

^00 2
U

oo 1

oo 2

2*

(10)

(11)

From equation (5) we obtain :

*t=l

C,+ C,’ ,

where and C2 are the regional concentrations. Equations (6)
and (7) are based on the fact that at a definite temperature the
conductivity is a function of the concentration alone. They
therefore take the following forms :

(0,), .... (12)

and k2 = /2 (C2) (13)

There are thus four equations (10 — 13) for the determination of
the four unknown quantities : k &2> C1, and C2.

These equations can be solved graphically. Equation (12) is
employed by drawing a curve having as abscissae the values of
the specific conductivities and corresponding values of the con-
centrations as ordinates. Before equation (13) is used the values

126

ON THE VISCOSITY

of the conductivities are multiplied by the constant ^a?~ . Then

these new values are plotted against the corresponding concen-
trations. on the same coordinate paper, to the same scale as
employed for equation (12). From these two curves one finds
by inspection two points, one on each curve, having a common
abscissa, according to equation (10), and ordinates (CT and C2)
such that by substituting their values in equation (11) it will be
satisfied. These points can be found after two or three trials.
Thus one has determined klf Cj, and C2 ; k2 being found by

multiplying k1 by the constant --^-2. The as are now obtained

^oo 1

from equations (8) and (9) ; for the reciprocals of the C’s give
the V’s.

Results of the Calculations on Mixtures.

The following Table VI contains the requisite data for the
calculation, by formula (3), of the viscosity of mixtures of solu-
tions of the salts under consideration ; and it shows the agree-
ment of the values thus calculated with the observed values
The ionization coefficients of the salts in the mixture are deter-
mined as above and the concentrations are expressed as in the
former tables.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS— BARNES.

127

TABLE YI.

Viscosity at 25°. (Kanitz).

Concentration

Constituent

Solutions.

Ionization Coefficients
in

Mixture.

Observed

Values.

Calculated

Values.

Differ-

ence.

K Cl.

Na Cl.

K Cl.

Na Cl.

1.0

1.0

.745

.667

1.0390

1.0419

+ 0.0229

0.5

0.5

.775

.728

1.0180

1.0173

- 0.037

0.25

0.25

.807

.783

1.0070

1.0069

-O.O3I

K Cl.

J Ba Cl2«

K Cl.

iBa Cl2.

1.0

1.0

.756

.552

1.0429

1.0533

+ 0.0101

0.5

0.5

.779

.613

1.0159

1.0220

+ 0.0261

0.25

0.25

.811

.675

1.0049

1.0082

+ 0.0233

jk2so4.

iNa2S04 .

|K2 SO4.

JNa2 SO4.

1.0

1.0

.535

.434

i 1.1660

i 1.1670

l+:o.o2i

0.5

0.5

.597

.517

1.0773

1.0768

- 0.035

0.25

0.25

.641

.604

1.0334

1.0354

+ 0.022

jk2 so4.

i Cu S04.

£K2 SO4.

i Cu S04 .

1.0

1.0

.559

.152

1.2240

1.2423

+ 0.0183

0.5

0.5

.612

.210

1.1060

1.1107

+ 0.0247

0.25

0.25

.668

.256

1

1.0485

1.0510

+ 0.0225

Kanitz regards his observed values as affected by a possible
error of ± 3 in the third decimal place. Considering the many
calculations necessary to obtain the calculated values, — first, in
finding the specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution for
25°C., and also ionization coefficients at 25° from data at 18°,
and then in the determination of the ionization coefficients of
the salts in the mixture by the graphical method, — the agree-
ment between the observed and the calculated values (calculated,

128 ON THE VISCOSITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

it should be noted, with the ionization constants obtained for the
simple solutions), is very satisfactory, especially in the case of
solutions of potassium chloride and sodium chloride and solu-
tions of potassium sulphate and sodium sulphate, where the
differences are all within the limit of experimental error. In the
case of the stronger solutions of potassium chloride and barium
chloride and of potassium sulphate and copper sulphate, the
differences are not within the limit of error ; but a close agree-
ment, as was pointed out in the beginning, could not be
expected. It will be noticed, however, that the differences in
these cases diminish and approach the experimental error as
concentration diminishes. Observations on the viscosity of
weaker solutions of these salts were not available.

From these results, therefore, it may be concluded, that the
viscosity of mixtures of dilute solutions of the salts under con-
sideration can be predicted, by the aid of the dissociation theory,
within the limit of experimental error, from data as to the vis-
cosity and conductivity of the constituent solutions only.

II.— On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous
Solutions containing Hydrochloric and Sulphuric
Acids. — By James Barnes, B. A., Dalhousie College,
Halijax, N. S.

(Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor, on the 15th January, 1900.)

•The prediction of the conductivity of dilute aqueous solutions
containing two electrolytes, which have one ion in common, has
been shown to be possible, according to the dissociation theory,
when the electrolytes are salts, or a salt and a diatomic acid
such as hydrochloric acid.1 The experiments described in the
present paper were made, at Prof. MacGregor’s suggestion, in
order to ascertain if it is possible to make the prediction in the
case of solutions formed by mixing hydrochloric and sulphuric
acid solutions.

The attempt to calculate the conductivity of a complex solu-
tion containing sulphuric acid as one constituent is of special
interest because of the fact that it is supposed to have a mode of
ionization which varies with the concentration of the solution,
its molecules in dilute solutions dissociating into 2 H and S04,
but in stronger solutions partly into H and H S04. It is of
course impossible to calculate the conductivity of a complex
solution, one of the constituents of which has a mixed mode of
ionization. I have therefore assumed that the mode of ioniza-
tion in the moderately dilute solutions which I examined would
be the same as it is usually supposed to be at great dilution.

The conductivity of a mixture of two solutions of electrolytes
1 and 2, with a common ion and de Unite modes of ionization

1 MacGregor: Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1835-6.
McIntosh : Ibid., 9, 120, 1895-6.

Archibald : Ibid., 9, pp. 291, 307, 1897-8.

McKay: Ibid., 9, 321, 1897-8.

Barnes : Ibid., 10, 49, 1898-9.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol X.

(129)

Trans.—I.

130

ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

is given, according to the dissociation theory, by the equa-
tion :

k = p(Vtl,) (a 1 Vl + ** Moo*)- • • (A)

where iq, iq are the volumes, and nlt n2 the concentrations of
the solutions mixed, (iool> the specific molecular conducti-
vities of simple solutions of the electrolytes at infinite dilution,
a1 and a2 the ionization co-efficients of the respective electro-
lytes in the mixture, and p the ratio of the volume of the
mixture to the sum of the volumes of the constituent solutions.

1 Prof. MacGregor has shown that the ionization coefficients
in a mixture of this kind may be found by the solution of four
equations, and I have pointed out in a former paper1 2 that by
throwing these equations into other forms and applying a
graphical method they may be solved with little trouble, even
in cases in which but few observations of the conductivity of
simple solutions of the electrolytes in the mixtures are avail-
able. The forms of the equations referred to are as follows :

kl = ^ k3,

Poo 2

n,,n2 = 1

c1+c,

K =/i(c1).

K =/,(Ct),

where the Jc’s and C’s are the regional conductivities and
regional concentrations, and the N’s the concentrations of the
mixture, with respect to the electrolytes 1 and 2 respectively.
By the regional conductivity and the regional concentration of
an electrolyte in a mixture are meant the conductivity and con-
centration of the portion or region of the mixture which the one
electrolyte may be supposed to occupy to the exclusion of the
other. If there is no change of volume on mixing, they are the
conductivities and concentrations of the isohydric constituents
of the mixture.

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 68, 1898-9.

a Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 113, 1899-1900.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION S.-^-B ARN ES. 131

The method of obtaining the ionization coefficients by means
of these equations is described in my former paper, the first stage
in the process being the determination of the k’s and C’s. In
the calculation of the conductivity, however, we save labour if
instead of determining the ionization coefficients, we express
the conductivity in terms of the k’s and C’s.

For this purpose we have :

K

a\ c u *

and a9 = — .

csfto.

Equation (A) thus becomes :

7 _ 1 [h1 n1 vx k2 71 2 v0\

c - PK+*#") v “or + -irf

In my experiments p was found to be practically equal to
unity, and the volumes of the solutions mixed were in all cases
equal. Hence the above equation becomes :

k=i (-& *-£*) (B)

The work involved in finding k by means of equation (B),
included the following : — (1) The preparation and analysis of
series of simple solutions of both acids, and the preparation of
the mixtures ; (2) observations on the specific gravity of the
simple constituent solutions and their mixtures; (3) the measure-
ment of the conductivity of series of simple solutions ; (4) the
measurement of the conductivity of mixtures of solutions; (5)
the determination of the regional conductivity and regional
concentration of the electrolytes in the mixtures; (6) the calcu-
lation by the aid of these data, of the conductivity of the
mixtures.

The observations were carried out in the Physical and
Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College, Halifax, during
the spring and autumn of 1899.

132

ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

Experimental Methods.

The hydrochloric acid was obtained from Eimer & Amend,
and the sulphuric from Merck & Co. Both were guaranteed
chemically pure. The redistilled water used in the preparation
of the solutions was obtained by the method described in
a former 1paper, and it had a conductivity ranging from
0.95 x 10-6 to 1.01 x 10-6 expressed in 2Kohlrausch’s new unit
(ohm-1 cm.-1).

The amount of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid in a solution
was determined volu metrically by means of aqueous solutions of
potassium hydroxide, the strength of these being determined
daily by titration with known quantities of dry oxalic acid.
Phenol-phthalein was the indicator used. The potassium
hydroxide solutions were kept in bottles with stoppers, each
containing a soda lime tube. The pipettes, burettes and flasks
were calibrated and used as described in the paper referred to
above. The specific gravity at 18°C. was determined for many
of the simple solutions with a pyknometer of the Ostwald-
Sprengel form. The comparison of the values thus obtained
with the values as given by Kohlrausch, acted as a check upon
the concentration as determined above.

Kohlrausch’s method with the alternating current and tele-
phone was employed in the measurement of the conductivity.

The bath used to obtain a constancy of temperature, for a
time sufficient to make the determination of the resistance in,
contained tap water kept continually stirred by a mechanical
stirrer driven by one of Henrici’s small hot air motors. This
motor worked without noise and on this account was found
more serviceable than the hydraulic motor formerly employed.
The thermometer used could be read to a hundredth of a degree,
and had been tested at the Physikalisch-Tecbnische Reichsanstalt,
Berlin.

The resistance of the solutions was measured in a U-shaped
cell having electrodes of stout platinum foil connected by thick

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 49, 1898-9.

2 Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.— BARNES.

133

platinum wires to the ebonite covers. These electrodes were
platinized in the solution proposed by Summer and Kurlbaum.
The reduction factor by which the conductivities obtained in
this cell are reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch,
was obtained by comparing the value of the conductivities of
two solutions of pure potassium chloride, twice recrystallized,
of different concentrations, with values given by 1 2Kohlrausch
for the same concentrations of the same salt. The ratio of
Kohlrausch’s value to the observed value gives the reduction
factor. It was always determined before and after a series of
observations, and was found to be the same in value at both
times.

Solutions of different concentrations of each acid were pre-
pared and carefully analysed. Fifty cubic centimetres of one
of these solutions was placed in the electrolytic cell at a time,
and two successive dilutions prepared in the cell by the addition
of known volumes of water at 18°C. Then the other prepared
solutions were introduced in order, and the same process of
dilution repeated till a sufficient number of conductivity values
had been obtained. In the case of mixtures, equal volumes
(fifty cubic centimetres) of the constituent solutions were mixed
at 18° C., and the mixture was then placed in the cell.

For a more detailed description of some of the above instru-
ments and methods, see my former paper on conductivity.

Results of the Conductivity Observations on Simple Solutions.

It is necessary for the determination of the regional con-
ductivities (/c) and the regional concentrations (C) in the
mixture (see my former paper),3 to draw curves showing the
relation of conductivity to the concentration for each acid. In
the case of one of the electrolytes, (hydrochloric acid was
selected), the values of the conductivity must be multiplied by
a constant before plotting, this constant being the ratio of the
specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution for the two

1 Wied. Ann., 66, 315, 1897.

2 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit ., p. 159, tab. 2.

8 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 113, 1899-1900.

134 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

acids. Kohlrausch’s latest determinations1 of the values of the
specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution at 18° C. for
the two acids were used, viz.: for hydrochloric acid, 3774, and
for sulphuric acid, 3955, both expressed in terms of 10-4 times
Kohlrausch’s new unit (ohm-1 cm.-1). Therefore, the ratio is
1.048.

Table I gives the data, obtained from the conductivity
observations, for the drawing of these curves. The concentra-
tions are expressed in terms of gramme equivalent per litre
at 1S°C. The atomic weights used are relative to Oxygen
(16.00), and the same as employed by 2Kohlrausch. The specific
conductivities are those at 18°C, expressed in terms of 10-4 times
Kohlrausch’s new unit (ohm-1 cm.-1).

TABLE I.

H Cl. (36.46.)

i U.2 so,

1

t. (49.04.)

Concentration

(n-l).

Specific
Conductivity
(*l). |

A*00 2 7 1

— -k l |

^Concentration
j (n2).

Specific

Conductivity

(k2).

2.66

6018.

6305.

4.11

6158.

2.13

5281.

5534.

2.95

4948.-

1.74

4627.

4848.

2.20

3947.

1.42

3994.

4185.

1.74

3255.

1.02

3055.

3201.

1.28

2472.

.716

2268.

2376.

.890

1779.

.502

1640.

1718.

.523

1070.

.344

1148.

1203.

.452

932.5

.265

898.3

941.2

.304

637.4

.188

645.3

676.2

.197

421.8

.126

439.7

460.8

.108

241 5

.0951

334.9

350.9

.0967

218.8

.0810

287.9

301.6

.0603

148.4

.0559

201.0

210.6

.0352

93.77

.0356

129.3

135.5

.0262

94 67

99.20

1 Wied. Ann., 50, 385, 1893.

2 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 205, tab. 14.

OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

135

Determination of p.

When equal volumes of simple solutions are mixed the ratio
•expressed by p is equal to the ratio of the specific gravity of the
mixture to the mean specific gravity of the constituent solutions.
Table II shows that the ratio is practically equal to unity for
the most concentrated solutions examined.

TABLE II.

Simple Solutions.

Concentration.

Specific Gravity at 18°C.

Mean

Sp. Gr.
of Mixture
at 18°C.

H Cl.

4H2 so4.

H Cl.

iH2 S04.

Sp. Gr.

3.05

2.95

1.0525

1.0912

1.0719

1.0720

2.13

1.71

1.0371

1.0549

1.0460

1.0462

1.02

C<

1.0182

<<

1.0366

1.0365

.502

1.0091

(6

1.0320

1.0319

Results of the Observations and Calculations of the Conductivity

of Mixtures.

Table III contains the results of the observations and the
calculations, by means of the data given therein, of the con-
ductivity of mixtures of the acids under consideration. The
regional concentration k1 of the hydrochloric acid may be
obtained from the value k2 by means of the expression

7 fJcx>1 7

C1 ~ /Zoo 2 ^2’

where Jc2 is the regional concentration of the sulphuric acid.
The specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution have
the values given above. In this table the conductivities and
concentrations are expressed as in Table I. The differences
between the calculated and observed values of the conductivity
are given as percentages of observed values.

136 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY

TABLE III.

Difference
Per Cent.

+ 1.15
+ .97
+ .48
+ .70

r-l t* 05
^ CO H

+ + 1

+ .32
+ .10
— .06
+ .07
— .44

-H 00 CO t- 00 iN

O i-H CO <M O rH

+ 1 1 1 II

Specific Conductivity of
Mixture.

Observed

Value.

6252.

5784.

4763.

2918.

2169.

1464.

1035.

2779.

1934.

1607.

856.7

454.7

2704.

889.6

211.8

188.3

138.5

94.54

Calculated

Value.

6324.

5840.

4786.

2938.

2178.

1469.

1033.

2788.

1936.

1606.

857.3

452.7

2705.

888.0

211.1

187.8

138.4

91.43

Regional

Concentrations.

O .

W

4.50

3.95

2.92

1.55

1.15

.739

.503

1.53

1.02

.831

.429

.215

1.48

.450

.0967

.0823

.0575

.0363

2.83

2.44

1.77

.925

.669

.432

.292

.907

.596

.487

.249

.125

.880.

.261

.0581

.0515

.0376

.0256

Regional
Conductivity of
|H2 SO4
(A: 2 ).

1

6522.

6013.

4905.

2948.

0 10" cd 1
os co

ass

2910.

2018.

1668.

886.0

459.1

2832.

927.8

219.2

194.7

143.1

96.65

Concentrations,
Constituent Solutions.

O

iO

a : : :

rH £ S

05

.291

ii

ii

ii

.0352

it

5 ^

3.80

3.05

1.74

.0810

.804

.328

,0521

1.64

1.02

.804

.328

.0810

1.74

.502

.0951

.0810

.0521

.0264

OF AQUEOUS ' SOLUTIONS. — BARNES. 137

In this table it will be noticed in the first series of observa-
tions, where the concentration of the constituent solution of
sulphuric acid is constant, while the constituent solution of hydro-
chloric acid has a variable concentration, that the calculated
values are all greater than the observed, and that the differences
gradually increase as the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
increases. This is also true for the second and third series,
except in the case of the weaker hydrochloric acid solutions
where the calculated is now less than the observed value. Prof.
MacGregor has shown in a note to my former ^aper, in which
I drew attention to a regular progression similar to the above
for series of solutions of potassium chloride and potassium sul-
phate, which were for the most part of moderate concentration,
that the regular progression observed may be due to two sources
of error. The second source, namely, the impossibility of draw-
ing with perfect accuracy the dilution-ionic-concentration
curves, has, I think, been considerably reduced, for in place of
drawing these curves, which for moderate concentration curve
quite rapidly, concentration-specific-conductivity curves were
employed, these curves having but slight curvature and being
thus easily interpolated. The other source of error, namely,
the using for the value of the ionization coefficient the quotient
of the specific molecular conductivity by the specific molecular
conductivity at infinite dilution, still remains. In the above
fourth series where the first two mixtures are of moderate con-
centration and the other four may be called dilute solutions, this
regular progression has disappeared and the differences are all
negative, except in the first mixture. The disappearance of
the progression is consistent with its being due to the above
sources of error ; for in dilute solutions they both produce a
very small effect upon the result. Two reasons may be assigned
for the signs being all negative in the fourth series: — (1) The
use of the above values of the specific molecular conductivity at
infinite dilution ; for if either of the values used should not be
correct then it would clearly produce an error of the same sign

1 Loc. cit.

138 CONDUCTIVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. — BARNES.

in all the calculated values of the conductivity. There is also (2)
the possibility referred to above, of the sulphuric acid breaking
up not only into ions of 2 H and S04, but also into H and
H S04.

It is also possible by plotting the above series to obtain series
of mixtures having a constant concentration for the constituent
hydrochloric acid solutions and variable concentrations for the
sulphuric acid constituent solutions ; and it will be found in
series of this kind that the same regular progression is exhibited
as in the above. It may be well to note that in the last three
series of the above Table where the sign of the difference
changes, this change happens for all when the average concen-
tration of the mixture is about 0.6 gramme-equivalents.

Finally, since my experiments are estimated as affected by
an error which may amount to about ±0.3 per cent., it is seen
in the table that as the differences for the three last series are all
within or in a few cases but little beyond this error, it may be
concluded that the conductivity of mixtures of dilute solutions
of hydrochloric and sulphuric acid can be calculated within the
limit of my experimental error, by the expression of the dissocia-
tion theory and on the assumption that the sulphuric acid dis-
sociates into 2 H and S04 as ions, up to an average concentration
of about 0.5 in cases in which the concentration with respect to
sulphuric acid is relatively large, and up to an average concen-
tration of about 0.9 in cases in which the concentration with
respect to this acid is relatively small.

III. — On the Depression of the Freezing-Point by
Mixtures of Electrolytes. — By James Barnes, B. A.,
Dalliousie College, Halifax , N. S.

(Communicated by Professor J. G. MacGregor on March nth, 1900.)

In a 1 paper communicated last winter to this Society, Mr.
E. H. Archibald described experiments he had made to test the
ionization coefficients, obtained by 2 Prof. MacGregor’s method,
for mixtures of equi molecular solutions of two electrolytes
having an ion in common. With these coefficients and Van’t
Hoff’s constant as data, he calculated the depression of the
freezing-point of the mixtures ; and he then compared the
calculated with the experimental values. It was. found that the
difference between these values was, in general, equal to the
arithmetic mean of the differences between the calculated and
-experimental values of the depressions of the constituent simple
solutions, and the test was therefore concluded to be satis-
factory.

At Prof. MacGregor’s suggestion, I undertook similar
experiments with mixtures, not of equimolecular solutions,
but of solutions of different concentrations. The electrolytes
selected were potassium chloride, sodium chloride, and hydro-
chloric acid.

In the case of mixtures of solutions which are not equi-
molecular Mr. Archibald’s method of testing the ionization
coefficients is not applicable. I found it necessary, therefore, to
obtain an expression for the depression of the freezing-point for
such mixtures in terms of the ionization coefficients.

In a simple solution containing n gramme-molecules of an
electrolyte per litre, if a is the ionization coefficient, the
number of dissociated molecules is n a and the number of undis-
sociated (1 — a) n. If a molecule of this electrolyte breaks down

1 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 33, 1898-99.

? Ibid., 9, 101, 1895-96.

(139)

140

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

into m ions, then the number of free ions is n m a, and therefore-

the total number of undissociated molecules and free ions in this
solution is

On the assumption that a free ion produces the same amount of
depression of the freezing-point as a molecule, and that in a
solution the molecules are so far apart that no association of
molecules occurs, if is the depression of the freezing-point and
M the molecular depression, i. e., the depression produced by
one gramme-molecule or one gramme-ion, we have

In the case of mixtures of simple solutions, according to the
above assumption, A the depression of the freezing-point will be
represented by the expression : —

A = [m,N, (l +d,(m - 1)) +M2N2(l + 32(m2 — 1))+ ..].(2>

where 1, 2, etc., denote the electro ytes, the m’ s the numbers of
ions into which the molecules of the respective electrolytes break
down, the as the ioniz >• t coefficients in the mixture, the N’s the
concentrations (in gramme-molecules per litre) of the mixture
with respect to the respective electrolytes, and the M’s the
depressions produced by one gramme-molecule or one gramme,
ion of the undissociated and dissociated portions respectively of
the electrolytes. The a’s in this expression are given by the
method to be tested ; the m’s in the case of the electrolytes
selected can have only one value ; and the N’s are of course
known ; but what values the M’s are to be regarded as having
is doubtful. It was found for simple solutions of the three
electrolytes employed, that the molecular depressions increased
as the solutions became more concentrated. This appears to
indicate that one molecule or one ion, when in the presence
of a large number of molecules and ions, produces a greater
depression than when it is in the presence of a smaller
number. Thus in the case of a solution made by mixing
simple solutions of different electrolytes, since the number

M

(i>

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTBOLYTES — BARNES.

141

•of molecules and ions present seems to affect the power which
one molecule or ion has of lowering the freezing-point, it was
assumed that the depression produced by a molecule or an
ion of say, the electrolyte 1, which is surrounded by mole-
cules and ions of this electrolyte 1 and of the other electro-
lytes 2, 3, etc., would have the same value as if all the molecules
and ions surrounding it were of electrolyte 1. Thus the M’s
of the above expression have been regarded as equal to the
molecular depressions in simple solutions of the concentration
Ni+N2+ etc.

The application of this expression to the calculation of the
depression in mixtures will form at once a test of the above
assumption and a test of the ionization coefficients employed.
I have applied' it (a) to mixtures of potassium chloride and
sodium chloride, these salts being selected because of their
simple molecular structure and the approximate equality in their
grade of ionization ; (b) to mixtures of sodium chloride and
hydrochloric acid, selected because of their simple molecular
structure and the considerable difference in their grade of
ionization ; (c) to mixtures of potassium chloride, sodium

chloride and hydrochloric acid, selected for testing in addition
the method of finding the ionization coefficients in a mixture of
three electrolytes.

The following is a synopsis of the work involved : — Purifica-
tion of materials ; — construction and calibration of the instru-
ments used in the conductivity and freezing-point observations ;
— preparation and analysis of a series of simple solutions of the
three electrolytes ; — determination of the specific molecular
conductivities at infinite dilution for 0°C. ; — observations on the
conductivity at 0° for the series of simple solutions ; — calcula-
tion of the ionization coefficients at 0° from the conductivity
observations ; — measurement of the depression of the freezing-
point of the simple solutions; — calculation of the molecular
depression for each solution of the three electrolytes ; — prepara-
tion of mixtures of two and of the three electrolytes ; — measure-
ment of the depression of the freezing-point of the mixtures ; —

142 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

determination of the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in
the mixtures; — calculation of the depression of the freezing-
point in the mixtures.

The experiments were carried out during the session of
1899*1900 in Dalhousie College, Halifax.

Materials , Apparatus amd Methods.

The salts and acids were obtained from Merck. The salts
were recrystallized once, and it was found that solutions of
them, and also of the acid, had conductivity values showing
satisfactory agreement with the values as given by 1 Kohlrausch.
These electrolytes were therefore considered sufficiently pure
for the purpose. The water used in making the solutions was.
purified by the method described in my former 2 paper, and it
had a conductivity at 18°C. of about 0.93 x 10-6 expressed in
terms of Kohlrausch’s new 3 unit (ohm-1 cm.-1).

The solutions of potassium and sodium chloride were
prepared by direct weighing; the salts being first dried to
constant weight in an air-bath. The hydrochloric acid solutions
were analysed volumetrically by means of a standardized solu-
tion of potassium hydroxide with phenol-phthalein as indicator.
All burettes and pipettes used in the preparation and analysis
of these solutions were calibrated by the weight of distilled
water they delivered, and the flasks by the weight of water they
held at 0°C.

Observations were made on the specific gravity at 18°C. of
the simple solutions and their mixtures with, a pycnometer of
the Ostwald-Sprengel form. These observatious were made to
obtain the knowledge whether or not there was any change of
volume on mixing the simple solutions. It was found that with
solutions of the concentrations used, there was no appreciable
change, and it was assumed that such would also be the case
at 0C.

1 Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, pp. 159, 160, tab. 2.

2 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 49, 1898-99.

3 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 1.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — BARNES. 143

Conductivities were determined by KohlrausclTs method
with the alternating current and telephone. The Wheatstone’s
bridge consisted of four coils, two of which, the 100 and 1000
ohms, were the only ones used. These coils were correct at
17.5°C. and had a temperature coefficient of 0.000267 per centi-
grade degree per ohm. The correction for temperature was
applied when the observations were made in the basement room
referred to below. The platinoid bridge wire was calibrated by
the method proposed by 1 Strouhal and Barus with ten german
silver wires of equal length. A telephone made by Ericsson of
Stockholm, and an inductoriuin made after a plan of Ostwald’s
and giving a clear high note were employed. For a detailed
account of the pycnometer, and of the instruments employed in
the conductivity observations, with the methods used, see my
paper referred to above.

Three electrolytic cells of two types were used. One, with
the shape of a U-tube, was employed for the stronger solutions
of the hydrochloric acid. The other two were of the Arrhenius
form. One of these, with electrodes at a distance from one
another of about J cm., was used for the weak solutions
employed in the determination of the specific molecular conduc-
tivities for 0°C. ; the other with electrodes at a distance of about
5 cm., for the stronger solutions of the two salts. The electrodes
were all of stout platinum foil firmly fixed to the platinum wire
and glass connections, so that the capacity of the cell once
determined would remain the same throughout a series of
experiments. These electrodes were platinized in a solution
prepared from 2 3 Lummer and Kurlbaum’s recipe. The reduction
factor of each of these cells, by which the observed conductivities
were reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch, was
obtained by comparing the values determined for two carefully
prepared solutions of potassium chloride, with the values given
by 3 Kohlrausch for the same concentrations. Data for the

1 Wied. Ann., 10, 326, 1880.

* Wied. Ann., 60, 315, 1897.

3 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. tit., p. 159, tab. 2.

144 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

determination of the reduction factors were available only at
18°, but as the cell was of glass its value at 0° would not be
practically different from that at 18°.

The water bath used in the observations of the conductivity
at 18° was the same as that described in my former paper. In
the case of the observations at 0° the bath was modified so that
the temperature could be kept constant at 0° by means of pieces
of ice floating in it, while the water was kept continually stirred.
The ice was prevented from coming in contact with the cell by
placing around the cell a cylindrical screen of wire gauze 17 cm.
in diameter, and reaching to within 10 cm. of the bottom
of the bath. By the addition or the removal of pieces of
ice from the salt water, the temperature of the bath could
easily be kept within one twenty-fifth of a degree for a sufficient
time to make the measurement of conductivity. The observa-
tions were made in a basement room of the college, where the
temperature, during the winter months, was generally below 6°C-
The thermometer used was graduated to a fiftieth of a centi-
grade degree and its zero point was determined by the writer.
Each solution was brought to about 0° before it was placed in
the cell, and while in the cell successive observations of the
conductivity wtire made to insure that the temperature of the
bath had been taken.

The method employed for finding the freezing-point of the
solutions was the same in principle as that proposed by 1 Loomis
The size of the protection bath was larger than that used by
Loomis, and the stirring was done mechanically.

The thermometer used was of the Beckmann form. It was
graduated to a hundredth of a degree, and could be read to a
thousandth by aid of a small microscope, mounted on an upright
stand. This thermometer was at a certain place on its stem
firmly fixed in the cork of the inner freezing-tube (the freezing-
tubes consisted of an inner and outer tube, the inner containing
the solution whose freezing-point was measured) so that when
in position its bulb was within 2 cm. of the bottom of the tube.

1 Phys. Review, 1, 199, 1893 and 9, 257, 1897.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

145

This inner freezing-tube was 28 cm. in length and 2.8 cm. in
diameter and had its lower end re-entrant. The outer tube was
25 cm. in length and 3.15 cm. in diameter. The thickness of the
glass being about 1 mm., there was an air space of about 1.5 mm.
between the tubes. This space was found to be quite sufficient
to prevent the formation of ice on the wall of the tube. The
inner tube was supported in the outer by means of two rubber
bands, one at the top and the other at the bottom. These bands
also prevented the walls from touching one another. The
length of the tubes allowed the solution to be well submerged in
the protection bath and therefore almost freed it from the
influence of the outside temperature.

In the determination of the freezing-point of a solution these
tubes were surrounded by a mixture of salt water and pieces of
ice, contained in a vessel of glass 35 cm. high and II cm. in
diameter (called the protection bath). The cover for this vessel
was one taken from the protection bath of a Beckmann apparatus.
The glass of this vessel was \ cm. thick and was covered with
asbestos paper that the effect of the temperature of the room
might be lessened. It was found necessary to keep this bath
at a constant temperature within a fiftieth of a degree, if values
of the freezing-point agreeing with the mean value to less than
a thousandth of a degree were desired. This was obtained by
keeping the bath continually stirred. Any change of tempera-
ture was quickly recorded by means of a thermometer graduated
to a fiftieth of a degree. The temperature of the bath could be
raised by the addition of water at the temperature of the room,
or lowered by the addition of pieces of ice, snow when obtain-
able being preferable.

The platinum stirrer for the freezing-tube was of the common
ring shape, having wound around its ring a thin platinum wire,
which would rub against the wall of the tube and thereby
prevent the formation of an ice sheath. With constant stirring
there was found no tendency for the ice to mass itself together
and float to the surface, but it could be seen moving through the
whole solution in tiny glistening particles. The stirrer for the
Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol X. Trans. J.

146 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

protection bath was of thick brass wire with two rings, one for
the upper aud the other for the lower portion. Both these
stirrers were worked mechanically by means of one of Henrici’s
hot air motors placed at a distance of about 3 metres from the
freezing-point apparatus. By means of a light belt this motor
turned a small wooden' wheel placed over the protection bath.
A connecting-rod connected this wheel to a slider on a vertical
guiding rod ; and to this slider also were attached the two
stirrers. Any range of stroke could be obtained by varying the
distance of the connecting-rod from the centre of the wheel.
As about 70 cc. of solution were used, a stroke of 11 cm. was
required to cause the ring of the stirrer in the freezing-tube just
to touch the bottom of the tube and reach to within J cm. of
the surface of the solution. Thus all solutions were throughout
uniformly stirred, and as the stroke of the engine was quite
constant every solution was stirred in exactly the same manner.

Another glass vessel of the same dimensions as the protection
bath contained salt water and ice at a temperature of about
— 10°C. (called the freezing bath). The purpose of this bath
was to reduce the solution in the freezing-tube to about 0.3
degree below the freezing-point.

The hammer of a common electric bell covered with a piece
of rubber tubing, and supported on a frame over the freezing-
point apparatus, was used for tapping the thermometer. A
current from an Edison-Lalande cell had sufficient strength to
give rapid and vigorous blows.

The following method of 1 Raoult’s was employed for deter-
mining the elevation above the temperature of the protection
bath, of the convergence temperature of this apparatus, i. e., the
temperature finally assumed by7 a solution which is being stirred
and has no ice in it, when it comes into thermal equilibrium
with the protection bath. The freezing-point of water was first,
obtained. The ice formed in this observation was then melted
and the freezing tubes containing the wTater returned to the
protection bath and the stirring begun. With the protection

1 Ztschr. f. Phys. Chem., 27, 636, 1898.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES— BARNES. 147

bath kept constantly at 0° the temperature of the water in the
freezing-tubes at first fell rapidly, then more slowly, till it
remained constant at 0.05°. This experiment was repeated with
the same result, and thus the convergence temperature was
shown to be 0.05 degree above the temperature of the protection
bath. In all experiments, therefore, the temperature of the
protection bath was adjusted so as to be 0.05 degree below the
freezing-point of the solution. It was also found with water
that the protection bath required to be this same amount (0.05
degree) below the freezing-point in order that the value of the
freezing-point, with a very small quantity of ice present, might
agree with that obtained with a large amount of ice.

The method of carrying out an observation of the freezing-
point was as follows : — The freezing-tube was filled with the
solution up to a mark on the glass (about 70 cc.) It was then
placed in the freezing bath where it remained till the tempera-
ture was lowered with constant stirring to about 0.3 degree
below the freezing-point of the solution, this point having been
determined by a preliminary experiment. The freezing-tubes
were now quickly removed to the protection bath which was at
the required temperature (0.05 degree below the freezing-point
of the solution), and the stirring started. After ten minutes
time, in which the solution had risen to within 0.1 degree of
its freezing-point, a small crystal of ice was introduced through
a glass tube in the cork. As the particles of ice gradually formed
throughout the solution the mercury in the thermometer rose,
and in about a minute assumed a fixed position. The tapping was
begun and continued for half a minute when both it and the
stirring were stopped, the microscope brought into position and
a reading made. After again stirring and tapping, the ther-
mometer was read again, this reading acting as a check upon
the former. Care was taken to keep the protection bath constant
at the required temperature throughout both these readings.
The tubes were now removed, the ice melted, and the same
operation repeated for a second observation.

148

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

As a change in the atmospheric pressure would cause a corres-
ponding change in the thermometer, the freezing-point of the
water used was determined about every three hours. The
temperature of the room was kept as low and as constant as
possible during the experiments, and no observation was made
when it was above 5°C.

Since the freezing of my solutions was started about 0.1
degree below the freezing-point, the amount of ice formed was so
small that the correction usually applied for the change in con-
centration, and, therefore, in the depression, comes within my
limit of error. Thus the results are recorded without any
correction.

Simple Solutions.

With the electrolytes K Cl, NaCI, and H Cl, there is only
one possible way for their molecules to dissociate, namely, into
two ions. Hence expression (1) reduces to

= w ( 1 + #)

For the determination of the values of M, the other quanti-
ties, <5, n and a are obtained from observations on simple solu-
tions ; a being taken equal to the ratio of the specific molecular
conductivity to the specific molecular conductivity at infinite
dilution. As the solutions are at a temperature of about 0°C. in
the determination of the freezing-point, the ionization coefficients
should be obtained at approximately the same temperature.
For this purpose measurements were made of the conductivity
at 0°, both of solutions of the range of concentration used in the
observations of the freezing-point and also of very dilute
solutions of the electrolytes. These latter measurements are
required for the determination of the specific molecular con-
ductivities at infinite dilution for 0°C.

Determination of the Specific Molecular Conductivities at
Infinite Dilution for 0°C.

A series of simple solutions varying in concentration from
.01 to .0001 in the case of the salts, and from .01 to .001 for the

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

149

acid, were prepared and their conductivities measured at 18°
and at 0°. The conductivity of the water used in the prepara-
tion of these solutions was measured at both temperatures, and
its value substracted in each case from the conductivity of the
solution. Considerable care was required with these dilute
solutions to obtain good results. The electrodes were thoroughly
washed with a portion of the solution before placing them in
the cell. Both the solutions and the water used were exposed
as little as possible to the air, and the measurements were taken
immediately after a solution was made. The measurements
were repeated three times, and the mean of the values obtained
was taken as the most probable value.

The following Table I gives the values thus obtained, and the

ratio ^ where p18 and are the specific molecular con-
8

ductivities at 18° and 0° respectively. The concentrations are
expressed in gramme-molecules per litre at 0°, and the specific
molecular conductivities in terms of this unit and of 10-4 times
Kohlrausch’s new unit of conductivity.

150 OX THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

TABLE I.

Concentration.

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 18°C.

(/“l 8 )•

Sp. Mol. Cond.
at 0°C.

V 18 — Po
^18

K Cl.

(74.59).

.010

1224

775

.367

.005

1244

787

.367

.001

1278

809

.367

.0005

1284

814

.366

.0002

1293

821

.365

.0001

1298

824

.365

Na Cl.

(58.50).

.010

1028

638

.379

.005

1049

651

.380

.001

1075

664

.382

.0005

1084

670

.382

.0002

1094

676

.382

.0001

1098

679

.382

H Cl.

(36.46).

.010

3706

25P5

.300

.005

3731

2608

.301

.002

3753

2625

.301

.001

3757

2626

.301

The ratio — 0 appears to increase as the concentration

8

diminishes, except in the case of potassium chloride where it
decreases. This peculiarity is also shown in the values as calcu-
lated by means of 1Deguisne’s data. The agreement between
Deguisne’s conductivity values at 0° and the above for the solu-
tions of concentration .01 is very close, but with the dilute
solutions it is not so good. It was found impossible to obtain

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 199, tab. 7.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.— BARNES. 151

concordant results with solutions of greater dilution than those
above. It is seen, however, that the ratio appears to reach a
constant value in these dilute solutions, and the writer has
assumed that the value of this ratio for the solution of concen-
tration .0001 of the salts and .001 of the acid would hold for
infinite dilution.

Table II gives the values of the specific molecular conductivi-
ties at infinite dilution for 0° obtained from Kohlrausch’s values
at 18° by aid of the above ratios. The conductivities are
expressed as in Table I.

TABLE II.

Electrolyte.

Specific Molecular Conductivity
at Infinite Dilution.

For 18“C.

For 0°C.

K Cl

11312

833

Na Cl

nm

682

H Cl

2 3774

2638

Determination of the Ionization Coefficients at 0°C. for
Simple Solutions.

For this purpose the specific conductivities at 0°C. for series
of simple solutions of each electrolyte were found. These conduc-
tivity values are also necessary for the drawing of the curves
showing the relation between the concentration and the conduc-
tivity ; these curves being required in the determination of the
ionization coefficients in the mixtures.

Table III contains the observed values and also the ioniza-
tion coefficients calculated therewith. The concentrations are
expressed in gramme-molecules per litre at 0°C., and the
conductivity in terms of 10~4 times Kohlrausch’s new unit.

1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 200, tab. 8.

2 Wied. Ann., 50, 385, 1893.

152 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

TABLE III.

Concentration. 1
( n ).

Specific
Conductivity
at 0°C.

(k).

Ionization
Coefficients
at 0°C.
(a).

K Cl.

1

.03

22.73

.910

.05

37.15

.892

.08

58.32

.875

.10

71.83

.862

.20

138.5

.832

.30

204.5

.819

.40

268.1

.804

Na Cl.

