~~ : MQ \ \ \ \ Sh A \\\\ \ C \ WY \\ . AY QY \ \\ AY KCOH™M}MORr \ \ \\\ \ AC \ _ \ \\\ \\ RAY \Y A NY AY \\ \\ \ A AA HARVARD: UNIVERSITY. LIBRARY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. 253 i Ko Movil 12,1990 bo, 1903 THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS Hobva Scotian Enstitute of Science, HaALiPAX, NOVA SCOPES VOLUME X. (BEING VOLUME III OF THE SECOND SERIES. WSIS 19 OZ: WITH FOUR PORTRAITS AND SEVEN PLATES. . HALIFAX: PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY THE MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co., Lip. 1903. CONTENTS. PROCEEDINGS. - SESSION OF 1898-99 :— PAGE Presidential Address, by Alex, McKay”... 20. 260-6> «soc cere cet = i Obituary Notices of John Somers, M. D., Jules Marcou, and John eAmbroses Drains. 5 liii Provincial Museum and Science Library.................... lvi Deaths of Captain Trott, and Rev. A. C. Waghorne.......... lvii Reports ;orvireasurerand lalonarianie terials icicles merle lvili WfHcers OM UGOOZ VOOM rar. cce& voisceyatsr ales s)eiulsl ciclo sists nisl sve ysis Sieatepse vical . viii Resolution of Regret on Death of Dr. J. R. DeWolf ........... .. lxi H. S. Poole, F. R. 8. C., on the Davis Calyx Drill. (Title only).... lix iv CONTENTS. PAGE Prof. H. W. Smith, B. Sc., on Rotation of Leguminous Crops, and Preservation and Use of Tops of Turnips and other Root Crops. (Title only) css flac os. sioleia s eye sree retire Giese (tee tee ine eee lx A. H. MacKay, Lr.D., on Gravel taken from the bottom of the Atlantic, forty miles west of Sable Island (Title only)........ ]xi Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D.Sc., on the Use of the Wheatstone Bridge with Alternating Currents, \(Uitle: only)ms ae. 4-5. eee }xil W. H. Magee, Ph. D. on the Rare Earths: their Scientific Import- ance as regards the Periodiedbaw’... dcu.c% soot pee Ixii W. L. Bishop, exhibition of collection of Nova Scotian Birds’ Eggs. xxviii Resolution relative to the formation of Branches of the Institute. .. Ixxvili E, Gilpin, Lu. D., &c., on Further Exploration in the Torbrook Iron District... (Title: only \in, ¢ct4 suse ace vidcens oriehiet eh eae xxix Sketch of the Life of John Matthew Jones. By H. P. (1 rith portrait) xxx SESSION OF 1901-1902 :— R. W. McLachlan, Talk on Roman Coins. (Title only) ........... Ixxxil A. H. Cooper Prichard, Exhibition and Remarks on Roman Coins of the Provincial Museum. (‘Title only).............+2.:8 .--.- Ixxxiil Presidential: Address, by Dr. A. H. MacKay. oon... -5225.:e eee Ixxxiv Obituaries of Dr. J. R DeWolfe, Capt. W. H. Smith, and Reva: Moses Hite vey. 42)- ik Sistnels bar ieereteisrete ered te ee ee 1xxxiv W orksot the Tnstitates scissor cc sls cdo oh rapes ae eee Ixxxvi Provincial Museum and Science Library. ..... Apap b6:0.4'216 Ibo-ca aii ProvancialPProgressei a < ocr joprie cl tlie nec te aptacler eater Ixxxviii Malaria, Yellow Fever and Sheep-fluke Object Lessons . xci, xcii, xcv Marine*Biolopicali Stations j-. oem eeceeoae sc Prd octet sae x¢vi Treasurer's and Inbrarian’s, Reports: 22.5.2. .e..s55 eee eee oe XCVil, XCVIli Report on Kings County Branch of the Institute ................ xeviil Officers*for T90TSO2) ee 40s So eects eee eeu aie xeviii Dr. A. H. MacKay, on a condensed form of Botrychium ternatuim foundat BlomidonisiNaSataoanc osteo tee Oc hia oe ee cee Xcix Miss A. Louise Jaggar, Notes on the Flora of Digby County, N. 5. (@itle:onlliy)\.7. casper sh rene ah ee recaae aA oer echo eee c . S. Boehner, B. Sc., On the Siaademivent ton a Hydrochloric Acid with: Borax: .(Titlevonly)'. acumen neme soe 6 habe Bom so cOdecoaneman cor V. The Natural History of Money,—by Prot. J. Davidson, Phil. D., University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N. B............ VI. On the presence of Acid Sulphate of Copper in mixtures of Aqueous Solutions of Sulphuric Acid and Copper Sulphate,—by Charles F. Lindsay, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S. 4 33 49 67 79 91 110 Walle XIII. XIV. CONTENTS. PAGE On a Diagram of Freezing-Point Depressions for Electrolytes,—by Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D, Sc, F. R. S., Dalhousie College, lalifax> Ne Si. Gots eaten tose ceisiakcree Sane eee ae mer RS Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia, by Hugh Fletcher, B A., of the Geological Survey of Canada ...... ....... 97s Notes on a Cape Breton mineral containing Tungstein, and on the effect of washing certain Cape Breton coals,—by Henry S. Poole, F. G. S., F. R. 8S. C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, ete., Stellarton,, NiiSac3cp seek ee oe ee eee re Minerals for the Paris Exhibition,—by E Gilpin, Jr., Lu, D., FB, R..8.-C.,-Inspector rot “Mimesss.. .2. 000. 205.65 eee On the Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized India-Rubber with Tension,—by Thomas C. Hebb, B. A., Dalhousie College, Halifax. ING. Seis nce eee wie accten Petra oan eee Records of Post-Triassic Changes in Kings County, N.S.,—by Prof. KE. Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S.......... Phenological Observations, Canada, 1899,—by A. H. MacKay, Lt..4D 5 Halifax: INS speci sae aon eee oe Ot eee A Fresh-water Sponge [Heteromeyenia macouni, n. sp.] from Sable Island, by the same zo. c. saa c.e 5 (asa. e ieee oe ee : SESSION OF 1900-01 :—- I alot III. Ve Wty Valle WAU Geological Nomenclature of Nova Scotia: New Glasgow Conglom- erate, by Hugh Fletcher, B. A., Geological Survey of Canada, Otba ward Onxatee cn eae ane ere eee SOMA AAO OUD COBO Gao S006 Description of Tracks trom the fine-grained Siliceouous Mudstones of the Knoydart Formation (EoDevonian) of Antigonish County, N. 8.,—by H. M. Ami, D. Sc., F. G. S., Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. Wathi plate): ase. see eee On Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Agent,— by Walter H. Prest; MM. 2... Bedford: aN (Siete oe eee On a Polished Section of Stigmaria, showing an axial cellular structure,—by Henry 8. Poole, F. R. 8. C., Halifax. ( With Gwo plates ym be Gale se eee eaten ble rete ge eae aoe ee ‘ The Star-nosed Mole (Condy/ura cristata), its breeding habits, &¢.;— by Watson 1: Bishop-2.. «see sate diate ei toe Recent Developments with the Calyx Drill in the Nictaux Iron Field,—by D’Arcy Weatherbe, C. E,. Mines Department of N.S., Halifax. (Wath two plates 0. sees eee The Geological History of the Gaspereau Valley, N. S ,—by Prof. Ernest Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S ( With plate. ) Fossils, possibly Triassic, in Glaciated Fragments in the Boulder- clay of Kings County, N. S.,—by Prof. Ernest Haycock... .. 300 CONTENTS. vil PAGE TX. (1) Phenological Observations of the Botanical Club of Canada,1900. (2) Abstract of Phenological Observations on Flowering of ten Plants in Nova Scotia, 1900, with (3) Remarks on their Pheno- ehrons,-—by A. H. MacKay, Lu. D., &c., Halifax............ X. Rainfall Notes, Nova Scotia,— by F.W.W. Doane, City Engineer, Elfeliheyxeea cco tes cea aac en hee susie) che ess nich Nek en Segecttons Oriente er SESSION OF 1901-1902 :— I. Ona Determination of the Freezing-point Depression Constant for Electrolytes,— by T. C. Hebb, M. A., Dalhousie College, Vall ifa xara Woe eycktek oe Steers store aes on chic ee Il. On the Determination of Freezing-point Depressions of Dilute Solutions of Electrolytes,—by T. C. Hebb, M. A., Dalhousie CollecewHalitax. Gar eiearee cece tcc ict sratretii eect III. The Progress of Geological Investigation in Nova Scotia,—- by R. W. Ells, Int. D., F. R. S. C., of the Geological oa of Canada Ottawa sic qa wei. clas nentgedel, Ai wala bomen eonie IV. On the Upper Cambrian Age of the Dictyonema Slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. 8.,.—by H. M. Ami, D. Se, F. G. S., F. BR. 8. C., of the Geological Surves of CamadaOttawiaa sw ak ace one camera ar iors = Cee aan V. Notes on on Dr. Ami’s paper on the Dictyonema Slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. $.,—by Henry S. Poole, Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, F. G. S., F. R. S. C., Halifax. ...... VI. Supplementary Notes on Drift Ice as a Eroding and Transporting Agent,—by Walter H. Prest, M.E., Bedford. .............. VIL. Agricultural Credit, —by Prof. John Davidson, Phil. D., Univ. of Newsbrunswickee hired en ctOlmersaepremaent ic nicks oieiieieeiere sr VIII. Phenological Observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, 1901,—by A. H. MacKay, Lu. D., F. R. 8. C., Supt. of Education, ISMN Gpnol cee onn gas abe cs aanpeny omoceecc Minne ene meno IX. Labrador Plants (collected by W. H Prest on the Labrador coast, north of Hamilton Inlet, from 25th June to 12th Aug , 1901), —by A. H. MacKay, la. D5 ete:, Halifax, 2.2... 0.212. APPENDICES :— am istiot Members SOS-S 99k nt 5 cette. =. eats niinad eee sito esis If. List of Members, 1899-1900 ....... BP er ety heen ete ah III. list of Members, 1900-1901 ........ SS CeCe Ode A Sih os, AURA SOR IVi. List of Members, 1901-1902 ............ ie Cee > Gee LiNDEXSTOMmVOLUMEPX: 6... <1) see- oA ARE EEO ORICON NOT CaO 379 399 . 409 433 447 486 APR 72 1900 ¢ 3 Se ese -Proceenyes AND. TRANSACTIONS _ OF THE Aova Scotian Enstitute of Science, HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA. VOLUME x (BEING VOLUME III OF THE SECOND SERIES.) PART i SESSION OF 1898-99. WITH ONE PORTRAIT. The First Series consisted of the Seven Volumes of the Proceedings and Transac- tions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. PRICE TO NON-MEMBERS: ONE HALF-DOLLAR. “HALIFAX: S PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY THE NovA Scoria PRINTING COMPANY. k Date of Publication: December 3lst, 1899. a. OPS ra CONTENTS. - 1 A S . - ‘ : mAs: FRONTISPIECE, Portrait of J ohn Somers, M.D. _ PROCEEDINGS, SESSION OF 1898-99: . —- : cA ae ea Presidential Address, by ‘len -Nioleny. Esq.. toca ees wsewapeese Obituary Notices of John Somers, M. D., Tales Marcon, and. Rev. John Ambrose, D.-C. L...:-..- ea oy eS eae Mite wise gears ee “Notes on the Early History of the Institnte.......... Kis Fi ee The Position of Science in our Educational System foie ty Report of the Treasurer.......... z ‘Report of the Librarian sae Ce Siesta EN hae uta tate ae Ordinary-Meetings ¢o..200. 00.008 .00.55-- Rep. aoe _ Dr. A. H. MacKay on the Diatomacex: of Nova Scotia pte - -Lee Russell, Esq., B. S:, on School-Room Air ........... eee Ghat Prof. J. G. MacGregor, and Mr. W. A. Macdonald, on The Varia mi tion with tension, of Jay clastic properties of vulcanised india- r ; EMD OGD 5 55 eae a ea nce epee Po en akan seat gen gh pais 5 A Seam SESSION’ OF 1898-99: Se ~ Rapes I. Statistics of inependitare and Consumption in Canada, by Prof. = “Davidson, M. A., Phil. dD, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton ...... rca’: -sipie PRE ee Oo RED eens We eee ee ee SY Il. Ona Test, by the Freon Point “Method. of the Janisation Co-efti- , ‘ cients determined by the conductivity method, for Sc lutions containing Potassium and Sodium Sulphates, by E.H. Archibald, _ M. Se., 1851. Exhibition Science Scholar, Dalhousie College. iv : Halifax: INS Si ee IS cen eek gi Se eR miisteei hs dee ri Ill. On the Conductivity, Specific Gravity, and Surface “Tension. of | Aqueous Solutions containing Potassium Chloride and Sul; vhate, — by James Barnes, B.A.; Dalhousie College, Halifax, N. S.. va 49 IV. On Finding the Ionization of Complex Solutions of given siricoanee Seas 2 tion, and the converse problem, ba Prof. Ta MBeGrskor: Dal-— housie College, Halifax, N: S.. ‘ V. Sew Mineral Discoveries in Nova ‘Bestia, by. E. Gilpin, Jr. A. M. LL. D., F.R S.C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax, N.S VI. Phenological Observations, eee pe bs by A. H. Banani irs LL. LD <= ; PRA EAE Fs. Skee oo he I eee Se a Sa eee ne aes 9 VII. Ona Fish new to Nova Scotia, by Harry Piers, Esa. Seat geeks APPENDIX I: ; e 3 ea ary List of Members, 1898-99 =:........ 2-5-4 eR eRe be GER Oe ete e nesters 2 WESLEY STS A TE ’ a hewn SAG TONS OF THE Hova Scotian Enstitute of Science. SESSION OF 1898-99. . I.—SraTISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND CONSUMPTION IN CANADA. —By Proressor JOHN Davipson, M. A., PHIL. D., Fredericton, N. B. (Read Nov. 14th, 1898.) The ultimate test of a nation’s prosperity is the quantity and quality of the goods it contains. Other tests are relative and indicate business activity: rather than national welfare. All wealth is produced to be consumed, and the whole process of production is carried on for the benefit of the consumer. For him there is seedtime and harvest; for him the factories and the stores are run; for him railroad and steamship lines operate, and banks conduct their business. It is conceivable that the volume of business may be large within a nation which yet is poor and relatively unprosperous. Increased activity does not always mean increased welfare; and that community alone is rich and prosperous at whose command this activity places a large stock of consumable goods; and the most satisfactory evi- dence of this command is provided by the statistics of the consumption of the community. That is direct evidence; all other evidence is indirect and presumptive. , Unfortunately, direct evidence is not always available. We depend for information almost entirely upon government bureaus and departments ; and these are concerned chiefly with their own Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Scr., Vou. X. TRANS,—A. 2 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND affairs. Thev collect figures of exports and imports because of the obvious bearing of such figures upon the collection of a revenue; and in some cases provide us with information regard- ing the industry carried on within the country because certain articles of manufacture are subject to internal revenne duties. Where there is no question of collecting revenue, the information afforded us is not usually carefully collected. We know more accurately what is imported than what is exported; we know better how much beer is consumed than we do how much meat or grain is consumed; how much tobacco better than how much clothing. The interest of the government is mainly in the collection of revenue. An enlightened government may make provision for the collection of other statistics; 1t may establish labor bureaus and agricultural departments; it may publish banking returns and railroad earnings ; but since the interest of these things is not so immediately practical, the infor- mation afforded is apt to be meagre and to cease, short of the point of completeness. For instance, the main industry in Canada is agriculture ; but we know less of the output of our farms than we do of the output of our breweries. Ontario and Manitoba collect elaborate agricultural statistics ; but in the other provinces the gathering of information is perfunctorily performed or not performed at all; and, consequently, we cannot even use what information we have, because statistics of interprovincial trade are lacking. In the census years, elaborate returns are made; but even here there are gaps in our information, and too much of what is set down depends on the memory of the private citizen, which is not a scientific instrument. In Canada there is an additional difficulty in the way of obtaining adequate con- sumption statisties. Nearly half of our population is dependent on agriculture. In time, and with organization, we may learn the amount of eggs and potatoes, milk and meat and vegetables, maple sugar-and cordwood marketed ; but it will always be next to impossible to ascertain how much of these commodities the autonomous producer uses in his own consumption. Private investigation may step in to make up for the deficiencies of CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 3 governmental machinery ; but until the community is so far educated that there is a statistical or economic association in every parish, we can hardly hope for the fullest information. Consumption is in its nature a private concern, and man wilt require to be much more methodical than he is at present before we can present anything like a picture of the consumption of a people. At the present time we are compelled to use what infor- mation we have as an indication of the complete result; and generalizing from the experience of individuals, treat the con- sumption of certain articles, for which the government provides statistics which may be relied upon, as representing the whole. It is necessary first to shew in what proportions the people of Canada expend their incomes, because otherwise we should not be able to estimate the importance of the results obtainable for the consumption of specific articles. If the total expenditure of a people on food amounts to no more than fifty per cent. of its income, an increase in the consumption of coffee will mean a less increase of prosperity then it does for a people which spends seventy per cent. of its income on food. In the latter case it means that the people are rising from the lowest class, where the necessaries ot life absorb the greatest part of the income, to a condition where other considerations are becoming important; in the former case it may mean a change in the form of consump- tion only. This aspect of the question has some immediate practical importance. In the discussion of the financial aspects of prohibition, little attention has been paid to the fact that not all the expenditure of the Canadian citizen is on taxable goods. Prohibitionists claim that the fifty million dollars annually spent upon intoxicants will necessarily be spent on other articles, and that the government need not confuse the issue by dark sugges- tions of direce taxation; for consumption will not be reduced, but simply changed. But, though the same amount will still be spent, it does not follow that it will be spent in such a way as will provide a reveuue. In so far as it is spent on food, there would be an increased consumption of food-stuffs on which, while the consumer may be paying a tax in the shape of enhanced prices, 4 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND due to protection, the government may realize little or no reve.\ue; while in so far as it is spent on education or on better house accommodation, the government would gain nothing what- ever to make up for the revenue from the taxes on beer and spirits. No doubt, there would be increased expenditure on clothing ; but the percentage of income spent in Canada is but 17 ; and the tax is already as heavy as it can be to be productive of revenue, Probably seventy-five per cent. of the changed con- sumption would yield no revenue whatever. The investigation of expenditures has been carried so far that certain empirical laws have been established. Jt may seem to some that the forms of expenditure are so much a matter of indi- vidual taste and caprice that no general conclusion can be established ; but, after all, the differences among men are not. very great. The fundamental necessities of life are the same for all, and caprice does not enter in till the dominant wants have been satisfied ; and by taking a large number of instances, the effects of individual caprice may be eliminated and an average set down. The first fairly complete investigation in this sphere was made by Engel, and subsequent investigation has served to establish his conclusions more firmly. These are:—That the greater the income, the smaller the relative percentage of outlay for subsistence ; That the percentage of outlay for clothing is approximately the same, whatever the income ; That the percentage of the outlay for rent and for fuel and light is invariably the same, whatever the income; That as the income increases in amount, the percentage of outlay for sundries becomes greater. We are fortunately able to present results for Canada, which may be compared with the statistical data brought forward by Engel and other investigators. The Ontario Bureau of Statisties during several years presented statistics on the expenditure of the working classes in certain cities of Ontario; and in countries CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON, 5 like Canada, where there are few extremes of wealth and poverty,* the results thus established may he accepted as_ tolerably accurate for the whole Dominion. Local variations there must; of course, always be. Rent is higher and fuel dearer in the towns than in the country ; while in the country food probably, and clothing certainly, on the whole, are dearer than in the cities. The figures cover a period of four years, and their accur- acy has been tested by the statistician and verified by comparisons, The statistics of five of the more important towns in Ontario have been selected by the writer for further analysis and ealculation, and the results are set forth in the tables on the next page. When these tables, which are extracted from the Bureau Reports, are reduced to percentages and expressed in terms of the number of day’s labor necessary to command the various goods enumerated, we get the results in a form which permits ‘comparison with other countries. The results in this form are contained in the tables on p. 7. *Compare the sections of this paper dealing with house accommodation later for ‘on enquiry into the existence of extremes of wealth in Canada. 1886 1887 1888 1889 Average. 1887 1888 1859 Average. 1886 | 1887 1888 1889 Average. 1886 | 1886 1887 | 1888 | 1889 | Average. | } STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND Earnings. D ws ston Rent. | Fuel. Ree pence Ciry OF HAMILTON. $449 216 | 76 $41 $16.45 $53.65 415 234 81 41 12.89 45.76 417 230 81 38 13:43 47.74 418 244 90 37 13.89 38.65 2A.7 Dol Veccte sce calaesie science | co ociceee ee eee City OF KiNGSTON. $469 293 $70 $36 $18.12 $43.90 453 266 70 42, 12:91. 4) eee 482 280 70 4] 18 92 43.19 379 244 68 31 22.28 49.63 446 PU 9 Nheizs Se oe Nolell seierd Ge eiseinlteae ae e | Ceeeee City OF LONDON. $425 270 $73 $40 $17.66 $45.63 421 265 70 40 15.58 50.39 436 268 77 40 18.59 AT Ol 431 244 66 37 15.91 46.54 428 2BV 0 Noccds « wicsellon ek es eelinok eee ceeel | eee Ciry OF OTTAWA. $523 305 | $ 81 $: $21.96 $35 46 385 223 | 97 32 10.52 36.55 505 228 71 37 13.14 45.70 440 255 | 10 | 33 11.94 | 3515 463 2d Seale eels oer Re rR I Sea oe | | | Ciry OF TORONTO. | 487 | 272 | $ 92 $40 $23.96 $54.32 480 246 | 112 41 16.93 47,92 526 | 270 | 121 | 45 15.87 45.62 | 474 20290 110 39 16.67 56.89 492 263 | | CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. a Days or LABOR NECESSARY TO PROCURE | PERCENTAGES OF INCOME EXPENDED ON Clothing Clothing | Rent. | Fuel. | per | Food. Rent. | Fuel. | per Food. Family. : eer. Family. HAMILTON. | 1886 36 19 38 123 17 9 18 57 1887 45 23 | 35 124 19 9 15 50 1888 45 21 34 123 19 9 15 55 1889 52 22 37 103 21 9 15 42 Aver. | 44.5 | 21.2 36 118.2 19 9 15.7 51 KINGSTON. 1886 4t 22, 52 124 | 15 | 7 18 43 1887 41 25 Sy Allerayereleucior | 15 9 15 ae 1888 40 23 46 105 14 8 16 38 1889 | 45 | 20 58 127 | 18 8 24 =| 52 Aver. | 42.5 | 22.5 47.7 118.6 15.5 8 18:2 | 44.3 | OTTAWA. ‘ | 1 1886 | 47 | 19 64 123 | 15 6 20 | 40 1887 53 18 32 106 23 8 14 49 1888 32 16 34 124. 14 8 15 53 1889 64 19 | 39 | 109 25 8 14 49 Aver. | 49 18 | 42.2 | 115.5 19.2 fled WSy7 |) eer LONDON. 1886 46 25 5A. 141 7 | 9 20 43 1887 41 25 43 141 16 9 16 50 1888 47 24 58 107 iy 9 19 40 1889 37 20 44 130 15 8 18 53 Aver. | 42.7 | 22.5 49.7 129.7 | 16.2 8.7 SZ 4Gro TORONTO. fe l 1886 51 22 53 143 19 | 8 | 20 50 1887 dl 21 36 107 23 8 17 43 1888 62 16 34 124 23 8 1 ears isso | 61 | 21 37 93 23 8 14) 49 Aver | 58 20 Aopy | Wi | (22 8 16.2 49.7 8 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND For purposes of comparison, however, the corresponding figures and percentages for the whole number of towns taken together, and for the whole province, are more useful ; and suit our purpose of international comparison better :— PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. Clothin Earnings. | ays Oe Rent. | Fuel. ee 3 gee 28 Page| tee ee Ane 1886 Wea 270 $76 $40 520.83 $42.30 1887 449 257 82 39 15.85 44.37 1888 479 269 77 37 17.41 42.7 1889 467 Zaha | 81 41 17.10 44,14 Aver. 462 2GG el alicvece acetal faeece ko ay epotel teen are | eee Bee es | Days LABOR NECESSARY TO PROCURE | PERCENTAGES OF INCOME EXPENDED ON Clothing Hoadiner Clothing | good per Rent. | Fuel. oe per ly. annie Rent. | Fuel. nee 2 Family. ; 1886 , 45 24 57 91 17 8 21 33 1887 | 45 22 41 91 18 8 16 3D 1888 | 41 20 46 115 16 et 18 43 1889 | 47 23 46 122 17 8.8 | 17 44 Aver.| 44.5 | 22.2 47.5 | 105 aii | 8.1 18 39 The average of the averages of the five cities above may be placed beside the provincial average (taken from returns made by artisans in the smaller towns and villages) :— | | PERCENTAGES EXPENDED ON Days La- | Clothing | Food Earnings. | bor in Rent | Fuel. per per year. Family. | Family. ike: 2, Peta Sat aci| Dae ea City average, 1886-89 $451 256 18.4 8.3 i 47.8 Prov. average, 1886-89 462 267 17 8.1 18 39, The results thus obtained are in substantial agreement with the results established under greatly varying conditions in CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 9 Europe and America, as the following tabular comparison shews. The table is taken in part from Schénberg’s Handbuch and in part from U. 8. Labor Reports :— Great Britain.| Prussia. Ontario. | Massachusetts. Illinois. Percentages on | Hoods :....%: 51.36 50.00 39.0 49.28 41.38 Clothing... 18,12 18.00 18.0 15.94 21.00 |} en Gye oe 13.48 12.00 17 19.74 17.42 Fuel | 3.50 * 5.00 8.1 4,30 5.63 Sundries. .. 13.54 15,00 18.9 10.73 14.57 These percentages are all calculated from working-class family budgets, except in the case of Prussia, where a family of intermediate class was taken to give gross incomes of something like the same amount. ‘The real measure of well-being probably consists, at least for men of the same race, in the amount which may be expended on the vague class of sundries; and in this comparison, Canada comes out well. The shewing would not have been so favorable had we taken the average of the five cities, for then it would have been 8.5 per cent of the income only. The question of the value of these returns is almost settled by the large degree of correspondence between independently reached results; but the Provincial Statistician, Mr. Blue, was at the trouble to mcet the objection that, to sav nothing of the conclusions based on them, the figures themselves were untrust- worthy, by carefully examining the food expenditures of various public institutions. The force of the objection is that while most householders can tell how much they spend on rent and fuel, and perhaps also on clothing, they can make a rough estimate only of the household expenditure on food. Mr. Blue went into the matter exhaustively and examined the food accounts of colleges, . asylums, military barracks, ete., and embodied his conclusions in a paper read before the American Public Health Association, and reprinted in the Ontario Bureau of Statistics Report, 1886, in which he says :— 10 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND “ Now let us see how the cost of food, as computed from the working men’s returns, compares with its cost in the schools and colleges and public institutions. At the average of summer and winter returns in these, it is $44.17 (per cap.); at the prison’s rate it is $35.51 ; at the asylum rate it is $47.12; at the infantry school rate it is $54.75 ; at the college winter rate it is $59. The working man’s average, $47.67 per cap., is therefore something more thana probable one; it is well verified by sta- tistics gathered from other sources, and I.am dlsposed to think that the cost of living is better known and more accurately gauged in the families of the working classes than in the families of any other class in the community.” We are justified, therefore, in accepting the average budget based on these returns as representative of the actual expendi- ture of some hundreds of working men throughout Ontario. It is true, no doubt, that men capable of intelligently making such returns are likely to spend their incomes more rationally than others of their class; but the extravagances and waste of the less prudent and thrifty in part offset each other, and must for the rest be neelected. We may assume, therefore, that in the Prov- ince of Ontario 39.0 per cent. is expended on food, 18.0 per cent. on clothing, 8.1 per cent. on fuel, and 17 per cent. on rent ; or if we take the average of the 4 year averages of the five important towns as our standard, 47.8 per cent. on food, 17 per cent. on clothing, 18.4 per cent. on rent, and 8.3 per cent. on fuel. These percentages are not without meaning even as an indi- cation of absolute well-being. The smaller the percentage expended ’on food and subsistence the larger the total provision for the wants of our nature. Here and there an individual may be found who stints himself of the imperious necessities of life to obtain some coveted comfort or luxury ; but the great majority satisfy the lower wants first and rise to the higher if sufficient provision is made. Consequently, the smaller percentage in Canada expended on food is an indication of a higher well-being. But it is necessary to investigate still further to find the degree of well-being and to present quantities rather than percentages. CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. wet What value does the average Canadian receive in food, house accommodation, fuel and clothing for the percentages of income thus expended? This is not a question of prices, but of weights and measures. Prices are of importance only as they indicate whether an increased or decreased consumption of any article is due toa change in price or to an increased command over the goods of life. The increased consumption of tea and sugar, for instance, is due to the fall in price; but the increased consump- tion of coffee, in so far as it isnot simply a transfer of taste from one article to another, shows an extending margin of consumption. An increase of consumption due to a fall in the price of an article does not necessarily mean that the citizens are better off. Their real wages and incomes have risen but their money wages may be constant ; but an increased use of an article whose price has not fallen indicates an increase of money wages and a more extended comimand over the goods of life. It is not possible, unfortunately, to enter into a detailed examination of the absolute values received in each class of expenditure. In the case of rent and food, we are able to present some of the more important items; but fuel and clothing remain indefinite. The item of fuel is the only one which takes a higher per- centage in Canada than in any other country. The cause is not an enhanced price, but the fact that a larger quantity must be used. The amount of fuel consumed per head of the population is unascertainable. From the mining statistics and the tables of trade and commerce, we can estiinate how much coal, bituminous and anthracite, is used; but how many of the people of Canada use coal? Probably the majority of the population do not use it in any form; even in industry coal is not always used ; and it is in the larger cities only that coal is used exclusively. The quantity of wood consumed as fuel is not ascertainable ; and since the quantity varies according to the house and according to the habits of the individual, no estimates, even approximately cor- rect, can be made. 13 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND Whether, under the head of fuel, lighting is also included, as it usually is in the statisties of other countries, is not stated ; but the omission is not of serious importance, because we are unable to discover how much the individual spends and what value he receives for his expenditure. The three chief illuminants, gas, electricity. and oil, are being used in increasing quantities. The Census Reports of 1891 give figures for the production of gas and electric lighting works; but there has been a very great extension in the use of electric lighting since 1891, and possibly some increase in the use of gas also; and figures taken from the Census Reports would give a wrong impression. It is interesting to note that in spite of the increase in the use of these methods of lighting, the consumption of petroleum is increasing steadily year by year. The urban population of Canada (those residing in towns and villages of more than 1,500 inhabitants) has increased from 912 934in 1881 to 1,390,910 in 1891; or from 21.1 per cent. to 28.77 per cent. of the population of the Dominion; and the number of towns of more than 3,000 inhabitants which may be taken as the minimuin for which gas or electric lighting is provided, has increased from 68 to 94. Gas lighting held its own during the decade 1881-1891, and electric lighting was prac- tically introduced in the decade (in 1881 there were two men employed in electric lighting works ; in 1891 there were 1,190:) yet the consumption of petroleum increased per capita more than fifty per cent., although there was no corresponding decrease in the retail price. In 1882 the consumption was 2.0 galls. per head, in 1891 it was 3.2 galls., and in 1896 3.1 galls. (a decrease from 3.5 galls. in 1894 and 1895). The increased use of the more primitive illuminant, alongside of the development of the more modern methods, shews a real increase in well-being in the community. The expenditure on clothing must remain in the obscurity of percentages. It might be possible, by help of the Census Reports and the trade tables, to determine how much cloth and clothing was manufactured or imported in the year 1891; but it is not possible to shew how much was consumed. ‘Trade tables CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 13 are trustworthy only when they extend over a number of years, and speculative influences can be discounted. An alteration in the tariff, for instance, may affect the imports for a given year, as it did in the case of sugar, and strictly an average of several years ought to be taken. The census year is no more likely to escape such fluctuations than any other year; and it might be seriously misleading to take the manufacture and importation of textiles as typical. Moreover, there has not as yet been estab- lished in the matter of clothing any standard of consumption as has, in a measure, been done in the case of food. Caprice and local climatic causes have here an undue influence. All we can say is that in Canada the average family spends on the average $83.79 on clothing, the family expenditure in the United States being $112.23; in Great Britain, $80.59 ; in Germany, $57.21 ; in France, $72 60; in Belgium, $84.61 ; in Switzerland, $65.58*. The statistics available for the further analysis of the expen- diture on rent are not sufficient for the purposes of comparison either of classes or of different periods. With the exception of some interesting sociological studies of a portion of the city of Mcntreal by Ald. Ames of that city,t we have the Census Reports alone to rely on; and the Census Reports of 1881 offer but a very meagre amount of information. The Ontario tables quoted above shew that on the average in the province of Ontario the respectable working classes spend 17 of their income in rent. Since there is comparatively little class distinction in Canada, we might, perhaps, assume that 177/ represents the proportion spent by the average Canadian on house rent. In the city below the hill in Montreal rental absorbs, according to Mr, Ames, 187 of the earnings :—“ For families of the real industrial class 16 per cent. is a fair average. . . It is among the well-to-do and the very poor that rental is permitted to absorb from 20 to 25 per cent. of the earnings.” (The City Below the Hill, p. 40). Mr. *U. S. Commissioner of Labor, Report 1891, Vol. I1., pp. 864-5. + (1) The City Below the H.11: privately printed. (2) Incomes, Wages and Rents in Montreal (U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin 14, Jan. 1848); and a lecture on House Accommodation which I have been privileged to see in manuscript. 14 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND Ames, in a letter in answer to some queries made, has further explained that the last sentence refers only to families with an annual income of $1000 or less. “ My experience, he adds, has gone to prove that rental consumes from one-fifth to one-third of the income of the very poor. Then the proportion grows gradu- ally less as we reach the classes where the family income runs from $8.00 to $12.00 per week. Those families receiving from $12.00 to $15.00 seem to pay a smaller proportion of income as rent, but classes receiving from $15.00 to $20.00 seem to grow ambitious and desire to move into larger quarters. I am of the opinion, although I have no facts to substantiate it, that if we were to take classes receiving annually $1000 a year and over, we would find the rental proportionately diminishing the higher we go” Thus, Mr. Ames’s results hardly bear out Engel’s law, that the percentage expended on rent is invarirbly the same whatever the income; and it appears necessary to modify the law, at least, if we admit subdivisions of the working classes. The proportion is highest for the very poor, varying from 25 to 30 per cent.; for the ‘real industrial’ classes it falls to 16 per cent. ; and then rises to 25 per cent. for highly skilled mechanies, and then gradually falis for families whose income exceeds one thousand dollars. Before we go on to enquire what sort of accommodation is obtained for this expenditure of income. it is necessary to verify the assumption made in last paragraph that there is compara- tively little distinetion of classes in Canada. In a sense this is an obvious fact, a matter of ordinary remark by every observer. While there are few in Canada who are very wealthy, there are probably as few who are in actual distress. The Census Report, 1891, enabies us to verify to a certain extent this common obser- vation. For each census district we have given, in a series of tables, the number of houses and the number of rooms in each house. It would be obviously impossible, having regard to the limits of time and space, to analyze the returns for the whole Dominion ; and since in the country districts there is little differ- ence of class, it is necessary only to examine the returns for the CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 15 larger towns. In the large towns, if anywhere, we shall find distinctions of class appearing. The first of the following tables is taken directly from the Census Reports; the second is based on it and expresses the same facts in terms of percentages which have been calculated :— No. oF HOUSES WITH ROOMS— Total CITY. opula No of " | Houses:| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 5 | 6=10)| 1115 |Over Vancouver| 13709 ; 2231 | 140) 148) 194' 331; 223 1023) 81) 81 Winnipeg.| 25629 | 4543 34| 296) 367| 702) 594 | 2309) 162 | 79 St. John . 40385 | 6630 ]| 135) 467) 723) 740 | 2996) 1012 | 339 Halifax....| 38495 | 5181 3| 63) 126; 447) 523 | 3351) 529 | 108 Toronto ..| 144028 | 25810 30| 184) 752 2480) 3094 | 17070| 1749 | 451 London .. 22281 | 4317 6) 54, 128) 434) 775 ; 2603) 2238) 80 Kingston .| 19263 | 4725 37| 148) 445; 700, 708 | 2897; 240 | 50 Hamilton..| 47245 | 9221 8| 72) 279) 870) 1779 | 5596; 488 | 109 i; Montreal ..| 182695 | 31931 | 153)1990|4672,7815| 3325 | 10782) 2542 | 651 Ottawa 63090 | 8313 43) 479) 8271508) 791 | 3373) 954 | 440 Ottawa ...| 37269 | 6557 17! 150] 246! 911] 1025 | 3485] 583 | 240 * The populations are taken from Table IT, Vol. 1, Census Report, 1891. PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL NUMBER OF HOUSES WITH Rooms Persons : City. toa me suse | 20a) all) 5" fein 15] OS See omar Vancouver} 6.1 (6.2/6.6! 8.7) 14.8) 10.0) 45.8; 1.6) 1.6) 36.3 | 3.2 Winnipeg.| 5.6 |0.7/6.5| 8.0] 15.4! 13.0] 50.8} 3.5] 1.7] 30.6) 5.2 St. John...| 6.0 '0.0,2.0) 7.0) 10.9) 11.1] 45.1) 15.2) 5.1, 19.9 | 20.3 Halifax ...| 7.4 |0.11.2| 2.4] 8.6] 10.0, 64.6; 10.2; 2.1) 12.2 | 12.3 Toronto...}| 5.5 0.10.6) 2.9, 9.6) 11.9) 66.1; 6.7) 1.7, 13.2, 84 Kendon. .| 5.1 jO:1|1-2) 2.9) 10.0) 17.9) 60:2, 5.1) 1.8), 142°) 6.9 Kingston .| 4.0 0.7/1.1] 3.1) 16.4) 16.4] 50.7) 5.0) 1.2) 22.3 | 6.2 Hamilton..| 5.1 '|0.0/0.7) 3.0} 9.4) 19.2) 61.7) 5.2; 1.0) 13.1 | 6.2 Montreal .| 5.7 |0.4|6.2)14.6) 24.4) 10.4) 33.7| 8.0) 2.0) 45.6 | 10.0 Quebec . 7.5 |0.5|5.7/ 9.9] 18.1) 9.5) 40.5] 11.4| 5.2) 34.2 | 16.6 Ottawa ...| 5.6 /0.2'2.2' 3.7! 13.8' 15.6! 53.1' 8.8! 2.1! 19.9 | 10.9 —— With the exception of four cities, Vancouver, Montreal, Que- bee and St. John, more than half of the population live in houses containing from 6 to 10 rooms; in the case of Toronto the per- centage rises to 66 per cent; while in three others, Halifax, London and Hamilton, the percentage exceeds 60. Those cities 16 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND which shew a low percentage of houses containing 6 to 10 rooms per house {which gives something more than the standard accommodation of one room one person) shew generally a high percentage of houses of four rooms or less, and also of houses of more than 10 rooms. Thus, in Montreal, 45.6 of the houses are of 4 rooms and less ; Quebec, St. John, Vancouver, Winnipeg and Ottawa, also give high percentages of houses of rather less than the standard accommodation ; and with the exception of Van- couver and Winnipeg, where the poor accommodation is, as we shall see, due to the newness of the cities, the same towns shew a high percentage of large houses of more than ten rooms. Montreal has a percentage of 10.0; Quebec, 16.6; Ottawa, 10.9 ; and St. John, the astonishing percentage of 20.3. Halifax is the only other city where the percentage of large houses reaches double figures. if we combine the results of the last table and recognize three classes of houses only, those of 4 rooms or less, those of 5 to LU rooms, and those with more than ten, we shall see at a glance where the conditions are extreme and where the arithmetical average expresses the truth of the situation :— | 4 rooms or less. 5 to 10 rooms. Morethan 10 rooms. Wancouversoeeeee ! 36.3 55.8 a2 Winwiper. 6... S20: 30.6 63.8 5.2 Stiwohnms ce san! 19.9 56.2 20.: Vinlkeuihiep a yee as aeons | 12,2 64.6 18) INGIROIM VO papas es ddonse EE 78.0 8.4 Wondonmer ets ee 14.2 78.1 6.9 RESINS StOM saeco cee | 22.3 67.1 6.2 Vletewoonlhionmt goa o06e 13.1 80.9 6.2 MMiontrealtansae. 2: , 45.6 44.1 10.0 Mmwebeckee. teen cee 34.2 50.0 16.6 Oiptianwvalsricnsice asic 19.9 68.7 10.9 | It appears, therefore, that class distinctions are marked in three or four towns only: in St. Jonn, Montreal, and Quebec, and possibly in Ottawa ; that the three best housed towns where there are few extremes of wealth and poverty, are Toronto, London and Hamilton—which, with Kingston and Ottawa, CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 17 where also the conditions do not show violent extremes, are the five towns selected from the Ontario Bureau of Statistics Reports for detailed analysis. It is probable that the very large percentage of large houses in St. John is an indication, not of a large wealthy class, but of lack of prudence and foresight in the inhabitants in the years which followed the great fire. We might therefore conclude that in two towns only, Quebee and Montreal, do the extremes of wealth and poverty show them- selves; and that the average condition is also the condition of the great majority of the inhabitants of Canada. We might, perhaps, alse conclude that the average income obtained from the returns made to the Ontario Bureau is not far below the average income in Canada. Mr. Ames shows that in the district he has investigated there is a weekly average income of $10.20 per family, an average monthly rental of $8.73 per family, or 18 per cent. of the family income, and an accommodation of 5.02 rooms per family (U.S. Bulletin of Labor, p. 44. The average weekly income of the towns in Ontario is nearly $9.00, of which 17 per cent. is expended on rent in places where rents must be much lower than they are in industrial districts of Montreal, and where accordingly better accommodation will be given for the money. We may readily infer that the returns have been made by the occupants of houses of 7 or 8 rooms; and an overwhelming pro- portion of the inhabitants of the towns, of which an analysis of the house accommodation has been made above, occupy houses containing from 5 to 10 rooms. Since, according to Engel, and according also to the best canons of local taxation, the expendi- ture on house rent is the best indication of income, we might be safe in concluding that the average income set down above is the average for Canada; but at the best the conclusion is problematic and based on a series of assumptions and inferences from data which are themselves only,approximately correct. The main qnestion is the actual accommodation obtained for Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Scr., VoL. X. TRANS.-—B. 18 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND the expenditure. The best test, perhaps, would be the cubic feet of air space obtained for a given rent.* But statistics are lacking in Canada to determine the actual space received in return for the payment made. There may be more actual air space in a log cabin or a dug out of one room in the North-West and British Columbia than in a three or four roomed heuse in a back tenement in Montreal ; ard the general sanitary conditions are without doubt superior. Mr. Ames has taken the provision of water closets as his test, and shews how a smaller house with sanitary conveniences may rent for as much as a larger without them. But his investigation was confined to a section of Montreal only. For the rest of the city, and for the Dominion as a whole, we must rest content with a less satisfac- tory test, viz., the number of rooms, the material of econstruc- tion, the number of stories, the number of families in each house, and the number of persons to a house and to a room. The average house in Canada is constructed of wood, is of one story, or a story and a half, contains probably from 5 to 10 rooms, more likely 5 than 10, and accommodates under its roof 1.08 families, or 5.6 persons, and thus gives the standard accom- modation—one room one person. The standard of accommodation is rising. In 1881 there were 1.10 families under each roof and 5.8 persons. The one story house seems to be going out of fashion, for while 39 per cent. of all the inhabited houses are one story buildings, more than 50 per cent. (28,227 out of 46,000 classified) of the uninhabited houses are of one story only, and 33 per cent. only (2,704 out of 8,077 enumerated) of the houses under construction. (Census Bulletin, No. 6). It is, moreover, a well recognized fact that the sanitary conveniences are being improved. So that we may conclude that the people of Canada are receiving better value for their money, or that through increased prosperity they are able to spend a larger absolute amount in house rent though, perhaps, the percentage of their expenditure on house rent is decreasing. *The poor probably pay more for rent, according to this standard, than the rich It has been found by comparison in Vienna that in a house in one of the slum districts each cubic metre of air space cost 3 fl. 24 kr., while in a house in the most fashionable Ringstrasse, and on the first fioor, the cubic metre cost 2 fl. 85 kr. only. (Schénberg’s Handbuch, I., p. 700.) CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 19 Wooden houses constitute 81.6 per cent. of the total number ; brick houses 15.34, and stone houses 3.1. The brick and stone houses are probably mainly in the larger cities and occupied by the wealthier classes. Thirty-nine per cent. of the total houses inhabited are of one story, while 43 per cent. of the wooden houses are of that humble size, and 19 per cent. and 20 per cent. only of the brick and stone houses fail to reach the dignity of a second story or even of an additional half story. The story and a half and two story buildings are 57 per cent. of the whole, but 60 per cent. of the stone and 67 per cent. of the brick houses are of these dimensions. Of the houses which have three stories or more 14,211, or 59 per cent., are brick, 4,658, or 19 per cent. are stone, and 5,746 only, or 22 per cent., are of wood. The Census Reports do not enable us to discover whether there is a larger number of rooms or of stories in a stone or brick house then in a wooden house. Probably, the advantage in size is in favor of the stone and brick houses; but there is no definite information on the subject, and we must rest content with the statement given in the Census Report, 1891 (Vol. IV., Table A., pp. 378, 379) of the percentage of houses of different sizes in the several provinces of the Dominion :— PERCENTAGES OF Houses witH Rooms— | OF Ouse WITH STORIES— Aes ae Opa ess | 4 | 5 | 610 {11-15 is ree dh geo) fae | 4 | oO. @anadaryce ose 2.9} 8.0) 11:0) 15.8) 12.2] 48.3] 5.6] 1.2'63.5) 33.6] 2.5) 0.4 Br. Columbia. .) 21.1) 13.6| 10.2) 18.5] 11.4] 25.9] 2.6] 1.6)72.4) 26.3] 1.2) 0.1 Manitoba ......;12.0)20.2)17.3/}17.0 10.1); 21.4} 1.3, 0.6,56.9| 42.1} 0.8!) 0.2 N. Brunswick..| 2.4] 8.7} 9.8 14.4/11.6! 43.2} 8.2) 1.7'79.9|16.7] 3.0] 0.4 NovaScotia....} 1.0) 5.4] 8.4)15.4/12.9) 50.2] 5.8) 0.9)85.7)/12 7| 1.5] 0.1 Onttario....2..-: Wet) Sel WoO LS 312575223)! 653) 025274 45.1) 274) Onl PB. EK Island ...) 0:9) 7.3) 9:7)16.4, 12.8) 45.7) 6.5) 1.7/80.8) 17.7] 1.4: 0.1 @webeo 2. :55..- 3.7| 10.9] 16.2] 20.2) 11.7) 31.2! 4.7! 1.3 69.8) 25.9) 3.4] 0.9 The Territories. 19.5 24.3] 16.7 13.3) 8.1} 14.1} 1.3] 0.7) 66.9 30.5) 0.5} 0.1 The house accommodation afforded varies from province to province. The largest percentage of brick houses occurs in Ontario, the smallest in Nova Scotia, where 99.4 of the houses are built of wood. The largest percentage, though not the 20 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND greatest absolute number of stone houses, are found in the prov- ince of Quebec, the smallest, 0.1 per cent., in British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Isiand. The proportion of houses of one story only is greatest in the Maritime Provinces, where Nova Scotia heads the list with 85.7 per cent., and Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick follow with 80.8 per cent. and 79.9 per cent. Manitoba and Ontario show the largest percentages of two story houses, while Quebec and New Brun- swick show the highest percentages of three storied dwellings. (Quebec contains 73 per cent. of all the 4-storied buildings in Canada; and twice as high a percentage of the buildings in the province are of that height or higher as in any other province. Quebec and the North-West Territories have highest average number of persons under one roof (6.0), the Maritime Provinces coming next, and British Cotumbia giving the low number of 4.9. But British Columbia is the province where the largest number of one-roomed houses exist. Twenty-one per cent. of the houses there have one room only, and 58.4 per cent. have four rooms or less. In Manitoba, which stands next to British Columbia in the number of persons to the house (5.2), 12.0 per cent. of the houses are one roomed, and 66.5 per cent. have four or less. Prince Edward Island, on the other hand, which crowds 5.9 people under every roof, sees that they have some room under it, for less than one per cent. (0.9) of her houses are of one room, and 65.5 of her houses have more than four rooms. These facts are collected in the following table :— COMPARISON OF HoUSE ACCOMMODATION IN THE PROVINCES. | Persons Stone rick | W rooms or ss Ee ee Boe san a ieee ee Canadas ties. 3:0) Adie 2Sle5 2.9 37,1.) ae British Columbia..! 0.1 Due 97.6 2 5Si45 4.9 Manitoba 0.9 3.7 95.2 | 12.0 665. “Se New Brunswick...| 0.1 1.6 | 98.2 2.4 35.3 | 5.8 Nova Scotia ......| 0:2 0.3 99.4 1.0 O22 u7/ Ontaniorec ce eee She 21.1 75/5) 12 27.5 5.2 Pr. Edward,Island| 0.1 0.4 99.5 | 0.9 34.7 d.9 Quwebec.c-: 2s eae 5.0 17.8 Utoll Sal 50.0 6.0 The Territories....} 1.0 | 1.0 96.0 19.5 73.8 6.0 CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. yal From these figures it is possible to construct an index number which shall express the relative house accommodation of the various provinces more readily than the actual figures. There are four possible tests within our reach :—The material of which the dwelling is constructed, the number of rooms it contains, the number of stories in it, and the number of people who inhabit it. But these are obviously not all of equal importance. The number of rooms is of much greater importance than the number of stories. A house of five rooms with only one story is better than a house of three or four rooms with a story and a half or two stories ; and for many purposes it is indifferent whether the house is built of wood or of stone, or brick. The material out of which a house is built is determined sometimes by the relative cheapness of materials on the spot and sometimes by municipal regulations about a fire district. But from the figures quoted above, it is evident that a stone or brick house is at least more fashionable than a wooden house; and in the slum districts of our cities the worst houses are built of wood. We must allow some importance to these two considerations ; but not by any means as much as to the others. If to the two taken together we allow half as much importance as to each of the others, taken separately, we will not, perhaps, exaggerate its importance ; but in case of error, the index number will be stated, both including and excluding these minor considerations. The figures quoted above are taken negatively, 7. ¢., instead of saying how many houses have four rooms or less, we calculate on the number of houses which have more than four rooms; but this is a matter of arithmetical detail. The average for Canada is expressed as 100 in the cases of the number of houses containing more than four rooms and of the number of persons in each house, and by 50 in the case of the two minor considerations :— 22. STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND ge 6 Be 6 [igen Sas E Bete | oe | 28. | 4 | een lene 7 Aaeg! # 22 RK | chee | oeeg ¥ Spas | 7d so | B | SuaS| BESS ss SOigecas | a eS | = se0 2 Sil oo 5 ——— — | — | ro OO OO || ——— Canada ..... 62.3 ! 100 | 5.6 ! 100 36.5 18.5 |! 50 Brit. Columbia| 41.6 | 66.71 49 | 1146! 27.6 | 24 | 19.6 Manitoba ....| 335 , 537| 5.2 | 107.6| 40.1 | 48 | 33.7 Wo ipeunowick| i6f7 | 102.2! ‘5.8 | oe oon 4 1.8 16.1 NioeeSeotin | 9678 | 1072| 57) Osan ams 0.6 | 1.6 One 2 sl 16S 6 2s Oral eAge 24.5 | 65.7 P. E, Island ..| 65.3 | 1048) 5.9 | 94.9) 19.2 05 ! 13.8 Quebec ...... 50.0 80.2 6.0 93.3) 30.2 22.9 51.2 6.0 | 93.3) 33.1 4.0 | 28.1 Territories....| 26.2 | The index of relative house accommodation of the provinces would be therefore according as we did or did not include the minor considerations expressed in the first or in the second column below :— Two Considerations. Four Considerations. @anadare.acke ots sec | 200 250 British Columbia ...... 181.3 199.9 Manitoba. .. .......- | 161.3 195.0 New Brunswick........ 198.6 214.7 Nova Scotin..... ser ees 205.6 216.2 Ontariome eee ole 223.9 289.6 Prince Edward Island. . 199.7 213.5 Oiwebechsssscee ee: Coe 173.5 224.7 NerribOLiesmneaerene ie. 135.3 163.4 The inclusion of the minor considerations reduces the rank of all the Maritime Provinces, and raises Quebec from one of the lowest to the second place, and still further increases the lead of the Province of Ontario. In all probability the index number depending on the two considerations alone gives the fairest representation of relative housing in the various provinces. Though the item of food continues, whatever the income, to absorb the largest share of individual and national income, our information on this point is far from being complete. Practically we may say that so far as the foodstuffs consumed in Canada are produced in Canada we have no adequate information. Esti- CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 23 mates have been made of the consumption of wheat and potatoes ; but too much reliance should not be placed upon them. The consumption of meat might be approximately estimated after an elaborate calculation, taking into account exports and imports and annual mortality among farm stock ; but to give the esti- mate even a semblance of accuracy we require to have at least as complete an enumeration of the stock in the country during successive years as we have for the isolated census years. Of the consumption of fish and game, of butter and eggs, and milk and cheese and vegetables, we have no means whatever of form- ing an estimate; and it is doubtful whether such an estimate can be formed so long as 45 per cent. of the population are engaged in, or dependent on, agriculture. The only accurate statistics we have of the consumption of food are those relating to articles not produced in Canada at all, or produced under such conditions that the whole industry is under the constant super- vision of the government. We can tell how much tea and sugar and coffee, how much beer and spirits and tobacco, how much wine and dried fruit is consumed in Canada ; and it is fortunate that these are the articles. the large consumption of which indicates prosperity. We are not eoncerned with the ethical question whether the consumption of spirits is right or wrong. As a matter of fact, and many a Finance Minister has had to confess it with chastened sorrow, an increased consumption of intoxi- cants is a sign of increasing prosperity. Bread stuffs and meats are for English speaking people necessities, and a diminution in the quantity would indicate, or at least might indicate, increasing prosperity. The poorer a nation or a family is the larger the proportion of its income it spends on bread and potatoes.* This is one of the established ‘Prof. Lexis, in his article on Consumption, Schonberg’s Handbuch I., 697 n. quotes the following estimate of the distribution of expenditure on food by various classes :— Expenditure on Food. Bread. Potatoes. Meat. (6 persons) 2,175 marks 14.9 4.1 26.5 (4 persons) 1,285 ‘* 10.6 2.4 29 0 688 “ 31.3 4.8 17.0 BI 38.7 10.3 11.6 hts) 2 39.4 15.9 3.0 24 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND conclusions of the theory of consumption; and it stands to reason that the more of the luxuries of the table a family consumes the less need has it for the grosser necessaries. But this conclusion must be taken to apply to percentages rather than to absolute amounts; for where the great majority of the population are in the condition of working class people, prosperity may show itself both in a decreasing percentage and in an increasing absolute amount, With a better use of the consumption power at their command, probably the working classes in America would come to consume less of the grosser necessaries of bread and potatoes and meat, and rise to a higher conception of well-being than mere profusion. The large consumption of bread stuffs in the exporting countries is due to profusion rather than to a low standard of living. It exists alongside of a large consumption of the comforts and commoner iuxuries of the table. Speaking in general terms, Europeans eat more bread and potatoes than Americans. Australians consume more meat and less bread and potatoes than either the Americans or the Euro- peans. In Canada the consumption both of bread and potatoes is, according to statistics, high, probably much too high, consider- ing the standard of living common in the community. In the Statistical Year Book for 1891 the average consumption, ecaleu- lated by deducting the net exports and the estimated amount retained for seed from the estimated crop during the 10 years, 1881-1891, is given as 6.75 bushels per head :-— CONSUMPTION PER HEAD, IN BUSHELS. 1881 6.48 | 1884 | 8.96 | 1888 6.02 1882 8.19 | 1885 | 7.41 1889 5.38 1883 6.16 1886 5.70 | 1890 6.69 | | 1887 | 6.63 | | | But the authors of this estimate do not themselves place much reliance on it; and if it were accurate, one would almost be justified in inferring that in the lean years Canada was on CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 25 the verge of starvation ; for the consumption varies more than three bushels and a half. The probability is, as the authors suggest, that the crop estimates are by no means accurate. In the following year, in 1892, this estimate is dropped. and a com- parative estimate of the consumption of wheat per head in various countries gives Canada an average consumption of 5.5 bushels per head, which is continued down till 1895, the last year in which this comparative estimate appears. The estimate continues to be put forward as an approximation only ; but no reason is offered for the reduction from 6.75 to 5.5 bushels. The consumption of potatoes may be estimated in the same way for the single year 1891, the census year. This gives an average consumption of 10 bushels per head, or about 600 pounds —undoubtedly, by comparison with other nations which have a similar or a lower standard of living, an excessive estimate. If the estimates framed annually by the Statistical Bureaus of Ontario and Manitoba are seareely trustworthy, the casual esti- mates of a census enumerator, or of the farmer he questions, are still less likely to be trustworthy ; and all such estimates are liable to err on the side of excess. Mr. Mulhail gives the annual consumption of meat in Canada at 90 lbs. per head, as compared with 109 lbs. in the United Kingdom, 150 lbs. in the United States, and 276 lbs. in Australia ; but imagination fails to suggest the source from which such an estimate can be made for Canada. The statistics at our disposal regarding the consumption of certain typical comforts and luxuries, is as full as occasion requires, and as accurate as returns made at the customs or to the internal revenue officers usually are. The list might be made indefinitely long, but we corfine ourselves to such as are typical and in fairly common use,—sugar and tea and coffee, wine and beer, and spirits and tobacco. Dried fruit we shall also include, selecting that rather than green fruit, the extension in the use of which is one of the best signs of a prosperous consumption, because, in the case of green fruits, we have estimates of value only which can be used, while the quantity of dried fruits can 26 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND be more readily estimated in a single one of the tables of weights and measures. The tables from which the per capita consumption of sugar, tea. coffee and dried fruit has been calculated, were compiled from the Annual Sessional Papers on Trade and Com- merce; the per capita consumption of beer, spirits, ete., is the calculation of the inland revenue officials, and may be found in Statistical Year Book for the current year.* The consumption of these articles is recognized as one of the best tests of the prosperity of a country. The middle classes everywhere are well provided with the comforts and decencies of life, in which class these articles are placed, although sugar is rapidly becoming a necessary of life; and an extension of the consumption of these goods means that the working classes are consuming more, the middle class, it being presumed already, using as much as they desire. Ina country like Canada, where as we have seen there are few extremes of wealth, an increased consumption means that the whole body of the people are con- suming more. An increased consumption of any article may mean one of three things,—(1) it may result from a fall in price, which enables the people to consume more without spending more ; (2) it may mean a rise in the average income, which enables the people to spend more on one article than they have been doing, without curtailing their consumption of other articles; (3) it may mean simply that the form of consumption has changed and that the well-being of society is the same, or but slightly increased. In all probability, the increased use of eccoa, from the value of $44,249 in 1880+ to $158,849 in 1896 has been due to a mere change in the form of consumption ; and the addition of this amount to the consumption of the community probably does not indicate a corresponding increase of spending power. The increase in the use of sugar and tea is due, not to increased *Itake this opportunity of acknowledging my indebtedness to the Dominion Statistician, Mr. George Johnson, whose work I have freely used in the preparation of this paper. t+Average of three years. CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 27 spending power, but almost entirely to a fall in price. The per capita cousumption of 1896, 47 lbs, of sugar and 4.4 Ibs. of tea cost no more than the 26 lbs. of sugar and the 2.7 lbs. of tea in the year 1880. The increased use of tobacco, of coffee, and the but slightly decreased consumption of spirits, in spite of a large rise in price, indicate a larger spending power. An attempt has been made in the third of the following tables to indicate how far the increased consumption is due to a fall in prices, the prices being taken from a table of Montreal prices given in the Statisti- cal Year Book of 1896. ConsumPTION PER Capita OF CERTAIN ARTICLES IN CANADA. Tea Coffee | Sugar Dried Wises Spirits} Wine Tobac-| Cigars (lbs.) (1bs.) (lbs,) | Fruits(lbs).| (gals.) | (gals ) | (gals.) |co(Ibs)-| (No ) 1880 oF 0.40 26 1.9 9.25 | 0711 0.08 | 1.94 1881 3.8 0.47 31 3.0 PAO) Ml OP | COLO) I] P2085 Nacoes- 1882 4.3 0.71 30 3.4 PA) |) ae) GATS lag aan 1883 | 4.0 | 0.60 | 34 5.0 | 2881 1.09 | 0.13] 228 |... 1884 38 0.53 38 5.2 22927 100) OZ 248 19 1885 4.0 | 094 | 43 4,1 D645 else Osten 2262 7 1886 4.9 0.85 38 3.6 2.84 O71 011 2 05 20 1887 38 0.41 43 4.2 a 08h) ON) | OF09) | 2306 18 1888 3) 4 0.60 43 4.5 3.25 | 0.64 | 0.09 | 2.09 19 1889 3.6 0.66 47 4.6 SEO OMS Ost Om mealies 19 1890 3.8 0.66 35 4.7 3.36 | 0.88 | 0.10 | 214 20 1891 370) 10169 40 | 4.8 SU79 0874s 021 2 29 l 20 | 1892 4.4 | 0.73 | 68 4.7 Ships 9 WO AO) | ORTOM E2229 Al 1893 3D | OCT 51 4.4 3:48 | 074 | 0.09 | 2.31 93 1894 AAT 10570 61 5.3 SH On| OL09N || 12226 3) 1895 4.0 0.72 70 4 3 47 O67 02095 2. 16 21 1896; 4.4 0.70 47 5.6 3) O83 |) (GRA |) COMO || Ge Ie) | 21 | These tables are sufficiently clear to explain theinselves ; but it should be observed that for some reason the year 1880, which has been chosen as starting point, is an exceptional year of low consumption, as we shall see more clearly when we come to present an Index No. of consumption ; and it has the additional disadvantage of being the year of high prices in sugar, which was then 20 per cent. higher than in 1875, and higher than it has been since. 28 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND It would be interesting to compare the consumption of the different provinces; but there are no statistics available for such acomparison. Mr. Johnson, in his Graphic Statistics of Canada (1886) has shewn the relative provincial consumption of wine and beer, and spirits and tobacco, in a graphic form; and from his representation we learn that on the average of 19 years to 1886, each inhabitant of Ontario drank 1.11 gals. of spirits, 0.4 gals. of wine, and 3.2 gals. of beer, and smoked 1.8 lbs. of tobaeeo; and so on for the other provinces as in the accompanying table :— Per Capita CONSUMPTION ACCORDING To PROVINCES. Prov. Spirits (gal.) Beer (gal.) Wine (gal ) Tobacco (lbs.) Ontariomeeeeeeee | Leva ney | A 4 | 1.8 MNebee2 jasn eee 1.68 1.9 0,28 2.4 New Brunswick... 089 0.66 008 2a Nova Scotia .... 0.93 0.7 0 07 7 Pe Bedslandses.,- 0.52 0.46 0.03 1.4 Manitoha..... oh 068 | a 0.06 26 Brit Columbia 1.45 | Sil 0.62 3.0 | { In all probability this proportion holds in 1898 as in — and Mr, Johnson’s conclusions are still true :— “Ontario drinks nearly three times more beer than spirits ; Quebec, nearly as much spirits as beer; New Brunswick, more spirits than beer; Nova Scotia, more beer than spirits; Prince Kdward Island, more spirits than beer ; and Manitoba and British Columbia, more beer than spirits,” p. 36. To which we might add that, according to this shewing, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick are the most temperate of the provinces.* *The consumption of spirits in the Maritime Provinces and in Quebec is probably ‘greatly underestimated. The figures above shew only the consumption on which duty was paid; but there has always been a large amount smuggled into these provinces from St. Pierre which exists practically as an entrepot for smuggling. Probably 15/16ths of the imports of the island are smuggled into Canada and Newfoundland. In 1885 the amount intended to be smnggled exceeded that proportion. It is said that half the spirits and tobacco consumed in Quebec pays no duty. Since 1890 the import trade of St. Pierre has fallen 50 per cent. in consequence of the increased activity of the Cana- dian revenue cruisers preventing the usual exports. CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON, 29. It is, unfortunately, not possible to compare the quantities consumed of the articles enumerated with their retail prices to ascertain exactly the relation between prices and consumption. Where prices have fallen, it is generally assumed that the whole- sale prices have fallen further and more rapidly than retail prices, though, in the case of sugar, all but the very poorest who may buy in very small quantities have benefitted to the full extent of the fall. Where prices have risen, retail prices may have risen higher than wholesale, or not so far, according to circumstances. Tobacco has probably risen higher in retail price than in whole- sale ; but the dealers in cigarettes last year were not able to raise prices to follow the wholesale price. The following comparison, however, is with Montreal wholesale prices as stated in the Statistical Year Book, 1896 :— CONSUMPTION AND PRICES. COFFEE SUGAR. TEA. TOBACCO. SPIRITS. A ae || an aw a= Fi Bee sate |e | a gee | eee ed | See | Se Nem ele Pa (pees ep ore a2 ies sa | & S| Be | tS ee = are 8 a S a 5 a 8 ae 8 1380) -4 -|27 cts.| 26 |104cts| 2.7 5] 1.94 |54 cts | 0.71 | $1 50 1ssi| .47 |25 3h) LG 3.8 52 | 203 |554 | 9.92 1.60 | 1882} .71 |23 20 | 93 AS Sie | Ona [57s LOL) 1.60 1883/ -6 !22 34 | 9 410) 5 DOS) [Az 1.09 | 1.60 1884| .53 |21 Bis I 3 3.8 51 2.48 |534 1.00 ; 1.60 1885! .94 |20 43° 17 AO | Sl) 627151 S| 167 1886; .85 19 38 | 6 4.9 | 49 | 2.05 133 Cerlh sl) alacit 1887| .41 [24 AS G62 SS. 43> 9.06515) 075] 181 18ss| .6 |25 430°) 7 a7 aoe 2 097 la) 064 | 181 1889} .66 |26 AT es S6rl 45, elo jal Os73) t 183 1890} -66 |26 35 | 62 | SiS 45a) 2,14 |p 0.88 | 1.84 1891; .69 |27 40 | 6 3.7 | 42 | 229 [53% 0.74 | 2.48 1892| .73 |29 Gori 4 eae 24 | 39 | 2.29 |56 C.70 | 288 1893] .77 |29 ei | 43% | 3.6 | 38% | 231 [543 | 0.74| 2.58 1894, .7 (28 61 | 475 4.1 | 38% | 2.96 [533 0.74 | 251 1895| .72 |27 70 | 4 4.0 | 353 | 2.16 |56 ONGH| CAG 1896} .70 |26 | 47 | 48 | 44 | 33% | 2.12 [56 0.62 | 268 fe eae) a | 30 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND From this table it appears that though the price of coffee has not declined the consumption has increased 80 per cent., shewing at once an increased desire for coffee and a larger spending power in the community. This is probably a real inerease in the con- sumption of the nation and nota transfer of taste ; for cocoa and tea, the substitutes for coffee, have also been consumed in increased amounts, and there has been no such diminution of consumption of alcoholie drinks, for which coffee may be regarded as a substitute, as would set free such an amount of consuming power as would purchase the additional quantity of coffee. On the contrary, although the consumption of spirits has declined somewhat (13 per cent. since 1880), more is being spent on spirits to-day per head than in 1880. The price has increased 78 per cent., and had the consumption moved downwards at the same rate as the price moved upwards, the quantity used in 1896 should have been 44 per cent. less than in 1880. The decrease, instead of shewing a diminution of consumption power, indicates either an increase of money to spend or a growing desire on the part of the people for spirits such as would lead them to transfer their taste to alcohol from some other article. In face of the temperance sentiment of the country, it is improbable that the desire has increased, and we may safely conclude that the relation between consumption and prices of spirits indicates increased consumption power. The slight increase in the consumption of tobacco (11 per cent.), in spite of a rise in price, points to the same conclusion, viz, that the nation is growing more prosperous and has a larger income to expend, On the other hand, the increased consumption of tea and sugar justify no such con- clusion. They, of course, indicate a higher level of general well- being, but not an increased consumption power on the part of the community. They afford no evidence against such an increase of income ; they simply do not afford any evidence in its favor, The consumption of sugar has increased almost in the same rates as the price has declined. The consumption of 1895 has risen 168 per cent.; the price has declined (1495 price) 62 per cent. The consumption has risen just 5 per cent. more than the decline of CONSUMPTION IN CANADA—DAVIDSON. 31 price warranted—if the community was to continue to spend the same money per head in 1895as in 1880. Tea, however has not increased so much as the price has declined. The consumption is 48 per cent. greater than in 1880, but the 1895 price is 35 per cent. lower than the 1880 price. To preserve the same expendi- ture of income on this article the consumption should have risen 54 per cent., or 6 per cent. more than it has risen. From this comparison of consumption and prices it is evident that there bas been not only an increase of well-being due to the larger quantity of these commodities used, but an increase of consumption power as well, and judging from the instances before us, an increase of consumption power of considerable extent. We can carry the investigation a little further, to find out, so far as figures can tell us, how far the well-being of the community has increased. The most obvious method of esti- mating this increase is by constructing an index number for consumption. Into the problem whether a permanent index number of consumption is possible, it is not necessary to enter; the following attempt is intended only as a method of illustra- tion, not as an indication of cause. It is the more important to state this limitation, as the year 1880 was, as the table shews, a year of very low consumption—a fact which was not apparent to the writer till this calculation, the last made for this paper, was made. So long as the result is not used by politicians for partisan purposes, and is regarded merely as a summary of the earlier table, it does not matter much which year is taken, The method of construction was to take the seven articles— tea, coffee, sugar, dried fruits, spirits, beer and tobacco—as typical of the consumption power of the community, and to take the quantity consumed per head in 1880 in each case as equal to 100 --the sum 700 being taken as the index number of the consump- tion of that year. The articles are, of course, not all equally important, and therefore it must be repeated that the index number is intended for purposes of illustration only :— 82 STATISTICS OF EXPENDITURE AND CONSUMPTION—DAVIDSON, InDEX NUMBER OF CONSUMPTION IN CANADA, if | | ;. YeEAR.|Tea.| Coffee. |Sugar.| Dried Fruits. | Spirits. | Tobacco.| Beer. oe eee 18s0 ; 100 100 100 100 100 | 100 100 700 ISSL | 140 Wily 119 159 129 106 101 $71 1882 | 159 Ay 115 178 142 113 122 1006 1883 | 148 150 130 210 153 120 128 1039 1884 | 140 132 146 Die 141 result 129 1092 1885 ! 148! 235 163 215 , | 2159 137 117 1174 1886 | 181 PS 146 189 100 107 126 1071 1887 | 140 102 163 Pi) 105 1u8 136 975 1888 | 137 150 163 235 90 110 144 1030 1889 | 133 165 180 242, 109 113 144 1086 1890 | 140 165 134 247 124 TY 149 1071 LEO Vie 2, 153 252 104 120 168 1106 1892 | 162! 182 261 ! 247 98 120 | 156 1226 1893 | 133 192 192 231 104 124 ' 154 1130 1894 | 151 175 934 : 278 104 LS alee 1222 1895 | 148 180 268 273 { 94 113 154 1231 1896 | 167! 175 180 | 294 87 lll 155 | 1169 | | The year 1880 is evidently not an average year, and there were probably trade infiuences at work inducing a small importation. And itis to be remarked that the figures on which these index numbers are originally based are figures of trade and not of consumption. In order to attain something like strict accuracy by eliminating the effects of anticipatory importations to avoid a threatened tax, and such like influences visible in all trade returns, it would be necessary to make the consumption for each year the average of a period of three or four years— thus the figures for 1886 would be the average of 1884, 1885. and 1886; the figures for 1887 the average of 1885, 1886, 1887. But such exactitude would be tedious, and the process might be liable to the objection that it sought to attain a greater degree of accuracy than the nature of the subject admits. Within the limits set down this index number illustrates the steady growth of the national prosperity and well-being—a movement not uniform or without backward steps—but none the less indicating that the command the nation has over the material sources of satisfaction has increased. II].—On a TEST, BY THE FREEZING-POINT METHOD, OF THE IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS DETERMINED BY THE CONDUC- tivity Meraop, FoR SoLuTIONS CONTAINING POTASSIUM AND Sopium SULPHATES.—By E. H. ARCHIBALD, M. Sc., 1851 Exhibition Science Scholar, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S. (Communicated by Prof. J. G. MacGregor; Received September 15th, 1898.) The experiments described below were undertaken, at e suggestion of Prof. J. G. MacGregor, for the purpose of testing the values of the ionization coefficients obtained by means of his graphical method,* in the case of a mixture of solutions of two electrolytes with a common ion, by employing them in the caleu- lation of the depression of the freezing-point, and comparing the calculated values with values obtained by experiment. The time at my disposal was very limited, and in consequence I was able to make the test only in the case of equimolecular solutions of two electrolytes. Potassium and sodium sulphates were selected as the electrolytes, not because of their being the most suitable for the purpose, but because I had been observing their conductivity and had already obtained some of the requisite data. As, in determining the depression of the freezing-point, the solutions must be at a temperature of about 0° C., it was neces- sary that the ionization coefficients should be determined for approximately the same temperature. Both the specific con- ductivities of simple solutions of the two electrolytes throughout the range of concentration of the simple solutions used in preparing the mixtures, and their equivalent conductivities at infinite dilution, had therefore to be determined for 0° C., as well as the depression of the freezing-point for the mixtures. In *Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, (1895-6). Proc. & TRANS. N. Sh JESBINE leigs Woe OG TRANS.—C. (33) 34 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN addition, in order to determine how closely the depression in the case of simple solutions can be calculated by means of ionization coefficients determined by conductivity measurements, I observed the depression in the case of simple solutions also. The work involved in’ making the desired test therefore included the following:—(1) The purification or testing of the materials; (2) the preparation and analysis of series of simple solutions and the preparation of the mixtures ;..(3) the measurement of the conductivity of series of simple solutions at 0° C.; (4) the determination of the equivalent conductivity at 0° C. of the two electrolytes at infinite dilution; (5) the calculation of the ionization coefficients of the simple solutions ; (6) the measurement of the depression of the freezing-point for the simple solutions; (7) the calculation of the depression for. the simple solutions by means of the ionization coefficients. obtained from the conductivity measurements ; (8) the measure- ment of the depression of the freezing-point in the case of the mixiures; (9) the determination of the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in the mixtures, and (10) the calculation of the depression of the freezing-point of the mixtures by means of these coefficients. The Materials, The salts were obtained as chemically pure from Eimer and) Amend of New York, and were re-crystallized carefully three. times, after which treatment no appreciable impurities could be. detected. he water used was purified by Hulett’s* method, except that a block tin condenser was employed instead of a platinum one. Portions of the distillate were treated in the same manner as to exposure to air, ete, as a solution would be, and their conductivity measured. It was found to vary from 0.88 x 107?°® to 0.96 x 10-19, expressed in terms of the conductivity of mer- cury at 0°C. It was kept in bottles which had been used for this purpose for several years. " Journ. Phys. Chem. 1, 91, (1896). COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—ARCHIBALD. 35 Preparation and Analyses of Solutions. The potassium sulphate solutions were prepared by adding to water a known weight of anhydrous salt which had been dried to constant weight in an air bath, so as to form a known volume of solution at 18°C. In the case of the sodium sulphate, a solution was prepared, and analysed by gravimetric determina- tion of the sulphuric acid present in a known volume of solution. Several soiutions of both salts of different concentrations were prepared in the above manner, and others were prepared from these by addition of water, their concentrations being calculated. Check analyses were made whenever any portion had gone through two or three dilutions, and if found necessary the calculated concentrations were corrected from these results. The complex solutions were prepared by mixing equal volumes of the constituent solutions at 18° C., the same pre- cautions being observed for securing equality of volume of the constituents as are described in a former paper communicated to the Institute on the conductivity of these salts.* The concentrations of the solutions at 18° C. would, of course, be slightly less than their concentrations at 0° C., but with solutions as dilute as those which I used, the difference could hardly affect the third significant figuret I have therefore regarded the concentrations at the two temperatures as the same. As the method of ecaleulation required a knowledge of any appreciable change of volume which might occur on mixing, simple solutions of each of the salts were prepared, and density determinations were made of such solutions before and after mixing. These measurements were carried out at 18° C. with Ostwald’s form of Sprengel’s Pyenometer. They might be in error by about 5 in the fifth decimal place. Nochange of volume *Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9, 291, (1897-8). 7From Forch’s observations on the thermal expansion of solutions of potassium sulphate (Wied. Ann., 55, 100 (1895)), and Marignac’s on sodium sulphate (Ann. Chim., Phys., (4), 22, 385, (1871) ), I find that the difference of temperature referred to would affect the third significant figure of the concentrations only in the case of the stronger Beene examined, and in the case of these only to the extent of 1 or2 units.— 36 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN was found to occur on preparing the most concentrated mixture examined, which would appreciably affect its concentration with respect to the two electrolytes, when calculated on the assumption that no such change of volume occurred. Method of Measuring Conductivity. The method used was Kohlrausch’s Telephone method, and the apparatus was the same as described in the paper just referred to. Two electrolytic cells were used, one for strong, the other for more dilute solutions. The first was U-shaped of the form shown by. Ostwald in his Physico-Chemical Measurements, page 226, Fig. 178. The second was cylindrical, about 14 em. long, with an internal diameter of 3.3 em. It was provided with circular electrodes of stout platinum foil not easily bent. The stout wire supports of these electrodes were fused into glass tubes which passed through, and were sealed to, the ebonite cover of the cell. The electrodes were kept firmly in position by means of a rubber band passing over the cover and around the bottom of the cell. This cell being long and of the same diameter throughout, could, by variation of the distance between the electrodes, be used for solutions extending through a wide range of dilution. The platinizing of the electrodes was carried out as described in the paper cited above. The water-bath described in the above paper was used for these experiments also, modified, however, when working at 0° C, as follows :—A cylindrical screen made of wire gauze about 15 cm. in diameter was hung from a support so as to reach from the top, to within 6 or 8 em. of the bottom, of the bath. Inside this, the electrolytic cell containing the solution to be measured, was placed, while outside was a mixture of snow and a very little sodium chloride. The screen thus prevented the snow from coming into contact with the cell, while the water around it could be thoroughly stirred. By varying the amount of salt the temperature could be kept within a twentieth of a degree of COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—ARCHIBALD. 37 zero for balf an hour at a time. An error of this amount in the determination of the temperature of the solution would cause an error of about 0.1 per cent. in the determination of the resist- ance. The temperature of the room in which the observations were made was from 2° to 5° C. That one might be sure that the temperature of the solution to be measured had ecme to be that of the bath, measurements of the resistance were made at short intervals, and that reading taken which was found to be constant for successive intervals. The thermometer used was graduated to tenths of a degree centigrade, and could easily be read to twentieths. Its errors had recently been determined at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin. The factor for reducing the observed conductivities to mer- cury units was found by plotting observed conductivities at 18° C. against concentrations, reading off from these curves the conductivity values for concentrations examined by Kohlrausch, and comparing them with his results. The value thus obtained was found to be the same for each salt and to be practically constant throughout the concentration range of my experiments. As the cell was of glass the reduction factor would not be appreciably different at 0° C. from what it was found to be at 18°C. To make sure that no change occurred in the position of the electrodes during the course of the experiments that would appreciably affect the reduction factor, every second or third solution was measured at 18° C. before reducing its temperature to 0° C., and the value of the conductivity obtained was compared with that previously obtained at the same temperature. Determination of equivalent conductivity at infinite dilution on O 1G. For this purpose a series of simple solutions of each electro- lyte, of concentrations ranging from 0:01 to 00001 gramme- equivalents per litre, were prepared, and their conductivities were measured both at 18°C. and at 0° C. The conductivity of the water used in their preparation was also measured at both tem- eratures and subtracted in each case from the conductivity of 38 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN the solution. The following table gives the results of the obser- vations together with the values of the temperature coefficients, (H1s— po) /fys- Concentrations are expressed in gramme-equiva- Jents of anhydrous salt per litre and conductivities in terms of 10-8 times the conductivity of mercury at 0° C. The conduc- tivities at 18° were tested by comparison with Kohlrausch’s values, these values when plotted on coordinate paper being found to lie practically on the same curve as mine. TABLE I. POTASSIUM SULPHATE SOLUTIONS. SODIUM SULPHATE SOLUTIONS. Coneen.| a, etuivalent oe Equivalent | jie tration at Conductivity (H/). a GE Conductivity (“). | 18 "0 18°C. P18. TEA OS alia ae sae aa ___| Atis'e. | At orc | ___| Atisc. | Atore. | ie U10 ! 1099 687 379 .010 907 553 | 388 008 1116 698 | .375 .008 919 562 | 389 005 1142 716 373 005 946 577 390 004 1155 723 SUA || sce tectecte ier tatsrerars | BaeeUe.aa|Maosccoc 002 1180 740 old .002 | 981 596 393 001 1206 Tat 372 001 997 604 394 -0008 1213 762 372 0008 1003 607 395 0006 1221 768 | 371 0006 1008 609 396 -0005 1225 eal Roy ps | 0005 1012 611 396 -0004 1230 775 | 1) | eee eer soca sS|icoc 400 -0002 1240 781 | 370 0002 1027 620 396 .0001 | 1248 786 | 370 -0001 1036 626 9896 It will be seen that the temperature coefficients for potas- sium sulphate solutions diminish with increase of dilution while those for sodium sulphate increase. This result* was so * The results of this table are in close aereomens with those obtained by ‘Desuiete (Dissertation, Strassburg, 1895), of which Mr. Archibald was not aware.—J. fl, COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—ARCHIBALD. 39 unexpected that I thought it well to repeat the observations, the result being substantiated by the repetition. Jt will be seen also that in both cases the coefficients reach constant values as concentration is diminished, in the ease of 4 K, SO, from a concentration of 0004 on, in that of } Na,SO, from ‘0006 on. Assuming then that these values will hold for infinite dilution, the equivalent conductivities at infinite dilution for 0° C. may be determined from Kohlrausch’s values* for 18°C, mize 270x L0- and 1070 x10 for fK, SO, and. - Na, SO, respectively. They were found thus to have the values 800 x 10-8 and 646x108 respectively, expressed in terms of the conductivity of mercury at 0°C. Determination of the Ionization coefficients of sinvple solutions. Both for the purpose of finding how closely the lowering of the freezing point could be calculated for simple solutions and for the purpose of determining the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in the mixtures, it was necessary to know the ionization coefficients of a sufficiently extended series of simple solutions of the two electrolytes. The following table contains the observations of conductivity made for this purpose, together with the values of the ionization coefficients calculated on the assumption that for simple solutions they are equal to the ratios of the equivalent conductivity to the equivalent conductivity at at infinite dilution. The table gives also the ionization coeffi- cients at 18°C. obtained from the conductivity observations ef former papers. + These quantities are not needed for the present purpose. But the knowledge of the ionization coefficients at 0° enables us to determine how in the case of the electrolytes under consideration the state of ionization ir simple solutions varies with the temperature. Concen- tions and conductivities are expressed in terms of the same units as in Table I. *Wied. Ann., 50, 406, (1893). t Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 291 and 307, (1897-8.) 40 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN TABLE II. Ionization Coefficients. at 18°C oat i K5S0.. |4NaqSOx. | Atis’c: | Atorc. | At 18°C ara 050 | 604.2 | 486.0 | .757 | .755 | .733 | .762 055 soso || 480.0 | 750 | .748 | .728" ewes 060 504.1 75.5 | 745 | "748 |. .723 )\ seu 070 535.4 .| 466.5 | .736 | .732 | .715 | 792 .080 877.5 | 460.0 | .723 | .722 | .703 | .712 .100 564.0 448.5 | .706 705 | .686 | .694 125 547.5 ABUG il Sree ee ey eee 672 150 535.0 | OEE eee Bena eee 654 200 516.0 | 403.1 | .650 | .645 | .601 | .624 250 503.0 387.4 | .634 | .629 | .586 | .600 | 300 493.0 373.5 | .620 | .616 | .570 | .578 350 485.0 362.4 | .605 | .606 | .556 | .561 400 478.0 353.0 | 595 | .598 | .545 | .546 450 473.0 | - 345.5 | 587 | 501 | .538 | 535 500 470.0 | 339.6 | 580 | 588) .522 | 525 600 466.0 | 330.0 | 567 | .583 | .606 | .511 700 464.0 $24.2 | 551 | .s80 | .498 | 501 It appears from these results that in the case of solutions of potassium sulphate the ionization coefficient increases very slightly with rise of temperature between 0° and 18°C from a concentration of 0.05 to one of about 0.35, and that from this ntration to one of at least 0.7 it decreases, the magnitude of the decrement increasing rapidly with the concentration, and amounting at a concentration of 0.7 to 5 per cent. In the case of sodium sulphate, the coefficient diminishes with rise of COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—ARCHIBALD. 41 temperature throughout the whole range of concentration observed, the amount of the decrement diminishing with increase of concentration, until at a concentration of 0.7 it is only 0.6 per cent. Method of measuring Depression of the Freezing-pornt. Of the different methods described for the determination of the freezing point of salt solutions, that of Loomis* appeared to me the best, and to give the most concordant results. His method was accordingly followed in making the measurements below. As it is most essential that the temperature of the room where the observations are made should be near zero and as. constant as possible, the measurements were carried out during the winter months in a basement room of Dalhousie College building, where it was found possible to keep the temperature below 2°C and constant to within 0.5 of a degree for a couple of hours at a time. No measurements were made while the tem- perature of the room was above 2°C. The thermometer was of tke ordinary Beckman form, graduated to 0.01 of a degree. No reading microscope being available, I had to be satisfied with the use of an ordinary hand lens for this purpose. Nevertheless, as the divisions of the scale were about 0.6 mm. in length, I am quite satisfied that I was able to read the temperatures to at least .001 degree. The following readings of the thermometer made in an experi- ment for determining the freezing point of water would seem to imply that I succeeded in reading even more closely :—2.3415, 2.3410, 2.3420, 2.3415, 2.3420. Mean reading, 2.3416. Greatest divergence from mean, .0006. The thermometer had never been calibrated, and as appara- tus for this purpose was not available, I did not attempt to ealibrate it myself. The length of scale used for the following measurements, however, was less than what corresponded to 1.4 degree, and for the more dilute solutions, say below 0.1 * Phys. Review, 1, 199 and 274 (1893) and 3, 270 (1896). 4Y IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN gramme-equivalent per litre, less than what corresponded to 0.2 of a degree. The freezing and melting baths were each of earthenware, about 32 em. long and with an internal diameter of about 9 em. In the former was a mixture of snow and water with enough common salt added to keep the temperature at about -——12°C. The latter contained a mixture of snow and water, the temperature of which was about 0.2°C. The protection bath, which was of glass 35 em. deep and 8 cm. in diameter, was provided with a covering of felt to minimize the effect of the surrounding air. It contained a mix- ture of snow and water with sufficient salt added to keep the temperature from 0.3 to 0.28 degree below the freezing point of the solutions to be measured. After some experience had been gained, little trouble was found in keeping the temperature of this bath constant within a twentieth of a degree during several observations of any one solution. The freezing tubes first tried were of the following dimen- sions :—the inner one 22 em. long with an external diameter of 2.4 em. the outer one 20 cm. long with an internal diameter of 2.7 cm., the thickness of the glass of both tubes being 1 mm. There was thus an air space of about 1.5 mm. between the tubes. This was found to be too great as shewn by its being difficult to prevent ice from forming around the bulb of the thermometer despite the most vigorous stirring. The next ones tried were as follows:—The inner tube was 28 em. Jong, with an external diameter of 2.7 em., the outer tube 26 em. long with an internal diameter of 2.85 em., the thick- ness of the glass being the same as before. There was thus an air space of about 0.7 mm. between the tubes. This was found to be hardly enough as there was a tendency for the ice to form on the walls of the tube and thus cause much delay. As I worked with 75 cc. of solution, the greater length of these tubes allowed the solution to be immersed well into the bath, rendering it almost free from the influence of the outside temperature. The COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—-ARCHIBALD. 43 inner tube was therefore retained and an outer tube provided of about the same length and thickness of walls, but with an internal diameter of 2.88 em., thus leaving an air space of about 0.9 mm. between the tubes. This gave complete satisfaction. With uniform stirring no tendency was observed for the ice to form on the walls of the tube or on the bulb of the thermometer, or to freeze in a mass. The inner tube had its lower end re-entrant, as recommended by Loomis. I should like to draw attention to the importance of having the air space between the two tubes of the proper size. If the importance of this point has been noted by former observers it has escaped me. The hammer used for tapping the thermometer was part of a small electric bell and was covered with a piece of thick rubber tubing. It was found to be very essential to drive the hammer so that the blows on the thermometer might be of uniform strenoth. Some difficulty was met with in attaining that end; but by careful attention to the strength of the current what appeared to be sufficient uniformity was attained. The stirrer was of the ordinary ring form, the upright rod passing through a glass tube, the upper end of which was con- stricted, and the lower so far from the solution that the wetted portion of the stirrer could not touch it. A stop on the upright rod limited the extent of the stroke so that the ring would not leave the solution, and ensured the equality of the strokes. It was worked by hand as uniformly as possible. The over-cooling was seldom over 0.1 degree, owing doubt- less to the low temperature of the room in which the observa- tions were made. There was consequently no need of correcting for over-cooling. The freezing point of water was determined each day before determining that of the solutions, and in the event of any appreciable change occurring in the atmospheric pressure during the observations on the solutions, the observation on water was repeated. 44 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN Observed and Calculated Values of the Depression of the Freezing-point for Simple Solutions. The following table contains the observations of the depres- sion of the freezing-point of simple solutions, together with observations on solutions of about the same concentration by Loomis* and Jones} for comparison. The depressions are expressed in centigrade degrees. TABLE III. Depression of Freezing-point. Concentration gr.-eq. / litre. Observer. KO. NagSO.. .03949 OO F524 Wi Meseraeynecrees Jones, .04 .0952 0974 Loomis. 050 | igs: 4)" 119s Author. 055 | 1296 1304 ce M5y\ 4) 1307> | || eee Jones. .060 | .1407 .1416 Author. .070 | — .1629 .1638 ee 07556 OD to leas sort eeeme ieee Jones 080 .1851 1856 Author 10 Pai Mllgeteaanoueoo Jones. .10 | .2271 2297 Loomis. 100 .2285 2286 Author, 116 22090) lS serene tints Jones. 19685 42525) Is aos coeecote ss 20 4317 4340 Loomis. 200 4322 4330 Author. 250 5295 5300 oe 300 6240 6252 ee 350 7196 7157 so .40 .8134 8141 Loomis 400 8128 8100 Author. 450 9063 8968 ss 500 9950 9875 wo 60 1.1672 1.1604 Loomis. .600 1.170 1.155 Author. . 700 1.341 1.323 we *Phys Review, 3, 277, (1896). + Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 11, 536, (1893). COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—ARCHIBALD. 45 It will be seen, especially if the above results be plotted, that all three sets of observations agree very well with one another, but that mine agree better with Loomis’s than with those of Jones. Their agreement with Loomis’s is very close. The following table contains the observed and calculated values of the freezing-point depressions for simple solutions, with the differences expressed as percentages of the observed values. In the calculations Van ’t Hoff’s constant was taken to be 1.86 and the expression used for the depression was A=1.86 (1+2a) N/2, where N is the concentration of the solution in gr.-equivalents per litre. > TABLE IV.—DEPRESSION OF FREEZING-POINT. | Potassium Sulphate Solutions. Sodium Sulphate Solutions. ait | —— a -Observed. | Calculated. Sern Observed. | Calculated. Sie Se eo tiss | ktics ue ev | aes a5 .055 .1296 Pari —1.5 . 1304 oP) BA 060 1407 .1387 | —1.4 .1416 1379 | —2.6 .070 1629 | .1604 —1.5 | .1638 .1591 | —2.9 .080 | .1851 .1818 —1.8 .1856 .1803 | — 2.9 . 100 .2285 224] —1.9 -2286 .2221 | —2.9 .200 | 4322 .4259 —15 .4330 4181 | —3.4 .250 .5295 .5250 —0.8 .5300 -O115 | — 3.5 .300 6240 | 6227, 1 —-0:2 | 6252 6015 | — 3.8 300 7196 7200 +0.1 7157 6907 | — 3.5 .400 8128 8169 +0.5 | $100 7782 | —3.9 -450 | 9063 9131 +0.8 8968 8663 | — 3.4 .500 | 9950 | 1.0118 | +1.7 9875 9532 | — 3.5 -600 1.170 | 1.209 +3.3 1.155 1.128 — 2.3 .700 1.341 | 1.406 +4.9 1,323 1.303 —15 46 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS OF CERTAIN The above table shews the degree of accuracy with which the depression of the freezing-point can be calculated in the case of simple solutions. If the ionization coefficients for the mix- tures are determined by Prof. MacGregor’s method as closely as they are for the simple solutions by putting a=,/u., the differ- ences between the calculated and observed values of the depres- sions in the case of the mixtures may be expected to be no greater than those of the above table. Depression of the Freezing-point by the Mixtures. The following Table contains the observed and calculated values of the depression of the freezing-point in the case of the mixtures examined. The observations were made in the manner described above. The calculations were made by the following formula for which I am indebted to Professor MacGregor :— A=1.86 (l+a,+a,) N/2 where a, and a, are the ionization coefticients of the respective electrolytes in the mixture and N the number of gramme-equiva- valents per litre in the solutions mixed, which were in all cases equimolecular, This expression may be readily obtained as follows :—In each litre of the mixture there will be N/4 gramme- molecules of each electrolyte. There will therefore be (l—«,) N/4 and (1 — «,) N/4 undissociated gramme-molecules of the respec- tive electrolytes, and, if we assume the ionization in each case to be complete, 34, N/4 and 3 «, N/4 free gramme-ions. Hence the total number of undissociated gramme-molecules and free gramme-ions will be (l+@,+a@,) N/2, and the expression for the depression will consequently be as above. The first column of Table V gives the concentration of the solutions mixed, in gramme-equivalents of anhydrous salt per litre at 18°C. The fifth and sixth columns give the ionization coefficients of the respective electrolytes in the mixture at 0°C as determined by Prof. MacGregor’s method. The second, third and fourth give the quantities obtained directly by this method, viz., the common concentration of ions, and the dilutions of the respective electrolytes in the mixture. (By the concentration of COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—ARCHIBALD, | 47 ions in the mixture is meant the number of dissociated gramme- equivalents of either electrolyte in any volume of the mixture divided by the volume of that portion of the mixture which may be regarded as occupied by it. The dilutions of the electrolytes in the mixture are the volumes of such portions divided by the number of gramme-equivalents of the electrolytes they contain. The product of these two quantities for each electrolyte gives the ionization coefficient of such electrolyte in the mixture.) The data of the other columns are sufficiently specified by the headings. TABLE V. 2 ao3 ae Toniza. Coeffts. S274| 24-5 | Dilution in Mixture | in Mixture at Depression of F'r.-point. » od ° ° 3° ee 3 a> at 0°C. C. bosses 2b ees sesh [AP Me a 829%) Sno 3) a= Hh) Os = 5 oa) 625 |, KeS04.| 4 NagSO4. 'KgSO4)NagSO4.|Observed|Calcu-| Diff. .@) @) | lated. | per cent. | .050 |.0377 | 20.04 | 19.96 |.7555| .7525 | 1197 | .1166) — 1.8 .055 | .0410 18.22 18.14 7 . 7437 .1299 | .1274; — 1.9 .060 | .0443 | 16.72 | 16.60 eee . 7354 1411 | .1382; — 2.1 .070 | .0509 14.40 14.18 | .7330 .17218 .1634 | .1598} — 2.2 .080 | .0574 12.60 12.40 ee .7118 .1854 | .1812! — 2.3 | .100 ,.0698 10.18 | 9.92 ee . 6924 . 2284 2235) — 2.1 .150 | .0998 6.73 | 6.60 |.6717 .6587 .8027 | .3250) — 2.3 | .200 |.1266 5.10) | 4.90 |.6457 6203 4324 4215) — 2.5 | .250 | .1528 4.10 3.90 |.6265 .5959 .5295 | .5166| — 2.4 | .300 | .1784 3.46 Bova Oe .5727 .6246 | .6110| — 2.2 -400 | .228 2.63 PAoau| {2996 -5404 | .8096 | .7961| — 1.7 | .500 | .227 Zl 1,88 ).5872 .5208 | .9885 | .9802; — 0.8 .600 | .327 1.79 1.54 |.5853 .0036 | 1.1604 |1.1657; + 0.5 | .700 | .376 1.54 T3l |.5790 -4926 | 1.3300 |1.3489; + 1.4 48 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS.—ARCHIBALD. If we compare the percentage differences of the above table with the corresponding differences in the case of the constituent simple solutions (Table IV, p. 45), it will be seen that the former are in general equal to the arithmetic means of the latter. Hence the depressions of the freezing-point of the mixtures have been calculated with the same degree of accuracy as those of the simple solutions. The test which has thus been applied to Prof. MacGregor’s method of determining the ionization coetlicients in a solution containing two electrolytes with a common ion, and which the method has completely satisfied, is, however, not a severe one. It was intended, after the experiments on equimolecular solu- tions, to take up mixtures of solutions of different concentra- tion with respect to the two electrolytes. Unfortunately I was prevented from doing so by lack of time. In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to Prof. MacGregor for valuable suggestions kindly given. IiJ].—On tHE CoNnpDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS CONTAINING POTASSIUM CHLORIDE AND SULPHATE.—By JAMES BARNES, B. A, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S. (Communicated on May 10th, 1899, by Prof. J. G. MacGregor.) In papers read before this Society it has been shown that it is possible, by the aid of the dissociation theory of electrolytic conduction, to predict the conductivity and other physical pro- perties of a solution containing two’ chlorides or two? sulphates, with data as to the conductivity and the other physical properties obtained by observations on simple solutions of these salts. At Prot. MacGregor’s suggestion, I have carried out the experi- ments described in this paper, with the object of testiag this possibility for a solution containing a chloride and a sulphate with a common eation. The electrolytes selected were potassium chloride and sul- phate. The observations on conductivity and specific gravity were made by the writer, while *Rother’s observations on surface tension were used. The observations were made in the Physical and Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College, Halifax, during the session of 1898-99. Apparatus and Methods.—Chemical Analysis. The salts were obtained from Eimer & Amend of New York, as chemically pure. They were re-crystallized twice. No traces of iron or sodium were found in the salts. For the detection of iron, the ammonium sulphocyanide test was applied; for sodium, the flame test. The water used in making the solutions was_ puri- fied by boiling ordinary distilled water with a few 1 McIntosh, Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9, 120, 1895-6. McKay, Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9, 321, 1897-8. 2 Archibald, Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, pp. 291, 307, 335. * Wied. Ana., 21, 576, 1884. PROG. 6 (DRANS: Nes) INST. SCE, Von. 5X. TRANS.—D. GED) 50 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND grammes of barium hydroxide in a copper boiler lined with tin, and condensing in a block tin worm. The first portion of about 200 ce. that came off, was always thrown away. The water thus purified had at 18° C. a conductivity ranging from .95 x 10-® to 1.03 x 107° expressed in *Kohlrausch’s new unit (Ohm7! em.—!) The amount of potassium chloride in a solution was deter- mined volumetrically by Mohr’s method. Two solutions of KCl, about deci-normal, were made by direct weighing of the pure fused salt. These were employed in obtaining a standard solution of Ag NO,. Weaker solutions of Ag NO, were obtained by known dilution from this standard one. Neutral potassium chromate was used as the indicator. The following results will show with what accuracy this method of titration could be performed : (1) 1 ce. solution contained....., 0.02444 @) lace: 2s ct wen.» O102445 (G) aebace: Y icsene OO2446 Mean...... 0.024457 Thus it seems that results which differed from the mean value by about 0.1 per cent could be obtained. The amount of potassium sulphate in a solution was deter- mined gravimetrically by precipitation with barium chloride. Results in this case were found to differ about 0.1 per cent from the mean value, as shown in the following example: (1) 1 ce. solution contained...... 0.05229 (2) lsc: a : wovtee OOSZaS (3) ice: ‘ sate O05235 Mean .2 ae 0.05234 The burettes and pipettes used in the above analyses were calibrated by the weight of distilled water they delivered. The burettes had a capacity of 50 cubic centimetres, and were gradu- ated to a tenth of a cubic centimetre. By means of an Erdmann 1 Kohlrausch u. Holborn: Leitvermégen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1. SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 51 float one could read to 0.1 ec. Corrections for the volume of the water contained between every two cubic centimetre marks were found and plotted on co-ordinate paper against the reading. The pipettes were all employed as much as possible in the same way, and none required less than 40 seconds to flow out. Two flasks holding a litre and a half litre respectively, were the only ones used. These were calibrated by the weight of water they held at 18° C. Measurement of Specific Gravity. The specific gravity observations were made with a pyeno- meter of the Ostwald-Sprengel form, holding about 22 cc. All observations were made at 18° C. To obtain this temperature it was necessary, after filling the pycnometer with the solution at about this temperature, to place it in the bath described below, in which the temperature remained at 18° C. for a considerable time. After remaining in the bath fifteen minutes or more the meniscus was adjusted to the mark. If the meniscus now remained stationary for a few minutes, the pycnometer was removed, carefully cleaned and dried, and then weighed. The barometer and thermometer readings in the balance case, where the air was kept as dry as possible by means of calcium chloride, were taken, and corrections applied for the buoyancy of air. The specific gravity of a certain solution of potassium chloride was found by this method to have the following values : (1) 1.04455 (2) 1.04458 (3) 1.04449 (4) 1.04450 Mean 1.04453 Thus results which differed by about 5 in the fifth place of decimals from the mean value could be obtained. Measurement of Conductivity. The method employed by Kohlrausch with the alternating current and telephone was used. De ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND The Wheatstone’s bridge consisted of four resistance coils, which were certified by Queen & Co., of Philadelphia, to be correct to one-fiftieth of one per cent, and a platinoid bridge wire wound on a marble drum. This wire had a resistance of about 0.9 ohm, and was divided into 1000 parts, each part being capable of sub- division by the eye into tenths. It was calibrated before and after the observations, by *Struuhal and Barus’s method, ten german-silver wires of equal length, with ends firmly soldered into stout copper wire being used. Corrections were plotted against the length, and a smooth curve drawn through the points, and thus intermediate readings could be corrected. The greatest correction found was 1.2 divisions. The small induction coil used had a very rapid vibrator, and was kept in an adjoining room, that its noise might not interfere with the clearness of the sound minimum in the telephone, The telephone recommended by Ostwald, and made by Ericsson of Stockholm, was used. With these appliances the minimum point could be deter- mined to 0.3 of a division, corresponding to an error of 0.12 per cent in the determination of the resistance at the centre of the bridge, and 0.16 per cent at the point farthest from the centre used in the experiments. Electrolytic Cell. The cell in which the solutions were placed for the determina- tion of the resistance was of the Arrhenius form, a deep eylindri- cal vessel, of diameter 3 cm., and depth 14cm. The electrodes were of stout platinum foil, firmly joimed by heavy platinum wire to the glass tubes. These electrodes after being well-cleaned with alcohol and a strong solution of sodium hydroxide, were platinized ina solution of platinum chloride and lead acetate. This solution was prepared from ?Lummer and Kurlbaum’s recipe. When the electrodes had received a good coating of platinum black, they were removed and well washed in hot water. Stout copper wires, well insulated, connected this cell with the Wheatstone bridge. They had a resistance of .023 ohm. 1Wied Ann., 10, 326, 1880. 2 Wied. Ann., 60, 315, 1897. SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 53 These wires, and also those between the induction coil and the Wheatstone bridge, were run parallel and close together to diminish any effects from self-induction. Reduction Factor. The capacity of the electrolytic cell was obtained by plotting the conductivities obtained against the concentrations. 7 Kohl- rausch’s values of the conductivity for various concentrations of the same salt were plotted to the same scale on the same co- ordinate paper. The ratio of the two conductivities for the same concentration gives the factor by which the observed values are reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch. This ratio was found to be practically the same for both electrolytes, and in the ease of both, constant throughout my range of dilution. Bath. As the conductivity of a solution varies with the temperature, it was necessary to have a bath whose temperature could be kept constant for a sufficient time in which to make the measurement. Tap water, kept continually stirred by a mechanical stirrer driven by a small hydraulic motor, made an excellent bath. A thermostat was not found necessary ; for, as the temperature of the room was generally near 18° C., the temperature of the bath would not change one-fiftieth of a degree in thirty minutes. The thermometer used was graduated to a fiftieth, and could easily be read to a hundredth, of a degree. This thermometer had had its errors determined at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin. All solutions were allowed to remain in the bath ten minutes at least before observations were taken. After a few minutes another observation of the resistance was taken. This was done to insure that the solution had taken the temperature of the bath. Preparation of Simple Solutions. The method adopted was to make up a few solutions of different concentrations of each salt. These solutions were care- 2 Kohl u. Hol:, loc. cit., p. 159) tab. 2: 54 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND fully analysed. Seventy-five ec. of a solution was introduced into the electrolytic cell, and successive dilutions prepared therein by the withdrawal of a certain volume and the addition of an equal volume of water at the temperature 18° C. This process was continued till the dilution reached that of the next formerly prepared solution, when the new one was introduced and the same process repeated. After each solution had gone through two dilutions the volume removed was analysed, the result serving as a check upon the calculated strength of the solution in the cell. Preparation of Mixtures of Solutions. Simple solutions of each electrolyte were prepared and analysed. These were kept in the bath till they had taken the temperature 18° C.,, when 50 ce. of each solution was removed, and the two mixed. The 50 cc. pipette used was thoroughly washed with a portion of the solution before the removal. Results of Conductivity Observations on Simple Solutions. For the purpose of calculating the ionization coefficients of the salts in the mixture, it is necessary to draw curves for simple solutions of each salt, showing the relation of the dilution to the ionic concentration. The following tables give the data for the drawing of these curves, obtained from observations on the concentrations and conductivities of a number of solutions of each salt. The dilutions are expressed in terms of litres per gramme equivalent at 18° C. The atomic weights used were relative to oxygen (16.00) and the same as employed by * Kohlrausch. The specific conductivities are those at 18° C, expressed in terms of 10-4 times Kohlrausch’s new unit (Obm-'em.~?) The concentrations of ions are the quotients obtained by dividing the specific conductivities by the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution. * Kohlrausch’s values for the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution were used, namely, for potassium chloride 1312 x 107*, and potassium sul- phate, 1350 x 10~*. 1 Kohl. u. Hol., loc. cit., p. 205, tab. 14. 2 Tbid., p. 200, tab. & SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 55 TABLE I.—PorTasstum CHLORIDE (KCl). SPECIFIC CONCENTRATION DILUTION. CONDUCTIVITY. oF Ions. 497.4 2.540 .00194 331.6 3.789 .00298 221.1 5.646 .00430 147.4 8.362 -00637 98.26 12.44 .00948 93.46 13.06 .00995 62.25 19.35 .O147 41.50 28.61 .0218 27.72 42,44 .0323 22.50 ST Erk .0395 18.48 62.39 0475 15.44 74.05 0564 15.00 76.10 .0580 10.30 108.7 .0829 10.00 111.8 .0852 6.866 159.5 122 4.577 234.2 178 3.051 2413.8 .262 2.024 506.1 .386 1.383 724.9 Doo 1.046 939.8 .716 .922 1056 808 TABLE II.—PoTAssium SULPHATE (3K .SO,). SPECIFIC CONCENTRATION | DILUTION. CONDUCTIVITY. oF Ions. 9.661 99.22 .0735 3.336 253.4 187 2.596 | 313.2 .232 1.668 458.3 339 1.298 | 570.3 422 56 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND These were the only observations made upon potassium sul- phate, because E. H. Archibald? had made a sufficient number of observations on solutions of this salt, and his results were found to agree with mine. Archibald’s results were expressed differ- ently. The atomic weights used for determining his dilutions were relative to Hydrogen. These dilutions can be changed to the above by multiplication by the factor 1.0026. His specific conductivities were expressed in terms of 107§ times the specific conductivity of mercury at 0° C. These values of the conductivity can be expressed in Kohlrausch’s new unit by multiplication by 1.069104. The new values for the concentration of ions can thus be calculated as in the former case. The following table gives the reduced results: TABLE III.—PorTassium SULPHATE. Pp ! SPECIFIC CONCENTRATION DILUTION. CONDUCTIVITY. oF IoNs. 100.26 TZ 00868 66.85 16.87 .0125 40.11 27.27 .0202 33.42 32.26 0289 20.06 o1.16 0379 15.67 63.72 0472 12.54 78.30 0580 10.03 95.58 .0708 8.628 110.7 .0820 7.193 130.7 .0968 5.990 152.6 113 4,991 179.5 133 3.466 | 244.4 181 2.888 286.2 212 2.407 304.5 .248 2.079 380.7 282 2.005 392.8 291 1.444 523.8 388 1.203 610,2 452 1.003 716.8 O31 1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 3, Sec. 3, 69, 1897-8. SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. on Method of Calculating the Conductivity of Mixtures. According to the dissociation theory the specific conductivity of a mixture of two solutions of electrolytes is given by the equation SAG Ta) (erates 450M Hes») , are the volumes, and 7,,”, the concentrations of the solutions mixed, “,,;, 4,2 the specifie molecular conductivi- ties of simple solutions of the electrolytes at infinite dilution, «, and @, the ionization co-efficients of the respective electro- lytes in the mixture, and p is the ratio of the volume of the mixture to the sum of the volumes of the constituent solutions. This ratio was found, for the solutions used, to be practically equal to the unity: and as the volumes of the solutions mixed were in all cases equal, the equation applicable to my experi- where ¢,, v ments becomes : [ff SAI a pe oo eee) Of the data requisite for calculating k, the n’s were obtained by chemical analysis, the e's by Prof. MacGregor’s method, while the ,,’s, in the case of sufficient dilution, might be taken to be the same in value as in the case of simple solutions of the respec- tive electrolytes. Determination of p. As equal volumes of the simple solutions were mixed, the ratio expressed by pis equal to the ratio of the mean specific gravity of the constituent solutions to the specific gravity of the mixture. By referring to the following Table IV, it is at once seen that this ratio is practically equal to unity for the most concentrated solutions examined. 58 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND TABLE IV. if aD SIMPLE SOLUTIONS. Sp. GR CONCENTRATION. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 18°. OF MEAN MIXTURE. Sp. GR. 3 K,S0O,. KCl. 3 K,SO, KCl .5998 .9558 1.0410 1.0445 1.0428 1.0427 .5998 09454 1.0410 1.0045 1.9228 1.0229 . 1035 .05412 1.0073 | 1.0026 1.0049 1.0050 Determination of Ionization Coefficients in the Mixtures. The method of determining the coefficients of ionization of the two electrolytes in a mixture has been fully described by *Prof. MacGregor. Curves are drawn showing the relation of the dilution to the concentration of ions for simple solutions of each salt. From these curves the concentration of ions and the dilution in the regions of the mixture occupied by the respective electrolytes are found by a graphical process, and the products of these quantities give the ionization coefficients. Results of Observations and Calculations of Conductivity of Mixtures. Table V gives the necessary data for the calculation of the conductivity of the mixtures examined, and the results obtained, The concentrations of the constituent solutions are expressed in terms of gramme-equivalents per litre at 18° C. The regional dilutions are in litres per gramme-equivalent at 18°C. The specitic conductivities are expressed as in Table I. The differ- ences between the calculated and observed values of the conductivity are given as percentages of the observed value. 1Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-6. SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 59 TABLE V. ; , FE te Ry: Constituent Solutions. | 228 |Resional Dilution.) “PCO tte ook l - = 4K,SO, | KCL Boe tKyS04; KCI. Observed) Caleu- ee ocERt 7707 4941 405 1.36 1.91 | 536.2 | 537.2 +0.18 Mg 09454 264 Poe, SO) || etyilt oD4.5 +0.11 se 05412 251 2.37 plies || eBiiae 301.8 — (0.03 Ss 01018 235 2.59 oe | olt9 317.2 — 0.22 .5998 9558 528 1.01 1.45 | 684.0 693.9 + 0.27 | os 09454 .220 Beth’ 3.69 | 295.5 296.1 + 0.20 ce 05412 206 2.98 3.89 | 275.5 | 276.4 + 0.32 £5 01018 . 190 3.25 4.28 | 255.3 BAT -0.00 -0800 .2470 .218 2.79 Sila coon 289.9 + 0.41 es .02706 .138 4.75 5.97 | 184.0 184.6 + 0.82 .2999 .2470 143 eal 4,23 | 258.6 Onell —(0.35 | == et | SO . 1035 9558 .400 1.38 194 |) 524-3 525.2 +0:17 LG 494] .233 2.58 3.47 | 303.4 303.8 +0.16 “ .0a412 0611 11.8 14.3 81.51 81 37 | +0.18 | We .01018 .04381 17.4 20.4 58.42 58.27 — 0.26 05175 .02706 .0324 24,2 27.6 43.48 43.50 | +0.05 oe £00509 .0231 24.7 39.4 oleh SHOES | =O) 28} From this table it appears that the difference between the calculated and observed values of the conductivity for all the mixtures examined, is within, or bat little beyond, the limit of the error of observation, which is estimated at about 0.25 per cent. 60 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND It might be well to note that in each series having a constant Concentration of potassium sulphate, the differences seem to change from a negative to a positive per cent. Considering the many sources of error in the calculations of the conductivity. the agreement between the observed and calculated values is very satisfactory, and leads one to draw the conclusion that the conductivity of mixtures of solutions of these 1 Note by the communicator of the paper.—Mr. Barnes points out that in series of mixtures whose constituent solutions have in the case of one electrolyte the same con- centration (74 say) in all,and in that of the other a variable concentration (mg say), the excess (e) of the calculated over the observed value of the conductivity increases with ny, being usually negative for small values of m2 and positive forlarger values. At first sight it might appear that he had over-estimated his limit of error, and that the conductivity was thus shown to be calculable only for a particular value of mg in each case. There are, however, two sources of error which will account for this regular progression in the relative magnitude and sign of the e’s, viz., (1) The employment, of the quotients of the specific equivalent conductivity by the specific equivalent con- ductivity at infinite dilution (1/20) as the values of the ionization coefficients (a) for simple solutions, and (2) the impossibility of drawing with perfect accuracy the dilution-ionic-concentration curves. The more concentrated the solutions the greater will /Moo differ from @; and the greater the liability to error in the drawing of the curves the greater the possible error in the determination of the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in the mixture. The dilution-ionic-concentration curves are-nearly rectilinear for very weak and for strong solutions but curve rapidly in the region of moderate dilution, and it is in this region that it is most difficult to draw them accurately. Hence in the case of strong solutions, the magnitude and sign of the e’s will be determined largely by the error due to using values of 1/00 as the ionization coefti- cients of the simple soiutions. Inthe case of moderately dilute solutions they will be determined by both sources of error. In the case of dilute solutions neither source of error will have so large an effect on the result. Hence a regular progression of the e’s the same in kind, may be expected in different series of mixtures of strong solutions of two given electrolytes; a regular progression may be expected also in series of moder- ate dilution, but since the error due to inaccurate drawing of curves will depend on the portion of the curve which is used, it may be different in kind for different series; and in sufficiently dilute solutions no regular progression is likely to occur, The most of Mr. Barnes’ series are of moderate dilution, and in all of them the e’s show a regular progression of the same kind, as they would if the errors involved did not conflict in sign, or if the error due to the one source were large relatively to that due to the other. His series of dilute solutions exhibit the same progression in the e’s, but they consist of only two mixtures each. In my calculations of the conductivity of mixtures of NaCland KCl solutions (Trans N.S. I. S., 9, 116), the three more concentrated series showed a progression of the e’s of the same kind, the two weakest series showed no progression. In Mr. McIntosh’s calculations (Jbid.. 9, 132), for HCl and NaCl, the two stronger series gave a progression of the same kind, the weakest no progression, And in Mr. Archibald’s caleulatiens ([bid., 9, 299), for KygSO4 and NagSO, solutions, the four stronger series gave progressions of the e’s, differing in kind, and the three series of weaker solutions gave either a very doubtful progression or no progression at all, All these results are thus consistent with the assumption that this regular progression in the e’s is due ma nly at least to the two sources of error mentioned above. Ae (Ge Mil SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 61 salts up to an average concentration of 0.8 gramme-equivalent per litre at least, can be predicted within the limit of error of my observations. Specific Gravity and Surface Tension. Prof. MacGregor? has proposed, in the case of simple solutions of electrolytes, so dilute that the ions and the undissociated molecules may be regarded as without mutual action, to express any of their physical properties, such as specific gravity, surface tension, &e, by the following formula : P=Py+k(1—@) nt+len, where P is the numerical value of the property for the solution, Py that of the same property for water under the same physical conditions, n the concentration expressed in gramme-equivalents per unit volume, « the ionization coefficient of the electrolyte in the solution, and & and lJ constants, called ionization constants. He has also shown how to predict the value of any such property for a mixture of simple solutions, by the aid of the jonization constants determined for the simple solutions.? 1Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci, 9, 219, 1896. 2 Note by the communicator of the paper.—The fact that values of k and lin the above formula can be found which make the formula represent the observed values of a property for simple solutions of an electrolyte has of course little theoretical interest. The ionization coefficient, @, is a complex function of the concentration, n. 1f expressed in terms of powers of n the expression would involve several powers. (See Trans. N.S. I. S., 9, 112). The above expression for P is thus equivalent to an expression in terms of three or more powers of n with coefficients which are functions of constants deter- mined by the electrical character of the electrolyte and of two additional arbitrary constants. As the concentration curves of specific gravity and surface tension for Solutions are but slightly curved, it is thus to be expected that the above expression would represent them. It 7s of theoretical interest, however, to find whether, when the ionization constants for any property have been determined for simple solutions of two electrolytes, it is possible to predict the value of the property for mixtures by the method referred to. For (1) there are no arbitrary constants in the expression by which the prediction is made, (2) the expression itself is derived from the dissociation theory, and (3) the ionization coefflcients of the electrolytes in the mixture, involved in the expression, are determined by a direct application of that theory. I think it well to make this remark because several reviewers of former papers have written under the apprehension that the k’s and l’s of the expression for the value of a property fora mixture (see p. 65 of this paper) were arbitrary constants determined by the observa- tions on the mixtures. They are, however, the ionization constants already determined by observations on simple solutions. J. G. M. 62 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND In what follows I endeavor to ascertain whether or not the above formula is applicable to the specific gravity and surfaee tension of simple solutions of KCI and K,SO, and whether or not it is possible to predict the values of these properties for mixtures of such solutions. The observations of specific gravity requisite for this purpose. were made by the writer in the way described above. On surface tension Rother’s observations were used. They were made at 15°C and his values are therefore not strictly comparable with calculated values based on ionization coefficients. for 18°C. I have, however, reduced a few of the ionization co- efficients of the salts to 15°C, by using 7temperature coefficients, and found that the difference between the values for the two ditferent temperatures is not sufficient to cause any appreciable error in my calculated results. Rother’s paper has sufficient data for determining the concentration in gramme-equivalents. per litre, with atomic weights as used in Table I. Rother regards his observations as possibly in error by +5 to +8 in the third place of decimals. The surface tension of the water he used was 7.357. The following table, VI, contains the ionization coefficients for simple solutions, used in the calculations. They were obtained either from direct observations on the conductivity of the solution or by interpolation of the results of Tables I—ILII. The concentrations are expressed in gramme-equivalents per litre. at 18°C. 1Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., pp 195-199, Table 7. SUKFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 63 TABLE VI. K Cl. 1 Ky SO,. Concentration. | Tonization Co- | Concentration. | 1onization Co- .01018 .932 0517 736 05412 880 1035 710 09454 Sa4 2098 666 2185 817 2999 626 -d400 794 3209 617 A941 -780 0800 .603 .6851 769 4277 .o9t 9558 749 0817 .069 1.046 743 5998 566 1.085 742 -T04T 508 1.428 723 T7107 049 2.138 705 8000 O45 1.2125 526 Determination of the Ionization Constants. The values of the ionization constants (k and /) for either property of either salt were found by the method of least squares from the data of Tables VII and VIII for the four weakest solutions, for the specific gravity and surface tension respectively. The values thus found were employed in ecalecu- lating the values of the properties of the various mixtures. Results of the Calculations on Simple Solutions. Tables VII and VIII contain the results of the caleulations from the above formula for the two properties. The concentrations are expressed as in the tables above. 64 ON THE CONDUCTIVITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLE VII. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 18° C. REFERRED TO WATER AT 18° C, AND K Cl. +R SOlae k=.045775, 1=.048251. k=.062911. 1=073959. ee coe . tosis 3 =3 ae EE 5 Re ae #2 5 33 a te 5 a a aa 5 ge |e | ee + Ss | BS | Be?) ee ae 'é) (>) oO | AQ 'S) (eo) UU =) eno ea en Seon i Pe .O1018 | 1.00045 | 1.00049 +0.0,4| .0517 | 1.00374 | 1.00369 | - 0.045 05412 | 1,00259 | 1.00259 -10.0,0| .1035 | 1.00731 | 1.00732 | +0.041 09454 | 1.00452 1.00454 | +0.0,2| .2999 | 1.02088 | 1.02093 | +0.045 | 2185 | 1.01045 | 1.01044 | -0.0,1| .8853 | 1.02683 | 1.02680 ) — 0.043 4941 | 1.02351 | 1.02357 +0.0,6) .5998. | 1.04097 | 1.04149 | +0.035 9558 | 1.04453 | 1.04554 | +0.021 | .7707 | 1.05266 | 1.05457 | +0.022 1.085 | 1.05066 | 1.05166 | +0.051 TABLE VIII, SURFACE TENSION AT [5° C. K Cl. x K gSQxq. k=.25067. ai 2 es k=.12302 1=.15919. 2 ae Spear 2 ae 3 g os Ss Pht © os ee Be 5 55 ar er = 55 ae => = S) (e) (S) |= oO © 'S) | =) 3400 | 7.411 | 7.408 | —0.003| .2098 | 7.389 | 7.388 | --0.001 6851 | 7.460 | 7.461 | +0.001| .3209 | 7.402 | 7.404 | +0.002 1.0459 | 7.518 | 7.520 | +0.002| .4277 | 7.419 | 7.419 | -L0.000 1.4280 | 7.584 | 7.583 |—0.001| .5817 | 7.441 | 7.440 | —0.091 2.1829 | 7.705 | 7.707 | +0.002| .7047 | 7.458 : 7.458 | --0.000 suoo | 7.459 | 7.471 | +0.012 1.2125 | 7.529 7.529 | -L0.000 SURFACE TENSION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES, 65 From Table VII it seems that the specific gravity of solutions of these salts between the concentration of about 0.01 and 0.5 can be calculated by aid of the formula and with the values of k and / given, while for surface tension (Table VIIT) the calcula- tion seems possible from a concentration of U.2 to 1.0. Mixtures of Solutions. For a solution containing two salts, the equation for the value of a property, if there is no change of volume on mixing, is of the form P=P,+ (k,(l—a@,)n, +100.) —— 1 2 +(k, (1—a@,)n, +1,%,7,) c Unaime where the 7’s are the concentrations of the constituent solutions, the «s the ionization coefficients of the respective electrolytes in the mixture, and the v’s the volumes of the constituent solu- tions, the electrolytes being indicated by 1 and 2. The ionization coefficients of the salts in the mixture are obtained by the before-mentioned graphical method from the same curves as were used in the conductivity determinations for mixtures of solutions of these salts. The k’s and l’s are the ionization constants obtained for the simple solutions, and given in Tables VII and VIIL. For the specific gravity measurements, equal volumes of the constituent solutions were mixed; while Rother mixed equal weights of the simple solutions. He, however, gives sufficient data for the calculation of the concentration and volume of the constituent solutions. The following table contains the requisite data for deter- mining the values of the two properties from the above equa- tion, and also, for the comparison of the results thus calculated with the observed values. The volumes of the constituent solutions in Table X, are expressed in litres at 18°C. The concentrations are expressed as in the former tables. ‘Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scrt., VoL. X. TRANS.—E. 66 CONDUCTIVITY, ETC., OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. TABLE IX. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 18° C. REFERRED TO WATER AT 18° C. Concentration of Ionization Coefficients = =~ 3 2 2 Constituent Solutions. in Mixture. o's =e = as is o Le Ss q | 2 2 = y K2S0q4. K Cl. + KeSO4 K Cl. 1) Y = =o —— ep ae ———— ee ee . 10385 .O1018 oO) | 879 1.00389 1.003893 | +0.04 4 | " .05412 721 874 1.00497 1.00496 | —0.0,4 1 TI07 09454 .086 .800 1.02899 1.02899 | +0.0, 0 .0998 .9558 .D8o .766 1.04271 1.04841 | +0.0, 7 TABLE X. SURFACE TENSION AT 1]d° C., Constituent Solutions. Tonization a5 | ge g oe ||) Coefficients o's | ZS 5 Conceatration. Volume. in Mixture. 5 5 3 ee SS eee PKOSO,., KIC | PKaSO,) | KCI [2KoSO,.| KEL | © o a 7243 .2718 49124 50902 581 .769 | 7.488 | 7.4385 | — 0.008 | | | .2423 | .7483 590535 49466 .569 788 | 7.447 | 7.480 | —0.017 8917 .6869 49330 .50693 505 -763 | 7.471 | 7.475 , +0.004 | 4921 | 1.7115 1.1936 | 1.4158 .01100 48989 49646 | 500354 470 | .742 | 7.527! 7.529 | +0.002 445 | .740 | 7.554 | 7.550 | —0.004 According to Table IX it appears that the specific gravity of a solution of these salts from an average concentration of about 0.05 to 0.5 can be calculated by the above formula, and with the above values of the ionization constants. From Table X this formula applies for surface tension of solutions of these salts from a concentration of 0.5 to 1.3. Summary of Results. According to the above results it is possible, by the aid of the dissociation theory and with data obtained from the simple solutions, to predict the conductivity, specitic gravity and surface. tension, of fairly dilute solutions of potassium chloride and potassium sulphate, within the limit of experimental error. IV.—ON FINDING THE IONIZATION OF COMPLEX SOLUTIONS OF GIVEN CONCENTRATION, AND THE CONVERSE PROBLEM: By Pror. J. G. MacGrecor, Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S. (Received September 30th, 1899.) s In a paper communicated to this Institute in 1895} I described a method of determining the ionization coefficients of two electrolytes, with one ion in common, in the same dilute aqueous solution. The method described was developed in the study of complex solutions which had been formed by the mixture of simple solutions of known concentration, and involves a knowledge of their concentrations. Even if the complex solu- tions have not been formed in this way, but have been prepared, say, by the addition of known quantities of the electrolytes to a known quantity of water, they may always be imagined to have been formed by mixture of simple solutions; and in the usual case in which the solutions are so dilute that no change of volume would have occurred in forming them by mixture, the concentrations of the simple solutions by the mixing of which the given complex solution might be “formed, can readily be determined. But asimple modification of the method renders it applicable in such cases directly; and when so modified, its application is found both to require fewer data with respect to the conductivity of simple solutions of the electrolytes involved, and to be subject to fewer sources of error, than in its old form. As modified also, it is found to be readily applicable conversely to the determination of the concentration which such complex so.utions must have in order that they may have any given possible state of ionization. In the present paper, I wish to describe this modified form of the method, and to point out how it may be used in deter- 1Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-96: See also Phil. Mag. (5), 41, 276, 1896, and Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., (2), 2, sec. 3, 65, 1896-7. (67) 68 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX mining concentration when state of ionization is given. And I take this opportunity also, of comparing it with two other methods which have recently been employed, of determining the ionization coefficients for solutions of the same degree of com- plexity. Determination of the ionization, concentrations being given. It was shown in the papers cited above, that if the two electrolytes in a complex solution may be supposed to occupy distinct portions or regions of the solution, if the law of kinetic equilibrium may be supposed to be applicable both to these regions singly and to the whole volume of the solution, and if the concentration of ions of each electrolyte in its own region may be supposed to depend at a given temperature on the dilu- tion of the electrolyte in its region, merely, and to depend on dilution in the same way as in the case of a simple solution of the same electrolyte, the relations between the ionization coeffi- cients, the amounts of the electrolytes present, and the dilutions which they must be supposed to have in their tictitious regions, may be expressed by four equations. If we denote the electro- lytes by 1 and 2, the concentrations (in gramme-equivalents per litre) of the solutien with respect to them by N, and N, respectively, their ionization coefficients by a, and a, and their regional dilutions (in litres per gramme-equivalent) by V , and V, respectively, these equations take the form : ar ae Le A ; = 5 rs (1) Von Lowe NAW SENG Vg Sls : . 7 f Cee Oe eee C) = Je Con oe the functions f/, and f, being determinable by means of suffi- | I | ciently extended observations of the conductivity of simple solutions of 1 and 2 respectively. SOLUTIONS.—MACGREGOR. 69 The first equation is given by the law of kinetic equili- brium. It may be expressed as follows: The regional ionie concentrations of the two electrolytes, 7. e, the numbers of their free gramme-ions per unit volume of their respective regions, are equal. The second states that the volume of the solution is equal to the sum of the volumes of the regions of the respective electrolytes. The third and fourth assert that the regional ionic concentrations are functions of the respective regional dilutions. As f, and f, are very complex functions, these equations could not be solved algebraically even if the functions were known. They can be solved graphically, however, without actually determining what the functions are. For this purpose we first find, from conductivity obser- vations made on simple solutions of 1 and 2 respectively, corresponding values of dilution and ionic concentration for a sufficient number of solutions of each, and plot dilution-ionic- concentration curves, 2. é, curves with dilutions as ordinates and ionic-concentrations as abscissee. To get precise values of the ionization coefficients for the complex solutions, these curves must be accurately drawn. They have, very roughly speaking, the shape of rectangular hyperbolas, and thus, both at great dilution and at great concentration, have but slight curvature, while at moderate dilution they have very rapid curvature. In working with solutions at moderate dilution therefore, it is necessary to have a considerable number of corresponding values of dilution and ionie concentration, in order to plot the curves accurately. When but few are available, it is helpful to plot first a concentration-ionic-concentration curve, 7. é@, one having concentrations of solutions as ordinates and ionic-con- centrations as abscisse. As the dilution-ionic-concentration curves are something like rectangular hyperbolas, the concen- tration-ionic-cuncentration curves have comparatively slight curvature,and thus lend themselves readily to interpolation. Corresponding values of concentration and ionic concentration obtained from these curves, when the concentrations are trans- formed into dilutions, may be used to eke out the values 70 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX obtained from the few available observations. In some cases also Kohlrausch’s! observation may be utilised, viz., that the curves obtained by plotting equivalent conductivity against linear concentration (7.e¢., the cube root of the concentration), are for univalent salts, through considerable ranges, practically rectilinear. The dilution-ionic-concentration curves, having been drawn for the simple solutions (curve A for electrolyte 1, and B for 2, in the figures below), the problem resolve itself into finding two points, one on each curve, having, according to equation (1), the same abscissa, and having ordinates which satisfy the condition of equation (2). This may be done of course by inspection, but more accurately, and usually more quickly, by one or other of several graphical processes. (1.) Plot a new curve C (Fig. 1) with the same abscisse as A and B, but with ordi- nates equal to the sum of N, times the ordi- nates of A and N, times the ordinates of B. Then draw the straight line F G par- ofy allel to the axis of : ionic concentrations Pig. L. and at a _ distance unity from it (I assume for simplicity that the dilutions and ionic concentrations have been plotted to the scale unity). Let FG cut C in G; and through G draw the straight line GJ_ par- allel to the axis of dilutions and cutting A and B in I and H respectively. I and H are the two points required. For they have the same abscissa OJ, and their ordinates, 1 J and HJ, are such that N,- lJ 4+N,.HI=GJ=1. Then a, =OJ.IJ, anda, =OJ.HJ. 1Wied. Ann., 26, 201, 1885. SOLUTIONS. —MACGREGOR. 71 (2.) As equation (2) may be written : Tt ING Ta Winwats Ne v= we may proceed as follows :— 1 Na Plot a new curve D (Fig. 2) with the same abscissee as A and B, but with ordinates equal to the sum of the ordinates of A and N,/N, times the or- dinates of B. Draw K L parallel to the ionic-concentration a/y axis and at a distance Fig 2 1/N, from it, and let Tey it eut Din L. Draw LQ parallel to the dilution axis and cutting A and B in Pand M respectively. P and M are the two points required. For they have the same abscissa OQ, and their ordinates, P Q and M Q), are such that 0 Nes 2 il 2 2MQ = LQ=—. Q + N, Q Q N. Then GO 2 Os and-a,.— OOo M@: (3) Plot.a new curve E (Fig 3), having the same abscissze as A and B, but with ordinates equal to N./N, times the ordinates of B. Draw RS parallel to the axis of ionic concentrations and at a distance from ay it of 1/(2N,). Find, by inspection, the line TY parallel to the axis of 72 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX dilutions, of which the intercept T X, between the curves A and K, is bisected by RS, W being the point of bi-section. Let T Y cut Bin U. X and U are the points required. For they have the same abscissa O Y, and their ordinates, X Y and U Y, are such that N, 1 OO Se ee = oN we as mm 2 WY XN, Then a= OVX Yerand jase—J0.Y.., UY: The second and third of these methods involve less arith- metical work, and are less liable to error, than the first, and the second does not require the procedure by inspection which is required by the third. The second is therefore the most satis- factory. But the limited area of co-ordinate paper frequently gives the third a practical advantage. Only such portions of the curves A, B, C,D, E, need be drawn of course as may be seen by inspection to be required for the purpose in hand. Determination of the concentration, when the required ionization is given. The determination of the concentration which must be given a complex solution in order that it may have any required state of ionization, is of importance as facilitating the conducting of research based on the dissociation theory of electrolysis. It is not sufficient for the determination of the concentra- tion which the solution must have with respect to the two electrolytes, that the required ionization coefficients a, and a, should be given, because they are not independent. For a given value of a, the regional ionic concentration of electrolyte 1 has a determinate value, which may be found by plotting a curve for simple solutions of 1, with ionization coefficients as ordinates. and ionic concentrations as abscissee. The regional ionic con- centration of electrolyte 2, must by equation \1) be the same as that of electrolyte 1; and since it is thus determined, the ioniza- tion coefficient, a,, can have but one value which may be found by the aid of an ionization-coefficient-ionic-concentration curve SOLUTIONS.—M ACGREGOR. 73 for electrolyte 2. Thus any one of the quantities a,,a,, and the common regional ionic concentration, which is of course equal to the total ionic concentration of the whole solution, being given, the others may be found, if we have sufficient data as to the conductivity of the simple solutions. Even if the ratio only of the ionization coefficients is given, the state of ionization is in many cases completely determined. For as ft aes — 3, NG \ 2 a, Vi we have ee a, Ve and the dilution-ionic-concentration curves are frequently of such forms that a given value of V,/V, corresponds to a definite value of V, and V curves. >» Which may be found by inspection of the Some datum in addition to the state of ionization is there- fore requisite, if the concentration of the solution is to be fully determined. It may be the concentration with respect to one of the electrolytes, or the ratio of the concentrations with respect to the two, or the total concentration, or any such func- tion (the conductivity for example) of the concentrations with respect to the two. If the state of ionization is not fully given, an additional datum is obviously required. (1.) Given the required state of ionization and the concen- tration with respect to one electrolyte : to find the concentration with respect to the other.—A and B (Fig. 3) being the dilution- ionic-concentration curves, OY is given; and N, being also given, we have only to find N,/N, in order to determine N,. From Y draw YT parallel to the dilution-axis, cutting A and B in X and U respectively. Draw the line RS parallel to the axis of ionic concentrations and distant from it by 1/(2.N,). Let RS cut YT in W. Cut off WT equal to X W. Then TY/UY will be the value of N,/N,. (The curve E in Fig. 3 is of course not required.) (2.) Given the required state of ionization and the ratio of 74 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX the concentrations with respect to the two electrolytes: to find the concentrations—As before, OY (Fig. 3) is given. From Y draw Y T parallel to the dilution axis, making it of such length that T Y/U Y is equal to the given ratio of the concentrations N,/N,. Bisect XT im-W. Then WY N, also may therefore be found. (3.) Given the required state of ionization and the total concentration (N, + N,) or the ditference of the concentrations (N, — N,): to find N, and N,.—The state of ionization being given, not only are a, and a, known, but also the total ionie concentration, a, N, + a, N,, which is equal to the regional ionic concentration common to the two electrolytes. N, and N, may therefore be determined. (4.) Given the required state of ionization in a solution which is to have a given conductivity: to find the concentrations N, and N,.—As in (3), a,,a,, anda, N, + a, N, are known. The conductivity is expressed by the equation : [aN a eemer Acar NGO the u,,’s being the equivalent conductivities, at infinite dilution, of simple solutions of 1 and 2, and being thus known. N, and N, may therefore be determined. Other methods of determining the ionization for complex solutions. (1.) Schrader? has attempted to determine the ionization coefficients for solutions containing two electrolytes with a com- mon ion, by a combination of observations of their conductivity and their electrolysis. The expression of the dissociation theory for the conductivity of such a solution may be put into the form : N ' v i a, ING lis cle as _2 mesey \ a Nae 1 2G Hoo ¥ 2 Nee x iy a, Neg 1Zur Elektrolyse von Gemischen, Inaug. Diss., Berlin, 1897. SOLUTIONS.—MACGREGOR. 75 As a, N, anda, N, are the numbers of gramme-equivalents of dissociated molecules of (1) and (2) respectively in unit volume of the solution, and as u,,, and “,,5, the respective equivalent con- ductivities at infinite dilution, of simple solutions of 1 and 2, may in sufficiently dilute solutions, whether simple or complex, be regarded as equal to the velocity of either ion, relative to the other, of 1 and 2 respectively, the quantity a, N, u,./a, N, #4 may be taken to be the ratio of the number of gramme-ions of 2 and 1 separating out primarily at the appropriate electrode, during electrolysis. This ratio Schrader determined by electro- lytic observations. Calling it z, we have: I ’ N, a (VE L) ' ka 5 NT ee 2) The values of the ionization coefficients obtained in this way a, = as are affected not only by the error involved in the measurement of conductivity, but by the more serious error involved in elec- trolytic determinations. They cannot be expected therefore to have any high degree of precision. While Schrader determined the ionization coefficients for solutions containing potassium chloride and iodide, and hydro- gen and copper sulphates, and drew certain conclusions from their relative magnitudes in each case, he made no attempt to test the values obtained. They cannot of course be tested by applying them to the calculation of the conductivity of the solutions or the results of their electrolysis ; for these have been used as data in their determination. But they may be tested by being compared with the values given by the method described above. For the values given by this method have stood the test of application to the calculation of the conductivity’, results of 1 MacGregor: Trans. N.S Inst. Sci., 9, 101, 1895-6. McIntosh: Jbid. 9, 120, 1895-96. Archibald: Jbid. 9, 291 and 307, 1897-98; and Trans. Roy. Soc.Can., (2), 3, sec. 3, 69, 1897-98. McKay: Trans. N. S.Inst. Sci., 9, 321 and 348, 1897-98. Barnes: [bid., 10,49, 1898-99. 76 IONIZATION OF COMPLEX electrolysis’, lowering of the freezing point’, specific gravity and other physical*® properties, of complex solutions, in all cases in which the attempt has heen made, except in the case of Schrader’s solutions containing copper sulphate and sulphuric acid, in which there can be little doubt that the acid sulphate had formed. In the case. of Schrader’s solutions of potassium iodide and chloride, his observations of conductivity and his electrolytic observations have been shown to be consistent with cealculability though they are not sufficiently precise to demon- strate it. We may thus fairly test Schrader’s electrolytically determined ionization coefficients by comparing them with those obtained by the above method. I have accordingly determined the coefficients for the four solutions examined by him, and they are given in the following table. In determining them I have used Kohlrausch’s observa- tions of the conductivity of simple solutions, and as the equiva- lent conductivities at infinite dilution, not Kohlrausch’s most recent determinations, but those employed by Schrader. As Schrader does not state at what temperature he made his observations, he may be supposed to have made them at ordi- nary laboratory temperature, which is not far removed from Kohlrausch’s temperature, 18° C. Concentration IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS. (gr.-eq. per litre) rN Ns AV SELES 0) 6 Oa SCHRADER’S. MINE Difference per cent. |! _—- | -- —_ - —__—__} —____-- Kok. K Cl. Renst | RSC: Kel K Cl. KI. K Cl. Ee ee —e—————E_eeeee .02595 | .02571 2857 .868 915 .S97 -—6.3 —3.2 .03442 | .04748 .866 .892 .886 .866 —2.3 +3.0 3074 | .o8176 | .se1 | .857 | .s79 | 960 | -20 | -o3 | .01992 | .03720 .819 .901 .907 .890 —9.7 +1.2 | 1MacGregor: Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., (2). 4, sec. 3, 117, 1898-99. 2 Archibald: Trans. N.S. Inst. Sei , 10, 33, 1898-99. 8’ MacGregor: Ibid. 9, 219, 1896-97. Archibald: Ibid., 9, 335, 1897-98. Barnes: loc. et. SOLUTIONS.—MACGREGOR. ba It will thus be seen that Schrader’s coefficients differ from mine by various amounts up to about 10 per cent., being in most cases smaller, but in some greater. It should be noted also, that while my coefficients are in all cases greater for the iodide than for the chloride, Schrader’s are in three out of four cases greater for the chloride than the iodide. (2) Kay? has recently employed an approximation method based upon one previously used by Arrhenius. As a first approxi- mation the ionization coefficients of the two electrolytes in a com- plex solution were assumed to be the same as they would be in simple solutions of concentration equal to the total concentration of the complex solution. The total concentration of ions of the complex solution (equal to the regional ionic concentrations of the respective electrolytes) was then calculated, and gave a first approximation to the value of the regional ionic concentration. From curves plotted with ionization coethcients of simple solu- tions as ordinates and ionic concentrations of the same solutions as abscissz, the values of the ionization coefficients correspond- ing to the first approximation to the regional ionic concentra- tions were read off and formed second approximations to the ionization coefficients required. Calculation of the second approximation to the total ionic concentration and a repetition of the above procedure gave a third approximation to the ionization coefficients. In dealing with solutions containing sulphuric acid and a neutral sulphate, he found that in general the second approximation was so close to the first that a third was not necessary ; and he seems to have fourid that the third in no case differed appreciably from the second. As, in the case of electrolytes with a common ion, the varia- tion of ionization with dilution is in general not very different, this method may be expected to give very closely approximate results. By way of a test I have made a few determinations for solutions containing zinc and potassium sulphates, using Kohlrausch’s conductivity data. The result is shown in the following table in which zine sulphate is indicated by 1 and 1Proc. R.S. Edin., 22, 502, 1898-99. 78 COMPLEX SOLUTIONS.—MACGREGOR. potassium sulphate by 2, concentration in gramme-equivalents per litre by N, and ionization coetticient by a. By Kay’s MeErTHop. } eee Ni Ne Ist 2nd 3rd 4th “f Approx. Approx. Approx. Approx. ay Q | % ay ay a, a, | %} ay | Ge |i O01 .03 .509 | .799 | .469 | al Nebr) |) HOSS ea allaoo all 026! ooTh OL 04 A ialeeoom) 2407 1) EGGH A085) 2767 es al etter 404).777 | .002 | .2 342) | 2658 | .281 | (658° || 22827) .658 ||... |5.....| e20u),o09 2 | 002 | 242] .658 | 341] 712 | 941 | .712 |....|...-] 34n},72 oA al 276 | .083 | .209 | .686 | .260 | .637 260. .626 .256).639 i} The above table shows that for the solutions to which it applies, the ionization coefficients given by Kay’s method agree closely with those given by mine, the differences being in no case greater than a little over 1 per cent., and in most cases a small fraction of 1 per cent. It is worth noting that in the cases in which a difference exists, the second approximation values of Kay’s method are in general less divergent from mine than those given by higher approximations. If Kay’s method involved considerably less labour than mine it would be worth while to carry out a more extensive com- parison in order to determine its general trustworthiness. But the saving of labour, after a little practice with my method, is so slight, that such a comparison is unealled for. In eases in which either the available data do not admit of the determination of precise values of the ionization coefficients or only approximate values are desired, sufficiently good values may be obtained, with somewhat less trouble, by the use of Kay's method. But in cases in which precise values are desired, and the data are sufficiently exact to give them, the more exact method is to be preferred, notwithstanding the slightly greater labour which it involves. V.—New Minera Discoveries IN Nova Scotra.—By EpwIn Gipeinyedr,.. “A. MS) dan DE EAR. S! CS Inspector of Mines, Halifax, N. S. (Read 13th March, 1899.) The early operations in mining, metallurgy, engineering, etc., were much more simple than those of the present day. They were based of course upon the same general principles that underlie them to-day. The difference, however, in exactness and precision have permitted of vastly greater and cheaper pro- ductions. In smelting iron ore, for instance, the composition, weight, and relative proportions of the fluxes, fuels, and ores, are calculated to a nicety, so that the analysis and composition of the resulting pig iron can be safely predicted. The direct out- come of the application of exactness is the opportunity for increasing and cheapening productions. The day of the rule of thumb has passed in iron making as well as in other metallur- gical processes. In this Province we are to some extent interested in iron ore, but at present the adaptability of our coals for coke making is asubject of much enquiry. For many years coal was made into coke by burning off its volatile ingredients in round ovens, resembling bee hives, with more or less admission of air. The matter driven off somewhat resembled in composition the gas made in gas works, and contained a large amount of combus- tible matter. The illuminating gas made in gas works was produced from retorts into which no air was admitted during the operation of heating. The problem was the production of coke in ovens, on a large scale, equal to that used in the blast furnace, and at the same time to secure the largest amount of gas, or volatile matter, from the coking coal, with as little deteriora- tion as possible from the admission of the nitrogen bearing atmosphere. (79) 80 NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA.—GILPIN. This problem has been gradually solved, and now it is possible to produce a good coke, on a commercial basis, and at the same time to save large volumes of gas adapted for illumin- ating and heating purposes. No doubt many improvements remain to be introduced. The works of the Halifax Gas Company, at the North-West Arm, are the first established on this side of the Atlantie to carry out this principle, which has already been practised at several places in Europe. The experience gained here has led to the establishment of an enormous plant on similar lines, to supply gas in Boston. The result of this enterprise is being watched with much interest in the United States, and its success will lead to the establishment of similar plants at many commercial centres. The application of gas in that country for engine power, and many other uses, was no doubt largely due to the supply of natural gas available for many years. The gradual decrease of natural gas excites interest in any scheme proposed to fill its place. The proposal to utilize Cape Breton coal in the new works at Boston led to a number of tests of the coal as to its gas, coke values, etc., as well as to the quantity and nature of the impuri- ties present. This evening I propose to give briefly some results arrived at, that they may be on record for comparison with future tests. Ihave also a few remarks on new discoveries of ores in Nova Scotia. At the Halifax works, the coal used is washed slack from the Phalen and Harbor seams, of the Dominion Coal Company, approximating 60 per cent of fixed carbon. The gas is divided into that available for illuminating purposes, and the poorer gas to be used for heating the ovens, and for sale for heating purposes. In 24 hours, 37 short tons yield 310,000 cubic feet of gas, of which 100,000 cu. ft., 52.26 per cent, are illuminating gas, and 210,000 cu. ft., 67.74 per cent, heating gas; of the latter 170,000 cu. ft. are consumed in the process of coking, and the balance 40,000 cu. ft. can be used as heating gas. A long ton furnishes, on the average, 5 lbs. ammonia gas, and 12 gallons, NEW MINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA.—GILPIN. 81 120 Ibs., of tar. The ammonia liquor is distilled with milk of lime, and furnishes a shipping ammonia liquor with 17 per cent ammonia. The tar is available for distillation for creasote, pitch, ete. Finally the coke, forming 75 per cent of the coking charge, is available as a very excellent fuel. No doubt these results will be improved on, More interesting information is given by a test made of the Harbor seam at the Glassport, Pa., ovens of the United Coke and Gas Company. The coal used in these ovens was run of mine from the Upper Youghiogheny River, with the following composition: Moisture, 60; fixed carbon, 59.18; volatile matter, 33.01; ash, 7.21; phosphorus, .0071; total sulphur, 1.27. The resulting coke, 74.26 per cent, had the following composition :— Volatile matter, 1.00; carbon, 86.47; ash, 11.57; sulphur, .96; phosphorus, .0107. A net ton furnishes 10,000 cubic feet of gas, of which 70 per cent is used for heating the ovens, and the remainder is piped to steel works. The coal from the Harbor seam was slack, washed in Cape Breton, and at the time of coking contained as much as 9 per cent of moisture, as the cars stood for some months exposed to winter weather. As under normal conditions this percentage would be very much less, allowances should be made for purposes of comparison. An average of several analyses gave the following as the composition of the coal :— Carbon’ <.... Ree ear Be catchers tats Ate eee) |B LG Neo) 43s WM bles aa ar ee ere iP JRE se INGtTOm@eM oo. wei es HEDGES BIS Grob ete OEE oes 1.51 Oxygen, ‘Sulphurh.. .n -. -=« oan oeeee Sonoee lene) BMI TFs caine clcteratas ers whale Ss lape Somes cn SCE: 100.00 retaieMes 1S. GLC 2. che 2/a; settee 1s
1” — 66.69 p. cent y Coke, al al Wy pee 164 4 1,593.4 Mets dust = <4 ©2580). 4 § 1h ae SeoubE POGUE P Obama ao’ sore ooe rae 15.7 3.38 Ammonia (1.373 per cent sulphate) ........ 7.6 34 Gas, total, 10,390 cu. ft. of .466 sp. gr......... 3638.0 16.43 Sulphur compounds in gas :— Eiydnorenmoulplide t's 224s < tas aaewee« sees 10.8 48 SirbonpDiswlphidesdis.2%)5.. 6/185 Beate a cacao 1.6 O07 Gas Liquor and Loss, by difference .......... 182.9 8.17 AR crba Sot acrevare eyata,ce 10 ote emmjatinvanaie hota 2,240.0 100.00 Of the gas produced, 49.5 per cent was “ surplus” gas, that is, gas not required for heating the ovens. This had the following composition :— Oletmesn@r Ele. vs sas custe tae eres Sane ates 5 JU Leyes oe see Cols aaa ee os oriniono mcm ab Od 38.7 Carbon, monoxide, ‘CiOy. is Saeco. 3k 6.1 Carbonrdioxide:C Oi see sgt css eas hae ae eri Wisc crore OG RS. at Cyan ea ieee care gr etayess ate 3 IN flGR Oo ea IN cea Ocoee ari Rare, Eto antoaeaenny Seach fl bliveneoenns: elias + sere eae om onary 115 <0 38.4 100.0 Its calorific power, the hydrogen burnt to water, was 686 B. T. U., its candle power 14.7, and its specific gravity, .51. The coke contains in addition to the fixed carbon, volatile matter,, 1.27; ash, 8.91; phosphorus, .0041; moisture, 3.67. The ash contains 27.71 per cent of silica, 13.04 per cent of aluminia, and 50.60 peroxide of iron, with small quantities of alkalies and alkaline earths. S84 NEW MIINERAL DISCOVERIES IN NOVA SCOTIA.—GILPIN. The yield of tar per long ton was 75.7 lbs., or 3.88 per cent. The following table shows its behaviour under fractional distillation :— Fractions. Leer Anne Tiioh prota. eee scsi es ee OU -t UU) 3. Niddlemoliae nents Ba ee oa ae he) 9.8 Heavy Ol tee eerie eee 20-1 0 120 Anat heierne nou eye sate ote cee AON AG PPATAD) 43 Pitch: | INVERNESS. | RICHMOND. VICTORIA. Mayiloweree. ance cere 116.70 113.45 114.90 Blueavioleteo-sss- sa eee ee 133.15 | 137.45 134.70 Red Maples. teases. 145.35 140.10 148 .20 | Dandelions povstesese eee oe 132.85 138.55 138.35 | Strawberry. -..e-con- ee ee 135.70 | 140.70 139.5 Waldstedt@herrysrmerrtt1 150.10 153.05 155.90 BVH KIA NO? Acad oSosedoa dace 159.50 157.90 157.45 Indian Pear sna. ceeee oe ee 143.65 150.20 152.95 A PPIG<.% ccs See aan ae 157.90 164.50 161.85 Tila: «cate acer 175.80 170.65 175.60 Co. Phenochrons.....- eg UA 146.65 147.97 On the opposite page these phenochrons are plotted so as to show the characters of the curves. 1898— MACKAY, 97 NOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS CANADA, PHE Bret. Pott te TRANS.—G. X. MOL S. INST. SCI., Proc. & TRANS. N. 98 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.—MACKAY, An interesting irregularity in the phenochrons of the different counties is shown in nearly every part of this table. Their order is not parallel in the different counties. Very often it is reversed. As the phenochrons are averages of ten observa- tions, it cannot be laid altogether to the charge of defective observation. The rarity of certain species in certain counties, or in the districts in which the observations were made, tends to make the phenochron later there, for the plants may be in flower before they are met with. But the character of the soil, the elevation, the slope, &c., must have had some influence. And then, may it not be possible that the same species may develop a tendency to an earlier or later maturing in different regions ? These are questions which careful future observations may help to answer. To illustrate the effect of asymmetry of stations on the phenochrons of a large district of country, I select five of the best observed plants, giving first their phenochrons for a period of seven years, 1892 to 1898, based on the few irregularly dis- tributed stations of the Botanical Club of Canada; secondly their phenochrons for the year 1898, based on the observations made at the eight stations, Berwick, Windsor, Musquodoboit, Wallace, Pictou, New Glasgow and Port Hawkesbury; and giving, thirdly, their phenochrons derived from 180 stations, ten in each of the eighteen counties of the province, observed in connection with the public schools of the province. Seven Year Phenochrons Phenochrons = First Flowering of the | Phenochrons,— for 1898, — for 1898,— Bot. Club. Bot. Club. 180 Schools. Mayflower 524-1.) 103.0 93.1 Wert 0 Maple ..2hoapeeceeme as: 125.0 121.8 126.0 Stra wDerayesee cee: 129.1 125.7 125.3 Amelanchier .. 142.6 140.7 140.9 | Lilac Be eaecencoeeone 155.3 155.1 159.2 General Phenochrons 131.0 127.3 129.7 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.—MACKAY. 99 From the general phenochrons we infer that the Spring of 1898 in the Province of Nova Scotia, was according to the Botanical Club, 3.7 days earlier than the average of the seven years preceding, and according to the Schools only 1.3 days earlier. But what is the cause of this difference of 2.4 days difference between the Club and the Schools? Not defective observations, but the fact that of the eight stations of the Botanical Club, nearly all were either southern or central, while those of the Schools were evenly distributed from Cape Sable to Cape North. Average flowering dates of five plants selected from the preceding tables, (a) for the first nine counties of the Province in the series,—the South-Western; (b) for the second nine coun- ties —the North-Eastern ; and (c) for the whole Province: A.—‘‘ First FLOWERING,” 1898. SPECIES. (a) 8. We Coun: (6) N. E. Cour: (cj) AN Counties | Mayflower ........- 91.4 102.6 97.0 Strawberry... .....- 121.6 128.9 125.3 Miley OE Sone ern ae eee 120.6 132.6 126.6 imdian’ Pear .......- 138.8 143.1 140.9 ILTIENG eas Sam opaeracos 155.0 163.5 159.2 PAV CLASCH cose nonce 125.48 134.14 129.80 B.—‘“ FLOWERING Becominc Common,” 1898. SPECIES. one: aoa (0) Ny Bi Coun: (c) All Counties. Mayflower. <<60.5 4) 106.1 117.1 111.6 JWG) OS See darts eem ae 129.9 139.6 134.7 SEPAW DEITY: « 2.010524 133.6 140.1 136.8 Indian Pear ...... : 143.9 150.0 146.9 [GTI ee ee 162.3 170.3 166.3 PRVEVASO! sic. heita ss 135.16 143.42 139.26 This table shows at a glance the phenological differences between the warmer and colder halves of the Province, and 100 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898,—-MACKAY. also the average difference between the first flowering and when the observers thought it might be said that “flowering was becoming common.” In other words, the South-Western half of the Province was in advance of the North-Eastern half as mea- sured by the “ first flowering ” and when“ flowering was becom- ing common” so far as the said five plants are concerned as follows: Flowering, 1898. Fl eee peers Average. = Mayflower 11.2 days. 11.1 days. Te 15 te Maplesca. ccc WO) ON Ss 10.85 Strawberry........ Tippee ee Gor eke 6.90 inditanvEeateeesrcce Ai 7 1et Gilt ee 5.20 laCheeacc emer So 98 SHO) 98 8.25 Average 8.66 days. 8.28 days. 8.47 days. That is, the one half of the Province is on the average eight and a half days in advance of the other half as divided above. The difterence between the extreme counties is very much greater, however, as shown by some of the other tables. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898—MACKAY. 101 MEANS OF TWENTY PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, FOR THE SEVEN YEARS, 1892 TO 1898, (BOTANICAL CLUB). Species commonto| o= | o@ | of | om om om om Seven Year the Tables of the ao BD 65 BD a8 a0 os 80 6s os Normals or Phen- seven years. mis | fs | Sos | Ss Be Bn Bs ochrons of the SS) | Se) | SS) |) Se >a 5A Eas) Species. pene oN IR I S| aS (First appearance). | Mayfiower, flower.| 98 | 108 | 104.7)/107.0 | 102.70 | 106. 93.14 | 102.79 | 12 Apr. Alder, oe 102 | 114 | 116.3|103.8 | 107.55 ; 119. | 103.50 | 109.45 | 19 “ Aspen, id 131 | 123 192.9) 117.5 121.90 | 128. | 118.66 | 123.18 | 3 May. Maple, oe 123 | 130 | 126.3)123.85| 124.55 | 124.8 | 121.80 | 124.90) 4 “ Strawberry, “ 129 | 133 | 131.6|128.55| 128.50 | 126.5 | 125.75 | 128.99| 8 “ Dog-tooth V., “ 135 | 136 | 132.2)125. 128.50 | 131. 126. 130.53 | 10 “ Cherry (Cult.) “ 146 | 142 | 146.3'136.6 | 143.00 | 146. 141.80 | 143.10 | 23 “ Indian Pear, ‘“ 145 | 144 | 146. 138.35] 141.65 | 141.8 | 140.71 | 142.50 | 22 “ Cherry Wild “ 150 | 144 | 147. |138.15| 145.25 | 142.6 | 143.20 | 144.31 | 24 “ Apple, fe 146 | 146 | 152.1|143.7 | 151.10 | 155.3 | 148.40 | 148.94 | 28 “ Lilac, iY 154 160 | 162.3'153.5 | 160.50 | 157. 155.14 | 157.49 | 6 June. Hawthorn, ‘* 163 | 160 | 160.3/148.75! 160.25 | 156. 158. Tse EE) yf Wild Goose ........ 54 88 | 70.6] 78.00} 80.00 | 80. 73.80 | 74.91 | 15 Mar. TRYO)OT cammesoondeds 96 94 | 73.2) 99.30] 96.14 | 91. 58. 86.81 | 27 “* Song Sparrow ..... 99 115 79. | 96.65! 94.66 | 95.6 | {file 92.99 | 2 Apr. Frogs plping ...... 105 113 | 112.8 fe 106.30 | 113.2 101.80 | 108.95 | 18 “ SiwalllOwe ccs casio. 106} 119 |) 119: ena 117.76 ; (117.5) | (117.5) | (11750)| 27“ Kanefisher™...2.-..- 128 | 137 | 128.7)127.50! 122.00 | 141.6 | 130.50 | 130.76 | 10 May. Humming Bird ....| 143! 159 | 143.0/137.25] 139.30 | 143. 143.50 | 144.01 | 24 “* Night Hawk ..... 150 | 134 | 158.8 esl 154.33 | 165.5 | 145.30 ) 152.28 | 1 June. Annual Phenochr-| fr nie Teds ie es en aan. ons, 1892 to 1898. .|125.15 130.45,126.62/124.39| 126.30 | 129.07 | 120.88 | 126.12 Corresponding» day B) hive Gta an Pikes 9 30 6 Fy Of Month 525. 4. -- May.| May.| May.| May.| May. | May, | April.| May. | 6 May. 102 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.—MACKAY. To conclude this exhibit of phenological observations, I give a few from those made by the Botanical Club extending across Canada. CANADA, 1898. = aS [2 . = | 2 sa | 28 | 224| 22 | 28 Zz eS 1h GO. ae Frogs (first Piping)........ 101.8 98 } 112] 106 “Al Dandelion (first flowering).; 124.4 121 | 150) 153) S&S Strawberry as 125.7 130 | 142 | 142 96 Wild Red Cherry ‘ 143.2 1367) OL cae: | 110 724) 09 0) ek eit iss CRE ae 148.4 LG te. cane neh | 116 UB Oh cit eesiece) its eee 155.1 1: 2 fa (ed ol Ra | ieee To further illustrate what has been done and what has not | been done, I give the figures for each of the above six phenomena, ) so far as obtained, for Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario | (Muskoka and Niagara), Winnipeg, Pheasant Forks in Assini- boia, Olds in Alberta, and Vancouver in British Columbia, for the series of four years from 1895 to 1898. CANADA, 1895 To 1898. Froes (First Piping). | 2 2 5 YEAR. | Res ee eS E z EE Th, ca Ale ta a IBS) Soon 6 | 110.6 120 106.5 OD Selina 98 | 53 NS9Geaeucese 106.3 116 104.5 Ty. LD seerae | 50 SKYE sogmecd|| LUIGTOE len smes celle th 104. 1053 -eeeee 33 | VSOS eee OTR. orearoes cee 98 oie stale oie) oD | 41 DANDELION (First Flowering ). S95 eee .| 125.4 | 131 118.5 IDE Hinasteage | 143 | 99 IS9Geeeeeee 128.5 133 PA SS eiaeroieo 149 | wiser 88 IAs Gme cee N32 Avia ctseers< : 118 Gem epa cel sade a. 89 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898 —MACKAY. 103 SrrRAWBERRY (First Flowering). | ON ie 5 S S a 5 YEAR. 2 = = iS) S R a g 5 a 3 = 3 Z = ia a ss) s a Z =) S A, re) > (cae es | 128.5 | 126.8 | 126 129 (ee ee 136 | 110 WSOGise. ah: 128.5 | 128.5 | 127.5 144 14a lee eee 102 MT oes shia T2S.68 leo eee 128.5 140 Te ee 89 EIR esas 1 Oy daa ete ee 11ST de ee 142 | 142] 96 | | Witp Rep Cuerry (First Flowering ). iC ee 12067 1305 ules: see cas) | Sah! piece 124 TSI oo: 145.2 | 144 ESOh tee Dares ere 126 LOH be eae eziGa ceases WSior i EAU) | ben a | Cre 111 ngage arene | 143.2 poe VAG AN gs 2 | Se | ead 116 | | APPLE (First Flowering ). 1890532. . | y43.7 | 145 | 129 Toss Fee ibe ea [iocaste TSB oe oe : 151.1 FUE Pare 31)» [oes eee Ie a | See 126 TSS. oe os ERC loll. ake oaee 1) Pk Se ot at I eL 117 | coe a oe | TG aeel ee, e 146 | etl) lees. | o5 A | 116 | | | | Limac ( First Flowering ). | T8052. 2¢ 3: ree weal aca lacs. | geet |e eee alien 125 koOGHe ee 3; 160.5 158 SSPE yaad ae eae anes 133 TECH ho Vig el SARE 148 IC Usy, Wl anes (a ae 131 TSU Gee ets Tat ee eee ee 14a ieee es RSOR FS Slee The blanks in the table above show that the great difficulty is to obtain observers who can keep up their observations regularly for a series of years. 104 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.—MACKAY. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898. Day of the year 1898, : s J G corresponding to the | lS q || 3 : last day of each month. 3 |e ha i a z e é, Ss dene duly 2 lal © |e 2) ele |e elena g| Moria oct. am | 3) 8] 2/34] $/ 2/8) 2] S| S22] 4 |g 2 Mey Lol Nov ...33 [/¢i¢|/2/Es/2/8/S|/+|2) 2183 alae 5 | June..181 Dec...365 | £ |) | 315 Bh oul es 5 S| 3 (So cere 7, aE eS |S ele belo | Sees % Wild Plants Flowering. Vwi DM iia 5 1 | Alder ..cceccsseesece-eaz | 951 106. 107]....|. 97] 120"....1....|| 940) 210] ae D)| Aspen) 2a eo eres ios eee he Areas (erate) 985. hoc 135, 113) 133)----|..++ 3) | Mayflower, 2 sce s-cerce 91) 78)...’ “S61 101) 286), 394° 1061105) 2-2) eeeen eee eee £) Bes VaOLE bs em cine oteieie er 1270 D3) <=.) 12413525 125) 144)....| 116) 140)-..-)-2 5. » | White Violet <-.2.-.... PAV oeee)orco\) Wer aby Pte sol] GEV YA || bal ta wet one 6) Ried SMaple 23 -y-n teen elo sea) 108) 125) 332-2. 1232 20 E182 |e el Ors eee eee ere 7 | Bluets (Honstonia)..... vevejrees| 128... van yoda||ss0% Ibecs|[aeos|[oos 8 | Hquisetum.......... Sena lor soil bes sal lana 3. 113 val. 130). Boo 9) | MDandelioness-ence eee 123 | 106 125 135 131 125 | 132| 135) 121 150 | 153) 84 10 | Adder’s-Tongue Lily ... |....|.... nA eee eo ive aa |. UL || Je Rey oe MAKE A eanadangouaeaee S50 o| acl faooe | 4 Soret tee ene eae 12 | Gold-Thread ............ 131\....| 141 132} 140) 136) 140) 144 ....) 140 13 | Strawberry ............ 123, 120| 129) 128] 131) 128) 113) 134) 142) 130] 142) 142; 96 14 do. Fruit ripe.. | 159 155] 164) 174| 163) 168} 158] 182)....| 167 175) 173) 144 15 | Wild Red Cherry ...... senu|| EAD REE EIA. oc 138. Te EGA Bees iGseal) 265) TG 110 16 do. Fruit ripe wLesee[ e- 193) 221 see Nees TUPI) ISI eis) AGA Saaracecoooges 162A) PAU Saal lSocn|| 164) NUE SaaliBoon)loaca|| IRE!) -n. aie 18 do. BrMitripes..4|) 196|s5- | OL. 11 202ice:. -|raee|eemie ie al aeleaieeer Pee: 19 | Ranunculus acris ...... D4) |) 106) 154 ( 152) c-|( TBO | erase) led ere apo eretetel eaten 2))| Ranuncwlus repens) 2... |. sea|iee> |oneniiaa== Beal (nods (enrol fel (is) qemel ess (esac: | sacel| conc ZAG @linGOniaea ee serene ee ASO rs) WSL) W522 sca AB ac) sol] ere errs terest erecta ees AA A Melhiihouasuanqocosgsese 139136 =<), FOO 2% |) DAD ere chemo lo ctl lich eeteraretegll terete errr YA} | Mba iS! Goonboacesccds 1G) TUS) Se eai osc Be Ie G28) barca sanaleadal ee GViloona|isccapnncc 24° Cypripedium ........... TAQ Bccec coh] DOG] scoters: | ADE erarsiellzie sell) |Se) 8] 8 & | Mar... 90 Sept...273 |g] 6 |“. 13531 ¢ | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2) 2 eee © | April..120 Oct....304/28/ 8/8 js | 2/315] S]s6]'o |eait4] 2 | May...151 Nov...334 |— | "3 | 4.150) S|] 6 | 5 |e i) Spee 2 5 ie age : 3s |, = ia 3S Zio ie =) x June ..181 Dec...365 | & co | ia | 2 iS DO lPouleaalaniee he as} a|) =) ie Ale |e le (FIR IAI lols ia ene Wild Plants Flowering. 53 | Currant (red), Flower..| 141| 134 145} 140 147 138) 146)... of do {DAN iesocl) Mif|saoe|lsecalh Ay) ZU) 213 189 : 5) | Currant (jelkevelte) Jon, xei0 lopoal aosol aneal lance lscoollmsasiapooll’aifasaa Msi) ie |) 56 do. Wraith eee eae |owee | ec] see e| 199) oc ele cen oct onrny e ke are |e 57 | Lilac, Flower ..........| 153] 142} 163] 160] 157| 160+ 151)....| 162) 147| 182]....].... 58 | Potato, Flower ........ 180) 0 |.02liseee|scaulcce sl eee) 190 |o.0) no) a 59 | Timothy, Flower ...... ncaa iisiese' || T58|...oe| ssceills aa. 1911-202) 22c| eect | eel eee ee 60 | Clover (white), Flower.| 135} 148) 163]... | 156) 163] 153] 176]....| 158}....|....].... 61 do: (red); Flower... .|) 153) 140) 156|\2 5-1) 156), 164) 153] 163) >.2- |) 158 esl eee eee 62 | Wheat, Flower ........ Neccclerse | fecbscetheeeldatoh col ee tte 63 CORE IMoiae Bocoaccesas Sooo eocd) Wodool lacoo| (adod| snoollocsalloosollosanitoos Vhoodel|accocllesa- GPa bBuckay heats Hlowerseee eee ecole cen eee nee va tieil nate ell oxdeecs || ose, eee eel ee 65a Harliest Leafing ........ Heer Reccesiail -crescectl rere een ote eee ola a »/]!ecaye.o;| evo" 0] teke/age! |e ee 65b} Latest Leafing.......... Pee eres eed eras (eres tara ree TRCN lh (First Phenomena). 66 | EPloaanm ieee ners once ee ol WS ail laisse ere faeces ied S27 | tel Va tee Pere) eal UO eaealloscolleace Gf |'Sowing tees ocescee nue Hess, cl Pen tee een hae Sie [oes see] 26) LOGI 22 |e eee 68 | Planting Potatoes...... Hereal| ieee lis stave ll sere || LBD erees |leeresi|) LOO) = s:0:-9|| a4) Teen eee 69 | Sheep Shearing ........ GW Eee sollocce|| IGBlSacallencc 130} =. --|| 130} 1So6)eee5 JOU Hay, OCubbine weeeeneeealeeeall eae IBD iescallwesa| laces |losoe 202) "......<| 189}\ 1200) eee |e (MS GramiCubtine eeeseeetee eee ss 7 Pee cell (as cel ieee leer .-+-| 231] 220) 222)....].... 72 || Potato Digging ........|-.=- eae 269 eae eee 268)! 283 | 2eee lees 73a| Rivers Opening ........ Eaietsil ole’ ve'| eicjors| satel] CEBlisseel|) 349) (oetect|| QA eyes | tL O eee | erate 3b| Lakes Opening ........-|-.-.|..-- Sdonllesoelleiyilleca| enerdh JU ARasallasac|iacosl|soos||-s0: 74a| Ground Snow, Spring. | 117|....| 116} 116|....| 117) 96] ....| 109]..-\ ete eee | _ PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898—MACKAY. 107 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898 —Continued. | Number. 5 4 Day of the year, 1898, iS le -| 8 corresponding to the 5 Tee ant tte i | last day of each month. cs} l% | ,- | o So) alo}. | | a [ Si oa| & aol Meh. 59) Aug) 243 in| Alle (Sle ey ao Se eel eS os 8 Mearns: Wie Sept 273) War (ed te Sell cle | ce: (er cea Site Sie pri s120) Ochs.) 304.) 2 8% Seo | >|) fe leo liseli | 3 May ..151 Nov...334 | 2 |/o/ |o7; S|] o/] 2/2/28) led] «| 8 June ..131 Dec. ..365 | 8)/A| eis , 8/8] 5 Ea Seen selec aalece| cS Car eee lem Weegee | Ee a Se a Oy (First Phenomena,) Hard Frost, Spring ..... so0cllaseallogoolloadalloosslloccolloscal leccol| WSO ical akis 119 Hoar Frost, Spring ..... IGS peal beealhess. leecellonoule Oilllaeeed hassel ia slicgea|| TEV/llogoc Streams “highest ” AoGe CoCo bon eloceclltoooll aac leece| lace Gose lowestint-- ce Sono sdeolloeee tice oF bees Herel licreneral | avetered | svesacu [levers cil eatvet pekersrel ete Hoare Hrost.-AuitUmany 1/200) .7--1| 200l 1 268le eee |. =| 240 |e «|| SLO. ll QELS Hard Frost, oe PelleGod| (poor Dolieeee 283! .-.- 283) 305] 285| 254] 251].... Air Snow, M2 tel eseefeees SEE A loncellaaco! (psoall a4e deesalletellisaad||e7inlecoc Ground Snow, ‘ ates | et sere | esvere ance Sie Nesec||saan| ele) ZR) SI) BEM oceall AG asoc Lakes Closing .......... ARH lesa logon) acme reresl tease leosol Hee ol toceuctl scans befell eaerall Poser Rivers Closing.......... opodllondnlladonlonoellescay ocHlox et Gosll BiB oncal| CIMlsocalloona if Pelle lls deel lewerl fecoc |acee|ooees lara | cel eocc| lence (aoe HO6|E105) cc | (eee ee. | seccipemalleen . Tolese. Intoleas. 1 eScoll! TINA. sallccoellopoo|| TEM lecnai| TBI TA ae) so6 ! | tele = |) LSZI) 182) A8Zie-.- |) 182]) 163) 182) 149) fob) T42i | 183)....! 184] 176|....| 152| 153) 158 | 84.5 2! 185i 182.2.) 158i) 163) I60e. .2 JUG P 55 ooonapanosoe 4 108 PHENOLOGICAL PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.—MACKAY. Day of the year, 1898, corresponding to the last day of each month. deiMhoos BIE dik oo a2 Feb .. 59 Aug... 243 Mar. .. 90 Sept .. 273 April ..120 Oct ....304 May?!...151 Nov ...334 June ..181 Dec....365 . Number. (First Phenomena. ) Thunder (Continued) | (First Migration.) SLA Walaa weker rence eter 82 | Wild Goose, going north | Berwick, N.S. | Windsor, N.S. squodoboit Harbor, | do. going south }.... n z\s | = | 82 ar 235| 235 bo (SC) -~I bo (SC) 1) OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898,—Continued. les 4 aaa ea MlalEl el) El ss a A a = Pf i) say |) ee ce le Se 2 Blalz\e|s|sia 221 218] 201) 212} 200; 204 229 214| 221} 209] 205 212 221 215) 215 220 224) 225 227| 226 al lBerena| aoc 231 234! - 233 234; 232 237| 237) 236] 239 247) - D381 vayerel | eveve ssl) lereveveHl MD 248) - 247|....| 248) 250 259) 258; 266 265 276) 288 332 BU Ss a50) \aace so68ll6 ocollgocolleraa||sna0llocac 103 | 72| 74| 86|....| 73|....| 95 | Olds, Alberta Vancouver, B. C. 276|...- wry PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898.—MACKAY. 109 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1898, Day of the vear, 1898, corresponding to the last of each month: | a i) ee f o . é = 4 5 || 5 |Pss oe KS Sane asio Sulye 212) kos | eet ca |) 2) Feb,... 59 Aug...243 |Z a So ier ad aalia x , Mar... 9 Sept...273 | 2) ef a Wislen 4 5) Aplee le Oct. .s0f (vo Wim Veo | bes = May...151 Nov...33f | 2 | 31s | oz Hee I Os = June ..181 Dec....365 |} 5 |)-al@jis | 8 | 2 | S Uz ae las fe 1a tz (First Migration.) 83 | Song Sparrow .......... 7Al. 73 a Sol | Gee, 84 | American Robin....... 67 65 | 74 SOAIPIMNCOR a ickidonsodeceees. 74 84 85. 86 | Spotted Sandpiper.....|....].... 143 87 | Meadow Lark .......... ‘| AEE | Sealpkemefisheradscsscc-82) lee. ieee (WV eooolaaee 89 | Yellow Crown Warbler |....}....!.... 90)|;summer Yellow Bird <. |) 130\5-..)---.| 2. .-lless----|| Lop 91 | White Throat Sparrow. 126 92 ' Humming Bird......... 141! 134)... -|| 142) 144). ...)) 155 OF Kane Bird f...06+.00+-5 142| 9) Bobolink.......) Creer ie and a. =a 7 Oe Ho 2 Equation (A) thus becomes : 1 (* iO ats aed p(y +¥s) , — Se \ 1 Cc. Ce In my experiments p was found to be practically equal to unity, and the volumes of the solutions mixed were in all cases equal. Hence the above equation becomes : pS ( i Seas =) ee een vie) The work involved in finding & by means of equation (B), included the following:—(1) The preparation and analysis of series of simple solutions of both acids, and the preparation of the mixtures ; (2) observations on the specific gravity of the simple constituent solutions and their mixtures; (3) the measure- ment of the conductivity of series of simple solutions; (4) the measurement of the conductivity of mixtures of solutions; (5) the determination of the regional conductivity and regional concentration of the electrolytes in the mixtures; (6) the ecaleu- lation by the aid of these data, of the conductivity of the mixtures. The observations were carried out in the Physical and Chemical Laboratories of Dalhousie College, Halifax, during the spring and autumn of 1899. 132 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY Experimental Methods. The hydrochloric acid was obtained from Eimer & Amend, and the sulphuric from Merck & Co. Both were guaranteed chemically pure. The redistilled water used in the preparation of the solutions was obtained by the method described in a former ‘paper, and it had a conductivity ranging from 0.95 x 10~° to 1.01x10~° expressed in ?Kohlrausch’s new unit (Ghimig, cm.) The amount of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid in a solution was determined volumetrically by means of aqueous solutions of potassium hydroxide, the strength of these being determined daily by titration with known quantities of dry oxalic acid. Phenol-phthalein was the indicator used. The potassium hydroxide solutions were kept in bottles with stoppers, each containing a soda lime tube. The pipettes, burettes and flasks were calibrated and used as described in the paper referred to above. ‘The specific gravity at 18°C. was determined for many of the simple solutions with a pyknometer of the Ostwald- Sprengel form. The comparison of the values thus obtained with the values as given by Kohlrausch, acted as a check upon the concentration as determined above. Kohlrausch’s method with the alternating current and tele- phone was employed in the measurement of the conductivity. The bath used to obtain a constancy of temperature, for a time sufficient to make the determination of the resistance in, contained tap water kept continually stirred by a mechanical stirrer driven by one of Henrici’s small hot air motors. This motor worked without noise and on this account was found more serviceable than the hydraulic motor formerly employed. The thermometer used could be read to a hundredth of a degree, and had been tested at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin. The resistance of the solutions was measured in a U-shaped cell having electrodes of stout platinum foil connected by thick 1Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 10, 49, 1898-9. 2? Kohlrausch u. Holborn: Leitvermégen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1. OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 133 platinum wires to the ebonite covers. These electrodes were platinized in the solution proposed by *Lummer and Kurlbaum. The reduction factor by which the conductivities obtained in this cell are reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch, was obtained by comparing the value of the conductivities of two solutions of pure potassium chloride, twice recrystallized, of different concentrations, with values given by ?Kohlrausch for the same concentrations of the same salt. The ratio of Kohlrausch’s value to the observed value gives the reduction factor. It was always determined before and after a series of observations, and was found to be the same in value at both times. Solutions of different concentrations of each acid were pre- pared and carefully analysed. Fifty cubic centimetres of one of these solutions was placed in the electrolytic cell at a time, and two successive dilutions prepared in the cell by the addition of known volumes of water at 18°C. Then the other prepared solutions were introduced in order, and the same process of dilution repeated till a sufficient number of conductivity values had been obtained. In the case of mixtures, equal volumes (fifty cubic centimetres) of the constituent solutions were mixed at 18° C., and the mixture was then placed in the cell. For a more detailed description of some of the above instru- ments and methods, see my former paper on conductivity. Results of the Conductivity Observations on Simple Solutions. It is necessary for the determination of the regional con- ductivities (/) and the regional concentrations (C) in the mixture (see my former paper),? to draw curves showing the relation of conductivity to the concentration for each acid. In the case of one of the electrolytes, (hydrochloric acid was selected), the values of the conductivity must be multiplied by a constant before plotting, this constant being the ratio of the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution for the two 1Wied. Ann., 66, 315, 1897. 2Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 159, tab. 2. 3 Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 10, 113, 1899-1900. 134 ON THE CALCULATION OF THE CONDUCTIVITY acids. Kohlrausch’s latest determinations’ of the values of the specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution at 18° C. for the two acids were used, viz.: for hydrochloric acid, 3774, and. for sulphuric acid, 3955, both expressed in terms of 107* times Kohlrausch’s new unit (ohm cm. *). Therefore, the ratio is 1.048. Table I gives the data, obtained from the conductivity observations, for the drawing of these curves. The concentra- tions are expressed in terms of gramme equivalent per litre at 18°C. The atomic weights used are relative to Oxygen (16.00), and the same as employed by ?Kohlrausch. The specifie conductivities are those at 18°C, expressed in terms of 107* times Kohlrausch’s new unit (ohm? em.~’). TABIGE, H Cl. (36.46.) | 4 Hy SOg. (49.04.) | Cone ae Conese: Hx 9 je “Concpntention Ggnieenaes (ky). Hox 4 | : (ka). 2.66 6018. 305. 4.11 6158. 2.13 5281. 5534. | 2.95 4948. 1.74 4627. 4848. | 2890p 3947. 3094. 4185. 1.74 3255. 1.02 3055. S20 a lees 2472. 716 2268. 2376. || — .890 1779. 502 1640. 1718. || 528 1070. 34 1148. 1208. || 452 932.5 265 898.3 911.2 || 804 637.4 .188 645.3 676-2 || AGT 491.8 126 439.7 460.8 108 241 5 0951 334.9 350.9 .0967 218.8 0810 287.9 301.6 .0603 148.4 0559 | ~~ 201.0 210.6 0352 93.77 0356 129.3 12 a Teo | [pene ee || ale bade 0262 94 67 Gor MRE RR pa Ne Oe hk ee | 1 Wied. Ann., 50, 385, 1893. 2 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 205, tab. 14. OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS.—BARNES. 135 Determination of p. When equal volumes of simple solutions are mixed the ratio expressed by p is equal to the ratio of the specific gravity of the mixture to the mean specific gravity of the constituent solutions. Table II shows that the ratio is practically equal to unity for the most concentrated solutions examined. TABLE II. | SIMPLE SOLUTIONS. Sp. Gr. Concentration. Specific Gravity at 18°C. of Mixture | Mean at 18°C. Sp. Gr. H Cl. + Hz SO4. tel (Clk + He S04. | 3.05 2.95 1.0525 1.0912 1.0719 1.0720 2s L7H 1.0371 1.0549 1.0460 1.0462 1.02 s 1.0182 Lhe 1.0366 1.0365 502 “ 1.0091 | « 1.0320 | 1.0319 Results of the Observations and Calculations of the Conductivity of Mixtures. Table III contains the results of the observations and the calculations, by means of the data given therein, of the con- ductivity of mixtures of the acids under consideration, The regional concentration k, of the hydrochloric acid may be obtained from the value 4, by means of the expression Hoy ky a Yo» where &, is the regional concentration of the sulphuric acid. The specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution have the values given above. In this table the conductivities and conceutrations are expressed as in Table I. The differences between the calculated and observed values of the conductivity are given as percentages of observed values. Zl’ — ¥9°F6 eF'16 g0° — SSI P'SéL c LZ © S81 8’ LST EB = 8'1IZ Tec = sl’ — 9° 688 0° 888 2 t0° + FOLZ “GOLZ S no L’tSP L GSP o ats L998 | § LSS = 00 ‘LOOT “909T a alle OL’ + FE6L O86L BT cig ink ip sewaie a eee ze oe “EOL “201 BS oe te" + “FORT “69FT . lr’ + “G91Z ‘SLIZ 5 eed — a 3 Ou ‘S162 8863 5 Sp + ‘COLP ‘OSLP = Gia “FSLg ‘OFSS a elt + "ZEz9 “¥ZE9 Z ‘an [eA a A =) pearesqa poye[noleg quap 19g ooUoIOIC "oI XTIT jo AJIATJONpUO,) OYToedg £960" 9¢Z0° c9' 96 GLcO’ 9160" T SFL 6680" cTS0° L¥6I L960° | TS8¢0° G 61Z OST 19a" 8° LE6 | SPT 088° “CE8G SI Col T 6SP 6GF* 6h 0 988 | 1&8" L8V" | “S99T cO'T 96S" “SLOG Goa LOG “O16G €0S° GOG “9SOL 6EL° GSP “C6FL CIT 699° “OFGG co T Cc6" “ST66 BG la WET “COGP c6'§ TPG “S109 0S’? §8'G “G69 (20) (Fo) FOS SHE 10 H +( By) | tos SHE jo A}IATJONpUOD ‘SUOTIVIJUIOUOZD 136 [VUuOLsayy [BUOLS9 yy F960" 1ec0° O180° TS60° GOS” F038" 60'T FO T Tec0° 8c" F083" 0180° PLT ae eee In the case of mixtures of simple solutions, according to the above assumption, A the depression of the freezing-point will be represented by the expression :— A =[M,N, (1+¢,(m,—))4+M,N,(i+2,(m, —1))+ ..]. where 1, 2, ete., denote the electrolytes, the m’s the numbers of ions into which the molecules of. the respective electrolytes break down, the a’s the ionization coefficients in the mixture, the N’s the concentrations (in gramme-molecules per litre) of the mixture with respect to the respective electrolytes, and the M’s the depressions produced by one gramme-molecule or one gramme. ion of the undissociated and dissociated portions respectively of the electrolytes. The a’s in this. expression are given by the method to be tested; the m’s in the case of the electrolytes selected can have only one value; and the N’s are of course known; but what values the M’s are to be regarded as having is doubtful. It was found for simple solutions of the three electrolytes employed, that the molecular depressions increased as the solutions became more concentrated. This appears to indicate that one molecule or one ion, when in the presence of a large number of molecules and ions, produces a greater depression than when it is in the presence of a smaller number. Thus in the case of a solution made by mixing simple solutions of different electrolytes, since the number BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES—BARNES. 141 of molecules and ions present seems to affect the power which one molecule or ion has of lowering the freezing-point, it was assumed that the depression produced by a molecule or an ion of say, the electrolyte 1, which is surrounded by mole- cules and ions of this electrolyte 1 and of the other electro- lytes 2, 3, ete., would have the same value as if all the molecules and ions surrounding it were of electrolyte 1. ‘Thus the M’s of the above expression have been regarded as equal to the molecular depressions in simple solutions of the concentration N,+N,+ ete. The application of this expression to the calculation of the depression in mixtures will form at once a test of the above assumption and a test of the ionization coefficients employed. I have applied it (a) to mixtures of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, these salts being selected because of their simple molecular structure and the approximate equality in their gerade of ionization; (b) to mixtures of sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid, selected because of their simple molecular structure and the considerable difference in their grade of ionization; (c) to mixtures of potassium chloride, sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid, selected for testing in addition the method of finding the ionization coefficients in a mixture of three electrolytes. The following is a synopsis of the work involved :—Purifica- tion of materials ;—construction and calibration of the instru- ments used in the conductivity and freezing-point observations ; —preparation and analysis of a series of simple solutions of the three electrolytes ;—determination of the specitic molecular conductivities at infinite dilution for 0°C. ;—observations on the conductivity at 0° for the series of simple solutions ;—calcula- tion of the ionization coefficients at 0° from the conductivity observations ;—measurement of the depression of the freezing- point of the simple solutions ;—calculation of the molecular depression for each solution of the three electrolytes ;—prepara- tion of mixtures of two and of the three electrolytes ;—measure- ment of the depression of the freezing-point of the mixtures ;— 142 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT determination of the ionization coefficients of the electrolytes in the mixtures ;—calculation of the depression of the freezing- point in the mixtures, The experiments were carried out during the session of 1899-1900 in Dalhousie College, Halifax. Materials, Apparatus and Methods. The salts and acids were obtained from Merck. The salts. were recrystallized once, and it was found that solutions of them, and also of the acid, had conductivity values showing satisfactory agreement with the values as given by * Kohlrausch. These electrolytes were therefore considered sufficiently pure for the purpose. The water used in making the solutions was purified by the method described in my former * paper, and it had a conductivity at 18°C. of about 0.95x10-° expressed in terms of Kohlrausch’s new ? unit (ohm™? em."?). The solutions of potassium and sodium chloride were prepared by direct weighing; the salts being first dried to constant weight in an air-bath. The hydrochloric acid solutions, were analysed volumetrically by means of a standardized sclu- tion of potassium hydroxide with phenol-phthalein as indicator. All burettes and pipettes used in the preparation and analysis. of these solutions were calibrated by the weight of distilled water they delivered, and the flasks by the weight of water they held at 0°C. Observations were made on the specific gravity at 18°C. of the simple solutions and their mixtures with a pycnometer of the Ostwald-Sprengel form. These observatious were made to obtain the knowledge whether or not there was any change of volume on mixing the simple solutions. It was found that with solutions of the concentrations used, there was no appreciable. change, and it was assumed that such would also be the case. at 0°. 1 Kohlrausch u. Holborn: Leitvermégen der Elektrolyte, 1898, pp. 159, 160, tab. 2. 2 Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 10, 49, 1898-99. 3 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 1. BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES—BARNES. 143 Conductivities were determined by Kohlrausch’s method with the alternating current and telephone. The Wheatstone’s bridge consisted of four coils, two of which, the 100 and 1000 ohms, were the only ones used. These coils were correct at 17.5°C. and had a temperature coefficient of 0.000267 per centi- grade degree per ohm. ‘The correction for temperature was applied when the observations were made in the basement room referred to below. The platinoid bridge wire was calibrated by the method proposed by *Strouhal and Barus with ten german silver wires of equal length. A telephone made by Ericsson of Stockholm, and an inductorium made after a plan of Ostwald’s and giving a clear high note were employed. For a detailed account of the pycnometer, and of the instruments employed in the conductivity observations, with the methods used, see my paper referred to above. Three electrolytic cells of two types were used. One, with the shape of a U-tube, was employed for the stronger solutions of the hydrochloric acid. The other two were of the Arrhenius form. One of these, with electrodes at a distance from one another of about $ cm., was used for the weak solutions employed in the determination of the specific molecular condue- tivities for 0°C. ; the other with electrodes at a distance of about 5 em., for the stronger solutions of the two salts. The electrodes were all of stout platinum foil firmly fixed to the platinum wire and glass connections, so that the capacity of the cell once determined would remain the same throughout a series of experiments. These electrodes were platinized in a solution prepared from ? Lummer and Kurlbaum’s recipe. The reduction factor of each of these cells, by which the observed conductivities were reduced to the standard employed by Kohlrausch, was obtained by comparing the values determined for two carefully prepared solutions of potassium chloride, with the values given by *Kohlrausch for the same concentrations. Data for the 1 Wied. Ann., 10, 326, 1880. 2 Wied. Ann., 60, 315, 1897. 3’ Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 159, tab. 2. 144, ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT determination of the reduction factors were available only at 18°, but as the cell was of glass its value at 0° would not be practically different from that at 18°. The water bath used in the observations of the conductivity at 18° was the same as that described in my former paper. In the case of the observations at 0° the bath was modified so that the temperature could be kept constant at 0° by means of pieces of ice floating in it, while the water was kept continually stirred. The ice was prevented from coming in contact with the cell by placing around the cell a cylindrical screen of wire gauze 17 em. in diameter, and reaching to within 10 em. of the bottom of the bath. By the addition or the removal of pieces of ice from the salt water, the temperature of the bath could easily be kept within one twenty-fifth of a degree for a sufficient time to make the measurement of conductivity. The observa- tions were made in a basement room of the college, where the temperature, during the winter months, was generally below 6°C. The thermometer used was graduated to a fiftieth of a centi- grade degree and its zero point was determined by the writer. Each solution was brought to about 0° before it was placed in the cell, and while in the cell successive observations of the conductivity were made to insure that the temperature of the bath had been taken. The method employed for finding the freezing-point of the solutions was the same in principle as that proposed by } Loomis The size of the protection bath was larger than that used by Loomis, and the stirring was done mechanically. . The thermometer used was of the Beckmann form. It was graduated to a hundredth of a degree, and could be read to a thousandth by aid of a small microscope, mounted on an upright stand. This thermometer was at a certain place on its stem firmly fixed in the cork of the inner freezing-tube (the freezing- tubes consisted of an inner and outer tube, the inner containing the solution whose freezing-point was measured) so that when in position its bulb was within 2 em. of the bottom of the tube. 1 Phys. Review, 1, 199, 1893 and 9, 257, 1897. BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 145 This inner freezing-tube was 28 cm. in length and 2.8 em. in diameter and had its lower end re-entrant. The outer tube was 25 em.in length and 3.15 cm. in diameter. The thickness of the glass being about 1 mm., there was an air space of about 1.5 mm. between the tubes. This space was found to be quite sufficient to prevent the formation of ice on the wall of the tube. The inner tube was supported in the outer by means of two rubber bands, one at the top and the other at the bottom. These bands also prevented the walls from touching one another. The length of the tubes allowed the solution to be well submerged in the protection bath and therefore almost freed it from the influence of the outside temperature. In the determination of the freezing-point of a solution these tubes were surrounded by a mixture of salt water and pieces of ice, contained in a vessel of glass 35 em. high and 11 em. in diameter (called the protection bath). The cover for this vessel was one taken from the protection bath of a Beckmann apparatus, The glass of this vessel was $ em. thick and was covered with asbestos paper that the effect of the temperature of the room might be lessened. It was found necessary to keep this bath at a constant temperature within a fiftieth of a degree, if values of the freezing-point agreeing with the mean value to less than a thousandth of a degree were desired. This was obtained by keeping the bath continually stirred. Any change of tempera- ture was quickly recorded by means of a thermometer graduated to a fiftieth of a degree. The temperature of the bath could be raised by the addition of water at the temperature of the room, or lowered by the addition of pieces of ice, snow when obtain- able being preferable. The platinum stirrer for the freezing-tube was of the common ring shape, having wound around its ring a thin platinum wire, which would rub against the wall of the tube and thereby prevent the formation of an ice sheath. With constant stirring there was found no tendency for the ice to mass itself together and float to the surface, but it could be seen moving through the whole solution in tiny glistening particles. The stirrer for the Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sor, VoL X. TRANS. J. 146 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT protection bath was of thick brass wire with two rings, one for the upper aud the other for the lower portion. Both these stirrers were worked mechanically by means of one of Henrici’s hot air motors placed at a distance of about 3 metres from the freezing-point apparatus. By means of a light belt this motor turned a small wooden wheel placed over the protection bath, A connecting-rod connected this wheel to a slider on a vertical guiding rod; and to this slider also were attached the two stirrers. Any range of stroke could be obtained by varying the distance of the connecting-rod from the centre of the wheel. As about 70 cc. of solution were used,a stroke of 11 cm. was required to cause the ring of the stirrer in the freezing-tube just to touch the bottom of the tube and reach to within 4 em. of the surface of the solution. Thus all solutions were throughout uniformly stirred, and as the stroke of the engine was quite constant every solution was stirred in exactly the same manner. Another glass vessel of the same dimensions as the protection bath contained salt water and ice at a temperature of about — 10°C. (called the freezing bath). The purpose of this bath was to reduce the solution in the freezing-tube to about 0.3 degree below the freezing-point. The hammer of a common electric bell covered with a piece of rubber tubing, and supported on a frame over the freezing- point apparatus, was used for tapping the thermometer. A current from an Edison-Lalande cell had sufficient strength to give rapid and vigorous blows. The following method of 1 Raoult’s was employed for deter- mining the elevation above the temperature of the protection bath, of the convergence temperature of this apparatus, 7. e., the temperature finally assumed by a solution which is being stirred and has no ice in it, when it comes into thermal equilibrium with the protection bath. The freezing-point of water was first obtained. The ice formed in this observation was then melted and the freezing-tubes containing the water returned to the protection bath and the stirring begun. With the protection 1 Ztschr. f. Phys. Chem., 27, 636, 1898, BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 147 bath kept constantly at 0° the temperature of the water in the freezing-tubes at first fell rapidly, then more slowly, till it remained constant at 0.05°. This experiment was repeated with the same result, and thus the convergence temperature was shown to be 0.05 degree above the temperature of the protection bath. In all experiments, therefore, the temperature of the protection bath was adjusted so as to be 0.05 degree below the freezing-point of the solution. It was also found with water that the protection bath required to be this same amount (0.05 degree) below the freezing-point in order that the value of the freezing-point, with a very small quantity of ice present, might agree with that obtained with a large amount of ice. The method of carrying out an observation of the freezing- point was as follows:—The freezing-tube was filled with the solution up to a mark on the glass (about 70 cc.) It was then placed in the freezing bath where it remained till the tempera- ture was lowered with constant stirring to about 0.5 degree below the freezing-point of the solution, this point having been determined by a preliminary experiment. The freezing-tubes were now quickly removed to the protection bath which was at the required temperature (0.05 degree below the freezing-point of the solution), and the stirring started. After ten minutes time, in which the solution had risen to within 0.1 degree of its freezing-point, a small crystal of ice was introduced through a glass tube in the cork. As the particles of ice gradually formed throughout the solution the mercury in the thermometer rose, and in about a minute assumed a fixed position. The tapping was begun and continued for half a minute when both it and the stirring were stopped, the microscope brought into position and a reading made. After again stirring and tapping, the ther- mometer was read again, this readiag acting as a check upon the former. Care was taken to keep the protection bath constant at the required temperature throughout both these readings. The tubes were now removed, the ice melted, and the same operation repeated for a second observation. 148 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT As a change in the atmospheric pressure would cause a corres- ponding change in the thermometer, the freezing-point of the water used was determined about every three hours. The temperature of the room was kept as low and as constant as possible during the experiments, and no observation was made when it was above 5°C. Since the freezing of my solutions was started about 0.1 degree below the freezing-point, the amount of ice formed was so small that the correction usually applied for the change in con- centration, and, therefore, in the depression, comes within my limit of error. Thus the results are recorded without any correction. ; Simple Solutions. With the electrolytes K Cl, NaCl, and H Cl, there is only one possible way for their molecules to dissociate, namely, into two ions. Hence expression (1) reduces to t) For the determination of the values of M, the other quanti- ties, 6, 7 and @ are obtained from observations on simple solu- tions; @ being taken equal to the ratio of the specific molecular conductivity to the specitic molecular conductivity at infinite dilution. As the solutions are at a temperature of about 0°C. in the determination of the freezing-point, the ionization coefficients should be obtained at approximately the same temperature. For this purpose measurements were made of the conductivity at 0°, both of solutions of the range of concentration used in the observations of the freezing-point and also of very dilute solutions of the electrolytes. These latter measurements are required for the determination of the specific molecular con- ductivities at infinite dilution for 0°C. Determination of the Specific Molecular Conductivities at Infinite Dilution for O°C. A series of simple solutions varying in concentration from .01 to .0001 in the case of the salts, and from .01 to .001 for the BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 149 acid, were prepared and their conductivities measured at 18° and at 0°. The conductivity of the water used in the prepara- tion of these solutions was measured at both temperatures, and its value substracted in each case from the conductivity of the solution. Considerable care was required with these dilute solutions to obtain good results. The electrodes were thoroughly washed with a portion of the solution before placing them in the cell. Both the solutions and the water used were exposed as little as possible to the air, and the measurements were taken immediately after a solution was made. The measurements were repeated three times, and the mean of the values obtained was taken as the most probable value. The following Table I gives the values thus obtained, and the ratio 8° where “,, and mw, are the specific molecular con- His ductivities at 18° and 0° respectively. The concentrations are expressed in gramme-molecules per litre at 0°, and the specific molecular conductivities in terms of this unit and of 10~* times Kohlrausch’s new unit of conductivity. 150 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT TABLE I. Sp. Mol. Cond. Sp. Mol. Cond. = Gonveniration, || ab 1s Peat Ore i a (18) (Uo) Hi8 KCl. (74.59). 010 | 1226 Sams | 367 005 | 1244 | 787 | B67 001 127 809 367 0005 1284 84 366 0002 1293 821 365 0001 1298 824 365 Na Cl. (58.50). 010 1028 638 | 379 005 1049 651 380 001 1075 664 | 382 0005 1084 670 382 0002 | 1094. 676 | 382 0001 | 1098 679 382 | H Cl. (36.46). 010 3706 2505 -300 005 3731 2608 301 002 3753 2625 301 O01 3757 | 2626 B01 The ratio [1 Yo appears to increase as the concentration 18 diminishes, except in the case of potassium chloride where it decreases. This peculiarity is also shown in the values as caleu- lated by means of } Déguisne’s data. The agreement between Déguisne’s conductivity values at 0° and the above for the solu- tions of concentration .01 is very close, but with the dilute solutions it is not so good. It was found impossible to obtain 1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 199, tab. 7. BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 151 concordant results with solutions of greater dilution than those above. It is seen, however, that the ratio appears to reach a constant value in these dilute solutions, and the writer has assumed that the value of this ratio for the solution of concen- tration .0001 of the salts and .001 of the acid would hold for infinite dilution. Table IT gives the values of the specific molecular conductivi- ties at infinite dilution for 0° obtained from Kohlrausch’s values at 18° by aid of the above ratios. The conductivities are expressed as in Table I. TABLE II. Specific Molecular Conductivity at Infinite Dilution. Electrolyte. For 18°C. For 0°C. 16 OH eee acter, corthe CA ee nese 11312 833 Nain ers evcratate, foray atevicte etal st atc 11103 682 151 (Olle as een se Bee ois Gre eRe orae | 23774 2638 Determination of the Ionization Coefficients at O°C. for Simple Solutions. For this purpose the specitic conductivities at 0°C. for series of simple solutions of each electrolyte were found. These conduc- tivity values are also necessary for the drawing of the curves showing the relation between the concentration and the conduc- tivity ; these curves being required in the determination of the ionization coefficients in the mixtures. Table III contains the observed values and also the ioniza- tion coefficients calculated therewith. The concentrations are expressed in gramme-molecules per litre at 0°C., and the conductivity in terms of 10~* times Kohlrausch’s new unit. 1 Kohl. u. Holb., loc. cit., p. 200, tab. 8. 2 Wied. Ann., 50, 385, 1893. 152 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT TABLE III. Specific Ionization Concentration. | Conductivity Coefficients (2). at 0°C. at 0°C. (i). (a). KCl: | .03 | 22.73 910 05 ele .892 .08 58.32 .875 .10 71.88 .862 .20 138.5 8032 i Oo oro bo bo > o Oo = = or 2 & = © Na Cl 03 18.34 896 05 29.92 877 08 46.93 860 10 58.038 850 20 IONE 815 30 161.0 787 : 40 208 9 765 | —— H Cl 03 76.43 966 05 HADI 956 08 198.9 942 10 246.1 933 20 480.3 910 30 710.6 898 40 933.4 884 Determination of the Values of M. The following Table IV contains the values of the depression of the freezing-point of the simple solutions. These values, being the means of three observations, are given to four places of decimals. It also contains the values of the lowering (M) pro- duced by each gramme-molecule or gramme-ion of the electrolyte BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 153 in the solution, calculated by expression (3) with the data given in this Table and in Table III. The concentrations are expressed as in former tables and the depressions in centigrade degrees. TABLE IV. Cabecnieaiion: ieee Deeeeien: (0). (M). KCL 03 .1060 1.85 05 1752 1.85 .08 2776 1.85 105 .B458 1.86 20 6795 1.86 I) 1.0171 1.86 .40 1.3487 1.87 Na Cl. .08 1072 1.89 .05 .1768 1.88 08 2824 1.90 10 8515 | 1.90 20 .6885 1.90 30 1.0292 1.92 40 1.3646 1.93 H Cl. .03 .1078 1.83 .05 .1786 1.83 .08 . 2835 1.83 .10 8552 ibs 20 | 7138 1.87 40 | 1.4553 1.93 By comparing Loomis’ values of the depression of the freez- ing-point with these values, it will be seen, that the agreement in many cases is very close. If both results are plotted the curve, formed by joining the points given by the above values, 154 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT will be a little above that obtained from Loomis’ values. As mentioned above, the melecular depression increases as the solu- tions become stronger. According to Van’t Hoff’s theory the value of the molecular depression should be 1.86. *Loomis found experimentally that, with a large number of non-eleetrolytes in aqueous solutions, the molecular depression was 1.86 for the dilute solutions. In the case of the electrolytes used above, with the ionization coeffi- cients determined by the conductivity method, the values of the molecular depression are seen to be grouped around this value. The divergence from this value may partly be accounted for by the use of the doubtful values of the specific molecular conduc- tivities at infinite dilution for 0°, employed in the calculations of the ionization coefficients. Mixtures of Solutions of Two Electrolytes. Since equal volumes of simple solutions of two electrolytes, having one ion in common, were mixed, and the molecules of the electrolytes used dissociate each into two ions, expression (2), as there was no change of volume on mixing, reduces to: PS =a Mae le 2) teelinteg (L GP aes eee (4) in which 7, and 7, are the concentrations of the simple con- stituent solutions, For the calculation of A the depression of the freezing-point of the mixture by this expression, the 7's are known, the a’s are obtained by the modification of Prof. MacGregor’s method fully described in my former ? paper, and the M’s in the manner referred to above. Results of the Calculations. Table V gives the data necessary for the calculation of the depression of the freezing-point of mixtures of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium chloride and hydro- chloric acid. It also shows the agreement of the calculated with the observed values. The concentrations, molecular depres- sions of the constituent solutions, and the depressions of the freezing-points of the mixtures are expressed as in Table IV. 1 Phys. Review, 9, 257, 1899. 2Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci, 10, 124, 1899-1900. 155 BARNES. BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES, al €100°+ LEGIT F26U'T | 66° eri CLL S100° - 188" OFES" 16'T 98'T S6L" 9100° - OFS9" 9¢89" 06°T 98°T 918" 8100° - T0¢S9" 6129" 06°T 98'T SIs" €000° + LOI9" F919" 06°T 98°T 028" 9000° — Gcgg’ 199S° 06 T 98'T C78" L000° + QTLL’ 6OLL’ 06'T 98°T LOS" 9100° — CHEF T9SP* 06° T 98° 1 E83" 0100" — SENG" St9G" 06°T cg T £98" 9000° + 682" E8ZC" 06°T cs'T 998" G000° — LEG’ ran 68°T cg'T SLs" 6000° + SIFT QOFT' 68 'T cg 'T 988° ‘onyvA “One A | (21M) (TN) ‘(&) pezepnoen poadosqO 10 &N 10M 10 &N ‘Q0UdIO TC ‘OINYXTIPAL JO “OANJXTYA, UT “9.0 92 qurod-Suizoe1y JO uoTssoido( uoIssoldaqd Iv[NO9TOJT "A GTaVia S18" Les’ 6&3" cEés" 863° OFS" 6c8" 3" SLs’ 683° 068° C06" *(Tp) TO OIN{XTPL UL SJUSTOYJOH UOLVZzIUOT “(Su (Tw) TO ®N TO Sf “9.0 7B SUOTINIOS JuongTysSUOo;) ‘SUOTJVIJUIDU0D THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT ON FLO0" — 9EFC'T OSte'T | €6'T 66'T T68° OLL’ OF’ Ui LO00° + gcLs” 8FLs° 68'T I6'T L06° | L6L" 06° " L100° - L969" F869" L8'T 06'T 816" C18" 0) oe i) L000° + ¥E99" L199" L3°T 06'°T 616" | 0¢8° 80° tf E100" — 0609" | SOT9" 98°T 06°T 616° ¥c3" <0" " FIO0’ — 8ELg° Gols" 98°T 06'T 616" S68" €0° OS" 00° — FE08" Lg08* 88'T I6'T 806° 008" OV’ " 9000° — CEPR Serr cs'T 06'T ¥66" 968" 0G" " TIO0" + C996" PSIG" 68'T 06°T L¥6" 098° Or’ " 8000° + SIEG LO&G' 68'T 06'°T CL6" 998" 80° " €000° — §8L1° 98LT° 68'T 68'T 8°6" LL8° g0° : " 8000° — | Scr EFT" 68'T 68°T 096° €88° €0° | gO" | “ON[VA. ‘On[VA (21) (TW) ! *(%n) (Tn) (Bu) | (Tw) pozyepno[eVy Po9AtosqO, TOREL TO &N TO H ‘TO ®N TO H TO @N “QOUDIOT LT i ‘dINXIPT JO ‘OINYXIPL UT “9.0 18 OINgXIAy UT *9.098 SUOTINTOS JuaN{TySUOA jurod-suizoo1y Jo uoIssaidaq uolssoidoq] Ie[Noo[Oyy SJUSIOYJaoO,) UOTIVZIUOT ‘SUOTJVIJUDDUOLZ 156 ‘(panuyuog)—A AIAVI, BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 1H It is difficult to estimate the limit of error of the above observations. ‘lhe observed values are in all cases means of at least three observations, which were found to differ from their mean values in different cases by very different amounts up to 0.001 degree. There are also many sources of error in the calculations and they do not admit of exact valuation. As a rough estimate the limit of error due to both observation and calculation may probably be put at 0.0015 degree. If this estimate is approximately correct, the above table shows that the agreement between the observed and calculated values is very satisfactory for both mixtures of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium chloride and hydro- chloric acid. Mixtures of Solutions of Three Electrolytes. In the case of mixtures of the three electrolytes used as equal volumes of the simple solutions were mixed, and there was no change of volume on mixing, and as each molecule of these electrolytes breaks down into two ions, expression (2) becomes A=}[M, n, (1+a@,) + M, 2, (1+a@,)+M, , (1+@,)] .... (5) where the n’s are the concentrations of the constituent solutions, Thus in any mixture the n’s are known, the M’s can be obtained as above, and the a’s can be determined by the method given below. Determination of the Ionization Coefficients in Mixtures of Three Electrolytes. 1 Professor MacGregor has shown how to obtain equations sufficient for finding the ionization coefficients in a mixture of any number of electrolytes having a common ion, and how to solve them by a graphical procedure. As in the case of mixtures of two electrolytes,* I have, in the present case also, transformed 1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 2, 69, 1896-97. 2 Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 10, 124, 1899-1900, 158 ON THE DEPRESSION OF THE FREEZING-POINT Professor MacGregor’s equations so as to express them in terms of regional conductivities and concentrations. In the case of mixtures of three electrolytes the transformed equations are as follows :— je) Ps fee SE a Oa etd. 6 ; Hoo 9 Hoo 3 me (8) N, NG No oS. C, + Te == Ue ag) Das Se Se se CE) | 1 (C3); ka=To (Co) (crtrtttttttetetes (8) where 1, 2, and 3 denote the electrolytes, the k’s the specific conductivities of the electrolytes in the regions which they respectively occupy in the mixture, (these conductivities having the same values as in simple solutions of equal concentrations), the yo’s the specific molecular conductivities at infinite dilution, the N’s the concentrations of the mixture with respect to each electrolyte, and the C’s the regional concentrations, which in the cease of dilute solutions are the concentrations of the constituent isohydric solutions. We have thus six equations for the determination of three k’s and three C’s. These equations can be solved by a graphical process. In the first place the values of the specific conductivities of elec- trolyte 2, (k,), are multiplied by the constant Poot and those of wo 2 electrolyte 3, (k,), by ae Equations (8) are now employed by o3 drawing curves having as abscissee the values of the specific conductivities, and the corresponding values of the concentrations as ordinates. Three points are now found by inspection, one on each curve, having a common abscissa, according to equations (6), BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES.—BARNES. 159 and ordinates, (C,, C, and C,), whose values when substituted in equation (7), satisfy this equation. By this method we have found k,,C ©, and C,; andk, and k, are easily obtained from equations (6). The a’s, the ionization coefficients in the k mixture, are then determined from the relation, a = a6; Hoo Results of the Calculations. The following Table VI contains the results of the calculations by expression (5); also the experimental values obtained for the depression of the freezing-point of mixtures of solutions of , potassium chloride, sodium chloride and hydrochloric aid. The results in all the columns are expressed asin Table V. i a 2 ee a See ee — 4 a 9100° — FLCG 0666" 68°T time 98°T ¥06 O6L" 1¢8 0S 06° | u A Ss €000° — EF69° E69" L8'T 06°T 98°T S13" rI8° 6&8" 0G" OL’ " io) = ee00° + LEG" is sfey 98 °T 66'T 98°T 616 S68" Ors" OL 80 0& Fy Hy Fa00° + F69P" OLOF* es 1 06 fT 98°T 186° 8&8" 698" OL 06° " a 3 4000° — COLE’ GILG" 68'T | 06°T 98° 1 V6" 098° | SL8° 80° 0) " a FOO’ + G68T" SL8T" 68°T | 68 'T S81 | 696" PLS" 068° <0" 90° gO" A S | : i ee “ONTVA “One A “em | <@m | (tm | (%) | *@2) | (>) (eu) | (Bu) (Tu) Ba poareno[eg poArdesqo | TO H | ‘TO ®N TO of TO H ‘TO ®N | TO 1 TO H ‘TO ®N TO SL 3 ‘g0udl0ytqg =| — A ' A *OINJXTJAL JO ‘OINYXIP UL “29.0 1B 9ANYXIPAL UL lan ye suOTIN[O, JUONITISUO/| = qutod-Suizo014q, Jo uoisseidoq uoIssoida(q] Iv[MOVTOPL SJUNTOYJoo,) UWOTJeZTUOT | WOT] BIJ UVDUOD, x tS ben we ee eee ee EE Eee ial Zi ‘IA WIV ie) 160 BY MIXTURES OF ELECTROLYTES—BARNES. 161 The calculated values in this Table will have a greater pos- sible error than those in Table V, due to the greater number of experimental data required. In the observed values the possible error is the same as before. Considering the many sources of error in both these values the above agreement between them is very satisfactory. Conclusions. The above results show that in the case of mixtures of solu- tions of potassium chloride and sodium chloride, and of sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid, and of all three, it is possible, with the ionization coeflicients obtained by the method referred to above, and on the assumption that the molecular depression of an electrolyte in a mixture is the same as it would be in a simple solution of the same total concentration, to predict the depression of the freezing-point within the limit of the error involved in observation and calculation. a Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Scr, Vou. X. TRANS.— X. IV.—On THE SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE POSITION OF THE UNION AND RIVERSDALE FORMATIONS OF Nova Scotia, REFERRED TO THE DEVONIAN SYSTEM BY SOME CANADIAN GeEoLocists.—By H. M. Ami, M. A., D. Se., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Cunada, Ottawa. (Read December iith, 1899.) Considerable discussion has arisen of late amongst European as well as North American geologists, as to where certain series of sedimentary strata occurring near the summit of the Palseozoie should be placed, either in the Carboniferous or in the Devonian system. Whether certain other geological formations, occurring in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, should be described as Permian, or classed as Upper Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous, con- stitutes another problem. It is not within the province of this paper, however, at this time, to discuss this latter question, which it is hoped may form the subject of another paper before long, Where to draw the line between the Carboniferous and Devonian systems in Eastern Canada, is therefore the question at issue, Itis the purpose of the writer to enter this field of enquiry without any leaning or bias to any one view, but to take up the evidence as it presents itself to him and as it was collected by him during the last four years in the Counties of Pictou, Colchester, Cumberland, Antigonish, Hants, and Kings, in Nova Scotia, referring to such athe localities and additional evidence only as the occasion may require. Numerous and varied opinions have been given by many writers on this important question of the dividing line between the Devonian and the Carboniferous. These were consulted merely with the purpose of obtaining notes of records of obser- vations that might help to throw light upon the problem, without (162) CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA.—AMI. 163 any prejudice or desire to accept one view or another, unless the facts adduced proved to be wholly reliable evidence. Abram Gesner, Sir William Dawson, Sir Charles Lyell, Dr. Jackson, Prof. Alger, Prof. J. P. Lesley, M. de Koninck, M. de Verneuil, Mr. Hugh Fletcher, Dr. R. W. Ells, Mr. Henry 8%. Poole, Richard Brown, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F. R.S., J. W. Kirkby, Mr. J. W. Salter, Dr. Henry Woodward, Dr. G. F, Matthew, Prof. Bailey, Mr. A. Smith Woodward, Mr. Robert Kidston, and Prot. David White, have all contributed by their writings. published or in manuscript, to the literature of this interesting controversy. I shall not attempt to review the difference of opinion which may exist between what may be turmed the two schools of geology as regards the constitution of the Devonian system, especially as regards the uppermost members of that system,— The Lonsdalean School, whose characteristics of the Devonian age are based more especially upon the life-zones or palzontological evidence which the formations hold, and the Murchisonian School, which emphasizes more especially the stratigraphical succession, with little reference to palzeontological evidence. From a considerable study of the origin or genesis of the various geological formations in question, or of the cycles of constructive forms affecting them, the periods of erosion noticed, together with the life-zones which these formations contain, and characterize them, one has been able to arrive at a conelusion which, it is hoped, will be in accord with the views of the rest of the world, so that whatever interpretation is given to the Carboniferous system in one continent, the same should likewise hold good for another. The same with the Devonian system. Just as Time was a constant factor during the evolution or history of the Carboniferous system of this world, and that the amount of time involved is a definite period, so also was Life a constant factor; and the several subdivisions of the Carbonifer- ous system—the Eo-, Meso-, and Neo-Carboniferous, must be marked by corresponding series of Life-zones of the same system. 164 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM No difficulty has been experienced in separating the various geological formations in the Counties of Nova Scotia mentioned above, nor of understanding their taxonomic relations. The most excellent work of Mr. Hugh Fletcher, of the Geological Survey of Canada, who kindly furnished me with maps and plans of the region in question, shows clearly the true and natural order of sequence of the formations. The main question at issue, how- ever, has been where to place the series of sediments hitherto known, and designated by Mr. Hugh Fletcher as the “ Rocks of Union and Riversdale”: in the Carboniferous or in the Devonian system. Mr. Fletcher would place them in the Devonian. I include them as formations in the Carboniferous system (and would also classify in the same system the red rocks of Mispee and the Lancaster fern-ledges of New Brunswick, which hold much the same flora and fauna). The various formations of the Carboniferous system do not form an unbroken succession of sedimentary strata in the disputed region either of Pictou, Col- chester and adjacent counties. Great breaks and unconformities appear on every hand. It may not be considered out of place here to look for a moment at some of the principles involved in such questions as arise inthis problem. Portions of formations constituting cycles of sedimentation or of constructive forms, marking peculiar physical conditions of deposition, followed by periods of erosion, and subsequent depositions, occur at various horizons, and were it not for their entombed faunas it would be most difficult to state in which of the subdivisions of the Palaeozoic column to place them. Where sedimentation as marked by cycles of con- structive forms is not continuous, the basis or principle upon which the separation of the different members of the series depends, must obtain in the paleontological evidence collected in the various members whose succession, though not perfect, is, nevertheless, known as to its order. Similarity in the types or organic forms found, assists one in uniting series of sediments as part and parcel of one system, just as dissimilarity enables one to separate series of sediments from ~ IN EASTERN CANADA,—AMI. 165 which they were derived. Comparisons must be instituted between the various life-zones occurring in the natural succession of strata, and wherever they are exposed they can easily be recognized however fragmentary or isolated they may be, pro- vided they are fossiliterous, and that the evidence thus obtained can be compared with standard sections recognized the world over. The characteristic life-zones of the Carboniferous System, as they have been elaborated the world over, can be very easily prepared, and in order to be recogaized as typical they must be in accord with the concensus of opinion with the rest of the world. They must not contain assemblages of organisms or types which are not in harmony with, but must be organically and chronologically related to, the types that are everywhere held to be of Carboniferousage. Fortunately for the geologist, although there are unconformities or breaks in the succession of strata there is abundant evidence of life of various orders and classes entombed in the various formations. THE JOGGINS SECTION. One grand and continuous section of strata of the Carbon- iferous system to very near the summit thereof, in which are entombed myriads of organisms, plants and animals in regular succession also, is found along the Joggins shore, in the western portion of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. This section was deseribed in detail by Sir William Logan, and subsequently by Sir William Dawson and Dr. R. W. Ells. It extends from Min- udie to McCarren’s Cove, along the shore of the Cumberland Basin. This forms one standard section. No other such exists in Nova Scotia, and a systematic collection of the fossil organic remains entombed in its strata ought to be made for reference, in order to compare the succession of life-zones here with those of other portions of Nova Scotia and North America. In the United States, Mr. David White informs me that there have been noted not less than seven standard sections of the Carbon- iferous System, in distinct fields: Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Missouri and other States. These all have their peculiar charac- 166 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM ters, and may be described as local series. Whereas each particular basin of Carboniferous rocks or sediments may have its own particular conditions of sedimentation which led to peculiar local differences existing between the several basins which may be under examination and comparison, there can be no doubt at all about the series belonging to the Carboniferous System, when the results obtained in Great Britain, France: Germany, and the world over, have been consulted. Such a recognized succession as the consensus of opinion in the world has established as marking the Carboniferous System, must be a term which includes within its scope the various members of the different local series under examination. Unequal amounts of sedimentation at different horizons in a System and in different districts, have created difficulties, but formed an interesting feature in the study of the correlation of strata. It has been conceded that in the case of the 14,000 feet of strata which constitute the Joggins section in Nova Scotia, sedimentation must have been very rapid, and though deposited in a perfectly unbroken succession, such strata may have taken much less time actually to be laid down than a few hundred feet of shales and sandstone belonging to the same system in another section. 1t follows from this, that local series of Carboniferous strata may be of very great thickness in one part of the continent, or comparatively thin in another part. It is possible for the whole system of the Carboniferous to be unusually extensive in its development of sediments, as has certainly been the case in Nova Scotia when compared with sediments of the same age in Penn- sylvania. here is evidence of great rapidity in sedimentation. Evidence of rapidity in sedimentation is clearly seen in the strata, what I refer to the Eo-Carboniferous of Colchester and Pictcu Counties in Nova Scotia, as represented by the Union and Riversdale formations. Ripple-marked surfaces and shallow water indications occur on all sides. Hundreds of feet of unbroken succession of strata, practically each stratum beauti- fully marked by ripples and wind action, as well as by the foot- IN EASTERN CANADA.—-AMI. 167 prints and trails of reptilian and other animals, such as are seen to occur at East and West Bay, near Partridge Island, Parrsboro, and point clearly to rapid deposition or accumulation of sediment along a fast-sinking floor. The main reason for introducing this argument is to combat the view advanced in certain quarters, that by placing the Union and Riversdale formations into the Carboniferous system, it would make the latter too cumbersome and unwieldly a system, and take away from an older, underlying system—the Devonian, and rob it of parts of its sediments. The following occur to me to constitute the successive series or sediments which belong to the Carboniferous system in certain portions of Nova Scotia. I.—THE Eo-CARBONIFEROUS. In this lower portion of the Carboniferous system, I would place the Union and Riversdale series of sediments, which are well and extensively developed in Pictou, Colchester and Cum- berland Counties ; at Union and Riversdale ; along Harrington River; on the Moose River; at East and West Bay, near Parrsboro ; Archibald’s Brook ; Oliver’s Mills; McKay’s, ete., on the East River of Pictou, and at numerous other localities. The expressions “ Rocks of Union and of Riversdale,” I would describe as formations, calling one the Union formation, the other, the Riversdale formation. These are easily recognized over wide areas, geographically, and are characterised by a well- defined fauna and flora, at least as far as the Riversdale formation is concerned, the Union formation owing to its highly ferruginous character proving almost everywhere to be very destitute of fossil organic remains. FOssILS FROM THE RIVERSDALE FORMATION. The two principal localities from which the fossils of this formation may best be obtained, occur in the Riversdale Station district, close to the boundary line between Colchester and Pictou Counties, and in the Harrington River district near the boundary between Colchester and Cumberland Counties. 168 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM Riversdale District—Fossils from this locality were obtained along the Black River branch of the Salmon River, along the Calvary Brook, just east of Riversdale; also in the numerous cuttings along the line of the Intercolonial Railway between West River Station (Pictou County) and Riversdale Station (Colchester County). In the rather fine grained dark gray or greenish gray arenaceous and black or dark carbonaceous shales of the cuttings along the I. C. R., plants, as well as animal remains, occur. Amongst the groups of organic remains examined and reported upon up to date are aseries of plants sent to Mr. Robert Kidston of Stirling, Scotland. The entomostraca were submitted to Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F. R.8., and the crustacea (Podophthal- mata) to Dr. Henry Woodward. . PLANTA. 1, Arterophyllites acicularis, Dawson,( = Calamocladns equi- setiformis, Schl.) 2. Sphenopteris marginata, Dawson. 3. Neuropteris, sp. 4, Alethopteris, sp.; allied to Alethopteris valida, Boulay. 5. Cordaites principalis, Germar, 6. ‘ Robbii, Dawson. 7. Cyclopteris (Nephropteris) varia, Dawson. 8. Calamites, sp. (2) 9. Cardiocarpum cornutum, Dawson. Crustacea, (Xiphosura). Belinuride. 1. Belinurus grandevus, Henry Woodward and T. R. Jones. CRUSTACEA, (Entomostraca). Phyllopoda. 1. Leaia tricarinata, Meek and Worthen. 2. Leaia Leidvi, var. Beentschiana, Beyrich and Geinitz. 3. Estheria Dawsoni, Jones. IN EASTERN CANADA.—AMI. 169 LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 1. Anthiacomya elongata, Dawson. DI Z obtusa, Dawson. Insecta. 1. “A neuropteroid insect allied to Miamia Bronsoni”— determined by Prof. Charles Brongniart, of the Muséum dhistoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Vermes. 1. Spirorbis Eriaia, Dawson, attached to leaves of Cor- daites Robbu, Dawson. Harrington River District—The shales and sandstones, from which the fossils of the Riversdale formation were obtained, occur along the boundary of the counties of Colchester and Cumberland—the strike of the strata being generally across the direction of the stream. As pointed out by Mr. H. Fletcher, this locality proved to be particularly rich in fossils. PLANT. 1. Arterophyllites acicularis, Dawson. 2. Calamites, sp. 3. Sphenopteris dilatata, Dawson. 4. Harttii, Dawson. 5. ra splendens, Dawson. 6. H marginata, Dawson. de < sp. 8. Aneimites valida, Dawson. 9. Adiantites ? or Archzeopteris, sp. 10. Neuropteris, sp. 11. Alethopteris discrepans, Dawson, (= Alethopteris decur- rens, Artis, sp.) 12. Cyperites-like leaves. 13. Cardiocarpum cornutum, Dawson. 14. Psilophytum ? glabrum, Dawson. Animalia. BATRACHIA. 1. Hylopus Logani, Dawson. 170 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM ro Sauropus Dawsoni, (M. 8.)—From rocks apparently of this age which occur at East Bay near West Bay and Partridge Island, two miles below Parrsboro. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 1. Anthracomya elongata, Dawson. . ce obtusa, Dawson. CRUSTACEA. 1. Leaia tricarinata, Meek and Worthen. 2. Carbonia, sp. 3. Estheria Dawsoni, Jones. 4. Anthracopalemon? n. sp. The Riversdale formation thus carries a flora and fauna, which cannot be taken as one appertaining to any other system than the Carboniferous, inasmuch as the types are all akin, and generally conceded to be closely related, even to types in the productive coal measures higher up in the system. I have no hesitation to state that, in the Union and Rivers- dale formations, we have obtained in Nova Scotia a fauna and flora, which, while not as extensive nor as varied as that obtained in the productive coal measures of the same Province, are never- theless remarkably similar in their biological characteristics, imbedded in a series of sediments, terrigenous in character, and for the most part estuarine, carrying Carbonaceous shales and sandstones, underclays and conglomerates, constituting just a series of strata as that, which, having begun in Eo-Carbonifterous time, were interrupted by an encroachment of the Carboniferous Sea (Windsor formation) in which marine conditions prevailed, and limestones were deposited, holding abundance of marine shells and other fossil organic remains peculiar to salt-water conditions, and were followed by newer, or higher, or later strata, such as are met in the “ Millstone grit ” and “ Coal measures ” of the same region, of various writers, characterised also by terrig- enous deposits, and enclosing a fauna and flora whose affinities are remarkably akin to the forms found in the Eo-Carboniferous . IN EASTERN CANADA—AMI. al formations of Union and Riversdale, giving us the following natural, though interrupted general succession of strata, in descending order :— SUCCESSION. CoNDITIONS. FossILs. III. Coal Measures’ and Estuarine. Land plants, land animals, Millstone grit. shallow water conditions and forms, If. Windsor formation. |Marine. Marine shells, corals, sea- life. see oS |) ee Ee 3 I. Union and Riversdale Estuarine. Land plants, land animals, formations. shallow water conditions and forms. As evidence of the similarity of forms peculiar to the Ko- Carboniferous of Colchester and Pictou Counties and the Coal measures of the same, let us take the different orders or groups of fossil organic remains affording Paleontological evidence as noted on page 181 of the “Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department for 1898 and 1899.” EVIDENCE FROM ANIMAL LIFE. Insecta —Neuropterous insects have been discovered in the shallow water deposits of Riversdale age, in a cutting on the Intercolonial Railway east of Riversdale and Campbell’s Siding, about a mile and a half west of West River Station, and the wing obtained and sent to the Museum d’Histoire Naturelles, is referred to a Carboniferous genus by Prof. Brongniart, of Paris, France—a most eminent authority on the Fossil Insects of the Carboniferous. Phyllopoda.—The numerous specimens of Leaia and Estheria from the Carbonaceous and other shales of the Riversdale form- ation of Colchester, Pictou, and Cumberland Counties, are very similar to the forms described from the Coal Measures of Pictou, County, and also from the Coal Measures of the United States. All the species of Leaia recorded in North America so far, are 172 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM referred to the Coal Measures. This genus, however, was abun- dant in early Carboniferous times, as may be gathered from those specimens obtained by me in the red, black and gray shales of the Union and Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia, which, though they underlie the Marine limestones of the Windsor formation, are nevertheless referred to the Eo-Carboniferous, a position which the enclosed fauna of Phyllopods warrants in assigning. Crustacea.—Several specimens of a new genus, and new species of one of the Podophthalmata and Xiphosura, occur in the Harrington River and Riversdale collections in Colchester County. These Crustaceans are highly characteristic of the Carboniferous system in Europe and America, and their occur- rence at this horizon, together with their generic characters, point to them as prototypes of higher forms found in the higher subsequent cycle of sedimentation in the series of sediments referred to in the Coal measures above. Of these, Belinwrus grandevus, 'T. R. Jones and H. Woodward, has been recently described, and the authors describe it as a Carboniferous form, related to Carboniferous species in Great Britain. Amphibia.