.03

18.34

.896

.05

. 29.92

.877

.08

46.93

.860

.10

58.03

.850

.20

111.2

.815

.30

161.0

.787

.40

208.9

1

.765

H Cl.

.03

76.43

.966

.05

126.1

.956

.08

198.9

.942

.10

246.1

.933

.20

480.3

.910

.30

710.6

.898

.40

933.4

.884

Determination of the Values of M.

The following Table IV contains the values of the depression
of the freezing-point of the simple solutions. These values,
being the means of three observations, are given to four places of
decimals. It also contains the values of the lowering (M) pro-
duced by each gramme-molecule or gramme-ion of the electrolyte

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

153

in the solution, calculated by expression (3) with the data given
in this Table and in Table III. The concentrations are expressed
as in former tables and the depressions in centigrade degrees.

TABLE IV.

Concentration.
(■ n )•

Depression of
Freezing-point.
(*).

Molecular

Depression.

(M).

K Cl.

.03

.1060

1.85

.05

.1752

1.85

.08

.2776

1.85

.10

.3458

1.86

.20

.6795

1.86

.30

1.0171

1.86

.40

1.3487

1.87

Na Cl.

.03

.1072

1.89

.05

.1768

1.88

.08

.2824

1.90

.10

.3515

1.90

.20

.6885

1.90

.30

1.0292

1.92

.40

1.3646

1.93

H Cl.

.03

.1078

1.83

.05

.1786

1.83

.08

.2835

1.83

.10

.3552

1.84

.20

.7138

1.87

.40

1.4553

1.93

By comparing Loomis’ values of the depression of the freez-
ing-point with these values, it will be seen, that the agreement
in many cases is very close. If both results are plotted the
curve, formed by joining the points given by the above values,

154 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

will be a little above that obtained from Loomis’ values. As
mentioned above, the molecular depression increases as the solu-
tions become stronger.

According to Van’t Hoff’s theory the value of the molecular
depression should be 1.86. ^Loomis found experimentally that,
with a large number of non-electrolytes in aqueous solutions,
the molecular depression was 1.86 for the dilute solutions. In
the case of the electrolytes used above, with the ionization coeffi-
cients determined by the conductivity method, the values of the
molecular depression are seen to be grouped around this value.
The divergence from this value may partly be accounted for by
the use of the doubtful values of the specific molecular conduc-
tivities at infinite dilution for 0°, employed in the calculations of
the ionization coefficients.

Mixtures of Solutions of Two Electrolytes.

Since equal volumes of simple solutions of two electrolytes,
having one ion in common, were mixed, and the molecules of
the electrolytes used dissociate each into two ions, expression (2),
as there was no change of volume on mixing, reduces to :

A = J [ML (1 4- af) + M2 n2 (1 + #2)J (4)

in which nx and n2 are the concentrations of the simple con-
stituent solutions. For the calculation of A the depression of
the freezing-point of the mixture by this expression, the n’s are
known, the as are obtained by the modification of Prof.
MacGregor’s method fully described in my former 1 2 paper, and
the M’s in the manner referred to above.

Results of the Calculations.

Table Y gives the data necessary for the calculation of the
depression of the freezing-point of mixtures of potassium
chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium chloride and hydro-
chloric acid. It also shows the agreement of the calculated
with the observed values. The concentrations, molecular depres-
sions of the constituent solutions, and the depressions of the
freezing-points of the mixtures are expressed as in Table IY.

1 Phys. Review, 9, 257, 1899.

2 Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci , 10, 124, 1899-1900.

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

155

o

c

s

$

Q

+ .0009
- .0005
+ .0006
- .0010
- .0016
+ .0007

-.0006
+ .0003
- .0018
- .0016
- .0015
+.0013

Depression of Freezing-point
of Mixture.

Calculated

Value.

.1415

.1937

.2289

.2638

.4345

.7716

.5655

.6167

.6501

.6840

.8531

1.1937

Observed

Value.

.1406

.1912

.2283

.2648

<4361

.7709

.5661

.6164

.6519

.6856

.8546

1.1924

Molecular Depression
in Mixture.

1

1.89

1.89

1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90

1.90

1.90

1.90

1.90

1.91
1.93

0^5

1.85

1.85

1.85

1.85

1.86
1.86

1.86

1.86

1.86

1.86

1.86

1.87

Ionization Coefficients
in Mixture at 0°C.

&&

CO 00 © CO -H t"* iO © GO © CO >0

00 1> CO c6 O

00 GO GO CO GO CO CO GO GO GO C- C-

o'ti

uq o m oo ^ oj © oo »o oo c- co

© © 00 lO 03 -HH CO CO CO (M H

Oi 00 X 00 00 00 GO GO GO GO GO GO

Concentrations,
Constituent Solutions at 0°C.

00 CO 00 © o o cococooo©

© O © I— 1 (M © © © tH CM ^

1

|

o'i

W©

1

B = = = = = 8 = = = = =

Table V — ( Continued ).

156

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

o

a

QC CO GO h CO

O O O © ©

© © © © ©

r r + + r

©3

+ 1 + 1

Depression of Freezing-point
of Mixture.

Calculated

Value.

.1428

.1783

.2315

.2665

.4432

.8034

.5738

.6090

.6624

.6967

.8755

1.2436

Observed

Value.

.1436
.1786
' .2307
.2654
.4438
.8057

.5752

.6103

.6617

.6984

.8748

1.2450

Molecular Depression j
in Mixture.

wS

1.83

1.83

1.83

1.83

1.85
1.88

1.86
1.86
1.87
1.87
1.89
1.93

1

1.89

1.89

1.90
1.90

1.90

1.91

1.90

1.90

1.90

1.90

1.91
1.93

Ionization Coefficients
in Mixture at 0°C.

© OO (M f- ^ 00 05 05 OS OO t i

© >0 © fH 1— 1 r- i-j © ©

a 05 O) 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 CO

cS 53

.883

.877

.866

.860

.836

.800

.825

.824

.820

.815

.797

.770

Concentrations,
Constituent Solutions atO°C.

H Cl.
(n>2).

.03

.05

.08

.10

.20

.40

.03

.05

.08

.10

.20

.40

O-
a g

o _

©= = = = = 00= = = --

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES. 157

It is difficult to estimate the limit of error of the above
observations. The observed values are in all cases means of at
least three observations, which were found to differ from their
mean values in different cases by very different amounts up to
0.001 degree. There are also many sources of error in the
calculations and they do not admit of exact valuation. As a
rough estimate the limit of error due to both observation and
calculation may probably be put at 0.0015 degree.

If this estimate is approximately correct, the above table
shows that the agreement between the observed and calculated
values is very satisfactory for both mixtures of potassium
chloride and sodium chloride, and 6f sodium chloride and hydro-
chloric acid.

Mixtures of Solutions of Three Electrolytes.

In the case of mixtures of the three electrolytes used as
equal volumes of the simple solutions were mixed, and there
was no change of volume on mixing, and as each molecule of
these electrolytes breaks down into two ions, expression (2)
becomes

A = J [Mx n1 (1 + ax) + M2 n2 (l+^2) + M3 n3 (1 +a2j] (5)

where the n’ s are the concentrations of the constituent solutions.
Thus in any mixture the ns are known, the M’s can be obtained
as above, and the as can be determined by the method given
below.

Determination of the Ionization Coefficients in Mixtures of
Three Electrolytes.

1 Professor MacGregor has shown how to obtain equations
sufficient for finding the ionization coefficients in a mixture of
any number of electrolytes having a common ion, and how to
.solve them by a graphical procedure. As in the case of mixtures
of two electrolytes,1 2 1 have, in the present case also, transformed

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 2, 69, 1896-97.

* Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 124, 1899-1900,

158

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

Professor MacGregor’s equations so as to express them in terms
of regional conductivities and concentrations.

In the case of mixtures of three electrolytes the transformed
equations are as follows : —

where 1, 2, and 3 denote the electrolytes, the Jc’s the specifio
conductivities of the electrolytes in the regions which they
respectively occupy in the mixture, (these conductivities having
the same values as in simple solutions of equal concentrations),
the [x oo ’s the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution,
the N’s the concentrations of the mixture with respect to each
electrolyte, and the C’s the regional concentrations, which in the
case of dilute solutions are the concentrations of the constituent
isohydric solutions.

We have thus six equations for the determination of three
Jc’s and three C’s.

These equations can be solved by a graphical process. In
the first place the values of the specific conductivities of elec-
trolyte 2, (/c2), are multiplied by the constant and those of

Poo 2

electrolyte 3, ( Jc3 ), by Equations (8) are now employed by

Poo 3

drawing curves having as abscissae the values of the specifio
conductivities, and the corresponding values of the concentrations
as ordinates. Three points are now found by inspection, one on
each curve, having a common abscissa, according to equations (6),

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES. — BARNES.

159

and ordinates, (C1? C2 and C3), whose values when substituted
in equation (7), satisfy this equation. By this method we
have found kx, C ,C2 and C3 ; and k2 and k3 are easily obtained
from eq uations (6). The as, the ionization coefficients in the

. k

mixture, are then determined from the relation, a =

[*oo O

Results of the Calculations.

The following Table VI contains the results of the calculations
by expression (5); also the experimental values obtained for the
depression of the freezing-point of mixtures of solutions of
potassium chloride, sodium chloride and hydrochloric aid. The
results in all the columns are expressed as in Table V.

TABLE VI

160

ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT

BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES — BARNES. 161

The calculated values in this Table will have a greater pos-
sible error than those in Table V, due to the greater number of
experimental data required. In the observed values the possible
error is the same as before. Considering the many sources of
error in both these values the above agreement between them is
very satisfactory.

Conclusions.

The above results show that in the case of mixtures of solu-
tions of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium
chloride and hydrochloric acid, and of all three, it is possible,
with the ionization coefficients obtained by the method referred
to above, and on the assumption that the molecular depression
of an electrolyte in a mixture is the same as it would be in a
simple solution of the same total concentration, to predict the
depression of the freezing-point within the limit of the error
involved in observation and calculation.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X.

Trans.— X.

IV. — On the Subdivisions of the Carboniferous System
in Eastern Canada, with Special Reference to the
Position of the Union and Riversdale Formations
of Nova Scotia, referred to the Devonian System
by some Canadian Geologists. — By H. M. Ami , M. A.,
D. Sc., F. G. S., of the Geological Survey of Canada ,
Ottawa.

(Read December 11th , 1899.)

Considerable discussion has arisen of late amongst European
as well as North American geologists, as to where certain series
of sedimentary strata occurring near the summit of the Palaeozoic
should be placed, either in the Carboniferous or in the Devonian
system.

Whether certain other geological formations, occurring in the
Maritime Provinces of Canada, should be described as Permian,
or classed as Upper Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous, con-
stitutes another problem. It is not within the province of this
paper, however, at this time, to discuss this latter question, which
it is hoped may form the subject of another paper before long.

Where to draw the line between the Carboniferous and
Devonian systems in Eastern Canada, is therefore the question
at issue. It is the purpose of the writer to enter this field of
enquiry without any leaning or bias to any one view, but to take
up the evidence as it presents itself to him and as it was collected
by him during the last four years in the Counties of Pictou,
Colchester, Cumberland, Antigonish, Hants, and Kings, in Nova
Scotia, referring to such other localities and additional evidence
only as the occasion may require.

Numerous and varied opinions have been given by many
writers on this important question of the dividing line between
the Devonian and the Carboniferous. These were consulted
merely with the purpose of obtaining notes of records of obser-
vations that might help to throw light upon the problem, without

(162)

CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI. 16B>

any prejudice or desire to accept one view or another, unless the
facts adduced proved to be wholly reliable evidence.

Abram Gesner, Sir William Dawson, Sir Charles Lyell, Dr
Jackson, Prof. Alger, Prof. J. P. Lesley, M. de Koninck, M. de
Verneuil, Mr. Hugh Fletcher, Dr. R. W. Ells, Mr. Henry S.
Poole, Richard Brown, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F. R. S., J. W.
Kirkby, Mr. J. W. Salter, Dr. Henry Woodward, Dr. G. F.
Matthew, Prof. Bailey, Mr. A. Smith Woodward, Mr. Robert
Kidston, and Prof. David White, have all contributed by their
writings, published or in manuscript, to the literature of this
interesting controversy.

I shall not attempt to review the difference of opinion which
may exist between what may be turmed the two schools of
geology as regards the constitution of the Devonian system,
especially as regards the uppermost members of that system, —
The Lonsdalean School, whose characteristics of the Devonian age
are based more especially upon the life-zones or palaeontological
evidence which the formations hold, and the Murchisonian
School, which emphasizes more especially the stratigraphical
succession, with little reference to palaeontological evidence.

From a considerable study of the origin or genesis of the
various geological formations in question, or of the cycles of
constructive forms affecting them, the periods of erosion noticed,,
together with the life-zones which these formations contain, andi
characterize them, one has been able to arrive at a conclusion*
which, it is hoped, will be in accord with the views of the rest
of the world, so that whatever interpretation is given to the*
Carboniferous system in one continent, the same should likewise;
hold good for another. The same with the Devonian system.

Just as Time was a constant factor during the evolution or
history of the Carboniferous system of this world, and that the
amount of time involved is a definite period, so also was Life a
constant factor ; and the several subdivisions of the Carbonifer-
ous system — the Eo-, Meso-, and Neo-Carboniferous, must be
marked by corresponding series of Life-zones of the same
system.

164 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

No difficulty has been experienced in separating the various
geological formations in the Counties of Nova Scotia mentioned
above, nor of understanding their taxonomic relations. The most
excellent work of Mr. Hugh Fletcher, of the Geological Survey
of Canada, who kindly furnished me with maps and plans of the
region in question, shows clearly the true and natural order of
sequence of the formations. The main question at issue, how-
ever, has been where to place the series of sediments hitherto
known, and designated by Mr. Hugh Fletcher as the “ Rocks of
Union and Riversdale ” : in the Carboniferous or in the Devonian
system. Mr. Fletcher would place them in the Devonian. I
include them as formations in the Carboniferous system (and
would also classify in the same system the red rocks of Mispec
and the Lancaster fern-ledges of New Brunswick, which hold
much the same flora and fauna). The various formations of the
Carboniferous system do not form an unbroken succession of
sedimentary strata in the disputed region either of Pictou, Col-
chester and adjacent counties. Great breaks and unconformities
appear on every hand.

It may not be considered out of place here to look for a
moment at some of the principles involved in such questions as
arise in this problem. Portions of formations constituting cycles
of sedimentation or of constructive forms, marking peculiar
physical conditions of deposition, followed by periods of erosion,
and subsequent depositions, occur at various horizons, and were
it not for their entombed faunas it would be most difficult to
state in which of the subdivisions of the Palaeozoic column to
place them. Where sedimentation as marked by cycles of con-
structive forms is not continuous, the basis or principle upon
which the separation of the different members of the series
depends, must obtain in the palaeontological evidence collected
in the various members whose succession, though not perfect,
is, nevertheless? known as to its order.

Similarity in the types or organic forms found, assists one in
uniting series of sediments as part and parcel of one system, just
as dissimilarity enables one to separate series of sediments from

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI.

165

which they were derived. Comparisons must he instituted
between the various life-zones occurring in the natural succession
of strata, and wherever they are exposed they can easily be
recognized however fragmentary or isolated they may be, pro-
vided they are fossiliferous, and that the evidence thus obtained
can be compared with standard sections recognized the world
over. The characteristic life-zones of the Carboniferous System,
as they have been elaborated the world over, can be very easily
prepared, and in order to be recognized as typical they must be
in accord with the concensus of opinion with the rest of the world-
They must not contain assemblages of organisms or types
which are not in harmony with, but must be organically and
chronologically related to, the types that are everj^where held to
be of Carboniferous age. Fortunately for the geologist, although
there are unconformities or breaks in the succession of strata
there is abundant evidence of life of various orders and classes
entombed in the various formations.

The Joggins Section.

One grand and continuous section of strata of the Carbon-
iferous system to very near the summit thereof, in which are
entombed myriads of organisms, plants and animals in regular
succession also, is found along the Joggins shore, in the western
portion of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. This section was
described in detail by Sir William Logan, and subsequently by
Sir William Dawson and Dr. ft. W. Ells. It extends from Min-
udie to McCarren’s Cove, along the shore of the Cumberland
Basin. This forms one standard section. No other such exists
in Nova Scotia, and a systematic collection of the fossil organic
remains entombed in its strata ought to be made for reference,
in order to compare the succession of life-zones here with those
of other portions of Nova Scotia and North America. In the
United States, Mr. David White informs me that there have been
noted not less than seven standard sections of the Carbon-
iferous System, in distinct fields : Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio,
Missouri and other States. These all have their peculiar charac-

166 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

ters, and ma y be described as local series. Whereas each
particular basin of Carboniferous rocks or sediments may have
its own particular conditions of sedimentation which led to
peculiar local differences existing between the several basins
vyhich may be under examination and comparison, there can be
no doubt at all about the series belonging to the Carboniferous
System, when the results obtained in Great Britain, France*
Germany, and the world over, have been consulted.

Such a recognized succession as the consensus of opinion in
the world has established as marking the Carboniferous System,
must be a term which includes within its scope the various
members of the different local series under examination.

Unequal amounts of sedimentation at different horizons in a
.'System and in different districts, have created difficulties, but
formed an interesting feature in the study of the correlation of
strata. It has been conceded that in the case of the 14,000 feet
of strata which constitute the Joggins section in Nova Scotia,
sedimentation must have been very rapid, and though deposited
in a perfectly unbroken succession, such strata may have taken
much less time actually to be laid down than a few hundred feet
of shales and sandstone belonging to the same system in another
section.

It follows from this, that local series of Carboniferous strata
may be of very great thickness in one part of the continent, or
comparatively thin in another part. It is possible for the whole
system of the Carboniferous to be unusually extensive in its
development of sediments, as has certainly been the casein Nova
Scotia when compared with sediments of the same age in Penn-
sylvania. There is evidence of great rapidity in sedimentation.
Evidence of rapidity in sedimentation is clearly seen in the
• strata, what I refer to the Eo-Carboniferous of Colchester and
Pictou Counties in Nova Scotia, as represented by the Union and
Riversdale formations. Ripple-marked surfaces and shallow
water indications occur on all sides. Hundreds of feet of
unbroken succession of strata, practically each stratum beauti-
fully marked by ripples and wind action, as well as by the foot-

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI.

167

prints and trails of reptilian and other animals, such as are seen
to occur at East and West Bay, near Partridge Island, Parrsboro,
and point clearly to rapid deposition or accumulation of sediment
along a fast-sinking floor.

The main reason for introducing this argument is to combat
the view advanced in certain quarters, that by placing the Union
and Riversdale formations into the Carboniferous system, it
would make the latter too cumbersome and unwieldly a system,
and take away from an older, underlying system— the Devonian,
and rob it of parts of its sediments. The following occur to me
to constitute the successive series or sediments which belong to
the Carboniferous system in certain portions of Nova Scotia.

I. — The Eo-Carboniferous.

In this lower portion of the Carboniferous system, I would
place the Union and Riversdale series of sediments, which are
well and extensively developed in Pictou, Colchester and Cum-
berland Counties ; at Union and Riversdale ; along Harrington
River ; on the Moose River ; at East and West Bay, near
Parrsboro ; Archibald’s Brook ; Oliver’s Mills ; McKay’s, etc., on
the East River of Pictou, and at numerous other localities.

The expressions “ Rocks of Union and of Riversdale,” I would
describe as formations, calling one the Union formation, the
other, the Riversdale formation. These are easily recognized
over wide areas, geographically, and are characterised by a well-
defined fauna and flora, at least as far as the Riversdale
formation is concerned, the Union formation owing to its highly
ferruginous character proving almost everywhere to be very
destitute of fossil organic remains.

Fossils from the Riversdale Formation.

The two principal localities from which the fossils of this
formation may best be obtained, occur in the Riversdale Station
district, close to the boundary line between Colchester and
Pictou Counties, and in the Harrington River district near the
boundary between Colchester and Cumberland Counties.

168 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

River sdale District — Fossils from this locality were
obtained along the Black River branch of the Salmon River,
along the Calvary Brook, just east of Riversdale ; also in the
numerous cuttings along the line of the Intercolonial Railway
between West River Station (Pictou County) and Riversdale
Station (Colchester County).

In the rather fine grained dark gray or greenish gray
arenaceous and black or dark carbonaceous shales of the cuttings
along the I. C. R., plants, as well as animal remains, occur.
Amongst the groups of organic remains examined and reported
upon up to date are a series of plants sent to Mr. Robert Kidston
of Stirling, Scotland. The entomostraca were submitted to
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F. R. S., and the Crustacea (Podophthal-
mata) to Dr. Henry Woodward.

Plants.

1. Arterophyllites acicularis, Dawson, ( = Calamocladns equi-

setiformis, Schl.)

2. Sphenopteris marginata, Dawson.

3. Neuropteris, sp.

4. Alethopteris, sp. ; allied to Alethopteris valida, Boulay.

5. Cordaites principalis, Germar.

6. “ Robbii, Dawson.

7. Cyclopteris (Nephropteris) varia, Dawson.

8. Calamites, sp. (?)

9. Cardiocarpum cornutum, Dawson.

Crustacea, (Xiphosura).

Belinuridce.

1. Belinurus grandaevus, Henry Woodward and T. R. Jones.
Crustacea, (Entomostraca).

Phyllopoda.

1. Leaia tricarinata, Meek and Worthen.

2. Leaia Leidyi, var. Baentschiana, Beyrich and Geinitz.

3. Estheria Dawsoni, Jones.

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AML

169

LA MELLIBRANC HI ATA.

1. Anthiacomya elongata, Dawson.

2. “ obtusa, Dawson.

Insecta.

1. “ A neuropteroid insect allied to Miamia Bronsoni ” —

determined by Prof. Charles Brongniart, of the
Museum d’histoire Naturelle, Paris, France.

Vermes.

1. Spirorbis Eriaia, Dawson, attached to leaves of Cor-
daites Robbii, Dawson.

Harrington River District. — The shales and sandstones,
from which the fossils of the Riversdale formation were obtained,
occur along the boundary of the counties of Colchester and
Cumberland — the strike of the strata being generally across the
direction of the stream. As pointed out by Mr. H. Fletcher,
this locality proved to be particularly rich in fossils.

Plants.

1. Arterophyllites acicularis, Dawson.

2. Calamites, sp.

3. Sphenopteris dilatata, Dawson.

4. “ Harttii, Dawson.

5. “ splendens, Dawson.

6. “ marginata, Dawson.

7. “ sp.

8. Aneimites valida, Dawson.

9. Adiantites ? or Archseopteris, sp.

10. Neuropteris, sp.

11. Alethopteris discrepans, Dawson, ( = Alethopteris decur-

rens, Artis, sp.)

12. Cyperites-like leaves.

13. Cardiocarpum cornutum, Dawson.

14. Psilophytum ? glabrum, Davrson.

Animalia.

Batrachia.

L Hylopus Logani, Dawson.

170

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

2. Sauropus Dawsoni, (M. S.) — From rocks apparently
of this age which occur at East Bay near West Bay
and Partridge Island, two miles below Parrsboro.

Lamellibranchiata.

1. Anthracomya elongata, Dawson.

2. “ obtusa, Dawson.

Crustacea.

1. Leaia tricarinata, Meek and Worthen.

2. Carbonia, sp.

3. Estheria Dawsoni, Jones.

4. Anthracopalsemon ? n. sp.

The Riversdale formation thus carries a flora and fauna,
which cannot be taken as one appertaining to any other system
than the Carboniferous, inasmuch as the types are all akin, and
generally conceded to be closely related, even to types in the
productive coal measures higher up in the system.

I have no hesitation to state that, in the Union and Rivers-
dale formations, we have obtained in Nova Scotia a fauna and
flora, which, while not as extensive nor as varied as that obtained
in the productive coal measures of the same Province, are never-
theless remarkably similar in their biological characteristics,
imbedded in a series of sediments, terrigenous in character, and
for the most part estuarine, carrying Carbonaceous shales and
sandstones, underclays and conglomerates, constituting just a
series of strata as that, which, having begun in Eo-Carboniferous
time, were interrupted by an encroachment of the Carboniferous
Sea (Windsor formation) in which marine conditions prevailed,
and limestones were deposited, holding abundance of marine
shells and other fossil organic remains peculiar to salt-water
conditions, and were followed by newer, or higher, or later strata,
such as are met in the “ Millstone grit ” and “ Coal measures ” of
the same region, of various writers, characterised also by terrig-
enous deposits, and enclosing a fauna and flora whose affinities
are remarkably akin to the forms found in the Eo-Carboniferous

IN EASTERN CANADA — AMI.

171

formations of Union and Riversdale, giving us the following
natural, though interrupted general succession of strata, in
descending order : —

Succession.

Conditions.

Fossils.

III. Coal Measures and
Millstone grit.

Estuarine.

Land plants, land animals,
shallow water conditions
and for, ms.

II. Windsor formation.

Marine.

Marine shells, corals, sea-
life.

I. Union and Riversdale
formations.

Estuarine.

Land plants, land animals,
shallow water conditions
and forms.

As evidence of the similarity of forms peculiar to the Eo-
'Carboniferous of Colchester' and Pictou Counties and the Coal
measures of the same, let us take the different orders or groups
of fossil organic remains affording Palaeontological evidence as
noted on page 181 of the “ Summary Report of the Geological
Survey Department for 1898 and 1899.”

Evidence from Antmal Life.

Insectct — Neuropterous insects have been discovered in the
shallow water deposits of Riversdale age, in a cutting on the
Intercolonial Railway east of Riversdale and Campbell’s Siding,
about a mile and a half west of West River Station, and the
wing obtained and sent to the Museum d’Histoire Naturellesy is
referred to a Carboniferous genus by Prof. Brongniart, of Paris,
France — a most eminent authority on the Fossil Insects of the
Carboniferous.

Phyllopoda. — The numerous specimens of Leaia and Estheria
from the Carbonaceous and other shales of the Riversdale form-
ation of Colchester, Pictou, and Cumberland Counties, are very
similar to the forms described from the Coal Measures of Pictou,
County, and also from the Coal Measures of the United States.
All the species of Leaia recorded in North America so far, are

172 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

referred to the Coal Measures. This genus, however, was abun-
dant in early Carboniferous times, as may be gathered from those
specimens obtained by me in the red, black and gray shales of
the Union and Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia, which>
though they underlie the Marine limestones of the Windsor
formation, are nevertheless referred to the Eo-Carboniferous>
a position which the enclosed fauna of Phyllopods warrants
in assigning.

Crustacea. — Several specimens of a new genus, and new
species of one of the Podophthalmata and Xiphosura, occur in
the Harrington River and Riversdale collections in Colchester
County. These Crustaceans are highly characteristic of the
Carboniferous system in Europe and America, and their occur-
rence at this horizon, together with their generic characters,
point to them as prototypes of higher forms found in the higher
subsequent cycle of sedimentation in the series of sediments
referred to in the Coal measures above. Of these, Belinurus
grandoevus , T. R. Jones and H. Woodward, has been recently
described, and the authors describe it as a Carboniferous form,
related to Carboniferous species in Great Britain.

Amphibia. — Of these animals there are both footprints and
trails in the collection of the Geological Survey or National
Museum at Ottawa, which are referable to the genera Sauropus
and Hylopu s, which were obtained from rocks of Union and
Riversdale horizon, and some are of gigantic size. All other
footprints referable to this genus in North America, have been
described as Carboniferous and, consequently, the Parrsboro
and Spencer’s Island specimens are Carboniferous, rather than
any other horizon.

In his “ Geology, Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphical,”
Oxford, 1888, Professor Prestwich gives a table “Showing the
character and distribution of the species of organic remains in
the several main groups of the Paleozoic series in the British
area.” Under the head of Amphibians (including footprints) he
notes the occurrence of these in the Carboniferous, but none in
the Devonian.

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AML

173

Dr. S. A. Miller, in bis “ North American Geology and Palae-
ontology,” containing that useful Catalogue of North American
Palaeozoic Fossils, does not record a single Amphibian from rocks
older than the Carboniferous, and the genera Sauropus and
Ilylopus occurring in the Riversdale formation of Nova Scotia
are identical with and similar to those found in the Carbonifer-
ous, or other regions of North America.

Prof. James D. Dana, in his “ Manual of Geology,” Sir Arch-
ibald Geikie in his “ Text Book of Geology,” also, all the leading
nomenclators and writers on North American or European
Geology and Palaeontology, agree in placing the genera tiauropus
and Hylopus to which I have referred the footprints from
Parrsboro and Harrington River, of Cumberland and Colchester
County, from the Riversdale formation, as Carboniferous.

Lamellibranchiata. — Of these the most conspicuous are the
Anthracomyce of Salter, which Sir William Dawson described
under the name of Naiadites. These shells are abundant in the
Coal Measures of the Joggins, Springhill, Plctou and Sydney
Basins of Nova Scotia, also in the Pennsylvania, Virginia and other
coal areas of the United States, not to speak of their occurrence
in the Carboniferons of England and France, and many other
countries of Europe. They occur in bands in the Riversdale
formation at Riversdale, and in numerous outcrops along the
banks of the Harringtoh River, on the dividing line between
Colchester and Cumberland Counties, and the term “ Naiadites
Bands” or “Naiadites Shales,” which are usually associated
with Ostracoda of the genus Carbonia, and other allied genera
of Carboniferous affinity, is applicable to these Eo-Carbonifero'us
bands. All writers on Geology and Palaeontology, concur in
placing these shells in the Carboniferous. All the species recorded
from the United States are referred to the Coal Measures, whilst
those from the Union and Riversdale formations of Colchester
and Cumberland Counties in Nova Scotia, are, by the writer,
placed in the Eo-Carboniferous. It will thus be seen that the
palaeentological evidence adduced in the geological collections so
far obtained from the Riversdale formation of Nova Scotia,

174 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

including Insects, Phyllopods, Crustaceans, Amphibians and.
Lamellibranchiata, are all types which are markedly akin to
types well known to occur in the Carboniferous of other
countries, and more than that, such are usually met with in the
Coal Measures of the same.*

It has been one of my constant endeavours to obtain
Devonian fossils from those areas of Nova Scotia ascribed to-
the Devonian in the Riversdale and Harrington River Sections;,
but I have found only Carboniferous types.

Evidence from Plant Life.

Besides the above, there is the evidence adduced from the
flora collected in the strata which yielded the forms of animal
life just cited above, and it can be truly said that it also has a
decided Carboniferous facies. The genera Asterophyllites, Sphen-
opteris, Alethopteris, Cardiopteris, Stigmaria, Catamites , Poac-
ites, Cordaites are all represented. From communications recently
received from Mr. Robert Kidston, of Stirling, Scotland, the well-
known author of the British Museum Catalogue of Carboniferous
Plants, who has examined the forms sent him, we learn that he is,
satisfied that the flora is truly a Carboniferous one.

Quite independently. Prof. David White of the Smithsonian
Institution and United States Geological Survey at Washington,
arrived at the same conclusion when he kindly made a prelimin-
ary examination of the collections from Nova Scotia cited above>
and then in our possession at Ottawa, and invariably referred
the forms detected to the Carboniferous system.

From our own study of the numerous collections obtained in
the so-called disputed areas in question, from the areas of the
Riversdale formation, we cannot but come to the conclusion that
instead of finding Devonian types of plants and animals, they
proved in almost every case to be Carboniferous. Neither is it
to be wondered at, that, on studying the affinities and relations
of the fossil plants, etc., of Riversdale, McKay’s Head, and Har-

* The term “ Coal Measures ” is an unfortunate one to designate a Geological formation,
and should never be used to designate horizon. It is a purely lithological or ecom
omic term, and conveys no idea of the Geological position in the Time scale~-
Productive Coal Measures can occur at any horizon in the Carboniferous.

IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI.

175.

rington River, from strata now referred to the Riversdalo
formation, Sir William Dawson placed them in the Millstone
Grit formation, so intimate are their relations to the plants of
the Coal Measures ; and from my own observations also to
the faunas and floras which are now known to immedi-
ately underlie the Millstone Grit of certain portions of Nova
Scotia.

The Riversdale formation must now, therefore, both on
account of its position in the succession of sediments and especially
from the life-zones it holds, be classed as an Eo-Carboniferous
formation. This formation clearly underlies that series of
marine limestones referable to the Windsor formation, as this
has been described and mapped out fully by Sir Wm. Dawson,
and more lately and with special care and accuracy by Mr.
Hugh Fletcher.

II. — The Marine Sediments.

In the districts of Nova Scotia under examination, besides,
the Eo-Carboniferous formations of Union and Rivesdale, con-
sisting of red shales and sandstones and conglomerates, more or
less strongly cemented together, together with the series of
dark grey coloured, and black or greenish and rusty shales as
defined by Mr. Hugh Fletcher, forming a great thickness of
sediments, constitute one of the cycles of sedimentation peculiar
to the Carboniferous System, there occur certain other strata
overlying these unconformably, viz. : the marine limestones
and associated gypsum, marls, shales and sandstones.

These marine limestones, &c., hold abundance of fossil organic
remains, as shown on the East Branch of the East River of
Pictou at Springville ; at Brookfield ; and Miller’s Lime Kiln near
the D. A. R. Bridge, Windsor, N. S., where the series is highly
fossiliferous and the forms are well preserved. The term,
“ Windsor Series,” is quite applicable to these strata and
deserves to be recognized as constituting a typical formation
or phase of the Carboniferous system in this portion of
Eastern Canada.

176 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM

Just where to place this Windsor formation in the column
of Palaeozoic formations has not yet been definitely ascertained.
Whether it is to be classed as one of the Eo-Carboniferous sedi-
ments, or whether it constitutes a factor or part ot what may be
termed, according to Prof. H. S. Williams’s very appropriate
classfication, Meso-Carboniferous, is the question occupying our
mind at present. It is, nevertheless, to be remarked that the
fauna it contains is one in which so far not one of the Upper-
most Devonian fossils of the Gaspe and other regions of Eastern
Canada have been detected.

The occurrence of this formation in certain basins of Nova
Scotia marks a cessation of the conditions existing in the areas
which these limestones cover, showing that the sea or Atlantic
waters in Carboniferous times extended over the Eo-carboniferous
deposits previously laid down, which had been subjected to
subsidence and erosion previous to their being overlaid, whilst
the vegetation and climate did not, probably, change very
materially in the high land during this period of submergence
and encroachment of the sea. A period of elevation evidently
must have followed the deposition of the limestones, marls, &c.,
and sandstones and mudstones and shales were deposited, to be
followed later again by sandstones with shales and coal seams
peculiar to the “Coal Measures ” and “ Millstone Grit ” formations.

Such deposits are essentially terrigenous as to their origin
and the structure, as well as origin and mode of deposition of
the Coal Measures need not be described. The flora and fauna
they hold mark the estuarine conditions existing and prevailing
at the time, also the luxuriant growth of plants on land with
the contemporaneous animal life of the period both in the water
and on the land also.

A brief summary of the succession of the sediments in the
Carboniferous of Nova Scotia in Pictou, Colchester and Cumber-
land counties in part, such as the writer has observed it in
numerous outcrops and localities, gives the following section in
ascending order

1. Riversdale and Union formations: Consisting of red

IN EASTERN CANADA.— AMI.

177

sandstones and conglomerates, carbonaceous shales and mud-
stones, besides diorites and other basic intrusive rocks.

2. An unconformity.

3. Windsor limestones and Hopewell sandstones, constitut-
ing distinct formations which overlie the Union and Riversdale
formations.

4. (An unconformity, according to Mr. Fletcher.) I have
not yet been able to detect any unconformity at this juncture.
There is no unconformity between the Millstone grit and the
underlying shales, calcareous and other conglomerates and sand-
stones of Cumberland Basin.

5. Millstone grit of Skinner McDonald’s Brook.

6. In certain portions of Pictou County, N. S., an uncon-
formity occurs, e. g.y at Blackwood Brook, opposite New
Glasgow, where the upturned edges of the “Millstone Grit”
(Logan) are overlaid by the New Glasgow conglomerate of
Frasers Mountain, &c., whereas in other portions the Millstone
grit is directly superimposed by the Coal Measures, e. g., at
Westville and the Joggins.

This peculiar geological succession in these two areas give us
two series of sediments in the succession of formations which in
part only are synchronous, hold similar organic remains, but
exhibit great variety in sedimentation.

A. Joggins and Westville Areas. B. New Glasgow Region.

Y. Millstone grit. V. Millstone grit.

YI. Coal Measures.* YI. Unconformity (of Blackwood Brook).

YII. New Glasgow conglomerate.

YIII. Spirorbis limestone.

IX. Smelt Brook shales and sandstones.

X. Pictou sandstones.

XI. Cape John formation, red sandstones
and conglomerate.

* The Coal Measures of Pictou County at Stellarton and Westville consisting of
bituraous shales, clays and sandstones, are not anywhere seen to be overlaid by any of
the formations in series B.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Yol. X.

Trans — L.

178 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA. — AMI.

We would thus have the following tentative Table of
Formations in the Carboniferous of part of Nova Scotia : —

Note. — It is not at all improbable that the Smelt Brook formation (IX.) overlying
the New Glasgow (conglomerate) formation is equivalent to the Stellarton (VI.) or
“ Coal Measures ” formation, which would indicate clearly the existence, as in other
portions of the palaeozoic in Eastern America, of two distinct series of formations
which are nevertheless synchronous. The writer hopes shortly to describe each of the
formations indicated in the above tentative Table of Formations for a portion of Nova
Scotia, together with the relations of the latter to other palaeozoic sediments in the
same and adjoining Province of New Brunswick.

Formations.

Northern Areas.

Southern Areas. Order.

Neo-Car-

BONIFEROUS

I

Cape John
Pictou —

Cape John Sandstones

Pictou Freestones

Al.

X.

IX.

VIII.

Smelt Brook . .
Small’s Brook
New Glasgow

< Smelt Brook shales
J Spirorbis limestones
l N. Glasgow conglome

.Glasgow conglomerates

Coal Measures . VII.

Unconformity.

( Stellarton \ ( Millstone grit

Meso-Car- J Westville — / J

Meso-Car- J Westville
boniferous ) Hope well

boniferous ) Hopewell
(.Windsor.

Unconformity.

II.

I.

Eo-Car- f Union

boniferous t Riversdale . .

Union

Riversdale

V. — The Natural History of Money, by Prof. J. Davidson,
Phil. D., Fredericton , N. B.

(Read May lhth, 1900).

It is hardly possible to determine whether there ever was a
time in the history of the race when each individual was self-
sufficient, and, like the Homeric Cyclops, paid no regard to
others. Some of the Australian tribes are so low in the scale
of civilization that even barter is unknown amongst them, but
whether these represent the universal primitive type cannot be
determined one way or the other. It is evident, however,
wherever we find the first germs of social life, we find, at the
same time, a kind of rude division of labor which necessitates,
and renders possible, the beginnings of trade. Trade in its
origin is simply barter, the direct exchange of one article for
another. But barter, however simple in appearance, is more
complicated than modern exchange. It must often have hap-
pened in the early history of trade that two parties failed to
make a trade for the simple reason that, while both were anxious
to give what they had, in exchange for what they wanted, neither
of them needed or desired what the other had to offer. This
lack of coincidence has frequently placed travellers in very
great straits. If the native who holds the store of food does
not find in articles which the explorer displays to catch the
aboriginal fancy, something which attracts him, he passes on,
and the traveller and his party have to go hungry. Sir R.
Burton warns the would-be explorer against assuming that any
sort of trinkets will suffice for the purchase of supplies and the
hiring of labor. The African native has his own standard of
taste, and no matter how gaudy and how gimcraek the stock of
Brummagem goods displayed may be, the native will take such
things only as agree with his standard of taste. Nothing will
induce the primitive savage to take what he does not immed-
iately require in exchange for the food the traveller desires,

(179)

180 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

unless the articles offered in exchange conform to his standard
of taste.