—Of these animals there are both footprints and trails in the collection of the Geological Survey or National Museum at Ottawa, which are referable to the genera Sawropus and Hylopws, which were obtained from rocks of Union and Riversdale horizon, and some are of gigantic size. All other footprints referable to this genus in North America, have been described as Carboniferous and, consequently, the Parrsboro and Spencer’s Island specimens are Carboniferous, rather than any other horizon. In his “Geology, Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphieal,” Oxford, 1888, Professor Prestwich gives a table “Showing the character and distribution of the species of organic remains in the several main groups of the Paleeozoic series in the British area.’ Under the head of Amphibians (including footprints) he notes the occurrence of these in the Carboniferous, but none in the Devonian. IN EASTERN CANADA.—AMI. 173 Dr. S. A. Miller, in his “ North American Geology and Pale- ontology,” containing that useful Catalogue of North American Paleozoic Fossils, does not record a single Amphibian from rocks older than the Carboniferous, and the genera Sawropus and Iylopus occurring in the Riversdale formation of Nova Scotia, are identical with and similar to those found in the Carbonifer- ons, or other regions of North America. Prof, James D. Dana, in his “ Manual of Geology,” Sir Arch- ibald Geikie in his “Text Book of Geology,” also, all the leading nomenclators and writers on North American or European Geology and Paleontology, agree in placing the genera Sawropus and Hylopws to which I have referred the footprints from Parrsboro and Harrington River, of Cumberland and Colchester County, from the Riversdale formation, as Carboniferous. Lamellibranchiata.—Of these the most conspicuous are the Anthracomye of Salter, which Sir William Dawson described under the name of Naiadites. These shells are abundant in the Coal Measures of the Joggins, Springhill, Pletou and Sydney Basins of Nova Scotia, also in the Pennsy]vania, Virginia and other coal areas of the United States, not to speak of their occurrence in the Carboniferons of England and France, and many other countries of Europe. They occur in bands in the Riversdale formation at Riversdale, and in numerous outcrops along the banks of the Harringtoh River, on the dividing line between Colchester and Cumberland Counties, and the term “ Naiadites Bands” or “ Naiadites Shales,’ which are usually associated with Ostracoda of the genus Carbonia, and other allied genera of Carboniferous affinity, is applicable to these Eo-Carboniferous bands. All writers on Geology and Paleontology, concur in placing these shells in the Carboniferous. All the species recorded from the United States are referred to the Coal Measures, whilst those from the Union and Riversdale formations of Colchester and Cumberland Counties in Nova Scotia, are, by the writer, placed in the Eo-Carboniferous, It will thus be seen that the palezentological evidence adduced in the geological collections so far obtained from the Riversdale formation of Nova Scotia, 174 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM including Insects, Phyllopods, Crustaceans, Amphibians and Lamellibranchiata, are all types which are markedly akin to. types well known to occur in the Carboniferous of other countries, and more than that, such are usually met with in the. Coal Measures of the same.* It has been one of my constant endeavours to obtain Devonian fossils from those areas of Nova Scotia ascribed to. the Devonian in the Riversdale and Harrington River Sections ; but I have found only Carboniferous types. EVIDENCE FROM PLANT LIFE. Besides the above, there is the evidence adduced from the flora collected in the strata which yielded the forms of animal life just cited above, and it can be truly said that it also has a decided Carboniferous facies. The genera Asterophyllites, Sphen- opteris, Alethopteris, Cardiopteris, Stigmariu, Calamites, Poac- ites, Cordaites are all represented. From communications recently received from Mr. Robert Kidston, of Stirling, Scotland, the well- known author of the British Museum Catalogue of Carboniferous Plants, who has examined the forms sent him, we learn that he is satisfied that the flora is truly a Carboniferous one. Quite independently, Prof. David White of the Smithsonian Institution and United States Geological Survey at Washington, arrived at the same conciusion when he kindly made a prelimin- ary examination of the collections from Nova Scotia cited above, and then in our possession at Ottawa, and invariably referred the forms detected to the Carboniferous system. From our own study of the numerous collections obtained in the so-called disputed areas in question, from the areas of the Riversdale formation, we cannot but come to the conclusion that instead of finding Devonian types of plants and animals, they proved in almost every case to be Carboniferous. Neither is it to be wondered at, that, on studying the affinities and relations of the fossil plants, etc., of Riversdale, McKay’s Head, and Har- * The term ‘‘Coal Measures” is an unfortunate one to designate a Geological formation, and should never be used to designate horizon. It is a purely lithological or econ- omic term, and conveys no idea of the Geological position in the Time scale: Productive Coal Measures can occur at any horizon in the ©arboniferous. IN EASTERN CANADA.—AMI. ies rington River, from strata now referred to the Riversdale formation, Sir William Dawson placed them in the Millstone Grit formation, so intimate are their relations to the plants of the Coal Measures; and from my own observations also to the faunas and floras which are now known to immedi- ately underlie the Millstone Grit of certain portions of Nova Scotia. The Riversdale formation must now, therefore, both on account of its position in the succession of sediments and especially from the life-zones it holds, be classed as an Eo-Carboniferous formation. This formation clearly underlies that series of marine limestones referable to the Windsor formation, as this has been described and mapped out fully by Sir Wm. Dawson, and more lately and with special care and accuracy by Mr. Hugh Fletcher. II].—TuHeE MARINE SEDIMENTS. In the districts of Nova Scotia under examination, besides the Eo-Carboniferous formations of Union and Rivesdale, con- sisting of red shales and sandstones and conglomerates, more or less strongly cemented together, together with the series of dark grey coloured, and black or greenish and rusty shales as defined by Mr. Hugh Fletcher, forming a great thickness of sediments, constitute one of the cycles of sedimentation peculiar to the Carboniferous System, there occur certain other strata overlying these unconformably, viz.: the marine limestones and associated gypsum, marls, shales and sandstones. These marine limestones, &c., hold abundance of fossil organic remains, as shown on the East Branch of the East River of Pictou at Springville; at Brooktield ; and Miller’s Lime Kiln near the D. A. R. Bridge, Windsor, N.8., where the series is highly fossiliferous and the forms are well preserved. The term, “Windsor Series,” is quite applicable to these strata and deserves to be recognized as constituting a typical formation or phase of the Carboniferous system in this portion of Eastern Canada. 176 SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM Just where to place this Windsor formation in the column of Palseozoic formations has not yet been detinitely ascertained. Whether it is to be classed as one of the EKo-Carboniferous sedi- ments, or whether it constitutes a factor or part of what may be termed, according to Prof. H. S. Williams’s very appropriate classfication, Meso-Carboniferous, is the question occupying our mind at present. It is, nevertheless, to be remarked that the fauna it contains is one in which so far not one of the Upper- most Devonian fossils of the Gaspé and other regions of Eastern Canada have been detected. The occurrence of this formation in certain basins of Nova Scotia marks a cessation of the conditions existing in the areas which these limestones cover, showing that the sea or Atlantic waters in Carboniferous times extended over the Eo-carboniferous deposits previously laid down, which had been subjected to subsidence and erosion previous to their being overlaid, whilst the vegetation and climate did not, probably, change very materially in the high land during this period of submergence and encroachment of the sea. A period of elevation evidently must have followed the deposition of the limestones, marls, &c., and sandstones and mudstones and shales were deposited, to be followed later again by sandstones with shales and coal seams peculiar to the “Coal Measures ” and “ Millstone Grit ” formations. Such deposits are essentially terrigenous as to their origin and the structure, as well as origin and mode of deposition of the Coal Measures need not be described. The flora and fauna they hold mark the estuarine conditions existing and prevailing at the time, also the luxuriant growth of plants on land with the contemporaneous animal life of the period both in the water and on the land also. A brief summary of the succession of the sediments in the Carboniferous of Nova Scotia in Pictou, Colchester and Cumber- land counties in part, such as the writer has observed it in numerous outcrops and localities, gives the following section in ascending order :— 1. Riversdale and Union formations: Consisting of red IN EASTERN CANADA.—AMI. LW Ee sandstones and conglomerates, carbonaceous shales and mud- stones, besides diorites and other basic intrusive rocks. 2. An unconformity. 3. Windsor limestones and Hopewell sandstones, constitut- ing distinct formations which overlie the Union and Riversdale formations. 4, (An unconformity, according to Mr. Fletcher.) I have not yet been able to detect any unconformity at this juncture. There is no unconformity between the Millstone grit and the underlying shales, calcareous and other conglomerates and sand- stones of Cumberland Basin. 5. Millstone grit of Skinner McDonald’s Brook. 6. In certain portions of Pictou County, N. S., an uncon- formity occurs, ¢.g., at Blackwood Brook, opposite New Glasgow, where the upturned edges of the “ Millstone Grit ” (Logan) are overlaid by the New Glasgow conglomerate of Fraser’s Mountain, &c., whereas in other portions the Millstone grit is directly superimposed by the Coal Measures, e. g., at Westville and the Joggins. This peculiar geological succession in these two areas give us two series of sediments in the succession of formations which in part only are synchronous, hold similar organic remains, but exhibit great variety in sedimentation. A. Joggins and Westville Areas. B. New Glasgow Region. V. Millstone grit. V. Millstone grit. VI. Coal Measures.* VI. Unconformity (of Blackwood Brook) VII. New Glasgow conglomerate. VIII. Spirorbis limestone. IX. Smelt Brook shales and sandstones. X. Pictou sandstones. XI. Cape John formation, red sandstones and conglomerate. * The Coal Measures of Pictou County at Stellarton and Westville consisting of bitumous shales, clays and sandstones, are not anywhere seen to be overlaid by aay of the formations in series B. Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Sci., Vou. X. TRANS. —L. 178 CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM IN EASTERN CANADA.—AMI. We would thus have the following tentative TABLE OF ForRMATIONS in the Carboniferous of part of Nova Scotia :— FORMATIONS. Northern Areas. Southern Areas. | Order. Cape John...... Cape John ‘SaNdstones.. 6. ves. cscs eens eene >.G 0 fs NO CAs [PNG ROM 56 seascbcs Pictou _HWreestones........]...sseseesseeeeseee= XI. NONE On , Smelt Brook....|4 Smelt Brookjshales| =. <--5)|/----0ccccsse secs: xs BONIFERO | Smarts Brook.. (ee IMESLONES see aemlaichicisiseeeisenstesiecmiete IX. New Glasgow ..| \N.Glasgow conglomerates]...........+-+.++-+- VIIt. Coal Measures..} VII. Unconformity. ( Stellarton asisies VL (MNTStOne Teri eon ol (awe erit: |) Vile Merso-Car- ) Westville ....f ) Unconformity (?)| V. BONIFEROUS | Hopewell....... aries .| ) Hopewell and \| IV. Wand SOLEGeerEe Windsor.... f | III. snoagscdaenoo0es ig Eo-CaR- {PLOMIMGIN Bor cecoads|loocnodvoacaobn dog ngdc00ds0u0be Whinhin sosooor Uy BONIFEROUS | Riversdale Riversdale.... f NoTE.—It is not at all improbable that the Smelt Brook formation (IX.) overlying the New Glasgow (conglomerate) formation is equivalent to the Stellarton (VI.) or “*Coal Measures” formation, which would indicate clearly the existence, as in other portions of the paleozoic in Eastern America, of two distinct series of formations which are nevertheless synchronous. The writer hopes shortly to describe each of the formations indicated in the above tentative Table of Formations for a portion of Nova Scotia, together with the relations of the latter to ether paleeozoic sediments in the same and adjoining Province of New Brunswick. V.—THE NaturAL History or Money, BY Pror. J. DAVIDSON, Put. D., Fredericton, N. B. (Read May 14th, 1900). Itis hardly possible to determine whether there ever was a time in the history of the race when each individual was self- sufficient, and, like the Homeric Cyclops, paid no regard to others, Some of the Australian tribes are so low in the scale of civilization that even barter is unknown amongst them, but whether these represent the universal primitive type cannot be determined one way or the other. It is evident, however, wherever we find the first germs of social life, we find, at the same time, a kind of rude division of labor wnich necessitates, and renders possible, the beginnings of trade. Trade in its origin is simply barter, the direct exchange of one article for another. But barter, however simple in appearance, is more complicated than modern exchange. It must often have hap- pened in the early history of trade that two parties failed to make a trade for the simple reason that, while both were anxious to give what they had, in exchange for what they wanted, neither of them needed or desired what the other had to offer. This lack of coincidence has frequently placed travellers in very great straits. If the native who holds the store of food does not find in articles which the explorer displays to catch the aboriginal fancy, something which attracts him, he passes on, and the traveller and his party have to go hungry. Sir R. Burton warns the would-be explorer against assuming that any sort of trinkets will suffice for the purchase of supplies and the hiring of labor. The African native has his own standard of taste, and no matter how gaudy and how gimcrack the stock of Brummagem goods displayed may be, the native will take such things only as agree with his standard of taste. Nothing will induce the primitive savage to take what he does not immed- lately require in exchange for the food the traveller desires, (179) 180 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. unless the articles offered in exchange conform to his standard of taste. The inconveniences of this primitive state of barter are so evident that no race or tribe which has made the first step away from barbarism, can for long remain without some sort of medium of exchange. There is need of some commodity which will be readily received by every one, although at the moment he may not wish to corsume it, in the full assurance that he can easily, in his turn, exchange it for the article he does desire. Such an interposed commodity will greatly facilitate exchanges, and to all intents and purposes may be regarded as money. What this interposed commodity is depends almost entirely on circumstances. At first, almost any commodity which is esteemed by everybody in the community will serve the purpose. There is no more foundation for the idea that there was a sort of social contract regarding some one article to be used as a medium of exchange than there is for the other historical fiction that law and language are due to a primitive contract or convention. Ne one article has been adopted as if by natural right. The original medium of exchange was simply a market- able article with a recognized value. Metallic money has reached its present supremacy because in the struggle for exist- ence it has demonstrated its superiority. There is no natural desire for the precious metals ; and even for gold there does not seem to be any natural and inherent desire apart from its utility. The sacra fames auri is a fiction of the poet and a description of the civilized mind; and the first discover of a gold nugget possibly viewed it as a sort of substitute fora bead or a shell for a necklace. Even to this day, there are peoples who do not esteem gold, and will give nothing for it. The various British and Egyptian Soudan expeditions were compelled to take along with them bulky Maria Theresa dollars, because the Arab would not take gold in exchange. The taste of the Arab is for silver ornaments. He is no fanatical silver man desirous of seeing silver remonetised. Gold he could not, or at least was not accustomed to, use as ornaments for his person, his horse, or his THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 181 weapons. Hence, gold had little utility for him, and the trans- port service was burdened with large quantities of bulky Austrian silver dollars. There are certain qualities which civilized communities require in the medium of exchange; but in early commerce these were not always demanded, perhaps often not even thought of. Each community has selected the commodity which best suits its conditions, and in the course of progress each has adopted and in time abandoned many kinds of money. But whatever the nature of the medium of exchange adopted, it served as rnoney ; and it is justly entitled to be called money, even although not metallic, or not coined ; for, after all, as Prof. Walker says, “ Money is that money does.” For the needs of modern trade, primitive money materials are entirely unsuited ; but they serve their own purpose, and as in the eyes of an early missionary to the Mexicans who, contemplating the bags of cocoanuts used by the Aztecs, exclaimed, “ Blessed money ! which exempts its possessors from avarice since it can not be long hoarded or hidden under ground,” primitive money may have peculiar advantages of its own! When in any distriet or community anv particular com- modity comes into general use, and is readily available, it generally comes in time to be unit of value and the medium of exchange. Its nature will, of course, depend on the climate and geographical position of the district ; and may be changed when the community advances to another stage of culture. The natural medium of exchange may be altered, even although the community has made no such advance. When a primitive com- munity comes into commercial contact with a more advanced race, an entirely new medium of exchange may be adopted. Thus, gin and gunpowder are, according to Bishop Tugwell, of Uganda, to all intents and purposes, the only currency in certain parts of Africa, The foreign trader may create a new value by his demand for produce which hitherto has been little esteemed. In the Caroline Islands stone money in the form of quartz wheels, varying from six inches to twelve in diameter, was formerly the money the natives used; but since the advent of 182 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. the white trader bags of copra or dried cocoanut kernel have come into general use.* The usual effect of such a contact of races has been the substitution of a corresponding manufactured article for the original commodity used by the natives. Thus, among the Pacific Coast Indians, blankets have become the medium of exchange in place of furs. Since all exchange is mutual, the civilized trader must abandon his natural medium of exchange and adopt the medium of exchange prescribed by the character of the trade. Thus, in the New England colonies, wampum, a form of shell money, and in French Canada, beaver skins, were used naturally in the trade with the Indians at all times ; and on occasion, owing to the scarcity in the colonies of small change, these articles were used as money between Europeans. Indeed, in many communities where money, as we know it, is, for one reason or other, scarce, commodities may come into use as money, not because the people know no better, but because they have no better. Thus, on the north-east coast of Newfoundland at this day, cod alone is currency.+ The natural currency of a community is that commodity in which its wealth mainly consists. In the hunting stage of society property consists in weapons of war and the chase, in a few simple, natural ornaments made of shells or teeth, and in the skins of animals, which serve for clothing, and for the cover- ing of the hut or wigwam. But as man advances in civilization, he succeeds in taming animals, whose flesh and milk form his foods, whose skins or wool form his clothing. This is the pas- toral stage in which a man’s wealth is reckoned by his herds. In the more settled agricultural stage, property consists not only of slaves and domesticated animals, but of dwellings and grain, and above all, of stocks of the precious and other metals, though indeed, in early history, all metals are precious. These later forms of wealth man has come to value according to his earlier standards of wealth; and there is every reason to believe that the original standards of value of metallic coins are based ou mere primitive ox and cow units. When man has come into *F. W. Christian. Geographical Journal, Feb., 1899. tLant: Cruising on the French shore Westminster Review, March,- 1899. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 183 the possession of the metals, and has acquired the power of working them, a long course of monetary development is possible for him. He tinds out by experience which metal suits his purpose best; and that purpose may change as the centuries pass. Our present currencies are the result of the law of the survival of the fittest. The primitive condition was general use ; and that always remains the first condition of the use of an article as currency. But along with that, there are other conditions which are stated in every monetary text-book. All the metals have been used in turn. Iron was used in Sparta, and is used to-day in the Dark Continent. Lead and tin, and platinum, gold, and silver, and copper, have all been used. But experience has shown that gold and silver pre-eminently, and copper, or some alloy of it, in a less degree, are best suited for currency purposes. This has been the general course of development ; but though it is sometimes hard, amid all the talk about progress to realize that the stationary state of society is the usual phenomenon, yet it is true that most peoples have not become civilized, and since many remain in the most primitive stages of society, we still have many actual instances of primitive currency in present day use. Progress seems alike impossible in the frozen north and in the torrid south ; and in these regions the conditions of life are almost unchanged, and there we may see the kinds of money our forefathers of untold generations ago employed. The rigour of the northern winters prevents the rearing of domestic animals, or the systematic cultivation of the soil, and there the primitive hunting stage still exists. The wealth of these Arctic communities consists in skins, and in some cases of dried fish, which they exchange with the trader from the south for their few luxuries or use for their own clothing and _ sus- tenance. Under these conditions skins, or their modern equiva- lents, form the natural medium of exchange. A writer in a popular magazine gives a graphic description of the skin money used in the Hudson Bay Territories : “Tn old times, when an Indian wanted a rifle, the rifle was stood on end, and the Indian laid furs flat on the ground till 184 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. they were heaped to the top of the gun barrel ; then the Indian took the rifle, worth possibly $50, and the Hudson Bay Company took the furs, worth from $100 to $1000, the large variation being due to the absense of discrimination on the part of the Indian a yt “At the Hudson’s Bay Company posts, on the Mackenzie River, actual money is unknown; all trade being conducted by means of a curious imaginary currency, the unit of value of which is ‘one skin.’ What sort of skin? No one knows; in fact it is no sort of skin in particular. It is merely an imag- inary skin, about equivalent in value to half a dollar. The hide of a beaver is worth ten skins; a musk ox hide is worth thirty skins ; a fine silver fox hide is worth 300 skins. These are the big bills of this unique currency. “Small change is made by musk rat hides, worth one-tenth of askin; by mink hides worth two skins, and by lynx hides worth four skins. A wolverine hide is worth sixteen skins. There is a fluctuation in the value of this currency just as there is a fluctuation in the value of silver, consequent upon the increase or decrease in its production.”* But skin currency is not so unique as this writer imagines it to be. We have no modern instance so complete, but we have many traces of the same practice. In Northern Asia the skin of the Siberian squirrel was and is the monetary unit ; and etymology shows that many of the northern nations were in the same position. ‘‘In the Esthonian language the word ritra generally signifies money, but its equivalent in the kindred Lappish tongue has not yet altogether lost the original meaning of skin or fur.’-+ And the name of a Russian small coin, the 4 kopeck, is said to mean half a hare skin, showing that the Muscovites had originally a skin currency—a fact which is also established? by the circulation of leather money in Russia as late as Peter the Great. Even in regions where there were possibilities of development, the earliest money was of this *Lee Merrithew : ‘‘ Cosmopolitan,” Nov., 1899. +Jevons : Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, p. 20. tRidgeway : Origin of Currency and Weight Standards, p. 13. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON, 185. character. “Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will he give for his life,” is a text we generally understand in some obtuse way to mean a reference to a man’s own skin. What it really points to is that, even in the pastoral stage of society which the book of Job describes, skins weie the standard of value ; and classical writers record the traditions that the earliest currency used in Rome, Sparta, and Carthage, was formed of leather. Sir John Mandeville, or his unacknowledged authority, tells us that in China, when he visited it, leather money was in circulation. We find what seems a still more modern instance in the fact that Saint Louis, the great king of France, finding a great scarcity of silver coin wherewith to pay his soldiers, caused pieces of silver wire to be fixed on leather and so circulated. But this was rather a device for protecting the silver than an actual leather money. The silver gave the value, and the leather served only as a case to preserve the small piece of silver (9 or 18 grs.) from being lost. In some communities, particularly those brought into closer contact with the traders of advanced race, the blanket of the trader has supplanted the original skin currency. This has taken place in some parts of the Hudson Bay Company’s terri- tory and eleewhere. Along the British Columbia coast also the Indians use blankets as the unit of exchange. The blankets are distinguished by prints or marks on the edge woven into the texture, the best being four-point, the smailest and poorest one point. The unit of value in trade is a single two-and-a-half point blanket, worth about a dollar and a half. All commodities are exchanged according to this standard ; even the four-point blanket is said to be worth so many blankets.* In the case of these Indians the development may have been due to a growing scarcity of fur bearing animals, and perhaps from the same reason, and also from natural development, we find in Scandinavia, in Iceland, and in the Orkney Islands, oP ailihet : Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands. Geol. Survey Report of Canada, 186 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. that cloth was the standard. Wadmail, or coarse woollen cloth formed the basis of an elaborate system of currency in Norway.” In Iceland this cloth currency gave place with the develop- ment of trade to a currency of stockfish. The foreign traders did not desire the northern coarse cloth ; but there was a steady market in Southern Europe for fish. There is extant a procla- mation for the regulation of trade between England and Iceland in which an elaborate scale of prices for articles of all kinds is drawn up in terms of dried codfish.t And in Newfoundlond cod was for a long time, and still is in many parts, the only coin, In general, one may say that whenever there arises a scarcity of metallic money in a community which produces one chief article for trade, that article will serve as money. Thus cod was used in Newfoundland, tobacco in Virginia, wheat and maple sugar in Nova Scotia,t tenpenny-nails, as Adam Smith tells us, in Kirkaldy, olive oil in the Levant, tea in Central Asia, block salt in Abyssinia, and in various parts of Asia and Africa, The history of the currency experiments of the Kuropean colonies in North America is instructive. These communities suttered from a chronic want of coin, one of the results of an ill-considered colonial policy. ‘Tobacco was a form of currency in Virginia sanctioned, not only by custom, but by actual legis- lation. In 1619, the first General Assembly of the colony established a ratio between tobacco and silver ; and almost every succeeding Assembly dealt with the same question. In 1642, tobacco became the sole legal tender; and it was not till 1656 that silver could again be used if required. But tobacco remained the actual medium of exchange, and in 1730 paper money, like our modern grain receipts and pig iron warrants, | was issued against tobacco. These, along with the commodity, formed the main money in Virginia down to the beginning of the present century, and were preferred, because more stable in value, to the continental currency. In the New England colonies a very great variety of articles of trade was made legal tender. *Morris and Bax: Socialism, its Growth and Outcome, p. 249 n. tRidgeway : op. cit., pp. 18, 19. tPatterson: Memoir of the Rev. James MacGregor, D. D., p. 82. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 187 Beaver skins formed the greater part of the circulating medium, and in 1631 it was enacted that grain could be paid unless beaver or monev (that is metallic money) were called for by the contract. This law remained in force for half a century ; and other agricultural commodities were added to the list as occasion seemed to demand. Corn, wheat, barley, and peas, at fixed prices per bushel, were sanctioned by law as currency, and taxes could be paid in them at the discretion of the taxpayer.* A similar colonial policy produced similar results in French Canada. The scarcity of metallic money was even greater than in the English colonies ; and at all times commodity substitutes for metallic coinage were in use. The scarcity was so great that in addition to the beaver skin, which was practically the unit of value, wheat was declared a legal tender in 1669 at four livres the mint, while in 1673 the council further ordered that bear skins could be tendered in payment at their current value.+ But to return to the monetary practice of primitive communi- ties. In the torrid zone clothing is a burden, and nature supplies plenteous store of the food suited to the climate. The chief objects of desire are ornaments. The instinct for personal adornment is one of the most powerful instincts of the race, Shells were the earliest and simplest articles so employed ; and we find shell money used in all parts of the world. In the torrid zone they still form the principal medium of exchange. The cowries of the countries round the Indian Ocean have many of the qualities which we require in the money material. They are durable, portable, and are universally esteemed. In India and Siam, in West Africa, as well as in East Africa, and indeed at one time or another in every country in the world on whose shores they-are found, cowries serve as the small change of com- merce. They are to-day collected in vast quantities in the Maldive and Laccadive islands to be exported to serve as money elsewhere. The value fluctuates enormously, depending on their abundance or scarcity. In Africa traders estimate a *White: Money and Banking, Chap. 1. tKingsford : History of Canada, Vol. 1, p. 156. 188 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. thousand shells at a shilling, while in India 5000 represent a rupee. ‘Tne area over which they circulate is very large; and we have evidence that they were at one time used in countries which have long since abandoned them. The familiar Chinese eash, which are estimated by the string, is at least part proof that shell money, which is usually strung for convenience sake, was once the currency of the Celestial Empire, although the cash itself is a survivor, not of this shell money, but of an original knife money of which we shall hear later. The money of the Solomon Islands consists of neatly worked pieces of shell about the size of a shirt button. These are strung on strings about four yards long, and are distinguished under the names of white and red money. In the Caroline Islands shell money circulates, not as shells, but as real money, without immediate reference to adornment. The shells are chipped all round till they form disks quarter of an inch in diameter, and then are smoothed down with sand and pumice. The porcelain money of China, and perhaps the clay tablets of Assyria and the seals of Egypt, may be perhaps regarded as more developed forms of the same kind of money. In other places shells of other sorts were used. In early China perhaps, also, among the early Greeks, tortoise shell was used, and in China to this day the phrase tortoise shell is still used to indicate money.* The wampum of America is another instance of shell cur- rency. It consisted of black and white shells polished and fashioned into beads, and then strung in necklaces, ete. Black ones were twice as valuable as white. Wampum was so well established as currency among the Indians that it was made legal tender among the settlers, not that white men valued it as ornament, but because it was in constant demand by the natives and also because there was a scarcity of small coin. The unit of wampum money was the fathom consisting of three hundred and sixty white beads, and was worth about sixty pence. At first wampum was legal tender only to the extent of 12 pence, or the limit of the legal tender of bronze coin to-day. But in Ridgeway : op. cit., p. 21. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 189 1641, owing to a greater scarcity of coin, wampum was made legal tender up to £10, though in 1643 the limit was reduced to £2. The decline of the beaver trade drove it out of circulation. When it could no longer be exchanged in large amounts for beaver skins, an article of international trade, the basis of its value was gone, although its use was continued in the frontier districts well down into the eighteenth century.* Shell money is still used by North American Indians. The tribes of California, according to Mr. Powers, make use for money not only of the red scalps of woodpeckers, but also “ of the dentalium shell, of which they grind off the top and string it on strings ; the shortest pieces are worth twenty-five cents, the longest about two dollars, the value rising rapidly with the length. The strings are usually about as long as a man’s arm.” When these Indians became familiar with the silver coinage of the United States, the use to which they put the dimes and quarters shows how the new money, as well as the old, derived its value as a medium of exchange, because it was prized as an adornment of the person. “ Some of the young bloods array their Dulcineas for the dance with lavish adornments, hanging on their dress 30, 40, or 50 dollars worth of dimes, quarter dol- Jars, and half dollars, arranged in strings.”-+ The same aboriginal instinct appears sometimes among semi-civilized aldermen. The Bowery saloon, which was paved with silver dollars, used to be, and perhaps still is, one of the sights of New York; and it would not have been inappropriate had Silver Dollar Smith, the owner, been a member of Tammany, which in the day of its political power, still tricks its members out in paint and feathers on gala days and sends them down Third Avenue under their Sachems, brandishing tobacco store tomahawks, Other articles which have been desired for purposes of orna- ment have also been used as money. The Californian Indians use not only shells, but the red scalps of woodpeckers for their *White: Money and Banking, Chap. 1. tQuoted Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 15. Conversely solid brass buttons with the eye ham- mered flat were extensively used half a century ago in St. John, New Brunswick, for small change. 190 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. greater units of value. In Fiji, whales’ teeth were used instead of shells, and white teeth were exchanged for red teeth somewhat in the ratio of shillings to sovereigns.* In Africa ivory tusks, and in the Solomon Islands dog teeth, which are worn in neck- laces, express the higher values, while shells are used for the smaller. The currency of the Solomon Islands includes many different articles, and the value of each relatively to the others is carefully determined. The currency table, as set forth by Mir: Cooles: ist: 10 cocoanuts = 1 string of white money. 10 strings of white money = 1 string of red money, or = 1 dog tooth. 10 strings of red money = 1 string dolphins’ teeth. 1 fine woman. l good hog or 1 useful young man. 10 strings of dolphins’ teeth = 1 mable ring (for ornament) = When man becomes a worker in metals, the primitive shell ornaments are replaced by gold and copper, and silver; and much of the money used in Africa to-day is of this character. But man is a creature of customs, and the forms of his neck- laces did not change to utilize the peculiar characteristics of the new materials. Nuggets of native gold may have been here and there threaded on a string; but there is little doubt that man’s first attempt in metal working consisted in imitating the old shell ornaments, and in imitating those shell ornaments which had come to be used as money. In Siam there are silver coins in the shape of shells; and in China we have a copper coin known as a Dragon’s eye, which was fashioned in the shape of acowry. But long before the precious metals were coined, they were in circulation by weight, as they still are in the East. The commonest form in which the metals circulated was in the *Jevons: Money, p. 25. +For these details regarding the Solomon Islands, I am indebted to a note in an issue of the ‘* Popular Science Monthly,” which I cannot find again. In the same note it is said that rope ends, ornamented with red feathers, to be worn about the waist, are also used as money. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 191 shape of ornaments; and some writers have spoken familiarly of ring money as if it were really stamped and coined money such as we use to-day. In reality, the so-called ring money was an article of barter, circulating by weight. The ancient ring money of Egypt, and of the early Celts and Teutons, is repre- sented in Africa to-day by the coin currency of Calabar, and the rod currency of the Congo region, these being simply brass or copper wire, soft enough to be bent into the rings and bracelets, and other ornaments in which the African black takes delight. . When man advances to the pastoral stage, which he has done, and apparently can do, only in the temperate climes in which cattle can live, we find him estimating his wealth in cattle ; and naturally the medium of exchange adopted by such societies is that which all desire, and all in a measure possess. Most of the civilized nations have long since left their cattle currencies cen- turies behind; but still in their language and archeological remains, in their literatures and their religious customs, there survive traces of the days when cattle formed their standard of value and their medium of exchange. “It is very possible that kine were first exclusively valued for their flesh and milk ; but it is clear that in very early times a distinct and special importance belonged to them as the instrument or medium of exchange.’* The Latin term “pecunia” is derived from “ pecus,” a herd ; the English “ fee” is from the Anglo-Saxon “ feoh,” which sur- vives in the cognate German from Vieh cattle ; and rupze is said to be derived from the Sanskrit rwpa, which also means cattle ; and in the Book of Jobthe word Késitch (= a lamb) is employed to signify a piece of money.+ The veneration in which the cow is held in modern India by a people to whom the eating of beef is an abomination, is held by some to point back to the ages when the ancestors of these people in some more northern region had a great respect for *Maine: The Early History of Institutions, p. 149. tWilkinson ; The Ancient Egyptians, Vol. II., p. 151. 192 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. cattle as forming the principal item in their wealth. And although every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians (Genesis, c. 46, v. 34), as Joseph instructed his brethren, yet the Egyptians worshipped their great divinity Apis under the form of a bull, and worshipped also a sacred ram ; customs which pro- bab!y show that at some time or other their ancestors, whether in the northern Soudan or in Asia, and still in the pastoral stage, had regarded with proper veneration the cattle and the sheep which constituted their wealth. The earliest literatures both of Aryans and of Semites show that cattle were wealth, and the measure of wealth and the medium of exchange. The wealth of the Patriarchs was meas- ured by their flocks and herds, and we need only refer, in the almost equally familiar stories in Homer, to the one-sided exchange between Glaucon and Diomede “of golden arms for brazen, those worth one hundred oxen for those worth nine.” When history opens, most of the nations which afterwards played leading parts were still in the pastoral stage. Egypt had already passed beyond it, and the Greeks were making the transition to the agricultural and settled conditions of life. And as each nation first demands our notice whether in the Mediterranean region, in northern Europe, or in Central Asia, it is almost always the same picture that is presented of a pastoral people whose wealth consists in flocks and herds. And not only have we a priori reason to suppose that the chief item of their wealth formed their rudimentary medium of exchange; but we know from literature and from archeology that the ox was their unit of value. We have scales of value preserved to us in the Sacred Books of the East; and of these scales we have what might be almost exact transcripts among the semi- civilized tribes of the Caucasus and Central Asia, and of Northern and Southern Africa at the present day. The earliest coins of Greece which have been discovered are stamped with the head of an ox; and the legal code of Draco retains with true legal conservatism the otherwise obsolete practice of expressing values in terms of oxen. Indeed there is more than probability, there THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 193 is proof as strong as the nature of the subject permits, that our present system of metallic coins are translations of the earlier cattle currency. The Greek talent of gold and the ox were undoubtedly equivalent; and the ox is of course the older standard of the two; and the small change of this commodity currency was likewise translated into corresponding silver and copper coins. We find the same equating, the presence of which we partly detect and partly infer in the Greek world, going on to-day among peoples which are just passing from the pastoral to the settled mode of life. When this change takes place man generally has some rudi- mentary knowledge of metallurgy ; and the agricultural products have not often formed a unit of value. We have local instances and temporary instances ; but these are by no means confined to the beginnings of the agricultural stage. They appear in colonial history almost as frequently as in semi- barbarous societies ; and are generally due, then and now, to a scarcity of precious metals. Wheat has some advantages as a standard of value over the precious metals, as those colleges at Oxford and Cambridge know to their advantage who were restricted in the reign of Elizabeth to corn rents; but as a medium of exchange agricultural produce has such obvious disadvantages that no people which was able to use the precious metals has ever systematically used grain and other produce of the earth. The metals are so much better suited than any other com- modities to serve as the medium of exchange that it was inevitable that they should rapidly supplant all other forms of currency, so soon as gold and silver and the others had come to possess the fundamental requisite in a medium of exchange, viz., that it should be an article in general use and demand. But the metals came but slowly to possess this fundamental requisite ; and we are certainly not justified in assuming that metallic cur- rency superseded all others as soon as man had discovered the means of mining and working the metals. On the contrary, it is certain that the older currencies remained in circulation long = Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr, VOL. X. TRANS.—M. 194 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. after man had acquired the necessary metallurgical knowledge In the Homeric poems we have evidence of the concurrent use -of definite weights of gold and silver, and iron, with the older OX unit. The metals acquire value as all other articles acquire value, \because they are suited to satisfy certain human needs. After the metals have been adopted as money, they acquire a distinct and special importance because of their utility as the medium of exchange ; but first of all they must acquire the direct value that arises from direct utility. The metals are valued by man chiefly as ornaments, or as the material out of which the implements of industry or the weapons of war may be fashioned. The precious metals are valued for their utility as ornaments only. Neither gold nor silver had been put to serious use either in war or in industry. They obtained their value because of their attrac- tiveness as ornaments for adorning the person, and in all probability the earliest form in which gold circulated was in strings of nuggets or beads resembling the older shell necklaces. Ancient geographers tell us that in Arabia native nuggets were used as ornaments. “Having perforated these they pass a thread of flax through them in alternation with transparent stones and make themselves chains, and put them round their necks and wrists.”* But with increasing knowledge of how to work the metals, gold dust, as well as “ fireless gold,” as these Arabian natives called it, was fashioned into ornaments, and at first, no doubt, after the older models. Primitive coins are in existence, and in some cases still in circulation, in which the evolution from the ring and shell can be traced. As man’s chief employment in the early stages of society was war and the chase, weapons of war were greatly prized and jealously guarded. Consequently we find many traces of the employment of the implements of war as a medium of exchange. Even in the stone age we know that this was the case. Tough green stone slabs, valuable for making hatchets, form the unit of value among the lowest Australian natives who have hardly yet *Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, quoted Ridgeway, op. cit., pp. 75-77 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 195 advanced far enough to carry on trade by means of barter.* Weapons formed part of the currency of Homeric times and among the ancient Norsemen. By the laws of Hakon the Good penalties for breaches of the law could be paid among other things in weapons.+t Gunpowder competes with gin in the battle of the African standards introduced by European traders ; and, not long since, an English newspaper, in commenting on a petition of a philanthropic committee that some other form of currency than that of gin should be adopted in the Delta of the Niger, suggested more than half seriously that Lord Salisbury should use his influence with the concert of Europe “to make the Liverpool powder keg the only legal tender in the gin lati- tudes.” Among all the aboriginal tribes which have been brought into contact with European traders, the musket quietly takes its place in the native standard of value. But in Borneo they have gone a step further. A brass cannon, or as it is called by the natives, a brass gun, is the standard of value, and in all parts of the island one may still hear prices reckoned in brass guns. Any one who has transactions of such importance, for the brass guns will correspond to our larger notes, will instantly translate the sum into dollars at the present day ; but there was a time when ten or twenty pounders did actually pass from hand to hand } In more recent times, and if not among ourselves, at least among the ancestors of many of us, bullets have circulated as small change. Leaden bullets were legal tender in the New England ; and the reason was no doubt partly the atmosphere of warfare and danger in which the early colonists lived. But there was another reason. The want of small coin in the reign of Queen Elizabeth had induced tradesmen and others to issue token money ; and in consequence there was great distress often among the poorer classes for the issuer not infrequently refused *Tyler : Anthropology, p. 281. tRidgeway: op. cit., p. 35. tThis fact is on the authority of an undated second-hand clipping from the “ London Standard. 196 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. to honor these tokens. Accordingly, in the reign of James I, the striking of copper farthings was made a monopoly, and in the spirit of the times given to a court favorite, Lord John Harrington, who took unreasonable advantage of his opportuni- ties. The circulation was encouraged in various ways with disastrous results to the commerce of the country. But not con- tent with the fraudulent profits made at the expense of the commerce of the country, he caused large parcels to be shipped to the colonies. The Pilgrim Fathers, however, would have none of them; and it stands in the records of Massachusetts on “March 4th, 1634, at the General Court at New Town, brass (or copper) fathings were forbidden, and bullets were made to pass for farthings.” But the useful metals could also be put to the more fruitful use of serving as implements of industry, where their superiority over stone and wood is no less obvious than when they are fashioned into weapons of war. In Africa, which, owing to the absence of native copper, never had a bronze age, but passed at once into the iron age, we find still in full foree the systems of currency which have either completely disappeared, or have left but indistinct traces elsewhere. There we find hoe money and axe money in practically their original forms. Iron in its natural state was a means of exchange in the Homeric age, and the iron money of Sparta was probably traditional in origin, like the Hindu reverence for the cow. But in Africa to-day iron is an almost universal medium of exchange. On the west coast the bar is the unit; and all things are reckoned in “ bars ” pretty much as they are reckoned in blankets among the Pacific Coast Indians, Originally the bar was what its name denotes, a bar of iron of fixed dimensions, one of the chief articles of trade between the natives and the early European traders. Now it has a conventional value, which, in Sierra Leone, is two shill- ings and threepence. In Central Africa, among the Madis, according to Dr. Felkin, “the nearest approach to money is seen in the flat round pieces of iron which are of different sizes . . They are much employed in exchange, This is the form in THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 197 which they are kept and used as money, but they are intended to be divided into two, heated and made into hoes. . . . Ready made hoes are not often used in barter. Iron, as above mentioned, is preferred, and is taken to the blacksmith to be fashioned according to the owner’s requirements.’* But in Darfur the actual hoe serves as currency. “It is simply a plate of iron fitted with a socket. A handle is fitted into this socket and one has an implement suited for chopping the weeds in the corn fields. Purchases of small value are made with the hoe from one to twenty,’+ which may be said to be its legal tender limit. Larger purchases are made by means of cotton cloth and oxen. Among the wild tribes of Annam, in Asia, also, the hoe serves as currency, and in ancient times many nations seem to have used it. We know that the Chinese had originally a barter currency of real hoes and real knives, articles in great demand among them. These in time became conventionalised in form, and were reduced in size to serve as real money. The Chinese cash is the survival of the original knife money, while the hoe, in a certain form, still circulates in Thibet, as it did in China hundreds of years ago. Within recent years the Thibetans have adopted the Indian rupee; but have not pre- served its integral form. They cut it up for purposes of small change into little pieces which represent the conventionalized form of their own original hoe currency. The hoe served as a general article of barter because of its indispensability in agriculture ; but among fishermen the fish- hook was a more useful and desirable implement. Among the fishermen of the Persian Gulf, and round the coast to Ceylon and the Maldive Islands, there was originally a fish-hook cur- rency ; and when true money was adopted the old form was retained. Down till the beginning of the present century larins, a bent piece of silver wire, the conventionalized form of the fish-hook, were in circulation ; and it is possible that, had the natural process of evolution gone on without interference from *Quoted Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 43. +Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 45. 198 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. the outside, in course of time the piece of double wire would have become a bullet-shaped piece of metal, just as the bullet coins of Siam struck in European fashion represent the last stage of the original ring currency of that cduntry.* At one time axes served as money in many countries, At first it was the actual implement or weapon itself; but in time a conventionalized form was adopted. In West Africa to-day almost the sole currency in many districts has the form of an axe. These are too small now to be actually used, either as weapons of war or as implements of industry ; but the shape has been preserved unchanged, and it is evident that the days are not long past when a currency of actual axes was employed. We have evidence from archzeology and from literature of a similar usage among the Greeks. There seems to be little ground for doubting that the earliest coins were imitations in metal of the older article which the metallic currency replaced. Thus, the coins of many Greek states and cities bear on their faces evidence of the nature of the commodity currency they replaced. When the coins were for circulation among a purely Greek people, there could be no difficulty in passing at once from the commodity to a piece of metal stamped with the image of the article whose value the coin represented. For instance, the Greeks of Cyzicus stamped their coins with the image of a tunny fish which was probably a part of their commodity cur- rency at an earlier date ; and these coins are, in most respects, like modern coins. But, in Olbia, a Greek colony on the Black Sea, where the Greeks traded with the barbarians, and the population moreover was of mixed race, the tunny fish was also the chief article of trade. There it was found necessary to make a concession to the lower level of intelligence of those with whom they traded, and perhaps also of many of their own citizens ; and consequently a coin in the actual shape of a tunny fish was struck to represent the probable original commodity currency. In the same way the axe appears on the coins of *Del Mar: A History of Money in Ancient Countries, p. 109. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 199 Tenedos, and there is more than probability that just as the tunny fish coin of Cyzicus represented the earlier form so the axe stamped coins of Tenedos represented an earlier axe cur- rency. We know from the Iliad that axes were given along with oxen, slaves, kettles, etc., as prizes in the funeral games for Patroclus. “ But he (Achilles) set for the archers dark iron, and’ he set down ten axes and ten half axes,” Iliad XXIII, ll. 850-1; where the half axe is obviously the single headed axe. The earliest coins of the Island of Tenedos, which lies off the Troad, bear the device of the double headed axe and represent an original axe currency such as we find in Africa to-day. While the ox undoubtedly formed the unit of value and a medium of exchange over the whole of the wide area from the Straits of Dover to the Himalayas, as indeed in every other region where it can flourish, it was nowhere the sole medium of exchange. In almost every region of which we have any infor- mation, there is, or was, a regular scale of value in which the ox was simply the chief unit. Some writers have tried to show that the ox was unsuited for currency purposes, because it was incapable, without the adoption of the Scythian practice of cut- ting steaks from the flanks of the living animal, or the Celtic practice of bleeding the cattle to make the unleavened bread more nutritious, of sub-division to transact the smaller exchanges; and that their use must quickly on that account have been abandoned. Cattle were unsuitable in many ways, though they had considerable stability and uniformity of value throughout their continental range ; but the reason their use as money was given up was not their lack of divisibility, for, as we have said, they never formed more than the principal article in a carefully constructed scale of exchange values. To this day in the Sondan we find, that while the ox is almost universally the standard of value and the medium ot exchange for more valuable articles, each particular district has its own peculiar lower units, generally selected from the articles most in *For this and the other instances from the Greek coinage which polloNs and for many others from which these are selected, see Ridgeway, op. cit., Ch. X 200 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. demand in the district, or from those which the district has special facilities for producing. Jn one place it is sticks of salt, in another tobaceo, in another cotton thread, in another raw cotton in the pod, in another onions, in another hoes, in another copper rings, beads, shells, ete., and in most districts more than one of them. These are for small change, so to speak. But all of them are recognized submultiples of the standard unit, the ox, as our quarters and ten cent pieces are of the dollar; and in the same way, slaves are in many districts there now, as they were in Homeric times, the larger currency, being recognized multiples of the standard ox. From Greek coins which have been preserved, it is inferred that the Greeks had the same system. There are traces of it not only in Homer, but on the silver coins themselves. With the introduction of metallic currency, the Greeks equaled the ox with the gold talent, while its submultiples were represented by corresponding silver coins. At first, at least, these silver coins often bore as their stamp the representation of the commodity currency with which they were equaled and which they dis- placed. In many cases no doubt the image and superscription were religious ; but there is no reasonable ground for doubting that in their origin many, perhaps all, of these coins bore on their face the evidence of the particular commodity they had displaced as currency. In some cases the representation was carried so far that the coin reproduced the actual shape of the commodity; and even where the stamp on the coin is of a religious character, there is a striking resemblance between the stamp and the article for which the district was famous. In many cases this correspondence is so clear that it is impossible otherwise to explain the peculiar form and image of the coin. Thasos, for instance, was famous for its wine; and the wine cup or measure appears on its early coins. The unit of capacity, in the ease of wine was the measure, and the measure is stamped on the coins to express the fact that this silver coin, bore the same relation to the gold talent as the actual measure of wine THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 201 bore to the original ox unit with which the gold talent had been equaled. The olive, again, was the most important product of Attica, and was probably, as it still actually is in many of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, whether in the shape of olives or of olive oil, an actual medium of exchange ; and the silver coins of Attica which replaced this olive currency most appropriately bore the olive sprig. The cuttle fish was an esteemed dainty by the Greeks, as it is to this day in Naples, and also along the Levant; and the coins of Croton bore its image. The ear of wheat appears on the coins of Metaportum, which grew wealthy because of the agricultural resources of Magna Grecia. Before the invention or discovery of the art of pottery, man made use of natural shells, and many of the Greek names for earthenware vessels are the names of sea shells. Even after earthenware and wood had replaced these primitive and natural utensils, vessels were fashioned, as can be seen in the museums of antiquities to-day, in the old shapes. Thus there are Greek vases in the British Museum which reproduce the shape of the tortoise, and in the South Sea Islands to this day the natives imitate the tortoise shell in wood and earthenware. The tortoise shell was always specially valued, and in China it was used, and perhaps is still used, to make bowls of great beauty. It is to be expected that we should find, as we do, the tortoise shell stand- ing at the top of the ancient Chinese scale of values. Among the Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples it was also valued ; and it was the principal article with which the citizens of Aegina carried on their trade with the Phcenicians. It naturally, there- fore, was a unit in their scale, and when the shell and commodity currency was replaced among them, as among the other Greek peoples, by silver coins, they stamped their silver coin with the image of the tortoise. And they took pains to make the coin actually represent the tortoise, for it has a high round upper side with a flat under side and markings to indicate the shell. The scarabs of Egypt, pieces of baked clay or porcelain, cut or moulded in the shape of beetles and tortoises, were in all proba- 202 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. bility used as money and represent an earlier shell, probably tortoise shell currency.* In time the mercantile significance of these symbols was forgotten, and a religious interpretation placed on them. But even in the peculiar deities of a district we may often trace the history of its early commerce; and the religious symbolism of the iater coins does not contradict the mercantile significance of tne images on the early ones. Early peoples, and later ones: very easily discover grandiose explanations for what in their origin are commonplace facts. To take but one instance. The famous iron money of Sparta, which, according to tradition, Lycurgus caused to be dipped in vinegar while red hot to render it worthless as a commodity, thus to restrain the cupidity of the citizen soldiers, was in all probability not adopted from any ascetic motive. The current explanation was, without doubt, an aetiological myth, a grandiose explanation long after the com- monplace event. The iron money was the survival of a time when iron was a favorite article of exchange, as it was in the Homeric age, and as it still is, as we have seen, in Africa to-day. But the Spartans were a very conservative people, and clung to their primitive money long after the superiority of other metals for coinage had been demonstrated by experience; and long after the real origin of their money had been forgotten. To explain their own backwardness, they gave, as so many other peoples have given, a religious and moral sanction to their own lack of progressiveness.+ After the introduction of metallic money there was room for a long process of development. Man had still to determine which of the metals was the most suitable for his purposes ; and the actual selection which civilized man has made is the result of the survival of the fittest. There are certain qualities which we have come to look for in money, qualities which all metals seem to possess in a greater degree than any one sub- stance, but qualities which all metals do not possess in the same *Del Mar: op. cit., p. 147. tEnc. Brit., Art. Money. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. 203 degree. These are Utility, Portability, Indestructibility, Homo- geneity, Divisibility, Stability of Value, {Cognizability. These qualities are possessed in an especial degree by gold and silver, and in a less degree by copper. Iron was used, and is still used in many regions; but it is not the best money material because of its cheapness. Jt does not contain great value in small bulk, and it is not indestructible. Lead was used in classical times, and is still current in Burmah, but it is too soft to be made into good coins which will retain their stamp and be always cogniz- able. Tin was early adopted as a money material. It was ~ coined by Dionysius, of Syracuse, who was the first to use it of whom we can speak with certainty ; and it has remained in use as a money material ever since. In 1680, Charles II. issued tin farthings, and his example was followed by William and Mary in 1690; and it was employed in Java, Mexico, and elsewhere. But it has the defect of being too soft. Copper, either pure or in alloy, has been extensively employed, and it possesses almost all the qualities requisite, except that it does not contain great value in small bulk, and has comparatively little stability of value. Platinum is in many respects suited for currency pur- purposes, but it is in but slight demand, and the stock on hand is very small. Consequently any change in the demand is apt to cause great fluctuations in value. Russia, which owns platinum mines in the Ural Mountairs, began to coin it in 1828, but abandoned the experiment in 1845, because of the cost. of striking coins. Nickel has been largely used in alloy, but it is subject to the disadvantage of fluctuations in value owing to the limited number of mines. Silver and gold are pre-eminently the metals suitable for coinage. They possess all the qualities necessary in a currency material. These qualities, of course, they do not possess in a perfect degree; but they possess them in a higher degree than any other substances. They have great utility. They contain great value in small bulk and are readily portable. Except by the slow process of wear and tear they are practically indestructible. They are almost perfectly homo- genous after they have been reduced to uniform degrees of 204 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MONEY—DAVIDSON. fineness, which can be easily done, so that equal’ weights of them have practically equal values. They can be easily divided into the weights and fractions desired so as to express large values and small values. They have a very large degree of stability of value, not so much perhaps as wheat, but more than most articles which could be employed as money. And lastly, they are readily recognizable and cannot be easily counterfeited, and above all, are soft enough and yet hard enough to be coinable, “so that a portion, being once issued according to proper regu- lations with the impress of the state, may be known to all as good and legal currency equal in weight, size and value to all similarly marked currency.”* The precious metals are simply those commodities which experience has shown to be the most suitable for general money purposes. This, or that money article, may have this or that money quality in a higher degree than gold or silver, but taking them all in all, the precious metals have been found to be the most suitable. They have survived, not because of any prejudice in favor of the metals, but because they have shown themselves to be the fittest to survive. *Jevons : Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, p. 40. VI.—On THE PRESENCE OF ACID SULPHATE OF COPPER IN MIXTURES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID AND CoPpPpER SULPHATE —By CHARLES F. Linpsay, Dal- housve College, Halifax, N. S. (Communicated on 8th May, 1899, by Prof. E. Mackay, Ph. D.) Anton Schrader* in a paper on the “ Electrolysis of Mixtures,” measured the conductivity and other properties of solutions containing mixtures of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate, analysing his mixtures for the amount of acid present by titra- tion. In his paper, no methods of any kind are given for the analyses. Prof. MacGregor} has held that Schrader’s results point towards the presence of acid sulphate of copper in the solution. At the suggestion of Prof. Mackay this work was undertaken to find if any light could be obtained on this ques- tion by chemical analytical methods. The work was carried out in the Chemical and Physical laboratories of Dalhousie College, and consisted primarily in making up solutions of sulphuric acid and copper sulphate, analysing them, and determining their densities. In the begin- ning the densities were taken only as a means of calculating the concentration of the mixtures from the concentration of the simple solutions. The work also included the purification of the materials used, and the calibration of burettes and pipettes. Calibration of Burettes and Pipettes. All burettes and pipettes were carefully calibrated, by weigh- ing the amount of water of known temperature which they delivered. The burettes used could be read to lee. They were calibrated for every 2 cc. throughout their length. The pipettes, in emptying, were held against the side of the vessel into which they were being emptied, the last drops of water being removed by blowing sharply once. * Inaugural Dissertation, Berlin, 1897. + Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, (2), 4, Sec. 3, 117, 1898-9. (205) 206 SOLUTIONS OF SULPHURIC ACID Purification and Analysis of Copper Sulphate. The copper sulphate was obtained as chemically pure, and after careful re-crystallization, was found to be free from iron and the members of the ammonium sulphide group. The copper sulphate solutions were analysed by precipitating the sulphate, in known volume, with barium chloride, and weigh- ing 2s barium sulphate. The following are the results of three analyses of the same solution :— Cu SO, in 5c. of solution = .5782 grammes, “ a3 73 = 5788 “cs 6c - “ it would appear to be probable that for moderately dilute and very dilute solutions, electrically determined coefficients are approximately exact, not only for a solution through which a current is passing, but generally. The available data as to ionization coefficients at 0°, are unfortunately few. Whethamt has recently published some most valuable determinations, having measured the conductivity at US, of series of solutions down to extreme dilution, with what one may call apparei de luxe, and found the ratio of the equiv- alent conductivity to the maximum equivalent conductivity. For neutral salts, his coefficients must inspire great confidence. But in the case of the acids, they seem to me to be probably too high. For the maximum equivalent conductivity of an acid is probably lower than it would be, were it not for the disturbing influence whatever it is, which makes the equivalent-conductivity-con- centration curve not only reach, but pass through a maximum point. Archibald and Barnes,} working in my laboratory, measured the conductivity at 0° and 18° for series of solutions, down to dilutions, at which the ratio of the two conductivities beeame constant; and assuming that the same ratio would hold at extreme dilution, they calculated the equivalent conductivity at extreme dilution for 0° from Kohlrausch’s values for 18°. They used this method only because appliances were not available, with which observations at extreme dilution could be made. If * MacGregor: Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. (2), 4, Sec. 3, 117, 1898. + MacGregor: Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci. 9, 219. 1895-7, and Phil. Mag. (5), 43, 46 and 99, 1897. Also Archibald: Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci, 9,335, 1897-8, and Barnes: Jbid., 10, 49, and 113, 1899-1900. + Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 33, 344, 1900. t Archibald: Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 10. 33, 1898-9. Barnes: Jbid., 10, 139, 1899- 1900, and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, (2), 6, —, 1900. 216 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT the ratio mentioned really does become constant as dilution increases, the method is likely to give coefficients with too low or too high values, according as the ratio at moderate dilutions diminishes or increases with dilution (it was found to increase with KCl and. K,SO,.) For it will probably become constant within the limit of error of observation, before it has really reached constancy. And if it changes with dilution in a slightly wavy manner, even though on the whole tending to constancy, it may be regarded as having become constant, when really passing through a maximum or a minimum point. Déguisne’s* observations on the variation of conductivity with temperature between 2°C and 34° have enabled me, by the. method just mentioned, to make rough determinations of the ionization coefficients at 0° in some cases, on the assumption that his empirical constants might be used down to 0°. According to Déguisne’s observations, the ratio of the conductivities at 0° and 18° usually changes gradually down to dilutions of 1,000 litres per gramme-equivalent, and between that and 2.000, undergoes rapid change. As observations at great dilution are attended by considerable difficulty, I have assumed that these sudden changes were probably due to errors of observation. If they were not, my Déguisne coefticients (for which Déguisne himself is of course not. to be held responsible) may be considerably out. In some eases, I have obtained coefficients from the above data by extrapolation, in order to make use of available depres- sion data. In such cases I have plotted, side by side, ionization- coefficient-concentration curves, for both 0° and 18°, using values for 18° based on Kohlrausch’s conductivities, and I have then produced the 0° curve beyond the limit of observation, under the guidance of the 18° curve. I have used all the accessible observations of depression in the case of the electrolytes for which data were available for deter- ing the ionization coefficients at 0°, including observations by * Temperatur-Coéfticienten des Leitvermégens sehr verdiinnter Losungen, Dis- sertation, Strassburg, 1895. See also Kohlrausch u. Holborn: Leitvermégen der Klek— trolyte, Leipzig, 1898. DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. DG Arrhenius, Raoult,? Loomis,?Jones,* Abegg,® Wildermann,’ Ponsot,’ Archibald’ and Barnes®. The methods used by these observers are, for the most part, well known. Archibald and Barnes used modified forms of Loomis’s method. Arrhenius’s observations, and some of Raoult’s, were made before important improvements in freezing-point determinations had been recognised as neces- sary. In eases in which there was but one series of observations available, I have plotted the actual observations in the diagram, though sometimes smoothing the curves a little. In cases in which two or more series were available, I first plotted the vari- ous observations, and then drew mean curves, making them represent all the observations as well as I could, but giving greater weight to recent observations than to those of earher date, and to long series of consistent observations than to short series, or to series which were more erratic. The following table gives the data employed in plotting both the curves given in the diagram, and those not so given, which are referred to below. The table includes the concentration in gramme-equivalents per litre, the ionization coefficient at 0°, and the equivalent depression in degrees centigrade per gramme- equivalent in one litre of solution. The interpolated coefficients are indicated by 7,and those extrapolated by e, and the observers from, or by the aid of, whose observations they were obtained, by A, B, D, W, representing Archibald, Barnes, Déguisne and Whetham. Non-significant figures are printed in italies. 1 Ztschr, f. phys. Chemie. 2, 491, 1888. 2 Tbid., 2, 501, 1888, and 27, 617, 1898. 3 Phys. Review, 1, 199 and 274, 1893-4; 3, 270, 1896, and 4, 273, 1897. 4 Ztschr. f. phys. Chem., 11, 110 and 529, 1893; and 12, 623, 1893. 5 Tbid. 20, 207, 1896. 6 Ibid. 19, 233, 1896. eae 7 Recherches sur la Congélation des Solutions Aqueuses: Paris, Gauthier- Villars, Bs fe Loe. cit. 218 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT Gramme- | Tonization ° Gramme- Ionization se aes : 2 Equivalent ace 2 Equivalent equivalent | Coefficient ae equivalent | Coefficient =a a litre. | at 0°G, | Depression. ao litre. at 0°C. Depression. KCl. (Barnes.) KCl. (Abegg.) .00488 .976 i. W. 3.70 0001 | Soh ea peed eee “0005 “O77 Semone -O118 958“ 3.64 001 L971 See -0145 953 © 3.63 005 TVR | eR ||| USCS SP Ree aaa Bees 010 {SSO P| ccae ee a OOS le eee ee kn ee A050 oes O10 Semmes | eens Boe 05 892 3.504 ee ee Bees "10 "862 3458 0469 1895“ 3.47 20 832 3.398 0583 Bictst( ae | 3.45 30 .819 3 390 i 0697 878 5 biel o.40 40 804 3.377) = as | KCl. (Wildermann.) KCl. (Loomis.) | | .009818 .943 i. B. 3.538 .009822- | .943 * 3.583 01 943i. B. 3.60 01954 \ .924 °« 3.542 02 (923 3.55 03883 900 « 3.515 03 910 “« 3.52 “02884 900 * 3.532 035 905 3.53 07652 Rye & 3.491 05 S008 el emeserd) .07668 873 3.487 1 862“ 3.445 2 832“ 3.404 4 804 °* 3.999 KCl. (Ponsot ) KCl. (Jones.) 0234 Boome B. 3.419 0439 896 3.417 : 1465 846“ 3.413 001 992i.W. | 3.80 Ure | ae poe .00299 | .983 “« 3.6789 oes oa moe 100499 | 976 * 3.7074 BOR | BBO ee | Ree 100698 | .970 « 3.6246 eT eee ae eeale .00897 | .965 3.6120 ES Si | BioHt .01095 | .960 “ 3.5982 02 loads: 3.5750 .O4 i ,897i. B. 3.532) Il NaCl. (Barnes.) 0592 | Astelay 0 3.5967 .078 873.“ 3.4923 09646 | 1863 « 3.4688 ean aie a nee 2 832 3.4300 gil Bede gow e ros 20: oa ora 4005 989° | oe ee ZS 821 3.41071 “001 7 ae 4s 8 Sues VEN gece te Ibe 005 1955.) “| ee “010 936 i KCl. (Raoult.) | ae 896 3.573 Deion ae 05 em”. |) Seale 08 “860 3.53 01445 | .953 i... 3.523 10 “850 3.515 .02895. | .933. * 3.561 20 815 3.443 05825 904 e.W. 3.478 a eT 3.431 1168 RYiss 3.431 40 765 3.412 DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. Gramme- Ionization equivalent ! Coefficient per litre. at 0°C. Equivalent Depression. NaCl. (Loomis.) .418 410 01 .936 i. B. .02 AON Gms .03 .896 “S .04 "886 °° .05 aSicn SS OL .95L 1. D .02 Oa ee 055 ae 05 S00 ies NH, Cl. (Jones.) -001 . 987 1. D. “00599 agli} Yb . 00997 BOD tre .0595 .892 e. D. K NOs. (Loomis.) 01 | .938 1. D. .02 | EOD ie es .025 899 * 0d ASyo, | 5 .832 e. D. a2 eg. | Os O92 Ls Gs oO to GO O89 YO for) = S & Equiva ent Depression. H NOx. (Loomis.) | Ol | 977 i. D. 3.50 02 .967 e. D. 3.56 03,— «| 1959 3.53 05 | 950 * 3.51 HNO3. (Jones.) 001054 | 994 i. D. 3.7951 .003158 | .989 * 3.7682 005253 | .982 “ 3.7693 10078784, 981, «= 2.7409 .009456 | .978 * 3.7331 01153 | .975e. D. 3.7294 FOST19) 3) 2958 3.7179 05103 | 949 « 3.7076 —_— —— KOH. (Loomis.) 01 .965 i. D. 3.43 02 .956 e. D. 3.45 05 943 3.44 iil Ng30) 166 3.43 KOH. (Jones.) 001069 | .983 i. D. | 3.7418 5003202"), 7973; 86* 3.7477 .005327 | .969 “ 3.7169 .007443 | .967 ‘ 3.6947 009550 | .965 < 3.6859 01069 | .964e. D. 3.6296 03163 950 * 3.6263 05174 942 3.5756 07481 | 935 “ | 3.6142 | 1 BaClg. (Loomis.) 02 .860'i. W. 2.495 04 .820 e. W. 2.475 il Wy Gistongg 2.385 io UP OE 2.345 4 Go Sines 2.3275 DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES —MACGREGOR. 224 | Gramme- | Ionization Gramme- Ionization | Pquivalent : dens Equivalent Sie Pootteiont Depression. eee | Copniclenb Depression. Ba Clg. (Jones.) * K2s04. (Archibald.)—Continued. | es s PR ae Dr oneachn. #7 002 | .953 i. WY: 2.7500 002 SUSY HIME ay eerie .003996 .932 2.7027 004 SOA ls hee ee .005988 AON fase 2.6720 .005 BRC Yay 4 P1 |ee ase .008 .906 Sf 2.6250 008 RS LMR ll Crctaex een eel 009984 896 * 2.6142 010 ALTA Tle iais epee .011964 Acts) oN 2.5828 050 aD 2.370 01394 aSSOm se eT ID) ; 055 | .748 2.396 .01592 AY) 2.5754 060 .743 2.345 .01788 ESOGi" ce 2.5560 .O70 Rion DB / .02 ated) Ye 2.5500 080 aA 2.314 . 100 .705 2.285 .200 645 2.161 = 250 .629 2.118 pa Clas iBousen) "300 616 2.080 ened cae eS ey | i) 606 2.056 : -400 “598 2.032 Sinees aoe i. W. ae 450 59 2.014 ust | cee = | hae |] [300 | aes] sao 01290 "887 he 2487 | -600 -83 1.950 ‘o1304 | ‘883. 2.531 to 2 mee .02500 B84 50 eee 2.480 == .02740 eae) Se ai 2.482 = 2 03310 827 e. W.| - 2.477 K 2504. (Loomis.) 03588 mone ue 2.487 Ee a - 03676 nierat) oO 4.4745 .03824 Atolls} OM 2.458 02 .8211. A 2.46 04810 sl 2.453 04 Atti, Ue 2.38 05112 OU Zee 2.445 L SAO 5 Ss moe - 05520 hoon <3 2.446 2 645 < 2.1585 . 0620 | orto 8 2.436 4 9p * 2.0335 0680 alist Ye 2.426 6 BOSON mee 1.9455 0774 nla Se 2.416 2060 | wie “e8 | 2.316 aeoe 2095 716“ 2.320 ae : "9935 ‘710 * 2.309 Hip 80a: Sones) .3100 -(as}5) OL 2.297 — 3280 BOSZiE 2.308 "3470 “679. « 2317 002 925 i. A. 2.725 . 003992 904 <* 2.693 -__ .005990 ROSON ie 2.663 = 2 . 007970 seve 2.641 | K,S04. (Archibald ) 009930 "89 66 2.613 012 .890 < 2.613 j 01396 542), Se 2.593 .0001 LOS Simm icici essere - 01590 atseiey 0 2.582 . 0002 NO Omen | ee tersey seit 01784 so2g! 29 )2 peed rae 5A! 01734 | 829 < 2.47 a or ee aoa 0216 lis) 2.43 10 694 « 2995 0258 803 oe 2 . 40 20 5 624 ce 2 : 170 0299 (Se 2.385 40 bi Riga 2 036 2 Se ee a ee 60 Byut OF 1.938 Ky SOq4. (Arrhenius.) a rd Nag SO4. (Raoult.) | poo .0728 afZAs) i; AN 7}5}3) . 182 sOn4o ec 2.225 .1174 .678 i. A. 2.39 454 oe % 2.09 . 2866 payee! Ue 2.18 -426 nek). Oe 2.68 Kp» SO4. (Ponsot.) 5 a Nag SO4. (Arrhenius.) 0724 JBI Te IM 2.307 i 0752 N20) =<° 2.301 .056 741 i. a 2.515 2295 aa) CP 2.113 .1402 “6610 2.325 2360 1009) 2.110 234 A00% 2.205 4140 atl oO 2.012 .390 «549 58 2.095 4280 594 — = (e Se 002 Rolo Meo oadcadac 005 S098.” Wes tye srapeccverecere - 004 831 «sears 008 SOTO » “Alhecrerrainaerneste .010 SiheBiel a inpgoseboose.c 010 859 | fe fe ogegeneforetorete .020 734 ERASER SOGO0 050 752 2.382 .0406 720 2.224 055 .743 2.371 -1016 644 2.084 060 736 2.360 - 1622 609 2.017 070 122 2.340 | 204 596 ICY: 080 712 2.320 406 569 1.940 100 694 2.286 -608 553, 1.918 200 624 2.165 | DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. 225 Gramme- Ionization Bauivalent Gramme- Tonization | Royivalent equivalent | Coefficient oy toa aren equivalent | Coefficient “4 =a per litre. at 0° C. Depression: per litre. at 0° C. Depression. H2 SO4. (Loomis.) H, SO4. (Wildermann.)—Continued. 02 oils, 183 2.247 .06244 .688 i. B.| 2.098 04 Sal Ee 2.155 .09216 sod omen 2.049 10 AG4Om ae 2.065 .1358 7O22iN nas 2.004 20 .598 : 1.984 .1930 ey) 1.970 40 .570 1925 Nag CO3. (Loomis.) Hy. SO4. (Jones.) .02 7351. D 7438S) . 002696 .962 i. W. 2.7077 .04 684 * 2.465 .007182 -906: <<‘ 2.5620 .10 6lle. D 2 32 .011650 acy 2.5150 016106 S44 ace 2.4091 a aaa ow] 54 5 B ce . led ) = ‘ “osos | i796 «| 9.3108 Naz COs. Jones) .07100 AAS) he: 135, 2.2183 == pee .11358 33 2.0514 "I5172 | 612 todas 003030 | .859 i. D.| 2.805 19450 “598 1.9732 .008068 aie? 2.764 2330 “586 CSS 1.9498 .013090 Oy Ss | 2.758 .018096 pis Se il Petes SS .02320 HED oO Zee .04802 5670s 2.676 H2SO4. (Ponsot.) "07736 | .632e.D.| 2.494 ee, ees 09588 Ane) SE 2.335 0149 | 790 e. B 2.282 a ‘ “6 95 pare gee AG ete Mg SO, (Loomis.) 0395 20h B 220 — 0503 air 2 2.147 0669 | alisill SY 2108 .02 594 1. D .sBil 0727 Gye OC 2.0971 04 522 iis 0876 658 “ | 2.043 -06 485 * 1.257 2570 aey~ 1.895 i ins 2580 ster ~ 1.899 4476 Ae) oY 1.850 Me SO, (J “4E16 565 « 1.849 Sea won 8872 bap, *s 1.859 ———— .002 sealer, 10). 1.7000 .003996 Tice 1.6767 H2S04. (Wildermann.) eee . 798 a 1.6533 ee Soe arr es ee eee .007976 .694 “S 1.6174 . 009960 .669 ‘* 1.6064 .009208 .889 i. W. 2.422 .011994 Aaa 1.5913 - 009216 atetelg) OY 2.388 .01400 | heey ye 1.5785 .016808 ote. OY 2.297 .015972 "614, <5 1.5590 .016834 3942) Sf 7) GA .017940 "OUST aes 1.5496 . 01690 .840 ‘ Zeo20) .019904 .596 *S 1.5323 . 03206 Sfhia 2.190 .03950 aval, 1.4912 .03212 sia dig 1B%- 2.183 .05872 P02 st 1.4392 -06238 -688 ** 2.10 224 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT * a | Reece 4 paLNelent | Conization | Equivalent || Q7tavatent | Coeicent | Havivalent per litre. | at 0° C. | Depression. per litre. ato °C. | Depression. | iT | me 3 ea oe i H3 PO, (Loomis.) H3 PO, (Jones). — —— ee | — a 03 =| «614i. D. 0.94 003279 | 881i. D.| 1.1894 06 | play) CU 0.893 009843 nT Nee 1.1515 | 019605 669 ** 1.0967 027705 Age 1.0720 | .03279 | 2002) == 1.0522 ( The curves of the diagram are so labelled with the initial letters of observers’ names, (Ab for Abegg), as to show both the depression observations, on which they are based, and the ioni- ization coefficients used in plotting them. Thus the inscription KCl (J—W), means that Jones’ depressions and Whetham’s coeflicients were used; H,SO, (J L B—B), that the curve is a mean curve based, mainly at least, on depression observations by Jones, Loomis, and Barnes, and plotted with Barnes’ coetficients. The limits of concentration for the curves, are indicated also, in gramme-equivalents per litre. Some of the curves are entered on an inset, drawn on four times the scale of the main diagram. In interpreting the curves, we must not only bear in mind what has been said above about the probable accuracy of the ionization coefficients, but must in addition note the tendency exhibited by the curves of the various observers, as dilution increases, to run off at great dilution in directions characteristic of the observers, to the left or right relatively to the course pur- sued by them at moderate dilution. Thus Abegg’s curves (see NaCl, KCl, K,SO,), and Jones’s (see NaCl, KC], NH,Cl, HCl) run off to the right. So do Arrhenius’s in a marked manner. Raoult’s tendency is also to the right, (see NaCl; his K,SO,, not plotted, shows it also; his most dilute KCl observation, he him- self clearly regards as accidentally out.) On the other hand, Loomis’s curves (see HCl, KNO;, NH,Cl, BaCl,) go to the left. DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. 2925 So do Ponsot’s, and probably Wildermann’s (not plotted), and I gather from Ponsot’s diagrams of Pickering’s observations, to which I have not access, that Pickering’s also have the leftward tendency. Archibald’s and Barnes’ curves show less tendency to diverge than those of any other observers. And although this may be partially, it is not wholly, due to their having worked at moderate dilutions only. For in several cases, pointed out below, the curves of other observers start on a divergent course within their limit of dilution. But the fact that their curves usually agree with Loomiss, would lead one to suspect them of a left- ward tendency. The divergence, as shown on the diagram, is most marked in the case of highly dissociated electrolytes (NaCl, HCl, ete.) in which, at great dilution, the rate of increase of ionization with dilution is small, the curves being crushed up, therefore, into a small space. But it is obvious also, in the K,SO, curves (espec- ially Abege’s) and the BaCl, curves (including Ponsot’s, not shown). And although for MgSO, and H,PO,, whose ionization increases rapidly with dilution, the single curves do not reveal it, the relative positions of the two curves in each case are what they might be expected to be, if they were tending unduly, Jones’s to the right, and Loomis’s to the left. This tendency is explicable at once, when we reflect that as it is equivalent depression that is plotted, the errors of the obser- vations are brought into greater and greater prominence as dilution increases. According, therefore, as the characteristic error of an observer's method of measuring total depression is positive or negative, will his curves of equivalent depression diverge at great dilution to the right or left of their true course. And they must diverge even if the error is very small, The equivalent depression curves of single observers are therefore open to grave suspicion at high dilutions ; and since one can never be sure that the errors of different methods will even approximately neutralise one another, mean curves are, at high Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. ScI., VoL. X. TRANS.—O. 226 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT dilution, not much more trustworthy than their components.* It is much safer, therefore, to base conclusions as to depression constant on moderate dilution curves, although the conclusions they admit of may not be so exact as we might wish. Discussion of the Curves. Electrolytes such as NaCl, HNO,, KOH, have 1 equivalent in the single molecule, and 2 ions. If, therefore, they exist in solution in single molecules, their curves should be normal 1—2 curves. If the molecules are all double or triple, the curves should be 2—4 or 3—6 curves, provided the association does not involve change in the mode of ionization. If it does, they may be 2—2, or 3—4, 3—3, 3—2 curves respectively, according to the change that may occur. If the molecules are single at extreme dilution, but become double or triple as dilution dimin- ishes, the curves should start as 1—2 curves, and undergo the appropriate transformation. The electrolyte for which we have the most complete and trustworthy data, is KCl. The LB—B curve is_ based on two series of observations in close agreement and by a method exhibiting less divergence than the others. Joness runs a little to the right of it; Abegg’s a little to the left. Both Raoult’s and Wildermann’s cross it, the latter being somewhat steeper, the former less steep. Ponsot’s * It follows that it is inadmissible to proceed as Raoult has done in determining depression constants, (loc. cit. p. 658), viz., by selecting high dilution curves which are in agreement, and applying extrapolation to a mean curve derived from them ; for such procedure may mean the selection of observations made by methods which have char. acteristic errors of the same sign. In fact, a mean curve based on Observations whicn agree well at low dilution, but disagree markedly at high dilution, would be likely to give a better result, as more probably combining observations with small characteristic errors of opposite sign. Raoult’s procedure is open to other objections. For (1) his curves of equivalent depression against total depression, make series of observations appear to be in greater disagreement than they really are, and are thus not helpful in making a judicious selection of observations to be used ; and (2.) extrapolation of such curves not only gives a result affected by the average of the characteristic errors of the observations used, but also neglects the possibility, in some cases the probability. that owing to change in association and mode of ionization, the law of the change of cury- ature may be very different beyond the limits of observation, from what it is within these limits. DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. 227 coincides with the lower part, but in the upper part diverges to the left. In form the curve is thus probably trustworthy. But being plotted with Barnes’ coefficients it may be too high or too low. The R—W and J—W curves (see inset) are not open to this suspicion, but at the dilutions to which even their lower and more trustworthy parts apply, they may have begun to diverge unduly rightwards. If the L B—B curve (see inset) be raised about 2.5 per cent., as is shown to be necessary by a comparison of Whetham’s and Barnes’ coefficients, it comes into a position to the left of the R—W and J—W curves, the usual relative position of the curves of these observers. Loomis’s own curve for somewhat greater dilutions than those of the L B—B curve, when plotted with Whetham’s coetticients, coincides very nearly with the boundary line of the inset ; Wildermann’s is a little to the left of Loomis’s, and somewhat steeper. Both exhibit a slight rightward bending, as do all] the others. It would be difficult to draw a meaa curve with any confi- dence; but any such curve would run about midway between the 1—2 and 2—4 (1.85) lines, would have a slight rightward bending at its upper end, and if produced with diminishing curvature, would run out to a point a little to the right of the 1—2 (1.85) intersection. If this intersection were the starting point of the curve, and if there were no association, the curve should lie wholly to the right of the 1—2 (1.85) line. If, as dilution diminished, sufficient doubling of molecules with unchanged mode of ioniza- tion should occur, the curve, after first bending away from that line to the right, would change its curvature, bend towards the line and cross it, and then run towards, and finally away from, the 2—4 line, as the inean curve appears to do. As the 2—2 line is far to the left, the mean curve might be accounted for also, on the assumption of a very slight formation of double molecules dissociating into two ions; and a slight formation of such molecules would probably involve no greater variation of the migration numbers with concentration than has been observed. 228 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT If the 1—2 (1.86) intersection, were assumed as the starting point of the curve, the mean curve would cut the 2—4 (1.86) line. If, therefore, association in molecules with unchanged mode of ionization were assumed, some formation of triple mol- ecules would be indicated, and if the associated molecules were assumed to dissociate into two free ions, a greater extent of such association would be indicated. Thus, with this starting point, less probable assumptions as to association must be made, to account for the observations. If the 1—2 (1.84) or even the 1—2 (1.845) intersection were taken as the starting point, the curve must bend considerably to the left before running out—of which bending none of the experimental curves give any indication whatever. The most probable conclusion, then, that we can draw from the observations, is that the depression constant is 1.85, with a limit of error of .01, or perhaps .005, that the electrolyte has single molecules at great dilution, and that as dilution diminishes, either double molecules with unchanged mode of ionization form to a considerable extent, or double molecules dissociating into two ions, to a small extent. Loomis’s and Barnes’ observations, on which the NaCl (L B—B) curve is based, are also in close agreement; but as Loomis’s curve for shghtly greater dilution bends slightly to the right, the upper part of the L .B—B curve should probably have greater curvature. Jones’ curve for moderately dilute solutions runs a little to the left of it, and at higher dilutions diverges markedly to the right, as separately shown. Abegg’s observations are on both sides of it, but at higher dilutions his curve also goes to the right. Raoult’s touches it, but goes off to the right. Arrhenius’s is considerably to the right, and goes widely rightward at greater dilutions. Ponsot’s is a little to the left. As the L B—B curve is plotted with Barnes’ coefficients, it is probably too low. If it be raised about as much as was found necessary in the case of the KCl curve, it will lie along the 1—2 line, or a little above or below it, with its upper end, as drawn, so directed, as to run out probably at a point nearer the DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES-—-MACGREGOR. 229 1—2 (1.85) intersection, than either the 1—2 (1.83) or the 1—2 (1.87) intersection. Thus the defective data as to ionization prevent our drawing a more definite conclusion than that the association indicated, if any, is less than in the case of KCl, and that the depression constant is 1.85, with a limit of error of perhaps .02. The HCl curve is interesting as exhibiting a point of mini- mum equivalent depression. The observations on which the L B—B curve is based, are in good agreement. Jones’ curve almost coincides with it in the lower part, but goes off to the right in the upper part and at higher dilutions, as shown separ- ately. Loomis’s curve at higher dilutions (also separately shown) goes to the left, but in a less marked manner. As drawn, the upper part of the mean curve lies between the 1—2 and 2—4 (1.85) lines, and it is running out to a point a little beyond the 1—2 (1.86) intersection (see inset). But as it is plotted with Barnes’ co-efficients it is perhaps too low. If raised 1 or 2 per cent. it would appear to run out at some point between the 1—2 (1.84) and 1—2 (1.86) intersections. The data are of course very defective ; but they are consistent with a depression constant of about 1.85, and they seem to indicate a greater extent of associ- ation than in the case of KCl. The L—D and J—D curves for NH,Cl are not in agreement, having the usual relative position of Loomis’s and Jones’ curves. A mean curve based on their lower parts would be slightly to the left of the 1—2 (1.85) line, and directed to a point consider- ably to the right of the 1—2 (1.86) intersection, It might thus indicate anything between a high value of the depression con- stant accompanied by very considerable association of molecules, and a constant of about 1.85, with no association in dilute solutions, and only a slowly increasing association in stronger solutions. The HNO, curve (see inset) is a mean curve based on Loomis’s and Jones’s. Both are beyond the bounds of the inset, the former to the left, the latter to the right. Neither this curve nor that of KNO, is sufficiently trustworthy to warrant any 230 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT close inspection, but both are clearly consistent with the 1.85 value of the depression constant. If the leftward bending of the KNO, curve in its lower part were actual, as well as the position of the curve, the formation of triple molecules might be indicated. But being a Loomis curve, it is open to the suspicion of being as a whole, too far to the left; and it is plotted with doubtful coefficients. The KOH curves, Loomis’s on the main diagram and Jones's on the inset, are useful only to illustrate the difficulty of making concordant observations by different methods. As usual, Loomis’s is to the left, and Jones’s to the right. Electrolytes such as BaCl,, H,SO,, Na,CO,, have 2 equiva- Jents in the single molecule, which may dissociate into 3 or into 2 ions. If there is no association, they will therefore have 2—3 or 2—2 curves, according to the mode of ionization. If there is complete doubling of molecules, the curves will be 4—6 or 4—4 curves, provided the doubling does not involve change in mode of ionization. Otherwise they might be 4—5, 43 or 4—2 curves. (The corresponding tangent lines are so far to the left of the experimental curves that they are not entered on the diagram.) If the molecules are associated in threes, the curves will be 6—9 or 6—6 curves, with the above proviso. Both Loomis’s and Jones’ curves for BaCl, are shown on the diagram, plotted with Whetham’s coefficients (rough extrapol- ated values, however, in the case of the former). Ponsot’s curve agrees very closely.with Loomis’s. Bearing in mind the right- ward and leftward tendencies of Jones’s and Loomis’s curves, respectively, we may conclude from the curves of the diagram that the actual curve runs down to the right of the 2—3 line, bending away from it to the right, and that it would intersect the a=1 line at a point between the 2—3 (1.85) and 2—3 (1.87) intersections, probably nearer the former than the latter. The curve is thus, so far as we can judge, a normal 2—3 (1.85 + .01) curve, running, however, very close to the 2—3 Jine. The dia- gram, therefore, indicates that BaCl, exists in solution in single molecules, dissociating into 3 ions, at least for the most part, and that it has a depression constant nearer 1.85 than 1.87. DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. 231 The H,SO, (J—W) curve for high dilutions, being a Jones curve, is probably too far to the right, and being plotted with Whetham’s coefficients, is probably too high. Wildermann’s curve for high dilutions runs parallel to it, considerably to the left. The J L B—B curve, for lower dilutions, is very nearly coincident with Barnes’ curve, and in its lower part with Jones’s and Loomis’s as well. But in the upper part, Jones’ curve goes off markedly to the right, and Loomis’s markedly to the left: Wildermann’s is slightly to the left at the lower end, and diver- ges somewhat leftwards in the upper part. Ponsot’s runs nearly parallel to it, somewhat to the left, and diverging to the left at higher dilutions. The J L B—B curve is thus trustworthy as to form; but being plotted with Barnes’ coefficients, it is probably too low. The actual curve would thus appear to cross the 2—3 (1.85) line not far from its starting point, bend towards the 4—6 line, and run down below that line, finally bending slightly towards it. Its course is therefore what it would be if it started as a 2—3 curve, for k=1.85 or thereabout, changed its curvature 4t a somewhat early stage, and tended to be transformed slowly into either a double molecule curve or a 2—2 curve, or perhaps both. The diagram would therefore indicate that at extreme dilution H,SO, exists in solntion in single molecules, dissociating into three ions, that at an early stage and in a somewhat marked manner, either doubling of molecules sets in, or partial dissocia- tion into two ions, or perhaps both, that the change increases slowly and steadily as dilution diminishes, and that at a concen- tration of about 0.6, if the coefficients at this concentration are to be trusted, the change is iucreasing in rate; also that the depression constant may quite readily be about 1.85. The K,SO, (L J A—A) curve, is based on series of observa- tions which in the main are in good agreement. It very nearly coincides with the Loomis and Archibald curves, and Ponsot’s runs down slightly to the left. In its lower part it coincides with the Jones curve, but in its upper part the Jones curve, which is separately represented for great dilutions, runs off to the right. Abege’s curve for higher dilutions runs even more 252 ON -A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT markedly to the right, although it is farther to the left at its lower end. Arrhenius’s is considerably to the right, and diverges widely rightwards. The Na,SO, (L A—A) curve is also almost coincident with both the Loomis and the Archibald curves. Both Raoult’s and Arrhenius’s are considerably to the right, and diverge slowly rightwards. Such of these curves as are entered on the diagram, being plotted with Archibald’s coefficients, are probably somewhat too high or too low, as the case may be. Those for great dilutions are too discordant to admit of dis- cussion. The mean curves for both salts have the same general form, and run down, as drawn, a little below the 2—3 line. Their upper ends are so directed as to suggest their running out at the 2—3 (1.85) intersection, or thereabout. At their lower ends they turn sharply to the left and cross the 2—3 line, going towards the region of the double molecule curves, or of the 2—2 curve. ‘The turns are too sharp, and the 4—6 and 6—9 lines too near, to make their transformation into double or triple mol- ecule curves, with unchanged ionization, probable. The diagram suggests rather their transformation into 4—5, 4, or 2 or 2—2 curves. If this be accepted, it means that at extreme dilution these sulphates exist in solution in single molecules, dissociating into three ions, that partial dissociation into two ions or doubling of molecules sets in, apparently at an early stage, but increases more slowly than in the case of H,SO,, until the dilution has been considerably diminished, when it undergoes a rapid increase. A close determination of the depression constant cannot be made; but even if the curves have to be either raised or lowered a little, and if, Loomis’s tendency being leftward, their upper parts have to be shifted somewhat to the right, they will be consistent with its being about 1.85. The Na,CO, curves are too discordant to form a_ basis for discussion. But either Loomis’s curve or a mean curve, or even Jones’s curve itself, is quite consistent with a depression constant of about 1.85; and both curves indi- cate the occurrence of rapid association or of rapid change of ioni- zation after considerable diminution of dilution. The fact that DEPRESSIONS FOR ELECTROLYTES—MACGREGOR. 233 Loomis’s curves bend towards the left, suggests that the actual curve after starting at the 2—8 intersection, may bend consider- ably to the right before association or change of mode of ionization has advanced sufficiently to change the direction of its curvature. An electrolyte such as MgSO,, according as it may exist in solution in single, double or triple molecules, and according to its mode of ionization in associated molecules, may have a 2—2, 4—4 or 2, or 6—6, 4,3 or 2 curve. Jones’ curve lies to the right of the 2—2 (1.85) line, bending towards it, and may quite readily be a 2—2 (1.85) curve, changing to a 4—4 or 4—2 curve. Loomis’s lies between the 2—2 and 4—4 lines. A mean curve would already, at a concentration .02, have crossed the 2—2 line. The data, such as they are, are consistent with the depression constant having a value of about 1.85, and would indicate single molecules in dilute solutions, doubling of molecules at a very early stage, and a steady increase in association through- out. According as H,PO,, if it exist in solution in single mole- cules, may dissociate into 4, 3 or 2 ions, will it have a 3—4, 83—3, or 3—2 curve. If it have double molecules, its curve may be a 6—8, 6—7, etc., to 6—2 curve, according to the mode of ioniza- tion. Jones’ curve runs down to the right of the 3—2 (1.85) line, bending towards the line. Loomis’s lies between the 3—2 and 6—4 lines. A mean curve woula be just to the right of the 3—2 line, and might readily run out at the 3—2 (1.85) inter- section. This would indicate single molecules in dilute solutions dissociating into two ions, an early occurrence of doubling of molecules, and steady increase in the extent of association as dilution diminished, the double molecules formed dissociating into 4, 3, or 2 ions, but not into more. Although the coefficients with which the curve is plotted are doubtful, the curve is so nearly parallel to the axis of ionization coefficients, that even a considerable error in their values would not affect the above conclusions. 234 ON A DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC. General Conclusions. Although the observations on which the above discussion is based are defective, and the particular conclusions drawn are consequently tentative, I think it may be held with some con- fidence (1) that the curves of equivalent depression against ioni- zation coefficient, have positions, forms, and slopes, such as they might be expected to have, on reasonable assumptions as to mode of ionization and constitution in solution, according to the Van ’t Hoff-Arrhenius theory of the depression of the freezing- point in solutions of electrolytes, (2) that for all the electrolytes examined, they are consistent with the depression constant having a common value of about 1.85, and that in the case of the electrolyte for which we have the best data, the curve is not consistent with a greater limit of error in this value than about .01, unless improbable assumptions are made with respect to the constitution of the electrolyte in solution, and (3) that the dia- gram enables us to reach in some cases, conclusions of considerable probability with respect to the constitution of the electrolyte in solution, and its mode of ionization. 235 DIAGRAM OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS. 9°. sw oeffecrent?. EL Rfonzzatea OsEguivilen 12 Depresstan 1-6 PEPE [ BSE a 2S — +4 z ; ne “TEE SEE ZV Syutv: “2 SDehress™ 3:6 VIII. — GeoLtocicaL NoMENCLATURE IN Nova Scotia.— By Hucu Fietcuer, Esq., B. A., of the Geological Survey of Canada. (Communicated on the 14th May, 1900.) THE DEVONIAN. In the summer of 1876,a great series of metamorphic rocks, cut by masses of granite and trap, was separated in Cape Breton from the overlying Carboniferous conglomerate made up of their detritus. These rocks were then traced from Loch Lomond to St. Peters, through Isle Madame and into Guysboro and Antigonish’ counties, as recorded in the reports of the Geological Survey between 1877 and 1881. Localities were described at which the Carboniferous, com- paratively unaltered, comes in contact with and contains pebbles of these metamorphic rocks; several sections indicating a thick- ness of at least 10,000 feet were given in detail and mention was made of carbonized plants, fish remains, Ostracods and other fossils found in many of the beds, the plants including forms like Psilophyton, a characteristic Devonian genus. Above them lies a formation, several thousands of feet in thickness, containing marine fossils of the Carboniferous Lime- stone series of England and characterized everywhere from Newfoundland to the western boundary of New Brunswick, a distance of 450 miles, by the occurrence of thick beds of gypsum ; while at their base lie about 3,000 feet of limestones and other beds of marine origin, shown by Dr. Honeyman, in one of the finest pieces of combined stratigraphical and paleontological geology yet done in Nova Scotia, to range at Arasaig from Medina to Lower Helderberg. Rocks in this position, precisely similar in_ lithological character, had been called Devonian in New Brunswick, New- foundland, Gaspé and on Logan’s map of the Pictou Coal field, and this name was accordingly applied to them in Cape Brecon. (235) 236 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE It was subsequently found that the large Pre-carboniferous area, eighteen miles wide at the Strait of Canso and five miles in width at Lochaber, thirty-five miles to the south-west, instead of being Silurian as claimed by Sir William Dawson, contains only these plant-bearing Devonian strata which are divisible into three groups corresponding closely with those into which the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick had already been sub- divided. They extend from Lochaber along the East River of St. Mary’s and the East River of Pictou to strike the Jater- colonial railway near Glengarry, form the high land south of Truro and pass unconformably beneath the Carboniferous of Stewiacke River; and a small area is found at MacAra Brook, from which come the fish remains aud Pterygotus subsequently described by A. Smith Woodward as homotaxial with the upper Silurian or lower Devonian of England. As this grouping affected also rocks referred by Sir William Dawson * on the evidence of their fossil plants “to the lower part of the coal formation or Millstone Grit” and even higher, it was naturally called in question; and in 1885 Mr. T. C. Weston was sent to Nova Scotia, assisted by Mr. J. A. Robert, to collect fossils between Riversdale and the Strait of Canso., They found everywhere Lepidodendron corrugatum, Stigmaria ficoides and Cyclopteris acadica, forms supposed to be charac- teristic of the Horton series; on the East River of St. Mary’s plants which resemble rhizomes of Psilophyton ; and, near Sunnybrae, Cordaites and numerous markings of Psilophyton allied to P. glabrum and P. elegans; at and near Riversdale they obtained Calamites, Sphenopteris, Anthracomya elongata and A. laevis, Lepidodendron corrugatum, Stigmaria ficorides, ferns and erect trees, characteristic again of the Horton series. These rocks near Truro and on Cobequid Bay and Minas Basin had in the meantime been recognized by Dr. Ells as probably identical with the Devonian of New Brunswick. * Acadian Geology, pages 485 and 489; Plants of the Lower Carboniferous and Millstone Grit, p. 13. IN NOVA SCOTIA—FLETCHER. Zot The Reports of the Geological Survey for 1885 and 1886 were sharply assailed by Sir J. W. Dawson for their disregard of fossils; they were assumed to cast doubt upon the value and accuracy of the work done in Cape Breton. “ As to the rocks of the Riversdale section and that at MacKay Head, I have no hesitation in saying that it would be contrary to all analogy, not only in Nova Scotia but everywhere else, that they should be as low as the Horton series. They are unequivocally Mill- stone Grit and the flora of these sections is so well-known that there can scarcely be any mistake respecting it. The opinion advanced by Dr. Ells that the rocks of MacKay Head are like those of Riversdale is quite correct, they being the same series ; but the comparison of them with the St. John Devonian is quite unwarrantable, the fossils being quite distinct.” This strong dissent induced Dr. Selwyn in 1892 to visit the region and see for himself the position of these strata. His view of their relations was emphatically expressed in the Sum- mary Report for that year. In the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Fletcher he fully agreed. In 1895, Dr. Selwyn was suc- ceeded as director of the Geological Survey by Dr. G. M. Dawson. Maps of Pictou and Colchester counties were then being engraved. The compilation of Sheets 43 to 48 was com- pleted and that of Sheets 56 to 65, 76, 83, 100 and 101 well advanced. In the same year Dr. Ami was sent to Nova Scotia to obtain paleontological evidence of the age of the rocks in question ; in the following seasons he was accompanied by the director, and in one season by Dr. Ells. But in 1898 “certain points connected with the geological structure of that region remained still critical,” although it was hoped that the special investigations of that year might render it possible to complete the information for several of the above sheets, which in that event would be promptly issued. At this time, Dr. Ami was protesting against the publication of a report in which he was represented as advocating the Carboniferous age of these rocks. On the contrary, he believed the evidence to show “that the strata of Union and Riversdale may be 238 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE regarded as equivalent to those in Lancaster township, New Brunswick, described and held to be of Devonian age,” adding that several typical Horton fossils, such as Lepidodendron cor- rugatum and Cyclopteris acadica are common to the Riversdale and Union rocks and to the Devonian of New Brunswick. In the following year, however, he states that so far as the faunas are concerned they clearly indicate a Carboniferous facies for the New Brunswick Devonian, the rocks of Harrington River, Parrsboro, Riversdale, Union and Horton Bluff. The only proof adduced for this radical change, and the addition of 15,000 feet of strata beneath the Limestone to the already enormously developed Carboniferous of Nova Scotia, is that of certain fossils, assumed to have a definite range, in regard to some of which he is surely mistaken. For “the protolimuloid crustacean, usually referred to the Carboniferous system ” is on the contrary* also found associated with such characteristic Lower Devonian forms as Pterygotus, Coccosteus, Pterichthys and Glyptolepis ; Hstheria is not “all the world over recognized as Carboniferous”’ any more than Pterivnea is peculiar to the Devonian ; Leave occurs in Pennsylvania in rocks regarded by most geologists as Devonian; and Professor Marsh has described, from the Devonian, amphibians as highly developed as the Dendrerpeton found by Sir William Logan at Horton Bluff in 1841 and by Dr. Ami, at Parrsboro in 1898, the affinities of which the latter regards as Permian. d Collections of fossil plants from these rocks in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were examined by Mr. David White of the United States Geological Survey in 1898, and by Mr. R. Kidston of Stirling, Scotland, in 1899, who came to almost the same conclusions on perfectly independent grounds. Their views are given at length by Dr. Whiteaves in his “ Address on the Devonian System in Canada,” and may be thus summarized : (1) The Horton series is nearly contemporaneous with the Pocono formation of the eastern United States and the lower * Ottawa Naturalist for January, 1900, Vol. VIII, No. 10, p. 256. IN NOVA SCOTIA—FLETCHER. 239 Carboniferous of England. (2) The Riversdale and Harrington River series are assuredly newer than the Horton and have a most pronounced Upper Carboniterous facies. (3) The plant- bearing beds near St. John, N. B. are not Middle Devonian but Carboniferous and are the exact equivalents of the Riversdale series. Dr. Whiteaves adds: “Our knowledge of the organic remains of the Devonian of Nova Scotia is still in its infancy, and it would seem that the plant-bearing beds near St. John, N. B., which have so long been regarded as Devonian, may possibly be Carboniferous.” Admitting apparently that “a classification by faunas alone is one-sided and that the physical history of the strata should also be considered,” Dr. Ami, in 1899, set aside the authority of the palzeontologists mentioned above and accepted the order of super- position® given by “the two geologists on the Canadian Survey staff, who have studied the question from a stratigraphical and lithological point of view,” but, as a sort of compromise, for their name Devonian he substituted “ Ko-Carboniferous,” just as he had previously employed the word “ Eo-Devonian ” for the so-called Lower Oriskany of Nictaux. This stratigraphical sequence has indeed been admitted by all geologists who have examined it in the field. Richard Brown, Campbell, Gesner, Lyell, Honeyman, Logan, Poole, Ells, Fletcher, Selwyn and others in Nova Scotia ; Gesner, Hartt, Matthew, Bailey and Ells in New Brunswick ; Murray in Newfoundland; Ells and Whiteaves in Gaspé—all place these rocks beneath the Carboniferous Limestone, near the debatable line between Carboniferous and Devonian, in many indisputable sections where no thrust-faults, outliers, overturned fossil trees or other agency of theoretical biologists are available to make part Devonian, part Coal Measures. It becomes, then, a question of the transference across this line not of a few feet of strata but of a system of 10,000 to 15,000 feet of beds cut off from a marine formation both above * Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XIII, No. 9, p. 207. 240 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE and below by great unconformities and intrusions of granitic rocks. The only evidence brought against the name Devonian is that of certain fossils assamed to have a definite range in geological time. Were such a means of classification possible in the present state of our knowledge, and we were to understand that, for example, rocks must not be called Devonian above the horizon of the appearance of amphibians, or Silurian above that of fishes, such a classification would be quite satisfactory. Paleontology is not, however, one of the mathematical or exact sciences, but has its limitations even in the countries in which it has been most diligently studied ; consequently, uncer- tainty exists both in Europe and America regarding the proper limits of this and other formations. We have heard, for example, the work of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsyl- vania, a most important and thorough industrial investigation, described as conducted on the plan that correlations can best be made by lithological means. “Frequently one meets with expressions of lack of confidence in the evidence offered by fossils.” And in a recent report on the Devonian and Car- boniferous* “the whole subject of the value of fossil plants as means of correlation” is said to be “ under consideration.” It is only necessary to read this report to realize the diffi- culty met with in attempting to group these rocks by their fossils in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and other statest—a difficulty well stated in a report of the Ameri- can committee of the International Congress of Geologists? as follows: (1) “Shall we include the Catskill rocks (and, when no marine faunas occur, up to the base of the Olean conglomerate and equivalents) in the Devonian? (2) Shall the Chemung marine fauna be taken as the uppermost fauna of the Devonian? Or shall a part or the whole of the marine faunas between the middle Devonian and the conglomerate which introduces the Coal Measures be called Devonian? If an arbitrary line is to * Bulletin of the U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 80, pp. 123, 208 and 228. + Cf. also “Science” for 26th Jan. 1900, p. 140. t Rep. Geol. Congress, 1888, A. pp. 102, 144; B. pp. 144, 153, 154, 156. IN NOVA SCOTIA—FLETCHER. 241 be drawn faunally it should be between the Chemung and the Waverley. ..... . The difficulties are not less sericus in England, and the Pilton and Baggy beds hold faunas which it is as difficult to settle on the Devonian or Carboniferous side as it has been with the Waverley, Kinderhook or Marshall.” Pro- fessor J. S. Newberry then proposes a classification in which he includes in the Carboniferous system all strata from the Permian to the Chemung, both inclusive ; whereas Professor Hall adopts ‘the first alternative suggested above and restricts the term Catskill group to the beds known as X and XI of the Pennsyl- vania survey (Pocono and Mauch Chunk); and others speak of the iatter as distinct from. and overlying the Catskill. Adopting Professor Hall’s grouping it would seem that the Mauch Chunk and Pocono may represent respectively the Union and Rivers- dale series of the Nova Scotian Devonian ; and that, unless the littoral and estuarine sediments of Pennsylvania represent the pelagic rocks of the east, there must be a great unconformity by which the gypsiferous formation, traced, as above stated, from Newfoundland to the Aroostook, is lost. It has been found that in working up from the lower Paleozoic, the fossils seem to carry the Catskill to XI of the Pennsylvania classification, in working downward from the upper Paleozoic, the fossils seem to carry the Permian to VIII (Venango). The International Congress proposes to place the upper limit of the Devonian at the base of the Carboniferous Limestone and to include in the former the Catskill and the so-called Lower Carboniferous or Tweedian group of Scotland. The Tweedian has been also correlated with the Condroz beds of Belgium, from which one of the subdivisions of the Devonian (Condrusian) in the classification of the Congress takes its name. The annexed tabular view of various classifications proposed for these rocks will show at once their radical inconsistency and the indcfinite range of the fossils :— Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. SCI, VOL. X. TRANS.—P, 242 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE I 2 3 + CANADIAN GEOLO- | ELLS & FLETCHER. DAWSON DAWSON GICAL SURVEY. IN NEW BRUNSW’K.| IN Nova SCOTIA. CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. | : Permian, or Upper | Upper Permian. Carboniferous. Carboniferous. Coal Measures. Coal Measures. Coal Measures. Unica, or Salinon | Millstone Grit. Millstone Grit. Millstone Grit. Riversdale. : : Windsor Series (Up- Carboniferous Carboniferous SO Ae 2 z Limestone. Limestone. Windsor Series. as che eae Carboniferous Carboniferous Horton Series or | Horton Tweedian of Conglomerate. Conglomerate. *Albert Shales. Scotland.t DEVONIAN SYSTEM. Catskill. Perry. Union, including ROChS MORE et. —————— ee eee A aan Logan’s Devonian Chemung. p Mispec. or eton ROR or Brookfield. Riversdale, Harring- - sa? ; Cordaite Shales : ton River (4000 ft). ees . Hamilton. MacKay Head and Dadexyion Sand- Horton.t | sone. i oa Corniferous. Basal Conglomerate. | Bloomsbury. | Oriskany. | Dr. G. a Matthew suggests placing SILURIAN SYSTEM. the Cordaite Shales in the Silurian. * An unconformable series beneath the lower carboniferous limestone and con- glomerate. + The relation of the Horton to the beds immediately overlying the Silurian has not yet been worked out. IN NOVA SCOTIA—FLETCHER. 