The inconveniences of this primitive state of barter are so
evident that no race or tribe which has made the first step away
from barbarism, can for long remain without some sort of
medium of exchange. There is need of some commodity which
will be readily received by every one, although at the moment
he may not wish to consume it, in the full assurance that he can
easily, in his turn, exchange it for the article he does desire.
Such an interposed commodity will greatly facilitate exchanges,
and to all intents and purposes may be regarded as money.
What this interposed commodity is depends almost entirely on
circumstances. At first, almost any commodity which is
esteemed by everybody in the community will serve the purpose.
There is no more foundation for the idea that there was a
sort of social contract regarding some one article to be used as a
medium of exchange than there is for the other historical
fiction that law and language are due to a primitive contract
or convention. No one article has been adopted as if by natural
right. The original medium of exchange was simply a market-
able article with a recognized value. Metallic money has
reached its present supremacy because in the struggle for exist-
ence it has demonstrated its superiority. There is no natural
desire for the precious metals ; and even for gold there does not
seem to be any natural and inherent desire apart from its utility.
The sacra fames auri is a fiction of the poet and a description
of the civilized mind ; and the first discover of a gold nugget
possibly viewed it as a sort of substitute for a bead or a shell
for a necklace. Even to this day, there are peoples who do not
esteem gold, and will give nothing for it. The various British
and Egyptian Soudan expeditions were compelled to take along
with them bulky Maria Theresa dollars, because the Arab would
not take gold in exchange. The taste of the Arab is for silver
ornaments. He is no fanatical silver man desirous of seeing
silver remonetised. Gold he could not, or at least was not
accustomed to, use as ornaments for his person, his horse, or his

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

181

weapons. Hence, gold had little utility for him, and the trans-
port service was burdened with large quantities of bulky
Austrian silver dollars. There are certain qualities which
civilized communities require in the medium of exchange ; but
in early commerce these were not always demanded, perhaps
often not even thought of. Each community has selected the
commodity which best suits its conditions, and in the course of
progress each has adopted and in time abandoned many kinds
of money. But whatever the nature of the medium of exchange
adopted, it served as money ; and it is justly entitled to be called
money, even although not metallic, or not coined ; for, after all,
as Prof. Walker says, “ Money is that money does.” For the
needs of modern trade, primitive money materials are entirely
unsuited ; but they serve their own purpose, and as in the eyes
of an early missionary to the Mexicans who, contemplating the
bags of cocoanuts used by the Aztecs, exclaimed, “ Blessed
money ! which exempts its possessors from avarice since it can
not be long hoarded or hidden under ground,” primitive money
may have peculiar advantages of its own !

When in any distriet or community any particular com-
modity comes into general use, and is readily available, it
generally comes in time to be unit of value and the medium of
exchange. Its nature will, of course, depend on the climate and
geographical position of the district ; and may be changed when
the community advances to another stage of culture. The
natural medium of exchange may be altered, even although the
community has made no such advance. When a primitive com-
munity comes into commercial contact with a more advanced
race, an entirely new medium of exchange may be adopted.
Thus, gin and gunpowder are, according to Bishop Tugwell, of
Uganda, to all intents and purposes, the only currency in certain
parts of Africa. The foreign trader may create a new value by
his demand for produce which hitherto has been little esteemed.
In the Caroline Islands stone money in the form of quartz
wheels, varying from six inches to twelve in diameter, was
formerly the money the natives used ; but since the advent of

182 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

the white trader bags of copra or dried cocoanut kernel have
come into general use.* The usual effect of such a contact of
races has been the substitution of a corresponding manufactured
article for the original commodity used by the natives. Thus,
among the Pacific Coast Indians, blankets have become the
medium of exchange in place of furs. Since all exchange is
mutual, the civilized trader must abandon his natural medium
of exchange and adopt the medium of exchange prescribed by
the character of the trade. Thus, in the New England colonies,
wampum, a form of shell money, and in French Canada, beaver
skins, were used naturally in the trade with the Indians at all
times ; and on occasion, owing to the scarcity in the colonies of
small change, these articles were used as money between
Europeans. Indeed, in many communities where money, as we
know it, is, for one reason or other, scarce, commodities may
come into use as money, not because the people know no better,
but because they have no better. Thus, on the north-east coast
of Newfoundland at this day, cod alone is currencjLi*

The natural currency of a community is that commodity in
which its wealth mainly consists. In the hunting stage of
society property consists in weapons of war and the chase, in a
few simple, natural ornaments made of shells or teeth, and in
the skins of animals, which serve for clothing, and for the cover-
ing of the hut or wigwam. But as man advances in civilization,
he succeeds in taming animals, whose flesh and milk form his
foods, whose skins or wool form his clothing. This is the pas-
toral stage in which a man’s wealth is reckoned by his herds.
In the more settled agricultural stage, property consists not only
of slaves and domesticated animals, but of dwellings and grain,
and above all, of stocks of the precious and other metals,
though indeed, in early history, all metals are precious. These
later forms of wealth man has come to value according to his
earlier standards of wealth ; and there is every reason to believe
that the original standards of value of metallic coins are based
on mere primitive ox and cow units. When man has come into

*F. W. Christian. Geographical Journal, Feb., 1899.

tLant: Cruising on the French shore Westminster Review, March, 1899.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

183

the possession of the metals, and has acquired the power of
working them, a long course of monetary development is possible
for him. He finds out by experience which metal suits his
purpose best ; and that purpose may change as the centuries
pass. Our present currencies are the result of the law of the
survival of the fittest. The primitive condition was general
use ; and that always remains the first condition of the use of
an article as currency. But along with that, there are other
conditions which are stated in every monetary text-book. All
the metals have been used in turn. • Iron was used in Sparta,
and is used to-day in the Dark Continent. Lead and tin, and
platinum, gold, and silver, and copper, have all been used. But
experience has shown that gold and silver pre-eminently, and
copper, or some alloy of it, in a less degree, are best suited for
currency purposes.

This has been the general course of development ; but though
it is sometimes hard, amid all the talk about progress to realize
that the stationary state of society is the usual phenomenon,
yet it is true that most peoples have not become civilized, and
since many remain in the most primitive stages of society, we
still have many actual instances of primitive currency in present
day use. Progress seems alike impossible in the frozen north
and in the torrid south ; and in these regions the conditions of
life are almost unchanged, and there we may see the kinds of
money our forefathers of untold generations ago employed.

The rigour of the northern winters prevents the rearing of
domestic animals, or the systematic cultivation of the soil, and
there the primitive hunting stage still exists.* The wealth of
these Arctic communities consists in skins, and in some cases of
dried fish, which they exchange with the trader from the south
for their few luxuries or use for their own clothing and sus-
tenance. Under these conditions skins, or their modern equiva-
lents, form the natural medium of exchange. A writer in a
popular magazine gives a graphic description of the skin money
used in the Hudson Bay Territories :

“ In old times, when an Indian wanted a rifle, the rifle was
stood on end, and the Indian laid furs flat on the ground till

184

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

they were heaped to the top of the gun barrel ; then the Indian
took the rifle, worth possibly $50, and the Hudson Bay Company
took the furs, worth from $100 to $1000, the large variation
being due to the absense of discrimination on the part of the
Indian

“ At the Hudson’s Bay Company posts, on the Mackenzie
River, actual money is unknown ; all trade being conducted b}*
means of a curious imaginary currency, the unit of value of
which is ‘ one skin.’ What sort of skin ? No one knows ; in
fact it is no sort of skin in particular. It is merely an imag-
inary skin, about equivalent in value to half a dollar. The hide
of a beaver is worth ten skins ; a musk ox hide is worth thirty
skins ; a fine silver fox hide is worth 300 skins. These are the
big bills of this unique currency.

“ Small change is made by musk rat hides, worth one-tenth
of a skin ; 'by mink hides worth two skins, and by lynx hides
worth four skins. A wolverine hide is worth sixteen skins.
There is a fluctuation in the value of this currency just as
there is a fluctuation in the value of silver, consequent upon the
increase or decrease in its production.”*

But skin currency is not so unique as this writer imagines
it to be. We have no modern instance so complete, but we
have many traces of the same practice. In Northern Asia the
skin of the Siberian squirrel was and is the monetary unit ; and
etymology shows that many of the northern nations were in
the same position. “ In the Esthonian language the word rutra
generally signifies money, but its equivalent in the kindred
Lappish tongue h&s not yet altogether lost the original meaning
of skin or fur.”*)- And the name of a Russian small coin, the \
kopeck, is said to mean half a hare skin, showing that the
Muscovites had originally a skin currency — a fact which is also
established]; by the circulation of leather money in Russia as
late as Peter the Great. Even in regions where there were
possibilities of development, the earliest money was of this

*Lee Merrithew : “ Cosmopolitan,” Nov., 1899.

tJcvons : Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, p. 20.

JRidgeway : Origin of Currency and Weight Standards, p. 13.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

185

character. “Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will he
give for his life,” is a text we generally understand in some-
obtuse way to mean a reference to a man’s own skin. What it
really points to is that, even in the pastoral stage of society
which the book of Job describes, skins were the standard of
value ; and classical writers record the traditions that the earliest
currency used in Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, was formed of
leather. Sir John Mandeville, or his unacknowledged authority,,
tells us that in China, when he visited it, leather money was in
circulation.

We find what seems a still more modern instance in the fact
that Saint Louis, the great king of France, finding a great,
scarcity of silver coin wherewith to pay his soldiers, caused
pieces of silver wire to be fixed on leather and so circulated.
But this was rather a device for protecting the silver than an
actual leather money. The silver gave the value, and the
leather served only as a case to preserve the small piece of silver
(9 or 18 grs.) from being lost.

In some communities, particularly those brought into closer
contact with the traders of advanced race, the blanket of the
trader has supplanted the original skin currency. This has
taken place in some parts of the Hudson Bay Company’s terri-
tory and eleewhere. Along the British Columbia coast also the
Indians use blankets as the unit of exchange. The blankets are
distinguished by prints or marks on the edge woven into the
texture, the best being four-point, the smallest and poorest one
point. The unit of value in trade is a single two-and-a-half
point blanket, worth about a dollar and a half. All commodities,
are exchanged according to this standard ; even the four-point
blanket is said to be worth so many blankets.*

In the case of these Indians the development may have been
due to a growing scarcity of fur bearing animals, and perhaps
from the same reason, and also from natural development, we
find in Scandinavia, in Iceland, and in the Orkney Islands,.

*Dawson : Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands. Geol. Survey Report of Canada,
1880.

186 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

that cloth was the standard. Wadmail, or coarse woollen cloth
formed the basis of an elaborate system of currency in Norway.*

In Iceland this cloth currency gave place with the develop-
ment of trade to a currency of stockfish. The foreign traders
did not desire the northern coarse cloth ; but there was a steady
market in Southern Europe for fish. There is extant a procla-
mation for the regulation of trade between England and Iceland
in which an elaborate scale of prices for articles of all kinds is
drawn up in terms of dried codfish.-f And in Newfound lond
•cod was for a long time, and still is in many parts, the only coin.

In general, one may say that whenever ther e arises a scarcity
of metallic money in a community which produces one chief
article for trade, that article will serve as money. Thus cod
was used in Newfoundland, tobacco in Virginia, wheat and maple
sugar in Nova Scotia, J tenpenny nails, as Adam Smith tells us,
in Kirkaldy, olive oil in the Levant, tea in Central Asia, block
salt in Abyssinia, and in various parts of Asia and Africa.

The history of the currency experiments of the European
colonies in North America is instructive. These communities
suffered from a chronic want of coin, one of the results of an
ill-considered colonial policy. Tobacco was a form of currency
in Virginia sanctioned, not only by custom, but by actual legis-
lation. In 1619, the first General Assembly of the colony
established a ratio between tobacco and silver ; and almost every
succeeding Assembly dealt with the same question. In 1642,
tobacco became the sole legal tender ; and it was not till 1656
that silver could again be used if required. But tobacco
remained the actual medium of exchange, and in 1730 paper
money, like our modern grain receipts and pig iron warrants,
was issued against tobacco. These, along with the commodity,
formed the main money in Virginia down to the beginning of
the present century, and were preferred, because more stable in
value, to the continental currency. In the New England colonies
a very great variety of articles of trade was made legal tender.

* Morris and Bax : Socialism, its Growth and Outcome, p. 249 n.

t Ridgeway : op. cit., pp. 18, 19.

JPatterson : Memoir of the Rev. James MacGregor, D. D., p. 82.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 187

Beaver skins formed the greater part of the circulating medium,
and in 1631 it was enacted that grain could be paid unless
beaver or money (that is metallic money) were called for by the
contract. This law remained in force for half a century ; and
other agricultural commodities were added to the list as occasion
seemed to demand. Corn, wheat, barley, and peas, at fixed prices
per bushel, were sanctioned by law as currency, and taxes could
be paid in them at the discretion of the taxpayer.*

A similar colonial policy produced similar results in French
Canada. The scarcity of metallic money was even greater than
in the English colonies ; and at all times commodity substitutes
for metallic coinage were in use. The scarcity was so great that
in addition to the beaver skin, which was practically the unit of
value, wheat was declared a legal tender in 1669 at four livres
the mint, while in 1673 the council further ordered that bear
skins could be tendered in payment at their current value.*[*

But to return to the monetary practice of primitive communi-
ties. In the torrid zone clothing is a burden, and nature supplies
plenteous store of the food suited to the climate. The chief
objects of desire are ornaments. The instinct for personal
adornment is one of the most powerful instincts of the race.
Shells were the earliest and simplest articles so employed ; and
we find shell money used in all parts of the world. In the
torrid zone they still form the principal medium of exchange.
The cowries of the countries round the Indian Ocean have many
of the qualities which we require in the money material. They
are durable, portable, and are universally esteemed. In India
and Siam, in West Africa, as well as in East Africa, and indeed
at one time or another in every country in the world on whose
shores they are found, cowries serve as the small change of com-
merce. They are to-day collected in vast quantities in the
Maidive and Laccadive islands to be exported to serve as money
elsewhere. The value fluctuates enormously, depending on
their abundance or scarcity. In Africa traders estimate a

♦White : Money and Banking-, Chap. 1.
tKingsford : History of Canada, Vol. 1, p. 156.

188 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

thousand shells at a shilling, while in India 5000 represent a
rupee. The area over which they circulate is very large ; and
we have evidence that they were at one time used in countries
which have long since abandoned them. The familiar Chinese
cash, which are estimated by the string, is at least part proof
that shell money, which is usually strung for convenience sake,
was once the currency of the Celestial Empire, although the
cash itself is a survivor, not of this shell money, but of an
original knife money of which we shall hear later. The money
of the Solomon Islands consists of neatly worked pieces of shell
about the size of a shirt button. These are strung on strings
about four yards long, and are distinguished under the names
of white and red money. In the Caroline Islands shell money
circulates, not as shells, but as real money, without immediate
reference to adornment. The shells are chipped all round till
they form disks quarter of an inch in diameter, and then are
smoothed down with sand and pumice. The porcelain money of
China, and perhaps the clay tablets of Assyria and the seals of
Egypt, may be perhaps regarded as more developed forms of the
same kind of money. In other places shells of other sorts were
used. In early China perhaps, also, among the early Greeks,
tortoise shell was used, and in China to this day the phrase
tortoise shell is still used to indicate money.*

The wampum of America is another instance of shell cur-
rency. It consisted of black and white shells polished and
fashioned into beads, and then strung in necklaces, etc. Black
ones were twice as valuable as white. Wampum was so well
established as currency among the Indians that it was made
legal tender among the settlers, not that white men valued it as
ornament, but because it was in constant demand by the natives
and also because there was a scarcity of small coin. The unit
of wampum money was the fathom consisting of three hundred
and sixty white beads, and was worth about sixty pence. At
first wampum was legal tender only to the extent of 12 pence,
or the limit of the legal tender of bronze coin to-day. But in

^Ridgeway : op. cit., p. 21.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 189

1641, owing to a greater scarcity of coin, wampum was made
legal tender up to £10, though in 1643 the limit was reduced to
£2. The decline of the beaver trade drove it out of circulation.
When it could no longer be exchanged in large amounts for
beaver skins, an article of international trade, the basis of its
value was gone, although its use was continued in the frontier
districts well down into the eighteenth century.*

Shell money is still used by North American Indians. The
tribes of California, according to Mr. Powers, make use for
money not only of the red scalps of woodpeckers, but also “ of
the dentalium shell, of which they grind off* the top and string it
on strings ; the shortest pieces are worth twenty-five cents, the
longest about two dollars, the value rising rapidly with the
length. The strings are usually about as long as a man’s arm.”
When these Indians became familiar with the silver coinage of
the United States, the use to which they put the dimes and
quarters shows how the new money, as well as the old, derived
its value as a medium of exchange, because it was prized as an
adornment of the person. “ Some of the young bloods array
their Dulcineas for the dance with lavish adornments, hanging
on their dress 30, 40, or 50 dollars worth of dimes, quarter dol-
lars, and half dollars, arranged in strings.”*!* The same aboriginal
instinct appears sometimes among semi-civilized aldermen. The
Bowery saloon, which was paved with silver dollars, used to be,
and perhaps still is, one of the sights of New York ; and it
would not have been inappropriate had Silver Dollar Smith, the
owner, been a member of Tammany, which in the day of its
political power, still tricks its members out in paint and feathers
on gala days and sends them down Third Avenue under their
Sachems, brandishing tobacco store tomahawks.

Other articles which have been desired for purposes of orna-
ment have also been used as money. The Californian Indians
use not only shells, but the red scalps of woodpeckers for their

*White : Money and Banking, Chap. 1.

tQuoted Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 15. Conversely solid brass buttons with the eye ham-
mered flat were extensively used half a century ago in St. John, New Brunswick, for
small change.

190 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

greater units of value. In Fiji, whales’ teeth were used instead of
shells, and white teeth were exchanged for red teeth somewhat
in the ratio of shillings to sovereigns.* In Africa ivory tusks,
and in the Solomon Islands dog teeth, which are worn in neck-
laces, express the higher values, while shells are used for the
smaller. The currency of the Solomon Islands includes many
different articles, and the value of each relatively to the others
is carefully determined. The currency table, as set forth by
Mr. Cook,-f* is :

10 cocoanuts = 1 string of white money.

10 strings of white money = 1 string of red money, or

= 1 dog tooth.

10 strings of red money = 1 string dolphins’ teeth.

10 strings of dolphins’ teeth = 1 fine woman.

1 mable ring (for ornament) = 1 good hog or 1 useful young man.

When man becomes a worker in metals, the primitive shell
prnaments are replaced by gold and copper, and silver ; and
much of the money used in Africa to-day is of this character.

But man is a creature of customs, and the forms of his neck-
laces did not change to utilize the peculiar characteristics of the
new materials. Nuggets of native gold may have been hero
and there threaded on a string; but there is little doubt that
man’s first attempt in metal working consisted in imitating tho
old shell ornaments, and in imitating those shell ornaments
which had come to be used as money. In Siam there are silver
coins in the shape of shells ; and in China we have a copper
coin known as a Dragon’s eye, which was fashioned in the shape
of a cowry. But long before the precious metals were coined,
they were in circulation by weight, as they still are in the East.
The commonest form in which the metals circulated was in the

*Jevons : Money, p. 25.

tFor these details regarding the Solomon Islands, I am indebted to a note in an
issue of the “ Popular Science Monthly,” which I cannot find again. In the same note
it is said that rope ends, ornamented with red feathers, to be worn about the waist, are
also used as money.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 191

shape of ornaments ; and some writers have spoken familiarly
of ring money as if it were really stamped and coined money
such as we use to-day. In reality, the so-called ring money was
an article of barter, circulating by weight. The ancient ring
money of Egypt, and of the early Celts and Teutons, is repre-
sented in Africa to-day by the coin currency of Calabar, and the
rod currenc}7 of the CQngo region, these being simply brass or
copper wire, soft enough to be bent into the rings and
bracelets, and other ornaments in which the African black takes
delight.

When man advances to the pastoral stage, which he has done*
and apparently can do, only in the temperate climes in which
cattle can live, we find him estimating his wealth in cattle ; and
naturally the medium of exchange adopted by such societies is
that which all desire, and all in a measure possess. Most of the
civilized nations have long since left their cattle currencies cen-
turies behind ; but still in their language and archseological
remains, in their literatures and their religious customs, there
survive traces of the days when cattle formed their standard of
value and their medium of exchange. “ It is very possible that
kine were first exclusively valued for their flesh and milk ; but
it is clear that in very early times a distinct and special
importance belonged to them as the instrument or medium of
exchange.”*

The Latin term “ pecunia ” is derived from “ pecus,” a herd ;
the English “ fee ” is from the Anglo-Saxon “ feoh which sur-
vives in the cognate German from Vieh cattle ; and rupee is said
to be derived from the Sanskrit rupa, which also means cattle ;
and in the Book of Job the word Kesitch (= a lamb) is employed
to signify a piece of money. f

The veneration in which the cow is held in modern India by
a people to whom the eating of beef is an abomination, is held
by some to point back to the ages when the ancestors of these
people in some more northern region had a great respect for

*Maine : The Early History of Institutions, p. 149.
tWilkinson ; The Ancient Egyptians, Vol. II., p. 151.

192

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

cattle as forming the principal item in their wealth. And
although every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians
(Genesis, c. 46, v. 34), as Joseph instructed his brethren, yet the
Egyptians worshipped their great divinity Apis under the form
of a bull, and worshipped also a sacred ram ; customs which pro-
bably show that at some time or other their ancestors, whether
in the northern Soudan or in Asia, and still in the pastoral stage,
had regarded with proper veneration the cattle and the sheep
which constituted their wealth.

The earliest literatures both of Aryans and of Semites show
that cattle were wealth, and the measure of wealth and the
medium of exchange. The wealth of the Patriarchs was meas-
ured by their flocks and herds, and we need only refer, in the
almost equally familiar stories in Homer, to the one-sided
exchange between Glaucon and Diomede “ of golden arms for
brazen, those worth one hundred oxen for those worth nine.”
When history opens, most of the nations which afterwards
played leading parts were still in the pastoral stage. Egypt
had already passed beyond it, and the Greeks were making
the transition to the agricultural and settled conditions
of life. And as each nation first demands our notice whether
in the Mediterranean region, in northern Europe, or in Central
Asia, it is almost always the same picture that is presented of a
pastoral people whose wealth consists in flocks and herds. And
not only have we a 'priori reason to suppose that the chief item
of their wealth formed their rudimentary medium of exchange;
but we know from literature and from archgeology that the ox
was their unit of value. We have scales of value preserved to
us in the Sacred Books of the East ; and of these scales we
have what might be almost exact transcripts among the setni-
civilized tribes of the Caucasus and Central Asia, and of Northern
and Southern Africa at the present day. The earliest coins of
Greece which have been discovered are stamped with the head
of an ox ; and the legal code of Draco retains with true legal
conservatism the otherwise obsolete practice of expressing values
in terms of oxen. Indeed there is more than probability, there

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

193

is proof as strong as the nature of the subject permits, that our
present system of metallic coins are translations of the earlier
cattle currency. The Greek talent of gold and the ox were
undoubtedly equivalent ; and the ox is of course the older
standard of the two ; and the small change of this commodity
currency wTas likewise translated into corresponding silver and
copper coins. We find the same equating, the presence of which
we partly detect and partly infer in the Greek world, going on
to-day among peoples which are just passing from the pastoral
to the settled mode of life.

When this change takes place man generally has some rudi-
mentary knowledge of metallurgy ; and the agricultural products
have not often formed a unit of value. We have local
instances and temporary instances ; but these are by no means
confined to the beginnings of the agricultural stage. They
appear in colonial history almost as frequently as in semi-
barbarous societies ; and are generally due, then and now, to a
scarcity of precious metals. Wheat has some advantages as a
standard of value over the precious metals, as those colleges at
Oxford and Cambridge know to their advantage who were
restricted in the reign of Elizabeth to corn rents ; but as a
medium of exchange agricultural produce has such obvious
disadvantages that no people which was able to use the precious
metals has ever systematically used grain and other produce of
the earth.

The metals are so much better suited than any other com-
modities to serve as the medium of exchange that it was
inevitable that they should rapidly supplant all other forms of
currency, so soon as gold and silver and the others had come to
possess the fundamental requisite in a medium of exchange, viz.,
that it should be an article in general use and demand. But
the metals came but slowly to possess this fundamental requisite ;
and w^e are certainly not justified in assuming that metallic cur-
rency superseded all others as soon as man had discovered the
means of mining and working the metals. On the contrary, it
is certain that the older currencies remained in circulation long
Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X. Trans.— M.

194 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

after man had acquired the necessary metallurgical knowledge
In the Homeric poems we have evidence of the concurrent use
of definite weights of gold and silver, and iron, with the older
ox unit.

The metals acquire value as all other articles acquire value,
because they are suited to satisfy certain human needs. After
the metals have been adopted as money, they acquire a distinct
and special importance because of their utilit}7 as the medium of
exchange ; but first of all they must acquire the direct value that
arises from direct utility. The metals are valued by man chiefly
as ornaments, or as the material oat of which the implements of
industry or the weapons of war may be fashioned. The precious
metals are valued for their utility as ornaments only. Neither
gold nor silver had been put to serious use either in war or in
industry. They obtained their value because of their attrac-
tiveness as ornaments for adorning the person, and in all
probability the earliest form in which gold circulated was in
strings of nuggets or beads resembling the older shell necklaces.
Ancient geographers tell us that in Arabia native nuggets were
used as ornaments. “ Having perforated these they pass a
thread of flax through them in alternation with transparent
stones and make themselves chains, and put them round their
necks and wrists.”* But with increasing knowledge of how to
work the metals, gold dust, as well as “ fireless gold,” as these
Arabian natives called it, was fashioned into ornaments, and at
first, no doubt, after the older models. Primitive coins are in
existence, and in some cases still in circulation, in which the
evolution from the ring and shell can be traced.

As man’s chief employment in the earty stages of society
was war and the chase, weapons of war were greatly prized and
jealously guarded. Consequently we find many traces of the
employment of the implements of war as a medium of exchange.
Even in the stone age wTe know that this was the case. Tough
green stone slabs, valuable for making hatchets, form the unit of
value among the lowest Australian natives who have hardly yet

*Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, quoted Ridgeway, op. cit., pp. 75-77.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 195

advanced far enough to carry on trade by means of barter.*
Weapons formed part of the currency of Homeric times and
among the ancient Norsemen. By the laws of Hakon the Good
penalties for breaches of the law could be paid among other
things in weapons.-)- Gunpowder competes with gin in the
battle of the African standards introduced by European traders ;
and, not long since, an English newspaper, in commenting on a
petition of a philanthropic committee that some other form of
currency than that of gin should be adopted in the Delta of the
Niger, suggested more than half seriously that Lord Salisbury
should use his influence with the concert of Europe “ to make
the Liverpool powder keg the only legal tender in the gin lati-
tudes.” Among all the aboriginal tribes which have been
brought into contact with European traders, the musket quietly
takes its place in the native standard of value. But in Borneo
they have gone a step further. A brass cannon, or as it is called
by the natives, a brass gun, is the standard of value, and in all
parts of the island one may still hear prices reckoned in brass
guns. Any one who has transactions of such importance, for the
brass guns will correspond to our larger notes, will instantly
translate the sum into dollars at the present day ; but there was
a time when ten or twenty pounders did actually pass from
hand to hand .J

In more recent times, and if not among ourselves, at least
among the ancestors of many of us, bullets have circulated as
small change. Leaden bullets were legal tender in the New
England ; and the reason was no doubt partly the atmosphere of
warfare and danger in which the early colonists lived. But
there was another reason. The want of small coin in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth had induced tradesmen and others to issue
token money ; and in consequence there was great distress often
among the poorer classes for the issuer not infrequently refused

*Tyler : Anthropology, p. 281.
t Ridgeway : op. cit., p. 35.

JThis fact is on the authority of an undated second-hand clipping from the “ London
Standard.

196

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

to honor these tokens. Accordingly, in the reign of James I.,
the striking of copper farthings was made a monopoly, and in
the spirit of the times given to a court favorite, Lord John
Harrington, who took unreasonable advantage of his opportuni-
ties. The circulation was encouraged in various ways with
disastrous results to the commerce of the country. But not con-
tent with the fraudulent profits made at the expense of the
commerce of the country, he caused large parcels to be shipped
to the colonies. The Pilgrim Fathers, however, would have none
of them ; and it stands in the records of Massachusetts on
“ March 4th, 1634, at the General Court at New Town, brass (or
copper) fathings were forbidden, and bullets were made to pass
for farthings.”

But the useful metals could also be put to the more fruitful
use of serving as implements of industry, where their superiority
over stone and wood is no less obvious than when they are
fashioned into weapons of war. In Africa, which, owing to the
absence of native copper, never had a bronze age, but passed at
once into the iron age, we find still in full force the systems of
currency which have either completely disappeared, or have left
but indistinct traces elsewhere. There we find hoe money and
axe money in practically their original forms. Iron in its
natural state was a means of exchange in the Homeric age, and
the iron money of Sparta was probably traditional in origin, like
the Hindu reverence for the cow. But in Africa to-day iron is
an almost universal medium of exchange. On the west coast
the bar is the unit ; and all things are reckoned in “ bars ”
pretty much as they are reckoned in blankets among the Pacific
Coast Indians. Originally the bar was what its name denotes,
a bar of iron of fixed dimensions, one of the chief articles of
trade between the natives and the early European traders. Now
it has a conventional value, which, in Sierra Leone, is two shill-
ings and threepence. In Central Africa, among the Madis>
according to Dr. Felkin, “ the nearest approach to money is seen
in the flat round pieces of iron which are of different sizes . „

. . They are much employed in exchange. This is the form in

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 197

which they are kept and used as money, but they are intended

to be divided into two, heated and made into hoes

Ready made hoes are not often used in barter. Iron, as above
mentioned, is preferred, and is taken to the blacksmith to be
fashioned according to the owner’s requirements.”* * But in
Darfur the actual hoe serves as currency. “ It is simply a plate
of iron fitted with a socket. A handle is fitted into this socket
and one has an implement suited for chopping the weeds in the
cornfields. Purchases of small value are made with the hoe
from one to twenty/ ”-f- which may be said to be its legal tender
limit. Larger purchases are made by means of cotton cloth and
oxen. Among the wild tribes of Annam, in Asia, also, the hoe
serves as currency, and in ancient times many nations seem to
have used it. We know that the Chinese had originally a
barter currency of real hoes and real knives, articles in great
demand among them. These in time became conventionalised in
form, and were reduced in size to serve as real money. The
Chinese cash is the survival of the original knife money, while
the hoe, in a certain form, still circulates in Thibet, as it did in
China hundreds of years ago. Within recent years the
Thibetans have adopted the Indian rupee; but have not pre-
served its integral form. They cut it up for purposes of small
change into little pieces which represent the conventionalized
form of their own original hoe currency".

The hoe served as a general article of barter because of its
indispensability in agriculture ; but among fishermen the fish-
hook was a more useful and desirable implement. Among the
fishermen of the Persian Gulf, and round the coast to Ceylon
and the Maidive Islands, there was originally a fish-hook cur-
rency ; and when true money was adopted the old form was
retained. Down till the beginning of the present century larins ,
a bent piece of silver wire, the conventionalized form of the
fish-hook, were in circulation ; and it is possible that, had the
natural process of evolution gone on without interference from

* Quoted Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 43.

* Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 45.

198 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

the outside, in course of time the piece of double wire would
have become a bullet-shaped piece of metal, just as the bullet coins
of Siam struck in European fashion represent the last stage of
the original ring currency of that country.*

At one time axes served as money in many countries. At
first it was the actual implement or weapon itself ; but in time a
conventionalized form was adopted. In West Africa to-day
almost the sole currency in many districts has the form of an
axe. These are too small now to be actually used, either as
weapons of war or as implements of industry ; but the shape
has been preserved unchanged, and it is evident that the days
are not long past when a currency of actual axes was employed.

We have evidence from archaeology and from literature of a
similar usage among the Greeks. There seems to be little ground
for doubting that the earliest coins were imitations in metal of
the older article which the metallic currency replaced. Thus,
the coins of many Greek states and cities bear on their faces
evidence of the nature of the commodity currency they replaced.
When the coins were for circulation among a purely Greek
people, there could be no difficulty in passing at once from the
commodity to a piece of metal stamped with the image of the
article whose value the coin represented. For instance, the
Greeks of Cyzicus stamped their coins with the image of a
tunny fish which was probably a part of their commodity cur-
rency at an earlier date ; and these coins are, in most respects,
like modern coins. But, in Olbia, a Greek colony on the Black
Sea, where the Greeks traded with the barbarians, and the
population moreover was of mixed race, the tunny fish was also
the chief article of trade. There it was found necessary to
make a concession to the lower level of intelligence of those with
whom they traded, and perhaps also of many of their own
citizens ; and consequently a coin in the actual shape of a tunny
fish was struck to represent the probable original commodity
currency. In the same way the axe appears on the coins of

*Del Mar : A History of Money in Ancient Countries, p. 109.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 199

Tenedos, and there is more than probability that just as the
tunny fish coin of Cyzicus represented the earlier form so the
axe stamped coins of Tenedos represented an earlier axe cur-
rency. We know from the Iliad that axes were given along
with oxen, slaves, kettles, etc., as prizes in the funeral games for
Patroclus. “ But he (Achilles) set for the archers dark iron, and
he set down ten axes and ten half axes,” Iliad XXIII., 11. 850-1 ;
where the half axe is obviously the single headed axe. The
earliest coins of the Island of Tenedos, which lies off the Troad,
bear the device of the double headed axe and represent an
original axe currency such as we find in Africa to-day.

While the ox undoubtedly formed the unit of value and a
medium of exchange over the whole of the wide area from the
Straits of Dover to the Himalayas, as indeed in every other
region where it can flourish, it was nowhere the sole medium of
exchange. In almost every region of which we have any infor-
mation, there is, or was, a regular scale of value in which the ox
was simply the chief unit. Some writers have tried to show
that the ox was unsuited for currency purposes, because it was
incapable, without the adoption of the Scythian practice of cut-
ting steaks from the flanks of the living animal, or the Celtic
practice of bleeding the cattle to make the unleavened bread
more nutritious, of sub-division to transact the smaller exchanges;
and that their use must quickly on that account have been
abandoned. Cattle were unsuitable in many ways, though they
had considerable stability and uniformity of value throughout
their continental range ; but the reason their use as money was
given up was not their lack of divisibility, for, as we have said,
they never formed more than the principal article in a carefully
constructed scale of exchange values.

To this day in the Soudan we find, that while the ox is almost
universally the standard of value and the medium ot exchange
for more valuable articles, each particular district has its own
peculiar lower units, generally selected from the articles most in

*For this and the other instances from the Greek coinage which follow, and for
many others from which these are selected, see Ridgeway, op. cit., Ch. XII.

200 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

demand in the district, or from those which the district has
special facilities for producing. In one nlace it is sticks of salt,
in another tobacco, in another cotton thread, in another raw
cotton in the pod, in another onions, in another hoes, in another
copper rings, beads, shells, etc., and in most districts more than
one of them. These are for small change, so to speak. But all
of them are recognized submultiples of the standard unit, the
ox, as our quarters and ten cent pieces are of the dollar; and in
the same way, slaves are in many districts there now. as they
were in Homeric times, the larger currency, being recognized
multiples of the standard ox.

From Greek coins which have been preserved, it is inferred
that the Greeks had the same system. There are traces of it
not only in Homer, but on the silver coins themselves. With
the introduction of metallic currency, the Greeks equaled the ox
with the gold talent, while its submultiples were represented by
corresponding silver coins. At first, at least, these silver coins
often bore as their stamp the representation of the commodity
currency with which they were equaled and which they dis-
placed. In many cases no doubt the image and superscription
were religious ; but there is no reasonable ground for doubting
that in their origin many, perhaps all, of these coins bore on
their face the evidence of the particular commodity they had
displaced as currency. In some cases the representation was
carried so far that the coin reproduced the actual shape of the
commodity ; and even where the stamp on the coin is of a
religious character, there is a striking resemblance between the
stamp and the article for which the district was famous. In
many cases this correspondence is so clear that it is impossible
otherwise to explain the peculiar form and image of the coin.

Thasos, for instance, was famous for its wine ; and the wine
cup or measure appears on its early coins. The unit of capacity,
in the case of wine was the measure, and the measure is stamped
on the coins to express the fact that this silver coin, bore the
same relation to the gold talent as the actual measure of wine

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

201

bore to the original ox unit with which the gold talent had been
equaled. The olive, again, was the most important product of
Attica, and was probably, as it still actually is in many of the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, whether in the shape
of olives or of olive oil, an actual medium of exchange ; and the
silver coins of Attica which replaced this olive currency most
appropriately bore the olive sprig. The cuttle fish was an
esteemed dainty by the Greeks, as it is to this day in Naples,
and also along the Levant ; and the coins of Croton bore its
image. The ear of wheat appears on the coins of Metaportum,
which grew wealthy because of the agricultural resources of
Magna Grsecia.

Before the invention or discovery of the art of pottery, man
made use of natural shells, and many of the Greek names for
earthenware vessels are the names of sea shells. Even after
earthenware and wood had replaced these primitive and natural
utensils, vessels were fashioned, as can be seen in the museums
of antiquities to-day, in the old shapes. Thus there are Greek
vases in the British Museum which reproduce the shape of the
tortoise, and in the South Sea Islands to this day the natives
imitate the tortoiseshell in wood and earthenware. The tortoise
shell was always specially valued, and in China it was used, and
perhaps is still used, to make bowls of great beauty. It is to be
expected that we should find, as we do, the tortoise shell stand-
ing at the top of the ancient Chinese scale of values. Among
the Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples it was also valued ;
and it was the principal article with which the citizens of Aegina
carried on their trade with the Phoenicians. It naturally, there-
fore, was a unit in their scale, and when the shell and commodity
currency was replaced among them, as among the other Greek
peoples, by silver coins, they stamped their silver coin with the
image of the tortoise. And they took pains to make the coin
actually represent the tortoise, for it has a high round upper
side with a flat under side and markings to indicate the shell.
The scarabs of Egypt, pieces of baked clay or porcelain, cut or
moulded in the shape of beetles and tortoises, were in all proba-

202 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

bility used as money and represent an earlier shell, probably
tortoise shell currency.*

In time the mercantile significance of these symbols was
forgotten, and a religious interpretation placed on them. But
even in the peculiar deities of a district we may often trace the
history of its early commerce ; and the religious symbolism of
the later coins does not contradict the mercantile significance of
the images on the early ones. Early peoples, and later ones>
very easily discover grandiose explanations for what in their
origin are commonplace facts. To take but one instance. The
famous iron money of Sparta, which, according to tradition,
Lycurgus caused to be dipped in vinegar while red hot to render
it worthless as a commodity, thus to restrain the cupidity of the
citizen soldiers, was in all probability not adopted from any
ascetic motive. The current explanation was, without doubt, an
aetiological myth, a grandiose explanation long after the com-
monplace event. The iron money was the survival of a time
when iron was a favorite article of exchange, as it was in the
Homeric age, and as it still is, as we have seen, in Africa to-day.
But the Spartans were a very conservative people, and clung to
their primitive money long after the superiority of other metals
for coinage had been demonstrated by experience ; and long
after the real origin of their money had been forgotten. To
explain their own backwardness, they gave, as 30 many other
peoples have given, a religious and moral sanction to their own
lack of progressiveness.’j'

After the introduction of metallic money there was room for
a long process of development. Man had still to determine
which of the metals was the most suitable for his purposes ;
and the actual selection which civilized man has made is the
result of the survival of the fittest. There are certain qualities
which we have come to look for in money, qualities which all
metals seem to possess in a greater degree than any one sub-
stance, but qualities which all metals do not possess in the same

*Del Mar: op. tit., p. 147.
tEnc. Brit., Art. Money.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON. 203

degree. These are Utility, Portability, Indestructibility, Homo-
geneity, Divisibility, Stability of Value, |Cognizability. These
qualities are possessed in an especial degree by gold and silver,
and in a less degree by copper. Iron was used, and is still used
in many regions ; but it is not the best money material because
of its cheapness. It does not contain great value in small bulk,
and it is not indestructible. Lead was used in classical times,
and is still current in Burmah, but it is too soft to be made into
good coins which will retain their stamp and be always cogniz-
able. Tin was early adopted as a money material. It was
coined by Dionysius, of Syracuse, who was the first to use it of
whom we can speak with certainty ; and it has remained in use
as a money material ever since. In 1680, Charles II. issued tin
farthings, and his example was followed by William and Mary
in 1690 ; and it was employed in Java, Mexico, and elsewhere.
But it has the defect of being too soft. Copper, either pure or
in alloy, has been extensively employed, and it possesses almost
all the qualities requisite, except that it does not contain great
value in small bulk, and has comparatively little stability of
value. Platinum is in many respects suited for currency pur-
purposes, but it is in but slight demand, and the stock on
hand is very small. Consequently any change in the demand
is apt to cause great fluctuations in value, Russia, which owns
platinum mines in the Ural Mountains, began to coin it in 1828,
but abandoned the experiment in 1845, because of the cost of
striking coins. Nickel has been largely used in alloy, but it is
subject to the disadvantage of fluctuations in value owing to the
limited number of mines. Silver and gold are pre-eminently
the metals suitable for coinage. They possess all the qualities
necessary in a currency material. These qualities, of course,
they do not possess in a perfect degree ; but they possess them
in a higher degree than any other substances. They have great
ut:litv. They contain great value in small bulk and are readily
portable. Except by the slow process of wear and tear they are
practically indestructible. They are almost perfectly homo-
genous after they have been reduced to uniform degrees of

204 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY — DAVIDSON.

fineness, which can be easily done, so that equal weights of them
have practically equal values. They can be easily divided into
the weights and fractions desired so as to express large values
and small values. They have a very large degree of stability
of value, not so much perhaps as wheat, but more than most
articles which could be employed as money. And lastly, they
are readily recognizable and cannot be easily counterfeited, and
above all, are soft enough and yet hard enough to be coinable,
“ so that a portion, being once issued according to proper regu-
lations with the impress of the state, may be known to all as
good and legal currency equal in weight, size and value to all
similarly marked currency.”*

The precious metals are simply those commodities which
experience has shown to be the most suitable for general money
purposes. This, or that money article, may have this or that
money quality in a higher degree than gold or silver, but taking
them all in all, the precious metals have been found to be the
most suitable. They have survived, not because of any prejudice
in favor of the metals, but because they have shown themselves
to be the fittest to survive.

*Jevons : Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, p. 40.

VI.— On the Presence of Acid Sulphate of Copper in
Mixtures of Aqueous Solutions of Sulphuric Acid
and Copper Sulphate — By Charles F. Lindsay, Dal -
housie College, Halifax, N. S.

(Communicated on 8th May, 1899, by Prof. E. Mackay, Ph. D.)

Anton Schrader* in a paper on the “ Electrolysis of Mixtures/’
measured the conductivity and other properties of solutions
containing mixtures of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate,
analysing his mixtures for the amount of acid present by titra-
tion. In his paper, no methods of any kind are given for the
analyses. Prof. MacGregor*)* has held that Schrader’s results
point towards the presence of acid sulphate of copper in
the solution. At the suggestion of Prof. Mackay this work was
undertaken to find if any light could be obtained on this ques-
tion by chemical analytical methods.

The work was carried out in the Chemical and Physical
laboratories of Dalhousie College, and consisted primarily in
making up solutions of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate,
analysing them, and determining their densities. In the begin-
ning the densities were taken only as a means of calculating the
concentration of the mixtures from the concentration of the
simple solutions. The work also included the purification of the
materials used, and the calibration of burettes and pipettes.

Calibration of Burettes and Pipettes.

All burettes and pipettes were carefully calibrated, by weigh-
ing the amount of water of known temperature which they
delivered. The burettes used could be read to .01 c.c. They
were calibrated for every 2 c.c. throughout their length.

The pipettes, in emptying, were held against the side of the
vessel into which they were being emptied, the last drops of
water being removed by blowing sharply once.

* Inaugural Dissertation, Berlin, 1897.
t Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, (2), i. Sec. 3, 117, 1898-9.

(205)

206

SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID

Purification and Analysis of Copper Sulphate.

The copper sulphate was obtained as chemically pure, and
after careful re-crystallization, was found to be free from iron
and the members of the ammonium sulphide group.

The copper sulphate solutions were analysed by precipitating
the sulphate, in known volume, with barium chloride, and weigh-
ing as barium sulphate.

The following are the results of three analyses of the same
solution : —

Cu S04 in 5 c.c. of solution = .5782 grammes.

= .5788

“ - “ = .5790

Mean = .5787

These figures would seem to show that my results might be
in error about 0.1 per cent.

Purity and Analysis of Sulphuric Acid.

The sulphuric acid was the best obtainable from Merck, and
was taken as chemically pure. The sulphuric acid solutions
were analysed volumetrically with standard caustic potash,
using as an indicator phenol phthalein.

The following results show with what accuracy such analyses
could be carried out : —

2 c.c. H2 S04 solution contained .1627 grammes H0 S04

“ “ “ “ .1625

« c< u « 1624 “ «

Mean = .16253. “ “

Thus, the possible error of a single measurement would seem
to be about 0.11 per cent.

Preparation and Analysis of Mixtures.

Equal volumes of the simple solutions, whose concentrations
and densities were known, were mixed at 18°C. The density of
the mixture being obtained, the concentration of the mixture
with respect to each of the constituents, was obtainable.

AND COPPER SULPHATE — LINDSAY.

207

The ordinary methods of acid titration are, of course, unavail-
able in this case, for not only does the copper sulphate itself
affect alkalimetric indicators, but the sulphate is precipitated as
hydroxide, by the base used for titration. The latter fact is the
one used in the method of titration which was employed.

Standard caustic potash solution is added from a burette to
the mixture, with constant stirring, until the solution just begins
to become cloudy, owing to the beginning of the precipitation of
the hydroxide of copper. I found that, using this precipitating
point as an indicator, very good determinations of the acid
present could be obtained; and would suggest that copper sul-
phate might be used as an indicator in the determination of free
sulphuric acid, in cases where the ordinary indicators are of
no use.

The following results of an analysis will show with what
accuracy the determination of this precipitating point could be
ascertained :

5 c.c. of a mixture CuS04 + H2 S04, began to be cloudy on
addition of 43.88 c.c. decinormal caustic potash.

43.97

43.99

44.86

43.92 = mean.

Tnus, in these determinations, the difference between the greatest
and least values would be about .3%.

A second set of determinations is added :

5 c.c. of a mixture CuS04 + H2S04, began to become cloudy
on addition of 28.94 c.c. of decinormal caustic potash.
28.91
28.99

28.95 = mean

In this case, the difference between the greatest and least
values is about .27%.

208

SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID

It is thus seen not only that the precipitating point is a per-
fectly definite one, but that it can be determined with consider-
able accuracy.

The next question is, whether it expresses accurately the
amount of acid present.

Concentration.

h2 so4

Error.

h2 so4

CuS04

Calculated.

Found.

.416

.277

.864

.727

.2036

.1356

.2039

.1357

+ .15%
+ .08%

Column I. contains the concentration of H2S04 in mixture in
gramme-molecules per litre.

“ II. contains the concentration of CuS04 in mixture in
gramme-molecules per litre.

“ III. contains the amt. of H2S04 in grammes, calculated to
be in every 5 c.c. of mixture.

“ IY. contains the same, as found in every 5 c.c. of mixture.

“ Y. contains the percentage error.

We thus see that by this means, the sulphuric acid present
can be determined with considerable accuracy.

In the above analyses, the mixture under analysis was dilu-
ted very much, the reason being, that so far the work has been
only to find a good method of analysis, and not to prove or
disprove the presence of acid sulphate.

But now a number of analyses were performed on the above
mixtures, keeping the mixtures concentrated, and in no case was
there any appreciable difference in the amount of caustic potash
needed before precipitation would commence.

The results obtained from analyses of the concentrated mix-
tures, gave, as a rule, slightly less quantities of sulphuric acid.
But this I would attribute to the fact that the precipitate would
be more easily noticed in the smaller volume than in the larger.

AND COPPER SULPHATE — LINDSAY.

209

I also made a number of determinations, using standard
ammonia in place of the standard potash, but although the pre-
cipitating point could be fairly well determined, the results did
not agree as well with the amount of sulphuric acid known to be
present.

We thus see that this method of chemical analysis for sul-
phuric acid, while it gives us a good method of analysis for such
mixtures, sheds no light on the presence of acid sulphate in
solution.

While any recognizable decrease in the amount of sulphuric
acid given up to analysis from that known to be present, would
yield an almost conclusive proof of the presence of acid sulphate,
the result obtained here, does not of necessity lead to the reverse
conclusion.

Specific Gravity Measurements.

All specific gravity measurements were made at 18°, and are
referred to water at 18°. In these measurements, a pycnometer
of the form recommended by Ostwald, and holding about 25 c.c.
was used.

The pycnometer was brought to 18° by being placed in a
water bath, provided with a mechanical stirrer, whose tem-
perature could easily be kept constant to 1/20 of a degree.
When the liquid had come to the temperature of the bath, the
meniscus was brought to the mark, the pycnometer taken out,
dipped in distilled water, dried carefully with a linen towel, and
weighed.

From several successive measurements of the same solution,
it would appear that my measurements of density might be in
error by about 5 in the fifth place of decimals.

Favre and Valson* have found that, in the case of concentra-
ted?solutions of K2S04and CuS04, and K2S04 and H2S04, the
density of a mixture of equal volumes of the constituents, is less
than the mean value of their densities. From these results they

*Compt. Rend., 77, 907.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Yol. X.

Trans.— N.

210 SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID, ETC. — LINDSAY.

drew the conclusion that acid or double sulphate was present in
solution. Also McKay*f* has noticed the same for mixtures of
potassium and magnesium sulphates.

In the case of more concentrated solutions of CuS04 and
H2S04, I have found the same result to hold. But from lack of
time I was unable to push this far.

I give two of my measurements, showing the concentration
and density of the constituents, the density of the mixture, and
its departure from the mean value.

Parts of
1 H-2 S04 in 100
parts Sol’tion.

Parts of
CUSO4 in 100
parts Sol’tion.

Density
H2 SO4

Density

CuS04-

1 Mean
Value.

Density

of

Mixture.

Differ-

ence.

17.41

16.083

1.12586

1.19108

1.15842

1.15603

.00239

16.23

13.877

1.11525

1.14802

1.13163

1.12952

.00211

t Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 348, 1897-98.

VII.-—' On a Diagram of Freezing-Point Depressions for
Electrolytes. — By Prof. J. G. MacGregor, Dalhousie
College, Halifax , N. S.

( Received June 20th, 1900.)

The object of this paper is to describe a diagrammatic method
of taking a bird’s-eye view of such knowledge as we possess of
the relation of the depression of the freezing-point to the state
of ionization in aqueous solutions of electrolytes, and to show
that such diagrammatic study gives promise of throwing much
light upon the following questions : (1.)* — Has the depression

constant a common value for all electrolytes, and if so, what
is it ? And (2), What is the state of association, and what the
mode of ionization of electrolytes, in solution?

Construction and Properties of the Diagram.

If an extremely dilute solution contain an electrolyte whose
molecule, as it exists in solution, contains p equivalents, and dis-
sociates into q free ions, and if a is its ionization coefficient and
k its depression constant, the equivalent depression will be :

If therefore we plot a diagram of curves with ionization coeffici-
ents as ordinates, and equivalent depressions as abscissae, the
resulting curves must, at extreme dilution ( a — 1), be tangential
to the straight lines represented by the above equation, provided
the proper values of k, p, and q be employed. These straight
lines, which, for shortness, we may call the tangent lines of the
curves, can readily be drawn in the diagram, with anyT assumed
value of k, and on any admissible assumptions as to the values
of p and q. In the diagram on page 235 the dashed lines are the

* On this question, see also a paper recently communicated to the Royal Society
of Canada, and to be published in its Transactions for 1900.

(211)

212

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

tangent lines for the electrolytes examined, on various assump-
tions as to constitution in solution and mode of ionization, and
for k— 1.85. They are indicated by the inscriptions 1 — 2, 2 — 3,
etc., the first figure in each giving the number of equivalents in
the molecule as it is assumed to exist in solution, and the second,
the number of free ions into which the molecule is assumed to
dissociate. Thus 1 — 2 is the tangent line for an electrolyte such
as NaCl, on the assumption that it exists in solution in single
molecules, each of which has therefore 1 equivalent, and disso-
ciates into 2 ions. If assumed to associate in double molecules,
with unchanged mode of ionization, its tangent line would be
indicated by 2 — 4, and if the double molecules were assumed to
dissociate into Na and NaCl2, by 2 — 2. The line for H2S04, on
the assumption that its molecules undergo no association, and
have thus 2 equivalents, and that they dissociate each into 3
ions, would be 2 — 3 ; and 4 — 6 would be its line if it associated
into double molecules, dissociationg each into 6 ions.

In a few cases dotted lines have been introduced, to show
what the tangent lines would be with other values of 1c, — 1.83,
1.84, 1.86, 1.87, the constant used in such cases being indicated.

The curve for any given electrolyte, must start at the inter-
section of its tangent line with the line : a— 1, to which point we
may refer, for shortness, as the intersection of its tangent line.
What its form will be, may be anticipated from the following
theoretical considerations : — The equivalent depression in dilute
solutions of non- electrolytes, is proportional to the osmotic pres-
sure, P, and the dilution, V, which corresponds to the product of
the pressure, p, and the specific volume, v, in the case of a gas.
If pv is plotted against v , the resulting curve is convex towards
the axis of v, and passes, in general, through a point of minimum
value of pv. Hence, if PV, and therefore equivalent depression,
be plotted against V, we may expect to get curves of the same
general form. And experiment shows, in some cases at least,
that we do. As in the case of gases the variation of pv is
ascribed to the mutual action of the molecules and their finite
volume, so in the case of solutions, the variation of PV is attrib-
uted to similar disturbing influences.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

213

Owing to ionization, the curve of an electrolyse will differ
from that of a non-electrolyte, (1) because of the change thereby
produced in the number of molecules (including free ions) in unit
of volume, and (2) because of the change produced in the dis-
turbing influences referred to. The former change is doubtless
the more important, and I shall assume the latter to be negligible
for the present purpose. Now dissociation increases continu-
ously with dilution. If, therefore, association of molecules does
not occur, and if the mode of ionization does not change, the
equivalent depression must be increased by the dissociation, in a
ratio which increases continuously with dilution. The change
produced in the curve by dissociation, therefore, will be a shear
parallel to the equivalent depression axis, and increasing with
dilution. The resulting curve will consequently remain convex
towards the axis of dilution, but it will be less likely than the
curve of a non-electrolyte, to exhibit the minimum point.

If, now, we plot equivalent depression against ionization
coefficient, instead of dilution, the result will be the same as if
we shortened the dilution ordinates of the various points of the
curve just mentioned, in ratios increasing with the dilution,
which process must leave the curve convex towards what was
the dilution axis, but is now the ionization coefficient axis.

If, therefore, no change occur in the association of molecules
or in the mode of ionization, the curve of an electrolyte on the
diagram must start at the intersection of its tangent line, tangen-
tially to that line, and bend away from it, as dilution diminishes,
to the right, possibly passing through a point of minimum
equivalent depression. We may speak of such a curve as the
normal curve for the tangent line, corresponding to the given
conditions as to constitution in solution, and mode of ionization.

If, the constitution of the electrolyte in the solution remaining
constant,. the mode of ionization changes as dilution diminishes,
say, in such a way that the molecules dissociate, on the average,
into a smaller number of ions, the equivalent depression will
diminish more rapidly than it otherwise would. The curvature
of the curve will therefore diminish, and may possibly become

214

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

zero, and change sign, the curve thus becoming concave towards
the ionization coefficient axis, and possibly crossing the tangent
line. In such a case, it will at the start coincide with the normal
curve of the tangent line determined by the initial conditions as
to association and mode of ionization, and at the finish, with the
normal curve of the tangent line, determined by the final con-
ditions; and between the start and the finish it will gradually
change from the one to the other.

If, as dilution diminishes, association of molecules into double
or other multiple molecules occurs, the mode of ionization
remaining the same, the equivalent depression will be thereby
made to diminish more rapidly than it otherwise would, and the
general effect on the form of the curve, will be of the same kind
as under the conditions just considered. But the normal curves
of the tangent lines determined by the final conditions, will be
quite different in the two cases.

It follows that by plotting, so far as experiment allows, the
curves of observed equivalent depression against ionization
coefficient, and drawing in the tangent lines for different values
of the depression constant, and on different assumptions as to
association and mode of ionization, we may be able to determine,
with a smaller or greater probability, what the state of associa-
tion and the mode of ionization are, what are the tangent lines
to whose intersections the curves would run out if observations
at extreme dilution could be made, and what the values of the
depression constant are, to which these lines correspond.

Data for the Diagram.

To draw the experimental curves, we must have correspond-
ing values of the depression, and of the ionization coefficient, at
the freezing point, or, what in most cases would be sufficiently
near, at 0°C. The former are obtained by direct measure-
ment ; but the latter only indirectly, from conductivity observa-
tions. It is not, of course, known how closely the ionization
coefficients, even during the passage of the current, can thus be
determined, or if the state of ionization during the passage of the

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

215

current is to be regarded as being the same as when the current
is not flowing. But as it has been shown that electrically deter-
mined coefficients enable us to predict within the limit of error
of observation, not only the conductivity and the results of
electrolysis* of moderately dilute complex solutions, but also their
density, viscosity, and other non-electrical properties, ■(* it would
appear to be probable that for moderately dilute and very dilute
solutions, electrically determined coefficients are approximately
exact, not only for a solution through which a current is passing,
but generally.

The available data as to ionization coefficients at 0°, are
unfortunately few. Whethanrf- has recently published some
most valuable determinations, having measured the conductivity
at 0°, of series of solutions down to extreme dilution, with what
one may call appareil de luxe, and found the ratio of the equiv-
alent conductivity to the maximum equivalent conductivity. For
neutral salts, his coefficients must inspire great confidence. But
in the case of the acids, they seem to me to be probably too high.
For the maximum equivalent conductivity of an acid is probably
lower than it would be, wrere it not for the disturbing influence
whatever it is, which makes the equivalent-conductivity-con-
centration curve not only reach, but pass through a maximum
point.

Archibald and Barnes, J working in my laboratory, measured
the conductivity at 0° and 18° for series of solutions, down to
dilutions, at which the ratio of the two conductivities became
constant ; and assuming that the same ratio would hold at
extreme dilution, they calculated the equivalent conductivity at
extreme dilution for 0° from Kohlrausch’s values for 18°. They
used this method only because appliances were not available,
with which observations at extreme dilution could be made. If

* MacGregor : Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 4, Sec. 3, 117, 1898.

t MacGregor : Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci. 9, 219, 1898-7, and Phil. Mag. (5), 43, 46 and

99, 1897. Also Archibald : Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci. 9, 335, 1897-8, and Barnes : Ibid , 10, 49,
and 113, 1899-1900.

t Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 33, 344, 1900.

t Archibald: Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 33, 1898-9. Barnes : Ibid., 10, 139, 1899-

1900, and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, (2), 6, — , 1900.

216

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

the ratio mentioned really does become constant as dilution
increases, the method is likely to give coefficients with too low
or too high values, according as the ratio at moderate dilutions
diminishes or increases with dilution (it was found to increase
with KC1 and K2S04.) For it will probably become constant
within the limit of error of observation, before it has really reached
constancy. And if it changes with dilution in a slightly wavy
manner, even though on the whole tending to constancy, it may
be regarded as having become constant, when really passing
through a maximum or a minimum point.

Deguisne’s* observations on the variation of conductivity
with temperature between 2°C and 34° have enabled me, by the
method just mentioned, to make rough determinations of the
ionization coefficients at 0° in some cases, on the assumption that
his empirical constants might be used down to 0°. According to
Deguisne’s observations, the ratio of the conductivities at 0° and
18° usually changes gradually down to dilutions of 1,000 litres
per gramme-equivalent, and between that and 2.000, undergoes
rapid change. As observations at great dilution are attended by
considerable difficulty, I have assumed that these sudden changes
were probably due to errors of observation. If they were not,
my Deguisne coefficients (for which Deguisne himself is of course
not to be held responsible) may be considerably out.

In some cases, I have obtained coefficients from the above
data by extrapolation, in order to make use of available depres-
sion data. In such cases I have plotted, side by side, ionization-
coefficient-concentration curves, for both 0° and 18°, using values
for 18° based on Kohlrausch’s conductivities, and I have then
produced the 0° curve beyond the limit of observation, under the
guidance of the 18° curve.

I have used all the accessible observations of depression in the
case of the electrolytes for which data were available for deter-
ing the ionization coefficients at 0°, including observations by

* Temperatur-Coefficienten des Leitvermogens sehr verdiinnter Losungen. Dis-
sertation, Strassburg, 1895. See also Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elek-
trolyte, Leipzig, 1898.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR. 217

Arrhenius,1 Raoul t, 2 Loomis, 3Jones, 4 Abegg,5 6 Wildermann^Ponsot,7
Archibald8 and Barnes8. The methods used by these observers
are, for the most part, well known. Archibald and Barnes used
modified forms of Loomis’s method. Arrhenius’s observations,
and some of Raoult’s, were made before important improvements
in freezing-point determinations had been recognised as neces-
sary.

In cases in which there was but one series of observations
available, I have plotted the actual observations in the diagram,
though sometimes smoothing the curves a little. In cases in
which two or more series were available, I first plotted the vari-
ous observations, and then drew mean curves, making them
represent all the observations as well as I could, but giving
greater weight to recent observations than to those of earlier
date, and to long series of consistent observations than to short
series, or to series which were more erratic.

The following table gives the data employed in plotting both
the curves given in the diagram, and those not so given, which
are referred to below. The table includes the concentration in
gramme-equivalents per litre, the ionization coefficient at 0°, and
the equivalent depression in degrees centigrade per gramme-
equivalent in one litre of solution. The interpolated coefficients
are indicated by i , and those extrapolated by e, and the observers
from, or by the aid of, whose observations they were obtained,
by A, B, D, W, representing Archibald, Barnes, Deguisne and
Whetham. Non-significant figures are printed in italics.

1 Ztschr, f. phys. Chemie. 2, 491, 1888.

2 Ibid., 2, 501, 1888, and 27, 617, 1898.

3 Phys. Review, 1, 199 and 274, 1893-4 ; 3, 270, 1896, and 4, 273, 1897.

* Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 11, 110 and 529, 1893 ; and 12, 623, 1893.

6 Ibid. 20, 207, 1896.

6 Ibid. 19, 233, 1896.

7 Recherches sur la Congelation des Solutions Aqueuses : Paris, Gauthier- Yillars,

1896.

8 Loc. cit.

218

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

i Ionization
j Coefficient
at 0°C.

Equivalent

Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

i

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0°C.

| Equivalent
1 Depression.
1

KC1. (Barnes.)

KC1. (Abegg.)

.00488

.00972

.0118

.0145

.0193

.0237

.0240

.0286

.0354

.0469

.0583

.0697

.0001

.0002

.0005

.001

.005

.010

.03

.05

.08

.10

.20

.30

.40

.989

.986

.977

.971

.944

.930

.910

.892

.871

.862

.832

.819

.804

3.533
3.504
3.470
3.458
3.398
3.390
3.372 j

.976 i.W.
.962 “
.958 “
.953 "
.944 “
.917 i. B.
.917 “
.912 “
.904 “
.895 “
.887 “
.878 “

3.70

3.63

3.64
3.63
3.53
3.51

3.49
3.51

3.50
3.47
3.45
3.43

KC1. (Wildermann.)

KC1. (Loomis.) |

.009818

.009822

.01954

.03883

.03884

.07652

.07668

.943 i. B.
.943 “
.924 “
.900 “
.900 “
.873 “
.873 “

3.538

3.583

3.542

3.515

3.532

3.491

3.487

.01

.02

.03

.035

.05

.1

.2

.4

. 943 i. B.
.923 “
.910 “
.905 “
.892 “
.862 “
.832 “
.804 “

3.60

3.55

3.52

3.53
3.50
3.445
3.404
3.353

KC1. (Ponsot)

KC1. (Jones.)

.0234
.0439
.146S
.1688
• .2344

.2456
.2472
.2544

.915 i. B.
.896 “
.846 “
.840 “
.827 “
.825 “
.825 “
.824 “

3.419

3.417

3.413

3.406

3.392

3.375

3.378

3.377

.001

.00299

.00499

.00698

.00897

.01095

.02

.04

.0592

.078

.09646

.2

.28

.992 i.W.
.983 “
976 “
.970 “
.965 “
.960 “

I .944 “
i .897 i. B.
.885 “
.873 “
.863 “
.832 “
.821 “

3.80
3.67 89
3.70 74
3.62 46
3.61 20
3.59 82
3.575 0
3.5325
3.5967
3.4925
3.4685
3.4300
3.41072

NaCl. (Barnes.)

1

.0001

.0002

.0005

.001

.005

.996
.991
1 .982

.974
955

.010

!936

KC1. (Raoult.)

i

.03

.896

3.573

.05

.877

3.536

.08

.860

3.530

.01445

.953 i.W.

3.523

.10

.850

3.515

.02895

.933 “

3.561

.20

.815

3.443

.05825

.904 e.W.

3.478

.30

.787

3.431

.1168

.878 “

3.431

.40

.765

3.412

I

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

219

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0°C.

Equivalent

Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization i
Coefficient 1
at 0° C. |

Equivalent

Depression.

NaCl. (Loomis.)

NaCl. (Abegg.)

.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

.06

.07

.08

.09

.10

.20

.936 i. B.
.916 “
.896 “
•886 “
.878 “
.870 ■*
.864 “
.860 “
.855 “
.850 “
.815 “

3.674

3.597

3.560

3.541

3.531

3.529

3.510

3.501

3.494

5.484

3.439

.00241

.00478

.00714

.00948

.01180

.01410

.0221

.0439

.0653

.0871

.1083

.965 i.B.
.956 “
.945 “
.937 “
.931 “
.925 “
.906 “
.882 “
.867 “
.856 “
.847 “

3.91

3.91

3.84

3.82

3.70

3.66

3.56

3.57
3.55
3.50
3.47

NaCl. (Jones.)

NaCl. (Arrhenius.)

.001

.002

.(02999

.004

.004998

.005995

.006995

.007985

.008985

.01

.02

.0298

.0395

.04955

.05975

.0697

.0790

.0882

.0973

.1063

.15

.1925

.2329

.300

.974 i. B.
.967 “
.963 “
.959 “
.955 “
.950 “
.947 “
.942 “
.939 “
.936 “
.915 “
.896 “
.887 “
.878 “
.870 “
.865 “
.861 “
.856 “
.851 “
.848 “
.831 “
.818 “
.805 “
.787 “

3.75 00

3.75 00

3.68-5

3.65 0

3.68 1

3.678

3.631

3.62 8

3.62 8

3.605

3.578

3.544

3.538

3.519

3.507

3.500

3.492

3.483

3.477

3.469

3.447

3.418

3.414

3.410

.0467

.117

.194

.324

.879 i. B.
.843 *■
.816 “
.781 “

3.79

3.64

3.54

3.51

NaCl. (Ponsot.)

.1318

.1808

.2016

.2248

.2288

.3136

.836 i. B.
.821 “
.814 “
.808 “
.806 “
.784 “

3.445

3.418

3.413

3.403

3.405

3.402

HC1. (Barnes.)

.001

.002

.005

.010

.0207

.0518

.0829

.104

.207

.305

.40

.996

.995

.989

.984

.971

.955

.941

.932

.909

.897

.884

3.638

3.595

3.569

3.556

3.585

3.633

3.638

NaCl. (Raoult.)

.0300

.0584

.1174

.2370

.896 i. B.
.870 “
.843 “
.804 “

3.656

3.550

3.473

3.465

220

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent

Depression.

' Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0°C.

Equiva ent
Depression.

HC1. f(Loomis.) ]

H NO3. (Loomis.)

.01

.982 i. B.

3.61

.01

.977 i. D.

3.50

.02

.972 “

3.60

.02

.967 e. D.

3.56

.05

.955 “

3.59

.03

.959 “

3.53

.1

.933 “

3.546

.05

.950 “

3.51

2

.910 “
.897 “

2.565

3.612

.3

±1 1NU3. (Jones.;

HC1. (Jones.)

.001054

.994 i. D.

3.7 951

.001222

.003662

.006112

.008538

.01222

.03619

.05919

.08127

.1025

.996 i. B.
.991 “
.987 “
.984 “
.979 “
.962 “
.951 “
.940 “
.933 “

3.7 643
3.74:11
3.74 67
3.70 33
3.67 43
3.6750
3.661Z
3 . 5850
3.5600

.003158

.005253

.007378

.009456

.01153 |

.03119 j

.05103

.989 “
.982 “
.981 “
.978 “

I .975 e. D.
I .958 “
j .949 “

3.7682
3.7 693
2.74 09
3.73 81
3.7294
3.717 9
3.707 6

.1228

.928 “

3 . 5692

KOH. (Loomis.)

NH4C1. (Loomis.)

.01

.965 i. D.

3.43

.02

.05

.956 e. D.
.943 “

3.45

3.44

.01

.951 i. D.

3.56

.1

.932 “

3.43

.02

.931 “

3.56

.035

.914 “

3.50

.05

.900 “

3.48

KOH. (Jones.)

NH4C1. (Jones.)

.001069

.983 i. D.

3.7 418

.003202

.005327

.973 “
.969 “

3.74 77

3.71 69

.001

.987 i. D.

3.8

.007443

.967 “

3.694/

•00599

.963

3.7002

.009550

.965 “

3.68-59

.00997

.951 “

3.6100

.01069

.964 e. D.

3.62 96

.0595

.892 e. D.

3.5140

.03163

.950 “

3.62 63

.05174

.942 “

3.575 6

.07481

.935 “

3.6142

JVINU3. tJUUUIlIIS.J

r>aLl2. ( .Loomis.)

.01

.938 i. D.

3.46

.02

.915 “

3.52

.025

.899 “

1 3.46

.02

.860 ’i. W.

2.495

.05

.876 “

3.4L

.04

.820 e. VV.

2.475

.1

.832 e. D.

3.314

.1

.768 “

2.385

.2

.789 “

3.194

.2

.724 “

2.345

.4

.658 “

2.3275

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR.

221

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent

Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

I

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0“ C.

Equivalent

Depression.

BaCl2. (Jones.)*

K2S04. (Archibald.)— i

Continved.

.002

.953 i. W.

2.7500

.002

.925

.003996

.932 “

2.70 27

.004

.904

.005988

.008

.917 “
.906 “

2.67 20

.005

.895

2.6250

.008

.871

.009984

.896 “

2.61 42
2.582#

2.575 3

2.5754
2.5560
2.5500

.010

.859

.011964

.01394

.01592

.01788

.02

.889 “
.880 “
.872 “
.866 “
.860 “

.050

.055

.060

.070

.080

.100

.755

.748

.743

.732

.722

.705

2.370
2.356
2.345
2.327
2.314
2.285 .

Ba Cl2. (Ponsot.)

.200
. .250
.300
.350
.400
.450
.500
.600
.700

.645

.629

.616

.606

.598

.591

.588

.583

.580

2.161

2.118

2.080

2.056

2.032

2.014

1.990

1.950

1.916

.00926

.00994

.01030

.01290

.01304

.02500

.02740

.03310

.03588

.900 i. W.
.897
.895 “
.887 “
.883 “
.845 “
.839 “
.827 e. W.
.822 “

2.4 84
2.5 15
2.524

2 .481
2.5 31

2.480

2.482
2.477

2.481

k2

S04. (Loomis.)

.03676

.03824

.04810

.05112

.05520

.0620

.0680

.0774

.2060

.2095

.2235

.3100

.3280-

.3470

.820 “
.818 “
.803 “
.802 “
.796 “
.790 “
.785 “
.771 “

4.475

2A58

2.452

2.445

2.440

2.436

2.426

2.416

.02

.04

.1

.2

.4

.6

.821 i. A.
.772 “
.705 “
.645 “
.59$ “
.583 “

2.46

2.38

2.271

2.1585

2.0335

1 . 9455

.717 “
.716 “
.710 “
.685 “
.682 “
.679 “

2.316
2.320
2.309
2.297
2.308

2.317

K-2-S04. (Jones.)

.002

.003992

.005990

.007970

.009930

.012

.925 i. A.
.904 “
.886 “
.871 “
.859 “
.850 “

2.725

2.693

2.663

2.641

2.613

2.613

K2S04. (Archibald.)

.0001

.983

.01396

.01590

.842 “
.836 “

2.593

2.582

.0002

.976

.01784

.829 “

2.545

.0004

.969

.01976

.823 “

2.525

.0005

.964

.03949

.771 “

2.469

.0006

.960

.0579

.745 “

2.413

.0008

.953

.07556

.727 “

2.372

.001

.946

.10

.705 “

2.307

* I have by oversight used one of Jones’ two sets of observations, instead of the
mean of his two sets ; but the curve of mean values would not differ appreciably from
the curve of single values.

222

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre-

Ionization
coefficient
at 0° C.

! Equivalent
| Depression.

K2 S04.

(Jones.)— Continued.

.116

.692 i. A.

2.289

.1357

.677 “

2.231

.152

.668 “

2.208

.16765

.661 “

2.197

.1826

.624 “

2.178

.19685

.647 “

2.160

K2S04. (Abegg)

.00876

.865 i. A.

2.79

.01306

.846 “

2.60

.01734

.829 “

2.47

.0216

.815 “

2.43

.0258

.803 “

2.40

.0299

.794 “

2.385

K2 SO 4. (Arrhenius.)

.0728

.729 i. A.

2.53

.182

.654 “

2.225

.454

.590 “

2.09

K

2 SO4. (Ponsot.)

.0724

.731 i. A.

2.307

.0752

.726 “

2.301

.2295

.635 “

2.113

.2360

.633 “

2.110

.4140

.596 “

2.012

.4280

.594 “

2.002

Na2

SO 4. (Archibald.)

.005

.893

.008

.870

.010

.859

.050

.752

2.382

.055

.743

2.371

.060

.736

2.360

.070

.722

2.340

.080

.712

2.320

.100

.694

2.286

.200

.624

2.165

.02

.821 i. A.

2.545

.04

.771 “

2.435

.10

.694 “

2.295

.20

.624 “

2.170

.40

.546 “

2.036

.60

.511 “

1.938

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent

Depression.

Na2 S04. Archibald.— (Continued.)

.250

.600

2.120

.300

.578

2.084

.350

.561

2.045

.400

.546

2.025

.450

.535

1.993

.500

.525

1.975

.600

.511

1.925

.700

.501

1.890

Na2 SO 4. (Loomis.)

Na2 SO 4. (Raoult.)

.1174

.2866

.426

.678 i. A.
.584 “
.540 “

2.39

2.18

2.68

Na2 S04. (Arrhenius.)

.056

.741 i. A.

2.515

.1402

.661 “

2.325

.234

.607 “

2.205

.390

.549 “

2.095

H2 SO4. (Barnes.)

.002

.004

.010

.020

.0406

.1016

.1622

.204

.406

.608

.883

.831

.783

.734

.720

.644

.609

.596

.569

.553

2.224

2.084

2.017

1.979

1.940

1.918

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

223

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent

Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent

Depression.

S04. (Loomis.)

H2 S04. (Wildermann.)-

-Continued.

.02

.770 i. B.

2.247

.06244

.688 i. B.

2.098

.04

.721 “

2.155

.09216

.653 “

2.049

.10

.645 “

2.065

.1358

.622 “

2.004

.20

.598 “

1.984

.1930

.599 “

1.970

.40

.570 “

1.925

Na

0CO0. (Loomis.)

H2 SO4. (Jones.)

.02

.735 i. D.

2.535

.002696

.962 i. W.

2.70 77

.04

.684 “

2.465

.007182

.011650

.906 “
.870 “
.844 “

2.5620
2.5L 50

2 .mi

.10

.611 e. D.

232

.016106

.02054

.02696

.823 “
.796 “

2. mo

2.3105

Na2 CO3. (Jones.)

.07100

.678 i. B.

2.2185

.003030

.008068

.013090

.018096

.02120

.859 i. D.

2.805

.11358

.15472

.19450

.2330

.633 “
.612 “
.598 “
.586 “

2.05 U
1.9952
1.9732
1.9498

.803 “
.770 “
.743 “
.730 “

2.764

2.755

2.741

2.722

H

.04802

.670 “

2.676

2S04. (Fonsot.)

.07736

.632 e. D.

2.494

.09588

.613 “

2.335

.0149

.790 e. B.

2.282

.0181

.0365

.770 “
.726 “

2.265

2.192

Mg SO 4 (Loomis.)

.0395

.0503

.720 i. B.
.706 “

2.20 5
2.14 7

.594 i. D.

1.331

.0669

.681 “

2.10 5

.02

.0727

.674 “

2.09 1

.04

.522 “

1.277

.0876

.658 “

2.045

.06

.485 “

1.237

.2570

.587 “

1.895

.2580

.587 “

1.899

.4476

.565 “

1.850

Mg SO* (Jones.)

.4516

QQ 79

.565 “

KOK < 6

1.849

1 QKQ

. OOl Z

.060

± . ooy

.002

.817 i. D.

1.7 000

h2so

.003996

.773 “

1.67 67

4. (Wildermann.)

.005998

.728 “

1.6555

.007976

.694 “

1.61 74

.009960

.669 “

1 . 605^

.009208

.889 i. W.

2.422

.011994

.651 “

1.59 13

.009216

.889 “

2.388

.01400

.634 “

1.5785

.016808

.842 “

2.297

.015972

.614 “

1.5590

.016834

.842 “

2.293

.017940

.608 “

1.5495

.01690

.840 “

2.325

.019904

.596 “

1.5325

.03206

.776 “

2.190

* .03950

* .05872

.521 “

1.4912

.03212

.735 i. B.

2.183

.502 “

1.4391

.06238

.688 “

2.10

224

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization
Coefficient
at 0° C.

Equivalent

Depression.

Gramme-
equivalent
per litre.

Ionization 1
Coefficient
at 0 °C.

Equivalent

Depression.

1

II 3 P04 (Loomis.)

H3 PO4 (Jones).

.03

.06

.614 i. D.
.513 “

0.94

0.893

.093279

.009843

.019605

.027705

.03279

.881 i. D.
.771 “
.669 “
.627 “
.602 “

1.1894
1.1575
1.0967
1.0727
1 1.0522

The curves of the diagram are so labelled with the initial
letters of observers’ names, (Ab for Abegg), as to show both the
depression observations, on which they are based, and the ioni-
ization coefficients used in plotting them. Thus the inscription
KC1 (J — W), means that Jones’ depressions and Whetham’s
coefficients were used; H2S02 (J LB — B), that the curve is a mean
curve based, mainly at least, on depression observations by Jones,
Loomis, and Barnes, and plotted with Barnes’ coefficients. The
limits of concentration for the curves, are indicated also, in
gramme-equivalents per litre.

Some of the curves are entered on an inset, drawn on four
times the scale of the main diagram.

In interpreting the curves, we must not only bear in mind
what has been said above about the probable accuracy of the
ionization coefficients, but must in addition note the tendency
exhibited by the curves of the various observers, as dilution
increases, to run off at great dilution in directions characteristic
of the observers, to the left or right relatively to the course pur-
sued by them at moderate dilution. Thus Abegg’s curves (see
NaCl, KC1, K2S04), and Jones’s (see NaCl, KC1, NH4C1, HC1)
run off to the right. So do Arrhenius’s in a marked manner.
Raoult’s tendency is also to the right, (see NaCl ; his K2S04, not
plotted, shows it also ; his most dilute KC1 observation, he him-
self clearly regards as accidentally out.) On the other hand,
Loomis’s curves (see HC1, K^03, NH4C1, BaCl2) go to the left.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 225

So do Ponsot’s, and probably Wildermann’s (not plotted), and I
gather from Ponsot’s diagrams of Pickering’s observations, to
which I have not access, that Pickering’s also have the leftward
tendency. Archibald’s and Barnes’ curves show less tendency to
diverge than those of any other observers. And although this
may be partially, it is not wholly, due to their having worked at
moderate dilutions only. For in several cases, pointed out below,
the curves of other observers start on a divergent course within
their limit of dilution. But the fact that their curves usually
agree with Loomis’s, would lead one to suspect them of a left-
ward tendency.