5 6 7 R. KIDSTON. DAVID WHITE. PENNSYL- VANIA,. Union ? oe Riversdale, Harring- ton River, and | Cordaite Shales} Union (St. John Devon-| ian). Riversdale and Cor- | daite Shales eke | isan) Echeule onian of St. John, N. B,) (Olean ) Mauch Chunk XI. Horton (Pocono of ; Pocono X Horton if Cover Pensylvania,Wav-| (White fine ire SOU IY erly. Newerthan| Catskill of ngland).t Kiltorean). Lesley). Catskill IX. Chemung VIII (Venango). 243 8 9 JAMES HALL. |J.S. NEWBERRY. Permian. Coal Measures. Millstone Grit. Carboniferous Limestone. Waverley. Mauch Chunk XI. Catskill. Pocono X. Chemung. DEVONIAN SYSTEM. Hamilton. Corniferous. Oriskany. SILURIAN SYSTEM. { Referred by the International Congress of Geologists to the drusian). Devonian (Con- 244 GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE IN NOVA SCOTIA—FLETCHER. “Only the knowledge that paleeontologists sometimes “ give more consideration to the results of theoretic biologic studies than to the already established stratigraphic succession of the faunas ” can explain the foregoing table, which offers the alter- native of correlating with the Nova Scotian productive coal measures, lying thousands of feet above the Riversdale, either the Coal Measures of England or the Cretaceous coal-bearing wocks of the Pacific coast. : The Horton cannot be at the same time above and below and on the same horizon as the Riversdale; and Dr. Ami has perhaps acted wisely in omitting it from his classification, its prominence in the others being due to its being easily accessible and first examined. At Horton Bluff it contains only 287 feet of strata well exposed on one side of a syncline, and 459 feet, not so well exposed, on the other; whereas the section at Har- rington River shows nearly 4000 feet of black and gray beds; that near Union station 6468 feet of red beds of the upper * group alone (of which 684 feet, containing fish remains through- out, were remeasured at MacAra Brook); while a great thickness of the lower gray and black beds is exposed along the railway from Riversdale to West River and in every brook flowing south from the Cobequid Hills, these exposures being sometimes almost continuous for several miles, as recorded in the reports of the Geological Survey. Jt will be readily understood that fossils thus studied and -applied, having fixed no definite horizon higher than the Lower Helderberg, have hindered not helped in mapping the com- yparatively simple geological structure of these formations, while most satisfactory progress has been made by Mr. Fairbault in an investigation of 27,000 feet of more complicated, non- fossiliferous rocks comprising the gold-bearing series of the ‘province. * Geol. Survey Report for 1886, Part P, page 65. IX.— Notes on A Cape BreTON MINERAL CONTAINING TUNGSTEN, AND ON THE EFFECT OF WASHING CERTAIN CaPE BRETON CoAaLs.—By Henry S. Poorz, F.G.S., F.R.S.C., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, etc., Stellarton, N. S. (Read April 14th, 1900.) In the last issue of the Transactions of this Institute there was published a paper read March 13th, 1899, entitled “New Mineral Discoveries in Nova Scotia.” The paper made reference to the finding at North East Margaree, C. B., of a mineral con- taining tungsten and speaks of it as Wolframite with 67.47 per cent. of W O,, but makes no note of its other constituents. A month later, at a meeting of the Mining Society, Mr. A. C. Ross: read a paper on the same mineral, and in the discussion which: followed an analysis made by Mr. Mason, the assayer at Hali-- fax, was given by Mr. Missener. This analysis,* of concentrated ore, showed but a trace of iron, and was as follows :— Pumesten, Brioxide :..'<..se0s sek Siac yee, OOS SiCaar aera scte ate. s.../) 04 | Average Coken ck... 70.30 Volatile Combust. Matter.81.14 | Theoretical Evapora- Hixed Carbon, s66 4. +: 61.50 tive power........ 9.06 lbs. SI. 9.56.5 DO eon 432) Sulphur = prec cr 1.24 Specific Gravity .... 1.30 100.00 (1890.) Analysis by the Writer. Slow Coking. Fast Cokiug. MM@rsGUEGE ay seis ss os 6c 5 oa ale eeiels 420 420) Volatile Combustible Matter......34.962 37.110 ittione dia Cam ootan Bie! 2 see 5. s aie de 59.993 57.845 EIT T 2 die Rats Sey Chr. i eae a 4.625 4.625 100.000 100.000 SUOMI is ieee Oe eee 95 95 (1891. ) Average Samples from Five Sections of the Mine. Mroistures).). fs. oo 1:536)|| Fixed Carbon 4a.2 51008 Volatile Combustible Aisle 1.3 3l.tsGea epee ee aes 5.084 Pat eli ioe. s 65s) e.; «5 S692.) SW phi. sey eer 1.894 Of the underlying seams in the North Sydney district, not much can yet be said. The General Mining Association has recently proved them by a shaft to the fourth seam. These seams are of good quality, and from three to four feet thick. I append an analysis of the third seam, made a few years ago, from samples taken from the openings of the North Sydney Mining Company, along its outcrop :— RioistuTer.. os ee ess DOG Ashi? een paeonnnet e 7.46 Volatile Combustible MiaIGte@TIR fon. ore: 3.06 .30.16 100.00 Bixedi@arbon:..........«- 60:32 "Sua ho Wee eewereeeeeae 84 These seams are now receiving attention at the hands of the Sydney Coal Company, and, although thinner than the main seam, will undoubtedly in the near future prove valuable from their uniformity and proximity to deep water. GILPIN. 252 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. The coals of Pictou County are represented by samples from the mines of the Acadia Coal Company. These deposits have long been worked. Samples of coal are also shown from the Chignecto, Joggins and Springhill Colleries. Interesting analyses, ete., of the seams found at the last-named district have been furnished by me in late numbers of the Transactions of the Institute. Manganese. At present the production of manganese is at a low ebb in this province. For many years the Tenny Cape Mines had a world-wide reputation for the production of small amounts of extremely pure ore. For some time past little ore has been mined. It is not doubted that the resources of the district are exhausted ; but the researches of the chemist have pointed out methods for the production of pure manganese oxide as a by product, which have lessened the demand for a native ore almost chemically pure. However the demand for manganese for steel making purposes has again offered a market for manganese ores; high in grade, and phosphorus free. Attention is now being directed to the ores of this district, and with modern appliances for prospecting and mining it is anticipated that Tenny Cape will again become a producer. The samples collected exhibit well the celebrated crystalline pyrolusite characterising the district. The following analysis will serve to show the character of the ores of this district, which occur in lower carboniferous limestones :— ils JOE MOISHUIe cyst gnc ais Bec. ac Soa CeeS 1.66 205 Water of Composition...... Joe roe: : leon speroxide.:2\./5. eer EeMtactole.«: risus LOUD 2.55 Oxyaenm) 20'o... ee Geren Mey tes as 7.036 Bt * Baba or aoe ene Bs Set Oo eee aa Or 1.12 Insoluble? J ae eee (or 1.728 2.80 Phosphoric acidi..s.Jcnseeee eee a: aeshatd 1.029 Manganese oxides ....... See Arcee 84.620 eae Peroxide of manganese ..... Ete land aheaw neice pS 90.15 ene ee eee he Sok bier py Ee apne arnt ty & trace. MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. 253 Ures less crystalline but equally pure occur at Loch Lomond in Cape Breton County, at the Moseley Mines. The ore is found in both the crystalline and amorphous forms in a red shale of lower carboniferous age about five feet thick. It is presented ‘as layers and beds from one to eighteen inches in thickness. The enclosing material being soft it is readily extracted. The position of the mine has necessitated unfavorable conditions for shipment, but the construction of the railway now under con- tract between the Strait of Canso and Louisburg will furnish a ready access to admirable shipping facilities. The following analyses will serve to show its quality :— iE. IL. UI. Peroxide of manganese (available)... .91.84 87.64 92.65 CRORIGe OF WOM oi 5 cere eas cases oes 3 12 trace. 4.14 hasolublen. 65000 Sepets at ele rer (ih 8.51 trace. The ores of this metal ocenr in workable amounts in Onslow, near Truro, as veins, and in the partings of the lower carboni- ferous sandstones, During the past few months New Ross, in the northern part of Lunenburg County, has promised to become a producer of manganese ores. Miner T. Foster has opened a number of veins which are of high grade, and available for economic extraction. A few tons have been shipped, and have found a ready sale. The extent of the manganiferous ground, and the age of the strata holding the ores, has, I believe, not yet been worked out. Explorations made during the past season, have shown that the Dean and Chapter lands adjoining the Foster properties contain, at several points, deposits which promise to be valuable. The ores of this district have, so far as I can learn, not been exhaus- tively analysed. They contain, however, manganese in amount suitable for steel and chemical purposes. The Mineral Products Company of Bridgeville, Pictou County, also exhibit samples of manganite, and of manganiferous limonite. It is reported that recent developments in the iron ore mines of this locality have shown the presence of consider- able amounts of the latter mineral. 254 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN, Gold Ores. The collection of gold specimens procured for the exhibition although not as rich as could be desired, may be termed repre- sentative of a number of the best known districts. I will refer briefly to the districts represented. The department contributed a set of Montagu specimens, valued at $1,200.00, at present on exhibition at the Imperial Institute, London, also specimens from Renfrew, Mt. Uniacke, and Waverly. Another handsome set, approaching in value that first named, was secured from Messrs. Jack & Bell. Another sample was from the famous “ Plough Lead” at Isaacs Harbor. The following parties aiso contributed samples, some of which were very handsome, accompanied by samples of concentrates, wall rocks, photos, ete. : Jide: WithnOwes. isi. 2 South Uniacke.....Gold-beariug quartz. SER eee ae ..... Concentrates. J. Hirsehfteld:.).\c:% «.. tGoldenvalle® ow.2.5 << 5 Guitey dennines: 50. 27. a@armbougeeacn. 2.2 Gold-bearing quartz. Wia@sSarte ecece.iee3e Cowsbaye fe asic. isk%s Cashon & Hines ...... erpsivate... .5 2 a en Ne eer To) See Rene Concentrates. Blk MiningiCons.. soe Camiboulras 6 sah ts Gold-bearing quartz. SA Mer re eg GS ease ack Concentrates. Montreal & London Gold DeviGos ssi Salmon River...... Gold-bearing quartz, Gue a Wilsons) 5..2).'o- Waveney 's....22. ij in. Ro Melieod 22.2 3.5% Miata. «5 sn ss as J. H. Townsend........ Lawrencetown...... [ Pe eee “s .....- Wall rocks, ete. W:: L. Libbey: 2 4.0.0 2Ne Brookfield 22% Gold-bearing quartz. ‘s AMER We adorn Wall rocks. . Se ce SP ae Concentrates. the first in the Province. MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. 255: J. D. Huntingdon.......Yarmouth.........Gold- bearing quartz. . ae eeu ta ie oso Oe Concentrates. W. C. Anderson........Montagu..........Gold-bearing quartz. VackeG Bell. scons «2 Fe Nor aic.s anette 3 Cunningham & Curren.Mount Uniacke..... i - .....Concentrates. J. D. McGregor........ Fifteen Mile Stream.Gold-bearing quartz. ce Lead. As yet the development of our lead ores has not reached the productive stage. In Inverness County, in Laurentian felsites, at many points, are visible the effects of solfataric action, in deposits of copper, lead and zine ores, often noticeably enriched with gold and silver. Some measure of development has been attained at Cheticamp by Halifax capitalists, who have opened a promising silver lead deposit. It is expected that these ores will be shipped to the smelter at Pictou, or to Swansea. Openings show the deposit to be from 3 to 10 feet thick, and to continue for several hundred feet. Roughly speaking, the ore carries one ounce of silver for each unit of lead, some samples showing as high as 78 per cent. of lead and 80 ounces of silver. Gold also shows in quantities varying from 3 to 14 dwts. per ton of 2,000 lbs. Similar results in gold and silver have been obtained from the Silver Cliff deposits and from zine blende deposits in the same locality. As yet the auriferous alluvium in the Cheticamp River has not received systematic attention. If there are gravels in the river worth working, they will be found where the river leaves the mountain, and not in its narrow gorges subject to frequent and severe freshets. No free gold veins have yet been reported, and the alluvial gold which attracted so much attention some time ago is probably derived from the felsites, which are reported to occasionally show fine flakes of gold. At Red Head, a few miles to the north, some development work has been done on copper deposits, also auriferous. Galena 256 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. ore running high in lead and _ silver occurs at Caledonia, Guysboro County, and at Smithfield, Hants County. Graphite. The upper or slate division of the Nova Scotia gold fields frequently shows beds highly carbonaceous, but I am not aware that they have been practically tested. In the precambrian felsites- and gneisses of Cape Breton, plumbaginous slates are not uncommon. Samples have been secured from the River Dennys district, and from the vicinity of the Grand Narrows. The rock from the latter locality yielded to the analyst of the , Geological Survey : Graphite Carbon,2. 0. curses ce occ». o>/c Joe Rock matter c,..o-. cm melee ee Behe k ce a Raa ave CHRO ene Witter. hci oe bic ee Ree eves chee 2a 100.00 Copper. An interesting set of specimens and photos show the development work of the Cape Breton Copper Company at Coxheath, Cape Breton County. Here a number of deposits have been traced for several thousand feet, and proved to depths upwards of 300 feet. The deposits vary in thickness up to 12 feet, and may, so far as exploration work has been carried, be described as very long lenses, bedded in precambrian felsites and slates. While some of the lenses carry copper contents up to 10 per cent., the ore will presumably belong to the class requiring concentration. Working tests have shown that concentration readily presents a suitable furnace material, unusually free from injurious ingredients. The following tables of analyses and of working tests of concentration are of interest : To) 2 THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. MINERALS FOR pe UO 6 “souls 100 S0'S Sc0'0 06'T ‘SSUTTIVT, G0 19 ZI te Ve ene wees Cr 2] oye CC Ce as "SSO, 2p UBSAXG) “0 0'6 &0 Merete dbnllotac wododlhacocos Melee SB a0 ODO 80°0 ‘+ «saqeydsor : ; Y Id LE a eller cea lm, ecole HAS | dato oaeeet Ree eee eee Son eee ae Bs es eS aren, sD ee ae eee ee oa eee ae a OF'0 200 29°g eee Be ee Bees ROA ph oa oan ange tes ood Seca ta eetnn 660 ae BS Sa SN od ld G08 760 | §S'IT | reese BOLO! Me | ee a eee a me loam tipd Fe C ISG OOOO. Soar \ Pee He pera |e) jauon | eon | Ero. |": eduoaaay, etnies 2 eel oa | soo. leon. eee araseny ree BED aie 19°62 seo | Lice igi | O10! | “enidh | 29) wont Ph eee = TOSS Seen TSI O18 OF ESI 69 '0T anydyjug “sorQ SUL 186 COST 6L'ST €S'GL (El Ui) Ue chaeians v a uody - ‘920 | poqoapeg TLE eG Fel 6L'9 66'8 (09) [eo aeddon *SZO | . i ‘ . . cy *uo04so . | "YAO KX MON TOATES PIOD et teke9) oup ‘gust fae nan "um NV AGH ane Woura : ‘\1OUd aay son1a'y ‘shivssp wayiugy pun pj0y ‘salQ, uaddog yzwayxog fo saslijnuy ‘VAVNVQ ‘VILOOS VAON “(GHLINI]T) ‘ANVAWOD UAddON NOLAUG HdVO TRANS.—Q. Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst, Scr., Vou. X. MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. 258 “CUBULIOY) ‘YTVY ‘SYA A, JPloqumnyT Y ERT OF UNO P[NOM PITA TLJo} OY} JEYI OS “TPOITTS “OM 08 Jnoqe IIMs SJon poad poxtua “soy 18 04} Woaz pourLygo oq [ITM o1oY} 310M avypnsod uy £q ‘019 YYVOYXOD UO S]LIAY UOT}VAZUDOUO*D ‘I WIdVL ‘VAVNVOQ ‘VILLOOS VAON ‘(GMLIWI'T) ‘ANVAWOD UAddON NOLAUG AdvO ver co ST ee) Oe ee OT L’ 6881 ISL €° 60S cge Z FOL eee. saeneesslag|scess eocccerel|seesl|ececeveces weer r forsee eeeloree|s see evs qid UOIyBoylaAKlo WWoIs ‘op Rverotel|kaenotets (nd or COL Lae Gh Shue | roms ecalnomenes rlricuisielerstareiertetete sanoly | | | WOdIf (SAUIITS) UMIUIR[YOS meterslietar ecues resalerseeeeel logse 0 lot! gg Lett! ocze lget! gop je | 77°77 atae9 Saran) op G18 |8't2S' SOL (|91/6S’ST] S Lb |T 91) aos 8 oy cesar weg) Op 86'0| { OST 9°62 E1Z VAR oem ae rene dees Ginko, cay (OO mrcuchicno U eee OO “SOO ee oe wi f-T OLZ 9° 9Z ggg Mr |(shanensies suaseaisie\z\e CEH eeeer ler eres elore eet ecceee sae aaepun Aor 68 966 |S IT} L68 |6e| 066 Ts¢ |2'OT, ZI9 |ST6L°e1 HAM OAM 9% Wey wody YONYIS | ( 8% |0°9 | 6G Igjes 2 69F igh |, 20g) AHLe23| S8c7 eas 2D) | oat SL TIG 9 COM jEsieee 89} 691 (l0¢;Ss5 oo | L | C8o |SI\IEet| 9°SZ Ibn y wre pa SE ea G86 ” | SIL lc v1 Sel [61 Slee FPL |0'F | GLL Iel\L60L; 8°19 oc meee TPs ee ae ” Pag gsc |S | 609 |ITOS Il) L cP Be ait Seeieyeers (| ae ” | lege Gzz [6G | OSe jOL/SE TT) TOT ; g | °° uu g-G-g Woy Sule) CS) (oy | eee | ee | ee ee ee Mi Tees |e a = sf TS) 0g 5 ee eee sivaheieleneys ' lore OSI 20 OGTE I “VU SOM poyeys 1 @) MBY ie ine ae ean © mn 2 te ‘OM hs ‘OM ital) oe ‘OM 4 ‘om ale |) 4 ‘Ox i, oy {2 le, 5 8 ap eee Teves eiet| ae eae cae Sao e Tia ea irae) SiN Utes fa SURO | ona] dae 2. Lon Te os ee te PE ‘9 | g : “SLLSV AA ‘SLOAGONd CAAXII ‘SULIAUG ————————————— SS ee ———————————— or 259 THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. MINERALS FOR *AUBULIOX *YLe My ‘SIO AA JPlOquny»T £q ‘019 YYVOYXOH Uo spelt} UOTPVAZUDOUO|D “ZCQT] 07 JUNOUIR P[NOM POTA [¥J0} OYJ IVY OS ‘STOTLYOS “soy 09 Qnoqe THs sjonpoid pox tut “spy GLE 94) WoOAy pourejzqo oq [LM o19y YIOM Welpnso1 UT oe aia roy | oe : Gaooc ot oof ona on . bE OL Cond Oyo Oo oOtin oo eenee ZLIS OL (gut mou dd bo suanjoy ae! |—|-——-|- ee | EA en | | a a eee | e0o%) | |__ 628 | aE gg'z| OLF Seep eee ut) es loe| te laghcpccce peepee “+++ noqve.] Jou suTeMay | :41d uon | “BOYIE[ Woody WUUR|YOS eee cr . weet e wee w eee OFS OST PIs SIZ wl” . eee ewes wee le wieaee 66 | «6 | «ace 6 ¢ 60 6 6010 seer (anoy) | qyarrAqey woOay VATA YIG L&T |L°8¢} Océ |0S ( L> 0'Sc| Geo ISF L896! TOV |F'0e1 FOS |SE\° Re iy 91989 99'0 TI'S sataing woaz yopyos G'r6¢ |0'92; 866 |6P ont 0O'S2| 9ST IGFOT'PI] TLS |p ST) S Sh iFE)"\*resaIgqIY Wo soqtI | -Ad aoddog ‘Jy yYyoipyos oe . . eee ere eee Oooo o eee ee ween ey log Z 8 oe ee reee (hay 0 OS.0 19SU1441Y ulouy soyadd uoay “T YyoIyog y ae alta i Secicead egg | 26% |0'SI| €8% |TFSL'6 | SGPT |F FT) SLT jag; °°’ ‘mart aepun s0ssi¢ — — —|— > MOI} YOILGIS 8°0/ GSOT|L'TT| G66IT [SFlgSSF| (28h [0'FT} 992) OFlqy.c (ene ini PEPE gece cae ieee) eal 8S'FIE |O'L | G'8EE LIE PSE l91g |G'L| el jeg” FOr praia Se |OG = Vote cme) LP ame Gr OnGlnn L6° 6G 0°01] S99 \9F BS" / 106L [S'S | Test issOT's | S98 [oc]: CG iin Wee ict Ouse GIte |b S Ose (Sh| Ess |2e¢9 |0'F | O89! |LE/ST'S | F SZ nln kage Stereo ae anaes SAGO ro oad Wpalete:|venaneceteievetet| (Sex A GzP 0'F opp) 9E/SL'8 PLT sravayei{fotare tone Oda paooaop occ ‘UU = 9-G-8 S : WOdy sured peeele veeee xg Rvenaters ON ow mi Reileketovralie)ate4||tatvetielall|lisiwkartel's ‘loa'z epee £70) Tece 9Z|"'JYSIOM peyeys ‘aIQ MeY hh ‘OM OPS rs al ‘Oo (oleae Zi Zeger VA ‘OM is ; ; g : ° ; < 3 4 ng a ‘0 H Mee g| 0 ee 02 H MeN : no) | OSES CH meee ie NOMLYNOISH(T Se aS | ee ALSV AA ° ‘SLONGONd AAXIPL o ‘SHLINA a Tl WIdVi ‘VGVNVQ ‘VILOOG VAON “(GRLINI'T) ‘ANVAWOQ UHddOQ NOLAUG AdVO ——sss sss 260 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. Samples of similar ores are shown from St. George's River, Eagle Head and French Road, in the same County. In Antigonish County the traces of copper ore are wide spread. At some points prospecting work has given promising results, but as yet the various licenses to search have received little attention. A sample of copper ore from St. Joseph’s is from a bed of mixed chalcopyrite and shale in lower carboniferous strata close to their junction with precarboniferous rocks, presumably of lower silurian age. There are about eight beds, reported to be from two to six feet in width The following analysis of a sample from the No, 2 vein is by the Geological Survey Depart- ment: Copper se sers aces cess 12 (.OONMMOIstire 2...) sete re PON oo cde de Me. cece s £2970 Carbonate of Lronts aa 6 20 SSCA INUT oie tie tancuchecaret's 33.50 ——— POG Penielate ove: Bes SAK Sega. 100.00 At Polson’s Lake somewhat extensive development work has shown, in Devonian strata, beside a dioritic dyke, a large mass of carbonate of iron and cale spar carrying copper pyrites. The ore is stated to average from 9 to 16 per cent. of copper, and to carry several dollars’ worth of gold and silver. On the opposite or west side of the Lochaber lake, similar but richer ores occur in numerous veins with spar and specular iron. Exploratory work done here a number of years ago was fairly promising. In addition to these deposits, carbonates, sulphides and silicates of copper are not uncommon in the carboniferous shales and sandstones in irregular masses, frequently rich, but limited in extent. Further work may, however, show localities where this class of deposits will reach economic values. In Pictou County similar ores occur at a number of places in the permo-carboniferous and in the miilstone grit and lower carboniferous. Traces of copper sulphide also occur in the district forming the water shed between the Bay of Fundy and MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. 261 the Strait of Northumberland. The deposits near Pictou and River John have received some attention and will probably prove sources of this metal. At Dalhousie Mountain a good deal of surface exploration has been done on a vein from 2 to5 feet wide carrying copper pyrites. Samples have shown up to 19 per cent. of copper and about $26.00 of gold per ton. It may be anticipated that where the Devonian strata of this district are intersected by dioritic and granitic dykes oppor- tunity will be afforded for copper ores, in some cases, of commercial value. The rocks referred to appear again in the southern part of New Annan, and indications cf copper ore are wide spread in quartzites and felsites associated with dioritic dykes, ete. Developments bave been made at New Annan, on the East Branch of the French River, about five miles from Tatamagouche Station. The property being developed presents a bed about four feet thick, carrying stringers of black sulphide and carbonate with nodules of various copper sulphides in a fine sandstone conglomerate resting on a blue clay floor. Similar deposits also occur at the Palmer mine, near Wentworth. Here the bed is about ten feet thick and much mixed with clay, The quality of these ores varies very much, according to the state of concen- tration reached in the process of formation. Samples can be had running up to 50 per cent of copper, with gold and silver in varying amounts. It is expected that these deposits and others of a similar character scattered from Amherst to Pictou will furnish material for the smelter at Pictou. More extended development will be required to determine this point. It is, however, extremely probably that the older rocks lying to the south of the earboniferous will yield deposits of ore larger and more uniform in quality. Copper pyrites also occurs on the Portapique River, Col- chester Co., in a stratum, presumably of Devonian age, over a tract several hundred feet wide and a mile in length. Samples show up to 20 per cent. copper, with traces of gold. 262 MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. Tron. Among the most interesting of the exhibits under this head is that of the Nova Scotia Steel Company. This company is an example of the successful progress of enterprise combined with commercial and technical skill. The forge works of New Glasgow, which acquired well-deserved notice for their work in ship frames, shafts, stems, ete., gradually grew and prespered With the iron ores and coal of Pictou County at the doors of New Glasgow, it needed one step and the company produced its own raw material. A railway was built from Hopewell to the head of the East River, to open the Bridgeville iron ores and limestones. A furnace was built at the junction of the East and West branches of the East River, and a large steel works made Trenton another New Glasgow. This measure of progress has not limited the company’s ambition. By a lucky stroke of business they acquired possession of an enormous iron ore deposit on the coast of Newfoundland. This deposit was capable of yielding at the cheapest rate an ore suitable for the basic process. Accordingly large amounts have been annually imported for mixture with the limonite ores of Bridgeville. Exports have also been made to the United States and Europe. The company has sold part of this deposit to the Dominion Iron and Steel Company, it is said, for the sum of $1,000,000 00. Now they propose to absorb the 22 square miles of coal area of the General Mining Association and to erect at North Sydney a steel plant rivaling that of the Dominion Steel Company. The ores of the Pictou iron field comprise limonites, red hematites, and spathic and specular ores. As yet operations have been confined to the limonites mined by the Steel Co. There are enormous deposits of red hematites and specular ores yet untouched, and atfording material for the establishment of an iron industry surpassing that contemplated at the Sydneys. The samples exhibited by the company comprise ores, fluxes, fuels, pig iron, and the steel products. MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. 263 The transactions of the Nova Scotia Mining Institute contain a full description of the plant of this company. The following analyses are self-explanatory : Nova Scotia Steel Company, Trenton and Ferrona. Iron Ores. Red Hematite from Wakana Mine, Newfoundland, owned by N.S. Steel Co. Average analysis for year 1898 at 150,000 tons. Dried at 212° F. Moisture, 0.66. Loss on eo . 2.08 P. & Phos=Acid) 1: Gh 3.100.20) Oar p..c SIO hee NY, Sulphunie Acid. 2, 010i = Tron Oxide.........77.67 “ | Titanic Acid.........0.25 « Manganese Oxide.-~. 0.08 “ | Metallic Iron........5437 “ IMMUN let 455 .“ | Phosphorusssecce aac Om ley = imve(CaO ys te. 5 sc ESI". | Sulphinesc.caseesess Ooms MAO ESTA: ./s0.0 << oii 0.44 “ Magnetic Iron ore from Cuba, dried at 212 F. Average analysis : Silica 2 ool p. ce. | Manganeser || Manganese << 2 :.tnee Ona Phosphoruss |. ccc.<6e 0,90 SRE bosphorus:: ..cait 1.00 Sulphur. Lee ce OOT Sie Sulphiur =o. . O0Siae Gr. Carbon.......%. 3.7/0 “" "Graphitic Carbon... 3:21am Comb Carbon....... 0.16 “ | Combined Carbon ... 0.63 “ Comper. peracid aiccvec Nil. Coppeb. ic. saa weeeme Nil. ATSERIG oo vie/ere spines es PMESCING | ow ce. cece BH REUM,.c cos wnceveate ane ace BATA. os sysrere Mente Trace. Hematite Iron No. 2 Foundry. Silicon We eeu 1.00 p. ¢. | Silicon... «cana 2SOI pee Manganese. :....'.... 0.95 9" 9) Manganese: Js. ....... Coogee Phosphorus: .\4:.. 04s) 00S Syehosphorus... 22 «Ger 0.904% Sulphur. stirs t OST ae sul phir: :ti.% cece 0.012055 (rs Canbon, 22. sean SLD ieee ons Carbon) 4 acammaae 3: 20mis Comb. Carbon..... 0.707* 7) Comb Carbon ieve.s OSO01e Coppers. asic sa.e. Nal Copper .ss2qaa, Cee Nil. GE MIIG O85 re canoe Yo. Shout AGSONIC Hine eeseos. eee PB aU etwas yeas = Trace. BBV 2 oer ..«. Drace. No. 3 Foundry. No. 4 Foundry. SUITED Mya lenemnewerel cls tie 210 PUG al MoUiCon. bi via eens soe 11) pate Manganese... -:...... 0.60) |“), Manganese... 2. s. (0G aa Phosphorus..s..2. «-¢ 0:91... Sw Phosphorus 2. oc24.4 0/92 Sulphure% so... .c0s002) 9 (Salphure. |... -.o ew Gr. Carbon : 6.06602 250.4) Gr) Carbon. 22.2.2: 5 2 Comb. Carbon...... 0.60:; “| Combs Carbon... 5... 0.90 “ Copper ouie con ancien Nil. (\Coppertics eyectan cer Nil. APSEMIGC) oo) 5) slerse ofaienra iG ATSENIC 5.2 meee once : Barium got 2seh.cin et brace Barina ): 2 gee eres Trace. MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.—GILPIN. 265 Fuels. 48 hour (Retort) Coke. Made in “ Bernard’s” Coke oven, from washed coal at Ferrona Iron Works. Moisture: 503) h654):..° 40M er wAshia ona ea ne e222 pC: ‘Vol. Comb Matter... 1.60. “ Sulphuerqeerss oes. ellos Fixed Carbon (by Phosplorasncre a Ol CHUL geyser ereken's giv eel SO7oms os Slate, ete., from coal washer from coal used in making coke. MigIStume) sc cAlses. + <6 1.00 p.«. | Ash. sabelege taeceroy lt Oreos Ce Vol. Comb. Matter. ..18.14 Sulphur. . vo) a) eee | 5 GGG | 886 C006 1 PRE Gi “UOTIVI[LWSO JO ow, SFI 181 va PL'IL | 0°ST 08 01 lest €8'8 | SST €8'8_ | ¥'ST LOL | PST LED | Oven LEL | BLL 06°S Gyr | Lvl GST sI “‘VIqAoU roeone “dud, OTe Vib "SNOILVAUHSHO OILANIY IGP SO TT STOF FG'68 SP'SE 66 '8E TO'LE 19 LE FG°LE ¢8°9& &6'95 ‘YysuaT LG os 9G os SE os Tos G&G os CG» C6 0G ss 6L os 60 + 8I >» oh ass 9T » TE Sef, “MLV 280 ON THE RIGIDITY nearly as possible,in both. In the static determinations of this, and of all subsequent series, Mallock’s mode of applying the twisting foree was used. The kinetic observations were made with different amplitudes of angle of oscillation, and the static observations with differeat angles of torsion. The general procedure was as in the former case. Table II contains the results. In none of the columns of rigidity values of this table do the values found indicate any simple law of variation with tension. They do not even increase or decrease continuously as tension increases, but appear to oscillate between increment and decrement, and by amounts which are not accounted for merely by errors of observation. The variations cannot be accounted for even by errors of method, because in general both methods give similar variations. They may, perhaps, be partially at least, accounted for by defective procedure. Nevertheless, two conclusions may be drawn :—(1) The smaller the angle of torsion in the static determinations and the angle of oscillation in the kinetic determinations, the greater is the value of the rigidity obtained. Mallock drew the same conclusion as to kinetic rigidities from his observations. (2) The kinetic determinations show a point of minimum rigidity as tension increases; but the static determinations are not sufficiently exact to be decisive as to whether or not the existence of this point is independent of the method. Thus the kinetic observa- tions bear out Mr. Macdonald’s result that the kinetic rigidity exhibits the minimum point in the case of a cord previously unstretched. _ The cord used in the last experiment being now in a state of tension, was experimented on in a reverse manner. It was left a day under the full load, when its rigidity was determined. Then one of the weights was taken off, and it was again left for a day under the diminished load, and its rigidity determined ; and so on, 281 OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER.—HEBB. Tél | SFI | 8SIFI0') OLT | TS S& TEL LIG | FLI | OPI | &CEIO | FST | 60'°9S Lol | I6L | COL | SST | 991TO'| O'6T | SLE Tel OST | 9ST | StL | O6010'| 98T | THLE cél €81 | Com 1st | 86600°| OST | 02°8& SéL Che esol Wy eeSh 61600" | OFT | L6 8& 66L | ILT | COE | S&L 11600"| O'GT | 11°68 9ET | TLT | COT | 6oT | 6¢600°| SST | 1S OF L¥I | 6LT | ELI | 991 | LI600'| VST | EF IP GFL | 98T GLI | GLI c¥800 | ST | 2 GF c&I | 161 | SST | 9Lt | 16800'! ¢ FI | F1'eF | | “06 “06 *O8T “09E ‘duo 7, |"qyysuo7y ‘onbaog, Pa ‘ALIGIDIY OMLUNIQ $=|‘SNOILVANASAO OLLV.LS ore cor oe ene 068 0€ OL $9 ZI GL'ET £91 eo F1 “06 66" 60 F1 16 71 OL FT OL'L 6S '8 68 6 ‘€6 OT 60 GI 91 ST G6 FL 0G St OT SI “O81 *09€ I WIEdVe “UOL}R][LsQ Jo oy, FFI | OLT 88a | 7ST chY |06Gt 06'S | 981 LEL | OST 88 | OFT OS OL | O'6T ere ie Ses 1Gisk neal cL PI | 9 8T ; ShIT | Sar |--— Eater “eTzIOUT dua, JO ‘OW | 1G 60 96 9L'9E FP LE 0G S& C6'SE 69 6& 0S OF 1G aa G2 YyysuoyT ‘SNOILVAUASAOQ OLLANTST c6s" 068" c8s" 996° O98" Lee’ 9cs" “WRIT 99 99 9 “9 39 ” 99 ‘ave ALV( 282 ON THE RIGIDITY Table IIT gives the results of the observations. There is a ereater uniformity in the way in which the values of the rigidity vary with change of tension than there was when the tension was increasing, which may be ascribed in part to the somewhat greater uniformity of the time intervals between changing the load and determining the rigidity, and in part to a greater permanence of internal structure produced by the previous prolonged extension. It will be noticed (i) that the values of the rigidity run through pretty much the same course as they did in Table II, when the tension was being increased, though the final values of Table III, in the case of the static rigidity for the greater angle of torsion and in the ease of the kinetic rigidity for the greater angles of oscillation, are less than the initial values of Table II, and (2) that the minimum point is given not only by the kinetic results for the amplitudes 180° and 90°, but also by the static resuits, which shows that the occurrence of the minimum point is not due to a defect peculiar to the kinetic method. To see what effect the time interval between the putting on of the load and the finding of the rigidity, had on the rigidity, a new cord was experimented with in the following manner:—A weight having been put on the cord, the rigidity was deter- mined both immediately afterwards and after the lapse of certain intervals of time. Then another weight was added and the pre- vious process repeated. Owing to lack of time, only the kinetie method was used. Table IV gives the results. 283 HEBB. OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER, rete) OnE LOT L81 OGG LLY LOT G&G SLI 906 SEG TILT 6s1 006G OLT 661 6EG S6°0I. | SE OT] S96 Le’ 80 8 Ch L 96°8 Z6'L 8a°L Meas) Oey, 1) i aps) LVS 0S'L CLG Zs cS F 0s'¢ gS Teg “096 “OST *.06 ‘ALIGIDIY OLLANIS “NOLLVTIIOSQ AO WWI, C6 96 1896 ‘Yysuay ‘AL AIGVE 66'8 668 66'8 668 66'S 66°S ‘eTVIOUT JO “ON 99° WUC, aa! OLT LoL 061 0°61 9°81 0'S1 OFT Cc 6L 0'6I 0°6L ‘dua, £8} ” L 6 ” “§ 99 G a9 ‘T Aavnuqey “LLY (T 284 ON THE RIGIDITY It appears from these results that increase of tension in a cord which has been under tension for some time immediately decreases the rigidity, but that if the cord is left under the tension the rigidity increases again. According to the longest series of ohservations made, the rigidity of a cord thus left under a constant load seems to pass through a maximum points but that is perhaps doubtful. Since the immediate effect of increase of tension is to decrease the rigidity, it might be expected that the twisting of the cord in the determination of its rigidity would increase the rigidity, and that consequently the greater the angle the cord is twisted through the smaller will be the value of the rigidity found. This expectation is borne out by the results as given in the tables. It was also noticed when taking several obser- vations of the time of oscillation in order to get a mean value, that the first values were always the smallest, a fact which seems to indicate that the rigidity decreases with strain. From the preceding it is easily seen that the procedure followed above was not such as could give a simple relation between the observed rigidity and the tension. For since the rigidity of a cord under tension varies with time, the experiments must always be made, if they are to give a definite result, when the rigidity is at a minimum ora maximum. Now the minimum value of the rigidity of a cord under tension appears from the last table to be immediately after the tension is applied. If however, we decide to determine the mgidity when at its. 3 minimum, not only must the rigidity be found immediately after the tension is applied, but the rigidity of the cord due to. its previous tension must not have had time to change from the minimum value. Hence the procedure should be as follows: Load the cord and find the rigidity immediately, then increase the load and find the rigidity immediately, and so on, the whole series of experiments being carried out in the shortest time possible. With a new cord of the same kind as before, this pro- cedure was followed, and the results of Table V obtained. 285 OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER.—HEBB. I6L°& 6FG'& TIL’G SST G TO T 680°T (sqD, “‘peoTy’ SS cok 1 s69r OF SOs tes oor LV ess O9T OF! GPL | 9ST (ie, | SSS SILL (vel TN UaAbe || IEE t Cél | 6&0 | OST ‘096 “081 “206 ‘OY OLLYLS ‘ALIGIDIY OLLANTY "A WIV ones AOO SEL OF TI SI FI 96900" SI &1 SL’GI 6S°GL 18900° er UL 96 TT 90° IT STL90° SOOT +} SL’6 626 CTL00° 668 cL 8 162 LZSO0° Lv'9 c& 9 819 TS800° 0g 7 Iv P co P “206 “098 “O81 *,06 ‘HOOUOT, ‘NOILYTIIOSQ AO HWY, 08 OT €8°8 LEoL ‘RIV LOUT JO “OW FP IY 60° OP GL’8§ SP LE tS 9E 68° SE 89 T& ‘UjsuaT, ‘WIeRl(T “dua, 33 ” ‘ALY (T 286 RIGIDITY OF VULCANIZED INDIA-RUBBER.—HEBB. There is some lack of regularity in the results of this table so far as the determinations with smaller loads are concerned, but the divergence from regularity is probably within the limit of error of the observations. The results obtained with the larger loads exhibit much greater regularity than the results of the previous series of observations. The table shows that if the tension be increased as rapidly as is consistent with the deter- mination of the rigidity at successive stages, the rigidity increases with the tension continuously, at first comparatively slowly, and finally with greater rapidity. The comparatively slow increment of the rigidity under the smaller loads would suggest the possibility that the rigidity may not appreciably vary with the tension at all under the circumstances aimed at in the experiments. For in the light of the results of Table IV the larger values of the rigidity under the greater loads may be due entirely to the time effect of the previous increments of loud. XII.—RecorpDs oF Post-Triassic CHANGES IN Kines County, N. S.—By Pror. E. Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, INES) (Read 9th April, 1900.) It was my privilege last Autumn to make a hasty survey of that part of Kings County lying north of Canning, including Cape Blomidon. Several interesting problems were suggested during this trip, which I hope to follow up in the future. I had in view two definite aims in visiting this region. The first was to look for the contact of the basaltic trap of the North Mountain with the underlying north-westerly dipping sandstone, and I hoped to find this contact laid bare and accessible to. observation in the natural cross section formed by the line of clitts which extends westwardly from Cape Blomidon to Cape Split. This line of cliffs was carefully examined from Amethyst Cove, where the trap extends beneath the sea, eastward to Cape Blomidon where red sandstone cut into many fantastic shapes. by wind and water rises nearly two hundred feet and is sur- mounted by a sheet of black basaltic trap some two hundred feet in thickness ending abruptly in vertical cliffs behind and above the towers and bastions of the sandstone. Although the place where the contact of the two formations reaches the beach is easily determinable, and is marked by a long sloping line of springs, the talus of loose blocks and debris from the trap above is so great that at no point was the actual contact visible or accessible, so that the problem to be settled, whether the trap was poured out on a smooth sea bottom or on an old eroded land surface, remained undetermined. The second object of the trip was to examine the coast section south-west from Scot’s Bay. In the Transactions of the Institute for 1893-94, (Volume VIIL, pp. 416, 419,) Mr. R. W. Ells mentions the occurrence, in this vicinity, of a calcareous (287) 288 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES R- a) oe j { ; , caesar GA TNES Parrsboro. ~ pas Seneca 260 a 500% SG pmtreer 4 “Bers Nd BOF : + e n Re. aesiere Kertvi a Awl ° NortTH-East Part or Kines County, N. S. Scale: About four miles to one inch. Vertical scale 2400 feet to one inch. Depth of water in fathoms.—For Mines, read: Basin of Mines. IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.—HAYCOCK. 289 sedimentary formation overlying the trap of the North Mountain which was hurriedly observed by him in 1876. He states that no fossils had been found in these rocks, but concludes from the superposition of this formation on the trap that it is of more recent date. He does.not hint at its probable age further than the above, but remarks that Prof. Bailey has reported rocks of somewhat similar nature m association with the trap of Digby Neck. Having been unable to find the statement in any of Prof. Bailey’s writings accessible to me I made inquiry of him and found that he did not know of such a formation, or of having made the statement ascribed tohim. This being the state of knowledge in regard to these rocks I hoped to find some- thing that would throw light upon their age and possibly reveal a part of the geological history of this region during that long period so blank in records in Eastern Canada and New England, from early Mesozoic to the Glacial period. In pursuit of this purpose I examined the shore south-west from Scot’s Bay and was pleased to find for about four miles occasional good exposures in the coves of the formation men- tioned by Dr. Ells, until Ira Woodworth Bay was reached. This is the exposure mentioned by him and was the most westerly outcrop seen. Beyond this according to local authority none of the rocks mentioned are found. Considerable value can be ascribed to the local accounts in this case owing to the search for amethysts which occur in cavities of masses of red jasper in some of the layers of limestone, and are collected by the inhabi- tants to supply the tourist trade. Only a hurried survey was made on this occasion and but one fossil was found, which, tho’ poorly preserved, was plainly the coiled shell of a gastropod. The general appearance of the strata, however, led me to hope that better results would repay a careful and_ systematic search. On November 6th, I left Wolville for a further study of this interesting formation. The results of my observations on this trip I will endeavor to put before you. Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Sct., VOL. X. TRANS.—S. 290 Bay ot Fundy , Pereau R Habitant A, Canard R. Cornwallis R. N. Uriassic Wed Sandstone Trap Diagram 1.—Section, Bay of Fundy to Gaspereaux R. Horizontal scale 3 miles to 1 inch. Vertical scale 1600 feet to 1 inch. RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES The general topography of the region alluded to is probably familiar to you all, as well as the common explanation of the geological structure, which appears to be, in the main, cor- rect. From the parallel east-north- east and west-south-west ridges of slate and sandstone of later Paleozoic age, which extend along the south- east side of the Cornwallis Valley, a slightly undulating rich farming coun- try stretches away to the north-west for some ten miles to the abrupt. escarpment bounding the valley on its. opposite side. The principal topo- graphic features of this beautiful valley are three low ridges parallel in general trend with the older hills. before mentioned and separated from, each other and from the bounding: ridges by long tongues of fertile. dyked marsh in the basins of the Cornwallis, Canard, Habitant, and Pereau rivers. The existence of these. ridges seems to be due to the occur- rence of coarser harder groups of strata in the underlying red sandstone. which dips with considerable unifor- mity and regularity to the north-west, at angles of from eight to ten degrees, The ridges correspond with the strike. of the formation and the valley topo- graphy is apparently one of erosion. The wearing out of the valleys took place when the country stood at a higher level, and the marsh deposits of IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.—HAYCOCK. 291 recent times now extend for several miles up the drowned valleys. That this topography is probably Pre-glacial is indi- cated by the occurence of a layer of Boulder clay of variable thickness mantling both hill and valley. The changes in topo- graphy since the disappearance of the ice of the Glacial period are exceedingly slight in this region and are confined almost wholly to the deposition, during a subsequent slight submergence, of some banks of stratified sand and gravel, some wearing away and retreat of the coast cliffs, and the filling-in of the river basins mentioned. The North Mountain has the prevailing trend of the other ridges, and would appear to owe its present elevation above the valley to the harder and more resistant character of the sheet of voleanic rock, which protects the underlying soft sandstone from the action of the eroding agents that have worked with such effect upon the unprotected sandstone to the south-east. The junction of the sandstone and trap is some two hundred feet or more above the floor of tne valley, and the conviction is forced upon the observer, when looking south-eastward from this point. that not only the smaller valleys mentioned but also the whole broad depression he has crossed has been worn out of the soft red sandstone, and that excepting minor inequalities of surface the present relief of this part of the Province is wholly due to differential resistance of the underlying rocks. The trap sheet retreats more rapidly along its edges than the sandstone owing to frostwork and its vertical jointing, and when they both appear in the face of the escarpment the over- lying trap is never overhanging but always well behind the sandstone which generally forms a steep slope upon which the fragments of the trap are precipitated, forming broken masses which conceal the contact of the two formations. Because of the soft nature of the sandstone and its calcareous cement it weathers much more rapidly than the trap wherever exposed to the action of rain and wind, but since the jointing is not well developed it is not affected to a very great extent by the action of the frost. 292 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES From the top of the divide, which is near the edge of the- escarpment, the surface slopes away to the north-west at angles of from eight to ten degrees. This is about the inclination of the beds of trap rock, and the present surface therefore corres- ponds in general inclination with the original surface of the formation, This ridge is cut by transverse valleys, the bottoms occupied by small brooks which seem altogether too small to have excavated the trenches they now occupy. A bank of boulder clay containing glaciated pebbles was seen resting in the bottom of a ravine on the floor of trap rock over which one of the larger brooks is now flowing. If these depressions were filled with the boulder clay of the Glacial period, the work since that time has been wholly expended in clearing out their ancient channels and the brooks have but just begun to renew their excavation on the Trap rock. The four miles of coast examined form the south-east shore of Scot’s Bay, and from Ira Woodworth Bay, Cape Split, the terminating point of the huge wall of rock forming the opposite side of Scot’s Bay, bears nearly north. At this point the shore swings from south-west to about west-south-west which is the ceneral trend of the coast for some sixty or seventy miles. With the exception of the Amygdaloidal character of the Trap, the shore below high water mark is not unlike many other portions of this Bay of Fundy coast. Beachy coves are more common because of the relatively sheltered position, but between these the black rough rocks slope seaward in sheets and reefs with very few outlying rocks and ledges. The sea at high tide washes the bases of a line of low cliffs some twenty to forty feet high, except in the deeper coves, where a narrow strip of gravel beach is left uncovered by all but the highest tides. Several brooks empty in small coves within the area examined and in their beds the extent of the shore formations landward can be traced. IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.—HAYCOCK. 293. Pebbles Gnd Styat. Sand. Banes Clay. Sandstone Siew esltonue and Shale. Amygdcloidal } Trap. | | i | / I { ei SQ gy Beach. ’ : ESAS ~ ~~ Diagram 2.—Section in Ira Woodworth Bay. In the shore cliffs four distinct formations are revealed and in the ascending order they occur as follows :— 1. Trap Rock. 2. Sandstone and Impure limestone, 20-30 feet. 3. Boulder clay with striated stones in irregular masses, 20-30 feet. 4, Stratified sand and gravel 4 to 6 feet in thickness about thirty feet above high water mark. Trap Rock. The Basaltic Trap is, in this locality mainly amygdaloidal and occurs in sheets varying from two or three to many feet in thickness. The strike corresponds to the general trend of the shore. In many places the beds are intersected by a network of shrinkage cracks which have been subsequently filled with a dark reddish brown jasper. This is more resistant than the trap and the veins forma network of intersecting ridges separat- ing saucer shaped depressions a foot or more in diameter. As the Trap approaches its contact with the limestone it becomes 294, RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES more and more decayed until at the contact the rock is so loose and unconsolidated that it will scarcely hold together to form a hand specimen. Sandstone and Impure Limestone. The lower layers of the calcareous formation are largely made up of this disintegrated material but it is not found more than two or three feet from the contact. These lower layers are poorly defined and conform to the minor inequalities of the eroded surface of the Trap. The Trap debris then gives place to a fine grained light grey to green sandstone with calcareous cement, in thin laminae, which is overlain by beds of impure limestone from one to three feet thick alternating with thinner layers containing flint-like quartz bands. At one spot in Broad Cove a brown sandstone in beds three or four feet in thickness is seen overlying the limestone. The maximum thickness of this sedimentary formation would be ebout twenty-tive feet. Altho several brooks cut across these beds at right angles, in only one can the limestone be traced, and there for a distance of but twenty or thirty yards from the beach where the trap appears in the bed. The other brooks have cut completely through and flow over the underlying trap until the beach is reached. This shows how little remains of what must have been an extensive formation and explains in part why it remained so long unnoticed. The dip of these beds is, at first, somewhat confusing. On the north-east sides of the coves it is always to the south-west, and at angles as high as twenty degrees. On the south-west sides of the coves it is correspondingly high to the north-east. In the bed of the brook mentioned, which is in the centre of one of the coves, the dip proved to be from three to five degrees to the north-west. At several places the trap was visible beneath the apparent synclines and showed no corresponding deformation. Moreover, the variable inclination of the layers was there seen to be that of the contact surface of the trap on which they rest. As the layers recede from this surface they become more uniform in inclination which is seen to be to the north-west at an angle IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.—HAYCOCK. 295 slightly smaller than that of the trap, or the same as the obser- vation taken in the brook. In some of the lower fine grained calcareous shales sun cracks frequently occur and together with trail-like markings and carbonaceeus impressions of branching fucoid-like plants point to shallow water or tidal conditions prevailing during the deposition of the lowest layers. The fineness of the material of these lowest layers also indicates a very gradual quiet submer- gence of the disintegrated Trap rock and the absence of heavy waves upon the subsiding beaches. The heavier bedded lime- stone is quite free from inorganie sediment, and is a deposit in deeper and purer water. The heavy bedded brown sandstone marks some change bringing about a great increase of inorganic sediment. Whether it was a re-elevation bringing the area nearer shore, or advent of currents carrying such sediment is at present undetermined. Fossils oceur in the underlying shale and limestone, altho’ they are, as a rule, poorly preserved. Among those collected are fish scales and teeth, objects resembling the seed cones of gymnosperms, marine fucoids, and Jong, tapering, generally straight, objects that are thought to be the shells of cephalopods. These occur in the limestone and calcareous sandstone often in great profusion and may reach a length of eight or ten feet, and a diameter at the larger end of eight or nine inches. The smaller ends are rounded, and usually about one, though some- times two or three, inches in diameter. They are cylindrically or longitudinally knobbed, hollow in the centre, and composed mainly of a red jasper. That these forms are of organic origin and are not concretions is indicated by their similarity in form and by their lying, in one bed, in such numbers that they cross each other in every conceivable way, but always the character- istic form of each individual can be determined. In all cases the finer lamine of the beds are pressed down beneath by the weight of the object, and those deposited after curve up over it without interruption. Other forms occur here also. One cf these was twenty-seven inches in diameter and appeared cup- like in shape. 296 RECORDS OF POST-TRIASSIC CHANGES It has been stated that these strata rest unconformably on a surface of decomposed trap, and that the lower layers are made up. in part, of the triturated fragments of the trap. This would indicate that after the pouring out of these lava sheets their surface was above water, was carved into valleys and hills, by the streams of the time, and subjected to the decomposing action of atmospheric agencies and vegetation, until the ancient surface came to present the irregular and weathered aspect that we may now see on portions that have been subjected to similar action during recent geological time. This necessarily long exposure preceded the subsidence and submergence during which the stratified formation was deposited and would indicate, to my mind, that at least a whole geological period had intervened between the outpouring of the trap and the deposition of the marine formation unconformably upon its weathered surface. The trap is considered to be of Triassic age and I would place that of the limestone as probably Cretaceous. Again, from Cape Cod southwards marine deposits were laid down along the Atlantic border during Cretaceous times. Altho’ I have as yet been unable to find any traces of foraminifera in the soft greenish sandstone that occurs in one of the coves, yet the general aspect of the fossils so far found is also suggestive of Cretaceous age. The hollows or depressions in which these remnants are preserved are at present small valleys, occupied by brooks and terminating on the shore in small coves which also owe their existence to the erosion preceding the deposition of this forma- tion. The Topography of this portion of the North Mountain is thus shown to be much older than the Glacial period and not only are the brooks flowing in Mesozoic channels but the Bay of Fundy waves are again washing the shores of coves from which they have been excluded since the Mesozoic period. The facts observed here are in accord with the conclusion arrived at from a comparison of the present stream beds with the streams that now occupy them. Some of the gorges in this area are equal in magnitude to those of the secondary streams of the South Mountain, although the volume of water now flow- IN KINGS COUNTY, N. S.—HAYCOCK. 297 ing in thenris insignificant. The cross trenches in this particular locality are, however, small as compared with those that cross the mountain at intervals of a few miles throughout its length, some of which are scarcely above sea level, others as Digby Gut and Petite Passage 150 to 200 feet below. These deep gorges are probably Pre-glacial, as well, since they are partly filled with boulder clay and usually, if not always, set opposite to corresponding depressions in the older hills on the opposite side of the valley. The ice of the Glacial] epoch flowed over ridge and through hollow alike, and beyond sweeping away the decayed and shattered layer down to the undecomposed rock seems to have had little effect in transform- ing the general topography of the country. These gorges then are doubtless Pre-glacial, but how much older? Though much larger they are of the same character as the smaller hollows filled with the sedimentary limestone, and are probably of the same, or Mesozoic age. Although direct evidence of this has not yet been obtained it may exist, only awaiting the coming of a careful observer. The most significant features of these greater gorges is their positions, just mentioned, nearly opposite to corresponding river gorges on the south-east side of the valley. Almost every deep gorge in the North Mountain has its corresponding river valley in the higher ground of the South Mountain opposite. The depressions reaching the Bay of Fundy coast at Parker’s Cove, Digby Gut, Sandy Cove, opposite the Lequille, Bear, and Wey- mouth rivers are striking examples. "1s ee | 147.491 143.75 | 24 May. INVERNESS COUNTY, 1899. hehe |), tigeea| A Serre ' eee hsz.s 119.05 | 30 April PS al APae toy eee J ooo 66 Gade cee pen soollleinice: 131.70 12 May. Res Mette aise slaw Bee 3 14a oc RRS icaiee 137 .65 altsy 3b Scot io Bcee TSI) Ago ante eee 138.9 135.40 Gs io. Ge anl toe. bo ene Br Ome ee 129.7 Be ieed Hien ch ice DER eee LO OSG 133.15 ifdk SE Sen cne InBe Seen lasecr NGO) Ao So ecanl lems kav res a a 154.80 | 4 June OID UE EH hae ee ante 74 veecee[eeeee eee tiee es {159.3 H pone yh ae anne eo See eae au peaae S3etoulleeceeee lsceor WEELG 154.15 Anes or Be ka ee 1152.9 Pe oes |Lb825 155.70 pes rede Jo. .- se. 163.8 Jb oot CoWare alls oe wae IEDs 166.95 16 <§ SM = : ar ath LE saa cee 1140.88!" ee ba 1148.00 || 144.44 | 25 May VICTORIA COUNTY, 1899. vee eta Butt ey iE ee ee a Servet | eee etchaet: 1D /er a ae oie cil ee BLS 119.75 30 April. Re et mrcils she ce TIPE A pil tena ee eed Ines Ae ||(Jba cA) Ue 7H 12 May. Bee ee ae TSKUE., |): cee tl Fag eer TEXDERY Ip UBB aie | TIE 96 ae re el ae eae Ge AL SLs Gea la bewastayaces |taeescvakeqescne eases 134.50 ify, 0 a eae le Se cere te tee 1 eI here oe lesen are inmae.e. (lato: 131.70 1A SAIS AE Site Gee 149.8 Aree All's r see aM 155.2 152.59 | 2 June Reed ell Meceeve te cre teens to 155.8 of brahsinatne|l eee OOD 159.65 9) Ss [ee aera : LLY (ae | hl Ke seeek encore (ERIE S| orcs ch emis LA GRO 30 May Nees ee 5 E15 RM il ee sisters sy Sererorers 162.8 159.95 9 June Sao Joveeeee [oes 164.7 | : Sauter coals [171.8 |, 168.25 Sees “hae pete ate eGo, 147.15|| 144.15 | 25 May £ 1899.— MACKAY. and “‘ becoming consmon”). CURVES OF FLOWERING. OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, (Mean of “first seen” PHENOCHRON PHENOLOGICAL 312 rag og bee ndian Pear, PLT PL (ik HAHLIED ADeAiL AODOL MIAO NT YT Maes HH TdT A aa = = ty ae t oe | WV He el = . : ATLA ate Ann? an HN mee Nf pe He LU es CON die SONU ES CORREO EE rT TTT EEA Einaeeeerone WN * a 4 AM FY PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.—MACKAY. © 313 Observations of Botanical Club of Canada. In order to keep unbroken the series of observations made by the Botanical Club of Canada, in the Transactions of the Institute, especially as they have not yet become too voluminous, the following tabular summation of them for 1899 is given. The seven stations in the other provinces of the Dominion show observations which will be interesting in comparison with those made in Nova Scotia. Phenological Stations and Observers of the Botanical Club of Canada, 1899. St. Stephen, N. B—J. Vroom, Esq. Yarmouth, N.S.—S. A. Starratt, Esq.; Seymour Critcher, Esq. Berwick, N. S.—Miss Ida A. Parker. Halifax, N.S.—Harry Piers, Esq. Musquodoboit Harbour, N. 8.—Rev. James Rosborough. New Glasgow, N. S8.—Miss Maria Cavanagh. Wallace, N. S—Miss Mary E. Charman. Charlottetown, P. E. L—John McSwain, Esq. Beatrice, Muskoka, Ontario.—Miss Alice Hollingworth. Pheasant Forks, Assiniboia.—Thomas R. Donnelly, Esq. Olds, Alberta.—T. N. Willing, Esq. Willoughby, Saskatechewan.—Rev. C. W. Bryden. Vancouver, B. C.—J. K. Henry, Esq., B. A. Explanation of Annotations over the Date Figures in the following Table : *__«« When hecoming common,” s — Ranunculus rhomboideus. c— “ ef (fruiting). uw— Prunus emarginata, f—Rubus occidentalis. » — Trilium ovatum., k—Turdus propinqua. w—Trientalis Europea. o—Sturnella neglecta. | x—Amelanchier alnifolia. q—Chordeiles Henryei. y —Rosa Nutkana, | b—Rubus spectabilis (flowering). | ¢t — Fragaria Chilensis. 314 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899,—MACKAY. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. OO ST & OM H & © | Number. 10 Day of the year 1899 cor- me 2 responding to the last : -1O}]e¢8 day of each month. ‘ DQ | wy 3 a JANG as OL) TONY easel oo co z ; a | 2)]s av ‘ Hebs25.5 09) Awe ee 243 a When P f A é: 7 eo z 2) Marelys 90) Sept Se 278 i Zan OD aS cya ne | reo |) ce |e April ...120 Oct ..... S04 (ie |p Bie) coal Bol By) Sa eae May ....151 Nov.....33|8/a/4/z/e6/9/4/8/=|5/8)]8) § June ~..181 Dec. .:.865> |S | Seats (8 lee ese) o | ad) Se ieee (First flowering or fruit-| 9 |°/S|3/s/6/$/6/8/¢/i<|31/6 ing of plantsand first ap-|}n|2/2/S/Fls/ale;/S|]siels] 8 pearance of migratoryani-| ;|¢|5]e|2/o6/2£/43/)83/4/3 = = mals, etc.) iA | | | SO | | Bei eaiiss ica iat Deane? Lh | Sarat ae ¥ ie) (ear Alnus incana, Willd...... 103} 112). 112,. a 111). 121 113). 68 | * pos tie Populus tremuloides, 106 - 120). 121). 138] 116) 144] 126)....|.... Michx. | al Epigeea repens, L......... 112} 99) 96, 106, 105) 112, 1a x ~ * Viola cucullata, Gray ....} 123) 119, 126.. 129. 124) 1196 144 ee el ee | * * We blandas Willd? 2... 119, 122 131) 119; 122 124) 119) 148): Hevea * NCCU TUM laseee see eee 118}. 133] 122] 119 Houstonia cserulea, L....|....]---.]---+ 130) 122 - ning * Equisetum arvense, L....}....| 115] 134]. 120) - 132: 92° Taraxacum officinale, 121} 115] 112] 123) 125) 119 124. Weber. Erythronium Amer,, Ker.|....|--- 126 119 Hepatica triloba, Chaix..!_...| 145|-=--)-... 132 voge[erye wdlbeee Coptis trifolia, Salisb. ... lex soco\| Ler) Si), 14. 157 132 2 4 ims = i] 1 ! t Fragaria Virginia, Mill ..! 127) 117} 122) 132) 126 122,. 146) 128 a aie 114 wv (fruit ripe)! 167) 152) 158} 175). tear 176| 186,... Bob UW lenis; 1eteyay shale, Wy: Soonootooun|laone 142} 149) 154) 146 ..-- 132 122° | (GHENT IED Ys) soBo|local|sscel|sonc : | saana| eee 221 Vaccinium Penn., Lam...}.... 137| 133]....| 197) 157 Sooo! oe jf: “ (fruit ripe)| 159 ol Na otal eee Ss Ranunculus acris, L...... 150} 2 | 147 163, 128 163 | 126) 232i Rerepens uke. os ee a 151]. Hs a ea ee) 351 Roa [oa | ea 132° Clintonia borealis, Raf....|....} 155] 141) 157| 157 Ao] WEA aera rage Sonn x Vv Trillium erythrocarpum,| 131|....| 142 157| 144 1349) leer hageenas bere one 88 Michx. | o w Trientalis Ameri., Pursh.| 150) 119] 127) 154 158) lol 115} 4) ) eel son 131 | Cypripedium acaule, Ait. 152: GO OCU eee clloadal lobecl esol bree! le i Calla palustris, L.......... Bose 158 MSDs. lee ; x Amelanchier Canadensis 129 13f 143 13, 141 128) oer | peer 126- T. & G. 5 (fuitripe) eecelerseieeer D0AE Misses acto esc milin crass 30 He BS | Number. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899.—MACKAY, PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1899. Day of the year 1899, cor- responding to the last day of each month. ENP cdoe Gl Ciba era 2 Heb.-:- 59) Aug 243 March.. 90 Sept 273 PAID Yee Ol OCheo- 2. oC4: May....:151 Nov.....334 June....18) ‘Dec. .....365 (First flowering or fruit- ing of plants and first ap- pearance of migratory ani- mals, etc.) Rubus strigosus, Michx “ec Rubus villosus, Ait. ..... oe Linnea borealis, L Rhinanthus Gusta gall. Brunella vulgaris, L Rosa lucida, Ehrh (fruit ripe)|.... Sisyrinchium angustifol..|.... Linaria Canaden., Dum...|},. Sarracenia purpurea, L...!.... Epilobium augustifol., L. Wt: oe : = wm ee Fe c o/s =| c= = Salm = S or - = 28 nm) 7 (in vuiteripe) een \|/---- Kalmia glauca, Ait....... 150) Ate K. angustifolia, L......... Cornus Canadensis, L..... KOM IRS Hypericum perforat ,L...|....|.... | Leontodon autumnale, L.!....| 151 Prunus Cerasus (cultiv.)..| oe (fruit ripe) GC. coccinea, L Pyrus malus (cul d) early. | oe ee Ribes rubrum (cultivated) 4“ (fruit ripe) Srateegus Oxyacantha, L.| .. Prunus domestica (eul’d).|. .. late! ... i 162 133 | Berwick, N.S. (initripe)| eee. cl|ls).. - 185) cooalleace 146 aes EAS | oj elec Zale a | ales ete Ice. || et les alelzl@lele . NS 2) 2) als |e Sle | S | es 8 ch WIE ee il St || Ge Se SS et | Er se Blalazle\o;a 171). 152 S58 eed eee 191 175| 163 232 298 a a rer 213| 179] 171|....|...- Ee ie 9 149|....| 161/....] 164] 162 156) 163 rc. (UTO| 22 saleeec| eer 155 a ee (ee (ee kee 182 feos | Mars|eeee ieee 182% 452 Ceatane ey fee ee ae bs an * 195 201) 198 198)....| 194]. 183 189 192 . 155 183 174) 167 ele! 150.....| 146... | 154. | | 196)... |... | 165 163 | 1 veeafiee | 152) 153 ....| 146) 128! vin leo 16O1%. | = -|ene- MESO |ereiste| Persie | sisiors || ercse 185\.. seee[eeee Trifolium repens, Tien j2. =. 139 ews 156 132)....]--+-]-+- AM OURAN Vengoood poodle ‘al 156 ST ATE) 155) A052 0- 166 - £2 cle Mihi Cunmisvitel Sane; wlan eres eres el eta | eens eee eret= HPA cl looac PAA ZCLIENCE DAE al DARE SO SOE EeE |ocod| (eeu) |Lors||coaallc: odlaeem (Meee laaccl eee allcaattoocallacc LHfexoy oh Abbas Coston Ka) Nays Pggolenoo! (beca| Ib | o | 8 a =) |) P= ing of plants and first ap--m |& |e |S | = ca pearance of migratory ani-; ; | 3/5 |e |2 15/2 mals, etc.) O\|H 1m |e ls 14 |e Thunderstorms—dates....!..-. $24)1||Gan6) 2000) (noc o}|oaon| meron Wild ducks migrating, N.,.:..|....]| 86.-. ‘ “ s. - szeese " INGO | We S4a Wrist er cca leter=--|/-.2 4 “ es SHlocoalt oi Melospiza fasciata, North.| 105} 92) 94 94. Turdus migratorius, “ 102} 80] 88 oT “200 100)..-.. ‘ | | Junco hiemalis, ef 102] gi] 99... Actitis macularia, Hy Bere aif alate ze Seer Sturnella magna iB Bae Ceryle Alcyon. ae 102 alts 1 | Dendreeca coronata, “* 149 144!....]. D. eestiva, es 2 146 Zonotrichia alba, ss 120755 ee [meee (tei 38 Trochiluscolubris, “ | 143] 128) 135... 144) Tyrannus Carolinen , “ ‘| asl Doly chonyOryZivors seu 0 let) eee sero Spinis tristis, s 144. selec } Setophaga ruticilla, ‘‘ 146 Sia | Bon Ampelis cedrorum, “ Bees oer al Sa aal ice) tee ae Chordeiles Viginian., ‘‘ 151). 149 teense First piping of frogs...... 115} 106} 97} 112 | 144 . ! First appearance, snakes.|....' 109]... .1.-.-|----!.--- eee bo bo oo bo Co ~I bo roe co ~ S 1899.—MACKAY | Vancouver, B. C. 110) S99 tems 90. 110 100 | 246 291)....| 286 is} em eell lex ise | ree lie kl|k 96 116 97 1119) <4) eee ee 115) 108 XIV.—A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND.—By A. H. MacKay, Lu. D., Halifam. (Read 9th April, 1900.) SSS rate. > ~~ ra wh y, oA » (KOK ee i, am Caer 5 OT 300 400 if ie a) 00 ! Micra. Sy v/ eee : One=Thotagndths of an VENER This sponge was collected in considerable abundance on the 18th cf August, 1899, by Professor John Macour, Botanist of (319) 320 A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND.—MACKAY. the Geological Survey of Canada, in the fresh water pond found in the centre of that great sand-shoal in the Atlantic Ocean, well known as Sable Island, nearly one hundred miles from Nova Scotia, the nearest part of the continent. It was growing around the submerged portion of the slender stems of Myri- ophyllum tenellum, Bigelow, in green, compact, lobular masses, showing, where broken, numeroas orange yellow gemmules. It appears to approach most nearly to the following fresh water sponges described by Potts: [Meteromeyenia ryderi, v. baleni, found from Florida to New Jersey, in its spiculation ; and Heteromeyenia rydert v. walshir, from Gilder Pond, Massa- chusetts, in the fasciculation of its skeleton spicules. General form: Encrusting the submerged stems of Myri- ophyllum tenellum, (which in the specimens examined are about 2 mm. thick), in a smooth, compact, green, lobular mass extend- ing toa gross diameter of about one centimeter, and to a height or length along the stem of about 5 or 6 centimeters in some cases, the lobes suggesting an abortive attempt at branching; pores and osteoles very minute; gemmules very abundant, appearing wherever the central mass is broken. Gemmules: Light orange in color, spherical, varying from 500 to 800 microns in diameter, but generally between 600 to 700 microns; foraminal aperture from 30 to 70 microns in diameter, not produced into a tube beyond the crust; dense inner (chitinous) coat of gemmule nearly 10 microns thick, surrounded by the light cellular crust (in which the short siliceous birotules or amphidisks are vertically embedded) toa depth of about 25 microns; both short and long birotules or amphidisks with one disk or rotule resting on the chitinous coat, their shafts radially directed, packed as closely as their disks allow, the long birotules being fewer with the distal rotules extending beyond the crust, their few slightly incurved rays somewhat adapted for attaching the gemmule to any finely fibrous environment. Short birotules: From 18 to 26 microns in length, generally from 20 to 24, with a smooth uniform shaft A FRESH WATER SPONGE FROM SABLE ISLAND.—MACKAY. 321] ranging from 1.5 to £ microns thick: the rotules being plane disks less than % microns thick from the point where the shaft begins to swell into them. and from 10 to 16 microns in diameter, commonly near 12 microns, laciniately blunt-lobed around their margins, the shaft occasionally extending 1 micron beyond the disks, making the exterior of the rotule slightly umbonate. Long birotules: From 35 to 50 microns. commonly from 40) to 45, with usually a smooth, uniform shaft about 2% microns thick ; the rotules generally of 3, to 4or 5 rays which are slightly incurved, the rotule ranging from 8 to 14 mierons in diameter, commonly from 10 to 11 microns. Larger skeleton spicules : Shghtly curved, microspined or rough, tapering gradually from the middle, then more rapidly towards the ends; ranging from 150 to 260 microns in length, commonly from 180 to 220; and from 3.5 to 5 microns in breadth at the thickest part. Intermediate skeleton spicules: Generally smooth, and from 2 to 8 microns thick, and from 150 to 200 microns in length, numerous and generally fascicled into strands which are often connected transversely by the larger spicules. Smaller strand spicules and filament strands - Finer strands than those referred to above, appearing as if made up of continu- ous filaments instead of spicules; strands commonly from 10 to 15 microns across, made up of about 20 filaments or more, each about one micron thick, where broker. across appearing as if they were flexible to some extent, the ends of the filaments showing a more or less distinct curvature. Under the micro- scope they appear identical with the more slender spicules with the exception that they appear to be continuous in the strand. Examined with polarized light they are visible in the dark field, as are also, more or less, the strands made up of the interme- diate spicules while the spicules are cemented together, suggest- ing a peculiar colloidal siliceous or a spongin cement. When heated with nitric acid these filaments appear first to separate and break into pieces, then partly at least to disappear. At the earliest opportunity I purpose to examine the nature of these Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. SCL ViOle ox TRANS.—U. 392 about 4™™ from the edge, suggesting an exterior bark layer. STIGMARIA STRUCTURE—POOLE. 347 Eccentrically placed within the dark and apparently struc- ‘turless surface, about 30™™ from one side and less than ten from the opposite side, is anearly circular band of over thirty slightly wedge-shaped bundles of rectangular cells, surrounding a struc- tureless central circular area like the rest of the section surface about 11™™ in diameter. The bundles of cells are in radial direction from 6 to 7™™ in length and from less than 1 to about 2™™ in breadth, containing from 5 to 15 radial rows of cells, each having about 40 or more rectangular cells in a row. The bundles are separated by the uniform black material within and without the ring of bundles of cells, each bundle being separated by a space of more or less than ]™™. The lumen of tke cell is white (a calcium carbonate infiltra- tion), rectangular, 100 microns by 175 being a common size. The cell wall is black and thin, less than 10 microns thick. The smaller cells are often nearly square, 50 to 75 microns, but the tendency is toa greater length radially than in breadth. ‘Cells 125 microns by 200 are the largest commonly found. The cells become. larger generally, as they recede from the centre, and the widening of the bundles in the same direction is also caused by the appearance of interstitial rows of cells, so that the bundle has a few more rows of cells across the wider than across the narrower end, asa rule. V.—THE Srar-NOsED MOLE (Condylura cristata)—Its BREED- ING Habits, ETc.—By Watson L. BisHop, Dartmouth, N.S. (Read March 18th, 1901.) The Star-Nosed Mole occurs from Nova Scotia to Indiana and northward, but as far as Lam aware is not anywhere abundant. The soil where it is most commonly found is sedimentary and quite near to water. Intervale or meadow land is almost invariably selected as its place of abode. Insuch a locality, during the spring and autumn months, little mounds of black soil are thrown up in zig-zag rows marking the course of its subterra- nean roadways. To dig one of these little fellows out of the ground is no easy task, although the holes are quite easily foun} and readily followed ; there are so many angles and turns that one’s labours are seldom rewarded with as muchas a glimpse of the little creatures. On May 22nd, 1890, while having some apple trees planted, I had the good luck to find a nest containing four of the young. The locality where the nest was found was two miles south of Kentville in King’s County, Nova Scotia. The land had been cleared of small forest trees several years before and had grown up with grass and was mowed every year. The particular spot where the nest was found was a little hillock or eradlehill which had been formed appar- ently by a tree having been blown down. When the roots had rotted away a small dry mound of soft black sedimentary earth was formed, and in this the nest was built. This mound was high enough to be out of reach of storm-water during wet weather. The excavation containing the nest was ten inches below the surface, and was made in a ecireular form, seven inches in diameter. The nest was built of old dry grass, and was very (348) STAR-NOSED MOLE: ITS BREEDING HARITS.—BISHOP, 349 compact aud neatly made. Although the mound contained a complete network of roadways, no earth was thrown to the surface within ten feet of the nest. The young were probably ten days old, the fur just begin- ning to start, which gave the skin a dark brown colour. They were at once taken and preserved in spirits, and have since been presented to the Provincial Museum at Halifax (accession no. 149.) VI—Recent DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL IN THE NicTAUx Iron FieLpD.—By D’Arcy WEATHERBE, OC. E, Minss Dept. of N. S., A. M. Can. Soe. C. E. (Received August 20th, 1901.) Introductory : Geological and Historical. It would be as well perhaps for the benefit of those unacquainted with this district to preface the following account with a few descriptive remarks on its general geology. The measures which accompany the ferriferous deposits here are generally considered to be of Lower Devonian age. The area with which the operations herein to be described deal, may be said to be bounded as follows:—On the north by the Triassic red sandstones which underlie the con- temporaneous trap diorites of the North Mountain range; on the west by a band of granite extending northerly, partly across the valley between the North and South Mountain, and lying about a mile west of the Nictaux River. This latter is not strictly speaking a geological boundary, as the same veins of ore have been followed west of the granite, and are possibly overlain by it. On the south along the summit ridge of the South Mountain begins that enormous mass of granite which extends half way to the Atlantic Ocean, and effectually prevents prospecting in that direction. Towards the east, the boundary, as far as these veins are concerned, may be said at present to be ind fi rite, though they can be traced several miles east of the Nictaux River. Until 1891 little practical attention had been devoted to the prospecting of the region, and with the exception of the early attempts at mining and smelting, no development of any import- ance had been undertaken. In that year (1891), the Torbrook Tron Co. commenced operations on a vein of red hematite (350) DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL—WEATHERBE. 351 averaging about 9 feet in thickness and showing from various tests the following analyses: * Se Silica. Phosphorus. | Sulphur. Pane canes | 52.44 11.00 | 1.66 none 8.64 60.72 10.28 5 17) traces) wy il sakes 59.00 12.86 trace trace trace 61.38 26.50 er Pa ik Comiotcor Wilmail te Mamie Meer s 47.00 10.12 1.08 trace 5.30 55.74 14.97 trace Era Cemmen ilk) usec 74.59 17/ 3P4 18 SDSS Va Un ae coer LM oi37/ 5.93 ally MO Siam ae ill ue Ee ctece ane TO OTLN Illa cvectenue -16 US ay il ae cece BORSGMU S\boa We hsers sre none ROOM fiers!) Serene tho. From which it will be seen that though rather asilicious ore, it is low in sulphur and phosphorus, and high in metallic iron. The vein dips at an angle of about 80° to the south at the surface, and flattens to 45° at a depth of 350 feet (as proved by the workings of the ‘Torbrook Iron Co.), and the general strike throughout the district is about N. 62 E. This company in 1896 completed their contracts, and no immediate market offering elsewhere, they closed their mine, after having shfpped in the five years 135,000 tons of ore to the Londonderry and Ferrona furnaces. When closed down, the mine showed large quantities of good ore in sight, and a vein from 6 ft. to 12 ft. in thickness. About 65 feet to the south of this vein lies another deposit of red hematite, called from its fossiliferous character the “Shell ore vein,” which from several analyses runs about 54/ metallic iron. This vein measures about 6 to 9 feet in width. The fossil shells occuring in this bed consist of varieties of Spirifer, Strophomena, Atrypa, Avicula, Bellerophon, ete., ete. North of the vein worked by the above company, and about a mile west of their mines, another vein five feet in width has been found, which at this point presents in common with most of the iron deposits in the district, different characteristics, as it is. *These analyses are from a paper on the Iron Ores of Nictaux, by Dr. E. Gilpin, Nova Scotian Institute Science—session 1894-95. By RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL found further to the west. The most marked of these changes is the magnetic property probably imposed by the metamorphism induced by the proximity of the granite. On the abandonment of the mines, the district remained for some years undisturbed, a state from which it was aroused early in 1900 by the energetic prospecting operations of a syndicate of Halifax gentlemen, who it is understood control practically all of the ground described above, which may now under the light of recent developments be fairly termed the Torbrook or Nictaux “synclinal.” Descrvption of Drill. A few words may not be amiss as to the parts and working of this drill. It cuts a 4 or 5 inch core as desired. and the satisfactory results attained may be judged by the fact that the writer recently saw several complete unbroken cores 5 inches in diameter and measuring nearly 7 feet in length. An idea of the valuable record secured by such a core is gathered from the fact that they contained slate, quartzite, and magnetite with crystallized geodes of quartz and stringers of calespar, all dipping obliquely across the vertical axis of the core. The apparatus consists of an upright boiler and compound engine (about 12 h. p.), drum, chain and sprocket wheels, driving shaft and bevel wheel, rotating device, drill head and hoisting derrick. The drill proper consists of the “cutter,” a hollow steel cylinder with peculiarly shaped teeth at the bottom, set alter- nately at approaching and diverging angles with its axis. This is screwed to the bottom of the core barrel which is simply an iron tube of the same diameter into which the core passes when cut In hard rock, instead of the cutter and core-barrel, the shot bit and barrel, a fifteen foot steel cylinder of the same diameter is used, and under its edges are fed chilled steel shot, and the friction caused cuts the core. The drill rods are of 3 in. hollow steel, and are screwed by means of a “reducing plug” into the upper end of the core- barrel. IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD—WEATHERBE. 353 The “calyx,” or as it has been aptly termed the “chip barrel,” is also a tube of the same diameter as the core-barrel, and surrounds the lower drill 10d. It rests on the reducing plug, and is open at the upper end. Water being fed down the drill rods, passes out at the bottom of the hole, and is forced up between the rock wall and the core-barrel and calyx. This water naturally carries with it the sand and rock chips formed during the process of cutting the core, until when the top of the calyx is reached, the pressure is lessened by the space being increased, and the chips fall into the calyx, thus forming a perfect, though inverted record of the formation passed through. To the top of the pulley-head is screwed the feed pipe, and to the bottom a square rotating rod which is screwed to the highest drill rod, and fitting through the rotating device is held by 2 clutch, and thus the motion is given to the drill. Method of Operation. After setting up the drill, the first operatiou is to insert the pipe-casing—an iron tube slightly larger in diameter than the outside of the core-barrel—through the loose surface material, and a short distance into the bed rock. This is done by placing on top of the pipe-casing a wooden block (about 12” thick), and using a pounder worked with the hoisting gear. A heavy, flanged iron pipe, weighing probably 400 lbs. has been used for this purpose with success. Great care must be taken to keep the piping plumb, as mistakes at this stage will probably necessitate abandoning the hole. Another error that is sometimes made, and which by experi- ence has been corrected here, is the digging of a shaft in which to sink the casing. Even with the greatest care being exercised, it is found that though the shaft outside the pipe may be filled and thoroughly tamped, there is great liability of the hole being blocked, and of the top of the calyx catching on withdrawal of the drill. Having successfully placed in position the casing, the cutter, and core-barrel, or if the rock is very hard, the shot bit is intro- 354 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL duced, and the engine set going. When a sufficient depth s reached the calyx chip-cup is coupled on and the rods success- ively placed between the chip-cup rod and the square rotating rod. It occasionally happens that a rod-coupling breaks at a depth below the surface. The portion of the drill above the break is withdrawn, and a threaded cone called a “tap” is inserted on the end of a rod, and screwed into the broken coupling and the bottom portion is withdrawn. When the core breaks accidentally it immediately becomes known by the riding motion of the drill, and the drill runner: should be on the alert at such a time to prevent much weight being placed on the drill head, as the couplings at once become endangered. When it is desired to withdraw or break a core, the motion is stopped, and a heavy flush of water is forced down the drill rods, coarse gravel being at the same time fed with it. The gravel becomes jammed between the core and core barrel, thus holding the former firmly ; the pipe wrenches are now placed on the square rotating rod at the top, and with the aid of the engine a sharp twist is given to the drill, and the core breaks. In the event of a piece of the core splitting off below, and it being found impossible to re-insert the cutter or shot-bit, the: chopping-bit, a steel head like a blunt chisel is placed on the end of a rod, and repeatedly dropped into the hole, breaking up the offending piece of rock. As little water as possible is used with the shot,as it tends to waste by depositing it in the chip cup, or bringing it up to the surface. On the other hand, with the cutter in softer rock all the water possible is used. Records of Boring. Boring was commenced on October 13th, 1900, on the “ Ber- teaux” Farm, at Torbrook, the drill being under the charge of Mr. Burnett, the drill company’s expert. IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD—-WEATHERBE. 309 A position was chosen for the first hole at a point about 12 feet south of the hanging wall of the “Shell Ore” vein. This vein, aS mentioned, has been proved for a long distance east and west, and the dip at this point was supposed to be about 85° to to the south. Thus the vein should have been tapped at a depth of about 137 feet from the surface; but this, as will be shown by the records given below, did not prove to be the ease. In this first hole the following section was exhibited : No. 1 Hole. Material. Feet. Detritus claysandeloosesbouldersee]..5-.4---.2- see eee 12 Reddishushales(softrandetriaole)iesc..0. sce a aoe 48 LO ball Beye NNN oe hin taseres a noche ie Se mane eee 60 At this depth, 60 feet from the surface, the hole was aban- doned in consequence of its being blocked by boulders getting jammed in it under the metal pipe casing, which it seems had not been properly inserted below the surface of the bed rock. A shaft had been dug for its insertion. The next hole, 15 feet to the eastward of no. 1, was the same distance from the supposed position of the hanging wall. Owing to a delay in the arrival of piping, it was not commenced until Oct. 26th. From this date it was sunk continuously till Nov. 21st, when a depth of 201 feet was reached. Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sct, Vou. X. TRANS. Y. 356 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WITH THE CALYX DRILL The following section shows all particulars with regard to the boring: No. 2 Hole. No. of Hours : Date. ee Material. Feet. of Boring. HUET Oct. 26 1 RiediShailes'.% 2 as. 3255 Alero cee 4 Gif 34 sé co and blue slate*s.~otes soee oe eee hy ce 99 . 48 13 5G 29 se ail) 54 «¢ Le a RE PRO ER RAPS A aa. cS ad 8 3 24 Go" Fa 64 Bluey Slate sk oe a.m ce 27 123 broken. hole. 19 Slate mixed witn iron..... 7 130 76 One Rise eens take tah 29 159 36 Slate mixed with iron..... 13 172 51 iblackaslatesmaccy-ciraceer 20 192 * See Gilpin, Iron Ores Nictaux, Nova Scotian Institute Science—session 1894-95. 360 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE NICTAUX IRON FIELD. From this it is obvious that two veins were passed through, both of which flatten with depth. (See Plate V.) Plate VI is a plan showing the surface features of the locality. A few notes collected by the writer relative to the rate and cost of boring with this drill as proved by practical experience may be found interesting : In boring the 620 feet hole on the Wheelock Farm 1560 hours were employed, which time included that taken up in the drawing of rods, sharpening bits and cutters, and other minor delays, so that fairly deducting say 257 of this, it would leave 620 feet of core produced in 1170 hours of actual drilling, or an average rate of boring was attained of over 6 inches per hour. The cost of boring this hole may be very approximately set down at $2.00 per foot, made up as follows: Tia ORN Mie are ieeey hee See as as oe $670.00 Mamasement em eieterrsttele« 1S. 250.00 (2) Aon peal 8 a Sn SO ere 195.00 Lighting, oil, waste, etc .......... 30.00 HOt! cite bate tage eure apeye ye iceersy isd 50.00 Wear/anditear eee serail t-- 50.00 $1250.00 In considering the above, it must be borne in mind that the rock here though composed of slates and shales, is very hard, and often intercalated with quartzite, and highly ferruginous bands; and further, though the drill runner is a competent man, all the conditions at first were new, and consequently both the cost and rate of boring will probably be materially reduced as the operations progress. In order to show that this hole was a severe test, the record of no. 2 may be taken in comparison, and it will be seen that on the average over 1 foot per hour was bored. while from 4 feet to 6 feet per hour was done in the softer portions of the rock. The cost of boring in this softer rock is also reduced by the fact that the cutter is used instead of shot, which latter method is not only expensive in the consumption of shot but also of shot barrel, which costs about $2.25 per foot, and wears away at the rate of about 1 foot of barrel in 50 feet of rock. VIL—THeE GeoLocicaL HIstorRY OF THE GASPEREAU VALLEY, Nova Scorts.—By Proressor Ernest Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S. {(Received for publication 18th Dec., 1901.) A line drawn across the eastern portion of King’s County from the Bay of Fundy to the southeast county line, a distance of about eighteen miles in a southeasterly direction, will cross three distinct bands of country which, with slight local variations, run parallel with the coast and represent the soil and surface of that part of Nova Scotia bordering this bay on the southeast and draining into its waters. From the shore the surface of .the land rises for about four miles in gentle undulating slopes to the crest of the ridge, which marks the boundary of this northernmost band. At short intervals the brooks have cut deep trenches at right angles to the coastline, and these, from their steep sides and generally abrupt character, are locally known as vaults Thus the surface, though sloping but gently seaward, is very uneven and the drainage good. The soil is dark grey, thin and stony, scarcely concealing, in many places, the underlying rock, and largely made up of its more resistant constituents. Where not boggy the land is thus subject to drouth, and adapted to pasturage rather than to tillage. The underlying rock is an ancient lava-flow, or a mass formed by successive lava-flows, and the peculiar features of the soil and surface are the natural results of the chemical and mechanical ~ action of subaerial forces upon its gently sloping sheets. From the crest of the ridge the surface drops suddenly away to an undulating plain but little above sea-level, about seven miles wide, made up of alternate strips of level marsh and smoothed and rounded ridges. When one leaves behind the rough roads, lined with the rail fences of stony pasture and hay lands or flanked by steep slopes with their scanty covering (361) 362 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE of spruce and fir, and emerges upon the crest of the ridge, this lovely plain lies spread out beneath like a picture. With white Jure clouds sailing across a blue sky, patches of shadow and sunlight sweeping across the squares and parallelograms of deep brown ploughed-land, pink and white apple-orchards and grass- green marsh to the purple slopes of tidal flats and blue sparkling waters of the basin, this plain presents a picture to the onlooker that is in the strongest contrast to the rough hard lines and sombre coloring of the land and life at his back, for the life necessarily reflects the character of the land whence it draws its sustenance. Here again, to the underlying rock, hidden by its own debris except where tidal scour has swept away the crumbling fragments from the shore, is due the soil and surface that makes Cornwallis the garden of Nova Scotia. It is red sandstone, in some parts coarse and gravelly but mainly fine-grained, rapidly breaking up with rain and frost and forming a sandy loam particularly adapted to the growth of root-crops and fruit trees, The southern edge of this plain meets the northern edge of a gentle slope which, within a mile or two, rises to an older loftier plain some five hundred or six hundred feet above the sea, Although carved and sculptured along its borders by water- courses, the uniform elevation of the detached ridges and the main mass, and the regular and even sky-line when viewed from the crest of the North Mountain opposite, point to it as a base- leveled and then elevated and dissected plain, and to the essential unity of the separated ridges and the central portion. This third band stretches for about seven miles to, and then beyond, the southeast county line. Towards the eastern border ot the county it descends somewhat and is abruptly truncated by the Avon River, forming the well-known Horton Bluffs. Its southwestern extension forms the central watershed of the province. Within this strip the surface is generally level, with low hills, sluggish drainage and abundant lakes in the inner portions, steep slopes, rapid streams and deep water-courses along the borders: GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCOCK. 363 The soil is more variable. Boulder-clay lies in thin sheets or in thick masses in some places on the North Mountain ; it is more abundant in the Cornwallis Valley ; but it reaches its greatest development along the bordering slopes and in the minor depressions of the elevated southern band. This deposit almost always forms deep and heavy but workable soils. Along the lower slopes it is made up in large part of debris dragged and pushed from the adjacent valley, and to that extent it possesses the fertility of the valley soils; but farther south the slates make up a larger and larger portion and the soils are correspond- ingly poorer. Where the boulder-clay is wanting, the underlying slates are bare or thinly covered by a worthless soil; while farther south towards the granite country the surface is thickly strewn with granite boulders and wholly given over to forest growth. The town of Wolfville lies at the foot of the northern slope of this elevated band of country, but the slate ridge to the south of the town, though essentially a part of the plain above des- cribed, is cut off from it by a river valley and narrow strip of fertile land which duplicates in every essential character the broader Cornwallis Valley to the north. The Gaspereau Valley is as essentially an outlying fragment of the Cornwallis Valley as the Wolfville ridge is an outlier and separated fragment of the broad southern tableland. This ridge, some three hundred feet in height behind the town of Wolfville, gradually rises towards the southwest and within a few miles becomes level with and a part of the plain to the southeast. To the northeast it descends with long and convex sweeps, sinking beneath the marsh at Lower Horton. From its southern brow of slate the observer looks down upon a silvery stream winding through double lines of drooping willows, or through level intervales rising into broad low terraces, which sweep with many a curve up into the bounding hills, the whole presenting a scene of quiet and tranquil beauty that the broader valley cannot equal. Opposite Wolfville the valley bottom is rather more than a mile in width. Eastwardly, as the enclosing northern ridge 364 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE becomes less pronounced, drumlin-like hills of boulder-clay increasing in abundance encroach from both sides upon the valley and veneer the eastward extension of the table-land beyond. Westwardly this table-land curves gradually in around the head of the valley which, within a few miles, becomes a deep gorge within steep walls of slate. These topographic features are in part dependant on the characters of the underlying geological formations ; in part they depend on structural features, subsequent to the deposition, and independent of the characteristics, of the rocks. In the region under discussion these rocks present consider- able variety in texture and composition. Passing over the newer and unconsolidated sediments, that form the marine marshes, the terrace gravels, and the hills and sheets of boulder-clay, to the foundation rocks of the district, we find uppermost and resting against the lower slopes of the ridge at Wolfville a dull red sandstone composed of a variable mixture of grains of different minerals.) Rounded particles of white and colorless quartz appear to predominate, and minute gleaming flakes of both muscovite and biotite are scattered through the rock. Bright red specks are numerous, and according to their relative abundance the sandstone varies considerably in coloring between red and grey. The cementing matter is calcite, which is present in considerable quantity filling the interstices between the other minerals and effervescing briskly when the rock is touched with acid ‘he size of the grains also varies considerably and rounded pebbles of white vein quartz are not uncommon. The stratification is uneven and the beds dip north at angles of from 10 to 12 degrees. This sandstone, possessing the same general characters, but varying in texture and in the relative abundance of its constitu- ents, underlies the whole Cormwallis Valley and extends westwardly for upwards of 90 miles. Eastwardly it forms a narrow interrupted band along the margin of the Basin of Minas, which appears to lie in a slight depression of its surface. Near Wolfville this formation, which is regarded as of GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCOCK. 365 Triassic age, is only found along the base of the hills. Deeply buried by heavy accumulations of boulder-clay it forms the first low rise or step, but is not known to ascend the slopes of the southern tableland. Its contact with the rocks that form these slopes is not visible here, but the inclination of the beds is such that their continuation would carry them up over, and thus indi- cate that they rest upon, the next appearing beds to the south.* These older beds, dipping northeasterly at angles of from 12 to 20 degrees, first appear at or near the surface within a few hundred yards of the above mentioned Triassic sandstone. They are dark grey, drab, purplish and black shales, in thin layers, containing abundant plant remains. These shales become more sandy to the south, passing first into fine-grained sandstones which separate in weathering into remarkably uniform thin lamine. These in turn are underlaid by coarser and coarser grey sandstones, with occasional interstratified beds of black mud-rock and occasional layers of conglomerate, in more and more variable uneven or lenticular strata, as the crest of the ridge and the base of the formation are approached. This whole series is inclined to the northeast at angles varying from 5 to 20 degrees. If the strata were continued, this inclination would carry them up over the slates which are the next appearing rocks to the south. The contact of the sandstone and slate is concealed by surface material, but the above mentioned geographical and structural relations point to the sandstones as the newer rocks. The occur- rence of pebbles and partially worn fragments of slate in the coarse sandstone beds, and the unmetamorphosed condition of the occasional black carbonaceous layers very near the contact with the slate, are convincing proofs of the subsequent deposition of the sandstone and shale series. This sandstone is largely made up of sub-angular, grey, translucent, quartz grains. Muscovite is common, and the presence of small ironstained cavities points to the former presence *At Avonport, this unconformable superposition is revealed by a fault which brings up the base of these red beds to the surface of the beach. 366 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE of some iron-containing mineral, now decomposed and in part removed. Soft slate-colored specks and pieces, which are doubt- less fragments of the slate formation beneath, are also present. The cementing matter of the rock is alight grey powdery substance, probably decomposed feldspar, which appears to be quite easily removed by the mechanical action of rain. There is no effervescence with acids, showing the absence of carbonates. Because of its constituent minerals the rock is light grey in color, although the joint surfaces are frequently stained a dark red by iron oxide. This isa further indication of removal of iron oxide; and the absence of carbon from these coarse and somewhat porous sandstones when compared with its abundance in the accompanying fine-grained argillaceous beds, is suggestive of the mutual decomposition of the organic substances and iron- containing minerals, and their subsequent removal in solution by the underground water. The prevalent red color of the overlying Triassic red sand- stones, which, without doubt, were derived in large part from these older sandstones, is probably due to the subsequent oxida- tion and precipitation of these same dissolved iron compounds. Because of their relations to adjacent formations, and their fossil contents, this series of beds has been regarded as of Lower Carboniferous and even of Devonian age.* A short distance south of the last outcrop of sandstone, greenish-grey compact slates with clean-cut joint planes come to the surface in many places along the summit of the ridge, and generally underlie the country to the south and west. At this locality the cleavage is nearly vertical and the beds dip northwesterly at angles of from 20 to 70 degrees. Several almost vertical veins of quartz, from one to two feet in thickness, lie in the slate along the southern brow of the ridge approxi- mately parallel with the cleavage planes of the rock. Just below the southern brow, a narrow band of sandstone, exactly similar to the coarser beds of Carboniferous sandstone above described, crops out at the top of the slope. Its elevation “See H. M. Ami, Summary Report of the Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1898. Pp. 180-182. GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCOCK 367 above the Gaspereau Valley is about 200 feet, and, like the similar beds on the northern slope, it dips to the northeast or directly into the hill, and seemingly must pass beneath the slate. That it does not is proved by the presence of fragments of the slate and vein quartz in the sandstone itself, and some other explanation of this relation must be sought. Along the lower slopes to the south, and in the bottom of the Gaspereau Valley, the underlying rock is concealed by sur- face material; but along its south side the brooks from the southern tableland have plowed deep furrows at right angles to the valley int surface material and rock formations beneath, and have revealed the whole structure from the top of the terraces which flank the river to the level of the high land beyond. The first rocks to appear from beneath the terraces in the Angus brook are grey or brown sandy shales in rather thin layers. Their surfaces are abundantly ripple-marked, the ridges of the ripples running generally north 70° west. Worm trails are common ; and the surfaces frequently bear the imprints of stems of Lepidodendra. These beds dip to the north at an angle of about 20 degrees, and the brooks flow directly across them at right angles to the strike and in the direction of the dip, so that in stepping from bed to bed as they successively come out from beneath each other, one is passing to older and older strata while ascending the brook and the slope. There is a good deal of local variation in the direction of the strike and in the amount of inclination from the horizontal. An average strike, however, would be a little north of west; an average dip about 15 degrees in a general direction a little east of north. The beds vary in composition from sandy to argillaceous and carbonaceous shales, and in coloring from grey or brown to black according to the abundance of organic matter and the degree to which they have been open to the passage of underground water. Here, as in the series of strata lying onthe north slope of the Wolfville ridge, the finer sediments are succeeded by coarser and coarser materials with occasional interstratified layers of black mud-rock as we pass down into the series and up the slope of the 368 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE hill, until we come to massive beds of coarse irregularly bedded sandstone with sub-angular quartz grains powdery cementing matter and all the conspicuous features of the sandstones form- ing the basal members of the Horton series before described. In the Dunean Brook the sandstones finally change, rather abruptly, in character, a soft reddish-brown substance appearing and making up a larger and larger portion of the rock, until it passes at a well-defined boundary, into a soft argillaceous rock with bright ribbon-like bands of coloring where the edges of highly inclined green, brown and drab layers have been smoothed and rounded by the stream. This rock is evidently the source of the soft brown constituent of the immediately over-lying sanastones, and furnishes certain proof that they are newer than and laid down upon these argillaceous beds. Cleavage is not Well-marked in these underlying clay rocks at this point, but the bedding is plainly shown by the color banding and by the occurence of occasional gritty layers. The dip at the contact is to the southeast, but in passing up the brook the beds gradually become vertical and then dip to the northwest, Suggesting an overturn. The rocks also change gradually to compact bluish slates with well-deffned cleavage. The succession in the next brook to the east is the same, but the contact of the two formations is concealed by loose material in the bed of the brook. The argillaceous color-banded beds are well exposed, dipping to the southeast at an angle of 45 degrees. Dr. Ami has found Dictyonema Websteri in these beds and considers them as of Silurianage.* Farther south, these are succeeded by blue slates, as in the Dunean Brook. The topographic features of the region have been stated to be due in part to the characteristics of the underlying geological formations, in part to structural phenomena subsequent to the deposition, and independent of the characteristics of these rocks. Wolfville rests at the junction of the slate with the overlying sandstone. From the town this junction extends eastwardly, ascending the ridge obliquely to the crest, where it suddenly *Summary Report of the Geol. Sury. of Canada for year 1898. Pp. 180-182 GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCOCK. 369 curves to the southwest and just below the brow of the hill con- tinues along in that direction for about half a mile to the westernmost outcrop of the sandstone on the north side of the valley. The next outcrop of sandstone occurs on the opposite side of the Gaspereau Valley, about a mile and a half to the southwest, in a brook just west of Gaspereau Village. It is here about two hundred feet below its last mentioned occurrence on the brow of the ridge, and its contact with the slate lies within a few rods of this exposure, as the next watercourse to the west lies in compact bluish siates. The line of contact next ascends the slope, but curves eastwardly before reaching the edge of the southern tableland and extends in that direction for about three miles, when it again sweeps around southerly, and then southwesterly, up the valley of the Half-way River. The slate is tough and resistant, and the country occupied by it to the southwest of this bounding line presents smooth level outlines gashed by sudden gorges. The sandstones and shales to the north and east of it are variable in hardness but relatively less resistant than the slates, and the country underlaid by these younger rocks lies, as a rule, at a lower level and presents broadly undulating outlines. The Cornwallis Valley has a geological history which has already been traced out as far as the records have been available and intelligible to the writer up to the present time.* The Gaspereau outlier has been subject to the same general changes, but its separation from the main portion calls for additional explanation. 1f we imagine a vertical plane cutting deep into the earth’s crust and extending. north and south from the borders of the Minas Basin at Wolfville to the edge of the elevated southern plain, and if the part on the west side were removed so that we could see the underlying structure of the whole district, the surface exposures lead us to believe that the rocks in the geological section thus laid bare are arranged as in the accom- * «Records of Post-triassic Changes in Kings County, N.S.” Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Vol. X., Session 1899-1900. Pp. 287-302. 370 THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE panying Plate VII, Fig. 1, in which the horizontal and vertical distances are represented on the same scale of two inches to one mile. The most striking feature of this section is the repetition of geological formations. The red Triassic sandstone of the margin of the Basin is underlaid by the shales and sandstones of the Horton series, which are in turn underlaid at the summit of the ridge by slates. Upon the corresponding slope on the opposite side of the valley, shales and sandstones are again underlaid by slates. The red sandstone is not found in the Gaspereau Valley along the line of the section. Several interpretations of the underlying structure are suggested by the surface indications. The beds are all water- formed, and all dip to the northern quadrant of the compass, so that the first and simplest explanation is-that they form successively deposited series, as shown in Fig. 2, the southern- most slate older than and succeeded unconformably by the southern series of sandstone and shale, this dipping beneath and therefore older than the slates of the Wolfville ridge, and these again unconformably overlaid by the Wolfville sandstone and shale series, and these again by the calcareous red sandstones of the Cornwallis Valley. A brief study of the rocks, however, reveals the fact that the sandstone and shale formations of both slopes are alike, not only in mineralogical composition but also in fossil contents, and that they are merely geographically separated parts of the same for- mation. If further reasons for rejecting this explanation were necessary, the slates also possess similar characteristics, and we know of no way in which the clay-slates of the Wolfville ridge could have been cleaved and altered while the sedimentary beds beneath, often as fine in texture, remained unchanged. A second explanation is that the rocks appearing at the sur- face are the northern limbs respectively of two anticlines, as shown in Fig. 3, the joining limb being concealed by the thick surface deposits of the lower slopes of the north side and bottom of the Gaspereau Valley. GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCOCK. 371 An objection to this view is, that the bit of north-dipping sandstone on the southern brow of the Wolfville ridge lies where the south-dipping limb of the northern anticline should be found; and this explanation must also be rejected. Still a third explanation remains. The repeated outcrop of the same set of beds can be accounted for by a theory that is not in opposition to known facts and even has some special evidence in its favor. Ifa fault, concealed by the heavy accummulations of surface material, is supposed to extend east and west along the north side of the valley, and the rocks on the north to have moved upwards relatively to those on the south side of the fault, as in Fig. 4, the same strata that dip northerly from the southern side of the valley would be cut off, a mile or more to the north, alone with the formation on which they rest. Erosion would act more effectively along the elevated surface, and the soft overlying shales would be quickly removed down to the coarse and more resistant sandstones, and these even worn through to the underlying slates. On the south side of the fault, the relatively lower position would be less favorable to removal and the softer shales would remain to furnish evidence of the amount of material that had been worn away to lay bare the sandstones and slates of the Wolfville ridge. The northerly dips in the south-sloping surface of this ridge are what we would expect on this theory. Some additional facts in support of this explanation exist. A line of springs lies along the north side of the valley well up on the slopes of the ridge, and quartz veinsa foot or more in thickness, extend along in the same direction, very near the line of springs. If these springs rise in the line of fracture caused by the fault, as appears probable, their occurrence is explicable. The water for these can scarcely be supplied from the almost bare rock surface of the part of the ridge, or escarpment: above, but its source must be rather in the more distant and higher lands to the southwest. A somewhat long underground journey for the water is thus required, and this is favorable to the removal of silica from the rocks along the path and its deposition along PROC. AND TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. X. TRANS.—Z. Sirs THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE the sides of the fissure as the waters approach the surface, giving rise to the mineral veins that have been mentioned. If this be the correct explanation, the amount of displacement that has taken place along the fault can he approximately esti- mated from the average dip, and the present position and elevation of corresponding portions of the same formation. This dip is about 15 degrees, and the horizontal distance between the outcrop of the coarse carboniferous sandstones on the south side of the valley, and the outcrop of the same set of beds on the ridge on the north side, is about two miles; so that a displace- ment of about 2,500 feet would be necessary to bring the coarse basal sandstones that dip beneath the surface on the south side of the valley to the same elevation on the Wolfville ridge. The scenic effects of this displacement upon the surface of this portion of the county, are more conspicuous than those described as due to the characteristics of the underlying rocks. By it the harder, more resistant sandstones and compact under- ing slates are again brought to the surface and produce the Wolfville ridge. By it a long tongue of the Cornwallis Valley, with its fertile farms and apple orchards, has been cut off to form the Gaspereau Valley. If this fault had not occurred, the broader valley would have swept without a break up to the base of the main southern table-land beyond, and the most charming bit of scenery of this portion of Nova Scotia would have no existence. There are indications that the movement taking place along this line of fracture has been exceedingly slow; that the Gas- pereau Valley is even more ancient than the Carboniferous sandstones that rest in it; that it bordered a loftier land to the south which, even in that remote time, supported upon its sheltered slopes and bottom-lands a luxuriant forest of Lepido- dendra and magnificent ferns whose remains have been partially preserved in the muddy sediments of an ancient river flowing from this southern land. Reasons have been advanced for believing that the quartz veins of the slate of the Wolfville ridge have been deposited by GASPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCCOCK. 373 the action of underground water while finding its way to the surface through the fissures of the fractured zone of the Gaspereau fault. These veins, though newer than the slate in which they occur, are still older than the Carboniferous sand- stones that overlie them and contain abundant fragments of the white quartz of which they are composed. If the interpre- tation of their origin be correct, it follows that the fault along which they were formed had its beginnings before the Car- boniferous period. The outlining of the Wolfville ridge was contemporanecus with the formation of the fault, and its Pre-Carboniferous origin is thus indicated. The simplest interpretation of the strip of sandstone dipping into the southern brow of this ridge is that it was deposited along the southern shore when the ridge projected eastwards, as a low point, into the Carboniferous sea. Contemporaneous beds of similar material were deposited on the north side of the point of land. The whole area gradually subsiding, the coarse sandstones that lined the coast in shallow water crept farther and farther up the slopes, covering the low point of slate as the water level rose upon the land. Subsequently, as farther move- ment along the fault plane took place, these newer beds were broken and their ends pushed upward along its northern side until elevated above the sea and laid bare by ages of erosion, we now see them apparently dipping into the hill of slate along which they were deposited as approximately horizontal beds when the hill itself was a low point of land on the coast of a Carboniferous bay. The Triassic sandstones have not yet been observed in the Gaspereau Valley along the line of section, although there seems to be no good reason for there not being found if they exist there. A reasonable interpretation of their absence is that when the Triassic sandstones that occur at corresponding levels on the north side of the ridge in the Cornwallis Valley were being laid down as a shallow water formation, along a slowly subsiding coast, the displacement along this fault plane had not taken place to its present extent and the land surface south of the fault was 374 THE GEOLOGICAL H{STORY OF THE relatively higher and thus above sea-level. If subsequently submerged and buried by deposits, as seems not unlikely, the beds have been removed along with those that have disappeared from above the present surface of the Triassic beds to the north. From the above we have reason to believe that displacement along this fault began in Pre-Carboniferous times, continued after the deposition of the Horton series of beds, and had not reached its present proportions when the Triassic rocks of the valley were being laid down. There has probably been no perceptible displacement within recent times, but the slow movement of elevation or subsidence that separated the broken. ends of the same beds one half a mile in the lapse of time between the earliest Carboniferous and the Glacial Periods, may still be pro- ceeding at the same rate and the movement since the Glacial Period remain unnoticed. We can scarcely leave the subject without attempting to decipher some of the faint records of that Paleeozoic valley land and bay, the traces of which lie, for the most part, beneath the surface accummulations of more recent geological periods. The slate was then, as now, a surface rock, along the coast at least, as its unconformable contact with the sandstones and the presence of its fragments among their constituents plainly indicate. The region was also subsiding, as the passage of coarse shallow-water sediments up into fine muddy beds, characteristic of deeper, quieter water as plainly proves. The land lay to the south as the derivation of the sediments testifies. As the sea advanced, the coast line must have retreated and its changing outline, for any particular time, is very difficult tofix. It would seem, how- ever, that for the time represented by the basal Wolfville sandstones the coast line must have followed approximately their present line of contact with the slates, outlined earlier in the paper, which was then more nearly horizontal; its present. departure from that level being readily explainable by the subsequent displacement along the Gaspereau fault plane. The early existence of the Wolfville ridge and its undoubted westwardly continuation, would form a barrier then as now to GESPEREAU VALLEY, NOVA SCOTIA—HAYCOCK. sto the direct northward flow of the drainage from that ancient land ; and this little indentation of the coast line was doubtless the estuary of a small river. The absence of coarse conglomerates from the basal sandstones, indicates quiet sheltered waters along the shores. With the exception of ice-transported material, the shore deposits of the Minas Basin average about the same in coarseness as these Lower Carboniferous or Devonian deposits. This would lead to the inference that the ancient Bay was but little more extensive than the Minas Basin of to-day, and that the shores were not exposed to more violent wave action than the more exposed portions of the borders of the present Basin. This absence of conglomerates also indicates gentle slopes of the land, but we can scarcely do more than speculate as to the character of the interior, The lowest sandstones are evidently made up of the more or less decomposed constituents of a granitic rock. The present boundary of the granite country is to the south, not nearer than from seven to ten miles, and because of the lowering of the surface of the land by erosion in subsequent geological times, this boundary must be nearer now than when these beds were laid down. In what manner all this material could have been transported from the inland areas whence it evidently was derived, is a most perplexing problem. The land was clothed with a luxuriant vegetation, as the abundant plant remains testify, but the picture of the life that inhabited it must be sketched by the paleontologist. The Geological Record is not one of living forms alone, but geo- graphical and scenic features have a history that forms a too- often overlooked part of that record. This history of the Gaspereau Valley is but a single instance in the evolution of the topographic features of the Nova Scotia of to-day. Whether the facts have been rightly arranged and interpreted, must be left to the judgment of those who follow; but the great age of this valley, and its checkered history, the latest stages of which have not been looked into, are reminders of the wealth of material about us for study, and of the exceedingly slow and labored process by which the landscape has come to be as it to-day. VIII.—FossIts, PossIBLy TRIASSIC, IN GLACIATED FRAGMENTS IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF Kines County, N. S.—By ProFEssOR Ernest Haycock, Acadia College, Wolf- ville, N..S. (Received for publication, 18th December, 1901.) The belt of red Triassic sandstones that extends from St. Mary’s Bay to Truro, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, has not as yet yielded any fossils It has, for several years, seemed to me unlikely that living things were absent throughout this region when this great series of water-formed beds, often showing ripple-marks and current- bedding, was being laid down. It has seemed equally improba- bly that at no time or place were the conditions favorable for the preservation of the remains of those living things, if they were present. For these reasons I have believed that such remains exist and are likely to be discovered if carefully searched for. In many of the finer layers of the red sandstone where it forms bare red cliffs along the north shore of St. Mary’s Bay at Rossway, occur spherical greenish-gray blotches with a black central spot, which vary in size from minute specks to spheres an inch in diameter. They appear to be due to the original presence of some organism, the carbon of which has been oxi- dized from the red oxide of iron which forms the coloring matter of the beds, producing soluble compounds which have been removed, leaving a bleached zone surrounding the former position of the organism. In beds of the same formation near Pereau, Kings County, the same bleached spheres were noticed in the sandstone, at about the same stratigraphical horizon, taking the surface of contact with the overlying trap as a datum line. When examining, Jast summer, the splendid coast section along the southwest side of Minas Basin between Kingsport and (376) FOSSILS IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF KINGS COUNTY—HAYCOCK. 377 Pereau river, a fragment of a very fine-grained, laminated, reddish-brown, calcareous shale was noticed on the beach which when broken open was found to contain beautifully preserved impressions of small shells that suggested the small bivalve erustacea usually known as ostracods. The origin of the frag- ments was for some time in doubt. Careful search of the north- dipping beds in the immediate vicinity failed to reveal it, but several other fragments of the same material, some of which contained fossils, were found witbin a mile or two of the place where the first piece of shale was found. The surface of the red sandstone is here surmounted by a rather thick coating of boulder-clay. About midway between Kingsport point and Pereau river this sheet descends to near the level of the beach, and is well exposed and accessible to examination where a small brook meets the shore. A brief search in this formation brought to light a glaciated fragment of the same material, which when broken open revealed the Same fossils and the problem of the immediate Origin was solved. The location of the strata from which these fragments were detached by the ice of the Glacial Period has not been fixed as yet. The striation of the bed-rock in this county, and the presence of amygdaloidal trap from the North Mountain in the boulder-clay, indicate that the ice moved and brought its load of clay and stones from the northwest. The source of these frag- ments must also be to the northwest, but in that direction the Triassic red sandstone extends to the trap of the North Moun- tain. Beyond the trap, on the very shore of the Bay, is a newer formation of greenish calcareous shale; but a careful study of every exposed section of these newer beds has revealed no layers in any respect resembling the fragments in color, composition or fossil contents, and there is no evidence that they were derived from that formation. That they were derived from beds on the Cumberland shore, the more distant New Brunswick coast or the bottom of the Bay of Fundy is also unlikely, so that we must look to the Triassic beds intervening between the Kings- port shore and the North Mountain as the source of the frag- ments. 