The divergence, as shown on the diagram, is most marked in
the case of highly dissociated electrolytes (NaCl, HC1, etc.) in
which, at great dilution, the rate of increase of ionization with
dilution is small, the curves being crushed up, therefore, into a
small space. But it is obvious also, in the KgSO* curves (espec-
ially Abegg’s) and the BaCl2 curves (including Ponsot’s, not
shown). And although for MgS04 and H3P04, wThose ionization
increases rapidly with dilution, the single curves do not reveal it,
the relative positions of the two curves in each case are what
they might be expected to be, if they were tending unduly,
Jones’s to the right, and Loomis’s to the left.

This tendency is explicable at once, when we reflect that as
it is equivalent depression that is plotted, the errors of the obser-
vations are brought into greater and greater prominence as
dilution increases. According, therefore, as the characteristic
error of an observer’s rpethod of measuring total depression is
positive or negative, will his curves of equivalent depression
diverge at great dilution to the right or left of their true
course. And they must diverge even if the error is very
small.

The equivalent depression curves of single observers are
therefore open to grave suspicion at high dilutions ; and since one
can never be sure that the errors of different methods will even
approximately neutralise one another, mean curves are, at high

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X.

Trans.— 0.

226

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

dilution, not much more trustworthy than their components.*
It is much safer, therefore, to base conclusions as to depression
constant on moderate dilution curves, although the conclusions
they admit of may not be so exact as we might wish.

Discussion of the Curves.

Electrolytes such as NaCl, HN03, KOH, have 1 equivalent
in the single molecule, and 2 ions. If, therefore, they exist in
solution in single molecules, their curves should be normal 1 — 2
curves. If the molecules are all double or triple, the curves
should be 2 — 4 or 3 — 6 curves, provided the association does
not involve change in the mode of ionization. If it does, they
may be 2 — 2, or 3 — 4, 3 — 3, 3 — 2 curves respectively, according
to the change that may occur. If the molecules are single at
extreme dilution, but become double or triple as dilution dimin-
ishes, the curves should start as 1 — 2 curves, and undergo
the appropriate transformation.

The electrolyte for which we have the most complete and
trustworthy data, is KC1. The LB — B curve is based
on two series of observations in close agreement and
by a method exhibiting less divergence than the others.
Jones’s runs a little to the right of it ; Abegg’s a
little to the left. Both Raoult’s and Wildermann’s cross it, the
latter being somewhat steeper, the former less steep. Ponsot’s

* It follows that it is inadmissible to proceed as Raoult has done in determining
depression constants, ( loc . cit. p. 658), viz., by selecting high dilution curves which are
in agreement, and applying extrapolation to a mean curve derived from them ; for such
procedure may mean the selection of observations made by methods which have char,
acteristic errors of the same sign. In fact, a mean curve based on observations whicn
agree well at low dilution, but disagree markedly at high dilution, would be likely to
give a better result, as more probably combining observations with small characteristic
errors of opposite sign. Raoult’s procedure is open to other objections. For (1 ) his
curves of equivalent depression against total depression, make series of observations,
appear to be in greater disagreement than they really are, and are thus not helpful in
making a judicious selection of observations to be used ; and (2.) extrapolation of such
curves not only gives a result affected by the average of the characteristic errors of the
observations used, but also neglects the possibility, in some cases the probability, that
owing to change in association and mode of ionization, the law of the change of curv-
ature may be very different beyond the limits of observation, from what it is within
these limits.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES— MACGREGOR.

227

coincides with the lower part, but in the upper part diverges to
the left. In form the curve is thus probably trustworthy. But
being plotted with Barnes’ coefficients it may be too high or too
low. The R — W and J — W curves (see inset) are not open to
this suspicion, but at the dilutions to which even their lower and
more trustworthy parts apply, they may have begun to diverge
unduly rightwards. If the L B — B curve (see inset) be raised
about 2.5 per cent., as is shown to be necessary by a comparison
of Whetham’s and Barnes’ coefficients, it comes into a position
to the left of the R — W and J — W curves, the usual relative
position of the curves of these observers. Loomis’s own curve
for somewhat greater dilutions than those of the L B — B curve,
when plotted with Whetham’s coefficients, coincides very nearly
with the boundary line of the inset ; Wildermann’s is a little to
the left of Loomis’s, and somewhat steeper. Both exhibit a
slight rightward bending, as do all the others.

It would be difficult to draw a mean curve with any confi-
dence ; but any such curve would run about midway between the

1 — 2 and 2 — 4 (1.85) lines, would have a slight rightward bending
at its upper end, and if produced with diminishing curvature,
would run out to a point a little to the right of the 1 — 2 (1.85)
intersection.

If this intersection were the starting point of the curve, and
if there were no association, the curve should lie wholly to the
right of the 1 — 2 (1.85) line. If, as dilution diminished,
sufficient doubling of molecules with unchanged mode of ioniza-
tion should occur, the curve, after first bending away from that
line to the right, would change its curvature, bend towards the
line and cross it, and then run towards, and finally away from, the

2 — 4 line, as the mean curve appears to do.

As the 2 — 2 line is far to the left, the mean curve might be
accounted for also, on the assumption of a very slight formation
of double molecules dissociating into two ions ; and a slight
formation of such molecules would probably involve no greater
variation of the migration numbers with concentration than
has been observed.

228

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

If the 1 — 2 (1.86) intersection, were assumed as the starting
point of the curve, the mean curve would cut the 2 — 4 (1.86)
line. If, therefore, association in molecules with unchanged
mode of ionization were assumed, some formation of triple mol-
ecules would be indicated, and if the associated molecules were
assumed to dissociate into two free ions, a greater extent of such
association would bo indicated. Thus, with this starting point,
less probable assumptions as to association must be made, to
account for the observations.

If the 1 — 2 (1.84) or even the 1 — 2 (1.845) intersection were
taken as the starting point, the curve must bend considerably to
the left before running out, — of which bending none of the
experimental curves give any indication whatever.

The most probable conclusion, then, that we can draw from
the observations, is that the depression constant is 1.85, with a
limit of error of .01, or perhaps .005, that the electrolyte has
single molecules at great dilution, and that as dilution diminishes,
either double molecules with unchanged mode of ionization form
to a considerable extent, or double molecules dissociating into
two ions, to a small extent.

Loomis’s and Barnes’ observations, on which the NaCl
(L B — B) curve is based, are also in close agreement ; but as
Loomis’s curve for slightly greater dilution bends slightly to the
right, the upper part of the L B — B curve should probably
have greater curvature. Jones’ curve for moderately dilute
solutions runs a little to the left of it, and at higher dilutions
diverges markedly to the right, as separately shown. Abegg’s
observations are on both sides of it, but at higher dilutions his
curve also goes to the right. Raoult’s touches it, but goes off to
the right. Arrhenius’s is considerably to the right, and goes
widely rightward at greater dilutions. Ponsot’s is a little to the
left. As the L B — B curve is plotted with Barnes’ coefficients,
it is probably too low. If it be raised about as much as was
found necessary in the case of the KC1 curve, it will lie along the
1 — 2 line, or a little above or below it, with its upper end, as
drawn, so directed, as to run out probably at a point nearer the

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

229

1 — 2 (1.85) intersection, than either the 1 — 2 (1.88) or the 1 — 2
(1.87) intersection. Thus the defective data as to ionization
prevent our drawing a more definite conclusion than that the
association indicated, if any, is less than in the case of KC1, and
that the depression constant is 1.85, with a limit of error of
perhaps .02.

The HC1 curve is interesting as exhibiting a point of mini-
mum equivalent depression. The observations on which the
L B — B curve is based, are in good agreement. Jones’ curve
almost coincides with it in the lower part, but goes off to the
right in the upper part and at higher dilutions, as shown separ-
ately. Loomis’s curve at higher dilutions (also separately shown)
goes to the left, but in a less marked manner. As drawn, the
upper part of the mean curve lies between the 1 — 2 and 2 — 4
(1.85) lines, and it is running out to a point a little beyond the
1 — 2 (1.86) intersection (see inset). But as it is plotted with
Barnes’ co-efficients it is perhaps too low. If raised 1 or 2 per
cent, it would appear to run out at some point between the 1 — 2
(1.84) and 1 — 2 (1.86) intersections. The data are of course very
defective ; but they are consistent with a depression constant of
about 1.85, and they seem to indicate a greater extent of associ-
ation than in the case of KC1.

The L — D and J — D curves for NH4C1 are not in agreement,
having the usual relative position of Loomis’s and Jones’ curves.
A mean curve based on their lower parts would be slightly to
the left of the 1 — 2 (1.85) line, and directed to a point consider-
ably to the right of the 1 — 2 (1.86) intersection. It might thus
indicate anything between a high value of the depression con-
stant accompanied by very considerable association of molecules,
and a constant of about 1.85, with no association in dilute
solutions, and only a slowly increasing association in stronger
solutions.

The HNOs curve (see inset) is a mean curve based on
Loomis’s and Jones’s. Both are beyond the bounds of the inset,
the former to the left, the latter to the right. Neither this curve
nor that of KN03 is sufficiently trustworthy to warrant any

230

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

close inspection, but both are clearly consistent with the 1.85
value of the depression constant. If the leftward bending of the
KN03 curve in its lower part were actual, as well as the position
of the curve, the formation of triple molecules might be indicated.
But being a Loomis curve, it is open to the suspicion of being as
a whole, too far to the left ; and it is plotted with doubtful
coefficients.

The KOH curves, Loomis’s on the main diagram and Jones’s
on the inset, are useful only to illustrate the difficulty of making
concordant observations by different methods. As usual, Loomis’s
is to the left, and Jones’s to the right.

Electrolytes such as BaCl2, H2S04, Na2C03, have 2 equiva-
lents in the single molecule, which may dissociate into 3 or into
2 ions. If there is no association, they will therefore have 2 — 3
or 2 — 2 curves, according to the mode of ionization. If there is
complete doubling of molecules, the curves will be 4 — 6 or 4 — 4
curves, provided the doubling does not involve change in mode
of ionization. Otherwise they might be 4 — 5, 4 — 3 or 4 — 2
curves. (The corresponding tangent lines are so far to the left
of the experimental curves that they are not entered on the
diagram.) If the molecules are associated in threes, the curves
will be 6 — 9 or G — 6 curves, with the above proviso.

Both Loomis’s and Jones’ curves for BaCl2 are shown on the
diagram, plotted with Whetham’s coefficients (rough extrapol-
ated values, however, in the case of the former). Ponsot’s curve
agrees very closely with Loomis’s. Bearing in mind the right-
ward and leftward tendencies of Jones’s and Loomis’s curves,
respectively, we may conclude from the curves of the diagram
that the actual curve runs down to the right of the 2 — 3 line,
bending away from it to the right, and that it would intersect
the a— 1 line at a point between the 2 — 3 (1.85) and 2 — 3 (1.87)
intersections, probably nearer the former than the latter. The
curve is thus, so far as we can judge, a normal 2 — 3 (1.85 ± .01)
curve, running, however, very close to the 2 — 3 line. The dia-
gram, therefore, indicates that Bad2 exists in solution in single
molecules, dissociating into 3 ions, at least for the most part, and
that it has a depression constant nearer 1.85 than 1.87.

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR. 231

The H2S04 (J — W) curve for high dilutions, being a Jones
curve, is probably too far to the right, and being plotted with
Whetham’s coefficients, is probably too high. Wildermann’s
curve for high dilutions runs parallel to it, considerably to the
left. The J L B — B curve, for lower dilutions, is very nearly
coincident with Barnes’ curve, and in its lower part with Jones’s
and Loomis’s as well. But in the upper part, Jones’ curve goes
off markedly to the right, and Loomis’s markedly to the left*
Wildermann’s is slightly to the left at the lower end, and diver-
ges somewhat leftwards in the upper part. Ponsot’s runs nearly
parallel to it, somewhat to the left, and diverging to the left at
higher dilutions. The J L B — B curve is thus trustworthy as to
form ; but being plotted with Barnes’ coefficients, it is probably
too low. The actual curve would thus appear to cross the 2 — 3
(1.85) line not far from its starting point, bend towards the 4 — G
line, and run down below that line, finally bending slightly
towards it. Its course is therefore what it would be if it started
as a 2 — 3 curve, for lc= 1.85 or thereabout, changed its curvature
at a somewhat early stage, and tended to be transformed slowly
into either a double molecule curve or a 2 — 2 curve, or perhaps
both. The diagram would therefore indicate that at extreme
dilution H2S04 exists in solution in single molecules, dissociating
into three ions, that at an early stage and in a somewhat marked
manner, either doubling of molecules sets in, or partial dissocia-
tion into two ions, or perhaps both, that the change increases
slowly and steadily as dilution diminishes, and that at a concen-
tration of about 0.6, if the coefficients at this concentration are
to be trusted, the change is increasing in rate; also that the
depression constant may quite readily be about 1.85.

The K2S04 (L J A — A) curve, is based on series of observa-
tions which in the main are in good agreement. It very nearly
coincides with the Loomis and Archibald curves, and Ponsot’s
runs down slightly to the left. In its lower part it coincides
with the Jones curve, but in its upper part the Jones curve,
which is separately represented for great dilutions, runs off to
the right. Abegg’s curve for higher dilutions runs even more

232

ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT

markedly to the right, although it is farther to the left at its
lower end. Arrhenius’s is considerably to the right, and diverges
widely rightwards. The Na2S04 (L A — A) curve is also almost
coincident with both the Loomis and the Archibald curves. Both
Raoult’s and Arrhenius’s are considerably to the right, and
diverge slowly rightwards. Such of these curves as are entered
on the diagram, being plotted with Archibald’s coefficients, are
probably somewhat too high or too low, as the case may be.
Those for great dilutions are too discordant to admit of dis-
cussion. The mean curves for both salts have the same general
form, and run down, as drawn, a little below the 2 — 3 line.
Their upper ends are so directed as to suggest their running out
at the 2 — 3 (1.85) intersection, or thereabout. At their lower
ends they turn sharply to the left and cross the 2 — 3 line, going
towards the region of the double molecule curves, or of the 2 — 2
curve. The turns are too sharp, and the 4 — 6 and 6 — 9 lines
too near, to make their transformation into double or triple mol-
ecule curves, with unchanged ionization, probable. The diagram
suggests rather their transformation into 4 — 5, 4, or 2 or 2 — 2
curves. If this be accepted, it means that at extreme dilution
these sulphates exist in solution in single molecules, dissociating
into three ions, that partial dissociation into two ions or doubling
of molecules sets in, apparently at an early stage, but increases
more slowly than in the case of HoS04, until the dilution has
been considerably diminished, when it undergoes a rapid increase.
A close determination of the depression constant cannot be made;
but even if the curves have to be either raised or lowered a little,
and if, Loomis’s tendency being leftward, their upper parts have
to be shifted somewhat to the right, they will be consistent with
its being about 1.85.

The Na2C03 curves are too discordant to form a basis
for discussion. But either Loomis’s curve or a mean
curve, or even Jones’s curve itself, is quite consistent
with a depression constant of about 1.85 ; and both curves indi-
cate the occurrence of rapid association or of rapid change of ioni-
zation after considerable diminution of dilution. The fact that

DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES — MACGREGOR.

233

Loomis’s curves bend towards the left, suggests that the actual
curve after starting at the 2 — 3 intersection, may bend consider-
ably to the right before association or change of mode of
ionization has advanced sufficiently to change the direction of its
curvature.

An electrolyte such as MgS04, according as it may exist in
solution in single, double or triple molecules, and according to its
mode of ionization in associated molecules, may have a 2 — 2,
4 — 4 or 2, or 6 — 6, 4, 3 or 2 curve. Jones’ curve lies to the
right of the 2 — 2 (1.85) line, bending towards it, and may quite
readily be a 2 — 2 (1.85) curve, changing to a 4 — 4 or 4 — 2 curve.
Loomis’s lies between the 2 — 2 and 4 — 4 lines. A mean curve
would already, at a concentration .02, have crossed the 2 — 2 line.
The data, such as they are, are consistent with the depression
constant having a value of about 1.85, and would indicate single
molecules in dilute solutions, doubling of molecules at a very
early stage, and a steady increase in association through-
out.

According as H3P04, if it exist in solution in single mole-
cules, may dissociate into 4, 3 or 2 ions, will it have a 3 — 4, 3—3,
or 3 — 2 curve. If it have double molecules, its curve may be a
6 — 8, 6 — 7, etc., to 6 — 2 curve, according to the mode of ioniza-
tion. Jones’ curve runs down to the right of the 3 — 2 (1.85)
line, bending towards the line. Loomis’s lies between the 3 — 2
and G — 4 lines. A mean curve would be just to the right of the
3 — 2 line, and might readily run out at the 3 — 2 (1.85) inter-
section. This would indicate single molecules in dilute solutions
dissociating into two ions, an early occurrence of doubling of
molecules, and steady increase in the extent of association as
dilution diminished, the double molecules formed dissociating
into 4, 3, or 2 ions, but not into more. Although the coefficients
with which the curve is plotted are doubtful, the curve is so
nearly parallel to the axis of ionization coefficients, that even a
considerable error in their values would not affect the above
conclusions.

234 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC.

General Conclusions.

Although the observations on which the above discussion is
based are defective, and the particular conclusions drawn are
consequently tentative, I think it may be held with some con-
fidence (1) that the curves of equivalent depression against ioni-
zation coefficient, have positions, forms, and slopes, such as they
might be expected to have, on reasonable assumptions as to
mode of ionization and constitution in solution, according to the
Van ’t Hoff-Arrhenius theory of the depression of the freezing-
point in solutions of electrolytes, (2) that for all the electrolytes
examined, they are consistent with the depression constant
having a common value of about 1.85, and that in the case of the
electrolyte for which we have the best data, the curve is not
consistent with a greater limit of error in this value than about
.01, unless improbable assumptions are made with respect to the
constitution of the electrolyte in solution, and (3) that the dia-
gram enables us to reach in some cases, conclusions of considerable
probability with respect to the constitution of the electrolyte in
solution, and its mode of ionization.

ss^y?(TS.p I 8t -ff-X O'Z XU?

DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS.

235

VIII. — Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia. — By
Hugh Fletcher, Esq., B. A., of the Geological Savvey
of Canada.

(Communicated on the lkth May, 1900.)

The Devonian.

In the summer of 1876, a great series of metamorphic rocks,
cut by masses of granite and trap, was separated in Cape
Breton from the overlying Carboniferous conglomerate made
up of their detritus. These rocks were then traced from Loch
Lomond to St. Peters, through Isle Madame and into Guysboro
and Antigonish counties, as recorded in the reports of the
Geological Survey between 1877 and 1881.

Localities were described at which the Carboniferous, com-
paratively unaltered, comes in contact with and contains pebbles
of these metamorphic rocks ; several sections indicating a thick-
ness of at least *10,000 feet were given in detail and mention
was made of carbonized plants, fish remains, ostracods and
other fossils found in many of the beds, the plants including
forms like Psilophyton, a characteristic Devonian genus.

Above them lies a formation, several thousands of feet in
thickness, containing marine fossils of the Carboniferous Lime-
stone series of England and characterized everywhere from
Newfoundland to the western boundary of New Brunswick, a
distance of 450 miles, by the occurrence of thick beds of
gypsum ; while at their base lie about 3,000 feet of limestones
and other beds of marine origin, shown by Dr. Honeyman,
in one of the finest pieces of combined stratigraphical and
palseontological geology yet done in Nova Scotia, to range at
Arasaig from Medina to Lower Helderberg.

Bocks in this position, precisely similar in lithological
character, had been called Devonian in New Brunswick, New-
foundland, Gaspe and on Logan’s map of the Pictou Coal field,
and this name was accordingly applied to them in Cape Brecon.

(235)

236

GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

It was subsequently found that the large Pre-carboniferous
area, eighteen miles wide at the Strait of Canso and five miles
in width at Lochaber, thirty-five miles to the south-west, instead
of being Silurian as claimed by Sir William Dawson, contains
only these plant-bearing Devonian strata which are divisible
into three groups corresponding closely with those into which
the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick had already been sub-
divided. They extend from Lochaber along the East River of
St. Mary’s and the East River of Pictou to strike the Inter-
colonial railway near Glengarry, form the high land south of
Truro and pass unconformably beneath the Carboniferous of
Stewiacke River; and a small area is found at MacAra Brook,
frorp which come the fish remains and Pterygotus subsequently
described by A. Smith Woodward as homotaxial with the upper
Silurian or lower Devonian of England.

As this grouping affected also rocks referred by Sir William
Dawson * on the evidence of their fossil plants “ to the lower
part of the coal formation or Millstone Grit ” and even higher,
it was naturally called in question ; and in 1 885 Mr. T. C.
Weston was sent to Nova Scotia, assisted by Mr. J. A. Robert,
to collect fossils between Riversdale and the Strait of Canso.
They found everywhere Lepidodendron corrugatum, Stigmaria
ficoides and Gyclopteris acadica, forms supposed to be charac-
teristic of the Horton series ; on the East River of St. Mary’s
plants which resemble rhizomes of Psilophyton ; and, near
Sunnybrae, Cordaites and numerous markings of Psilophyton
allied to P. glabrwm and P. elegans ; at and near Riversdale
they obtained Catamites, Sphenopteris, Anthracomya elongata
and A. laevis , Lepidodendron corrugatum , Stigmaria ficoides,
ferns and erect trees, characteristic again of the Horton series.

These rocks near Truro and on Cobequid Bay and Minas
Basin had in the meantime been recognized by Dr. Ells as
probably identical with the Devonian of New Brunswick.

* Acadian Geology, pages 185 and 489 ; Plants of the Lower Carboniferous and
Millstone Grit, p. 13.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER.

237

The Reports of the Geological Survey for 1885 and 1886
were sharply assailed by Sir J. W. Dawson for their disregard
of fossils ; they were assumed to cast doubt upon the value and
accuracy of the work done in Cape Breton. “ As to the rocks
of the Riversdale section and that at MacKay Head, I have no
hesitation in saying that it would be contrary to all analogy,
not only in Nova Scotia but everywhere else, that they should
be as low as the Horton series. They are unequivocally Mill-
stone Grit and the flora of these sections is so well-known that
there can scarcely be any mistake respecting it. The opinion
advanced by Dr. Ells that the rocks of MacKay Head are like
those of Riversdale is quite correct, they being the same series ;
but the comparison of them with the St. John Devonian is
quite unwarrantable, the fossils being quite distinct.”

This strong dissent induced Dr. Seiwyn in 1S92 to visit the
region and see for himself the position of these strata. His
view of their relations was emphatically expressed in the Sum-
mary Report for that year. In the conclusions arrived at by
Mr. Fletcher he fully agreed. In 1895, Dr. Seiwyn was suc-
ceeded as director of the Geological Survey by Dr. G. M.
Dawson. Maps of Pictou and Colchester counties were then
being engraved. The compilation of Sheets 4 3 to 48 was com-
pleted and that of Sheets 56 to 65, 76, 83, 100 and 101 well
advanced. In the same year Dr. Ami was sent to Nova Scotia
to obtain palgeontological evidence of the age of the rocks in
question ; in the following seasons he was accompanied by the
director, and in one season by Dr. Ells.

But in 1898 “ certain points connected with the geological
structure of that region remained still critical,” although it was
hoped that the special investigations of that year might render
it possible to complete the information for several of the above
sheets, which in that event would be promptly issued. At this
time, Dr. Ami was protesting against the publication of a report
in which he was represented as advocating the Carboniferous
age of these rocks. On the contrary, he believed the evidence
to show “ that the strata of Union and Riversdale may be

GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

238

regarded as equivalent to those in Lancaster township, New
Brunswick, described and held to be of Devonian age,” adding
that several typical Horton fossils, such as Lepidodendron cor -
rugatum and Cyclopieris acadica are common to the Riversdale
and Union rocks and to the Devonian of New Brunswick.

In the following year, however, he states that so far as the
faunas are concerned they clearly indicate a Carboniferous facies
for the New Brunswick Devonian, the rocks of Harrington
River, Parrsboro, Riversdale, Union and Horton Bluff. The
only proof adduced for this radical change, and the addition of
15,000 feet of strata beneath the Limestone to the already
enormously developed Carboniferous of Nova Scotia, is that of
certain fossils, assumed to have a definite range, in regard to
some of which he is surely mistaken. For “ the protolimuloid
crustacean, usually referred to the Carboniferous system ” is on
the contrary* also found associated with such characteristic
Lower Devonian forms as Pterygotus, Coccosteus, Pterichthys
and Glyptolepis ; Estheria is not “ all the world over recognized
as Carboniferous ” any more than Pterinea is peculiar to the
Devonian ; Leaia occurs in Pennsylvania in rocks regarded by
most geologists as Devonian ; and Professor Marsh has described,
from the Devonian, amphibians as highly developed as the
Dendrerpeton found by Sir William Logan at Horton Bluff in
1841 and by Dr. Ami, at Parrsboro in 1898, the affinities of
which the latter regards as Permian.

Collections of fossil plants from these rocks in Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick were examined by Mr. David White of the
United States Geological Survey in 1898, and by Mr. R.
Kidston of Stirling, Scotland, in 1899, who came to almost,
the same conclusions on perfectly independent grounds. Their
views are given at length by Dr. Whiteaves in his “ Address on
the Devonian System in Canada,” and may be thus summarized :
(1) The Horton series is nearly contemporaneous with the
Pocono formation of the eastern United States and the lower

* Ottawa Naturalist for January, 1900, Yol. VIII, No. 10, p. 256.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER.

239

Carboniferous of England. (2) The Riversdale and Harrington
River series are assuredly newer than the Horton and have a
most pronounced Upper Carboniferous facies. (3) The plant-
bearing beds near St. John, N. B. are not Middle Devonian but
Carboniferous and are the exact equivalents of the Riversdale
series.

Dr. Whiteaves adds: “Our knowledge of the organic
remains of the Devonian of Nova Scotia is still in its infancy,
and it would seem that the plant-bearing beds near St. John,
N. B., which have so long been regarded as Devonian, may
possibty be Carboniferous.”

Admitting apparently that “ a classification by faunas alone
is one-sided and that the physical history of the strata should also
be considered,” Dr. Ami, in 1899, set aside the authority. of the
palseontologists mentioned above and accepted the order of super-
position* given by “ the two geologists on the Canadian Survey
staff, who have studied the question from a stratigraphical and
lithological point of view,” but, as a sort of compromise, for their
name Devonian he substituted “ Eo-Carboniferous,” just as he had
previously employed the word “ Eo-Devonian ” for the so-called
Lower Oriskany of Nictaux. This stratigraphical sequence has
indeed been admitted by all geologists who have examined it in
the field. Richard Brown, Campbell, Gesner, Lyell, Honeyman,
Logan, Poole, Ells, Fletcher, Selwyn and others in Nova Scotia ;
Gesner, Hartt, Matthew, Bailey and Ells in New Brunswick ;
Murray in Newfoundland ; Ells and Whiteaves in Gaspe — all
place these rocks beneath the Carboniferous Limestone, near
the debatable line between Carboniferous and Devonian, in
many indisputable sections where no thrust-faults, outliers,
overturned fossil trees or other agency of theoretical biologists
are available to make part Devonian, part Coal Measures.

It becomes, then, a question of the transference across this
line not of a few feet of strata but of a system of 10,000 to
15,000 feet of beds cut off* from a marine formation both above

* Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XIII, No. 9, p. 207.

240

GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

and below by great unconformities and intrusions of granitic
rocks. The only evidence brought against the name Devonian
is that of certain fossils assumed to have a definite range in
geological time. Were such a means of classification possible in
the present state of our knowledge, and we were to understand
that, for example, rocks must not be called Devonian above the
horizon of the appearance of amphibians, or Silurian above that
of fishes, such a classification would be quite satisfactory.
Palaeontology is not, however, one of the mathematical or
exact sciences, but has its limitations even in the countries in
which it has been most diligently studied ; consequently, uncer-
tainty exists both in Europe and America regarding the proper
limits of this and other formations. We have heard, for
example, the work of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsyl-
vania, a most important and thorough industrial investigation,
described as conducted on the plan that correlations can best be
made by lithological means. “ Frequently one meets with
expressions of lack of confidence in the evidence offered by
fossils.” And in a recent report on the Devonian and Car-
boniferous* “ the whole subject of the value of fossil plants
as means of correlation ” is said to be “ under consideration.”

It is only necessary to read this report to realize the diffi-
culty met with in attempting to group these rocks by their
fossils in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and
other states*]* — a difficulty well stated in a report of the Ameri-
can committee of the International Congress of Geologists J as
follows : (1) “ Shall we include the Catskill rocks (and, when no
marine faunas occur, up to the base of the Olean conglomerate and
equivalents) in the Devonian ? (2) Shall the Chemung marine
fauna be laken as the uppermost fauna of the Devonian ? Or
shall a part or the whole of the marine faunas between the
middle Devonian and the conglomerate which introduces the
Coal Measures be called Devonian ? If an arbitrary line is to

* Bulletin of the U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 80, pp. 123, 208 and 228.
t Of. also “ Science ” for 26t,h Jan. 1900, p. 140.
t Rep. Geol. Congress, 1888, A. pp. 102, 144 ; B. pp. 144, 153, 154, 156.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER.

241

be drawn faunally it should be between the Chemung and the

Waverley The difficulties are not less serious in

England, and the Pilton and Baggy beds hold faunas which it is
as difficult to settle on the Devonian or Carboniferous side as it
has been with the Waverley, Kinderhook or Marshall.” Pro-
fessor J. S. Newberry then proposes a classification in which he
includes in the Carboniferous system all strata from the Permian
to the Chemung, both inclusive ; whereas Professor Hall adopts
the first alternative suggested above and restricts the term
Catskill group to the beds known as X and XI of the Pennsyl-
vania survey (Pocono and Mauch Chunk) ; and others speak of
the latter as distinct from and overlying the Catskill. Adopting
Professor Hall’s grouping it would seem that the Mauch Chunk
and Pocono may represent respectively the Union and Rivers-
dale series of the Nova Scotian Devonian ; and that, unless the
littoral and estuarine sediments of Pennsylvania represent the
pelagic rocks of the east, there must be a great unconformity
by which the gypsiferous formation, traced, as above stated*
from Newfoundland to the Aroostook, is lost. It has been found
that in working up from the lower Palaeozoic, the fossils seem
to carry the Catskill to XI of the Pennsylvania classification,
in working downward from the upper Palaeozoic, the fossils
seem to carry the Permian to VIII (Venango).

The International Congress proposes to place the upper limit
of the Devonian at the base of the Carboniferous Limestone
and to include in the former the Catskill and the so-called
Lower Carboniferous or Tweedian group of 8cotland. The
Tweedian has been also correlated with the Condroz beds of
Belgium, from which one of the subdivisions of the Devonian
(Condrusian) in the classification of the Congress takes its
name.

The annexed tabular view of various classifications proposed
for these rocks will show at once their radical inconsistency and
the indefinite range of the fossils : —

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X.

Trans.— P,

242

GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

I

2

3

4

Canadian Geolo-
gical Survey.

Ells & Fletcher.

Dawson

in New Brunsw’k.

Dawson

in Nova Scotia.

Carboniferous

System.

Permian.

Permian, or Upper
Carboniferous.

Upper

Carboniferous.

Coal Measures.

Coal Measures.

i

Coal Measures.

i

Union or Salmon
River.

Millstone Grit.

Millstone Grit.

Millstone Grit.

Riversdale.

Carboniferous

Limestone.

Carboniferous

Limestone.

Windsor Series.

Windsor Series (Up-
per Carboniferous
of Schuchert.)

Carboniferous
# Conglomerate.

Carboniferous

Conglomerate.

Horton Series or
* Albert Shales.

Horton Tweedian of
Scotland.!

Devonian

System.

Catskill.

Union, including
rocks of MacAra
Brook, Lochaber
and Economy.

Perry.

1

Chemung.

1

Mispec.

Logan’s Devonian
of Middle River of
Pictou. Rocks of
Brookfield.

Hamilton.

Riversdale, Harring-
ton River (4000 ft).
MacKay Head and
Horton, t

Cordaite Shales
Dadoxylon Sand-
stone.

Corniferous.

Basal Conglomerate.

Bloomsbury.

Oriskany.

Silurian System.

Dr. G. F. Matthew
suggests placing
the Cordaite Shales
in the Silurian.

*An unconformable series beneath the lower carboniferous limestone and con-
glomerate.

t The relation of the Horton to the beds immediately overlying the Silurian has not
yet been worked out.

IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER.

243

5

6

7

8

9

R. Kidston.

David White.

Pennsyl-

vania.

James Hall.

J.S. Newberry.

Union ?

Permian.

Riversdale, Harring-
ton River, and
Cordaite Shales
(St. John Devon-
ian).

Union

Coal Measures.

Riversdale and Cor-
daite Shales (Dev-
onian of St. John,
N. B.)

Pottsville

XII

(Olean.)

Millstone Grit.

.

Mauch
Chunk XI.

Carboniferous

Limestone.

Horton — (Lower
Carboniferous of
England).!

Horton (Pocono of
Pensyl vania, Wav-
erly. Newer than
Kiltorcan).

Pocono X
(White
Catskill of
Lesley).

Waverley.

Catskill IX.

Mauch
Chunk XI.
Pocono X.

Catskill.

Chemung

VIII

(Venango).

Chemung.

Devonian

System.

'

|

Hamilton.

Corniferous.

Oriskany.

Silurian

System.

! Referred by the International Congress of Geologists to the Devonian (Con-
drusian).

244 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE IN NOVA SCOTIA — FLETCHER.

Only the knowledge that paleontologists sometimes “ give
more consideration to the results of theoretic biologic studies
than to the already established stratigraphic succession of the
faunas ” can explain the foregoing table, which offers the alter-
native of correlating with the Nova Scotian productive coal
measures, lying thousands of feet above the Riversdale, either
the Coal Measures of England or the Cretaceous coal-bearing
rocks of the Pacific coast.

The Horton cannot be at the same time above and below
and on the same horizon as the Riversdale; and Dr. Ami has
perhaps acted wisely in omitting it from his classification, its
prominence in the others being due to its being easily accessible
and first examined. At Horton Bluff it contains only 287 feet
of strata well exposed on one side of a syncline, and 459 feet,
not so well exposed, on the other ; whereas the section at Har-
rington River shows nearly 4000 feet of black and gray beds ;
that near Union station 6468 feet of red beds of the upper *
group alone (of which 684 feet, containing fish remains through-
out, were remeasured at MacAra Brook); while a great thickness
of the lower gray and black beds is exposed along the railway
from Riversdale to West River and in every brook flowing south
from the Cobequid Hills, these exposures being sometimes almost
continuous for several miles, as recorded in the reports of the
Geological Survey.

It will be readily understood that fossils thus studied and
applied, having fixed no definite horizon higher than the Lower
Helderberg, have hindered not helped in mapping the com-
paratively simple geological structure of these formations, while
most satisfactory progress has been made by Mr. Fairbault in
an investigation of 27,000 feet of more complicated, non-
fossiliferous rocks comprising the gold-bearing series of the
province.

* Geol. Survey Report for 1886, Part P, page 65.

IX. — Notes on a Cape Breton Mineral containing
Tungsten, and on the Effect of Washing Certain
Cape Breton Coals.— By Henry S. Poole, F. G. S.,
F. R. S. C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, etc., Stellarton, S.

(Read April lhth, 1900.)

In the last issue of the Transactions of this Institute there
was published a paper read March 13th, 1899, entitled “New
Mineral Discoveries in Nova Scotia.” The paper made reference
to the finding at North East Margaree, C. B., of a mineral con-
taining tungsten and speaks of it as Wolframite with 67.47 per
cent, of W 03, but makes no note of its other constituents. A
month later, at a meeting of the Mining Society, Mr. A. C. Ross
read a paper on the same mineral, and in the discussion which
followed an analysis made by Mr. Mason, the assayer at Hali-
fax, was given by Mr. Missener. This analysis,* of concentrated
ore, showed but a trace of iron, and was as follows : —

Tungsten Trioxide 66.32

Silica 6.25

Manganese 12.02

Iron .12

84 71

* The following letter from Mr. Mason gives additional information about this
analysis : —

Halifax, Nova Scotia,, April 23rd, 1900.

My dear Mr. Poole :

The analysis was made for commercial purposes, not for scientific ones. How-
ever, being of a curious turn of mind I am able to give you some further information,
although unfortunately only qualitative, not quantitative. A close inspection of the
mineral (I fancy I gave you a sample) will I think reveal that it is composed of Quartz
and Hiibnerite principally, but there is also a little Scheelite. With regard to the
missing 15 per cent., the Manganese is reported as metal. I fancy it exists in the
mineral as Mn3 04, and if so, that accounts for a difference of about 4.5%. The bal-
ance was made up of mixed oxides of Niobium and Tantalum, and also of Lime.
Whether the lime all belongs to the scheelite or whether part of it should join the
quartz as gangue, I did not determine. I regret that I have mislaid the memo, of the
quantities. I did not discover that the mineral also contained Scheelite until I panned
some of it, but afterwards clearly detected it in some samples but could not find it in
others. Yours very truly,

F. H. Mason

(245)

246

NOTES ON A CAPE BRETON MINERAL AND

The absence of iron and the comparatively large amount of
Manganese in the composition of this mineral would class it as
more nearly allied to Htibnerite than to Wolframite.

In the same paper reference is made to the beneficial effects
from washing certain Cape Breton coals, whereby the quantity
of Sulphur ordinarily contained in coal as supplied from the
slack heaps is greatly reduced, and the resulting Coke is made
•suitable for Iron smelting. The experience at the Ferrona fur-
mace is spoken of, but as the reference to the operations at that
furnace are somewhat incomplete, the following data supplied
by the Manager, Mr. J. D. Fraser, will doubtless on comparison
prove of interest. A test made in September and October, 1895,
with fifty-ton samples from each of the following Mines, gave
.as follows : —

Raw Coal. Washed Coal.

Ash.

Sulphur. .

Ash.

Sulphur.

Hub. ......

7.50%

3.24%

4.37%

2.88%

Caledonia . .

15.00 „

3.02 „

7.05 m

2.87

Stirling ...

11.09 ..

4.23 „

5.50 „

3.12 „

Cowrie ....

11.55 m

5.26

6.01 ..

3.15 it

D. Herting, Chemist.

A test of 10,000 tons of small coal in December, 1897, and

JanuarjL 1898, received from the

Dominion

Coal Company,

gave the following average results

Raw Coal.

Washed Coal.

Moisture

2.10%

1.97%

Volatile Combustible Matter.

31.00 „

33.21 „

Fixed Carbon

60.00 „

Ash

10.07 ..

4.82 ,>

Sulphur

2 38 „

1.79 i.

Coke made from this washed coal ar

lalysed : —

Ash

• 9.16 %

Volatile Combustible Matter .

. 1.86 -

Fixed Carbon . .

. 88.98 „

Sulphur . .'

. 1.62 „

I. Macfarlan, Chemist.

ON WASHING CAPE BRETON COALS. — POOLE.

247

For comparison with the work done in the coal washer, a
laboratory test was made. An average sample of the coal was
treated in a solution of Calcium Chloride of 1.40 Sp. Gr., the
•coal of 1.30 Sp. Gr. floated on the solution, and the shale of
2.04 Sp. Gr. sank to the bottom. Thus separated, the coal and
shale were thoroughly washed and dried, and severally bore to
the unwashed material the following proportion : —

Coal 81%

Shale, etc 90 n

Dried at 212° Fahr. they yielded on analysis : —

Raw

Coal

Washed

Coal.

Shale.

Volatile Combustible Matter.

33.06 %

33.79 %.

31.43%

Fixed Carbon

55.93 „

61.33 „

15.33 ..

Ash

11.01 „

2.89 „

48.08 H

Sulphur

2.41

1.64 „

5.16

same Coal treated in the coal

washer yielded : —

Raw

Coal.

Washed

Coal.

‘Shale.

Volatile Combustible Matter.

33.06 %

34.07 %

30.82 %

Fixed Carbon

55.93 ii

61.26 „

23.21 „

Ash

11.01 ..