378 FOSSILS IN THE BOULDER-CLAY OF KINGS COUNTY—HAYCOCK. Some internal evidences of this derivation are found in the fragments themselves. The material differs from the usual red sandstone beds only in fineness of texture. It contains the minute spherical blotches that have been described as occurring in these sandstones at Rossway and Pereau, and the Pereau locality lies about two miles to the north. Again, the glaciation of the fragments does not indicate a long journey; though deeply scratched, the corners are only partially rounded. The rather soft and brittle nature of the rock is also unfavorable to a long exposure to ice action. Thus there seems to be little doubt that these fossils were derived from the Triassic sand- stones ; that the layers from which they were derived lie between Kingsport point and the contact of the sandstone and trap on the southern slope of the North Mountain, and that they are more likely to be found on the north side of the Pereau river. If the origin of the fossils proves to be as supposed, they are, so far as my knowledge goes, the first recorded animal remains from this formation in Nova Scotia; and they may help to fix the age of a series of beds that heretofore have had their posi- tion in the Geological Record determined by their lithological resemblances to a formation in the Connecticut Valley several hundred miles distant. 1X.—1:—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE BOTANICAL CLUB oF CANADA, 1900; 2 :—ABSTRACT OF PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLOWER- ING OF TEN PLANTS IN Nova ScomTiA, 1900; WITH 3:—REMARKS ON THEIR PHENOCHRONS.—By A. H. MacKay, Lu. D., Halsfaz. (Read May 13th, 1901.) ile PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 19c0. STATIONS AND NAMES OF THE OBSERVERS, Nova Scotia. Yarmouth, Yarmouth Co.—Miss Janet Keith Bruce Kelley. Berwick, Kings Co.—Miss Ida A. Parker. Musquodoboit Harbour, Halifax Co.—Rev. James Rosborough. Wallace, Cumberland Co.—Miss E. G. Charman. East Wallace, Cumberland Co.—Miss A. B. Mackenzie Prince Edward Island. Charlottetown—Principal John MacSwain. Ontario. Beatrice, Muskoka—Miss Alice Hollingworth Assiniboia. Pheasant Forks—Mr. Thomas Donnelly. Saskatchewan. Willoughby—Rev. C. W. Bryden, B. A. British Columbia. Vancouver—Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A. (379) 380 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. Number. 9 10 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. 4=V. myrtilloides. a=Anemone patens. d=Acer Negundo. Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the| -| a last day of each month. a) | & e | Zz 350 i a on g # os “12 |B4l21 818 | gi s| ie sled e/sif elf |3)2 (First flowering or fruiting of plants aud a 5 Bin| is ae 3/2 =e first appearance of migratory animals, ae vole ee] = 5 | —— ee ee ee ee a Alnus incana, Willd........... = seh 95 n10 105} 102] 137) 113]...-}.... 66: Populus tremuloides. Michx..........!--.. sigisis tt 109 137 u13' DDS rel eee ID alegeerh ee eh | Vegan dango odauces4505000 102; 80 101, eH 115} 119, 124 | BCC aaa Wiolarcuculla tay Gra yee -iecirveteieeis 112, 115 141 1 136 .... 119 126 1 VsblandasswWall dice seacrer acters felt 112 128) 127 wk 134)... 126 132 ose] INGSATA MOE MI, Wig6sasonc accg0onquocoobed, 4066 | 124) 134 ee 129] 148, 120) 125 ....) 91 Houstonial Crerul ean lect eee eee aces PEELS Weel sientell eee | ccacllletellnesel prea HquisetumM aArvense, lj. ncimccmccd-fieeeer 118) 120h-. | 15)|| 140)225.|) 143) ces eee 77 | Taraxacum officinale, Weber. ........ 30! 124] 136} 138] 128] 144] 126) 132,......... Erythronium Americanum, Ker...... 5 é scrote lsraterel| terlorel dase 116 “oe ilterereres HMepaticatrilobas, © baixeucsereetrereeertell cisions] eistaeail crsiete Niels total ercterelleietere 126; 98 112 | Coptis trifolia, Salisb ...............-. | 137| 122) 132 sa 140 EM lacsellone ie Fragaria Virginiana, Mill............. 126} 124 136] 137, 139] 154] 140] 132....}.. cS (fruitiripe)\saceceeree lps SA |anooy | kr} 168) Ba orcas 169) ....|.- = Prunus Pennsylvanica, L..... -....... F -| 150] 152 156 140 140, weet eget 107 | “ (frairipe))...2 ee ele. [==] 210) -2cc\eesel nee | 205) ....|-- : Vaccinium Penn. v. Can.. Lam. ..... | ee til4s 150 152 149|Reee ieee 71 ce (fruit ripe) meecseee ee: J--s- See OND Goaallsacul|eaeullascc ae Ranunculus acris, L......-.--+-+++ ++ 147| 151 a 157| 157)....] 161 veeedeeefenes RETEpenSn Liss. s ceiloeceseee neue eee IY RS eeteariel Uk anor (Sonn|laacol lonaollbcoolcoc- Clintoniay borealis Rateeeeseerieceeer tae 159 155 IGE Geallsonollooce | AE sess Trillium erythrocarpum, Michx ...... 144) 144 Ts eee : 132.22: t5.ceeee ! Trientalis Americana Pursh ......--..)....| 150 x rm) 158 NG esc allencokayoc Cypripedium acaule, Ait......./......].... 159 eole 161| AY scosl(sace ee Callatpallstriss Wire rere cteteecei< efosets eicioreisi vers lermars | Retell etsterel|eterece Nee 145 al ateist| erste Amelanchier Canadensis, T. & G. ....].... Jewes malta 152 “| al tO : oa (iraitmipe eee eee eee errs ere) eek Beta ME 191*.n-oleee *=Year 1899. 1=V. palustris. 2=A. macrophyllum. 3=P. emarginata. *=Year 1899. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. 381 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. jas ate Seesnentle | > eae ale a] cit oe 31 July 2 eee 212) yf 3 Z, z a % S) Peete Ieee ee ais |e Amrilssascc cise: 120 Oct BAe 204) ae fe as ie AE | ye SU IMBY. 02-5. =: 151 IN@Waousnpoeave 3341S | ze (SSl a] els | s E real ey {2 SN Sseaaep onc 181 Mech hacia: 365, 9 | 5 |38|/23/F |e |o|s | 2) 8 g (First flowering or fruiting of plants and E z ac 2 z s g ie I g 7, \first appearance of migratory animals, ete.)| | ia S\|&\O & |Ay = > ~:| eae al Gal ak (ck GS ty = 28 ; Rubus strigosus, Michx....... Re | os (Sees en| (an Allpsoa (doce noce 29 $ (CoM THRO ossoccaesogoalloceallso al exes - selecesdeoes BUM EMD US pVAll OSS EAU yereialetelalelelaleleieiciela'= 1a)- eels = ifleoss te : 31 ss (Gdewalien hol) hoo ds poododOG| |addo|ladeel G0ad||so05] |6d05||S00>lle0n 3|[S005|lrac 3) |) Ian), abner Zo oo an GoppdeopeDcddn) jadeu| Succ 173) 154)....}....Joe..]-0+ |aseafeee- oe SPAN STIS EMOTE Misisictetereleteleicieieisieieleraiere e<)< 186] 156) .. ree se ee|eceeleneslocce|eves 345 Cornus CanaGensiss Ls. sics«mcieacisie seis 186; 140) 162 ie iG) Sonn ig Soicel| aloes 35 ee (Gininsehae ocooncadasnco|lposellosoa||aaa |looae | BAe laracl|Gocordco ol leaeeacoca 36 | Sisyrinchium angustifolium .......... 155. 171) 163} 159) 163'....|....]----].... la Sie elena Seay DOLE MMGS Ms era tofeieisy erereisveicios clara loveiel fleeces ao 163] esnleLGoleterere 167 aa etre ce 38 | Linaria Canadensis, Duin. ............|.--- 3 | 3700 ae see 39 | Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L............ | Saravellicvaters 174)... | 182 is ee 40 | Sarracenia purpurea, L............ Odsplleecol|loooollasao|lpocolisccelloos IP) Sbacllooe |. Bon Aiea ESP ATT 1M asl SATIS Minsteter iterates feteserel crater stetell lslsieiol||esorere!| arereyei] oiavare 176) 17} |bocs||cesdllosso 42 Epilobium angustifolium, L.. ........)....|.. a 201 ness 190) ...-Jeses}o as. (8) || TR@se) MneEy, IBN shenbo000ces0qnudKo6 186 NM eSeacoral |sosslloose a 147|....| 134 44 | Hypericum perforatum, L........ ad 296 it: AERA [Sooollecon [: ee Sal IGE 45 | Leontodon autumnale, L.... ee 186 184 clas BeAalloacdllace 46 Lae Werasusi(Cultivaa--ce.ssceese: froes 147| ne} 154 157 hed, 96 | a (fxuiterine) seeeeeneeerte | Aaa eee Pe ainiog | ya tull ee Selena ft 160 stl orateegas.Oxsacanthiy 1 Rh earn at tesa iaconase pees aed Beale. ce cl) || (Cn (OCONEE Ss Ieoceooonsasacs0. Spoconoooo||suon Jeseetooee||oeee||s000}|eecr 149 use! 50 | Prunus domestica (cultivated)........ 146 oe 148 165 | i 5 cee ere 87 51 | Pyrus malus (cultivated) early........ 123) 151 159) 150 151] 158 142| dao Sore 100 52 + * IEW 29 goo. do0e||aade sve 153 162)... vetefeeepeeeefeees 53 | Ribes rubrum (cultivated) ............|+.+. 145 a 145 141 .....| 143' 132 | 94 54 | fs (GHRUNTS Wao) Goasoosonooe ahem a) se Yinapelleaan locos 5=R. Nutkana. 382 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the | = a last day of each month. a rz g JAMS, siejcisccisie 31 Duly sce acess 212) 3 : 74 || ik 5 Mabie Shc. st2 59 Aug SRA nell asleep es } | ES March. ........ O0: © JSept sett te 3i4!1,. (Sol, 1812 le Is y [ees se TD Ree eae |G eel oe eee B 3 Of Saino lies B jSune sees 181 Decisis. 2suose 365 Z £ ae 8 2 3 2 (First flowering or fruiting of plantsand| 3 | § Ten 2) |) S|} a & 7, |first appearance of migratcry animals, etc.)| % | Q |= Flals |Sila Oo) | Remigrimy (CulGivated) marcniecactcoeence| | eee 155 144) o=2| 14S aeer 56 Se (fruit ripe) icscesceeeeeieces|lesee| taee WWilsaoo!ls oes 190 eran 57 eevee vulgaris, L. (cultiv.).......... poool|| Leayfle “ 159) i 163} 148] 148 58 Solanum tuberosum Li. jee see cise isee ell Seine) | ois eee [-e-[ecre| snes 179} 203 59) Phleum*pratenses iss screenees tees aa Bes 202 | LG Tleereacer 603) Trifoltummrepensa laters eeeee erence eel | eres 167) 163) Seu erat ere GL] Laprahense, cla s.t.0s.cmak a aeat cnenesenent 156 | 165, 168). 161\|\ceee 62) -riticum! vuleare, Wie... cemcscteee cee: 159 “cali BI BREM EaAioccis b3y|PAtvena SabLVa. lnc. ccercececemoeiieeine 151} 6500! booallaroallacac apo eoeel (eco 64 | Fagopyrum esculentum, L ........... 235 65a Earliest full leafing of tree............ IB iseaallease it Villers 6st] Latest oS Seen evefetarctorereteteters)|{ steve | eravele | TGS | eierai| eke aor! 153) 50 66 | Ploughing (first of season).............|.... 11S 113}. 125) 120 Ss 67 | Sowing es Ae PBK selenite ener 122 142)... . | 127) 903 68 | Potato-planting oe F 141 muesbaee 130. 121 69 | Sheep-shearing Se Pi ahtewietecie cll iste s 138 TE eel eco 136)... | 70 | Hay-cutting UES aisle rector ail icis an cine cllisteevel| ioistelel le Pad 194 2001 71 | Grain-cutting Lee Be ei acts ari ; | ze oe 237} 238] 221 gat! 72 | Potato-digging ee Rec | tee 268) . 267 (GEN OhjaieyesWemhyeay Cy 9 Sadosonodsses|ioscal|asas| sane i 5 96 91, 73b| Opening of lakes SSPE Galtiedeeereemne | RAE Pan eee aaa eet lotbal lesco|loaiec 74a} Last snow to whiten ground.......... “seco}) AVA Wa5e|| lesa. 104) 123 74b i Mca dy ain alk tec ere Ls. 147 ‘ fealtcis 134) 193)... 75a) Last spring frost—hard...............- | Bere \istte fae 19 Ibi odes 75b tS Recs eho acne Saree Joffe 168 .. 139]... 76a! Water in streams—high............... ie eoallceets 111]. “| ales 76b as ey yh erececoonpadobor erie | eeravetnssovede ltatete elasere OqeOaOOl| aosndes | *=Year 1899. Willoughby, Sask. Vancouver, B. C, 130| 218 ee PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. 383. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900. *=Year 1899. Day of the year 1900 corresponding to the et < last day of each month. wa Bb 3 Ke Z : : a l SM ae he 80 | Thunderstorms—dates ................. 260 sepelleimonlliae . 238} . . P33) 261 246 | peer VEY Soalloas soo|lgadal) fon|lo< 205) 262,22. <<) eiae- 73 : aoe 280| BPA Seicol|cct =eeiel|evorecatl 5: afete [leper | atest a8 299. saca|lase Sac 306|....|..- 81a} Wild dncks migrating, N .... OBI alle sacceall erste | eeerel | eee 100} seo eee 8lb} * > Ne iS) #Go||nogal eta ae] laecle = | 127-8) 12923) (129.5. ||. 127.85 8 May. 127.4 | 129.5 |133.2 )1380.0 |)135.2 ; 136.2 |139.2 |136.9 || 133.45 14 May PSO PL A2929" WSL 13056) 1139.3 | 137.3) W141. |13922) 1) 134.95 15 May 144.7 | 141.8 |144.4 |143.6 |)150.6 | 147.7 |148.0 |148.8 || 146.20 27 May. 141.8 | 144.6 |144.6 |143.7 ||146.4 | 153.5 |151.4 |150.4 || 147.05 28 May Pol7 $147.8 1153.0 |150.8 |1158.3 | 157.0 |157.8 '157.7 || 154.25 4 June 150.4 , 149.0 |150.2 |149.9 ||156.3 | 156.0 |154.9 |155.7 || 152.80 2 June. 160.4 | 157.7 |157.3 |158.5 ||165.5 | 164.0 |162.4 |164.0 |, 161.25 11 June. 136.79] 135.72 |137.11}136.54 143.30 143. 35 |143.18]143.28]| 139.91 20 May. Proc, AND TRANS. N. S. INstT. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS. AA, 388 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS—Continued. KINGS COUNTY, —— 1906. General Phenochrons. Firs Seen. | Becoming Common. Low- \High- AVer- |! Low- |High- |Aver- || Annual Coast-| jands. lands | age. Coast.| lands. jlands.| age. date. Sis sielen 103.0 |110.2 |106.6 j|......| 111.8 119.2 115.5 111.05 siete erte 124.0 |1§2.6 |128.3 _....| 139.2 1141.8 }140.5 |) 134.40 Boritice 123.1 )135.1 |129.1 }|...... 129.6 |140.2 1134.9 || 132.00 Stasarne 131.4 1138.5 1135.0 |/..... | 1388.9 |143.9 |141.4 138.20 BAGS 121.9 (133.2 |127.5 139.6 |145.9 1141.8 |, 134.65 147.0 |148.1 |147.6 See Weise ples he! 153.0 | 150.30 eee 148.8 7151.8 1150.3 i) Thd-8 155.3 155-5 i) 152-90 Laos 148.8 1154.6 |151.7 ||......| 157.5 159.9 |158.7 | 155.20 Soe 147.5 153.5 1150.5 ic... s| 153-5 157.3 1155.4 || 152.95 158.0 |161.2 |159.6 j| . . .| 162.3 |164.8 |163. 6 || 161.60 bya ero “135. SS 14). 88! ASSRG2 ieee Aa Ocul 4707) 146.03 142.32 HANTS COUNTY, 1900. ee ereieesters 99.3 {107.0 |103.2 eee ALSES) MAG. 7 10520) || O9SLO meas 130.3 |129.1 |129.7 ||......] 186.6 1137.0 136.8 || 133.25 OOS 1O5RT) TOMO OARS e here tode sd enitoOS. 132.4 || 128.60 Serhan: 132-1 1138607 |134-4 |\-5.2-- | 18855 14887 ee Be PCO e 134.3 1133.7 1134.0 j|......| 142.3 |142-6 42.4 || 138.20 sieht 149.9 1149.9 {149.9 |}......| 155.2 |152.4 |153 8 151.85 Scone 150.1 |152 0 |151.1 156.4 |155.6 !156.0 || 153.55 eioyeinieee 152.3 |154.0 |153.1 |]......| 156.4 [158.6 |157.5 155.30 as. [DLS WISI 52S alee) Loved bd.6 156.4 || 154.35 sto oer 159.2 |161.4 |160.3 .....| 162.4 166.0 |164.2 || 162.25 ene 138. “138.50 140.05 139. 9g'|......] 145.25 |145.86/145.56 | 142.42 HALIFAX COUNTY, 1900. J 103.9 | 104.3 {105.2 |104.5 |/118.1 | 117.0 120.0 118.4 |} 111.45 133.9 | 126.7 |134.0 |131.5 ||141.8 | 186.5 145.2 |141.2 || 136.35 132.2 | 124.0 |127.8 |1¥8.0 1|141.6 | 131.0 136.0 1136.2 || 132.10 130.1 | 134.4 1135.3 |133.3 ||143.0 | 140.8 142.0 |141.9 || 137.60 132.0 | 128.6 |132.7 |131.1 |/144.0 | 141.4 145.6 |143.7 || 1387.40 154.1 | 150.9 1146.6 1150.5 ||158.4 | 152.3 151.5 1154.1 || 152.30 143.7 | 147.3 [145.9 (145.6 ||153.3 | 153.0 153.2 153.1 || 149.35 156.4 | 153.9 [152.7 |154.3 ||162.6 | 160.0 162.0 |161.5 |! 157.90 155.2 | 153.4 1152.0 |153.5 160.8 158.5 |160.8 |160.0 || 156.75 162.1 | 162.6 |156.7 |160.5 ||169.0 | 166,5 163.1 |166.2 || 163.35 140.36) 138.61 1138. 39! 139.28) 149.26! 145.70 147 .94'147.631| 143.45 Mensual date. 11 June 93 May. nn 20 April. 14 May. 9 May. 18 May. 19. May. 1 June. 3 June. 5 June. 4 June. 12 June. 25 May. ——_—————— 22 April. 17 May. 13 May. 318 May. 18 May. 2 June. 30 May. 7 June. 6 June. 13 June. 24 May. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. 389 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS—Continued. GUYSBORO COUNTY, 1900. | First Seen. Becoming Commen. ‘General Phenochrons. Low- \High- Aver- || | Low- | High-;Aver- || Annual Mensua Coast-| jands. HEU age. |{COast | jJands. Jlands.| age. ; date. | date. aaa ic ae pees SS SE oes ee 35057 eee MOORS Hie wena 1s kc '120.5 |) 114.80 | 25 April ites | NRCP Reeers Fractal sssuaretetecsre te ce suse a ordeal era, 19 May, ane oho (Soe ae eee Vaccum 640 ill) coennl aceon eeiomaco otic A IN Nereis als) Nile cy meee Wecrre serpin PHORM Wact esl cwsncene eras ILeOoL 141.10 21 May. Stn eee tester. SOE ee eee 149.7 || 144.70 | 25 May. +8 Hood GSO O Cnet: (Gnieceen 153.8 Jaca |locBonotbliaeac 159.0 |; 156.40 6 June soe ee | Ree ee SS DRON ewe hte d Secs aee WhO 2O) 4 dioSeO5 8 June mae llismcs cinaeie. were. IBY Menem allocsascdol\baosos| last sell) Mei Rtos) 10 June Rese) Pais a3) e/ssaelliaverare oi G0 NW oocosllaconacaolla boo ost) yl algae 12 June BA inane cisiarel| aie ae MERON akema lias. ne| sew enafkroash jy 170.800) 620) June: (2 aa De mesa hess Ys 152) 12 4ehs8 20) Min CUMBERLAND COUNTY, 1200. eee it eee TIGEGe| MLOL OPS DIOL ON bed: | 12282 | TIE 129.5) 243s) || 19k 90 | 30 April, 134.7 | 131.4 1137.3 (154.5 |/142.2 | 138.3 |146.7 |142.4 | 138.45 19 May. 132.7 | 127.3 {130.6 |130.2 | 138.9 , 155.0 {135.2 |136.4 |; 133.30 14 May. 138.7 | 140.0 (142.2 \140.3 | 144.9 | 144.6 ,150.1 |146.5 || 143.40 24 May. 137.0 | 133.9 |138.0 136.3 | 142.8 | 141.7 1148.6 |144.4 |) 140.35 21 May. 148.3 | 147.5 148.4 ieee Iles 15253 5427 M537 |) 150290 5 June. 150.9 | 146.9 /148.0 148.6 | 154.4 | 153.8 (155.9 |154.7 || Lol.65 1 June. L5G LOM o2zee pode lo>-O0i(Lo2.c | do9-5) 16259 65 I) 158255 8 June. 154.0 | 153.0 {154.8 153.9 |'160.4 | 157.6 159.9 |159.3 || 156.60 6 June. 160.9 | 160.6 |160.9 160.8 166.1 | 164.3 |166.3 165.6 |} 163.20 13 June. 143.03] 140.37 1143.73 142.38} 148.82 146.82 |150.98 148 .88|| 145.63 26 May. COLCHESTER COUNTY, 19€0. 114.90 | 25 April, 134.50 15 May. 130.25 | 11 MMay- 137.40 | 18 May. 138.10 19 May. 149.85 30 May. 154.25 4 June, 57.75 7 June. 157 .25 7 June. 165.55 15 June. 111.0 | 106.5 15.3 110.9 120.5 114.5 121.8 1118.9 | 131.5 | 127.0 {132.9 (130.5 |/138.3 | 138.0 |139.2 [138.5 127.9 | 124.2 (126.5 (126.2 ||133.5 | 133.2 |136.3 1134.3 133.4 | 130.9 (137.6 |134.0 |/141.3 | 138.0 |143.1 1140.8 130.1 | 133.4 1136.8 |133.4 ||140.2 | 141.1 [147.0 |142.8 146.7 | 146.7 [47.7 147.0 ||152.7 | 151.3 |154.1 |152.7 ianlege |] TEESAr( Valse atsh leila bey syGs Palbyayae) tale re plsy/eal 153.1 | 155.4 (156.4 155.0 |/158.4 | 161.6 /161.5 |160.5 154.7 | 154.8 (156.2 |155.2 {1159.3 | 159.0 |159.6 |159.3 164.0 | 162.3 :163.9 |163.4 |/168.4 | 166.4 |168.2 1167.7 | 140.41] 138.99 1142.71 140.70 1146.89] 145.84 '149.05|147.26 | 143.98 | 24 May. ES, 390 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS—Continued. First Seen. PICTOU COUNTY, 1900. Becoming Common. High- | Aver- General Phenochrons. Low |High- | Aver-|| « Low- Annual} Mensual Coast-| jands. |lands. age. | Coast.! jands. |lands.| age. || date. date. he ek ee ee oe ee es Seems | | Lat. I 112.1 | 112.5 121.2 !115.3 |)122.3 | 122.7 !129.1 1124.7 || 120.00 | 30 April. 132.9 | 133.4 133.1 [133.1 |/137.8 | 142.6 1139.9 |140.1 || 136.60 | 17 May. 135.7 | 122.7 126.9 128.4 ||138.0 | 128.7 {131.0 [132.6 || 130.50 | 11 May. 141.7 | 135.6 139.4 '138.9 ||146.9 ; 141.5 ‘144.4 144.2 || 141.55 | 22 May. 138.7 | 135.4 [138.7 |137.6 '|147.1 | 147.1 |145.5 |146.7 || 1429.15 | 23 May. 146.5 | 151.7 [149.7 |149.3 || 153.7 | 160.1 |154.3 |156.0 || 152.65 | 2 June. 151.6 | 151.1 |153.0 |151.9 |'159.4 | 160.2 [158.2 |159.2 || 155.55 | 5 June, 154.3 | 152.8 |155.8 '154.3 || 160.4 | 159.9 |161.7 |160.7 || 157.50 | 7 June. 153.9 | 156.5 [155.5 (155.3 ||158.3 | 159.3 |160.0 |159.2 || 157.25 | 7 June. 160.8 | 162.2 [161.5 |161.5 ||165.7 | 166.9 |165.7 1166.1 || 163.80 | 13 June. 142.82' 141.39 '143.48 142.56 | 148.96! 148.90 '148.98 148.95]| 145.75 | 26 May. ANTIGONISH COUNTY, 1900. Pet ral Me Comal OLS ft his.1 wee *aa\ deeces clea. se. (12229 |) 12150 ei 2 VAG Ma BAL OR 1855 Nd coca taveeen salience <.[TALeL 138.30" eaten ees Pee omen t | Moree pESU.8 [fees .s|bs..scatene.. (140.7 3) 186.25) Miele : cosa 2 ge eee '136.1 |occccucalees 1843.6 || 139.85 | 22a Mee Hes. | lee vesuiisve es [LSG2T (levecsc fee .os| esse e 149505 (114 e nie | eee ee isch ees erecta tae Gas MA OR SS ee aererst teen call tone | LOOKS 153.30 3 June eee Eber eee 155.9 ‘loscsccssloses, (16229 || 159.40) ORipmmes : eT alee 150.7 Wicca cleccses. lave vx{16872 1) 460045, (Oriana! sin) GAN ie as 6 en Pd V7 UW iccecclice ca-cloc- es (162.2 |P 159.65 |. Wola! hah SRG ia ae GU 2°|| cogs | iss cece. lessee (167.0. |) 164,10) | aes es, eS ee er ee ne Smita cweo... RICHMOND COUNTY, 1900. l l | of SR erator THI AE NS S5.em. llododoaralle cocoa HOt wl Ze 00) 4 May. eat PNM Bd WBOA Noo cdeloc ccc ccclece es (14706 ||°143250 | “SUaNieree Ber Paes ped 13685 [leek local cose |eeccs (14556 |) 142205 [eau t ede, AR ea ae V4.2 \o ok bay ccocccsalSacec (U52i4 || 148) 30] 2OS ieee Peery eed ae (142.2 |!......|.......-|..--- {153.9 |f 148.05 | 29 May. <5 bal eee ee 159.7 -|l.. cc hloce sich ses es 1652-4) 169,40 | Mioeigenes RAP TAN eres. Fo eh W636 [loc occlecss oace| ecg E7063" || 166-95.7 alpine Sete ete eed 163.0 |}. .o. dicecc cables... (168-5 l) 165675 (0 aoekeemnes ieee ee l Sags (LOBED Mick. Sctebadugedl eed oL75e0) | 71475. |OeoMeeierres iionlee eee Bere T7835 | eee eee meee ea 183.9 || 181.10 | 1July. Sy tle oe Is aces (EBIVOBI| &. ccc alecee coe Leese 169-191] 155158" | iets cree PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.— MACKAY. 391 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS—Continued. CAPE BRETON COUNTY, 1900. First Seen, Becoming Common. General Phenochrons. Low- |High- |Aver- Low- |High- |Aver- |} Annual Mensual Coast-| jands. tains age. | COast-! jands lands. | age. || date. date. ' | | | “acy, 1G, eae eee TOE Meee ee Wesco MIGHO El siddaraalle “ode Arora coco ay See eee Ve heath ek ce ee ee LOL ONNIMAS TASS) 8 Mlaye = nolan | Aen BGO eel aac sel Ue a Oe oT CON) IS Maye Te th TOS IG Gsieety dado Sew ose AAONO S| 19780) | oN aye LL ule ee TODO Tellier lecosR onal: 141.0 || 138.35 | 19 May. Jo scion ease ear WHEE Wows accll woocescllococe olfllKBsa3 || BBD) 3 June. sine aol ee eae 158.3 ose sheet eece 6237s 6 S010 June: “icine, SI ae eee TGS Call eyes eae 164.8 || 161.55 | 11 June. (ee le a 162.3 [eecagfaawtease| occa (G8. 164.20 | 14 Jane. Al Sel ee 1168.3 Jreceeefeeeee eee peee ee «(172.2 170 25 20 June. “EA eee eeenisteta ee a 1) igaone7 pra anol moana INVERNESS COUNTY 1900. | | soadcdl eee eee 98) Wee elec accs lees anaes 123.10 | 4 May. Lobes Rone LAE Tell ais sclera toes 142.1 |} 138.40 | 19 May. eee Mele eee. 145.0 | DDT )ITT) 153-2 |] 149.10 | 30 May. oA tt J eee eee HONG a ere seailenees ces Seer oe 145.15 | 26 May. nee ete Aine ce Neos ncn) vag ta@edell 14000 M EOS Mare A (epee eee sD CNOES soc os. | ey MOG TBtno at gue danes mnie pes ds ONG wile eal ea Se eens 163.35 | 13 June. Ree a lhonevs arerclel sevateaeis MGSROMI cleo oss gOS: 165.55 15 Juno. (cand kale AGOMT Minty wilescet. oc| ecco ee Gal ee | 16De5ON) wieeranet bee ees: eee: J 16258, Hes aee: == Seon JOS NN UGB aS 16 June. scac belle eel ee HASHOS ee cies tos che eel voac. nil eeG2a oie 83 a ele tame: VICTORIA COUNTY, 1900. | odie eee eas MG leer alles tec eae cae 105.1 | 122.30 | 3 May oh Ean ERS ent a | 137.0 Le docicalll occ AAD aT aSOLG en SOP n “3a 20 ane eens PSORSE ee eels se coeliac qorn| Ieee ie aeeaal | oouM ian, uot Geen ASOLO Gece bc lecic Shee te ce ld nO | O0eN RON Eas, Shes he eee eee TES SLOAN eee Tae el 146.5 | 141.30 | 22 May Rate: ieee EAU N Ee Bese afpase 159.9 || 157.15 | 7 June care tt Weems ANSON ne a Me 2 Ta He | 11 June oped eee ae AGHA se ok celccos coc clcce NGosOall1Gassou). Miagiunc ae a hee al MOUNT Ellile a ocu\ os cos ceal esac O2Orlloleleseul Ie Tine! BN ee | 170.5 Neal ee HS | 172.95 | 22 June. A ks pe leiea| ayecl..,.. oe i asae3e eotson Saye 392 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. PHENOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING. (Mean of ‘‘ first seen” and *‘ becoming common ”). j Colchester. lacnsann f ich mond. f Cope Breton. Annapolis. f Lunenburg. LMT yarmouth. ! Guysboro i Cumberland, in ol from fe Se a al Behe ee ee eee ies Rel oe ae et SI A Oe SEIS EE = [A SEPIA! § Crawbérr: 4 Si 9 Ts eae aon aw V/et SSeS Bnew Bes’? ¥/) 2 oy WE ee 3 oe ane cS Bs | awe SaaS Seas Vs Sai Qo TCT Sree Pe Creel 51 eh mime PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. 393 3). REMARKS ON THE Nova SCOTIAN PHENOCHRONS. The Nova Seotian phenochrons are based on observations made in from ten to thirty observation stations in each county, on the 100 phenomena briefly indicated on pages 386 to 391 —preceding “ Phenological Observations in Canada, 1900.” The observations, as a rule, are carried on by the pupils of the public schools, who are in competition with each other as to who will be the first observer of each phenomenon each year As these pupils often radiate as many as two miles from the school house each day, the observations “ when first seen” are likely to be as early as the most favorable spot in each school section will allow. The second date recorded—* when becom- ing common”—is more a matter of judgment; but must practically be as near the date “ wh2n first seen” in the most unfavorable spots of each school section as can be determined. The average differences between these two dates of flowering —“ when first seen” and “when becoming common ’”—in each county of the Province for the ten plants selected for our study are as follows: Days. Days, Warmiouthy. ssi. eb 24 Guysboro ssa 08 SHelbUENG o6 is axe cen G00 Cumberland .... 6.50 Beet ordered arucke & Led Colchester..... 226.06 Queens. 2... ee oer, COLO Pictow,4 sae. se ero NUMA OSHA uasnes oe ONO Antigonish. 2. dell conenburp ii. o. O04 Richmond via niente GM OSA actrees bicieysiane deel Cape Breton .... 4.69 VANES 4s cosets. -.ctr ae, O28 Inivernesse, se apie El Anes soe ase oe ole OLD VietOriauetne ee toe OU The average difference between the two dates for the Pro- vince is 7.175 days Owing to the mild winter weather in Yarmouth, some plants about one week and four hours. flower very early in sunny spots; but the general flowering is so retarded as to be less in advance of the rest of the Province than the “first” flowering. On the average, it appears that flowering becomes common about one week after the first blossoms are seen, 394 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. ORDER OF FLOWERING (MEAN OF “WHEN FIRST SEEN” AND “ WHEN BECOMING COMMON”) IN THE PROVINCE AND IN EACH COUNTY. Order of flowering in each County. 2 8 fe sl) [aie Mean flowering phenochrons for ewelele's - Belg alg'3|8 FE ge IES whole Province of Nova Scotia. |P57, 3'S wS'E S18 S/s/SiSlalsle 4|2)8\8 bowen se oO Mm AoA aR EE SO alse ee 113.01 Mayflower .......... 25 Apr.| 1 1 ’ ‘ uf ala) ajalalaja'alala 1 1} 1 133.69 Red Maple ......... 14 May} 2 1 4) 3, ; 2) 2 2) 2, 2| 2) 2| 2 2 2) 2) 2) 3/3 135.33 Blue Violet.......... 160° 1 37) 55h! a 3, 4/33 3 3 5 3,3 3 3l 4! 5] 5 137.53 Dandelion............ ree ee 3 3 a)3'5 35,415) 4 Sl ala ai sl 3| 4'2 137.86 Strawberry ......-.-- 180i coals 2 a] 5, 4! 5 al 5 45) 4/5) 5/8 4 | 24 151.96 Wild Red Cherry.... 1June] 6 : 7 7 77 6 6 67) 6 7 aclcalclee 153.39 Blueberry .......+.... St Pe nlumnya ala6 a 6 5 6) fl 7 a 6} 7/6 7) 717 7) 8) 7 15693 1A ples. erent 6 «| 8 ag S819 919 998 oo ae 157.05 Buttercup..........-. ie OR Pere ise 9 9) 9 8 | 8 ; 8| 9) 8] 8 8 8 vl : 7 8 AGS OS oA. adeece eens cast 1 “ | 10 10}10,10,10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10,10 10,10 We see from the above that the order of the ten plants in our schedule and the tables, is not the exact order of flowering in the Province as a whole. The Red Maple and Blue Violet change places, as do also the Apple and the Buttercup. And the order for the Province is noc that for each county. In Yarmouth and Shelburne, the Dandelion (4) and Strawberry (5) come ahead of the Red Maple and the Violet. The Blueberry (7) in the five South Southwestern counties comes ahead of the Wild Cherry (6); while in the case of the Apple (8) and Buttercup (9) they are in normal order while in the following counties they are mostly reversed. The plate (page 392) of curves of the “mean” flowering phenochrons for 1900 of eight plants (two, the Maple and Violet, omitted because they would crowd 4 and 5) throughout the eighteen counties of the Province, which represent the “general PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. 395 phenochrons ” given in the last two columns of the tables pre- ceding, show to the eye the general trend as well as several peculiarities of the time of flowering. The general trend is seen in the later flowering as the coun- ties lie north and east. There is a general conformity in this trend between the eight plants which fall into four groups, the Mayflower averaging 113.01 (24th April), the Dandelion and Strawberry 137 + (18th May), the Wild Cherry, Blueberry, Buttercup and Apple 154 + (4th June), and the Lilac 165 + (15th June). A general trend is also seen in passing from Guysboro in the east back to Cumberland in the west; although moving on the whole northward, the flowering becomes earlier. A similar change takes place in passing from Richmond to Cape Breton. This latter is more remarkable, for Cape Breton is not only north but also east of Richmond. This seems to suggest that the observers in Guysboro and particularly in Richmond, might not have been so keen in the search for the first flowering as those in Cumberland and Cape Breton ‘The small number of obser- vers in these counties also suggests such a possibility. But by reference to the table, it will be seen, that as a rule, in countics where the observation stations are so numerous that ten could be selected from the coast, ten from the low inlands, and ten from the high inlands, the earliest flowering is on the low inlands, then on the coast, and latest on the highlands. It must be remembered, that there is a very great difference in the altitudes of what are called the low and high inlands in the different counties. From such considerations, it is proposed in future to divide the Province into meteorological districts and sub-districts, instead of counties—the sub-districts being the coast belt, low inland belt and highland belt of each district; each district including a simple meteorological region or geographical slope. Among the peculiarities shown by these curves are, for instance, the lateness of the Strawberry as compared with the 396 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. Dandelion in Shelburne, Queens and Guysboro; and its advanced appearance in Kings, Cumberland, Inverness and Victoria. Does the breath of the Atlantic retard the flowering of the Strawberry as compared with the Dandelion ? It also appears that the southern and sea surrounded Yar- mouth is favorable to the early flowering of the Mayflower, but comparatively not so favorable to the Lilac. The manner in which the other curves intersect each other have also their explanations. But we are not yet ina position to be able to state them. The stations of observations are, necessarily, not the same in each county each year. It is therefore possible that the pheno- chrons might be affected by a change in the relative number of coastal, inland and highland stations. As all these observations are bound carefully into a large volume for each year, anyone having the time can use the facts. recorded in any combination promising the most useful results. The present selection of ten plants, and the comparison of their flowering phenochrons in each county is merely a sort of pre- liminary or provisional testing of the possibilities and probable value of such observations—sufficient to interest the observers while they are developing accuracy—and a record of facts for future generalization. . In the second plate (page 397) there is a comparison of the “mean” flowering phenochrons of the Mayflower, Strawberry, Apple and Lilac, for the years 1898, 1899 and 1900. It indicates that the Spring of 1898 gave early promise, while those of 1899 and 1900 were later as measured by the Mayflower. The averages of these two years over the whole Province are nearly the same, the differences in the different counties being explicable as due to prevalent winds and degrees. of sunshine. As measured by the Strawberry, the first half of May 1900, was nearly a week more backward than in 1898 and 1899. As measured by the Lilac, there was not much difference PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY 397 PHENOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING. (Mean of ‘' first seen” and ‘' becoming common ”’). IPhencohrons for Ve helburne. Colchester. § LHS i ae es iSSSEC> Gene eeam ara Caen alee CNS amen PS Y aR BES Peet foes} 1 “LY ane ier come CI ieee ] 8. GGA 398 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1900.—MACKAY. between the three seasons in the state of vegetation during the first week or two of June. But the continuous black line of 1900 is the lowest and latest for the Strawberry, Apple and Lilac; so that generally the month of May and the first week in June of this year was later from the “flowering” or estivation point of view. It will be noticed on this table that the curves for the three years are to a great extent conformable, which demonstrates the important effect of the position of each county. The variations from conformability, are probably due to the differences in the winds and sunshine. In the meantime we can make no mistake in recording and preserving as many accurate local phenological facts as possible. Ina few years we shall be better able to estimate their value for many purposes. In the future arrangements may be made for the publication of the observations cf each year, as Dr. [hne of Darmstadt is now doing for Europe. Our observations are more voluminous, however, and the cost of full publication would be great. X.—RAINFALL Notes, Nova Scotra.—By F. W. W. Doane, M. Can. Soc. C. E., City Engineer, Halifax, N.S. (Read May 13th, 1901.) If officials in charge of water works, water power and sewer systems are inclined to profit by knowledge acquired in the school of experience, the lessons presented to them during the year just closed have been severe and extraordinary ones. The long drought of 1900 will be remembered and referred to by meteorologists and others for many years to come. One of the severest ever recorded, occurred between the months of May and November. This condition was far-reaching, and extended throughout the whole of New England and New Brunswick, but does not seem to have reached Nova Scotia. The scarcity of water in public supplies as a result of the unusually dry season, was one of the most unpleasant features of the year. Water supplies, heretofore considered inexhaustible, failed. The fields and forests became thoroughly wilted and parched. The rural population suffered not only from the failure of wells, but more from the failure of their crops; and added to this, was the devastation and damage caused by numerous forest fires which covered large areas of country. There were many superintendents of water works who, in the spring, contemplated with satisfaction the overflowing reservoirs and the abundant sources of supply which fed them, and who thought, no matter how much their fellow citizens consumed and wasted, nature had provided, and would continue to provide, sufficient water for all purposes. Before the summer had far advanced, the fast receding water lines on the reservoir embank- ments and the steady decrease of the “meadow stream and mountain torrent” warned them of the approaching short supply, (399) 400 RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA.—DOANE. and not until late fall, and not even then in many localities, did the dreaded water famine come to an end. With this condition all around us, Nova Scotia is to be con- eratulated. Precipitation reports from Yarmouth, Halifax, Truro and Sydney, show that the rainfall during the summer was about the average. In St. John, New Brunswick, Mr. Murdoch, the engineer in charge of sewers and water works, states that the whole rainfall during the months of Jaly, August and September, amounted to only 4.65 inches, or an average of 1.55 inches per month, which was the lowest in six years. During the same months in Halifax, the rainfall was 10.908 inches, or very little below the average. Truro had a rainfall of 11.11 inches, Sydney, 8.76, and Yarmouth, 11.09, inches, while the total rainfall in Nova Scotia was above the average. The total precipitation at Sydney was the highest on record. The last paper read before you on this subject (Trans., vol. ix, p. 279,) gave the maximum storms to December 31, 1896. Since that date new records have been made for minimum as well as maximum rainfall. In August, 1899, the rainfall at Halifax was 1.542 inches, the lowest on record for that month. In Octo- ber, 1897, the rainfall was 0.746 inches, the lowest record for any month. In November, 1898, the highest rainfall for that month, viz., 10.248 inches, was recorded. On the 18th of June, 1897, a heavy storm occurred at Halifax. It was reported by Mr. Augustus Allison, Dominion Government Meteorological Agent, as 0.577 inches, and 4,2 hours in duration. Mr, R, Cogswell gave the precipitation as 0.5 for the heaviest part of the storm. It Is to be regretted that the actual time of the heaviest downpour was not noted. Several observers give the time as about 15 minutes, which would make the rate of fail two inches per hour. Mr. James Little, meteorological observer at Truro, reports a thunderstorm of great severity, accompanied by heavy rain, on RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA.—DOANE. 401 August Ist, 190C. Rain began to fall at 11.380 a. m., and in 25 minutes measured 0.765 inches, a rate of 1.83 inches per hour. On the same day a second heavy rain and thunderstorm lasted from 3.15 p. m. to 4.30 p.m., the measurement being 0.85 inches, a rate of 0.68 inches per hour. No heavy rain was observed elsewhere in Nova Scotia on that date. . The tables appended show further details of the rainfall at Halifax, Truro, Sydney and Yarmouth during 1900 :— 402 RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA.—DOANE. PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. S., 1900. TABLE CoMPILED FROM RETURNS OF Mr. Aucustus ALLISON, Met. AGENT, SHow1ne Depru. OF RAINFALL AND MELTED SNOW IN INCHES AND DURATION OF EACH STORM, = JANUARY. | FEBRUARY. | Marcu APRIL. e) ————— — — — —— a ea) ea ee los eco he ies esac een esi eseahe wpe ere NEE eN ea 1 | 8.9} .800) 1.0) .120) 2.0, .020) 4.0) .060 Dr WAG 2020 lc elewnes: Moles < OO2 lever alliances 3 | 2.1 PAO ersccilievcmotens 2.0, .015) 6.5) .310 cen Baca aaeos PIU e040) bo alloocen 1.2) .048 Sy Groolloaseat Ao ES 40N 20} ee OCU here! eoerer 6 | 3.5} .060} 3.7) .058) 5.0) .030} 7.0) .160 Pl lee eliieasitekenoes 4.0} .050} 9.8) .620)13.7) .599 Ss PG ealeileces||Sano0s aehal| hecho ets 15.0) 330 Ve li6a ciSecatol local leanacs oo 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 | January. | SUT CO 22 1 He CO DT Or DNwmOwe cd oo ~ 4.406 6.388 8.67 7.656 5.442 4.391 3.963 8.383 6 321 4.781 7.122 10.131 1.720 5.896 4.060 5.083 8.532 January to February inclusive. February. | March. the Dominion Government. January to March inclusive. January to April inclusive. = ROS S> OO to te mC O He CO n o 31 10. 73 5.90 | 9.380 6.401 9.977 1.809 6.009 2.697 10.231 3.001 7.401 5.122 12.860 5.329 8.936 5.949 12.789 3.860 8.790 6.161 10.567 5.090 11.478 3.84 12.5] 6.735 14.391 6.284 11.726 6.181 10.572) 4.645 8.608 8.740 17.123) 2.605 5.979) 10.760 3.571)10.693 4.605)14.736 4.199) 5.919 2.898] 8.794 4,422) 8.482 3.613} 8.696 5.277 13.809 8.926 7.95 3.02 6.16 5.37 4.09 16.86 20.47 5 7/7/ 13.74. 1335933 3.98 |14.71 2.11 {11.49 | 6.329] 16.305 8.666/14.675 10.274 20.505 6. O44 13.445. oF 365/16. 225, 6:5! 56) 1: Be Te 068 19.857 494113 731 a 034 17.601 3.889 15.367 4.03 |16.54 4 629 19.020 4.310 16.035. 2.046, 12.618 9.889) 18.497 2.685)19.808 5.986) 14.912 2.303)13.063 3.623)14.316 5. 931/20. 667 8.786) 14.705 5.470/14. 264 4.058)]12.550 7.178}15.874 6 577 20.386 19.43 24.38 20.65 16.59 16.39 19.26 14.87 19.514 18.476 23.957 16.926 21.022 18.990 24.681 17.434 24.814 18.887 17 36 25.406 19.711 20.021 21 455 23 818 2,07 3.91 4.88 2.85 2.86 4.55 3.38 3.208} 3 801 3.452 3.481 4.797 3.498 4,824 3.703 (e2ks 3.520 0.82 6.386 3.675 7.403 9.958 4.010 2.653 4.209 5.648 3.956 1.413 6.211 Weenie 19.964 24.623 16.118 20.475 7.346)19.896 3 278)19 152 3 949,24.335 ee 565) a) 2 = Sie PB Seas = 5 ast, 25:00 S 1G oe a7 9.59 23.24 4.44 21.03 Pee ee 7/33 4.77 24.03 3.96 18.83 5.662 25.176 4,024 22.500 5.769 29.726 4.687 21. 613 4.088 25.110 2.460 21.450 4.677 29.358 8.613 26.047 3.629 28.443 3.282 22.169 8.82 26 18 PNG Toa 2.877 22.588 3.871 23.892 3.970 25.425 4.195 28.013 5.459 23.024 5.054. 22.326 1.769 21.733 4.089 28.712 2.532 18.650 4.613 25.088 2 366 22.262 ae. Se 5 677 22.829, inclusive. January to June 28.92 1.69 |29.26 Bo.20 25.26 21.69 31.95 4.07 |22.90 3.376128. 552 3.841|26.341 4.477|34.203 1.191}22.804 1.343, 26.453 5 308: 126. 751 5.507 [34. 865 3. 322/29. 369 3 773)32 32.216 2.749/24.918 2.71 |28.89 2.121129.653 7 939/27. 527 3.755)27.647 3 440)28.865 4.131)32.144 3.638)26. 662 1.753]24.079 - 803, 25.536 1,827)30. 539 4.671)23.321 6.070 3l. 158 5.598 27.860 3 875|26.704. 4.254 28.589 2.656/31.245 TABLE SHOWING THE MontTHLY AND ANNUAL INCHES ; JANUARY IST TO THE END OF EACH MONTH, SNow, RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA.—DOANE. PRECIPITATION AT HALIFAX, N. EXPRESSED IN ALSO THE 8. DertH OF RAIN AND AMOUNT THAT HAS FALLEN FROM INCLUSIVE, DURING EACH YEAR. 407 MELTED Compiled from Observations and Records made by the Meteorological Agent of the Dominion Government. | YEAR. 1869 1870 1871 1872/2. 1873): 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890;2 1891 1892/2 1893 1894 1895 July. inclusive. inclusive. January to August January to July | August. 1 3.914/3 4.468 1.48¢ 3.843 3.086 oli. 5.071 3 540 8.294 5.817 6.53 2.045 5.001 2 668 2.141 4.003. 2.710, 4.757 1.059 3.924 31.84 32.47 |2.20 29.58 |3.69 28.14 |6.82 25.59 |4.45 34.24 |3.37 137.61 28.51 3. 56 132.07 32.446 1.909]34.375 8/30.809 3.539/34. 348 35.686 3.127/38.813 26.647 4.827]31.474 2.58 134.42 34.67 33.27 34.96 30.04 29.539 3.920!33.459! 29.935 3.062,32.990 39.936 3.925)/43.861 32.909 5.342)38.251 40.510 2.771/43.281 30.735 3.001|33. 736 35.42 4.53 39.95 31.698 8.351)40. 049) 32 528,7.000139.528. 30.315/2. 633/32. 948 (26.595) 04.463) 5 1896]8. eae 050 1897|3.661'34.819'5 '31.006)7.042 38.048 36. 147|3. 385 39.532 29.372)6.809 36.181 28.836'5.954 34.790 3.993 30.588 5.502 39.965 3. 037, January to September u | ee 2 “& A | ge 2 e Qi “A o TN 1 57 |35.99 3.33 138.00 4.81 |38.08 1.41 |36.37 4.48 134.52 5.04 |42.65 2.06 |34.13 6.094|40. 469 3.164/37.512 .800/39.613 2.600|34. 074 5.702/39.161 3.105|36.095) 5.914149.775| 3.86442. 115) 1.788]45.069 2.497/36.233 4.46 |44.41 3.308)43. 357 5.331)44.859 1.399|34. 347 4.534/42. 582) 3.052/42. 584. 1.744137.925 4.391139. 181 1.010 31.598 9.491 42. 456 inclusive. January to October | October. 7.30 6.85 4,49 4.88 8.63 2.46 9.98 4.076)44.545 6.857/|44. 369 5.060 44.673 4,760 38.834 4.590 43.751 4.2061 40.301 ae 57.178 5.841 47.956 3.093 48.162 6.280 42.513 Daley 146.54 3.058 46.415 6 859,51.718 4.179)38. 6.603149. 9, 621° 52.205 3.472 41.397 5.640 44.821 3.863 35.461 5.627,48 083 35.087|12.092, 47.179/15. 039)}62.218 .185,40.004) 1.169, 41.173) 0.746/41.919 1898)3. 652 Si: 512 5 0. 651137. 163) 4.158, 41.321] 4.845/46.166 18995. 747 32. 451. il 542 33.993] 3.201 '37. 194| 6.191]43.385 1900/1. 872 33. 11713.993'37.110] 5.043'42. 153} 7.365149.518 526, 185, November. WOoOwtroh OO Oro O-lI — ono OI ~ te 92 WHO RW HPATDWDOAWOINODE Wwe CO IO O +I ~I —_ eZ) WI RAAAN AW PP EDMAN WIAD RDO wm iS ~~ ee) “I = ip 2.388 9.246 3.760) inclusive. January to November 46 75 47.90 alee 48.69 49.65 51.942 53.047 51.582 43.671 48.461 ))44.721 58.570 51.434 54. 154 51.82 8/53.133, 2158. 520 545.671) 3/52. 901 54.593 50.637) 48.581 47.936. ME 99 99 OT ye | | December. pith 6 39 6. 16 4.3] 5.49 1.61 3.164 4.493 5.120 He D2 OV 4.029)47 4,291|52 7.034 3.452 6.678 9.124 8.693 5.47 4,120 7.774 2.988 7.202 4.076)5 3.053 —_ = = or = SD Ob BD DO EB Oo 1 For the Year. 54.53 57.19 51.14 54.06 55.44 54.18 51.26 55 106 57.540 56.702 . 700 Boe: a1e7oD 62.022 58.112 63.278 56.629 57.29 597 S533 66.294 48.659 60.1038 8.669 53.690 7|58.748 45.808 62. ve 69.862 Dien) 60.480 53 013 59.697 408 RAINFALL NOTES, NOVA SCOTIA.—DOANE. PRECIPITATION AT SYDNEY, N. §S. - TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF Mr. R. L. Larrin, Mer. AGENT. a Monta (1900). Pr eee Year. | Total QAMMIALY c.,cae ccna os cee Sees ode | 1893 33.49 BG brUALY. hace eciccseue aortas cuneate 5.60 1894 35.88 Marchse.sS eae. cts cca ntnet eee 7.12 1895 38.81 Agora ite roicsucnevehs cde: © aero sete eee 6.66 1896 38.61 IMU ei yi ste sre cs oye tarcvey ater. eysies step seer seen ctokey 3.28 1897 29.23 SMM Faiseee tare aie sisie yee le ene ana oes 3.44 1898 37.47 DUNG he otic see lone Set see tee Mees 2.14 1899 39.58 PANSUISG gaya et sierahar cxote eeeievereie erehoseaee torre 2.54 1900 53.18 September: 3.05 veins ses eee 4308: Na dtedcs odoetlleaele seen October. 25..45.2 yanea dete eolent arene ZeaG =. 6 ||) Be ive cere caletell| he een Novembers-peeoerinecorctee sane E40; | lenpoteexnerets | PI Foo .0.6 DMecember! ctulasae ocisefe dacs ats one’ nots S4 | vetarcrotet eee [rove tees sees Mo talstiosrsitea-/ Sore serieee | 53.18 Average. | 38.28 PRECIPITATION AT TRURO, N. S., 1500. TABLE COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF Mr. JAMES Lirtin, Mer. AGENT. Morn, Rainfall. Snow. ale Total now. VJAMUATY. (iss eitose Mane oe 4.37 16.7 1.30 5.67 Hebruatys sii. secre as ate 2.66 20.0 1.52 4.18 March ives. cc maa S)E0))) 18.7 1.44 4.99 Sprit ewan te ce Sheek 3.23 15:2" | Sree IMA Vartaieciet ected mv steters SD GOs a 1, a, hake sree eee beeen 3.60 ECR maha ey Aspe ces aut | beeen pee | 4.55 lives Gees. ucte ck reciente ne QD Sie) Sad oo coe wade acres Cea ema 2.51 IAMIQUSD eds sce ee ee cles 6.06 Pillar EGE 6.06 September. 05... -% 2. Deas One [bias dite, Aes alai| ecareroret eae rags 2. 54. Octoberzeac ew sa vat 6.22 0.5 0.04 6.26 November... (cee csee cee. 4.97 Sell 0.63 5.60 December =. -.A das ses oe 0.89 245) 15 | 1.96 2.85 retalee ee Hee eo IE 104.7 | 8.06 53.21 PRECIPITATATION AT YARMOUTH, N. &., 1900. From Rerurns or Mr. J. BE. Murpny, Met. AGENT. Montu. Precipitation. Di, ss aps hie RPGC ea oe ee 2.65 ANGUStr: dices che Soe ae ae nee 3.28 Sepbember ay Ss cetera eee nee 5.16 October) So.7s soci eee eae eee eee 11.38 (i eae of the Institute, and Societies in correspondence with it, would confer a great favor, if they would send to the Council, for distribution to Scientific Institutions whose sets of the Institute’s publications are incomplete, any duplicate or otber spare copies which they may possess of back numbers of its Proceedings and Transactions. They should be addressed : 7he Secretary of the N. S. lustitute of Science, Halifax, Nova Scotia. THE attention of members of the Institute is dirccted to the following recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography and Publications :— ‘‘That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately before the paper has been published in the regular manner. ‘‘That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title, while keeping the title as concise as_ possible. ~ ‘That new species should be properly diagnosed ang figured when possible. ‘“That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or anonymous paragraphs. “That references to previous publications should be made fully and correctly, if possible in’ accordance with one of the recognized sets of rules of quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological Society.” o j “€ RS Be ya eee vee ay es ‘ mad HA Wigatls MAY. @ 1903. LOSS. PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS Abo @ oh OF .THE HNova Scotian Knstitute of Science, HALIFAX. NOVA: SGOTTA. VOLUME. X. (BEING VOLUME III OF THE SECOND SERIES. PART 4, SESSION OF 1901-1902. WITH A “PORTRA IT. The First Series consisted of the Seven Volumes of the Proceedings and Transac- tions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. PRICE TO NON-MEMBERS: ONE HALEF-DOLLAR, pees Vv‘ HALIFAX: PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY THE MCALPINE PUBLISHING Co, Lip. Date of Publication : March 2, 1903. CONTENTS. PAGE FRONTISPIECE.” Portrait of the late ANDREW Downs, Cor. Memb. Z. S.. . face Ixxxili PROCEEDINGS, SESSION OF 1901-1902 : R. W. McLachlan, Talk on Roman Coins. (Title only.) ....-... -....--.-- Ixxniii A. H. Cooper Prichard, Exhibition and remarks on Roman ‘Coins of the Proyineial Museum? seeds ic ainw RAE aah cies ve eae Sateen voce. DX Presidental Address, by Dr. A. H. Mackay... ...--.1:.-+- F.1..-s-+ eceves« . Ixxxiv Obituaries of Dr. J. R. DeWolfe, Capt. W. H. Smith, and Rey. Moses Harvey tis) ie ntetce ce wane aete ene~ o Seen steees Ixxxiv- Work ofthe Instita te: :xon.tie son oo et soo te as ono) tetas Be abies. site Stages a chate oe meaee IxxxvViii Malaria, Yellow Fever and Sheep-fiuke object lessons........ xci, xcli, xev Marine Bielogical Station sec aio. ce sts x ee clic Gin ois set acle Fc o o Xvi Treasurer’s and Librarian’s Reports -..2.0........9..-0.4.. vat eae OFT OWE Report of Wolfville (Kings Co) Branch of fh Institute............... ....-- xeviii Officers “Tor 51901-1902 = B29 a hee Peat Sle aloe Ron RE gees Goad RS Ss ee ae xevili Dr. A. H. Mackay, ona Condensed Form of Botrychium ternatum found at Fslomid on; «7a aa et Saas ea sw sg ee Oe hic epee one 2 2aeeRS Miss A. Louise Jaggar, Notes on the Flora of Digby County, .; (Title ODDLY) SORe Soe Se F. voin pe ec oe ee Tine Bogs See RED Cheon) aanieatee ete SAG R. S. Boehner, B. Se., on the Standardization of Hy drochlerie Acid with Borax,. (Title only ses a5. ev lee Be Sipe ey aoe ia ees ci Sketch of the Life of Andrew Downs, founder of the first Zoological Garden in America,—by Harry Piers (me TW DOTUN DUG tae so Pies okra ashe Se cil The Kings County Branch of the N S. Institute of Science: outline of purposes and aims of the Society, —by Pr of. hy) Hay eock. = Soe a. ors ee ee eee cix TRANSACTIONS, SESSION OF 1901-1902: I. On a Determination of the Freezing-point Depression Goustant for Electrolytes,—by T. C. Hebb, M. A., Dalhousie College, HALA x: Soe Se eR ine gree hee ia ae ee ee ee 409 II. On the Determination of Freezing-point Depressions of Dilute = Solutions of Electrolytes,—by T. C. Hebb, M. A., Dalhousie — | F.0Y DNC as wend beat RD RR EPS ter PURE ORI 8 i END BNE cach ee a ee 422 III. The Progress of Geological Investigation in Nova Scotia,—by R f W. Ells, Li. D., F. R.S. C., of the Geological Survey of Canada, OGTR SES Sass Re ee ee oe oon Se ee 433 IV. Onthe Upper Cambrian Age of the Dictyonema Slates of Angus . Brook, New Canaan and Kentville, N. S.,—by H. M. Ami, D. Se., F GS. FR S. C., of the Geological Survey of Canada, Otbanwas Sess tees posters Bee taal eS oes cache onto Sec ee ee 447 ¥. Notes on Dr Ami’s Paper on the Dictyonema Slates cf Angus ~— Brook, New Canaan and Kentville,—by Henry S. Poole, Assoc. Roy.-Sch=Mines;-B. GIS: WR. S. Cz, Halifax4 cies. ie, fev 451 VI. Supplementary Notes on Drift Ice as Eroding and Transporting Agent,—by Walter H.Prest, M; E., Bedford .......... 5.0.5. 455 VII Agricultural Credit,—by Prof. John Davidson, Phil. D., Univ. of _-New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.-B? S.ac<| 194 | .o24 Sol 848“ Salles Sse. 805“ Naf 1. k=.800; 1 882 i. B. SGvpuu 856 << 847 <“§ Tonization * | ae ! Equivalent c periereuts Depression, NaCl. (Jones.) A—Z050 0 3-120: 861 i. B. 3.492 856 i «| 3.483 (3.484) | 3.477 (3.476) es (Abegg.) = 3.957. 3.57 (3.580) 3.55 (3.537) 3.50 3.47 (Arrhenius.) .1318 Tie tee .1808 .2016 2248 2288 car : 0790 |. .0882 | .8 0973 | .85 1063 on | ls ~ ee 0439 | . .0653 ; 6 usa te .1083 ale 7 NaCl. k=1992; 1=3 697. .816 i. B. 3.54 afk 9 3.51 NaCl. (Ponsot ) k=2.000; 1=3.728. .836 1. B, 3.445 BS oie as 3.418 (3.419 3.403 (3.405 ( ) 3.413 (3.411) ( ) 3.405 (3.404) THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION Concen- | Ionization . : eee Equivalent tration. | Coeffi ti . ration, | Coofticients| Depression HCl. (Loomis.) = Ce Sees t=3:643- .O1 .982 i. B. 3.61 (a:615) .02 S072 55 3.60 (3.599) .05 aQoo mec | 3.59 (3.574) sll | GBR SC 3.546 (3.555) 2 | .910 “| 3.565 So | -897 se 3.612 HCl. (Jones.) k=1.950 ; 1=3.684. .08127 | .940 i. B. | 3.5856 (3.580) . 1025 ASB) OS 3.5609 (3.568) . 1228 | 2928) 265 | 3.5692 (3.565) N H, Cl. (Loomis.) et eee 1.380; 2=3.700. oe .951 i. D. 3.56 (3.585) S051", “Sc 3.56 (3.540) 035 | 914 «© | 3.50 .05 ee .900 << | 3.48 i Nee H, Cl. (Jones.) k=2.050 ; 1=3.692. 00997 | .9511. D. | 3.6108 .0595 | .892e.D. | 3.5143 K NO, . (Loomis.) k=1.580; 1=3.682. 025 eae 3.46 05 AS7Gr ak 3.41 =i .832e.D. | 3.314 2 789 « | 3.194 SS eee CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES.—HEBB. TABLE Concen- | Ionization : tration. | Coefficients Hid uiyalent (gr.eq. /l.)| at 0°C. IDEs Ky S04. (Ponsot:) I.— Continued. 417 Concen- | Ionization . tration. | Coefficients Houivalent (gr. eq. /l.) at 0° C. DEES: ; Hy, S Oy (Ponsot.) k=.874; 1=2.834. hele Gk, Poel sata olsun .2570 | .587i.B. | 1.895 (1.897) . _ . . . ands 25 J ee 18 = 10752 | .726 « | 2.301 svi ae is oats 97) .2295 | 635 “ | 2.113 (2.115) ane acoge: ez ; .2360 , 683 « | 2.110 (2.109) 4516 | 565 kee 4140 | . « | 9.012 (2. ie ; a cc > i e a Hy S Oy (Wildermann.) .4280 | .594 2.002 (2.005) Pe fee ace F D9 ; 2 Na, $0), Gomis) .1358 | 622i B. 2.008 k=1.100; 7=2.815. . 1930 eR) %% 1.970 —D)) 7 9) qe a a oe a a a Bes | cell) Mg SO, (Loomis.) “et best | BUS | k=.713 ; 1=1.793. oS fees less | 04 522i. D. | 1.277 Nay SO, (Arrhenius.) -06 A800 = 1.237 ae eel Mg SO, (Jones.) 5 k=1.074; l=1 849. 234. | .607i. A. | 2.205 so 390 | .549 « | 2.095 “015972 | 614i. D. | 1.5590 017940 | 608 «| 1.5496 (1,545) a toe (eee .019904 | .596 “ | 1.5328 (1.535) k= 731: 1=2826. 03950 | .521 ‘© | 1.4912 (1.486) 05872 .502 “ | 1.4391 (1.444) .20 .598 i. B. | 1.984 MR Stee 5 th Rr. MF 5 H, PO, (Loomis.) “40 oie eee k=.654 3 1=1.1198. alos -(eorepellnatod Hy S O04. (VJones.) 0 és 0.898 k=.792; 1=2.767. 06 | .513 89: P . 4 : . Hz, PO, (Jones.) 11358 | .633 i. B. | 2.0514 (2.042) Baie ene lps 72) O12, 16° 1.9952 (2.001) ene ] 6691. D. | 1.0967 (1.101) Ule (9) . iy JD 6 / C f : ce ¥ 739 ; — oe oye 027705 | 627 * 4 1.0721 (1.069) a ak L288 03279 | 602 “ | 1.0522 418 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION TABLE I.—Continued. Concen- | Ionization . Z A Equivalent | tration | Coefficients . (gr. eq. /L.) at 0° C. Depression. KOH. (Loomis.) k=2 256; 1=3.516 .05 .943 e. D. 3.44 .10 29327 GS“ 3.43 HN O,. (Joneés.) k=2.640 ; 1=3.765. .03119 | .958 e. D. | 05103 | 949 « | KOH. (Jones ) k=2.019; 1=3.699. 3.7179 | 3.7076 TT 61069 | .964e.D. | 3.6296 (3 640) .03163 | .950 “ | 3.6263 (3.616) 05174 | .942 * | 3.5756 (3.600) 07481 | .935 | 3.6142 (3 590) Ba Cl, (Loomis.) k=1.198 ; 1=2 743. 02 860i. W. | 2.495 (2.505) O04 8200. W. | 2.475 (2 465) at .768 “| 2.385 2 oa. 6) O1SA5 4 1658" 955 4|/2.3275 Ba Cly. (Jones ) K=1414; 1=2.734. | .011964 | .889i. W. | 2.5823 (2.590) .01394 | .880 “* eee 01592 | .872 ‘* | 2.5754 (2.565) ETSSuN ashe. eee .02 | 860 “| 2.550 Concen- Tonization : 2 oat Equivalent Ge ae senate Depresaiaue Ba Cl 2 (Ponsot.) k=1,136 ; U=-2.786. | .05520 | .796e. W. | 2.446 .0620 HOO AS 2.436 -0680 aihetn 2.426 (2.427) 0774 | .771 « | 2.416 (2.415) .2060 olivia wes 2.316 . 2095 silo 2.320 (2.315) Papas) sale 2.309 (2.311) .3100 RGSD) ee 2.297 K, S O,. (Loomis.) k=1.118 ; 7=2.752. .02 {SOI AST 4G 04 pip ae Oe 2.38 all aikiey 9 DOT , 26450 ae 2.1585 4 ,098 <8 2.0335 6 NHSS ass 1.9455 Ky SO,. (Jones ) k=.849; 1=2.879. Ssh i .677 1. A. | 2.231 (2.234) 52) 20680 <= 2.208 (2.210) 6765 1) .661 | <° 2.197 (2.192) .1826 E654 =. 2.178 (2.176) 19685 | .647 «| 2.160 (2.162) K, SO, (Abegg-) k= 9017; (=25771. 01734 + 829i. A. | 2.47 0216 | 815 | 2.43 (2.428) 0258 | “803 %* | 2.40 (2.402) .0299 | pry: ems 9.385 = $$» —— CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES—HEBB. 419 The following table gives the values of the constants k and / given in table I. together with the values of m and i—z. e., the depressions of the freezing-point due to a gramme-molecule of the undissociated salt, and that due to a gramme-ion of the dis- sociated salt—as obtained from them. TABLE II. Tonization Constants. Depression Constants for Electro- Observer. oe lyte. ke Undissociated ; E Molecules (m). Mree:-lons'(t): | REO Eo 5s Lvuomis..... 2.065 3.673 2.065 1 837 oO. Camara Ones Hs ce iat: 2.180 3.678 2.180 1.839 SUE ae car's Raoult 2 eo 1.846 3.652 1.846 1.826 Sebl sree s Abegg...... 1.344 3.719 1.344 1.860 COMP cron Wildermaun. 2.034 3.689 2.034 1.845 LO aor |Ponsot wee b 1.920 3.687 1.920 1.844 Oe oe \Hiehbaew.o. 1.755 3.695 1 oe 1.848 NaCl ....|Loomis..... 2.140 3.122 2.140 1.861 Seea hers sie DVORNESHe ee oe 2.050 3.726 2.050 1.863 ioe Sears |Abegg ae) Re .800 3.957 .800 1.979 CO ae Pee | Arrhenius. ee. 1.992 3.697 1,992 1.849 Bee ct. '\Ponsot ..... 2.000 3.728 2.000 1 864 IC ace Loomis ..... 2.095 3.643 2.095 1.822 oa ie oe Pouess eon. 1.950 3.684 1.950 1.842 NH,Cl Soldier, pase 1.380 3.700 1.380 1.850 sf Ones 2.050 3.692 2.050 1.846 KNO,...,loomis...,. 1.580 3.682 1.580 1.841 HNO, PeSIJOMES! 5 hac: 2.640 3.765 2.640 1.883 MOH =. Loomis ....- 2.256 3.516 2.256 1.758 Seeeer erie oc ONES a taers : 2.019 3.699 2.019 1.850 BaCl, ...|Loomis..... 1.198 2.743 2,396 1.829 3 Mer OMeSee. Ls 1.414 2.734 2.828 1.823 es A PEONSOt bce 1.136 2.786 2.272 1.857 K,SO, ..|Loomis..... 1.118 2.752 2.236 1.835 Rae ts JONES ees sat .849 2.879 1.698 1.919 es - (Abego... 5... .901 iil 1.802 1.847 Bawene|}RONGOb. os-)2 874 2.834 1.748 1.889 Na,SO, .|Arrhenius... 1.186 2.950 2.360 1.967 es PiVOOmMIS =. 42 1.100 2.815 2.200 1.877 H,SO, ..|Loomis ..... 731 2.826 1.462 1.884 COR SOMES ccc. os « «192 2.767 1.584 1.845 BE ee lRonsobe: sc... 617 2.797 1.234 1.865 ‘c ,. |Wildermann. 1.080 2.565 2.160 1.710 MgSO, ..|Loomis ..... 713 1.793 1.426 1.793 te Ml GHeS se osnr 1.074 1.849 2.148 1.849 HEO, ..\Loomis....... 654 1.120 1.962 1.680 ears 5: ne ee 620 | 1.338 1.860 2.007 One sees from an inspection of this table that the values of 4, though they vary considerably, are in most cases not far from 420 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION the value expected from theory. In the case of the undissociated molecules, however, the variation of their values is much greater: As the depression produced by molecules is supposed on theore- tical grounds to be the same as that produced by free ions, the difference between the variations of m and 7 is probably due to the different degrees of accuracy with which, as seen above, m and 2 are capable of determination. If we assume, as is customary, that the depression produced by the molecules, whether they are undissociated molecules or free ions, is the same for all electrolytes in dilute solution, we can arrive at better values of both m and 7 by finding the mean values. This becomes obvious when we take into consideration the sources of error which affect the values of k andl. For the straight line, from which & and J are determined, may be either too high or too low; or it may be too much or too little inclined to the equivalent depression axis. The line may be too high or too low because of defective observations of depression, defective values of ionization coefficients, or the way in which I have drawn it in. So far, at least, as two ot these Sources of error are concerned, the resulting errors will in some cases be positive and in others negative; and in finding the average these errors will in part cancel one another. Defective inclination of the line may be due, in addition, to the characteristic error of the observers method, which may be such as to make the curve at great dilution go off either to the right or the left as dilution increases, or to the natural bend of the curve itself which may be either to the right or left as concentration increases. The errors due to these sources wiil also be, in some cases, positive, and in others negative, and hence will practically neutralize one another on averaging. The determinations of the above table are not all of the same order of trustworthiness, Some are based on freezing-point observations made by means of old methods; others on those of newer and more accurate methods. Some are based on many observations, others on few ; some on observations in good agree- ment, others on more erratic series. In some eases, also, the ionization coefficients employed are more trustworthy than in CONSTANT FOR ELECTROLYTES—HEBB. 421 others If an estimate could be made of the relative value of the various determinations, the weighted mean would give a closer approximation to the true values of the depression constants, than can be given by a mere average. I have not attempted, however, to attach weights to the determinations, being unable to do so with any confidence. Assuming that averaging will eliminate the greater part of the errors we get as the values of m and 7, 1.932 and 1.851 respectively. The value for 7 is undoubtedly the more accurate of the two; and, as we assume that undissociated molecules have the same effect as free ions, the value of ™ is to be taken as 1.851 also, That the average value of m is so much greater than that of 2 may be due not only to the defects of the method employed in determining it, but to the fact that the bend of the curve of an electrolyte is more likely to be to the right than to the left, as concentration increases. For it is only where associa- tion of molecules takes place that it bends to the left. Some of the sets of observations given in the paper, from which I have taken my data, I did not use. A few of these sets were so erratic that I could make nothing out of them. The other cases, however, had been worked out by Dr. Mac- Gregor, and, hence, I did not think it worth my while to do so. If, now, I combine my results with those obtained by him, I will, with the exception of the few sets mentioned above, have made. use of all available data. The mean values of m andi, as given by him, are 1.895 and 1.850 respectively and hence the values of m and 7 as given by averaging his mean values with mine are 1.913 and 1.851. The above result is in agreement with that reached by Prof. MacGregor by means of the second method referred to above The conclusion he arrived at was that, for all the eleotrolytes examined, the curves of his diagram were consistent with the depression constant having a common value of about 1.85. That the two methods should give results which are not only in close agreement with one another, but are also in close agreement with the value of the depression constant given by Van ’t Hoff’s theoretical expression for it, must be regarded as of considerable interest. II.—ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRES- SIONS OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES —BY Tos. C. Hess, M. A., Dalhousie College, Hulifax, N.S. (Read March 10th, 1902.) Dr. MacGregor has shown,* that,if for any electrolyte curves be plotted using ionization coefficients as ordinates and the equivalent depressions of different observers as abscissae, the curves so drawn diverge, as dilution increases, some to the right and some to the left of what their general course is at moderate dilution. He has also shown, that this tendency to diverge is less for the results of Archibald and Barnes, both of whom worked in the Dalhousie Physical Laboratory. This indicates that the method they adopted was free from some source or sources of error which affected the methods of other observers. As they had not carried their observations to solutions of great dilution, he suggested that 1 should go over the ground with one or two electrolytes and see if, for higher dilutions, their results were borne out. This I have done for potassium chloride with the results given below. I chose this electrolyte for the following reasons:—(1) It is one of the salts for which Whethamf has made determinations of the ionization coethcients for dilute solutions at 0°C.; (2) The rightward or leftward tendency, above mentioned, is most marked for this electrolyte ; and (3) solutions of known con- centrations are quite easily made up. Salt. The salt was obtained as chemically pure from Merck. On testing it, however, I detected free acid. This disappeared on once re-crystallizing and heating to constant weight. Solutions * Proc. and Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p. 211, 1899-09. +t Phil. Trans., A, Vol. 194, 1900, pp. 321-360. (422) DETERMINATION OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC. 423 of it gave values of conductivity agreeing very well with those given by Kohlrausch.* Water. The water used, both in making up the solutions and in determining the freezing-point of water, was purified by boiling distilled water, containing a few grammes of barium hydroxide in a copper boiler and condensing it in a block-tin worm. It was kept in glass bottles, which had been used several years fcr that purpose. The conductivity of the water, obtained by ouce distilling, was never more than 1.25 x 107° at 18°C. expressed in Koblrausch’s new unit (ohm! em.!).- The determination of the conductivity was made by means of Kohlrausch’s method with the alternating current and telephone. The constant of the electrolytic cell used was determined by comparing the conduc- tivities of known solutions at 18° with those given by Kohlrausch.t I did not try to obtain water of a greater degree of purity, for the amount of any electrolyte present to give it this conductivity is so small that the freezing-point would not be affected in the fourth place of decimals. This I have deter- mined by using Kohlrausch’s§ table of conductivities, together with observations made on the freezing-point depressions of electrolytes of different observers. Of course theie is the possi- bility of a non-electrolyte being present, but we may safely assume that the amount of it present is, at least, not greater than that of the electrolyte, and even twice the amount of salt present, which would be necessary to give the above conduc- tivity, will not affect the freezing-point of water in the fourth place of decimals, Solutions. All solutions were made up at 0°C. The greater number of them were made by putting a known amount of the water- free salt in a 1000 ¢.¢. flask, and filling it up with water at 0°C. A few of the diluter solutions were made from these by means * Kohlrausch u. Holborn : Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 159, tab. 2. + Kohlrausch u. Holborn: Leitvermogen der Elektrolyte, 1898, p. 1. t Loe. cit. § Loc. cit. 424. DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS of another flask of 200 ¢.c. capacity. Both flasks were calibrated at 0°C. The concentrations, in gramme-equivalents per litre of solutions at 0°C., were hence easily calculated. But in some of the cases I was not sure of the dryness of my salt, and hence determined their concentrations gravimetrically by precipitating the KCI of a known quantity of the solution with Ag NQ,. Measurement of Freezing-Points. The method used in determining the freezing-points was a modification of that used by Loumis.* The principal changes were: (1) the stirring was done mechanically and at a constant rate; (2) the stirrer was not simply of the ring form but had vanes attached to it; (3) the temperature surrounding the whole apparatus was kept within .56 degree of O°C. The work was done in a basement room of the college in which there was no source of heat, and experiments were only made when the temperature of the air could be kept at O°C. by raising the windows. The freezing-apparatus consisted of three parts as follows: (1) an outer bath containing ice and water; (2) a bath which stood in this called the protection-bath, and which contained a mixture of salt water and snow, at a temperature of .005 degree centigrade below the freezing-point of the solution, whose freezing-point was being determined; (3) the freezing-tubes immersed in this, which contained the solution under experiment. The freezing-tubes consisted of two glass tubes one inside the other, the outer being about 3.2 cm. in diameter. The space, of about 1 mm., between the two was kept uniform throughout by winding silk thread about the inner one at two distinct places. This air-space, together with one at the bottom of the tubes, caused by the bottom of the inner tube being re-entrant, kept an ice sheath from being formed on the wall of the tube. The two tubes were sealed together at the top, in order to keep moisture from getting in between them, and in order to have their relative positions always the same. These *Phys. Review, 1, 199, 1893, and 9, 257, 1899. OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES.—HEBB. 425 tubes fitted tightly into the cover of the protection bath, and, as the outer tube was 30 em. in length, they extended to a considerable distance into this bath. A cork made of vulcanite and pierced by three holes fitted into the inner tube. Through the hole in the centre of the cork a thermometer passed. It was fastened tightly, and in such a manner, that its bulb came within 2 em. of the bottom of the inner tube. A stirrer passed through one of the other holes, while the third was kept for the introduction of an ice crystal. The last two mentioned holes were lined with platinum foil. The stirrer which was made in the usual form with a ring at the bottom, was of platinum wire. This ring, which was smaller than the internal diameter of the inner tube, had fastened to it vanes of platinum foil. These were fastened on by platinum wire and extended in towards the centre. This form of stirrer I found to be much more effective in stirring than the ring commonly used. In order to guide this stirrer, and in order to keep the thermometer in the centre of the freezing-tube, another cork, of rubber, was fastened on to the thermometer, some distance above the highest point reached by the solution when the thermometer was in position in the freezing-tube. Through this cork there were two holes—one for the stirrer and one for the introduction of an ice crystal. These holes were lined with glass tubing. The above arrangement kept the stirrer from scraping against the sides of the freezing-tubes. And, in order to keep it as much as possible from rubbing against the sides of the holes in the corks, a link was introduced in the part of the wire outside of the tubes. This allowed it to hang in a perfectly vertical position. The protection bath was 38 cm. in height and 13 em. in diameter. Its cover consisted of a brass plate through which passed the freezing-tubes, a thermometer and a stirrer. This stirrer consisted of a wire shaft, which had two rings fastened to it—one for the upper and one for the lower portions of the mixture. The rings held vanes of tin. This kept the mixture Proc. & TRANS. N.S. INST. Scr., VOL. X. TRaNs. DD. 426 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS well stirred, and any change in temperature was quickly recoided by the thermometer. It was so arranged that both these stirrers—viz., the one in the protection bath and the one in the freezing-tubes—should have the same stroke. Hence they were both fastened to a slider on a vertical guide-post. This slider was worked by a crank vertically above it. The axis carrying the crank was. turned by a hot-air motor. The stroke of the crank was equal to the stroke required by the stirrers. The two thermometers—viz,, the one in the protection bath and the one in the freezing-tubes—were both of the Beckmann form, and were graduated to .01 degree. The one used in the freezing-tubes had been calibrated at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin. The value of its degree—its length being about 5.4 em.—was given to the third place of decimals. As, however, it had been tested with its bulb at O°C. and its scale at 15°C., I had to make a correction due to the fact that I used it with its scale also at O°C. In the corrected form the value of the degree was correct. For some time before it was used, and while it was being used, it was kept hanging in a vertical position with its bulb and scale approximately at zero. This. precaution is indispensible, as the constancy of the thermometer depends on it. This thermometer was read by means of a. microscope, which was firmly mounted on an adjustable stand. The eye-piece of the microscope contained a micrometer scale, thirty-seven divisions of which corresponded to .01 degree. As. half divisions were easily estimated I could read to .0001 degree. To get a clear imagine of scale and mercury, a small incandescent lamp,driven by a current from several Samson cells, was placed, when a reading was being taken, directly behind the thermometer. As, however, the mercury and scale are at different distances from the microscope, one cannot focus the both at once. Hence. I always made a reading with the mercury focussed, for it was quite easy to estimate the centre of the blurred image of the. scale line. In the course of my experiments, I found out how important it was to have the microscope always inclined at the. OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES.—HEBB,. 427 same angle to the thermometer. This one sees when he takes into consideration, that the distance between the mercury column and the seale, which is back of it, is at least 120 times as great as the smallest distance read on the scale. In order to keep the microscope always at the same inclination to the thermometer, I had two arms rigidly attached to the microsecpc—one above and one below it. Before a reading was taken, the stand of the microscope was so adjusted that the arms touched the thermometer. Directly over the top of the thermometer was placed an electric hammer, driven by acurrent from a Samson battery. It gave quick, sharp taps and, hence, prevented the mercury from sticking at one place. Tke following method was used to find the convergence temperature. The apparatus, as described, was set in order with a mixture at O°C. in the protection bath, and water in the freezing-tubes, and then the stirring was begun and kept run- ning until the apparatus arrived at a state of thermal equili- brium. With the apparatus working at 50 complete strokes per minute, I found it to be .005 degree above that of the protection bath. Hence in all of my determinations of freezing-points, the temperature of the protection bath was kept .005 degree below the freezing-point of the solution under experiment—it having been approximately determined beforehand. This convergence temperature is much smaller than that found by other experi- menters. Its smallness may be due to two things: (1) the freezing-tubes may be too easily affected by the protection bath, or (2) the apparatus may be free from friction and other sources of heat. I am fully convinced that its smallness in my case was noi due to the former, but due to the fact that the amount of friction was very small, and that the air temperature was O°C. The following was the method used in making a determina- tion of the freezing-point. The approximate freezing-point of the solution having been found, the temperature of the protec- tion bath was brought to be .005 degree below this. The portions of the apparatus in contact with the solution were then 428 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with the solution. The inner freezing-tube was then filled up to a mark on its side—this mark being about 2mm. above the highest position reached by the stirrer. The cork bearing the thermometer was put in its place, the tubes were then placed in a mixture cf snow and salt, and the solution kept continually stirred until its temperature fell to -3°C. below its freezing-point. They were then placed in position in the protection bath, and the stirring was begun. When the mercury, which rose very slowly, arrived at .1 degree below the freezing-point, an ice-crystal was introduced through the holes in the corks. After the mercury became stationary, the tapping of the electric hammer was begun and lasted for half a minute. The stirring was then stopped, the light put into position, and a reading made with the microscope. The stirring was then begun again and after a few minutes a second reading made. With my apparatus, I found no difficulty whatever in getting the mercury to remain stationary for at least five minutes. In cases where more than one observation was made on the same solution, the mean value was taken. As it was only the depressions that I wanted, I found the freezing-point of water immediately before or immediately after the above determination. The water used was of the same degree of purity as that used in making up the solutions. Other conditions, such as the introduction of the ice- crystal, were kept the same in both cases. Ifthe barometer was varying rapidly, the freezing-point of water was taken immedi- ately before and after that of the solution, and the mean taken. The depression is the difference between the freezing-point of water and that of the solution under consideration. I found by experiments performed on different days, that of a series of depressions, a single value varied from the mean value by not more than .0005 degree. As this would be large for dilute solutions, I was unable to deal with solutions of greater dilution than I have used. To correct for the change in concentration, due to the intro- duction of an ice-crystal .1 degree below the freezing-point, I made use of Raoult’s method* for determining the depression * Ztschr. f. phys. chem., 27 643, 1899. OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES.—HEBB. 429 when the over-cooling is zero. For this purpose I took a solu- tion and found its depressions for different over-coolings. These depressions I plotted as ordinates against the over-coolings as abscissae. This gives practically a straight line which, if pro- duced to cut the depression axis, cuts off a portion from it representing the depression when the over-cooling is zero. Raoult has shewn that the following relation holds for solutions of different concentrations C!=C(1+KS) where C* is the observed depression for over-cooling S, C is the depression for over-cooling zero, and K is a constant. Hence, determining C1 and § for different solutions, and knowing K to hold for all solutions, we can find C ineach case. I determined K to have the value .02. Hence it can easily be seen that for an over-cooling of .1 degree the values of the depressions will be .02'/ too great. The ionization coefficients are taken from a paper by Whetham.* Since he only carried his concentrations to .03 gramme-equivalents per 1000 grammes of solution, I have extended the curve under guidance of extrapolated values given by Dr. MacGregor.f He obtained his extrapolated values by plotting, alongside of one another, the ionization coeflicient- concentration curves for 0° and 18°—the latter being obtained from data given by Kohlrausch. In the following table the concentrations are given in gramme-equivalents per litre of solution at O°C. The depressions, which have been corrected for over-cooling, as pointed out, are given in degrees Centigrade. The ionization coefficients are for O°C., and the equivalent depressions are the depressions in degrees Centigrade divided by the concentration in gramme- equivalents per litre of solution at O°C. The letters 7 and e after the coefficients shew whether they were obtained by interpola- tion or extrapolation. * Loe. cit. + Proc. and Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X. p. 218, 1899-90. 430 DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS The table also contains the values of the depression constant, 2. @., the lowering produced by each gramme-molecule or gramme- ion of the electroyte in solution. It has been calculated by aid of the expression: 6=7 (1+) where 6 is the equivalent depres- sion, 7 is the constant and ais the ionization coefficient. This formula only holds for electrolytes such as KCl where the gramme-molecule is equal to the gramme-equivalent and the molecule breaks up into two ions. TABLE I.—KCl. (74.59). i ssi | F i ; ; Conomiration. | "Freenine- | Hawvalent | Goemicients | Debieasem .004124 O15] 3.66 .979 i. 1.850 .006207 .0228 3.67 BO 1.863 006363 -0233 3.66 i972)“ 1.857 .009310 .0341 3.66 .964 ‘* 1.867 .009544 .0344 3.60 9630 1.836 .01009 .0362 3.59 {962 -$° 1.829 -01060 .0381 3.60 961 * 1.833 -01085 .0395 3.64 .960 << 1.858 -01514 -0549 3.63 HEEL 1 857 -01862 .0673 3.614 SOG. 1.857 -01909 .0688 3.60 .946 ‘ 1.852 020596 .0738 3.583 AuE ey 1.844 02402 .0860 3.580 Biss Oo 1.847 .03031 - 1086 3.583 s9oa. = 1.854 -03161 1131 3.578 .930 e. 1.854 -05541 - 1950 3.519 “906° °* 1.846 -05583 . 1958 3.507 -906 °< 1.840 .05673 -2001 3.527 SOU eae 1.851 -05770 .2033 3.523 -905 “ 1.849 .07383 2578 3.492 sees & 1.844 -07408 2597 3.505 894 “§ 1.851 01473 0531 3.61 952 « 1.847 OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES.—HEBB. 431 In these results I have not continued my determinations to as concentrated solutions as I would have liked, but I was unable to do so on account of lack of cold weather. On the other hand, it would be useless for me to attempt to deal with diluter solutions than I have used, for my possible error is too great. The values of the depression constant seem to oscillate about the value 1.85 and if the mean be taken we get 1.849. This is the value arrived at by two methods suggested by Dr. MacGregor. The one he applied* and the other I applied+ to a considerable number of data. If from the above table we plot concentrations as ordinates against equivalent depressions as abscissae, we get points which, though they do not lie on a smooth curve, can be represented by drawing a smooth curve through them in such a manner that as many points fall on one side of it as on the other. If we draw in this curve we find that it is convex towards the concentration axis. Further, if we plot alongside of it similar concentration- equivalent depression curves for other observers, we find that in all cases their curves lie nearer the concentration axis than mine, although no two of them pursue exactly the same course. That the values of my depressions are greater than those of other observers might be expected, for I am not aware that any of them worked with their air temperature at zero. Also the fact, that the values of the depression constant, as obtained from my results, agree so well with what is expected, would lead one to suppose that my values of the equivalent depressions are not too great. The following table will give some idea as to how Loomis’,t Jones’,t and my concentration-equivalent depression curves lie, I have roughly drawn smooth curves through each observer's results, and then read off the results for the different concen- trations. * Proc. and Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p. 211, 1899-00. + Proc. and Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p» 409, 1901-02. t Not having access to their papers, I have taken the data from a paper by Prof. MacGregor : Proc. and Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., Vol. X., p. 211, 1899-90. 432 DETERMINATION OF FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSIONS, ETC. TABLE II. ; Equivalent Depression. Concentration. (gr. eq. /U.) Loomis. Jones. Hebb. .075 3.470 3.495 3 495 .05 3.50 3.518 3 528 .03 3.528 3 553 3.570 .02 3.550 3 575 3 598 01 3.60 3.605 3.64 .005 o190 ¢ 3.665 3.67 If now we plot ionization coefficients as ordinates, against equivalent depressions as abscissae, it is generally assumed that at great dilution we shouid get a straight line. My results are too erratic to lie on a straight line, but the general course of them is no doubt a straight line, and does not tend to either the right or left, as do the curves of others—at least up to the con- centration .01. Above this it seems to have a slight rightward tendency, but not nearly as great as Jones’. Of all the observer's results to which I have access, and this includes Loomis, Jones, Raoult, Abegg, Ponsot and Wildermann,* there are none which give a curve as high or higher than mine. Jones’ curve at the lower part seems to coincide with mine, but from the concentra- tion of about .08 to .007 it goes to the left of mine, and from this on it passes away to the right. Loomis’ curve is to the left of both Jones’ and mineand has the leftward tendency, but looks as if it would pass off to the right, if dilution were carried far enough. Abegg’s curve is to the left of Loomis’. It starts at a concentration of .07, runs parallel to mine for a space and then passes off to the right. Wildermann’s curve has the leftward tendency, while Raoult’s seems to be inclined towards the right. In plotting all the above curves I have used Whetham’s coefficients. Hence it appears to me that my results have bourne out—at least toa large degree—what Archibald’s and Barnes’ results seem to imply. *These data are all taken from MacGregor’s paper cited above. II]. —TwHe Procress oF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN Nova Scotia.—By R. W. Ets, Lu.D., F. B.S. C., of the Geo- logical: Survey of Canada. (Read 13th January, 1902.) Probably in no part of the Dominion of Canada is there a more interesting field for geological research than is found in Nova Scotia and in the sister province of New Brunswick. The formations range from the top of the Triassic to the lowest known rocks, presumably the fundamental gneiss, and there is a large development of the strata peculiar to the Carboniferous, Devonian and Cambrian systems, in all of which important geological and economic problems are presented. It has been found impossible to classify and arrange the different roc formaticns of the maritime provinces in accordance with the scheme of nomenclature laid down more than half a century ago by the Geological Survey of the state of New York, and subsequently adopted by Sir W, E. Logan for the province of Ontario and Quebec. In consequence of this difficulty, the necessity has arisen of placing large groups of strata in divisions which have been designated by local names, and this feature has been the cause of some confusion to many persons who are not familiar with the localities and the points of structure peculiar to each. Too often, also, there has been an attempt made to parallel the rock formations there found with those which they are sup- posed to represent in England on the one hand, and in distant portions of the United States on the other, ignoring the possibility that the succession of life forms on the globe in early years may not have moved forward simultaneously over the whole surface, but that their distribution may have followed some law of evo- lution or development which has not yet been sufficiently considered. Geological problems in connection with certain (433) 434 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION formations in the maritime provinces have thus occasionally presented features difficult to reconcile with those which are found in supposed similar formations elsewhere, when the attempt at interpretation has been made purely from the standpoint of the contained fossils by those who were not familiar with the local conditions of structure or the nature of the rock formations which are there presented. In the present paper no attempt will be made to discuss the different views which have been put forth from time to time regarding the horizons of the several rock groups in Nova Scotia. To do justice to this aspect of the subject would extend the limits of the paper to great length. It is proposed, therefore, to give merely a brief statement of some of the work which has been done in this field, with a short notice of the men who have been largely instrumental in elucidating the principal points of structure throughout the province. Much of this early work in the field was carried out by two Nova Scotians, viz., Dr. Abraham Gesner, a name well-known in the central portion of the province, and by Sir William Dawson, a native of Pictou. Both of these men, under many difficulties, partly inseparable from that early date, devoted much of the time taken from their otherwise arduous duties to the study of the somewhat complicated geological problems there presented. The task which these two distinguished men, who may well be styled the pioneers in geological science in the eastern prov- inces, thus voluntarily assumed in the first half of the last century was no easy one. Even in England, the actual work of a geological survey had scarcely been commenced. The nomen- elature of the science was in its infancy, and the many helps towards deciphering the writings in the great book of the rock formations, which are now available to the students of geological structure, were altogether, or almost entirely, lacking. When these men began their work the country was com- paratively but little opened up for settlement. Roads were few and far between when once the main lines of communication IN NOVA SCOTIA—ELLS. 435 were left behind, so that the facilities for detailed careful examination and comparison were rarely found. That so large an amount of really valuable information was obtained in those early days is matter for gratulation and clearly proves that these early students of the earth’s crust were not only careful obser- vers but were imbued with the true scientific spirit. Probably the earliest description, from the scientific stand- point, of the rocks found in Nova Scotia, is contained in a somewhat lengthy paper, contributed to the American Journal of Science by Messrs. Jackson and Alger, two leading American geologists, in 1828-29. This paper was illustrated by a sketch map of a portion of the province, whichis probably the first attempt at a geological map issued in Canada. Without going into details as to the points of structure which are there described, it may be said that this paper contains much interesting information relative to the trap formations of the Bay of Fundy, and to their contained minerals. The gypsum deposits, found along the south side of the Basin of Minas, also received a fair amount of attention, and there is a good descrip- tion of the iron ores which oecur in portions of the South Mountain range at different points. At that early date the long list of names now employed to distinguish the many formations to which the various rocks which form the earth’s crust are now assigned was not formu- lated. The use of the term Primitive for certain granite masses was common, and these were supposed to represent the oldest group of rocks. The term Transition was also employed to designate certain altered sediments which are in contact with the granites at different points; but such names as Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Triassic were not yet invented. The terms trap, sandstone and slate are, in this early paper, in general use, but details of geological structure are almost entirely wanting. The article, however, is interesting from its very full description of the trap formation found in the North Mountain range, and tosome extent valuable from the description therein contained relative to the mode of occurrence 436 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION and distribution of some of the leading economic minerals. In this connection the iron ores of the South Mountain range which are seen at Nictaux and Bear River are regarded as probably continuous throughout the entire mountain range, passing to the rear of the village of Horton, and possibly continuing further east to connect with theiron deposits found in Pictou county. Considerable information is also given as to the coal and copper deposits in Cumberland, Colchester and Pictou counties, in the latter of which the coal mines, now of so much importance, were then just being opened. Probably the most important of the early writings on the subject of Nova Scotian geolugy are from the pen of Dr. Abraham Gesner.. The first of his publications to appear has the date 1836, and is entitled, “ Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia.” The volume contains the results of his obser- vations throughout the province during several preceding years, and is the first attempt made to place the geological formations there found in regular order. Gesner arranged the several rock groups into districts, and placed the granites, which he found so persistent along the Atlantic coast, in the Primary district, regarding these as his oldest division. A second belt which he outlined throughout a great part of the central area of the prov- ince, and which consisted largely of slates, he styled the Slate district, and regarded them as more recent in age than the granite. These were succeeded northward by a great series of reddish sandstones, shales, and some slaty beds, which now include for- mations from the Silurian to the Trias, both inclusive, which he termed the Red Sandstone district. This division embraced also what is now known as the Coal formation, while to the great ridge of voleanic rocks, including basalts, diabase and amygda- . loids, which are found chiefly in the North Mountain range, he gave the name of the Trap district. This classification, it will be observed, was based largely on physical and lithological characters and upon the predominant rock masses in each. | IN NOVA SCOTIA—ELLS. 437 This volume of Gesner’s was accompanied by a small map of the province on which the limits of the several divisions were outlined as then understood. Of Dr. Gesner, it may be truly said that he was a remarkable man for his times. The collection and preparation of the great mass of facts contained in his first book must have involved a large amount of hardship in the field and in his study, and in the preface he states that “amidst the arduous duties of a laborious profession, and under the annoyance of perpetua] interruption, most of the following pages have been written ; cr during the silent hours of midnight, when the labours but not the fatigues of the day had departed.” Gesner’s subsequent publications relative to the subject of Nova Scotia geology may be briefly mentioned. In 1843 an important paper was read before the Geological Society of London, Eng., which was accompanied by a geological map of a large portion of the province, and this shews a marked advance as compared with those which had previously appeared ; and a similar paper was published in the London Mining Journal in 1845. A second volume styled “ The Industrial Resources of Nova Scotia” appeared in 1849, This contained two chapters devoted to the geology and mineral resources of the province. In this volume it will be readily noticed that a great advance has been made in geological science since the date of the first book in 1836. The several formations have been fairly well arranged in accord- ance with modern ideas of nomenclature, though the work was necessarily done on the broad scale. The rocks were arranged under seven heads, as follows :— Ist. The granites or hypogene rocks of the south coast, including the syenites and traps. 2nd. The stratified non- fossiliferous rocks of the interior, now known as the gold- bearing and other associated slates, which he called;Cambrian, in which classification they still remain. 3rd. The fos- siliferous clay slates, with greywackes, which he styled 438 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION Silurian, the term being still held as applicable toa large part of these sediments. 4th. The overlying series to the base of the Carboniferous, regarded as of the age of the old Red sand- stone or Devonian. 5th. The Carboniferous proper or Coal formation. 6th. The New Red sandstone and the intrusive or igneous rocks associated, now regarded as probably of Triassic age; and 7th, the overlying drift or boulder formation. The arrangement of so many groups of rock formations throughout the province in such a manner as to be fairly well sustained by more recent and detailed investigation, conclusively establishes the fact that in Dr. Gesner the province possessed a geologist of no mean order, having a wonderful grasp of the difficult problems everywhere presented in connection with the rock structure in the eastern provinces, and indicating a marvel- lous capacity for scientific investigation. During the years from 1838 to 1843, Gesner, at the request. of the government of New Brunswick, made a comparatively close study of the rock formations found in that province. The results of his work appeared in five separate reports of great interest, the terms employed to designate the several rock groups corresponding closely with those which he employed in his work in Nova Scotia. He also published a volume on the general resources of New Brunswick which appeared in 1847, in which several chapters were devoted to the geological features there observed, so that it will be readily seen the life work of Dr. Gesner was of great importance and value to both the eastern provinces. As a sample of his style of writing, the following, taken from his description of the Cornwallis valley, as contained in his first volume, 1836, may be given :— “ Before the visitor descends from the South Mountains near Kentville, let him take a view of the extensive valley before him. On the north side rise those mountains of basaltic columns, which, with proud elevation, line the coast of the Bay of Fundy, protecting the beautiful and fertile Township of Cornwallis, and all the settlements situated at their base from the bleak north- IN NOVA SCOTIA—ELLS. 43% wester, so well-known, and so little admired in Nova Scotia. Let him turn his eyes towards the western horizon, and as far as vision extends, the red sandstone supports the soil of the almost level country before him, while rocks of different classes are thrown up like walls on each of its sides, affording shelter from southern and northern gales ; and lastly, let a glance be taken at the bustling little village beneath his feet, and he will admire not only the grand and beautiful spectacle before him, but also the infant town below, prepared to afford him those refreshments his stroll will have rendered necessary. In the neighbourhood of Kentville, the new red sandstone is in contact with the old red - sandstone, the members of the mountain limestone and coal groups being deficient. The great bed of iron, represented as occupying a place throughout the whole South Mountain range, has not yet been discovered south ef that village; but from the occurrence of detached pieces of the ore, iron pyrites, and the carbonate of iron at Beech Hill, no doubt can be entertained of its uninterrupted existence,even farther eastward than that place.” An important feature in the history of Nova Scotian geology was the visit of Sir Charles Lyell who, in 1842, made a geological excursion through portions of the province. In this work he was aided by Dr. Gesner and also by Sir William Dawson, the latter at that time a young man of about twenty-three years of age. The results of this visit of Sir Charles Lyell are given in his book,“ Travels in North America,” published in 1845, He paid much attention to the group of rocks which had been classified in large part by Gesner under the head of the red sandstone division. and as a consequence of his examination these were separated into three portions styled respectively, the upper carboniferous, the productive coal measures, and the lower carboniferous or gypsif erous formation. The last named was placed in its true position beneath the coal measures, while the soft red sandstones, so con- Spicuous around the shores of Minas Basin, were regarded as an upper division and regarded as probably belonging to the Trias, The visit of Sir Charles Lyell was therefore important as serving to determine more clearly the true horizons of this important series of rocks. 440 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION Among the workers in the eastern portion of the province who have aided materially in elucidating points of structure may be mentioned the name of Mr. R. Brown. From his intimate connection with some of the leading coal mines of Sydney, Mr. Brown enjoyed great facilities for studying the rocks of the Car- boniferous formations in that area, and he has contributed much valuable information regarding the arrangement and distribution of these rocks for that portion of the province. Some of the results thus obtained have appeared in the Journal of the Geological Society of London, the first article being apparently printed in 1853, as well as in more recent publications. The association of Sir William Dawson with Sir Charles Lyell in 1842, greatly stimulated the love of the former for scientific investigation, and for many years thereafter much of his spare time was devoted to the study of the rocks in his native province. From his position as Superinterdent of Education, which appointment he held for some years previous to his removal to Montreal as principal of McGill University, he was enabled to visit many localities where interesting problems of structure were presented. Sir William was an early contributor to the scientific journals, since we find a communication from his pen in the Journal of the Geological Society for 1842 on some geological phenomena which he had observed in Prince Edward Island. Many of his papers, more especially in the early years of his work, were read hefore the Geological Society, of which body he soon was appointed a fellow. Up to the date of his death, which occurred near the close of 1899, his pen was rarely idle, the list of his published writings reaching a total of nearly four hundred, in which are included many books of much interest, some of which dealt exclusively with scientific matters, while others had a wider scope. The first of these volumes relating to the geology of the maritime provinces was his “ Acadian Geology,” the first edition of which appeared in 1855. A second edition, much enlarged, was published in 1868, and this was added to by a supplement IN NOVA SCOTIA—ELLS. 441 in 1878 and another in 1891, in which the latest information on the subject was supposed to be incorporated. The “ Acadian Geology” has for many years been regarded as a standard work in the field of szientific research, though, as more detailed investigations have been carried out, several state- ments regarding the structure of certain formations have of necessity undergone revision. A large portion of Sir William’s life work was spent in the study of fossil plants, in which line of investigation he was justly regarded as an eminent authority. These studies embraced the fossil remains found in the Devonian and Silurian of Gaspé and New Brunswick, and in the Carbon- iferous rocks of all the maritime provinces, as well as the fossil plants found in the newer formations of the Pacific slope. Like Gesner, Sir William Dawson may rightly be considered as one of Nova Scotia’s most distinguished sons in the line of scientific investigation. Among other zealous workers in the geological field in Nova Scotia must be mentioned the name of the Rev. Dr. Honeyman. Formerly a minister of the Presbyterian church and settled in Antigonish, his fondness for geological study early led him to a close investigation of the complicated rock formations which are found in the eastern part of the province. Afterwards, being transferred to Halifax, he became the curator of the Provincial Museum. Here his field of work became somewhat enlarged, and his researches extended over many parts of the province. The results of his field work appeared in a number of interesting and valuable papers, many of which were published in the Trans- actions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, though others were read before the scientific societies both of England and the United States. The first of these contributions by Dr. Honeyman on the geology of Nova Scotia was apparently presented before the Literary and Scientific Society of that province in 1859, and from that date to the time of his death in 1889, articles from his pen appeared at frequent intervals. Though the chief field of his labours for many years was the classic ground of Arisaig, where Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS —EE. 442 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION probably his best work was accomplished, his eyes were open to the natural phenomena which are everywhere presented to him who cares to read the story of the earth. A full list of his publications has apparently never been pub- lished, and the collecting of these in proper order is a duty yet devolving upon some one of those with whom he was intimately associated in the scientific work which has been and is still being carried on in the Acadian provinces. Prior to the admission of the eastern provinces into the Canadian confederation the work of the Geological Survey did not extend east of Quebec. Almost the earliest work, however, of the first director, Sir William Logan, was the examination and measurement. in 1843, of the celebrated Joggins section on the western coast of Cum- berland county, embracing a total measured thickness of 14,570 feet of Carboniferous strata, in which were included a large part of the Lower Carboniferous formation, the Millstone-grit, the Productive Coal-Measures, and the Upper Carboniferous in part: The work so ably done at that early date has since been revised by several other workers in the field, notably by Sir William Dawson, the results of whose examinations, stated in much detail, will be found in the second edition of the Acadian Geology, 1868. The section as originally published has ever remained as the standard basis of classification for the rocks of the Carbon- iferous system in the maritime provinces. With the advent of Confederation in 1867, the work of the Geological Survey was extended to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In 1868 Sir William Logan and Mr. Edward* Hartley began a detailed examination of the coal fields in Pictou county which was carried on till the death of the latter at the close of 1870. The results of these examinations in the Pictou coal-field were of the greatest importance, and the coal basin was mapped with great accuracy. J In consequence of the importance which the gold-fields of Nova Scotia had assumed, Dr. Selwyn who had been appointed director of the Geological Survey in 1869, made a somewhat IN NOVA SCOTIA—ELLS. . 443 detailed examination of that district in 1870, and published a valuable report on the subject in the annual volume of the Department for 1870-71. In this report the gold-bearing rocks of the province were fully described and compared with those found in the province of Quebec, and also with those of the gold- tields of Australia in which district he had already worked for some years as Director of the Geological Survey of that colony. In 1871 Dr. Selwyn also made a study of the iron-ore deposits of the Londonderry district. the results of which were stated in the Report of the Department for 1872-73. In 1870 work was commenced in the Springhill coal basin by Mr. Scott Barlow, and carried on continuously by him till the ‘close of 1878. In addition to mapping the Springhill areas, Mr. Barlow’s work extended over a large portion of the county of Cumberland, the results appearing in several important reports to the Geological Survey Department. In 1873 Mr. Walter McOuat began a series of surveys in parts of the same field, but more particularly in the area to the north-east of that assigned to Mr. Barlow, which were carried on till his death at an early age in 1875. The results of his explorations also appear in several valuable reports addressed to the same Department. In 1872 Mr. Charles Robb, after several seasons spent in New Brunswick, began a systematic exploration of the Cape Breton coal-fields. In this work he was associated with Mr. Hugh Fletcher, who, on the retirement of Mr. Robb in 1875, assumed control of and completed the mapping of the coal-basin. The explorations were thereupon extended and the whole of the island carefully surveyed and mapped in great detail. Upon the completion of this work, Mr. Fletcher’s field of operations was transferred to the main land, and the same detailed series of surveys which had been inaugurated in Cape Breton were there continued. In this way much of the northern and eastern portions of the province have been carefully mapped and the geological details indicated with great minuteness, including the counties of Guysboro, Antigonish, Colchester and Cumber- Jand, and large portions of Hants and Kings. The minuteness 444 THE PROGRESS OF GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION of detail shewn in such of these map-sheets as have been pub- lished, attest the scientific training of their author and the extreme care which has been taken in their preparation. Much attention has been devoted to the accurate mapping of the important coal- basins of Pictou and Cumberland counties, and to the determin- ation of the economic value of other deposits of economic minerals which are found in the area. The mapping of the great belt of rocks along the Atlantic coast, including the slates, quartzites and granites, which in the early days of Gesner were styled Primitive and Transition, and in which the gold mines of the province are principally located, has been carried out along similar lines by Mr. E. R. Faribault, also of the Geological Survey staff. In addition to the general maps, shewing the distribution of the several rock formations of that district, a valuable series of map-sheets shewing the detailed structure of the principal gold areas has been prepared. Some of these have been already published, while others are in course of preparation and are of inestimable value to the mining com- munity of the province. The complicated series of rocks which were broadly outlined half a century ago by Gesner and Dawson have thus been worked out in the greatest detail, and the several geological divisions indicated in the clearest manner. Among those who have done more or less work in the prov- ince, it may be said that the writer of this article, in 1884, in connection with his work in south-eastern New Brunswick, spent some weeks in tracing out the formations in the area between the Bay of Fundy and Northumberland Straits in the prepara- tion of the map of Cumberland county, Tn 1891 and 1892, Mr. R. Chalmers made a series of careful examinations in connection with the surface deposits of Cumber- land county, with particular reference to the glaciation of that district ; and in the years from 1890 to 1896, Dr. L. W. Bailey, of the University of New Brunswick, carried on a somewhat extended examination of the southern and western portions of the province, including the counties of Digby, Yarmouth, Queens and Annapolis. A detailed report of the work thus done, IN NOVA SCOTIA—ELLS. 445 accompanied by a map of the area, was prepared and published in the annual volume of the Geological Survey for 1896, in which the leading geological formations Were outlined and many import- ant facts relating to the structure and mineral resources were given. The detailed mapping of portions of this district is still in progress, in order that the map-sheets of that portion of the province may conform with those already published of the northern and eastern divisions. Valuable papers have also appeared from time to time from the pen of Mr. H. S. Poole, for many years connected with important mining operations in the Pictou coal-fields, which afforded him excellent opportunities for the study of the rocks of the Carboniferous system, and also from Dr. E. Gilpin, of the Department of Mines, Halifax, who has ably dealt with certain points of structure presented by the rocks of that district, and also with many questions relating to the occurrence of economic minerals at many points throughout the province. In connection with Acadia College, Professor Haycock has recently published two valuable papers, dealing largely with the question of local geology, which are of much interest. In the area about Wolfville ana along the Gaspereau Valley, as well as in connection with the rocks of the North Mountain range, there is a most interesting field for investigation which has been as yet scarcely touched. It is t» be hoped that this area will now receive that attention from local geologists which it well deserves. In a paper of this kind it is, of course, very evident that many points of great interest must be omitted. The merest outlines of the subject have of necessity been stated, and there are other names which have been associated to a greater or less extent with the work of investigation, to which but slight reference can be made. Among those who have thus contributed papers relating to the geological structure and mineral resources of the province at a comparatively early date, may be mentioned by Mr. J. Campbell of Halifax, whose reports on the gold-fields, in 1863 are of much interest, and Dr. H. Y. Hind of Windsor, 446 GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN NOVA SCOTIA—-ELLS. who, from 1869 to 1872, published several articles on the same subject. Papers of more or less importance relating to the gold of Nova Scotia, have also been printed by Mr. C. Fred Hartt in 1864 and by Mr. H. F. Perley in 1865, both in the Canadian Naturalist of Montreal, and by Professors Marsh in 1851 and Silliman in the American Journal of Science. Among contributors to the literature pertaining to the coal- fields of the province, in addition to those already referred to, may be mentioned Mr. H. Poole who contributed two papers, one in the Journal of the Geological Society of London, 1853, the other in the Canadian Naturalist in 1860, and Professor J. P. Lesley, whose elaborate article on the structure of the Cape Breton areas was published in the American Journal of Science for 1863. From the pen of the late Dr. H. How of Windsor, several valuable articles appeared between 1857 and 1866, principally in the Transactions of the N. S. Institute of Natural Science. These, for the most part, described the occurrence of valuable and some- times rare minerals, found at different places in the province. Various publications, more particularly relating to the occurrence and determination of fossils from various localities have also appeared from time to time, both in the official reports of the Geological Survey and in various scientific journals, and represent the work of Messrs E Billings, T. C. Weston, D. Honeyman, H. Poole, H. M. Ami and others. These can only be thus briefly alluded to, since the aim of this paper has been to give broadly some slight sketch of the leading workers in this field, and a brief statement of the results of their labours. The details of the sub- ject may well be left to others, who through a more intimate acquaintance with the progress of geological science in the province, both as regards men and localities, are better fitted than the writer for the task of elaboration. IV.—On THE UPPER CAMBRIAN AGE OF THE DICTYONEMA SLATES OF ANGUS Brook, NEw CANAAN AND KENTVILLE, N. S—By dH. M. Ami, D. Sc, F. G.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada. (Read 10th February, 1902.) In his “ Acadian Geology,” second edition, 1868, p. 563, Sir William Dawson figures Dictyonema Websteri and places it as a Silurian (Upper Silurian) species. In describing the slates from which the type-specimens of this species were obtained he writcs: “ Passing from the Cobequid Mountains to the slate hills of the south side of the Bay” --meaning the Bay of Fundy —‘in Kings County, we find slates not very dissimilar from those of the Cobequids,’—which he had described on the previous page, 562—‘“in the promontory northward of the Gaspereau River. Here the direction, both of the bedding and of the slates structure, is N. E. by 8S. W.; but the planes of cleavage dip to the 8. E., while the bedding, as indicated by lines of different color, dips to the N. W. These slates with the quartzite and coarse limestones, are continued in the hills of New Canaan, where they contain crinoidal joints, fossil shells, corals, and in some beds of fawn-coloured slate, beautiful fan-like expansions of the pretty Dictyonema represented in fig. 196. Very fine specimens of this fossil were found by the late Dr. Webster of Kentville. It was the habitation of thousands of minute polypes, similar apparently to those of the modern Sertularia. The general strike of the rocks in New Canaan is N, E. and S, W., and they extend from that place westward to the Nictaux River. Westward of Nictaux River, as already mentioned in describing the Devonian, the beds of the Upper Silurian, as well as those of the last mentioned formation, are nterrupted by great masses of granite which form the hills along the south side of the Annapolis River, from a place called (447) 448 UPPER CAMBRIAN AGE OF DICTYONEMA SLATES OF Paradise to Bridgetown, and with some interruptions nearly as far as the town of Annapolis.” In my “Synopsis of the Geology of Canada,’* the following paragraph refers to the Silurian of the region in question as pre- sented and systematized from the accepted and available sources of information :— “In the County of Annapolis, Nova Scotia, and in the vicinity of Nictaux, Silurian strata occur, including the Nictaux iron ore beds and the Torbrook sandstone formation, whilst near Kentville, the Aentville formation is seen as well as on Angus Brook in the Gaspereau Valley, also at New Canaan with Dictyonemu Websteri, Dawson.” Slates holding Dictyonema Websteri, Dawson, and thus known to occur: (1) At New Canaan, the type locality ; (2) At Kentville, N. S., and (3) along the upper portion of the valley of Angus Brook, a small stream entering the Gaspereau River between the village of Gaspereau and the Avon River shore. The general section of the rocks holding the specimens of Dictyonema and the truly Silurian fossil-bearing strata of the district, in which corals and encrinites and brachiopods occur, as furnished me by Sir William Dawson some years ago, distinctly showed that he connected the two ina general way only, follow- ing the inclination and strike of the strata in that part of Nova Scotia which have been affected by the same physical forces that disturbed rocks belonging to various members of the Palzeo- zoie succession. It is thus seen that the intrusive masses of the district have affected not only the Cambrian strata, but likewise the later deposits, exclusive of the rocks of the Horton and its underlying co-formation, the Gaspereau formation, and the Grand Pré formation of later Triassic Age. Heretofore, the slates which have yielded the specimens of Dictyonema Websteri have been invariably referred to the Silurian system, but more recent examination of the type specimens of D. Websteri, have revealed a remarkable resem- blance to, and the close affinity of this species with the * Trans. Royal Soc. Can., 2nd Ser., 1900-1901, Vol. VI., Sect. VI., p. 203. ANGUS BROOK, NEW CANAAN AND KENTVILLE.—AMI. 449 Dictyonema flabelliforme, Eichwald, which finds a synonym in the D. sociale, Salter, a characteristic Upper Cambrian fossil. In his “ Niagara Fossils,’ Part I, Graptolitidz of the Upper Silurian, Prof. J. W. Spencer writes of Dictyonema Websteri, Dawson :— “This beautiful frond occurs at New Canaan, Nova Scotia, in fawn-colored slate of the Upper Silurian System. It is celluli- ferous on one side, and in appearance it is more closely related to D. retiforme than to D. gracile.” In comparing the microscopical characters of D. Websteri with those of D. flabelliforme, Eichwald, especially as they are pre- sented and illustrated in Carl Wiman’s classic work+ the relative size and proportions of the peculiar rope-like structure of the main skeleton in the rhabdosome is clearly discernible, so that there is practically no doubt as to the identity of the two species. It will therefore now be necessary to refer D. Websteri, as a synonym of D. flabelliforme, Eichwald, and to refer the Kent- ville formation, not to the Silurian (Upper) System, but to the Cambrian. In fact, the slates of the Kentville formation of Kings and Annapolis Counties in Nova Scotia, are equivalent in age or are taxonomically similar to the slates of Barachois, and associated localities in the Mira Series of Cape Breton, as well as to the Dictyonema slates of Navy Island, near St. John City, and the slates of Eel River, near Benton, in New Brunswick, All of these are referable to the Upper Cambrian. The first rapprochement made between Dictyonema flabelli- forme and D, Websteri, took place some two years ago when the Dictyonema, obtained by Prof. L. W. Bailey, near Benton, along the Kel River, in York Co., N. B., was compared with the specimens of D. Websteri, at present in the collections of the Geological Survey Department, and they were found to be so closely related as not to be practically separable. From speci- mens of D. flabelliforme, obtained on Navy Island, and kindly * See Bull. Mus. Univ., State of Missouri, vol. I, no 1, p. 26, St. Louis, 1884, ee Ueber die Graptoliten, Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala. Pl. x, figures 13 and 14, p. 55, 450 UPPER CAMBRIAN AGE OF DICTYONEMA SLATES.—AMI. loaned to me for study and reference by Prof. L. W. Bailey of the University of New Brunswick, it was readily seen that the Benton specimens were also Upper Vambrian in age. In order to ascertain definitely whether D. Websteri, Dawson, from New Canaan, was identical with D. flabelliforme, the type specimens of the former, which formed part of the Dawson collections in the Peter Redpath Museum of MeGill University, were sought, and kindly loaned to the writer by Prof. F. D, Adams. These are preserved on two slabs of more or less hardened sericeous or glossy red shale or slate, and scattered over the surface of the slates in a rather fragmentary state of preservation, except in one specimen, from which the illustration on p. 563, (fig. 196,) was very probably made when the “ Acadian Geology ” was prepared. From a careful study of all the material in hand, the writer is satisfied that the upper beds of the Cambrian System are thus represented in that portion of Nova Scotia where the Dict- yonema flubelliforme beds of Kentville, New Canaan, and the Gaspereau Valley, (south side,) occur. We thus find that the zone or horizon of Dictyonema flabelli- forme, Eichwald, occurs at the following localities in Canada, which may consequently be referred to the Upper or Neo- Cambrian :— (1.) Matane, Quebec, South Shore of St. Lawrence River. (2.) Cape Rosier, Gaspé, Que., near Lighthouse. (3.) Barachvis, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. (4.) Navy Island, near St. John, New Brunswick. (5.) Shales near Benton, above Fredericton, York County, New Brunswick. (6.) New Canaan, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia. (7.) Kentville, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia. (8) Angus Brook, Gaspereau Valley, Kings County, Nova Scotia. Associated with Dictyonema flabelliforme at Angus Brook, are found obscure remains of a Bryograptus, allied to B. Ajerulft from the Upper Cambrian of Scandinavia. V.—NoTEs oN Dr. Amt’s PAPER ON DicryONEMA SLATES OF ANGUS Brook, NEw CANAAN, AND KENTVILLE, N. S.— By, Hexry S. Poort, E.G. S., E R.S: C. arc. (Read 10th February, 1902.) When handed Dr. Ami’s paper to read at this meeting, I was requested to make some remarks on it. I comply, but only do so with the understanding that I can speak with no authority, nor am I able to properly discuss it. It may be of interest to some present to know that the fossil in question, Dictyonema, is classed with the curious fossil forms, Graptolites, and the modern Sertularia among the order of Hydrozoa. These beautiful zoophites are like branching plants and are found on temperate coasts. They have two rows of cells on the horny branches. The Dictyonema also reminds one of the coral Fenestella which occurs in the limestones at Windsor and Brookfield in lower carboniferous rocks ; but the branches of Fenestella which frequently biforate are connected by narrow bands, with charac- teristic round cellules on a calcareous frond. The skeleton of - Dictyonema is striated, serrated and horny. The animals of this class are jelly-like, radially symmetrical, living in colonies, and building up for the common good these horny structures which have been preserved as fossils while all trace of the animal has disappeared. The allies of the Dictyonema, the Graptolites, reached their maximum in Silurian times, and dis- appeared with that age after evolving many varieties of form and habit. Sir A. Geikie speaks of Dictyonema as a characteristic fossil of the primordial zone in Scandinavia, where it is associated with allied but doubtful forms. In Canada it also occurs at Point Levis and other places, with graptolites. (451) 452 NOTES ON DR. AMI’S PAPER ON DICTYONEMA SLATES—POOLE. It certainly is new to place these Dictyonema beds as Cambrian, and it is not easy to understand how Dr. Ami came to change the views he expressed before the Royal Society in 1900, without visiting the locality, unless he has been influenced by the examination lately made by Mr. H. Fletcher. I should like to know what Mr. Fletcher has to say of the stratigraphy and the age of these fossils. I know he has suspected some rocks in this lIceality to be Cambrian, and that he got Mr. Faribault to go over the ground with him. Mr. Faribault, as we all know, has for years made a study of the Cambrian in Nova Scotia, and has written a bulletin of the greatest practical value to miners, on the structure of these rocks and the manner of occurrence in them of auriferous leads and paystreaks. So much has this pamphlet been appreciated that our Mining Society has issued nearly 1000 copies to miners, engineers and students. I may also say I hestitate to accept Dr. Ami’s interpre- tation of the paragraph he quotes from “ Acadian Geology,” in which Sir W. Dawson says: “ These slates . . . are continued in the hills of New Canaan, where they contain crinoidal joints, fossil shells, corals, and in some beds of fawn-colored slate, beau- tiful fanlike expansions of the pretty Dictyonema.” Therefore before accepting a supposition that he meant otherwise than he wrote, I would like to know the views of Mr. Fletcher. Prof. Haycock, of Wolfville, has been with Mr. Fietcher in this field, and has besides made explorations on his own account. What — are his views? If the crinoid, shell and coral beds mentioned are associated with the Dictyonema beds, the series of fossils they probably yield should determine beyond doubt the age of Dictyonema Webstert. These associate fossils are not enumerated. Sir W. Dawson, it is true, spoke of them as Upper Silurian, but then he classed the overlying beds of Bear River as Devonian. Dr. Honeyman put them down as Lower Silurian, and the overlying beds as Upper Silurian, and thus maintained the same relative positions. Dr. Ami quotes from his “Synopsis of the Geology of Canade,” in which many references are made to Nova Scotian NOTES ON DR. AMIS PAPER ON DICTYONEMA SLATES.