4.67

41.22 „

Sulphur

2.41 „

1.70 „

4.48 ii

On coking, 204 ovens made 683 tons of coke which showed
an average composition as follows, after being dried at 212° F. : —

Moisture

Volatile Combustible Matter

Fixed Carbon

Sulphur

Silica

Metallic iron

Alumina

Manganese

Lime

Magnesia

Phosphorus

Available Carbon, 87.02.

0.40
1.60
89.82
1.65
3.52 '
1.71
.46
.03 >
.82
.16
.02 J

Ash

8.18%

/o

X. — Minerals for the Paris Exhibition. — By E Gilpin, Jr.,
LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector of Mines.

( Communicated 12th February , 1900.)

The Government of Nova Scotia having decided to assist the
Canadian Geological Survey in the preparation of the Canadian
Mineral Exhibit at the Paris Exhibition, the work of collection
was assigned to the Mines Office. In the process of collection
opportunity has been afforded of procuring some interesting
information. I do not contemplate giving a detailed account of
each mineral locality represented, as that would occupy an
undue space in the Transactions, but will confine myself more
especially to those exhibits which were accompanied by descrip-
tive matter, analyses, etc. It may be remarked that no trouble
has been spared by the Survey to make the mineral exhibit a
leading feature of the Canadian representation at Paris, so that
all the mining districts will undoubtedly receive a most impor-
tant and valuable advertisement. It is to be regretted that so
many mining men have neglected the opportunity offered of
presenting not only their own operations, but also those of their
country to the gaze of the world. At no time has there been on
the continent of Europe so marked a difficulty in procuring the
raw material, and the unworked metals, and there is also a great,
demand for opportunities for m investment of capital. This
interest is not confined to the precious metals, but extends to-
every mineral that can be utilized in the arts. In many cases,
the Department, instead of receiving samples from mine owners
only too pleased to have their products exhibited, was obliged
to send to the quarries, etc., and procure specimens, while the
owners showed no interest whatever. Paternalism may be good,
but the individual should show an interest in his own welfare.

Goal.

As would be expected the coal fields are well represented.
The Springhill coals were shown in their different forms as

(248)

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 249

presented for consumption. These coals are largely used for
steam purposes, especially in locomotives, they are also good
coking and domestic coals. In recent communications to the
Institute I have given a number of analyses of these coals,
showing the increase of their steam values, etc., as they have
been followed to the dip.

The Dominion Coal Company exhibited the various forms of
round, run of mine, slack, pea, nut coals, etc., required by the
trade. This company also presented a column of coal, a section
of the Phalen seam, which attains a thickness of nine feet. This
column is to stand by a similar one from British Columbia, an
illustration of the resources of Canada on the Pacific and on the
Atlantic. In my last paper I drew attention to the interesting
diminution in ash and sulphur in the Phalen seam as it was
followed away from its outcrop. I also gave a summary of the
tests of coal made at Glassport, Pa., U. S. A. I now give, as an
interesting comparison, the results of similar tests of the Phalen
and Hub seams made at the Solway ovens, in Syracuse, New
York, U. S. A. Owing to rainy weather the car loads were
saturated wTith moisture. Allowing for the moisture the sample
of the Phalen seam weighed 405 tons, and that from the Hub
seam weighed 307 tons. There were obtained from these coals
respectively 302 tons, 74.68 per cent ; and 224.74 tons, 72.37 per
cent, of dry coke and breeze.

The Phalen seam yielded 11,012 cubic feet of gas per long
ton. Of the gas 55.47 per cent was used under the ovens. The
average calorific power of the gas was 571.85 B. T. U. The
average illuminating value of the gas, with a fishtail burner was
9.9 candle power, with a Welsbach burner, 54.34 candle power.

The following is the average analysis of the gas: —

Carbon dioxide .... 2.7 per cent.

Illuminants 2.9 “

Oxygen 13 “

Carbon monoxide .. 5.8

Marsh gas 32.3 per cent.

Hydrogen 51.1

Nitrogen 5.07 “

Total

100.0

250

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

The Hub seam yielded 10,539 cubic feet of gas per long ton,
of which 55.46 per cent was used under the ovens. The average
■calorific "power of the gas was 576.54 B. T. U. The average
illuminating value of the gas with a fishtail burner was 9.8
candle power, with a Welsbach burner 54. candle power.

The average analysis of the gas was as follows : —

Carbon dioxide .... 3.1 per cent.

Illuminants 2.7 “

Oxygen 2

Carbon monoxide .. 7.4

Hydrogen . .

Marsh gas . .

....30.9

Nitrogen . . . .

5.0

Total. . .

...100.0

The Phalen seam yielded per ton 32.91 lbs. of ammonium
sulphate, and the yield from the Hub seam was 32.24 lbs. In
commercial estimates a deduction of from 5 to 10 per cent
should be made for loss of ammonia during the process of con-
centration.

The Phalen seam yielded per ton 12.89 gals, of tar, 128.9 lbs.,
and the Hub seam yielded 13.89 gals, of tar, 138 9 lbs. The
Phalen seam yielded .103, and the Hub seam .111 gals, of
benzole.

In considering the illuminating power and composition of the
gases given above it must be remembered that they are averages.
It was pointed out in my last paper that the gas obtained from
the first portion of the period of coking is much higher in illum-
inating power, etc., than that given off during the latter portion
of the period of coking.

The General Mining Association. — This company has a
large number of valuable coal seams, but has hitherto confined
its operations to one, known as the Sydney Main Seam. This
seam has been worked for over one hundred years, and still
remains one of the most valuable assets of the Province. The
average thickness of the seam is five feet two inches. The
annual output 271,000 tons. The portion of the seam now being
worked is entirely under the Atlantic Ocean, the samples
exhibited being taken from a point 2,200 yards from the nearest
land, and at a depth of 1,000 feet below the bottom of the ocean.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 251

The following analyses made at

different periods will show the

general uniformity of the seam :

(1871.) Analysis by Dr, How.

Moisture

Average Coke . . .

. ..70.30

Volatile Combust.

Matter.31.14

Theoretical Evap

ora-

Fixed Carbon . . .

tive power. . , . ,

. . . . 9.06 lbs.

Ash

4.32

Sulphur

, 1.24

Specific Gravity .

, ... 1.30

100.00

(1890.) Analysis by the Writer.

Slow Coking.

Fast Cokiug.

Moisture < . . .

420

.420

Volatile Combustible Matter 34.962

37.110

Fixed Carbon

57.845

Ash

4.625

100.000

100.000

Sulphur . . . ,

.95

(1891.) Average Samples from Five Sections of the Mine.

Moisture

1.536

Fixed Carbon . . .

57.008

Volatile Combustible

Ash

Matter

36.372

Sulphur

1.894

Of the underlying seams in the North Sydney district, not
much can yet be said. The General Mining Association has
recently proved them by a shaft to the fourth seam. These
seams are of good quality, and from three to four feet thick. I
append an analysis of the third seam, made a few years ago,
from samples taken from the openings of the North Sydney
Mining Company, along its outcrop : —

Moisture 2.06 Ash . . .

Volatile Combustible

Matter . .30.16

Fixed Carbon 60.32 Sulphur

7.46

100.00
. .84

These seams are now receiving attention at the hands of the
Sydney Coal Company, and, although thinner than the main
seam, will undoubtedly in the near future prove valuable from
their uniformity and proximity to deep water.

252

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

The coals of Pictou County are represented by samples from
the mines of the Acadia Coal Company. These deposits have
long been worked. Samples of coal are also shown from the
Chignecto, Joggins and Springhill Colleries. Interesting
analyses, etc., of the seams found at the last-named district have
been furnished by me in late numbers of the Transactions of the
Institute.

Manganese.

At present the production of manganese is at a low ebb in
this province. For many years the Tenny Cape Mines had a
world-wide reputation for the production of small amounts of
extremely pure ore. For some time past little ore has been
mined. It is not doubted that the resources of the district are
exhausted ; but the researches of the chemist have pointed out
methods for the production of pure manganese oxide as a by
product, which have lessened the demand for a native ore almost
chemically pure. However the demand for manganese for steel
making purposes has again offered a market for manganese ores>
high in grade, and phosphorus free. Attention is now being
directed to the ores of this district, and with modern appliances
for prospecting and mining it is anticipated that Tenny Cape
will again become a producer. The samples collected exhibit
well the celebrated crystalline pyrolusite characterising the
district.

The following analysis will serve to show the character of
the ores of this district, which occur in lower carboniferous
limestones : —

Moisture

Water of Composition

Iron peroxide

Oxygen

Baryta

Insoluble

Phosphoric acid

Manganese oxides .........

Peroxide of manganese

Lime

i.

1.66

3.63

.603

7.036

.724

1.728

84.620

ii.

2.05

2.55

V.12

2.80

1.029

90.15

trace.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

253

Ores less crystalline but equally pure occur at Loch Lomond
in Cape Breton County, at the Moseley Mines. The ore is found
in both the crystalline and amorphous forms in a red shale of
lower carboniferous age about five feet thick. It is presented
as layers and beds from one to eighteen inches in thickness.
The enclosing material being soft it is readily extracted. The
position of the mine has necessitated unfavorable conditions for
shipment, but the construction of the railway now under con-
tract between the Strait of Canso and Louisburg will furnish a
ready access to admirable shipping facilities.

The following analyses will serve

to show its

quality

I.

II.

HI.

Peroxide of manganese (available)..

..91.84

87.64

92.65

Peroxide of iron

. . 12

trace.

4.14

Insoluble

.. 2.71

8.51

trace.

The ores of this metal occnr in workable amounts in Onslow,
near Truro, as veins, and in the partings of the lower carboni-
ferous sandstones.

During the past few months New Ross, in the northern part
of Lunenburg County, has promised to become a producer of
manganese ores. Miner T. Foster has opened a number of veins
which are of high giade, and available for economic extraction.
A few tons have been shipped, and have found a ready sale.
The extent of the manganiferous ground, and the age of the
strata holding the ores, has, I believe, not yet been worked out.
Explorations made during the past season, have shown that the
Dean and Chapter lands adjoining the Foster properties contain,
at several points, deposits which promise to be valuable. The
ores of this district have, so far as I can learn, not been exhaus-
tively analysed. They contain, however, manganese in amount
suitable for steel and chemical purposes.

The Mineral Products Company of Bridgeville,Pictou County,
also exhibit samples of manganite, and of manganiferous
limonite. It is reported that recent developments in the iron
ore mines of this locality have shown the presence of consider-
able amounts of the latter mineral.

254 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Gold Ores.

The collection of gold specimens procured for the exhibition
although not as rich as could be desired, may be termed repre-
sentative of a number of the best known districts. I will refer
briefly to the districts represented. The department contributed
a set of Montagu specimens, valued at $1,200.00, at present on
exhibition at the Imperial Institute, London, also specimens from
Renfrew, Mt. Uniacke, and Waverly. Another handsome set,
approaching in value that first named, was secured from Messrs.
Jack & Bell. Another sample was from the famous “ Plough
Lead ” at Isaacs Harbor.

The following parties also contributed samples, some of
which were very handsome, accompanied by samples of
concentrates, wall rocks, photos, etc. :

J. J. Withrow

. . . Gold-beariug quartz.

tt

it

. . Concentrates.

J. Hirschfield

tt

Guffey Jennings. ...

. . Gold-bearing quartz.

W. C. Sarre

it

Cashon & Hines . . .

ti

ti

“

Elk Mining Co. . . .

it

it

Montreal & London Gold

Dev. Co

Gue & Wilson

ti

R. R. McLeod .....

(c

J. H. Townsend . .. .

C(

it

tt

it

a

W. L. Libbey

a

u

it

tt

Note. — At this mine there is a successful chlorination plan,,
the first in the Province.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

255

J. D. Huntingdon Yarmouth Gold bearing quartz.

“ Concentrates.

W. C. Anderson Montagu. . Gold-bearing quartz.

Jack & Bell £f “

Cunningham & Curren.Mount IJniacke “

“ Concentrates.

J. D. McGregor.. Fifteen Mile Stream. Gold-bearing quartz.

Lead.

As yet the development of our lead ores has not reached the
productive stage.

In Inverness County, in Laurentian felsites, at many points*
are visible the effects of solfataric action, in deposits of copper,
lead and zinc ores, often noticeably enriched with gold and
silver. Some measure of development has been attained at
Cheticamp by Halifax capitalists, who have opened a promising
silver lead deposit. It is expected that these ores will. be shipped:
to the smelter at Pictou, or to Swansea. Openings show the.
deposit to be from 3 to 10 feet thick, and to continue for several
hundred feet. Roughly speaking, the ore carries one ounce of
silver for each unit of lead, some samples showing as high as.
78 per cent, of lead and 80 ounces of silver. Gold also shows in,
quantities varying from 3 to 14 dwts. per ton of 2,000 lbs.
Similar results in gold and silver have been obtained from the.
Silver Cliff* deposits and from zinc blende deposits in the sama
locality.

As yet the auriferous alluvium in the Cheticamp River has.
not received systematic? attention. If there, are gravels in the
river worth working, they will be found where the river leaves,
the mountain, and not in its narrow gorges subject to frequent
and severe freshets. No free gold veins have yet been reported,
and the alluvial gold which attracted so much attention some,
time ago is probably derived from the felsites, which are
reported to occasionally show fine flakes of gold.

At Red Head, a few miles to the north, some development
work has been done on copper deposits, also auriferous. Galena.

256 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

ore running high in lead and silver occurs at Caledonia,
Guysboro County, and at Smithfield, Hants County.

Graphite.

The upper or slate division of the Nova Scotia gold fields
frequently shows beds highly carbonaceous, but I am not aware
tnat they have been practically tested. In the precambrian
felsites and gneisses of Cape Breton, plumbaginous slates are
not uncommon. Samples have been secured from the River
Dennys district, and from the vicinity of the Grand Narrows.
The rock from the latter locality yielded to the analyst of the
Geological Survey :

Graphite Carbon 50.23

Rock matter 43.27

Water .... 6.50

100.00

Copper.

An interesting set of specimens and photos show the
development work of the Cape Breton Copper Company at
Coxheath, Cape Breton County. Here a number of deposits
have been traced for several thousand feet, and proved to depths
upwards of 300 feet. The deposits vary in thickness up to 12
feet, and may, so far as exploration work has been carried, be
described as very long lenses, bedded in precambrian felsites
and slates.

While some of the lenses carry copper contents up to 10 per
cent., the ore will' presumably belong to the class requiring
concentration. Working tests have shown that concentration
readily presents a suitable furnace material, unusualty free from
injurious ingredients. The following tables of analyses and of
working tests of concentration are of interest :

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

257

8 |

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Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst, Sci., Vol. X.

Trans.— Q.

Cape Breton Copper Company, (Limited), Nova Scotia, Canada.

TABLE I.

258

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBIT ION.— GILPIN.

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MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

259

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260 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Samples of similar ores are shown from St. George’s River,
Eagle Head and French Road, in the same County.

In Antigonish County the traces of copper ore are wide
spread. At some points prospecting work has given promising
results, but as yet the various licenses to search have received
little attention.

A sample of copper ore from St. Joseph’s is from a bed of
mixed chalcopyrite and shale in lower carboniferous strata close
to their junction with precarboniferous rocks, presumably of
lower silurian age. There are about eight beds, reported to be
from two to six feet in width The following analysis of a
sample from the No. 2 vein is by the Geological Survey Depart-
ment :

Copper 27.00

Iron 29.70

Sulphur 33.50

Silica 3.40

Moisture 20

Carbonate of Iron 6 20

100.00

At Poison’s Lake somewhat extensive development work has
shown, in Devonian strata, beside a dioritic dyke, a large mass
of carbonate of iron and calc spar carrying copper pyrites. The
ore is stated to average from 9 to 16 per cent, of copper, and to
carry several dollars’ worth of gold and silver. On the opposite
or west side of the Lochaber lake, similar but richer ores occur
in numerous veins with spar and specular iron. Exploratory
work done here a number of years ago was fairly promising.

In addition to these deposits, carbonates, sulphides and
silicates of copper are not uncommon in the carboniferous shales
and sandstones in irregular masses, frequently rich, but limited
in extent. Further work may, however, show localities where
this class of deposits will reach economic values.

In Pictou County similar ores occur at a number of places in
the permo-carboniferous and in the millstone grit and lower
carboniferous. Traces of copper sulphide also occur in the
district forming the water shed between the Bay of Fundy and

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 261

the Strait of Northumberland. The deposits near Pictou and
River John have received some attention and will probably pro ve
sources of this metal. At Dalhousie Mountain a good deal of
surface exploration has been done on a vein from 2 to 3 feet
wide carrying copper pyrites. Samples have shown up to 15
per cent, of copper and about $26.00 of gold per ton.

It may be anticipated that where the Devonian strata of
this district are intersected by dioritic and granitic dykes oppor-
tunity will be afforded for copper ores, in some cases, of
commercial value. The rocks referred to appear again in the
southern part of New Annan, and indications cf copper ore are
wide spread in quartzites and felsites associated with dioritic
dykes, etc.

Developments have been made at New Annan, on the East
Branch of the French River, about five miles from Tatamagouche
Station. The property being developed presents a bed about
four feet thick, carrying stringers of black sulphide and carbonate
with nodules of various copper sulphides in a fine sandstone
conglomerate resting on a blue clay floor. Similar deposits also
occur at the Palmer mine, near Wentworth. Here the bed is
about ten feet thick and much mixed with clay, The quality of
these ores varies very much, according to the state of concen-
tration reached in the process of formation. Samples can be
had running up to 50 per cent of copper, with gold and silver
in varying amounts. It is expected that these deposits and
others of a similar character scattered from Amherst to Pictou
will furnish material for the smelter at Pictou. More extended
development will be required to determine this point. It is,
however, extremely probably that the older rocks lying to the
south of the carboniferous will yield deposits of ore larger and
more uniform in quality.

Copper pyrites also occurs on the Portapique River, Col-
chester Co., in a stratum, presumably of Devonian age, over a
tract several hundred feet wide and a mile in length. Samples
show up to 20 per cent, copper, with traces of gold.

262 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Iron.

Among the most interesting of the exhibits under this head
is that of the Nova Scotia Steel Company. This company is an
example of the successful progress of enterprise combined with
commercial and technical skill. The forge works of New
Glasgow, which acquired well-deserved notice for their work in
ship frames, shafts, stems, etc., gradually grew and prospered
With the iron ores and coal of Pictou County at the doors of
New Glasgow, it needed one step and the company produced
its own raw material. A railway was built from Hopewell to
the head of the East River, to open the Bridgeville iron ores
and limestones. A furnace was built at the junction of the
East and West branches of the East River, and a large steel
works made Trenton another New Glasgow.

This measure of progress has not limited the company’s
ambition. By a lucky stroke of business they acquired possession
of an enormous iron ore deposit on the coast of Newfoundland.
This deposit was capable of yielding at the cheapest rate an ore
suitable for the basic process. Accordingly large amounts have
been annually imported for mixture with the limonite ores of
Bridgeville. Exports have also been made to the United States
and Europe. The company has sold part of this deposit to the
Dominion Iron and Steel Company, it is said, for the sum of
$1,000,000 00. Now they propose to absorb the 22 square miles
of coal area of the General Mining Association and to erect at
North Sydney a steel plant rivaling that of the Dominion Steel
Company.

The ores of the Pictou iron field comprise limonites, red
hematites, and spathic and specular ores. As vet operations
have been confined to the limonites mined by the Steel Co.
There are enormous deposits of red hematites and specular ores
yet untouched, and affording material for the establishment of
an iron industry surpassing that contemplated at the Sydneys.

The samples exhibited by the company comprise ores, fluxes,
fuels, pig iron, and the steel products.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 263

The transactions of the Nova Scotia Mining Institute
■contain a full description of the plant of this company. The
following analyses are self-explanatory :

Nova Scotia Steel Company , Trenton and Ferrona.

Iron Ores.

Red Hematite from Wakana Mine, Newfoundland, owned,
by N. S. Steel Co. Average analysis for year 1898 at 150,000
tons. Dried at 212° F. Moisture, 0.66.

Loss on ignition .... 2.08 p. c.

Silica 11.57 “

Iron Oxide 77.67 “

Manganese Oxide .. .. 0.08 “

Alumina 4.55 “

Lime(CaO.) 1.81 “

Magnesia 0.44 “

Phos-Acid 1.62 p. c.

Sulphuric Acid 0.07 “

Titanic Acid 0.25 “

Metallic Iron 54.37 “

Phosphorus 0 71 “

Sulphur 0.03 “

Magnetic Iron ore from Cuba, dried at 212 F. Average
analysis :

Silica 9 91 p. c.

Alumina 0.85 “

Lime 0.50 “

Magnesia 0.32 “

Manganese 0.41 p. c.

Metallic Iron 61.02 “

Phosphorus 0.04 “

Sulphur, . 0.087 “

Red Hematite. (High phosphorus.) Torbrook, N. S. :

Silica 13.00 p. c.

Ferric Oxide 77.60 “

Alumina 4.28 “

Manganese Dioxide . . 0.38 “

Calcium Oxide 1.90 “

Magnesium Oxide . . . 0.35 “

Titanium Trace.

Barium Oxide “

Volatile matter Nil.

Carbonic Oxide “

Phosphorus 1.21 p. c.

Limonite Iron ore, washed sample, from East River, Pictou.
Average analysis :

Comb, water .

Silica

Ferric Oxides
Alumina. . . .
Lime

.12.40 p. c.
.11.25 “

.73.23 “

. 1.49 “

. 0.39 “

Magnesia . . .
Manganese . . .
Phosphorus. .

Sulphur

Metallic Iron

0.16 p. c-
0.33 “
0.032 “

.0.084 “
.51.26 “

264 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

Limonite — Lump sample from East River:

Comb, water 10 50

Silica 8.18

Ferric Oxide 76.30

Alumina 210

Lime 0.31

Limestone, Springville,

p. c.

Magnesia 0.21

Manganese 1.25

Phosphorus 0.02

Sulphur 0.06

Metallic Iron 53.41

p. c.

Fluxes.
Pictou Co.

Average analysis :

Moisture

. 0.20 p. c.

Magnesium Carbonate 4.90 p. c.

Silica

3.10 “

Calcium Sulphate . .

. 0.20 “

Alumina

. 0.24 “

Organic matter

—

Ferric Oxide

. 1.86 “

Lime ) (

49.81 “

Calcium Carbonate.

.88.94 “

t>/t . Y Available <

Magnesia J (

2.35 “

Pig Iron.

No. 1 Foundry.

Basic Iron.

Silicon

. 2.85 p. c.

Silicon

. 0.40 p. c.

Manganese

,. 0.54 “

Manganese , .. .

. 0.75 “

Phosphorus

. 0.90 “

Phosphorus

, 1.00 “

Sulphur

. 0.01 “

Sulphur

0.03 “

Gr. Carbon

. 3.70 “

Graphitic Carbon .. .

. 3.27 “

Comb Carbon

. 0.16 “

Combined Carbon . .

. 0.63 “

Copper

.Nil.

Copper

.Nil.

Arsenic

a

Arsenic

“

Barium

.Trace.

Barium

. Trace.

Hematite Iron.

No. 2 Foundry.

Silicon

. 1.00 p. c.

Silicon

Manganese

. 0.95 “

Manganese

. 0.55 “

Phosphorus.

. 0 08 “

Phosphorus

0.90 “

Sulphur

. 0.08 “

Sulphur

.0.012 “

Gr. Carbon

. 3.12 “

Gr. Carbon

, 3.20 “

Comb. Carbon

. 0.70 “

Comb Carbon

. 0 30 “

Copper

.Nil.

Copper

Nil.

Arsenic

a

Arsenic

“

Barium

. Trace.

Barium

Trace.

No. 3 Foundry.

Silicon 2.10 p. c.

Manganese 0.60 “

Phosphorus . . . . 0.91 “

Sulphur 0.02 “

Gr. Carbon 2.50 “

Comb. Carbon 0.60 “

Copper Nil.

Arsenic “

Barium Trace.

No. 4 Foundry.

Silicon 1.75

Manganese 0.65

Phosphorus 0.92

Sulphur 0.03

Gr. Carbon 2.00

Comb. Carbon 0.90

Copper .. Nil.

Arsenic “

Barium Trace

p. c.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 265

Fuels.

48 hour (Retort) Coke. Made in “ Bernard’s ” Coke oven, from
washed coal at Ferrona Iron Works.

Moisture 0.40 p. c.

Vol. Comb Matter... 1.60 “

Fixed Carbon (by
diff.) 90.78 “

Ash

Sulphur , . .
Phosphorus

7.22 p. c.
1.15 “
0.01 “

Slate, etc., from coal washer from coal used in making coke.

Moisture 1.00 p. c. Ash .76.81 p. c,

Vol. Comb. Matter . ..18.14 “ Sulphur 6.23 “

Fixed Carbon ...... . 4.55 “

Washed coal used for making coke.

Moisture 1 07 p. c. Ash 4.17 p. c.

Vol. Comb. Matter. ..31.69 Sulphur 1.46 “

Fixed Carbon. ..... .63.14 “

Culm Coal, one-third Springhill and two-thirds Reserve

Coal, (C. B.)

Moisture 0.82 p. c. Ash 11.06 p. c.

Vol Comb. Matter. . .28.31 “ Sulphur 2.12 “

Fixed Carbon 59.87

Another interesting exhibit is that of the Mineral Products
Company, of Bridgeville, Pictou County. These people leased
the Charcoal furnace at that place for the manufacture of ferro-
manganese. The manganese was obtained from a deposit in
New Brunswick. This deposit consisted of bog ore, which was
dried and made into briquettes. It was smelted with the
limonite ore of the East River, and made a product of good
marketable value. The expense incurred in handling the man-
ganese ore and its freight has been assigned as the cause of the
abandonment of the enterprise. I regret to say that, owing to
the absence of the manager from the Province, I am unable to
give analyses of the raw materials and of the product.

In this district, in addition to the limonite ores, there are
large deposits of specular, red hematite, spaltic and clay ironstone
ores, which will no doubt before long be mined for the smelter.

266 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

In Cape Breton as yet there has been little iron ore
development. An extensive and valuable deposit at Gillis Lake,
is known as the Moseley mine.

The following set of analyses will tend to show its quality :

1. 2. 3. 4.

Iron 63.45 63.20 58.90 64.10

Silica 6.96 6.42 13.38 4.71

Phosphorus 0212 .014 .0257 nil.

Sulphur 0631 .0604 .0041 .0027

The bed, which has been traced for several miles, averages
about seven feet in thickness, and is associated with a crystalline
limestone, presumably of laurentian age. It is within about
four, miles of deep water, and about eight miles from the
Intercolonial Railway.

In the devonian strata in the neighborhood of St. Peter’s,
Richmond County, there are a number of deposits of specular
ore, similar to those found in strata of the same age in Guysboro
County.

The following analysis from the Micmac mine, about six
miles from St. Peter’s, will serve to show the class of this ore :

Iron 68.18 I Sulphur 15

Silica 2.48 | Phosphorus 05

Prospecting work at Whycocomagh, Cape Breton, has shown
the presence of a number of beds of magnetite and red hematite
up to twelve feet in thickness. Judging from surface indications,
there is an extensive iron field in this locality. Analyses show
metallic iron, from 49.13 to 63.20 ; Silica, up to 21,90 ; Sulphur,
trace to .55 ; Phosphorus, trace to .49.

Very extensive deposits of a similar character occur at
Nictaux, Annapolis Co., and are represented by a number of
samples. A deposit of red hematite, at Torbrook, in this
district, about six feet thick, was worked for some years, until
the Londonderry Furnaces were closed. A description of the
ores and analyses will be found in a paper on the Iron Ores of
ISictaux read by me before this Institute a few years ago.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 267

Other localities which have been drawn upon for samples
are briefly as follows : Mira River, Cape Breton County, where
there are several beds of red hematite from three to six feet
thick.

Extensive deposits of magnetite and red hematite are
reported from George’s River, in the same county. As yet the
explorations in these deposits have not been carried to any
extent. The following analysis by F. A. Mason, of Halifax, will
show that rich ore exists :

Metallic Iron

5.8.56

Phosphorus

.019

Manganese

. 1 98

Sulphur . . . . .

Silica .

5.79

Titanium

95

Londonderry, Colchester County, has for many years
yielded limonite ore of very high quality. A very elaborate
report and analyses were made some years ago by Dr. Selwyn,
and published in the report of the Canadian Geological Survey
Samples of the varieties of limonite and specular ores, and of
the carbonates, etc., worked here have been forwarded.

Quarries.

These notes refer to the Quarries in the northern part of
Cumberland Count}7, which furnished samples of their pro-
ducts.

Quarries at River John. — No. 1. This is the only quarry at
present working in this district. It is situated at River John
and about a quarter of a mile from I. C. Railway, and con-
nected therewith by a good road.

It contains a reddish sandstone of fine grain, and has been
opened for about 350 feet in length, exposing a face so far of
about 14 feet. Stones are cut here up to about 33 cubic feet,
though almost any size could be obtained with larger machinery.
The seams are very regular in formation and lie nearly
horizontal. Worked for nearly a year.

No. 2. Adjoins the first quarry, and resembles it in general
characteristics, though the stone is of a lighter colour.

268

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

No. 8. About a quarter of a mile up the river from No. 1,
was worked for six years intermittently. Many grindstones
were cut in this quarry, which yields a firm grey sandstone.

Wallace Harbor. — The Wallace Grey Stone Co., Wallace
Harbor, John Stevenson, Manager. This quarry is situated at
Wallace, and a great part of the stone is shipped by water,
though it is connected with the I. C. Railway by a good waggon
road about two miles long.

Though the stone is carried to the wharf by horses, a
tramway (gravity) could easily be operated, the quarry being
situated on a hill. The distance is about a quarter of a mile*
This quarry has been worked for a period of nearly thirty years
off and on, and is still only partially developed. It produces an
average of about 1,500 tons (“ quarry ”) a year, of fine grained
sandstone in two colours — “ olive ” and “ bluish*”

Blocks up to ten tons in weight and measuring fourteen feet
are cut, and the greater part of the stone is shipped to the Bos-
ton and New York markets. The poorer stone is sold locally.

Wallace Harbor. — The G. P. Sherwood Co., T. C. Dobson,
Manager. This quarry adjoins the quarry of the Wallace Grey
Stone Co., and the same remarks apply to it also.

At Wallace Bridge the famous Battye Quarry is being
operated by George Battye. Stone has been taken from this
quarry since the year 1809, and there is still much in sight. It
is situated on the I. C. Railway and the Wallace River. Chief
market New York and Eastern States’ cities. Blocks up to ten
tons are cut. At present 25 feet of rock is shown in the face,
with seams measuring from 2 to 6 feet in thickness. This is
composed of a very uniform and beautiful sandstone, suitable
for monumental as well as construction work.

On the River Philip, about five miles from Pugwash, is
situated the quarry of McLeod & Embree. It produces a
handsome red sandstone contained in seams from 2 to 7 feet, and
shows altogether 20 feet in the face. Blocks cut to 8 tons. Has
been operated for upwards of 80 years and usually ships to the

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 269

States. This year all the stone quarried is being supplied to
Toronto.

The Atlantic Stone Co., Limited, R. S. Hibbard, Manager. —
The quarry of this company is situated on Cumberland Basin,
3J miles from Joggins Station, on the Canada Coal Company’s
Railway, and 16 miles from I. C. Railway. The stone is shipped
chiefly by water, in vessels up to about 300 tons. The market
is mainly in the New England States, though the stones are sent
much further west occasionally. 2,000 tons shipped per year.
This quarry produces a very superior form of grindstone.
Stones from half an inch to 14 inches ihick, and up to 7 feet in
diameter are cut, though almost any size that could be handled
are procurable.

At Lime Rock, West River, Pictou Co , are sandstone quarries
yielding good building stone. Samples are shown by Mr. J. H.
Fraser. In the Merigomish district the strata lying above the
productive measures yield grindstones and fair qualities of
freestone.

The owners of quarries of granite, syenite, etc., neglected to
respond to the invitation of the Department to send samples.
The demand for granite is limited practically to the City of
Halifax, where this stone is used to some extent for foundations,
trimmings, and in the fortifications. The present available
sources of supply are Shelburne, and the North-West Arm, near
Halifax. At Nictaux there are blue varieties of granite of very
fine quality, and in Cape Breton there are syenites, gneisses,
etc , available for decorative and other purposes.

An interesting deposit of sandstones yielding building
stone, grindstones, whetstone, etc., is found at Lower Cove,
Joggins, Cumberland County. Samples of the raw and
manufactured article are contributed by Mr. R. L. Hibbard.
These quarries have been worked continuously for many years,
and an extended market has been found for the grindstones.
The quarry yields stones one-half to seven inches in thickness
and up to seven feet in diameter. The superior quality of these

270 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION, — GILPIN.

stones has secured a reputation, for the district second only to
that acquired by quarries more favorably situated in large
industrial districts. Similar deposits are known at several
places along the Joggins shore.

Marbles are represented by a sample from Escasoni, Cape
Breton County, contributed by Mr E. T. Bown.

The following list shows the building store quarries from
which samples have been secured for the Exhibition : — A. Allen,
W. W. Garmon, River John; T. C. Dobson, Wallace; McLeod &
Embree, Pugwash ; Wallace Graystone Company, Wallace; A.
McPherson, Eight Mile Brook; R. L. Hibbard, Joggins; J. H.
Fraser, Limebrook.

Barytes .

This mineral is known at Five Islands, Stewiacke, River
John, and at Lake Ainslie, in Cape Breton. At present a few
hundred tons are annually mined at the last-named locality.
The ore occurs in a vein about nine feet wide, and is extracted
through a tunnel. It is of excellent color and quality, and low
in carbonate of lime Samples of this mineral are exhibited by
Messrs. Henderson & Potts.

Gypsum.

This mineral is found in great abundance in Nova Scotia
It is presented as hard and soft gypsum in every variety of
texture and purity. The annual production is about 150,000
tons, principally from Hants County. Small amounts are
quarried at other localities for local use, as an ingredient for
fertilizers, etc. The exports from Hants County go to the
United States, and a considerable shipment is made from
Victoria County to Montreal and Philadelphia. Samples are
exhibited from Windsor, Wentworth, St. Croix, Newport and
other localities, in Hants County. Selenite is also shown from
Enfield, in the same county, which has yielded a few hundred
tons.

MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN. 271

The Windsor Plaster Company also show the following1
products : (1) “Calcined plaster ” used for putty coating, finishing,
etc. (2) “ Selenite cement ” used for under coating, etc. (3)
“ Land plaster,” ground gypsum, used for fertiliser manufacture,
stables, etc.

Tripolite.

Of late years considerable attention has been paid to the
infusorial earth deposits of the province, and to deposits of very
fine grained quartz available for polishing, insulating, and other
purposes.

Among the localities represented may be mentioned River
Dennys, Inverness Co., where the Cairo Polishing Company are
doing development work ; Bass River, Colchester Co., where
extensive works are carried on, the shipments for the last fiscal
year amounting to 21 tons. The Bass River Infusorial Earth
Company procure the raw material from Bass River Lake,
where it is found in a bed about three feet thick, and purify it
in a large plant, which has been in operation for over two
years.

The Victoria Tripolite Company have commenced extensive
operations near St. Ann’s, in Victoria County, and are making a
specialty of insulating material.

Molybdenite occurs at many points in the Province, but as
yet deposits of workable size have not been reported. New
Ross, Lunenburg, yields very large and fine crystals. A sample
is shown from this district. A few tons have been shipped
from Gabarus, Cape Breton County. From the Margaree
district, Inverness County, are shown samples of ores of
Tungsten, fuller reference to which will be found in these
Transactions.

Antimony. The sulphide of this metal was some years ago
worked intermittently at West Gore, Hants Co. The Messrs.
McNeil, of Halifax, have lately given some attention to the
district, and have proved three leads. The ore carries consider-

272 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. — GILPIN.

able gold values, and there appears to be some difficulty found
in extracting it. Assays show the following values :

I. II.

Antimony . . 60.29 p. c. 43.73 p. c.

Gold 2.66 oz. per ton 2,000 lbs. 2.48 oz.

Silver .10 “

Fire clays occur at several places in the coal measures, and
other horizons of the carboniferous, and are apparently valuable.
The manufacture of fire brick was carried on for some time at
Stellarton, but is, I believe, at present discontinued.

Allied economically to the fire clay is a sample of felsite from
Coxheath, Cape Breton Co , which has been proven experiment-
ally to make a good fire brick when mixed with about one per
cent, of lime.

Samples of coal oil shale and their products of parafine, wax,
illuminating and lubricating oil are shown from East Bay,
Cape Breton Co., where a plant is being erected to treat them on
a large scale. These shales occur in lower carboniferous con-
glomerates and sandstones near their junction with laurentian
measures.

XI— On the Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized
India-Rubber, with Tension. — By Thomas C. Hebb,
B. A., Dalhousie College , Halifax , N. S.

( Communicated by Prof J. G. MacGregor on the Uth May , 1900.)

Mr. W. A. Macdonald* found in the course of experiments
conducted in Dalhousie College last year, that the rigidity
(kinetically determined) of a fresh or partially fatigued vulcan-
ized india-rubber cord, when subjected to increasing tension, at
first diminished, then reached a minimum, and finally increased ;
while in the case of a sufficiently fatigued cord, the minimum
point seemed to disappear. But owing to a doubtful mode of
gripping the ends of the cord, his experiments were not
conclusive.

At Prof. MacGregors suggestion, I have made the experi-
ments described below with the object of settling this question
and finding out what I could about the phenomenon.

For this purpose I have (1) used the method of gripping the
cord which Mr. Macdonald employed in his last series of experi-
ments in order to exclude the source of error affecting his earlier
observations ; (2) applied the static as well as the kinetic method
of determining the rigidity ; (3) made experiments both on the
-cord which Mr. Macdonald used and on fresh cords, and (4)
adopted modes of procedure, suggested by the results of my
earlier experiments, with respect to the time between the
loading of the cord and the determination of the rigidity, and
to the magnitude of the angle of torsion.

The cords used were cylindrical in section, about forty
inches in length, and one-third of an inch in diameter. The grips
consisted of pieces of brass tubing of the same diameter (inside)
as the cord, in one end of each of which three longitudinal cuts
had been made. The ends of the rubber cord were drawn into

* Proc. N. S. Inst. Sci., 10, 28, 1898-99.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Yol. X.

(273)

Trans.— R.

274

ON THE RIGIDITY

the cut ends of these brass tubes and firmly fastened there by
wire twisted around the tubes outside. Cords of considerable
length were used, in order that the effect of the gripping at the-
ends might be inappreciable.

The cords were suspended from an iron bracket, moveable
on vertical guide-posts which were attached to the wall of the
laboratory, and capable of being firmly clamped to these posts
at any desired elevation.

The upper brass tube passed through a wooden socket
firmly fixed in the bracket. It was held in this socket by
friction, and while it could be rotated by hand, there was no
danger of its shifting its position otherwise. The brass tube
projected above the socket, and carried a wooden disk, on which
was a divided circle. A pointer fixed over the disk indicated
the number of degrees through which the cord was twisted.
Thus any desired torsion could be given to the cord at the
upper end.

The brass tube at the lower end of the cord carried, in a
plane perpendicular to it, a light wooden arm for the application
of the twisting force in the static experiments, and which
served as a platform for the stretching weights.

These weights were square leaden plates of about four
inches’ edge. They had holes of the size of the brass tube cut
in the centres, and slits leading to them from the edge, so that
they could be easily put on and taken off.

In applying the kinetic method, the cord was kept fixed at
the top, while the lower end, with the plates attached, was
twisted through some angle and then let go. The time of
oscillation was then determined by means of a stop-watch.
This datum, together with other data easily obtained, viz.,
length and diameter of cord, and moment of inertia of plates,,
gave the means of finding the rigidity. In determining the
time of oscillation, it was soon noticed that it varied with the
angle through which the cord was twisted. Hence the cord
was always twisted through known angles. In the static, as irv

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB. 275

the kinetic method, the rigidity varied with the angle, and
here, also, definite angles of twist were always used.