—POOLE. 453 geology. Some of these have brought out papers in reply in our own “ Transactions,” in the Ottawa “Naturalist,” the proceed- ings of the Mining Society, ete. The comments make it clear that the groups of beds he then proposed as typical formations, and the names he suggested, have not been generally acceptable. As issued, this Synopsis has some paragraphs not easy of interpretation, e. g., he says: “ The most fossiliferous limestones, asat Windsor and Brookfield have been referred to the Windsor formation. . The Windsor is followed or accompanied by an extensive series . . to which the term Millstone Grit has been applied. The Westville formation is equivalent to the so-called Millstone Grit, below the productive coal measures.—Uncon- formably above the Westville is the New Glasgow formation, which is overlaid by Smelt Brook formation. Then follows the Pictou formation, overlaid by the Cape John formation.” Then we are told—“ The Cape John rocks, sometimes called Permo- carboniferous, are well developed in Prince Edward Island . . , and probably represent the equivalent of the Windsor and West- ville formations of Nova Scotia.” If not a mistake of the printer, a veritable round robin—a complete cycle of formations here exists, Further on he says, “It is very possible, however, that the Cape John formation and associated formation may be equiva- lent to ‘Permian’ strata in other portions of North America or Europe ;” thus he leaves the situation still obscure. To a student of our Cambrian rocks the presence of fossils in any members or any reputed members of the series is of interest. Discoveries of a few have been reported, some of which have been adjudged to be only concretions. But Mr. Prest has found in the quartzites of Bedford and Lockport Island radiating obscure structures called Astropolithen. Dr. Selwyn, late Director of the Geological Survey in 1871 dis- covered in the dark slates at the Ovens in Lunenburg County, markings which Mr. Billings determined to be Hophyton, similar to that found at St. John, N. B. Worm tracks, I believe, have been before seen, but the specimen I show is 454 NOTES ON DR. AMI’S PAPER ON DICTYONEMA SLATES,—POOLE. from the syncline at Green Bank, Point Pleasant Park, Halifax. I obtained it last autumn, but could not detect other structures in the same beds * D. Websteri was named by Hall forty years ago; if it be the same as D. flabelliforme or D. sociale, 1 for one am not disposed to take later names “made in Germany,” but contend we should maintain our oldest Nova Scotian name of D. Websteri. A consideration of dates shows that the Eel River fossils were reported on a year before Dr. Ami wrote his Synopsis, and it is hard to understand how their discovery influenced Dr. Ami AFTER he wrote his Synopsis. Nor can we cannot accept Dr. Ami’s conclusion, that the specimens of D. Websteri at McGill are the type specimeas. Hall named it, and Dr. Webster's collection of some two dozen slabs are in the Provincial Museum at Halifax. They show cellules, etc., and, I fancy, a second species. Any examination in criticism of the finding of Hall should be made of the large collection in the Halifax Museum, and at Wolfville, and not be restricted to the two specimens at McGill. * The specimen is now in the Provincial Museum at Halifax. VI.—SuppLemMentary Notes on Drier IcE AS A TRANSPORTING AGENT.—By WALTER H. Prest, Bedford, N. S. (Read 10th March, 1902.) A second visit to Labrador has largely confirmed my obser- vations of 1900*, and convinced me that the transportation of debris by floating ice has been greatly overrated. Although again in the midst of icebergs and field-ice for over three months, I could tind extremely few icebergs carrying earthy material. The field-ice, in huge pans, often several acres in extent, and 40 or 50 feet thick, seemed almost as destitute of debris as the bergs. The only drift-bearing ice was comparatively thin, usually much broken up and refrozen, and without doubt formed in shallow coast waters. Near the Straits of Belle Isle, the little remaining dsbris on this was nearly all marine or much mixed with marine organisms. Further north, especially in the bays, the transported material was largely of littoral origin. This difference was owing to the fact that the surf had nearly completed its cleansing process before the arrival of the ice at the Straits. Some of this debris-bearing ice, when examined closely, is found to be merely discoloured by a very fine, dust like material, probably not s355 part of the weight of the ice bearing it. I had the pleasure of seeing how the harbor ice received its burden, on a shallow, sandy shore called the Strand, a short distance north of Sandwich Bay. Parts of this coast, even in the month of June, were fringed with ice near high-water mark. Over this ran rivulets carrying mud and gravel from the banks above, while the waves contributed their share of debris in the form of sand, seaweed, and shells, One fact strongly supporting my contention of 1900, was brought the more prominently to my notice as I went north. This was the ever increasing quantity of debris on the thin ice Se eee * See paper by the writer in Trans. N. SHIL ISIS VOLS, joi. St (455) 456 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON DRIFT ICE as I proceeded toward its source, showing that the ice drops the greater part of its burden near the northern Labrador coast, But the heavy field-ice and bergs even in the latitude of Nain, showed very few traces of impurities. Further south the remarkable cleanliness of the heavy ice was more noticeable. Along the southern 150 miles of the north-east Labrador coast, although icebergs were constantly in sight, I saw only five that carried impurities, the most of these having merely discoloured patches and bands. The pure white sides of the vast number of these ice masses gave evidence of the cleansing power of sun and surf since leaving their northern home. I have made many enquiries concerning the presence of earth and stones on the ice in the North Atlantic. Among the men questioned was Captain Nordby, an old Norwegian mariner, now at Parrsboro, N. S; Captains James and William McConnell, of Port Hilford, N. S., who have had life long experiences in these northern seas; and also several Newfoundland sealing captains, men who have had more experience with drift ice than any other seamen in the world. I find among them an almost unanimous opinion that the quantity of debris brought south by the bergs and field-ice is extremely small, and that the addition to the Grand Banks by these means would be hardiy noticeable even in a hundred centuries. That the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are not the immense deposits of ice-transported mud and other debris formerly supposed, I may instance the Virgin Ledges, awash at low water. The Tertiary fragments dredged up there indicate the existence of large areas of exposed rocky ledges, rather than the results of drift transportation from more northern regions. The disin- tegration of these rocks, no doubt, greatly assisted in the formation of outlying portions of the banks at a time when the eastern part of the American continent was much higher and more extensive than at present. The evidence seems to point to the existence there of an undulating, rocky plateau, which, like the adjacent provinces, had its morraines, kames, and other accumulations of drift, subsequently slightly added to by oceanic circulation. AS A TRANSPORTING AGENT.—PREST. 457 In reference to erosion by drift ice—noticed in my former paper—an exact counterpart of the peculiar markings and furrows seen in Labrador is to be seen in the Mount Uniacke gold district, Nova Scotia. There, about three-quarters of a mile east of the 30-stamp mill, on several large exposures of quartzite, are seen hundreds of the curved furrows and scratches vossible only with the irregular movements of storm-tussed boulders. These scratched surfaces incline slightly toward a shallow valley to the northwest, and show on that side the strongest evidences of ice action. Some of the more protected portions show evidences of earlier glacial action, the striations varying from 8. 8° to 8. 16° E. In concluding these notes, I can only reiterate my opinioris of a year agc :—Ist, that the drift ice from the Arctic performs but an extremely infinitesimal part in the building of the accu- mulation known as the Banks of Newfoundland; 2nd, that these banks had their origin in Pleistocene times, and are simply glacial debris worked over by the sea; 3rd, that their terrestrial equivalents can be traced in the broad belt of morraines, kames, dunes, and other modified deposits which reach in a huge, irregular curve from Nova Scotia and the southern part of the New England States to the prairies of the Canadian Northwest, Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vor. X TRANS,— FF, VIL—AGRICULTURAL CreDIT—By Joun Davipson, PHIL. Dz Professor of Political Economy, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. (Read 10th March, 1902.) The great business of agriculture has generally shown itself conservative in character and slow to adopt innovations in the methods and organization which have been freely adopted in other industries; and the result has not infrequently been an agrarian crisis arising out of the conflict of old established ways and new ideas. Such a crisis occurs when a nation or a people is passing from a natural economy to a money economy, that 1s, from a condition when each farm was almost a self-sufficing unit, to a condition in which rents and wages are paid in money. At such periods there has usually been a good deal of distress. To a smaller degree the same difficulties arise with every exten- sion of the market and every improvement of transportation which separates producer and consumer, and brings in a greater competition. The farmers of Europe have, during the last half century, been experiencing such difticulties ; and apparently the farmers in the newest countries, whether in America or in the antipodes, have found that their enterprise in forcing an entrance into the European market has made a decisive change in their own conditions. Briefly speaking, the change is that farming has become a business requiring all the aids and assistance that modern businesses require. The days of the self-sufficing farmer have gone, never to return. Men will never again carve out homes for themselves in the wilderness. It is not that the men of to-day have not the grit and the energy and the perseverance of the heroic pioneers. It is simply that the farmer has become a producer for a market, and that his success is measured by his achievements in that market. He no longer measures himself by the old standard. He expects to buy, not to make, much of (458) AGRICULTURAL CREDIT..—DAVIDSON. 4.59 what he needs to use. He does not fashion his implements, “knock together ” his furniture, weave his own cloth. These things he buys, and is the better for buying. Nor does he look to consume in his own household most of that which his farm produces. He has become a member of another kind of society. He is a business man perforce, and produces for a market ; and access to markets on the most profitable terms is as vital to him as to any other producer. When it began to be perceived a quarter of a century ago that farming had become a business, many people, both practical men and theorists, jumped to the conclusion that the tendency towards production on a large scale would show itself in agri- culture. But time has shown that production on a large scale is not so profitable in agriculture as in manufacturing, and many of the large farms which were started have been broken up. It was Claimed for the large farmer, that he would have the very great advantage of being able to command the large capital which a business which produces for a distant market, as farm- ing had become, required. Farming under the regime of world competition could be profitable to those only who could obtain credit and take advantage of the fluctuations of the market. This, the small farmer could not do, because he had little capital and less credit. The advantage of the large farmer has not been so great; but the disadvantages of the small farmer have not been less than is thus stated. And the world over, on the con- tinent of Europe, in the Old Country, in the United States and in Canada, and in New Zealand and Australia, there is the same ery and demand from the farmer, that he is handicapped because of the high rates of interest he has to pay to obtain the capital and the credit his business requires. His occupation has become, and is daily more and more becoming, a business that depends on markets and marketing. The farmer bas to measure himself by the business standard, and his complaint is that he is not provided with the necessary requisites for so conducting his business as a business. Various devices and proposals have been put forward to assist the farmer on easier terms to the two 460 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. requisites of business, viz., capital and credit ; and to the exam- ination of some of these, and to an investigation of the relation of the Canadian farmer to our existing credit institutions, this paper is devoted. The greater part of it was presented* as a report to a committee of the New Brunswick Farmers’ Congress, which had been appointed to discuss the problem of cheaper money for the farmer. It was presented after a statement by the committee of the abuses and wrongs to which the farmer has to submit. In the opinion of the writer, the committee did not make out avery strong case, although some striking instan- ces of usurious rates of interest and of the disabilities of reput- able farmers in approaching a bank, were given. The negative character of the conclusions drawn in the report was thus, in a measure, justified by the failure of the committee to make out its case, and there is not, in the opinion of the writer, much room for general regret that schemes successful elsewhere are not adapted to our Canadian conditions. The description of the difficulties in the way of the farmer obtaining the credit the modern conditions of his business demands, which has been given by Mr. Hubbard, naturally raises the question why it is that the farmer has not shared, to the full, the benefits which a developed banking system has con- ferred on other industries. Is there any reason in the nature of things, or has it been simply an accident, that the banks have not served the farmer as they serve the merchant or the manu- facturer ? Credit is just as necessary in agriculture as in commerce and industry, and it is therefore necessary to enquire whether agriculture and commerce, for instance, are so different in character that the credit they require cannot be provided by one institution. Only after coming to the conclusion that our present banking system is not suited to provide agricultural credit, as it provides commercial credit, need we take the trouble to consider remedies adopted in other countries to deal with a similar situation. Broadly speaking, there isa marked difference. Returns in agriculture are slower than returns in trade and industry. The * 28th January, 1902. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 461 Jatter require, or should require, loans for short periods only ; the former needs advances for long periods which, however, and unfortunately, are too long for lending and too short for invest- ment, if such investment were permitted by our banking laws, Generally speaking, capital is not turned over in agriculture in a period much short of a twelvemonth, and should the season prove unfavourable, and the crop fail, credit may be required for still longer periods than a twelvemonth. It is a maxim of good banking and good business that loans should be repaid, after earning a profit for the borrower, out of the property in which the loan has been invested. When a bank lends to a merchant, it lends on the security of a stock of finished and marketable commodities, which both merchant and manufacturer have, using their knowledge of market conditions, considered to be marketable, the manufae- turer because he produced these commodities to sell them, and the merchant because he bought to sell. The bank has, therefore, every reason to be confident that the goods on which it lends will, in this case, find a market, provide a profit for the merchant, and a fund from which the loan can be repaid. The manufac- turer has not, other things being equal, quite such a good standing with the banks. The bank has one judgment only guaranteeing that the goods being produced will find a market. So far as the raw material is concerned, the bank may contilently advance, because what has founl a market once will find it again; but with regard to the commodities into which this raw material is to be converted, the bank has at the best the security only of the manufacturer’s judgment that the goods will sell. It is true that the manufacturer has often a better standing than the merchant; but this advantage arises from the larger amount of capital invested. The small manufacturer has not, as arule, as good a standing as the merchant using the same amount of capital. The farmer, again, has not as good a standing as the manufacturer, for the simple reason that the normal basis of agricultural credit is raw material vet to be produced; and the bank has the farmer’s judgment only that the goods when 462 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. produced will find a ready market. It is true that they do find a market, for man must live on the fruits of the soil; and there is a pretty sure market for the staple agricultural products. Except on staple crops, banks lending to farmers are making speculative loans, for the market is not assured ; and even with staple crops, there are greater risks in agriculture than in manu- factures, owing to seasons, ete. It is true that loans are sometimes made on other security than the property in which the loan is to be invested. The bank may lend on the basis of personal earnings from other sources, or it may lend on the security of character or of other property ; but such loans are likely to be small in amount, and the ordinary type of business loan is made on the security of the property in which the loan is to be invested, and on the judg- ment that the product of the investment will find a ready sale. When the producer is well known in business circles, and his judgment is accepted readily regarding market conditions, the producer even of raw materials may have little difficulty in finding accommodation at the banks. The lumber operator is not, in many respects, in a much better position than the farmer. _ He, too, requires advances for long periods, and he, too, has, as. the security he offers, a raw product on which no judgment but. his own has been expressed; and his industry is to an even greater extent than the farmer's the plaything of the seasons. But the operator has little difficulty in getting the necessary advances, even from the commencement of his season’s opera- tions, and in getting larger and larger advances as his material product comes nearer to his market; for he is generally a man of capital, known in the Lusiness community and accepted as a man on whose judgment reliance can be placed. But the farmer is not a man of capital, and the banks have no confidence in his individual judgment, for they do not know him. And so the poor farmer gets none. It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that the banks are not animated by any hostility to the farmer. The dreaded “ money power” is the creation of politicians and demagogues of the AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 463 wild west. The banks are ready for any kind of business that is profitable, and does not depart radically from their methods of doing business. Agriculture requires a kind of eredit they have not been in the habit of giving. The farmer asks credit for too long a period, and above all, for an uncertain and indefinite period, if it is to be of the fullest advantage to him. Moreover, the banker knows little of the individual farmer, and has but very limited opportunities for watching the business proceedings of a farmer who borrows; and the ordinary process of everyday business does not bring the farmer debtor under the banker's observation as it does the merchant or manufacturer who bor- rows. When the farmer is ready to market his crop, the bank is more ready to do business, although the business is usually done by middlemen ; but as a producer, as a farmer pure and simple, he has not, and in the nature of things cannot expect to have, the same credit facilities as the merchant. What may be the case when the government does fully what in Australasia and to a much less extent in Canada, governments are beginning to do, viz., to guarantee a market for the farmer’s produce, and even to advance the price, or part of the price, is another question. In such cases the banks ought to be willing to treat the farmer on the most favourable terms; bnt in such a case the farmer is likely, having cash in hand, to be comparatively independent of bank advances. But till that time the farmer has not much to look for from the banks. It is true, as the Hon. Mr. Blake has asserted (Hansard, 1890, p. 4295) that, “The moment a farmer can show that he can give the same prospect of a return, with the same advantage, with the same security that other competitors for the stock of available money can give, he will get all the money he wants; and to the extent he cannot show that he will never get it.” But it must be remembered that the difficulty lies in the nature of the business, not in the honesty of the borrower. The problem of agricultural credit is not the problem how to supply money at low rates of interest to those who do not deserve to get it and do not know how to use it. That is likely to remain 464 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. a problem, but it is not of any interest to the community. The problem of agricultural credit is how to supply money at low rates of interest to those who are competent to manage it, so as to make it yield enough to repay the loan with a profit to the borrower. For it must always be remembered in this connection that what the lender wants is interest, not farms; and when, owing to incompetence on the part of the borrower, the lender runs arisk of getting a farm instead of his principai and interest, he wiil insist on being paid for the risk he runs. The farm may be just as good, but the lender does not want it, and does not care for the risk of having it left on his hands. Lending money isa matter of business, and a bank exists chiefly for this purpose ; but the borrower must show that he has a legitimate use for the loan, and that he is competent to use it so as to provide for repayment at maturity. As business is, the farmer cannot satisfy these commercial requirements ; and the problem for which a solution is sought is how the farmer can obtain the credit his business requires. Is is desirable, in order to promote an understanding of the situation, that we should distinguish carefully between the general and the special advantages which arise from an efficient banking system. Our banking system is designed primarily as an agent of commerce and of industry, but it confers great and undoubted benefits upon the whole community. It provides a sound and elastic money ; it gives facilities to the investor and the depositor, and by affording real services to the merchant and the manufacturer, it promotes the interests of every member of the community. Fortunnately it is not true that one man’s gain is another man’s loss, and we all reap some advantage, directly or indirectly, from the prosperity of our neighbours. Whatever general benefit a good banking system confers on the community at large, that the farmer shares with all his fellow citizens, and in our own case these benefits are large. The farmer also has his share in the personal credit which the banks give, and this for him and fcr others under stress of competition may be of considerable amount. But this is not AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 465 really legitimate credit. It is consumer's, not producer's credit ; it is accommodation which is intended to cover expenditure already made, credit which is not intended to yield a profit. It is not a credit of which a man may be proud, and it hurts or ought to hurt the standing of a man to be known to receive it. This kind of credit the farmer may receive; but it is precisely this fact that requires a remedy. He, a producer, should be entitled to legitimate or producer’s credit, and should not be held down to that which non-producers, in an overdeveloped banking prac- tice, may be given. The farmer’s just ground of complaint is that, while he may share with the general public in the general benefits which a banking system confers, he is debarred, from one reason or another, from a perfectly legitimate producer's credit as a matter of business, although he may receive a limited amount of personal credit as accommodation. Our banking system is not specially adapted to the needs of the farmer as farmer. In so far as agriculture is a branch of commerce, that is, in so far as the farmer has finished goods to sell, he may be specially benefitted. He is then in almost as good a position as the manufacturer, who, too, like the farmer, markets his wares at second hand; and the whole process of exchange is facilitated by sound banking as much for the wheat from the farm as for the cloth from the factory. For commerce we have a most excellent system, eminently well fitted to assist in marketing goods of all kinds. It provides us with an elastic currency which maxes money easv at the time when most business isto be done. It facilitates the moving of the crops in the latter end of the year, and it is doubtful if the farming community realizes how much it benefits in this way, and how much harder the case would be if our bankiug system was less perfect than it is. Ina general way, there is a recognition of its excellence, because the banks have served the communit; so well that we have heard but the faintest echoes of a “silver question” in Canada. But we have to consider the farmer, not merely as having something to sell, but, in his wore important aspect, as a pro- 466 AGRICULTURAL GREDIT.—DAVIDSON. ducer. Like the manufacturer, the farmer benefits when he has to market his produce, but, unlike the manufacturer, he receives little or no assistance from the banks to assist him in production ; and it is precisely here that the pinch comes. Our banking system provides no credit facilities for the farmer as producer. Where, in other countries, farming is carried on on a large scale, and where the farmer is as well-known in the business world as the manufacturer using the same capital, the question of agri- cultural credit does not specifically arise ; and if all farmers were farmers on a large scale, like the typical tenant-farmer of Great Britain, who, beciuse he operates with a comparatively large capital and is well-known, can command eredit, like any other producer, on tolerably easy terms, we could trust the farmer to get what credit his standing warranted. But large tenant-farm- ing is not common with us, and the farmer who is in a moderate or small way of business is not known in the business world, and does not obtain the credit he requires from the banks on any- thing like as easy terms as the small manufacturer or tradesman, or retail shopkeeper. Wherever agriculture is followed as a business, pure and simple, little difficulty has been found in granting the farmer the necessary credit for his business; and as agriculture is coming to be pursued more and more as a busi- ness, with the market in constant view, it is possible that the farmer in the future may get more special benefit from our banking system. Even as it is, the Canadian banks do more for the farmer than any other banking system does. Some eulogists of our banking system have applied the term agricultural to it, and this, at least, is true, that if ever a commercial banking system was entitled to the term agricultural our national system is. It is significant that where it is proposed to amend the banking system of the United States so as to afford better credit facilities for the farmer, the proposal takes the form of a system of branch banks such as we have in Canada. The only system which can compare with our own in this respect is the Scottish, where the famous “ cash credits ” had an enormous influence in developing AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 467 the industry and the agriculture of the country. One writer says enthusiastically :—*“ In the space of a hundred and fifty years it raised its country from the lowest state of barbarism to its pres- ent, proud position,’ and “the far-famed agriculture of the Lothians, the manufactures of Glasgow and Paisley, the unri- valled steamships of the Clyde, are its proper children.” This, as applied to agriculture, is no exaggeration, and it is not a little significant that the founders of the agricultural banks on the continent of Europe, to which reference will be made later, adopted from the Scottish Cash Credit System the idea of per- sonal responsibility, which was its essence. We have not now the cash credit system in Canada, It was tried in the early days and had detinitely to be abandoned because it was not suited to a country where the population was as migratory as it is with us. But the system of overdraft is quite as useful, and our banks are able to maintain the essential benefits of the cash credit system which did so much for agriculture in Scotland. Our banks to-day do more for the farmer than the Scottish banks can now do. In Scotland itself, the cash credit as applied to agriculture is a thing of the past, and has been little used for half acentury. The cash credit was partly, at least, a device for increasing the note circulation of the bank. An extra risk was taken on the loan to secure an extra profit on the notes which were thus got into circulation, When the right of issuing notes at discretion, secured only by the general assets of the bank, was withdrawn in 1845, the banks no longer had any motive for encouraging borrowers in this way, and the cash credit system was gradually withdrawn from agriculture and confined ina restricted way to commerce and industry. And it must be remembered that the farmers of the Lothians were already men of some financial standing, and that the benefits of the cash credit were never experienced by the small farmer and crofter of the north. Our Canadian banks, however, still prac- tically retain the right and privilege of note issues at the discre- tion of the bank, and they are thus able to extend ercdit facilities to districts which would otherwise go unserved. They still have 468 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. the motive of seeking an extra profit on their note issues to induce them to take some risk on their loans. The Canadian public and the Canadian farmer are, when all is taken into con- sideration, the scattered population and the imperfect means of communication in particular, better served by the banks than the Scottish public and the Scottish farmer. The Scottish banks are praised because they assisted the farmer, and it was the peculiar feature of the Scottish system that suggested the Euro- pean Popular Banks. The Canadian bank is in most respects like the Scottish, and has done even more for the farmer. Our banking system is, like the Seottish, a system of branch banks, and the number of the branches is continuously increas- ing. By this means the banks are adapted to local needs, and it is their policy to extend their services to the remotest districts. In the eighties of last century there was considerable agitation which found expression in parliament, for a system of far- mers’ banks, and since that time the banks, having apparently become conscious of the danger in which the system was if more attention was not paid to the agricultural districts, have steadily increased the number of their branches. In 1881 there were 287 branches in Canada; in 1890 this number had increased to 444; and in 1900 there Were 641, of which a large number are in purely agricultural districts. These branches are distributed all over the Dominion, and if the Canadian farmer has not all the vanking facilities he ought to have, the reason is not here, what- ever may be the case in other countries, that the bank is not at his door. An attempt is sometimes made to show that our banking system confers a special benefit upon the farmer because it is calculated to equalize the bank rate all over the country, but that, at the best, is a blessing for which the farmer in the west has more reason to be thankful than the farmer in the east. It is said that our system gathers up the surplus money of one district and uses it elsewhere where money is scarce; but the New Brunswick farmer who borrows is not likely to regard this as an advantage. For if the rate of interest is eyualized all AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 469 over the Dominion, some districts must be made to pay more that others may pay less. If the surplus savings of the east are sent to the west, it is the western borrower and the eastern depositor who gain; the eastern borrower has to pay a higher rate of interest. Broadly speaking, the eastern, and particularly the maritime, provinces save more than the banks find local investment foratseven per cent. Thereare no figures published to show the relative discounts and deposits in the 105 banks and branches in the maritime provinces, but the Upper Canadian banks which are coming down here are seeking deposits, and the maritime banks which are seeking opeuings in the west are seeking a better outlet for their deposits. The Savings Bank returns are evidence, at least, of the relative instinct of saving in the different provinces. New Brunswick has $27.35 deposited per head of population; P. E. Island, $19.25; Nova Scotia, $17.78 ; Manitoba has $5.41; N. W. Territories, $1.79.. T donot desire to be guilty of sectionalism in any shape or form, and that is one of the prevailing political vices of the maritime provinces ; but it is not difficult to see that the Canadian banking system does not work quite so much for the benefit of the maritime borrower as it does elsewhere. For the business man the slight disadvantage of slightly dearer money is more than made up to him by the advantages of membership in a great banking system ; but for the farmer there is not the same compensation. The great merit that is claimed for People’s Banks in the continent of Europe is that they fix savings in the locality in which they are made. It is there felt as a grievance in the country districts that the savings of the people are drawn to the great money centres and help there to build up the towns at the expense of the country, and accelerate the drift of population to the cities. That does not happen with us; but we have our own difficnlty. The savings of the east are taken for the development of the west, and this has been regarded by some who professed to speak for the agricultural interests as an evil to be remedied. During the eighties of last century several motions to introduce bills to adapt the banking system of the Dominion to the needs of the farmer were debated, and it was 470 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. then repeatedly urged that “a measure which would provide facilities for the establishment of local banks . . . would confer a great benefit.” (Can. Hansard, 1885, p. 119.) And the advantage was supposed to be that savinos would by this means be fixed in their own localities, to the great benefit of borrowers, at least in such provinces as New Brunswick, which saves more than it can lend. Whether this difficulty can be overcome is another question. It is not overcome by any European system, for People’s Banks were devised to provide a remedy for this evil. Nor is it overcome under the highly decentralized system of the United States. The Canadian banking system is not an agricultural system, and perhaps never has been any more fitted to supply agricultural credit than it is to-day; but it is a better system, even for the farmer, than any other that has been devised as an ordinary banking system. As a matter of fact, fixing local savings, which seems so desirable to the borrower who resides in a district that saves more than it invests, is not realisable under modern business conditions. Sooner or later, economically or otherwise, surplus savings will find their way to the district where there is demand for them. ‘he distant bor- rower 1nay be made to pay more, but the money cannot be kept at home. There have been various proposals to amend our own and other banking systems in the interests of the farmers. So far as the Dominion is concerned, these proposals have been either to adopt the Dominion system of local banks or to establish land banks—neither of which promises any relief. The small local bank is not forbidden by our Canadian banking act, though new banks with less than $500,000 cannot now be established with rights of issuing paper money. Such local banks do ezntinue to exist, and chiefly in the maritime provinces. Of fourteen banks with a paid up capital of less than a million, ten are in the maritime provinces. None of the New Brunswick banks has an authorized capital of more than $500,000, and the average is only $293,000; one of these, the People’s Bank, the smallest in the Dominion. Yet these small banks do not serve to fix savings AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. AT1 in their own localities. All of them have large deposits with other banks in Canada and elsewhere; and it is the Farmers’ Congress of New Brunswick, the home of the small bank in the Canadian system, that calls for this report on Agricultural Credit. The proposals to establish land banks are generally charac- terized by an entire absence of knowledge of banking conditions and of the history of credit institutions. If any principle has been established by bitter experience it is that land is not a satisfactory basis for a bank. One agitator declared in the House of Commons (Hansard, 1884, p. 213,) that money based on the landed property of a country is perfectly safe, whereas experience has shown again and again that money might as well be issued based on the rings of Saturn. To attempt to modify our banking system in this way would destroy all its present value, which is, however, commercial rather than agricultural. And the problem before us is not how to destroy the credit which the merchant and the manufacturer enjoy, but how to make that credit, or some credit, available for the farmer. In my opinion, the Canadian banking system is doing all it can do, and one might even venture the assertion that it is sometimes doing, by “liberal banking” in this province and elsewhere, and by undue concession of purely personal accommodation, more than it is safe for banks to do. For the farmer, as a seller of produce, it does and can do much; for the farmer, as a member of the general public, it does and can do much ; for the farmer, as a farmer, it can do but little; and it is strictly forbidden by law to attempt more than it does do. The banks are forbidden to lend on mortgage or the security of land. They may, and do, to a large extent, | believe, evade this prohibition by making land the basis on which personal accommodation is given. But the prohibition stands. Further, the wording of the act was amended so as to stand in the way of the bank making advances to a farmer as a “producer.” This was done professedly to protect the interests of the farmer. It was pointed out that the general credit of the farmer “with merchants and others rests on the visible possession of certain personal property, such 472 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. chattels as grain, cattle and implements. An assignment of these, according to the forin prescribed by the act, would not, like a chattel mortgage, become notorious, and the basis of a farmer's credit would be badly impaired, no creditor being able to know whether the ownership of property is in the person whom he is asked to trust or in some bank.” (Breckenridge, p. 348.) The principies of our banking system are so well established and its practice so well approved by experience, that the farmer has nothing more to hope for in that quarter. He has still less to hope for from any tinkering and amendment of that system which might destroy its present perfect adaptation to our commercial and currency needs without being able to improve the farmer's position in the slightest degree. But the problem still remains how the farmer is to be accommodated with the capital and the credit his business require. We may acquiesce in the political wisdom of rigidly confining the banks to their proper function of providing com- mercial credit, but must we acquiesce in the absence of credit facilities for the farmer? Agriculture is in all countries the most important, and in most the dominant, industry, and its pro- gress cannot be hampered and hindered without national loss, We may ask, therefore, whether it is not possible to develope credit institutions, under government regulation, it may be, to supply this need, or whether it is possible for the government of the country to supply the lack directly. Such attempts have been made, and we now turn to a description of what has been done, and is being done, in other countries, or among ourselves, to meet the demand. There are two great methods, people's banks and government loans. Both are of comparatively recent origin, and both have the same aim of providing the farmer with what the banks have not, and, in my opinion, cannot adequately provide. The People’s Banks of Europe were established to provide farming credit, and it is difficult to realise the amount of busi- ness that is done through them. They are of two classes: one better adapted for providing credit to small merchants and pro- ducers, the other distinctively agricultural. They aim at making AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 473 the principle of self-help productive as wellas provident. They are not mere savings banks instituted to encourage habits of thrift; they endeavour to supply credit to their members. This they do by one of two methods. They may issue shares of small amounts to form a capital of guarantee and then borrow on the security of this capital and lend out to their members. This first class is co-operative in character, but they often manage to com- bine co-operation with high dividends on shares, and the dividend earning instinct may influence their business to a greater extent than their co-operative principle. These are known as the Schulze Delitsch banks, after their founder, and are mainly industrial in character. They have not been found peculiarly well adapted to agriculture. The other type is peculiarly suited for the needs of small farmers and cultivators, and they do a very large and a very safe business. ‘They are entirely co-oper- ative in character, and are almost invariably managed by an unsalaried committee, and confine their operations to a very small area, such as the parish. They borrow the money they lend again to their members; but this money is not secured by any capital of guarantee. The members are jointly and severally liable to an unlimited extent for what they borrow to Jend again. To put the matter in another way, they borrow on a joint note, to which every member is a party, and the money so obtained is loaned out to individual members. This unlimited liability makes members very careful about the character of those admit- ted or retained, as a man is careful about the character of a man whose paper he endorses. The loans are made for specfic pur- poses to individuals known to the committee who are able to ascertain whether the loan is applied to the purpose for which it was borrowed. As there are no expenses of management worth mentioning, the bank is able to lend to its members at a very small advance on what it pays, and every member shares in the joint credit of all, and the system has been well characterized as the capitalization of character and honesty. The system is well developed and it has not resulted in loss, Not a penny has been lost to any one in all the forty-seven years’ experience of these Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., VOL. X. TRANS.—GG. 4,74, AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.— DAVIDSON. Raffeissen banks, as they are called. They do not lend on mort- gages, but on simple acceptances, and yet their business has proved not only safe but much safer than the ordinary business of the commercial banks. It has been estimated that at least $750,000,000 is made available for the small producer, farmer and merchant, by these popular credit institutions, and the gain is not economic alone. Germany, Austria and Italy have thousands of these co-operative banks in operation. The movement has extended to Ireland during recent years. It had to meet not only the opposition of ignorance, but the political prejudice of the mass of the people who saw in people’s banks nothing but another device for killing Home Rule by kindness. The man most directly responsible for the establish- ment of these co-operative people’s banks is Mr. Plunkett, who was defeated in the recent election by Col. Lynch of the Boer army. Yet, in spite of prejudice in Ireland, in five years since the movement was started, 75 Raffeissen banks have been estab- lished. Last year these banks loaned out $45,000, on which the loss amounted to $7, and what is more remarkable, there are no overdue accounts. One of the objections which the commercial bank has to the farmer as a borrower is that he is not punctual in his payments. In these co-ope ration banks, whether in Ire- jand or on the continent, punctuality in payment is universal. In one of the Irish banks 586 loans were made last year, and in twelve cases only was there a week’s lateness in making pay- ment, This is the more remarka ble when it is remembered that these loans are made for strictly productive purposes, and that the borrowers are strictly held to their declared purpose. Loans are made for short or for long periods, though generally for three months with the privilege of renewal in full if the purpose is still approved and the borrower's character remains good. Within the Dominion at least one attempt has been made to establish People’s Banks on a co-operative basis to assist the farmer to obtain cheaper agricultural credit. British Columbia has legislation on its statute book authorizing the formation of and offering a subsidy to such agricultural credit institutions. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 475 But so far the law isa dead letter, and the British Columbia Department of Agriculture explains the absence of interest in the scheme by the lack of the co-operative spirit. Asa matter of fact the legislation seems to be of almost a pure academic character, answering to no popular demand and inspired by the instinct of revelation which leads people to suppose that an institution that has succeeeded elsewhere must be needed and do good here. British Columbia is probably the least agricultural of all our provinees, and is likely long to remain so; and British Columbia is very well supplied with what banking facilities our system can provide for the farmer. The failure is not due to the absence of the co-operative spirit, but to the absence of any great need for co-operation All that is secured so laboriously and so painfully by co-operative production and co-operative banking in European countries, is without effort secured for us in the natural organisation of business. America has few exam- ples of co-operative enterprises, because the spirit of co-operation is already largely embodied in our every-day business institu- tions, and we enjoy in Canada very largely all the benefits which co-operative banking secures in Europe without any of the inconveniences which accompany conscious co-operation. In Europe, co-operation aftords scope for the latent abilities of men who have little hope of rising above the class in which they were born; in America there is a free career for the latents, and the born co-operators become independent managers of men. Briefly, the Canadian banking system may be said to do as much for the farmer as the European system of popular banks accom- plishes there, and it is very doubtful whether, among men of our race, co-operative banking would accomplish any good result. Our areas are too vast, our population is too much scattered, our people too migratory and too anxious to rise to positions of com- mand, to make co-operation a success. We have tried and abandoned the Scotch Cash Credit System as not well adapted to our needs; and as we have already noted the cash credit system originally suggested the European co-operative banks. It must not be forgotten that there are two distinct questions involved in the use of the terms Agricultural Credit, and I do 476 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. not know which of these was in the mind of those who moved for the committee which asked me to report. There is the question, which is rapidly becoming a very important question, of credit for carrying on the business of farming, with which question I have been dealing. There is the entirely different question of loans for the improvement of property. Last fall there was a great drought on the North Shore, and farmers had to sell their cattle because of lack of fodder to carry them through the winter. Co-operative banking is designed to meet just such cases as this, and positively to enable the farmer to extend his operations wherever there is a prospect of profit. These banks are not mortgage banks, though some of them do lend on mort- gage—a position which the apostles of the movement regard as illegitimate. There are in Europe, in addition to these popular banks, many institutions which exist for the purpose of lending money on mortgage for the improvement of land. These banks have more than a century of successful history, but their opera- tions are confined to the landlord class, and do nothing for the business of farming as such. We have had similar institutions in America, and in Canada in particular, although they are here called by another name. We know them as Loan Companies and Trust Companies, which do a very large business in lending money on mortgage, particularly in the province of Ontario. These are purely private undertakings, and are not backed, asin Germany, by the explicit approval of the state. In 1899 there was real estate mortgaged to these loan companies to the value of 216 millions for loans amounting to 111 millions, or 51 per cent. of the value. These companies are said by a very com- petent observer, Professor Shortt of Queen’s College, to provide an efficient and not very costly credit instrument for the farmer. Such institutions, however, are making loans for improvement, not for making the business of farming profitable. It is true that money is often borrowed on mortgage for other than improvement purposes, but such “calamity loans,” as the United States Census of 1890 called them, are not made to promote the business of farming. ‘“ People mortgage their real estate to get married, to obtain divorces, and to pay alimony; AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. A477 to pay their taxes, to pay rent, and to pay the money lender. They raise money by mortgage in order that they may travel, and that they may expend it in extravagant living; they speculate with it, and they relend it. Politicians pay their political debts by means of mortgages. Wives pay the debts of their husbands and educate them for the ministry. Men mortgage their real estate te pay their physician, their undertaker, and their lawyers, to help their friends and relatives to make good their defalca- tions, to educate their children, and to support their parents.” (U.S. Census, 1890, Mortgage Vol., p. 279). But after all, loans for such purposes form but a small part of the whole, not 6 per cent. of the number, not 2 per cent. of the amount in the United States; and probably this proportion holds true of Canada, although we have no definite information. Most of the mort- gages are incurred to effect improvements of a more or less permanent character. Information is lacking regarding the rate of interest which is paid on mortgages in Canada. There is no doubt that it is high, although in New Brunswick, at least, the rate is falling, and corporations which have money which they must invest in first-class securities are being foreed to consider whether it is worth while to invest in mortgages which now bring a grudging six per cent. only, with a prospect that five will soon be all that is obtainable. It is because the rate of interest is high that there is a demand in some quarters that the state should place its credit at the disposal of the farmers to enable them to borrow at less than the present market rate. Such a proposal is regarded with great alarm in some quarters, but there is ample and conservative precedent for it. The English Royal Commission on Agriculture, recognizing the demand for “ increased outlay on improvements necessitated by changes in agriculture,” recom- mended state loans to farmers, for which they claimed rightly that there was ample precedent in English agrarian legislation. The gist of the evidence laid before this commission brings out, according to Mr. Wolff (People’s Banks, p. 54,) that “ wherever in agriculture there is ample command of money for working a 478 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. farm, for manuring, feeding, cultivating, and holding over produce, just as circumstance may dictate, without stint and without limit, the effects of distress are very much mitigated ;’ and it was to afford such a mitigation to all, that the commission recomm ended a system of state loans. In English and in Scottish land legislation to a slight extent, and in Irish legislation to a very great extent, the principle of using the state credit to improve the position of the farmer has been adopted and carried out. The chief object is one which has little meaning under Canadian conditions, but the same principle is involved in using state credit to create a class of small land- owners as in using it to reduce the rate of interest on mortgages. Irish land legislation has advanced far from the tentative proposals in the Bright clauses of the Land Act of 1870; Eins first act proposed that the state advance two-thirds of the money required to convert the tenant into owner, to be repaid, capital and interest, in equal instalments of 5 per cent. in) Bo years. The famous Land Act of 1851 incidentally made it possible to advance state money to the amouut of three-quarters of the purchase price, repayable in 49 years. But the outstand- ing pieces of legislation are Conservative in origin. The Land Purchase Act of 1885 permitted the advance of the whole purchase money, repayable, capital and interest, with 4 per cent. interest, over 49 years. Under this act purchases were made on behalf of 13,700 Ivish tenants, at a cost of about 45 million dollars, and the Irish tenant could, and did, become the owner of his farm by making, for that period, annua] payments 44 per cent. less than his former rent had been. “ This great boon,’ says Mr. Shaw Lefevre (Agrarian Tenures,p.142,) “is due to the use of money borrowed from the state at 3 per cent. to purchase the landlord’s interest on the very low terms of 17} times the rent.” Mr. Balfour’s Land Purebase Act of 1891 went still further in the same direction. It involves the use of Imperial credit on a very large scale, and was distinguished by an effort to provide some security to the Imperial Government for repay- ment of the loans—a provision not unlike the process by which AGRICULTURAL CREDIT..—DAVIDSON. 479 the Dominion Government can deduct allowances from the Dominion subsidies to the provinces. And still further legislation is demanded by the Irish party. The Irish land question stands by itself, and perhaps it were as well not to quote Irish agrarian legislation as a precedent ; but there is no such objection to the precedent established in our sister colonies of New Zealand and Australia. There the prin- ciple of using state credit to assist the farmer has been carried out on a very large scale. The policy has still to stand the test of experience, and particularly the experience of hard times. At present the policy is still popular. The New Zealander, accord- ing to his eulogist, Mr. Lloyd, uses his national credit to get money in London to lend again in advances to settlers and free the farmer from the high rates of interest he is paying the pri- vate bankers. (Newest England, p. 151.) New Zealand began this policy in 1893, and since then its example has been followed by New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria. The system is described thus by Mr. Lloyd: “The world over, one of the greatest obstacles in the way of the small farmer, and the large one, is the difficulty of getting capital. Often there is no money to be borrowed in the district where he lives, or if there is, it is in the hands of rich neigh- bours or banks, who know nothing but their bond and the pound of flesh. But in New Zealand the settler has only to go to the nearest post office to get into communication with a money lender who charges no commission or brokerage, and no fees, except for actual expenses, never exacts usury, offers no cut-throat mortgages for signature, will let him have any amount from as little as $125 to as much as $15,000, has never foreclosed, does not try to induce him to borrow more than he really needs ; if he has no freehold, will lend on leasehold and good will and improvements, gives him thirty-seven and a half years to pay the money back, and accepts it from him in small instalments of principal with every payment of interest, so as to make it as little of a burden as can be, will allow him if he happens to have $25 to spare, to pay it in at any time to reduce 480 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. his indebtedness, and when it finds itself making a profit out of the business, instead of accumulating a fortune, gives him the benefit by reducing his rate.” New Zealand charges interest at the rate of 5 per cent., and up till 1900 had made about 7000 loans, amounting to more than ten million dollars, and it is claimed that not a cent has been lost, and that in 1900 there was not a penny of interest or prin- cipal due which had not been collected. The entrance of the government into the business of lending money, brought rates down all over the country, and not only those who borrowed from the government, but all borrowers, had the benefit of a reduction in the rate of interest of something like two per cent: One supporter of the New Zealand government claimed that “ the action of the state in entering the money-market has made an average reduction of 2 per cent. on £32,000,000 of landed indebtedness, and £32,000,000 of other debts.” The benefit may not have been as great as this and yet have been very great in its immediate effects. The state advances money to the Australasian farmer at both ends. It advances money on his farm, and then lends him money on its produce and helps him to market it at the best terms. With this latter activity of the state on behalf of the farmer we are more familiar in Canada. Neither Dominion nor provincial governments have yet found it necessary or advisable to lend its credit to its farmers. Ontario is a slight exception, that province, I believe, making slight advances for purposes of drainage. But the Department of Agriculture, with all its mani- fold paternal activity on behalf of the farmer, has not advanced money for improvement or for cultivation—at least to the native farmer. To some classes of immigrants small advances have been made by another department. The Mennonites received a loan of nearly $100,000, which has all been repaid with interest ; the early Icelandic settlements received some $30,000, which, owing to adverse circumstances in the settlement, had to be written off as a bad debt, the security being destroyed by disastrous floods ; and similar small advances have been made to the Dcukhobors AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 481 and to individual Galician settlers, the loans being secured by liens on the land. Beyond these, I know of no direct lending by the Canadian government. Yet the Canadian governments, in their own way, are doing a great deal to make the business of farming profitable. The provision of cheap credit is not the sole condition of success, and many of the other conditions are provided. I need not say any- thing about the assistance which the government gives in establishing and maintaining creameries and cheese factories, or of the instruction how to make the best use of his opportunities oftered the farmer by means of the agents of the departments. From one point of view, this assistance might be regarded as a system of technical education for farmers; from another point of view, as the quid pro quo given to the farmer who has borne the chief part of the burden of the attempt to build up indus- tries by protection. These, however, are but the beginning of what the government does, and when one contemplates the vast projects upon which we, as a people, have embarked, or are likely to embark, it seems almost necessary to call caution. Practically, the agricultural departments have made it their aim to remove all obstacles in the way of finding a market. It uses its vast power and machinery to form an intelligence burean in the interests of thefarmer. It has improved the means of trans- portation ; it has insisted on coal storage on train and steamer, and it has erected cold storage facilities in farming districts and at seaports ; in some cases it insures the farmer against some of the ravages of nature ; it has brought the best of all markets to his door; it buys eggs and butter and poultry from him at a fixed price, and pays over to him any surplus, and events may foree it to buy the fruit crop in so far as that is intended for export; it buys oats from him on account of the imperial government, and when it succeeds in making a better bargain than anticipated with the steamship companies, hands the profit over to the farmer. And as I write, my evening paper comes to tell me that in order to encourage poultry-raising in the mari- time provinces, the Dominion Department of Agriculture has decided, in the event of cold storage facilities not being forth- 482 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. coming on any steamer from St. John or Halifax to Liverpool during the year, to pay all freight charges on poultry shipped to Montreal in excess of one dollar per hundred pounds. On the other side of the Atlantic, almost equal care and anxiety is shown by the agents of the department that the produce of Canadian farms shall receive the best price and gain the best reputation that can be obtained. It is no wonder that the president of a Farmers’ Supply Association in the old country, with whom I had some corres- pondence in relation to this report, should declare that in the provision of facilities of all kinds the Canadian farmer is a full generation ahead of the farmer in the motherland. But it may be asked why should the Government not go one step further and adopt the Australasian policy of assisting the farmer in producing as well asin marketing? Why not lend the credit of the state to the farmer to enable him to borrow money more cheaply to make improvements or simply to make the business of farming profitable? It is true that we need not trouble ourselves much about words, for if state lending on mort- gage is socialistic, what shall we say about the manifold activi- ties of the agricultural departments? The New Zealander has not been frightened at the word, and indeed declares that the epithet is misapplied. The essence of socialism is state owner- ship of the means of production, and the effect of this kind of state activity is to establish individual ownership more firmly. The New Zealander is of the opinion, according to Mr. Lloyd (Newest England, p. 375) that his action simply amounts to “the state giving its principal efforts to the stimulation, as a silent partner, wise counsellor and democratic co-operator, of the enterprise and industry of the individual.’ It may, moreover, be easily argued that in a democratic country, government aid is simply a highly organized form of self-help, that the people are using the machinery of the state for the ends for which it was devised, viz., the good of the citizens. This is true, At times we may look at things in this way, AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 483 yet the usual way is to regard a government as an external benefactor who favours us, or our district, at the expense of others. It is true that it is our own money that constructs our roads and our bridges, builds our railways and executes our pub- lic work, yet when some protesting writer or some opposition candidate points this very fact out to us, we feel instantly that he is talking not of things as they are. As a matter of fact, we do not regard government aid as a highly organised form of self- help, but rather as a highly organised form of helping ourselves at the general expense. And it is not well that we should come to look too much for government aid in the management of our business. There is already too much reliance upon government and too little individual initiative. There are, for instance, too many men wasting time looking for government jobs, and too many people who think that five dollars of government money is worth ten dollars offered by any one else. There is some dan- ger to national character in too great a reliance upon government assistance. Nor can we regard the resources of a government as illimit- able. A state can borrow cheaply because it borrows moder- ately and with discretion. It is true that a government may borrow at three per cent. or a little more, while the private borrower has to pay six or a little more. Why should not the government of Canada or the government of New Brunswick lend again to the farmer? For the very good reason that, if it did to any extent, it would not long be able to borrow at three per cent. and the whole community would be burdened. New Zealand’s experience is not quite conclusive, because it has not continued long enough. We have had in our history some experience of lending the state’s credit. The legislature of Canada passed in 1849 a guarantee act, guaranteeing the interest on railway bonds, as Manitoba is doing to-day, and the result was that the credit of the colony was quick to show the effects, and the guarantee system had to be withdrawn. New Zealand, during the first depression of trade, may have an even more disastrous experience. 484 AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. Nothing need be said regarding the political aspect of the proposal, though that is the first which occurs to most people. What would be the relation between the borrower and the government about election time ? Would concessions be made to partizans, in the matter of time, if the interest was not ready ? It must be admitted that there is no evidence of similar discrimi- nation in other business conducted by the government. After extensive enquiries, of Liberals regarding Conservative admin- istration, and of Conservatives regarding Liberal administration, of the Intereolonial Railway, I have heard of one instance only of discrimination in freight rates in favour of a partizan, and that was in the shape of a tacit permission to overload a car. That is rather remarkable, and along with it we must take the fact that advances to settlers are generally repaid in full— though this is not so remarkable, for these men are not voters, Still there remains the general impression that politics would inevitably enter into the question of government loans to farmers, and politics are already so complicated that both parties would fight shy of such a measure. To sum up :—The farmer need not look to any amendment of the banking system to provide him with cheaper credit, though possibly an improved banking practice might help hima little. The European system of agricultural credit on a co-opera- tive basis could not be adopted in this country, and need not be, for our farmer is not as helpless and as much subject to the usurer as the continental peasant. The results of this co-operative system do not place the European on as good a footing as the Canadian farmer now has. No government will ever attempt the task of lending money to make the business of farming profitable. The action of governments in relation to agricultural credit has been confined to lending on mortgage. This is, in my opinion, not desirable in Canada, either for the Dominion or for the provinces. The safe line is to develop the present activities of the government on behalf of the farmers, for cheaper credit is only one of the conditions of success. AGRICULTURAL CREDIT.—DAVIDSON. 485 If we trace the farmer’s activity from start to finish, we can see at a glance what is being done: I. Agricultural education for adults at present—for the young in the immediate future; this includes lectures by experts, continuous experimentation, ete. i. Assistance in certain kinds of production—creameries and cheese factories, ete. ui. For improvements—-practically nothing. The Canadian governments do not lend on mortgage, nor is it desirable that they should. But something might readily be done to cheapen law costs and to facilitate the transfer of lands ; perhaps, also, to encourage local agricultural societies to form themselves into local co-operative mortgage banks, borrowing on mortgage bonds to lend on mortgage. Iv. For the provision of credit to carry on the business of farming, the government does nothing and can do nothing, though here, again, it might encourage the agricultural societies to greater practical usefulness as co-operative supply associations. v. Markets. This has been assumed by the government in so far as export is concerned ; and since the government advances the price, it may thus assist the farmer more than by providing cheaper credit. With a practical government guarantee of a market, indeed, the banks might safely advance to the farmer almost as fully as they do to the lumber operator and the manufacturer ; and if this were to prove the case, the demand for cheaper money for the farmer would no longer be heard. VIIL—PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN Nova Scotia AND Canaba, 1901—By A. H. MacKay, LL. D. (Received for Publication May, 1902.) I present herewith a summary of the phenological observa- tions made in about 450 of the public schools of the Province of Nova Scotia, each county being represented by a greater cr less proportion of observers. The observations were for the most part made by the pupils of the schools under the supervision and direction of the teachers who are responsible for their accuracy. The observers are specially directed to the determination of two dates (pheno- chrons)—one for the first ap pearance of the event (eating, flower- ing, ripening of fruit, ete.), the other for the date when it may be said to be “becoming common.” As pupils radiate from the school-house, in rural districts especially, to a distance of one or even two miles daily, and as the monotony of the walk home and back again to school next morning is very much lightened by the eager lookout for the first appearance of each phenom- enon during the procession of the season, (which, when reported to the teacher and demonstrated by the presentation of the specimen, is recorded to the credit of the observer), these obser- vations must be much more accurate than those made by a single observer, especially if he can only go out into the fields or the woods at intervals of sometimes several days. In fact, while it must be acknowledged from the investigation of the schedules that mistakes are sometimes made in noting the first date, or mistaking the species of the plant, and even in record- ing a correct observation, the general agreement of many school sections proves that the phenomena are most promptly noticed and correctly reported. These 450 schedules (the best of a larger list sent in) were divided between four of the leading botanists of the Province (486) PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1901.—MACKAY. 487 for the purpose of their detailed study and compilation to find average dates (phenochrons) of occurrence in each meteorological district, of which there are twelve defined in Nova Scotia. A summary of the reports of this staff—consisting of C. B. Robin- son, B. A., of the Pictou Academy, Principal E. J. Lay of the Amherst Academy, Principal B. McKittrick of the Lunenburg, and Miss Antoinette Forbes, B. A., of the Windsor Academy—was published in the Jowrnal of Education, April, 1902. The reports pointed out some of the errors likely to be made by observers, and suggested improvements on the schedule, which have already been adopted. They also summed up the observations so as to show the general phenochron for each object in the shore or coast belt, the low inland belt, and the highland belt of each county and of each region, some of which contain portions of several counties. These phenochrons would be very interesting to the numerous localities throughout the whole Province, but they are too voluminous for publication, They were still further generalized, so as to give the pheno- chrons for each region, by Mr. G. M. J. MacKay. This table is presented on pages 492 to 495. The table of observations throughout Canada, made’ under the auspices of the Botanical Club of Canada by individual observers who made only the first series of observations, is also presented here, pages 497 to 501, as in the report of the Botanical Club to the Royal Society of Canada. This is done, first, to keep the series of Canadian observations uninterrupted in our transactions; secondly, for the purpose of instituting compari- sons, and, thirdly, for the purpose of showing the greater fullness and accuracy of the observations as conducted in the public schools. Then, again, it must be considered that by far the greatest value of the Nova Scotian plan appears to be the stimulation of the pupils of the public schools to observe and record, and eventually to compare. It is found to be a great aid to the teacher in interesting the pupils in many departments of Nature study; it cultivates those powers of the mind without which 488 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA future learning is, for general purposes, of little real value, and at the same time it makes the life of the pupil on the road a healthful and happy one by the added interest of the chase. For some years Professor Ihne of Darmstadt, Germany, has been collecting and pulJlishing annually similar observations, covering Kurope from Wales to Austria and from the Baltic to Switzerland, with nearly one hundred individual observers. The object here is the minor one of obtaining phenological data, as it is with the Botanical Club of Canada. But within the last year the Natural History Society of British Columbia issued a similar schedule, specially adapted to the west side of the continent, which has been sent to the teachers of the public schools, in order to obtain the educational benefit for the pupils all over the country, while at the same time securing more valuable phenological data than is possible otherwise. In Denmark the same plan is also being tried this year on the recommendation of Carl Michelsen, School Inspector, Skan- derborg. M. J. Mathiassen, Mullerup, Skole pr. Slagelese, issues an admirable schedule, with very effective instructions for teachers. The phenochrons in the tables being the means of a number of dates, as a rule contain fractions, which for the sake of compactness, as no material difference is made, are omitted. The treatment of the thunderstorm observations in a compact form appeared to be impossible, so that they are omitted from the Nova Scotian table. They may be considered by themselves on a future occasion. The original schedules are carefully preserved, bound up in a handsome volume,—one each year. Over five hundred obser- vations have been sent in with some schedules. The com- pendiums made for each belt of each region are also thus preserved for the use of future students of weather and of the changes of climate. As a portion of the result of the study ef the schedules of the north and eastern meteorological regions, I have pleasure in AND CANADA, 1901.—MACKAY. 489 presenting also a paper on the “ Early Intervale Flora of Northern Nova Scotia,” by Mr. C. B. Robinson, B. A., of Pictou Academy. It will be found following the tables referred to, on pages 502 to 506. The following are the instructions printed on the ruled blanks for the summation of the individual schedules into the sheets showing the “REGION” OR “BELT” PHENOCHRONS. “Hach province may be divided into its main climatic slopes or regions which may be seldom coterminous with the bound- aries of counties. Slopes, especially those on the coast, should be subdivided into belts, such as (a) the coast belt, (b) the low inland belt, and (c) the high inland belt.” “In Nova Scotia the following regions are marked out :— No. REGIONS OR SLOPES. BELTs. 1. Yarmouth and Digby Co.’s....(a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High Inlandas. 2. Shelburne, Queens and Lunen- ume ors. sin. cae aistcen seve 3. Annapolis and Kings Co.’s....(a) South Mts., (b) Annapolis Valley, (c) Corn- wallis Valley, (d) North Mts. 4, Hants and Colchester Co.’s..(a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High Inlands. 5. Halifax and Guysboro Co.’s.. ‘ ss aD ce ce ce 6. Cobequid Slope (to the South). < gs 7. Northumberland Straits Slope (Ceo Oey IN@Hs)) soadas eonauge : vy és 8. Richmond andCape BretonCo’s ‘ 9. Bras d’Or Slope (to South-East) ‘“ 10. InvernessSlope (toGulf,N.W.) ‘* Ht Averaging Local Phenochrons for “ Region” or “ Belt” Phenochrons. “Tf ten or fewer good phenological observation schedules can be selected from those belonging to any given belt, they may be averaged as indicated in the columns within. If there are not ten from each belt, then it may be better to combine two belts, or if necessary, the three belts, on the form within. In the Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scr., VoL. X. TRANS.— HH. 490 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA latter case, the average will be the “region” phenochrons. When a full sheet can be made out for each belt, the averages of the phenochrons for the three “ belts” will give the phenochrons for the “ region.” Blanks. “There is a convenience in averaging the dates of the ten stations, which accounts for the ten columns for stations in the form within. When a few dates are not given, it may be fair to enter in the blanks the dates from a similar neighboring station which is not otherwise utilized for the sheet. Great care should be taken that such observations taken from a schedule not summarized should appear to be what might have been observed at the station indicated in the heading; and to indicate such a transference the date should be surrounded by a circle with the pen, which will always mean that the obser- vation was not made in the station heading the column, but in a neighbouring one, and was taken from a supernumerary schedule.” Thunder-storms. “These dates will be entered in their respective columns and opposite the month indicated. They will not be averaged, of course.” Accuracy. “Care must be exercised in selecting schedules, the observa- tions of which appear to have been carefully made, neglecting any which give reason for doubt, when selecting for summation on the form within. Great care must also be exercised in copying the figures and entering them, so that no slip may occur. Every entry should be checked. One slip may spoil the effect of all the accurate numbers entering into the summation. In like manner, great care has to be taken in adding and aver- aging the figures; and for this purpose every sum should be done twice in reverse order, so as to give absolute confidence in the accuracy of the work.” AND CANADA, 1901.—MACKAY. 491 Remarks. “The Compiler filling one of these blanks should keep one copy for himself while sending the other to the compiler-in- chief.” “The set of stations on the right, under “ when becoming common,’ must be exactly the same as on the left, under “ when first seen.” A plate of graphs showing the relation between the flower- ing phenochrons in each region of the province of Nova Scotia, for the dates “ when first seen ” and “ when becoming common” is given on page 496. ‘“ When becoming common” must always be a matter of personal judgment ; so that the general conform- ity of the five pairs of curves for the flowering of the Mayflower, Strawberry, Apple, Lilac, and Blackberry, on the said plate is very interesting. 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Sei eet Caen Een re agge ZO20== Ny gor i asec Pay o [Fy Ma eee os tt N ee Se a as sos: @ Ses See ee eee eS EReCHEES = Fea ep | Hn | a \ fgcr iain’: eee ae Se he Petit siectocrtacts Beecagne: ah z ; ber Suaieee cm oe [4 - i i tH H 1 : pt C me a BEDeS i. ieee ES ee males iy ith yr oe = : shape (i UPS LPH - GHaSo ities a Boe ASS | Y af gece i hy Nd] | 7) aBns P| oH fc ihn laaisal CI i (ao Ra jor y | | Sa a [neeasau ca : PSyST AND CANADA, 1901.—MACKAY. 497 List OF OBSERVERS AND STATIONS FOR TABLE OF BOTANICAL CLUB OF CANADA, 1901, ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES. Nova Scotia: Four hundred and fifty School Sections. New Brunswick: Mr. J. Vroom, St. Stephen. Prince Edward Island: Mr. John MacSwain, Charlottetown. Quebec: Miss A. L. Beckett, Richmond (1). ct Miss J. M. Varney, i (2) ss Miss Annie M. Dresser, Nicolet. Ontario: Dr. James Fletcher, Ottawa (1). Dr. Cephas Guillet, “ (2). ec Miss Alice Hollingworth, Beatrice, Muskoka. Manitoba: Mr. B. J. Hales, Macgregor. Assiniboia: Mr. T. H, Donnelly, Pheasant Forks. Saskatchewan : Rev. C. W. Bryden, B. A., Willoughby. Alberta: Mr. Percy B. Gregson, Waghorn. British Columbia: Mr. J. K. Henry, B. A., Vancouver. REFERENCES IN “ VANCOUVER” COLUMN OF THE T'ABLE FOLLOWING : a. Alnus rubra. b. Acer macropbyllum. e. Prunus emarginata. d. Vaccinium myrtilloides. e. Rubus occidentalis. jf. Rosa Nutkana. 498 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1901. (The Phenochrons for Nova Scotia are averages based on observations made at about 450 stations, and have fractions which are omitted in this table. ) WS @ Gslladgollaoaulloace : 245). Melospzia fasciata, north....| 92 NN eopallaeecllaa > 86] 82 TOS eee eee Turdus migratorius, a 84 99; 108) 100 88] 81 99)... 88}. Junco hiemalis, u 84). 105} . 92) 87| 116 QO ats alll ae snl beaets Actitis macularia, u DSA eyes hace a\|(svetedei| | afedetel |racore | natok A all ts siete Sturnella magna, “ 117 Li) goles ee i eeoallanse Ceryle Alcyon, u DBO verecelf fevers ats UR Ue al apot | |goostencoaloceal tase Dendrceca coronata, ul well Loa. TBO | rycaalarecrctuieie. «0 |tere.e8l| ere rcrell mayors D. eestiva, i oe rset 1241121] 135] 129}....|....]....[.... [00 Zonotrichia alba, Ly ereteet Leal) L2G ye (0S) eee laced! seca edad) jased) aaoe Trochilus colubris, u Te es soon 171] 115 Nese Wa eG IW O16 IS llleeoallacadllaooallacac Tyrannus Carolinensis, "! 165) Smeal Seetel bane! cas loalidoss 16) ll eoorocaal Gesalloceal acca) once | Dolychonyx oryzivorus, ' ....| 126}. 144| 161/138] 127] 136}. | Spinis tristis, 1S eee Gaodueasollooar Noo 116}. Nik Sonolloanallonac l Setophaga ruticilla, u BY) seed Metro dteoaliseanilboslloacs 16 hapalsenalloocd sda alinape | Ampelis cedrorum, OW conall WES o605}|5e00|loncollcar bo aailoos a5 Chordeiles Viginianus, !! 133. bVAlkoontendellose 135] 141) 162 145}... First piping of frogs.......... 100}....| 99} 141] 118/116]....] 100] 101) 94) 112)....] 108) 59 First appearance of snakes....! 109! 132!....| 162! 1181118)...’ 103! 103] 96 100 MEY DON PAL oe ¥ 5OZ EARLY INTERVALE FLORA EARLY INTERVALE FLoRA OF EASTERN Nova Scotia.—By C. B. Ropinsoy, B. A., Pictew Academy. [Report on Phenological Schedules of Northern Nova Scotian Public Schools, 1901 J Information regarding the distribution of several of our most interesting specimens of flowering plants has been so greatly extended of late, especially through the increased attention given to this subject in the public schools, that some generaliza- tions are becoming possible, and it will be the aim of this paper to attempt a modest beginning along these lines in the case of one society of plants, that composed of the earlier blooming species of the intervale flora of Eastern Nova Scotia. Even in Macoun’s Catalogue only two references each for the entire Province, are given to Sanguinaria Canadensis L., Bicuculla Cucullarva (L.), Millsp., and HLrythronium Ameri- canum, Ker. Now, all three of these species grow abundantly, either upon the intervales themselves or still more commonly on shaded banks bordering them, in the case of each of the three rivers flowing into Pictou harbor, beginning just beyond the farthest point reached by the tide and continuing towards their head-waters as far as any observations have been made. Nor are these exceptional cases. While no school in the Coast belt of Cumberland reported in 1901 any of these three, seven, possibly eight, in the Lowland belt record Hrythronium, and four of these in additional observations include at least one of the others. Of the eleven Cumberland Highland Stations sending in schedules no less than six have credible dates for Hrythroniwm, though none have noted either of the others. It should be stated that while Hrythronium is among the plants listed for observation, the others are not, so that, in view of the facts elsewhere, such negative evidence is of little, perhaps of no value. In West Colchester four out of six Coast and thre: out of seven Highland Stations report Hrythroniwm. In Northern Colchester (Stirling) only one Coast and no Lowland Stations OF EASTERN NOVA SCOTIA.—ROBINSON. 503 assign a date to Hrythronium, though one of the latter notes Bicuculla, but in the Highlands this is changed, as four out of five report at least two and one of them all three species. Only one Coast Section in Pictou County records any of these, but it has two, Lrythronium and Sanguinaria. An interesting isolated fact may be related here. At Brown’s Point, on the I. C.R., just outside Pictou, Hrythronium grows in the open, and not one hundred yards from salt water. It is supposed to have been accidentally introduced by students bringing speci- mens from their homes on East or West River for class examination at the Academy. Two Pictou Lowland Stations report Sanguinaria, one the others also; but nine out of fifteen Highland Sections have Erythronium, and six of these at least one of the others. East of Pictou County it is very doubtful whether these species are any longer co-existent. From Antigonish the only reference to Hrythronium is clearly an error for Clintonia, while beyond the Strait there is not at present any sufficient proof of its occurrence. One of the Highland Districts of Antigonish reports Sanguinaria and Bicuculla Cuculluria, another Sanguinaria and B. Canadensis (Goldie) Millsp. The latter is very likely to have been the more common species, as this error is rather frequent. But from Richmond and Cape Breton Counties there is no mention of any of these, though four out of the five Inver- ness stations on the Bras d’Or Slope report Bicuculla and one of these Sanguinaria as well, anda one of the two Victoria schools to send in a schedule assigns a date to B. Canadensis. Finally on the Gulf Slope, the only Lowland and one of the three Coast sections report Bicuculla, the former Sanguinaria also. These facts seem to warrant the conclusion that, with the exception noted, all three of these species are regularly found upon most of the river intervales in this district, beyond the reach of salt water. In most of the Coast and many of the Low- land districts cultivation has so far proceeded that they must 504 EARLY INTERVALE FLORA often have been exterminated; but, in addition to this, the con- ditions prevailing in the more hilly districts seem to favor their growth. Indeed, the more probable presence of a shaded hillside beside the stream would go far in itself to explain this. These species have been chosen as both eminently typical and likely to have been noticed. With them would almost everywhere be found the Spring Beauty (Claytonia Caroliniana, Michx.), but its distribution is very much wider, as it is found in rich woods even on the summits of some of our highest hills. Just outside the limits of shade will nearly always be found the Downy Yellow Violet, Viola scabriuscula (T. & G.), Schwein, which is widely reported throughout the district from Cumber- land to Cape Breton. V. rotundifolia, Michx.,is said to occur in several localities, all such, however, that the preceding species would be expected, and to it these references probably belong. V. Labradorica, Schrank, and V. arenaria, D. C., are likely found throughout the district, the latter on drier sandy soil, and apparently the commoner in Pictou Co. Uvularva sessilifolia, L. has been noticed by a much smaller number of observers, but it is widely distributed, and probably on the whole nearly as common as the others. To complete this list, so far as the common earlier flowers are concerned, there should be added Ranunculus abortivus, L., Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd, and Dentaria diphylla, Michx., though none of these is strictly restricted to such localities. Prof. Macoun, (Catalogue, Part III, p. 480), states that his N. S. speci- mens of &. abortivus belong to Var. Micranthus, as then understood. Careful study of plants gathered at various points along West River, Pictou, where they are abundant, leaves no doubt that they at least should be referred to &. abortivus. Panaz trifolium, L. is less often reported, and is certainly not found in some localities where all of the preceding are com- mon, but its distribution is probably pretty general. Interesting and beautiful, but rare, is Hepatica Hepatica (L.), Karst, not certainly known except from the East River of OF EASTERN NOVA SCOTIA.—ROBINSON. 505 Pictou and Antigonish. Equally so is Primula Mistassinica, Michx., found in only two places. The Northern Inverness stations are responsible for the addition of Caltha palustris, L. Anemone Americana, L. is another contribution from this district, but blooms later. Much more common is Trilliwm cernuum, L., but it grows also in other situations. Moreover, on the West River of Pictou there occur some unusual forms, which seem intermediate between this species and 7. erectum. Some Antigonish references to 7. grandiflorwm may indicate a similar fact. The trees and shrubs first to bloom in such localities are the Elm (Ulmus Americana), which has everywhere been left on account of its striking beauty, and the Beaked Hazel (Corylus rostrata.) But still more typical, though later blooming, are the species of Crategus, which so often occur along the banks, forming in many cases almost impenetrable thickets. Until recently these have all been referred to C. coccinea, L., but it is now known that there are several species, at least five and probably six, including some new to science, C. coccinea being, however, the commonest and in the greatest numbers where found, (. acutiloba, the next in order of frequency, being hardly an intervale plant. During June the intervales become covered with verdure, including most of the plants of field and roadside, whether native or introduced. But there are again some rather typical forms. Among them should first be noted Sanicula Marilan- dica, L.; Washingtonia Claytoni (Michx.), Britton ; W. longisty- lis (Torr), Britton, (which is much commoner than usually supposed); Geum Virginianum, L.; G. Canadense, Jacq. ; Heracleum lanatum, Michx., which seem to be found nearly everywhere. Some others call for more particular attention. Ranunculus recurvatus, Poir, is known from two localities on West and one on East River, Pictou County. Thalesia uniflora (L.), Britton, is found at nearly the same places. The former has recently been reported from Inverness. Proc. & TRANs. N. S. Inst. Scie VOLE Xs Trans.—IlI. 506 EARLY INTERVALE FLORA OF EASTERN N. S.—ROBINSON. Triosteum perfoliatum, L., occurs at Riverton, and near itis Anemone Virginiana, L. Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.), Ell, which is widely though sparingly reported, prefers the shade, as does Juncoides pilosum (L), Kuntze, while on steep, stony banks Rhus radicans is frequent. Rough places beside the stream are almost sure to contain Senecio obovatus, Muhl. S. Balsamitae, L. and Apocynum canna- binum, L.; A. androsaemifolium, L., being even commoner, but in richer soil. With them on each of the three Pictou rivers will be seen the leaves of Meibomia Canadensis (L.), Kuntze, the flowers not appearing before the middle of July. It is, however, hardly too much to say that the distribution of almost all of these species is as yet insufficiently known. Many plants found in other locations are also frequent here. Such are Habenaria dilatata (Pursh), Hook, Vagnera racemosa, L., Myrica Gale, L., and Ranunculus reptans, L., but it has not been the purpose of this paper to enumerate them. Why this, the richest and most interesting division of our flora, should have received such scanty attention is, perhaps, a puzzle, and even yet not enough is known of the later species to make many general statements. It is, of course, a matter of common knowledge that the most characteristic plant during the middle of July is Liliwm Canadense, L., which later gives way to Clematis Virginiana, L., and this in its turn to the Asters, but much more work must be done before the subject can be accurately treated. IX.—LaABraADoR PLANTS [COLLECTED BY W. H. PREST ON THE LABRADOR COAST NORTH OF HAMILTON INLET, FROM THE 25TH OF JUNE TO THE 12TH oF AUGuST, 1901.] By A A Mackay, LED. (Communicated 14th January, 1902.) The plants which I present herewith, mounted, were col- lected by Mr. Walter H. Prest, of Halifax, when exploring the Labrador coast north of Hamilton Inlet last summer (1901), between the 25th of June and the 12th of August. The speci- mens were collected merely as flowers to be taken back as mementos of a visit to this far-off region, so that only the more striking portions of the plants, such as could be easily accom- modated between the pages of a magazine, were taken. These portions were characteristic enough, however, to enable the species in nearly every case to be determined. They have also been referred to Professor John Macoun, Dominion Botanist. In the list following I observe the order of the “ List of Plants known to occur on the Coast and in the Interior of the Labra- dor Peninsula,” compiled by James M. Macoun, and published in the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada, vol. viii., part L., Appendix vi. Nearly all the plants of our list are also on Macoun’s list, which is compiled from at least four other lists—all except possibly four or five species and varieties. The list is as follows: RANUNCULACES. Arenaria Groenlandica, Spreng. Arenaria peploides, Linn. Stellaria longipes, Goldie. Stellaria humifusa, Rottb. Cerastium alpinum, Linn. Ranunculus aquatilis, Linn., var. tri- chophyllus, Chaix. Coptis trifolia, Salisb. CRUCIFER &. ; : LEGUMINOS. Draba incana, Linn. Ox ; : Li Cochlearia officinalis, Linn., var. Groen- OXyt? nae campestris, WENGE landica. L Hee ae : VIOLACER. athyrus maritimus, Bigel. Viola canina, Linn., var. sylvestris, ROSACEA. Regel. Rubus Chamaemorus, Linn. ; Seat Rubus articus, Linn. Silene acaulis, Linn. Rubus strigosus, Michx. Lychnis alpina, Linn. Sibbaldia procumbens, Linn. (507) 508 LABRADOR PLANTS.—MACKAY. Potentilla Norvegica, Linn. Kalmia glauca, Ait. Potentilla maculata, Poir. Ledum palustre, Linn. Potentilla palustris, Scop. Ledum latifolium, Ait. Potentilla tridentata, Sol. Potentilla anserina, Linn. PRIMULACEA, iy a nae cee on C. , iG Primula farinosa, Linn. ketey ake lic zhates nee qc and %, Primula Mistassinica, Michaux. 7 ¢ . . . var. ollgocarpa, 1. and x. Primula Egaliksensis, Hornem. SAXIFRAGACEAL Trientalis Americana, Pursh. Saxifraga rivularis, Linn. GENTIANACES, Parnassia palustris, Linn, Gentiana Amarella, Linn., var. acuta, Ribes prostratum. L’ Her. Hook. CRASSULACES. Pleurogyne rotata, Griesbach. Sadura Radel s DAO Menyanthes trifoliata, Linn. HALORAGE. Hippuris vulgaris, Linn. BORRAGINACE. Mertensia maritima, Don. ONAGRACE, SCROPHULARIACE&. Epilobium latifolium, Linn. Veronica alpina, Linn. Epilobium palustre, Linn. Castilleia pallida, Kunth. Euphrasia officinalis, Linn., var. Tar JIMBELLIFER 2. : ; v SC Gabee 5 tarica, Benth. Archangelica Gmelini, D. C. Pedicularis Croenlandica, Retz. CORNACEA. Pedicularis Lapponica, Linn. : : E Rhinanthus Crista-galli, Linn. Cornus Canadensis, Linn. Cornus Suecica, Linn. LENTIBULARIACEAR. CAPRIFOLIACE Pinguicula vulgaris, Linn. Viburnum pauciflorum, Pylaie. Pinguicula villosa, Linn, Linnaea borealis, Gronov. 2 : PLANTAGINACE, Lonicera caerulea, Linn. Plantago maritima, Linn. COMPOSITE. ; eee : POLYGONIACE, Solidago multiradiata, Ait. E mele : : Polygonum viviparum, Linn. Solidago. Aster Novi Belgii, Linn. SANTALACE. Achillea Millefolium, Linn., var. : = Comandra livida, Rich. nigrescens, EK. Meyer. g ’ Senecio Pseudo-Arnica, Less. ORCHIDACE®. Taraxacum officinale, Weber, var. ; alpinum, Koch. Habenaria hyberborea, R. Br. Habenaria obtusata, Rich. Wake Gib 18285 Habenaria dilatata, Gray. Vaccinium nliginosum, Linn. IRIDACE. Vaccinium Vitis-Idzea, Linn. a : Tris Hookeri, Penny Vaccinium Oxycoccus, Linn. : Me LILLIACE. ERICACE. ee : ? Streptopus amplexifolius, D. C. Cassiope hypnoides, Don. Tofieldia borealis, Wahl. Andromeda polifolia, Linn. Loiseleuria procumbens, Desv. GRAMINES:. Bryanthus taxifolius, Gray. Elymus mollis, Trin. 4 EMBERS of the ares and Societies in correspondence with it, e- M would confer a great favor,, if they would send to the Council, for & distribution to Scientific Institutions whose sets of the Institute's publications 4 are incomplete, any. duplicate or otber spare copies which they: may possess “of back numbers of its Proceedings and Transactions. They should be : addressed : The Secretary of the N. S. lustitute of Science, Halifax, Nova c oe: = user lon THE attention of members of the Institute is dirccted to the following recommendations of the British Association. Committee on F # Zoological _ Bibliography and Publications :— 3 ““That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed privately before the paper has been published in the regular manner. “That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title, 3 while keeping the title as concise as possible. . “That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when - possible. ““That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or anonymous paragraphs. _“ That references to previous publications should be made fully and i correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of rules of quotation, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological APR 12 1900 BROCE DINGS OF THE Aova Scotian Ensttrtute of Science. SESSION OF 1898-99. ANNUAL Business MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th March, 1898. The Presrpent, Mr. A. McKay, in the chair. The Presmpent addressed the Institute, as follows :— GENTLEMEN,—It is an educational axiom of the first importance that in presenting a new subject for study it should in some vital way be correlated with ideas already in the mind of the student. Guided by this principle, I should at the beginning of another year’s work of this Institute, review briefly the progress made during the past year. This was in many respects most unsatisfactory. Never before did we have so much difficulty in securing papers for our ordinary meetings. We had in all thirteen communications, of which eleven were papers, three read by title. Six of these papers gave the results of investigations, conducted chiefly by two Dalhousie students in a physico- chemical field, regarding the behavior of ions under certain conditions. There were two papers relating to Geology, one to Natural History, one to Ethnology, one to Botany. In addition, Mr. Twining exhibited a model of a Pivot-boat, and explained its working, and Dr. MacGregor gave an address on Laboratory Methods. It may, however, be found that the sum total of scientific knowledge has been increased somewhat by those original researches which were conducted in Dalhousie College, and that the printed results may be utilized by other investigators. Dr. Bailey’s very interesting papers on Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr, VOL. X. PrRoc.—A. (1) 11 PROCEEDINGS. the structure and geologic formation of Digby Basin throw much light on some hitherto obscure problems of the geology of that region. The teaching of science in our public schools would be greatly improved if the methods recommended by Dr. MacGregor, 1n his able address on Physical Laboratory Work, were generally adopted. It is too soon yet to attempt any prediction regarding Mr. Twining’s novel experiments in boat-sailing. They seem calculated to lead to a great improvement in the quality of speed by showing how friction and water displacement may be reduced to a minimum. Dr. MacKay’s phenological observations, assisted as he is by a large corps of observers all over the Dominion, may lead to some important generalizations regarding the relation of organized life to latitude and other climatic conditions. I have referred to the difficulty of securing papers on scientific sub- jects for our ordinary meetings. This does not necessarily imply that our members are becoming less interested in science than formerly. It may and probably does mean that work in science like work in every other department of human life is becoming more specialized. Our earlier scientists, worked in comparatively new fields. It was then an easy matter to find plants or animals not previously known in our country and with the aid of good text books to describe and identify them. The first explorers in a rich gold mine find it easy to make fortunes. Those who come later require much greater skilland patience. It did not require much scientific knowledge forty years ago to enable a man to acquire some reputation in the field of science. The possibilities in this respect made it more attractive as an outlet for the expen- diture of those surplus energies which are nowadays required for the severer business competition of a more congested state of society. Then, a little enthusiasm, a vasculum, an insect net and a pocket- glass comprised all the outfit necessary to enable a man to write valuable papers and to give him a good standing in our Institute. Now he requires a thorough scientific training, costly scientific apparatus, and years of patient toil to be able to add a single new or valuable idea to our scientific knowledge. It is not, therefore, difficult to understand that scientific pursuits as a recreation are every year becoming less attractive and are being left to those who make of them the business of life. While, in some departments of natural science, such as natural history, elementary electricity, and geology, the charm of novelty, ease PRESIDENTS ADDRESS lil of acquisition, and admiration for showy experiments no longer attract our older members, they should not lose their potency with the students of our high schools and academies. The older members should, however, have some compensation in those departments of science, a practical knowledge of which is every day opening up mines of national wealth ; for our love of money is supposed to grow with our advancing years and we should be willing to make great sacrifices for what tends so greatly to enrich our country. During the past year we admitted two new members ; but on the other hand, we lost by death three of our most prominent men, concern- ing whom you will permit me to say a few words. JouN Somers, M. D., died on the 13th of March. He was born in Newfoundland, came to Halifax in early infancy and received a fairly good education. In conducting a drug store he acquired a taste for the study of medicine. One year before the close of the American civil war he was graduated from Bellevue in time to spend a year in active service as an army surgeon. He then returned to Halifax where he remained in the practice of his profession until his death. He took an active part in the establishment of the Halifax Medical College in which he lectured for many years as Professor of Physiolog and Examiner in Medicine. He was an active and useful member of society. In 1879 and 1880 he was a member of the Halifax Schoo} Board. He also served for some time as Chairman of the Public Charities Board. In January, 1875, he was elected member of this Institute, and one year after, he read his first paper on his favorite subject, Botany. Of his 18 published papers, 14 related to Botany, 3 to Zoology, and 1 te the use of the Microscope. He had three papers in course of prepara- tion when he died. He was an authority on the Mosses and Fungi of Nova Scotia and an accomplished microscopist. From a busy pro- fessional life he managed to snatch enough time to become fairly proficient in many departments of science. He was an omnivorous reader, had a good memory and well-trained powers of observation, so that whatever subject might be under discussion at our meetings he was always able to add something of value and interest. He was always ready to assist those engaged in scientific study. I first met him at one lv PROCEEDINGS. of our Field Meetings at Grand Lake 24 years ago. I shall never forget the delightful day which I spent with him in botanizing. JuLES Marcov, who had been one of our corresponding members Since 1891, died at Cambridge on the 17th of April. He was born at Salins, France, in 1824. He studied at the College of St. Louis, Paris, but failing health led him to make an excursion to Switzerland, where he soon acquired an intense love for the study of Geology. At the age of 21 he assisted Jules Thurman in his work on the Geology of the Jura Mountains. Here he met Louis Agassiz, with whom two years later he explored the Eastern United States and Canada. In 1850 he embodied these reserches in a geological map of the United States and the British Provinces of North America. For five years he was Professor of Geology at Zurich. In 1861 we find him associated with Louis Agassiz founding the Museum of Zoology at Cambridge, U.S. A. In 1867 he was decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honor. He was a member of many scientific societies and published many valuable papers, maps and books. In common with our own Dr. Honeyman, he took special interest in the study of the Huronian, Cambrian, and Primordial Silurian rocks, and assisted the Doctor in the identification of some of the more obscure Nova Scotian fossils of these systems. He was a strong advocate of the Taconic system, since pronounced by Dana to be identical with the Lower Silurian system. It was, upon the proposal of Dr. Honeyman who labored in the same field, that he became one of our corresponding members. Rey. Joun Amprose, D. C. L., who died at Sackville, on September 12th, may be regarded as one of the founders of this Institute. Before it was organized he promised his hearty support—a promise which we shall see was faithfully kept. He was indeed proposed as a member of the first Council, but probably owing to the fact that he resided at that time at Margaret’s Bay he was unable to act. He was born in St. John of Irish parents, received his common school education at Truro, and was graduated from King’s College, Windsor—receiving the degree of B. A. in 1852, M. A. in 1856, and DA C2L. in 1838: For over 44 years he labored successfully and acceptably as a clergy- man ; 23 years at Liverpool, 3 years at New Dublin, 13 years at Margaret’s Bay, 23 years at Digby and 3 years at Herring Cove, and for 2} years more he enjoyed at his country farm at Sackville the respite from labor which he needed and which he had so well earned. pi i= PRESIDENTS ATDRESS. Vv In addition to the performance of extensive parish duties as a clergyman, he took a prominent part in other church work. He edited a religious monthly called Church Work, and also the Halifax Church Chronicle. He was a Governor of King’s College—strongly opposing its union with Dalhousie. In Digby he led a successful crusade against the iniquitous system of “ Farming out the Poor.” He lectured in England for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. Amidst all these labors he found time to make science a recreation. In January, 1864, he communicated his first paper to the Institute. It was followed by a series of papers, all relating to the birds and fishes of St. Margaret’s Bay—a spot which should be as well known to our Zoologists as Arisaig is to our Geologists. His paper on the Stormy Pétrel was republished more than once. In October, 1863, he was elected Associate Member,—retaining that position until 1881. Again in 1890 he was elected Corresponding Member. Dr. Ambrose was a remarkably fine specimen of a man,—physically, mentally and morally—a man to whom the leaders in any public move- ment for the public good could appeal with the certainty of receiving sympathy and support. While glancing over the records I made a few nctes concerning matters which struck my attention in our early history and which may interest some of you. On the last day of the year 1862 the late J. Matthew Jones presided at a meeting held in the hall of the Halifax Medical College There were present, T. Belt, S. Gray, Dr. Gilpin, Wm. Gossip, R. G. Haliburton, Capt. Lyttleton, H. Poole, Capt. Hardy, J. R. Willis and P. C. Hill. Of this company, so far as I know, all but one have passed away. The object of the meeting was to organize an Institute of Natural Science for Nova Scotia. This Institute grew ont of another organiza- tion which had done pioneer work in science. It may be said to have been a development from the Halifax Mechanics’ Institute, which, under the inspiration of men like the late Andrew MacKinlay, did very much to awaken the general public to an interest in the discoveries of of science, which at that time were coming on like a November meteoric shower. vil PROCEEDINGS, At the first meeting the officers of the older organization resigned, and the officers of the Institute of Natural Science were elected—Mr. P. C. Hill being President. At this meeting a Constitution and Bye-Laws were adopted. Among the resolutions which passed was the following: Resolved, That at the next monthly meeting each mem- ber be entitled to bring a friend. Now every member is not only entitled to bring a friend to the meetings but he is urged to do so, and to bring not one friend only but as many friends as he pleases, provided he can sufficiently interest them in the work of the Institute. At the meeting in February, the Right Honorable the Earl of Mulgrave, Patron of the Institute was present, and after listening to the papers and discussions he expressed himself much pleased, and promised to do what he could to advance the work. In the early meetings of our Institute so great was the general interest in scientific work that there seemed to be always a sufficient supply of scientific papers ready to be read when required. Every meeting was closed by an announcement of the titles of the papers to be read at the next. This timely announcement of the subject gave mem- bers an abundance of time to prepare to take an intelligent part in the discussions which followed every paper. But in these busy days in which our lot has fallen we are thankful if we can announce the programme a few days in advance, and some- times papers are read by title because they are not ready. Could not the Secretaries and President by taking thought beforehand bring about the happy state of things in this respect, that formerly existed? It is worth the attempt. In March, 1864, we find the first announcement of the receipt of Reports of sister societies. The small beginning of our present large and valuable library consisted of three volumes, namely, the second Report of the Scientific Survey of the State of Maine, the Report of the Natural History Society of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the first number of our own Transactions. Now that our library has grown to such dimensions, we should pre- pare a catalogue complete to date. Copies of it should be sent to our academies and to all other institutions of learning in the Maritime Provinces and to all persons whom we might wish to persuade to become members. ‘To young students having time and inclination for Sm PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Vil nature studies, such a catalogue would be suggestive and helpful in selecting those fields of work which have been most neglected in Nova Scotia. In the appendix to this catalogue there might be a list of the scientific books belonging to the City Public Library and to Dalhousie College, and also a yearly supplement of publications received by the Institute. The year 1864 is also marked by the decision to have a series of Field Meetings in the summer season. The first excursion was to St. Margaret’s Bay in June to investigate some Indian remains in that vicinity. These meetings were continued in 1865. They were very interesting and profitable. After visiting a locality and studying its natural history the members would assemble at some point for dinner, discussion, and the reading of papers relating to the day’s work. At a conversazione in the Horticultural Gardens on the 6th of July, there were about 200 persons present. The President delivered an address on the advantages which the Institute, if properly supported and encouraged, might be expected to confer upon the country. He afterwards gave a very interesting description of the butterflies and moths of Nova Scotia. Dr. Gilpin described the manner of taking and smoking Digby Herring. Mr. Gossip read a paper on the geological formation of Halifax. Dr. Lawson discoursed on Botany, while all the company enjoyed a repast of cakes, strawberries and cream, lemonade and ices. Thus, in the early days of this Society was the love of science fostered. The resumption of some of these old practices, which have unfortunately fallen into abeyance, would not be a retrograde movement. If we would study Nature honestly and effectively we must meet her face to face. She does not woo by proxy, by text-books, illustrations or recitations. With this principle in view then let me draw up an imaginary programme for next summer's Field Meetings. Accompanied by friends we meet in the Public Gardens at 8.30 a. m. on the third Saturday in June, every one provided with substantial lunches. After an hour spent with Superintendent Power and Drs. MacKay and Lindsay investigating ferns and learning the scientific names of the trees and shrubs we take the street car to Point Pleasant. Here we examine the beautiful synclinal on the shore, and collect specimens of littoral fauna and flora. We then cross the Ferry to Pureell’s Cove and have lunch, followed by short addresses relating to the scientific peculiarities of our immediate environment. After some Vill PROCEEDINGS. botanizing we return visiting the gas works which we inspect carefully with a view to a better comprehension of a lecture by Prof. E. MacKay, giving a scientific account of the manufacture of gas from coal, dealing particularly with the by-products, showing their chemical relations and uses. On the third Saturday in July we would make a similar expedition to Waverly Gold Mines—crossing to Dartmouth in the steamer “‘Chebucto,” and to our destination by train. At Waverly we would examine the gold mine and the rich lacustrine flora. In August, for one fare we purchase a return ticket to Campbellton, N. B., to spend two days with some of the most enthusiastic scientists of the Maritime Provinces—those Professors, Principals, and other teachers who are willing to devote two weeks of their holiday season to mutual instruction and enjoyment in the forest, field and laboratory. I refer to the Summer School of Science, which will then hold its 13th annual session. The President, Mr. Geo. U. Hay, has invited the Natural History Society of New Brunswick and also this Institute to co-operate with the Summer School in a grand gathering of the repre- sentative scientific men of the Maritime Provinces. The place of meeting would be a delight to the lover of romantic scenery, while affording to the botanist and geologist exceptional facilities for field work. The occasion might be utilized tor the discussion of some of the larger questions regarding scientific education that are pressing upon us. Joint resolutions from our three scientific societies would have great. weight with our governments, and might lead to the extension of our technical science schools, now so miserably inadequate, or to important, modification in the methods adopted to further education in general science. Before closing, it might be expected that as a member of a Scientific Institute and teacher, I should say a few words as to the place which science occupies in our educational system, as to the place it should occupy, and also concerhing the best means to be used to secure for it that place. As to the place which it does occupy. It is found in the prescribed course of study in the form of lessons on Nature for the eight grades of the common school course, with the addition of a few specialized lessons on the simplest principles of Physics and Chemistry for Grades VII. and Vile PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 1X In this work the teacher and pupils are required to study things and not books, to perform experiments in order to learn how substances act under varying conditions and to draw their own conclusions. Is this done? It may be fairly well done in five per cent. of the schools, with very varying degrees of success in 60 per cent., and scarcely attempted in the remainder. The majority of teachers would do better work if they could, but they have never seen it done; they cannot learn how from books; and they have not the pecuniary or moral support that comes from a general intellectual appreciation of the material, intellectual and moral benefits resulting from scientific training. In the curriculum for our Academies and High Schools it is taken for granted that Botany and Physics are studied for about 90 minutes a week throughout the year. Chemistry and Mineralogy about the same time in the second year, and Physiology ‘and more advanced Physics each about two hours a week for the third year. There are very few schools, however, in which so much time is devoted to Science. The Provincial Examinations show that experimental work is almost wholly neglected. The mental confusion and crudity of conception apparent in a large proportion of the answers received would tend to show that much of the science teaching is simply a mechanical memorizing of the text-book. In the fourth year of the High School, science is optional. In the year 1897, 23 candidates received Grade ‘A Classical” and only three took Grade “A Scientific.” Candidates who are trained in schools where the facilities for the teaching of science are poor and where the teachers are themselves not interested in science, are not likely to select the science subjects for their Grade “A” examination. Of the 37 Academic teachers reported as holding Grade ‘“‘ A” there are but two of them who hold the ‘A Scientific ” and this, notwithstanding the fact that the enthusiasm of the Superintendent of Education for scientific subjects might be supposed to influence the teachers and students in the ranks below him. The large proportion of ‘‘ Classical A’s” may also be partly accounted for by the fact that a considerable number of candidates are college students, and classics still dominates the Nova Scotia colleges. For matriculation leading to the degree of B. A. the student is supposed to have studied Latin for three years, but nothing is required in Natural Science. x PROCEEDINGS. More or less successful attempts are being made in some of the colleges to teach science. But divided and scattered as they are—five degree conferring institutions in a small province of scarcely half a million inhabitants, with no preparatory schools capable of giving a proper preliminary science training, 1t is small wonder that they take little interest in the teaching of new subjects which require expensive apparatus and hard work. I should have said that there is one preparatory school, Pictou Academy, which still retains the preéminence in science-teaching which it reached when Dr. McKay, as Principal, filled its halls with students drawn from all parts of the province. From what I have said it will be evident that taking the schools as a whole there is but little of science-teaching, and that little is poorly done. 2. What place should science occupy in the schools ? Our Nova Scotia educationists say that it is entitled to twelve per cent. of the time devoted to the compulsory subjects, or on an average, to ten per cent. of the whole time. In Germany the gymnasia (or classical schools) through all the grades devote seven per cent. of their time to science, and a considerable amount of time besides to physical geography. In the real-g ymnasium and real-schulen, science is the lead- ing subject. We all have some idea of what the German colleges and universities are doing for theoretical science. As might be expected in these circumstances technical education has received an enormous development. In the small kingdom of Saxony, considerably less than one-third the size of Nova Scotia, there are 111 technical institutes. Prussia has 200 such schools and 12,000 pupils. Hesse with a population of J,000,000 has 83 schools of design, 43 for manufacturing industries and many others for artisans of various trades. How many such schools has Nova Scotia ? It might here be asked: which was cause and which, effect,—the science-teaching of the gymnasia or the technical schools? The facet that so long ago as 1837 there was nearly as much science prescribed for the gymnasia as at present, would suggest an answer. England, slow in adopting reforms, has at last been awakened to a sense of the danger in which she stands of losing her industrial supre- macy unless she gives heed to the wise teachings of her great prophet, Herbert Spencer, who years ago said: ‘ Paraphrasing an eastern fable, PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. Xl we may say that in the family of knowledges, science is the household drudge, who in obscurity hides unrecognized perfections. To her has been committed all the work ; by her skill, intelligence and devotion, have all conveniences and gratifications been obtained ; and while cease- lessly ministering to the rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters may flaunt their fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel holds yet further. For we are fast coming to the dénoue- ment, when the position will be changed, and while these haughty sisters sink into merited neglect, science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth and beauty will reign supreme.” The Duke of Devonshire has introduced a bill into the House of Lords which is practically a bill for the establishment of science schools. In Scotland, Sir Henry Craik’s latest educational circular aims at the encouragement of Science and Art in combination with a sound scheme of general education. The course of instruction extends over three years as follows: 1. Experimental Science.