In using the static method, the twisting force was applied at
the end of the arm carried by the lower brass tube. In the
earlier experiments it was applied by means of a thin silk
string, horizontal and perpendicular to the arm, which passed
over the pulley of a set of frictionless wheels taken from an
Att wood’s machine, and carried a small plummet of known
weight. The plummet was so light that the cord was not
appreciably deflected from the vertical. In order to make the
friction as nearly as possible the same in all experiments with
the same plummet, I observed the position of the end of the
arm before the plummet was attached or the cord twisted,
and then having attached the plummet, I determined the
amount of twist to be applied in order that the arm might
make small oscillations about this position.

Even with this procedure, however, successive observations
showed a lack of agreement which was traceable to friction.
Hence, in the later experiments, I used Mallock’s* method of
applying the force, which I found not only to give more con-
sistent results, but to occupy less time. A small plummet of
known weight which was suspended from the end of the arm
by a fine silk string was drawn aside by a second silk string,
which was kept horizontal, the two strings being in a plane
perpendicular to the arm. The distance to which it was drawn
aside was determined by the aid of a second plummet hanging
freely from the end of the arm. The horizontal force at the
end of the arm was then equal to the weight of the first
plummet multiplied by the ratio of the distance to which it was
drawn aside to the distance below the end of the arm of the
point of junction of the two strings. These distances,
together with the length of the arm, could be measured with
considerable accuracy, and thus the torque to which the cord
was subjected determined.

* Proc. R. S. L., 46, 233, 1889.

276

ON THE RIGIDITY

In most of the measurements made, the quantity under con-
sideration was determined as a mean of several observations.

Lengths were measured by means of a beam compass reading
to .01 inch. The limit of error of a mean value was found by
comparing a number of such mean values with their mean, the
greatest divergence being taken to be the possible error of a
determination. It was found to be different according as it was
the length of the cord or of a side of the Mallock triangle or
of the arm, that was determined. In the two former cases the
greatest divergence from the mean was .01 in., in the latter
.005 in.

The diameters of the cords, which were approximately
cylindrical, were found by means of a screw-gauge reading
to .001 inch. The possible error was found by the above
method to be .0005 in. Owing to the difference in diameter at
different parts of the cord, it was found necessary to have
marks on the cord, at which the measurements were always
made.

The error that might be made in determining the angle of
twist in the static method was estimated to be about a quarter
of a degree.

The weight of the small plummet used in twisting the cord
was found by means of a balance weighing to .001 grm. The
method of weighing was that of substitution, and the limit of
error was estimated to be .0005 grm.

The time of oscillation was found by means of a stop-watch
divided into fifth-seconds, but capable of estimation to .1 sec.
The limit of error was determined in the same way as in the
case of length, and found to be about .04 sec.

In the static method the formula used for the calculation of
the rigidity was the ‘following : n = 2 T l/nr *0 in which T is the
torque in lb.-inch units, applied at lower end of cord, l is length
of cord in inches, r is radius of cord in inches, and e is angle
twisted through measured in radians. For the kinetic method
the formula : n — S^lI/t^r^g was used, in which l and r were

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER — HEBB.

277

expressed as in the previous formula, I is moment of inertia
expressed in lbs. and inches, and t is the time of a complete
oscillation expressed in seconds. The moment of inertia of the
plates used in stretching the cords was found by means of the
following formula : I = M {a2 — b2) /1 2, in which M is mass of
plates in lbs. and a and b are the lengths of sides of plates in
inches. The moment of inertia of the brass tube at the end of
the cord was found to be negligible.

The values of the rigidity determined as above would thus
be expressed in inch-lb-second gravitational units.

The effects on the calculated values of the rigidity, of the
above possible errors of the component observations, were
calculated in a few cases, and were found in the static observa-
tions to be between 1.5% and 2.5%, and in the case of the
kinetic observations to be between 2.5%^ and 3%.

My first observations were made on the cord which Mr.
Macdonald had previously used. He had subjected it to repeated
and prolonged extension, and found that the minimum point
which in the earlier series of observations seemed to characterize
the variation of its rigidity with tension finally disappeared.
Since the time of his experiments it had lain for six months
unstretched.

The static method was the only one employed, the torque
being applied by means of the frictionless wheels. The proce-
dure was as follows : First a weight was hung on the cord, and
left there for at least a day. Then its rigidity was determined,
after which the load was increased and the cord left
for another day. On the third day the same process was
repeated, and so on. It was not until later on in the
experiments that the importance of allowing the loads to act
for corresponding intervals of time was realized. The following
table gives the results obtained :

27S

OX THE RIGIDITY

TABLE I.

Date.

Temp.

(°C.)

Length,
(inches )

Diam.

(inches).

Angle

of

Torsion,

(degrees.)

Torque j
(lb. -in.) |

Rigidity.

Load
(lbs )

Oct.

44

20. .

1.611

4 4

23 .

17.5

46.82

.322

917

.0209

58

a

24 .

17.4

49. 6S

.313

1013

.0209

1 62

2.150

44

26..

21.4

52.98

.303

625

.0117

69

2.678

4 4

26..

20.5

53.07

.302

1093

.0209

71

“

44

27..

19.5

56.96

i .291

1235

.0209

78

3.216

44

30..

18.5

57.28

.291

713

.0117

77

44

44

30..

18.8

57.28

1 .291

1256

.0209

78

“

44

31.

17.8

61.82

.278

1373

.0209

92

3.758

Nov.

1

19.5

1

66.88

.270

1545

.0209

99

4.289

Although the above table shows considerable disagreement
between successive observations, due probably in some measure
to friction, to difference of temperature slightly, and to
inequality in the times of application of the loads, the values
obtained clearly increase with the tension, and give no indication
of a minimum point. This result is in agreement with Mr. Mac-
donald’s last series of observations, and seems to show that the
rigidity increases steadily with tension in a cord which has
been subjected to sufficiently prolonged extension, provided at
least a day is allowed to intervene between increasing the ten-
sion and determining the rigidity.

The next observations were made on a fresh cord of a
different rubber from Mr. Macdonald’s. It was harder, and
contained 60 per cent of pure rubber, according to the state-
ment of the manufacturer. A freshly-cut surface showed a
dark gray colour.

All the series of observations given below were made on
rubber cords of this kind.

Both static and kinetic methods were applied, very little
time being allowed to intervene between the two determina-
tions, in order that the cord might be in the same state, as

TABLE If,

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB. 279

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280

ON THE RIGIDITY

nearly as possible, in both. In the static determinations of this,
and of all subsequent series, Mallock’s mode of applying the
twisting force was used. The kinetic observations were made
with different amplitudes of angle of oscillation, and the static
observations with different angles of torsion. The general,
procedure was as in the former case. Table II contains the
results.

In none of the columns of rigidity values of this table
do the values found indicate any simple law of variation with
tension. They do not even increase or decrease continuously as
tension increases, but appear to oscillate between increment and
decrement, and by amounts which are not accounted for merely
by errors of observation. The variations cannot be accounted
for even by errors of method, because in general both methods
give similar variations. They may, perhaps, be partially at
least, accounted for by defective procedure. Nevertheless, two
conclusions may be drawn : — (1) The smaller the angle of
torsion in the static determinations and the angle of oscillation
in the kinetic determinations, the greater is the value of the
rigidity obtained. Mallock drew the same conclusion as to
kinetic rigidities from his observations. (2) The kinetic
determinations show a point of minimum rigidity as tension
increases ; but the static determinations are not sufficiently
exact to be decisive as to whether or not the existence of this
point is independent of the method. Thus the kinetic observa-
tions bear out Mr. Macdonald’s result that the kinetic rigidity
exhibits the minimum point in the case of a cord previously
unstretched.

The cord used in the last experiment being now in a state of
tension, was experimented on in a reverse manner. It was left
a day under the full load, when its rigidity was determined.
Then one of the weights was taken off, and it was again left for
a day under the diminished load, and its rigidity determined j
and so on.

TABLE III.

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB.

281

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282

ON THE RIGIDITY

Table II I gives the results of the observations. There is a
greater uniformity in the way in which the values of the
rigidity vary with change of tension than there was when the
tension was increasing, which may be ascribed in part to the
■somewhat greater uniformity of the time intervals between
changing the load and determining the rigidity, and in part to a
greater permanence of internal structure produced by the
previous prolonged extension. It will be noticed (i) that the
values of the rigidity run through pretty much the same
^course as they did in Table II, when the tension was being
increased, though the final values of Table III, in the case of
the static rigidity for the greater angle of torsion and in the
•case of the kinetic rigidity for the greater angles of oscillation,
are less than the initial values of Table II, and (2) that the
minimum point is given not only by the kinetic results for the
amplitudes 180° and 90°, but also by the static results, which
■shows that the occurrence of the minimum point is not due to
a defect peculiar to the kinetic method.

To see what effect the time interval between the putting on
•of the load and the finding of the rigidity, had on the rigidity, a
new cord was experimented with in the following manner: — A
weight having been put on the cord, the rigidity was deter-
mined both immediately afterwards and after the lapse of certain
intervals of time. Then another weight was added and the pre-
vious process repeated. Owing to lack of time, only the kinetic
method was used. Table IV gives the results.

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB.

283

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284

ON THE RIGIDITY

It appears from these results that increase of tension in a
cord which has been under tension for some time immediately
decreases the rigidity, but that if the cord is left under the
tension the rigidity increases again. According to the longest
series of observations made, the rigidity of a cord thus left
under a constant load seems to pass through a maximum points
but that is perhaps doubtful.

Since the immediate effect of increase of tension is to
decrease the rigidity, it might be expected that the twisting of
the cord in the determination of its rigidity would increase the
rigidity, and that consequently the greater the angle the cord is.
twisted through the smaller will be the value of the rigidity
found. This expectation is borne out by the results as given
in the tables. It was also noticed when taking several obser-
vations of the time of oscillation in order to get a mean value,
that the first values were always the smallest, a fact which
seems to indicate that the rigidity decreases with strain.

From the preceding it is easily seen that the procedure
followed above was not such as could give a simple relation
between the observed rigidity and the tension. For since the
rigidity of a cord under tension varies with time, the experiments
must always be made, if they are to give a definite result, when
the rigidity is at a minimum or a maximum. Now the minimum
value of the rigidity of a cord under tension appears from the
last table to be immediately after the tension is applied. If,
however, we decide to determine the rigidity when at its
minimum, not only must the rigidity be found immediately
after the tension is applied, but the rigidity of the cord due to
its previous tension must not have had time to change from the
minimum value. Hence the procedure should be as follows :
Load the cord and find the rigidity immediately, then increase
the load and find the rigidity immediately, and so on, the whole
series of experiments being carried out in the shortest time
possible.

With a new cord of the same kind as before, this pro-
cedure was followed, and the results of Table V obtained.

OF VULCANIZED INDIA-llUBBER. — HEBB.

285

28G RIGIDITY OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER. — HEBB.

There is some lack of regularity in the results of this table-
so far as the determinations with smaller loads are concerned,,
but the divergence from regularity is probably within the limit,
of error of the observations. The results obtained with the
larger loads exhibit much greater regularity than the results of
the previous series of observations. The table shows that if the
tension be increased as rapidly as is consistent with the deter-
mination of the rigidity at successive stages, the rigidity
increases with the tension continuously, at first comparatively
slowly, and finally with greater rapidity.

The comparatively slow increment of the rigidity under the
smaller loads would suggest the possibility that the rigidity
may not appreciably vary with the tension at all under the
circumstances aimed at in the experiments. For in the light of
the results of Table 1Y the larger values of the rigidity under
the greater loads may be due entirely to the time effect of
the previous increments of load.

XII. — Records of Post-Triassic Changes in Kings County,.
N. S. — By Prof. E. Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville,
N. S.

( Read 9th April, 1900.)

It was my privilege last Autumn to make a hasty survey
of that part of Kings County lying north of Canning, including
Cape Blomidon. Several interesting problems were suggested
during this trip, which I hope to follow up in the future.

I had in view two definite aims in visiting this region. The
first was to look for the contact of the basaltic trap of the North
Mountain with the underlying north-westerly dipping sandstone,
and I hoped to find this contact laid bare and accessible to-
observation in the natural cross section formed by the line of
cliffs which extends westwardly from Cape Blomidon to Cape
Split. This line of cliffs was carefully examined from Amethyst
Cove, where the trap extends beneath the sea, eastward to Cape
Blomidon where red sandstone cut into many fantastic shapes,
by wind and water rises nearly two hundred feet and is sur-
mounted by a sheet of black basaltic trap some two hundred
feet in thickness ending abruptly in vertical cliffs behind and
above the towers and bastions of the sandstone. Although the
place where the contact of the two formations reaches the beach
is easily determinable, and is marked by a long sloping line of
springs, the talus of loose blocks and debris from the trap above
is so great that at nd point was the actual contact visible or
accessible, so that the problem to be settled, whether the trap
was poured out on a smooth sea bottom or on an old eroded
land surface, remained undetermined.

The second object of the trip was to examine the coast
section south-west from Scot’s Bay. In the Transactions of the
Institute for 1893-91, (Volume VIII., pp. 416, 419,) Mr. R. W.
Ells mentions the occurrence, in this vicinity, of a calcareous

(287)

288

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

North-East Part of Kings County, N. S.

Scale: About four miles to one inch. Vertical scale 2400 feet to one inch. Depth of
water in fathoms.— For Mines, read : Basin of Mines.

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.— HAYCOCK.

289

sedimentary formation overlying the trap of the North Mountain
which was hurriedly observed by him in 1876. He states that
no fossils had been found in these rocks, but concludes from the
superposition of this formation on the trap that it is of more
recent date. He does not hint at its probable age further than
the above, but remarks that Prof. Bailey has reported rocks of
somewhat similar nature m association with the trap of Digby
Neck. Having been unable to find the statement in any of
Prof. Bailey’s writings accessible to me I made inquiry of him
and found that he did not know of such a formation, or of
having made the statement ascribed to him. This being the state
of knowledge in regard to these rocks I hoped to find some-
thing that would throw light upon their age and possibly reveal
a part of the geological history of this region during that long
period so blank in records in Eastern Canada and New England,
from early Mesozoic to the Glacial period.

In pursuit of this purpose I examined the shore south-west
from Scot’s Bay and was pleased to find for about four miles
occasional good exposures in the coves of the formation men-
tioned by Dr. Ells, until Ira Woodworth Bay was reached. This
is the exposure mentioned by him and was the most westerly
outcrop seen. Beyond this according to local authority none of
the rocks mentioned are found. Considerable value can be
ascribed to the local accounts in this case owing to the search
for amethysts which occur in cavities of masses of red jasper in
some of the layers of limestone, and are collected by the inhabi-
tants to supply the tourist trade. Only a hurried survey was
made on this occasion and but one fossil was found, which, tho’
poorly preserved, was plainly the coiled shell of a gastropod.
The general appearance of the strata, however, led me to hope
that better results would repay a careful and systematic
search.

On November 6th, I left Wolville for a further study of this
interesting formation. The results of my observations on this
trip I will endeavor to put before you.

Pkoc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Yol. X.

Trans.— S.

290

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

The general topography of the
region alluded to is probably familiar
to you all, as well as the common
explanation of the geological structure,
which appears to be, in the main, cor-
rect. From the parallel east-north-
east and west-south-west ridges of'
slate and sandstone of later Palaeozoic
age, which extend along the south-
east side of the Cornwallis Valley, a
slightly undulating rich farming coun^
try stretches away to the north-west
for some ten miles to the abrupt,
escarpment bounding the valley on its.
opposite side. The principal topo-
graphic features of this beautiful
valley are three low ridges parallel in
general trend with the older hills
before mentioned and separated from
each other and from the bounding
ridges by long tongues of fertile
dyked marsh in the basins of the
Cornwallis, Canard, Habitant, and
Pereau rivers. The existence of these
ridges seems to be due to the occur-
rence of coarser harder groups of
strata in the underlying red sandstone
which dips with considerable unifor-
mity and regularity to the north-west,
at angles of from eight to ten degrees.
The ridges correspond with the strike
of the formation and the valley topo-
graphy is apparently one of erosion.
The wearing out of the valleys took
place when the country stood at a.
higher level, and the marsh deposits of

KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK. 291

recent times now extend for several miles up the drowned
valleys. That this topography is probably Pre-glacial is indi-
cated by the occurence of a layer of Boulder clay of variable
thickness mantling both hill and valley. The changes in topo-
graphy since the disappearance of the ice of the Glacial period are
exceedingly slight in this region and are confined almost wholly
to the deposition, during a subsequent slight submergence, of
some banks of stratified sand and gravel, some wearing away
and retreat of the coast cliffs, and the filling-in of the river
basins mentioned.

The North Mountain has the prevailing trend of the other
ridges, and would appear to owe its present elevation above the
valley to the harder and more resistant character of the sheet of
volcanic rock, which protects the underlying soft sandstone from
the action of the eroding agents that have worked with such
effect upon the unprotected sandstone to the south-east. The
junction of the sandstone and trap is some two hundred feet or
more above the floor of tne valley, and the conviction is forced
upon the observer, when looking south-eastward from this point
that not only the smaller valleys mentioned but also the whole
broad depression he has crossed has been w7orn out of the soft
red sandstone, and that excepting minor inequalities of surface
the present relief of this part of the Province is wholly due to
differential resistance of the underlying rocks.

The trap sheet retreats more rapidly along its edges than
the sandstone owing to frostwork and its vertical jointing, and
when they both appear in the face of the escarpment the over-
lying trap is never overhanging but always well behind the
sandstone which generally forms a steep slope upon which the
fragments of the trap are precipitated, forming broken masses
which conceal the contact of the two formations. Because of
the soft nature of the sandstone and its calcareous cement it
weathers much more rapidly than the trap wherever exposed to
the action of rain and wind, but since the jointing is not well
developed it is not affected to a very great extent by the action
of the frost.

292

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

From the top of the divide, which is near the edge of the
escarpment, the surface slopes away to the north-west at angles
of from eight to ten degrees. This is about the inclination of
the beds of trap rock, and the present surface therefore corres-
ponds in general inclination with the original surface of the
formation. This ridge is cut by transverse valleys, the bottoms
occupied by small brooks which seem altogether too small to
have excavated the trenches they now occupy. A bank of
boulder clay containing glaciated pebbles was seen resting in
the bottom of a ravine on the floor of trap rock over which one
of the larger brooks is now flowing. If these depressions were
filled with the boulder clay of the Glacial period, the work since
that time has been wholly expended in dealing out their ancient
channels and the brooks have but just begun to renew their
excavation on the Trap rock.

The four miles of coast examined form the south-east shore
of Scot’s Bay, and from Ira Woodworth Bay, Cape Split, the
terminating point of the huge wall of rock forming the opposite
side of Scot’s Bay, bears nearly north. At this point the shore
swings from south-west to about west-south-west which is the
general trend of the coast for some sixty or seventy miles. With
the exception of the Amygdaloidal character of the Trap, the
shore below high water mark is not unlike many other portions
of this Bay of Fundy coast. Beachy coves are more common
because of the relatively sheltered position, but between these
the black rough rocks slope seaward in sheets and reefs with
very few outlying rocks and ledges. The sea at high tide washes
the bases of a line of low cliffs some twenty to forty feet high,
except in the deeper coves, where a narrow strip of gravel beach
is left uncovered by all but the highest tides. Several brooks
empty in small coves within the area examined and in their
beds the extent of the shore formations landward can be
traced.

4N KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK.

293

Diagram 2.— Section in Ira Woodworth Bay.

In the shore cliffs four distinct formations are revealed and
in the ascending order they occur as follows : —

1. Trap Rock.

2. Sandstone and Impure limestone, 20-30 feet.

3. Boulder clay with striated stones in irregular masses,
20-30 feet.

4. Stratified sand and gravel 4 to 6 feet in thickness about
thirty feet above high water mark.

Trap Roclc.

The Basaltic Trap is, in this locality mainly amygdaloidal
and occurs in sheets varying from two or three to many feet in
thickness. The strike corresponds to the general trend of the
shore. In many places the beds are intersected by a network
of shrinkage cracks which have been subsequently filled with a
dark reddish brown jasper. This is more resistant than the
trap and the veins form a network of intersecting ridges separat-
ing saucer shaped depressions a foot or more in diameter. As
the Trap approaches its contact with the limestone it becomes

294

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

more and more decayed until at the contact the rock is so loose
and unconsolidated that it will scarcely hold together to form a
hand specimen.

Sandstone and Impure Limestone.

The lower layers, of the calcareous formation are largely
made up of this disintegrated material but it is not found more
than two or three feet from the contact. These lower layers
are poorly defined and conform to the minor inequalities of the
eroded surface of the Trap. The Trap debris then gives place
to a fine grained light grey to green sandstone with calcareous
cement, in thin laminae, which is overlain by beds of impure
limestone from one to three feet thick alternating with thinner
layers containing flint-like quartz bands. At one spot in Broad
Cove a brown sandstone in beds three or four feet in thickness
is seen overlying the limestone. The maximum thickness of
this sedimentary formation would be about twenty-five feet.
Altho several brooks cut across these beds at right angles, in
only one can the limestone be traced, and there for a distance of
but twenty or thirty yards from the beach where the trap
appears in the bed. The other brooks have cut completely
through and flow over the underlying trap until the beach is
reached. This shows how little remains of what must have been
an extensive formation and explains in part why it remained so
long unnoticed.

The dip of these beds is, at first, somewhat confusing. On
the north-east sides of the coves it is always to the south-west,
and at angles as high as twenty degrees. On the south-west
sides of the coves it is correspondingly high to the north-east.
In the bed of the brook mentioned, which is in the centre of one
of the coves, the dip proved to be from three to five degrees to
the north-west. At several places the trap was visible beneath
the apparent synclines and showed no corresponding deformation.
Moreover, the variable inclination of the layers was there seen
to be that of the contact surface of the trap on which they rest.
As the layers recede from this surface they become more uniform
in inclination which is seen to be to the north-west at an angle

4

TRANS. N.S. INST. SCI. VOL. X.

PLATE I.

Fig. i.

BROAD COVE, LOOKING EAST, SHOWING LIMESTONE AND SHALE RESTING ON AMY GDALOIDAL TRAP.

FIG. 2. UNCONFORMABLE CONTACT OF GREENISH SHALE WITH AMYGDALOIDAL TRAP IN BROAD COVE.

To face page 294.

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK.

295

slightly smaller than that of the trap, or the same as the obser-
vation taken in the brook.

In some of the lower fine grained calcareous shales sun cracks
frequently occur and together with trail-like markings and
carbonaceous impressions of branching fucoid-like plants point
to shallow water or tidal conditions prevailing during the
deposition of the lowest layers. The fineness of the material of
these lowest layers also indicates a very gradual quiet submer-
gence of the disintegrated Trap rock and the absence of heavy
waves upon the subsiding beaches. The heavier bedded lime-
stone is quite free from inorganic sediment, and is a deposit in
deeper and purer water. The heavy bedded brown sandstone
marks some change bringing about a great increase of inorganic
sediment. Whether it was a re-elevation bringing the area
nearer shore, or advent of currents carrying such sediment is at
present undetermined.

Fossils occur in the underlying shale and limestone, altho’
they are, as a rule, poorly preserved. Among those collected
are fish scales and teeth, objects resembling the seed cones of
gy mnosperms, marine fucoids, and long, tapering, generally
straight, objects that are thought to be the shells of cephalopods.
These occur in the limestone and calcareous sandstone often in
great profusion and may reach a length of eight or ten feet, and
a diameter at the larger end of eight or nine inches. The
smaller ends are rounded, and usually about one, though some-
times two or three, inches in diameter. They are cylindrically
or longitudinally knobbed, hollow in the centre, and composed
mainly of a red jasper. That these forms are of organic origin
and aie not concretions is indicated by their similarity in form
and by their lying, in one bed, in such numbers that they cross
each other in every conceivable way, but always the character-
istic form of each individual can be determined. In all cases
the finer laminse of the beds are pressed down beneath by the
weight of the object, and those deposited after curve up over it
without interruption. Other forms occur here also. One cf
these was twenty-seven inches in diameter and appeared cup-
like in shape.

296

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

It has been stated that these strata rest unconformably on a
surface of decomposed trap, and that'the lower layers are made
up, in part, of the triturated fragments of the trap. This would
indicate that after the pouring out of these lava sheets their
surface was above water, was carved into valleys and hills, by
the streams of the time, and subjected to the decomposing action
of atmospheric agencies and vegetation, until the ancient surface
came to present the irregular and weathered aspect that we may
now see on portions that have been subjected to similar action
during recent geological time. This necessarily long exposure
preceded the subsidence and submergence during which the
stratified formation was deposited and would indicate, to my
mind, that at least a whole geological period had intervened
between the outpouring of the trap and the deposition of the
marine formation unconformably upon its weathered surface*
The trap is considered to be of Triassic age and I would place
that of the limestone as probably Cretaceous. Again, from Cape
Cod southwards marine deposits were laid down along the
Atlantic border during Cretaceous times. Altho’ I have as yet.
been unable to find any traces of foraminifera in the soft greenish
sandstone that occurs in one of the coves, yet the general aspect
of the fossils so far found is also suggestive of Cretaceous age.

The hollows or depressions in which these remnants are-
preserved are at present small valleys, occupied by brooks and
terminating on the shore in small coves which also owe their
existence to the erosion preceding the deposition of this forma-
tion. The Topography of this portion of the North Mountain is.
thus shown to be much older than the Glacial period and not
only are the brooks flowing in Mesozoic channels but the Bay
of Fundy waves are again washing the shores of coves from
which they have been excluded since the Mesozoic period.

The facts observed here are in accord with the conclusion,
arrived at from a comparison of the present stream beds with
the streams that now occupy them. Some of the gorges in this
area are equal in magnitude to those of the secondary streams
of the South Mountain, although the volume of water now flow-

IN KINGS COUNTY", N. S. — HAYCOCK.

297

ing in them is insignificant. The cross trenches in this particular
locality are, however, small as compared with those that cross
the mountain at intervals of a few miles throughout its length,
some of which are scarcely above sea level, others as Digby Gut
and Petite Passage 150 to 200 feet below.

These deep gorges are probably Pre-glacial, as well, since
they are partly filled with boulder clay and usually, if not
always, set opposite to corresponding depressions in the older
hills on the opposite side of the valley. The ice of the Glacial
epoch flowed over ridge and through hollow alike, and beyond
sweeping away the decayed and shattered layer down to the
undecomposed rock seems to have had little effect in transform-
ing the general topography of the country. These gorges then
are doubtless Pre-glacial, but how much older ? Though much
larger they are of the same character as the smaller hollows
filled with the sedimentary limestone, and are probably of the
same, or Mesozoic age. Although direct evidence of this has
not yet been obtained it may exist, only awaiting the coming of
a careful observer.

The most significant features of these greater gorges is their
positions, just mentioned, nearly opposite to corresponding river
gorges on the south-east side of the valley. Almost every deep
gorge in the North Mountain has its corresponding river valley
in the higher ground of the South Mountain opposite. The
depressions reaching the Bay of Fundy coast at Parker’s Cove,
Digby Gut, Sandy Cove, opposite the Lequille, Bear, and Wey-
mouth rivers are striking examples. A possible if not the only
plausible explanation of this fact, taken in connection with the
evidence of the great age of these depressions, is that they are
respectively the old outlets of Mesozoic rivers that flowed north-
westwardly across the sandstone and its overlying trap sheet,
draining a country more extensive than the present Nova Scotia,
because of its greater elevation, and with their greater volume
wearing broad channels through the red sandstone but abrupt
and precipitous trenches in the trap. The effect would be the
same in the basins of the smaller streams such as those now

298

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

heading back to a low divide some three or four miles from the
coast.

Daring the submergence of the region in late Mesozoic or
■early Tertiary times, the streams were drowned by the sea and
the silicious and calcareous deposits described were laid down in
the old river valleys. Deposits forming in this way would be
protected from the disturbances of the open shore, and probably
be composed of fine sediment laid bare at each low tide and dried
and sun cracked in bright warm days until carried below the
tidal limits by the slow subsidence of the whole region. The
limestone deposits indicate a submergence great enough to have
formed large inland basins in the broad valleys in the sandstone
country south-east of the edge of the trap sheet. These were pos-
sibly separated from each other by low divides which would be
gradually lessened by the rapid vertical decay of this rock refer-
red to earlier in this paper. When once covered by the sea, the
swiftly moving north-east and south-west tidal currents char-
acteristic of this region would scour out the valley at a rapid
rate, while the trap sheet would not retreat along its edges at a
corresponding rate since the frost work had not yet been
inaugurated, mild and warm climates extending at this time
even within the Arctic Circle. On the re-elevation of the country
in middle or late Tertiary times, the rivers would not return to
their ancient channels across the trap which were now higher
than the valley floor and filled in with deposits of the kind
described, but would flow along the valley parallel with the
mountain in either direction only discharging at the lowest out-
lets as Digby Gut at the south-west and Minas Basin and Channel
at the north-east.

The colder climates of late Tertiary times were now setting
in with winter frosts and snow, and the sheet of trap would
begin the rapid horizontal retreat which has continued until the
present day.

Boulder Clay.

Boulder clay containing many striated stones from local
sources occurs throughout this whole region and is seldom absent

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK.

299

^except from the loftier and more exposed portions of the ridges.
The prevalence of compact and amygdaloidal trap from the
North Mountain in the Boulder clay all over the south side of the
valley, as well as the rounded and worn north facing slopes of
the elevations indicate that the general movement of the trans-
porting agent was from the north. The general trend of all the
•striations I have yet seen in this1 vicinity is in the same direction.

Although Boulder clay is rarely seen along the exposed side
of the North Mountain except when sheltered by the precipitous
walls of the deep gorges which have been alluded to, on the
stretch of shore south-east of Scot’s Bay, deposits of considerable
thickness rest alike on trap and limestone and contain striated
fragments of both formations. In general the ma«s has the
same decided red color as the sandstone cliff's underlying the
trap at Cape Blomidon. One exception to this occurs in Ira
Woodworth Bay where the underlying portion of this deposit is
completely made up of a calcareous light grey clay mixed with
angular, occasionally striated fragments of the sedimentary
formation. It is wholly composed of the broken and pulverized
layers of this sedimentary formation and passes up abruptly
into the red clay and trap boulders among which no trace of
limestone could be found.

The abundance of boulder clay on this strip of coast proves it
to have been a region of deposit rather than of erosion during
Its burial beneath the ice of the Glacial Period. That deposition
was not continuous is shown, however, by the occurrence of the
debris of the adjacent calcareous strata at the most westerly
point at which these strata were seen. Farther east the red
deposits seemed to rest directly upon the light grey limestone
and sandstone and these portions do not seem to have suffered
as much from the grinding action of the ice sheet.

The evidence from striations and from travelled boulders
prove that the general movement of this ice sheet was from the
north. From Ira Woodworth Bay, Cape Split bears due north
and from this bold Cape a line of vertical cliffs from two to four
hundred feet in height extends eastward for eight miles to Cape

300

RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES

Blomidon, offering a huge barrier to the advancing ice sheet
which would deflect the main current, and leave a sheltered
area behind where the eroding action would be small or absent
altogether, and the conditions favorable for deposition during
the decline and disappearance of the ice.

This protected area would extend about to Ira Woodworth.
Bay, whence westwardly the shore would be exposed to the full
sweep of the mass passing to the westward of Cape Split. It is
significant that east of this Bay occur the heavy deposits of
boulder clay while to the west a bold bare coast of black for-
bidding trap extends for a hundred and twenty miles with but
an occasional heap of red boulder claj^ that has been deposited
behind some projecting cliff. Have we not here a simple
explanation of the preservation of this fragment of marine lime-
stone, this mere remnant of what must have been a formation
of considerable extent, the sole representative in north-eastern
America, containing the only known records for that region, of
the Geological history of the long period of time between the-
Triassic and the Glacial periods.

Stratified Sand and Gravel.

But the records preserved in this strip of coast do not end'
with those of the Glacial period. Overlying the boulder clay is
a deposit of stratified sand and gravel several feet in thickness,
the base of which is now some thirty feet above high tide level.
The upper limit of this formation was not determined, but the
coarse and water worn character of the material classes it as a
shore deposit, laid down within or but slightly below tidal
limits. This formation has been noticed at Wolfville, Pereau
and at several localities in Digby County. In the Cornwallis.
Valley it consists mainly of stratified sands in which the cross
bedding indicates that during their deposition the currents
flowed strongly both to the north-east and to the south-west, or
parallel with the general trend of the valley.

These deposits tell of a submergence succeeding the Glacial
period of at least thirty or forty feet and a re-elevation of at

IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.

301

least the same magnitude. It is probable that during the
deposition of these beds the waters of Minas Basin, Digby Basin
and St. Mary’s Bay were connected and that the present flat
and fertile valley stretching from the base of the North Moun-
tain to the low Palaeozoic hills on the south was a shallow' strait
through which twice a day the ebb and flood swept swiftly
planing down the valley to a uniform level but sweeping up
here and there long bars of shifting sands. These still remain
but form minor features in the topography of the valley.

This shallow^ strait was sheltered from the rougher waters of
the Bay of Fundy by the protecting barrier of the North
Mountain and the deposits in the valley are much finer than
those of the same age on the Bay of Fundy coast. The North
Mountain itself wTas cut up into a line of narrow islands by the
submergence which brought the bottoms of several of the deeper
gorges belowT sea level, and the old shore lines in some of these
may still be seen. The length of the chain was practically the
same as at present since Briar Island the westermost extension
of the trap ridge then formed twTo small islands rising some fifty
feet above the sea as shown by the old shore line about eighty
feet above the present sea level.

When the land again arose, the waters left the valley, the
rivers extended seaward removing the sand and gravel from
their old channels, wearing them deeper, and the now submerged
forests grew.

But again a gradual subsidence followed. The sea slowly
advanced up the river channels. The fine sediment brought
down by the rivers was arrested by the tidal currents and
deposited in their shallow estuaries, and the marine marshes
were formed.

This is as we find it at the present day. The changes are
still in progress. The history of this region wdiich we have
followed from early Mesozoic times to the present, or as much
of it as the records known to us reveal, is still being written in
the changing surface features of the land, the retreating coast
line, and the strata now forming off our shores. Every change,

302 POST-TRI ASSIC CHANGES IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S. — HAYCOCK.

no matter how small is thus recorded, and this account is merely
an attempt to read aright such records as have come under the
observation of the writer in a few hasty journeys among the
newer formations of our Province.

Brief and limited as these opportunities for observation have
been, they have convinced me that the field for Geological
investigation, in this region at least, is ample; that it is wonder-
fully rich in undiscovered facts and that for variety in litho-
logical, in palaeontological and in structural features, it is-
unequalled by any area of similar extent in eastern North
America. That such is the case is shown by the results achieved
by Sir J. Wm. Dawson during the third quarter of the century
and set forth by him so clearly and interestingly in his “ Acadian
Geology,” a work which must ever remain for us a model of
close observation, broad and scientific induction, and elegant
expression.

Because of its exceptional richness, however, the field has
not 3ret been exhausted, in the region of Minas Basin and west-
ward the soil has merely been broken. The broader relations of
the crreac formations to one another have been worked out and

o

their relative age established, but in knowledge of their litho-
logical composition, fossil contents, structural peculiarities,
conditions of deposition, relation to present topographic features,
etc., we are almost wholly deficient. The field is alluring and
full of promise to the Geologist. Let us who are native born
reap the rich harvest of facts before we are anticipated by
workers from the over-crowded fields of New England.

XIII— Phenological Observations, Canada, 1809, by A. H.
MacKay, LL. D.

{Read 9th April, 1900.)

The schedule on which the observations referred to here
were recorded specifies 100 different objects, some with sub-
divisions. Of the great majority of them, two classes of
observations are asked to be recorded : “ When first seen,” and
“ When becoming common.” In the tabulated dates recorded
by the Botanical Club of Canada, given at the end of this
paper, the first series onty is taken. The character of the
schedule is also indicated in these tables of observations at the
thirteen stations throughout Canada.

The identical schedule is also used in the public schools
of the Province of Nova Scotia. The observations here are
made by the pupils in attendance as a part of their “naturo
study,” when going to and returning from school, and are
tested and recorded by the teacher in duplicate, one copy of
which is preserved as a local record, and the other is sent with
the school returns to the Inspector for the Education Office.

Seven hundred and twenty-five school sections (school
districts, localities, or stations) returned schedules of observa-
tions, the majority more full than those of the thirteen stations,
of the Botanical Club reporting. The summation of these in
tabular form would require a large volume, and cannot, there-
fore, be attempted here. The schedules are bound up in a
volume for each year, so that the information may not only be
preserved for the future use of students, but may be conveniently
accessible. The series of volumes will be a mine of information
bearing on at least one phase of the problem of secular variation
of climate.

The same ten plants taken last year are here selected from
the list of one hundred objects for the purpose of comparison.

(303)

304 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

as to the average time of first flowering and when flowering
was beginning to become common. In some counties the
observations were so full that thirty good stations could be
selected for averaging, ten from the sea coast , ten from low
inland settlements, and ten from high land settlements. These
average dates or phenochrons of flowering are arranged in
parallel columns for the sake of comparison. In some counties
only twenty satisfactory stations for averaging, and in others
only ten, were found, as can be seen at a glance from the
tabulation of the figures.

The average phenochron for each plant’s first flowering and
flowering becoming common is calculated for each county, and
the mean of the two series is finally taken for comparison
with the similar general phenochron for the same phenomenon
in 1898. These general phenochrons are plotted on the accom-
panying diagram so as to show their curves through the
counties of the Province arranged in a linear series beginning at
the west and south, and proceeding to the east and north.

This order of the counties will be uniformly followed in
future plottings of the phenochronic curves, for the greater ease
of comparing those of one year with those of another. Last
year the counties were arranged in the order of their most
general phenochrons. Were the same rule followed this year
the positions of some of the counties would be changed ; but if
the positions of the counties remain fixed the configurations of
the phenochronic curves will illustrate the variations very
clearly from year to year.

On a future occasion I propose to plot the phenochrons of
the same phenomena running through the counties of the
province for two or three consecutive years, in order to study
the character of the annual observations, or the peculiarities of
climate or flowering. Unfortunately, we cannot be sure of
the degree of variation originating in the latter causes until we
are sure of a uniform system of correct observations symmetric-
ally distributed.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY. 305

Apart from any generalization of value which may be
expected from such work carried on continuously for years, it is
found to be a valuable stimulus to the formation of habits of
accurate observation in the pupils of the public schools, and
to the study of nature on the road to and from school, when it
does not interfere with any other study, and when it adds
interest and often amusement to otherwise monotonous road
travel. For this purpose alone the trifling cost of supplying the
schedules are many thousands of times repaid.

The names of the ten plants whose average dates of
flowering are given in the columns following, as described,
cannot be given on the same page with their phenochrons without
overcrowding. The names are, therefore, to be understood to
be prefixed in the following order to each column :

1. The Mayflower ( Epigoea repens).

2. The Blue Violet ( Viola cucullata).

3. The Red Maple (Acer rubrum).

4. The Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale).

4. The Strawberry ( Fragaria Virginiana).

6. The Wild Red Cherry (Prunus Pennsylvanicum).

7. The Tall Buttercup (Ranunculus acris).

8. The Indian Pear (Amelanchier Canadensis).

9. The Cultivated Apple ( Pyrus malus).

10. The Lilac (Syringa vulgaris).

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X.

Trans — T.

306 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

FLOWERING PHENOCHRONS

Of the foregoing ten Plants in the Eighteen Counties of Nova Scotia,

for the year 1899.

YARMOUTH COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

I

General Phenochrons.

■Ooast.

Low |

High-

Aver-

1 Coast. *

Low

High-

Aver- ^

Annual

Mensual

Inlands

lands.

age.

Inlands.

lands.

age.

date.

date.

98.2

87.8

93.0

109.7 i

103.7

106.7

99.85

10 April.

117.8

118.2

118.0

127.4 j

124.2

!125.8

121.90

2 May.

125.2

129.2

127.2

'130.5

134.2

132.3

129.77

10 “

117.4

119.7

118.5

,129.6

127.5

128.5 |

123.55

4 •*

118.3

115.6

116.9

131.8

i 125.8

128.8

122.87

3 “

135.9

137.3

136.6

144.1

142.9

143.5 1

140.05

21 “

141.8

130.6

136.2

153.8

141.2

147.5

141.85

22 “

142.8

136.6

139.7

146.6

143.4

145.0 1

142.35

23 “

147.5

139.0

143.2

157.4

148.9

153.1

148.20

29 “

160.4

151.6

156.0

166.9

158.0

162.4

159.22

9 June.

130.53

! 126.56

128.54

139.78

134.98

137.38

132.96

13 May.

SHELBURNE COUNTY, 1899.