— Not less than four hours a week, of which two hours must be experimental. In the third year at least three hours of practical work will be required. 2. Drawing.—At least two hours a week. 3. Mathematics, including Geometry, Mensuration, Arithmetic and Algebra.—At least four hours a week. 4. History and English Literature.—About five hours a week. 5. Geography. — About two hours a week. 6. Manual Training —At least three hours a week. 7. One Modern Language. 8. Various other subjects of Practical Interest such as Bookkeeping, Phonography, &e. It will be seen at once that the course very much resembles our imperative course, except in that it gives one-sixth of the time to science while we give only one-eight. Coming to America we find that the recommendations of the Committee of Ten, of the Committee of Fifteen and of the Committee on Science Teaching in Schools to the American Society of Naturalists, all agree in recommending a course of study substantially like ours,— like our ideal course, but not like the actual course. A consideration of these facts leads us at once to conclude that our prescribed course of study fairly well represents the best ideals of the Xll PROCEEDINGS. tuost advanced edueationists. That it is frequently criticised arises from- the fact that there are in any community very few persons possessed of sufficient knowledge of the science and history of education and at the same time of the requirements of modern civilization to enable them to judge intelligently, and further, from the fact that but few of our teachers are possessed of the necessary professional qualifications to adapt. themselves and their work to the various conditions and circumstances. To quote from Dr. Rice: ‘That the mass of our teachers are incompetent for any very high quality of science-teaching is a truth as unquestionable as melancholy.” But it is not the fault of the teachers that they are not prepared for their work. Out of 2,485 teachers we have 1,750 who receive less than $200 a year, out of which they have to. pay for board and clothing, buy educational books and magazines, and purchase the apparatus and materials for science experiments in their schools. With such miserably inadequate salaries, insecure tenure of office, and no pensions, it is no wonder that the brightest young men and women look upon teaching as but a stepping stone to other positions that offer more substantial rewards with the promise of greater. permanency. All complaints against our course of study will cease when the complainants are capable of appreciating the worth of good teaching and are willing to give the moral and pecuniary support that will call forth the best talent and training. As the country advances in populations wealth and civilization the course of study will need to be modified, but. to foreshadow the coming changes at present would be unwise. 3. What means must be used to secure for science the place which it should have in the actual work of the schools and colleges ? (a.) Make it an imperative subject in the College Matriculation Examination for B. A. The colleges, more than any other agency, determine the character. of the education given in the schools below them. They train those who become teachers of teachers. Legislators look to them for direction in educational matters. The High Schools and Academies work slavishly to produce the kind of students upon whom they are most likely to set their seal of highest approval. They have in every learned body throughout the land an ever increasing constituency moulded by their teaching and adopting their ideals. If there is a general lack of interest in science, or if it is badly taught, the colleges are largely PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. Xlli responsible. If they would abandon the fetich of “ culture-worship ” and study the conditions of modern society they would add greatly to the inestimable benefits which they now confer upon the community. Until the colleges take this step in advance, science will not be well taught in the schools, the colleges will not have students capable of doing the best science work ; for if they neglect science until they reach their college course and give “so many years of exclusive attention to other subjects, their powers of observation and of imagination of physical phenomena are well-nigh atrophied ; and the loving interest in nature, innate in every normal child, instead of being systematically developed is well-nigh extinguished.” The college can determine not only the subjects to which the academies shall in reality devote their attention ; but, by the nature of their examinations, they can determine the character of the teaching. If the matriculation examination calls for experimental work it will be supplied. If the colleges neglect to exercise their power in this respect wisely they will lose it. Rival institutions unduly emphasizing the neglected work will divide with them their present constituencies. This is the experience of Germany, England, and the United States. The growing wealth of the country and the keenness of competition in the learned professions are indications that the time has come when the colleges can safely require science for the entrance examination. Harvard has made it optional and the London University has made it imperative. (6) The present Grade “A” work in the Academies should be discontinued and its place should be taken by a more thorough practical Science course for Grade “B”. The “ A” work cannot be properly ‘done in the academies. It is essentially college work and should be kept where it belongs. Merely to state that Gage’s Principles of Physics, Storer and Lindsay’s Elementary Chemistry, Bessey’s Essentials of Botany, Dawson’s Hand-Book of Zoology, Colton’s Practical Zoology, Sir William Dawson’s Canadian Geology, Young’s Elements of Astron- omy, James’s Psychology, and the Ontario Manual of Hygiene, together with twelve other subjects are all to be mastered in our poorly equipped academies in one or even in two years is to condemn absolutely the present arrangement with regard to Grade “A”. It is but a survival from a lower stage of our educational development, and the sooner it is allowed to become atrophied by disuse the better. X1V PROCEEDINGS. If Academie and High School positions are worth on an average only ten years’ tenure we will require but six new Grade A’s each year, — say ten to give them the benetits of healthy competition, and let them have a thorough college training or its equivalent. (c) The professional training of academic teachers and of the Principals of the larger schools should be part of a college course. Elsewhere at some length I gave my opinions on this subject. At, present I will do no more than quote from an American educationist a few sentences which express the opinions of the most of our educationists and of our college graduates. ‘‘The environment of learning and culture are essential to the best training for the practice of the learned pro- fession, * * * Existing normal schools, which have more than justitied their establishment for the professional training of elementary teachers should continue to do their appropriate work. However much modified, they will not be well adapted to meet the wants of higher teachers.” Their professional training should be a post-graduate course at least in part. If our larger colleges cannot provide pedagogical training for the few Grade “ A” teachers that we need we will have in the mean- time no difficulty in obtaining it abroad ; but wherever it is obtained let it be as thorough as the post-graduate training required in the other professions, (¢) Examinations in science, whether by the colleges or by the Educational Departments, should be so modified as to take into account the pupil’s laboratory work throughout the term and his present ability to perform and interpret experiments, and also to examine and classify mineral, plant and animal specimens. A certified copy of his Note-Book of experiments should be taken as evidence of his work. In order to have some reasonable certainty that this work was honestly reported it would be necessary for some qualified person to inspect the !aboratories and see tbe students at work twice every year. A written examination does not adequately test a student’s science acquirements. If the Provincial Grade ‘‘ A” scientific examinations are to be continued they should be conducted at the Normal School, and every candidate should have to do a certain amount of laboratory work in the presence of the examiner. Such are a few of the suggestions which I have to offer for the advance of science in Nova Scotia. I feel confident that if adopted TREASURER’S REPORT, XV they will hasten the time when our reputation for science will not be confined to a few great names, but that all the people will reap. the benefit in the opening up of new centres of those industries and manufactories for which the province is so well adapted. The Treasurer presented the accounts for the year, 1897-8, which had been audited and were certified as correct. The following is an analytical statement of the expenditure :— PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS :— Prinincsanc binding) Vol. Xe, Part pen serie en: $158 oo Less received for authors’ separate copies ...... 2 50 -$155 50 IDyisiival armies Wl, IDKsn IZAVEE @ GoeacooGobosonucance 29 32 —$184 82 IPreronouaver jororaurorn re WO IDGo lee ecoococscccaer $61 60 Portrait and Plate, Gor) Srnec 14 22 75 82 LIBRARY : Removal to Dalhousie College .................- $17 65 LEST EVOVSES sto lomo a cOld Ao GeO ODOR DRI OIGAG UaDADCO BOT 56 41 Purchase of U. S. Government Reports .......... Lu us SHON. Gomes docedo FDGS OU ODUS HO DGoDUGOOSOOb OC 75 00 MiscellancousnexpenSesmeraalluiie strc eiieisielsieieeiers 8 20 170 41 Insurance (Library and Stock of Transactions)........ 16 75 Miscellaneous Printing, including Post Cards......... 25 00 IMOSIAES oc dacatouceb oopeoonoDoLcoSDODODOCODRODEDSOG 5 67 IP, Qs 1BOSS agin. e ome 6 hb bo OmaUn OOO EL GoD Uaoo edb aD doc 4 00 AGNISHUSING oobGo goaooo dGboUsUbDasabOh RuGHOBOGUDUOONS 4 00 Repairing and removing Blackboards ................ 1 80 IN SEWMONINE soodsoudunogo0cHocosdoxdoucGoOONaoESHOE 45 $489 02 The Treasurer's Report was approved. The Report on the Library was presented by the Liprartan and CorresponpinG Secretary. The Library had been increasing during the past year at a greater rate than ever before. The Institute had sent its Transactions for the first time to the following :— Director-General de Correos y Telegraphos, Buenos Ayres. Asociacion de Ingenicros Industriales, Barcelona. State Library of Massachusetts, Boston. St. Anne’s College, Church Point, Digby Co., N.S. Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. XVvl PROCEEDINGS. High School, Dartmouth, N. 8, Scottish Meteorological Society, Edinburgh. Institut Meteorologique Central, Helsingfors. Cornell University (Geological Department), Ithaca, N. Y. Royal Meteorological Society, London. Institution of Electrical Engineers, London. Kansas University, Lawrence, Ka. Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Kew Observatory, Richmond, G. B. Royal Asiatic Society (Straits Branch), Singapore. Public Library, St. Louis, Mo. Anthropological Society of Australia, Sydney, N. S. W. Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. Publications had been received for the first time during the past year from the following : Société Belge de Geologie, Paleontologie et Hydrologie, Bruxelles. Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C., U.S. A. Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, U. 8. A. Asociation de Ingenieros Industriales, Barcelona. McGill University, Montreal. Observatorio Meteorologico y Vulcanologico, Colima, Mexico. Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereenigung, Helder. Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland, Dubiin. Department of Mines, Wellington, New Zealand. Engineers’ Club of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo., U. S. A. Sydney Observatory, Sydney, N.S. W. La Reale Academia de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona. Institution of Electrical Engineers, London. Pasadena Academy of Sciences, Pasadena, Cal. Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, Wilkesbarre, Pa. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. The Transactions were being sent out annually to 752 Societies, Museums, Libraries and Government Scientific Departments. Exchanges were being received from 440 Scientific Institutions. A considerable proportion of the 312 recipients of the Transactions from which exchanges had not yet been received were Libraries and Museums which did not issue publications of their own. A smaller proportion consisted of societies with which exchange relations had not yet been effected. LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. XVll The cost of distributing the above 752 copies of our Transactions to institutions in all parts of the world had been $29.32, the possibility of securing so widespread a distribution at so small a cost being due to the courtesy of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, in extending to the Institute the privileges of the Institution’s Bureau of International Exchanges. During the year, 113 volumes, for the most part English publications, had been put into the binder’s hands. Including these, the Library now contained 1,326 volumes bound in cloth or leather, besides 67 volumes in boards with paper or cloth backs, in all 1,393 bound volumes. It contained besides, 271 volumes of sufficiently large size for ‘separate binding, but at present simply stitched together in paper covers, as received, and a large number of volumes, at least 1,000 in Parts. The labour of looking into the completeness of these volumes in separate Parts, getting them completed when necessary, preparing them for the binder, and so on, is very great, and consequently in the case of many publications had not yet been undertaken. The Institute, as soon as funds will permit, should give the Librarian a paid assistant to do such work, The Library had now been completely removed to the room at Dalhousie College, courteously offered free of rent by the Governors of that college. It had also been arranged in such a way that a visitor would have no difficulty in finding any work which the Library con- tained. The books are arranged under countries, labels and placards indicating the cases in which the publications of the various countries are to be found. In the division occupied by each country they are arranged under the cities which are the seats of the societies, museums, &c., from which they come, the cities being in alphabetical order. In the case of all publications in English, the shelves devoted to the various cities are indicated by labels giving the name of the city and the name of the society or other publishing body. The same system of labelling is to be extended to the publications in foreign languages at an early date. In any case in which the publications received from a society are too bulky for the shelf on which they would otherwise be placed, they are placed on the lowest shelf of the same division of shelving and the fact is indicated by a label on the shelf on which they would first be looked for, containing the name of the city and society and an arrow-head pointed duwnwards. It is hoped that with this system of arrangement members may find themselves able to get such books as they may desire without difficulty even in the absence of the Librarian. Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. SclI., Vou. X. Proc —B. XVill PROCEEDINGS. The work connected with the arranging of the Library in its present quarters calls to mind the similar work which was done at the time when the Institute first really began energetically to build up its Library. The Proceedings contain no reference to the services rendered at that time by the late Mr. Denton, but though late, it is not too late to record the Institute’s appreciation of them now. The Library being in a room off the College Library will be found open by members daily, except on Saturdays and Sundays, from 10—1 and 8—5 o’clock. On Saturdays and in vacation, access to it may be obtained by members on application to the Janitor. Members resident in the country can ascertain whether such works as they may desire to. see are in the Library, and have these which are, forwarded to them, by applying to the Corresponding Secretary. A printed catalogue would: facilitate the use of the Library by members and should be undertaken, as soon as the requisite funds are in hand. The thanks of the Institute were presented to Mr. Bowman for his services as Librarian, to the Hon. Roperr Boaxk, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use of the Council Chamber, to the Crry Councit for the use of the City Council Chamber, and to the SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN Institution for his courtesy in con- tinuing to admit the Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges. Resolutions of regret were passed on the announcement of the deaths of ProrgssoR GEBELIN of the Society of Commercial Geography of Bordeaux, and of Dr. Epwarp AuBert brevz of the Society of Natural Science at Hermannstadt ; and on the announcement of the resignation of Proressor ALEXANDER AGassiZ, Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, U.S. A. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year (1898-99) :—. President—ALEXANDER McKay, Esq. Vice-Presidents—A. H. MacKay, Esg., Lu. D., F. R. S. C., and F. W. W. Doane, Eso@., C. E. Treasurer—W. C. SILVER, ESQ. Corresponding Secretary—PROFESSOR J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc. Recording Secretary—HARRY PIERS, Esq. Librarian—MAYNARD BOWMAN, Esg@., B. A. Councillors without Office—EDWIN GILPIN, JR., Esg., Lu.D., F.R.S.C.; MarTIN MurpuHy, Esqg., D.Sc., C.E.; WILLIAM McCKERRON, ESQ.; RODERICK Mc@orr, Eso:, C.E:; (S: A. MORTON, ESOn ieee Watson L. BisHop, Esg.; P. O’HEARN, Esq. Auditors—G. W. T. Iry1nG, Esg.; H. W. JOHNSTON, EsgQ., C. E. ORDINARY MEETINGS. X1X First OrpinarRy MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th November, 1898, The PrestpentT in the Chair. A paper by Proressor J. Davipson, Phil. D., of the University of New Brunswick, “ On Statistics of Consumption and Expenditure in Canada,” was read by Prorsessorn W. C. Murray. (See Transac- tions, p. 1). The subject was discussed by Drs. MacKay and MacGrecor, and Mr. Doane. Second OrpinaryY MBpErING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th December, -1898. The Presipent in the Chair. It was announced that Proressor J. Davipson, Phil. D., University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, and Rev. Brorger J. Perer, St. Joseph’s Collegiate Institute, Buffalo, N. Y., had been elected Corre- sponding Members of the Institute ; and that Anprew Hatuimay, KEsq., M. D., Shubenacadie, N. S., and Arraur M. Epwarps, Esq., M. D., F. L.8., Newark, N. J., had been elected Associate Members. A paper by Dr. A. M, Epwarps, entitled: ‘ Infusorial Earths of the World, and the Iceberg Period,” was read by Dr. A. H. MacKay. Dr. A. H. MacKay gave an address on the subject of ‘The Diatomaceae of Nova Scotia.” His treatment of the subject was a popular one, a number of microscopes with prepared slides being arranged for the convenience of their examination by those present. He called attention to the fact that these minute algae were characterized by the power of secreting silica from the waters in which they lived and building it up into the most beautifully formed and sculptured cell walls of transparent rock crystal; that they were so abundant in all of our fresh water lakes, which are not seriously disturbed by the turbulent earth laden waters of spring freshets, as to form layers many feet in depth in their bottoms of the dead silicious cells, the mass being some- times so pure as to look like the whitest flour when dried; that this material was of commercial value in the manufacture of dynamite, of water-glass, tooth powders, scouring material of great fineness, tirebrick, xx PROCEEDINGS. etc. He noted that these deposits in lakes on different sides of the same watershed were characterized by the presence in more or less abundance of some peculiar species. He was endeavoring to obtain sections of some of these deposits so as to be able to compare the varia- tion of or succession in the species since the first deposits were laid on the barren beds of the lakes carved out in the glacial period. Over a hundred different species had already been observed in our fresh water deposits, many of them identical with those found in similar deposits in the Eastern hemisphere. Among them were found the silicious spicules of several species of freshwater sponges, which appear to be also more or less abundant in all our freshwater deposits. The following species of diatoms have been already identified in these deposits : Cocconeis pediculus, Hhr. CC. placentula, #hr. Gomphonema acuminatum, Hhr. G. a, var. coronatum, Atz, G, a. var. laticeps, Hhr. G. cristatum, Ralfs. G. gracile, var. naviculoides, Grun. G. abbrevia- tum, Ag. G. capitatum, Hhr. G. intricatum, Atz. G. cistula, Hemper. Epithemia turgida, Hhr. E. gibba, Ehr. E. g. var. parallela, Gran. E. argus, Zhr. Himantidium arcus, EKhr. H. a. var. majus, W. Sm. H. a. var. tenellum, Grun. .H, formica, Ehr. HH. pectinale, Kitz. 4H. p- var. ventricosum, Grun. H. p. var. minus, Atz. H. p. var. undula- tum, Ralfs. HH. soleirolii, Kitz. H. bidens, W. Sm. 4H. b. var. diodon, Ehr. HH. praeruptum var. inflatum, Grun. H. polydon, Brun. H. polydentulum, Brun. Amphora ovalis, A¢z. A. affinis, A¢z. Cymbella gastroides, Atz. C. cuspidata, At¢z. C. ehrenbergii, A?z. C. lanceolata, Ehr. C. delicta, A. Sch. C. cistula, Hemper. C. heterophylla, Ralfs. C. tumida, Atz. N.ambigua, Ehr. N. appendiculata, Aéz. N. affinis, var. amphirhyncus, Ehr. N. firma, Grun. N. Hitcheockii, Hhr. N. legumen, Hhr. N. dicephala, Atz. N. radiosa, Kéz. N. scutellum, O'Meara. Pinnularia oblonga, Rab. PP. viridis, Rab. P. v. var. hemiptera, Rab. PP. perigrina, Hhr. P. nobilis, Ehr. P. major, Rab. P. dactylus, Atz. P.gibba, Ehr. P. divergens, W. Sm. P. interrupta, W. Sm. P. mesolepta, Hhr. P. nodosa, Ehr. Stauroneis phoeni- centeron, Ehr. St. gracilis, W. Sm. St. anceps, Hhr. St. fulmen, Breb. St. punctata, At¢z. St. stauropheria, Hr. Surirella robusta, Ehr. S. splendida, Hhr. S. biseriata, Breb. S. bifrons, Aéz. S. turgida, W. Sm. S. linearis, var. constricta, W. Sm. S. slevicensis, Grun. S. elegans, Hhr. S.-tenera, Grey. 8. cardinalis, A‘dtton. ORDINARY MEETINGS. XX1 Nitschia amphioxys, Ehr. N. elongata, Grun. N. spectabilis, Raljfs. N. sigmoidea, Nitesch. Stenopterobia anceps, Breb. Fragillaria con- struens, Grun. F. c. var. binodis, Grun. F. capucina, Desm. F. undata, W. Sm. Synedra ulna, Ahr. Meridion cireulare, Ag. Tabel- laria floculosa, Roth. T. fenestra, Lyngb. Cyclotella operculata, Ag. C. comta var. affinis, Grun. Melosira distans, hr. M. arenaria, Moor M. orichalcea, Mertens. M granulata, Ehr. M. crenulata var. valida Grun. A vote of thanks was tendered Dr. Mackay for his address. THIRD ORDINARY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th January, 1899. The Frrst Vice-Presipent, Dr. MacKay, in the chair. Lee Russexi, Ese., B. Sc, of the Normal School, Truro, read a paper on ‘‘School-room Air,” as follows : One of the great problems of modern mechanics is to increase the efficiency of machines, to get the greatest amount of work done with a given expenditure of energy. Every possible device is used to lessen friction, to minimize waste, and to apply more advantageously the force employed. Rails in place of the uneven ground, roliing, instead of sliding, friction, are familiar examples of the gains made in the single direction of lessening friction, and many more might be instanced. These are purely physical instances, but the illustration may be carried further. Intellectual processes are as subject to waste and loss. Inter- ruption, noise, disease, poisuns, are the causes of loss in mental operations, as are dust, friction, inertia, and radiation, in those of a physical nature. Such considerations as these first led me to investigate some of the causes of decrease of efficiency in school. lt appears to me plain, that as the school year advances, there is a decrease in mental power in both teachers and pupils. By this is meant, that for a given result, more energy must be expended toward the close of the year than at the beginning. This is not susceptible of exact proof, except by long and carefully conducted experiments, but from observations made upon the students at the Normal Scbool at Truro I believe such to be the case. XXil PROCEEDINGS. It is well known that the exhalations from the bodies of animals have a poisonous effect if breathed, even tho much diluted with air. The classic researches of Pettenkofer, Brown-Séquard, d’Arsonval, Lehman, Merkel, Parkes, and others, have proved the presence of an organic poison in air which has been breathed by man or other animals. Its exact constitution is not known, but the effects of ‘‘ Pettenkofer’s man-poison” are apparent in every school-room. They are, headache, drowsiness, slight fever, and a general retardation of all reactions to stimuli. Partial loss of the power of inhibition is also noticeable. Less apparent, but more important, are the general weakening of vitality and the greater susceptibility to disease which follow prolonged breathing of impure air. These effects are more easily seen in the weak and anaemic than in vigorous persons. It was the observation of the less vigorous students at Truro which first led me to suspect that the air in the Normal School might be one cause, at least, of the decrease in power which I had noticed. We have, as do all schools, pupils who, when at their best, are just able to keep up with the class, who are, mentally or physically, near the fatique-point. A slight interference with their normal activity throws them off their balance, and they must drop behind. Not infre- quently pupils come to us enfeebled by excessive study in preparation for examinations. Under favorable conditions they might do well, but if subjected to further strain they may break down. With these two classes of students, poisoning by impure air may make the difference between success and failure. At all times, and with all classes, it causes a determinable decrease in the amount of work, mental or physical, which is done with a given expenditure of energy. Especially where the system of public education is most highly developed and most strenuously applied, the evil effects of this poison have been most apparent. In testing the air in the Normal School, the method and apparatus of Prof. Hch. Wolpert of Nuremburg was adopted. The chemical basis of this method is the fact that an alkaline solution of sodium carbonate becomes neutral by the absorption of carbon dioxid. If the alkaline solution be colored red by phenol phthalein, when the solution becomes neutral the color disappears. Thus, with a given amount of sodium carbonate, the decolorization of the liquid shows that a certain amount of carbon dioxid has been absorbed. If this carbon dioxid come from a ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXlll measured quantity of air, the proportion of carbon dioxid in the air is easily calculated. Carbon dioxid is a constituent of all air, but it has been shown that in re-breathed air it increases in direct proportion to the other, more poisonous, but less easily detected, impurities. We shall therefore make no error if we use the amount of carbon dioxid as an indicator of the amount of the organic poisons. The apparatus is so arranged as to admit into a glass cylinder which ‘contains a measured amount of the standard solution, the air to be tested. When enough has been admitted to neutralize the solution, the propor- tion of carbon dioxid may be read off from a scale etched on the glass. It should be stated that as checks upon the experiments, samples of air were tested by other methods, the results agreeing very closely with those obtained by the Wolpert method. This is not as exact as syste- matic chemical analysis, but it is sufficiently so for the purpose. The instrument is graduated for 0°C and 760mm. of mercury pressure. As the air tested was always at a temperature of from 15°C to 20°C, and as the average pressure at Truro is 76lmm., there should be about 77/ added to the actual observations to correct them for temperature and pressure. I give below a table showing a set of observations which were made in the Chemical Laboratory at the Provincial Normal School. They are corrected for temperature and pressure, and the conditions in the room at the time of the various tests are given as accurately as possible. XX1V PROCEEDINGS. TESTS OF THE AIR IN THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY, PROVINCIAL NORMAL SCHOOL, TRURO, NOVA SCOTIA. C Ose Date. |Time. Condition of the Laboratory. (parts in| 10,000. ) | Mar. | A. M. 4 OH Oloh| ar NAY. aaose se eoho. C006 AoaObN om D>OomOuOeEoecGie> a6 6.42 14 CHOC atkd ae PEO tc Slat S06 5 ob. cn mos Gap lane cro o Or co .6 Oc 4.28 15 9.00 tiie Wcicnsdoadcucn daos enn ee UcEmemodeddnane sods - anc 21 GeO ge ersernc ieee nee ehertete ev ravenonsi) eke (a chair aee ever reeteey 4.28 22 GROOT OW ek cares Mic ate re acisaeisieys sticks nett eee 16.05 | 24 QiOO4) “ES 5 pes corte cetera 51: oysteye dane ens todays haters) sins a eVe) © her spseneee 6.42 17 9.45 |34 students—40 m.—high wind .................... 9.63 22 9-45 |32 es os windows OPEN ye sie cto srohichocteee 16.05 is} |! esa) || OC a i) CRP ed ho eRe tara, MONOD CROMER RIC TT OAi oo 20.33 Tis. || wes@e || «s Ce WINGUOWS OMEN eich «seis at ier seit 9.63 22a sLOLOOn|\nre es ‘« windows and doors open .......... 16.05 fs) || sayz) |} “§ 1 h., 40 m., windows and doors open....| 23.54 GQ) |) wey) |) es ae WROD coe tooo rcoe gad 6c 21.40 15 TO;4.0))/ 5 sf oe windows @\oleitl Sisoncgsasauces 10.70 gp |) Wwe) |) OS a slate cucnes emer aetenens te Be nea 5 A oP c 16.05 AAs || OS ss fe Win GdOWwS/OPEliee.-.c.1aete soe Oe eee 20. 33 1S |] wa. gs ss ESS) oe asapeciaicuena Syeeieneve nhs ae 17.12 21 itaname, || 00 es 1 h., 15 m., Blow-pipe lamps in use...... 48.15 geen |< ss x WANAOWS) OPENle snl. ssi e ie Hoke P. M. 7 GOOK Empty, cccercricin eee Socom ce Secretar 16.05 10 5-00 US eS albemeaago mo bo cnds o. cubs eGo mumDO DOL OO 6056 20.33 26 SC] SS beoucshs oun 006 ohdo0n Boouubeowuood én doc 42.80 27 5-00 Laboratory used for blow- -pipe work in mineralogy for Tela Ay Nos lie FO OUCISNES - 5 osancpoGcusadae Jdboc 65.00 The observations made in the Laboratory were chosen for presentation. because they present, 1. A mean between the worst and best rooms in the building. 2. fa 10®x First SERIES. Mar. 16 15:6 -90368|22-2- ASD Wey A. 2 cll vce ovens [eee 21 18.1 | 90.98|0.356 482 | 10 80 | 36.03 | 10.18 Os eee POOR GUlmrowe 735 | 16.00! 35.69 , 8.68 22 WieOneOleot eases 482 ee ee, ae 22 17.6 |103.99| .335 981 | 20.04 | 36.73 | 8.69 23 NSS i Oe Sill ee ever ASO a oye: \chc lll ooteanevea leek cate 23 1829 (113-92) 323) | 122) | 25.32) 37.25: || Siz 28 ISH |) CEES Coeds CL eee rae eae SN ISR BG. 28 18.6 |123.21] .307 | 1467 | 29.76 | 36.57 | 9.89 Apr. 4 18.8 |137.41| .293 | 1714 | 35.88 | 37.16 | 10.68 5 19.3 |138.38} .293 | 1714 | 36.36 | 37.42 | 10.48 6 17.7 |150.37| .279 | 1956 | 40.80 | 36.88 | 12.54 Apr | 13 17.0 | 95.65] .345 | 482 | 12.22 | 35.86 | $.38 13 17.4 102.16) 337 735 | 18.44 | 36.36 | 7.44 13 17.5 |110.31| .324 | 981 | 23.80 , 36.35 | 7.51 13 18.0 |121.13) .312 | 1222 , 29.26 | 37.15 | 7.85 AA) | soeeae | 130.97} .3801 | 1467 | 33.64 | 37.28 | 8.95 A) \\\ casas '141.83| .290 | 1714 | 38.48 | 37.36 | 10.10 HY loobbe peu .99| .282 | 1956 | 42.30 | 37.96 | 11.37 The first series of observations showed that the rigidity, as deter. mined, at first diminished with tension, then reached a minimum value, and finally increased, as the cord was more and more stretched,—an interesting result if it should be substantiated. Hence a second series of ORDINARY MEETINGS. XXXl observations was made with the same cord and the same arrangements as the first. This series had to be made somewhat hurriedly, as will be seen by the dates of the individual experiments, but the experiments were made with the same care as those of the first series. It will be seen from the above table that (1) the treatment to which the cord had been subjected in the first series had diminished its rigidity, the values being smaller throughout than in the first series, and (2) that the initial diminution of rigidity with increase of tension, its final increment with tension, and the occurrence of a minimum point are as marked in the second series as in the first. To find out if the occurrence of the minimum point was due to the defective character of the attachments at the ends of the cord, Mr. Macdonald made a number of observations with new modes of attach- ment. These consisted of brass tubes in one end of which three longitudinal cuts had been made, the ends of the three strips thus formed being bent inwards and provided with teeth. The ends of the cord having been passed into these tubes, the strips were firmly bound to the cord by means of wire. Unfortunately Mr. Macdonald had not. sufficient time to make more than rough observations with the new arrangement. Such observations as he was able to make seemed to show that the minimum point had disappeared. Whether its disappearance was due to the more satisfactory attachments, the passing away of the heating effect or the fatigue of the cord, Mr. Macdonald hopes to deter- mine by further experiments. The above values of the rigidity agree fairly well with Mallock’s! determinations, Mallock having found that the rigidity of what he calls “soft grey ” india-rubber, determined dynamically, ranged from 5.52 to 8.76, if expressed as in the above table, and that for ‘‘ hard grey” rubber it ranged from 10.77 to 13.94. Mr. Macdonald’s rubber could not be designated as either soft or hard; and his values are intermediate between Mallock’s for the soft and the hard specimens. The volume of the cord underwent very little change during either the first or the second series. In both series, however, there is an unmistakeable though small increase of volume with stretching ; but whether it was due to the stretching or to the series of oscillations to which the cord had been subjected does not of course appear. 1 Proc. R. S. Lond., 46, 233, 1889, SL PROCEEDINGS. Mr. Macdonald did not intend at the outset, to make any deter- minations of Young’s Modulus ; but his observations may be used for two purposes, viz., to determine (1) how the value of this modulus for a cord under a constant original stress varies with the magnitude of the increment of stress to which it is subjected, and (2) how the value of the modulus for a cord under different original stresses, and elongated by approximately equal increments of stress, varies with the magnitude of the original stress. In the determinations given below, Young’s Modulus has been taken to be the increment of tensile stress divided by the corresponding increment of length per unit of the length immedi- ately before the stress was increased. (1) The observations requisite for the first purpose were made only in a few cases ; and even in those cases in calculating the increment of tensile stress, it is necessary to assume (the requisite measurements not having been made) that the radius of the cord would not appreciably vary with the small variations of length under the permanent load— an assumption which is doubtless permissible. The following table gives the results :— Additional Young's Original Stress Stress Elongation per Modulus, (grms. persq. ' (grms. per sq. unit length. (abs. C.G.S cm.) | cm.) | units). 108 x | 1354 ' 789 .0618 Dees 1354 | 1574 .1397 1.05 1354 | 2529 . 2449 | 9.73 | 1354 se | 3424 .3342 | 10.05 These sueeantions | would thus seem to show that for the smaller additional stresses to which the cord was subjected, the value of Young’s Modulus diminished as the additional stress increased, that for the larger additional stresses, it increased with the additional stress, and that there was a certain additional stress for which Young’s Modulus had a minimum value,—this additional stress being of such a magnitude as to produce an elongation of about 0.25. This result is in agreement, qualitatively, with Mallock’s observations, which showed that Young’s Modulus, statically determined, “ diminishes with the extension until the stretched length is about 3/2 times the natural length.” As Mallock’s ORDINARY MEETINGS. Sk rubber no doubt differed in degree of vulcanisation from Mr. Macdonald’s, and as he used a different initial stress, it is not surprising that the elon- gations giving a minimum value for Young’s Modulus should be 0.25 in the one case and 0.5 in the other Mallock’s mean value of Young’s Modulus, when expressed in absolute C. G. S. units, was 8.56 x 10® for soft grey india-rubber, and 34.16 x 10° for hard grey rubber. Asin the case of the rigidity, Mr. Macdonald’s values are intermediate, being nearer Mallock’s values for the soft than for the hard specimen. (2) The following table contains the determinations made for the second purpose mentioned above. Original Stress trae I Elongation per mone (grms. per sq. (grms. per sq. unit length. (abs. C. G. S. cm.) | cm.) mudi): First SERIES. 1354 789 .0618 12.53 2143 785 .0765 10.06 2928 855 | .0955 8.78 3783 | 995 .0816 WH 7 4778 | 1072 .1152 9.13 5850 | 1161 .0943 12.08 SECOND SERIES. 1397 784 | .0681 11.30 2181 847 .0798 10.42 3028 889 .0981 8.89 3917 957 .0812 IL 5} 4874 1036 .0829 12 26 5910 1026 .0716 14.05 Proc. & Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., VOL. X. Proc,--C. XXXI1V PROCEEDINGS. It will be seen that in both series of observations the values of the modulus are large at the outset, diminish in value as the original stress is increased, reach a minimum value and thereafter increase with the original stress. The irregularity of the fourth and fifth determinations in the first series, is obviously due to the unusually long intervals of time which, as the first table, p. xxx, shows, intervened between the two pairs of observations on which they are based. The variation of Young’s Modulus with initial stress, the additional stress being roughly constant, would thus appear to be similar to that which was shown above to hold with respect to additional stress when initial stress is constant. It should be noted, with respect to all the above determinations of Young’s Modulus that the values found apply to the state of the cord immediately after the application of the additional stress, and in addition that the cord was subjected to torsion after each observation of length. Mr. Macdonald hopes to be able to continue the above investigation at a later date. The paper was discussed by Dr. Murpuy. James Baryes, Esq., B A., Dalhousie College, read a paper “ On the Conductivity, Specitic Gravity, and Surface Tension of Aqueous Solutions containing Potassium Chloride and Sulphate.” (See Transac- tions, p. 49.) Harry Piers, Esq., read a paper entitled, “‘ Observations on a Fish new tothe Fauna of Nova Scotia.” (See Transactions, p. 110.) Cuarues F, Lrypsay, Esq, read a paper “On the presence of Acid Sulphates in Solutions containing Copper Sulphate and Sulphuric Acid.” The paper was discussed by Proressors E. MacKay and MacGregor, and Dr. A. H. MacKay. A vote of thanks was presented to Messrs. Macponaup, Barnes and Lrnpsay for their communications. The following paper was read by title: ‘‘ Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology: No. 5,” by Harry Piers, Esq. The Council was authorized to receive as read by title, any papers that might be offered too late for this meeting. HARRY PIERS, Recording Secretary. MAR 19 1901 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Nova Scotian Institute of Serene. SESSION OF 1899-1900. ANNUAL Business MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 20th November, 1899. The Presipent, ALEXANDER McKay, Esgq., in the chair. The PresIpENT addressed the Institute, as follows :— GENTLEMEN,—A review of the last year’s work of this Institute may well be very brief. Meetings were held at the usual times, except in February, on account of a severe storm. ‘Twelve papers were read and discussed, and another was read by title. These cover a wide range of subjects: Social science, geology, sanitary science, mineralogy, medicine, chemistry and botany, zoology and physics. Prof. Davidson, of the University of New Brunswick, opens up a field new to the Institute by a valuable paper ‘‘On Statistics and Expenditure in Canada.” In this and related studies there are splendid opportunities for unlimited research and the display of the highest order of talents. A paper by Prof. Russell on ‘School Room Air” will be of much interest and value to teachers. The tests recom- mended are inexpensive, and such as can be generally used. Teachers who have once made these tests will ever afterwards be more alive to the almost criminal carelessness of those who allow children to occupy badly-ventilated school rooms. Dr. A. P. Reid also deserves the Proc. & TRANS. N- S. INST: Scr., Vor. X. Proc.—D. (XXXV) XXXV1 PROCEEDINGS. thanks of the Institute for calling attention to the spread of consumption by contagion and its prevention by means of properly constructed sanitaria, of which he exhibited a model. In the phenological observa- tions of the school children, collected by Dr. MacKay, and in the experiments in physics and chemistry conducted by Messrs. Barnes and Lindsay—promising young students of Dalhousie College—we see hopeful signs of a reviving interest for science in Nova Scotia. Mr. Piers has favored us with “ No. 5 of Notes on Nova Scotia Zoology.” Dr. Mackay, who is our only authority on the Diatomacee of Nova Scotia, has awakened a fresh interest in one of his favorite studies by another paper reporting progress, and by exhibiting excellent micro- scopic slides of our principal diatoms. Upon the whole, then, the work of the year has been of very considerable interest and of some scientific importance. We have added to our numbers two ordlnary members, one corres- ponding member and three associate members. We record with sorrow the death in September of one of our oldest and most faithful members, Mr. J. J. Fox. He was born in Salisbury, England, in 1818. He studied medicine, but preferred a seafaring life, and spent many years full of adventure in Egypt, Greece, the West Indies and South America. In 1852 he was appointed by the Imperial Government comptroller of customs and navigation laws at Magdalen Islands. A faithful performance of duties soon led to advancement, and for many years he was familiarly known as “governor.” He was charac- terized by modesty, bravery and humanity. For valuable services to shipwrecked mariners he was presented by the President of the United States with a magnificent gold watch valued at $1,000. His intimate knowledge of the fisheries made him a most valuable witness before the Halifax fishery commission in 1877. After retiring from the civil service he lived in Halifax, joined the Institute, and seldom missed a meeting. To-day brings us sad tidings of the death yesterday of Sir William Dawson, the most distinguished member of our Institute and the most eminent scientific man in Canada. He was born in Pictou in 1820. Ata very early age he began his studies in natural history, thereby cultivating his powers of observation, and thus laying the foundation for his remarkable achievements in geology subsequently. His success in this respect is a good argument in favor of the early introduction into our course of study of science teaching. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, XXXVI Mr. Dawson graduated from Edinburgh University at the age of 26. For four years he studied geology, travelling part of the time with Sir Charles Lyell, the greatest geologist of the world. At the age of thirty he was superintendent of schools for Nova Scotia, and did much to lay the foundation of our present educational system. In 1855 he was appointed Prineipal of McGill University, a position which he held until 1893, until he and the University had become famous the world over, He was capable of a prodigious amount of hard work. In his favorite science he kept in the foremost rank, but he found it dithcult to avail himself of the light thrown upon natural phenomena by the theory of evolution of which he was a most uncompromising oppo- nent. His extraordinary industry is shown by the large number of books and scientific articles which he wrote. Some of them were of very great value and are still used as text books. is eminent services to science were acknowledged by his appoint- ment as first President of the Royal Society of Canada in 1882, his election in the same year as President of the American Geological Association, and of the British Association in 1886. He received honorary degrees fram various universities, and was knighted in 1884. At the close of my address last year I referred to the fact that science was much neglected or very badly taught in our schools. As a remedy I suggested (a) that the colleges prescribe science as a subject for matriculation, (b) that for the academic license more scholarship, especially in practical science, and a long course of the best professional training be made imperative, (c) that higher qualifications in science be required for B licenses, and (d) that a large part of the provincial examination in science for grade A consist of laboratory work. The progress of science teaching in other countries during the last year has all been in confirmation of the soundness of these principles. No doubt the time is near when we also must adopt them. When that day comes, and not until then, science will make satisfactory progress in all our educational institutions. But it is perhaps more especially the province of this Institute to awaken the public to an interest in general science and to stimulate and assist individuals in particular fields of research, XXXVIll PROCEEDINGS. In reference to this aim I may be allowed to make some additional suggestions : 1. We should have a scientific library easily accessible to scientific workers in every part of the Province. At present we have nothing of the kind. A collection of partially catalogued, somewhat inaccessible reports of scientific societies cannot be said to be such a scientific library as the majority of workers need, however useful it may be to those engaged in original research. We require not less than 5,000 volumes of the latest books by the ablest men of science ; 10,000 would be better. In addition to this there should be complete sets of all the scientific periodicals in English, French and German. Such a collection of standard science textbooks, supplemented by government reports on agriculture, forestry, fisheries, etc., and the reports of scientific societies, and managed by a competent librarian, would be of incalculable benefit. JI have no hesitation in saying that I believe it is the duty of our government in its encouragement of technical instruction to establish such a library. If there existed an intelligent appreciation of its value the cost would not long be a hindrance, for the number of books required would not be large, and probably many of them would be received as donations. But why should the government provide a science library any more than a law library or a historical library? Because science in some form or other lies at the foundation of suecess in all the industries of the country, so that the government would be justified and supported in making an expenditure which would result in such general benefit. Facilities for scientific research would lead to discoveries which would pay the cost a thousand fold. Pasteur’s discoveries were worth untold millions to France. Although Nova Scotia is not large, populous or rich, yet her natural resources are so great and varied as to warrant the government in following the examples of other countries in respect to technical education; and the establishment of a good science library would be but the first and most natural step in that direction. Recently I wanted to consult twenty or thirty scientific works and periodicals. In the three largest public or quasi-public libraries of Halifax I was able to find but one of them. No wonder that our ablest young men are lost to the Province when we deny them the opportunities for research which they readily obtain elsewhere. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. XX XIk Here let me call your attention to the most valuable and self- sacrificing labors of Dr. MacGregor and Mr. Maynard Bowman in connection with the library of this Institute. A few years ago, when they began work upon it, it consisted of a small number of unclassified reports from secieties in various parts of the world. It now includes a large number of serial publications by scientific societies and other insti- tutions, and numbers about 1,500 bound volumes with about as many more unbound. These haee been placed in a room temporarily pro- vided by Dalhousie College, and so arranged that any one desirous of consulting any volume would be able to find it without the assistance of the librarian. The work of bringing order out of the confusion that existed at first, the cataloguing and labelling of so many books, searching and sending abroad for missing numbers, was an immense labor, which if performed by a paid expert would have cost several hundred, not less, perhaps, than two thousand dollars. But in addition to all this, the addresses of other societies had to be searched and copies of our Transactions sent abroad to about 700 societies in all, by which means the number of valuable publications received each year was more than doubled. Surely when these two gentlemen have done so much, we may expect our provincial government to supplement their efforts by the addition to this library each year of a few hundred treatises. Then would it not be better that the library thus enlarged should be taken over by the government, properly housed and managed, and made free to the public ? Nor must I forget to say that the thanks of this Institute are due to the Governors of Dalhousie College for the use of a room at a time when our library became so large that it could no longer be kept in the place which it formerly occupied. “s science in our midst. A collection of dusty, unlabelled, badly arranged specimens does not amount to much and scarcely justifies the expense. Such a museum is the deadest of all dead things. To be practically useful a museum requires a large, well-lighted, readily accessible room. It should primarily contain typical specimens of the most important natural bodies, arranged according to their chemical or organic affinities, so that the student may learn from them at a glance something of their relationship and the laws of nature 2. A properly conducted museum would do much to popularize xl PROCEEDINGS, Especial attention should be given to the products of this Province. They should be scientifically marshalled and their industrial applications carefully and suggestively illustrated. Raw products in every stage of their manufacturing processes should be exhibited. The museum should be in charge of a man of the broadest scientific culture, a man of business capacity, and a thorough teacher. A museum thus equipped would do more for science than any college or any other agency. Every visitor from the country would return to his home with his curiosity awakened, and often with scientifie problems or difficulties solved, with a new inspiration for further advances. Such an institution would have organic connection with every high school and college in the province, exchanging specimens and thus enriching the local school museums, diffusing scientific information, and stimulating scientific activity. How often throughout the last sixteen years have our teachers lamented the want of opportunity in this respect? During their holidays they would have made large collections of interesting objects which they would study in classes formed at the museum. Long since every school in the city, after the example of the German schools, would’ have been supplied with a respectable collection of labelled specimens for the instruction of their pupils, and the amount of scientific know- ledge and interest would have been increased tenfold. For the sake of economy and efficiency the museum and the science library should be in the same building and in charge of the curator of the museum. ; Book and specimen are complementary and should be drawn as close together as possible. ‘ First of all, their aims are identical, for they have the one end in view, the culture of the people ; secondly, they appeal to the same mental faculties with which all men are endowed in a greater or less degree, and thirdly, to a very great extent one of them, the museum, to carry out its proper functions. to a great measure, is dependent on the other. Jt Jeans upon it, as it were ; it looks to it to minister to the museum visitors that information which the most comprehensive catalogue and labels in the world would fail to supply.”* If all the specimens were labelled giving references to the books in which they were best described, placed on a shelf near at hand, the *C. W. Wallis, Curator Birmingham Art Galleries and Museum. TREASURER’S REPORT. xli student’s ability to do better work and the extent to which both library and museum could be utilized would be greatly increased. The tendency in England, Ontario and the United States is towards combining libraries and museums in the same building. In conclusion, when the colleges come to see that good work in science in the high school gives, to say the least, as valuable mental discipline as classics, aud vastly more of useful knowledge ; when the education department provides adequate professional training for the higher teachers, and subjects them to tests in the laboratory which will demonstrate their fitness for teaching science, and when the government will supply us with a well-equipped museum and science library in one building, then but not before we will make satisfactory progress in science. The thanks of the Institute were presented to Mr. MoKay for his services as President. The TREASURER’S report was presented, and having been audited and found correct, was received and adopted. The following is an analytical statement of the expenditure for 1898-99 :— PUBLICATION OF TRANSACTIONS :— Vol. LX, Part 4 (1897-98) : Pravatioee BinGl loyiaveling neoceaanoancabuancec $171 40 Lessreceived for authors’ separates and two Goes Solel woe coascsaoaddcn Soba ycoC 8 00 —— $163 40 Vol. IX, Parts 1-4. Preparation of Index .... 2 00 WiolexG) Part 1 : He MNES ckoeel rae Sites ack ie elosediaseeaie ave ate $ 8 00 Bhotocrapns tog Oo riratege so erloij- terrae I oo DNEAENINES Begaans Sonoma Ney OOOIOn as clo mec Teh 3) IBS GOETHE ac ahosedocer Stas se st ee tele 75 —— _ 23 88 Wool exs) Banii2, 310m 45: Rhotographitogyornticaltery a1 elel-irecrsr repens 25 89 83 DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSACTIONS :— Wols DxXeePartay: Wrappers, receipts, wrapping, twine...... $14 50 PANAAKESS MSA tees teres crerenerensls, ore a ci cey vonemey choos s 15 00 Postage, truckage, freight, expressage, HRAUMINES SG oa oane adda cluadooo 0d andc 15 39 xl PROCEEDINGS. Brought forward ..... woh dinsadhowrte siete telat eich SOO Gis c $234 42 LIBRARY EXPENSES :— Insurance (including stock of Transactions).... $16 88 Janitor, Dalhousie College, for services ...... 5 00 Asst.-Librarian, Dalhousie College, for services 10 00 Ieibracian, clenicalgexpenseseme ee it iets 25 00 IRIN pgoaccosoon0gcungaudsoDG0d NGG BGODGd L277 Arranging Library, preparing card catalogue, GiGsocons noose SduoocodHd Gucaaaosenoaod 75 00 Druck ae eis cei Leta sievoleres eyed “aera wee ie ies 3 80 Binding suisse) os catios seu ee tate aie cs 95 65 Freight and postage on back numbers of Transactions sent in exchange.... .... .. 4 OL RE tty EXPENSES ct mie cic ere er tciteetRea rere sie 2 55 ——— 250 66 Gallingsofimeetin gs: cine oho voces anes oe 28 00 INA VERtSIM Gy gerqete a tote 6 ote ie er areto ticks eeststeke rele doreuciete = 6 00 Postagel(Secretanes and ibranian)) cerry 11 85 lee O Fil slop. dies Armocicints Srrcin eC eee Ror a ote Sead Cire 4 00 Miscellaneous printing (including stationery) ...... 2 50 DERI os oc5d00 Soud0ns5 coSaHDGS0G ODba200F 50 $537 93 The Report on the Library was presented by the Librarian and Corresponding Secretary. During the year the Transactions had been sent for the first time to the following :— *Ko6nigl. Landesarchiv, Agram, Austria-Hungary. Elektrotechnischer Verein, Berlin, Germany. Real Academia de Ciencias Naturales y Artes, Barcelona, Spain. Nature Novitates, Berlin. *Musée du Congo, Brussels. Baltimore Astronomical Society, Baltimore, Md. *Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, Md. Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. New Hampshire State Library, Concord, N. H. *Natural History Association of Miramichi, Chatham, N. B. *K. Vetenskaps- och Vitterhetssamhallet, G6teborg, Sweden. Real Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales; Habana, Cuka. Periodico di Matematica, Leghorn, Italy. ’ 5 ) LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. xii Lincolnshire Science Society, Lincoln, G, B. Public Library, Museum and National Gallery, Melbourne. *Canadian Mining Institute, Montreal. Club Alpin de Crimée, Odessa, Russia. Rivista di Patologia Vegetale, Portici, Italy. Pasadena Academy of Science, Pasadena, Cal. *Philadelphia Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, Pa. Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, Rochdale, G. B. * Augustana College, Rock Island, Il. “Minerva,” Strassburg, Germany. *Institut de Botanique, R. Université des Etudes, Sienne, Italy. State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana, I]. Concilium Bibliographicum, Zurich-Neumiinster, Switzerland, American Microscopical Journal, Washington, J). C. Publications have been received for the first time from the institu- tions indicated by an asterisk in the above list, and from the following: Observatorio de Manila, Manila. Education Department, Wellington, New Zealand. Public Museum, Wanganui, New Zealand. Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birmingham. “La Science Sociale,” Paris. Treasury Department, Washington, D. C. South Staffordshire Institnte of Iron and Steel Works Managers, Dudley, G. B. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, G. B. K. Ungarische Geographische Gesellschaft, Vienna. Société Anversoise pour la Protection des Animaux, Antwerp. Society of Civil Engineers, Boston. Halifax Scientific Society, Halifax, Eng. Université Imperiale de Moscon, Russia. Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, U.S A. K. Botanische Gesellschaft, Regensburg. Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Ka. Publie Library, New York. Société Linnéenne de Lyon, Lyons, France. Academie des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Aris, Lyons, France. Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. Academy of Science, Washington, D. C. xliv PROCEEDINGS. New England Zoological Club, Cambridge, Mass. Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, Adelaide, So. Australia. Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney. Associazione Mathesis, Leghorn, Italy. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, Wis. Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France, Paris. Lloyd Mycological Museum, Cincinnati. The Transactions were now being sent annually to 779 institutions of various kinds, and exchanges had been received from 447. The distribution of the Transactions to Corresponding Societies and other institutions in all parts of the world had again, throngh the courtesy of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, been effected at small expense, through the Institution’s Bureau of Inter- national Exchanges.’ The total expense of distribution had been $44.89, which included printing of wrappers and receipt forms, wrapping and addressing as well as postage (on Canadian packages), and freight. At the date of the last report 113 volumes were in the binder’s hands. Subsequently 89 volumes were added to these ; and these 202 volumes are now on the shelves. The total cost of binding them was $170.65, but as $75.00 was provided for last year, only the balance of $95.65 appears in this year’s account. The books bound were mostly English, but some foreign publications which were in demand by members were included. The number of bound volumes in the Library is now 1,482; and there must be a somewhat larger number of unbound volumes, though we have never made a count of the unbound volumes. The recommendation made last year that a paid assistant should be provided to get the library into a condition in which it would be of greater use to the members, was carried ont during the past year, the services of Miss N. K. MacKay, who had previously been Asst.-Librarian of Dalhousie College, having been secured for some weeks during the summer. The following work was accordingly carried out :— (1) The arranging of books on the shelves and the labelling of shelves referred to in last report, had been completed. It is thus possible for members to find any books they may desire without difficulty, even in the absence of the Librarian. (2) All unbound volumes, in parts, were examined and tied up, note being made of their defects. This had previously been done in the case: LIBRARIAN'S REPORT. xlv of most of the English books. It has now been done for the whole library. (3) Memoranda were made out for transmission to corresponding societies, of the parts lacking in our sets of their publications. (4) A card catalogue of the whole library was prepared according to the method in use in the Library of the Academy of Arts and Science of Philadelphia. The catalogue in the case of serial publications speci- fies of course only the volumes of the various series which are on the shelves, without giving any clue to their contents. In the case of publications which, though issued by one institution, do not form a numbered series, each volume or report is separately catalogued. The catalogue consists of about 1200 ecards. While the whole of the work, carried out in an admirable manner by Miss MacKay, forms a necessary preliminary to the issue of a printed catalogue for the use of our members, we are not yet ready to issue such a catalogue, at least to issue one which would be permanently useful. For many of the unbound volumes in the library are defective, and it. would be well to get these defects supplied as far as may be possible before printing. The Corresponding Secretary hopes during the present vear to transmit the memoranda of defects referred to above to the various corresponding institutions, and to make some progress in getting the defects supplied. The report was adopted, and the thanks of the Institute tendered to Mr. Bowman and Dr. MacGregor for their work in connection with the library. On motion of Dr. MacKay, it was resolved that the Council be directed to prepare a resolution appreciative of the scientific career of the late Sir William Dawson and regretting his recent death. It was resolved that the Council be instructed to approach the Government for the purpose of ascertaining 1f it would be possible for the latter to provide space, in the new Government building, for the accommodation of the Institute’s library. The thanks of the Institute were presented to the Hon. Ropert 30K, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use of the Couneil Chamber, and to the SecrETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITU- tion for his courtesy in continuing to admit the Institute to the privi- leges of the Bureau of International Exchanges. xlvi PROCEEDINGS. The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1899-1900): President.—A. H. MacKay, Esqg., Lu. D., F. R. S. C., ex officio F. R., Nis: Vice-Presidents.—F. W. W. DOANE, Esgqg., C. E., and HENRY S. POOLE, ESOu nH. Gals. Treasurer.—WILLIAM C, SILVER, Esq. Corresponding Secretary.—PROF. J. G. MACGREGOR, D. Sc. Recording Secretary.—HARRY PIERS, ESQ. Librarian.— MAYNARD BOWMAN, Eso., B. A. Councillors without Office. —ALEXANDER McKay, EsqQ. ; EDWIN GILPIN, JR: Eso., Eu. D., Fo Ro S.C. ; MARTIN MURPHY, ESOu, DS ear WILLIAM McCKERRON, Esg.; PROF. EBENEZER MAcCKay, PH. D.; Watson L. BIsHoP, Esg. ; RODERICK MCCOLL, Eso@., C. E. Auditors.—HERBERT E. GatTEs, Esg., and G. W. T. IRVING, Esq. First Orpinary MeEstine. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 20th November, 1899. The Prestpent, Dr. MacKay, in the chair. The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business Meeting. Dr. H. M. Amr communicated a paper ‘“ On the Subdivisions of the Carboniferous System in Eastern Canada,” but owing to the lateness of yi ) g the hour the reading of the paper was deferred. fo) SEcoND OrbDINARY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 11th December, 1899. The Presrpest in the chair. The council reported that Ernest Haycock, Esq. Instructor in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S., had been elected an Associate member. The following resolution was adopted :—‘“ This Institute has learned with the greatest regret of the death of its distinguished Corresponding Member, Sir J. W. Dawson, and desire to place on record its profound seuse of the eminence of the services rendered by him to the cause both of Science and of Education, during a long life, which was happily as fully characterized by successful results, as by unremitting efforts towards the attainment of a noble ideal. ORDINARY MEETINGS. xl vit “The Institute desires to convey to Lapy Dawson and her family, an expression of the deep sympathy with which its members have heard of the sad bereavement she and her family have experienced.” A paper by Henry M. Amt, Esq., D. Sc., of the Geological Survey of Canada, “‘On the Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous System in Eastern Canada,” was read by Dr. E. Gitpin who gave an introductory statement of a popular character. (See Transactions, p. 162). The subject was discussed by Dr. Girpry, Me. J. Forses and others. The president, Dr. A. H. MacKay, said he was glad to have Dr. Ami’s views presented to the Institute. He spent a fortnight with Mr. Fletcher in running over the stream-expused sections of the southern flanks of the Cobequids ; and became deeply interested in some of the. problems discussed in the paper. The extremely careful work done of late years had thrown new hght on the problems attempted to be solved by the older geologists trom their original but more limited observations. Mr. Fletcher has reason to feel gratified that Dr. Ami and Dr. Dawson admit that his maps of the region in question ‘‘show clearly the true ? and natural order of sequence of the formations ;” so that the reference to “ types that are everywhere held to be of carboniferous age” must indicate a revision of the older geological nomenclature of sume regions. Sir William Dawson, a most eminent paleontologist as well as geologist, after studying the fossil plants and animals of Riversdale, MacKay Head, and Harrington River, placed them in the Millstone Grit forma- tion as intimately related to those of the Coal Measures. Dr. Ami now correlates them with the Lancaster fern ledges (hitherto known as Devonian) of New Brunswick ; but he would place them all in his new Eo-carboniferous. Of the twenty-one fossil species enumerated by Dr. Ami, fifteen were Dawson’s own species. Pstlophyton glabrum belonged to a genus hitherto generally considered to be characteristic of the Devonian. Leaia Leidyi (perhaps identical with Leaza tricarinata) was found in rocks called Devonian by many geologists. Belinurus grandevus and Estheria Dawsoni represented genera usually considered common both to the Devonian and the Carboniferous, with specific names given to specimens obtained from the rocks in dispute. Dr. Ami’s new species Sawropus Dawsont was stated to be only “ apparently from rocks of this age.” Mr. Fletcher would appear to oppose the assumption that the rocks underlying the New Glasgow conglomerate. xlviil PROCEEDINGS. are equivalent to the coal measures of Stellarton, according to his views given in the Report of the Geological Survey for 1886, which he did not appear to have since changed. These differences of opinion demonstrated that new information was being acquired, and was in the course of being assimilated by the geologists. But whether taking the upper slice from off our old slenderly developed Devonian and attaching it with its unconformity to the base of our corpulent Carboniferous is the true rectification of the old nomenclature, remained, perhaps yet to be indubitably determined, If the true order of superposition of rocks can be ascertained at any point from the observation of their actual bedding, the paleontologist must modify his hypotheses based on defective biological horizons observed elsewhere. so as to harmonize with the facts of the stratigraphist. It was the stratigraphist in the first place who determined the biological horizons for the paleontologist. But the paleontologist with his biological horizon becomes the supreme arbitrator where the strati- graphist is not sure of his base, or of the order of superposition. Pror. J. G. MacGrecor, communicated a paper, “On Laws of Dilution for Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes.” THrrp OrpinaRyY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax 15th January, 1900. The Present in the chair. A communication was read from the Kianra INTERNATIONAL Con- GRESS OF NaviGATION, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend the meeting of the Congress to be held at Paris in July next. The matter was referred to the Council for action. JAMES Barwes, Ese, B. A., Dalhousie College, presented two papers :— 1. ‘On the Relation of the Viscosity of Mixtures of Solutions of Certain Salts to their State of Ionization.” (See Transactions, p. 113). 2. ‘On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions containing Hydrochloric and Sulphurie Acids.” (See Transactions, p. 129.) A vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Barnes for his communica- tions. ORDINARY MEETINGS. xlix FourtH Orpinary MEertina. City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th February, 1900. The PresipEnt in the chair. A paper entitled : “ Nova Scotian Minerals collected for the Paris Exhibition,” was presented hy Epwin Ginpin, Jr., Esq., Lu. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector of Miues. Dr. Grupin answered a number of inquiries made by those present, relative to the minerals of the Province. (See Transactions, p. 248.) A communication by Henry S. Poon, Esa, F. G. S., entitled “Notes on the Periodical Appearance of Ants in a Chimney, and on an Unusual Site for a Humble-Lee’s Nest,” was read by the Recorpine SECRETARY in the absence of the author, as follows: ‘“* For many years, possibly fifteen, a flight of ants has annually tumbled down a chimney in the office of the Acadia Coal Co., at Stellarton, N. S., generally on August 24th, sometimes a day or two later, and occasionally a few ants again appear as late as the middle of September. Fires are used in the chimney each winter. A tinned roof has been put on the office since the ants first were seen, and the top of the chimney has been thoroughly repaired by masuns without finding a nest. The habitat selected seems unusual, and so far has not Jed to the similar adoption by colonies of other chimneys in the same building. “In a grove of young fir trees, about eight feet from the ground, I noticed one autumn a large robin’s nest in unusually good repair. On pulling down the tree-top the nest was found to be full, with a dome shaped cone. It was occupied by humble-bees and a small comb with larve in it. Such a situation for a humble-bees’ nest, 1 am told, has been seen before, but apparently it is unusual.” Firra Orpinary Meertine. City Council Chamber, Halifax, 12th March, 1900. The PresIpENT in the chair. It was announced that CHaries Pickrorp, Esq@., had been elected a Corresponding Member. A paper by C. M. Passa, Esq., of Dalhousie College, ‘‘ On a relation between the Ionization Coefficients of Electrolytes, and its application as an Interpolation Formula,” was presented by Dr. J. G. MacGrecor. it PROCEEDINGS. James Barnes, Esq., B. A., Dalhousie College, read a paper “ On the Depression of the Freezing-point by Mixtures of Electrolytes.” (See. Transactions, p. 139.) The paper was discussed by Drs. MacGrecor and MacKay, anda vote of thanks was presented to the author. Dr. A. H. Mackay, exhibited, with comments, material taken from the bottom of the Atlantic at four different points, by the Cable 8. S. Minia in charge of Captain De Carteret, by whom the specimens were presented. 1. From tat. 40° 47° N., long. 38° 45° W., at a depth of 2544 fathoms, in June, 1899 :— a. A fragment of a dark igneous rock about 13x$x5°, not very unlike some massive, dark green traps of Nova Scotia. The Cable was hooked at the same time, but broke and slipped over the stone which was abraded in two separate places. The exact determination of the ruck, as well as the other specimens, had to be postponed to a future opportunity after which the results of their special examinations would be communicated. 6. A fragment of gneiss or granite with dark, fine-grained mica, about a centimeter cube, in ce. Mud, which on an average of three samples gave 72 per cent insoluble in nitric acid, leaving 28 per cent for carbonate of lime in foraminiferal shells, and any other soluble matter which might be present. The species of foraminifera present were left for future enumeration. The mud was, therefore, about three-quarters derived from decomposed rock, and contained specks of mica flakes among the minute sand grains also found in it. 2. From lat. 49° 30'N., lon. 49° 36° W., at a depth of 2594 fathoms, were taken on the 3rd July, 1894:— a. A fragment of rock about 8x4x3°™. It was a very compact, fine-grained, dark (with a band of light grey) chocolate quartzose felsite in appearance, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, a portion of one side looking as even as if it were ground plane. The light grey band on the opposite side suggested discoloration by weathering, and the con- choidal fracture in this portion was much rougher in its surface texture. b. A fragment of a water-worn, whitish, cryptocrystalline quartzite pebble about 3° in its three dimensions. c. Mud with small pebbles, containing what suggested the remains of a ceelenterate animal with slender stem, cylindrical body a few ORDINARY MEETINGS, li centimeters long, with slender tentacular processes. This material was originally bottled in alcohol which had nearly all evaporated before examination, and the organism was not intact. The mud contained siliceous grains with occasional sponge spicules, &e., 3. From a depth of 30 fathoms, about 15 miles E, N. E. (magnetic) from Flat Point, Sydney, C. B. a. Thin brachiopod shells, the largest about 28x22™m™, b. What suggested arborescent Polyzoan Zeecia, about 14™ high, the cylindrical spray of branches having a diameter of about 15™™, ec. A sheet of the eggs of a gastropod. 4. From between lat. 43° 52’ N., lon. 58° 53’ W. in 500 fathoms, lat. 43° 533! N., lon. 58° 593’ W. in 858 fathoms, and lat. 43° 56’ N., lon. 59° 3’ W. in 170 fathoms. A coral, of the form of caryophilia, rising from a thin encrustation partly surrounding a pitch-covered cylinder (Cable) about 3°™ in dia- meter, with a stem about 1°™ at the base, gradually expanding until at a height of 4° it formed an elliptical cup-shaped corallite abou t 3.5¢™ and 4.5°™ in diameter, filled with numerous septae of unequal height, in one series. SixtH Orpinary MEstTINe. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th April, 1900. The PresipeNt in the chair. The RecorpinG Secrerary read a communication from tne Royal Society of Canada, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend the nineteenth general meeting of the Society to be held at Ottawa on the 29th of May next. The communication was referred to the Council for action. Pror. Ernest Haycock of Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S., read a paper entitled : ‘‘ Records of Post-Triassic Changes in Kings County, N. 8.” (See Transactions, p. 287.) The subject was discussed by Dr. Girpin and Mr. McKay, and a vote of thanks was presented to the author. The Presipent, A. H. MacKay, Esq., Lu. D., read a paper on “ A Fresh-Water Sponge from Sable Island.” To this species Dr. MacKay proposed to give the name Heteromeyenia Macouni. The subject was illustrated by microscopic preparations. (See Transactions, p. 319). Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vou. X. Proc --E. hi PROCEEDINGS. SEVENTH OrpINAaRY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber. Halifax, 14th May, 1900. The Presipent in the chair. It was announced that the Prestpent, Dr. MacKay, had been appointed delegate to represent the Institute at the forthcoming meeting of the Royal Society of Canada. It was reported that progress had been made in fitting up a room for the library of the Institute, ete., in the new government building, Hollis Street. In the absence of the author, Dr. MacGrecor read a paper by Pror. Joun Davipson, of the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, on ‘The Natural History of Money.” (See Transactions, p. 179.) The paper was discussed by Coronet McSuane, Dr. H. H. Reap; Frererick P. Ronnan, Esg., and others, and a vote of thanks was presented to Pror. Davipson for his communication. A. H. MacKay, Esg., Lu. D., F. R.S>C, read a paper “entitled ** Phenological Observations, Canada, 1899. (See Transactions, p. 303.) A paper by T. C. Hess, Esq., B. A., Di ihousie College, “On the Variation of the Rigidity of Vulcanized India Rubber with Tension,” was presented by Dr. MacGrecor. (See Transactions, p. 273 ) The following papers were read by title :—‘‘ Notes on a Cape Breton Mineral containing Tungsten, and on the effect of washing certain Cape Breton Coals,—By Henry S. Poors, Esqa., F. G.S., Stellarton, N.S. (See Transactions, p. 248.) ‘Geological Nomenclature in Nova Scotia,’—By Huan FLercuer, Esq., Geological Survey of Canada. (See Transactions, p. 235.) A collection of dried plants from the vicinity of Buffalo, U. S. A., made by Rey. Broraer Junian Perer, St. Joseph’s Commercial College, Detroit, and presented by him to the Institute, was shewn, and a vote of thanks was passed to BrorHer Peter for his gift. The council was authorized to receive as having been read by title, any papers that might be offered too late for this meeting. [Onder this resolution a paper subsequently submitted by Pror. J G. MacGrecor, “Ona diagram of Freezing-point Depressions for Electrolytes,” was accepted by the Council. (See Transacticns, p. 211).] HARRY PIERS, Recording Secretary. PROGEEDINGS OF THE Aova Scotian Institute of Science. SESSION OF 1900-1901. AwnnuaL Business MEsTING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 19th November, 1900. THe Presipent, Dr. A. H. MacKay, in the chair. THe PresipEent addressed the Institute as follows :— GentTLeEMEN,—It has been customary at our Annual Meetings for the retiring President to make a summary review of the year’s work—a sort of annual inventory. In following this custom, were I speaking to the general public, I would be required to give some kind of demonstration of the object and value of such work as we are doing in line with similar organizations in every civilized country. For those who see a fine mushroom grow in one night are generally unaware of the one hundred nights and the one hundred days during which its invisible white, silken, threadlike mycelial cells were tunnelling the surrounding earth in myriad lines with ceaseless activity, so that when the appropriate time should come tens of thousands of microscopic tubular lines of transport should simultaneously carry from every quarter the duly assimilated matter to build up and complete in a few hours the visible and generally appreciated fruit. very great discovery or invention of modern times popularly considered great, is in like manner simply the fruit of the unostentatious, patient and continuous labor of a multitude of seekers after knowledge of the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, in one or more regions of the infinite domain in which we exist. Without these humble and severely accurate observations of fact and measurements of force going on from year to year there can be no Pro~, & TRANS, N. S. Inst. Sci., Vou. X. Proc.—F.. (iii) liv PROCEEDINGS. longer expected at smaller or greater intervals in the future those brilliant generalizations which dazzle the multitude and form an epoch in the history of man. We may perhaps have met with some indications that there are people who think that an Institute of Science such as ours should devote itself to the grand problems cf human life in such a manner as to electrify the public, convince the sceptic, and reform human society on lines based on indubitable principles. Such persons seem to expect that if scientific men are of any use they could by the application of their thinking powers discover these grand principles and demonstrate them with the potency of universal conviction. They are evidently unaware of the most striking fact in the history of man, that from the beginning of society up to their own appearance in the role of thinkers, men have been trying to solve these problems by thinking, striving to draw knowledge out of brains into which the knowledge never entered. The deductive metaphysical philosophers of old are still being produced, more numerous than ever if not more powerful, and the ancient problems are not yet solved. We have never yet gained any advantage by thinking out what nature should be. We have to find out what it is, and so faras we know what it is we can utilize it according to our limitations. And the solutions of the so-called grand problems are often dependent on what might be called the humblest facts. The grandness of a truth discovered cannot be known until the full train of its effects can be seen ; so that to the truth seeker any truth may well be considered grand. It is a sound principle for each to seek whatever truch is nearest him, so that he may add it to the common stock which is now becoming the broad base of the so-called grand truths which humanity has learned to applaud after a period of suspicion. This is the principle on which our Institute is working. The geologist is near to the discovery of new geological facts by reason of his previously obtained geological knowledge and his opportunities of studying for years his own local ground. He exercises his special powers with the result of obtaining further knowledge which through our publications are made the property of the truth-seekers throughout the world. And so with each of us. We have our own special opportunities for some kind of exact observations on points not hitherto exactly observed, and in making such observations we are as deserving as he who makes the final PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. lv observation to complete a grand theory, providing we have brought the same energy and ingenuity to bear on our problems. The discovery of grand principles—of great truths—is now more than ever before a composite work contributed to by many knowledge makers. The South American Indian who first by accident discovered the anti-malarial effect of the extract of Peruvian Bark, discovered a great fact without any special preparation and possibly without the aid of any previous more or less partial observer. But still, for over three centuries the Hemameba vivax and Hemameha mafarie, living jelly specks so infinite that a blood corpuscle is a meadow for them, got through the human skin (more than a Chinese wall for them), and into the blood stream, and from thence into the blood discs themselves, which they finally destroyed. It was not until twenty years ago that Laveran discovered their presence in the life fluid, but how impossible would it have been for him to have discovered such organisms until the microscope had been improved to a high degree of excellence and microscopic methods had been discovered by other workers. Yet no one could show how the minutely microscopic animal more destructive to the human race than all the historical beasts of prey, found its way into the blood. Multitudes of observers finally seemed to relegate the home of the organism to the mala:ial swamps, but it could not be found in the swamps. These observers, however, made a very important contribution to the general stock of knowledge, for as the mosquitoes pass their larval stage in water, suspicion was finally extended to them. Yet people were taking great care to protect themselves from the malarial air which poisoned no one, while infected mosquitoes were allowed to inoculate them unsuspectingly on the adjacent dry lands. Danilewsky, Golgi, Antolisei, Grassi, Bignami, Bastianelli, Labbe, Mannaberg, Manson, Nuttall, Metchnikoff, Daniels, McCallum, and others, and finally Ronald Ross, worked on the humble mosquito until 1899 before the problem was solved. Other specimens of Hemamceba were found in the common mosquito and in other animals who were inoculated by the mosquito, and who in turn could infect sound mosquitos. Finally species of a genus of mosquitos, Anopheles, were found infected with the malaria Hemameba in a most unexpected form. Sound Anopheles were found to be infected by feeding upon the malarial patient, and infected ones communicated malarial fever to those whom they were allowed to bite. For about lvi PROCEEDINGS. twenty years these men from every country of Europe were studying the: life and particular habits of the mosquitos, each contributing something to help the others. But should it be asked what species of the mosquito: we have in Nova Scotia, all we could say is that thirty different species. are generally recognized on the continent. But we could not say how many are to be found here. We only presume that Culex pipiens is the common if not the only one. If we had some observer studying the humble subject of our mosquitos, even were in only demonstrating the different species to be: found in this Province, we should have some share in this important: discovery of the close of the century. In the meantime our high flown deductive philosopher racking his brain in circling after grand truths, is. circling still, as near and yet as far as ever from the mental mirage he is: following. The grand truths oftentimes come from the most unexpected directions ; therefore it is wise for us to hold all truth in esteem and worth the seeking. The past year is also, to a marked extent, the beginning of a new epoch in the history of our Institute. The Provincial Museum, although not the property of the Institute, was built up by the members of the Institute, and was from the beginning its headquarters. But for the last few years it had become so crowded by the accumulation of material and the lack of a curator, such as it had during the lifetime of Dr. Honeyman, that it served neither as an efficient museum nor as a desirable meeting place. besides, our rapidly accumulating library, coming mainly as exchanges from the leading scientific institutions and societies all over the world, could not at all be accommodated. For the last few years the Council had to procure temporary accommodation for it in the University building of Dalhousie, where there was proper library room for but a portion of its volumes. The Provincial Government having seen the great importance of stimulating scientific study as the foundation of a safe and rapid industrial development of the country, and having the good fortune to be able to. secure on good terms the fine building adjacent to the Province Building as an annex, with spare room beyond the immediate demands for offices, determined to provide the ways and means for the public utilization of all this hidden wealth. The Museum has been transferred to the new building and re-arranged on scientific lines under the curatorship of Mr. Harry Piers, who is rapidly making it a real Provincial Museum. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. lvii Students will already find it well classified, so as to show the products o! the country of scientific and economic interest to their best advantage. The numerous blanks are being filled as rapidly as specimens caa be secured, and each object is in the process of being labelled so as to give not only its name but a summary of such information respecting it as is most likely to be of use. On the adjacent flat the Government has provided ample library accommodation for the Library of the Institute and the books from the Legislative Library bearing on science and the arts, with a reading room. There is also sufficient accommodation for the Library of the Mining Society of the Province. In this manner all these scientific collections increasing from day to day, all these libraries also increasing from day to day, are made available freely to students, miners, manufacturers, and the public generally. Under the capable management of Mr. Piers, these institutions are not only sure to give satisfaction to the Government, but to the public, who are thus admitted to invaluable privileges which previously even members of the Institute could not avail themselves of without much loss of time and inconvenience to others. The Government, in assuming the charge of this composite Library, are able to open to the public the invaluable, modern, and rapidly growing library of the Institute ; and the members of the Institute, on the other hand, have also gained thereby easy access to their own literature. This co-operation of interests is of mutual benefit, and the Science Library and the Museum are likely to become an important centre for the scientific students of the city and the Province. The Museum is already open, and in a short time the Library will be in working condition. There are also signs that the scientific side of educational work throughout the Province is improving, notwithstanding the defects common to our schools and colleges throughout the continent. May the time be not far distant when our Institute may have more recruits to undertake the infinite range of work before us—in discovering the yet hidden truths of nature lying around us on every hand within our own Province, without a knowledge of which we cannot expect to solve indubitably what people call the great problems of the world. The President referred with regret to the loss of two invaluable associate members, Captain Trott, of the Cable S. S. ‘‘ Minia,” and Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne, who had done so much in the botanical explora- tion of Newfoundland. lvili PROCEEDINGS. A vote of thanks was presented to the Presipent for his address, and for his services during his term of office. The Treasurer’s report was presented, and having been audited and found correct, was received and adopted. The thanks of the Society were presented to Mr. Sitver for his services as TREASURER. In the absence of the Liprartan, the report on the Library was read by Dr. MacGrecor. The report was received and adopted. In recognition of the services of Mr. Bowman as librarian for several years, it was resolved that he be elected a life-member. The thanks of the Institute were presented t» the Hoy. Ropert Boak, President of the Legislative Council, for granting the use of the Council Chamber ; to His Worsuie THE Mayor, for the use of the City Council Chamber ; to the Boarp or GoveRNoRS OF DALHOUSIE COLLEGE, for the use of a room in the College building for the purpose of accom- modating the society’s Library ; and to the Secrerary oF THE SMITH- SONIAN INstiroTion, Washington, for continuing to admit the Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges, The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1900- 1901) :— President.—A. H. MacKay, Esq., Lu. D., F. R. S. C.,. ex officio F. R.'M. S. ‘Vice- Presidents.—F. W. W. Doane, Esq., C. E. ; and Henry 8. Poors, Esq., 185 (C5 Sha lls kts tse (Ce Treasurer.— WILLIAM C. Stnver, Esa. Corresponding Secretary.—Pror. J. G. MacGrecor, D. Sc., F. R. 8. Recording Secretary.— Harry PIERS, Esa. LTibrarian.—MayNarp Bowman, Esq., B. A. Councillors without office. —ALEXANDER McKay, Esq. ; Epwrx Ginprn, JRr., Esqa., Lu. D., F. RB. S. C.; Martin Murpuy, Ese., D. Sc.; Pror. Espen MacKay, Pu. D. ; Watson L. BisHop, Esa. ; RoperRtcK McCotLt, Esq., C. E. ; H. W. Jonnsron, Esq., C. E. Auditors. —WiLu1am McKerron, Esq., and G. W. T. Irvine, Esa. First Orpinary MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 19th Novender, 1900. The Prestpent, Dr. MacKay, in the chair. The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business Meeting. ORDINARY MEETINGS. lix It was announced that J. R. DeWotrs, Ese., M. D., Halifax, and Watter H. Prest, Esq, M. E, Bedford, N. S., had been elected corres- ponding members. Owing to the lateness of the hour, the reading of Mr. FLetcHer’s paper ‘‘On Geological Nomenclature of Nova Scotia: New Glasgow Conglomerate,” was deferred. Seconp ORDINARY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 10th December, 1900. The Presipent in the chair. It was announced that Miss A. Louise Jacsar, Smith Cove, Digby Co., N S, had been elected an associate, and CHarutes Henry Davis, Ksq., C. E., New York, U.S. A, an ordinary member. The Presipent read a paper by Huca Fuetcusr, Esq., of the Geological Survey of Canada, entitled, ‘Geological Nomenclature of Nova Scotia: New Glasgow Conglomerate.” (See Transactions, p. 323.) The paper was illustrated by a large geological map, by Mr. Pooxg, of the locality described. TuHirD OrpINARY MEETING. City Council Chamber, Halifax, 14th January, 1901, The PrespenT in the chair. Henry S. Pootus, Esq., F. R. 8. C., presented ‘‘ A Description of the Davis Calyx Drill.” The subject was discussed by Massrs. Bispop and ANDERSON, and Drs. Mureny and MacKay. Dr. MacKay read a paper by Wattzr H. Prest, Esq., M. E., “On Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Agent.” (See Transactions, p. 333.) The paper was discussed by Drs, MacKay and Murpuy, Pror, H. W. Situ, and Msssrs. Pooue and Piers. lx PROCEEDINGS. FourtH Orpinary MEETING. City Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th February, 1901. The PrReEsIDENT in the chair. It was announced that Pror. Evererr W. Sawyer, of Acadia College, Wolfville, and Pror. F. C. Sears, Director of the N. S. School of Horticulture, Wolfville, had been elected associate-members. A communication was read by the Recorpine Secretary, from the EnTomoLocicaL Society or Beneium, announcing the death of its Honorary President, the Baron pz Setys-Lonecuamps. On motion it was resolved that the N. 8. Institute of Science express its deep sympathy with the Entomological Society of Belgium in con- nection with the irreparable loss which the society has sustained through the death of its Honorary President, the Baron de S :lys-Longchamps. A communication was also read from the ZoonocicaL-BoraNicaL Society or VigNNAa announcing the celebration of its fiftieth anni- versaly. On motion it was resolved that the N. S. Institute of Science offer its cordial congratulations to the Zoologicai-Botanical Society of Vienna, on the celebration of its fiftieth anniversary and the completion of fifty years of fruitful work, and express the hope that the society’s efforts for the advancement of science may, in the future, as in the past, be crowned with success. Pror. H. W. Ssurg, B. Se., of the Provincial Agricultural School, read two papers, entitled, (1) ‘‘ Rotation of Leguminous Crops,” and (2) “The Preservation and Use of the Tops of Turnips and other Root Crops.” The subjects were discussed by Hon. T. R. Brack, Da. MacKay, Mr. G. MarsHatt, and others. A vote of thanks was presented to Pror. Smita for his communica- tions. Owing to the lateness of the hour, the reading of Mr. Poots’s paper on “ Stigmaria Structure,” and of Dr. MacKay’s ‘‘ Note on Gravel taken by the mushroom-anchor of the ‘ Mackay-Bennett,’” were pestponed. ORDINARY MEETINGS. )xi FietH Orpinary MEETING. City Council Chamber, Halifax, 18th March, 1901, The PRESIDENT in the chair. It was announced that Grorce M. Epwarps, Esq., B. Sce., Halifax, had been elected an ordinary member. A communication was read from the Royant Soclrty oF Canapa, asking the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend the Society’s meet- ing to be held at Ottawa on May 2lst. The matter was referred to the Council. On motion, the Council was directed to prepare a resolution expres- sive of regret at the death of the late Dr. J. R. DeWotrs, one of the Tnstitute’s oldest members. |The resolution, subsequently prepared, was as follows :— “ Resolved, That the Council place on record its deep sense of the loss sustained by the Institute through the death of Dr. DeWolfe, who was well known in his profession, was elected a member of the Institute on 26th October, 1863, was for a number of years a member of the Council and also second Vice-President, always took a deep interest in and actively furthered the aims of the society, and was at the date of his death the oldest living member. Further resolved, That the Secretary be directed to send a copy of the resolution to the family of the deceased, and to express to them the sympathy of the Institute in their bereavement.” ] Henry S. Poors, Esg., F. R. 8S. C., read a paper ‘‘On a Polished Section of Stigmaria showing an axia! cellular structure.” (See Trans- actions, p. 345.) A. H. MacKay, Ese., Lu. D., presented the results of a microscopic examination of the specimen of Stigmaria, (See Transactions, p. 346.) The subject was discussed by Messrs. BisHop and A. McKay. A. H. Mac “ay, Esq., Lu. D., read a “ Note on Gravel taken by the mushroom-anchor of the ‘ Mackay-Bennett,’ cable steamer, from the bot- tom of the Atlantic, 40 miles west of Sable I-land.” The paper was discussed by Mr. Poot. Ixii PROCEEDINGS. Watson L. Bisuop, Esq., read a paper on “ The Star-nosed Mole,” and exhibited specimens of the young. (See Transactions, p. 348.) Pror. J. G. MacGrecor, D. Sc., communicated a paper ‘ On the: use of the Wheatstone Bridge with Alternating Currents.” SrxtH Orpinary MEETING. City Council Chamber, Halifax, 5th April, 1901. The PresipEntT in the chair. A communication was read from the Encrngers’ Socrtety or WESTERN New York, Buffalo, offering the use of the society’s rooms to any mem- ber of the Institute who may visit the Pan-American Exposition. The: SECRETARY was directed to make a suitable reply. The following paper was communicated :— THe Rare Eartrus: THeir Screntiric IMPORTANCE AS REGARDS THE: Periopic Law.—By W. H. Macss, Pa. D, High School, Parrs- boro, N.S. AT a meeting of scientists, it is, of course, unnecessary for me to- apologize for the fact that the subject of my paper is one in which the: general public takes no interest. There are few, even among chemists, who take more thin a passing interest in the so-called Rare Earths. You, however, who are seekers after truth, are aware that even in what might. seem the most despicable of materials there are startling discoveries await- ing the patient investigator who will delve into the hidden mysteries: and bring to light truth, not only of rare interest to the scientific circle whose sympathies he enjoys, but uf advantage to the general public which, though impatient of the labor and details, is ever ready to avail itself of,. and to liberally reward, results, The term Ruire Earths, is, if not a misnomer, at least misleading, since there are earths or oxides not classed in the group which are as rare,. if not rarer, than these themselves. The usually accepted definition of a rare earth is ‘‘a substance precipitable by oxalic acid from a weakly acid solution and having the formula R, O, in which R stands for the element of the oxide.” This definition, however, if rigidly adhered to, excludes Ce., Th. and Zr., which are usually ranked with the rare earths. and, being applied ever so generally, would place Tl., Ga., Ge., In., etc., among the ordinary or at least not rare earths. THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. )xiil The full list of these earth elements includes Ce., Zr., Th., La., Sc., Yt. and Yb., which are looked upon by chemists as actually elemental, and Pd., Nd., Sm., Ho., Er., Ter., Th., De., Dp., Ph., and even others which appear to differ from each other as oxides and may, some of them at least, be elemental, but are probably in most cases mixtures of two or more elements. They are not, however, known in the elemental con- dition but only in the form of oxides and salts. Some few have been reduced to the metallic condition yielding then grayish-white metals, but in such small quantities, and with such doubts regarding their purity, that slight advantages have been derived from the reduction. Before considering the properties of these substances and discussing their importance in the periodic system, it will be well to look into their history. They were first brought to the knowledge of the chemical world during that period of remarkable activity at the close of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. Probably the first time that any mineral containing these oxides in any considerable quantity was noticed was in 1751, when Cronstedt obtained from an iron mine in Sweden a sample of the mineral now known to mineralogists as Cerite, a silicate of Ce., La. and Di., containing as impurities or accessories, however one chooses to consider them, small quantities of other rare oxides, together with iron, alumina, lime and traces of Mn., and even other minerals. This mineral was first analysed by D’Elhuyar in the laboratory of the noted chemist Bergmann, and stated to be a silicate of Fe. and Ca. It may seem remarkable that, even in those early days of chemistry---this was in 1784—such an error as the mistaking of the trivalent oxides for the very common substance lime should occur, but if the experience of such a noted analytic chemist as Plattner, so late as 1846, be considered, all wonder ceases. This chemist analysed several times the mineral Pollux from Elba and, despite all his care, and he was renowned as an analyst, he could only get his results to foot up to 92.75 per cent., nor could any one explain the matter until Bunsen recognized a new metal, Caesium, in the water of the Durkheim salt wells and proved it to be of the alkali group thus closely resembling Na. and K Plattner had been reckoning Cs. with an atomic weight of 132 as K. with an atomic weight of 39, and neither he nor his contemporaries seemed capable of proposing the very simple explanation that there must be present a new element. This experience of Piattner’s and its explanation probably saved Winkler from a similar error in 1886 and gave him the credit of the discovery of anew element. Repeatedly analysing Argryodite, as lxiv PROCEEDINGS. he was chemist of a silver mining company in the Freiburg district in Germany, he met with a constant loss of 7 per cent, in his analyses, and a close search with refined methods enabled him to announce to the world the new metal Germanium. But I have digressed. The matter rested after D’Elhuyar’s time until the fame of the two great analysts, Berzelius and Klaproth, induced some one to send to each of them a sample of the mineral. These chemists soon decided that lime was not the main constituent and that though iron was present it was only in mere traces. Both set themselves to solving the problem and almost simultaneously announced to the world the existence of a hitberto unknown element. There was considerable dis- cussion as to which could claim the precedence, but the scientific world has yielded the palm to Berzelius by adopting his name, Cerium, instead ‘of ochroit-erde proposed by Klaproth. In tracing out the history of this interesting mineral however, we have really passed the date wheu the apple of discord was thrown among the chemical family. The date of the ‘discovery of an oxide containing the unknown element Ce. was 1804, the date of the discovery of the first of the rare earths was 1789 when Klaproth isolated Zirconia. If this be disputed, for Zr. does not fulfil all the conditions of a rare earth, we must yet anticipate 1804, for in 1794 Gadolin, a Finnish chemist, gave to the world Yttria, the oxide of Yttrium which fulfils in every respect the conditions of our definition. ‘This element was discovered in a mineral from Ytterby, in Sweden, which mineral has since been named in honor of this chemist Gadolinite, In 1818 Berzelius announced the discovery of a new oxide, Thoria, an some rare minerals from the neighbourhood of Fahlun, Sweden. This discovery he confirmed in 1828 when he found the same oxide ina mineral from Brewig, in Norway. Before going into the history of the very remarkable periol which followed, let us see just what was known up to 1835. Ceria, Zirconia, Thoria and Yttria were recognized as dis- tinct oxides, each supposed to contain a distinct element. Only one of these, however, Yttria, belongs to the rare earths, if we keep to the strict letter of our definition. Such, then, was the knowledge of the rare earths ; they were ordinary oxides of no more interest than lime or baryta, nay, not so much, for they were of no practical use, they were rare, and so of no interest except to seekers after curios. In 1837-38 a young Swedish chemist, a pupil of Berzelius, took up the neglected earths and under his magic touch, for he was a genius, new THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. Ixv truths were rapidly unfolded and a new interest was given to this portion of the chemical field, an interest which has constantly increased, and under the influence of which research will go on until these most subtle elements. yield to the scientists truths even more deeply and cunningly concealea than those which are being discovered in the realms of electricity and» bacteriology. I think it is no exaggeration to say that nothing would give more pleasure to the chemical world than to find a solution to the mystery which surrounds these rare earths, now rare no longer, if by the word, we mean scarce, but truly rare if we consider it as meaning costly or worthy as regards the chemical truth concealed among them. This: chemist was Mosander—a name probably unknown outside the chemical world, and not to all chemists. To the advanced inorganic chemist, how- ever, he is the pioneer in the field, since he was the first to show the immense possibilities which lay concealed in the little then known of these peculiar earths. Beginning an examination of Ceria he soon announced that it was not a simple oxide but a compound of at least two. This was in 1838. In 1843 he announced that one of these two could be still further de- composed and so from the earth Ceria, long considered a simple earth, there resulted a pale yellow oxide, ceria proper, a brownish white oxide, lanthanum, and a dark brown oxide, didymia, the first yielding yellow, white, and red salts, the second white or colorless, and the third pink salts. Asa result of this discovery, an immediate attack was made on the other rare earths. Mosander himself in the following year announced Erbia and, later, Terbia, as earths separable from Yttria; these yield, Yitria colorless salts, Erbia yellow, and Terbia rose colored, a coincidence with the compounds from the Ceria earths. In 1860 Berlin, as a result of long research, announced that Mosander had been mistaken as regards. Yttria, but later work has shown that the Swedish chemist had not spoken heedlessly, for Bahr and Bunsen, by a very brilliant piece of work, proved the presence of Erbia in so-called Yttria, and in 1873 Cleve and Hoglund confirmed this. About this time Delafontaine again deter- mined the existence of Terbia. Later, Delafontaine claimed the dis- covery of an earth, which he called Phillipia, in the Yttria, but this is not as yet acknowledged by chemists. Then came a classical research by Marignac, a Swiss chemist, in which, after separating out several appar- ently distinct earths, he finally isolated Ytterbium, which is undouLtedly a distinct element, though some chemists, keeping in view the many sur- ' prises in this field, still withheld acknowledgment. In 1879, Nilson, Ixvi PROCEEDINGS. another remarkable Swedish chemist, isolated Scandium, and since that time Cleve claims to have found in Erbia a threefold group for one mem- ber of which he retains the name Erbia, calling the others Thulia and Holmia. In the meantime, from a sample of Didymium obtained from the mineral Samarskite, first found in North Carolina, a new oxide, Samaria, was separated in 1878 by Boisbaudran and Delafontaine, acting separately, the latter calling it Decipium. Finally, in 1883, Didymium, which since 1842 had held its place as an element, and from which a metal had been isolated and which had played a prominent part in several quite bitter chemical discussions, all parties basing their argu- ments on its being an element, was, by Welsbach, a chemist of Vienna, best known as the inventor of the Auer or Welsbach Light, disintregated into what, for want of better name, are called, (or perhaps I should say into tentative substances,) Praseodidymium and Neodidymium. Still more recently, Bettendorf has obtained evidence of the presence of still another oxide in Yttria, which he proposes to name in honor of the original discover of Yttria, Gadolinum. It has been twice thought that Zirconia was not elemental, once in 1845, when Svanberg thought he had isolated Noria, and again in 1866-7, when Sorby thought he had found Jargonia. Both were subsequently proven to be Zirconia, or it was shown, at least, that there was not enough evidence to consider them elemental earths. You will note then, that from the two original earths, the Yttria of 1789 and the Ceria of 1804, not less than eleven earths have been isolated and probably two or three more, though the evidence is less conclusive. When I mention that the knowledge of these, though very accurate, is less than that known of our ordinary elements at, say 100 years ago, it will be seen that a wide field exists here for investigators. Why is so little known concerning them? The answer might be hazarded that it is because of their rarity. This is not so, however, as several of them have been proved to exist in considerable quantities. The trouble lies in their close resemblance to one another, chemical reagents acting similarly toward them all, and thus the only means of separating them is by taking advantage of the difference iu basicity of their compounds. This is a very slow process and uncertain, for, being fractional, it is only made exact by numberless repetitions, and so it is extremely difficult to get pure material on which to experiment. This THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. Ixvil same trouble, too, is one of the chief reasons for the appearance on several occasions of pseudo elements which, obtained with extreme difficulty, seemed to have a fair claim to separate existence, and which required considerable time and skill to prove their non-existence. Let me illustrate. You are all aware that in the case of our ordin- ary elements there are sharp points of separation. HCl. throws down from a silver salt solution all (or nearly all, for this reservation must be made in the light. of refined methods) the silver as AgCl. H,S throws down from solution a large number of sulphides even in acid solution we must grant, but for every one of these elements there is some known reagent or some exact method of treatment, which affects one and ouly one of these elements. There are, undoubtedly, difficulties in exact separations, but a fair analytical chemist can always separate them. With the rare earths, however, each reagent seems to act so similarly that there is no sharp line of demarcation, and the only methods applicable to their separation are slow and remarkably difficult of application. Abso- lutely quantitative analytical processes are unknown, and no results published in the various mineralogical books as giving the composition of the minerals containing them are reliable. I put forward no claims to superiority as an analytical chemist, but I was occupied from October Ist to the Christmas vacation, with all the advantages of a well equipped laboratory at my disposal, in obtaining 11 grams of pure Ceria, using a method proclaimed as the best to date, but acknowledged to need, as my experience also confirms, a seven times repetition to ensure so-called purity, and leaving behind the suspicion that, as it was purified according to the standard of a vanishing test, it was even then not absolutely pure. Yet this subject has received some of the best thought of the ablest chemists of the world during the past 50 years. Bahr, Bunsen, Rammels- burg, Wolf, Wing, Gibbs, Wohler, Popp, Crookes, Marignac, Delafon- taine, Boisbaudran, Nilson, Cleve, Kruss, Bettendorf, Welsbach, in fact all the advanced inorganic chemists of the past half century. There is no discouragement, the fight goes on with that grim determination to succeed which only the scientist knows. What have they accomplished for the world? Not much in this line! But if these were all the scientist strove for, our discoveries and advance would be of a low order. Indirectly, the close study and wide experience with reagents and methods has led to many useful results, but we need not linger over this. Throughout all the period during which Ni. an Co. have been known, there was no ready and direct method of separating them ; but a few lxvili PROCEEDINGS. years since, on an unsuspected corner of the reagent shelf, an organic compound a@-nitroso g-naphthol was found to instantly and completely separate them from each other. Such being the case, we may some day expect research to be rewarded and the mysterious doors to be opened. I must now, however, in the development of my plan, state the methods most in vogue for separating any rare earth from a mixture of them. Suppose we have a mixture of all or nearly all of these earths, and this is the state in which we usually get them from the minerals containing them, and that we have, say 5 litres, insolution. We remove 10c.c. and precipitate all the earths by means of a standard solution of ammonia, noting carefully the exact amount required. From this can readily be calculated the amount neceasary to precipitate the 5 litres. This being determined we take enough of a somewhat weak solution of ammonia to precipitate one-tenth of the earths and add it as rapidly as possible, with violent agitation, that it may be brought in contact with as large a portion of the solution as possible at once. This precipitates the most basic portion to a large extent. The mixture is allowed to settle and the supernatant liquid is drawn off; after which the precipi- tate is carefully washed and the washings are added to the liquid. This is again treated with ammonia, another tenth being thrown down. This process is repeated till the entire amount is precipitated. The first two. or three precipitates are then united, then the next two or three and so. on, and each group is again treated in a similar manner, till after some hundreds of repetitions there collects at one end of the series a consider- ably basic, and at the other a considerably acid, hydroxide, The various. precipitations are checked by atomic weight determinations, and when an hydroxide is obtained in which the entire ten precipitates yield identi- cally the same atomic weights, it is considered as an elemental earth, the argument being that no two elements will be at all likely to possess the same basic qualities. This will probably give you an idea of the time expended and the difficulty experienced in working in this field. Ammonia is by no means the only reagent so employed, but every one likely to produce different qualities of precipitates is tried. Here, then, we have a group of elements whose compounds act. differently toward chemical reagents from all other bodies. They resemble the alkalies and alkaline earths, 2. e., the Li. and Gl. families in their action toward H,S, and the B. and Fe. families in their action towards (NH,),S. They resemble the last two and all the other families. except the Li, and GI. families in their action toward NH,OH. They THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. lb-ab-< differ from all other elements in their action toward Oxalice acid. All oxalates are more or less soluble in acids; but outside the rare earths, the solubility is perfect. Calcium oxalate is considered an insoluble precipitate, but the reaction must be alkaline, the least trace of mineral acid setting up solution, the presence of oxalic acid prevents the precipi- tation of alumina, etc., but here we have a group which precipitates at once to oxalic acid or to a soluble oxalate in an acid solution, and if only faintly acid, say 1 or 2 per cent, the cxalates separate out completely, in fact a mere trace is soluble in a 5 per cent acid. Thus we can separate them easily as a group. If we render the supernatant liquid more and more acid, we can gradually get out portions of which the member first removed will differ considerably from that last removed, but probably not in a lifetime would one get one member absolutely free from every other member. Therein lies the difficulty, and so it is with every reagent to some degree. Some reagents shorten the work, and a number of persons working together, by being able to do more work get more rapid results, but the field is one of great difficulty. There are other troubles, however, in the path of the investigator in these ficlds. All who have worked practical chemistry are aware that there are qualitative tests by means of which we can detect the presence or prove the absence of any particular metal or acid. Ammonia acts towards a solution of a copper salt as it acts towards nothing else. HCI. gives a white precipitate to silver as well as to lead and mercurous salts, but the chloride of lead is soluble in hot water and can be washed out, that of silver dissolves in ammonia and can in turn be removed while at the same time the mercurous chloride turns black but remains insoluble owing to the formation of a compound with the ammonia so that it is easily determined whether neither one, two or three, or which one is present. This makes the work of Mosander the more remarkable, as in his time there was nothing to enable him to suspect the different rare earths except abstract reasoning from slight color changes. In 1858, however, Gladstone, the London chemist, noted on examin- ing the light, which had passed through a solution of Didymium salt, with a spectroscope, that in certain parts of the spectrum there were dark color bands although the solution might be perfectly colorless. These have been proved to be due to the absorption of some of the light while passing through the solution. This fact of absorption is not of itself very remarkable. All colored solutions absorb more or less light, KMnO, Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INsT. Scr, VOL. X. PRroc.