99.9

101.2

100.5 |

1108.2 ,

110.9

109.5

| 105.05

16 April.

122.0

121.0

121.5

1129.5 ]

! 127.0

128.2

124.87

5 May.

125.5

124.0

124.7 1

|134.2

| 133.9

134.0

129.40

10 “

120.0

123.5

121.7

1132.7

131.1

131.9

126.82

7 “

121.8

121.9

,121.8

1 133.2

130.1

131.6

126.75

7 “

142.0

140.5

,141.2

150.0

146.8

148.4

144.82

25 “

135.7

144.8

140.2

148.4

151.0

149.7 !

144.97

25 “

138.1

137.6

.. ... 137.8

146.7

146.6

146.6 |

142.25

23 “

147.0

147.0

147.0

155.1

155.4

155.2 ;

151.12

31 “

156.7

J57.8

J 157 . 2

163.9

163.3

163.6

160.42

10 June.

130.87

131.93

131.40;

140.19

139.61

139.90

135.65

16 May.

DIG BY COUNTY, 1899.

102.4

102.6

104.1

103.0

110.6

117.4

122.0

1

116.6

109.86

i

20

April.

119.7

120.2

122 . 6

120.8

127.2

130.6

127.3

128.3

124.58

5

May.

130.4

133.4

[126.2

130.

137.8

138.8

132.0

136.2

133.10

14

“

118.4

121.4

123.9

121.2

128.0

127.8

121.3

125.7

123.46

4

“

116.4

120.2

119.7

118.7

128.8

130.4

128.2

129.1 |

123.95

4

“

136.8

143.6

136.9

139.1

148.2

153.8

143.6

148.5

143.81

24

“

145.8

146.4

143.6

145.2

153.2

156.4

150.7

153.4

149.35

30

(C

141.0

136.8

132.5

136.7

149.6

148.2

138.2

145.3

141.05

22

“

144.8

142.4

140.0

142.4

154.2

151.6

147.3

151.0

146.71

27

“

156.6

157.6

152.6

155.6

162.0

164.8

159.3

162.0

158.81

8

June.

131.24

1 132.46

130.21

131.20

139.96

141.98 '

136.99

139.64

135.47

16

May.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY. 307

Flowering Phenochrons — Continued.
QUEENS COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

r,, c , | Low
Const. Inlands>

High- Aver-
lands. age.

Becoming Common.

Coast.

Low

Inlands.

High-

lands.

Aver-

age.

General Phenochrons.

Annual

date.

Mensual

date.

103.2

124.2
128.6
125.5

125.9
140.7

149.9

136.2

146.9
157.0

106.2

121.4

120.4
123.7
12'3.3

138.4
148.3
133.0
144.2
152.6

104.7

122.8

124.5

124.6
124.6

139.5
149.1

134.6
145.5
154.8

112

131

135,

134,

138.

147.

158.

145.

152.

164.

113.8

127.4

125.8

134.1

134.0

145.5

157.9

137.2

151.1
157.0

113.2

129.4

130.8

134.2

136.2

146.4

158.4

141.2

151.8
160.6

108.97

126.12

127.67
129.42
130.40
143.00
153.75
137.90

148.67
157.70

19 April.

7 May.

8

10 “

11 “

23 “

3 June.
18 May.
29 “

7 June.

133.81

131.15

132.48

142.11

138.38

140.24

136 . 36

17 May.

ANNAPOLIS COUNTY, 1899.

99.9

107.7

103.8 |

110.1

117.1

113.6 |

I 198.70

19 April.

124.7

126.0

125.3 |

132.2

133.1

132.6 i

1 129.00

9 May.

129.3

1123.7

126.5

134.0

128.4

131.2 i

I 128.85

9 “

125.3

[128.8

127.0

133.6

135.1

134.3 j

[ 130.70

11 “

122.2

123.5

122.8

130.7

133.5

132.1 |

| 127.47

8 “

137.8

1140.7

139.2

143.6

146.9

145.2 |

| 142.25

23 “

145.9

1147.5

146.7

i

155.1

156.3

155.7

1 151.20

1 June.

133.4

1136.0

134.7

137.5

141.2

139.3

| 137.02

18 May.

139.9

145.7

142.8

148.3

152.3

150.3

| 146.55

27 “

152.3

153.7

153.0

159.1

159.4

159.2

156.12

6 June.

! 131.07

133.33

132.20

138.42

140.33

139.37

1 135.78

16 May.

LUNENBURG COUNTY, 1899.

102.4

104.6

105.3

1

104.1 1

111.1

114.2

114.7

113.3

1

108.71

19

April.

123.5

123.9

122.8

123.4 |

130.4

129.9

129.6

129.9

[126.68

7

May.

123.6

120.2

122.0

121.9 i

129.7

129.4

127.5

128.8

|125.40

6

4 C

126.2

128.3

127.0

127.1

131.3

137.2

134.0

134.1

j 130. 66

11

U

126.0

125.3

122.7

124.6

131.6

134.1

130.2

131.9

128.31

9

a

139.1

137.2

139.9

38.7

144.2

143.2

146.5

144.6

1141.68

22

iC

150.5

149.7

148.9

149.7

157.6

156.6

155.0

156.4

1153.05

3

June.

142.0

130.5

132.0

134.8

148.6

139.4

138.2

1142.0

138.45

19

May.

144.3

145.8

144.6

144.9

! 155.0

152.3

152.3

1153.2

[149.05

30

“

158.5

154.5

153.0

155.3

1 164.5

159.8

156.7

[160.3

[157.83

7

June.

133.61

132.00

131.82

132. 47 i

j 140.40

! 139.61

t--

->*

QO

139.49

i 135.98

16

May.

308 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

Flowering Phenochrons — Continued.
KINGS COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

General Phenochrons

Coast.

Low

| High-

Aver-

. Low

High-

. 1
Aver-

Annual

Mensual

Inlands.

lands.

age.

«joasc.

Imands.

lands

age.

date.

date.

103.8

109.9

1

106.8

114.8

118.6

116.7

111.77

22 April.

120.7

125.8

123.2

12G.7

134.4

130.5

126.90

7 May.

124.1

123.6

'124.8

132.3

133.0

132.6

128.75

9 “

123. G

127.5

125.5

133.6

135.8

134.7

130.12

11 “

122.5

123.5

1123.0

133.5

131.7

132.6

127.80

8 “

142.0

141.5

1141.7

150.2

146.3

148.2

145.00

25 “

140.2

152.7

146.4

153.8 ,

,157.9

155.8.

151.15

1 June.

136.2

134.7

135.4

144.0

140.7

142.3

138.90

19 May.

141.6

145.8

143.7

152.6

152.4

152.5

148.10

29 “

152.9

154.6

153.7

159.1

161.3

160.2

156.97

6 June.

130.76

134.16

132.46

140.06

141.21

140.63

136.54

1 17 May.

HANTS COUNTY, 1899.

103.8

109.3

106.5

114.9

119.1

117.0

111.77

22 April.

123.8

127.8

125.8

129.4

134.8

132.1

128.95

9 May.

126.6

126.9 !

126.7

131.0

131.8

131.4

129.07

10 “

125.2

129.6

127.4

134.3

136.7

135.5

131.45

12 “

123.2

126.6

124.9

134.7

132.7

133.7

129.30

10 “

138.6

146.2

142.4

147.2

151.3

149.2

145.82

26 “

141.3

153.3

147.3

154.6

159.7

157.1

152.22

2 June.

135.6

144.0

139.8

142.6

149.5

146.0

142.92

23 May.

144.7

150.8

147.7

151.1

157.5

154.3

151.02

1 June.

153.1

156.9

155.0

160.6

163.7

162.1

158.57

8 “

131.59

137.14

134.36

140.04

143.68

141.86!

138.11

19 May.

HALIFAX COUNTY. 1899.

104.6

105.9

108.2

106.2

119.2

114.9

118.8

117.6

111.93

22

April.

123.3

123.9

128.7

125.3

132.2

130.1

136.7

133.0

129.15

10

May.

124.6

126.3

122.7

124.5

132.7

133.9

133.0

133.2

128.86

9

126.3

127.5

130.1

127.9

135.9

134.4

138.6

136.3

132.13

13

“

126.9

124.0

125.8

125.5

137.1

135.3

135.5

135.9

130.76

11

CC

144.1

144.1

142.6

143.6

152.9

150.1

147.3

150.1

146.85

27

Cfc

151.8

149.6

150.0

150.4

161.5

157.2

161.0

159.9

155.18

5

June.

143.5

138.1

138.1

139.9

150.7

145 . 5

145.6

147.2 .

! 143.58

24

M ay.

154.5

148.3

151.1

151.3

164.1

156.8

157.5

159.4

1 155.38

5

June.

167.7

158.0

156.9

160.8

175.6

164.6

162.7

167.6

1 164.25

14

136.73

134.57

135.42

135.57

146.19

142.28

143.67

144.04

| 139.81

20

May.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.— MACK AY. 309

Flowering Phenociirons — Continued .

GUYSBORO COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming Common.

j

j General Phcnochrons.

Coast.

Low

Inland.

High-

lands.

1 Aver-
age.

Coast.

Low

Inland.

High-

lands.

Aver-

age.

Annual

date.

Mensual

date.

i

113.8

129.7

123.7

122.4

135.2 !

131.3
141.8

144.4
153 9.

118.10

132.45

127.50

138.75

138.65

150.90

162.35

148.10

159.40

166.85

29 April.
13 May.

8 “

19 “

19 “

31 “

12 June.
29 May.

9 June.
16 “

132.9

148.6

1 i

165.0
150 8

145.4

156.5
164.7

162.3

169.0

141.07

1

147.54

144.30

25 May.

CUMBERLAND COUNTY, 1899.

116.7

111.9

110.7

113.1

123.5

121.7

118.5

121.2

117.16

28

April.

124.8

127.3

127.5

126.5

131.2

136.0

134.4

133.8

130.20

11

May.

127.4

126.8

123.1

125.7

134.6

132.7

130.9

132.7

129.25

10

131.4

130.2

128.8

130.1

137.6

139.7

136.0

137.7

133.95

14

Ci

126.8

129.0

123.7

126.5

134.3

141.3

134.7

136.7

131.63

12

iC

145.9

141.1

140.4

142.4

151.2

146.9

146.4

148.1

145.31

26

154.7

149.1

150.3

151.3

160.3

159.5

155.8

158.5

154.95

4

June.

141.0

137.4

135.5

137.9

147.1

145.3

142.7

145.0

141.50

22

May.

152.4

149.3

149.5

150.4

158.6

154.3

155.7

156.2

153.30

3

June.

156 5

155.2

155.5

155.7

162.6

161.5

161.2

161.7

158.75

8

“

137.76

! 135.73

134.50

135.99

144.10

143.89

141.63

143.20

139.60

20 May.

COLCHESTER COUNTY, 1899.

106.1

112.2

118.9

112.4

118.1

117.6

125.4

120.3

116.38

27

April.

124.4

126.3

127.3

126.0

132.9

132.6

134.2

133.2

129.61

10

May.

i t

129.5

127.9

128.9

128.7

135.3

132.5

134.6

134.1

131.45

12

128.4

129.7

128.9

129.0

137.2

136.3

136.6

136.7

132.85

13

a

126.8

126.5

126.0

126.4

134.7

136.2

135.0

135.3

130.86

11

ct

141.3

140.3

147.4

143.0

147.3

147.8

152.4

149.1

146.08

27

149.3

148.6

149.5

149.1

157.5

156.7

156.1

156.7

152.95

2

June.

141.2

138.4

141.2

140.2

147.1

143.7

148.7

146.5

143.38

24

May.

148.1

146.5

152.0

148.8

155 . 5

154.6

158.5

156.2

152.53

2

June.

156,5

157.4

160.8

158.2

163.4

162.3

166.8

164.1

161.20

11

* *

135.16

135.38

138.09

136.21

142.90

142.03 1

144.83

143.25

139.73

20

May.

310 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACK AY

Flowering Phenochrons - Continued.
PICTOU COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Becoming

Common.

General Phenochrons.

Coa st.

Low

High-

j Aver-

Low

High-

Aver-

Annual

Mensual

Inland.

lands.

age.

Coast.

Inlands.

lands.

. age.

date.

date.

107.4

111.8

112.2

110.4

118.0

122.5

119.2

119.9

115.18

26 April.

126.4

127.1

127.1

126.8

134.4

134.8

134.8

134.6

130.76

11 May.

126.7

123.3

126.2

125.4 i

133.0

130.1

131.9

131.6

128.53

9 “

127.3

128.6

130.4

128.7

134.5

135.5

137.2

135.7

132.25

13 “

128.8

126.2

126.7

127.2

135.8

136 8

137.2

136.6

131.91

12 “

148.5

144.6

145.9

146.3

152.8

149.7

151.0

151.1

148.75

29 “

148.8

148.7

150.0

149.1

155.7

155.9

156.4

156.0

152.58

2 June.

142.0

141.3

140.9

141.4

147.4

145.4

145.3

146.0

143.71

24 May.

150.9

146.7 |

149.4

149.0

156.1

153.5

156.3

155.3

152.15

2 June.

156.1

156.2

157.2

156.5

161.3

160.9

162.7

161.6

159.06

9 “

136.291

135.45 1

1 136. 60 136. 11 1

142.90

142.51 1

143.20

142.87

1

139.49 1

20 May.

ANTIGONISH COUNTY, 1899.

117.4

125.9

1 121.65

2 May.
12 “

127.6

134.6

| 131.10

132.8

1

1 136.6

134.70

15 “

130.1

i

U-V.'..

|136.8

133.45

14 “

128.2

139.9

134.05

15 “

146.9

153.4

150.15

31 “

153.8

161.0

157.40

7 .Tune.

145.4 1

151.2 |

148.30

29 May.

152.9

158.1

155.50

5 June.

160.4

::::::::

i :::::

165.8

1

163.10

13 “

139.55

1

i

1 146.33

1

i 142.94 1

23 May.

RICHMOND COUNTY 1899.

110.7

129.9

138.2
131.6

132.0

154.0

159.2

146.9

160.3

167.8

.

l ! ! ! !'

1 1

j 121.5
; 136.5

145.9
1 140.6

140.4

159.1 |

166.4

152.4

166.9

172.2

116.10
! 133.20
142.05
136 10
136.20
156.55
162.80
149.65 |
163.60 |
170.00 |

27 April.
14 May.

23

17 “

17 “

6 June.
12

I 30 May.
13 June.
20 “

1 | 1 143.06,

1

... 1 150.19,

146.62

| 27 May.

PHRENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 189P. — MACKAY. 31 X

Flowering Phenochrons— Continued.

CAPE BRETON COUNTY, 1899.

First Seen.

Coast.

Low

Inlands.

High-

lands.

Aver-

age.

|

111.8

132.0

1

128.0

132 2

127.7

150.6

149.2

147.2

156 6

164.9

I I 1140.2

!

Becoming Common.

Coast.

Low

Inlands.

High-

lands.

Aver-

age

120.8
137.9
134 5

139.4

138.7

156 3

163.7 !
152 9 |

163.4 1
170.3 1

i

I.....J

147.4o!

General Phenochrons.

Annual

date.

Mensual

date.

116.30

27 April.

134.95

15 May.

131.25

12 “

135.80

16 “

133.20

14 “

153.45

3 June.

154.95

4 “

150.05

31 May.

160.00

10 June.

167.60

17 “

143.75

1 24 May.

INVERNESS COUNTY, 1899.

116.5

128.1

134.1

131.9

129.7

151.9

151.2

148.7

152.9

1

163.8

| 140.88

122.8

135 3

141.2

138.9

136.6
■157 7

1159 3

1 159 6

1158 5

1170.1

1

.

I

5 1

119.65

131.70

137.65
135.40

133.15
151.80 I
155.25

154.15

155.70
166.95

I 144.44 !

30 April..
12 May.
18 “

16 “

14 “

4 June.

5 “

4 “

5 “

16 “

25 May.

VICTORIA COUNTY, 1899.

I...

117.2

122.3

129.9

133.6

130.3 1

136.8

131.7 1

137.3

1127.9

135.5

1149.8

1

r::::'

155.2

155.8

163.5

1147.2

1157.1

1152.7 1

1 162 . 8 I

164.7

. ... (171.8

141.16

147.15

1

| 119.75

30 Apr',1.

1 131.75

12 May.

133.55

14 “

134.50

15 “

! 131.70

12 “

1 152.50

1 2 June..

159.65

9 “

149.95

30 May.

159.95

9 June.

168.25

18 “

1 144.15

I 25 May.

312 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.
Phenochron Curves of Flowering.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY. 313

Observations of Botanical Club of Canada.

In order to keep unbroken the series of observations made
By the Botanical Club of Canada, in the Transactions of the
Institute, especially as they have not yet become too voluminous,
the following tabular summation of them for 1899 is given.
The seven stations in the other provinces of the Dominion
show observations which will be interesting in comparison with
those made in Nova Scotia.

Phenological Stations and Observers of the Botanual Club
of Canada , 1899.

St. Stephen, N. B. — J. Vroom, Esq.

Yarmouth, N. S. — S. A. Starratt, Esq.; Seymour Critcher, Esq.
Berwick, N. S. — Miss Ida A. Parker.

Halifax, N. S. — Harry Piers, Esq.

Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S. — Rev. James Rosborough.

New Glasgow, N. S. — Miss Maria Cavanagh.

Wallace, N. S. — Miss Mary E. Charm an.

Charlottetown, P. E. I. — John McSwain, Esq.

Beatrice, Muskoka, Ontario. — Miss Alice Hollingworth.
Pheasant Forks, Assiniboia. — Thomas R. Donnelly, Esq.
Olds, Alberta.— T. N. Willing, Esq.

Willoughby, Saskatchewan. — Rev. C. W. Btyden.

Vancouver, B. C. — J. K. Henry, Esq., B. A.

Explanation of Annotations over the Date Figures in the following Table

* — “ When becoming common.”
b — Rubus spectabilis (flowering),
c — “ “ (fruiting).

f — Rubus occidentals.
k — Turd us propinqua.
o — Sturnella neglecta.
q — Chordeiles Henryei.

s — Ranunculus rhomboideus.
t — Fragaria Chilensis.
n — Primus emarginata.
v — Tridum ovatum.
w — Trientalis Europraa,
x — Atnelanchier alnifolia.
y — Rosa Nutkana.

314 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA. 1899.

j Number.

Day of the year 1899 cor-
responding to the last
day of each month.

Jan 31 July 212

Feb 59 Aug ....213

March.. 90 Sept 273

April . . .120 Oct 304

May... 151 Nov 334

June ...181 Deo 365

(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

St- Stephen, N. B.

| Yarmouth, N. S.

| Berwick, N. S.

Halifax, N. S.

Musquodoboit, N. S.

New Glasgow, N. S.

1

Alnus incana, Willd

103

112

• 112

1

|

Ill

2

Populus tremuloides.

106

120

121

Michx.

j....

3

Epigaea repens, L

112

99

96

106

105

112

4

Viola cucullata, Gray ....

123

119

126

129

5

V. blanda, Willd

119

122

(....

131

119

122

6

Acer rub rum, L

118

133

122

7

Houstonia caerulea, L . . . .

130

122

8

Equisetum arvense, L . . . .

115

134

120

9

Taraxacum officinale.

121

115

112

123

125

119

Weber.

10

Erythronium Amer , Ker.

126'

11

Hepatica triloba, Chaix

145

132

...J

12

Coptis trifolia, Salisb. . . .

133

123

144

13

Fragaria Virginia, Mill . .

127

117

122

132

126

122

14

(fruit ripe)

167

152

158

175

160

15

Prunus Pennsyl , L

142

149

154

146

16

(fruit ripe)

I

1

17

Vaccinium Penn., Lam. . .

137

133

127

157

18

(fruit ripe)

159

190

19

Ranunculus acris, L

150

?

1.47

163

123

20

R. repens, L

151

154

21

Clintonia borealis, Raf

155

141

157

157

22

Trillium erythrocarpum.

131

142

157

144

Michx.

23

Trientalis Ameri., Pursh.

150

119

127

154

158

151

24

Cypripedium acaule, Ait

152

160

147

25

Calla palustris. L

158

26

Amelanchier Canadensis

129

134

143

134

141

T. & G-

1

|

27

“ (fruit ripe)

204

151

111 126

132

121

119

163

152 127
186

221

.<?

126 .

92

t

114

122

132

v

88:

w

131

x

126

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY. ol^

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding to the last
day of each month

Jan.
Feb —
March
April..
May

31

59

90

.120

.151

June.. 181

July 212

Aug .. ..243
Sept ... 273

Oct 3"4

Nov 334

Deo 365

(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

Rubus strigosus, Michx
(fruit ripe)

Rubus villosus, Ait

“ (fruit ripe)

Kalmia glauca, Ait

K. angustifolia, L

Cornus Canadensis, L. .

“ (fruit ripe)

Sisyrinchium angustifol

Linnaea borealis, L

Linaria Canaden., Dum.

135

Rhinanthus Crista-galli,
L

Sarracenia purpurea, L. .

Brunella vulgaris, L

Epilobium augustifol. , L

Rosa lucida, Ehrh

Hypericum perforat , L. .
Leontodon autuninale, L
Prunus Cerasus (cultiv.) .

“ (fruit ripe) 162

Crataegus Oxyacantha, L

C. coccinea, L

Prunus domestica (cul’d) .
Pyrus malus (cul d) early.

“ “ late

Ribes rubrum (cultivated)

“ (fruit ripe)

150

133

161

152

142 168
213

151

171

171

163

221^...

1821

182
182
195 201
183
189

164

146

153

...I

174

* I

198 198

192 .. •

I

167 ...

I

146 .. .

.. J 196
165
152

162

155

194

154

103

157

128
144 ... .

128 154

b

7$

c

159

f

149

140

133

I V
\ 144

112-

174

152

123:

316 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY.

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

55

56

57

58

59

60
61
62

63

64
65a
65b
66

67

68

69

70

71

72
73a
73b
74a
74b
75a
75b
76a
76b

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding: to the last
day of each month.

•Ian 31 July 212

Eeb 59

March.. 90
April . ..120

May 151

June .181

Aug.
Sept
Oct .
Nov .
Dec .

.243

.273

..304

.334

365

(First flowering or fruit-
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

R. nigrum (cultivated).

“ (fruit ripe)

Syringa vul., L. (cultiv.)..
Solanum tuberosum, L. ..

Phleum pratense, L

Trifolium repens, L

T. pratense, L

Triticum vulgare, L

Avena sativa, L

Fagopyrum esculen., L...
Earliest full leaf g of tree •
Latest “ “

Ploughing (first of season)
Sowing “

Potato-planting
Sheep-shearing “

Hay cutting
Grain-cutting “

Potato-digging “

Opening of rivers
Opening of lakes “

Last snow to whiten gr’d
“ to fly in air —

Last spring frost— hard . . .

“ “ hoar...

Water in streams— high . .
“ “ low . .

143

160

153t 160
171 j .

... 150

139

151

96

156 157

174

151

90

190

112

116

124

149

153

121

258 ....

\

100 ....

161

126

236

110

132

I

144 168

* I

182 210
18sj ....

132; ....

* !

166

212

128

121

126 128

I

130 144
136 153
193 210
233 .

268 258

111

124 124

143

135

133
135 156

111

128

115

117

128

156

198

241

276

107

123

155

115

PHENOLOGICAL OBSE ll V ATION S, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY. 317

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.

77a

77b

78a

78b

79a

79b

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding to the last
day of eac h month.

Jan 31 July 212

Feb 59

March . . 90
April... 120
May ... 131
June — 181

Aug 242

Sept 273

Oct 304

Nov.. . 334
Dec .... 365

(First flowering or fruit
ing of plants and first ap-
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc.)

First autumn frost, hoar.

“ hard..

First snow to fly in air

“ whiten ground

Closing of Lakes

“ Rivers

Thunderstorms— dates . . .

64

156

122
146

156

157
165

170 166

171

172
176

316

64

246

176

157

172

157

216

316

258

307

166

177

277

294

I

319

251

5

64

121j

128

164

64

167

165

194

I

202

225

104

120

148

149
151

155

156

157
163
165
174
184
198
214
224
233

260

254

221

221

126

172

173
175

177

178
197
204
210

108

142

220
221 '

212 236
218( 255
221 ... .

259

Numbel*.

318 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. — MACKAY

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1839

81a

-81b

82a

82b

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97
88
99

too

Day of the year 1899, cor-
responding to the last
day of the month.

Jan 31 July 212

Feb 59 Aug 243

March.. 90 Sept — 273

April .. 120 Oct 304

May 151 Nov.... 334

June... 181 Dec 365 __

(First flowering or fruit-
ingof plants and first ap- tn
pearance of migratory ani-
mals, etc ) m

Thunderstorms— dates .

00

£

0Q

£

3

O

s

o

Si

35

ti

o

p*

PQ

Wild ducks migrating, N.

*• “ S.

“ geese “ N.

“ “ S.

Melospiza fasciata. North.
Turdus migratorius,
Junco hiemalis,

Actitis macularia,
Sturnella magna
Ceryle Alcyon.

Dendrceca coronata,

D. sestiva,

Zonotrichia alba,
Trochilus colubris,
Tyrannus Carolinen ,
Dolychonyx oryzivor.,
Spinis tristis,

Setophaga ruticilla,
Ampelis cedrorum,
Chordeiles Viginian.,

First piping of frogs

First appearance, snakes.

100

86 ..

94 78

347
92
80
102 81

81

102 ..
149'..

94 94

I

88 97

1 i

99

120

i

143 128

144

115

135 .
145 .

97

146

100

146

144

228 1 287
246 296
257

144

110 99

no ioo

291 ... . 286

k | k
116 97

134

108

k

116

110

XIV. — A Fi^esh Water Sponge from Sable Island. — By A.
H. MacKay, Ll. D., Halifax.

(Read 9th April, 1900.)

*=» $ * =/2a4/^

This sponge was collected in considerable abundance on the
18th of August, 1899, by Professor John Macoup, Botanist of

(319)

320 A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND. — MACKAY. '

the Geological Survey of Canada, in the fresh water pond found
in the centre of that great sand-shoal in the Atlantic Ocean,,
well known as Sable Island, nearly one hundred miles from
Nova Scotia, the nearest part of the continent. It was growing
around the submerged portion of the slender stems of Myri-
ophyllum tenellum , Bigelow, in green, compact, lobular masses,,
showing, where broken, numerous orange yellow gemmules.

It appears to approach most nearly to the following fresh
water sponges described by Potts : lleteromeyenia ryderi, v.
baleni, found from Florida to New Jersey, in its spicnlation
and Heteromeyenia ryderi v. walshii, from Gilder Pond, Massa-
chusetts, in the fasciculation of its skeleton spicules.

General form : Encrusting the submerged stems of Myri-
ophyllum tenellum, (which in the specimens examined are about
2 mm. thick), in a smooth, compact, green, lobular mass extend-
ing to a gross diameter of about one centimeter, and to a height
or length along the stem of about 5 or 6 centimeters in some
cases, the lobes suggesting an abortive attempt at branching;,
pores and osteoles very minute ; gemmules very abundant,
appearing wherever the central mass is broken.

Gemmules : Light orange in color, spherical, varying from
500 to 800 microns in diameter, but generally between 600 to
700 microns ; foraminal aperture from 30 to 70 microns in
diameter, not produced into a tube beyond the crust; dense-
inner (chitinous) coat of gemmule nearly 10 microns thick,
surrounded by the light cellular crust (in which the short
siliceous birotules or amphidisks are vertically embedded) to a
depth of about 25 microns; both short and long birotules or
amphidisks with one disk or rotule resting on the chitinous coat,
their shafts radially directed, packed as closely as their disks
allow, the long birotules being fewer with the distal rotules-
extending bejT-ond the crust, their few slightly incurved rays
somewhat adapted for attaching the gemmule to any finely
fibrous environment.

Short birotules : From 18 to 26 microns in length,

generally from 20 to 24, with a smooth uniform shaft

A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND. — MACNAY. 321

ranging from 1.5 to 2 microns thick; the rotules being plane
disks less than 2 microns thick from the point where the shaft
begins to swell into them, and from 10 to 16 microns in diameter,
commonly near 12 microns, laciniately blunt-lobed around their
margins, the shaft occasionally extending 1 micron beyond the
disks, making the exterior of the rotule slightly umbonate.

Long birotules : From 35 to 50 microns, commonly from 40
to 45, with usually a smooth, uniform shaft about 2 microns
thick ; the rotules generally of 3, to 4 or 5 rays which are slightly
incurved, the rotule ranging from 8 to 14 microns in diameter,
commonly from 10 to 11 microns.

Larger skeleton spicules : Slightly curved, microspined or
rough, tapering gradually from the middle, then more rapidly
towards the ends; ranging from 150 to 260 microns in length,
commonly from 180 to 220; and from 3.5 to 5 microns in
breadth at the thickest part.

Intermediate skeleton spicules : Generally smooth, and from
2 to 3 microns thick, and from 150 to 200 microns in length,
numerous and generally fascicled into strands which are often
connected transversely by the larger spicules.

Smaller strand spicules and filament strands : Finer strands
than those referred to above, appearing as if made up of continu-
ous filaments instead of spicules; strands commonly from 10 to
15 microns across, made up of about 20 filaments or more, each
about one micron thick, where broken across appearing as if
they were flexible to some extent, the ends of the filaments
showing a more or less distinct curvature. Under the micro-
scope they appear identical with the more slender spicules with
the exception that they appear to be continuous in the strand.
Examined with polarized light they are visible in the dark field,
as are also, more or less, the strands made up of the interme-
diate spicules while the spicules are cemented together, suggest-
ing a peculiar colloidal siliceous or a spongin cement. When
heated with nitric acid these filaments appear first to separate
and break into pieces, then partly at least to disappear. At the
earliest opportunity I purpose to examine the nature of these
Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sei., Vol. X. Trans.— U.

322 A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND — MACtfAY.

strands and their relationship to the other portions of the skele-
ton ; but this crude provisional treatment of them suggested
that the filaments might be spongin fibres partly silicified, or
nascent siliceous spicules.

The two classes of birotules arming the gemmule put the
sponge into Potts’s genus Heteromeyenia. I therefore propose
the name Heteromeyenia macouni, in allusion to the distin-
guished naturalist who discovered it. It is possible that a com-
parison of the sponge with the two varieties referred to first
abive as approximating to this species may reduce it to Hetero-
meyenia ryderi v. maconni ; but from the descriptions publish-
ed it appears to be specifically distinct.

The sponge is especially interesting on account of its habitat
in the only fresh water pond of a sand island in the Atlantic
Ocean nearly 100 miles from the continent. The island is
about 20 miles long at present and about one mile broad. It
has been described as consisting of “ two parallel ridges of loose
grey sand, in a bow or crescent shape, with the inner side to the
north. In the valley between these is a lake, now not more
than eight miles long, formerly nearly twice that length.”* This
is the pond in which Heteromeyenia macoiini has been growing
in abundance.

* Sable Island : Its History and Phenomena, by Rev. George Patterson, D. D., in
Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Section II., 1894, (3).

APPENDIX.-II.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1899-1900.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Allison, Augustus, Halifax Feb. 15,

Austen, Janies H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax Jan* 2,

Bayer, Rufus, Halifax March 4,

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6,

Bliss, Donald M., Boston, U. S. A Jan. 31,

Bowman, Maynard, b. a., Public Analyst, Halifax March 13,

Brown, R. Balfour, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10,

Butler, Professor Wm. R , c. E., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ont.Nov. 27,

Campbell, Donald A., m. d., Halifax Jan. 31,

Campbell, George Murray, m. d., Halifax Nov. 10,

Clements, E. F., Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 10,

Cowie, Andrew J., m. d., l. r. c. p. e , Halifax Jan. 27,

De Wolfe, James R.. m. d., l. r c. s. e., Halifax Oct. 26,

Dick, Alexander, M. e., Halifax Nov. 29,

Doane, F. W W. , City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3,

Donkin, Hiram, c. E., Point Tupper, Cape Breton Nov. 30,

Egan, Thomas J,, Halifax Jan. 6,

Elliott, Miss Bertha, Dartmouth. N. S March 4,

1869

1894

1890

1890

1890
1884

1891

1889

1890
1884

1891

1893
1865

1894
1886

1892
1890

1895

Fearon, James, Principal Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax May 8, 1894

Finn, Wm. D., m. d., Halifax. Oct. 29, 1894

Faville, E. E., President, National Farm School', Doylestown, Pa Nov. 29, 1894

Forbes, John, Halifax March 14, 1883

Foster, James G., Judge of Probate, Dartmouth, N. S March 14, 1883

Fraser, C. F., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax March 31, 1890

Fraser, Rev. W, M., B. A., B. sc.. Halifax . . Nov 29, 1894

Gates, Herbert E., Architect, Dartmouth, N. S : . .April 5, 1899

Gilpin, Fdwin, m. a., t,l. d., f. r. s. C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax April 11, 1873

Greer, T. A., M. D., Coiborne, Ontario April 7, 1893

Hall, Charles Frederick Dec. 31, 1894

Hare, Alfred A Dec. 12, 1881

Harris, Herbert, Vancouver, British Columbia Jan. 31, 1880

Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Halifax Nov. 12, 1892

Hendry, William A., Jr., c. e., Windsor, N. S Jan. 4, 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Jacques, Hartley S., m. d , Halifax May 8, 1894

Johnston, Henry W , c E., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

*Keat.ing, E. H , c. E., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario April 12, 1882

Kennedy, W. T., Principal, County Academy, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

* Life Member.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X.

App.— II.

VI

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

Locke, Thomas J., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

McColl, Roderick, c. E., Halifax Jan. 4. 1892

Macdonald, Simon D., F. G. s., Halifax March 14, 18S1

Macdonald, W. A., c. E., Sydney, C. B April 5, 1899

MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, m. a. d. sc., f. r. s., Dalhousie College,

Halifax Jan. 11, 1877

Mclnnes, Hector, ll. b., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

♦McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools. Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, Alex. Howard, B. a., b. sc , ll. d., f. r. s. c., Superintendent

of Education, Halifax . Oct. 11, 1885

MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, ph. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891

MacNab, William, Halifax Jan. 31, 1890

Marshall, G. R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax April 4, 1894

Mason, F. iL, F. c. s., Halifax Dec. 31, 1894

Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coulee, Montana, U. S. A Nov. 27, 1889

Morton, S. A , M. a., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893

Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax Jan. 15, 1870

Newman, C. L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 27, 1893

O’Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick’s Boys’ School, Halifax Jan. 16, 1890

* Parker, Hon. Daniel McN., M. D., M. L. c., Dartmouth, N. S 1871

Pearson, B. F., Barrister, Halifax March 31, 1890

Piers, Harry, Halifax — Nov. 2, 1888

*Poole, Henry S., F. g. s , f. r. s. c , Stellarton, N. S Nov. 11, 1872

Read. Herbert H., M. ]>., L r. c. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

♦Robb, D. W., m E., Amherst, N. S. March 4, 1890

Rutherford, John, M. E., Stellarton, N. S . Jan, 8, 1865

Shine, Michael, Halifax Dec. 3, 1891

Silver, Arthur P., Halifax Dec. 12, 1887

Silver, William C., Halifax May 7, 1864

Smith, Capt. Wm Henry, r. n. r , f. r g. s., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Stewart, John, M. b., c. M., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Tremaine Harris S., Halifax Jan. 2. 1894

Weatherbe, Hon. Mr. Justice, Halifax March 28, 1895

Wheaton, L H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co , Yarmouth, N. S.. - Nov. 29. 1894

Willis, C. E., M. e., Halifax Nov. 29, 1894

Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax May 3, 1889

*Yorston, W. G., c. E., Truro, N. S Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

♦Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Cold well, Professor A. E., M a , Wolfville, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

DeWolfe, Melville G., Kentville, N. S May 2, 1895

^Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill,

Guysborough Co., N. S March 4, 1895

Eaton, F. H., M a.. Superintendent of Public Schools, Victoria, B. C . . . Jan. 6, 1890

Edwards, Arthur M., M. d., f. l. s , Newark, N. J Dec 6, 1898

Faribault, E. R., C. E., Ottawa, Ontario March 6, 1888

Halliday, And , M. D., Shubenacadie, N. S Dec. 6, 1898

Hardman, John E., M. E., Montreal — March 4, 1890

Life Member.

LIST OF MEMBERS. VII

Bate of Admission.

Haycock, Prof. Ernes t, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S .May 17, 1899

Hunton, Prof. S. W., m. a . Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B Jan. 6, 1890

James, C. C. , M. a., Dep. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3, 1896

*Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., m.a.,d.sc., f g s . King’s College, Windsor, N S.Nov. 9, 1882

Macintosh, Kenneth, St. George's Channel, Richmond Co , C. B Jan. 4, 1892

McKenzie, W. B , c.E. , Moncton, N. B — March31, 1882

McLeod, R. R., Brookfield, N S Dec. 3, 1897

Magee, W. H , Fh.D., High Sthcol, I anstcio’, N S Nov. 29, 1894

Matheson, W. G , m.e.. New Glasgow, N.S Jan. 31, 1890

Prest, Walter H-, Bedford, N.S Nov. 29, 1891

*Reid, Alex P,md., l rcs , Middleton, NS Jan. 31, 1890

Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbor, N. S Nov. 29, 1894

Russell. Lee, BS-, Normal School, Truro, N. S Dec. 3, 1896

Smith, Prof. H. W.. b. sc., Prov. Agricultural School, Truro, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Ami, Henry M., D. sc , F. G. s., Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 2,

Bailey, Prof. Loring Wort, Ph. D., ll. d.; f. r. s. c., University of New

Brunswick, Fredericton, N. B — Jan, 6,

Ball, Rev. Edwai-d H., Tangier, N.S Nov. 29,

Bethune, Rev. C. J. S , Port Hope, Ontario Dec. 29,

Davidson, Prof. John, Phil. D., Univ. of N. Brunswick, Fred’ton, N. B. .Dec. 12,

Dobie, W. Henry, m. d , Chester, England Nov. 3,

Duns. Prof. John, ll.d , f r s.e , New College, Edinburgh, Scotland.. .Dec. 30,

Ells, R W., ll.d., f.g S.A., f.r.s.c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont Jan. 2,

Fletcher, Jas , ll.d., f.l s., f.r.s.c., Entomologist and Botanist, Central

Exp. Farm, Ottawa, Ont March 2,

Fletcher, Hugh, b. a., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario March 3,

Ganong, Prof. Wm. F., b. a., Ph D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass.,

U. S. A Jan. 6,

Harrington, Wm. Hague, f.r s.C . Post Office Department, Ottawa — May 5,

Harvey, Rev. Moses, ll.d., f.r.s.c., St. John’s, Newfoundland. Jan. 31,

King, Major, R. A Nov. 19,

Litton, Robert T., f.g s., Melbourne, Australia May 5,

McCliutock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt-, f.r s June 10,

Matthew, G. F., M. a., d. sc., f. r. s. c.. St John, N. B Jan. 6,

Maury, Rev. Mytton, d. d., Ithaca, N. Y , U. S. A Nov. 30,

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian, St. Joseph’s Commercial College, Detroit,

Mich Dec. 12.

1892

1890
1871
1868
1898
1897
1887
1894

1897

1891

1890

1896

1890

1877

1892
1880

1890

1891

1898

Pickford, Charles, Halifax i March 2, 1900

Prince, Prof. E. E , Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries,

Ottawa, Ontario Jan. 5, 1897

Smith, Hon. Everett, Portland, Maine, U. S. A March 31, 1890

Spencer, Prof. J. W., ph. d., f. g. s., Washington, D. C , U. S. A Jan. 31, 1890

Waghorne, Rev. Arthur C., St. John’s, Newfoundland May 5, 1892

Weston, Thomas C., F. G. s. a , Ottawa, Ontario May 12, 1877

Life Member.