—G. xx PROCEEDINGS. solution, purple in color, absorbs certain light, colored glasses absorb light, etc., but all manganese salts, colored or uncolored, do not absorb light, nor if the solutions are of different colors, though of the same element, do they absorb the same portions of light. | Gases absorb light, and on looking towards the sun with a spectroscope, faint bands are to be seen in the spectrum. Certain metals when heated, give certain varieties of light as, Na yellow, potassium blue, copper green, etc.,and these same substances, converted into vapour, absorb the same light that in their white hot condition they emitted, but here we have the phenomenon of a colorless solution acting like a colored solution or like a gas. This of course gave a test for Di. as soon as the absorption bands were mapped and thoroughly defined. This to the rare earth chemist was a valuable discovery, out in its application it calls forth the highest skill of the chemist, for he must be able to fix upon the exact bands and say this is given by Di., this by Er., ete. Here is displayed a fresh peculiarity of the rare earths, for while there are no elements outside these which give bands, there are several within the group which do, viz.,— Di. gives 31 well defined bands, Sm. 12 not so well defined (and some of them disputed, the subject is being thoroughly investigated by Boisbaudran), Ho. 16, Er. 8; Yb. shows none in the visible part of the spectrum, but many have been mapped in the ultra red portion. The qualitative application of this knowledge is as follows :—A mix- ture, say of Di. and Ce., is to be freed from Di., this being most familiar to myself. The oxalate, first well-washed in dilute HCl, is dried and ignited to the condition of an oxide, and then dissolved in HNO, and a preliminary examination is made with the spectroscope to make sure of the presence of Di., and incidently to judge of its abundance. The intensity of that band known as the @ band is especially noted. It lies near the Na. band (yellow.) The mixed solution is then subjected to one of the separation processes, and as strong a solution in as deep a layer as possible, is examined with the spectroscope and the intensity of the @ band is noted. This process is repeated until the most intense band has entirely disappeared. When I remind you, however, that the removal of the Di. by what was undoubtedly the best method known until lately, required a seven times repetition the Di. bands growing gradually fainter and dying out one by one wntil what had been the most intense finally faded entirely from view it will be seen that this fractional method forces one to the conclusion that possibly all the Di, has not THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. — Ixx1 been removed, but that a more powerful spectroscope in the hands of very experienced men might rediscover, in what appeared free from Di, traces of it yet present. This has actually happened more than once, and was what caused Prof. Dennis and myself to lay so much stress upon our new separation process, for the removal of Di. from Ce. We believe that the new method removes the Di. at once and entirely ; for with the best spectroscope at our disposal we could find no trace of Di. The pro- cess in other words is not fractional but immediate. I can perhaps illustrate this better by an example, familiar perhaps to all of us. Ferro- and Ferri-Cyanides of K. long served as accurate tests of Fe., later Pot- assium Sulphocyanate was found to detect ferric Fe, when the Cynanides failed todo so. This reagent gives to a solution containing ferric Fe. in solution, a blood red or, in weaker solution, a wine color. When, how- ever, some chemist proposed to add ether to the solution after testing for Fe. and failing to obtain a color, he found on closing the test-tube, and shaking violently that from a solution that was colorless after adding KCNS, a red color was extracted by the ether. This of course gives a vary dolicate test for Fe., a delicacy unsought for a few years since. The Di. test is probably not so delicate at present. But just here comes in one more of the evil features of the rare earth work, for the test that serves to prove the absence*of Di must serve also as the test for La. which has no absorption bands, since La. being more strongly basic than Di., when the latter is known to be removed the former must have been previously gotten rid of. Of course the spark spectra could be employed, and, unless some easier method is discovered, must be employed in very accurate work, but it is tedious and requires special apparatus and precludes all workers, but those who have the advantages of the finest university laboratories, or are themselves wealthy. It needs, moreover, a much longer training than is needed to use the absorption band method. It is seldom employed as a test. The other method, applicable also in every case, but slow and requiring the very highest chemical skill to ensure results is to make equivalent weight determinations. This has so far been done gravimetrically, but methods are being sought by which it may be done volumetrically, which will be a great shortening, and in skilled hands, if the methods are good, will yield excellent results. Having now given a fair idea of what the rare earths are, how they act chemically, and the difficulty of experimental work with them, I will lxxil PROCEEDINGS. proceed to speak of their occurrence, and then give some reasons for the immense interest any work in this line creates in the advanced chemical world. For a long time the earths were supposed to be what their name implies, really rare. There were reasons for this opinion. The earliest known specimens were among the last discovered in that period of intense chemical activity, the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, a time honored by such names as Lavoisier, Davy, Cavendish, Priestly, Dalton, Scheele, Berzelius, Vaquelin, Klaproth, and the elder Rose’s. The lack of refined chemical methods, especially among those who had most to do with new minerals, the lack of sharp qualitative tests, and the fact that in ordinary analytical methods it was easy to mistake these for iron or alumina, all tended to the strengthening of this belief. Still during all this time the ablest chemical minds turned again and again to the subject, and from pure love of the truth sought for the solution of their mysteries. There is scarcely a great chemist who has not at some time attacked the knotty question, and seldom, as we must acknowledge, did they obtain other than negative results, and, as you know, these are seldom published—a mistake, by the way, as we could avoid many pitfalls and save valuable time did we know the experience of others along the same lines. When the discoveries of Mosander were published, new interest was created, and that indefatigable worker, Rammelsberg, better known possibly to the mineralogical than to the chemical world, examined many rocks for traces of these elements. Thanks to his efforts, seconded by Hermann, Wé6hler and many other chemists, as their time permitted, and to the improved general as well as particular methods, the rare earths were found here and there and, we can now add, almost everywhere. It would now seem that like Fe. they are everywhere present, only in very small quantities. Zr. is lately, by microscopic method, proved to be present in every rock. Ce. is a com- mon companion of Zr., and with Ce. there are always present La. and Di. and usually others. Norway and Sweden, the land in which they were first discovered, produce but small amounts of them now. In Brazil Monazite sand can be shovelled up on the seashore, it is a phosphate of Ce., La., Di., and Th. In Llano Co., Texas, Sipylite is found in con- siderable quantities, as also Gadolinite and other similar minerals, Along the Atlantic seaboard from Virginia to Georgia, in New Jersey and New York, in Massachusetts, in Renfrew Co., Ont., and elsewhere in Canada, in Colorado, along the Andes, in India, and Australia, along the Ural Mountains, in Germany, in England, and undoubtedly in many THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. Ixxili other places when thorough investigation has been made. From Dana’s latest published textbook of mineralogy, the unabridged edition of 1892, I, a few years ago, made out a list of 62 minerals which contain the Ce. group, so-called, viz. :—Ce., Di., and La. Never did I find our own pro- vince recorded as having produced a single specimen. This I do not believe to be correct, when so many rare and peculiar minerals exist here, where there are rocks of every geological age, and where every one of the ordinary elements except the Pt. group has been found, I cannot but believe that the presence of the rare earths has been overlooked. I am not conversant with Prof. Hind’s papers, but it would be interesting to know whether, in his numerous analyses of the minerals of the Province, he ever sought for the presence of the rare earths. It would not be sur- prising if he had, and yet failed to find them, for the methods of testing for them are not given in the ordinary text books of analytical chemistry and in the larger qualitative works of Prescott and Johnson, Fresenius, ete., very little attention is paid to them; they are mentioned in foot- notes or in fine print, and only the most advanced chemists are likely to pay any attention to them. This is partly because they are of little importance to the ordinary analyst, and partly because the field is so difficult ; and advanced chemists will of course go to the original papers. Still this all tends to the overlooking of these earths. A chemist might even take the B. Sc. degree, with Chemistry as his main subject, in any English or American university and know little beyond the fact of the existence of and the probable rarity of these elements. He might even obtain a Doctorate in Chemistry, and, unless his attention were especially ealled to the subject, know little of them. They are out of the ordinary line of travel. I am not saying this merely to fill in the time and make a long paper, as some may be tempted to think, but to show that, even if Prof. Hind did not look for these elements, and I am strongly inclined to think he did not, that it would not be casting any reflections on hiS skill as a chemist, nor slurs on his reputation as an analyst. They are considered out of the line of any one except the chemist who specializes along these lines. I need scarcely say that this is a mistake, to some extent at least. None but an advanced specialist in inorganic chemistry is likely to work with the earths, at least until more is known concerning them, but any ordinary chemist might easily look for their presence. I trust, if any especially heavy minerals or peculiar ones are known to members of this institute, the same being of provincial origin, they would apply the simple test I have mentioned—precipitation by oxalic acid in Ixxiv PROCEEDINGS. weakly acid solution, or send a small sample to me when I would be pleased to report the presence or absence of the earths. If the suspected mineral contains Di. a direct vision spectroscope will detect it at once by simply looking through it at the mineral. Now, finally, to give a little attention to what, according to my heading, ought to be the most important part of my paper. Why are the rare earths of especial importance to the chemical world? Why did such a chemist as Kriiss give up so much of his too-soon ended life to their study? Why do Brauner, Nilson, Cleve, Boisbaudren, Debray, Crookes, and scores of lesser lights give all the time they can spare to solve the mystery? Why did Crookes, when a few pounds of Sipylite, so far a rare mineral, were found not long since in Texas, cable to reserve it all for himself at any price? Why did chemists like Marignac and Bunsen in the latter part of their life, with all their vast accumulations of scientific knowledge and their tried analytical skill, give their finest work to the unravelling of this problem? For two reasons chiefly. The desire to discover the truth, the aim of every true scientist, coupled with the knowledge that here was a field to test the mettle of the bravest and ablest, but also, and perhaps more important for proving the falsity of, or on the other hand, rounding out the periodic system of the elements. The scientist ever seeks to bring the subject which he studies under the power of mathematics. He recognizes that this is the most power- ful of instruments with which to work. All branches of science have, however, to pass the observational stage before laws can be deduced and classifications brought about. Though several chemical facts can be discussed mathematically, the subject as a whole is but emerging from the observational stage. Botany is still in this stage as also Bacteriology, the latter, of course, far behind the former ; and _ possibly it may be claimed that the former is nearer mathematical control than chemistry. Its classification is certainly superior, but its classification, at least the one now in use, is a superficial one and readily arrived at. Not so Chemistry. The atom and even the molecule, evades our grasp and laughs at our skill, the balance alone conquers them and even here we grasp them but lightly. Their existence, even, is being disputed so evasive are they, and those who would claim their existence are confronted by metaphysi- cal reasonings to prove them only hallucinations. It has been a long and weary search since Dalton propounded his atomic theory but the reward seems nearer. Thompson, or I should say Lord Kelvin, is fixing THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGHEE. lex limits for their size and weight, while Mendelejeff and Meyer have propounded a theory of classification. The subtle points will yet be chained and their properties scrutinized. For a long time, ever since chemistry became a science in fact, the need of a proper method of classification has been felt. There was no order, no opportunity therefore to apply mathematics, there was no compre- hensive and easy means of grasping the subject, each element and almost every compound must be studied by itself. So greatly was the need felt that, whenever a new property common to a few or several elements was noticed, attempts were made to make it the basis of a classification. Berzelius thought he had discovered a method but this was soon found wanting, not being founded on sufficient data ; when Faraday discovered the relations of the elements to the poles of the electric battery it was sup- posed to be settled, but this soon showed itself as a common property for all, extending from one end of the list of elements to the other and giving no special point where it could be said one class ended and another began, it soon resolved itself into the older metals and non-metals, hasigens and acidigens and so failed,—it was founded on the too narrow basis of a single property. Inklings of the truth were, however, obtaired from time to time. Dobereiner seems to have made the first suggestion which has led to the present system. He classified many of the elements into triads, taking as a basis a property certainly common to all, viz,—weight. He first noted that in many cases the weight of one element was the mean of that of two others usually resembling it, secondly, in other cases three elements with very similar properties possess very nearly equal atomic weights, viz,—Li., Na., K., and S., Se., Te., for examples of the first and Fe., Co., Ni., and RL, Rh., Pd., as examples of the second. The comparisons were continued by Pettenkofer, Dumas and others, clearer and still clearer signs of universal order appearing as the atomic weights were more and more accurately calculated. Newlands was able between 1860 and 1866 to arrange the elements in octads, but the gaps were so many and the table so fragmentary, and moreover so many elements were forced to stand aside that his friends jocularly suggested that he try arranging the elements according to the first letters of their names. Had Newlands possessed the full courage of his convictions England would have received the credit of the greatest advance in Chemistry since Liebig and WOhler founded Organic Chemis- try. It was left, however, for bolder minds. Lothar Meyer, and Ixxvi PROCEEDINGS. Mendelejeff attacked the question more courageously. The former was probably the first in the field, but the latter must be considered the true parent of the system, for while the former made up a table and pointed out many resemblances between the elements, some of which indeed escaped Mendelejeff, the latter not only proposed a table of the elements, but boldly altered the atomic weights of certain of the elements when they did not conform to his table, and did not merely lay them one side to await what the future might decide concerning them. He did more than this, he said in effect “ My classification is correct but there are many spaces where elements are wanting; this does not effect the table it simply means that some elements are as yet undiscovered. I shall describe three of these,” said he, ‘‘and without claiming to be a prophet, will indicate where they are likely to be found.” He named them pro- visionally Eka-boron, Eka-silicon and Eka-cadmium. Within a few years two of these were discovered and their properties agreed almost identically with those which he had suggested, He altered the atomic weight of Ce. from 92 to 140, U. from 120 to 240, and made other changes. His prephecies were unnoticed or jeered at; his suggested changes were ridiculed. He fought his cause single-handed but his triumph was complete, and came quickly. In less than ten years from his announcement of the Law, the specific heat of Ce. was redetermined by means admitting of very slight error, and the atomic weight was proved to be 140 or nearly so, much nearer 140 than 92. Uranium was by the same means soon proved to have the proposed weight, viz,—240. Chemists then began to examine his predictions more respectfully and were soon surprised (if chemists are ever guilty of surprise) when in 1879-SO Nilson, followed by Cleve, proved the existence of Eka-boron under the name of Scandium; and when in 1886 Winkler proved Eka- silicon to exist as Germanium, Mendelejeff’s triumph was complete. Few now doubt the truth of the law, and it has become a powerful weapon in the hands of the investigator. The line of the classification is com- plete, the actual basis is probably not known as yet, it may be the atomic weights, as is most usually assumed; it may be a common element as is being quietly proposed, though as yet unsupported by experimental evidence; it may be some property as yet unsuspected but that the order is nearly or quite correct no one doubts. But where comes in the importance of the rare earths? A glance at either form of table will show blanks. No one doubts that these will THE RARE EARTHS.—MAGEE. Ixxvil be filled in. Whence? Undoubtedly in most cases from the rare earths. Ni. and Co. according to Kriiss’ work seem to conceal an element which may be found to have an atomic weight of about 100 and the earths conceal many. Within a few years Di, has been split up, one component showing absorption bands and the other failing to do so, As already pointed out, two earths once considered simple have yielded at least twelve and when the means of the separation, when the reagent or method is finally found, then the vacant spaces will be filled. But it is not only that the rare earths will probably fill these vacant spaces in the table that gives them importance, their similarity is such in regard to action towards reagents that they seem to run contrary to the law. If so many of them are of the formula R,. O3, they cannot be distributed over the table but will mass in groups and destroy the table. Of course if the table is incorrect the sooner it is proven the better so that the mind of the inorganic chemist may be directed elsewhere for comparisons, and it is just possible that in this very thing lies the importance. Still the periodic law seems to rest on good foundation. The great importance then seems tu lie just here. These rare earths exist, of this there can be no doubt. The best chemical skill that the world has possessed have been working upon them for over a century, and have so far been unable to confidently state their number and actual properties. The more work that is put upon them the greater the number of them seems to be. If the ones now claimed are all real there is not room for them in the law, 7.e. spaces are wanting for their apparent weight. Until this question can be settled a mystery hangs over this portion of the Periodic system. The unravelling of this may work an entire change in our ideas of the elements. Their subtle resemblances have suggested to me more than once, while pondering over them, that in these lies the key to the simple elements which many chemists believe to be the foundation of the so-called elements. Ags in the Marsh-gas series the time comes when the Hydrogen-Carbon chain becomes too heavy for the bonds or affinity to sustain the weight, so in our inorganic field something of the same kind may result. The hypothetical elements may in certain numbers of atoms or in certain arrangement of atoms yield such similar properties that the one compound is distinguishable with difficulty from another. Time and high chemical skill alone can unravel the mystery, but so long as things remain as they are there remains an element of uncertainty in the periodic law. We have Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vou. X. Proc.—H. ]xxvili PROCEEDINGS. fortunately the key to the organic compounds and can read causes for resemblances and differences. The study of these has been of vast importance to the commercial world, but here isa field unwrought, not for want of workers, but by the very difficulty of the work challeng- ing attack. I believe that here lies the key which once found will unlock many of the mysteries of the chemical world. And one thing is certain, the skill required to explain the mystery will give such power and grasp to the discoverer that he will with ease unroll the panorama of the elemental field and place it under man’s open vision. The unfolding of the mystery of the rare earths is not only necessary, then, to complete the Periodic system but they evidently conceal some chemical truth not known or imperfectly understood, and so not properly applied by chemists. Moreover, judging from the number of elements claimed as rare earths and their resemblance to each other, it is possible that they will overcrowd the Periodic system and compel its modification or rejection. 1n either case the examination will lead to large additions to the world’s scientific knowledge, to truth, the aim of all true scientists. The subject was discussed by several of those present, and a vote of thanks was presented to Dr. MacgE. Watson L. Bisnop, Esq., exhibited a collection of Nova Scotian birds’ eggs, and made remarks thereon. SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th May, 1901. The PRESIDENT in the chair. On motion of Pror. E. Haycoox, seconded by Pror. E. MacKay, it was resolved that the the N. S. Institute of Science recognize as subordi- nate branches, local organizations of its members in particular sections of the Province, formed for the purpose of encouraging scientific study and investigation; providing that such orgonizations are active and report yearly at the annual business meeting of the Institute. Members of such recognized branch societies who pay a yearly fee of one dollar to the parent society shall be entitled to all the rights and privileges of ordinary members of the Institute. ORDINARY MEETINGS. Ixxix The resolution was referred to the council with directions to carry out the terms of the resolution, and to make any further recommenda- tions thereon to the business meeting. The following two papers were read by title :— (1). Further Explorations in the Torbrook Iron District.—By Epwin GiLPin, Jr, Esq., Lu. D., &e. (2). Diseription of Fish-like Tracks from the fine-grained Siliceous Mudstones of the Knoydart formation (Eo-Devonian) of Antigonish County, Nova Scotia.—By Henry M. Ami, Ese., D. Sc., of the Geological Survey of Canada. (See Transactions, p. 330.) Pror. Ernest Haycock, M. A., of Acadia College, then read two papers :— (1). The Geological History of the Gaspereau Valley, N.S. (See Transactions, p. 361.) (2). Fossils, possibly Triassic, in Glaciated Fragments in the Boulder Clay of King’s County, N.S. (See Transactions, p. 376.) These papers were discussed by the Prestpenr and Messrs. A. McKay, Poous, and Doang. A vote of thanks was presented to Pror. Hayeoor for his interesting communications. The following papers were then presented :— (1). Phenological Observations for 1900.—By A. H. MacKay, Esq., Lu. D., &. (See Transactions, p. 379.) (2). Rainfall Notes, Nova Scotia.—By F. W. W. Doang, Esq., C. F, (See Transactions, p. 399.) The Council was authorized to receive as having been read by title, such papers as may be presented too late for this meeting. [Under this resolution a paper subsequently submitted by D’Arcy WexatuHerss, Esq., C. E., on ‘f Recent Developments with the Calyx Drill in the Nictaux Iron Field,” was accepted by the Council. (See Transactions, p. 350.)] Harry PInErs, Recording Secretary. SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF J. M. JONES. (See Frontispiece. ) John Matthew Jones was born at Frontfaith Hall, Montgomery, Wales, on 7th October, 1828. He wasa son of Admiral Sir Charles Thomas Jones, K. C. B., his mother having been formerly Miss Jane Helen Satton. In 1840 he went to Osmestry in Shropshire, England, a grammar- school under the superintendence of the Rev. Stephen Doane, and subsequently he received instruction from a private tutor, the Rev. John Whitly, rector of Wargrove near Warrington, Lancashire. He becamea barrister of the Middle Temple, London, but being possessed of independ- ent means, did not practice his profession. For some time he was a captain in the Royal Montgomery hifles. In June, 1850, while on his way with his brother to the latter’s shooting-box in Scotland, he was wrecked in the steamship “Orion” off Portpatrick. Over one hundred persons were drowned, but Mr. Jones and his brother were among those who were saved. He came to America about 1854 with his eldest brother who was flag-lievtenant to Admiral Milne, intending to shoot in the Rocky Mountains. He landed at New York, but was only able to proceed as far as London, Ontario, when an outbreak of cholera forced him to go to Halifax. He finally decided to reside in the latter town where, about the same time, his relative the Earl of Mulgrave, was stationed as sovernor. He spent some time in the Bermudas, where his researches into the natural history of those islands resulted in the publication about 1859 of a volume entitled “The Naturalist in Bermuda.” At Halifax he resided for some time at ‘ Ashbourne,” a charming country } Jace surrounded by fields and woods, at Dutch Village not far from the city. Near him lived the late Andrew Downs, well-known as an ornithologist, whose grounds were arranged as a zoological park ; while in the city were several men who were beginning to take a keen interest in the study of the natural history of Nova Scotia. In this country home, Mr. Jones’s opportunities were excellent for observing nature and making extensive collections of the fauna of the province, to the investigation and gathering of which the greater part of his time was given. At ‘‘Ashbourne” he had a private museum (Ixxx) SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF J. M. JONES. IXxxl ina building erected for the purpose, and in 1566 the number of specimens it contained was estimated at from seven to eight thousand. He was an enthusiastic collector, and the cabinets of the British Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Provincial Museum of Nova Scotia, were enriched by his generosity. He took great interest in the international exhibition at London in 1862, the provincial fisheries department being placed under his management. During the winter months Mr. Jones usually resided in Bermuda, at his place called ‘‘The Hermitage,” Smith’s Parish, and gave further attention to the study of the natural history of that locality. Mr. Jones married Mary, daughter of Colonel W. J. Myers of the 71st Highlanders, of Halifax, by whom he had seven sons and four daughters. He wasa Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, an original Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, and one of the founders and ablest supporters of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, of which he soon became president, Mr. Jones died on his sixtieth birthday, 7th October, 1888, at 114 Tower Road, Halifax. Among his publications may be mentioned the following :— The Naturalist in Bermuda; a sketch of the geology, zoology and botany of that remarkable group of islands ; together with meteor- logical observations. Illus. London, 1859 (2), pp. 192. Extract from the Bermuda ‘“‘ Royal Gazette,” relating to the recent capture of alarge species of Gymnetrus.—Proceedinys of the Zoo- logical Society, (Lond.), 1860, (part xxviii), pp. 185-187. Contributions to the Icthyology of Nova Scotia.x—TZvransactions N. S. Institute of Natural Science, vol. i, pt. 1, pp.45-54; 1863. Kjoekken-moedding in Nova Scotia —Smithsonian Report, 1863. Contributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas: Part 1, Mollusea, —Trans. N. S. Inst. N. Se., vol. i, pt. 2, pp. 14-26; 1864. Contributions to the Natural History of Nova Scotia: Reptilia.—Zb , vol. i, pt. 3, pp. 114-128; 1865. Notes on certain species of Nova Scotian Fishes.—Canadian Naturalist, N. S., vol. ii, pp. 128-135; 1865. On the Geological Features of the Bermudas.—Trans. N.S. Inst. N. Se. vol. i, pt. 4, pp. 18-26 ; 1866. Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Ser, Vou. X. PRoc.—I. Ixxxll SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF J. M. JONES. A Fortnight in the Backwoods of Shelburne and Weymouth. Jb, vol ii, pt. 1, pp. 48-60; 1867. Contributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas. [Coralliaria.] — Ib., vol. ii, pt. 2, pp. 7-16; 1868. On some of the Rarer Birds of Nova 8cotia.—Jb., vol. ii, pt. 2, pp. 70-73. 1868. On Hyla Squirella, a Batrachian new to the Province.—JZb., vol. ii, pt. 2. pp. 101-102; 1868. [Nova Scotian Lepidoptua. By Rev. Chas. J. S. Bethune.] With, additional notes by J. Matthew Jones.—ZJb., vol. ii, pt. 3, pp. 73-87; 1869. Nova Scotian Coleoptera. Part L—ZJb., vol. ii, pt 3, pp. 141-155 ; 1869; On the Laride of the Nova Scotian Coast.—Zb., vol. ii, pt. 4, pp. 52 58; 1870. Notes on the Murine Zoology of Nova Scotia.—Jb., vol. ii, pt. 4, ppyge-905 1870: Review of Nova Scotian Diurnal Lipidoptera.—ZJ®é., vol. iii, pp. 18-27 & 100-103; 1871 & 1872 Notes on a small and remarkable Lophioid recently taken off Halifax Harbour.—Zb, vol. ii, pp. 103-105 ; 1872. On the Vegetation of the Bermudas.—Jb., vol. ui, pp. 227-280; 1873. The Visitor’s Guide to Bermuda ; with a sketch of its Natural History- London and Halifax, [1876 %] 12mo., pp. i-xii and 9-156. Mollusca of Nova Scotia (corrected to date, 1877).—Trans. N. S. Inst. N. Sc., vol. iv, pp. 321 (misprinted 421)-330; 1877. List of the Fishes of Nova Scotia.—Jb., vol. v, pp. 87-89 ; 1879. With Goode (George Brown), ed.—Contributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas. Washington, 1884. Hoge: PROS ED INGS OF THE Hlobva Scotian Institute of Science. SESSION OF 1901-1902. First Orpinary MeErtrna. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 7th November, 1901. The Presmpent, Dr. A. H. MacKay, in the chair. It was announced that Avarp V. PinEo, Esq., barrister, Wolf- ville, and Prorrssor Frank R. Hanuy, Acadia College, Wolfville, had been elected associate-members. R. W. McLacuian, Esg., of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Montreal, read a paper entitled: “A Talk on Roman Coins,” illustrated by a number of specimens belonging to the lecturer. A. H. Coorer Pricnwarp, Esq, numismatist, exhibited and described a series of Roman coins belonging to the Provincial Museum of Nova Scotia, and drew attention to the desirability of increasing the coin collection of that institution. The subject was further discussed by the Presipent, and Messrs. R. R. McLeop and W. L. Payzanr. On motion of Mr. McKgrron and Rey. R. Larne, a vote of thanks. was presented to Mr. McLacuman. Proc & Trans. N. S. Inst. Scr., Vor. X. PrRoc.—J. (Ixxxii1) Ixxxiv PROCEEDINGS. ANNUAL Business MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th December, 1901. The Presipenr, Dr. A. H. MacKay, in the chair. PRESIDENTIAL ADDREsS.—By A. H. MacKay, LL. D., &¢ Gentlemen,—Since our last annual meeting we have lost some of our members. It is a tribute to the constitution of things which every human organization has to pay. OBITUARIES. On the 5th of March, Dr. James Ratchford DeWolfe, who was a member from the first session of the Institute in 1863, and who bore his share in its administration as an officer, died in his 82nd _ year. He was the son of the Hon. T. A. S. DeWolfe, at one time a member of the Lord Falkland administration of the Province. He graduated from the University of Edinburgh, and came to Halifax in the year 1845. In 1857 he left a very lucrative practice to take charge as its first Superintendent of the Provincial Hospital for the Insane. Under his directing genius the institution took rank as one of the best administered of its class. While fulfilling all the duties of a leading citizen for so many years, he was always a staunch friend of the Insti- tute of Science, in which he took an interest from its institution to his death. Not being able to be present at one of our meetings not very long ago in which the subject of ventilation of public buildings was being discussed, he supplemented the report of the discussion reported in the morning papers by a full and ably presented discussion of some points which he had demonstrated in his own experience, which he sent me for consideration, with special reference to the ven- tilation requirements of the Provincial Normal School. In him we have lost the last member on our list who joined the Institute during its first year. Captain William Henry Smith, R. N. R., F. R. G.8., who was a member from the year 1889, died on the fifth of May, in the sixty- fourth year of his age. He was born in Kent, England, was educated at Canterbury and Greenwich, entered the Allan steamship service during the Crimean War, and was present at some of the engagements, ee PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Ixxxv and afterwards successfully commanded the Allan steamers, S?. Geo ge, Hibernian, Circasian, Peruvian, Sardinian and Parisian, and suc- ceeded Captain Wylie as Commodore of the Allan fleet. He was appointed a lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve in 1867, and on leaving the steamship service was made Chairman of the Board of Examiners of Masters and Mates, Commissioner for enquiring into wrecks, and one of the nautical advisers to the Government of Canada. He compiled some valuable nautical distance tables, and was a valu- able contributer to the press on nautical matters of public import- ance. Rev. Moses Harvey, LL.D., F. R. G.S., F. R. 8. C., who was a corresponding member of this Institute since 1890, died on the third of September, eighty-one years of age. He was born at Armagh, Treland, educated at the Royal College, Belfast, and came to New- foundland in 1852, and was for 26 years pastor of St. Andrew’s Church in St. John’s. In 1878 he retired from the ministry for the greater leisure of literary and scientific work, in which he became the most distinguished represen‘ative of that island. Apart from his published works, he contributed since 1869 a large number of articles and sketches on the resources of Newfoundland, to the leading news- papers and magazines of Britain, Canada, and the United States— sufficient to make many volumes. The best known of his published works are, ‘The Characteristics of the Present Age,” ‘Thoughts on ; the Poetry and Literature of the Bible,” ‘The Testimony of Nineveh to the Veracity of the Bible,” ‘Lectures on the Harmony of Science and Revelation,” ‘“‘ Lectures on Egypt and its Monuments,” ‘‘ Lectures Literary and Biographical,” ‘Cormack’s Journey Across Newfound- land,” ‘“‘ Across Newfoundland with the Governor,” ‘‘ Newfoundland the Oldest British Colony,” ‘Text Book of Newfoundland History,” “Where Are We and Whither Tending,” ‘“‘ Newfoundland as it is in 1894,” “A Handbook and Tourist’s Guide,” ‘‘ Newfoundland in the Jubilee Year.” He also prepared the descriptive and statistical arti cles on Newfoundland in the “Encyclopedia Britannica” and in “ Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia.” He was the discoverer and first describer of that gigantic ‘“ devil-fish ” which was called after him by Professor Verrill Architeuthus Harvey. Ixxxvi PROCEEDINGS. WORK. We have also lost the presence of Professor James Gordon MacGregor from our midst by his translation from the University of Dalhousie College to the Professorship of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. He has been a member of this Institute from the year 1877, since which time he has served in all of the most important offices with a vigor which has transformed the institution in many respects. Not only did he furnish many valuable papers for our Transactions, but he prepared students who, during the last few years, added most important records of original scientific research to our list of valuable papers. And not only did he do these things, but he spent yearly a great deal of time in developing our foreign exchanges and laying the foundation of our present Provincial Scien- tific Library. Although not likely to be with us at our meetings, Professor MacGregor has put too mnch of himself into our Institute not to continue to be interested in its progress, and disposed to work with us still. The banquet tendered him on his departure for the “motherland” by this Institute, combined with the University of Dalhousie, was a public testimony to his services, and I am glad that the Council has added another small testimony in unanimously electing him to life membership, which we trust may be a very long member- ship. At our regular meetings during the year quite a variety of subjects was discussed, the more valuable papers of which will soon appear in the volume of the Proceedings and Transactions. Mr. Poole described the new Calyx Drill; and exhibited specimens of the great cores of rock cut out by it, and at a subsequent meeting presented for examination a transverse section of Stigmaria, showing the cellular structure of its central vascular bundles with extraordinary distinct- ness. The excellence of the preservation of this structure makes its description a valuable one for the paleontologist. Mr. Prest utilized his expedition to the Labrador coast by giving us a vivid picture of his observations on Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Geologi- cal Agent. Mr. Weatherbe demonstrated the latest explorations in the Torbrook fron District. Mr. Fletcher discussed the nomenclature of our geological formations, taking in the New Glasgow Conglomer- ates this time—one of the most interesting of the series on the histor- PRESIDENTS ADDEESS. ]xxxvii ical development of the geological exploration of the Province. Dr. Ami, who would add still further terms to this changing nomenclature, described the fossil tracks of an ‘ Eo-Devonian” fish found in the fine-grained silicious sandstones of the Knoydart formation in Anti- gonish. Professor Haycock closed up the series of geological papers by a picturesque description of the geological history of the Gaspereaux Valley, and by the exhibition of fossils—probably Triassic—in glaci- ated fragments of rock in the Boulder Clay of King’s County Dr. Magee represented the science of chemistry in a graphic sketch of the rare earths and their importance in reference to the Perioclic Law, a feat which was made easy by his research work in this depart- ment for some years. Professor Smith followed the science into its industrial applications in the rotation of leguminous crops, and the preservation and use of turnip tops. Mr. Bishop led into the field of zoology, exhibiting and describing the habits of the star-nosed mole and its young, and on another occasion showing his fine collection of Nova Scotian birds’ eggs. Mr. Doane led us into the region of meteor- ology in his Notes on Rainfall, and I presented, as usual, my annual compilation of phenological observations made in the schools of the Province. PROVINCIAL MUSEUM. During the year, the Provincial Museum, which although always the ward of the Government has always been considered to be the child of the Institute of Science, has been very extensively improved by the incessant and intelligent labor of its curator, Mr. Harry Piers. While it is being rapidly made more representative of the natural and industrial history of the Province by the introduction of new material, a great deal has been accomplished by the arrangement, accurate determination, and comprehensive but distinct labelling of the old material ; so that now it is becoming not only of more value to those wishing to gain an idea of the productions of the country, but to the scientific student. The curator is not a man who merely attends during the hours the Museum is open to the public. He is always working, and when the doors are closed he works most. In no other way could the vast amount of work done during the past year have been accomplished. The collections of coins in the Museum, many of which were neither specifically determined or generally classified, came under the Ixxxviil PROCEEDINGS. notice, last year, of Mr. A. H. Cooper Prichard, a numismatic expert for some time engaged in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and who prepared, under the direction of the Treasury Department of Jamaica, the coin collection exhibited at the Jamaica Exhibition of 1891. On returning to the Province this summer, after a study extending over some months, he at length completed his determinations of the various coins which are now properly and minutely catalogued. Mr. Prichard undertook this work asa labor of love, no doubt also interested in many of the curious mementoes of antiquity turning up. And it is fortunate for us, for I fear we could not well afford to pay the cost of Mr. Prichard’s very thorough work. Iam glad, however, to be able to intimate that the Council has just elected him to corresponding membership in the Institute as a token of our appreciation of his valuable services, and that he has graciously accepted the distinction. SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY. On the flat above the Museum we have our new Provincial Scien- tific Library, also under the charge of Mr. Piers, who deals with it as a part of the Museum. This composite collection of publications, the great nucleus of which is the original library of this Institute, has already been reduced to order. The Government has added to it modern works of science, both elementary and advanced, such books as are absolutely necessary in such a library, to the value of $500 ; and we have reason to hope that this intelligent appreciation of the necessity of stimulating the scientific development of the thought and industries of the Province will continue to be shown by a Government which has done so much to make a start in a line deemed now so essential by every progressive country’ PROVINCIAL PROGRESS. While at headquarters the growth of our scientific equipment is satisfactory, the developmeut of the Scientific spirit appears also to be accelerating throughout the Province. Under the stimulating influ- ence of Professor Haycock a branch or affiliated organization has been instituted at Wolfville, which is thus making a bid for the second place as a scientific centre in the Province. While the access to the library of the Institute and to publication in our Proceedings and Transactions will be of some value to the local institution, it will also tend to PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. : Ixxxix develop scientific workers eventually for the central institution and thus benefit both. In Halifax the organization of the Halifax Botanical Club last summer, under the presidency of Mr. Waddell, is another and similar sign of the times. Throughout the province several of our county academies or high schools have now better laboratories for proper science teaching than had our best colleges not many years ago; and some of the teachers are more competent than many of the good old college professors. But the Government has not allowed the country to lead in this line of our education ; for laboratories have just been completed for the Provincial Normal School which are not equalled by those of any insti- tution in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada. We should soon begin to see signs of useful results from these practical beginnings. With laboratory extension in the high schools we are now commencing to foster manual training in the common schools ; so that it is hoped our future students may have not only their minds, but their hands directed in the school room to the personal and public advantages of intelligent industrial labor, as well as to the at present overcrowded, less important, less honorable, once-called learned professions. But while the great majority of people can understand the advan- tage of the scientific study of the principles immediately underlying the occupations which constitute the industrial force of the country, they are not far-sighted enough to see why we should cultivate the sciences generally—the sciences which at present appear to be unpro- ductive. Pardon a concluding word on this point. T think of science as the application of common sense to the dis- covery of the facts or truth of things around us, and the arrangement of this knowledge in some system which enables us to hold them in mind in their true relations. Science, therefore, in so far as it ap- proaches truth and completeness in agriculture, enables us to do what will give us the best crops at the least expense ; in mining to do what will lead us most directly to the valuable ore and enable us to raise it at the least expense ; metallurgy, to reduce the metal from the ore most economically ; in medicine, to touch the hidden cause of disease and remove it ; in manufacture, to improve the product or to reduce the expense of production ; in transportation, to save another minute of time or another cent per ton of freight ; and so on through the xc PROCEEDINGS. whole range of human industry. That is the kind of science in which the whole intelligent world believes in without dissent. It is the ancient Egyptian cult of utility as opposed to the ancient Grecian cult of truth for truth’s sake. [ would say a word, not against the Egyptian philosophy which with the world I approve ; but in favor of the Grecian ideal, not sim- ply on account of the higher order of character and of pleasure created by it, but on account of its ultimate utility in making the develop- ment of the industrial sciences possible. The constitution of things is so very unlike our elementary con- ceptions of the world even after we are some years in investigating it, that the most pious theologian as well as the neglected street Arab, without a single exception, becomes a sceptic with respect to his infan- tile philosophy. The fairies have taken wing and disappeared for ever, and Santa Claus with his marvelous powers over space and time and the universal laws of physics which chain puny men and boys to the ground and the dull prose of fact, drops out of the gorgeous cloud of poetry and shrivels up at last to a benevolent old man also chained to the ground. Now, many people continue to learn more after the infantile stage has been passed ; but much of what they learned had been discovered and pointed out to the world by a few others. And when all that has been discovered is known, we shall feel that the world is wider and fuller than ever we thought it before. We cannot resist the con- viction that there is a great deal more to be known than we thought when we knew less. And the new things are so unlike what we were expecting from what we had previously learned, that we were looking for something else when we tripped upon the new. Now the man who is roaming through the universe searching for truth wherever it may appear, just because he enjoys such an exercise, will some day fall upon some new thing, it may be gold, coal, or a cocoanut, which those digging in the potato field for the hnndredth time can never get, no matter how they may long for it. Truths picked up in the simple search for truth, arranged and recorded so that they are always henceforward accessible when their complements are found, may for years, even centuries be unproductive. The dis- covery of just one point more may complete the solution of an old industrial problem, or reveal a new power over nature. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. X@l MALARIA OBJECT LESSON. As an illustration, let me follow out my example of last year, the history of the cause and prevention of malaria. No single man made this discovery. Laveran in 1880 discovered the minute Haemamoeba in the malarial human blood corpuscles. But five years more of work by others merely proved the truth of Laveran’s discovery. Nothing was done for the business men, the soldiers, the missionaries, going into malarial regions of the world, nothing was done for the millions of natives having their life sapped by the mysterious affliction. They were suffocating themselves at night by keeping out the cool healthful night air, while they allowed the sneaking Anopheles to snipe them without serious protest. In the meantime Danelewsky found that the birds had their blood corpuscles affected in many cases by a somewhat similar organism which he called a Proteosoma. The bloods of all animals were now being searched, even the blood of lizards and snakes, but the malaria still went on from 1885 up to 1895. A tremendous amount of truth about a great number of animals was being discov- ered, but nothing productive. Major Ross got at length to work, but still there was nothing productive. Noticing Danelewsky’s discovery of the Proteosoma in the blood of birds, he caused mosquitoes hatched safe and sound from eggs to feed upon birds, the Blue Jay bearing his share of it, which had the Proteosoma in its blood. The mosquitoes became infected. These mosquitoes infected sound birds. Now in 1898, the mosquito was falling under deeper suspicion. The mos- quitoes would not be affected by sucking the malarial blcod from a sick human patient, however. Nobody ever thought that one species of mosquito was likely to be more dangerous than another. Why should they? But the experiments went on with all the different species which could be found, for was it not already proven that Culex could infect the Blue Jay with Proteosoma—a bird malaria. At last species of the genius Anopheles were found to be capable of being infected by sucking malarial human blood. Next in 1899 it was rapidly proven by Ross and the leading scientists of other countries, that persons might sleep in the most malarial district open to the night air if the mosquito netting guarding the room remained intact ; and if a person were in a mountain sanitarium and _ be but bitten by an infected Anopheles he would be soon down with the malaria. X¢cil PROCEEDINGS. Now came the day of glory for the fly-catcher who with his net used to frequent the town pump, a harmless man supposed to have a bee in his bonnet as well as a mosquito in his net. But from over all the world except Nova Scotia and some other provinces, these fly- catchers reported the species native to the country, so that the malar- ial regions of the world were soon proven to be coterminous with the range of certain species. The unproductive knowledge which had been growing for twenty years and more, now suddenly became productive with a fruition of life and health and wealth to the world. But the end of the work of these for-so-many-years unproductive toilers with the microscope and the insignificant flies did not yet cease. A species of Culex, harmless from a malarial point of view, has been proven only this year to have been the unsuspected, but sneaking and most gigantic murder of tropical America. As Danelewsky’s discovery could not have been made without Laveran’s, and as Ross’ discovery could not have been made without Danelewsky’s, so Sternberg and Reed’s could not have been made without Ross’. YELLOW FEVER OBJECT LESSON. Before Laveran, in 1880, demonstrated the presence of the jelly- speck parasite in malarial blood, the blood of the victim of the terrible Yellow Fever plague was being examined ; but the microscope was able to show nothing which could be proved to be the cause of the disease. . From the range of the fever and its retreat before cold weather, some species of musquito were suspected, and were experi- mented with ; but the result for over twenty years was still negative. Dr. Carlos Finlay, in Havana, from 1881 to 1893, had no less than eighty-eight human subjects bitten by mosquitoes which had fed a few days previously on Yellow Fever patients from the second to the sixth day of the disease. But the results were so doubtful as to be negative, for only one case developed into a slight attack, while thirteen were attacks of acclimatization fever, generally at too long and irregular intervals to be deemed due to the inoculation. We now know why Finlay came within an ace of the discovery, but was still so far from it. There was a peculiarity in the facts which he never suspected, for it was not suggested by the cognate previous discoveries. Nature does not work in accordance with our preconceptions. It has its own habits, which we must discover, and we may guess a thousand times PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. X¢lll before we hit the truth. Dr. Daniel Ruiz, in the presence of Dr. Sternberg, who is now Surgeon-General of the United States Army, in the year 1887 injected blood from the vein of a Yellow Fever patient into a healthy individual to prove whether the germ was in the blood ; but even that experiment was negative—the germs in the eighth day being destroyed in the course of the disease. Still, it did not appear to be an infection carried in the air, for non-immune nurses and others were very often not attacked. And the results of the malarial demon- strations of 1899 stirred up the Havana Commission anew under the general direction. of Sternberg and the local management of Dr. Reed and his staff. Last year Dr. Jesse W. Lazear and Dr. James Carroll, two members of the Commission, allowed themselves to be bitten by mosquitoes fed on a case in its early stage. Dr. Carroll was promptly taken down within the incubation period of five days, and Dr. Lazear, who was at first bitten by the mosquito within ten days of its feeding, was not affected. But on the 12th of September last year, about a month after the first experiment, he allowed a mosquito to fill itself from his hand—one which had been fed on a patient about a fortnight before, presumably. Within five days, on the 18th of September, he took ill, and on the 25th was dead. Nine other individuals voluntarily allowed themselves to be experimented upon. In those cases when the mosquito had bitten within eight days of their feeding there was no result. The cases of infection occurred when the mosquitoes had bitten more than twelve days after the feeding on the Yellow Fever patient. Thus dawned the light of the facts on the Commission. Clea: fasciatus when fed on the blood of a Yellow Fever patient during the first few days of the disease did not become capable of infecting a human subject until after twelve days, or more if the weather was not very warm. Now arose the question: Is this the only manner in which this plague is spread? When infected ships have to remain in quarantine, and all clothes and fabrics have to be burned or steamed, when patrols with shot guns surround quarantined towns to prevent people flying to other places, when the tremendous expense of quarantine, delay and destructive disinfection is being endured, is it of any use when the mosquito is allowed to fiy past the shot gun of the sentry, and past the cauldron of tho disinfector, while the insignificant gnat is not even XC1V PROCEEDINGS. chatlenged? To settle this question, the Commission formed an exten- sive camp in Cuba, not very far from Havana, called after their first martyr for the cause of science—which is the cause of humanity— Camp Lazear. Special buildings were put up for various purposes, and the strictest regulations were enforced, with every action tested and recorded. On the 30th of last November, three men who never had Yellow Fever agreed to go into one of the little cottages, which was furnished with doors and windows perfectly protected from mosquitoes by a fine wire netting or gauze, every night to sleep, for twenty nights. During the day they remained in their own quarantined tent near by. In this cottage, which was kept up to tropical heat, were the clothes and bedding taken, soiled, from beds of Yellow Fever patients. These clothes they packed away in the morning and opened out at night, and slept in. On the 19th of December they came out all right, and after quarantine for five days were allowed to go at large, while another set, consisisting of two volunteers, tried the experiment for the next twenty days, and still another set for the next twenty days, from January 11th last to the 3lst. These volunteers excelled in their attempts to take Yellow Fever from soiled clothing within their net- protected cottage. Boxes of filthy clothing, stained wiuh blood and vomit from the Yellow Fever hospitals, were opened up within the room, sometimes causing such a stench that they had to retire tempo- rarily when opening the boxes. Here they slept for twenty nights, in the very clothing of those who had died from the fever. But no fever was taken during these sixty days by these five noble volunteers. This would appear to demonstrate that the mode of quarantining should be adjusted to the specific nature of each kind of disease. What may be necessary for small-pox may be altogether unnecessary for other diseases. Millions of dollars have been spent on quararanting Yellow Fever which had little more virtue than the incantations of the old red Indian medicine-men ; while the real cause was practically allowed to be limited by nature, as it was in the days of the medicine-men. But in the camp at Lazear, in another cottage, other experiments were being conducted by heroes as great as war or missionary zeal ever produced. A cottage was divided in two by a mosquito-proof netting—each half alike. Volunteers sleep in each. But in the one PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. XCVv apartment a few mosquitoes which, twenty days ago, fed on a new case of fever, were set free. Inthe other apartment was put clothing soiled by Yellow Fever patients. On the 21st of last December the volunteers entered upon their strange preparation for Christmas. On Christmas day, three days and twenty-three hours after being first bitten, John J. Moren took ill with the fever, of which in due time he recovered. Out of seven who attempted to be infected by mosquitoes, only one escaped. Of the seven who were attempted to be infected by the Yellow Fever filth in the other half, all escaped. The result of all this was that the regulations for the treatment of Yellow Fever epidemics had to undergo a complete revolution, with the most satisfactory results. It is not found necessary to destroy all the mosquitoes of the species Culax fasciatus, which is the species so far found to be capable of infection. It serves the same purpose to prevent any mosquito from infection by touching a fever patient—a regulation which must be as agreeable to the patient as it is useful to the public. SHEEP—FLUKE OBJECT LESSON. But the mosquito is not the only dangerous carrier of disease. Any fly may carry the germs of disease by simple contact. Some of them may carry special diseases within their bodies, as in the cases discussed. It took a long time before the cause of the spread of the Texas Cattle Fever was discovered to be by infected ticks. But as soon as the discovery was made, the control of the disease was assured. Some of the histories of disease carriers are most complicated. And I hope you will pardon me for the reference to one as an illus- tration of the value which may eventually come from our exploring all the corners of our country for the insignificant animals and plants found on the earth or in the water,—such work as some members of such societies as ours are always doing. without any immediate indus- trial or significant results. In Britain the sheep in some localities began to die in hundreds, and on post mortem examination their livers were found to be filled with a parasitic animal about three quarters of an inch long, somewhat flat and leaf-like. It is known as the Liver Fluke or the “ Liver-rot.” I shall briefly sketch its life history, which illustrates my point. One fluke produces about half a million of eggs which are expelled from the xevl PROCEEDINGS. liver through the bile duct into the intestines, whence they ultimately reach the ground. The eggs would all die if they did not fall upon the earth during cold weather, when at the end of two or three weeks they may be found as minute ciliated specks swimming in the water of pools or rain puddles. These all die in ten hours if they do not find a certain species of water snail, Limnea truncatula. Those which find the snail stick to it, burrow into it, and soon become encysted in a small round cell. After some time it grows and changes into a minute somewhat worm-like shape, bores through the cyst wall and enters the liver of the snail. It is now called a Redia, and it produces a number of offspring with a large head and slender tail called Cer- carize which escape into the water of the pond. They finally swim to land and climb up grass blades where they become encysted. They die here in a short time unless a sheep comes along and swallows the Cercaria with the grass. From the stomach of the sheep it enters the liver by the bile duct, thus producing the disease from which the sheep dies. The same animal appears in many different forms. First the parasite embedded in the liver ; second, the ciliated microscopic pin- head swimming in the water ; third, the cyst in the muscle of the snail ; fourth, numerous Redie migrating to the liver of the snail ; fifth, numerous Cercariz migrating from the liver of the snail into the water ; sixth, the swimming Cercarie climbing the grass blades and becoming encysted, covered with a tough skin making them look like seed or scale stuck on the blade. Let the season be hot and dry at the critical stage and the Liver-rot becomes extinct for the season. In a few years if the climate is suitable they may become numerous again. But if the water in the sheep’s pasturage should be kept clear of the said species of snail, no condition of climate could keep the plague in existence. ‘The extirpation of the snail is no easy matter, and the Fluke is more destructive to sheep in Great Britain than the Boer war is to the sheep in Africa—at least a million per annum dying from this cause. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION. We have been favored this year with the Marine Biological Station of Canada at Canso. There, several of the scientists of Central Can- ada were studying the inhabitants of our neighboring sea water, etc., a knowledge of which will very soon be essential in order to preserve some of our fisheries. The duties of my office have been so engross- TREASURERS REPORT. xevil ing that although one of the directors, I was not able to visit the station before its close. It is to be regretted that we had no Nova Scotian student taking advantage of such a grand opportunity this season. I hope that if the station is with us next summer there may be some of us able to take advantage of the great opportunity to study effectively at least some small portion of the unknown flora and fauna of our land and water. Whatever work we do can be recorded in our Transactions which even last year contained information deemed valuable to scientific men in other countries. Our exploration work although proceeding at a very slow rate, and although of no immediate productive value, is building up the root, the stem, the branches, and the leaves of a tree which in due time will flower and fruit, and its fruit will be for the healing of the nation. But we cannot produce the fruit directly, The course of nature is to begin with the root and branches without which there can never be any fruit. From such considerations, I hope it can be understood, that the cult of buying the truth and selling it not, is not only good in itself as a source of the highest pleasure, but that it is also essential for the development of that utilitarian science which results immediately in bread and material power. The TREASURER’S report was presented, and having been audited and found correct, was received and adopted. The following is an analytical statement of the expenditure for 1900-1901 : PUBLICATION OF TRANSACTIONS :— Vol. X., Part 2, (1899-1900) : Brintinevandvoimdimeee aa.) ee ieee $126 54 DING MR aes andaonoce Sesh POTS sounC 38 00 -——— $164 54 Vol. X , Part 3, (1900-1901) : Photograph for portrait (Jones)..... soon OO DDEMASMNE .cb.60 ub anobOes onOO nO OO8GbO oD 3 38 -—$ 488 ——-— 4168 92 DISTRIBUTION OF TRANSACTIONS :— Wioleexermiearcti2: Wrappers, receipt forms, wrapping and twine.... $ 11 75 Addressing and supervising distribution ..... S55 lis) (Oi) Postage, truckage, porter, freight, boxes, insur- ANINGEly QPORESENKS) 6 Ge sconoccebcepoe S50000C 18 19 ——-— $ 44 94 Carried: fOnward:: (secretes Taree ae oe ee wie oie $913 86 X¢€Vill PROCEEDINGS. BrOUpNt fOTWOTd saree On ere cee ee ene eer $213 86 LIBRARY EXPENSES: Stamping all books and pamphlets in Library .... $ 12 00 Services, Janitor Dalhousie College.............. 5 00 Expressage on books received...............2--% 1 72 Truckage, removal of books from Librarian’s office to Provineial'Science Library...-= + 2-s-26-s24 1 00 Insurance on bibrany: vy, hace at eee 23 10 ——-—- $ 42 8&2 Callinpok meetings.2 ar es.ceones eee eee eee 22 16 GN ROIS Fo ee crane tna a co tole pee te eee ke ee 8 00 Postage (Secretary’s and Librarian’s).......... ....... 7 47 Posts fice boxe. ox toiseichys saore in arses 4 00 Miscellaneous printing (including stationery) ..... 4 25 $302 56 The Report on the Library was read by Mr. Piers, and was received and adopted. Proressor K. Haycock presented a report from the Wolfville branch of the Institute, which had been organized on May 28th, 1901, with the following officers; President, Ernest Haycock ; Vice- President, A. V. Pino, Eso. ; Secretary-Treasurer, Pror. EVERETT Sawyer. It was decided that all meutbers of the parent society who are also members of the branch, should form the council. Associate members are admitted to the branch on approval, and for an annual fee of twenty-five cents to help cover local running expenses. It was resolved that the thanks of the Institute be conveyed to the Hon. Rosperr Boak and His Worsuip tHe Mayor for their courtesy in granting the Society the use of the Legislative and City Council Chambers as places of meeting, and to the SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN InstirutTion for continuing to admit the Institute to the privileges of the Bureau of International Exchanges. The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1901-1902): President.—A. H. MacKay, Esg., Lu. D., F. R. S. C., ex-officio F. R. MES: Vice-Presidents.—F. W. W. Doane, Esg., C. E., and HENRY S. POOLE, Eso., F. R. S. G., Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines. Treasurer.—W. C. SILVER, Eso. Corresponding Secretary.—Pror. E. MacKay, Pu. D. Recording Secretary.—Harry PIERS, Esq. Librarian.—M. Bowman, ESOR na Ac Councillors without Office. ALEXANDER McKay, Esg., EDWIN GILPIN, JR., Esg., Lu. D., F. R. S. C., MARTIN MurpPHy, Esg., D. Sc., H. H. Reap, Esg., M. D., Watson L. BisHop, Esg., RODERICK McCOoLt, Esg., C. E., H. W. JOHNSTON, ESO Cae Auditors.—WILLIAM MCKERRON, Esg., G. W. T. IrviNG, Esq. ORDINARY MEETINGS. XC1x SEconD OrpinARY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 9th December, 1901. The PresipEent, Dr. MacKay, in the chair. The meeting was held after the adjournment of the Annual Business Meeting. It was announced that J. B. McCarruy, Esq., B. Sc., teacher of science in the Halifax County Academy, had been elected an ordinary member. It was also announced that the council had elected Pror. J. G.. MacGrecor, D.Sc., F. R. 8., of Edinburgh University, a life member,,. and A. H. Cooper Pricuarp, Esq., of Boston, Mass., a corresponding member. The Presipent, Dr. A. H. MacKay, exhibited a condensed form: of Botrychium ternatum found by Mrs.R. R. McLeod at Blomidon, N.S. There sterile fronds of different ages encircled the stipe of the fertile frond. The variety was provisionally named Aygnetis, in honour of the disooverer. The PresipENT reported progress in consideration of the resolutiom of 13th May, 1901, relative to the establishment of Branch Societies. TuHrrp OrpINARY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 13th January, 1902. The Prestpent, Dr. MacKay, in the chair. A paper by R. W. Exus, Esq., Lu. D., F. G. 8. A., entitled, “‘ The ) Progress of Geological Investigation in Nova Scotia,’ PRESIDENT. (See Transactions, p. 433.) was read by the The subject was discussed by Messrs. H.S. Pootr, R. H. Brown, and Hon. 8S. HouMgs. The PresipENt exhibited a set of mounted plants collected in Labrador from June to August, 1901, by Watrer H. Prest, Esq., M. E. (See Transactions, p. 507.) Proc. & TRANS. N. S. INST. Scr., VOL. X. Proc.—K, c PROCEEDINGS. FourtH OrpinArRY MEETING. Legislative Council Chamber, Halifax, 10th February, 1902. The PresipENtT in the chair. It was announced that Hecror H. MacKay Esq., M. D., of New Glasgow, N.38., had been elected an associate member. H. 8. Pootz, Esq., read a paper by Dr. H. M. Amt, entitled, “The Upper Cambrian Age of the Dictyonema Slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan, and Kentville, N. 8.” (See Transactions, p. 447.) Mr. Pootr presented a paper entitled, “‘ Netes on Dr. Ami’s Paper on Dictyonema Slates.” (See Transactions, p. 451.) Mr. Poor then exhibited and made remarks upon supposed worm- trails in slate from the syncline at Green Bank, Point Pleasant, Halifax. (See Transactions, p. 453.) The subject was discussed by Dr. Murpoy, Mr. Bisnop, and the PRESIDENT. Mr. Poor took the chair while the Prestpznr read a paper by Miss A. Louise Jaacar, of Redlands, California, entitled: ‘‘ Notes on tke Flora of Digby County, N. 8.” Appended was a list of the phanerogamous flora of the county, observed by her, which was recommended to be compiled into a general Provincial Flora. The RecoRDING SECRETARY read a paper by THomas C. Hess, Esq., M. A., of Dalhousie College, “Ona Determination of the Freezing- point Depression Constant for Electrolytes.” (See Transactions, p. 409.) The subject was discussed by Pror. Dixon. FirtaH OrpINARY MEETING. City Council Chamber, Hatifax, 10th March, 1902. The PRESIDENT in the chair. The RecorpinG SECRETARY read a communication from the Royal Society of Canada, inviting the Institute to appoint a delegate to attend the May meeting of the Society. The communication was referred to the council for action. ORDINARY MEETINGS. cl A paper by Water H. Prest, Esq., M. E., entitled, ‘“‘ Supplemen- tary Notes on Drift Ice as an Eroding and Transporting Agent,” was read by Mr. Pootr. (See Transactions, p. 455.) Specimens of sand and gravel from drift ice on the coast of Labrador near Cape Smoky, collected by Mr. Prest, were exhibited, and described by Dr. A. H. MacKay. The subject was discussed by Dr. Murphy. A paper by Pror. Joun Davipson, Parn. D., of the University of New Brunswick, entitled, ‘“ Agricultural Credit,” was read by Mr, McKay. (See Transactions, p. 458.) The paper was discussed by Messrs. McKerron, Pooie, and BisHop. The following papers were read by title :-— (1). On the Standardization of Hydrochloric Acid with Borax.— By R. S. Bornner, Esq., B. Sc., Dalhousie College. (2). On the Determination of the Freezing-point Depressions of Dilute Solutions of Electrolytes—-By Tuomas C. Hess, Esq., M. A., Dalhousie College. (See Transactions, p. 422. HARRY PIERS, Recording Secretary. SkKEtTcH OF THE Lire oF ANDREW Downs, FOUNDER oF THE First ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN IN AMERICA.—By-.Harry Piers. (See frontispiece. ) ANDREW Downs was born in the town of New Brunswick, New Jersey, U.S. A., on 27th September, 1811. His father, Robert, left Scotland, of which he was a native, with the intention of taking a position in Quebec, Canada. Some of his possessions having been landed at Halifax, N. S., he came here, but afterwards left for New Jersey, where he remained for some years. There he married Eliza- beth, daughter of John and Catherine Plum, who was, I understand, of German descent. With recollections in his mind of the city by the sea, Robert returned to Halifax in 1825, bringing with him his family, including his son Andrew, then a lad of about fourteen. Andrew was for sometime engaged in the plumbing business with his father, and later, on his own account. His tastes, however, were entirely of another kind, and he gradually gave more and more of his time to the study of nature, the preserving of birds and other animals and the propagation of the same, and to this work he finally devoted all his energies. I would like to emphasize the fact that to him belongs the honour of founding the first zoological garden in America. This he started at Halifax in 1847, sixteen years before the Central Park collection at New York was opened to the public. The Philadelphia garden did not open till July, 1874, although the society was incorporated a num- ber of years before ; while the “zoo” at Cincinnati opened in 1875, that at St. Louis in 1877, and the Lincoln Park Garden, Chicago, in 1881. Mr. Downs commenced with a piece of land of five acres, but by 1863 he had enlarged his premises to one hundred acres (‘‘ Walton Cottage”), near Dutch Village, North-West Arm, Halifax County, embracing wood and field, stream and pond, hill and valley. This (cil) SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS—PIERS. cill place soon became a most popular resort for the curious and for those students and lovers of natnre and good fellowship who found keen pleasure in the proprietor’s company, and many anecdotes are con- nected with the naturalist’s life in this lovely spot. The Prince of Wales, now King Edward, paid a visit to the place when in Halifax in 1860, as did nearly every notable person who came this way, including Prince Jerome Bonaparte, King Victor Emmanuel’s daughter, Lord and Lady Falkland, Capt. Sir Richard Grant, and many others. In 1864 Downs visited Europe, being complimented by a free pas- sage across the Atlantic in one of Her Majesty’s war vessels, the “Mersey,” Capt. Caldwell. On this occasion he carried with him several living specimens, two cases of mounted birds and a stuffed moose, which he presented to the London zoological garden. In Europe he received courtesies from many scientific men. On his return to Halifax his zoological garden was much improved, and the following extract from an article by his friend Charles Hallock, author of “The Fishing Tourist,” and founder and proprietor of “ Forest and Stream,” graphically describes the place in these, its best days* :— ‘“‘T recall his premises as if it were but vesterday. From a rustic gate in the enclosing hedge a gravelled road wound under interlacing trees to a Gothic cottage over-hung with woodbines and honeysuckles, and surmounted at all points with antlers of elk and moose. This was at once the residence of the proprietor and the outpost of the realm. Beside the porch were bird houses perched on poles, whose chattering tenants hovered round, entering and departing at will. Pigeons of all sorts tumbled and circled overhead, and strange noises were emitted from a neighboring copse. Here and there were rude boxes of cocoons of many varieties, kept for experiments. Not far from the door a pair of whale’s ribs and some huge vertebra lay upon the lawn. “ Entering the house by the main hall-door ajar, we find it alive with the more delicate species of songsters. The parlors and reception * “The First American Zoo,” by Chartes Hallock ; Natwre, New York, Vol 1, No- 10 (Jan. 4, 189°), pp. 130-131. The reader is also referred to another article by Mr. Hallock, ‘‘ Andrew Downs, F. R-8S. [error for c. M. z S.], Naturalist,” in Forest and Stream, New York, Vol. 53, No. 10 (S pt. 2, 1899), p. 181, with portrait, p. 182. In both cf these papers he strongly appeals for public recognition cf Downs as the founder of the first zoological garden in America. C1iV SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS-—PIERS. rooms constitute a museum of natural history and art, perfect in clas- sification and detail of arrangement,—paintings, engravings, water colors, herbaria, busts and miniature sculptures. And what a view from the verandah and bay windows! The ‘ North-west Arm’ stretching away toward the ocean, with its bays, inlets, wooded hills, island and far-reaching points of land that are blue and only half- distinct in the hazy atmosphere of a summer day. Yonder is the devoted naturalist in his shirt sleeves feeding his poultry. He is fairly surrounded by multitudes of the feathered and four-footed tribes. Shaggy skye terriers of different colors, which have the freedom of the yard, greet our approach by rubbing their dusty paws on our boots ; tumbler pigeons throw summersets in the air and plump down at our feet ; pouters and fantails strut and flutter among the throngs. Chinese and Egyptian geese with huge, bulbous bills, squawk discord- ant notes ; cranes stalk majestically ; monkeys grimace and marmosets chatter in a cage close by, and a big Brazilian monkey gives a sly tug at our coat tail through the wires of his cage. There are bantams and game fowls, ducks, geese and pheasants, all of rare breeds, and for each he has a peculiar call and a handful of seeds or grain, or bread or biscuit, suited to its peculiar taste. All about the immediate vicinity are cages, coops, perches and shelter-houses, some closed on their in- mates and others open for free ingress and egress. A little beyond this part of the premises, at the edge of a lawn, is a lake where China swans, odd-looking geese and ducks with uncouth topknots are play- ing under the douche of a fountain. Tall cranes stalk along the reedy margin, herons on one leg stand motionless among the lilypads, wood ducks skulk beneath the overhanging bushes, and wild wood birds dart in and out of the trees which fringe the border. Farther on a cas- cade tumbles into the lake, and the rocky basin at its foot provides cooling refreshment for a large polar bear. The stream leads to a pond above, where a seal sports and comes to the beach at call. Here are beavers, mink and otters, all suitably secured in mesh-wire in- closures. Anon we cross a rustic bridge which spans a ravine, and thence traverse a shadowy path to a bower with a table inside made of the ponderous bone of a whale’s tail. Near at hand is a flower garden laid out in artistic designs, and in a clump of trees just aside are nest- ing birds which receive the naturalist’s daily attention. Next come é SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS— PIERS. CV enlosures for Spanish, Mexican and Virginian deer, a large yard for moose, enclosing trees for browse, others for elk and caribou, and another for black bears. And so the visitor passes on through this bundred-acre domain, with its alternate woods and open intervals, to gaze successively at the long-billed bitterns, whooping cranes, gold, silver, English and Amherst pheasants, California and native quails, eagles, hawks, foxes, lynxes, prairie wolves, owls, fancy rabbits, Guinea pigs, China sheep, Angora goats, silver-bearded Polands, Hamburg fowls, Indian and Egyptian doves, ring doves, and so on. “In another part of the grounds is an Oriental kiosk filled with every variety of stuffed birds, live snakes, lizards and turtles, and containing an extensive aquarium. “ What particularly strikes the observant visitor is the nicety with which the habits of the creatures are satisfied by the adaptation of environment ; and it is easy to perceive, from such results accomplished, what is possible for our public gardens in the United States, with sufficient area and liberal money appropriations. Certainly no exist- ing zoological collection is as thoroughly and suitably provided for as this of Downs’ was twenty-five years ago, as I have just described it.” In January, 1865, Downs read his first paper before the N. 3. Institute of Natural Science, on the land-birds of Nova Scotia, which was the result of forty years’ observation of bird life in this province. This subject he continued in a paper read in May of the following year. In the latter part of 1867 he was proposed for superintendent of the Central Park menagerie, New York, being recommended by Prof. Spencer F. Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution. In the following year he disposed of his animals and grounds and went to New York ; but being, it it said, displeased by what he considered an over-abrupt and apparently cool reception from one of the commissioners, he did not accept the appointment and returned to Halifax at the end of about three months. Soon afterwards he purchased a new property (subsequently 8. A. White’s and Capt. W. H. Smith’s) adjoining his old place, built a house and started a new zoological garden. This he continued to improve for about three years, gathering around him birds and other animals, and continuing his taxidermic work, in which he excelled. evl SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS—PIERS. Subsequently he lived for years on Agricola Street, surrounded by living animals and specimens, where his house was well-known to naturalists. A couple of years before his death, he, with the vigor which characterized him, although venerable in years, built a museum annex to his house and placed therein his extremely fine collection of mounted native birds. The writer remembers with pleasure many pleasant hours spent there in conversation with the aged and kindly naturalist, surrounded by hundreds of reminiscent specimens. He died after a brief illness at Halifax, on 26th August, 1892, wanting but one month of eighty-one years. He was twice married, first to Mary Elizabeth Matthews of Hali- fax, who died in 1858, having had four daughters, two of whom survive ; and secondly to Matilda E. Muhlig of Halifax, by whom he had one daughter who survives. Ornithology was his chief study, and the store of knowledge he possessed of our birds was very large and always freely at the service of enquirers. He took particular delight in encouraging the study of nature in young people. He was distinctly a field naturalist rather than a student of books. His taxidermic work was very fine and was evidence of much loving, faithful labour. The preliminary operations were accomplished with skilful rapidity, but the final manipulations were done with great care. I have seen him sit in conversation for hours, with a recently mounted specimen beside him, from time to time adjusting feathers, often one at a time, or slightly altering the pose here or there, until all satisfied his critical eye. He had the rare ability of giving his specimens the appearance of having actual flesh within them. For his taxidermic work he received many awards at exhibitions in England and else- where, including a bronze medal at London in 1851 and in 1862,-a bronze medal at Dublin, 1865, and a silver medal at Paris, 1867. Sir Wyville Thomson, in a critical article on the natural history section of the Paris exhibition, writes (‘Illustrated London News,” 24th August, 1867) :—‘“In the Nova Scotia Court there is a very beautiful collection of birds stuffed by . . Mr. Downs. These birds are nearly perfect in their way ; perhaps there is a little too much sameness in the attitudes, but the form and the proportions of the body are per. fectly preserved, and there is scarcely a feather out of place.” SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS—PIERS. evil Mr. Downs claimed he had stuffed about eight hundred moose- heads and supplied King Victor Emmanuel with many thousand dollars’ worth of animals and specimens. At one time this sovereign had in his acclimatization garden at Pisa a number of living moose and caribou supplied by the Nova Scotian naturalist. Specimens of his taxidermic work were supplied other Huropean sovereigns, and large quantities went to the great museums and private collections on both sides of the Atlantic, and a number are incorporatsd in the collection of the Provincial Museum at Halifax. His own private collection of some fourteen cases, which he had at the time of his death, is still the property of his estate. He was one of those connected with the foundation of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, although he did not take up his membership until December, 1863. He was also a corresponding member of the Zoological Society of London, having been elected early in 1862. He published, unfortunately, but little. His papers, all in the “Transactions of the N. 8S. Institute of Natural Science,” were : On the Land Birds of Nova Scotia. Vol. i, pt. 3 (1864-5), pp. 38-51 (read Jan. 9, 1865); vol. i, pt. 4 (1865-6), pp. 130-136 (read May 3, 1866). [An annotated list, giving a total of 91 nominal species, being the result of “forty years’ experiences in bird life.”’] Pied, or Labrador, Duck. Vol. vi, (Trans. for 1885-6), pp. 326-327 (read May 10, 1886). [Notes on two specimens in Dalhousie College Museum, Halifax, and other notes regarding the occurrence of the species in Nova Scotia, &c. ] A Catalogue of the Birds of Nova Scotia. Vol. vii, (Trans. for 1887-8), pp. 142-178. [An annotated list, giving 240 nominal species, the result of “ sixty-six years of practical field work.” Prepared in summer of 1888. The note to the title, ‘‘read May 14, 1888,” should be struck out. ] At a meeting of the Royal Society of Canada in May, 1888, he presented a paper “On the Birds and Mammals of Nova Scotia,” which was not, however, published. He was a man of very quiet and retiring disposition, disseminating his stores of knowledge mostly verbally or through a large correspon- Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Scr., VOL. X. Proc.—L. evil SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANDREW DOWNS—PIERS. dence with the foremost naturalists of his day. He had a high sense of honour and was of a genial, kindly disposition, and was much respected by all who knew him. It has been truly said of him by his friend, Charles Hallock, that ‘his modesty was always such that his name is hardly known outside of scientific circles, while his credentials he folded away in a napkin.” He remembered once seeing Audubon, with whom he also corresponded, and was a friend and great admirer of Charles Waterton, the naturalist, at whose house, Walton Hall, in England, he had been a guest, and whose ‘“ Wanderings in South America” he greatly admired and frequently quoted. He also corresponded with Frank Buckland and most of the foremost zoolo- gists of his time. Jan. 26, 1903. Tue Kines Counry Branco oF THE Nova ScoTiIAN INSTITUTE OF Science: OUTLINE OF PuRPOSES AND AIMS OF THE SOCIETY.— By Proressor Ernest Haycock, Acadia College, Wolfville. The Kings County Branch of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science was organized on May 29th, 1901. The society was formed primarily to meet the needs of such Kings County members of the Institute of Science as were unable to attend the meetings of the parent society at Halifax, and who believed that much personal encouragement and stimulus was to be derived from the meetings of such a_ society, Furthermore it was believed that there were many others, young and old, who might be brought within the sphere of its influence, and that the scientific spirit would be stimulated and knowledge disseminated by such an organization. The highest work in science is investigation of the unknown. By such investigation new facts are brought to light and added to the existing sum of knowledge, to be handed down as the heritage of succeeding generations. The marvellous attainments of the nineteenth century, and the civilization of the present, as compared with that of the earlier centuries of the Christian era, are due to such an inherit- ance, and it is the duty as well as the pleasure of the present genera- tion to add its mite to this epitome of progress. The purpose of the parent society is to foster this investigating spirit in its members; and to add the results of their labors to the body of the world’s literature. This will be the chief object of the branch society also, and we believe that the papers presented at its meetings will show a definite and real accomplishment. As a rule the investigator needs considerable preliminary training, and a comprehensive knowledge of what is already known about his subject, in order to work to advantage, and achieve results that will be new to the world. The promoters of this society hope to provide this preparation, as far as lies in their power, and since it consists of two parts—Ist, training in power of observation, and 2nd, the acquisition of facts already known—the work of the society will like- wise consist of two parts, the presentation and discussion of the (cix) cx KINGS COUNTY BRANCH OF THE INSTITUTE.—HAYCOCK. results of original investigation by its members, and the presentation and discussion of papers on contemporary discoveries in science, or on gcientific subjects pertinent to our especial needs. The former will suggest methods and point the way to exploration of the unknown ; the latter will aid in furnishing the basis of knowledge necessary to fruitful investigation. Although an arduous preparation is absolutely necessary for work of the above character in many branches of science, yet in many more departments of scientific study anyone with a love for truth and an honest interest in the world about him, whether he be young or old, whether he has or has not had a scientific training, may make contri- butions to the sum of human knowledge. These departments lie mainly within the domain of what are known as the Natural Sciences, and in them we hope to achieve our best results. The distinct aim of the society should be, in my judgment, to explore the natural history of Kings County, and in order to train workers for that purpose, to disseminate knowledge of the natural sciences in the widest possible way. ‘ In designating this as the work of the society, we assign a field that lies all about us, that has scarcely been touched by the investigator, and in which the maximum results can be secured with the minimum amount of preparation. A few hours reading would put one in pos- session of all the facts that have as yet been recorded in regard to the geology of the county. A smaller number of hours would enable one to read the mineralogical record. I know of but one paper on the microscopic study of a Kings County rock, and this new science of petrography offers to one who is willing to make the necessary pre- paration, an outlook that is very fascinating. An admirable begin- ning in the zoology of the county has been made by Mr. Harold Tufts, who has published a list of 250 birds that occur within its borders. This list is without doubt still incomplete,, and further, every bird enumerated should be on exhibition either in a public county museum or in a private collection, in order that the correctness of the identifi- cations might be verified at any time. Similar work in the land animals, the marine vertebrates and invertebrates, is waiting to be done, and the collection of all the known insects of the county and the study of their metamorphoses and habits, is a work not only of scien- tific interest, but likely to prove of untold value to the fruit growers KINGS COUNTY BRANCH OF THE INSTITUTE.—HAYCOCK. CX1 and agriculturists of the county. The botanical exploration of the county is still another equally attractive and important field for study. Since many of the diseases that injure the cultivated plants are lower — forms of plant-life, investigation along this line is also likely to prove valuable from an economic standpoint. The geography of the county, its tidal phenomena, its meterology, are all subjects that will prove fruitful in result to the investigator. Our need will never be a lack of work but a lack of workers. Advance along these lines can only be made by the slow and patient accumulation of material and facts, extending over years, but my hope is before long to see workers within the county in every department enumerated. Already beginnings have been made in several of them, and these beginnings are indicative of a real interest at present, and significant of great results in the future. Thinking men are convinced that our progress, as a people and as a nation, is being and will be decided by the way in which we meet and settle the scientific question. If we foster the teaching of science in our schools, and the scientific spirit in our people, the adoption of scientific methods in the manifold industries of our country will follow as a natural consequence, and place us in the front ranks of the com- peting nations ; but if we are content to go along in the systems of education and methods of industry followed by our fathers we must expect to take a rear place and see ourselves outstripped by peoples of a more progressive spirit. I regard this fact, among others, that Kings County is the first in the province to form an aftiliated society with the Nova Scotian Institute of Science at Halifax, the centre of the scientific life of the province, as an indication that this county is ready to accept the con- ditions of twentieth century progress, and proposes to take no second place among the county units in scientific and industrial achievement. Let us not measure our influence by our numbers, but grapple boldly with the difficulties that confront us, and strive to carry out the purpose for which we have united. Proc. & TRANS. N. S. Inst. Scr, Vou. X. Proc.—M. “We & A Ae 2 ENO I<. mist OF MEMBERS: 1596.22) ORDINARY MEMBERS. Date of Admission. JNIGE@H, AGHAST AIRE 15 FHI be A Agbhocorbecacadgnacneaecuocucdone loccoosoocOUb Ar Feb. 15, AMmersone James He. WW ATbMVOUGMS ING (Ss). siecc cele) elelelyeie see Bs eee ARCO Jan. 2 Austen, James H., Crown Lands Department, Halifax.......-......------ Jan. 2, iginiveins TRIES Plhti pear oonpooonSoshendeareeodonouenccacdnccantcodgemocetpae March 4, Barimnalits dies Gol it Sseee aarcueeea dese sepooseEpenc reece ide adacaccbandeaspeuoURe NONON yah Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N.S ......... .... WAAC oBneotoneE Lee oae Jan. 6, BUS), IBYorersH Gl AWE Weyosiern,, WASH cosooboasuoeba. 55-1 odanno0buHBdod accmpade Janel. Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax................2+.-e+seeees: March 13, ES TEOUYVTUD EU ep S Se CeL ENT OUUE RMS UNI icteleral) ciseicicic sveraie aie srersielaisistesosciniclowptchelsiatal selalerclsLetarays Janos Butler, Professor W. R., c. E., Royal Military College, Kingston, Ont....Nov. 27, Campoell= Donal aware Me De sELeILA Xe) co wee ieleieleleielelolalaleleinllelelele lia re)ai+=/s\er~) halve din, Bil. @ampbell, George Murray, M. D., Halifax......:..:..0...00.2-eee sees eee Nov. 10, Clemens 135 Bey Naw eN OWE Io Soda cnededdbsousuooods0nduo0e00000000 Sonedenay ali} Conia, Ja\5 dipgitiio yy lbgdse (Cian Jy ls CNltiC). do sooncounesooesooDaImopodspoobooT dieing - 4G DesBrisay, A. E., Halifax ..... SOA RRO CBO SOOT A RT OOC DO BTIC HBCU ORR OOaCdC Jan. 4, DEWiolfes James E., Me Ds, be R. Cos, He, Halifarxi... 1 a... ratsietske ninco Oct; 26, IDNR, Aligsxeyavolent apie, laeihtite-<. Uoomnoo! ¢ dnooen cob coos obopbonormoUdGCCoe oc Nov. 29, IDOE TS Vi Waa (Ohl loi veabavers O18 Nile: April 5, Gilpin, Fdwin, M. A., LL. D., F. R. S. C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax...... April 11, Greer eAeyiieaD Colborne. .Ontarioncrerccearieeacecteiicister -fersrelsietelsicta t= April 7, ellen @ ar lespHire cl Gri Keecctenlerserareie ooeiarsvercters)ctetorstcnstokstevesayerslatsievalevesereiereveneraranersveretete Dec. 31, TSAR, “Abienl AN Saneeseesnpoieu UeteMbader desc SeOnanes sancosrodeanooosnconls Dee. 12, Harris elerbert, Vancouver, British) Columbia... cic ccs cl +» yeimin cision sicleicie dein “sil, Hattie, William Harrop, M. D., Halifax..................-. jpoaeoogboducede Nov. 12, Blenwioar, Wraillieyen Alo dite Ch ie, \Wataelsore, ING Sigganounbeoonocnsoougo00 coonod Jan. 4, Theis, (Glo Ways Wh, ISEB doo saanoseedoocosdccg JoocdoUDHOOINO oUnbAGaD oOo Jan. 4, TEKGO MER, VAD EN? Si, Mie Dh, BEN R esas ootansobsoncossoboodnsuodDbo nd booooudd May 8, AO MITE On, IBEVE WAY 5 CE dh, IREWIIDS coobsonooe boob aneobsoounbbo0n.60000000 Dec. 31, *Keating, H. H., c. &., City Engineer, Toronto, Ontario..... ............./ April 12, Kennedy, W. T., Principal, County Academy, Halifax................... INOW. 327, * Life Member. Proc. & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Scr., Vou. X. App.—II, 1869 1894 1880 1890 1890 1884 1891 1889 1890 1884 1891 1893 1865 1894 1886 1892 1890 1895 1894 1894 1894 1883 1883 1890 1894 1899 1873 1893 1894 1881 1880 1892 1892 1892 1894 1894 182 1889 Wal LIST OF MEMBERS. Date of Admission. Deut BGG Lalo ans [SE NbEBS soon doogacdona7on doode spb OMaos0s000 EO \oacmaae gan. Wits MHoOcke- THOMAS des EVAL sar. t.- ersrels sicretceiemieeh cioiess) ev ivolsie alefatal etereseteterelebaels teers Jan. 4, WAC Rajah AKON S (ohio, JSEMbbS ogsnud oodcdoronnocususebennocowpoooudHD CD .Jan. 4, Wikererekoyoeantels SihanVoyay IBY, wh 4 Shq RMN < Shao bodaeou oud coomeconsue donde: March 14, Macdonald Ws Acs O-iBis ss VG: MO yay Cart essere terres) rca ateisiay ro attatere lege oats April 4, MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, M. A.. D. Sc., F. R. S., Dalhousie College, 18 Eid: > eRe ARAN See Ratner tame erc OCMC ere ein cinco hor Seer ie sie, lll: Mecinnes* Hector eb: 5 El alitans cj cete cachet tsianieiare ae eietire a lelotolcisi teeter tenets Nov. 2a *McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax .......... . ...... .. Feb. 5, *MacKay, Alex. Howard, B. A., B. SC, LL. D., F. R. S. C., Superintendent of sEaucation: HMalifiaxus: saccseeniacOtsse Cp uacssreementan mle eee Oct: Sie MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, Ph. D., Dalhousie Calleze, Halifiaxi. 2.5.00 0% cpocNO Mama WKS) Meio MAlhehe eb taoacoaoo HmotoS vcUadoucobenoenasbucunon saahoose Noy. 30; MaeNabn Villiers tev alii xcs: sata: soaetaereaines cans ience evo mie elec eee eee Janz 35 Marshall, G. R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax.................... April 4, Mason oR eer Hy O\ 8s; Eb alilax nn. car siatnwnrasatesinam cyavsotaatelsnontavecireee aicieva eee Dec. 31, Morrow, Arthur, M. D., Sand Coulée, Montana, U.S. A .................. Noy. 27, Mortons ssAc, Me AS. County Academy, balifaxc:. 2-7) acewntesaeeiee rice Jats Murphy, Martin, c. E., D. Sc., Provincial Kngineer, Halifax.............. Jan. 15, Newnan. GC. la. Dartmouth. NiwS)steacaiet atts ci cietasserstle chee elton an eer tee Jan-eeie O’Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick’s Boys’ School, Halifax.... ....... Jan. 16; *Parker, Hon. Daniel MeN., M. D., M. L. C., Dartmouth, N.S........... .. Pearson, Bate Barrister, Evalitae cai ere cm siteisic tc aeticrerseetetasitn acto eciseeeenets March 3l, BiersMbarrys alia: cise cok tm ctostsw teeane een orci eae aden Nov. 2, “ooles Hentyas..KGasia Ker. SalG7s StellartolemNias.sc tee ee eer Now. 1 Leer Vol 18 @oleyda lala nis lok I as Ohislab Ges Soapenesehonneoracaosudes cot Nov. 27; SRovby DiiWey Ms onAmiberstiz Nie Sis seceuescesterorereles co teaeiire cer tates . March 4, Ruthertord, John, mM. #., scellarton: Nesherscinescs scseceneees WOES tne Jan, "8; Shines Michael; Halifax 4 acens, secsGoces noe oo eacie eee ioter aioe Dechess Silver; Arthur Py, baliiaxsicccags) cater esc wacteae a Sarees aleasbsimcrem tetera cores .. > Dees 212; Silver. wWilham Ce Haifa sccroy aaron senie near ete eisee aCe ee May 7, Smiths Captawin lenrys Re Ned By 1G. Sell alitcuxecieceeee ee eereiees Nove 27; Stewart, John, Me By C. Me Halifax. .is.s scaceeeios ct cn civeieeinieet etacee Jan. 12, Mremaine ‘Harris’S:, Halifaxty..ts: tc sue cscs sonodseacoeene emer See eee Jan. 2 WieatherbesHon. Mr JUStLCe Halifaxdtsce cea seiyasesccielsrinetiemetn rite ane Means Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co , Yarmouth, N.S...Nov. 29, Walllis3@ Wie ne nie ELalibaixe sans ca tec teint ote alee er ole ae ee ae Nov. 29, Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax ................000-- May 3, AVOLSLON Vic Greal Gs Hive HD UnO sNens) serrate aieteralotete PA Tiatndawibcieee een chee aee Nov. 12, ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. ¥Cale RoObert,, VAL OU, INS rncmose erste ee oe ences om craton actions Jane ole *Cameron.-A.. erincipal of Academy, Yarmouth) Nes. 2. cessor Nov. 27, Coldwell; Professor A. Hi, MLA. WolfvalleN7 Sie co.cx coos cceeeene a NOE OTe Dewiolfke; Mel villeiG keentivilleseNeis cana sce ones cetematiee ite seer May 2, *Dickenson, S. S., pusieeda nea Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill, Guysborough Cos INgSiee.ta-cinsc cs es ecient ore aneeeeioren omen eee March 4, Baton, Ff. H.. M. A.. Sen of Public Schools, Victoria, B.C...Jan. 6, Hdwandsi Ar GinuirsMc, May Dy Riv Lie SiprNiG walls) Nie ell tape cree ieterere aie ieleeteicis aie isierers DecwaaG: Haribaultsbenkue. Co k.. Ottawa. Onbtartor machetes omer eee eeee March 6, Halliday--And. MoM. D:, shubenacadie: Ni Saese.s2sseee eee orators. Dec. 6, Hardman, Johnsk Mens = VOntreallisenciecacieccmiee eee cee ete mere ieereee March 4, * Life Member. 1885 1892 1892 1881 1899 1877 1889 1872 1885 1889 1891 1890 1894 1894 1889 1893 1870 1893 1890 1871 1890 1888 1872 1889 1890 1865 1891 1887 1864 1889 1885 1894 1895 1894 1894 1889 1892 1890 1889 1889 1895 1895 1890 1898 1888 1898 1890 LIST OF MEMBERS. VII Date of Admission. Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S....-....:.........May 17, Hunton, Prof. S. W., mM. A.. Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B...... dos (ay James, C. C., M. A., Dep. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario......... Mees 3: ZIONS MMOMASI Vs, MANIMOWENS INS) cecteicte coe ecsieic (ee) tm. citis cele siefieromieel Nov. 27, Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M.A., D.Sc., F-G 8., King’s College, Windsor Ni! S.Nov. 9, MacIntosh, Kenneth, St. George’s Channel, Richmond Co., C. B......... Jan. 4, TEE Z1O EN eds IC Eee VI OTT CL ONIoINie Ed esters inte vaterers css, ote alo}e atclosavereletevsrecafeleleiettel cis March3l, NECHCOG EY we TOOIELGs NG Sissi tasters oclemareisjeets se iaclaejern sles -Dec. 3, WEEE, Wife 18h ella, IBDEJ Stools Lerhadestoydoy5 INM Side onoooudsesoscaunc ue Nov. 29, Matheson, W. G ,M.E.. New Glasgow, N.S. .......... Be Serena Jalal IBEeSt avi a FEL PE pO COLONG,. cNia iit eatsiss orclstetsre ais) “sc etal e/a sleiarese e nerereieloiocioeioe Nov. 29, “IRGHGL, AUIS: 1 5 INE 1hog Tepala(Ocha NUKE D Keo Sogoougoe | Gonbesscocodonos Jan. 31, Rosborough, Rey. James, Musquodoboit Harbor, N.S...................Nov. 29, Russell, Lee; B.s., Normal School, Truro, N.S. baee =geecenb ize JU. 3, Smith, Prof. H. W., 8. sc., Prov. Agricultural School, Taras Ny ‘Iptsbeanenuadin, CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. PATI ONE VeN ea DSC. ial Gait: Obtawa OnbarlOwn.sceccesceeeee ees een Jan. 2, Bailey, Prof. Loring Wort, rh. D., LL. p., F. Rk. Ss. c., University of New BUMS Ww CkamH red eniChOnqiNesbseeicse sicker oc tisisieiersieine sie iekeiseiee aereiee Janeeno: Bali peeve Guang, lean GOT: INiv crn: aisisievel-clsiteioc emales ceteiccinct series Nov. 29, Isyeylonovavel, lavehive Co Jl, Si 5 Lean Iskopyes (OlMieheaa scoot cooccssesasacce ooGoooor Dee, 29; Davidson, Prof. John, phil. D., Univ. of N. Brunswick, Fred'ton, N. B. .Dee. 12, WobiewwWre Henry. M- p:,.Chester, Hneland:.-..cdssc 000. caaeadecss voeee Now; 3) Duns. Prof. John, Lu.p , F.-R s.E , New College, Edinburgh, Scotland...Deec. 30, Ks, R W., Lu.D., ¥F.G 8.A., F.R.S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont..... Jan. 2; Fletcher, Jas., LL.D., F.LS., F-R.S.C., Entomologist and Botanist, Central Tahg oe AREOLA tty Onl ham Lado peor Bomniont bee ccc oud ssnecsipacea dono: March 2, Fletcher, Hugh, B. 4., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario...............March 3, Ganong, Prof. Wm. F., B. A., Ph.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass., NURS NRA crersrriesa i isicecsiavent cusienist « atevetslaeroasl oi, ot Svar Staiurstote re serto nian Saco aiarePee eke Sears Jan 6, Harrington, Wm. Hague, F.x s.c.. Post Office Denanenent Ottawa.:...May 5, Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D., F.R.S.C., St. John’s, NewfoundJand........ .. Jan. 31e Gi PV aa OL Re Alcs coiscs/c orsistorsress.s'eie\ stars siotes aie. sia/aigarelesinaeinaiele oleae ein ileisicine et eee OWEN LOS Litton, Robert T., r.c.s., Melbourne, Australia .............. SOOM Ae May 95, MeClintockyVace-Admiral Sir eopold, Kt:, WOR S! o.- sod Seodamedbebmotoacacoa: Decal: Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax..............--:.0¢...0eee- Jans) Zig Murphy, Martin, c. E., D.sc., Provincial Engineer, Halifax..............-. Jan. 18; IN wae On bas DE hanson ny INAS AApeoees cabbies Uncuboeo cous Goccecossqnaccns Are Pal O'Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. eee Boys’ School, ISMMERS Seodoeedcz: Jan. 16, *Parker, Hon. Daniel MeN., Ms eC DAT EIN OTLEL MING Sacre sisieteisietsietete Pearson, B. F., Barrister, oie BOAO CODED aCe TO nD hcbennatn areas Sonens March 31, Piers, Harry, Curator, Provincial Museum, Halifax Rn SOO Dona. Nov. 2, *Poole, Henry S., A. M., ASSOC. R.S. M., F. G.S., F. R. S. C., M. CAN. SOC. C. E., TONS WHOM Jhisity. WH doLsals Ey Whit Nov. 12, ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. *Caie, Robert Yarmouth, N.S......... SOOT ACO COn COR UtSOnS, sen aco ee b5r Jan. 31, *Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S......-........... Novenazie Clay eholll, Zo 1B sa nite NCO IAAINICR IMG Sloocogocecsccaoggcgas ce-cion nonoDe 252: Nov. 2%, *Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commercial Cable Co., Hazelhill, Guysborough Co., N.S ----- FARSI sae Ar eee eaS sass cago schS AS March 4, Edwards, Arthur M., M. D., F-L S., Newark, N.J....-..0s0c0.c.0.5 vanes Dec. - 12; Faribault, E. R., B.A. sc. (Laval), Ottawa, Ontario..........--.......... March 6, Halliday, Andrew, M. D., Shubenacadie, N.S........-.----. 0-02 eeeeeee Dec a1 Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College. Wolfville, N.S...... ......... May 17, Hunton, Prof. S. W. M.A., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....Jan. 6, Jaggar, Miss A. Louise, Smith Cove, Digby Co., N.S.......-........... Dec. 5, James, C. C., M. A., Dep Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario.......... Dec. oF SMO HMA LT GIMAS) Vis see VALI OUGM Nise aie lect acta me euwterel otarerevontotsle hotels ole Mera Nov. 27, *Keating, E H.,c.8., City Engineer, Toronto, Ont., Ord Memb., April L281 SBOE cmc caiteece eerie kiswenies merece sic emcrmmle ania etek meee ee April U1, *Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T., M A., D-Sc., F-G.S., King’s College, Windsor, INDI AE ene Pr eennaon c Anneree aon ade 6 SASer soy GonUem Agana itis daanooo Nov." 9} MacIntosh, Kenneth, St. ean ge’s Channel, C. B , Ord. Memb, Jan. 4, ERO QUI torcveverersta hence fore ste litle. lee ereteicleid Sele ei diate sraponid Steistiee Sealers cae June, NICK eniziey BWV es = iG Beg TOD CLO Ne Bo ate rcin olny alrotnee¥etatetciltictetete oitetersloletereisiore ete March 31, Mecbeod, RS Rt;-Brookfield, « Neuchatel acs oo ile waren d slo bie eres) ae Dec. ae Magee, W. H.;PH.p., High School, Parrsboro’, N.S “...... ...2..:.. Nov. 29, Matheson, W.'G.,. mM. E.,- New Glasgow, N S.2...csccnescestnescccceees Jane sole *Reid, A. P., M. D., L.R.c.S , Middleton, Annapolis Co., N.S ......... Jani ete Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N.S....-.............- Nov. 29, Russell, Prof. Lee, B.S , Normal School, Truro, N. S.........0..5. 0.005: Dec. 3; Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S.............. Feb 6, Sears, Prof. F C., Director N.S. School of Horticulture, Wolfville, N.S.Feb. 6, * Life Member. 1894 1894 1893 1870 1893 1890 1871 1890 1888 1872 1889 1890 1865 1887 1864 1900 1885 1895 . 1894 1894 1889 1892 1890 1889 1889 1895 1898 1888 1898 1899 1890 1900 1896 1889 1900 1882 1900 1882 1897 1894 1890 1890 1894 1896 1901 1901 LIST OF MEMBERS. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. XI Date of Admission. Ami, Henry M., D.Sc., F G.S., F.R.S.c., Ottawa, Ontario................ Jan. 2, 1892 Bailey, Prof. L.W , PH D., LL.D., F R.S.c., University of New Bruns: wick, Fredericton, N. B...........:.- weraye niece (brola(cieIetavele’ ae oate ak eere ei eiess Jan. 6, 1890 PAG Ve Hea) VWVGSEVINES Nl. Sajcnten sissies ne aeleGesesehrcematecteeioe cetexmies -Nov. 29, 1871 Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., M.A., D.C.L., F-R.C.S., London, Ontario........ Dec 29, 1868 Davidson, Prof. John, PHIL. D., Fredericton, N. B. .............00++-- 0 Dec. 12, 1898 DeWolf, James R ,M.D., L-R.C S E., Halifax, Ord. Memb.,Oct. 26,1865. Nov. 2, 1900 Dobie, W. Henry, M. D., Chester, England...... SOO SO OC OR OO Aor De Cre Dec. 3, 1897 Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland ................. Dec. 30, 1887 Ells, R. W., LL.D., F G S.A.,F.R-S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont.Jan. 2, 1894 Fletcher, Hugh, B. a., Geological Survey. Ottawa, Ontario.............. March 3, 1891 Fletcher, James, LL D., F. L. S., F-R S.c , Entomologist and Botanist, Centraleh xp aris OLbavwarn OAT Ometmciesiicieiscielcet -ieieia teite fetatey= March 2, 1897 Ganong, Prof. W. F., B.A., PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass., Up tis 4oobn coosdocobdonpccucpec] SaeOCnooccms Guccpotaron 6 posodGemccrc Jan 6, 1890 Harrington, W. Hague, F.R.s.c., Post Office, Department, Ottawa...... May 5, 1896 Harvey, Rev. Moses, LL.D., F R S.c., St. John’s, Newfoundland........ Jan. 31, 1890 Mitton. overt L., r-G)s., Melbourne; Australia... 02. c-0-c+-65. -seaciee® May 5, 1892 McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F.R.S.......0.s0eseeeces seers June 10, 1880 Ma Gibe wy Gren) Me As. DESC. ,) HRS. Csy Sb. SOOM, Ne Bigeececies-l-ciselsciseie Jan. 6, 1890 Marttryorevenvny icons DD.) ihacaa Ne We.) (WlassAldsis cisiec Cc aPN ere eGR IonaRe I OMGne OCC GAM Ss atictne teticinod oni March Foster, James G., Dartmouth, N.S nae Sede Sadbonna eRe Fraser, C. Frederick, Principal, Senoal for the Blind, Halifax steep miter es iogets March Gaes; Herbert E., Architect, Dartmouth, N.S... :.-.i.--.2.0-0+-+0>+- += April *Gilpin, Edwin, M. A., LL.D., F. R S. C., Inspector of Mines, Halifax..... April Jsbeiniey Msiibeyon 1s BiSgejoy Wig iby IDEVAHONKONA GoonesabeesadcsooddcesasoouBoDaS Nov. Hend ry-mVValliam Aes ir. Gl He.) VVANNG SOD) Nis Siaisteeretercte s.eisleielei-tein eleterersreieis ore 5 ane nine Gone ducation Wepbts, kha lita ce piss Mest eireien alee tatelelst= Jan. ACHMeS Hartley. See We Da vELAl ib axe: eyejslersicis ers cksciarcvelae er staneieleleiiciesielehe aire iele May AGN, 18 IA, G5 Oh los, eMINES GoacnocooossSoone0banG O56 ondoob000000C Dec. BIN ORO ver ODEEDS EL allit aXc. cle eau) oroers cts areisisiolcatsve ic iors area reiekerouateeaciptel cteren levee ate Jan. Mocke Thomas J-, Walitax..s.se-ces EA pnS Seon dooce ttomra ced oa node Jan. McCarthy, J. B., B.A., B.Se., teacher of Science, County Academy, 18 EbIe eS papas hase ac to Son OUn eee acca ne smaco aD sumo doueCEooCHe. coon Dec. McColl, Roderick, c. E., Assistant Prov]. Engineer, Halifax . .......... Jan. NiutexeolormeNtel Shicivorn IDE 25h (es tsb, Ikbwbhtyeaysseaca aGdoondaccoDUCdnoacccoNOBouS March NiGDoOmIGL Vivo JX Gh inks sholiehpucesbd san 78a55 sndeou da dadoodedadodoano a4. April *MacGregor. Prof. J. G., M. A., D. 8c., F. R. S., F. R. 8. c., Edinburgh Uni- Weds, 1ohiNobeen cooosansegdacncoa GOstcoDS © afisitaett cae aroeneeneitea Jan. WAGLITINES: TEGO, Treks 1S NMNE-< Sagoanodeaudsceos 06 Move adoD0e Gn gobons 20> 006 Nov. *McKay, Alexander, Supervisor of Schools, Halifax..............-.-..-.-+ Feb. *MacKay, A. H,B. A., B.SC., LL.D., F. R. 8. C., Superintendent of Educa- IN, LEMS caappedsd0o0s cabLGnuaaby ooIbOBCO0NS Aooodageotudodaoden Oct. MacKay, Prof. Ebenezer, PH. D., Dalhousie College, Halifax......-......- Nov. * Life Member. Proc & TRANS. N.S. Inst. Sci, VOL. X. App. IV. 15, 2, 4, 6 13, 1869 1894 1890 1890 1884 , 1891 1890 1884 1893 1900 1902 1886 1892 1890 1895 1894 1894 , 1883 . 1883 , 1890 7, 1899 , 1873 1892 1892 1892 1894 , 1894 , 1885 , 1892 1901 . 1892 1881 1899 1877 1889 1872 , 1885 1889 XIV LIST OF MEMBERS. Date of Admission. MeKerron. Walliams EHalitaxssindsccnchereaeeenccaciecnnmiceem cemnras soeee- NOV. 30, MaeNab:wialliam:‘Halifaxe.) 5 aa nee eee einer o lente Seater telat Jan. sol; Marshall, Gilford R., Principal, Richmond School, Halifax ......-....+.++ April 4, Morton, S. A., M. A., County Academy, Halifax... ........+.+----+....000 Jan. 27, Murphy, Martin, c. £., D sc , Provincial Engineer, Halifax...........-.++: Janice lee NewmaniClill.. «DantmouGhseNccs acne saoeeeeace coin iiacises Caen cee eee Jan, Lie O’Hearn, Peter, Principal, St. Patrick’s Boys’ School, Halifax ............ Jan. 16, *Parker, Hon. Daniel MeN., M. D., M. L. C., Dartmouth, N.S..........--++ Pearson bshi., Barrishery el alitaxnnc-ereamcntaesiine sel-eeiiecerilectace neers March 31, Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Science Tibranyay welalitaxa. see eae SE Sri Neat EGAN ARCA ORE: Novy. 2, *Poole, Henry S., A. M., ASSOC. R. 8. M., F. G.8., F. R. S.C., M. CAN. SOC. C. E., HONS MEM. INST s IM. oH. velalita.-cieeiriciisens: eeien eeieit eee ecient INOW tly Read wieerbertyH., MaDe. be RiiGy So) lalitaxepeccmjeieisiceittaeis iiss eeiee eet Nov. 27, *Robbs De Wim. Hy, -AimiherstoN. Skesces aces. | @aceeeer sac aents teeta March 4, Rutherford, Johns Ma Eo Wandsor.NoSer) asansees cease esoerne ae eeee eee Jan 8, Silver Arthurs sealife, -:c saciosc ee o. ee cet cis eee een ee Dec. 12, Silver, Walliamiy Os vHallifiae 2) ssiac. sic corsa nescence fees ee eee May ifs *Smith,fProf. H.W., B sc., Prof. Agricultural School, Truro, N.S. ; Assoc. Miemb:s Jan a6. So0u- ove eae ene FACE PES COO Cie oer eee BaGOBL Dec. jSlewartad Ohne Bs Cy Ma. sHalitax, occ, aceeoome acct aeemee cence eee Jan. 12: Wreatherbes Hons Mirsdustice.balitaxa see eee eer Gl eseerr cert Eeeeee March 28, Wheaton, L. H., Chief Engineer, Coast Railway Co., Yarmorth N S..Noy. 29, Wilson, Robert J., Secretary, School Board, Halifax ................-+-.. May 3% = SOLston, WieiG. Ck. Sydney: CC. iB cease cep cee iadeet ere ares Nov. 12, ASSOCIATE MEMBERS. eCaiewHOvErl.. Yarmouth NEStroec nee cee ah Leone eee ee eee ee Janeeotol. *Cameron, A., Principal of Academy, Yarmouth, N. S...... ..-........Nov- 27% Coldwell Wat (hip e Ni AGe aVVOLEvilleNerS uae saneetieee eden cence naa eee Nov. 27, *Dickenson, S. S., Superintendent, Commere’al Cable Cc., Hazelhill, GuysboroughiCos, Ni Si) eerscssgedce cecercen a usecensen sa aeeenrter March 4, Kdwards, Arthur M., M. D., F-L 8., Newark, N J............ .....- pee Diztene cil) Faribault, E. R., B.A. sc. (Laval), Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario..March 6, Haley, Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville,N.S..... - Bree Sas Pe Nov. 5, Halliday, Andrews Men. evalitax, \Nicis: penser asa era eect esa ae cee Dec. 12, Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College. Wolfville, N. S...... ........- May 17, Hunton, Prof. S. W., M.a., Mount Allison College, Sackville, N. B....Jan 6, Jaggar, Miss A. louise, Cambridge, Mass, .-...--.....-+<«---.--455--=- Dec. 5, James, C. C., M. A., Depy. Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario........Dec. 3, SJoOnUns: Lhomase we, VarmoutheeNeesicss os senaeocaucee teeta en terror Nov. 27, *Keating, E H, c.8., Toronto Ry. Co., Toronto, Ont. ; Ord Memb., 7X) a0 le Ae) bl Vana osaan dicate eo seoDupeee once eee Anon. WaAaT Hondo. April 11, *Kennedy, Prof. Geo. T.,M.A., D Sc., F.G.S., King’s College, Windsor, TINGS IS) coca a vartisravareycvehere sre atid neler idiots icin is ot eitre ecient aes oe eto Nov 9, MacIntosh, Kenneth, St. George’s Channel, C. B ; Ord. Memb, Jan. 4, NBO D: vayaiscecccia 85.5 upevesnys aiererers ela es/a ices We eoovateis arelore a avelavs oretonava olatetalanateran are SOS OES June, “Mackay, Hector He Mp, New Glaseows No Se.ss oseeesoee Geto ne eee Feb. 4, MeKenzies Wie... ©. b Moncton, Ni Bearer peter seete se eeeeernee seeeee March 31, MeLeod,- BR Risj- BrookheldsNiiS.nces Gast eee ome ca ne one ee Dec. 3; Magee, W.H., PH.D., High School, Parrsboro’, N.S ......- .....--:- Nov. 29, Matheson, W.G., M.E., New Glasgow, N S...... Se Ora uE DEEN tated Jane ols Payzant, EN): WOlfvalles ING IS: oo abaya once sols incense aoe April 8 * Life Member. 1891 1890 1894 1893 1870 1893 1890 1871 1890 1888 1872 1889 1890 1865 1887 1864 1900 1885 1895 1894 1889 1892 1890 1889 1889 1895 1898 1888 1901 1898 1899 i890 1980 1896 1889 1900 1882 1900 1902 1882 1897 1894 1890 1902 LIST OF MEMBERS. XV Date of Admission. NEO WAV ALOU Vicpshilig Bee KON U VAIL IN iSisictieveia ce cjanjeaciete sieve a's .0/s0:siaisieaieserei bere Nov. 5, 1901 *Reid, A. P., M. D., L-R.C.S', Middleton, Annapolis Co., N. S.......... Jan. 31, 1890 *Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N.S........... ..... Noy. 29, 1894 RUTSse leroy WeCBxS)—) VWWOLCESECES MIASS. co case cteiemicnieis aa ewlesicies ok Dec. 3, 1896 Sawyer, Prof. Everett W., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S.............. Feb 6, 1901 Sears, Prof. F C., Director N.S. School of Horticulture, Wolfville, N.S.Feb. 6, 1901 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Ami, Henry M., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.S.c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, (OUD .cds50. qagtC onus eb bod BRE OCCUC RIG GOD B ETA E EEOC TOPO t emer a ao raae Jan. 2, 1892 Bailey, Prof. L.W., PH D., LL.D., F R S.C., University of New Bruns- wick, F Pedericton, N. Baier iarsteeierere: oiaidly Guia tia bleh siovstaeetaya tre estore lane Jan. 6, 1890 eal epeveveembiratelies IVVIOSUVILLGS Nis Since“ /sioceve)e cceisiere o wlosaieieresvion aldose witheyraie ete -Nov. 29, 1871 Bethune, Rev. C. J. S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.C.S., London, Ontario........Dec 29, 1868 Davidson, Prof. John, PHIL. D., Uniy. of N. B., Fredericton, N. B. ....Dec. 12, 1898 MoniewmWisHlenty,.; MoD... Chester; Hin@land’s os. osc:atc -)tser ie eine sine cieieeie Dec. 3, 1897 Duns, Prof. John, New College, Edinburgh, Scotland.................. Dec. 30, 1887 Ells, R. W., LL.D., F G-S:A.,F.R.S.C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ont.Jan. 2, 1894 Fletcher, Hugh, B. a., Geological Survey. Ottawa, Ontario............. March 3, 1891 Fletcher, James, LL D., F. L. S., FRSC, Entomologist and Botanist, (COMM gas Minas Ohishi ato), os caoaqodnondoongdoossoeonor March 2, 1897 Ganong, Prof W. F.,B A., PH.D., Smith College, Northampton, Mass., ORS See At teresa satan pera Sehasataienevors oie Sia seTAatae ermine waitere melee wiapeateiers Jan 6, 1890 Harrington, W. Hague, F.R.s.c., Post Office Department, Ottawa ...... May 5, 1896 iitton, Robert T., H2G.s:, Melbourne, Australia) .3...52-..0--.05% wences sc May 5, 1892 McClintock, Vice-Admiral Sir Leopold, Kt., F.R.S.............-.ceeceeues June 10, 1880 WiantheweGuellieanMis “A; D) SCs FR SL On 9b. JOON, Ne Bie. scion. 2 teisc on eedane 6, 1890 Maury, Rey. Mytton, pD., Ithaca, N. Y., U.S.A..... Re Alen cia eie asta nepasee Nov. 30, 1891 Peter, Rey. Brother Junian, St. Joseph’s Collegiate [ustitute, Buffalo, INU Prem Ve ca caae ctor ci /ayan ele opetera\e ayaiecahetsioke s/s ale sieinses Gere Hideetsine” epevere reise eistsotornate Dee 12, 1898 eigikicinel (Cina ep Ssh iirb-000 eee 1xi Phenological observations, Canada, 1898 ...........-..---+--2++=55 9] Phenological’observations; Oanada, US99)e 2... ee aso stoeiene serait 303 (1) Phenological observations of Botanical Club of Canada, 1900; (2) Abstract of phenological observations on flowering of ten plants in Nova Scotia, 1900; with (3) Remarks on their phenochrons... 379 Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, [1901]..... .. 486 Presidential address [(a) On the scope of work of the Institute ; (b) Provincial Museum and Science Library; (c) Death of Capt. Trott and Rev:, A.C. Waghorne].<..2. 2557.45 29..200)-eee eee hii Presidential address, 1901. [(a) Obituaries of Dr. J. R. DeWolfe, Capt. W. H. Smith, and Rev. Moses Harvey ; (b) Work of the Institute ; (c) Provincial Museum and Science Library ; (d) Pro- vincial Progress; (e) Malaria, yellow fever and Sheep-fluke Object Lessons ; (f) Marine Biological Station.]................ lxxxiv Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous System of Eastern Canada........ xlvii McLachlan, R. W.— Talk on Roman Coins. (Title only.) .............. lxxxill Magee, W. H., Ph. D.—The rare earths ; their scientific importance as repards theyperiodicilaw sackcdeiac cee see oes 2s ae 1xii Marcou, Jules, obituary notice of. By A. McKay ....................: iv Material taken from bottom of the Atlantic by Cable S. S. Minia. By A. He Mackay; DInloiDicn soAdhs's oosoecctias oe se peice eee eee 1 Members, Lists of ; 1898-99, Appendix I; 1899-1900, Appendix II ; 1900- 01, Appendix III ; 1901-02, Appendix IV. Mineral discoveries, new, in Nova Scotia. E. Gilpin, jr, LL. D........ 79 Mineralsfor Paris exhibitions “By, EB) Gilpin; jr, us Da ee eee 248 Mole, star-nosed, (CO. cristata ), its breeding habits, ete By W.L. Bishop 348 Money, Natural history tof) By Prof. 9 Davidsonesee oe eee eee 179 New Canaan, N. 8., Notes on Dr. Ami’s paper on Dictyonema slates of. By HM. Boole i Bee ai Fe Se ee . 451 New Canaan, N. 8., Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of. By H. MitAmii; DiS@icds, 4 Sind acbyednSeiitis olpoteskt Tacbe beyetst tase acy eee 447 INéw, Glassow; conglomerate: By, Ho Hletchers---)--eense eee reer 323 New mineral discoveries in Nova Scotia LE. Gilpin, jr., L.L. D......... 79 Nictaux iron field, Recent developments with calyx drill in. By D’A. Weatherbe (0)... e-store earn eke oe ene orate 300 INDEX. Notes on Dr. Ami’s paper on Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New CanaantandelWentyallley Nis. yale LOOlear.. 9-1) eeeeie Notes, Supplementary, on drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent. Jee ANS la AR ROS oc Sinoehouo cmaoee ao OOM aero n orice canes Nova Scotia, Progress of geological investigation in. By R. W. Ells, NO ep eee gets el) MEN ona AA sc RRP Lava ait asaye Bite auavercce le brace ate Obituary notices. See Ambrose, Rev. J. ; Dawson, Sir J. W ; DeWolfe, Dr. J. R. ; Fox, J. J.; Harvey, Rev. M.; Marcou, J. ; Somers, Dr. J. ; Smith, Capt. W. H.; Trott, Capt. ; Waghorne, Rev. Ih, (Qe Observations on a fish (Chylomycterus schepfi) new to the fauna of Nova copies iy (Me Pietsh omnes, Of (22 San cls, hpakeaactie eu ares ec eee Officers for 1898-9, xvii. 1899-1900, xlvi. 1900-01, lviii. 1901-02, xeviii Paris exhibition, Minerals for. By E. Gilpin, jr., LL,D................ Pasea, C. M.—On a relation between the ionization coefficients of electro- lytes, and its application as an interpolation formula. (Title Gilly ya dest chore eU See EL Ane Mme, Meo cd cana Gone bic emodicslaw ew Seevare Carths. 5.622, 4/skinawsstes cisaiegaiatd seielnd oe eielete Peter, Rev Brother Junian.—Exhibition of a collection of dried plants from fhewienmty- ofsbuttaloye Us Sp Acct « wikia ors ais eiske oli ese aaa e Phenological observations, Canada, 1898. By A H. MacKay, LL D.... Phenological observations, Canada, 1899. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D.... (1) Phenological observations of Botanical Club of Canada, 1900; (2) Ab- stract of phenological observations of flowering of ten plants in Nova Scotia, 1900 ; with (3) Remarks on their phenochrons. By J, Jal, WeYelGny, II, IDs S5ccon coccoseanod cucquodcueaccae Dead Phenological observations in Nova Scotia and Canada, [1901].—By A. H. Wiel ne lbs | Dato am cope oor ban cA CoD ombomS DSEOpadco > 60D 0b Piers, Harry.—Notes on Nova Scotian zoology ; no. 5. (Title only.) Observations ona fish (Chylomycterus schepfi) new to the fauna of NONE, GOW ea medeodooabbo doomoneesodscndccddaeccou|bd wouptc Sketch of life of Andrew Downs, founder of first zoological garden in ANTE a'otd.cc- 06068 aoe WdanedoeU Foo OD O.doUasion Seca ogos Skala Or iis ae dls Me diGaese 5 ocnconc0sedo0obo. bucs 5o0cdondac0 Oe. Plants, Flowering of. See Phenological observations. Plants, Labrador, collected by W. H. Prest north of Hamilton Inlet, June to Aug., 1901. By A. H. MacKay, LL. D.. .............-.-- Poole, Henry S., #7. G. 8., F. R. S. C.—Description of the Davis Calyx IDyeibl, (Mise @Mbie)\. of¢necncesoonospuodecso panouon!obG00 Notes on a Cape Breton mineral [Hiibnerite] containing Tungsten, and on effect of washing certain Cape Breton coals.............+.++5 Notes on Dr. Ami’s paper on Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New Canaanvand dentwilles Ne Siecle ce ee HeeeSoen Oc Notes on the periodical appearance of ants in a caiiney, aaa on an unusual site for a humble-bee’s nest .. 2. 6....2+-- ee eeeceeees SS OLSMOA ia SERUCLUNC Siac tiie oycet Smith, Prof. H. W., B. Sc.—Rotation of crops. (Title only.).......... lx The Preservation and use of the tops of turnips and other root crops. (Title only.) ..'32.0- SU. acs 3 Sea ee ae ae eee ee lx Smith; Capt, Ws Hi death offscreen eee eee eee eee Ixxxiv Sodium sulphate, See Archibald, E.H........... i eee 33 INDEX. : XXV PAGE Solutions. See Archibald, E. H.; Barnes, J.; Lindsay, C. F.; Mac- Gregor, J. G. Somers, John, 17. D.—Obituary notice of. By A. McKay.............. iii Sponge, Fresh water, [/Zeteromeyenia macouni, n sp.| from Sable Island. Bye At shine Mae Kay cae Lee rare rye ate eat fice live mine ma wes tee ie Su nea ot 319 Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), its breeding habits, etc. By W.L. EST SHOP ay cte ectoms delay akcrel satel sere one symeeeeete hcheeweimsai'al shai aye aite Glee etme eyes 348 Statistics of expenditure and consumption in Canada. By Prof. J. DA VEGSOLM ra. or ale octet ese cote a eke ie or alae ahh s aeaie wares i Nien Sees Ib lal ts [Rook -ooogpedudoc ousboancoduse Guces 345 Sub-divisions of Carboniferous system in eastern Canada, with special reference to position of Union and Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia, referred to Devonian system by some Canadian geologists, Baygilal VTA, DSC Pe aie. s, sge ayes cetera © like a tecnee kee ee 162 Sub-divisions of the Carboniferous system of eastern Canada. By A. H. NIB Ye aaah od bal Deo] D) testers hamlets cacti eats ODO SE Opes Reon ROSE xvii Sulphate of copper, acid, in mixtures of aqueous solutions of sulphuric acid endl Gojoe une, (Op 1G Whim kANys ooco6 secon ousdacosacudcr 205 Sulphuric acid, solutions of. See Barnes, J....... RE sin AE ae 129 Supplementary notes on drift ice as an eroding and transporting agent. Bye We HEE Pres tt cra ca: ssctroltie ote ceve a iean ec enche: ier aks oiecue cae Reem aS 455 Tracks [Ichthyoidichnites acadiensis, n. sp.] from fine-grained silicious mud- stones of Knoydart formation (Eo-Devonian) of Antigonish Co , INGESh ae Dye Me Atma, DSS eri. .:.riccerers cre «sslevereener siete tei verneterenete 330 Treasurer’s report (1897-8), xv. (1898-9), xli. (1899-1900), lviii. (1900-01), xevil. Theo (is (CRIS SRG EEN URC) OR er ore h aint ain SOC non canmen cod moto on ee pon Son lvii Tungsten, Notes ona Cape Breton mineral [Hiibnerite] containing. By EBS 3) OOLEY -sypeniee asara cin yale ere ie win cise) si a canes raaete sicker seater 245 Union and Riversdale formations of Nova Scotia. See Sub-divisions of Carboniferous system in Eastern Canada. By H. M. Ami, D. Se 162 Upper Cambrian age of Dictyonema slates of Angus Brook, New Canaan eynel IKE ES INGISS Tal, IMIG Nit, IDS SNesccascccadcasocconocnus 447 Variation of rigidity of vulcanized indiarubber, with tension. By T, C. 150210) \ nen cyto nciens rears ERIE oO ae Tene ta ce arth iepeae Perce Sa 8 Ventilation. See School-room air. Vascosibyof aqueous solutions, (See Barnes; Jy <1. ae ee le ra 113 Vulcanized indiarubber, Variation of rigidity of, with tension. By T. C, IB NO} ce Snow ote ane. Aa Beto San sacaunooue Pere ae waco as 273 See also India-rubber. Wramlnanng: Jan; Js Coy CREW OE G54a0 soc00 490000 soooongéotduanedoor lvii Washing Cape Breton coals, Notes on effect of. By H.S. Poole, F.R.S.C. 245 Weatherbe, D’Arcy, C. #.—Recent developments with calyx drill in INTC taxa ompel day wei eiciscrelmtirelersts Lyk enti cauntnomnneensd 350 Wolfville branch of the Institute, Report on. By Prof. E. Haycock .... xeviii See also p. cix. Wiormitrailsanslabesiot Halifax. By Hes) ooleyir. mirc eter 453 /y TRANS.N.S.INST.SCI. VOL. X. PLATE I. msnicsecraniieucesreneniese ESLEY,ST.J ETGaaie BROAD COVE, LOOKING EAST, SHOWING LIMESTONE AND SHALE RESTING ON AMYGDALOIDAL TRAP. FIG. 2. —- UNCONFORMABLE CONTACT OF GREENISH SHALE WITH AMYGDALOIDAL TRAP IN BROAD COVE. To face page 294. TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOL. X. PLATE II. ICHTHYOIDICHNITES ACADIENSIS, N. Sp. (TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY DR. H. M. AMI.) Face $. 330. ro —— i > WW < vi 4 ty — ? = Jan wee} wie 4 - . Hwee ' ~~ * a L! ? r ) + “2 ‘ | | ) j in 7 . ' 7 . 7 ok . i 4 % > . - oy) . ‘ ’ . oa 1 = . . 1 Roe 1 / A P a" iy) \ *, a7 ‘ ,* a 3% : 2 i 2 » : F 2 ' U \ \ 7 . . - TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOL. X. PLATE. III. Photograph by Dr. A. H. MacKay. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF VASCULAR CORE OF STIGMARIA. Magnified about 3% diameters. (TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY MR. POOLE. ) =v “Se ae ie, = ~ ,. . ) aa 7 = ge ir TRANS. N. S. INSTITUTE SC., VOL. X. PLATE IV. Photograph by Dr. A. H. MacKay. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF VASCULAR BUNDLE FROM CORE OF STIGMARIA. Magnified 16 diameters. (TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY MR. POOLE. ) Face p. 346. TRANS. N. S. INST. SC., VOL. X. Cross-Sectional View on A B (Plate VI) _ (looking west ) ~ Scale of Feet — Na 5 Hole M¢Connell’s Farm Torsrook BLACK RIVER CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW, TORRROOK, N. S. (TO ILLUSTRATE PAPER BY MR. WEATHERBE). Face p 360. PLATE V. No. 4 Hole F. 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